ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New YorK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell a araly Library S 471.13V6 1897 til iii : REPORT ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE. BY JOHN AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, Pu.D., B.A., B.Sc, F.C, zt0., ConsuLTine CHEMIST TS THE Royat AGRICULTURAL SocrmtTy or ENGLAND. SECOND EDITION. With an Appendix containing the Resolutions of the Government of India on the Proceedings : a of tbe Agricultural Conferences of 1893 and 1895-9.6 CALCUTTA : OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA, 1897, CALCUTTA: GovaawmeEnt of Inpta, CantRan Printing Orrics, 8, Hastings Steuer, iii PREFACE. Wat was intended to be a short Report on the Improve- ment of Indian Agriculture has, owing to the comprehen- siveness and importance of the subject, become expanded into a volume of over 400 pages. I have not attempted any description of the crops or of the methods of agriculture pursued, but have endeavoured to confine myself to matters in which I believe that improve- ment can be effected. While the conclusions I have formed are the result of my own personal observation, I am yet very deeply indebted to others for the information I have collected, and, in parti- cular, to the Government of India and its officials for the exceptional advantages I have enjoyed. I desire to return publicly my sincere and grateful acknowledgments. Kensineton, Lonpon, W., March 1898. J. A. V. iv CONTENTS. Rainfall Map of India. Geological Map of India. Map of India illustrating Agricultural Tours. PAGE Preface s . é 3 3 - ‘ . - 5 “ A ii Axpstgact oF REPoRT ‘ . . i ‘ . . ‘ : e v Outlines of Chapters . ‘i . . . A ’ ‘ a 8 3XV REPORT . . * > 6 - , : . i ‘ ; - 1—412 Appendiz . . is ‘< ote te a Tours . e ° . . ’ . . . a % . . . 427 * Resolutions of the Government of India on the Proveedi ft cultural Conferences of 1893 and 1895-96 . . oe - ee is Index to Dr. Voelcker’s Report . ‘i ; a > ya? Se 528 JUNE TO OCTOBER INCLUSIVE. WEST MONSOON PERIOD, AVERAGE RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE DURING THE RAINY SEASON OR SOUTH ° sh Rr CSS See a RAINFALL. 30 to 50 Inches [iN Above 100 Inches FEB) 50 to 100 TEMPERATURE. Scale of Miles. The isotherms for every 5° F. 1 wwe ee h h . \ et pane sq Andaman Island ” Under 10 Inches LJ 10 to 30 &S SO Y Soa 7| Pondicherr: ‘YP OODE M? ABU ISSSERESS a BRITISH Nees ens 1 Lithe., 8. I. O., Calcutta. Reg. No. 424, R. & A.—Feb. 98.~1,060. GEOLOGY. Alluvial plains Cretaceous and tertiary MN 1D) A Scale ot Miles. REFERENCES. 190 Gondwana EEoE] Vindhyan Archean (gneiss, Schists, &c.) S Bristol Noi i i " i} Andaman Island 12 84° Reg. No, 434, R. & A.—Feb. 98.—1,050. Litho., 8. I. O., Calcutta. Dibrugarh 80° 84° 88° 92° Map of showing Dr. VOELOKER’S TOUR IN 1890, Scale of Miles, F 190, 50 4 100 200 300 82 Arrival in India, December 10th, 1889 Departure from India, January 10th, 1891, 1st Tour, Deer. 10th, 1889, to May 19th, 189), shewn thus———— Places visited underlined: 2nd Tour, July 14th, 1890, to Sept. 12th, 1890 shewn thus ———__ Places visited underlined: 3rd Tour, Nov. 23rd, 1890, to Jany. 10th, 1891, shewn thus—_——-; Places visited underlined 124° 20° [ Andaman Island 12° 96° 68° 72° Reg. No. 484 , BR: & A.—Feb. 98.—1,050. 80° 84° : Tétho., 8. L. O., Calcutta. ABSTRACT OF REPORT. . eeaee ad REPORT. CHAPTER I, CHAPTER 1, Hisronioan HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION, Inrgopoori0n, i Tue opening chapter deals briefly wita the history of Agri- cultural Departments in India since their establishment by Lord Mayo in 1871, The failure and abolition of the first Agricultural Department in 1878, and its reconstruction in 1881 as the outcome of the Report of the Famine Commissioners of 1880, are touched upon, and the steps taken by the Goverament of India ix carrying out the recommendations of the Famine Commission are reviewed. It is pointed out that the Government of India, in their Resolution of December 1881, clearly recognised ‘the importance of the systematic prosecution of agriculiural exguiry which had been so strongly urged by the Famine Commissioners, and that the Government of India, considering that these duties of the Depart- ment must precede any attempt at agricultural zmprovement, had first set about the work of ‘“ Land: Revenue Organisation,” hoping thereby to lay the foundation of all knowledge of the agricultural condition of the country.’ The Land Record system, the importance of which was established by the enquiry of the Finance Commission of 1887, is then summarised. The reasons, of which the chief was financial pressure, why the further recommendations of the Famine Com- migsioners in regard to agricultural improvement were not taken up are briefly shown, but itis added that the Agricultural Depart- ment have not failed to recognise. the obligation still resting upon them fo take measures for agricultural improvement, as well as the further obligation, impesed on them by the Home Depart- ment in 1889, to promote agricultural education. It is next pointed out that the Agriculturai Department, having, by means of the Famine Code, made provision against the difficulties of famine, and having organised the Land Record system, are now prepared tio take up the question of agricultural improvement. In this connection it is stated that the assistauce of a first-class Agricultural Chemist has been urged repedtedly since 1882, both by the Government of India and by Agricultural Conferences which have met in India, and that finally Her Majesty’s Secretary of State consented in August 1889 to send out an Agricultural Chemist to: make enquiries in India itself, and to advise upon the course to‘be pursued, as also to report upon the possible improve- ment of Indian Agriculture, For this duty, I was, on the recommendation of the late Sir James Caird, selected.' / The remainder of the chapter is taken up with a summary of my tour, the plan I adopted ia pursuing my enquiry, and the expression of my special obligations to those who so largely assisted me in my work, CHAPTER II, PrewiminaBy ReMakks ON THE POUSIBILITY OF IMPROVING INDIAN AGRI- OULTURE, vi Abstract of Report. CHAPTER II, PRELIMINABY REMARKS ON THE POSSIBILITY OF IMPROVING INDIAN AGRICULTURE, In this chapter I give, so far as I am able, some general re- marks on the condition of Indian Agriculture, the possibility of its, being improved, and the methods that should be adopted. I point out, however, that the diversities met with in India, alike in its physical features, the people themselves, and their varying surroundings, raise great difficulties which altogether prevent one from speaking generally as to the condition of agriculture. What is true of one part wiil not be true of another, and almost no question whatever can be answered in the same way for the whole of India, Thus, the problem of improvement becomes a specially difficult one. T explain that I do not share the opinions which have been expressed as to Indian Agriculture being, as a whole, primitive and backward, but I believe that in many parts there is little or nothing that can be improved, whilst where agriculture is manifestly inferior, it is more generally the result of the absence of facilities which exist in the better districts than from inherent bad systems of cultivation. Nevertbeless, that improvement is possible is shown, 1 think, by the differences of agricultural conditions and practice that exist in different parte of India. These differences I proceed to divide into three classes as follows :— (1) Differences inherent to the people themselves as cultivators, for instance, “ caste” and ‘‘race ” distinctions. (2) Differences arising from purely external surroundings, for instance, climate and soil, varying facilities for water, manure, wood, grazing, etc, (8) Differences arising directly from want of knowledge, such as, diversities in agricultural practice. In treating of the above generally, I express my opinion that improvement of agriculture will consist mainly in the modification of the differences which exist, and that this will proceed in two directions; (1) by the transference of a better indigenous method from one part where it is practised, to another where it is not; (2) by the modification of the differences which result from physical causes affecting agriculture. I then diseuss how far this work may be effected by the people themselves, as they come to see the necessity of adopting the more profitable methods, and how far by Government, in promoting education, and in taking positive measures such as the provision of water, wood, manure, grazing, etc., where needed. As a necessary preliminary to the taking of positive measures, I support strongly in this chapter the opinion of the Famine Commissioners and of the Government of India in 1881, that a “ systematic prosecution of agricultural enguiry ” is absolutely necessary in order to get a.real knowledge of Abstract of Report. vii the agricultural needs and condition of each district of the country; and I think that there should be a permanent agency for the purpose in each Province, and that in such agency the assistance of an agricultural chemist would be advantageous. : I conclude the chapter by recommending (1) the spread of RECOMMENDA. General and Agricultural Education; (2) the establishment of 70%* an organised system of Agricultural Enquiry; (8) the active prosecution and encouragement of positive measures, such as the cupPly, gt water, wood, ete., which have already been found to be neficial, CHAPTER III, CHAPTER III, CULTIVATING CLASSES, OULTIVATING CLASSE & Iv is pointed out that certain “castes” and “races” of the people of India show more agricultural ability than others, and that the differences between them as cultivators are ia great measure to be referred to the caste or race distinctions existing between them. It is very certain that if the prejudices attaching to caste and race could be broken down, considers able improvement in agriculture would result. Instances are next given which show indications of a change slowly going on, Thus, the prejudices against the cultivation of indigo and of the potato have, to a great extent, disappeared; also the cases of Nagpur, Poona and Amritsar are mentioned as showing that the prejudice against the use of night-soil as manure for crops is giving way. Improvement in coffee cultivation andin the manu- facture of indigo, as the outcome cf the example of English planters, is also distinctly traceable, The people, it is pointed out, will lose those caste prejudices which retard improvement in agriculture, partly through the spontaneous adoption by them of the more profitable practices, and partly from the force of circumstances which make living harder and oblige more atten- tion to be paid to cultivation, In the weakening of caste prejudice Education is a most important factor, and Government by spreading it will help to break down the caste distinctions which prevent progress in agriculture, I therefore advocate the spread of General and Agricultural pzcommenpa- Edueation. £ TION, CHAPTER IV, Curate. SECOMMENDA- TIONS, CHAPTER V, Sor. viil Abstract of Report. CHAPTER IV. CLIMATE. Wirn the aid of the “ Rainfall Map ” included in the Report, the great variations of climatic conditions throughout India are illustrated, and their bearing is'shown upon the crops grown, the agricultural systems pursued, the cattle, and even the people themselves. The close connection of famine with the rainfall is also set forth. Itis pointed out that while it is to only a limited extent that climatic differences can be modified, yet that some- thing can be done by increasing the means of irrigation io dry tracts, and by the creation of “reserves” of wood and fodder in districts where these are scarce, The influence of vegetation, and especially of trees, in improving climate is discussed ; the real value consisting in the lowering of temperature, the production of a more gentle rainfall, the increasein the number of rainy days, the holding-up of the soil, the obtaining of a cooler earth-surface, and the retention of moisture by the soil. It is maintained that such work must fall to the lut of Govern- ment, and that the people can be expected to do but little to aid it. Encouragement is, however, given to tree-planting by indi- viduals, and this should be prosecuted more vigorously, It is further insisted that in order! to get definite knowledge as to where provision of irrigation and “reserves” of wood aud fodder can be made, careful enquiry must be set on foot by Agricultaral Departments, 6 I recommend, accordingly, (1) the extension of irrigation to dry tracts; (2) the creation of “ reserves ” of wood and fodder {called “Fuel and Fodder Reserves”); (3) the planting of trees along canal banks and railway lines; (4) the further encouragement of Arboriculture; (5) organised enquiry by Agricultural Departments with the view of finding out where the foregoing measures can be adopted. CHAPTER V, SOIL. Tue principal geological types of soil which occur in India are illustrated by the help of the “Geological Map” accompanying the Report, and the presence or absence of particular kinds of soil are indicated. The neglect, in the past, of any regular scientific study of Indian soils is referred to, and the important question is next dealt with—whether or not the soil of India is becoming exhausted under the present systems of cultivation, It is admitted that there is want of positive evidence in support of exhaustion, but instances are given from Settlement Reports and from the Famine Commission’s Report, of a process of deterioration Abstract of Report. ix going on, and it is argued that under existing conditions of export of grain, oil-seeds, and manures, and the burning of cattle-dung for fuel, there must be a gradual deterioration of the soil. The wheat-yield of India is compared with that of other countries, and Sir James Caird’s estimate of the crop-increase needed to provide against famine is alluded to, and the deduction is drawn that to supply this amount, not a deterioration, but an increased productiveness of the soil is required, and. that this can only be brought about by increasing the manure supply. The soils of India are then considered in respect of the different constituents which they contain, each ingredient being taken in turn. Itis shown how important is the relation of water to soil, that organic matter (4umus) and nitrogen are generally deficient in Indian soils, and that lime, potash and phosphoric acid are, as arule, present in sufficiency, Several chemical questions of great importance are dealt with, such as the supply to plant life of nitrogen from atmos- pherie sources, the amount of nitrogen contained in the rainfall of India, the nature, oecurrence and possible removal of saline deposits in soil, ete. The reclamation of land, whether it be ravine land, land infested with weeds, or land rendered sterile by the presence of salts (wsar land), is dealt with, and instances are given of the various experiments which have been tried in different places, Throughout the chapter it is shown. that the application of chemistry to the solution ofthe various agricultural problems conaected with the scil is very necessary, and it is urged that future investigation should be pursued with its assistance. In conclusion, it is pointed out that the work of soil improve- ment must devolve mainly upon Government, as in very few cases will the people have the means to take such measures in hand. I recommend in connection with the improvement of the soil, (1) the increase of the supply of water to dry tracts; (2) the invrease of the manure supply ; (8) the setting on foot of enquiry to ascertain where such improvements are needed; (4) the con- tinuation of experimental research aided by chemical science, RECOMMENDA: TIONS, CHAPTER VI, WATER. x Abstract of Report, CHAPTER VI. WATER, Ir is indicated, at the outset, that whila water in one form or another is indispensable in Indian agriculture, the amount and . the method of supply will vary very greatly in different parts of RECOMMEN DA- TIONS, India. In some parts rainfall is sufficient, in otbers artificial irrigation will be a necessity, in others, again, it may be a useful supplement. The nature of “protected” and “ precarious” tracts is pointed out, The main types of water supply are sum-~- marised and then examined in extenso. Special points are noted, such as the benefits and the évils attending the introduction of canals, the comparison (where it is possible to make it) between cultivation by canal irrigation and by well irrigation, the differences in chemical composition between canal water and well water, ete. Embanking and drainage of land are spoken of, and instances are given of parts which stand in need of further irrigation. The great work done by Government in extending canals is favourably reviewel, and direction is turned to the necessity of Government undertaking all works of a major character, while minor oves may be carried out by the people. The possibility of Government coustructing wells on a large scale is discussed, and improvements are suggested in the management of canal watercourses and tanks, and in the repair of the latter, The chapter goes on to treat fully of the system of advances known as faccavi, principally for purposes of well digging, and it is shown how greatly this is capable of further development, and of being made more popular and useful. It is maintained that the Agricultural Department should pay particular attention to this subject, and that a certain share of the administration should be vested in the Department, Suggestions are made as to improvements in the working of the system. Lastly, the necessity of a thorough “agricultural analy- sis” of each district of the country is insisted on with the view of ascertaining the local requirements in the way of water supply. Trecommend (1) the further extension of canals and other means of irrigation to tracts where they are required; (2) the more energetic working and popularising of the system of taccavi advances for well digging and similar purposes; (8) the giving of a share in the administration of ¢aceavé advances to Agricul- tural Departments; (4) the institution by Agricultural Depart. ments of organised enquiry to ascertain the irrigation requirements of each district. “Abstract of Report, xi CHAPTER VIT. MANURE, Tue importance of manure in Indian agricultural systems is illustrated by extracts from various Reports, and the inter- dependence of water and manure is shown in the existence of the finest cultivation where both water and manure are available, Instanees are given to show that the cultivator is not ignorant of the value of manure, but will, for certain crops, spend consider- able sums of money upon it. The different sources of manurial supply are then examined, the ordinary cattleemanure being ‘the most important, and, speaking generally, the only one available. Its composition is set out in analytical tables, and a comparison is instituted between it and ordinary farmyard manure, as met with in England, the result being to show that the value of Indian cattle-manure is often underrated, and that when it is burnt (as is so often the case ) very serious loss is incurred. As the outcome of an enquiry in which I specially interested myself, I state the conclusion I came to, viz., that the best cultivators do not burn eattle-manure for fuel except from necessity, that is, because they have nothing else to burn as fuel. The conaection between the supply of firewood and that of manure is hence a very close one. Other sources of manurial supply are then dealt with in succes- sion, ¢.g., ashes of cattle-manure, sheep-folding, green-manuring, silt, soil-mixing, oil-seed refuse, nitre, lime, bones, ete., and various analyses of different materials so used are given in the Appendix. Special questions, such as the system of seed-bed cultivation known as réb, the use and export of bones, and the likelihood of artifical manures being used in India, are treated in detail. Attention is then drawn to two points in which the cul- tivator does not take full advantage of the facilities he possesses: (1) the non-utilization by him of night-soil for agricultural purposes; (2) the imperfect conservation of cattle-manure and the loss of the urine. In this connection instances are given of the highly beneficial results that have attended the use of night. soil, and analyses are given showing the value of cattle urine and the advantages to be gained by preserving it by the aid of litter, Incidentally, questions of town and village sanitation are touched upon, and throughout the chapter there are frequent references to investigations which could not be carried on without the aid of agricultural chemistry. In conclusion, it is maintained that water and mavure constitute the cultivator’s chief wants, and that the supply of manure must go hand in hand with that of water, and must, like the latter, be taken up by Government, otherwise the soil will not be able to provide for the increasing millions of the people. 1t is further held that, as cattle-manure is the only really available manurial ‘source, it is incumbent on Government to pro- vide supplies of firewood ( Fuel and Fodder Reserves”? ) so that the cattle-manure need not be burnt, but may be set free for use on the land, and the fertility of the latter be thereby kept up. CHAPTER VII. Manoea, xii Abstract of Report. Lastly, I set forth the duty of Agricultural Departments to make organised enquiry as to the manurial requirements of every dis- trict, to continue experimental research at Government Farms, and to spread agricultural education so as to teach better practices aud remove prejudices. REcoMMENDA- I recommend (1) the creation of supplies of fuel (‘Fuel and TIONS. Fodder Reserves ”) ; (2) the establishment of a system of agri- cultural enquiry ; (3) the spread of agricultural education ; (4) the continuation of experimental work at Government Farms ; (5) the employment of an agricultural chemist, CHAPTER VIIT, CHAPTER VIII. Woon, 3 Woop. This chapter deals principally with the administration of the Forest Department and the extension of its work in a more agricultural direction than has been the case in the past. The early policy of the Department is first coasidered, and the reasons are given for its success having been gauged by financial results. But it is pointed out that, as population has increased and cultivation has been brought nearer tothe borders of the forests, it has become nezessary to extend the benefits of forests, so that they may more directly serve the interests of agriculture. In consequence of this, at the instance, first of Sir Dietrich Brandis, and then by successive representations of the Famine Commis- sioaers and of the Government of India, acertain impulse has been given to the supply of wood for agricultural purposes. But itisurged in this chapter that there is a great deal more that ought to be done, and that the greatest need is that which was set out in the previous chapter, yéz., the supply of wood to take the place of cattle-manure as fuel. This is again put forward as a matter which Government should see to in their own interests, alike for the maintenance and increase of the soil’s prodactiveness, as wellas in order to keep up the Land Revenue of the country, The different classes of forests are then examined, aud the useg which they might best serve are discussed, also the measures which should be taken to obtain those ends. Special points, such as the natural reproduction of timber trees, the guarding against forest fires, the exciusion of grazing, and the inadequacy of the forest staff, are alluded to separately, The wider adaptation of “reserved forests” situated near cultivation to the purposes of that cultivation is in- sisted on, and also the necessity of creating fresh supplies of wood. The difficulties of obtaining land for these new creations are admit- ted, butit is shown that there is still a quantity of land that coald be so utilised, and suggestions are made for the acquirement of land, by purchase if necessary ; the outlines of a scheme are also set forth for the working of the new ‘ reserves’’ by a system of Abstract of Report. xiii annual licenses for the removal of wood, eto,, for agricultural uses. These views are supported by the quoted opinions of several authorities, and more especially by a recent Resolution of the Madras Government upon the subject. Cases are also cited where such ‘reserves’? have been created, and have schieved much good. If is maintained that the success of such a scheme must not depend alone upon financial considerations, but should be considered from the point of view of the needs of the people and thelemands of the priocipal industry of the country, vz., agriculture, Extensionof the establishment of plantations along canal banks and railway lines is also urged, and the further encouragement of arboriculture. Lastly, the opinion is expressed thata proportion of the yearly revenue obtained by the Forest Department. should be expended in the extension of the work of the Department in an agricultural direction. I recommend (1) the creation of “reserves” of wood, fuel, recommenna. ete., for agricultural purposes (“Fuel and Fodder Reserves ”); TONS. (2) the increase of plantations along canal banks and railway lines; (3) the further encouragement of arboriculture; (4) the prosecution of agricultural enquiry for ascertaining the needs of the different cultivating districts in the matter of wood supply; (5) the setting aside yearly of a portion of the revenue derived by the Forest Department, and its employment in the extension of “reserves ” to meet agricultural wants, CHAPTER IX. CHAPTER 1X, GRASS, Grass, ‘Tae different kinds of grazing areas available for the use of the cattle belongivg to cultivators are referred to, and attention is drawn to the inclusion of large and valuable grazing areas amid the forests, It is maintained in this chapter that the provision of grazing in forests is a desirable and legitimate object, and one which will much benefit agriculture, whilst in times of drought it may be invaluable in keeping the eattle of the country alive. Nevertheless, it is not regarded as an absolute necessity in ordinary times, and, therefore, should only be carried on under such restrictions as would cause it uot to interfere with the other ends which a forest or “ reserve” should serve. These various restric- tions aod the necessity for their imposition are then considered. The question of the utilisation of “ village wastes” is next gone into, also the provision of grazing along canal banks and in other plantations, The best way of utilising the grass in forests and “reserves,” and the possibility of grass-growing and the supply of pasturage becoming a part of the cultivator’s system on bis ewn holding are discussed. In the second part of the chapter the system of Grass Farms and the utilisation of uncultivated grass xiv Abstract of Report. - lands (rukhs) belonging to Government are explained, and, while their benefits are recognised and their extension urged, suggestions are also made for their improvement. The methods of hay-making and silage-making as conducted at Government Grass and Experi- mental Farms are examined, also the relative costs compared with the cost in England, The prospects of the development of silage-making in India are treated of and the desirability is urged of making further enquiries at Experimental Farms, Lastly, a change is advocated in the Commissariat Department, whereby tbe services of men of experience and ability may be retained in the management of Grass Farms, and the formation of a special Forage Branch of the Commissariat is suggested. RECoMMENDA- I recommend (1) the creation of more ‘Fuel and Fodder TIONS. = Reserves ”’ to supply grass and grazing ; (2) theextension of the system of Grass Farms,and their management by aspecial Forage Branch of the Commissariat; (8) the carrying out of enquiry at Government Experimental Farms on the making of sillage. CHAPTER X. CHAPTER X. Hees FODDER-CROPS 4ND HEDGES. AND HSDGEE. Tur advantages of growing fodder-crops are set forth and exemplified in the better condition of the cattle in many parts where the system is practised. The principal crops used as fodder-crops are mentioned, and, in particular, the utilisation of prickly pear. The scope for extension of the growing of fodder- cropsis also shown, It is pointed out that but little is known as to the relative values of different Indian fodders, and that such an investigation calls for the association of an agricultural chemist. The useful ends served by hedges round fields are explained, and the materials generally used for fencing are named, RECOMMENDA. J recommend (1) the extension, wherever practicable, of the ‘systems of growing fodder-crops and of enclosing fields by hedges ; (2) the employment of an agricultural chemist in inves- tigating, among other matters, the relative values of different fodders. Abstract of Report. xv CHAPTER XI. CHAPTER XI, LIVE STOCK AND DAIRYING. Livz Sroox ano Dareyina, Ir is indicated at the opening of this chapter that, since the differences between the cattle of different districts are largely due to conditions of climate, improvement of cattle is only possible within limits. After speaking of their food and the excellence of the cattle in certain districts, it is shown that, as a rule, little or no attention is paid to their breeding and selection. The Hindu system of breeding from Brahmani bulls is referred to, and the harm is pointed out which is likely to follow from a recent legal decision given in the North-West Provinces as to ownership in these bulls, The breeding of good stud bulls at Govern ment Cattle Farms, and the distribution of them to villages, are advocated, and should form part of the duty of Agricultural Departments, Further, I point out that Experimental Farms and Court of Wards’ Estates might well be made centres for locating stud bulls. for the improve- ment of the cattle of the district. Accounts are next given of the Hissar and Bhadgaon Cattle Farms, and mention is made of the influence which they, and notably the former, have exercised on the cattle of the country. The evils attending frequent changes in the superintendence of Government Cattle Farms are pointed out, as they were in the case of Grass Farms (Chapter IX). Mention is made of the use of buffaloes as plough cattle, and of the giving of advances (¢accavi) for purchase of cattle. In the second section of the chapter dairying is the main sub- ject, and the special features of the yield and quality of milk from cows and buffaloes are treated of. The efforts made toextend dairy farming in India are detailed in connection with the visit of Mr. Howman, and the subsequent steps taken by Mr. Ozanne in Poova and Bombay. The unsatisfactory conditions of the milk supply to towns and to troops,as well as to Government institu- tions, are referred to, and the establishment of Dairy Farms is. advocated wherever troops are quartered or large institutions are situated. It is pointed out that there is considerable work for an agricultural chemist to do in the investigation of points connected with dairy farming. A brief reference is made to the operations of the Horse- breeding Department, and to attempts made to improve sheep and goats. The last part of the chapter is taken up with the consideration of Cattle Diseases, the ravages which they cause, and the steps which have been here and there taken to cope with epidemics, Special mention is made of the establishment of an Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory at Poona, I recominend (1) the continuance and extension of Cattle Farms, prcommunpa- and the distribution from them of stud bulls to villages; (2) the — TIONs. making Experimental Farms and Court of Wards’ Estates centres for the location of stud bulls; (8) the establishment of Dairy. xvi Abstract of Report. Farms for the supply of milk to troops and Government institu- tions; (4) the appointment of an Agricaltural Chemist to inves- tigate matters connected with dairy farming; (5) the prosecution of enquiry into cattle diseases and the means of preventing epidemics, CHAPTER XII. CHAPTER XII. ImpLBMENTS, IMPLEMENTS, Tue possibility of effecting improvememt in the implements of the cultivators is reviewed, and the opinion is expressed that there is but little scope for improvement, and that any advance must be the outcome of a study of native requirements. The success of the Beheea sugar-mill is instanced as acasein point. The question of the use of the native wooden plough, as against that of the iron one, is fully gone into, the several objections to iron ploughs being discussed, and the circumstances under which they might be use- fully employed. The chapter then deals with the introduction and possible extension of the iron sugar-mill, the shallow evaporating-pan, and other devices for improving the out.turn of sugar. The possible use of- introduced threshing machines, winnowers, chaff-cutters, pumps, and other implements is considered, and the need of more exhaustive trials of implements at Experimental Farms is urged, It isadded that in these trials skilled experts, such as engineers, chemists, etc., should be associated, according as the enquiry calls for it, and that Experimental farms should be centres for distributing implements the merits of which have been satisfactorily proved. RECOMMENDA- J recommend (1) the exhaustive trial of new implements at so Government Experimental Farms ; (2) the association of “ experts ”? in such enquiries; (#) the distribution of approved implements from Experimental Farms. Abstract of Report, xvii CHAPTER XIII. CROPS AND CULTIVATION, In this chapter no attempt is made to describe the kinds of crops grown, or the methods of cultivation employed, but points only are discussed in which it seems possible to effect improve- ment. The general excellence of the cultivation is indicated, and the changes, more especially in wheat-growing, which have been brought about by an export trade, are mentioned. Fallowing and rotation are next taken, and instances are given to show that the native cultivator is not ignorant of either practice. The system of “ mixed-cropping ” is also explained, but it is pointed out that little is known or practised in regard to selection or change of seed, although some Government Experimental Farms have already done good work in growing and distributing pure and selected seed, It is then shown that improvements can be effected by the introduction of new crops, and of new varieties of existing crops, as also in the extended cultivation of certain profitable crops, such as wheat and sugar-cane. It is further demonstrated that by the transference of method from one part to another, improvements in cultivation’ may be carried out ; this is exemplified in the case of sugar-eane, and even in that of @ crop so widely cultivated as rice, . Reference is made, in conclusion, to the need that exists for getting more knowledge as to the diseases and injuries to whieh crops are liable, and the best: means of preventing them. -CHAPTER XIU. Crops anp Cun- TIVATION I recommend (1) the continuation of experimental enquiry REcommenDA- at Government Farms, in reference to new crops and methods of cultivation ; (2) the growing of good seed at Government Farms, and its distribution from them; (3) the study of the diseases and injuries of crops; (4) agricultural enquiry into existing modes of cultivation, Oe tt TIONS. xviii Abstract of Report. CHAPTER XIV, CHAPTER X]V. AagrouLevrin AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES AND EXPORTS, Typ yaneres AND : ” f PORTS, Tuts chapter deals with certain special crops which undergo a rocess of manufacture in the country before being sent out of it, or with which particular considerations regarding export are bound up, Such crops are sugar-eane, cotton, indigo, tea, coffee, tobaeco, flax, jute, silk, wheat, and linseed, These crops are successively treated in view of the improvements which it is ossible to effect either in their cultivation, their manufacture, or in the export trade, It is first shown that the yield of sugar from sugar-cane depends upon points in the cultivation, in the expression of the juice ard in its refining, none of which are fully ‘understood. Next, the deterioration of Indian _satton is alluded to, aud a brief account is given of the efforts that have been made to improve its quality. Indigo is treated at some length, and ‘the general want of knowledge, both as to its cultivation and the manufacture of the dye, is commented on, Reference is made to the need of chemical investigation into problems affecting the manufacture, and to the unsatisfactory conditions which often attend the cultivation. Similarly, chemical problems in the manufacture of tea are pointed out. The cultivation of coffee is ‘next taken, then that of tobacco, and the native method of curing tobacco is described. After a brief mention of flax and jute, allusion is made to the efforts, so far unsuccessful, to eradicate the disease in silkworms known as pebrine. The important matter of the cleaning of wheat is dealt with at lenoth, and by the help of analyses which I made of samples taken off the cultivators’ own threshing-floors, or from stores in their houses, it is shown that the fault attributed to Indian wheat, that it is “dirty,” does not rest with the cultivator, but is that of the trade, and more particularly the London Corn Trade, who do not want ‘clean ”’ wheat. The efforts made to improve the trade in this respect, and their failure, are described. The applicability of the “elevator” system to India is also discussed. Lastly, the con- ditions of the linseed trade are explained, and are illustrated by analyses of a number of samples of seed collected for me in the Central Provinces. REcomMMENDA- recommend (1) agricultural enquiry to ascertain the best TIONS, methods of cultivation and manufacture of crops such as sugar-cane, indigo, tea, coffee, tobacco, etc.; (2) the employment of chemical science in the investigation of problems affecting these industries, and more especially that of an agricultural chemist in connection with the sugar industry; (3) the making it a penal offence to adul- terate wheat, or to trade in adulterated wheat, Abstract of Report. xix CHAPTER XV. CHAPTER XV, ECONOMICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. Eooxomroan i 4Np Poxtrroin By the insertion of this chapter I wish to recognize the exist. °°*D!ttons. ence of a number of conditions of an economical or political nature which have an important. béaring upon the imprevement of agricultare, but into the details of which I do not enter. Under this head I mention pressure of population, relative ease or difficulty of living by agriculture, varying systems of land tenure, smallness of holdings, paucity of capital, indebtedness of the cultivating classes, export trade, extension of railways, etc. My reasons for not discussing these several points are given, the only ones mentioned at any length being the smallness of holdings, the indebtedness of cultivators and the lack of enterprise sometimes found among the people, more especially under easy circumstances of living, CHAPTER XVI. CHAPTER PRACTICAL BNQUIRY. Praorroan Enquiry. Arter having sketched out in the previous chapters the prin- cipal ways in which I think that improvement of agriculture may be effected, I proceed to consider in those that follow, the agency by which the improvements. are fo be carried out. A brief review of the recommendations already given points to the ¢on- clusion that the main advance will be made by a practical enqniry into native agriculture, with a view to ascertaining (1) the requirements of each district in respect of water, wood, manure, and other facilities; (2) the best native methods of cultivation, in order to fransfer them to other districts where they are not practised. A number of opinions in support of this view are quoted, and itis then pointed out that, up to the pre- sent, enquiry has been limited to the collection of Land Revenue statistics, and that there has been no organisation for enquiry into agricultural methods with a view to agricultural improve- ment. A large field for enquiry is then sketched out, and the necessity of an agency of an expert nature is urged. The Opinions of the Famine Commissioners, the Government of India and Provincial Governments, on this point are quoted. The existing agency is reviewed, and more partieularly the position occupied by the Director of the Department. of Land Records and Agriculture in a Province, The lack of technical. know- ledge in the Department is brought out, and it is suggested that this want could best be supplied by associating with the Director of the Department in any Province a certain number of. agricul- tural experts to be engaged on purely agricultural work.. Itis then discussed whether these experts should be Huropeané or Ba RECOMMENDA. TIONS, CHAPTER XVIL ScxswriF1o Enquiry, RECOMMENDA- TIONS, _ for the direction of ex xXx Abstract of Report. Natives, and the conclusion is come to that, on the whole, the selection of Natives trained in India would be best, provision being made for the giving ofa high-class agricultural education in the country itself, e : I recommend (1) the organisation of enquiry into agricultural conditions and practices ; (2) the association with the Director of an Agricultural Department of one or more assistants who are experts in agriculture ; (3) the selection of these assistants from Natives of India trained in the country itself; (4) the provision of a high-class agricultural education in India, CHAPTER XVII. SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY. THE close connection of science with practice in any scheme of agricultural improvement is, at the outset, put forward, and the necessity isshown that practical enquiry should be scientific in its methods, The relation of chemistry to agriculture is then pointed out, and reference is made to the expressed opinions and renewed applications of the Government of India on the desir- ability of having an Agricultural Chemist for India, The scope of work for an agricultural chemist is then sketched out, and the principal duties of the office are defined as being’ the acting as “referee’’ or adviser to Government in chemico-agricultural matters, and the direction and maintenance of the continuity of enquiry. Among other duties are those of assisting in the develop- ment of agricultural education and the preparation of suitable text-books. ‘he necessary qualifications to be possessed by the holder of such an appointment, and the conditions essential to his successful tenure of it, are defined.’ The existence of a suitable laboratory, and the co-operation of an assistant chemist (to take actual charge of the laboratory and tu give instruction in agricultural chemistry) are regarded as essential. The rela- tions, respective duties and salaries of the two officers pro- posed are discussed, and it is recommended that neither of them be allowed to undertake private work for separate remuneration. It is urged that not only an agricultural chemist, but also other scientific men, such asa botanist, an entomologist, and an agri- cultural engineer, should be associated with the Agricultural ‘Department for the purpose of conducting enquiry and research. ‘The chapter closes by dealing generally with the position of scientific men in India, the encouragement of scientific research, and, in particular, the appointmert of Chemical Examiners. T recommend (1) the appoiutment of an agricultural chemist as adviser to Government in chemico-agricultural matters, and : perimental enquiry; (2) the appointment of an assistant chemist; (3) the attachment to the Agricultural Department of other scientific officers, such as a botanist, an entomologist, and an agricultural engineer. — ; Abstract of Report. xxi ‘ CHAPTER XVIII. CHAPTER: XVIII, EXPERIMENTAL FARMS, ExpgRrIMENtAL. ‘ Farms, Tux causes that have led in India, as well asin other countriess to the establishment of Experimental Farms as separate institutions are first described.. The past work of such Farms in India is reviewed, and the expenditure upon them is regarded as not having been excessive, and their continuance is. advocated, The chapter then proceeds to deal at length with the work which ought to be done at Experimental Farms, and to lay down the lines for the successful carrying out of experimental enquiry. The various conditions, sueb as suitability of soil, size of farm, situation, supervision, plan of ‘experiment, recording of results, ete., are discussed, and are illustrated by examples drawn from existinz Experimental Farms both in India and in England. It is then maintained that in the case of such farms the financial test ought not to be the one that determines success. ‘The employ- ment of Experimental Farms as centres for seed distribution, the location of stud bulls, and, at times, for cattle-breeding, is reeom- mended. The establishment of another class of Farms, viz., Demonstration Farms, to show the result of what has experi- mentally been found useful, is advocated,'and mention is made of farms belonging to private individuals where experiment is more ov less carried on. The remainder of the chapter is occupied with a review of the work in progress at each of the: Experimental Farms which J visited during my tour, my general comments on each Farm being given at the same time. I recommend (1) the continuance of agricultural enquiry at RECOMMENDA. Experimental Farms ; (2) the distribution of seed and the location ; of stud bulls at Experimental Farms ; (3), the establishment of Demonstration Farms, CHAPTER XIX. CHAPTER _ XIX, AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Repicguwain Epvuoation, Tue influence which general education first, and then, more specially, agricultural edueation, exert upon the improvement of agriculture is, at the opening, explained, It is then shown that the tendency of education in the past has been too much in. a literary, ‘and not sufficiently in an agricultural, direetion. The suggestions now given are with the intention of remedying the past defect, and of directing attention to, rather than diverting it from, the cultivation of the land, The intention is, in brief, to give a more agricultural turn to education. The different grades of educational institutions, from Universities and Colleges down to Primary Schools, are then taken in order, and the line of agri- a xxii Abstract of Report. cultural education at each is briefly sketched out. As regards Universities, it is maintained that they should recognize the importance of agricultural science by making it an optional subject in the final course for a degree in science. It is not considered advisable, at present, to have special Agricultural Colleges, but rather to utilise existing institutions and to make agriculture one branch of the instruction provided. The importance of combining at Colleges practical work with theoretieal instruction is set forth, and the establishment af Demonstration Farms, and of areas on which the students can themselves work, is advocated. Agriculs tural Classes in connection with High Schools are well spoken of, and the association with them of Illustration Farms is considered desirable. In Middle Schools it is held that the elements of physical science should be taught, that agriculture should be introduced, by means of text-books, and that illustration plots rather than farms should be attached to the sehoals. In Primary Schools a beginving might be made by the introduction of “ yeaders ” and of “object lessons ”’ on familiar agrieultural topics. Lastly, the importanee is: ineulcated of providing at Normal Schools sound training in agriculture for those who are to become the teachers of others. The paucity of text-books on agriculture, andi the urgent need for many more of them, are commented on, the relation of the “scientific adviser’? to agricultural edugation is discnssed, and it is contended that more inducements to study agriculture should be given, and that the claims.of men who. have studied it. should be freely recognized for appointments in the Revenue and cognate Departments, The chapter concludes, with a, brief review of the agricultural training given at different Colleges, Agricultural Classes, and other institutions which I visited, including the Forest, School at, Dehra Dun. I recommend (1) the spread of general education; (2) the extended introduction of agricultural education into the general educational system ; (3) the preparation of agricultural text-beoks, suitable to the different parts of the country ; (4) the recognition of the claims of passed students in agriculture to appointments in the Land Kevenue and cognate Departments. BECOMMENDA- TIONS, CHAPTER XX. CHAPTER, XX. Agprounzunan eT BAAN. Stee. DEPARTMENTS, AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS, Tux concluding chapter of the Report deals with some points in the working of Agricultural, Departments, which have not already been fully treated. The first is the. training of junior Civilians. in agriculture. The recommendations, of the Famine Commissioners on this subject are discussed, and while it is maintained that it will be impossible to get, civilian, Directors, of Agriculture who will at the same time be practised agrignl- turists, it is urged that much good may be done by giving at the open competitive and, final examinations in England more Abstract of Report. xxiii weight to proficiency in natural science. It is then suggested that junior Civilians, or at least a proportion of them, should, on arrival in India, be drafted into Provincial Departments of Land Records and Agriculture, there to learn something about the country, the people, the crops, and the agricultural conditions generally, and that at their departmental examinations they should be required to show an acquaintance with these subjects, It is held that Directors of Agriculture should be chosen from the men who have shown a liking for natural science, and who have distinguished themselves subsequently by their knowledge of agricultural matters. The position of the Director of Agriculture is reviewed, and it is urged that it should be invested with some administrative power, and that the Direetor should form a part of the Revenue Administration. The giving to the Agricultural Department of a share in the administration of Government advances (¢accavi) for well digging is again advocated. The necessity that Directors of Agriculture should tour in their districts is insisted upon, and is made applicable in o special way to tbe Secretary of the Imperial Department of Agriculture. The useful purposes which occasional Conferences on agricultural questions can serve are also exemplified. The classification of the work of Agricultural Departments is then referred to, and the main heads are briefly noted. Among them the importance of “analysis of districts”? and the desirability of making a digest of the Land Records are put forward. Agricultural Shows ave treated at some length, and suggestions are made for their improve- ment, as also for the better conduet of trials of implements. In conclusion, the future policy of Agricultural Departments is discussed, and the two great needs—a competent organization, and the expenditure of more money upon agricultural improve- ment—are put prominently forward. Lastly, uniformity of purpose and-eontinuity of policy in the work of Imperial and Provineial Agricultural Departments are strongly urged, I recommend (1) the giving of more weight to natural science REOOMMENDA- in the open competitive and final examinations for the Civil : Service; (2) the drafting of a certain proportion of junior Civilians into the Department of Land Records and Agriculture on their arrival in India; (3) the selection of Agricultural Direc- tors from those who have distinguished themselves in natural science, and subsequently by their agricultural knowledge ; (4) the giving of some administrative powers to. Agricultural Directors, and, especially, that a shareof the administration of Government advances (faccayt) be entrusted to Agricultural Departments; (5) the granting of more money to be expended by Agricultural Departments in the work of agricultural improvement, XXV OUTLINES OF CHAPTERS. (N..B.—Tho references are to Paragraphs of the Report.) CHAPTER I, HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Early history of Agricultural Departments, 1. 2——Famine Comwmission’s recom- mendations, 3——Government of India’s action in carrying out Famine Com- anission’s recommendations, 4 Land Record system, 4—— application for Agricultural Chemist, 5—'7 sanction given by Secretary of State to enquiry by expert, 8——my selection by Sir James Caird, and delegation to India, 8—purposes of my mission and method of enquiry, 9——my tours, 10 ——expression of obligations, 11. ; pages, 1—9 tce., & geld iar de au . 6 0d rdBbe CHAPTER Ii, ‘uns seed pil os Bene, ~2h 3 le + PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE POSSIBILITY OF IMPROVING INDIAN AGRICULTURE, ! Danger of making “ general ”, remarks on India” Agriculture, 13——erroneous opinions ,enterfained in regard to Indian Agriculture, 14——opinions of Famine Commission and Government. of India, 15——my opinions, 17—— differences of agricultural conditions and practice throughout India the ground ,for .possible improvement in agriculture, 17——classification and illustration of differences, 18--20——the agencies for effecting improve- ment, 19. CONCLUSIONS . . . . 21. RECOMMENDATIONS. . - 22, pages, 10—19 CHAPTER III, CULTIVATING CLASSES. Castes and races, the diversities in their agricultural practices, 24-——the breaking down of caste prejudices would be followed by improvement in agriculture, 26 «— indications that prejudice is breaking down, 27—— progress of improve- ment, 28——in fluence of education, 29, CONCLUSIONS . . - - 80. RECOMMENDATIONS. <. . 81 pages, 20—24 xxvi Outlines of Chapters. CHAPTER IV. CLIMATE, Effects produced by climate on crop-seasons, 83--—great variations of rainfall,’84 — relation of rainfall to famine, 34—— illustrations of effects produced by climate on agricultural practice, 86-——~effects of climate on cattle and people, 836——witigation of the severities of climate, 3'7—— beneficial in- fluence of trees, 388 -——work of Forest Department in this connection, 39 remedial measures to be undertaken by Government, 41——duty of Agricul- tural Departments to make enquiry, 21. CONCLUSIONS . . . . 42. RECOMMENDATIONS . ~ 2. 48 pages, 25— 33 CHAPTER V. SOIL. Absence of scientifie study of soils of Indian, 44——the use of chemical anal ysis, 44 maiu types of soils, 45 ——local classification of soils, 46 —— is the soil of India becoming exhausted ? 49——-instances in support of exhaustion going on, 5O——soil must be becoming gradually poorer, 51. the problem of the future, §1—— wheat-yield of India and other countries, 52——explanation of decline of fértilify uot béing sppareot, 53--— importance of manure supply, 53——-water in relation to soils, 55--—increase of water supply, 56 -~—harm occasioned by over-irrigation, 57— -organie matter (hwmus) and nitrogen in soils, 58——origin and functions of humus, 58——functious of nitrogen, 58——uittogen in rainfall of India, 59-—-—fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere, CO——legaminosae itt India, 6O——black cotton- soil, @1--—sand and chiy,62——lime (kenkar), 63 ——iron, alumina and magnesia, 64--—laterite soil, 64——-«phosphoric adid, 65—— otash, 6G ——nitre, 66——sodd, 67——-rdk and aside, C7—Heed of chemical enquiry, 6'7—=improvement of soil by imerease cf manure supply, €8—— reclamation of ravine land, 70 reclamation of lake land and: “ é4oh”? land, 71——reclamation of land infested with weeds, '72——reclamation of salty land (usar), 78——the origim of veh, 74——the reh enquiry, 74—— experiments on the reclamation of usar, 75. 76——the need of an agricul- tural chemist, 78. CONCLUSIONS . . . . 79. BECOMMENDATIONS . ° . 80. pages 34—63 CHAPTER VI. WATER. Division. of India in reference to irrigdtion requirements, Sf-——-“ protected and ® precarious” tracts, 82 — summary of main types of water supply, 83—— dependence of irrigation systems on physical features of country, 84—— great work done by Government and Irrigation Departiaents, 85—-— perennial canals, 86——benoficial effects of canals, 86——their primary use, 86—— Outlines of Chapters. xxvii objections urged against canals, 8'7——canals taken where not required, 88 -——-congtruction of reservoirs from canals, 89 ——interference of canals with drainage of country, 9O——canals cause ill-health, 90 the problem of canal irrigation, 90——subsoil drainage, 90 ——spread of reh due to canale, 91— inundation canals, 92——river-channels, 93-——“ Tanks,’?” Q94—— rice cultivation by “tank ” irrigation, 94—— shallow tanks or ponds, 95 — wells, 96 ——excellence of “ garden ”’ cultivation, 96 —— cultivation by welland canal compared, 9'7-——loss by percolation in watercourses, 9'7—— waste of water in ‘* flow ” irrigation, 9'7——-“ over-cropping ” consequent on canal irrigation, 98——analyses of caval and well waters, 99 ——~need of chemical study of subject, 98——embanking of land, 100 need of extended irrigation, 101——‘inter-dependence of water and manure, JO2—— agency for carrying out improvements in water supply, LOS——the construc- tion of wells by Government, 104—— management of tanks by the people, 105——repair of tanks, 106——-system of taecavi advances, 107 —— its variable administration, LO'7-——~- objections of the cultivators, 10'7——scope for extended application of faccavt system, LO8——successful working of system, 109. 110 improvement in its administration, 111. 112, LI3—— Agricultural Departments in relation to taccavé advances, 113. CONCLUSIONS - - ~ - H4 BECOMMENDATIONS - - 115 pages 64—92 CHAPTER VII. MANURE. Absence of application of scientific knowledge to practical agriculture in India, 116—— importance of manure, 11'7-——inter-dependence of water and manure, 118 Indian cultivator not ignorant of value of manure, 119——cattle- manure, 12]1—analyses of cattle-manare and comparison with English farmyard manure, 12]1——-analysie of ashes of cattle-manure, 121——loss incurred by burning cattle-manure, 121——caltivators do not burn manure unless obliged to, 122. 123 the connection between the firewood and manure supplies, 124—— use of ashes of cattle-manure, 125~——sheep-folding, 126— oil-seed reftsass manure, 127——influence of export of oil-seeds, 127——indigo refuse as manure 128——green-manuring, 129 twigs and leaves: as manure, 130——the rad seed-hed system, 13I——silt as manu re, 132-——soil-mixing, 132—— nitre ( saltpetre ), 1833——wood ashes, 133— Hime, 184——raw phosphatic materials, 135 fish mauure, 185——the _export of bones, 136——use of bones as manure, 137 —— artificial manures, 188—— adulteration of manures, 339——importance of utilisation of night- soil, [41——town sanitation, 139 ——-night-soil sometimes utilised, 143 —- village sanitation, 144——-general neglect of use of night-soil, 145—— imperfert conservation of‘cxttle-mauure, 146. 148. analysis of'urine, 146 =——analysis of leaves used for litter, 44 —— objections to use of litter, 147 ~—— value of leaves for litter, 149——hardship of sanitary rules on agricul- turists, 152——wider distribution of manure supply, 153. CONCLUSIONS - - - - 154 RECOMMENDATIONS - - 155 pages 98—-134 XXxviii Outlines of Chapters. CHAPTER VIII. woop. Early policy of ForestAdministration, 16'7———necessity for change of policy, 158 — agricultural requirements, 159——~the importance of replacing dung by wood for fuel, 1@Q0——advantages of tree-growing, 162——Sir D. Brandis’ work, 163——Famine Commission’s recommendations, 163——action taken by the Governments of [ndia, the North-West Provinces, and Madras, 163-——- timber producing forests, 164 ——forest fires, 164. restriction of grazing, 164——“ Proteoted Forests,” 166——“ Reserved Forests ” near cultivation, 167 —— difficulties in extending work of Forest Department, 168——forests for supply of ab material, L@9——pollarding of trees, 169——the provision for existing rights in forests, 170Q——system of “‘ annual licenses ” for agri- cultural purposes, 172— Forest Department undermanned, 173 —~ difficulties of Forest Tepartment,, 174. 175——canal plantations, etc.. 17'7——Arboricul- ture, 178-——necessity for creating more “ reserves,” 179——scarcity of fire- wood instanced, 1'79——the creation of “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves,” 18Q0—— The Ajmere-Merwara forests, 16]1——experiments in creating “ Puel and Fodder Reserves, ” 181——the obtaining of land for creation of Reserves ” 184— —187——the “village waste,” 188—-—“village forests,’ 189—— Land Acquisition Act, 191 estimate of cost of purchase of land, 193——practical details in working of “‘ Fuel and Fodder Reserves,” 194——enclosure, 194—— control of “ reserves,” 194——financial prospects, 195——utilisation of part of Forest Revenue in development of “ reserves,” 196. CONCLUSIONS - = - = 197. RECOMMENDATIONS. - - 198. pages 135—167 CHAPTER IX, GRASS. Grazing areas in forests, 199. 20O~—provision of grazing, desirable but not absolutely necessary, 2O1L. 202——restriction of grazing, 1O3—207~- — grazing by sheep and goats, 206——cutting and utilisation of grass from “reserves,” 208——the “ village waste,” 20Q9———grazing in canal plantations, 210 —grass-growing by cultivators, 211. 213——Grass Farms and rukhs, 214 —the “ grassecutter ” system,215——benefits of Grass Farme, etc., 216. 217 ——cost of hay-making in India, 218—220—— pressing and baling of hay, 221—uee of machinery on Grass Farms, 223——silage at Grass Farms, etc., 224—227——the cost of making silage, 224——suggestions for improve- ment in making silage, 229——the future of silage in India, 230—suggested improvements in management of Grass Farms, 231. CONCLUSIONS - - + - 232 RECOMMENDATIONS - ~ 233. pages 168—189 Outlines of Chapters. Xxix CHAPTER X. FODDER-CROPS AND HEDGES. Fodder-erops not essential, 284——but necessary for improvement of cattle, 235 —principal crops used as fodder-crops, 236 ——utilisation of prickly pear, 236——extended use of fodder-crops desirable, 23'7——trees for fodder use, 238 ——comparative values of Indian fodders, 239——need of agricul tural chemist, 239——advantages of hedges, 240—-- materials used for - fencing, 241——hedges as fodder material, 242. CONCLOSIONS . os : - 248. RECOMMENDATIONS - - « 244. pages 190—196 CHAPTER XI. LIVE STOCK AND DAIRYING. Improvement of cattle only possible within limits, 246——food of cattle, 247 -— excellent cattle in parts, 248—--breeding ‘and selection generally neglected, 249——the Brahmani bull, 250——distribution of stud bulls to villages, 251——selection of native cattle, 252——need for Cattle-breeding Farms, 253——Hissar Cattle Farms, 254—-—Bhadgaon Farm, 255——location of stud bulls at Government Farms and Cvurt of Wards’ Estates, 257—— - improvement in management of cattle-breeding Farms, 258 —— plough cattle, "859 boffsloes, 26O——taccavi advances for cattle, 261——yield and » quality of milk from Indian dairy cattle, 262——improvement of milking eattle, 263 dairy farming, 264——Mr. Howman’s visit and experience, 264 meed of agricultural chemist, 264——dairying..in Bombay and Poona, 265——the future of dairying in India, 266——unasatisfactory condition of milk supply, 267——Dairy Farms, 268-——Horse-breeding operations, 2869——sheep and gonts, 270——cattle disease, 2'71-——bac- teriological laboratories, 272. : : CONCLUSIONS - - = - 274. RECOMMENDATIONS - - - 275. pages 197 —215 ne CHAPTER XII. IMPLEMENTS. Not much seope for improvement, 276 — native requirements must be studied, 276——ploughs, 2'7'7-——objections to iron ploughs, 27'7——deep ploughing, 278——trials of ploughs, 279——“ improved ” ploughs may sometimes be used profitably, 281——steam ploughs, 281——seed-drills, reapers, threshing machines, ete. 282——-comparison of steam and cattle power, 283 ‘ingenuity of native itoplements, 284——implements at Cawnpore Farm, 286 —the Cawnpore pump, 286— sugar-wills, 287 —~— cireumstances affecting out-turn of sugar, 288——Beheea sugar-mill, 288. 289-—— evaporating-pans for~sugar-boiling, 291——sugar ‘ * turbine,” 292 — oil- will, 293 trials of implements at Experimental Farms, 29 5 ——associa- tion of scientific men in agricultural enquiries, 296. CONCLUSIONS . . + + 297. RECOMMENDATIONS . ~~ 298. pages 216-230 XXX Outlines of Chapters, CHAPTER XIII. CROPS AND CULTIVATION. General excellence of cultivation, 300——changes produced by export, 301—— inerease of wheat area, 301——fallowing, 303——“‘ mixed crops,” 304—— rotation, 305—307——selection aud chaoge of seed neglected, 308 grain merchants, 309 ——deterioration of cotton, 309——distribution of seed from Government Farms, $310—¢accavi advances for seed purebase, 310 -- introduction of new varieties, 311——introduction of new crops, 312 —diseases of crops and insect attacks, 314——out-turn of crops, 315—— improvement in rice cultivation, 317——-improvement in sugar-cane cultiva- tion, 318——improvement in cultivation of potato, 319——transference of method, 820, CONCLUSIONS . e . . 321.. RECOMMENDATIONS . . + 322. pages 231—246 ———— CHAPTER XIV. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES AND EXPORTS. Sogar, 324—387— yields from different varieties of cane, $326——infiuence of manure, 32.:7——time of cutting, 328——“ ratoon” canes, 329——pressing of canes, 330——boiling of juice, 331——uced of cleanliness, 332—— refiniug, 333 ——eugar factories, 334——exports and imports of sugar, 335 ——extended cultivation possible, 336——need of chemist, 337. Cotton, 338—342——mixing of cotton, 338——improvement of cotton, 339— * $41——export of cotton, 342, Indigo, 343—356——cultivation, 344-—continuous cropping, 345—— manuring, 345——change of cropping, 346——insect pests, 346——selec- tion and change of seed, 34'7——unsolved questions in indigo cultivation, $48——uneolved questions in Indigo manufacture, 349 -353——the prace tical and chemical views compared, $64——unsatisfactory conditions of indigo cultivation, 356. w Tea, 357—361——uneettled points in cultivation, 358——unsettled points in manufacture, 369 ——insect ravages, 360——chemical enquiry into cultiva- tion and manufacture, 361. Coffee, 362—365——problems in cultivation, 363——importance of shade, 363 ——tillage, 8363——“ renovation pits’? 363——soil analysis, 363 -— application of manures, 363 ——diseases and injuries of coffee plant, 364. Cardamoms, 366. Tobacco, 367—-372——cultivation, 367 manuring, 368——native method of curing, 369——prospects of industry, 371——tebacco parasite, 3'72. Flax and Jute, 373—374. Silk, 375——pebrine, 375. ? Grain-cleaning, 3'776—3.87--—Indian wheat “ dirty,” 376—-—the basis. of sale, 3'77—— adulteration of wheat, 378——attempts to secure purity of wheat, 379~—381——wmy own enquiries, 382——analyses of wheat samples, 383, $84—-—the elevator system, 386-——the remedy for “ dirty ” wheat, 387. Linseed, 388, 389 ——analyses of samples of linseed, 388- methods of pur- chase and export, 389, CONCLUSIONS . .« « -« 890. RECOMMENDATIONS . . - 30L pages 247—287 Oublines of Chapters. xxxi CHAPTER XV, ECONOMICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. Smallness of holdings, 8394——smallness of capital, 394——systems of land tenure, 395—— indebtedness of cultivating classes, 396-———remadies for inu- debtedness, 39'7——want of enterprise among cultivators, 398——~ export of grain, 399. CONCLUSIONS. . . . . 400. pages, 288—295 CHAPTER XVI. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL ENQUIRY. The necessity of enquiry, 404——“ agricultural analysis” in the past, 405— the field for enquiry, 406——need of an expert agency, 407——the present agency, 408 the Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, 408 agricultural experts, 409——should experts be Europeans or Natives P 410 ——resolutions of Simla Conference, 411. CONCLUSIONS. . . . . 412. RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 413. pages 296—S11 ° CHAPTER XVII. SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURAL ENQUIRY. The connection of science with practice, 414—-—relation of chemistry to agrie culture, 417: opinions on desirability of having an Agricultural, Chemist, 418— scope for work of agricultural chemist, 419——association of chemist with experimental enquiry, 420——need of continvity in experiment, 422]-—— need of a “ referee ” or “scientific adviser,’ 422-——the. teaching of agri» cultural chemistry, 423—— preparation of text-books, 423——summary of duties of “scientific adviser,” 424——quatincations needed, 425~——con- ditions for success, 426—428——laboratory, 429——assistant chemist, 429, 430—location of Inboratory, 431——duties of chemical officers, 432——salaries of officers, 433 ——association of other sciertific men in agricultnral enquiry, 485 ——the position of scientific men in India, 486——- Chemical Examiners, 486—— Municipal Chemists, 436——Central Training Institution, 436. CONCLUSIONS . * . “ . 437. -RECOMMENDATIONS e . - 438. pages 312--885 Xxxii Outlines of Chapters. CHAPTER XVIII. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS, The necessity for Experimental Farms, 489——past work of Experimental Farms in India, 44Q——the expenditure on Farms, 441 ——-‘* Model Farms,” 442 conditions requisite for establishment of Experimental Farm, 443—449 ~-- the plan of experiment, 450 —466 ——recording of details, 46'7 —~ state- ment of results, 468 examination of results, 469 —— publication of results, 470 financial results not criterion of success, 4'72——the kind of experi- ments to be tried at Farms, 473——Farms as seed-distributing and cattle- breeding centres, 4'74—— Demonstration Farms, 475 —— private farms, 476 —~Cawnpore Farm, 478——Saharanpur and Lucknow Gardens, 479—— Nagpur Farm, 480——Bhsdgaon Farm, 482——Poona Farm, 483—— Nadiad Farm, 484 ——Baroda Farms, 485——~Ganesh Khind Fruit Farm, 486—-Saidapet Farm, 488-—— Madura Farm, 489——Dumraon Farm, 492——Seebpore b'arm, 493. CONCLUSIONS. . pi . - 496. RECOMMENDATIONS , . . « 497. pages 336—378 CHAPTER XIX. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, Influence of General Education, 498—— the past tendency of education, 501 the remedy for defects of the past, 502 the direction which Agricultural Education should take, 503 ——special Agricultural Colleges not required, 505 ——teaching of agriculture beneficial, 506——recognition of agriculture by Universities, 507——need of practical as well as theoretical instruction, 508 Agricultural Classes, 509—— High Schools, § 1O—— Middle Schools, 511 -~— Primary Schools, 512 —Normal Schools for teachers, 5138——need of agricultural text-beoks, 514——teaching of agricultural chemistry, 516—— inducements to be given to study of agriculture, 518——~ Poona College of Science, 520——Baroda College, 521—— Agricultural Classes at Belgaum and Nadiad, 522 ——Saidapet College, 523 —-Nagpur Agricultural Class, 624 — Lahore Veterinary College, 526-——Forest School, Dehra, 526. “CONCLUSIONS ». . «= st:sCOB QT. RECOMMENDATIONS . é . . §28. pages 379—397 CHAPTER XX, AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS, The training of junior Civilians in agriculture, 530———recommendations of Famine Commissioners and Government of India, 530——necessity of giving more weight to study of natural ‘science, 531 ——agricultural chemistry in Civil Service Examinations, 532 employment of junior Outlines of Chapters. KXRilj Civilians in Departments of Land Records and Agriculture, 583——the position of Directors of Agricultural Departments, 534——the need of touring, 535 —~ the Secretary of the Imperial Agricultural Department, 536——~ was, by the Secretary of State), established Provincial Departments mendsiious of . . . . +s . Famine Commis. of Agriculture, having made provisions, by means of the Famine conte ral Code, against the difficulties of famine, and having, lastly, by the Improvement, Tyand Record system, provided machinery for maintaining agricul- tural statistics for the administration of Land Revenue and the collection of agricultural information, they announced their work to be in a sufficiently advanced state to enable them to take up the rewaining section of the Famine Commissioners’ recommendations, viz., that referring to agricultural improvement, In connection with this the appointment of an Agricultural Chemist was once more urged. It was pointed out most clearly by the Government of India that the obligation imposed on them by the Secretary of State to give effect to the recommendations of the Famine Com- missioners in relation to agricultural improvemenc still rested upon them, and that so long as they were not relieved from this obligation it remained in full foree; further, that the other recommendations having been provided for and financial pressure having become less severe, they were now prepared to turn their Resolution of attention to agricultural improvement. Still later (1889), tha ment on Home Department, by their Resolution on Technical Education, eenetias, 1ses, imposed upon both Agricultural and Educational Departments the Qbligetiona: further obligation to “take positive measures for the education Departmentsto of the rural classes in the direction of agriculture.” Conse- feat tmpeeee quently the Agricultural Departments, Imperial and Provincial, pene have at the present time before them the positive duty of promot. Education, = ing both Agricultural Improvement and Agricultural Edueation. darther eppiice> 7, The Delhi Conference, before-mentioned, had strongly ym caauies represented the necessity of having at least one first-class ; Agricultural Chemist for India, and had urged that the employment of sucha man in connection with the expansion of the Forest School at Dehra, and with the College of Science at Poona, would be desirable for educational purposes, his time, when not engaged in the actual work of teaching, being devoled to agricultural enquiry. These views were. endorsed ina despatch to the Secretary of State, dated July. A pglication for Agricultural Chemist—my delegation, 5 2Ist, 1888. In reply, the Secretary of State, after seeking Reply of the opinions of the late Sir James Caird and Mr, Thicelton Dyer state to (opinions, it may be said, in several respects divergent, but *PPlicstion. agreeing as to the undesirability of making teaching a main point in the duties of such a man as might be chosen), expressed himself still unable to agree to the recommendation urged on him, and asked for further explanation, This the Government of India gave in theic reply of June Ist, 1889, pointing out in detail the various classes of Natives for whom education in agriculture was desirable, and reiterating the necessity for systematic scientific en- quiry in agriculture. 8. The Secretary of State, though not prepared without fur- ganction given ther investigation to accept these proposals, expressed his will. to enquiry by | ingness to send out a competent Agricultural Chemist who should 1889. * make enquiries in India itself, and (in the words of the despatch of November 7th, 1889) “ advise upon the best course to be adopted in order to apply the teachings of “ Agricultural Chemistry to, and ia order to effect improvements in, Indian agriculture.” The selection of an expert was entrusted to Sir James Caird, who himself had been one of the Famine Commissioners, Sir James Caird did me the great honour of mentioning my gotection of name first, and in preferring on behalf of the India Council the myself by Sir request to the Royal Agricultural Society of England for the use of my servicés, he expressed the hope that the Society (of which he was himself one of the oldest members) would, in view o£ the importance and national character of the work, see their way to allowing me to undertake it, and to grant me the necessary leave Leave ofabrence i i : ted by Royal of absence from my post as their Consulting Chemist. verieultutal The Society, on their part, heartily granted the request made Buglasd. by Sir James Caird, and my delegation to India was ratified by the India Council. Accordiagly, on November 21st, 1889, I left London en route i i i : ival in Ina for Bombay, and arrived in India on December 10th. eee 9. The purposes of my deputation were thus defined by the py. Purposes of my Secretary of State : misaion. To enquire into and advise upon— [st.—The improvement of Indian Agriculture by scientific means, 2nd.-The improvement of Indian Agriculture generally. hod of enquiry I followed was, first to acquaint myself My method of as fae Set anal by aaa with the agricultural conditions of the "0" country, as exemplified in selected tracts of a typical character ; to visit all Experimental Stations and also the principal experi- ments condacted in the past by Government or by private indi- viduals, to inspect educational institutions where agricultural teach- ing formed a part of the curricalum ; and to obtain, by free discus- sion with officials and practical agriculturists,. whatever inform. ation and suggestions I could as to the agricultural needs of the country. ‘Taking one district specially, the Cawnpore district of My Agricultural conference at Simla, October 1890. Expression of tours, cial & obligations, 6 Historical Introduction, the North-West Provinces, I visited it repeatedly, so as to follow. systematically in one locality the progress of the various field crops at the different stages of their growth, Besides seeing the general agricultural crops, I enquired into the more special industries con- nected with coffee, tea, indigo, and jute growing, and jnto systems, of Irrigation, of Grass Farms, and of Forest Administration, 10. My travels were mainly divided into two tours—the first from December 10th, 1889, when I arrived, until May 19th, 1890, when I reached Simla, my main object being to see the cultiva- tion during the cold weather ; the second, from July 14th until September 12th, which was occupied in seeing the agriculture of the country during the rainy season. In the interval spent at Simla between the tours, I had the opportunity of putting together the notes of my first tour, of consulting all officials connected with the Agricultural Department, and others interested in agriculture, and I also had free access to the records and library of the Depart- ment. I further drew up a brief summary of the conclusions I had arrived at up to that time, and these, under the name of ‘Preliminary Notes,’ were circulated privately, and were subse- quently discussed at the Agricultural Conference held in October 1890 at Simla, On returning to Simla, after the conclusion of my second tour, 1 proceeded with the compilation of fresh information and the arrangement of the material I had already gathered for the purposes of my Report, The assembling of the Agricultural Conference at Simla, October 6th to 18th, after Sir Edward Buck’s return from furlough, gave me the opportunity, of which I was glad to avail myself, of submitting my views to the consideration of the members composing the Conference, and of hearing their opinions and noting their suggestions. Leaving Simla in November, I made a short third tour before reaching Calcutta, and finally left India on January 10th, 1891, having been just thirteen months in the country. Thus, omitting Burma and Assam, which were not included within the scope of my enquiries, I was able altogether to visit each of the different Provinces twiee; with the exception of the Punjab, wiz., once in the cold weather and once in the rains. In the case of the Punjab the season had advanced too far to enable me to see the cold-weather crops, except just in the neighbourhood of Delhi, 11. The. duty now devolves upon me of putting together my conclusions and suggestions, based upon what I was able, in the time at my disposal, to see of the agriculture of the country, what I have gathered from the literature of the subject, and, above all, what I have gained fromthe experi- ence of the many officials and others it has been my privilege to meet, and who have been always ready to assist me in every way. possible, In the account of my tours I shall duly acknowledge the help that individuals have so kindly ren- dered me, but I must not pass on without mentioning some special obligations I owe, _ Among the first I must name the late Sir James Caird, to whom I was indebted for my selection, and who gave me much advice derived from his own experience in India, and his aoq vaint Tours and Obltgations, r ance with its officials since; then Sir James Peile, of the India Council, and Sir Charles Bernard, of the India Office, Sir James Peile had charge in the Council of the matter of my delegation, aud Sir Charles Bernard made the arrangements for my visit, and assisted me much by advice and suggestions, as also, after my return, in the issuing of my Report, On the voyage out it was my good fortune to meet Mr. Robert H. Elliot, of Clifton Park, Kelso, well known both as a Scotch agriculturist and as a coffee planter in Mysore, and besides as an able writer on Indian agricultural matters, From him I learnt much that was afterwards invaluable to me. In India, I must specially name Sir Edward Buck, Sectetary the Revenue and Agricultural Department of the Government of India, who took a deep personal interest in my mission, and pro- vided for me every facility for making my investigation a complete and independent one, Sir Edward himself arranged for mean extended tour, and commended me everywhere to the officials of his Department throughout the country, so that Iwas able to see everything to the best advantage. Besides losing no opportunity of making me acquainted with the work of the Agricultural Department in the past, as well as with its objects and aims in the future, Sir Edward himself took me on my. first tour to the North-West Provinces, and then on to Berar, Indore, and Bombay. : Next, I would express my indebtedness to the several gentlemen, mostly Directors of Provincial Departments of Land Kecords and Agriculture, who arranged tours for me in their respective Provinces, and who themselves personally conducted me through- out, providing in every way for miy comfort, and ensuring’ that iv the time at my disposal I should see, not only as much as possible, but also what it would be most advantageous to see. To them my sincere obligations are due, and I have ever-fresh recollections of much pleasant acquaintance with them, and of kind- nesses received from them. These are :— * Mr, J. B. Fuller (Central Provinces). * Mr, E. C. Ozanne (Bombay). * Mr, T. W. Holderness (North-West Provinces and Oudh), * Mr, M. Finucane (Bengal). . ‘ * Mr, F.. A, Robertson (Punjab).: Mr, C. Benson (Assistant Director, Department of Agri- cultare, Madras). * 5 ; Mr. Muhammad Husain (Assistant Director, Department of Agriculture, North-West Provinces and Oudh). _ : Mr, H. C. Hill (Officiating Inspector General of Forests). Mr. ‘W. B. Wishart (Secretary, Upper India Chamber of Commerce, Cawnpore). ~ : ® Directors of Provincial Departments of Land Reeords aud Agriculture, © I have further to express my thanks to His Excellency the Viceroy (Maryuis of Lansdowne) for much personal kinduess 8 Histortcal Introduction. shown to me, and interest taken in my mission, as evinced in the several interviews graciously accorded me; to Their Excellencies Lords Reay, Harris, and Connemara, whose guest I have been at different times; and to the following Members of Council and Governors of Provinces for kind suggestions and advice : Sir Auckland Colvin, Sir James Lyall, Sir Steuart Bayley, Sir David Barbour, Sir Geo, Chesney, Sir Charles Elliott, Hon. Mr. (now Sir Philip) Hutchins, Messrs. Stokes (now Sir Henry Stokes), Garstin, and Clogstoun, of Madras, and Mr. A, (now Sir Alexander) Mackenzie. There are many other officials to whom my thanks are similarly due for much assistance rendered me in my enquiries, notably Colonel Forbes, Mr, Harvey James, General Badcock, Mr. W. C. Benett, Mr. P. Nolan, Mr. Justice Jardine, Mr. H. E. M, James, Colonel Ardagh, Mr. f, Henvey, Dr. Geo. King, Dr. Geo, Watt, Mr. J. E. O’Conor, Mr. Duthie, Colonel Pitcher, Colonel Marriott, Colonel F, Bailey, Major Clibborn, Mr. W. J. Wilson, Dr. Theodore Cooke, Major Elliott, Major Wingate, and the late Mr. 8, A. Hill. Among the most pleasurable recollections of my tours will be those associated with the visits I paid to agiculturists, planters, and others to whom I was commended, and who everywhere showed me the greatest hospitality. It is impossible here to record the names of all, though they are well remembered by myself, but I wust mention as representative-—Mr, R. H. Elliot of Mysore, Messrs. W. B. Hudson, J. J. Macleod, and T. M. Gibbon of Behar, Captain Chapman (Oudh), Captain Goad (Hapur), Messrs, Thomson and Mylne (Beheea), Mr. Macdonell (Serajgunge), Mr. G. W, Christisson (Darjeeling), Dr. Hendley (Jeypore), and, in the Punjab, Messrs. & B. Francis, E. B. Steedman, J. A. Grant, H. C. Cookson, Captain Marrett, Major Massy, and Dr. Warburton. Both at Calcutta ani at Bombay I obtained from merchants much information which materially aided me in forming my conclusions. I would acknowledge here the kind belp of Messrs. Octavius Steel & Co., Mackillican & Co., and Mr. Ross (Kelly & Co.) at Calcutta, and of the following firms at Bombay: Messrs, Volkart Brothers; Finlay, Muir & Co.; Glade & Co.; Croft, Wells & Co.; and Mr. John Marshal), of the Chamber of Commerce. Lastly, I have plegsure in acknowledging the ready way in which the facilities of the office of the Revenue and Agri- cultural Department have been put at my disposal by Mr, Muir-Mackenzie, Mr. Tucker, and the other officials, also the grat assistauce I have derived from having had access to the records and library. To this Department I am _ further indebted for the preparation, by “the Survey Office, of the three maps which accompany my Report, the Rainfall and Geological maps having been specially reduced from those in the “Statistical Atlas of India,’ Obligations. ‘ 9 12. In one respect I have had an advantage over those The prosent whom I may term my “ predecessors,” in that a full year and °° exceptional opportunities have been given me, I believe, too, that short though the time at my disposal has been for the study of so large a subject as Indian Agriculture, my enquiry from a scientific point of view will bave beneficial results. * It was my desire to avail myself, while still in the country, of the opportunity of gathering whatever information I could . in order to supplement and to test my own observations; and so. numerous were the matters brought under my notice during my travels, that, even with the extension of time granted me by the Government of India, and acceded to by the Royal Agricultural Society, I was unable to do justice to this large and important question of Agricultural Improvement, Rather than that I should be prevented from dealing adequately with it, 1 was very kindly allowed to present, on leaving India in January 1891, an Abstract Report and to write the full Report subsequently, at my leisure. CHAPTER 11, CHAPTER II Paruursanxy PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE POSSIBILITY OF IMPROVING Remarge ON THE INDIAN AGRICULTURE. POSSIBILITY OF Se 13, Ir has been well said, and cannot be too often repeated, senrovers2®- that “India is a country about which one cannot make a ie eroorie “§* general’ remark,” and, certainly, with regard to Indian remarks on agricultare, this is strictly trae; therefore, if I am asked agriculture, Whether the agriculture of India is capable of improvement, I must answer both ‘‘ Yes”? and “No.” If, for irstance, I am taken to see the cultivation of parts of Gujarat (Bombay), of Mdhim in the Théna District of Bombay, the garden culture of Coimbatore in Madras, or that of Meerut in the North-West Provinces, and of GGjrat and Hoshiarpur in the Ponjab, I may be inclined to say, “No; there is nothing, “ or, at all events, very little, thatcan be bettered here;” but if, instead, I visit parts of Behar, the Dacca district of Eastern Bengal, the Central Provinces generally, Khéndesh in Bombay, the Tanjore district of Madras, the Cawnpore district of the North-West, or Hissar and Multan in the Punjab, it will not be long before I may be able to indicate a g field for improvement, Therefore, no general reply can be Campi ot properly made to the question suggested; nevertheless, I do ‘not hesitate to say that very frequently there is room for improvement, but it will have to be looked for, as a rule. Then, with the finding comes a yet harder problem, namely, to ascertain how improvement can be effected. If the deficiencies do not fall readily to hand, still less du the remedies, and I make bold to say that it is a much easier task to propose improvements in English agriculture than to make really valuable suggestions for that of India, such suggestions, I mean, as have a reasonable chance of being carried out. Altogether, the condition of the cultivating classes, the peculiar circumstances under which hus. bandry is carried on, the relations of the State to the people, and many other factors, have to be taken into careful consideration before one can give an opinion, and even that opinion must be given in very guarded terms, As India is not covered by one people, but by a number of different and diverse peoples, so may it be said of the agriculture and its systems as practised in different parts, That it not only needs, but will repay, close and careful study, I am convinced ; and until systematic enquiry be made, not in the hurried way in which the exigencies of the ease have obliged me to pursue my enquiries, but by patient watching and learning, no really sound knowledge will be obtained, nor any great improve- ment be intelligently inaugurated. Eeroneans 14, On one point there can be no question, viz., that entertained in. the ideas generally entertained in England, and often given tericultoe “@" expression to even in India, that Indian agriculture is, as a General Excellence of Cultivation. 1t whole, primitive and backward, and that little has been done to try and remedy it, are altogether erroneous. It is true, as indicated above, that no matter what statement; may he made,: as deduced from the agriculture of one part, it may be directly contradicted by a reference to the practice of another part, yet the conviction has forced itself upon me that, taking every thing together, and more especially considering the conditions under which Indian crops are grown, they are wonderfully good, (At bis best the Indian raiyat or cultivator is quite as good as, and, in some respects, the superior of, the average British farmer, whilst at his worst it can only be said that this state is brought about largely by an absence of facilities for improvement which is probably unequalled in any other country, and that the raiyat. will struggle on patiently and uncomplainingly in the face of diffcultiesin a way that no one else would.) Nor need our British farmers be surprised at what I say, for it must be remembered that the natives of India were cultivators of wheat centuries before we in England were. It is ‘not likely, therefore, that their practice should be capable of much improvement. (What does, however, prevent them from growing larger crops is the limited facilities to which they have access, such as the supply of water and manure.) But, to take the ordinary acts of husbandry, nowhere would“one find better instances of keeping land scrupulously clean from weeds, of ingenuity in device of water-raising appliances, of knowledge of soils and their capabilities, as well as of the exact time to sow and to reap, as one would in Indian agriculture, and this not at its best alone, but at its ordinary level. It is wonderful, too, how much is known of rotation, the system of ‘‘ mixed crops,” and. of fallowing. Certain it is that I, at least, have never seen a more perfect picture of careful cultivation, combined with hard labour, perseverance, and fertility of resource, than I have seen at many of the halting places in my tour. Such are the gardens of M4him, the fields of Nadiad (the centre of the “ garden” of Gujarét, in Bombay), and many others, But to return to the question of improvement; while some have erred by ealling the agriculture primitive, and, forgetting that novelty is not necessarily improvement, have thought that all that was needed was abetter plough, a reaper, a threshing machine, or else artificial manures, to make the land yield as Englieh soil does, others have equally erred by going to the opposite extreme, and have condemned all attempts at improve- ment, asserting that the raiyat knows his own business best, and that there is nothing to teach him. On one point, however, there can be but little doubt. The Native, though he may be slow in.taking up an improvement, will not hesitate to adort it if he is convinced that it constitutes a better plan, and one tc his advantage, ; 15, Turning from these, various opinions to those of the opinion ot Famine Commission, it will be apparent that, as _one result of pee their careful investigation, they came to the conclasion that there andoubtedly was capability of improvement, or they would not, Opinion of Goverament of India. Attitude of the enquirer, My opipions in the possibility of agricultural improvement, Differences in agricultural conditions and practice throughout India, 12 Improvement of Agriculture, have so strongly insisted on measures being taken to effect it; they recognised, too, the necessity of careful and organised enquiry as a preliminary measure, and as necessary for acquiring a real knowledge of the agricultural state and conditions of the country. “The defect,” says the Report ( Part II, p. 138), “ in the efforts *‘ made by the Government to instruct the cultivator has consisted “in the failure to recognise the fact that in order to improve “Indian agricalture, it is necessary to be thoroaghly acquainted ** with it, and to learn what adaptation is needed to suit modern ** and more scientific methods and maxims to the Indian staples *‘ andclimate.”” Here, however, came in the difficulty of effecting any remedy; and the section of the Commission’s Report which deals with remedial action, though it indicates certain possible improvements, does not give any direct suggestion as to how they are to be carried out, The Government of India, as I have pointed out, when ealled on to give effect to the Famine Com- missioners’ recommendations, felt this same difficulty, and, having neither the machinery nor the means, put the matter aside until they could work out other reforms called for by the Famine Commission’s Report. They have, however, never questioned the possibility of improvement in agriculture, and their action at the present time indicates this opinion strongly; what they have done is, to ask. for the necessary machinery and the necessary money, and they'have, asI think, wisely, determined that the work, if undertaken, shall be begun in a thoroughly scientific manner, and founded on a thoroughly scientific basis. 16. I will not discuss here the opinions of the several * experts’? who have preceded myself, leaving on record, as they have done, the conclusions drawn from the observations of their several tours, But I will give my own views, though well aware that 1am adding one more to the list of opinions based on amore or less casual acquaintance with the agriculture, not of a country, but of a continent, The attitude one ought to adopt in coming to a land full of novel conditions is that of a learner, and not of the adviser or the critic; it isonly when one has learnt something of the peculiar surroundings of his subject that he should attempt to suggest anything, and this he will, if wise, do very cautiously, feeling how very much there is for him still to learn, how much that he will never be able to learn, This is pre-eminently the case with Indian agriculture. 17, My own investigations have brought very clearly to my notice what I have already alluded to in paragraph 18, viz., that there are very great differences in the agricultural conditions and practice that prevail in different parts of India, so that while in some parts, as, ¢.g., in Gujarét (Bombay), the agriculture is so good as to leave little room for improvement, in other Sear as, ¢.g., in the Central Provinces, there is much scope or it. My investigations have also shown me that there are great differences in the facilities that some cultivators have, as compared with others, facilities, I mean, such as those for obtaining water, manure, wood, grazing, etc. Possibility of Improvement, 18 The first aim in any scheme of agricultural improvement should, I think, be to modify those differences which exist; first of all, by teaching, in the more backward parts of India, the better practices of the most advanced Indian agriculture ; and, secondly, by supplying, wherever it is possible, those facilities which exist in the best agricultural districts. It isin the existence of thes? their existence differences that there isa warrant for belief in the possibility of th¢ground fr improving Indian agriculture, and it is in the modification of improvement ia them that the greatest hope of improvement lies, Apart, there- : fore, from the question whether the agricultare of the country can be improved by the introduction of more scientific methods from the West, I believe the first step must proceed in the direction of improvement from within ; in other words, by the modification of those differences in agricultural conditions and practice that exist in different parts of India itself. I shall now proceed to enumerate these differences, and shall then show how, in my opinion, they may be most easily modi- fied. : 18. The differences appear to me to range themselves into pues slbead ot three separate classes; and, after naming these, 1 shall proceed® to briefly indicate, in a general way, the direction which modification of differences, where possible, may be Icoked for. In subsequent chapters I shall deal with each sub-division separately. The three classes are :— : : en I, Differences inherent to the people themselves as cultivate I. Differences | ing classes— people them- for instance, the fact that, by hereditary practice, selves, certain castes and races are bad, others are good cultivators. II. Differences arising from- purely external surroundings, I. Diterences and not directly from any want of knowledge. purely external These may be subdivided into — anne ‘(a) physical causes— (a) physical Causes; such are:—climate, soil, facilities for water, manure, wood, grazing, ete. ; (4): economical or political conditions— 6) ssanominet such are:—the relative ease or difficulty of living, Mee paucity or pressure of population, ete. III, Differences arising directly from want of knowledge— yyy piseronces a : f di i f 4 It I sete direeily i S Tom want o! for instance, the existence of diversity of agricultura foetal practice in different parte of the country. 19. Having stated the differences, it is desirable to consider scencioaby . in the next place the means by which they may be removed, or Se re at least be modified. i effected. ‘ 14 “Inprovement of Agriculture. This I can best put in the form of three propositions :— Ist, The modification of existing differences in agricultural practice and methods must proceed from positive measures taken — (a) by the people themselves ; (6) by the Government, Qnd. So far as it is possible for Government or for Agri- culvaral Departments to assist in the modifications of these differences, it is their duty to do so. 8rd. It is the work of Government to test Western prav- tice and the applications of modern science, as also to introduce them when found suitable for India, pi bpd las 20. It will be well now to illustrate the foregoing differences, "and, in indicating how their modification may be carried out, to give, at. the same time, a eketch of the method I intend to adopt in the succeeding chapters of this Report. Desens nherent to the ‘é ‘si people them- It is well known that certain castes and races re have been prevented by religious prejudices or “¢historieal eauses” (to use Sir Charles Elliott’s expression) from adopting the more skilful or more laborious systems of cultivation in vogue among other castes or races, Thus, the Rajputs, Brahmans, Kolis, and Kols may be mentioned as hereditarily inferior as cultivatora to the Jats, Kurmis, Lodhas, Kachhis, and others. Here it is not so much that vhe external surroundings are unequal, nor that the agricultural knowledge is at fault, but the real cause is found inthe inherent, differences of the people themselves. Side by side, in the same village, one may, for instance, see both superior and inferior husbandry, the explanation being found primarily in a reference to the respective caste of the cultivator in each case. In BebarI once saw a quantity of dung lying about in heaps on a field not spread out, but, between the rain and the sun, speedily losing its goodness, It had been lying about so for a considerable time, On asking a neighbouring cultivator why the owner did this, the reply was, ‘He is only a gcatherd,”’ meaning thereby that he did not belong to a good cultivating class. Here . the people of this caste evidently required to be taught better methods of agriculture, and how to manage properly the manure at their disposal, Their modifica- The modification of such differences (to revert tioo by the “4: . : : people them- to my propositions in paragraph 19), will, in a some cases, be effected by the people themselves in the gradual abandonment of their prejudices I, Differences inherent to the People themselves : Difference tn Agricultural Conditions, 15 and the adoption by them of more profitable practices, A change of this kind has been seen in the adoption ot. indigo cultivation by castes who formerly used to consider indigo an unclean thing. Another instance is the extension of cul- tivation of the, potato, against which a religious prejudice existed on the ground that it was **flesh.”’? The work that Government can do, and’ the duty that should be its, is to assis+ in raising the level, of the people through the spread of pneir moditiog. Education. This will continue to do, as it has tion by the | already done, a great deal to break down preju- through Educa- dice. Further than this the Government can do “™ little, if anything. IT. Differences arising from purely Ezxternal Surround- a Tees t ngs: external sur- roundings — (a) Phystcal Causes.—These may be subdivided into— _(«) physical -(i) climate and soil ; (ii) facilities for water, manure, wood, grazing, etc. (i) These two— climate and soil—stand ina different {1 tlimate and category to the others. They are fixed by Modification of geographical and geological considerations ; over ely pearihe them neither the people nor Government have Within limits, more than a limited control, and consequently comparatively little can be done to modify the differences. For instance, it is not possible to compare agriculture under the influence of a damp climate and abundant rainfall, such as prevails in the greater part of Bengal, or below the Western Ghats of Bombay, with that of the dry parched plains of Multan and elsewhere in the Punjab, Equally impossible is it to find a resemblance between therich, black cotton-soil of Berar or the Central Provinces, and the sandy soils of Sirsa, or other parts of the Punjab. The planting of trees may indirectly modify the rainfall, and plentiful manuring may improve the poorer soil, but they will be powerless to make the one locality or soil really like the other. (ii) Here we have a set of physical causes giving rise (i) facilities to differences which, unlike those in the case of manure, wood, climate and soil, it is in the power, both of &"°** individuals and of Government, to mitigate to a ; considerable extent. Marked indeed are the differences between parts plentifully supplied by wells, or through which streams or canals flow, and those, where these features are absent; so, again, the differences are great between treeless tracts and those in which 16 Modification of these differences by the people, Modification by Governmont, Duty of Agri- eultural Depart- mente in this connection. Need of enquiry, (5) Economical or political con- ition, Improvement of Agriculture, forests abound, the latter giving alike shelter, grazing, and wood, besides causiug a saving of manure to the land, Still, much has been done in the past, and more may yet be done, to mitigate the differences resulting from the exist- ence of this class of physical causes. The people in certain dry localities have dug wells, constructed tanks, and taken channels off streams, On the other hand, in some parts, valuable land has been recovered by means of drainage, or by the construction of dams, made either by the people themselves, or by the Government through their engineers, Encouragement has been given, and increased encouragement should be given, by Government to the extension of minor works such as the fore- going Where, however, the effects are wide- spread, it is only by large measures, such as the State alone can carry out, that the mitigation of existing differences can be accomplished. Of such nature is the construction of canals by the State. Tn the matter of wood and grazing supply, natural differences have, in many parts, been intensified through the reckless extermination of forests by the hand of man, or through excessive grazing with cattle and sheep, and more especially by goats, But although the people are likely to do little to remedy, yet it is in the power of Government to save what is remaining, and to provide “reserves’”’ for wood, fuel, and grazing, whereby, too, the supply of manure to the land may be saved. It becomes, therefore, one of the most im- portant duties of Agricultural Departments to ascertain and point out what measures are pos- sible for the judicious modification, throngh - Government agency, of differences resulting from such physical causes as the above named. This can only come as the result of close and careful enquiry as to what the needs of each locality are, and how they may be best: supplied. (2) economical or Political Conditions.—There are cases to be met with, ¢.g., in parts of the Central Provinces, of Bengal, and of Madras, where, owing to the natural richness of the soil, the sparsity of population, or other causes, there is not the same struggle for existence as is felt elsewhere, and, as a consequence, tie agriculture is often found to he inferior, ; Modification of Differences. 17 Here the change will only come with the inevitable the lessening of disturbance which time and increasing population will '* ‘rence cause in the easier circumstances under which the people in ‘some parts live at present, as compared with those in others, IIT, Differences arising directly from want of Knowledge: 111. pimoronces arising directl There are many instances of. the cultivation of one from Want of district being inferior to that of another, not on account , of caste differences, nor yet on account of external and unfavourable physical surroundings, hut simply — be- cause a better practice—I speak of Indian, not English, practice—has not been known.) Or, again, as I shall have cause to show, an implement is not in use in a district, though employed advantageously elsewhere, w oF cattle are poor because not properly fed, or manure is wasted (more especially the urine) because there is no litter to conserve it, or crops are inferior in yield be- cause seed is not carefully selected.) he want of knowledge, and the lessening of the Their modiéea- local differences arising therefrom, cannot be supplied aoe directly by the people themselves, but they may be by (2) by Educa the State, partly by means of Education, and partly pe or by the introduction of better methods from loealities enge ufae ried / Where they are known, to those where they are un~ ‘2! methods, known, but their application to which is both feasible and desirable. } This cannot be done without that ‘* systematic Need of agrioul- prosecution of agricultural enguiry’’ which is so insisted on in strongly insisted on in the Goverment of India’s Reso- fnaia's Resola- lution of December 1881, and which, as is rightly tion of December urged, ‘must precede any attempt at agricultural “< improvement.” It is the positive duty of Agricultural Departments i of Ria ale to acquire a thorough knowledge of, and acquaintance ments to insti- with, the pecuae facts of each Province with which "a" they have to deal. Such an enquiry, to anticipate my final recommend- The agency ations, can, as the foregoing Resolution indicates," only be efficiently carried out by “a permanent agency “ closely associated with the existing authorities in “€ each Province.” Further, as I shall point out in subsequent chapters, I think that the assistance of an expert with special knowledge of the application of chemistry to agriculture is desirable m any such enquiry. 5 CONCLUSIONS, 18 CONCLUSIONS. 21. Owing to the great diversities met with in India, not alone in the physical features of the country, but also in the people themselves and in their varying surroundings, it is very difficult to speak generally of the condition of the agriculture. While in many parts it may undoubtedly be possible to effect improvement, it is not possible to do much, if anything, in others, Moreover, in every case it will be necessary to enquire carefully into existing conditions and practice before any real improvement ‘ean be carried out, That differences of conditions and practice do exist, constitutes, in my opinion, a ground of belief in the possibility of improvement, and it will be by the modification of these differences, and the transference of indigenous methods from one part of the country to another, rather than by the introduc- tion of Western practice, that progress will be made and agricul- ture be bettered. This work will be done, (az) slowly by the people themselves, as they gradually come to see the necessity or the advantage of adopting the more profitable methods, (8) more quickly by the State, in the spread of Education, whereby prejudice will be broken down, and the benefit of better methods be made known. The introduction of such Western practices as may be found suitable to the case of Indian agriculture must also be the work of Government, Certain positive measures, such as the digging of wells by the people, the construction of tanks, ete., when found to be suitable, should be more persistently encouraged by the State, while major works, such as the making of canals, the -provision of timber, fuel, and grazing, must be carried out by the State itself. As a preliminary, however, to obtaining any real knowledge of the agricultural condition and needs of any district, there must be “a systematic prosecution of agricultural enquiry,” such as is insisted on in the Government of India’s Resolution of December 1881, and to this end there should be a permanent agency for the purpose in each Province, Lastly, I think that in any such enquiry the assistance of an expert with special knowledge of the application of chemistry to agriculture would be very desirable. Conclusions. c 19 RECOMMENDATIONS. BECOMMEN Dae 22. I recommend, therefore :— The spread of General and Agricultural Education. The establishment of an organised system of Agri* | cultural Enquiry. The active prosecution of positive measures already ascertained to be beneficial, and their further en- couragement by the State. I proceed now to consider, in reference to the subjects indi- cated in patagraph 18, the agricultural conditions of the country as they have presented themselves to me, giving at the close of reg section such suggestions for improvement as appear practica- e. 20 CHAPTER II, CHAPTER III, Cuxrivatine CULTIVATING CLASSES, CLagsks. 23. As mentioned already, there are great differences between the various castes and races of India in respect of their cultivating abilities, differences which are inherent to the people themselves, and which are consequently difficult to level. Yet the very existence of these differences gives a decided encouragement to the belief in the possibility of improvement, for it would proceed on what, after all, are the right lines when dealing with Indian agriculture, iz, tof improve it from within, and by means of its own examples, rather than by bringing foreign influences and methods to bear upon it. The fact that a cultivator in one place, or, better still, in the same village, can act as an example to another elsewhere or co-resideat, may provide, if rightly followed up, a far more useful and less expensive practical proof of the possibility of improvement than a Government Experimental ~ FarmJ I remember being much struck by seeing, amidst the numerous wheat fields surrounding a village in the Central Prov- inces, a small holding of an acre or two, where, unlike elsewhere around, a well had been dug, The crops here were far more varied in character, sugar-cane and vegetables of many kinds were growing, and what water there was still to spare from these crops was being utilised for a wheat crop situated on the outskirts of the holding. I measured the standing corn, and found it to be then (February 28rd) 3 feet 8 inches high, whilst the wheat on unirrigated land adjoining was only 2 feet 1 inch high. On enquiry I found that the holding belonged to a man of the Kachhi caste; and when I expressed wonder that other cultivators did not follow his example, the answer given me was, that they were “wheat growers,” and that it was not their “custom” to grow other crops. Although necessity had not yet obliged others to adopt an improved practice, there was an instance afforded here of what might be done if the necessity arose, the improvement having its origin in a purely native source. Castes and 24. The subject of “caste”? is one of much complezity, and ssc demands for understanding it a very extensive knowledge of the country. I can, therefore, say but little about agri- culture in its relation to, and as affected by, caste. As mentioned in paragraph 20, some castes are hereditarily inferior as cultivators to others, but the agricultural practice Diversities in Of any one caste is not uniformly alike everywhere, nor fre genes equally good. The Jats, for example, are spoken of in the Meerut district as being “ unsurpassed as cultivators,’ but Caste Prejudice. 21 in the Bareilly district they are not so good, and the Kurmis and Lodhas are superior to them there. The Rajputs and Brahmans do not themselves, as a rule, cultivate, but they employ hired labour; in some parts, however, they are described as being “moderate cultivators.” Not only are there differences.of caste, but there are also differences of race, as exemplified in the Kols (the aborigines of Chota Nagpur), the Bhils of Bombay, and others, Again, there are castes and races distinguished for the special branches of agriculture which they practise, or for the particalar methods they employ; such are the Koeris, who are mostly growers of vegetables ; the Kurmis, Lodhas, and Malis, who are largely market-gardeners; the Kadchhis, who, in their cultivation, use the night-soil of villages and towns; the Vellola caste, again, are cattle breeders; the Gavlis are suppliersof milk, and also breed their own cattle; the Gujars, Vanjaris, and others are graziers, 25. Bearing in mind the method set forth in the last chapter, I shall confine myself to considering how far improvement in agriculture may be effected through the lessening of those differen- ces which are directly due to caste or race prejudices. ‘The fur- ther question of the improvement of the cultivation of one locality by the importation into it of the practice of another, is ene not directly connected with the inherent differences of culti- vating classes as such, and will be dealt with elsewhere. 26. That the breaking down of caste prejudice would be followed by considerable improvement in agriculture admits of no doubt, and needs but little discussion. Could the Rajput or Brahman be brought to see that there was nothing derogatory in manual Jabour, or in taking an interest in the cultivation of the soil; could other cultivators be led to follow the practice of the Kachhis, and abandon their prejudices against the use. of night-soil asa manure; they could then raise crops such as the Kachhi does, and the country would be greatly benefited thereby. In the course of my first tour Sir Edward Buck pointed out to me a village, named Singhouli, in the Doab, where the former tenants, who happened to belong to a low caste (Kurmi), had worked so industriously and profitably that they had actually been able to buy out the original proprietors who were of higher caste (Rajput), and had become possessors of the village them- selves, The town of Farukhabad, again; is surrounded by a perfect garden, the result entirely of Kachhi cultivation. When, about twenty years ago, Sir Edward Buck transferred some of these cultivators from Farukhabad to Cawnpore, they showed at the latter city how a profitable use could be made of what would otherwise have been a public nuisance, and also how the State revenue derived from the area they cultivated could be very largely increased, Metlod pursued in this chapter. Breaking down of caste preju- dice would be followed by improvement in agriculture. 22 Cultivating Classes. How breaking = 27, The breaking down of caste prejudice in agricultural judico moy be matters may proceed slowly from the people themselves in the ght about: . x ‘i ey gradual abandonment of inferior practices in favour of more (Ph tiem. profitable ones ; but it will be brought about more rapidly by the selves; force and exigencies of circumstances which call for greater atten- (2) by the foree tion being paid to the cultivation of the land. Already there stances, are indications of a change going on. It has been mentioned Indications ofa that indigo cultivation is now carried on by castes who used for- change going on. merly to consider indigo an unclean thing, and that the prejudice against the potato and its raising has now also largely disappeared, Some eight or ten years ago a batch of Kéachhis from the North-West was transferred to Nagpur, in the Central Prov inces. Not only did they continue to employ their particular practice with profit, but other cultivators around followed their example, amongst these being even Brahmans. The latter began to grow sugar-cane and vegetables of all kinds, just as the K4chhis had done, Their cultivation is still inferior to that of the Kachhis, but, nevertheless, a beginning his been made in the way of improvement, and this has originated entirely from the example set by the Kadchbis. I might instance, too, the sugar-cane cultivation around Poona. This was commenced by a Brahman who first showed the Municipality how to make “poudrette” out of the night-soil of the town, and then taught the Hindu cultivators how to use it. The “ poudrette” is now used to an enormoas extent. At Nagpur, again, I saw Brahman lads engaged in cultivating; they work with the plough just like the other pupils of Mr. Fuller’s Agricultural Class; indeed, Mr. Fuller makes it a sine qué non that they should do so. In the Kapurthala Administration Report for 1890, page 36, Major Massy writes: “The Réjput is proud, idle, and not “ thrifty . . . . but still is a better cultivator than his fore- “ fathers were; he goes out to his fields more regularly and “begins to realise that he must earn his living by the sweat of his brow.”? In the Hoshiarpur Settlement Report it is stated that some of the Brahmans and R4jputs will now plough their lands with their own hands, Thus it is clear that a change is going on. Progress of 28. The work of improvement by example may be, and prob- improvement, ably will be, a slow one, and where circumstances (as in the case I have cited from the Central Provinces) do not call for the positive necessity of arousing themselves to better their agri- culture, the higher castes or the more easy-going cultivators may hold to their old ways; still, there is undeniably a tendency, wherever pressure has begua to be felt, for the inferior cultivating classes to adopt the practice of the superior and more thrifty ones. When once a change of this kind has set in, its progress is, as a rule, rapid. I need but instance the case of Amritsar, where, though but a short time has elapsed since their introduction, vege~ table-growing and market-gardening are now carried on most extensively, and almost entirely by the utilisation of the night- Tie breaking down of Prejudice. 23 soil of Amritsar as manure, in conjunction with canal irrigation. It would, not long ago, have been considered impossible for this to happen, or for night-soil ever to be turned to a profitable use, on account of the prejudices of the people against it. These prejudices still exist in many places, but I sm convinced that they must give way, as they have done already, especially when the necessity of increasing the yield of the land is forcibly brought home. Improvement by force of example is not confined to native methods only, for, as Mr. R. H. Elliot pointed out to me, coffee-planting by the Natives has improved very considerably in Mysore since European planters settled in the country and introduced better systems, The same remark applies to the cultivation and manufacture of indigo since English planters came to the districts where the plant is grown, 29. While the remedy for inferior cultivation will be found yy, inguence of largely in the exigencies of circumstances which demand more Education, attention being paid to the land, it is in the weakening of those caste prejudices which account, in no small measure, for the differences between good and bad cultivators, that Education plays a most important part. Already its influence has been felt. Ihave noticed above, the case of the Nagpur Agricultural Class, and I might say the same in regard to the Poona College of Science and other institutions which I have visited. The spread of Education will be one of the most potent factors in creating that interest which agriculture, from its wide- spread extension and importance as the staple industry of the country, both merits and demands. It is, therefore, through, , 35 Education that Government can aid largely in lessening those Government, differences which are at present inherent to the cultivating classes as such, and which stand in the way of agricultural improvement. 24: CONCLUSIONS, CONCLUSIONS. 4 30. Improvement in agriculture, through the modification of differences due to caste and race prejudice, may be effected by the gradual breaking down of that prejudice. This will result. partly through the people themselves, in their adoption of more profitable practices, partly from the force of circumstances obliging greater attention to be paid to the cultivation of the land. Government can greatly aid, through the spread of Educa- tion, ia weakening caste prejudice, RECOMMENDA. RECOMMENDATION. TION, 31. My suggestions under this head accordingly resolve themselves into— The desirability of extending General and Agricultural Education. 25 CHAPTER IV. CLIMATE, 32. Tuts all-important factor in Indian agriculture is, unfor- tunately, one that can only be altered or modified to a limited extent. Interesting, therefore, as a study of the influence of climate on agriculture may be, we should, nevertheless, be dealing with one of those elements which the cultivator finds in limine, and in accordance with, and not in opposition to which he must frame his practice, because neither his energy nor the help of the State can to any great extent modify its conditions. It will, therefore, not be necessary for me to go deeply into this part of the subject beyond touching on a few striking instances of the effect produced on the practice of agriculture by differences of climate. 33. As explained in the “Statistical Atlas of India,” it may be said that over the greater part of India there are three well- marked seasons, viz., the rainy season (June to October, inclusive), the cold season (November to February, inclusive), and the hot season (March to May, inclusive), The two former are due, respectively, to the prevalence of the south-west and the north-east -monsoons, whilst the hot season marks the transition from the cold to the rainy season, Yet these alone do not determine the kinds of crops grown, and we do not find in all parts alike that there are crops corresponding to the different seasons. The relative dryness or dampness of the climate has also to be considered. Through the kindness of the Revenue and Agricultural Department of the Gov- ernment of India I have been supplied with copies of maps illus- trating the Rainfall and Geology of India; these have been specially reduced, by the Survey Department, from the correspond- ing maps in the “ Statistical Atlas of Indig,” and accompany the present Report. A reference to the Rainfall Map will here help to explain the remarks which follow. The contrast between climates is more marked in Northern than in Southern India, In Southern India, generally, it may be said that there is uniform warmth, with dampness towards the west and dryness in the east and interior; but in Northern India we find every variation, from the dry climate of the West and North-West, accompanied by marked differences of summer heat and winter cold, to the permauently damp climate and heavy rainfall of Assam and Eastern Bengal, where the differ- ences of temperature are not so extreme. So it comes about that, whilst in the North-West and Northern India generally there are two clearly defined crop-seasons, viz., the rainy season (kharif) and the cold ‘season (raéz), we find that in Madras these distinctions OHAPTER IV, Ciimats, Effects produced by climate ou the crup-seasons, 26 Climate. disappear, and we have only early and late sowings of the same crops. In Behar and some other parts of Bengal there are three rather than two seasons, with their attending crops, véz., the early rainy seascn (dhadoz), the late rainy season (aghani), and the cold season (radi). Great variation 84. The Report of the Famine Commission abounds with in- Henke. stances proving that famines are the result of one cause alone, ez., vec failure of rainfall. A reference here to the Rainfall Map will show stical a Bs ale : . Atlas of India.” how very varied is the distribution of rain over the country. In Burma, Assam, Eastern Bengal, and along the coasts of the Western iélation of rain Ghats there is abundant rain; also a rain tract exists along the " foot of the Himalayas. In the Central Provinces, too, there is a ava vend” plentiful rainfall. It is these parts, therefore, which are the most rious” tracts. free from famine. So, again, but for a quite different reason, are the very driest regions of all parts of the Punjab, for example, since there the ratyaés will never try to grow a crop or to cultivate unless there is a certainty of water supply. The most precarious tracts are those where the chance that enough rain may come gives a temptation to venture on growivug acrop, and then, if drought intervenes, there is a total failure of harvest. These are the parts which are light-coloured on the Rainfall Map. Ilvstrations of | 35. The dependence of certain crops on heavy rainfall and a ee reso, damp climate is well marked in the case of tea culture in Assam, eae Ree where the annual rainfall is from 90 to 160 inches or more, and in different parts. that of indigo in Behar, or of rice in Bengal and on the Western Coast of Bombay, Other crops, such as gram (Cicer arietinum) and arhar (Cajanus indicus), can, on the contrary, do with a minimum of moisture, and flourish in a hot, dry climate, such as that of the North-West. Whilst the damp climate of Behar and Bengal favours the growth of the indige plant but not the ripen- ing of the seed, the hotter and drier climate ef the North-West Provinces or the Punjab causes the seed to yield well there, and the two cultivations are, for the most part, carried on in separate Prov- inces. With wheat growing we have marked contrasts of climatie surroundings, as shown, on the one hand, in the case of the plains of the Punjab and North-West Provinces, and on the other, in the wheat districts of the Central Provinces. In the former, depend- ence is placed largely upon irrigation, for the soil soon loses its moisture and becomes baked; indeed, one may sometimes see (as I myself saw) a wheat crop on which not a drop of rain had fallen from time of sowing to harvest, so that, were it not for irrigation, famine might be ever at hand. In the Central Provinces, on the contrary, an abundant and regular rainfall, and a soil which retains that moisture firmly, make famine nearly impossible and do away with the necessity of irrigation. In the Central Provinces, further, alter- nation of rainy-season (#/artf) and cold-season (rabt) crops is not so common as in Upper India. The soils are of more marked diversity, and are better suited, somefor rainy-season, others for cold-weather crops. Going southwards, as I did in my second tour, from Delhi, through Rajputana, and down the western side of the Bombay Influence of Climate on Agricultural Practice. 217 Presidency, along the north of Madras, then to Bengal, and returning finally to the Punjab, Ihad abundant opportunities of seeing how systems of agriculture must be varied according to the climate. Passing from the hot plains of Rajputana, with its sparse cultivation and low rainfall, one comes to districts of heavier rainfall, say 60 to 90 inches, such as Baroda, Nadiad, and M4him, where rice will grow without irrigation, the rainfall alone sufficing; at Kalyan and Igat- puri (nearer Bombay) the rainfall varies from 100 to as much, as 150 and 170 inches annually, and the r¢éé* system of making the rice seed-bed is in vogue, whilst it is not employed in districts of lighter rainfall, Grass headlands and live hedges are also features of mauy of these parts. If, however, we go inland to the Khdadesh (Deccan) district, we find a rainfall of but 30 inches and tbe crops quite different, rice being replaced by cotton and millets principally, wheat also coming in. On the southern side of the Bombay Presidency districts are successively passed in the journey by rail which have an increasing rainfall, from tke Kistna Valley, where it is 40 inches, to Belgaum with 65 to 80 inches, while only another 20 miles or so further on it is as much as 150 inches annually. In each district the cultivation is different, rainy- season crops being distinctive of the first-named, except where patches of black soil interspersed among the other (which is mainly red) enable moisture to be retained for growing cold-season crops, such as wheat and gram. In Belgaum, as also in Dharwar, the exceptional feature of hot-weather rains in May allows of the early sowing of rice, for the heavy rains later on can always be depended upon; but ré6* is not practised, whilst in the extremely rainy and unhealthy region nearer the Western Ghats itis. On the red soil of Dharwar, with a rainfall of about 45 inches, rice is, as mentioned, grown early, but on the black soil nearly all the cultivation is that of dry crops, Going on into the Madras Presideney, we find fresh factors regulating the crops that are grown, for not the south-west monsoon alone, but also the north- east monsoon plays an important part, and when the former fails, the cultivators wait for the second, and have thus a double opportunity of sowing. Again, in Madras there are not the wide divergencies of temperature that occur elsewhere, but a more regular and continuous warmth exists throughout the year, and so it may be said that the crops, to a considerable extent, go on in- dependently of season. To pass from such conditions as these to those of the damp and hot climate of Bengal, with its rice and jute and indigo growing, and then back again to the Punjab, implies seeing very great changes indeed in the agriculture, Even in the last-named Province, with variations of annual rainfall from the 7 inches found in the arid tracts of Multan and the 14 inches in Hissar, to the 26 inches of Amritsar, or the 35 inches of Hoshiar- pur, the surroundings of agriculture must affect its practice vastly. * Rd .— Alternate layers of cow-dang, loppings and leaves of trees, grass,,and earth are eae eee ground whieh is to form the seed-bed, and the whole is then set fire to, and the ashes mingled with the soil. 28 Climate. In the first-named district canals are absolutely necessary for the purpose of cultivation; in the last-named the water-level is quite near the surface of the ground. In yet other parts, such as Hissar, where there is great want of water, and not sufficient for the sowing of winter crops, nearly all the crops are rainy-season ones. It is remarkable, too, how within quite a limited area the rain« fall will vary. The following instance has been given me by Mr, J.J. Macleod: at Segowlie, in Behar, it is 80 inches yearly; at Rajghat, 9 miles to the west, 47 inches; at Beyreah, 5 miles west of Rajghat, 86 inches; and at Mallyah,5 miles south-west of Beyreah, 26 inches ; whilst at Dhodkrahar, 6 miles north of Segow- lie, it is 664 inches. Bffects produced 36, But it is not in the crops alone that‘ the influence of climate by climateonthe . cattle and people, Elimination of differences resulting from elimate impos- sible, is seen; it is exemplified strongly in the case of the cattle, and even in the people themselves. Itis only necessary to mention one single illustration out of many, viz.,the wide difference be- tween the diminutive bullocks and cows of Bengal, where a damp, hot atmosphere prevails, and the fine, large, strong cattle of Hissar and other dry parts of the Punjab. In the latter Province the atmosphere, though hot, is clear and dry, and the soil is far more adapted to the breeding of cattle than are the damp regions of Bengal. We see, however, the reverse in the case of buffaloes, as no climate seems too damp or rainfall too heavy for them, Thus, at Mahim (Thana district of Bombay) the buffaloes are magnifi- cent, but the other cattle are poor and miserable ; so, too, is it in Eastern Bengal; in Behar, where it is drier, the plough cattle are again superior, Buffaloes are the principal plough cattle through- out the districts of heavy rainfall below the Western Ghats; here the preparation of -the rice fields, covered as they are with water to the depth of several inches, could only be carried on by means of buffaloes, In the Punjab fine buffaloes may be seen, it is true, but it is as a milk-giver that the animal is esteemed there, and its excellence depends upon the practice there in vogue, of growing fodder-crops for the cattle, and of driving the buffaloes to the forests or to the river banks to remain there during the hottest months of the year. : What is true of the cattle in respect of diversity produced by climate is true also of the people. The inhabitants of the dry, and at times cold, Provinces of North-Western India are _far stronger and more active than those of the always damp and warm Provinces such as Bengal, although in these latter the people are the more mentally acute. Their respective foods have undoubtedly also to do with these differences, but the foods themselves must be considered as determined by climate, for it is alone in the cooler and drier climate that wheat will flourish, while rice rejoices in a damp, warm climate such as that of Bengal, 37. I saidat the opening of this chapter that climate is one of the external circumstances influenciag agriculture, in which changes can only be effected to a limited extent. It is im- Influence of Trees on Climate. 29 possible, therefore, to eliminate the differences that result from it; the most that can be done is to mitigate their influence, In two directions, possibly, there is some hope of doing this :— ee On OF Firstly,—by the supply of Canals and other means of ,, (0) by irriga- Irrigation to the drier tracts of the country ; oF Secondly,—by the preservation of Forests and the creas (5) by preser- tion of “reserves ” of Wood and Fodder. een ae “reserves”? of To such supplies as the Jast-mentioned the name of “ Fuel and yo *™¢ “Fodder Reserves” is generally given, and will be used through- out this Report. : 38. The beneficial influence of irrigation in dry tracts is Beneficial. infia- obvious, but that resulting from the growing of trees needs” ° some explanation. : It has been much debated whether forests and plantations do actually bring about an inerease of rainfall or not. But I would point out that their real influence and value consist in their Jowering the temperature, and thus causing moisture to be deposited where otherwise it would pass on. As a con- sequence of this, forests and plantations will cause rain to fallin gentle showers instead of in heavy and often destruc- tive deluges, Thus, a given quantity of rain will be dis- tributed over a greater number of days, and its value to the agriculturist will be thereby largely increased. The true test of the valae of afforestation in this connection is, not so much whether the fofai rainfall be increased, but whether the number of rainy days be more, The dewfall is also in- creased in the neighbourhood of trees, and this has considerable agricultural importance, too. It has not unfrequently been observed that in times of drought there has been plenty of rain in the clouds overhead ; what was wanted was some agent to condense and “bring it ‘‘down.”? Trees would materially assist in performing this, Again, the difference between the action of a gentle rain and that of a heavy deluge is very marked; for, while in the former case the water sinks gradually into the soil, in the latter it rapidly runs off the baked surface of the earth, and -very often causes much damage by the destruction of roads, the washing away of bridges, and the silting-up of tanks, Through the kindness of Mr. Robert H. Elliot, of Mysore, Increase of I am able to supply a practical illustration of the- value of ee woods, and one which would show that, in regard to rainfall, pyorgh ‘te a climate can be favourably influenced in about 25 years, Mr. Elliot, when in the Neilgherries in 1891, carefully exam= ined, with the aid.of Government officials, the Rain Records from 1870 to 1890. Previous to 1870 Ootacamund and its neighbourhood were nearly bare of trees, so much so that a photograph taken about that time has no resemblance what- ever to the now thickly-wooded Station, the result of a large Other benefits attending tree- planting. Instances. . 1, Madras, 2. Cairo. 80 Climate, amount of planting, both by Government and by private individuals. The returns show that, taking first the rainfall for the months of March, April, and May (when the rains are purely local), there were, during the five years 1870-4, 121 rainy days in all, while in the same months of the five years 1886—90 (by which time the Station had become fully wooded) there were no lesg than 147 rainy days. Also the increase of rainfall for these months during the period 1886—90 has been about three inches a year, a not inconsiderable difference, though, from an agricultural point of view, the distribution of rain over a greater number of days is more important than a mere increase of rainfall. Again, taking all the months of the year except June, July, and August (which are excluded because the rains of this period are not local in origin, but are those of the south-west monsoon and come from a distance), it was found that during the treeless period 1870-4 there was a total of 374 rainy days only, whilst during the wooded period 1886—90 there were 416 rainy days. Further than this, if was ascertained that the character of the rainfall had altered within late years, light and regular rain showers taking, toa great extent, the place of destructive occasional torrents, The agricultural importance of these facts is very great jndeed. But there are other indirect benefits attending the spread of tree-planting, benefits affecting the soil itself more particu- larly. What trees do isto hold up the soil, preventing it from being washed away and carried off by streamlets; next, a coating of vegetation soon covers the soil on which trees are growing, and binds it together, though at the same time rendering it permeable to, and retentive of, moisture, so that the rain no longer flows off as it would over a hard, dry surface without benefiting the soil below. Thus, a cool surface is produced in place of an otherwise dry and heated one on which the sun’s rays would impinge directly, and from which they would be reflected; shade and shelter are pro- vided, andin the enda moister climate will prevail. From old records and descriptions of India there is reason to believe that the climate was not formerly what it now is, but that the spread of cultivation, accompanied, as it has been, by the wholesale and reckless denudation of forests and wooded tracts without reservation of land to afford wood or grazing, has done much to render the climate what it now is. Sir William Denison states that, when Governor of Madras, he was shown districts in which the rain had retreated as the forests had been cleared back, and he points out that when a rain-carrying cloud comes in contact with the bare and heated soil the tendency is for the moisture to be held up in suspension in the air, and not to be deposited on the earth. Such districts were found in Cuddapah, Madura, and Travancore, The case of Cairo has been instanced in support of the view taken as to the beneficial effect of trees; since plantations have Measures of Afforestation. $1 been established there a rainfall has appeared, whilst before this there was none. It is impossible, however, to say how far this result is due to the planting of trees, and how far to the opening of the Suez Canal, which latter is known to have caused distinct climatic changes, When visiting Etawah (North-West Provinces) I went to see 3. Etawab. a plantation for the supply of wood and grass; this had been established about five years previously on land which was nothing more than bare ravine land. The whole extent of the plantation was 7,000 btgkas (4,375 acres). I was assured that the Station had not been so hot since the plantation had been formed, and, anyhow, it is very certain that the now wooded and grass-covered ravines are very much cooler than the former bare, open spaces were, At Jhansi I was told the same thing, and that since the introduction of the system of dunding* the streams and planting the slopes with’ trees, the Station had been cooler. I am reminded here of an old Sanskrit saying which describes the rainfall as being divided into twelve parts, and assigns them as follows ; “‘ Six for the sea, Four for the forests and mountains, and Two for the land,’ 39. Though immense tracts of country have been denuded Work of Forest in the past, there are still considerable areas which can be taken this connection. up and rendered serviceable for climatic ends, and the Forest Department has stepped in none too early in the endeavour to save those wooded tracts which are still left. From climatic considerations alone, the work of the Forest Department is, accordingly, of importance. 40. In addition to the protection of forests, and the reservation other measures of considerable tracts for the creation of ‘Fuel and Fodder {&" supply of Reserves, ”? there are other minor measures which have often been shelter. urged by the Imperial Department of Agriculture, and which, while primarily supplying timber and fuel, also exercise a benefit in the provision of shelter, shade, and coolness in the immediate vicinity. Such are the growing of trees along canal Plantation. banks and railway lines, and the encouragement of Arboriculture arboricaltare, by the planting of trees along the sides of roads, These matters will be more fully dealt with in Chapter, VIIL. when considering the wood supply of the country. 41. But little help must be expected to come from the people The application directly, in the attempt to mitigate as far as possible the influence measures must of climate. They are hardly likely to originate such measures as py Govgnment, have been suggested, and they have not the means to carry them out. Too often, it is to be feared, they will even oppose the taking of remedial action, at all events at the outset, Such has been the case already with Forest preservation, and it will not be until they are convinced of the utility of the measures taken for their benefit, and for the improvement of their agriculture, that the * Bunding,—Embavking, é.e., holding up the streams that would flow over the Jand during heavy rain, by means of embankments on which grass is allowed to grow, and on which trees are some. times planted as well, Duty of Agri- cultural Depart- ments to enquire where remedial action should be taken, 82 Climate, people will accord their hearty support; the tendeney with them will be, as it has been in the past, to clear and to destroy rather than to save and to plant. Something may be done by way of encouragement in offering rewards for tree-planting, but it is clear that the work, both of irrigation schemes and of maintenance and creation of wood ‘‘reserves,” must fall to the share of Government. It becomes, therefore, the duty of Agricultural Departments, first, to make a careful enquiry as to the localities in which measures for mitigating the severity of the climate are most needed; then, to ascertain what the nature of such action is to be, and how it may be best applied. This can only be done efficiently by instituting an enquiry such as that I have drawn attention to in Chapter II, and by an “agricultural “analysis”? such as is sketched out in the Government of India’s Resolution of December 1881 (see paragraph 4 of the present Report). 33 CONCLUSIONS, CONCL SIONS: 42. While the elimination of differences due to climate and affecting agriculture cannot be achieved, the mitigation of their influence is to some extent possible. This may be done by increas- ing the means of irrigation to dry tracts, and by preserving and extending “reserves” of wood and fodder. In these ways an improvement in agriculture may be brought about. Both Measures are the work of Government, RECOMMENDATIONS, - RECOMMEND- ATIONS, 438. I recommend :— The extension of Canals and other means of Irrigation to the drier tracts. The establishment, wherever possible, of “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves. ”” The increase of Plantations along Canal banks and Railway lines, The ¢pread of Arboriculture, The instituting of Enquiry by Agricultzral Departments as to where the above measures are needed, and how they way best be carried out. 54 CHAPTER V, CHAPTER V, Soin, FOIL, Absence of 44. Tus soils of India have not, so far, been made the oetho toa subject of careful or scientific study. A few analyses are recorded of India, of the soils of particular spots, and on two of the Government Experimental Farms a practical analysis of the soil has been attempted by growing crops on them with the aid of manures in which certain chemical elements have been alternately given or withheld. -This has, however, been done without a previous knowledge of the soil and its constituents having been gained ; has not been definitely known how much of each chemical element was actually supplied in the manures; nor was there any subsequent soil-analysis in order to see which constituents, and how much of each, had been removed by the cropping. Such experiments bave a certain value, it is frue, and may occasionally give some rough idea as tu the needs or capa- bilities of a particular soil, but they fall far short of what may be gained by a systematic and scientific enquiry. I do not wish, however, to attach too high a value to the mere chemical analysis of soils as the index to all soil improvement, knowing well, as I do, the difficulties of interpreting. the Need of caution Tesults aright, and, especially in the case of India, of applying i Lyi - Jee ] + 3 in applying ree the results in the form of recommendations that will be enquiry to practically usefcal. It is not enough to ascertain that a par« Indian agri- . : : ° . ° . cultare, ticular ingredient may be wanting in a soil or be beneficial to a crop, but itis necessary, too, to know in what practical and most economical form that ingredient may be _ supplied, and whether, in effect, it will pay to apply it atall, In this respect India is very differently cireumstanced to England, America, and other countries. Not only is there an absence of large landowners, but the few wants and scanty means of the cultivators, and the smallness of the holdings (averaging probably less than five acres each), make it necessary to consider measures of improvement from a special point of view. This has not been sufficiently borne in mind by those who have advocated ‘improved’? implements and chemizal manures for Indian agriculture, Even those (and Natives, too) who have lived in Hagland or have gone there to study have been disposed to exaggerate the value of chemical mantres and chemical analysis of soils. While urging, as I The veal uso of Sball do strongly, the employment of chemical and analytical chemical analy- skill im connection with the investigation of the soils of India, 7“ and in agriculture generally, I must not lead those whom I am called upon to advise, to expect too much from the researches of an Agricaltural Chemist. Analysis of soils may do much to explain phenomena, and to suggest the lines of improvement, but it can, unaided, certainly not reform Agriculture, There is, however, without doubt, a large field open for enquiry, wherein the assistance of chemical Main types of Soil. 85 analysis will be positively necessary, but it must be employed in conjunetion with an intelligent acquaintance with agricul- tural practice and with the needs and resources of the agricultural classes, an acquaintance which can only come from a careful and systematic course of enquiry.. 45. In respect of different geological types of soil India variation in exhibits far less variation than England. Soils of one main main typeof | character stretch unchanged over infinitely wider areas, and £0 markedas in the differences found in England on a single farm, necessitating special treatment and the growing of particular crops on each kind of land, are not often met with in India. Reference to the Geological Map given in this Report will show that the Geological Map divisions are few in number and little varied over the country. Balas of India.” They may be said to consist of three different kinds only, marked respectively on the map, brown (alluvial tracts), green (black cotton-soil), and red (hard rock), The vast alluvial plains composed of mud and sand stretch across the northern portion of the country from west to east; the second type er black cotton-soil is a basaltic formation, and occupies mainly the central and western divisions of the map; lastly, the hard, rocky type, composed of archaean and metamorphic rocks, covers the southern and south-eastern divisions. In the next chapter I shall have occasion to point out how the effect of irrigation is altered by the existence of these different kinds of soil, Peaty. soils are -but little known in India, qypes of soir. the chalky gravels and oolite soils, the marls and clays and other varieties met with in England are absent; in their place are found distinctive types in the “ black eotton-soil,” in the presence of concretionary nodules of carbonate of lime called fankar, and in vast alluvial plains and silt-renewed tracts. 46. Although the main geological types of soils are not 80 yamerous sub- varied as in England, there are a large number of subdivisions, divisions of souls known by local names differing in each district, bat the ree focal classifica “spective qualities of which are quite clearly understood by the il cultivators. These minor differences, the result of variations in climatie conditions, in the system of mannring, and in the greater or less prevalence of trees and forest in the neigh- bourhood,- are more numerous in India than in countries of more uniform climate and more similar agricultural praetice and surroundings throughout. Ino several Provinces a regular system of classification of soils exists, and is used for Settle- ment purposes, while each district has its own classification under the particular lecal names given to the soils in each. In some Provinces every field even is classed according to its position, the nature and depth of the soil, the crops grown on it (whether it be wheat or rice or garden’ land), its nearness to the village site, etc., and partieulars are recorded as to its being embanked, irrigated, or open to damage from water-chanuels, and whether it be exposed to injury from wild beasts, etc, 3A Desirability of instructing Rovenue officials in agriculture, Improvement of sojl—the direc tions in which it may proceed, Is the soil of India becoming exhausted ? Want of positive evidence, 36 Soil, 417. On one occasion when I was in the Central Provinces, several Inspectors of Village Accountants (patwaris) and District Inspectors came to me; and, as we went over the fields together, I was much struck by the minute discrimina- tions which they made between different varieties of soil, and by the interest which they took in this part of their work, They were, however, quite ignorant as to how soil came to be formed, and of the forces of nature, and of the causes which produce differences of soils. With a little sound instruction in agriculture, and in the elementary facts of science affecting it, these men would, I thought, have a much more intelligent understanding of agriculture, and of re gaa with which they have to deal in their daily work. 48. I come now to the improvement of the soil. This must take one of two forms: first, the rendering of cultivated land more productive; second, the reclamation of land, or the making fit for cultivation land which is now considered unculturable. 49. Under the first head the question naturally arises—Is the soil of India becoming exhausted? This is not an easy question to answer. Time after time it has been pointed out to me that the same fields have gone on growing the same crops on much the same system as at present, for centuries past; it is averted, too, that, by rotation and fallows, the land receives the necessary change of cropping and the “rest” from cultivation which prevents it from going down in quality. Further arguments are, that the rainfall contains more nitrogen in India than in England, that the sun acts ag a fertiliser, and so on. On the other hand, there is a pretty general belief that the soil is becoming less productive, and remarks to that effect oceur over and over again in the Settlement Reports of most able officers, obliging one to conclude that they are mere than mere casual observations, When, however, one looks for positive evidence of soil’ exhaustion, Iadmit that it is not forthcoming, Still, this does not prove that exhaustion is of going on. The want of evidence is due rather to the absence of reliable records in the past, and to attention not having been paid earlier to the crop out-turns, When the question as to whether the soil was deteriorating was asked by the Famine Commissioners, the reply received from Bengal was, that there were no means of ascertaining. This same answer might with truth have been ‘given by all the Provinces, for the whole of the replies received were very indefinite, and dealt with surmises and with popular report rather than with actual facts. When investigating the subject myself, I hoped to find in Settle- ment Reports more definite information, deduced possibly from instances of assessment having been reduced; but, whilst a large number of instances are given where land had become unculturable owing to the spread of the efflor- Frhaustion of Soil. 37 escence of soda salts known as ret * (the land so affected being called usart), there are but few cases mentioned in which actual deterioration of soil through continual cropping is stated to have taken place, Where, in the absence of ref, assessment had been reduced, it is impossible to ascertain whether any of the many other influences, such as fall in prices of produce, want of rain, in- debteduess of the cultivators, or oppression of landlords (zemendars), has been the real cause of the reduction granted, or whether actual failure in the productive power of the soil has been brought about, Itis hard to gauge out-turns, and to get to know what the Dilbeslty of soil is, by itself, capable of producing, or for what period the question. return from manured land will continue to differ from that of unmanured, Further, it has to be considered that as fresh land is broken up, the manure supply, always limited and insufficient, has to be spread over a larger area than before. The opinion of cultivators must, I know, be taken as worth little, especially if it be given at a time when a re-settlement is imminent; the other opinions which I shall presently quote I give without wishing undue weight to be attached to them. On two points there is, however, decided agreement: firstly, that land newly brought under cultivation yields well at first, but that, after a time, the produce falls; ani secondly, that, whether the soil be undergoing exhaustion or not, it is certainly not being enriched, nor is the average out-turn over the whole cultivated area an increasing one. This has led many to the conclusion that, Theory that soil while land newly broken up will yield largely for a time aud then aot eas decline, this decline will not go below a certain level, and there it certain limit anJ will stop. The instances of unmanured plots on the Experimental “"*°™* Farms at Rothamsted and Woburn, in England, have been quoted in support of this view ; but these, though they show that, after a certain level has been reached, subsequent deterioration goes on very slowly, yet prove that it does go on. The results obtained at Rothamsted in the case of a wheat Experience at 0! crop continuously unmauured for 40 years are :— eee Average produce of Corn per acre in Bushels. 8 years 1844—51 (previous to commencement of experiment) . . . . . 17 20 years 1852—71 (experimental period) . e 139 20 years 1872—91 55 aie. 8 . e 111 That positive evidence of exhaustion in the soils of India ig not yet forthcoming is no proof, therefore, that the process is not slowly going on. * Rek.—An efflorescence of soda salts, which appears as a white crust on the surface of the soil and renders it unculturable, The salts are principally impure carbonate of soda, but sulphate of soda also occurs largely, and with them are found common salt and salts of lime and Magnesia, See also paragraphs 67 and 74, +Usar.—Land impregnated with soda salts, as above, and thereby rendered barren, See also paragraphs 73—~-76, 88 Sorl, Instances in 50. I invite attention to the following instances which I eee tnatoe have gathered, or which others have kindly collected for me :— haustion of soil is going on in India :— 1 1 iq & ‘ ” i Fe tata: Mr. Nicholson, in his “ Manual of Coimbatore,” says:— tore (Madras) ; “In Erode (Madras) the dry crops are usually poor; the taluk has been “ widely cultivated, so that the land has had no rest; rainfall is variable and ** partial, cattle are not abundant, and population is large so that the surface ‘soil (and there is but scanty soil on the uplands) is exhausted for want of *safficient manure, most of which goes fo the gardens.” Again :— “ The open sandy and treeless wastes" south-east of Udamalpet, near thé foot of the hills, are melancholy instances of reckless tree destruction in “long-distant periods; these were evidently rich jungles like those of “ Anaimalai, but are now treeless and exhaus fed.” (8) from Gorakhe = Ty the Gorakhpur (North-West Provinces) Report is the pe Oo tollowing :— “ Although the productiveness of the soil contrasts fayourably with that “of neighbouring districts, Mr. Wynne is of opinion that gradual deterio- “ration will necessarily resulf from the ruinous system of over-cropping “which is now practised. The fertility of the land is not maintaine by “allowing the fields to remain periodically fallow, or by a sufficient use of ‘manure, or by a judicious system of rotation of crops. ‘ z . : “In proof of the correctness of his impression in regard to prospective general “ deterioration, he remarks that Tappah Sugurah, which has been the longest “‘ inhabited, and twenty years ago was said by Mr. Chester to be one of the * most fertile, is now the least productive in the pergunnah, and contrasts most “anfavourably with Tappah Sehurree, of which the soil was lately virgin, * To a note on the Settlement of Gorakhpur Mr. Reade referred back to a tradi- “tionary period when the district had been one of the most productive and “fertile in this part of India. It had subsequently reverted to its primeval “* state of forest and jungle, from which it has been gradually emerging within “the memory of the present generation. He concluded that it was liable at “ Jong and undefined intervals to such periodical alterations, and anticipated a “‘ gradual deterioration after cultivation should have been carried to a maxi- “ mum.” () from Gonda In paragraph 19 of the review of the Gonda (Oudh) Report is (Oudh); this :— “There is no alternate root crop known to the husbandry. A large “ amount of animal manure is diverted from the land and used for fuel Be ee The natural consequence is that over-cropping in time exhausts ie the best soils, and the culture during a series of years is unduly “ low.” (a) trom Portas. -In the Purtabgurh (Oudh) Report occurs this :— gurh (Oudh); “ The soil, though fertile, bears evidence of exhaustion through want of “ manure and fallow seasons. . . . . . « + . The root of the present ‘* complaint, that the present yield is not equal to that of former times, lies ‘in the fact that under the native rule a field was seldom tilled for more “than two or three years in succession. In the third or fourth year a plot of “ waste was broken up, while the whole land was allowed to lie fallow. A * succession of rich harvests was the consequence. Now, however, “ competition steps in and prevents the resting of single acre.” (e\ trem tohar= In the Report on the agriculture of Lohardaga Mr, Basu daga (Bengal). nites sm “The fertility of the soil is being reduced fast to the permanent limit “ (1) continued cultivation without replacement by natal RIGS g a “ spread of cultivation (less forests and pasture, less’ cattle, and bigger areas Exhaustion of Soil. 89 . joe manured) ; (3) cattle epidemics. The supply of manure is extremely * limited.” In another passage Mr, Basu says :== “ Fallowing used to be done, but is restricted owing fo pressure of “ population.” From the replies to enquiries addressed by the Famine Com- mission I take the following :— Central Provinces.—My, (now Sir Charles) Elliott in 1865 (f) Instances wrote: Hom sels It stands to reason that land, even tke black soil of the Nerbudda Famine Com’ Valley, must deteriorate if it is eropped year after year without anything exhaustion * being returned toit....... As long as half the first class was uncul- oO el Pisy: “tivated, and a new field could be broken up for every one thrown into ince, “fallow, the crops (of the Nerbudda Valley) are not likely to‘have dete« “yiorated much. But when once regular cultivation set in, and tha “majority of the land came under the plough, a certain amount of deterioration followed... 6...” cs “The old rate of produée ii the golden age, or fifty years ago, is sup- posed-to have been tenfold, and, judging from the Tapti Valley... .. « | do not conceive it can have been more than twelvefold. I reckon the ** average now to be sixfold, and my belief is that it fell very vapidly from *“twelvefold to about eight, and then rather slowly to six or seven; that. “it was at that stage when the land was reported ‘very much exhausted’ “in 1830, and that it has fallen very slightly, tf at all, since then.” Madras. — ii, Madras. “No Collector has repotted that there has been deterioration of the soil < within his own expetieitce, but some are satisfiéd, from the enquiries they ‘shave made, that deterioration is going on....... The question of ‘deterioration does not specially arise in this Presidency with regard to ‘irrigated land. On the contrary, visible deterioration is apparent “chieflv in connection with unirrigated land newly taken up, and not ‘unfrequently relinquished again after some yeurs m favour of another “ fyegh field, or one that has had some years’ reat.” 51. The above extracts, while perhaps not furnishing absolute Under existing proof that the process of' exhaustion in soils is going on, point agricultare the to much more than -mere probability of its existence. It must Soil ef India be accepted as an axiom in agriculture that what is taken off ely the land in érops must in some way be put backinto the soil, : or else the soil will suffer exhaustion, It is an equally accepted fact that the production of heavier crops means that more manure must be applied to the land. A country which exports both crops and manure must be declining in fertility. Now, what is the state of things as regards India? On the one hand there is a large export of oil-seeds, cotton, and other products, besides an increasing one of wheat, all of which remove a considerable amount of the soil-constituents, What is returned in their place? Only the straw or the stalks and leaves; and it is not even correct to say that these are returned, for, after all, it is only a portion, and frequently a very srall portion, that does find its way back to the soil, Part is necessarily used up in the bodies of the cattle, part is wasted by imperfect conserving and storing of manure, part tiust unavoidably be lost, however great the care that may be taken; thas it comes about that it is only a fraction that 40 Soil. contributes finally to making up the loss the soil has sus- tained. Were, on the contrary, all grain to be consumed by the people, and all night-soil to be used in agriculture; were all refuse of oil-seeds (after pressing out the oil) to be utilised for manure; were all straw to be consumed by cattle, and the droppings, solid and liquid together, to be carefully preserved ; lastly, were all stalks and leaves to be buried again in the land; then the balance might be more nearly preserved. But, as things are, the exports of oil-seeds, grain, etc. (that of bones I will discuss later), simply mean so much of the soil-con- stituents carried off, for which no adequate recompense is made. The consequence must be that the soil becomes gradually poorer, though the effect may not as yet be visible to the eye; for, even if the soil be still producing the same crops, the potential fertility (by which I mean the reserve of con- stituents for the production of future crops) must be suffering loss, and the capabilities of the soil must be less than under a system of equal giving and taking. In face, therefore, of the enormous increase recorded in the population, and future increases that will haye to be met, it becomes a most serious The problem of GUestion how the food for these millions is to be found; in the future. other words, how the manure ig to be obtained without which the crops necessary for feeding these people caunot be grown, 52. I cannot, therefore, agree with the theory that fixes a certain level to which production may sink, but below which it will not go. This is apparent rather than real, The decline may be slow, but this is a mere matter of time. When we compare the wheat-yields of different countries, we have, as nearly as one can judge, the following :— Wheateyields of Taste I.—Wheat-yields of different Countries, different countries, | — India.4 one France. |Germany. |Bussia, |Canada, mice Australia, mgdom. America, Bushels.| Bushels, |Bushels,| Bushels, |Bushels.|Bushels.| Bushele. | Bushels. Average yield per acre in bushels® . 10 28 17 18 2 14 12°56 11 * Taken from the Agricultural Returns of the Board of Agriculture, 1890, t Average of the five yoars ending 1888-89, as given in the Government of India’s statistics. The average yield in 1889-90 was 9°4 bushels only. t Average of the last 40 years, The average of the last eight years was 30 bushels, The wheat-yield in India will vary, not only according to the season, but also with the conditions under which the crop is grown: for instance, it must be taken into account whether the land be manured or not, whether it be land dependent on rainfall alone, or supplied by irrigation as well, and whether rainfall be sufficieut or not, As nearly as a Influence of Br port—Wheat-yield— Manure. 41 conclusion can be formed, the following are the out-turns on some of the respective classes of land :— On unmanured dry-crop land where rainfall is precarious and often insufficient == - : = 7 bushels per acre. On manured land in tracts of better rainfall - - = = - 10 On manured and irrigated Jand = - 15 to 25 bushels pet acre, In comparison with the above, it may be mentioned that in the Rothamsted Experiments the produce of land continu- ously unmanured for 40 years is 124 bushels per acre, at 61 lbs, per bushel. 58. The real answer to the question whether the soil of Possible expla- India is becoming exhausted or not, seems to me to lie in the hon 7 ay, fact of the small produce annually removed. In England, with fetiity not its 28 to 30 bushels per acre, what is removed over and above though really” the yield of the unmanured land is due to what is put into “st the land in the form of manure ; India’s 10 bushels, on the contrary, represent almost entirely what is taken out of the soil itself. The extracrop in England is, in other words, the produce of what is added to, and not, as in India, the produce of what is taken out of, the soil, Nevertheless, the powerful sun of India, aided by moisture, or by water (where it is applied artificially), exercises, I believe, afar more rapid and powerful influence in decomposing and bringing into an assimilable condition the constituents of the lower layers of the soil and of the stones and rocks which go to produce soil than is the case in England; and why no deeline is noticed, after a certain limit has been reached, may be due to there being just enough fresh material decomposed and brought into active condition annually to produce the requisite small yield. It must not be forgotten, it is true, that the wheat crop of England is generally a nine months’ crop, that of India only a five months’ crop; but I believe that the influences named above are the most potent factors in eausing the differences of yield. Were demand, however, made upon the soil for a greater yield, the soil could no longer supply it, and if would have to be met by outside sources, in other words, by manure. Such a demand must be looked for in the rapidly increasing tmportance of population, and in the greater difficulty of providing food for {he question of it. Sir James Caird, in treating of this problem, estimated : that if the produce of the land could be increased by one or two bushels per acre the difficulty could be met. It will be my endeavour to show in this and the following chapters that the necessary increase can only be met in one way, viz., by improving the manure supply of the country. Improvement in the system of land tenure, improvement of the land by expenditure of public and private capital on it, and similar measures, may alleviate the condition of the Indian cultivator, but, they will not give him larger crops, and they will not Study of the constituents of the soil, 1, Water or moisture, Special import- ance in India, Relation of soils to moisture, Alluviam, Hard rocky soil.i Black cotton- soil, 42 Soit, provide the food that the people must have to live upon. For this the soz itself must be looked to, as it alone can produce the crops, and manure alone can enable it to bring forth the neceasary increment. The question of manure supply is, accords ingly, indissolubly bound up with the well-being and even the bare existence of the people of India, 54. Having considered the soil as a whole, and chiefly in regard to the important question of its deterioration or the reverse, it is well that I should now discuss the separate ingredients which go to make up soil, and which eause the difference between one soil and another. The main ingredients are the following :—water or moisture, vegetable matter or humus, sand, clay, and carbonate of lime. These I shall take as presenting themselves in a chemical study of Indian as distioguished from English soils, and, in addition to pointing out the most characteristic differences, I shall endeavour to indicate possible lines of further enquiry. 55. First to be considered among the components of cultivated soil is Water or Moisture, without which no germi- nation is pussible. In India the relation of soils to moisture acquires a greater significance than almost anywhere else, on account of the rainfall being limited to particular periods, instead of being distributed throughout the year, and because of the intense and prolonged heat, with consequent rapid evaporation. Climatic conditions, as shown in Chapter [V, exer- cise most marked influences upon Indian Agriculture, and cause the practice of it to vary greatly in different parts. A striking difference is seen between the condition of English soils and that of the generality of Indian soils. Speaking broadly, it may be said that the normal state of an English soilis “wet,” and that of most Indian soils “dry ;” and whereas, in the case of the former, the object is generally to get rid of the superfluous water by means of drainage, the difficulty in India is, as a rule, to keep the movsture in the land. The relative behaviour of soils to the moisture which falls on them in the form of rain, or which is conveyed to them by artificial means of irrigation, is, therefore, of great importance. The differences of geological types of soil men- tioned in paragraph 45 mast be here again borne in mind, and reference to the Geological Map will assist the explana- tion. The alluvial soil (coloured brown on the map) which oceurs ia the Punjab and North-West Provinces, under condi- tions of a dry climate, low rainfall, and hot sun, soon loses its moisture and becomes baked, so that dependence has largely to be placed on irrigation, and the more so where the alluvium (or mixture of sand and clay) is sandy rather than clayey in character. So, too, the hard rocky formation (coloured red) of Southern and South-eastern India calls for the same measures, But where, as in the Central and Western parts, the black cottun-soil (coloured green) occurs, we find a great difference, for this soil is naturally very retentive of Motsture, 43 moisture, and as if dries it cracks into blocks which, though hardened and baked externally, will be found, on being broken open, to have enclosed moisture within them, and to have thus prevented it from being lost. So it comes about that there is .always sufficient moisture for the germination of the seed, and for the growing of the crop. Irrigation, consequently, is not necessary in these parts, and famine is of rare occurrence. There is another class of soil, that found in the tracts along Soil of tracts the-river beds of the large streams in the Punjab, which always in Posen has a sufficiehcy of moisture in it, although not actually inun- dated. With this exception, and that of the black cotton-soil, it may be said that in the majority of cases great importance Importance in attaches to the retaining of moisture in the soil, I bave often ae ee been struck by the attention which the cultivator gives to this, moisture in soil, and have noticed with surprise how, even under the influence of a burning sun, the land, by reason of the careful preparation given to it, is made to retain sufficient moisture to ensure the germination of the seed put into it, for, on turning up the earth to a depth of two, or at most three, inches, the precious water will be found in it. In indigo-planting this is absolutely essential, and great is the care taken to break up and pulverise each crust that forms on the surface. I cannot help suspecting that the system of shallow ploughing, as practised by the Native, and Shallow | his aversion to ploughs that turn over a broad slice and form ooo wide furrow, may bave something to do with this matter of the retention of moisture, and that the effect of deep ploughing would too generally be to lose the very moisture the cultivator so treasures. 56. From the foregoing remarks it follows that one obvious tmprovement of direction in which improvement in soil can be effected, is the i! by. ionea te inereasing of the supply of water to dry tracts, and thus of todry tracts. moisture to the land. Tbe means by which this may be done will be more specially treated in the next chapter, and it will suffice here to say that for any work to be carried out on a Jarge scale it must be done by Government or by Government aid, This the work of vernm ent, 5'7. While I have drawn attention to the importance of the srrm occasioned retention of moisture in the majority of soils, it must never- by over-ixriga- theless be remembered that this principle cannot be enforced poe everywhere, and that there are some instances of its misapplica- tion, as in the making ef canals where they were not really wanted. Orissa is a case in point. There is little room for doubting that, by the introduction of canals into tracts where there was no real necessity for them, the soil has suffered from the removal of its valuable constituents through the continual washing process to which it is subjected, and also that a system of over-eropping (beyond what the soil can bear) is frequently consequent upon the introduction of canals. Other results attributed to canals are, the spread of reh (see footnote, p. 37), the increase of fever through the raising of the water-level of the country, and the destruction of wells. 44 Sotl, These various points will be dealt with in the next chapter. It is necessary, however, to interpose here the caution that, while, in by far the greater number of instances, the supply of water to and retention of moisture in the land is of the highest importance, it does not do to lay down a universal rule, and there are cases | where any further supply of water would be attended by positive harm, or where measures for the removal of water might even be called for. 2and3. Organic 58. The next soil-constituent to consider is that which is Nitnwea” variably termed “ Vegetable matter,’ “Organic matter,” or “ Humus,’ Along with it it will be convenient to take Nitro- gen also, inasmuch as this constituent is, in measure at least, derived from humus. Though, apart from water, the carbonaceous constituents form the largest portion of ordinary crops, these are derived not from the soil but from the atmosphere, and therefore Humus, its or do not concern us so particularly here. But the vegetable matter finan "°° or humus, which has its origin in the dead roots and leaves of a previous vegetation, or in a previous manuring with organic materials, exercises a distinct influence on vegetation, for, though probably not directly assimilable by crops, it is the principal nitrogenous ingredient of soils, and on being further oxidised will yield carbonic acid, ammonia, and, lastly, nitric acid. This is effected by means of a nitrifying organism or bactereum, which occurs in fertile soils, and most abundantly in the surface soil. The nitrates or salts of nitric acid thus produced are the form in which nitrogen can be taken up by plants as food. There are also physical advantages in the presence of vegetable matter in soils ; such as, the binding together of sandy soil, the retention of moisture, the increase of porosity in clay soils. Further, the presence of vegetable matter in the soil has an indirect’ influence on the climate, inasmuch as soils rich in it absorb more heat from the sun’s rays than do light-coloured, sandy soils, which are generally deficient in Aumus, and in consequence radiate out more heat. Organic matter. OD looking into analyses of Indian soils which have been and Nitroges in recorded, and others which I have made myself, I find that, with "the possible exception of black cotton-soil, Indian soils are generally very deficient both in organic matter and in nitrogen. The following analyses will illustrate this :— Taste Il.—Organie Matter and Nitrogen in Indian Soils. i. JT. III, Iv. V., VI., VIL, * Cawnpore | 50%! from | Soil from | Dumraon Three Svile from Farm Soil. Arrah, Siripur, | Farm Soil,; Wheat-growing Land in (S.A. Hill) Behar, Behar Behar. Sirsa District, Punjab, (E. Kinch,)|(E Kinch,)|(E. Kineh.) (J. A. Voelcker,) | Soil (dried at 212° F,)| Per cent, | Per cent,| Per cent. | Per cent, Per cent.\Per cent.) Per cent, contained :— * Crear mae eratS A aay "74 a7? 563 | oes | 27 | 065 Nitrogen . a 028 026 *073 05 °07 “02 trace, * For full analyses see Appendix A, Organic Matter and Nitrogen—Nitrogenin Rainfall, 45 In the foregoing analyses the organic matter is not stated alone, but along with it is the water which is chemically com- bined with the mineral constituents, and which is not removed at a temperature of 212° F. Accordingly, the organic matter appears more than it really is, but, when compared with ordinary fertile English soils, the quantities, with the exception of No, LV, Indian soils read low, and in some cases extremely so, In every instance the detcient in amount of nitrogen is small, and considerably below that found crane waiter in the average of English agricultural land, : A person with knowledge of agricultural chemistry will readily understand that such soils as the above can be considerably benefited by the application of cattle-manure, by green-manur- ing, or by the use of other organic and nitrogen-containing materials, The importance of nitrogen is emphasised when it is explained fonctions of that in the case of cereals the assimilation of starch is dependent ™"°8™ upon the amount of nitrogen supplied to the plant, and that it is the nitrogen which helps to bring the different mineral con- ‘stituents of the soil into action. It is not enough to have mineral constituents present in the soil, but there must also be nitrogen in order to render them available for the plant’s use. It becomes necessary, therefore, to enquire very carefully into the sources from which nitrogen may be derived, and whether the deficiencies already noted may not be made up in some way or other, 59. A considerable quantity of nitrogen in the form of ammonia grroneous idea and nitric acid is conveyed to the soil in rain. The knowledge {bat rsinfall in of the importance of nitrogen, and of its frequent deficiency in much mote Indian voils, has led to an incorrect idea that the rainfall in India England contains much more nitrogen than it does in England and other temperate climes, and that by this means the deficiency of nitrogen is met, and this important element is supplied to the crops. This statement has been copied over and over again into books, and has been pointed to in support of another erroneous opinion, vz., that practically no loss is ineurred by the burning of cattle-manure, so long as the ashes are used, because the nitrogen that passes off in the burning is supposed to come down again in the rain. I have paid special attention to examin- ing the evidence on which these theories are based, and I have ascertained that the original analyses which gave rise to them were incorrect, in consequence of the impurity of the chemicals sent out from England. Dr. Van Geyzel, Chemical Examiner for Madras, has been kind enough to give me the information on this point, and also his own later analyses, from which it will be seen that the amount of nitrogen in the rainfall, as now returned, was, in 1888, only one-thirteenth, and in 1889, only one-twenty-fifth portion (4 per cent.) of what was stated to be the amount in 1885-86. The following are the results, and by the side of them are given those of more recent analyses of Nitrogen in Rainfall of India and England, Fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere, Rerent investi- gations, Leguminose in India, 46 Soil, rainfall made by Mr. Warington at Rothamsted, He:tfordshire, England :— Taste II[I.—Nitrogen in Rainfall of India and England. Ena@Lanp Mapas. (RotusmergpD), Manpras, Manras. Twelve months, May 1888 ‘Twelve months, Twelve months, January Twelve months, January, S pvember 1886 to to to to August 1886, | December 1888, | December 1889. April 1889. Rainfall in inches 64°77 62°48 43°38 20°27 Total nitrogen reckoned as ammonia, lbs, per acre * 62°338 997 27114 4°64 * Incorrect result, From these results it would appear that the rainfall in India, instead of having more nitrogen, has actually Jess than in Eng- land. I do not say absolutely that this ¢s the case, for Madras may not be typical of all India, Besides, its situation near the sea causes the composition of the rainfall to vary greatly at times, and to contain more chlorides, especially at eyclone periods, than would be the case at inland places. What, however, I do say is, that it has not been shown that Indian rainfall contains more nitrogen than English, and the argu- ments based on the presumption that it does are altogether faulty. 60. If, however, not from the vegetable matter, because less in amount, nor yet from the rainfall, because not richer than in England, we are to look for a compensating supply of nitrogen for that removed in crops, there is still another source the importance of which has been brought to light by quite recent scientifie investigations—the utilisation of the nitrogen of the atmosphere itself. The researches of Hellriegel, Wilfarth, Prazmowski, Nobbe, and others, and now confirmed by the further experiments of Lawes and Gilbert (which are still in progress), have fairly established the fact that, though plants have nct the power of absorbing the free nitrogen of the air directly through their leaves, yet in the case of the Leguminose, the nitrogen is fixed in the course of the development of the organisms contained within the nodules which form on the roots of the Leguminosae, and the resulting nitrogenous compounds are absorbed and utilised by the host, that is, the Leguminous plant. At present the evidence indicates: the probability . that this action is limited to Leguminose of the Sub-order Papztionacea. No enquirer going over Inlia cculd fail to be struck by the enormous preponderance of trees, crops, and even weeds that belong to the-Natural Order Leguminose. Almost everywhere the dabul (Acacia arabica) is seen, with many other leguminous . trees; gram (Creer arietinum), arhar (Cajanus iudicus) and numer Sources of Nitrogen. 47 ous varieties of pulses, indigo, etc., are among the commonest crops, and are all highly nitrogenous; lastly, leguminous shrubs and weeds abound, and are often spread on the land or ploughed in as manure, How can this be in a soil naturally poor in nitrogen? The recent investigations referred to point to a strong probability that the conditions of India are peculiarly favourable to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen through the medium of the nodules that are known to form on the roots of certain of the Leguminose at least. Support is given to this by the fact that quite lately, in Germany, Nobbe and Frauk have found these nodules on the roots of leguminous shrubs, as well as in the case of the clovers and palses that form our ordinary European leguminous crops. A fertile field for investigation is herein set forth, and ¥ieldforenquiry. India, to my mind, presents special advantages for the elucidae tion of the problem, one which, when solved, will wifold much that is still unexplained in the advantages of rotation of crops. 61. The special case of black cotton-soil and its properties organic matter has been mentioned, and this, again, offers a field of enquiry. bincr cote for its origin and its qualities are not fully understood, It is sl. believed in some parts to be derived from basalt by surface decomposition,in others to be the impregnation of argillaceous earth with organic matter. Carbonate of lime is present toa considerable extent in black cotton-soil, In depth this soil varies greatly; at Akola it is from 40 to 60 feet deep, but further away it thins out to 19—-20 feet, and after that gets quite shallow, In the rains it becomes quite impassable. It is generally supposed to require no manure and to be incapable of exhaustion, That it has peculiar powers, there is no ques- tion, but that it is so rich in vegetable matter and in nitro- genous ingredients as to be independent of manure, I do not think, I have not had the opportunity of studying it specially, but I give tne following results from an analysis of black cotton-soil by the late Mr. 8. A. Hill, and from one which I made of a specimen of this soil from Akola, in Berar. TaBiE IV.—Organie Matter and Nitrogen in Black Cotton-soil. I, Il Black Cotton-soil | Black Cotton-soil from North-West’ from Akola, Provinces, Berar. near the Jumaa. (J. A. Voelcker.) (S. A. Bill) Soil (dried at 212° F.) contained :— Per eent, Per cent. Organic matter and combined } 4-95 3-83 water . ° . . 4 Nitrogen . . . “ O24 °036 The amounts of nitrogen are very low, and though there is more organie matter than in the soils tabulated in paragraph 08, yet the quantities are not really large. Support is given 4 and 6. Sand and Clay, 48 Soil, to my belief as to the condition of this soil, by the increasing practice, among the better cultivatots, of manuring it. It was stated in Settlement Reports of the Nerbudda Valley some 25 years ago, that it was not the custom to use manure, but now in Saugor and Damoh it is by no means uncommon to find manure used, and the people all say that they want more, 62. From the organic portion of the soil we may now pass to the principal inorganic or mineral ingredients, vzz., sand, clay, and carbonate of lime, According as the sand or the clay (which is, chemically, a silicate of alumina) predominate, so we find differences in the water-retaining powers of soils, for sand has the least, and clay the most, power of holding water. ‘his is well illustrated in the alluvial deposits brought down by rivers and streams, and which form the vast Indo-Gangetic plain. These are composed of alternating layers of sand and clay, and as the’ transported materials, whether the heavier sand or the lighter clay, have been deposited on any spot to form there the surface soil, so may variations be found in the soil’s water-holding capability, la parts, such as the sandy desert plains of the Western Punjab and Réjputana, the surface soil is principally sand, owing to its deposit there, while the finer and lighter clay has been carried on farther. Such soil, in the absence of water, is little more than desertl and. In other parts, clay may predominate and water be better retained.* On the other hand, capillary attraction, or the force by which water is brought up from the subsoil to the surface during dry weather, is more active in clays than in coarse sands, and evaporation is more rapid from a consolidated surface than from an open and well-tilled one. So it is that the incrustations of soda salts known as reh (see footnote, page 87) are found on the clayey rather than ov the sandy lands, Again, a sandy soil is a better conductor of heat than aclayey one, and, being thus more rapidly warmed or cooled than a clay, is not so likely as the latter to become “baked.” To show the variations that occur between soils even at no great distance apart, I give the following results from mechanical analyses by Professor Kinch, of Cirencester, of soils from Dumraon, Arrah, and Siripar, in Behar, sent to him by Mr. D, B, Allen:— Tare V.— Sand and Clay in Indian Svils. I, II, III. DB a Farm | soil from Arrab. | Soil from Siripaur, Soil (dried at 212° F.) contained :— Per cent, Per cent, Per cent, Coarse sand = - - - 10°3 28'6 27 Finesand = - -= = - . 8°0 320 48'3 Clay, etc. = es . - - 817 39°4 61°0 * The alluvial plains of India may be said to contain four types of soil: (1) heavy loam of Bengal, where clay predominates; (2) heavy loam with clay and some sand; this is found in the iBundaees a ef Rorhern hair ; fad the eo in clods ; (3) light loam of Behar ana parts of the Punjab; here the clods fall to pieces ; very light loam and sand of arts 0: the North-West and the Punjab, . I i Pen neh nar ne Sand—Clay—Lime. 49 63. The remaining principal ingredient of soil is carbonate of 8. Carbonate of lime. Reference has already been made to the peculiar concre- tionary form of limestone known as fankar, which occurs largely xankar. in India, These lumps are found near the surface and are, doubtless, the result of the evaporation of water containing in solution lime which has been obtained by the decomposition of the mineral portions of the soil. Now, lime works beneficially in Many ways; it not only acts itself asa plant food, but it makes clay land permeable to moisture, and enables it to absorb potash, ammonia, and other salts, whilst, not least of all, its presence is required in the process of nitrification, by which means nitrogenous matters in the soil are made available for the plant’s use. Speaking generally, lime is more plent?fully distributed in Indian soils than in English; that is, deficiencies of it are not so fre- quently met with. A notable exception, however, which I have found, is in the laterite soil of parts of Southern India, such as the coffee-growing districts of Coorg and Mysore, and the tea planta- tions in the Neilgherris, where, I have reason to believe, a more acundant supply of lime would be decidedly beneficial. The following analyses exemplify these points:— Lime in Indian soils. Taste VI.—Lime in Indian Soils. 1 YW, | IL. | IV. Ve.) OVE, | VEIL}; VIL} IX. x. | ss tl +l + t ot e a a cma ene ~ of 3 de |@ Z & - eine a, | & 8 .H 3 4 g ae aS-| 4 aa x E E28 S w| A 232 Ba | at nS 3Em| 25 S58 es | es 338 Se™| si a> s2| 8s ee 45<| ed iq aM | = ged 1g on ° a 2 . = . Ba~| $e EES 44 | 38 ose Soil (dried at 212° F.) cons | Per | Per} Per | Per | Per Per | Per || Per | Per | Per tained: = cent. | cent.| cent,| cent, | cent. cent.| cent,|| cent.| cent.| cent. Lime . . . -| 3°66 “90 | 1°65 | 1°44 | 1°86 1°00 "66 *20 32 "32 (calcium oxide, CaO.) The amounts of lime in Nos, I—VII, inclusive, are more than in most cultivated English soils; but in Nos. VIII-X a marked difference is apparent. Of the majority of Indian Lime generally soils it may, however, be said that they contain a sufficiency of lime. 64. Having taken now the principal ingredients of soils, we7,s,9, may pass on to those soil-constituents which, while found in sndifeguesa’ lesser amount, are, nevertbeless, those which exercise a great - influence on the productive power of soils, Of these the principal are phosphoric acid, potash, and soda, and they are the only ones that need be dwelt upon separately. Other * For full analyses see Appendix A, i 1 Appendix B, These soils had been cultivated for 30 years previously, and lee *oniy had bones in small quantity supplied to them, 50 Soil. constituents, such as iron, alumina, magnesia, etc., which are found in soils and which enter into the composition of plants, do not call for special reference. Iron is a widely-distributed element in soils, and occurs largely in the laterite soils of South-western India, notably in the coffee-soils of Coorg and Mysore. ‘his laterite is a porous, argillaceous rock, impregnated with iron peroxide (hydrated ), of which it may contain 25 to 35 per cent. Alumina enters into the composition of all clays, but magnesia, so far as I know, acquires no special importance -in Indian agriculture. Magnesia appears to exist in sufficient abundance throughout, and more plentifully than in English soils, 10, Phosphorlo 65. Phosphoric acid I believe to be more abundantly distributed acid in Indian’ iy Indian than in most English soils. There are but few analyses to refer to, in consequence of the absence of any investigation in India from the standpoint of agricultural chemistry, but what analyses there are seem to ehow that there is, happily, not that pressing need for the additional use of phosphatic, and, I may add, for mineral manurial elements generally that there is in England. In the latter country, if a soil contained 0°12 or 0°13 parts of phosphoric acid in 100 parts of the dried soil, this would be reckoned a good average amount, and 0°17 per cent, would be decidedly above the average. From analyses of Indian soils I quote the following results, giving, for convenience, the determinations of potash in the respective soils at the same time :— Taste VIL.—Phosphoric Acid and Potash in Indian Soils. I. Tl, Ilt, | Iv.) V VI. | VIL. |VLIL. | 1X | x. ee ue a a 7 oa —_—_—_s Sar Tee Bou 2 = ee se sat gota a3 a la |4 (8% ase £3 e_|— |@ lz En8 228 BS| Ec | 47 l3 eo age B38 ea | Sd | Sa Ede sas oer sm | 8s] 88 |Ssa 2er Ta as, te a: ag ba 14 Boe 32 g2¢ E/E au igs] aed Fas 8¢|68 g8|gse| sas Soil (dried at 212° F,) con+ | tained ;— Pey | Per | Per | Pen-| Pern Per | Per | Per | Per | Per ; 7 3 cent | cent.| cent.| cent.) cent, cent.| cent.) cent,| cent.| cent, Phosporio acid. * «| 17] °23 | ‘19 | “SL |} *10 °09 | ‘11 ] °23) °15 | °210 Potash . . . «| ‘89| ‘74] *31]) -33 |] 1°63| “60 | *23| ‘25 | +10] “20 Although variations are shown in these results as regards the phosphoric acid present, in no case are there the marked deficiencies frequently met with in England, and, taking the four first-named soils as representative of a great, tract of wheat-growing land, I should consider them especially well supplied with phosphates. This may possibly have some —- * For full analyses see Appendix A. t For full analyses-sce. Appendix B, Phosphoric Acid—Potash—Soda. 51 bearing on the question of the utilisation of bones in India as dhe tillsxtion against their export. If a soil show no deficiency of phosphates, manure, there may lie in this the explanation of the fact that bones have not as yet been clearly proved to be beneficial or necessary to a number of Indian soils. On the other hand, the somewhat lower amount of phosphoric acid found in the laterite soils of Mysore, together with the greater demands of the coffee plant upon the mineral ingredients of the soil, may be the reason that bones are in these parts used exten- sively by the planters, and are considered necessary. The benefit of their application may lie also in the fact that they supply lime and nitrogen as well as phosphoric acid. 66. Potash, like phosphoric acid, is a very important plant 11. Potash ia food. It appears to be well distributed, and its additional supply [aise soils. to be only exceptionally called for in Indian soils, For growing ordinary farm crops in England 0°25 per cent, of potash in a soil would be reckoned a fair amount, but, as will be seen from the table given in the last paragraph, Indian svils may contain con« siderably more, Only in the coffee-soils, Nos, VIII~X, do we find what may be termed a deficiency. In many parts of India, and notably in Behar, nitre (nitrate of Nitr. potash) is found impregnating the earth, especially on spots where habitations have stood before, The earth is lixiviated with water and the nitre is extracted in an impure state, after which it is purified by boiling down the solution and cerystallising out the nitre. 67. Soda, when potash is also present, can hardly be regatded 12, sods in 1o- as an essential constituent of plant life, and in India there is no °°". lack of it, Indeed, the existence of soda salts in large quantity in the soil of some parts of India gives rise to an exceptional feature in the agriculture of the country. The selective power of plants for food is well known, and their preference for potash-con- taining rather than for soda-containing salts hag béen well estab- lished. But. in some parts of India, soda salts are present in the Beh and war. soil to such quantity as to positively destroy vegetation. The salts are brought up from the subsoil ,by the combined action of water and the sun’s heat, and then crystallise out on the surface, forming a kind of ‘snow ” which is termed. “ reZ,?* and the land: thus affected is known as “usar ”’* land, The composition of red is not uniform ; most generally carbonate of. soda is the prevailing ingredient, at other times sulphate of soda, but both occur together, ‘dad associated with them in niore or less quantity are ¢om'dion salt and salts of magnesia and lime. Of the otigiti of these salts’ there is‘ no positive certainty, but they aré most probably the salts which are dissolved out on the gradual decomposition of ignedts’ rocks, and are subsequently deposited whdn' the water’ which. holds’ them in solution evaporates: Phat’ they may be afterwards brought to the surface, depends on‘ two conditions being present * See footnotes, page 87, 4a 52 Soil, first, water to percolate down to the subsoil and to re-dissolve the salts ; secondly, a strong evaporative force, such as the sun’s heat, to draw them up and then crystallise them out upon the surface. Tam unable to say either what amount of salt is met with in any particular soil, or what quantity is found in practice to be injurious, ner yet, again, whether the carbonate and the sulphate of soda are Need of an equally injurious to vegetation, for, strange as it may seem to Chemist.as English men of science, the whole of the enquiries that have been there oageey, conducted in India on the ve question have been carried out without associating with them any agricultural or even general chemist. I have little hesitation in saying tbat, owing to this want, much information that might have been gained, and which would have aided the enquiry greatly,’ has been lost, and that speculation and guess-work have been indulged in where it would have been possible, had an agricultural chemist been at work on the subject, to have obtained certain knowledge. The question of how to deal with wsar land, with a view to its reclamation, will be dealt with later on (see paragraph 73 of this chapter). It will suffice to say here that deficiency of soda is not wet with in Indian soils, so far as I know, but there are, on the contrary, many instances of its presence in excessive and injurious quantity. Improvement of 68. The improvement of the soil in respect of any deficiency sour y increase in the constituents named in paragraphs 58—67, must be effected supply. by manuring. The consideration of this sukject, and of the means available in India, will come more appropriately under Chapter VII (Manure) than here. It is evident, however, that the in- crease of the manure supply for the purpose of enriching the soil is an important factor in the improvement of Indian Agriculture, To anticipate my conclusions, I would say that here again, as with the supply of water to dry tracts, the work will have to be ini- The work must tiated by Government; while, for the purpose of knowing what Govenret>Y supplies are available, and what remedies can be effected, there ia Government, 3 i i : need of carefal and scientific inquiry. ic sen 69. I pass on now to the second of the two heads given in prove. _ = . S ment of soil by paragraph 48, under which agricultural improvement may take forealgrann® place, viz., the reclamation of land, or the rendering fit for culti- vation land which is now considered unculturable, Under this head are reckoned ravine and similar. waste land, land infested with hans grass (Saccharum spontaneum) and other weeds, and, lastly, saline or war land. Reclamation of . %Q. Reclamation of ravine land may take place in two different savine land, ways—either by covering it with trees, shrubs, and grass, or by making the land itself fit to bear crops. The considera- tion of the first part of this subject will come more appro- priately in Chapter VIII (Wood),.-when dealing with the question of wood supply; but it may be incidentally remarked that the growth of trees and grass implies an improvement of the soil itself, in that it becomes enriched by the accumulation of vegetable matter or Aumus derived from the decaying of the Reclamation of Land. 53 leaves that fall upon its surface, as also from the herbage that grows on it, and which gradually dies down. It is not often that land cut up by ravines can be levelled, and the whole area be thus turned intoa culturable space, but much can be done to localise the effects of the floods that wash down and sweep before them the fine topsoil, In many eases these floods can be prevented from spreading their destructive influence further, and from injuring the lands that lie beyond them, The work of actually levelling ravines is too great and too expensive a one to contemplate, save in ex- ceptional circumstances. Here and there an individual pro- prietor, having a Jarge holding and also capital, may doit, and Government may also ivitiate it as a means of protection, or as “ famine work,” but it cannot be looked on as remunerative. Much, however, may be done by throwing embankments Embankment of across the mullahs or channels made by ravine streams, ™”™* "> and thus holding up the water and preventing the continual washing away of the surface soil. I give instances of what has been already done in this direction, Captain Chapman, on his estate at Bati, in Oudh, has carried out Captain Chap- embankment of land on a large scale. He has thrown masonry dams or Dan's work at bunds across 13 channels (nullahks) which had been cut by the rain water pour- " ing down off the higher land, and he now uses the reservoirs thus made by the collected water for irrigation purposes. Captain Chapman has also reclaimed some of the ravine land by terracing it. At Raksha, near Jhansi (N.-W. P.), an experiment was begun in 1888 by ESparmnnte at the then Commissioner, Mr. G. Ward, to see whether the denudations of ane the hilly country around could be stopped-by making embankments which would hold up the rash of water inthe rainy season,and prevent it from washing the topsoil away. It was thought that fertilising deposits of silt migbt be formed near the embankments, and that, as the water soaked into the ground, land might be left which would be readily culturable; while, if the water did not disappear, it would serve for irrigation use. The soil is thin, with rock underlying it, and wells are very difficult to construct. There is evidence that in former days, when the country around was richer, the Natives used to throw up similar embankments, and that the large proprietors used to construct dams to hold up the water; but these have now been let fall into disrepair. Mr. Ward in 1888 began to throw upa series of embankments or bunds of earth, and at present 80 such have been made; the slopes have been sown with babu) (Acacia arabica), and grassis covering the sides. As yet owing to deficient rainfall, not enough water has collected to be used for irrigation, nor have the beds been cultivated, but the trees have grown fairly, and the grasses are improving, déb grass (Cynodon Dactylon) having spread considerably. It is said that the Station of Jhansi is cooler since these works have been made. At Nawabganj, near Cawnpore, I saw 220 bighas of land (1 bigha Reclamatior at = Sacre), which, six years ago, was waste ravine land under the Court Cavapore. of Wards. An enterprising Native became proprietor of this area, levelled it, and then let it out to cultivator, It is now rented at Rs, 5 per acre. Again, at Etawah (N.-W. P.), although the ravine land there is converted Beolama tlon at into a “ Fuel and Fodder Reserve,” yet, where the ravines lead down to the “”*" river (the Jumna), cultivation is carried out on every bit of land that offers itself, andcrops are grown partly on the soil washed down from the higher ground, partly on thesilt washed up by the river. Ifin such Reclamation of other waste land. Lake land at Bati, Reclamation of land from the sea, “Choh” land in the Punjab.. Land infested with kans gras3 and kunda, 54 Soil. places the firat rush of water that takes place during the rains were stopped by embankments, then the good soil might be collected instead of being washed away into the river, and not only would more soil be available for cultivation, but the water might be held up for irrigating the land. Ravyines such as those st Etawah extend all along both banks of the Jumna and Ganges rivers. 71. There may be other waste land besides usar and ravine land which is capable of reclamation. I saw with great interest at BAti (Oudh) the 7,009 bighas (bigha = $ acre) of land which Captain Chapman had, with extraordinary energy, reclaimed. Formerly it was one vast lake into which the Ganges, when in flood, poured each year. What Captain Chapman did was, to shut out the Ganges entirely by constructing a massive embankment or bund 7 miles long, and he then proceeded to pump the water back into the river. This work, begun in 1873-4, is now nearly complete, and what before was a Jake is now culturable laud thrown into the property. With the help of steam ploughs and pumping ongines the land has been tilled, drained, and algo irrigated, and the soil, being naturally very rich, can grow splendid crops without any manure. At Mdbim (Tbéna, Bombay) good dealof lard near the sea has been reclaimed by embanking it so.as to keep out the sea. The enormous stretches of “choh” land in the Punjab, notably near Hoshiarpur, present a serious problem in the way of reclamation. Streams come rushing down from the hills, bringing at first silt, but sooner or later sand. At first the action may be beneficial, as the good soil from villages higher up is washed down, but soon the sand comes, and this is driven about with the wind, and the good soil is covered and rendered unculturable. The land thus destroyed is called “ choh” land. Some 30,000 acres of good land have been spoilt in this way, and remedies have in vain been suggested. The cause assigned is, that the hill sides have been over-grazed, and the trees along the banks of the former streams have been cut away; so that the soil is notheld up, and the streams, no longer confined to their course, have spread over the country. The apparently most reasonable snggestion made is to close the hill wastes to grazing, and to let the sides clothe themselves again with grass, shrubs, and trees. There are, however, difficulties in the way of dealing with the “chohs” under Chapter IIT of the Indian Forest Act, the Government not caring to risk the responsi- bility of having to acquire the land (as they might be called on to do) some 10 or 12 years hence at fabulous prices. , 72. The infestation of land with hans grass (Saccharum spontaneum), with kunda (Saccharum ciliare), and other deep-rooted and fast-spreading weeds, is a matter for which. there are remedies in deep and continuous cultivation and stirring of the soil, also by heavy manuring, and by leaving - the weeds to rot, as well as by embanking and flooding the land with water, But, unless these steps be taken in hand early, the evil may rapidly increase, and the land be pro. nounced unculturable. Mr. Gollan, the Superintendent of the Saharanpur Botanical Gardens, pointed out to me the grass in the Municipal Gardens, Saharanpur; it is now a mass of dud. grass (Cynodon Dactylon), but had at first been infested with ans. By manuring the land heavily with night-soil and town refuse the ans grass had disappeared entirely. Mr. Gollan believes that this can be effected in a single season, and he instanced to me that the same thing had been done at Wingfield Park, Lucknow, T have myself seen, in the Central Provinces, land that was within quite recent times under cultivation, but which has Reclamation of Land, 55 been abandoned on account of the Aans grass. I learnt that the rent had been remitted on this account, but I could not help think- ing that had the razyats been obliged to cultivate their fields dili- gently, as they would have been, for example, in the congested districts of the North-West Provinces, the sans gtass would soon have been eradicated. A North-West raiyat would have quickly been down on hands and knees and never have let the weed get the mastery. Here, on the contrary, amid easier surroundings, not only was the cultivation less careful, but as each field was in turn abandoned the weed spread, and its seed was earried on to the neighbouring plots, while the tenant who should have eradicated it at the beginning, rejoiced in the remittance of his rent. It may seem a hard thing to say, but I fully think that, in cases such as this, the improvement of the soil will be mainly effected by the pressure of circumstances necessitating a better and more careful cultivation. In the Madras Presideney I saw a quantity of land near Bellary infested with the weed sanda (Saccharum ciliare), as also near Gadag, and along: the Kistna river, The cultivators dig up the weed by hand labour, collect it in heaps and burn it, 73. Of a different nature to the foregoing is the improvement of saline land or usar, a subject on which much good work, energy, and ability have been expended by the Government, and mainly by the Agricultural and the Irrigation Departments of the North- West Provinces. Usar land, as explained in paragraph 67, is land whieh is impregnated with soda salts to such an extent as to make it unfit for growing erops. A white “snow,” which is made up of these soda salts and is termed ref, spreads. over the surface of the ground, and cultivation is impossible. Enormous areas, especially in the plains of Northerr India, are thus affected, and in the North-West Provinces alone there are between four and five thousand square miles of wsar land. In the Deccan and in the Southern Mahratta country, too, are similar large tracts. A strange feature is, that, scattered amidst the barren parts are patches here and there where cultiva- tion, and that, too, of a high order, is carried on, Such crops as opium, sugar-eane, wheat, castor-oil plant, and cotton, all of which require a good soil and high cultivation, may be seen on these fertile spots, standing out like oases in the salt-covered desert all around them. How this has come about, whence the salts are derived, whether they are spreading in extent or not, how they may be checked, and how the land may be reclaimed, are questions which have led to many long enquiries and experiments to which I must here refer, Already in 1874 the Irrigation Department of the North-West Provinces set about trying to reclaim usar, and i Reclamation of saline land (usar). Extent of usar plains in the N.-W, P. 1877 a“ Reh”? Committee was appointed to investigate the sub- the‘ Reh” ject, and to determine the lines of future enquiry. Subsequently, experiments were commenced at Awa in 1879, at Cawnpore in 1882, and at Aligarh in 1885. Most of these being etill in pro« gress, I was enabled to visit them and see what had been done. Committee, 1877. 56 Soil. The origin of 74, Naturally, the first question for the “ Reh ’’ Committee a was, to say what ref was, and whence it came. Its compositioa, as explained in paragraph 67, is variable, but soda salts are always the main ingredients, the carbonate of soda preponderating generally, at other times the sulphate of soda; common salt and salts of magnesia and lime occur likewise. What accounts for the preponderance of one salt or the other on any particular area has not yet been shown, Different views have been propounded as to how the soda salts originated. Medlicott’a Professor Medlicott, who was a member of the “Reh” Com- views, mittee, held that reh was the result of the decomposition, by air and water, of rock minerals found in the soil, and that they were those parts unassimilated by vegetation, and which were not removed by rain water. He was, further, of opinion that the upper layers of the’ soil were originally quite free from salt, but that conse- quent upon the destruction of forests and the extreme climatic conditions that followed, aided by the introduction of canal irri- gation, the salt was first dissolved and then brought to the surface, Professor Medlicott, relying upon one or two analyses made at his instigation, regarded the canals themselves as bringing a con- siderable amount of salt, and expressed himself strongly to the effect that where canal irrigation came, there must, in a few gene- rations, be complete destruction by re4, In his view, ref, accord- ingly, was saline subsoil water, Bir Eaward ' Other opinions found expression in the ‘‘Reh” Committce, Buck’s views. Sir Edward Buck attributing the appearance of re& to the presence of a series of depressions, the salt from the higher parts getting washed into the depressions by the first shower of rain ; thus the higher portions might become culturable, and the depres- sions infertile, owing to the ref, Opinions of the Finally, the Committee came to the general conclusions that Conite, veh was the result of evaporation in a dry climate; that it would make its appearance if the water-level were raised; that it spread to a limited extent by surface washing; that its occurrence was concurrent with that of an impermeable surface; and that canal water did not itself bring tbe salt to the land. pares tie Reviewing the facts brought out, it appears to me that there ownconclusions. if not sufficient evidence for believing that the canal water actually brings the sait to the land. The analytical evidence on which the assertion is hased is neither strong nor consistent ; the amount of solid residue per gallon in some of the analyses of water quoted is about 28 grains, a by no means large amount, while in others it is given as only 11 or 12 grains per gallon. Analyses made by myself of canal water from the Cawnpore branch of the Ganges Canal gave only 15 grains per gallon of solid residue, containing less than 24 grains of soda salts, while that of water from an adjoining well showed 7% grains per gallon of solid residue and 40 grains of soda salts. One would expect the well water to cause an efflorescence of soda salts rather than the canal water, but this was not the case. “Reh” Enquiry. 57 Again, if canal water were the real source, it would not, to my mind, explain the fact tbat the composition of re4 varies so much, nor why the canal should in one part give rise to carbonate of soda, and in another to sulphate of soda principally. Nor, if the origin be saline subsoil water, is it altogether made clear to me why red should occur here and there, with culturable patches between. Iam much more disposed to consider the re/ in the light of local deposits, derived undoubtedly from the decomposition of the mineral ingredients of the soil, but collected probably in depressions below the surface, and left as a deposit, just in the same way as a bed of phosphate of lime or similar mineral deposit is formed, or as a bed of sand, of gravel, or of clay, is found. So long as the surface was covered with trees and vegetation there would be less capillary attraction, but with the denudation that ensued would come the * baking ” of the surface ; where this surface was clay, capillary action would be much increased. Without moisture, however, the salts might remain harmlessly below : but if we now imagine canal irrigation to be introduced, there would be present the two forces requisite to bring the ref to the surface, véz., the water to dissolve the salt, and then a strong evaporating force, such as the sun, to beat down on the bare unprotected ground, and to draw the salt-holding water up, this action being aided by the capillarity of the clay topsoil. This appears. to me to account for what has been often observed, viz., that re occurs in impermeable clay soils, and but very seldom on sandy soils. I incline, therefore, to the belief that where, amidst ~sa7', culturable spots are found, it is either because these are spots where there is no ref underlying, or because, on account of the occurrence of a sandy rather than a clayey topsoil, capillary action is not so strong at that particular place. The same result of reducing capillarity would be effected by cultivation, by manuring, or by the growth of trees, shrubs, or grass, The fact that such measures as the above have proved the best in the endeavour to reclaim ysar land gives considerable reason for be- lieving that their removal has conduced to its existence. The variableness, not alone of composition, but of the extent of the action of red, is another reason for considering its occurrence as Joeal, and not as coincident with the distribution of canal water. There is what is called ‘‘very bad” usar; there is also other which, though salty, may be fairly easily reclaimed, and these are often found in close proximity to one another. How could this be unless the deposits were Zocal, z.¢., unless there were more salt in some spots than in others? Nor would it be consistent alto- gether with a:theory that attributes its occurrence solely to the incoming of the canal water. Canal water, I have no doubt, sup- plies one factor necessary to bring re# from below to the surface; but I do not at all think that it directly brings the red. 75. Passing next to the experiments made for the purpose of Experiments on reclaiming usar, I must briefly note these. usar, The Irrigation Department of the N.-W. P. began in 1874 by taking up Experiments of areas in the Aligarh and in the Etawah districts. At Aligarh there are now ieee De: three areas freutetas plantations. The best result was attained by digging N.-W. P., at holes, 4 feet deep, filling them with canal silt, and then planting badud trees ao Etaw Exper'merts of Agricultural De- artment, oW. P. 1, At Awa, 2, At Juhi. 3. At Amramau, 4, At Aligark. 58 Soil, (Acacia arabica) in them. Canal water is available for watering the trees, and, on the wsar land between, ddb grass (Eragrostis cynosuroides) is sown. The grass grows plentifully, but there is no sale for it, and the trees grow well enough till they come to a height of about 20 feet. Then they seem to reach & subsoil of Lankar (coneretionary limestone) and die. At Etawah there are also three areas, and here the most successful plan has been to embank Jand and to run canal water and silt over it for about four months, These areas may now be described as reclaimed, as they have been let out for cultivation. Still, it is held that the capitalised value of the im- proved land has not covered the expenditure. In 1879 experiments were begun at Awa by the Agricultural Department of the N.-W. P. Here tree-planting was not tried, but only simple enclosure and exclusion of grazing. Although the experiments came to a premature end, owing to the Awa Estate falling out of Government hands, they amply proved that by simple enclosure a plentiful supply of kar usara grass (Sporobolus pallidus) could be obtained on the very worst wsar, even that covered by efflorescence. This means, in brief, that, if cattle be kept off and be not allowed to nibble away every blade of grass as it appears, the worst usar will rapidly clothe itself with grass of a kind. The difficulty is then what to do with the grass. Following on these lines, the Agricultural Department started fresh experi- ments in 1882 at Juhi, and also at Amramau, near Cawnpore. At the former, simple enclosure was adopted for the preservation and extension of the natural grasses, and, on elevated spots, fuel and fodder trees were planted. The grasses have decidedly improved, and the success of the trees has been fair. Since 1888 My. Duthie has had selected spots under his observation, to sea what changes take place in the herbage. The better grasses, such as janewa (Andropogon annulatus), musel (Iseilema larum), and anjan (Pennisetum cenchroides), are gradually replacing the original wsar grass (Tetrapogon tetrastachys). At the time of my visit (January 1890) there was a most marked difference between the enclosed land and that outside the boundary, the grass stauding knee-deep within it, whereas the other was nearly bare, and. mostly covered with ve%. Here, too, it seems, however, doubtful if a fuir interest on the capital expended will be yielded. At Amramanu the experiment was commenced on a commercial basis. Mir Muhammad Husain, the Assistant Director of Agriculture, N.-W. P. and Oudh, induced the Government in 1882 to purchase 52 acres of wsar Tand. at Re. I peracre. This he enclosed for two to three years, then put dairy cattle and sheep on to eat the grass, and sold the milk off the farm. Next, he etubanked fields before the rains came, and so held up the water in them ; when it had soaked in, he ploughed and manured the land with the dung of his cattle and sheep, and then sowed rice. If the rice took, a winter crop followed, and this was the test of reclamation. In this way one-half of the farm has already been reclaimed and let at Rs. 8 per acre. The total cost of reclamation has been Rs. 2,000, and this.sum Mr. Holderness, the Director of Agriculture, estimates will just becleared. A pleasing feature is that land- lords (zemindars) around are beginning to try the experiment themselves. Immense credit is due to Mir Muhammad Husain for the way in which he devised and also carried out this experiment, certainly the most hopeful of any yet attempted in the reclamation of wsar. Meantime, in 1885, further experiments on a large scale were initiated at Gursikran and Chherat, near Aligarh. At the former there are 718 acres, and these are treated like the Juhi enclosure, cattle being kept off, and the grasses being left to themselves. Mr. Duthie now has these also under observation, Kar usara (Sporobolus pallidus) is the principal grass. Enclosure is effected by a small ditch and mound only, but it is quite enough to make a marked difference between the bare plain outside and the en« closed part, in which latter the grass grows thickly. The better grasses, how- ever, are only very slowly replacing the wsaz grasses. In the hollows dab grass (Cynodon Dactylon) begins to come. Reclamation of Salty Land (usar). 59 At Chherat there are 242 acres. One-half is left to itself, like Juhi, and here the better grasses are decidedly taking the place of the wsar grass (here Chloris tetrastachys is the vhiet usar grass), dub, déb, anjan, musel, and gane del (Andropogon laniger) being now prominent, Grass came well the first rainy season after enclosure was begun, and now there are but few bare patches left. No manure or irrigation is used. The grass is allowed to die down, and the soil seems to get coated with a cavering of vegetable mould, on which subse- quently a better kind of grass appears. I had noticed this same at Juhi, and more particularly that there were numerous anthils inside the enclosure, but none outside. On these hills were gathered the glumes of the grasses, doubt- less adding more vegetable matter to the soil, as well as loosening it. On com- parison of notes that had been taken, these ant-hills were found to have moved, onwards over the formerly unoccupied space; the ground was in consequence raised where they were, and on these elevations the grass grew in clumps. Sjr Edward Buck is of opinion that, by the raising. of these mounds, the first flow of water in the rains flows off them and ruus into the lower land, taking the salt with it and forming there a strong saline solution which destroys vegetation. Sir Edward thinks that if this first flow could be prevented from spreading over the surface, or be run into catchment holes or channels, it would do no further harm. However this may be, I believe that it is from these raised spots that vegetation begins to spread, and that the increase of vegetable matter on the surface soil is a sign of improvement. I quite agree also with Sir Edward Buck that a certain amount of damage, at least, is done by the sur- face flow of a saline solution, and that it would, in many cases, be lessened by the raising of s small mound or embankment. On one part of Chherat the ex- periment has been tried of scraping off the efflorescence as it forms, but this has not been successful, nor has much success as yet attended the efforts to grow the salt-bush (Artviplex nummularia), date-palm, or other salt-loving plants, in the hops of extracting thé salt from the soil. But one-half of Chherat has been more recently worked on the lines of Amraman, and different methods of reclamation have been tried. Thus, 35 acres, on which the salt was two to three inches thick, were surrounded with an embankment, and the rain water was thus kept iato the depth of three feet. Subsequently the land was ploughed to loosen it, and when I saw the place the grasses were being fed off by cattle. It was noticeable that the wsax grass was nearly all gone. Mir Muhammad Husain had observed that it rotted away in the stagnant places, and this led him to try flooding the land. Here, anyhow, it disappeared, and the first grass to take its place was xarré (Diplachne fusca) ; this, starting from a point a little raised above the rest, spread its runners in every direction, looking just like a catherine wheel ; the runners in turn rooted themselves in the soil and became fresh centres. After seeing this, I could well understand that simple enclosure could enable the grass to establish itself and to cover the surface, whereas, if grazing were permitted, the young shoots would be at once nibbled off, and never be allowed to spread. Anjan, dub, avd ddb, also in turn ap- peared. Yet another portion has been flcoded from the canal, and the water held up by embankment; reclamation has gone so far that some of the land has been let out to cultivators, and I saw wheat crops growing on it here and there. Enquiring of a raiyat which land he would like to have if more could be let to him, he said that what he liked was the “black” soil (donbt- less that which had the vegetable crust to which I had referred), I then asked him to indicate what part of that now growing grass could be cultivated and what not. He darted off at once to where dub grass was, and said that was what he would like to have, but not that which had the wsar grass on it. Another plan of reclamation tried has been that of manuring heavily with night-soil. At Narainpur, near Cawnpore, Mir Muhammad Husain took up 10 acres 5. At Narainpur of usar land four years ago, aud trenched night-soil in it before the rains. a of night- Mounds were put round, and the rain water held up. After ten months. the land was let to a cultivator for Rs. 20, and Rs. 40 was offered if a lease for six yeara wore granted. Here canal water was available. Of this land there were 800 acres in the neighbourhood. 6. At Dera Ismail Khan with night-soil, 7, At Kapur- thala by grow- ing dhdk trees. Summary of experimental work on usar reclamation, and my general conclusions, 60 Soil, Again at Deva Ismail Khan it was found that the “ Ottley’ plan_ (digging out the svil to a depth of about 18 inches, spreading night-soil in the pit 9 inches thick, then sifting the earth back and levelling the whole, subsequently water- ing it) got rid of the kalar or saline efflorescence. Lastly, I have to instance other attempts to deal with wsar land by growing trees upon it. In the cases given so far the success has not been a marked one, though it has been shown that they will grow, as also grass in abundanee, if enclosure be resorted to. In the Kapurthala State there are 9,000 acres of land in Phagwara tahsil which have been taken up by the Administration. Of this, 7,660 acres are so much impregnated with Zalar, or soda salts, that they are not ft for cultivation. Nevertheless, it has been found that the diak tree (Butea frondosa) flourishes on this soil, and 40,000 maunds of fuel (maund = 28 lbs. here) are supplied from one plantation annually. Every ten years the whole is cut over once, and the sale proceeds and grazing fees amount to Rs. 9,000 per annum, while the yearly exyenditure by the State is only Rs. 540. There is this advantage with dhdk, that cattle, sheep, and goats will not touch it, and so grazing does no injury. I notice that the dhdk tree has been but little tried in other experiments ; it should, I think, be more extensively grown on wsar land, and there seems to be no reason why the Kapurthala plan should not succeed elsewhere. 46. To summarise the experimental work done on the reclama- tion of usar, It seems thoroughly established, Firstly, that by simple enclosure and exclusion of grazing, grass (probably wear grass only at first) will establish itself, and cover even the worst places; that the grasses will slowly improve, and trees may be fairly successful, Secondly, that by covering wsar land with a thick coating of canal silt, and then flooding it (as is done in Egypt), it may also be reclaimed. Thirdly, that by enclosure, feeding off the grass, embauking the land, allowing the rain water to be held up on it, then ploughing and manuring it, it can be rendered culturable, Fourthly, that the same may be done by heavy manuring with night-soil, where water is procurable. ‘There are difficulties to be encountered in every case, such as that of dis- posing of the grass grown; then canal water and canal silt are not everywhere available, nor is there sufficient night-soil or other manure to warrant the outlay involved in reclaiming, Butit seems to me that the plan of embankment and holding the water up, as well as mapuring the land with stock put on it, is feasible every« where. Where silt-laden canals are at hand, they could be run on to the land, fur they would be in a silt-laden condition just at the time of the rains, when they are not so much needed for the irriga- tion of cultivated land, As to the grass difficulty, this might be overcome by making the grass into silage, The difficulty with hay-making is that the grasses that grow vften come during the rainy season, when they cannot always be made into hay, but if made into silage, simply stored in pits dug in the ground, they might afford abundant succulent fodder for cattle, Lastly, where trees are grown, the best plan is to have a rapid succession of quickly-growing trees or scrub, rather than to try and obtain trees of any good size; the dhdk (Butea fron- es as at Kapurthala, should also be much more extensively ried. Suggestions have been made in the past that subsoil drain- Reclamation of Stlty Land (usar). 61 age will be found the only way to cure usar, but I can hardly look upon this as a practicable remedy in India, Taking what I have seen, both of the occurrence of xsar land and the attempts made to reclaim it, I believe it to be concurrent with the existence of an impermeable condition of the soil, conducing (as clay does) to increased capillary action; and that improvement of such soil will be effected by any means which tend to alter this impermeable condition, either by forming a fresh and lighter surface, such as is done by the finely-divided canal silt, or by breaking it up, as is done by the growth of grass or trees, or by manuring and ploughing. The formation of vegs- table matter on the surface is, I believe, most important, and the covering of the soil with grass tends to decrease that “ baking ” of it which, as we have seen, is one of the most powerful agencies at work in causing reé to appear. A good deal has been said, notably by Mr. Holderness, the Director of Agriculture for the North-West Provinces and Oudh, as to the result of the experiments nut having been a finan- cial success on the whole. To my mind a great deal too much has been made of this aspect; not that it is not the ultimate test of success, but because it should be remembered that until the effort has emerged from the experimental stage it cannot be fairly put upon its trial. So long as experiments are being tried, expenditure is made upon a great many things which have to be abandoned later on ; experiment should be for the purpose of seeing which one of a number of different plans that have suggested themselves seems to give the best prospect of success, but not until this has been reached can the system itself be fairly said to be on its trial. It is a remarkably promising omen that Mr. Husain has been able to show, even in the initial stage, such success as has been attained at Amramau, and to him very great credit is due, Not long ago it would have been said the wsar could not be reclaimed at all, and to show that it can be is, in itself, a most valuable fact. That it may not at present yay to take up usar land and so reclaim it, is a matter affected by present conditions; but there may come, ere long, a demand on the soil, owing to pressure o£ population and spread of cultivation, which may call for even usar land to be taken up, and then it may pay well to reclaim it. The experience gathered from past experiments will then supply the necessary guide, and a financial success may well ‘result, 77. The reclamation of land, whether it be ravine land or wsay Reclamation of land, must, as indicated in the foregoing pages, come mainly from Rowan ae Government agency. In a few instances the Native proprietors Work of Govern. may follow an example set, but the initiative must come from Gov- ernment, and from Agricultural Departments in particular. The improvement of land infested with hans grass and other weeds is part of a better and more careful cultivation, 48. In reference to the reclamation of asar I have expressed The necd for an my surprise at this enquiry having been carried out without the eet aai . o 62 Soil. help of an Agricaltural Chemist. Such a man would have been able to render very considerable help, and to have prevented many mistakes and speculations from being made, To take a single instance—when remedial measures were attempted it should cer- tainly have been ascertained (as could have been done readily by chemical analysis) what amount of salt: was present originally in the soil, and how much salt each remedial process had succeeded, in the end, in removing. It is still unknown in what quantity the salt exists, and in what amount it will be injurious. Such an example as this constitutes a strong claim for having agricultural investigation in India carried out with the association of an Agrie cultural Chemist. I do not say that the presence of such a man would, of itself, enable the re question to be solved; but I am sure it would very greatly aid the enquiry, and no such enquiry should be carried out without the assistance of an Agricultural Chemist, 63 CONCLUSIONS. 79. The differences which are directly traceable to the varying nature of soil are, like those resulting from climate, not capable of elimination either by the people or by the Government; they can only be modified to a certain extent, Any improvement of agriculture in this connection will be achieved by — (1) increasing, in dry tracts, the supply of water and, con- sequently, of moisture to the soil ; (2) increasing the manure supply and enriching the poorer soil ; : (8) experimental enquiry and the scientific study of soils and their treatment. The main work of the above must fall upon Government; for the people will only in a few cases, at best, follow the initiative set, nor indeed will they have the means for so doing. The third part, or the introduction of Western Science, must also come from Government alone. Of scientific study ,of soils in India there has been almost a total absence in the past, and experimental work, as in the reclamation of wsar, has suffered in consequence, I regard the problem of the possible exhaustion of the soil, under a conti- nuation of the present system of agriculture, as one which the Government will have to meet by devising measures for increasing the manure supply of the country, Good work has been done by the Agricultural and Irrigation Departments of the North-West Provinces in the endeavour to utilise ravine land and to reclaim usar land, and encouragement should be given to the continu- anee of this work of enquiry. RECOMMENDATIONS. 80. I recommend :— ‘The increase, by means of Irrigation, of the water supply to dry tracts, The increase of the manure supply to the soil. The instituting of Enquiry to ascertain where such measures are. needed and ean be carried out. The continuation of Experimental Research, aided by Chemi- cal Science. CONCLUSIONS, EECOMMHEND.s ATIONS, CHAPTER VI, Watzs, General division of India in reference to irrigation requirements. Division into ** protected ” and ‘* preca- rious ”’ tracts, Precari ous Districts indicated on Bain fall Map, 6+ CHAPTER VI. WATER. 81. Warer, in one form or another, is indispensable to agricul. ture, and in no country does this relation acquire greater signifi- cance than in India. So varied, however, are the climatie condi- tions met with in different parts, that each must be considered by itself before any general conclusion can be arrived at as to the sufficiency of the rainfall or the need of supplementing it. Not only climatic but geological features also will determine the need and the mode of further supply, This-supplementing of the natural rainfall may, broadly, be called Irrigation, In this sense we may consider India as divided into three great areas :— Ist. Where irrigation is not needed. 2nd, Where irrigation is highly desirable. 3rd. Where irrigation is absolutely necessary, 82. The first division comprises districts where there is an abundant rainfall; these are protected thereby from drought and famine ; such regions exist over Burmah, Assam, Eestern Bengal, along the sub-Himalayan range, and in the Western Ghats. ln the Central Provinces also, and over a great part of Central India, a sufficiency of rainfall is aided by the presence of a black soil which retains that water firmly, and to which the supply of irrigation would possibly be even harmful. The third division comprises the driest tracts of all the regions of lowest rainfall, such as the arid plains of parts of the Punjab and Rajputana, with nearly the whole of Sind. In these, while irrigation is an absolute necessity for the carrying on of agricul- ture, yet: in respect of being subject to famine they are safer than those of the second division, this latter including all those districts where the rainfall is uncertain and variable. The reason of this, as explained in Chapter IV, paragraph 84, is, that where rainfall is low the ratyat or caltivator will never try to grow 4 crop unless he has a certainty of water, whereas, in parts to which sometimes rain comes in sufficiency and sometimes not, he is tempted to risk the growing of a crop, and should the rain then fail, the crop may be entirely lost. It is these districts of uncertain rainfall that are the really “ precarious’ ones, and here the fear of famine is almost ever present. They are the tracts which are light-coloured on the Rainfall Map, and they extend over a great part of North-West India, Réyputana, the Deccan, and Madras, It is to providing protection against famine in these precarious tracts that Government have devoted such constant efforts, and that so much skill has been exercised by the Irrigation Depart- ment in particular. Systems of Irrigation. 5 83. It is well now to summarise the main types of water supply Summary of met with in India, and, after that, to show how irrigation alters water sini”. in character and how its extension is largely dependent upon the anes physical conditions and geological features of the country. ; (a) In the first place is the Rainfall ; abundant reference has (a) Rainfall. been already made to this in Chapter IV (Climate). The dark-coloured parts on the Rainfall Map are those of heavy rain, and are thus naturally protected from drought. Under the same heading has been mentioned . the water-retaining black cotton-soil, where, too, irri- gation is not called for. This soil covers the parts coloured green on the Geological Map. The above districts may be considered as ‘‘ protected,” and as not requiring farther irrigation, (4) After this we may take those districts which do not require (4) tnundstio irrigation, because they are inundated: by rivers, or >y tivere and which, though not inundated, yet derive sufficient ; moisture from rivers in their proximity. Instances of the latter have been given in the tracts along river beds in the Punjab. Inundated tracts are found also + in many parts*of the Punjab, for instance, at Multan, where the country beside the river banks is often flooded to the extent of six or eight miles, Again, in Gijrat (Punjab) and other tracts along the foot of the - hills there are large areas which are annually inundated by mountain streams bringing silt down with them. The rainfall is insufficient for tbe crops, and the spring level is too deep for irrigation wells, so the flood waters of the torrents that issue from the hills are turned out of the beda of the torrents by means of tem- porary dams erected in the beds, and are thus poured on to the slope of the country. The latter thus ac- quires sufficient moisture and also a renewal of silt more than equivalent toa manuring. An instarce of a dry tract such as this is Shahpur, between the Indus and the Jhelum. ; (c} Next are the canals :— (c) Canals and river-channels, These may be classed under three heads:—(1) The perennial canals from snow-fed rivers, found, for instance, in Northern India. (2) Inundation canals, available only while the river is in flood. The banks of the river are above the level of the surrounding country and the flood waters are carried off from the river. This is, accordingly, a rainy-season supply only. Such canals are met with in the Southern . Panjab and in Sind, (3) Canals or other channels from rivers that are not asnow-fed. A dam, or “anicut?? as itis technically known, is thrown across ‘ the bed of a river, and the latter is turned into a lake, from which it is led into irrigating canals and distributing channels. In this way ‘an 5 66 Water. autumn and winter supply is obtained. Of this nature are the channels off the Cauveri, the Goda- veri, and the Kistna rivers, in Madras. (4) Welle, (@) The next system is that of wells, the most widely-distri- ‘buted one, ‘but seen principally in the alluvial belt of the Ganges plain, and notably in the Doab (or éwo- ‘river district, i.e, the country lying between the two rivers, the Ganges and the Jumna), (¢) “ Tanks, (e) Then: follow the so-called “ Tanks,”’ principally found in Madras, where the ground is rocky and the country hilly or undulating. These are really lakes or reservoirs, and are constructed by putting dams across depressions or valleys, In them rain water is collected for use in the dry season. Some are also fed by jungle streams and rivers as well as by rain water. They occur, further, ‘in Réjputaua and in Central India. ) Shallow (7) Lastly come the shallow tanks or ponds which are dug anu nC poets in the earth whenever the soil is of a clayey character, and serve to hold the one year’s supply of rain water. These ponds are met with in Western Bengal, the valley of the Ganges, as also in Madras. Distribution of 84, On referring to the Geological Map, sufficient reason will aero acording be found for the occurrence of the particular systems in each part, fo the physical “the alluvial soil of the north (coloured drown on the map) lending it- country, self rather to canals, wells, and shallow ponds,.and the rocky ground Geological Map,-of Madras (coloured ved on.the map) to the so-called “ tanks, ’’ as well as to channels, whilst the central, or black cotton-soil portion (the part coloured grees) needs neither particularly. But the variations of rainfall, situation, and nature of soil, in different parts call for still further consideration. Thus, to take the alluvial ,plain of the Ganges—in the extreme west the water lies too deep .down for wells, and this part, including the Panjab generally, is essentially the region for canals; the central part, the North- ‘West Provinces, is the wed] district par excellence, though supple- mented here and there by canals; then, coming to Bengal,—in the western portion are shaliow ponds or tanks, and mainly where clay »eovering the soil enables the water to be retained, whilst in the eastern portion the rainfall itself is enough, and canals would be out of place.and even do:harm, In Madras the underlying rock, ‘on the contrary, lends itself: more naturally to the construction of large reservoirs or “ ¢ants,”” holding more than the one year’s rain- fall, But this is not all, for, as.is: well illustrated in the North-West ‘Provinces, a cross section may be drawn 'through the Gangetic ‘plain, ‘and it will exhibit different features of irrigation in each di-- vision, ‘Thus, taking such across section, we may have, first of all, a region like.the sub-Himalayan range, where rainfall is abund- antand no irrigation is called for. Then there will come one where, with less rainfall, the water.lies close below the surface, ‘and ean be easily ebtained:from shallow swells of, say, 10—20 feet ‘depth, This is the case, for instance,:at Bareilly, Next may be Systems of Irrigation, 67 one where the water lies deeper and is less readily obtainable, and canals may be called for in addition. Such is found to be the case in- the Doab, where wells are 20—30 feet deep. Lastly, may come @ region situated on a central elevated ridge of the country where the wells are too deep to be profitably worked ; the water is often . brackish, and canals are the only available means of irrigation. ‘This is the case along the Jumna river, the wells being 80 feet deep or more, and the water bad. é ‘I have set these points out, because without bearing‘ them ‘in mind it is not possible to understand the considerations that have to be taken into account in’ providing for the irrigation ‘of any tract, nor yet to grasp the point of what I wish particularly to Impress, viz., the necessity of careful enquiry into the agricultural pe of each sepirate district and the best way of supplying ese, 85° Before dealing with particular points connected with each The great work elass of irrigation, in the endeavour to show where improvement curermaent and may possibly be effected, I wish to qualify any suggestion I may Deaneene. make, by saying, at the outset, that I consider the way in which Government have attacked the problem of irrigation‘and the man- nerin which the Irrigation Department have carried out‘ the work, are worthy of the highest praise ; moreover, the disposition of each to meét, wherever it is practicable, the neéds of ‘the ' country, both for protective purposes and for the improvement of ‘its agri- cultare, shows how deeply concerned they are in the ‘well-being of the people. : “Easy though it be to criticise Government Departments, be they Irrigation, or Forest, or Agricultural, and to point to mistakes that have been made in the past, and to isolated cases where harm trather than good has resulted, I prefer, and?think it is but right, to acknowledge the vast work done and the enormous benefit that bas accrued: to the country generally as the result of the attention which Government. have bestowed on this great: subject of Irriga- tion. It is hardly necessary even to ask that the operations should be extended, for both Government and the Irrigation Department are fully alive to the necessities, and will not fail to-avail them- ‘selves of every opportunity for extension of their work. 86. Perennial Canals.—It has been explainéd that in certain porennial parts, ‘for instance, the Western Punjab, the rainfall is very Camas meagre, and the water-level is so low that wells cannot be sunk ‘profitably ; hence the canals from snow-fed ‘rivers are ‘the only “means of irrigation. I cannot give a better instance of the change ‘effected! by the introduction of a canal to adty, arid tract, ‘thao -what I saw in the course of my ‘tour through the country lying around Multan in the Punjab. The Sidhnai Canal has ‘been changes pro- brought ‘here, and now, wherever if spreads its arms, fertility -and duced in ipo ap" prosperity abound, whilst the parts which he beyond its influence sonntry by the are typical of barrenness and desert. ‘Here a complete transform. a canal into a ation in the appearance of the’country ‘has been effected.- -'The “strict. «soil, though in itself rich enough, is powerless, in'the absence of ‘Rvater, to ‘sustain its érops. It is only where an occasional’ well 5A 68 Water. occurs, or where water has lodged in a depression, that there is Bonetcial effects any Cultivation at all; but where the water can reach, agriculture of canals. The Sidhnai nal.) Primary use of canale. Objections urged against canals, flourishes, On one side of the railway line, as I travelled from Multan to Rashida, the Sidhnai Canal spread, and cultivation was all around ; on the other side of the line’there was no canal, and the land was entirely bare, save for a few stunted bushes. No one could see the contrast presented, without being deeply impressed by the great good done by canal irrigation. This scheme was started in order to take settlers from the congested districts of the Punjab (Lahore, Amritsar, etc). It was estimated that 64,000 acres of land would be required, but already 110,000 acres have been let to cultivators, so that the canal has been very successful. Other instances which particularly struck my attention, as exem- plifying the beneficial effects of canals upon agriculture, were the remarkable development of market-gardening around Amritsar (Punjab), the outcome of the Bari-Doab canal ; the sugar-cane and rice cultivation at Hospet (Madras), which has entirely developed since a channel was taken off from the River Tungabadra ; and the sugar-cane cultivation around Poona. When speaking of wells I shall have occasion to point out re- spects in which I consider that cultivation by means of them is superior to cultivation by canal, but it is necessary to point out that it is only in a very limited region, mainly the Doab, that the two systems really come into competition. What is requisite in extending canals is, to take them primarily to those districts which have no other available means of water supply, but not to supplant an existing cultivation carried on by means of wells or tanks. But where these latter means are insufficient, then canals may do a great) work in supplementing the supply. The main object should, however, be to carry canals to the parts where agriculture must depend upon them alone. 8'7. It has been urged against canals, and with some reason, that in some cases they have been brought where they. were never needed ; that they have been carried across the main drainage lines of the country, and have obstructed the natural drainage, besides raising the water-level, causing the spread of - the saline efflorescence known as ref, spoiling the wells, and bringing fever and ill-health to the population affected. There have been, and always will be, minor complaints of the occasional barshness of higher, and the corruption of inferior, canal officers, But, to my mind, all these objections sink into insignificance be- fore the grand work that has been done, and that is now being carried on in the light of the experience of the past. Were but the culti- vators to use the water with anything like the care with which it has been provided to them, the results would be much greater still. The Irrigation Department will, I know, not be slow to acknowledge that there have been mistakes in the past—mistakes of construc- tion and of. distribution—but they are now careful to avoid these as far as possible, and when extension of canals is made, it is only after the agricultural circumstances and needs of the - districts have been considered, in order to determine whether they ought Canals, 69 to be served by canals or by wells, and in order to construct the canals so as togive distribution of water over the widest area possible. 88. I will nom consider the several objections taken to canals, Canals have The first is, that canals have been carried where there was no need whore nette: of them. A colour is given to this objection because, in order to 1 reach tracts where there is no other means of water supply, canals have Sometimes to pass through districts already provided for; still, it is quite true that canals have been brought unnecessarily to some parts ef the country. In the Cawnpore district of the North-West Provinces there are many villages along the line of the canal, like Rura, which ought to have depended upon wells, and, indeed, were partly supplied with them; but now only the ruined remains of the wells exist, for they were merely dug in the ground, and had no masonry to support the sides, consequently they fell in when the water-level was raised through the introduction of the canal, ‘That this is altogether due to the canal is hardly the case, I made special enquiries on this point, and found that though destruction of wells undoubtedly occurred at first, yet the water- level soon became constant, and wells can now be easily made- without masonry. What really happened was, that when the canal came the cultivators relied entirely on it as the easiest means of watering their fields, and so they used the water wastefully, and allowed the wells to fall into disrepair. It is only when ihe supply of water runs short, owing to the spread of irrigation over a wider area, that the raiyat begins to get economieal in the use of canal water. In some instances, indeed, the canals have improved the wells by raising the water-level and making the supply more accessible. Still, there is undoubtedly some reason for complaint that canals have been carried where they were not required. AD Instances, instance of this is seen in Orissa, where a canal was started in’ 1866 as a protective measure, after the famine that occurred there, _ but it has never been wanted since, and has not only been unremu- nerative, but has also done positive harm to the country by interrupting the natural drainage. The upper part of the Western Jumna Canal is, similarly, not a success. Both in Behar and in the Bombay Presidency there are canals which, in so far as they have not paid directly for their construction, have been called “failures.” But this ie not a fair view of looking at the question, and no one who has had experience of the loss of human life and of cattle in past times of scarcity, and will contrast it with the protection afforded by the canals now, can for a moment doubt the wisdom of constructing these very canals, although the expendi- ture may not have been directly recouped. Nevertheless, in districts where wells can quite readily be dug, their extension rather than the replacement of them by canals should be sought. In the Cawnpore district I have seen the wealthier cultivators constructing masonry wells, although they had the canal flowing © past their land. They were, however, situated near the termina- tion of the canal, and knew that the supply of water was preca- rious- because of so much being used higher up the ‘stream, But Construction of reservoirg at termination of - canals. ey Canals have interfered with the pacural drainage, and cauéed ill-health to population, The problem of canal irrigation, Subsoil drainage as a remedy, 70 Water. on their wells they could always rely, and so they preferred to dig them rather than to trust to the canal. 89. In district situated near the termination of a canal, and where consequently the supply of water must be uncertain, it is worth considering whether reservoirs might not be advantagecusly constructed which would serve as storage tanks for irrigation pur- poses. At Cawnpore, during the hot season, 1 saw the crops of some Kacbhi cultivators which were being. quite ruined owing to want of water, for, although the canal was within a stone’s throw and, water was passing down it, there was. not sufficient water to. allow of the outlet to the cultivators’ fields being opened ; never- theless, the stream, then flowing two feet deep, shortly afterwards. found its way again into the river, and its benefit was lost to the land., Had there been a reservoir at the end of the.canal, or some system of: small. tanks in the fields themselves, which could be filled and drawn from as required, less entire dependence could have been placed upon the uncertain canal supply. . 90. The second objection urged against canals is, that they” have interfered with the natural drainage of the country, and that by raising the water-level, they have brought fever and ill-health to. the people, This, again, isa charge which has much to support it; but the Irrigation Department is fully alive to the necessity of avoiding these evils in the future; accordingly, new canals are now aligned with greater care. Villages in the Etah and Cawn- pore districts of the North-West Provinces, others in the Delhi and Karnal districts, as also some along the Bari-Doab Canal in the Punjab, are known to have suffered from excessive canal irrigation, and to have become unhealthy on account of the faulty construction of canals, and a reduction of assessment has, in consequence, had ‘to be granted. This subject opens up a very serious problem for. consideration. Are the people to have the land left dry, and the climate healthy, though they themselves may suffer and die from. the inroads of famine, or are they to reap an abundant harvest at the sacrifice of health? In other words, are they to drop. off one by one by slow degrees and unnoticed, or are they to be swept away in numbers at a time by famine? This is, to put it plainly, the position that has to be faced. The verdict, it seems to me, must be the one that actuated the appointment of. a Famine Commission, and also their subsequent recommendation that, the preservation of the lives of the people being the chief concern, the causes which stand out most markedly.as sweeping the population away wholesale must be first combated, Beyond this, the only possible line of action seems to me to be the exercise of greater care in future alignment of canals, and the introduction of subsoil drainage in especially bad tracts, Subsoil drainage is, Tam aware, avery difficult and costly matter in India, andfor the purpose of merely reclaiming salty land (usar) is hardly to be thought of ; but where the lives of the people are concerned, and when there is undoubted evidence of , the depopulation of waters logged districts, I do.not see|how the issue can be long delayed... At all events, I think’ that eubsoil drainage should be thoroughly Objections to Canals. au put to the trial, in order to aszertain whether it can be carried out successfully on a large scale. 91. Other objections to canal irrigation follow as consequences Other objection of the two main ones already noticed.. It has been mentioned *2**t "+ that the introduction of canals has been detrimental: ‘to exist. ing wells, But it is urged also against them that they have caused the spread of the salty: efflorescence termed re: (sce paragraphs 67 and 74), in districts watered by canals. I endeavoured: in}: the last chapter (paragraph 74) to explain the:part which canals spread of reh, play in the production of ve, and:to show that: they supply the “~ water necessary to dissolve. the salts that: lie below the surface and enable them to be brought: to the‘ surface by capillary attraction. I have pointed -out, however, that, by flooding. the affected Jand with silt-laden:canal water, a remedy can be provided, and» the injured land be practically reclaimed by means of the canal, 92. Inundation Canals.—In the Gangetic system (to which: the inundation perennial canals just described belong) the water of the dry,and “™"”™ rainless season is utilised, There is then little or no silt, andthe s water serves rather as a substitute for rain than as.a fertiliser. In the case of the Inundation Canals, on the other hand, the silt-laden waters of the rivers are carried:at flood time to the:higher lands, and thus afford greater benefit to districts were rainfall is: deficient. As their name indicates, Inundation Canals areof use only in :the rainy: season, and they are taken off: from rivers the banks of which are above ‘the :level of the surrounding: country. Sueh canals are met with: principally in the Punjab‘and'in Sind, This systém was in vogue before the time of the English’: occupa- tion‘of India, and many of the canals were constructed:and worked by the Natives themselves, 98. Canals or River-Channels from Spring-fed: Rivers.— River-chaonels These oceur principally in Southern India, and do: not. differ yom sPrne-fed except in their. origin and methods of construction and. dis- tribution from. the aforenamed snow-fed canals. It has been often pointed out that a. great deal of water is allowed: to Possivitity of flow down the rivers of Southern India and to find its way, into #oung water the sea, whereas increased means of intercepting it before it before flowing reached ‘the sea would result in a large ‘amount of ‘water . being : saved for. irrigation purposes. Mr. Nicholson, in his “Manual. of: Coimbatore,” points out that ‘much: good might“ be done by storing the water of great rivers in reservoirs, and»that it would: not only supply irrigation, but would prevent a “source of danger’ to the.districts below, which arises from the ‘sudden rushing down’ ofthe river at the beginning of: flood times In a Report on the Condition of .Anantapur Mr. Nicholson instances that ithe water of the:Pennér and. the Hagari rivers might-be: advantageously: stored in this way,especially as the districts through which these rivers flow are peculiarly exposed to drought. 94. Tanks.—This term, as applied to the rain, stream, and fivers “Tanke.” fed reservoirs which : occur principally in‘ Madras‘and in‘Central India, is an incorrect one. They are in reality Lakes or Reservoirs 72 Water. formed by the erection of dams across depressions or valleys, and Wastoof water in are fed either by the rainfall or by jungle streams and rivers, rico cultivation. ‘Thoy are largely utilised in Madras for rice cultivation, and it is Cultivation by tank irrigatiou, Shallow tanks or ponds. Welle, certain that a very excessive quantity of water is often used from them, I noticed this particularly at Salem. Mr. Nicholson reckoned that in Coimbatore as much as 12 feet depth of water in a season was used from tanks kept for rice cultivation. Frequently the tanks are the property of individuals or communities, and are managed by them. In some eases, however, the Irrigation Depart- ment undertakes the distribution of the water. Better manage- ment in the repair of tanks is a matter calling for attention, and will be referred to later. The supply of water from tanks which are merely rain-fed must, at best, be looked on as precarious, owing to the uncertainty of the rainfall. Tank irrigation is, however, preferred to any other for rice cultivation, but a cultivator will not begin to use a tank unless he knows that there is sufficient water in it to last him for his crop throughout its whole growth. If the tank be full, he grows rice; if itis not, he grows other crops. The consequence of waiting is that a good deal of water is wasted by percolation, and the tank may, after all, not be available. It is difficult to suggest any remedy. Though tanks occur mostly in Southern India, yet they are sometimes made ia the rice-growing districts of Bengal ; or else reservoirs are formed by throwing embankments across drainage hollows or natural slopes of fields, and are used for irrigating rice in the event of long droughts; when required, the banks are cut and the water is allowed to flow out. Reportis:from Chota Nagpur show that while in some parts, Palamau, for instance, irrigation by these reservoirs is a necessity for rice, in others, such as Lohar- daga, only afew tanks exist. More might, however, be easily made and the rice be. irrigated. On occasions when drought has occurred, the villages that possessed embanked reservoirs have suffered no loss of rice; once at Banda, for example, the banks were cut, the water was led for four miles, and over 200 acres of rice were thus saved. Even in the Central Provinces it is now under ‘consideration. whether in parts, suchas the Mandla and Balaghat districts, tanks should not be constructed for ‘rice irrigation. 95. Shallow Tanks or Ponds,—These are the true Tanks, for they are excavated reservoirs, and are not merely those formed by embanking depressions or valleys, thereby holding up the water that comes, The true tanks only hold the rainfall of the year, and dry up entirely in the hot weather, Where the soil is’ clayey underneath is the most favourable spot for their construc: tion ; if the soil be sandy, without clay beneath, the water will soon sink in and disappear. They are, of course, simply rainefed, and are met: with not only in the alluvial soil of Bengal and the Gangetic Valley, but also in parts of Bombay and Madras, 96. Wells.—I1 have left the consideration of wells until now, so ‘that I may inelude under this head some of the principal differences that occur between cultivation by wells and that under other Tanks and Wells, 73 means of irrigation. Irrigation by wells is at once the moet widely- distributed system, and also the one productive of the finest examples of careful cultivation, I may fairly say that nothing io the agriculture of India impressed me so much as the excellence of the cultivation carried on by irrigation from wells (“garden ”? Excellence of land.) This was not the case merely in one or two parts only, oufdyition. but in almost every instance where this system of cultivation was adopted. Whether it be in the Geted and plantain gardens of Mébim Examples ot (Bombay), the market-gardening of Meerut (North-West Prov- o.farstin. inces), the “garden ” land of Coimbatore, in Madras, or that of ‘Gijrat and Hoshiarpur in the Punjab, the finest cultivation I have seen has almost invariably been that carmed on by well irrigation. Here itis that the greatest care is given, and the greatest economy used; it is for this land that manure is most saved, and from it every weed is plucked away as an intruder; here every inch is utilised for growing crops—not one crop alone, but often three or even four together—and to these crops the precious water is dealt out, as it were, by measure. To take a single instance—at Mahim the ée¢e/ plant is watered every sixth day until manure is applied to it, and after that every third day antil the rains come ; sugar-cane once every six days until the rains; plantains similarly, and ginger at intervals of three days only. The explanation of the excellence of cultivation as carried on by ’ irrigation from wells is found chiefly in the fact that every drop of water has to be raised by the ratyat’s labour and that of his bullocks, and that the well itself has often been built with his own money and by his own hands. But I must not dwell on this, rittle or nothing except’ to say in regard to this cultivation that I can saggest ipimpiore” nothing in it to improve; indeed, the people have mastered thoroughly all details of the system. English farmers may well join with me and look on in admiration, and it should be the aim of every one interested in agricultural improvement in India to extend this method of irrigation in every way possible. Further, as regards wells, one cannot help being struck by togenious de- the skill with which a supply of water is first found by the native vices ofthe | cultivator; then by the construction of the wells, the kinds of vators for rais. wells and their suitability to the surroundings and means of the ~” people; also by the various devices for raising water, each of which has a distinct reason for its adoption. All these are most interesting points with which I am not called on to deal, for I see little to improve in them whieh the cultivator does not know perfectly well. I would, however, draw attention to Major Clibborn’s valuable Report on the Construction of Wells in the North-West Provinces, where many particulars as to wells and well irrigation can be found. 97. As I have explained before, it is only exceptionally that Comparison | cultivation by means of wells can be brought.into comparison with well or canal, that by canal irrigation, and it must be remembered that the value of the latter system consists in the fact that canals can often be brought where construction of. wells is impossible. Where 14 Pater. the two systems exist near one another I have sometimes had” the opportunity of comparing them, Such was the case at Amritsar, Cawnpore, and elsewhere; frequently, too, wells are used, as at Multan, to supplement the canal supply and to ensure the safety of the crops, Not only are the plots.on well (or “ garden”) land kept very much freer from weeds, but infinitely more care is taken with the distribution of - well water than of canal water, except, possibly, when the latter has to be raised by lift from the canal before it can be put on to the land. When canal water is available the tendency is great to let the water flow on just as one would turn ona tap and allow it to run, No extra labour is involved, and no extra charge is made for the quantity of water used, as the water rate is solely for the area brought to maturity. But in the case of a well, all water raised : has Jabour expended on it, and'so the cultivator is. careful that it: is-only used as the crop requires it and that it is made to govas far» as possible. The very appearance of the fields under the two systems of cultivation is different. The beds, or Ayarées as they are termed in the North-West Provinces, into’ which the plots are divided by means of small embankments which direct: the flow of: water to particular parts; are numerous and small in the case of cultivation by wells ; in canal cultivation, on the other: hand, they are few and large, Colonel Forbes, the head of the Irrigation Department, pointed out to me that for every bed which: exists in the case of canal cultivation there would be from five to eight beds on the same area if a well were used,’ Hoss by percola- — Major Clibborn, in his Report, remarks on the loss . sustained courses ' ~ through percolation in watercourses, especially in the case of long canal channels, and in village watercourses. Well water-. courses, on the.other hand, are short and are well-made as com: pared. with those of a canal. The canal courses in villages are the property of the cultivators,.and are made by: them ; but, as the villagers have no interest in the economy of canal.- water, the courses are often badly kept, and the loss by percolation Irrigation is very great. Advance in this direction might be effected if Department” the Irrigation Department had more powers of construction and further powers: of improvement, of watercourses, and if they could recover the courses. ~—s cost’ by a.smallrate. It is very difficult for an isolated cultivator to arrange for the water to run to his field when it. first ‘passes through his neighbours’ fields. The main courses, which are kept up, by Government, are, asa rule, in excellent order, and the loss by evaporation and percolation is comparatively small. Waste of water Although there is a rule to enforce the making of beds or Rae, compartments of a certain size, the raiyats who use the canal : water will evade the rule if they. can, and'‘the canal officers find it ‘difficult and ‘harassing to enforce it stringently. In districts. to which canals have recently come, the people are new to this particular mode of irrigation, and this fact affords another reason for the authorities not wishing to press too much‘at' first for compliance. Ag a consequence, water, when distributed from a well, is generally put onto just a sufficient depth and ‘no more, Waste of Water in Cultivation. 75° but canal water is often run on to an unnecessary extent. Major Clibborn concluded from his investigations that rather more than three times as much water is used for irrigating an acre froma canalasfrom a well. The average depths of water used were 0°9 inches from wells and 2°86 inches from canals. This has led Shoald all canal to a consideration whether,in future, canal water should not be tier" supplied by “lift ” only, instead of by “flow ” 5 but it is felt that the plan would not work, inasmuch as a cultivator will often wait until the last moment, in the hope that rain may come and so enable him to dispense altogether with the canal water, or rather, with having to pay the rate for it. Thus; very frequently, he will not take the canal water until positively obliged todo so, Had he then to raise. all the water by “ lift,’”? he would not be able to get enough labour to irrigate the whole area in the time, and the canal would fail in accomplishing its object.. Similarly, al] attempts at devising a scheme for paynient of Failureot — water by the quantify used have failed. igmectof water rate by At Multan, Ferozepore, and Shiyali, I observed instances of quantity used, beds or compartments being made too large; at Hospet, on the contrary, far more care was exercised, and the compartments were not much larger than in “ garden” land. In the Punjab itis found, asthe result of increasing canal. irrigation, that the tendency is,to grow more wheat. This is the case whenever the canal runs long enough to supply moisture for sowing the crop, inasmuch as a single fall of rain afterwards, about January, suffices for -wheat. A disadvantage in cultivation by canals as compared with that by wells is that in the latter case a man has always some work to do, and is. more independent than if he relies on a canal. which may only be let on to his land .at intervals, Hence when. there is the. chance of giving the land a good: soaking the. tendency. is to put-a great deal more water on it than is really necessary, Again, a raigat is not so careful in levelling his field when he uses canal water as when he has to raise water from a-well, and thus waste is incurred with canal water. 98. This leads me to the consideration of the ‘ overeropping: over. of the land, consequent on the introduction of canal irrigation. eropring . a The Report of the Famine Commission records instances where on canal, deterioration of soil’ has followed the coming: of canals : into ""®*%™’: districts previously unsupplied. by them. Undoubtedly, with the introduction of a canal into a district comes also the tendency to force the land to bear more crops. than it: ought: to, unless it be plentifully supplied with manure, which is seldom the case ; also, the careless use.of the water causes the washing-out of those con- stituents of the-soil which should form part of the crops. Moisture _ and heat are necessary- to bring. the soil-constituents into activity, but over-watering not only produces a state of stagnation and coldness, but goes farther, and actually removes the very-plant food ‘which it has been instrumental in bringing into.an assimilable condition, — a a OIE ee tone 76 Water, Depends upon It is necessary to make the reservation here, that much depends water used, on the kind of water employed. If it be what may be termed a “ poor’? water, that is, one without any silt, or with but little mineral salts in it, the effect will bea ‘ washing-out ” one, but if silt be brought with the water, or if it contain fertilising salts, the result may bea‘! renewing ”’ one. It is often the case that canal banks are cut, and that the water is let on the land for the sake of the silt, the principle of this waste of water being that the more water that is used the more silt isthere deposited. Thus, the Tanjore Delta, which is all rich rice land, has been formed entirely by silt brought down from the river Coleroon, a branch of the Cauveri, Preference of 99. Where both canal and well water are available the cultivator for a i ° ° 3 well water. preference of tne raiyat is very marked for the latter, more espe- cially for his “garden” crops. He calls the canal water “cold,” the well water “ warm; ’’ and when the well water is brackish -(khara) it basio his eyes particular virtues for certain crops, especially tobacco, which the “ sweet ” ( meetha ) canal water does not possess. As to one being “ warm” and the other “ cold,” there is a certain amount of truth in this, for irrigation is employed mainly in the cold season, when the canal water is the colder of the two ; besides this, the canal water often comes over clean river beds, straizht away from the melting snows, whilst the well. water is below and is impregnated with the earth’s salts, The chief reason, however, is, I believe, that over-watering with canal water brings about a cold and stagnant state of the soil, such as happens with an imperfectly drained clay soil in England, and causes a“ chilling ’’ which the well water, since used in lesser quantity, does not produce. In reading papers which have been written on this subject I have been amused to notice the speculations indulged in on this point, whereas in none of the investigations has a single record been given of the actual temperature of ‘either Speculations as the canal or the well water. The speculations as to the particular tothe differenc*s .alts contained in either well or canal water are equally random, and well water. For example, one writer speaks of ‘‘ compounds of ammonia and lime,” these being, as yet, unknown to science; another is not afraid to say, “ the superiority of cultivation by wells I attribute without hesitation to the presence of lime,’ and this with- out any analytical data whatever to support the assertion. Need of a These points I name as showing the desirability of associating ° ees in any future investigation a scientific man with knowledge of chemistry.. It is only fair, however, to Sir Edward Buck to say that he did take the precaution to have an analysis of the water made when he was investigating this question of relative efficiency. : : My analyses of I was led to examine this question myself, so far as occasion canal and well nermitted, and, in Apr:l 1890, I was conducted by Mr. Holder- ness, the Director of Agriculture in the North-West Provinces and Oudh, to a village named Rawatpur, not far from the Cawn- pore Experimental Farm. Here a well was shown to me which- was considered to yield water especially good for the tobacco | Canal Water and Well Water Compared. 17 crop, and to be much superior to the water from the canal (Cawn- pore branch of the Lower Ganges Canal) which flowed near by. I took samples of the well water, and Mr. Holderness subsequently collected others from the canal supply. These I sent to my labor- atory in London for analysis.* The composition of the two waters may be represented as follows, the quantities being stated in grains per gallon :— Canal Water. | Well Water. Grains Grains per Galion. per Gallon. Sulphate of Lime - - - - 1:80 10°71 Phosphate of Lime - - : - - 18 1:59 Carbonate of Lime - - - - - 4°55 4:09 Carbonate of Magnesia = - - - - 3°52 13:23 Chloride of Potassium : - - 63 “69 Carbonate of Potash - : - - - 60 - Chloride of Sodium - : - . - —_ 1469 Nitrate of Soda - : - - - . — 8°66 Carbonate of Soda - - : - - 2°39 16°41 Oxide of Iron and Alumina : - - 28 _ Soluble Silica - - - . - . 1:26 1.96 Tora Solid Residue per Gallon - 15°16 71:93 Free Ammonia - - - : - - ‘001 “002 Albuminoid Ammonia - - : - ‘007 005 * For full analyses see Appendix C. From these figures it will be seen how very marked is the difference in the amounts of solid constituents contained in the respective waters, the canal water having only 15 grains to the gallon, as against 72 grains in the well water. Lime does not constitute a leading distinction ; altogether there are 3°36 grains of lime in the canal water and 7°56 grains in the well - water. ‘The divergence in magnesia is much more marked. It is mainly, however, in the soda salts present that "the waters differ, and in the nitrates, chlorides, and sulphates. The canal water contains 1:40 grains of soda, but the well water has no less than 20°53 gTains per gallon. : Chloride of sodium (common salt), nitrate of soda, and carbo- nate of soda, with carbonate of magnesia and sulphate of lime, constitute the special properties of the well water. It is further noticeable that the well water does not contain more, but rather less, potash than the canal water, and that it is as salts of soda, and not of potash, that the greater part of the salt exists in the former. This I was hardly prepared to find, fully expecting that nitre (nitrate of potash) would be present to a large extent. ‘Repeated applications of the well water would, accordingly, -be. equivalent fo a manuring with readily soluble salts such as The main differences. “78 Water, nitrate of soda, carbonate of soda, common salt, and salts of magnesia, To this is, no doubt, due the believed fertilisiog quality of the well water; in other words, it is owing to the large amount of salts held in solution. Incidentally it may be mentioned that, as regards organic ‘purity, both waters are good, and have but little ammonia, though a water with so much salts dissolved in it as the well water has would probably not be palatable. Need of further, This is but one analysis of well water, but, from my observa- chemical stndy.” tions, I am sure that the composition of the water varies very. greatly in different parts. In some cases the salts, instead of being beneficial, are considered hurtful to crops. A chemical study of this subject would lead to interesting and useful information, and give definite knowledge instead of the present uncertainty that exists, . Analyses by I have found a record of two analyses of Ganges river water, Pe taken at Benares, by Mr. G, Venis, which show the total solids contained in the waters to be 16:52 and 19:95 grains per gallon respectively These figures do not differ widely from my own. The dates of Mr, Venis’s samples were December 19th 1888 and February 6th 1889. Removal of 100. Having spoken of the means of supplying water, it is snner""s ~—s well to mention also means of removing water, or rather, of preventing the harmful effects of a rapid flow of water. Some of these have been instanced already. Thus, improvement of land cut up by ravines has been spoken of in Chapter V, -paragraph 70, subsoil drainage and damming up of rivers, -in paragraphs 90 and 93 of the present chapter. A further plan is that of embanking arable land, in order to stop the rapid Eovbankment or flow of water over its surface at the beginning of the rainy : ‘season. It isin the Central Provinces, perhaps, that this bas been oe most effectually tried, for it has been found that by embanking inces, fields the rich topsoil is not washed away, and a quantity of water is also held up, which comes in usefully for irrigation later on. Great encouragement has of recent years been given:to the spread Encouragement of this practice, more especially by the issue of vernacular notices & bundiny. to the effect that such improvements will be exempted from assess- ment at the next Settlement. The Administration Report of the Central Provinces for 1888-89 says, on page 8 :— “The failure of rain in October 1888 showed the advantage of embank- ing land, the ‘bunded’ fields retaining moisture enoogh for sowing, whilst the open land was hard and dry.” In some parts of the Central Provinces it is found that by holding up the rain water a crop of wheat ean be taken after the rice crop is off, Irrigation has even beén proposed for wheat itself, but there is considerable fear that the crop will be attacked by “ rust.’’ In the absence of embankment or banding of land, as it is termed, it ie found that manure is not properly used, for, if put on, it would be washed away to.a considerable extent. It-is well to -point out that it is not:so much'the total quantity of rain that falls Embanhing of land. 79 sea amount that falls at one time, that may do harm to the and. It is possible that a good deal of existing swampy land might Draining of be reclaimed by draining the water off, but this could hardly be” e earried out unless 2 Government grant for drainage purposes were made. 101. I might now indicate, by way of instanees, some dis- Districts in need triets which came under my notice, and which stand in need of frigation. further irrigation. In the Punjab, Multan and Hissar are two The Punjab. places where a quantity of land could be brought under cultiva- tion if canals were more extended. The success of the Sidhnai' Canal has been mentioned, but there is also a great unwatered tract en- closed between the rivers Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej. The land here is rich ; all it wants is water. At Hissar, too, the canal suprly is very uncertain. Tn the North-West Provinces, Mirzapore is badly off, for irri- North-west gation ; there is none from eanals, and but little from wells. Agra, P”'"°** - Gwalior; and Jhansi are all precarious tracts. The first named. is on the edge:of the “ shrinkage ’’ of: the monsoon, i.¢,, the monsoon rains may stop short before reaching them. ‘Gwalior is likewise badly placed ; the wells are 60 feet deep or more, and the district is too far off for irrigation to be satisfactorily brought to it. At Jhansi, wells are over'40 feet deep ; bunding, as stated, is being tried here. There isialso'scope for extension of well digging near Cawnpore., In regard to Bengal, mention has been made of the good that Bengal, would follow the making of irrigation reservoirs in Lohardaga (Chota Nagpur), and ‘Mr. Basu mentions tracts in the valley -of the Amanat and the plain of the river Son where irrigation canals and reservoirs could easily be made. . In Réjputana, Ajmere is known as a precarious district which Bajputana, the monsoon frequently does not reach. Parts of the Deccan, Deccan, again, stand much in need of irrigation, whilst, coming down to Madras, we find numerous other instances. Anantapur is one of Madras. the driest districts in the Presidency, being badly situated for ‘both the south-west andthe north-east monsoons ; there are only atout 37 wet days in the year, and, with an annual rainfall: of only 23 inches the water soon dries up. Tanks are, therefore, very uncertain. Bellary, Kurnool, Coimbatore, and Madura are also very precarious districts. At Bellary the wells: have to be made in the solid rock, and are 45 feet down ; there are no canals, and but -few tanks. “Kurnool has few wells, the supply of water is poor, and the water itself.oftean brackish. Coimbatore, being situated on high ground, has no irrigation except from wells, and they have to be taken atout 45 feet down,and through rock. At Madura ‘there is:great want of water, and all the tanks have been made -that -can-be ‘made; both canals ‘and wells are, accordingly, wanted here. ~The possibility of extending wells in the “Madras Presidency is shown by the fact that during: the recent distress, in ‘the Chingle- put district alone the Government: have advanced .2% lakhs (say 80 Water. 2,000/.) to enable19,000 more wells to be begun, Mr. Nicholson has pointed out, also, that the waters of the Pennér and Hagari rivers might usefully be stored for irrigation purposes ; also that a storage scheme for Kallaépuram, whereby 2,000 acres might be Mysore, irrigated, is: quite feasible, The centre of Mysore is another part which is very poorly off for water, and wells might, with great advantage, be constructed. The possible advantage of tanks in Central Prov- certain districts of the Central Provinces has been indicated, as ee also the benefits that would follow the embanking or bunding of and, The Saugor district is a case in point. Interdependence 102, There is a matter which I do not wish to pass over, but manure. the full consideration of which I postpone to the next chapter ; I mean, the interdependence of water and manure. The one without the other is productive of but limited good, and in most cases, it may be said that either of them alone is useless, An esti- mate given by Sir Edward Buck, in reference to land near Ajmere, expresses this point as follows:—“ Irrigation from tanks is lavish, and it is put on to lands which it has robbed of its fertility, as the manure supply, before deficient, is now totally insufficient to restore fertility. Given unlimited manure, water will raise the rental of land to Rs. 50 an acre; with no manure it will sink to 1 rupee an acre.” Agency by which ~~ 103. We must now consider how the extension of the different agriculture by | systems of irrigation, according as they are best suited to each etter supply of a irrigation may case, may be carried out. be effected. Where minor works have to be constructed, such tas the digging of wells of a moderate depth, the making of shallow tanks, and the embanking of land, these may be entrusted to the Minor works) = people themselves, aided by a judicious system of “ advances” ay be done by oe the people of Government money for the purpose of beginning such works, italy” ‘To this system of advances the name “taccavi” is given.* In Government. 4 later paragraph I will endeavour to show what improve- Major works ments in the working of this system may be effected. But must be con- : . atructed by for all works of greater magnitude, such as the carrying Government. of canals over the country, the taking off channels from ‘rivers, the formation of large reservoirs or tanks, dependence can alone be placed on Government. It is true that in former times the people themselves made inundation canals, and constructed large reservoirs which are still objeets of admira- tion, but the people are not so likely now to construct fresh ones, but rather to rely on the Government; besides this, whatever may be said of the excellence of the earlier construc- tions, the engineering skill of the Irrigation Department is now able to carry out more effectual and lasting work. It is to assist the people in works which they can carry out them- selves, and to do what they cannot do, that the efforts of * Taccavi system—a system by which advances of money ata low rate of. interest are given by Government to cultivators for agricultural improye- ments, and mainly for the digging of wells. The rate of interest charged is 1 pie per rupee per month, or 62 per cent. per annum. Extension of Irrigation. 81 Government should be put forward. The initiative must now rest more than ever with Government, and, as I have pointed rhe auty of out, a careful enquiry is necessary in the case of each separate Seticultaral district, so as to ascertain exactly what its. irrigation require- ments are, and how best they may be met. It shoald be a main duty of Agricultural Departments to set on foot such enquiry. 104, The last paragraph leaves still open fur further con- The making of sideration the agency by which wells of more than ordinary faa” depth, or those which have to be made under circumstances of special difficulty, are to be constructed. To give instances :— Instances, In the Coimbatore district of Madras the wells are frequently in rock, and are large and costly, the depth varying from 15 feet to 40 feet, while they have to be wide also, in order to include a spring within the area, At Bellary, similarly, I noticed that wells had to be cut through rock to a considerable depth, and had also to be made very large. Mr. Nicholson, in his ‘ Manual of Coimbatore,” speaks of wells as “ being the “mainstay of revenue and the raiyat”’ and he says:—‘ Unless “by great irrigation schemes or development of wells, it is “not probable that production can keep pace with human “ reproduction.’ In another place he says:—“ Well irrigation “alone prevents minor famines;”’? but he also instances frequent cases where “wells have been begun and given up “because of the interposition of impenetrable rock.” In my own enquiries in these parts I found that the cultivators often shrank from taking Government advances for digging wells, because of the chance of rock ‘intervening, and the consequent difficulty of cutting through it; they. might have to go to an uncertain depth, with the chance of not finding water goon enough to make the well profitable to work, and thus they might expend the whole advance and yet not.obtain water, The ignorance of the raiyat in the matter of “ blasting ” of rock is a further hindrance. : , 1t is worthy of remark that in the last great Madras construction of famine it was the deep wells that held out, so that a gui%e% °°" decided advantage follows their construction in precarious districts, an advantage which must be looked on in the ligbt of a ‘‘protective’? measure, and not as distinctly remunera- live. It appears to me, therefore, that in cases of difficulty, where, on account of deficient rainfall and absence of canals, the agriculture absolutely depends upon wells, it is fully worth considering whether Government might not undertake the construction of wells. In other cases, however, it is probably better that the cultivator should be encouraged to construct wells himself; he chooses his own spot (and no engineer could do it better), and he employs his own labour and materials. Wells could undoubtedly be constructed more cheaply with the landlord’s materials than with those which the Government would have to obtain and bring to the spot. It is only in exceptional cases, therefore, that I consider the construction of wells by the State is desirable. But it would 6 82 Water. be easy, in many cases, to make the system of Government advances more known and more popular, and to induce the cultivators to avail themselves further of its advantages. Major Clibborn, in the report already referred to, in para- graph 97, concluded that, as regards the North-West Prov- Inces, a rate of Rs. 2 per acre of annual irrigation would cover the outlay of construction of wells, The cost would, of course, vary in different parts according to the depth and nature of the soil passed through. But it must be remembered that Major Clibborn was dealing with alluvial soil and not with hard rock, such as is met with in Madras. He reported that Government could not safely undertake the construction of wells on a large scale, but that they must leave this to the landlords (zemindars), and to the working of the ¢accavi system. (See footnote on page 80.) Proposed scheme Since my return from India I have heard from my friend, inMadras, = Mr. R. 4, Elliot, of a scheme which he has laid before the Government of Madras, for the digging of wells - by Government in unvecupied fields, and the loaning them out to cultivators at “wet”? rates of assessment. In Madras, it must be explained, the waste land belongs to the State, and it is not an uncommon practice for a raiyat, after cultivating a field for some time, to throw it up and to take another, the field so thrown up remaining in the hands of Government until a fresh tenant is found, In this way enormous quantities of land may be in the hands of the State at one time. Mr. Elliot now suggests that if the Govern- ment were to dig wells in these unoecupied fields, or perhaps even on waste lands, and thus gradually turn them from “dry ” to “ wet” lands, not only would the country be pro- tected against famine, but the revenue might, in the end, be very greatly enhanced. Such a project is one which would carry with it great benefits, though it is obviously only where a land system similar to that of Madras prevails thatit could be adopted. Mosh can be There is no doubt thata great dealcan be donein im- Government proving the water supply in precarious districts, if Govern- oo Pete ment are prepared to look on the measures taken as those of a Protective“ protective” and not purely a remunerative nature. This ? is well expressed in a note by Colonel Mead, Chief Engineer for Irrigation, Madras, He said in 1887 :— _. “Much can, no doubt, be done to improve the existing supply to tanks ‘if Government are prepared to accept the benefit to the raiyat asa suffi- “cient return for outlay incurred, and to consider the works as entirely ** protective in nature.” ea enencabeat 105. I found a very general expression of opinion, both in cas feeb Madras and in Bombay, that the management of small tanks ’ should be left in the hands of the village communities, or else be under the Collector of the district, and not be- administered by the Irrigation Department, At Belgaum there are a great many tanks, and these are managed by the villages, the water Management and Repair of Tanks. 83 being let out fora group of 100 fields at a time, the raiyats settling among themselves how itis to be used. On the other hand, tke management of canal branches by Management ot the people has been tried and has not been found to be success- ty ihe poce’ ful. Thus, the Eastern Jumna Main Canal was made by “*isfactory. Government, but the branches by a joint-stock arrange- ment of the cultivators, the Government advancing moncy for the purpose, The cultivators, however, could adjust neither the sharing nor the payment among themselves, and Govern- ment had finally to take the management into their own hands, It has been found also in Southern India that there has been considerable neglect shown by the people in keeping irrigation channels in order. The people allow underwood to grow, aod let the leaves fill up the chanrels and there decay; one place after tbe other becomes malarious and the people leave, going higher up the stream. So, too, in other parts weeds are allowed to overgrow tanks, and then the people go lower down, and leave the Government to clean out the tanks. 106. Improvement can certainly be effected in providing for Repair of tanks; the more prompt and better repair of tanks, Mr. Nicholson, in thisrespect his “ Manual of Coimbatore,”? mentions the case of Kondampatti °°" village, in Udamalpet, where the repair of a large tank is quite feasible. In Bengal, Burdwan is mentioned as a part where repair of tanks is difficult, and Palamau as a division where there are many reservoirs which are out of repair, Once when at Poona, I met a number of landowners and others interested in agriculture, and an unanimous opinion was expressed by them in favour of the management of small tanks by the communities themselves and not by Government, and especially that the repairing of these should be left to the village communities. The same opinions were expressed to me on the occasion of a similar gathering at Madras, Going on from Madras to Madura, and then to Coimbatore, more precise particulars were given me, not by landholders, but by actual cultivators. In the Madura district, where there is much tank irrigation, there were - complaints of the difficulty in getting repairs done and a desire was expressed that this work might be put under the Revenue Department rather than the Departmentof Public Works, the Collector being considered the. person who knows the wants of the people best. The cultivators instanced the delay that takes place when a tank wants repair ; how that when the Jahsildar hears of it he goes to the divisional officer (Assistant Collector) ; the latter to the Collector; the Collector to the Executive Engineer of the Public Works Department; the Executive Engi- neer writes to the Superintending Engineer (stationed, in this case, at Trichinopoly, there being only one such officer’ for three districts) ; he writes to the chief office at Madras, and says whether it is a matter of first o1 second importance, and soon. Altogether it is a long business, and, in the end, the year’s crop is generally lost. Under the old system, I was told, the Executive Engineer was the direct subordinate of the Collector, and small works Ga Classification of tanks desirable, The system of taccavi advances. The different ways in which it is administered in different parts, 84 Water. requiring no special skill could be effected at once by the Collector’s direction. It was, of course, necessary for large engineering works to be enquired into and to wait, but three-quarters of the “ major” work (anytbiog over 200 acres of irrigation being consi- dered “ major” irrigation) was simple work of repair, putting up bunds, digging channels, digging tanks, etc., which any workman could do, and which needed no particular skill. It would appear desirable, from what I gatbered, that there should be a classification of tanks, and, in accordance with this, it shouid be determined which tanks should be managed and repaired by Government, and which by the village communities. It is clear, anyhow, that good might be done by a simplification of the process by which repairs are effected. Necessarily there must be official enquiry as to any work of magnitude, but in nine cases out of ten the repairs required are those which call for immedtate attention, and which, if neglected, may produce very much aggra- vated consequences. If the circumlocution that has been instanced could be avoided, and a certain amount of discretion and executive power be given to the Collector to have these repairs effected at the time, thelocal needs would be more readily met, and expense be, in the end, spared. 107. It remains for me to refer to the system of Government advances known under the name taccavé.* Though not confined to the purposes of digging and repair of wells, itis mostly for these that the advances are used, and they are the schemes which are the most satisfactory in their working. Advances are also given for embanking of land, for purchase of cattle, purchase of seed, and occasionally to assist in payment of debts. The advances are made by Government at a moderate rate of interest (64 per cent. perannum), and are intended to save the people from being compelled to resort to the money-lender or Ganiye, who charges a vate of 12, 18, or more per cent., and out of whose clutches the cultivators seldom get. The plan is an excellent one; but its success depends entirely upon how it is worked, and how nearly itis brought home to the people, and is adapted to their means, What is still requisite is, to make it clear to the cultivators that the system is one that will benefit them, one that will enable them to benefit themselves. If this idea could be once thoroughly grasped, the advantages, not alone to the people, but to the Government, in the form of an increased revenue from the land, would be very great. Anyone going through the country as I did, could not fail to be impressed forcibly with the difference between the way in which the ¢aceavi system is worked in one part and that adopted in another, and also with the dependence of the system, for its -success, upon the energy and interest of a single individual, this being, asa rule, the Collector or Deputy Com- missioner, Whilst the system is popular in some districts— * See footnote on page 80. Tie System of Taccavi Advances. 85 for instance, in Belgaum (Bombay), the Native State of Kapurthala, Multan, and other parts of the Punjab—in others, such as Aligarh (North-West Provinces), it is reported that * the people will not have it on any terms;” and in Madura, Coimbatore, and other parts of Madras the complaints are great asto the difficulties put in the way of making use of the advances for the digging or repair of tanks. When advances are made by Government agency the returns show that it is but seldom that there are arrears of any long standing, and the State loses very little on this account. The objections of the people to avail themselves of the advances do not arise alone from difficulties put in the way, or becanse the advantages of the system have not been sufti- ciently impressed upon them, but largely, also, from their own fault, their careless and improvident habits, their suspicion, and their inability to appreciate what is intended for their benefit. The most important factor in removing these hindrances is the personal interest and activity of the Collector or Deputy Commissioner. The cultivator will often prefer to resort to the money- 7he.cbiections lender, because the latter gives him the advance at onee, to the taccavi because he asks no questions, and does not insist upon the or money being devoted solely to the particular purpose for whieh it is given; he doesnot come round and see that the work is being carried out, but allows repayment at leisure; lastly, he has no intermediaries who require to be ‘¢ feed.” When, however, a cultivator applies for a ¢accavi advance, he complains (and frequently with reason) that the delays are long, and that the enquiries are put off; that he has often to wait several days at the Tahsi/dar’s office before that officiai will attend to him, and that, in theend, the advance frequently. comes too late to be of any use; that he is bothered by minor officials who come to see that he has not used the advance for other purposes; by others, again, “who come to “pass” the work, but who one and all require their “palms” to be “greased;” and that the money, thus filtering through several hands, never comes to him to the full extent of the advance; lastly, that the Government insist on punctual payment of interest and repayment of loan. Thus the ratyat comes to undervalue the advantages of the ¢accavi system, and resorts to the easier method of going to the J4aniya, though it may be dearly bought in the end. Then, having once obtained the money, be will often use it for marriages: and for other extravagancies rather than for the presumed object, and thus he gets involved deeper and deeper in debt. : 108. I will now give some instances of the need that exists ScoPe,fy for the cultivators to be made more acquainted with the adyan- 2deption of tages of the faecarz system, and also of the need for better system, administration of the system. oes ' orth-'Fes' At Rara, near Cawnpore (North-West Provinces), I saw a cultivator Provinces, who was constracting a masonry well at acost of Rs. 150, This was intended Punjab. Bombay. Central Prov- inces, Madras, Bengal, Instances of energetic ad- ministration of the taccavi system, 86 Water. to irrigate 25 acres. The cost was being paid partly out of the man’ savings, partly by gifts from his family, andthe remainder was borrowed from the money-lender. The man knew nothing about Government advances. Other cultivators here said the same thing. In the Punjab Administration Report for 1888-89 itis noted, in regard to the Gurgaon district: “ Tahsildars eed constant reminding of the “desirability of encouraging advances. A lot has been done ia Rewari, “but there is no reason why the number of wells should not be doubled “in the district; also well repairing should be done by taccavi. Tho ‘payments, when advances are made, are very punctual.” : At Ahmedabad (Bombay) I found that the ¢accavi advances were not made useof. The Mamlatdar did not like the tronble attaching to them; his objection was, that he had to keep separate accounts for them. In the Central Provinces, at Saugor, only two wells have been dug by means of Government advances in the last three years. Of Dongasara it is reported: “There might be more wells here, and the malguzars (land- “ lords) could easily make them.’ The Chief Commissioner (Mr. Mackenzie), in his proceedings for the year 1883-89, points out that it is not the debt to the baniya that ruins the razyat, but the high rate of interest and the way he is cheated in settling his accounts with the baniya. Also he instances a case where in one division there was an extremely high mortality of cattle, and where the people would surely have been glad had help been given them; and yet there was not a single loan for purchase of plough cattle, and this entirely because the Deputy Commissioner did not trouble about it. Speaking of Bilaspar, Mr. Mackenzie says: “The fact is, that the granting “of loans is opposed by the whole weight of the treasury and tahsél “establishments, and it is not till a Deputy Commissioner has made it ‘plain that no obstruction will be permitted, that people are able to “obtain loans with reasonable facility.”’ When at Madras, I met in conference a number of landholders; they one and all spoke of the difficulties in the working of the taccavi system ; and at a similar conference at Poona it was remarked that local officers did not trouble about Z¢aecavé because it entailed extra work on the Mamlatdars, Tahsildars, and others, and they had to keep separate accounts for it. During my tourin the Madras Presidency I came across many instances of the non-use of taccavé advantages. At Salem I found that only four of five wells had been sunk in the last two years by Government aid. The people preferred to borrow locally at 12, 15, oreven 18 per cent., and not to be restricted in their application of the money. At Avenashi (Coim- batore ) raiyats borrowed locally at 12 per cent. in preference to using the Government loan. I was told that in Tinnevelly the tisk of taking the taccavi advances was, that if a man took a loan and tried to dig a well, he had to pay whether he was successful or not, and the rocky nature of the ground made the attempt very uncertain. In cases where a man has ie oo failed, I think, possibly, the rules might with advantage be relaxed. In many parts of Bengal the landlords (zemindars) have no direct interest in the produce of the land so long as they get their rents, and they are often too encumbered to lay out capital in water supply; the raiyats are too poor to do anything unaided, and, in consequence, reservoirs that use to benefit low-lying rice fields bave fallen ont of repair, and no fresh ones have been constructed. 109. By way of contrast, I may now mention cases where manifest advantage has followed the energetic administration of the faceavi system, and the popularising of its objects and advantages, Improvement of the Taccavi System, : 87 _In the Punjab Administration Report for 1888-89 it is said: ‘ The Punjab. * increased resort to ¢accavi isin many cases due to the personal influence “of Deputy Commissioners.” Again, ‘* In the Montgomery district the “ system of advances is undoubtedly popular.” In the Multan district I found that the Deputy Commissioner had, in the last year alone, given Rs. 28,009 in ¢accavi advances for the digging of wells to supplement the supply of water from the Sidhnai Canal. In Belgaum (Bombay), and entirely through the personal energy of. the Bombay. Collector and District Deputy Collector, adyances to the extent of between thirty and forty thousand rupees annually have been made during the last four years, and the number of applications hava averaged 748 per annum. Advances are made for well and tank digging and repair, for embanking, for removing rank grass and weeds, for levelling ground and making rice fields out of dry land, for purchase of seed and cattle, and for cutting away prickly pear. The District Deputy Collector (Honourable Gur- shidapa Virbasapa ), who was in charge of two divisions ( falukas ) sevet years ago, took a personal interest in the matter, and by himself explaining o the people the advantages of the faccavi system induced them to take it up. The Collector, Mr. Muir, issued circulars in the vernacular, and now all the seven talukas of the Belgaum district have adopted the system. During the seven years there has not been one bad debt, and so mach work has been thrown on the Mamlatdars that tbree extra clerks have had to be obtained for this work, the cost being paid out of the taccavé grant. Tke District Deputy Collector explained to mo that everything depends on the prompt examination of applications, and on not keeping the applicants waiting about at the Mamlatdar's office, or sending them to and fro repeatedly. Tho only reason that advances were not even more used was, that the people had already mortgaged their lands so much for other debts that they had no security to give for the Government advance. He was of opinion that it was absolutely necessary for the people to be ready with their payments on the day fixed, and that it would not do to allow them any laxity. With this opinion I am inclined to agree; and, though at first I thought that where security was good some liberty might be shown, I now believe that strict enforcement of payment when due is advisable. At Wardha, in the Central Provinces, through the personal energy of Cental Bros Colonel Scott, taecavé advances have been largely made,.and in the Central = * Provinces generally, encouragement is given to the taking up of the advances by distributing vernacular notices (savadés) announcing exemption of improvements from assessment at the next Settlement. Mr. Fuller, in his Annual Report for 1888-89, as Commissioner of Agricultare, speaks of the necessity for the distribution of these notices, and deprecates delay in dealing with spplications, pointing out that people should be let know that they can get advances without expense or trouble being entailed on them. Mr, Fuller reports, further, that very great progress has been lately made in the amount of the,loans advanced under the Agri- culturiste’ Loans Act {No. XII of 1884). The figures for the last three years are as follows :— Year. Number of Loans. Amount. ~~ Rs. 1887-88 — _ - 1,444 26,000 1888-89 -—- - - 1,692 45,285 1889-90 - = - 2,585 1,07,459 88 Water. Such a marked increase is highly satisfactory, and shows what can be done by the exercise of personal energy. It is added that, “in the whole of the Central Provinces recoveries were “ made without difficulty ; in only one case was resort to coercive “‘ measures found necessary; Government realised 64 per cent, “on its outlay under the Agriculturists’ Loans Act.’? OF Bilaspur, which has been mentioned in paragraph 108 as having been backward in utilising the advances, it is now said, ‘ for ‘several yezrs it was reported that the people were reluctant “to take advances, but in 1889-90 Rs. 16,768 were advanced ‘Shere alone, ”’ The tactNative 110. Native States have not been slow to realise the advantages States, of advances for agricultural improvements. Jeypore, In Jeypore the cultivators are not allowed to borrow money for sinking wells ; the State advances money at interest varying from 6 to 12 per cent., and the Land Revenue has increased very considerably wherever wells have been dug. In the Kapurthala State, under British administration, the system of giving advances for agricultural improvements has been made easy, and is - largely used. Within the past two years Rs. 65,482 have been distributed, mostly for digging and repuir of wells. No interest is charged, and payment is recovered by seven annual instalments, beginning three years subsequent to the completion of the work. No increased revenue is taken until the improved lands have been benefited for five years. Applicants are not obliged. toattend at the Kapurthala treasury, but can obtain advances from the tahsil treasury without delay. The time occupied in deciding taccavi cases rarely exceeds one month. Help is occasionally given to indebted owners in the form of advances to free them from the professional money-lender. Advances are given for new wells, for repairs, for purchase of plough cattle and seed, and for redemption of mortgage. In 1889 there were 246 new wells under construction and 73 under repair, and nearly one-half the increase of wells during the last 10 years had been made by means of ¢accavi advances. Major Massy reports that repayments are generally made with punctuality, and that there is still room -for extension of well sinking. Advances for wells went up from Rs. 7,270 in Sambat 1942 ( year 1885-86), and Rs. 6,690 in Sambat 1948, to Rs 24,702 and Rs. 35,755 in Sambats 1944 and 1945 (year 1883-89 ), thus showing what can be done by personal influence and energy. I mention this case specially, because Kapurthala borders on the districts of Jullundur and Hoshiarpur, aud here cultivation depends mainly on the existence of wells. On passing through this part of the country I saw wells in process of construction, but there is room for many more, and for the exercise of individual zeal on the part of Government officers in effecting the improvements that would follow. Necessity for 111. The foregoing instances show clearly how much has removal of |. been done, and also how much %an still be done, if only the complaints of matter be made a personal one. Were further demonstration needed, it would be found in the case I have mentioned in paragraph 101, viz., that during the quite recent distress in Madras the Government advanced money to the extent of 20,000, in the Chingleput district alone to endle 19,000 new wells to be begun. Besides this, nearly 10 lakhs (say 72,000/.) were advanced in the Kurnool, Bellary, Anantapur, and Cad- dapah districts for well digging, and 13 lakhs (say 9,000/.) under the Agriculturists’ Loans Act. The want of capital on the part of the ratyat is undoubtedly @ main souree of the difficulty in enabling him to undertake Kapurthala, Improvement of the Taccavi System, 89 ‘the construction of wells, tanks, ete., on his own account, and, therefore, the aid of Government may most advantageously be called in to assist him and to better the agriculture of the country. But it is incumbent that every reasonable difficulty that stands in the raiyat’s way, and which prevents him from availing himself of the advantages, should be removed. Idonot say that the objections and complaints of the cul- tivators are valid ones in general, or that the indifference of the people is not mainly their own fault, but there are ways in which procedure may be simplified, and the system of advances be made more popular. And here, while suggesting some improvements, I would desire not to be misunderstood, nor to hint in any way that Government are not fully alive to the importance of urging on their district officers the carry- ing out of the system; nor, again, am I forgetful of the great good that has been done in the past. But the subject is one which cannot be forced too often or too strongly upon the notice of Government and its officials, : 112. In the first place, the issue of vernacular notices, setting: Ways in whieh forth the advantages of taccavé advances, should be more {vac moy be widely adopted, and these should be supplemented by the rdcye mere personal activity of the district officer, In certain cases, as has already been done in some parts, there might be added special inducements to the taking up of the advances, such as the securing of exemption of improvements from assessment at the time of the next Settlement. I am quite aware that The non-taxa- the Government have declared in India generally that they “ine will not tax improvements effected by private capital, including those made by means of ¢accavé advances; but, as a matter of facet, this promise is rendered nugatory in many parts; inasmuch as taxation is raised, not on account of the improvements directly, but on the general grounds of rise of prices, construction of new roads, extension of railways, and other means of communication; consequently, there is no certain security under the present system that private improvements will not be taxed. As long as this continues, it will certainly act as a bar to agricultural improvement, and will prevent the outlay of private capital on wells and minor works of irrigation. I think, therefore, that the system should be relaxed, at least to the extent of securing to the man who digs a masonry well that he shall not be directly or indirectly liable to any rise of taxation on account of the improvement which he has effected by the expenditure of his private capital upon it. ; There is little doubt that had such a provision existed in reality as well as jin name, a great many more irrigation works would have been earried out by private effort. A single instance will make this clear. In_a Resolution of the Revenue Department of the North-West Provinces and Oudh, No. 898A. of 1889, a comparison is drawn between the four districts Gazipur, Jaunpur, Ballia and Benares which are 90 Water, under permanent settlement as regards the Land Tax, and the adjacent and similarly situated districts which are temporarily settled, and, consequently, are liable to periodical revision of the Land Tax. In the former, 55 per cent. of the cultivated area has been brought under irrigation by wells, tanks, and streams, and in Jaunpur alone 55,224 wells have been dug by private capital. But in the temporarily settled districts only between 16 and 17 per cent. of the cultivated area has been brought under irrigation from wells and other sources, exclusive of canals. Ifthe jiand under canals be added, there is, even then, only a total of 22 per cent. of the whole cultivated area of the temporarily settled districts under irrigation, as against 55 per cent. in the permanently settled districts, there being no canals at all in the latter. Private efforts, therefore, under these circumstances, have done far more than all the aid of Government, even including the making of canals. The points here brought out are well worthy of consideration, and it has further to be remembered that anything which induces the people to invest money on the land gives them a permanent interest in the continuance of the English rule. Avoidance of Next, all hindrances to and delay in giving advances must delay in giving be removed. The Tatsildars and others must know that it is making repairs. not a matter of their choice whether or when they will attend to applications, but that it is their clear duty to expedite the advances. A fair interval must be allowed for an improvement to tell, before payment of instalments is called for. This done, I am in favour of strict adherence to the rules as to payment on the date when due, and I think that the rate of interest is well within the cultivator’s means. Again, repairs should be more promptly attended to ; and minor repairs, as also the management of the smaller tanks, should be left to the village community themselves, or to the Collector’s authority, In certain cases, such as that instanced, where a man, after taking a ¢accavi advance for digging a well in rocky ground, has failed to reach water, the rule might be relaxed in his favour, if it be clear that he has spent the advance in the endeavour, Transferencoof 113. An improvement might be effected in the method of dis- lus f 7 1 , disrict to posing of surplus funds accruing from grants made for taccavt another. purposes. When the ¢accavt grant for any district has not been fully applied for, so that a surplus is over, this surplus might well be transferred to another district where the applications may have exceeded the original grant made for the purpose. Allocation of It is also worth the consideration of Local Govsrnments whether Shee whieh @ Certain sum of money should not be given annually to each Wee Collector or Assistant Collector, which he would be bound fo eapend in advances for wells or similar improvements. This would not leave it so much a matter of choice as it is at present with: the The Administration of Taccavi Advances, 91 district officer whether he will exert himself or not in the giving of advances for agricultural improvement. In the last place, I am strongly of opinion that some share in A share in the the administration of ¢accavi advances should be put in the hands 3ffmeeu of the Provincial Agricultural Departments. It would clearly be s¢vances should unwise to take any step which would bring about collision between of the daniel the existing Revenue Authorities and the Agricultural Depart- ee ments, and, therefore, the control and disbursement of taccavz advances could hardly be entrusted to the Provincial Directors of Agriculture. But, at the same time, the Director of Agriculture The duty of the is the person who should best know the agricultural needs of his eeaibarés Province, and he should be enjoined to give his special attention to the extended working of the ¢accavi system. Further, he should be empowered to advise the Revenue Authorities generally, and to report on specific cases, either of special need, or of non-observance in the application of the funds which have been granted. It is a misfortune attending the position of the Director of Agri- culture that he has no immediate executive power, but he should certainly, I think, be entrusted with the share in the administra- tion of the ¢accavi advances which I have indicated. CONCLUSIONS, 92 Conclusions. CONCLUSIONS. 114. Inasmuch as differences in agricultural systems are found to be largely due to differences in the facilities for water supply which are possessed by various districts, Improvement in Agricul- ture will be effected by any means which modify these existing differences, Of this nature are the extension of irrigation to dry aud precarious tracts, the carrying of canals to districts which have no other system of irrigation available, and the digging of wells where canals cannot be brought. The agency by which such work can be carried out is twofold. The people can construct minor works, such as the digging of shallow tanks, the embank ment of land, and the making of wells of moderate depth. But the carrying out of major works, such as the construction of canals and the formation of large reservoirs, can be achieved only by Government. The efforts of the people should be assisted by encouragement given to them by the State, and, in particular, by the fuller and freer application of the system of taccavi advances, The Government and the Irrigation Department have done a great work in the past in pushing on irrigation schemes which have been of enormous benefit to the country; all that is wanted is to continue the work, I have shown that there is still great scope for extended action in this direction. More particularly can an immense deal be done by making known ard by popularising the taccavi system, and by providing for the more prompt repair of tanks. The special work of Agricultural Departments in this connection ig to make an ‘‘ agricultural analysis,’’ such as that referred to in the Government of India’s Resolution of December 1881, whereby the requirements of each district in the matter of irrigation may be ascertained, as also the best means by which the improvement may be effected. In such an enquiry the assistance of an expert engineer is required, and that of a chemist may also at times be useful. RECOMMENDATIONS. 115. I recommend :— The extension of Canals and other means of Irrigation to dis- tricts which are in need of them, The encouragement of minor works of Irrigation by rendering the system of ¢aceavi advances more popular. The giving to Agricultural Departments of a share in the ad- ministration of taccavi advances. The prosecuticn of Agricultural Enquiry in order to ascertain the requirements of each district in respect of irrigation. 93: CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER VII, Manure. Manveg. 116. Tats subject, like the foregoing, is one of the very highest importance in a consideration of Indian agriculture and its possible improvement. Water and manure’ together represent, in brief, the ra¢yat’s chief wants. In some respects the latter is the more important requirement, for, whilst atten- tion has already been turned to the supplying of water for agricultural purposes, but little has been done towards giving tne ratyat more manure. The reason is, I believe, that whereas no ove has doubted the value of water, and it can, moreover, in many cases be brought from outside and redundant sources, the means of supplying manure, on the contrary, do not appear ready at hand, and there has been, and still is, uncertainty as to the use and value of ordinary manures such as cattle-dung, bones, oil-seed refuse, nitre, etc. This is principally due to a wantof grconce of scientific knowledge, and of its application to practical agriculture. application of We are still to-day discussing whether cattle-manure loses any of ledgetopractical its value by burning it as fuel; whether it makes any difference ?8¢utwein how manure is preserved and stored ; whether urine has any value; whether bones ought to be used in the country, or might be allowed to go for export, While this is the case, it is hardly to be wondered at that Government are not anxious to take up the question of manure supply in the same way as they have that of water, This want of definite knowledge, and the absence of anyone acquainted with Indian agriculture, who is at the same time able to speak authoritatively on points of agricultural chemistry, con- stitute a great failing in India, which calls for early remedy. 117. In Chapter V, when dealing with the question of the tmportance of possible exhaustion of the soil (paragraph 50), I quoted several msnure. instances in which reference is made to the importance of manure, and to the insufficiency of its supply for keeping up the soil’s fertility. Also, in Chapter VI, (paragraph 102), the difference between manured and uomanured land was shown in the case of Ajmere, The following further examples may be given :— Mr. Nicholson writes in reference to Coimbatore :— “That progress is possible cannot be doubted. In ‘seasons of serious “drought, such as in the north-east monsoun of 1881, there were a few “acres of decent crop on land absolutely similar and contiguous to that “producing almost né/ crops, and in one case the cholam was almost equal ‘Sto that of garden land. This was simvlv due to. mznure and the careful * cultivation of small areas. ’ Again, speaking of Erode, Mr. Nicholson says :-— * No greater contrast, save between garden and ordinary dry crops, can “be seen than between the ordinary upland crops, especially in a year of * poor rainfall, and the very same species of crop on a piece of newly-reclaimed Proverbs current among the people, Interdepend- ence of water and manure. 94, Manure, “or well-manured land. In 1291, a year of drought, there was an opportunity “of making the contrast, the well-manured dry land in the most prominent “case belonging to a Pariah, and having an excellent cholam crop, while “surrounding fields had practically #z?. The raiyats are perfectly aware of ‘the reason, ané allege want of capital and pasture.” a There are numerous proverbs current among the people as to the necessity and value of manure, but the practice is often not as good as the precept. Mr. Benson gives, along with others, these from Kurnool :— “ Turva (a kind of soil) hungers after manure as a Brahman after ghi;” a field without manure is as useless as a cow without her calf’’ (meaning that she will not give milk unless the calf is before ber). . Mr. Nicholson quotes these :— * Old muck and lots of water ;” “turn dry land into wet, pen your cattle “(in the field), and feed straw to them;” “ muck is better even than the “plough.” ‘* If manure is useless (good) soil is useless; or “ manure is better “than good soil.” 118. It has already been mentioned in the last chapter (para- graph 102) that water and manure are really interdependent, and that the supply of the one must be considered in reference to that of the other. In parts where rainfall is sufficient, manure alone may bave to be sought, and where there is freshly-reclaimed or virgin soil, or land enriched by silt, the supply of water alone may suffice. But these conditions seldom prevail, In the course of my enquiries I found that in every part where rainfall was light, water and manure were mentioned together, and it may be said, without fear of contradiction, that one is necessary to the other, and that without the presence of both, the full benefit of neither will be obtained ; in brief, they are interdependent. This is well set forth in the following extract from the Report of the Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay Presidency, 1888-89 :— “It cannot be doubted that (1) character and distribution of rainfall, (2) “want of capital, and (3) want of manure, are the most important factors “ which regulate tre demand for canal irrigation 2 r A . As “regards manure, the difficulty is great. Irrigated crops trench on the “temporary fertility of the soil, which must be restored either by manure “or rest. Irrigation, therefore, cannot be carried beyond the limits which * the supply of available manure fixes.” A practical proof of the truth of the above is seen in the sugar- cane cultivation around Poona, the entire industry being the outcome of the joint supply of water and of manure, whereas neither, by itself, would have been sufficient, It was not uutil the canal was brought here that the sugar-cane cultivation sprang up, and then the growers found that they must have manure as well. Meerut, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, Mahim, Avenashi (Coimbatore), and numerous other towns, furnish instances of the same truth. Almost every village site in the North-West Provinces is in itself a similar example. In the centre are the habitations, clustered together, probably for purposes of defence in past times, Here are the wells, Importance of Manure. 95 used alike for drinking, washing, and irrigation purposes. Here, too, the manure from cattle, the sweepings of the houses, etc., are nearest at hand, and are available for the fields closest by, these being also the ones frequented by the people for purposes of nature. As a consequence, it is here that both water and manure are most used, and that the richest and best cultivation is carried on, sugar-cane, poppy, castor-oil bean, potatoes, and vegetables of all kinds being grown. This is the inner circle, or “ garden” culture. Next comes a circle lying beyond this, but neither so much manure nor yet so much water can be spared for it, and the crops, though still good, are not so good, nor, as a rule, of such a remunerative character; pulses, wheat, barley, and oil-seeds are more general, Next is a third or outer circle, which is only partly manured, and only occasionally watered, and where cultivation is still less high. Lastly, there may be a fourth or outlying part, never bearing more than one crop a year, a summer crop one year, and a winter crop the next. This Jand gets no manure and no water except the rainfall, and may be termed “dry” land. Thus, one is able to draw, as it were, successive rings or belts round a village, each belt, as it is further removed from the centre, indicating less iu- tensive culture, and also the close interdependence of water and manure. The rent may accordingly vary as I found it do in a village near Bilhaur, from Rs. 80 in the central zone, to Rs. 15 in the second, Rs. 10 in the third, and Rs. 7 in the outlying por- tion. This was repeatedly pointed out to me by Sir Edward Buck during our tour in the Cawnpore district. It may be said, generally, that manure goes first to the “arden” land (watered by well), then to the “ wet’ land (watered by “flow”’), and what is over goes to the “dry ” land (watered by rain only). It is not that the soil was originally different in quality, though this may sometimes have been the case, thereby inducing the people to pitch their habitations where it was best; but it is mainly the manure, the water, and the resulting cultivation, that have brought about the change. It would be of little use to extend the supply of water unless there were the manure to back it up, The converse is equally true; at Hissar (Punjab) there is plenty of manure, but it is not made use of because there is not water enough, Bengal, on the other hand, furnishes many instances of an abundant rainfall, but deficiency of manure. As a contrast to both these, Meerut and Hoshiarpur are examples of what can be done by a sufficiency of each, night-soil being largely used there in conjunction with well water. Similarly, Amritsar and Poona prove what can be done with canal water and manore. Itisa common saying that, if you give a raiya¢ water and manure he will grow a crop even upon stones ! 119. The Indian cultivator shows by the money which he is Indian calti. willing to pay for manure when able to afford it, that he is. by no rant of value means ignorant of its valuee When he burns the cow-dung “™enn™ which he collects, he does it, as a rule, rather from necessity than from waat of knowledge of its worth. That, when he has manure, Sums spent in manuring the land, Plan of present chapter. Cattle-manure, Statements made as to the poor quality of {ndian cattle. manare, and the non-loss in? burning it. 96 Manure, he often does not preserve it well, or use it to Lest advantage, is, however, the result of ignorance, At Méhim (Bombay) I found that Rs. 96 an acre was quite an ordinary amount to spendin manure for the “garden” crops. Even larger sums than this are expended over defed vines, as much as Rs. 280 to Rs, 380 an acre being given out in manure, while for ginger, sugar-cane, and plantains the cost frequently goes up to Rs. 160 an acre. A cultivator thus graphically described to me the effect of manure on the ginger crop he was cultivating ; he said :—“ I use manure, and 3or 4 sons come to each plant.” At Poona, as much as Rs. 200 per acre is spent on manure for sugar. cane; at Amritsar, Rs, 43 an acre for the potato crop ; at Hoshiar- pur, Rs. 60 an acre for sugar-cane. Nor is it in the quantity of manure alone that the Native often displays great foresight. He also often knows whex to put it on, and for which crop to use it. He knows that he must not use it on “dry” land but on “ wet’ laud, where it will decompose. He knows, too, the harm of using fresh dung, and that it will attract the white-ants, and that they, in turn, will destroy the crop. 120. I propose now to review the different ways available in India for manuring the land, and then to see to what extent each manure is made use of, to consider what relation its supply bears to the wants of crops, and how the supply may be improved and extended, 121. The most general manure, alike in India and in England, is cattle-manure, or, as made in England, farmyard manure. But, whilst in the latter country it has to be, and can be, supplemented, and even in part replaced, by artificial manures, this is not the case in India, and cattle-manure is the universal fertiliser and often the only one available. When, therefore, we find it the general practice, even in villages, to burn a large proportion of the dung from eattle as fuel, and when, on nearing any town, we may see troops of women carrying in baskets on their heads, the eow-dung cakes or brattves, which they have made into cakes and dried in the sun, we cannot but pause to ask ourselves whether the burning of these cakes as fuel does not imply a great agricultural loss, Some have maintained that it does not, for they say that the ashes are saved and used on the fields, and assert that is practically the only thing of value in the dung; others hold that, even if the nitrogen be lost in the burning, the cattle are so poor, and so poorly fed, that there is but little nitrogen to lose, for the dung is of very low quality, whilst even what is lost, is recovered in the extra amount of nitrogen which exists in the rainfall in India, Such statements as these have been made, even quite recently, by men who, though not agricultural chemists themselves, have not hesitated to express boldly their opinions on points which tbey were not able to investigate for them- selves, nor were qualified to pass judgment upon. And so it has come about that, from an error as to the amount of nitrogen in the rainfall, mavy theories have been built up, and but little real investigation has been done. I do not Erpendilure upon Manure, 97 mean to say that I have been able to investigate the -question at all thoronghly, but I have done so sufficiently, at least, to satisfy myself of the incorrectness of many of the theories propounded, and to show that cattleemanure in India is not the poor miserable stuff it has “been represented to be, but that it must, and does, lose avery great deal if it is burnt for fuel, this loss xot being recovered in the rainfall. Even were the latter to be the case, we should have a further difficulty ; the districts of slight rainfall, where most dung is burnt (be- cause wood is most scarce there), would get least nitrogen back, for the greater part would be transferred to the more rainy and more wooded tracts, To satisfy myself on these points, I obtained, through the kindness of Mr. R. H, Elliot, of Bartcbinhulla, Mysore (whom I was visiting at the time), a number of samples, not only of the solid droppings of cattle, but of the urine and the drainings from manure heaps; also samples of the ashes of the same dung after burning cakes made from it; samples of Jeaves used for litter, of castor-oil refuse (castor poonac), earth-nut cake, etc. I must not burden this part of my Report with all the analyses, but, referring to the Appendix for these,* I will now only give sufficient data to enable a comparison to be instituted between English and Indian cattle-manure, and to establish such other points as I may wish to demonstrate. The samples taken were sent to London, and analysed in my laboratory there. The cattle-edung was composed of the solid droppings of lean working bullocks, taken when fresh and put in atin box, thus reaching me simply in the air-dried condition, Analysis A is my own; analysis B is one by Mr. John Hughes, of London, of the sun-dried cakes; C is a standard analysis of English farmyard manure; D is an analysis by wyself of the ashes left after burning cakes made from dung similar in composition to that given in column A; Eis an analysis calculated from the results quoted in columns A and D. * For full analyses see Appendices D, E, F, G, H, J, K. My own ipvesti- gations, 938 « Manure. Taste VIII. Sree AnaLyses of Catrie-manuge (Indian) and FarmMyarp Manure (English), —— : =e ey eee A. | B. c. er ne Dung of Lean Bon: arted Farmyard Cattle (Indian).| o,cakeeol | Manure (Air-dried,] (Indian). (English). Moisture . * « “ . é s 19°59 722 66°17 * Organic matter . . . ° . 59°26 65°32 28°24 + Mineral matter (ash) ee er . 21°15 27°46 6°69 100°00, 100°00. 100°00 * containing nitrogen . = a ° . 1°34 1°48 65, equal to ammonia , — % Ig ‘ 162 1°80 "79 + containing— : ‘ San * ° . . . e . 14°43 18°62 1°76 Wxide ofironandalumina =, . 3°36 oa "42 Time ae a, ee 1°04 1°96 1°36 Magnesia . . . . . ° “a4 - 915 Potash , ° « . . . . 1:16 “63, °67 Rneietl, nucut | a | “| 2 Phosphoric ae : . . ‘ ‘54 “Sh equal to tribasic phosphate of lime 1°03 118 "68 Taste IX, Analysis of 3 ashes of cattle Anatysis of Asnes of CatTie-manure (Indian), manure, , D. gE, Ashes of 100 parts of the Cattle-manure Cattle-manure | (Column A) would, —_—_— d approximately, (Indian) oe ae rnin after burning. of ean tines — Moisture Ca ee ee ne 2°04 . * Or, yanid matter . .« «© ol. chek 4g 2°40 } ” Oxide ofiron and alumina , te 4 ‘ é 9°26 186 + Phosphoric acid . 5 i ‘ : 2 1:37 “28 MAME, veh et, key hse ce OS Cae ee el 1°76 °35 } Alkalies and magnesia oe a. HO 4 207 “59 Siliceous matter , Es < < ‘< e < 80°20 16°04 100°00 20°00 * containing nitrogen s ag! 58 oe * ‘ 17 °034 equal to ammonia a * é ‘. a 3 20 *040 + equal to tribasic phosphate of lime é * « 2°99 *99 t containing potash fe ‘ * 5 PS ‘ 2°05 "68 REFERENCES, Analysis B.—Journal of the Society of Arts, Vol, xxxvu, No. 1,948, March 21st, 1890, page 441, Analysis C.—Johnston and Cameron’s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, pages 316, 317, and 318, Analysis of Cattle- Manure. 99 T have placed the analysis B, made by Mr. Hughes, stde by side with my own (A), and it will be noticed that while the sun- dried cakes have, of course, less moisture than the fresh dung, yet, taking this into account, the generat composition of the two materials is very similar, thus showing that my analysis A is not that of an exceptional sample, but of a fair average one, This makes my deductions from column E all the stronger. Comparing analyses A and ©, the Indian dung has, it, Indian cay will be seen, far less moisture, but, as a consequence, the por. organic matter in 100 parts is very much higher, ‘The large amount o£ sandy matter in Indian dung is noticeable, but in other mineral constituents, ootably phosphoric acid, it is quite as good as English manure, while it has double the amount of nitrogen, This is, of course, taking the two manures just as they are used, and comparing them weight for weight; but to meet objection, even if we suppose the Indian dung to contain, not 19°59 per cent. of water only, but 66°17 per cent. like the English farmyard manure, the amount of nitrogen in it would be *568 per cent. This is only a little below the ‘65. per cent. of the English sample, and that, by the way, one of well-made dung. Therefore, whether we consider them on the same basis of moisture, or whether we take them as we really have to do with them, viz., weight for weight, the small value and inferior quality of Indian cattle-manure is by no means established. In this connection if must he remembered that the Indian dung is made without litter, and is merely the solid droppings of the eattle, with more or less earth, whereas English farmyard manure consists of a. quantity of litter, as wellas of the solid and liquid exerements of the eattle. Now let us eonsider what takes place when the dung” is Stat loss re- burnt. Analysis D shows the composition of the ashes in 100 buming it. parts, but, im order to institate a comparison, I have added colamn &, This is calculated from analysis D, on the assumption (fownded on analysis A) that 100 parts of the original dung will leave, after burning, 20 parts (one-fifth) of ash. In analysis A the actual amount of ash was 2115 per eent.; in another analysis which I made, it: was 20°25 per cent. ; 20 per cent., or one-fifth, is taken for the sake of convenience, It will be seen that 100 parts of the original dung (analysis A), containing over 59 parts of organic matter and 1°34 parts of nitrogen, lose, on burning, practically a// the organic matter and nitrogen. The nitrogen is reduced from 1:34 to *034 per cent.; in other words, for every ton of cattle-manure that is burnt, 293 lbs. out of a total of 30 Ibs. of nitrogen (97°5 per 27° per cent, of cent.) are altogether lost, . ame In Chapter V (paragraph 59) the idea was fully combated that this loss was made good by its return 10° the extra amount of nitrogen supposed, to be contained in the rainfall, 7 : Mr, Hughes, in the paper from which the analysis B is taken, remarks that, while the nitrogenous organic matters ave lost in the process of burning, ‘the mineral matters, ‘which include the lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, remain 7a The organic matter is lost ; its influence, physical and ehemical, Cultivators do not burn dung for fuel unless obliged to do so through scar- city of firewood. 100 Manure. “in the ashes, and if these were returned to the land ¢he only * Joss (the italics are my own) would be the 33 lbs. of nitrogen “(the quantity in one ton of manure), equal to 155 Ibs. of “sulphate of ammonia for every ton of cattle-manure so “employed.” But I would) point out that, even were this the only loss, it would imply a very considerable one indeed. The 159 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia, putting the cost of the latter at 127. per ton, would mean, even in England, no less an outlay tbaa 16s. 7d, to replace the nitrogen thus lost by burning a ton of cattle-manure. Hence the loss is not a slight one at alJ, but a very heavy one, and, if it costs so much to replace it in England, it cannot be a matter of indifference that so much nitrogen is lost to the soil of India by a wasteful practice. But thisis not all, for there is another point that must not be overlooked, véz., that the entire value of the organic (or vegetable) matter is lost in the burning, and this is a matter of no small moment when, as I have shown, soils in India are generally notoriously poor in vegetable matter. Nor even this alone, for dung has an important physzcal as well as chemical effect on the soil, andit acts asa retainer of moisture. Indirectly it may be said, therefore, that the heat of India is increased by the burning of cattle-manure, the soii losing the advantage of the moistare-holding material. In some cases the physical or mechanical effect of dung is quite as great as its directly manurial one. This is not possessed by the ashes, and would be entirely lost in the burning. Itis not necessary for me to pursue this further than to say again that the statements made as to the small value of Indian cattle-manure, and the small loss that takes place when it is burnt, are incorrect, My analyses are, of course, those of single samples only, but they were taken quite in the ordinary course, and are confirmed by Mr, Hughes’ results, I am, however, well aware that much more extended work and enquiry than I have had leisure to make are needed before facts are established for India in the same way as they have been in England, Nevertheless, 1 shall have shown by these examples how very great is the need of careful scientific enquiry in connection with agriculture, in place of the con- jectures and theories of the past. 122. I bave spoken of the practice of burning dung as being a general one, and so it unfortunately is; but it is very far from being a universal practice among cultivators, pure and simple, I would go further and say that the best cultivators do not burn dung except out of sheer necessity, and because they have nothing else for fuel, and that, even amongst second-rate cultivators, a great majority will not burn dung if they can help it. Perhaps in all my enquiries there was none into which I looked more closely than this, as I had heard and read such diverse opinions about it ; consequently, wherever. I went, I did my best to inform myself upon it. As the result, I have no hesitation whatever in saying that amovgst cultivators the reason why they burn dung is that they The Burning of Cattle- Manure. 101 have no wood; and that if wood could be made cheap and accessible to them, there would be an enormous increase in the amount of manure available for the soil, I can instance place after place which I have visited and where no cultivator burns a scrap of manure for fuel, or where the least possible quantity is so used—generally only a little to boil railk. Cvimbatore, Salem, Madura, Gujarat (Bombay), Nadiad, Hospet, Hoshiarpur, and Multan are cases in point. It is where, as in the North- West Provinces, wood is dreadfully scarce, that the practice of burning dung has grown into a habit, and I have been told ky people well acquainted with the North-West Provinces only, that the people will never give up the practice, and must use dung for their cooking. But what I have seen in other parts, where not a morsel of dung is used even for cooking, or for boiling. milk, convinces me that, if firewood were provided, the cultivators would soon come to know the benefit of saving their manure for the fields. Those resident in villages, but not themselves the actual cultivating classes, will doubtless continue to burn dung, and near a town there will always be the inducement of realising something by the sale of cow-dung cakes. The seller does not appreciate that the cakes have cost him anything to produce; that they are really his crop taken off his land, and he returns from the town happy with the two annas or so of ready money which he receives in return for a donkey-loaa or head-load of cow-dung cakes, If he buys firewood, on the contrary, he has to pay money away instead of receiving it, When, however, one gets away from the towns, it will be found that manure is rarely a purchaseable article. The reason why dung is used as fuel for cooking, and especially for boiling milk, is, I believe, that it gives a slow fire which does not, need any attention, whereas a wood fire does. There are also ideas that cow-dung imparts to the food a particular flavour which the people like ; but, as I have said, there are many places which I have been to where cow-dung is not even used for this purpose, Cow-dung fuel is a handy form in which a Native can carry fire about with him all day long, for it keeps smouldering away gently ; wherever matches are unknown, this fact accordingly acquires considerable significance, ~ 123, I give some instances, from my own observations and Instances in from the reports of others, which bear out the opinion I have ™??° expressed : At Hoshiarpur there is plenty of firewood, and comparatively little dung Petia». is burnt; the cultivation here is by wells. Visiting Rashida, near Multan, where the Sidhnai Canal comes, I found that the cultivators do not burn dung, with the exception of a little for boiling milk. In the North-West Provinces, as stated, the scarcity of wood is, perhaps, North-West greater than anywhere else, and so the burning of cow-dung cakes has Provinces, become, from necessity, almost a habit, even among cultivators. But what is more frequently the case is, that for four months, November to February, the raiyat makes cakes for burning, and during the other eight months the dung is used as manure. Sometimes I have found that the cakes are made during eight months, and that the manure is used for the fields the remaining four; in each case the rains determine the date, for during the rainy season cakes for fuel cannot be made. ~ Bougal, Central Prov- inces, Ajmere. Bombay, Madras. 102 Manure. Thus, a cultivator near Cawnpore, belonging to the ehamar or leather- dresser caste, told ma that he made cakes for three months, and collected. dung for his fields the other nine months dating from April lst in each year. An Ahir (goatherd) near Rura made cakes for four months (November to February ), but collected- manure the rest of the time, except a little which he burnt for boiling milk, and for his pipe (hookah) ; aBrahmen here told us that he burnt as little dung as he possibly could. A Kéchhi at Cawnpore, who had dag a well for himself, and grew veges tables largely, made cakes for eight months in the year, and burnt them, but only because he had to pay so much money for firewood. He was in the habit of buying the stalks of indigo and arkar (a pulse) to eke out his fuel, and, in addition, he purchased the town-Sweepings to put on his fields. Mr. Moens, in his Settlement Report of Bareilly, says, “ three-quarters “of the available cow-dung of every village has to be consumed as fuel, for “want of wood.” At Rasurpur, near Aima, I found that manure is sold to other villages, but the reason of this is, that the village is a cattle and not a tillage one at all. Travelling in Eastern Bengal, in the neighbourhood of Serajgunge, I noticed that the general practice among the cultivators was, to have two heaps of dung, one for fuel and one for manure. Mr. Sen writes of Burdwan :—In Beerbhoom no good cultivator would “think of using his cow-dung as fuel. Everything of manurial value is “put in the dung-heap.”’ Here there is plenty of jungle. Reports from Lohardaga, Palamau, Pichasa, and other parts of Pengal say tet dung is “not a marketable article,” or is “seldom bonght or “ sol ate I cannot give any instance from fhe Central Provinces in which dung was not regularly burnt as fuel. But, as it is well known, here, if any= where, the soil requires no manuring, and one would accordingly expect less care in the preservation of dung. At Biawar, near Ajmere, some dung is burnt, and some is kept for mavure. The supply of water is, unfortunately, short, and this prevents as much manure being used on the land as might otherwise be the case. At Ahmedabad, firewood is scarce; it costs Re.1 for fonr maunds of 40 lbs. each, and the testimony of the cultivators is, that they gather all the stalks, etc., off their fields, and would not burn any dung if they could possibly help it. Poona is another place where firewood is expensive. It has to be carted between 30 and 40 miles, and then costs Rs. 5 a cartload, whereas a cartload of cow-dung cakes costs Rs. 3, and a eartload of loose cow-dung Re. 1 only. It is not to be wondered at, then, that the cakes are burnt as fnel instead of the wood. The general opinion expressed was, that if the price of wood, were halved the cultivators would not burn cow-dung, for they fully appreciate its value. The country around Nadiad is well wooded, and no Charotar Kundi (the - best cultivating caste) burns dung, not even for cooking purposes. Manure is sold out of the town to the cultivators, they paying Re. 1 for 20 maunds (of 40 lbs. each). Mr. Peyts says of Gujardt (Bombay):—‘*Here manures are largely “used. Cow-dung is not burnt. ” It was, perhaps, in Madras that I found the strongest ground for concluding that cultivators, if they had firewood in sufficiency, would abandon the burning of dung as fuel. At Avenashi (Coimbatore) the cultivators do not burn dung at all, but, on the contrary, they buy it from the people who keep cattle, but have no fields themselves. This is not because of any plentifulness of firewood, but because by growing hedges and clipping them, and by gathering all stalks, etc., the people manage to eke out their stock of fuel without having to burn the dung. No cultivator at Salem burns dung, although those who live in the town and keep buffaloes will make up cakes for burning. The same is the case at Shiyali. At Hospet there is plenty of wood, and consequently dung is not burnt, eXcept just a little for boiling milk. Firewood at Hunsar (Mysore) has Connection of Manure with Wood Supply. 103 to be carted 17 miles, and costs Rs. 3 a ton besides; this is the sole cause of dung being burnt there. Mr. Benson says that in some parts of the Cuddapah district of Madras dang is never burnt. Mr. Nicholson, in his “Manual of Coimbatore,” goes into this matter at considerable length, and shows that cattle-dung is never used as fuel except in towns, and that -Mr. Robertson (Superintendent of Government Farms, Madras) was wrongly informed when, in one of his Reports, he said it was. Mr. Nicholson’s remarks are worth quoting :-=- “Cattle-dung is never used except in towns. Very occasionally a few *bratties may be seen in a bandy-pettah (a standing or halting place for “oarts), but nota hundredth of the cattle-dung is so used, partly because “the value is perfectly known, partly because fuel for the few wants of “the raiyat is supplied by hedge and tree loppings, cotton and kambu stalks “ and so forth.” “Village sweepings and eattle-droppings are carefully stored; pots and = we are burnt with sweepings, stalks, and small wood, but saé with ‘ bratties.” “i It should be added that cow-dung is used for plastering the floors and walls of hoases; also, that a very large quantity is employed, especially on the outskirts of large towns, for brick-burning. : 124. The instances here ee show clearly how close is: the The elose connection between the supply of firewood and the return of between the manure to the land, As the resulf of my enquiries, I feel I Revco’ sndine may safely assert that where the practice of burning dung as fuel prevails among. the genuine cultivators, it arises, in eight cases out of ten, from the scargity of firewood. The other causes are, a deficiency of water; the land (as in the Central Provinces and silt-renewed tracts of the Punjab) not requiring manure; and, lastly, bad caltivation, which generally means cultivation by castes agriculturally inferior, The fuller treatment of the way in which to remedy the loss of manure caused to the land will be taken in the next chapter, but I may, before passing on, say that the only remedy I can see isthe establishment of the “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves” spoken of in Chapter 1V, paragraph 37, Anyhow, there can be but one opinion as to the desirability of lessening the amount of dung burnt. Sir Edward Back wrote in 1881 :— - “It is manifest that in the interest of agriculture every “attempt should be made to minimise the expenditure of © manure as fuel.” 125. Ashes of dung have a distinct value on account of their aches of mineral constituents, and they may oecasionally be used to dung. and their greater advantage than the dung itself. When, for example, a forcing effect. is not desirable, the ashes are preferred ; again, in very wet parts, such as Méhim, the eultivators have difficulty in preserving manure, and the most general use they put it to is to burn it for rdé* (the system of making seed-beds for rice, etc.). The unburnt manure would possibly, in such a wet climate, retain too much moisture and keep the soil too sodden, whereas the ashes have a reverse effect, and enable the water to drain away better, thus keeping the soil porous and less saturated, * See footnote, page 27. Sheep-folding. Befuse from oil-seed crush- ing. j04 Manure. Again, itis a question still to be determined satisfactorily, whether in soils like black cotton-soil there may not be sufficient organic matter to render the ashes of dung as effective as the dung itself. I mention these points in suggesting a field of enquiry in which agricultural chemistry can do much good by explaining what does actually take places But thatthe cultivator, when he does prefer ashes to dung, or else the whole dung to the mere ashes, does so simply from fancy or from ignorance, I am by no means ready to allow, but assert that quite the contrary is the case. A cultivator from Tiunevelly, whom I interviewed, described to me his practice thus :—*I would use ashes for my nursery beds, and raw ‘dung to get ‘produce.?” He added that for heavy land he would use the raw dung, and the ashes for his lighter land. This use of dung for opening heavy land quite agrees with English experience, At Madura the cultivators said to me, “the Native “knows the unburnt dung is better; there is more ‘force’ in ‘it.? I often think of the answers given to me by two culti- vators, one at Salem, the other at Avenashi,. when, after they had complained to me of the difficulty of getting firewood, I said to them, for the purpose of testing them, “ But why don’t “you make the dung into cakes and burn them? Then you “have the ashes left; what more do you want?” The one replied, “ What is that? It’s only a little; that’s not enough.” The other said, “If I burn the dung what shall I have for “manure? How can I live if I burn my cattle-dung? I * want it all for my garden.” I pass on now to consider other modes of manuring the land. 126. Folding of sheep and cattle on land, for the purpose of mManuring it, is another practice understood in some parts, ‘but neglected in others. It has one great advantage, in that the urine is not lost, as it generally is, Folding is practised largely in Coimbatore and other parts of Madras; in the North-West Provinces; in Palamau and Rungpore, in Bengal (chiefly for sugar-cane and tobacco crops); at Rawal Pindi (Punjab), and elsewhere. Sheep and goats are generally used, but cattle are not unfrequently tied outside the pens also, and fodder [princivally cholam (a millet)] is given to them. The animals are allowed to graze by day over the dry fields, along roadsides and wastes, picking up whatever they can, and at night they are brought into the pens, The pens are moved about every second day, The cultivators pay for the privilege of having the sheep go over their fields, thereby manuring the land. In Tinnevelly, sheep are bred largely, and chiefly with the object of using them fer manuring the land. 127. Perhaps next to, but insignificant as compared with, cattle-manure, is the use, as a manurial agent, of the refuse obtained from various oil-seeds after the oil has been expressed from them, The principal oil-seeds thus used are the following :— Castor-oil seed (Ricinus communis); Gingelly, Zil, or Sesame (Sesamum indicum) ; Earth-nut or ground-nut (drachis bypogea) ; Manure Cakes. 103 Kardaz or Safflower (Carthamus tinctoréus); Rape seed; Mustard seed; Niger seed (Guisotia abyssinica); Linseed; Cotton seed. The seeds of the fruits of several trees, such as Pongamia glabra, Bassia latifolia (the Matua tree), and Melia Azadirachta (the Neem tree), are also pressed, and the refuse is employed as manure, chiefly in the coffee districts. Most of these seeds, after expression of the oil, are also used primarily for feeding cattle, and secondarily for manure, Castor-oil is a plant grown very largely in Gujarat (Bombay), and it is a common sight to see it fringing the fields in the North-West Provinces, also in Bombay and Madras. In Méhim, where, in consequence of heavy and continuous rain, it is hard to preserve cow-dung, castor refuse, obtained from Gujarat, is used to a surprising extent for the more expensive crops. Thus, for betel vines, from 9 to 12 tons of castor cake per acre, costing Rs. 280 to Rs, 380, will be carefully applied in handfuls round the baége of the plants, in some 15 to 20 separate doses ; for ginger, sugar-cane, and plantains, Jesser amounts, but still costing from Rs. 60 to Rs. 160 per acre, are used. Castor refuse is also employed at Poona, Burdwan (Bengal), Hoshiarpur (Punjab), and elsewhere, but in many places it is merely thrown on manure heaps or else burnt as fuel, Its cost varies from Rs. 20 to Rs. 35 a ton. An extensive use for it is found in the coffee-growing districts of Coorg and Mysore, where it is known as castor poonae. An analysis which I made of a sample of castor poonac from Mysore showed it to contain— Per cent, Nitrogen ‘ . fa at we Ne 4°52 equal to Ammoni i: . ° 5°49 Phosphate of Lime , . . 2°86 Accordingly, it possessed manurial properties of decided value, Giugelly cake is often fed to cattle, and is also exported. Earth-nut is grown mostly in Madras, and especially in South Arcot; it goes mainly for export. Rape seed and Mustard seed are similarly exported. Niger seed is not largely grown, but yields a good burning oil, and the residue is used as food for cattle. Linseed is almost entirely an export crop. Cotton seed is generally fed locally to cattle, The other seeds mentioned have mostly only a local significance ; but from the flowers of the Makua tree (Rassia latifolia) a spirit is obtained by dis- tillation, the spent material being used as food for cattle. The fruit of the Makua tree, when allowed to ripen, contains a hard seed from which a valuable oil is expressed, and the residue is used as manure under the name Bassia cake. For the particulars given as to the various oil-seeds Iam mainly indebted to Dr. Geo. Watt. Analyses of several of the varieties of cakes are given in the Appendix.* * See Appendices J and K. Castor cake. Other cakes, 106 Manure. The steno Now it is clear that as these seeds are for the greater part port of oils “ 5 e seeds on the exported, their export must imply the removal of a very consider- soils fertility. oble amount of the constituents of the soil, Were they (with the exceptior of castor-oil seed) to be consumed by cattle, after expression of the oil, the manurial constituents would be returned to the soil from which they were drawn, and the balance of fertility might be maintained. The oil, having itself no manurial properties, and being derived from the atmosphere and not from the soil, isa fitting object for export; but to send away the entire seed, or the refuse after removal of the oil, is to send away the valuable manurial constituents contained inthe seed, including those taken out of the soil itself; in brief, to export them is to export the soii’s fertility. The answer given will doubtless be that there is the advantage of the ready cash obtained in exchange; but it becomes the duty of Agricultural Departments, andof Experimental Farms in particular, to demon- strate clearly to the people what the advantages-are of using such refuse materials, either as food for cattle, and thus indireetly as manure, or else by direct application to the land. Where, as in India, supplies of manure in any form are so short, it seems wrong to allow so much manurial element to be carried beyond the seas, without endeavouring to establish its value and the importance of retaining it in the country. Wein England are not slow to avail ourselves of the advantages this export system offers; and at the time of my leaving for India I was feeding bullocks, at the Woburn Experimental Farm on linseed cake, and was also growing crops with rape cake manure. Both these materials, in all likelihood, were the produce of Indian soil, and represented its travsported fertility. Beet, or Indigo 128. Seet, or Indigo refuse, consists of the leaves and stalks refase. of the Indigo plant after they have been steeped in order to extract the colouring matter, and is largely used in the Indigo districts of Behar and Bengal by the planters, being, practi- cally, the only manure they employ. Where, as in Madras, the North-West Provinces, and the Punjab, the manufacture is mostly carried on only on the small scale and by Natives, the seet is purchased by the ordinary cultivators, and they spread it on their fields, A great deal is so used in the Cuddapah district of Madras. A field thus manured is considered not to, peed any more manure for the next three years or longer, I saw, near Cawnpore, a splendid field where wheat was growing on land thus treated, and experiments conducted at the Cawn- pore Experimental Farm have shown the benefit of the refuse. The cultivators do not like the seef when new, but prefer it when nearly two years old. At Rura, near Cawnpore, I found that the landlords (zemindars) were in the habit of manuring the fields with the seeé at their own expense, and then letting them out to cultivators at a high rental. Greeu-manure 129. Next to be considered is green-manuring, a practice aT not unknown, but yet vot nearly as widely distributed as it Green-manuring. 107 might with advantage be, San or fdg hemp (Crotalaria juncea) is the crop most generally ploughed in; indigo is another; mus- tard is occasionally used ; and frequently on rice fields the weeds are allowed to grow, and then turned in to act as manure. In Lohardaga the favourite green crop is s¢éwdn (a wild form of Pani- cum miliaceum); it is often grown with rice, and after tho rice has been harvested the green crop is turned in and buried in the coil. Green-manuring is well understood in some parts; for ex- ample, in Gujarat omen): It is also practised in Hoshiarpur, Burdwan, Hooghly, Chota Nagpur, Poona, and parts of Khandesh. San ploughed in as a green crop, in preparation for sugar-cane, is the usual form of green-manuring. In other districts, such as Bareilly (North-West Provinces), green-manuring is quite un- known ; in Coimbatore too, so far as the actual growing of green crops is concerned ; whilst in many parts of Bengal its use might be more extended. Mr. Moens says of Bareilly, “The benefit of ploughing in a green crop is quite unknown here.” Experiments made at the Bhadgaon (Bombay) and Cawnpore (North-West Provinces) Farms have demonstrated the advantages of ploughing in green crops such ag the san hemp or indigo, 180. Overa large part of Madras, Coimbatore included, the spreading of wild shrubs such as wild indigo (Wrightia tinctoria), madar (Calotropis- gigantea), avardt (Cassia aurieulata), kolingsé (Tephrosia purpurea), convolvulus, and the shcots and leaves of Pongamia glabra and other trees is much used on “ wet” lands, principally on rice fields, The shrubs and leaves are spread green on the fields, and then trodden in by foot. At Hospet, which is served by a canal, led by a weir or anécué from the river Tunga- badra, and where the cultivation is exceptionally good, I saw this plan of green-manuring being carried out, Trees are grown round every field and along the banks of the water-channels, and are de- foliated once in three years; the twigs and leaves are spread on the land where rice is to be sown ; canal water is let on, and the twigs are trodden into the soil with the foot, About eight days later, rice is sown broadcast on the top. It is worthy of note that, though served by canal irrigation, the compartments or beds in which the water is enclosed are here quite small, just as in ‘€ garden” cultivation. The practice of putting twigs and leaves on rice fields is largely adopted in Tinnevelly, Branches and leaves are used as manure near Bangalore in April, and at the end of the monsoon. When touring in the Suni Valley (Punjab) Dr. Watt pointed out to me a shrub (Adhatoda Vasica) which acts as a weed-extermina- tor ; the natives spread it, when green, on their rice fields, and it is said to kill all the weeds in 24 hours. At Méhim the leaves of the sugar-cane are spread on the ginger-beds to act as manure; leaves are also put round the plantains, Near Rura (North-West Provinces) I saw a cultivator using leaves as manure on his opium beds, and he thought very highly of them. In the Forests of North Kanara and along the Malabar coast leaves are gathered and used as manure. Leaves are, generally speaking, collected in Use of twigs and leaves us manure. Tho rab ques- tion, Mr. Ozanne’s experiments in Bombay, 108 Manure. the neighbourhood of towns and villages for the purpose of “ parching ” grain, I believe that in these various ways of green-manuring, the physical improvement of the soil isan important point. At the same time it shows that the value of vegetable matter, as an addi- tion to the soil, is not neglected by the raiyat, although some would maintain that its loss in the burning of cow-dung is of no account, 131. Associated with the use of twigs, leaves, ete,, for manure is the system of seed-bed cultivation termed ré6.* This system is employed mainly in the Bombay Presidency throughout the districts of heaviest rainfall, but it is not unknown in parts of Bengal. The crops for which it is chiefly used are rice and a millet called ndéglt (Bleustne Coracana), The word rdé literally means “cultivation.”” The process consists in heaping on the spot selected for the seed-bed successive layers of cow-dung, tree-lop- pings, shrubs, leaves, and grass, with earth on the top to keep all down ; the heap is made about three feet high, and then the whole is set fire to, As regards the advantage, still more the necessity, of rdé, there have been continuous contentions between the cultivators and those who have supported them, on the one hand, and the Forest Department on the other, the latter maintaining that the practice is a wasteful one, and that the lopping of trees injures the forests greatly. In 1885 a Forest Commission was appointed in Bombay to enquire into the. matter, and Mr. Ozanne, Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bombay Presidency, conducted a number of experiments, which, though not absolutely conclusive nor com- plete, weut far to show that the raiyat in rdb areas was adopting the only ready means by which he could cultivate his rice crop with profit, Great credit is due to Mr. Ozanne for the energy which he showed and the line of enquiry he adopted, He pointed out that there are defined limits to r¢4 cultivation, wiz., the dis- tricts where rainfall is very heavy and also continuous, For ex- ample, réé exists in the Konkan, whereas in Dharwar, where the rainfall is less heavy, it does not. Similarly, 7é4 is not used where there is tank irvigation, for by the aid of the tank the seed can be sown before the heavy rains come. Mr, Ozanne’s experi- ments also showed that brush-wood and shrubs when used as rdé5 material give just as good results as boughs of trees do, and that there is nothing in the radyat’s belief in the superior virtues of particular kinds of trees. Cow-dung (which the raiyat prizes most for ré)) gave the best results of all; the supply of it is, however, limited ; but, with the aid of brushwood, shrubs, and grass, the cultivator can make up the necessary amount for burning. In this way the Forests had, up tothe time of the enquiry, been of great use to agriculture, It is undisputed that ¢ransplanted rice gives far and away the best return, and that only the finest kinds of rice are so sown. At ” See foutnote, page 27. “Rab” Cultivation, 109 Igatpari, where, owing toscareity of rdb material, a good deal of rice is grown from “‘ sprouted ” seed (the seed being allowed to soak for two days in water before sowing), the out-turn is not so good as at Kalyan where rd prevails. If seed is “ sprouted 7’ and sown, but the rain does not then last, the seed is wasted, but rabed seed is not put in the seed-bed until the rain actually comes. The assessment of the land has of late been lowered at Igdtpuri, on account, it is believed, of the difficulty in getting rdéo material, and the covsequent lesser yield of rice. Rice though aquatic, can- not stand immersion, and it is noticeable that where r¢dis practised the seed-bed isalwavs on elevated ground. Rice cannot be sown in the wet, as it would rot ; this accounts for rd being used at Ma4hin, inasmuch as, apart from the difficulty of preserving the cow-dung in such a climate, if it were put on the seed-bed it would tend to hold the moisture all the more. By burning the dung on the land a drier and more porous soil is obtained. At first sight, 1 allow, one would conclude that the practice The advantages must be a very wasteful one, but the fact that itis carried on by nae ratyats, such as those at Mahim, the excellence of whose cultiva- tion excited my highest admiration, obliges me to conclude that, though I cannot explain why it is, yet ¢¢ is the one way in which the cultivatur can grow his rice to best profit. I cannot believe that men who annually spend such large sums as these cultivators do in the purchase of castor refuse, ete., would burn their cow-dung for réb if they had not found out by experience that it was the best plan to adopt. In other words, I am content to learn from practical experience, and to endavour to explain the science from the practice. It is not at all unlikely that much of the benefit of db is due Possible ex. to the change produced in the mechanical texture of the soil by “™™4™ the burning which it undergoes. This results in the liberation of some of its dormant constituents, and the supply of ready- formed food for the plant, which, at this stage, needs to be quickly forced on; then, again, the addition of mineral matter from the materials burnt must conduce to the richness of the soil, aad, while supplying plant food, would, at the same time, render the soil porous, so that it would not retain excessive moisture, as might be the case were natural manure or green leaves to be used. There is a further possible benefit in the destruction, through burning, of any weed seeds which might choke the ice in its early stages, I. find it stated in the Lohardaga Agricultural Report that:— * for paddy nurseries, in mary parts the mapure heap is set on fire first, “the motive being to kill. grass seeds, which, where the soil is poor, would “ germinate and kill the rice; but this is not done in Five Parganas, since the * jand is fertile there, and the young crop grows up strongly enough to keep ** the weeds in check. ” This instance from Bengal may afford a possible explanation of what takes place in other parts. The whole subject of réd is an interesting and important one, about which there is still much to be learnt, and on which the scientific agriculturist may usefully work. Manuring by silt, or by soil- mixing, Silt from rivere, streams, and canals, Soil-mixing. 110 Manure. 132. Another system of manuring is that by using silt, tank mud, ete., or by the mixing of soils of different character, in order to improve the texture of the land. Vast areas in Bengal are annually renewed naturally by the silt of rivers, and there are in the Punjab, for example, near Gujrat, stretches which are covered yearly by the silt brought down by mountain streams, Inthe Jhelum and Shahpur districts, at the foot of the Salt Range, there are similar tracts ; here the fields are first embanked, and then the flood water of hill torrents is turned into them through an opening in the upper end of the em- bankment. The water is allowed to flow in until the field is con- verted into a pond. When this dries up, acrop is sown, and re- quires no further watering or rain. In this way the wheat-growing areas of these districts are formed, and no manure is used or needed, the coming of the silt supplying more fertilising matter than many manurings could. In Behar a large proportion of the land is inundated, and the soil is washed from the higher to the lower land, the latter consequently not requiring manure. Jute-growing in Eastern Bengal is carried on by the annual renewals of silt, from the rivers, and where if comes no manure is needed at all. It is found that, wherever there is silt the razyat does not value ordinary manure or take trouble in preserving it ; he looks for the silt to come instead. In the case of silt-laden canals one reason for the excessive use of canal water is, that the more water that is used the more silt is there deposited, and the people alongside eanals have been known to cut the banks in order to get the silt on to their lands, The use of canal silt for growing trees on salty land (wsar), and for re- elaiming the latter, has been mentioned. (See paragraph 75.) Great distinctions are drawn by the cultivators between the rivers and canals which bring silt and those which do not. ‘Thus, the Sutlej is a snow-fed river, and brings sand rather than mud ; the silt of the Jumna is considered fertilising, that of the Ganges is not, The rich soil dug out from tanks is widely appreciated through= out Madras, and in Coimbatore J have seen “ soil-mixing ’’ going on, a lighter and red soil being mixed with a heavier and black one. At Rungpore, in Bengal, this is also practised, especially for jute land, the better soil being mixed with the inferior, just as pond mud might be mixed with a sandy soil. At Nadiad {Bombay) I noticed another kind of “soil-mixing.” Here the fields are all surrounded by hedges growing on em- bankments. When it is required to turn a field into a rice field, the topsoil is thrown from the centre up against the hedge, thus making an embankment; the level of the field is lowered thereby, so that the rain water, when it falls, is held up and soaks the soil thoroughly, When, in turn, the field requires to Salt exd Nitre. i be manured, the soil is thrown back from the hedge-side on to the field and is spread over it, 183. Nitre or saltpetre (nitrate of potash) isa salt with which Nitro orsalt- the soil in many parts of India is impregnated, and the manu- a facture of nitre, together with some common salt, by a somewhat crude process of extraction and purification, may be seen very frequently, Though the manufacture is widely distributed, it is in Behar and the North-West Provinces that most nitre is made. The earth around the remains of old villages is specially found to be thus impregnated. The accumulations of the salt in all prob- ability have their origin in the natural process of nitrification (production of nitrates) which the solid and liquid excreta of cattle and men, as well as vegetable and other refuse, have under- gone. Wood and other vegetable ashes supply potash in the form {{¢ method of of carbonate of potash, which then combines with the nitrates, producing nitrate of potash, The potash in the soil itself, more especially when the soil is clayey in nature, no doubt, contributes also to the production of nitre. This explanation accounts for the nitre-containing earth being fornd mainly where habitations for- merly stood, : The men who manufacture the salt know by tasting the earth whether it will pay them to work it or not, Nitre asa manure is but little used, owing to its high price. Experiments at Government Farms have shown that it gives a considerable inerease in the out-turn of cereal and other crops; but these experiments, like several others, have not been conducted with a view to seeing if the extra return would pay for the ex- penditure, and if there be a likelihood of the redyat availing him- self of the manure, The price of crude saltpetre varies in Behar p,iio, from Re. 1. As. 8, to Re, 3 per maund (of 80 lbs.), but the lower- priced kind would be very impure, Generally speaking, it may be said that its cost locally is Rs, 24 to Rs. 8 per maund of 80 Ibs. This is the price at Cawnpore; also at Salem (Madras). In Gujarét (Bombay) nitre costs nearly Rs. 5 for the same weight; and delivered at Caleutta, the price is from Rs, 5 to Rs, 64, aceord« ing to quality. The price of saltpetre, accordingly, puts it quite beyond the reach of the ordinary cultivator, and it is only in the case of crops which bring ina large monetary return, such as sugar-cane, coffee, tobacco, opium, and indigo, that it has any chance of being used in the country. Thus, it becomes almost exclusively an article of export, principally to the United Kingdom. In Coorg, among the coffee planters, a small amount is used as manure, Occasion- ally, too, the Natives will use the nitre-containing earth itself as a manure, spreading if round the base of the sugar-canes, etc. I saw the earth heing used for canesat Hoshiarpur, and also for wheat at, Hissar. An efflorescence of nitre often appears on the walls of houses in villages of the North-West Provinees and Oudh, as well as on the earth around them; it is then scraped off and used as manure. Reference has been made in the last chapter (Chapter VI, para- Use as manure. Well water con- taining nitrates, 112 Manure. graph 99) to well water which is termed “hara by the cultivators, and which is held in special repute for tobacco-growing. Nitrates, as I have shown in the analysis there quoted, hold a very promi- nent place in the composition of such waters, although, in that instance, rather to my surprise, I found that they existed as soda and not as potass salts, It is quite possible that nitrate of otash occurs in other cases, but the subject needs more complete investigation, In another instance, when at Avenashi, I noticed a white crust on the soil, and the cultivator said that it was pre< judicial to his sugar-canes; he added that it came from the well water. He did not grow tobacco here because the water was not of the kind of brackishness he liked, As far aa I could tell from a cursory examination, the saline crust on the soil was sulphate of soda, but whether it came from the water or from * the soil no one could tell me, I only mention this to show that Wood ashes, Lime, Kankar. Gypsum, Phospbatic manures, Few mineral sources dis- covered. the Native clearly discriminates between the properties of different waters, though he does not know whence they arise, and also to show the amount of useful work that could be done by a chemist who would investigate these various points. Other sources of potash are wood ashes and the ashes from burnt cow-dung calres; these, as we have seen, are not wasted, but generally find their way on to the manure heap. 134. Lime is seldom, if at all, used asa manure, Nor, as we have seen in Chapter V (paragraph 63), is its use generally re- quired, the soils of India, as a rule, containing a sufficiency, Were there to be need of its special application, an abundant supply would be found in the coneretionary limestone known as kankar, which in so many parts underlies the soil. A further supply of lime, in another form, is available from the vast beds of gypsum (sulphate of lime) found in the Salt Range in the Punjab, which are capable of supplying almost in- exhaustible quantities of lime. Some experiments that have been carried out seem to point to the possibly profitable use of gypsum asa manure for indigo, avd support for this may be found in the known value of gypsum as a manure for clover. Indigo, like clover, is a leguminous plant. It is on the laterite soils of Coorg and Mysore, as also in the Neilgherries, that the lack of lime in the soil is felt, and here its application separately would, I am con- fident, be beneficial. Mr. Elliot, of Munjerabad, reports to me that lime, where puton, has done good. ' Urfortunately, it is in these parts that lime is‘hardest to procure. In Coorg and Mysore a compost for coffee is made out of the pulp from the coffee berries mixed with lime, soil, ete. 135. Bonesare practically the only source of supply of phos- phates to the soil. Small quantities of apatite and phosphatic nodules were found by Dr. Warth and Mr. Parsons at Mussoorie (North-West Provinces) in 1884, and by Dr. Warth, in the Eocene of the Eastern Salt Range, Coprolites have been dis- covered in spots in East Berar and the Upper Godaveri district in Hyderabad, but nowhere in anything like sufficient quantity to be profitably worked. Nothing else that 1 know of in the way of Bones. 113 raw phosphatic material for manufacture into manures has been found in India. Fish manure, which may be considered partly a phosphatic pis, manure manure, is prepared in parts along the sea coast, such as Man- : galore (Mysore), and is transported inland within certain distances, being used almost entirely by the coffee planters of Coorg and Mysore. ‘ I pass now to the more important consideration of the use of ones. 186. Bones, as is known, are very extensively exported from Bones. India, and are but little used in the country itself, The question whether the export of bones should be allowed to continue without a strong effort being made to retain this source of manure in the country, has been prominently brought forward of late years, and the Government of India recently caused enquiries to be made as to the trade in and use of bones. The general reply received was that the export was an increasing one; that the trade was carried on entirely by European capital, and that the actual collection of bones was done by Muhammadans and low-caste Hindus; that it was principally confined to districts served by railways, and from villages within an easy distance of the line; and, lastly, that bones were not used by the native agriculturists. It is estimated that 60 million cattle die or are slaughtered annually in India. The export of hides and skins amounts to over 30 miflion yearly, though the number is not an increasing one, for more raw hides have been used in the country itself of late. In 1888-89, as also in 1889-90, 64 million raw hides were exported from India to foreign countries, 14 million dressed hides, 4 million raw skins, and 19 million dressed skins. Whether taken from the number of hides or from the estimate of the cattle that perish, it is evident that there must be a very large supply of bones available. Hindus, however, being largely a non-meat-eating people, and regarding the bones of cattle as those _of their ancestors, and hence sacred, are prevented by their caste prejudices from collecting or utilising the bones. Ninety per cent. of the Hindus may be said to be non-meat-eating, and, of the remaining 10 per cent., fully 5 per cent. caunot afford to get meat, The consequence is, that the bones are left lying about wherever the animals may happen to die, or are thrown into ditches (nullahs) and ravines and left there. It has also to be remembered that Indian cattle are less hardy in resisting disease than European cattle, and, consequently, may drop off in great numbers when an epidemic breaks out. Within the past fifteen years a large trade has sprung up in the collection and export of bones; it has increased and is still increasing. Almost the whole amount collected is sent to the United Kingdom, where the use of bones, either raw or else manu- factured into artificial manures, is valued highly. The exports of Sueane bones from India have been, in round numbers, as follows :—~ exported. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1884-85 . . 18,000 1887-88 . - 26,000 1885-86 . . 22,000 1858-89 . . 35,000 1886-87 . - 18,000 1889-90 . - 44,000 Of this total, above one-third goes from Bombay, somewhat lees 8 114 Manure. from Karachi, and almost all the rest from Bengal (Calcutta). Madras exports only a small amount, and that mainly to Ceylon. The total value of the exports in 1839-99 was Rs. 24,27,489, Out of the 44,000 tons exported in 1889-90, close upon 40,000 tons went to the United Kingdom, and 2,200 tons to Ceylon, Thus, the trade may be considered one almost entirely with the United Kingdom, and yet, despite this large influx of bones, it amounted, in 1888, to only about one-fourth of the total amount of bones used annually in the United Kingdom, For the statistics here given I am indebted to Mr, J. E. O’Conor, of the Finance Department, Government of India, and to Mr, H. Voss, of the Anglo-Continental Guano Works, London. The collection The collectors of bones are mostly coolies of the Chamar caste. of hones, - The bones are roughly broken with a hammer, conveyed to the nearest station, and there left for removal by train. Bones may be seen lying in heaps ata great number of the stations along the railway routes and waiting for removal to Calcutta, Bombay, and Karachi. Villages within a 10-mile radius of the line have been already cleared of any accumulated stores of bones, but collection of fresh bones goes on, although it does not as yet extend much beyond this limit, The collection of bones is thus a limited one, but, as railway facilities increase, so willit spread. In Bengal, where a damp, hot climate prevails, bones seldom lie long on the ground, but disappear within a couple of years; in the hot, dry plains of the North-West, on the other hand, they get desiccated and bleached, and may thus last a long time and accumulate, Those accumulated stores, however, have now, for the most part, been already carried off. What prevents 137, I will now consider what stands in the way of bones being being ntilised in utilised in India for agricultural purposes. ndia (@) Prejudice: 2, In the first place comes caste prejudice. The influence of this, however, will gradually break down, and, before long, the cultivator will not scruple to use bones if he finds it to his advantage to do so. In the business office of a bone-exporting firm I myself saw the different samples being handled by a Brahman. (») their valne Secondly, the value of bones for agricultural purposes has not ‘ores’? been definitely shown as regards India. It seems hard to believe that there should so long have been this available source of manure, and yet that the raiyat everywhere should have been quite ignorant of its use. He utilises most of the materials that he has at hand, and even as regards those which prejudice has prevented him from using largely, night-soil, for instance, he is perfectly well aware of their fertilising value. But it is not so with regard to bones; nor have the experiments conducted on the Government Farms at Cawnpore and Nagpur succeeded in establishing the value of bones, nor in showing that it would pay the reiyat to collect and use them. I do not say that the enquiry is complete, but it is clear that the benefit of bone manures is not of the marked nature in India that it has been found to be in some parts of England. When Export and Use of Bones. 115 looking for a possible explanation my attention was drawn to analyses of Indian soils. AsI have pointed out in Chapter V (paragraph 65), these, as a rule, contain considerably higher percentages of phosphoric acid than most English soils do. Now, phosphoric acid in the form of phosphate of lime is the chief ingredient of bones, and the one for which their use in agriculture is prized. Again, it is necessary to point out that bones, or even bone manures, are not of uneversal benefit even m England; on some lands, and in certain parts of the country, there is nothing that does so much good; in others they and the money paid for them are thrown away, and quite as good a result would be obtained by using the cheapest mineral super- pkosphate. .No practical farmer and no agricultural chemist has ever yet been able to determine exactly why or when this is the case; but it remains a fact that the application of bones has really to be made experimentally at first in order to see whether they do good; then,.if they do, they generally pay well. But each man bas to get to know his land, and to learn by experience whether bones are good for it or not. Now let us take the practical difficulties apart from caste (¢), diMeulty oF prejudice, and let us suppose for the moment that the value of keeping: bones in India had been proved. The whole export is little more than one-fourth of what the United Kingdom annually requires. What would this amount to, therefore, if spread over the whole of a vast continent like India? It would not be much more than a drop in the ocean ! Again, while it may pay a trading firm to send out col léctors of bones, it does so only along rail-served tracts, and within a certain radius, We have to see how the raiyat would be affected. The death of one of his cattle is, happily for him, not an every-day oecurrence, and when it does happen, it is only about 20 seers (40 Ibs.) of bones that are yielded. What is the raiyat to do with these? Ishe to store them until another of his cattle dies, and so on, until enough are accumulated to make it worth his while to break them up and manurea field with them? Or is he to roam over the wastes and ravines and pick up single bones? If the use of bones is to be general, there would be others doing what he does, and how far would . the bones go then? He would, again, find himself in competi- tion with the paid agents of exporting firms, as soon as the extension of railways or the difficulty of getting a sufficient supply of bones near at hand had obliged the search to be made further abroad. It must come to it, I think, that the most that the raiyat willdo will be to throw the bones on to his manure heap, even if he takes the trouble to do that. Next, there is the difficulty of preparing bones for use. (@) dimenty of Suppose the raiyat were to collect a sufficient supply and for use. to keep them separate, how would he prepare them for use? Some kind of grinding is necessary, or the bones could not, so experience tells us, be used to advantage. Unless bones be ground to a coarse meal, it is impossible to secure their proper 8A Prospects of bone beiug an object of sale in India itself. 116 Manure. distribution over the area to be manured, nor can the forces of nature so easily act on them and disseminate them throughout the soil as plant food. ‘The old ideain England was, that bone was 9 capital manure because it dasted well, especially if after a number of years a piece of bone could still be found in a field: this idea, has, very rightly, given place to the more seientific one, that a profitable return must be the one which is readily reaped in the crop and not merely stored up iu the earth. Accordingly, the fimeness of agricultural bone-meal is now insisted upon. The raiyat, however, cannot afford to pay for a bone-mill, and he has no reaily available means for reducing the bones to a small size. On two occasions I have seen bones being broken vp by hand; this happened on the estate of Mr. Sabapathi Mudliar at Bellary, and at the Seebpore Experimental Farm, Caleutta. At the former place women were employed in pounding the bone, and I was told they wculd make 100 lbs, of bone into meal in a day. At Seebpore three men using a dhenki, or kind of lever hammer worked with the foot, made 20 seers (40 lbs.) into meal in 54 hours, It is possible that if the value of bones be clearly shown, the native cultivators may begin to break up the bones that lie near at hand, but that the practice will become a general one, or that, if a general one, it will be capable of supplying the manurial requirements of the land to any great extent, I am inclined to doubt. It has been suggested that bone-mills might be started up-country, and the bones be sold to the ratyaé rather than sent for export; but then comes in the ratyaé’s difficulty, his want of capital. He has seldom money to pay for manures, especially those the value of which he is not convinced of. And, in any case, the whole matter would be one of market considerations. If there isaconstant aud inereasing demand for bones, the price of which in Calcutta is now from Rs. 40 to Rs. 45 a ton (say 32. to 3/, 15s. a tou), they can only be kept in the country if those who are likely to use them are willing to pay as much as this or more; and where is the money to come from? A tea planter, or.a coffee planter, perhaps, may find it worth his while to purchase bones; but itis only erops that yield a high return that will justify their use. In ‘such cases the planters generally have their own bone-crushing mills worked by steam; but, even in the midst of the indigo cultivation of Behar, I met planters who regularly collected and bagged bones for export, finding it more profitable to do so than to grind them up and use them onitheir land. Rail- ways will not doso much to distribute benes as to afford an outlet for them; in other words, they will facilitate the export. It is necessary to add one caution more,—as the demand fur bones for export purposes increases, it will afford another inducement to the professional cattle-stealer and the cattle- poisoner, Already the hide is an attraction, the flesh is rapidly becoming one also; if to these are superadded the Artificial Manures—Ad ulteration of Marures. uy bones, more care will have to be taken in the future to pros tect the cattle of the country, The whole question of the export of bones is, therefore, I the use of bones hold, under existing circumstances, one purely of market 3B Nadteqanaee considerations, siderations, 188. The next subject, that of imported manurés, which in artiéciel an account of English agriculture would fill a most important" place, may, so far as India is concerned, be very summarily dismissed. If natural manures, such as bones, are not yet likely to be used, still less so are artificial manures, Not only have no sources of the raw material been discovered which would pay for working, but the acid (sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol) required for their manufacture, costs, at preseut, far too much. Over and above would be the cost of carriage both of raw and manufactared material. Once, again, the real difficulty comes in, who is to pay for these? Only crops giving a high return could possibly meet the outlay, and, owing to lowness of prices for produce, the tendency among planters towards economy in artificial manures has of late been marked. The day is still distant, I believe, when artificial manures can be profitably used in India, Some great change, either in the cost of manufacture or in the con- dition of the agricultural classes, must take place first. A leading firm of chemical manure manufacturers told me, before l went out to India, the result of their efforts at introdueing artificial manures into Russia and the Kast. The only manure which they succeeded in getting into use in Russia was the cheapest mineral superphosphate, and then only in the enlight. ened Baltic Proviuces, where the farmers were, for the most part, Germans. While, however, there ‘may be no immediate opening for artificial manures, it behoves those concerned in agricultural welfare to be on the watch for any developments that may take place. Por this reason I consider that the presence of au agricultural chemist would be of service in possivly discovering and in utilising fresh manurial sources, 139. In connection with the extended use of manures, whethe? aduiteration of for employment in the country or for export, if is well to ™*™* point out that the practice of adulteration has already been introduced. This is the case with bone-meal. For the pui'- Bone-meal. pose of competing against the well-known firm, Messrs. Croft, Wells & Co., some of the native Hindu aud Parsi merchants resorted to the mixing of bone-meal with shell-sand, lime, and similar cheap materials. After inspecting Messrs, Croft, Wells & Co.’s bone-crushing mills at Thana, near Bombay, I was taken to the Mazagon Dock, Bombay, where, at and around the landing-stage, were several small establish- ments belonging to vative merchants, and provided with bone- crushing machinery. At some of these works] saw heaps of the shell-sand, lime, etc., referred to, and of the bone-meal to which these were added. I was enabled to get camples of the materials so used, and I give analyses of them in the 118 Manure. Appendis.* They consisted, in one instance, of shell-sand, in a second, of burnt magnesian limestone, or substances akin, to it, Naturally, a business such asthat which Messrs. Croft, Wells & Co. carry on will have its imitators, and unfair dealings may be used in the competition. In this way the reputation of Indian bone-meal as exported to England may be prejudiced, in the same way as that of Indian wheat has been. It is only, however, by purchasers insisting on re- ceiving a definite guarantee of composition and purity, that security in transactions can be obtained. Oil-cakes, The adulteration of wheat and oil-seeds will be considered later on, but, so far as my acquaintance went, bone-meal was the only manure which i found to be adulterated. It is well known, however, that rape-cake, when obtainable in England, is almost always mixed with a quantity of sand and earthy matter, although it is not clear where the actual admixture takes place. The presence of achemist would bea means of detecting, and probably of cheeking, the practice of adulteration, Points in which 140. Having now reviewed the manurial resources which the native : . < cultivaiordoes ave in more or less general -use, I pass on to consider two main not use the = points in which the Indian cultivator does not make full use facilities he bas. of what he has at hand. These are, firstly, the non-utilisation of night-soil; secondly, the imperfect conservation of the ordinary mauure from cattle. eet ence 141, It is undoubtedly the case that a very great improves ofnight-coil, ment might be effected in Indian agriculture if the system of utilising night-soil, sweepings, etc., were universal. Of special importance does this become ina country which, as we have seen, is too poor to purchase artificial manures, or even to re= tain in it the bones now sent for export. Still more so when, as in the case of India, not the erops alone (such as wheat, linseed, and other oil-seeds) are exported, but also the very manures Which might be supplied in the refuse from the oil-seeds , after the expression of the oil. / Mr. Nicholson's Mr. Nicholson, speaking of Coimbatore, estimates that a popu- opinion, lation of 1,650,000 persons takes yearly from the soil, for food, 330,000 tons of grain, and a lot of other produce; of this but little is returned to the land. Mr. Nicholson sums up his remarks in terms with which I thoroughly agree : “ Every man should void himself on or for his field; artificial manures are too expensive for the vaiyaf, and he must adopt either the Mosaic plan or the indirect Flemish, German, and Japanese plan. It is this manure (night-soil) which enables the Flemings to reouperate their soil.” ellie I regard the spread of a good system of utilising human and_ . household refuse, street-sweepings, ete., on the land, asa most poteat factor in the improvement of Indian agriculture, and having had, among other duties, to enquire into different schemes for town * See Appendix M. Use of Night-sotl. 119 Sanitation, I must record my conviction that the dry system ia the one best suited to Indian circumstances, and that any system which diverts from its proper destination, the land, that which has originally come from it, would be attended by loss to the cultiva- tor and to the State, and would uot be satisfactory from a sani- tary point of view. 142. Prejudice is the great Lar to the proper utilisation of Prejudice is night-soil. it is not that its value is not known, as the appearance improvement. of the fields nearest to any village will testify, for the growing of a tall crop, such as arkar (Cajanus indicus), is frequently a direct indication that that particular field has come to its turn for receiv- ing manure. On these fields the crops are manifestly better than the rest ; what is wanted is, greater distribution of these fields. ada The hope for improvement lies in the gradual breaking down of Seaipeoy emality prejudice. That there are signs of this going on is evidenced by the fact that in certain towns, such as Farukhabad, Cawnpore, and Nagpur, the utilisation of night-soil has had an indigenous origin, and its spread has been due to other cultivators following the ex- ample set. It will be, on the one hand, by the force of example, and by the necessity of adopting the most remunerative methods, and, on the other hand, by the breaking down of prejudice through the spread of education, that, by degrees, the ready and natural means of replenishing the land by the use of night-soil will come into general use. _ 143. In a great many towns and villages it is the practice to Instances utilise the sweepings of the houses and streets, but not the night. ieutlliseds, soil. T will now instance cases where the utilisation of night-soil has been effected, and where it has resulted in very great agricultural benefit, alike in the well-being of the cultivators, the increase of food to towns and villages, and an increased revenue to the State, These instances will afford evidence of that the capabilities that exist for the improvement of Indian agriculture from within. To take, first, cases where the practice has been indigenous in origin. The cultivation around Farukhabad is carried on almost entirely by Kéchhis, Farukhabad, Men belonging to the sweeper caste collect and store the night-scil, and the Kéchhig use it on their fields, putting on as much as 25 tons to the acre. The sweepers receive annually as much as Rs. 40,000 for the manure, Land which is close to the site where the manure is stored is assessed at Rs. 20 an acre, that within the manure limit, Rs. 10—12, and land outside at Rs. 5—6, whilst where liquid sewage can be baled out on to the land the rate goes as high as Rs. 30 —40. These high vaiues, it should be remembered, are due entirely to the manure, and not to the soil. By its aid three crops a year are grown, first maize, then potatoes, and afterwards tobacco. om Farukbabad Sir Edward Buck took some of the Kéchhi cultivators sat soduced them to settle at Cawnpore. This they did, and introduced their system of cultivation most successfully, so that the value of the land inereased rapidly. Only a portion of the original settlement remains, as the land wae required for the railway, but what is left retains still the name of “ Buok Sahib’ village, and the rent is Rs 40a bigha (8ths of an acre). The Kdehhis here spend as much as Res. 40 a bigha on the manure, and it is stored in trenches fur one year before it is used. (2) Cawnpore, (c) Nagpur. (2) Hoshiarpar, (e) Multan, (f) Sabaranpur, (g) Meerut, Amritsar. (i) Poona, 220 Manure. At Nawabgang also, near Cawnpore, I found Chamar cultivators using night-soil. _ Another batch of Kéchhi cultivators was transferred from Farokhabad to Nagpur, and, as mentioned in Chapter III (paragraph 27), not only did they continue their special kind of cultivation, but the cultivators around (mostly Kunbis) were induced to follow tbeir example, so that now the entire manore from the town is used. At Hoshiarpur (Punjab) night-soil is used largely. When I was thera I was told of an action which the sweepers had even brought against the Municipality, to prevent their hereditary right to the disposal of the night-soil being taken away from them. Around Multan, street-sweepings and night-soil are used together. Just outside Saharanpur I saw the market-garden cultivation carried on by Sdnis, They use town refuse and night-soil together, spending for sugar-cane as much as Rs. 90 an acre in manure. Meerut is another place where night-soil is extensively employed for market gardening, also by Sdzis principally. The sweepers collect the manure, dig it in trenches, leave it nearly a year, and then the Sdzis go and fetch it. The price the cultivators pay is R8. 30 for 20-25 loads, each weighing 10 maunds of 80 lbs. each, which makes the price about Rs. 4 a ton. The above are, so faras I have been able to separate them, examples wherein the utilisation of night-soil has originated from the people themselves. The instances that fcllow are those where an extended use of night-soil has been originated mainly by Euro- pean enterprise. At Amritsar there is a population of 150,000, involving a gvoss annual out» lay of Rs. 50,000 for scavengering, ete., but no less an income than Rs. 34,000 js received from the sale of nicht-soil, house refuse, etc., making the net cost of the entire scavengering of the towo only Rs. 16,000 yearly. The svstem was introduced in 1877, and the result is largely dueto the energy of Mr. E. Nicholl, the Secretary of the Municipal Committee. Notonly this, but the market-garden cultivation that has spruig up around the town, as the joint result of the ase of night-soil and the coming of the Bari-Doab canal, is very remaikable. Wand will let bere for Rs. 30 and Rs, 40 an acre, in addition to canal water charges. The cultivators are mainly Arains and Kumbos (market- gardeners), It is only in the rains that night-soil has to be buried; at other times the cultivators come and take it away as soon as ever it is brought to the depts on the borders of the town, and so great is the demand that there is often quite 2 fight to get it! Dry earth is taken into the houses by the sweepers. The cost of the manure is Rs. § fora hundred donkey-loads, each load being about 1 maund (80 lbs.). Even the sullage water that passes along the open sewers of the town is, after it gets outside the limits, drawn up by a Persian wheel and is poured on to land. This laid is let out at Rs. 42 per acre, including water and the use of the well. What water passes on is taken by cultivators situated lower down a channel (nulZah), into which the water flows. Poona is another good instance of what can be done in an Agricultural direction by the use of night-soil. Here the ashes, house-sweepings, ete., are collected, sifted, and burnt; the night-soil is collected separately and put in layers with the ashes, in pits 18 feet x 15 feet and one foot deep; 1 inch of ashes is used to every 5 inches of night-soil. After a time, the whole is mixed, more ashes are added, and, finally, a dry poudrette is obtained which takes five days to make in hot weather, eight days in dry weather, and 12 days in the rains. In the rains this work has to be done under cover, There is a great demand for the manure among the eultivators, although seven years ago they would not have anything to do with it. The extensive sugar-cane culti- vation around Poona is entirely due to the coming of the canal and the uotili~ sation of the Poon poudrette. One-half of the entire cost of scavengering the town and preparing the manure is met by the sale of the latter; in 1889-90: Use af Night=soil. 121 }t realised Rs. 34,604. The price varies with the demand, but is about Rs. 2 per cartload of 700 lbs., say Rs. 6 a ton. The urine and sullage water is not utilised as it is at Amritsar, but is allowed to flow into the river. It would be well, I think, both for the sake of the land and also of the river, that a plan such as that employed at Amritsar should be tried. Also, it is clear that the ready way in which the manure is disposed of at Amritsar most save much trouble and the expense of pre- paration into poudrette. _ Ihave mentioned (paragraph 75) the trenching of night-soil on salty land (7) Cawnpore, (usar) near Cawnpore. Pita are dug 2 feet deep, and only a light covering of evrth is put over it; it is enough, however, to prevent any objectionable smell. Land thus trenched lets for Rs. 45 per bigha (8ths of an acre) where there is water in addition, and for Rs. 17 where there is no water. The night-soil of Allababad is removed by the Municipality, and poured (#) Allahabad. into pits 1} feet deep, soil being put over the top. Two and a half acres are thus treated every month, and the soil is vastly improved both manurially and mechanically ; it becomes quite fine, porous, and open, whereas beforehand it was hard and lumpy. ; I read that four Municipalities in Behar have begun to dispose of night () Behar, soil on land, and have realised profits by re-letting the land. In Gya the ret is Rs. 100 to Rs. 150 yearly; in Mozufferpore, Rs. 120; in Buxar, 8. 84. At Madura (Madras) night-soil is mixed along with the town-sweepings in (m) Madura, the municipal refuse. The latter costs about Rs. 2! a ton, and it is reported that the prejudice against it is passing off. At the Government Grass Farm at Allahabad, land which formerly did not (n) anahabaa fetch above four annas (one-quarter rupee) a dzgha (Sths of an acre) is now Grass Farm. worth Rs. 20 a bigha, since it has been trenched with night-soil. Town refuse is also spread to a thickness of three inches as a dressing for grass land, and as many as five cuttings of grass can be obtained in the first year. 144, At Ferozepore (Punjab) I saw in use the system of sani- suggestions tation which I consider the best for village latrines. It is the {orriuage san plan of having shifting screens or enclosures, made of bamboo, and within the enclosed area a shallow trench is dug, earth being thrown over at once by the attendant. The screen is moved daily, and in this admirable way the land gets manured evenly and re- gularly. Subsequently it is ploughed up, and crops (mainly vege- tables) are grown, In regard to village sanitation, a suggession that is worthy of attention was made recently by the Pocna Agricultural Associa- tion. The proposal was, that the rubbish, night-soil, etc., should be collected by village servants, hereditary or hired, and be sold to the villagers as mannre, the proceeds yoing towards payment of the expenses of keeping the villages clean. If there were some system of this kind inaugurated it would soon prove an agricul. tural benefit. Where night-soil is to be disposed of to the cultivators, the system in use at Amritsar seems to me to be the very best of all, especially as it provides for atilisation of sullage water, urine, ete. Stil, it may not be possible to adopt it everywhere, and the Poona plan of making poudrette may sometimes be found the most practicable. If night-soil has to be trenched, I think that there is no necessity for the deep trenching so often employed, A depth of 14 feet of earth, or even J foot, is not called for ; earth is a capital absorbent and deodoriser of night-soil, and a thin coat- Geveral neglect of use of night- soil, Imperfect con- servation of cattle-manure, The urine wasted, 122 Manure. ing of it on the top of the night-soil is sufficient to prevent any smell, Ifa foot or more of night-soil is put in a trench it is apt to form a scum and to dry on the surface whilst remaining moist below, consequently it does not amalgamate well with the earth. If, on the other hand, a depth of only two or three inches of night-soil be used it is much more quickly incorporated with the soil, and the land is earlier ready for sowing, or for trenching again. 145, Although the foregoing cases of the utilisation of night~ soil have been named, they are exceptional, and there is still a general neglect, throughout the country, of this useful source of manure, one doubly useful because it is at hand and has not to be purchased. : Throughout Bengal, for example, night-soil is, as a rule, not used at all; in Surat (Bombay) and Ahmedabad town-sweep- ings are regularly used, but not night-soil, Similarly, in Madras I found that at Shiyali, Salem, and Avenashi, only the sweepings were used, In some places there was no one to collect the night- soil; in others, there was a general idea that a crop would not grow with it, though the experiment had never been tried; in others, again, no one would touch the material. In brief, in almost all the villages which I went to, and in whatever Presi- dency, as soon as I asked the question whether they made use of the night-soil, the cultivators shrugged their shoulders and tuined away. But I believe that, in time, a change will come; and, if reasonable arrangements be made, and the example given else- where be wisely enforced, there will undoubtedly follow. distinct agricultural improvement, 146. The second point in which the cultivator does not make full use of what he has at hand is in the conservation of the ordi- nary manure from cattle. Excellent as in many respects his cul- tivation is, yet in his method of securing to advantage the drop- pings of his cattle, the racyat is, 1am sure, greatly at fault. This is, in fact, one of the comparatively few matters which lie close to hand in which he can be shown a better way. Perhaps in no respect has the British farmer of recent years advanced so much as in the economy introduced by the proper making of farmyard manure, The superiority of box-made manure to that of open yards needs no explanation here ; the advantage of recovering in the manure the cake which has been fed to beasts is fully admitted, as also the folly of allowing the urine to go to waste. But in India it is quite different ; no litter is supplied to the cattle, and not once in a thousand times is any attempt made to save the urine, The solid excrements are picked up, and either made at once into cakes for burning, or else they are thrown on the manure heap, such as itis. ‘The urine sinks into the ground, generally in the hollows worked out by the animals’ feet. Now and again a little of the softened earth is scraped away and thrown on the manure heap, Town and Village Sanitation.— Manure Conservation. 128 but it results in little more than a deeper hollow being made, and serves to expose a fresh surface for ,the urine to sink into. The value of the urine is, I am sure, not only not fully appreciated, but is actually unknown to a very large number of the cultivators, Did they know its value they might do something more to save it. I give here an analysis of a sample of Urine taken direct from Indian working bullocks, at the same time and under the same circumstances as the sample of dung, the Analysis (A) of which is given in paragraph 121 of this chapter [Table VIII]. For the sake of comparison I give a standard analysis of cows’ urine (English).* Tair X. Analyses of urine. Anatyses oF Urine from INDIAN BouLtocks and EvetisH Cows, F. G. —— Urine ofgBullocks| Cows’ Urine (Indian), (English). Water and evaporable matters . e . . . . 90°°62 91°50 *Solid residue , . . . ° . ° . * . e 844 84°68 {.Mineral matter (ash) 2. . 2. «© 2» «© « loss * 4°60 100°00 100°00 contsining— , Phosphate of lime . “ « * # 1:07 22 ilica . e . . . . . . ° 3°53 "04 ‘Potash. . . . . . . . . * 73 109 © containing nitrogen. . . . ° . a . “91 1°18 equaltoammonia . . + «ee . 110 1430 RurezaNvcs.—Anolysis G.—Johnston and Cameron’s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, page 321. * Sce also Appendix G, The high value of urine, Litter not used, How manure might be better preserved. 134 Manure. Comparing the two analyses of urine, the Indian sample ig pot inferior to the English, and contains even more nitrogen. Urine contains the greater part of the potash of the total void- ings; and, though Ido not know the average quantity of urine yielded by cattle in India, it has been found in England that the total «mount of nitrogen voided iu the urine is from three to four tines the quantity contained in the solid excrements, Seeing, therefore, that the urine of animals is richer in fertilising matters than the solid excrements, the loss involved by letting the urine go to waste must be very large. The answer generally given by cultivators when I asked them why no litter was used, was, “ We have not enough fodder for our cattle. How shall we give them any litter?’? And yet this is not a real answer, for, when I turned to the manure heap, I almost invariably found in it stalks and straw and leaves, all of which would have done to use as litter. These stalks were thrown in anyhow; so, too, the solid manure; but there was no attempt to make really good farmyard manure out of it, or to let the dung, as it fermented, break down and decompose the stalks and straw and form a uniform mass, Each material was left to itself—the stalks to remain as they were, hard and desiccated, the manure to get dry and to lose part of its value by exposure to the fierce sun during the hot season, or to the heavy rain in the wet s2ason. Had these stalks, straw, etc., been put under the cattle, and been trampled down by them, it would have served to retain a not inconsiderakle portion of the urine and would have made a more uniform material, and one which would have all rotted together aferwards, and formed yood farmyard manure, Ido not say there is abundance of material for litter in all cases, but there is certainly a great deal that might be utilised. Leaves, for instance, though collected for parching grain, are neglected for litter. Again, if loose earth were sprinkled on the floor, to make up the deficiency of litter, and if this were to be periodically removed, much of the urine could be collected. Waste and coarse grass, shrubs, weeds, leaves, and rubbish of almost any kind would serve for the purpose, and I have often thought that if I could but spread the so-called manure heap under the caitle again, 1 could double its value. Where the cattle are better cared for, earth-nut, gingelly cake, gram, and other foods having high manurial values are given to them frequently, but it is not borne in mind that with these more concentrated foods it is only about one-tenth of the nitro- genous and mineral] constituents of the foods that actually goes on to the body of the animal and repairs its waste, but that nearly nine-tenths remain in the solid and liquid droppings. It is tbe knowledge of this fact which has made English farmers careful to preserve the manure of cake-fed cattle, and to keep their stock in covered yards instead of in the open. Another frequent source of loss is, that the manure is often put, not in pits, but in loose heaps into which sun and rain can easily penetrate. Even when pits occur, they are often not much more than holes dug in the ground. If the bottom of the pit were well rammed down and the sides beaten firmly, or, where Value of Urine—Littering of Cattle. 125 possible, plastered over with clay and allowed to harden, much loss would be saved. The manure, once in the pit, ought to be turned over ‘occasionally, even in India, so as to get the drier portions mixed with the moister, and to make the mass rot evenly together. When the rains come, there is no difficulty in covering the pits with earth, and if the manure were well made, and less like the contents of a rubbish heap, less space would be taken up, and it would well repay to cover it with earth as suggested. In Appendix F I have given an analysis of a sample of the Prainings trom liquid which was drainivg away froma manure heap at Bart- na chinhulla, Munjerabad, Mysore, and alongside I have put the analysis of a similar sample from a manure heap in England. _ These figures show that the drainings from the Indian manure heap are slightly richer, both in solid matters (including potash and phosphorie acid), than those in the English sample, and that they contain considerably more nitrogen. It is evident, therefore, that allowing the drainings to go to waste is productive of con- siderable loss in India, equally as it has been found to be the case in Englaaod. 147. One objection made to littering cattle is, that if they Obiections to were kept in sheds with litter under them they would be pestered ‘i with f¢cks and flies, and that on this aecount cattle have to be occasionally tethered out in the open fields. Of course, when flies or ticks are particularly troublesome, the cattle can be tethered outside, if necessary, just the same ; but it is simply the general principle that I am advocating, one which, if adopted, would result, I am sure, in much saving. Another objection is the one which the Engiish farmer made when covered yards were first introduced, ¢éz., that the cattle would be unhealthy ; however, in England this has not been found to be the case, and, even as it now is, Indian cattle are often tied upin sheds; sol donot believe for a moment that the sprinkling of a small amount of litter, coarse grass, etc., supplemented by locse earth, would have any other effect than to make the sheds smell very much sweeter and cause a very im- portant saving in manure. The popular idea in India, that cattle kept in sheds with litter put ander them would fall ill, has been disproved by a 15 years’ experience at the Saidapes Farm, Madras. Mr, Benson adds, from his own observations in the Presidency, that be has never heard of acase where any harm has resulted to the cattle from their being littered in sheds. To my mind, a much more potent reason given for the non- adoption of the system is found in the answer which a raiyat gave me at Avenashi (Coimbatore). “It is hard enough to get “sheds for ourselves,” he said ; “ how shall we get them for ** our cattle ?” 148. It is clear to me from what I have seen all over the tstances of country, and also from the writings of others, that manure is leis beste (a) Punjab, (8) North-West Provinces, (c) Bengal, (a) Madras, (c) Government, Experimental Farms, 126 Manure, not well kept, and that there is great room for improvement in this particular, A little beyond Multan I saw heaps of dung scattered ‘over the fields ; they had been left out in this way for over a month. At Gijrat I noticed that upon the manure heaps. was thrown a quantity of stalks and other material which would have done over and over again for litter. The greater part of the refuse is sold for the local trade of pottery- making, and the cultivators mainly depend for manure upon the coming of the silt from streams. Mr. E. B. Francis, of Ferozepore, writes to me :— “The wost important question in the improvement of our agriculture is “to improve the collection and storage of manure, which wouldjat the sawe “ time be a measure of sanitation.” It is a frequent practice at Cawnpore to spread the manure out on the fields early, and to leave it in heaps until the rain comes. By doing this considerable loss is incurred ; the manure ought to be spread out at once over the ground, and then the loss would not occur. Mr. Moens, in the Bareilly Settlement Report, says :— “There are two points on which our agriculturists need instruction— “ (1) growing green crops for cattle; (2) the proper management of their “ manure.” In Tirhoot, I saw near Bara, heaps of manure lying in fields where they had been exposed for several weeks, and were fast losing their goodness. The following extracts are taken from Bengal Reports :— Palamau.—* Manure is kept on the bare ground, anda great deal is “ wasted.” Burdwan.—“ Manure heaps are not well kept, and the urine is wasted, «* Sometimes the heap is very carelessly managed, and let to get too dry. No “litter is used, andthe urineis allowed to sink into the mud floor of the «‘ cow-shed.’’ . Dacca.—* Instances’are not wanting of heaps of rich-fed_ cattle-manure “ wasted.” . In only a few places in Madras did I find any attention paid to the preservation of manure. At Avenashi- no litter of any kind was used, and the cultivators seemed even to be unaware that Jeaves might be used as Jitter. On the manure heap a quantity of straw, weeds, etc., was thrown, but it was not rotted at all, and might guite well have been used as litter. All this time the bullocks were tethered in the open, and their urine was being wasted on the hard bare ground. If only the stalks, ‘etc., had been thrown under the cattle the urine might have been partially. soaked up. Itis only right zoadd here, that the ratyats expressed themselves as very ready to receive jnstruction from anyone who would impart it to them. ; At Shiyali and Madura I saw no litter used, except in one instance. Mr. Benson, writing of Kurnool, remarks on the bad way in which manure is kept. Of Pallachi, in the Coimbatore district, Mr. Nicholson says :— “The improvidenee of the raiyat is here exhibited in his reckless waste “of manure, whether animal or otherwise, which lies everywhere around the * villages.” 5 Even at the Government Experimental Farms, although in some cases are was taken to store the manure better than the vaiyats did, 1 found there was still great room for improvement. I must make an exception in the case of the Saidapet Farm, Madras, for, here, littering of cattle was carefully done, But at one of the Bombay Farms (Poona) the urine was allowed to trickle down an open drain, merely Imperfect Conservation of Manure, 127 cut in the earth, but not piped in any way and was supposed to flow on toa manure heap at the other side of the farm buildings, and siluated a con- siderable distance off. The consequence was,that, so far asI covld see, the urine was all-absorbed in the earth before it reached the heap, except, perbaps, when a heavy fall of rain might wash itdown in adilated state. The solid dung was thrown on the heap along with stalks, etc, and the whole was left exposed to sun and rain. At the other Bombay farm (Bhadgaon) much more care had been taken, and better manure was produced, although the heap ought to have been better mixed up, and turned occasionally ; the urine from tho cattle was, however, allowed to mingle with the raia water from the roofs of the sheddings. 149, T believe that a great deal might be done by showing The value of the usefulness of leaves for litter, When I wasin Mysore I saw leaves being used by coffee planters as litter in covered. sheds for the making of cattle-manure, and it is quite feasible to extend this practice to many other parts. A slight sprinkling of. fresh leaves on the surface every now and then is all that is neeessary, whilst the lower layers get trodden and matted well together, forming capital manure. In Table XI, paragraph 146, 1 have given two analyses of leaves collected for this purpose, a large quantity having been mixed carefully and subdivided repeatedly to get average samples, A comparison of these analyses with that of farmyard manure (Table VIII, paragraph 121) will show that there is more nitrogen and about the same amount of potash in the leaves as in the dung; the large proportion of vegetable (organic) matier must also exercise decided benefit, In one in- stance the amount of phosphate of lime is as much in the leaves as in the farmyard manure, ‘The two analyses fof leaves show con- siderable variation in the amount of mineral matter in each, this arising, dloabtless, from different kinds of leaves being used. The relative values of different kinds of leaves for manurial purposes has still to be worked out, The leaves of the Jack-frutt tree -(Arlocarpus integrifolia) formed a large proportion of the sample marked H. The leaves analysed were those collected on Mr, R. H. Elliot’s coffee estate in Mysore, and were similar to those he wasin the habit of using for littering liis bullocks. In some parts, for example, on the Malabar coast, it is the practice to collect and use leaves for manure. 150. ‘If I have spoken of manure being badly kept, it is only stances of right to mention a few instances where it is better looked after :— Wan vreserned. The Saidapet. Farm at Madras has already been spoken of as one instance. . On the eastern side of Rawal Pindi it is the practice to impreg- nate stable litter with urine before throwing it on the manure heap. In Tinnevelly, earth is often thrown over manure -heaps before these are used for the cotton crop. : Littering of cattle by the coffee planters in Mysore has been referréd to. At Shiyali Mr. 8. Sabanayagam Mudliar makes pits and clamps the manure closely together ; in Gujarat (Bombay) manure is kept 128 Manure, in pits and not in heaps; at Nadiad Mr. Becherdas Viharidas Desai has a very large masonry pit in wich manure is stored, and from which his tenants (those from whom he takes a share of the produce) are sapplied. It was at Nadiad, too, that I witnessed perhaps the most careful method of conservation of manure to be found anywhere in India. At the time of my visit, the method was unfortunately threatened with abolition through the aetion of the Sanitary Authority, The practice in the town was, to keep the cattle in sheds within the compounds; the ground sloped away into one corner close at hand, where a pit was carefully dug and _plas- tered ; a channel was cut, leading from where the cows stood, and along this the uriae was led into the pit (a distance of only a few yards). In this way the urine was soaked up and absorbed by the solid excrements, ashes, and house-sweepings. As fresh manure was dropped, it was added to the heap by plastering it over the surface. In this way.an almost solid block of first-rate manure, including the urine, was formed, and the surface getting quickly hard and dry, there was little or no smell, nor anything objectionable, Necessity of 151. The instances of manure being properly preserved are, teach mE ener However, very rare, and, broadly speaking, it may be said that practice, the Native does not know the best way of making cattle-manure, vor of preserving it when he has it. At the same timeI fally believe that if he were shown how to do it, and were to be convinced that the practice is better than his present one, he would adopt it, and would litter his cattle. aber A great opportunity is given to Government Experimental overnment . : . Experimental Farms to show how this can Le done, If this matter were seriously ee taken up simultanevusly at all Experimental Farms, and the cultivator were shown (as I am sure he would be) that better manure could be made, and better crops be grown as the result of saving the urine and storing the whole caretully, it would do far more good than experimenting with artificial manures which are altogether beyond the reach of the ratyat, Village 152. My enquiries into the subject of the better conservation of sanitation. § gattle-manure brought me into contact with points concerning village sanitation. To one of these, as distinctly affecting agri- culture, I must refer, more especially as the extended applieation of the sanitary rules is contemplated. This I can best illustrate by the instance of Nadiad, in Gujarét (Bombay), to which I referred in paragraph 150, Ithere described the careful method by which the cultivators preserved the solid and liquid droppings of their eattle, keeping them, as well as the asbes, house-sweepings, etc., in such a way that there was the minimum of agricultural loss, and at the same time no smell or other objectionable feature was intro- Hardship of the duced. Notwithstanding the care exercised by the cultivators, the sanitary rules sanitary authorities, in their activity, had ordered the removal -of the ease of the manure heaps, and had forbidden the keeping of pits witbin ene the precincts of the dwellings. The consequence of this was, that when I visited Nadiad in July 1890, instead of there being closely-packed heaps of well-rotted manure within Sanitary Rules. 129 the compounds, the urine being absorbed before it had had time to decompose, I found, lying along the roadsides, or in the lanes, or by the hedge-sides, numerous small loosely-packed unfermented heaps of fresh manure and rubbish, on which the rain beat down, washing out the goodness, and rendering it cold and unferment- able. Women might be seen carrying out in baskets on their heads mere handfuls of manure, they having frequently to goa considerable distance several times a day. Within the compounds it was even worse, for the cattle being still kept there, the urine, now no longer absorbed nor allowed to collect in the pit, flowed over the ground, and, mingling with the rain water, ran into the open street and along the sides of it, producing in its decomposition, wherever it dried up, a powerful smell which was the very reverse of sanitary. The effect of the so-called remedy was to produce a state of things infinitely worse than before. But it is the agricultural loss to which I wish particularly to refer. The people (they are Patidars) complained bitterly of having to convey. the small lote of manure outside the town every day; they say that it was against the Patzdars’ feelings to let their women carry the manure out themselves, and so they had to pay for hired labourers todo it; that, when the heaps were put ont, they were constantly liable to be stolen ; that the manure was not well-made; the urine was lost, and the heap much spoilt by the rain, so that it never rotted properly. To test them, lasked to see what they called well-made manure, and soon I was shown some well-rotted,. nearly black, rich manure, obtained, no doubt, from a manure pit ,which had not yet been removed, The quality of this was such as to convince me that these people, at least, knew what good manure was and how to make it. Ina part like this, where a magnificent cultivation wae in a very great measure the result of the careful conservation of manure, it seemed to me a great mistake that the sanitary authorities should have stepped in only to. produce a state of things infinitely worse than before in a sanitary light, and one that involved decided agricultural loss. It is absurd to take such measures while still allowing cattle to remain within the com- pounds, the urine polluting’ the streets. and the manure heaps making the roadsides objectionable. Either the Patidars ought to be allowed to follow their economical and unobjectionable practice, or the cattle ought not to be allowed to stand at all within the compounds, The reason stated for the action of the authorities was, that human ordure was also put on the heaps in the pits,.and a rule was made to compel the people to resort to the latrines outside the village. Even if a little ordure did so go, it was of small consequence and showed a sense of economy; and, besides, whatever sanitary rules may be made, I do not believe that they will ever succeed in compelling the women to go out af night into the fields where the latrines are. The people of Nadiad are very healthy, and epidemics are much more frequent in the towns than in these rural districts. It was pointed out also that, while the presence of the manure heaps was considered by th+ sanitary authorities to be highly dangerous, it was the practice everywhere to plaster the walls and floors of houses with cow-dung, and yet no 9 180 Manure. one got ill from it. Fully one-third of the entire population of Nadiad were cultivators,* When I was in the Central Provinces I found that similar rules were being enforced on account of the fear of cholera, Nevertheless, the cattle were still allowed to be tied up at the houses, although the manure had to be carried oatside the villages, Here, however, the manure heaps were not kept with the same care as was exercised at Nadiad. Closing over of I might mention in this connection the desirability of covering drinking wells. Over both in towns and in villages, all wells which are used solely for drinking purposes. In view of the contemplated extension of the application of sanitary rules, 1 have gone into these matters at considerable length, as I think thatattention should be paid to them, Wider distri- 153. There is one way in which the manure supply, both of eden ana cattle-manure and of night-soil, could be used to better adyantage, Felis over the = butit is hardly a feasible plan now, I fear, I have remarked upon the appearance of a North-West village, the habitations crowded together, the wells and the best cultivation and the most highly manured land lying close around the village site. This, doubtless, has arisen out of the experience of the past, owing to the necessity of combination for self-protection against the raids of marauders. Undoubtedly, however, if the habitations could now be more scattered over the land, and not be huddled together on one spot, the manure would be more widely distributed also, and probably not be so much wasted; the wells also would be dotted about and not clustered together. Captain Chapman told me that when he came into possession of his property at Shahpore, in Oudh, one of the first things he did was to dig wells, not around the village site, but distributed over different parts of the estate. The consequence was, that when new sottlers came, they fixed their dwellings where the wells were, and thus the manure from their cattle was distributed over a wider area and was not concentrated around the dwellings, leaving the outlying parts unmanured, Could the habitations be more scattered, and the wells, too, the land would certainly be better manured. ; * Bince writing. the above, I have heard that the Collector of Nadiad has recommended that the inhabitants be allowed to keep their manure heaps in the town as before, provided that each cee es & pit with brick sides, and that the manure be removed to the fields as goon as the fein tell fe ee ie a Tea nel 49 181 CONCLUSIONS. 154. Whilst .a few soils, such as those of silt-renewed tracts, the black eotton-soil, and newly-reclaimed or wirgin land, may not require manure, it may be said of the greater part of India that the necessity for using manure.is.enormous, and the supply of -it is notoriously inadequate. Water and manure are interdependent, .and, just as the former has been and is still. being provided for, go must attention be given to the supply of manure, These two factors, water and manure, constitute the,raiyat’s great weeds, and in their supply consists, very largely, the Improvement of Indian agriculture. It has been shown in this chapter that, under, existing .circumstances, the manurial supplies in use are not sufficient to replace the crops that are taken off the land; further, that the increasing tendency to export. both crops and manures must cause a deterioration of the soil. In considering the various sources,of manure, it:has been pointed out that, with the exception of cattle-manure, the amount and use of them is most limited. Practically, therefore, everything centres in cattla;manure, and the question of how to use it to better advantage. There are two main causes which.prevent manure from being properly utilised. The first is, that it is burnt as fuel becanse ‘there is a deficient supply.of wood ; the.second is, that it is not properly made, inasmueh as the uripe is altogether wasted,.and the manure is badly kept. The second of these two causes may be gradually removed by the spread of agricultural instruction, and -by the example of Government Farms and Estates. The firste cause, ,however, is one that cannot be removed except ;hy th taking of bold measures by Government, puch as those taken in introducing ganals and in.carrying them throughout the country, Government cannot directly provide manure for the land, but. what they can do jis, to provide wood to take the.place of cow-dung as fuel, and go to liberate the latter, for, its proper, use.upqn ,the land. In short, Government must now turn .to supplying wood for agrienl tural purposes jyst.as they have.supplied and are supplying water. The situation has been sketched out ,in Chapter V (para- graph 61), when dealing with the question of exbaystion .af soil A ‘apidly-increasing population creates a greater demand upon the 9a CONCLU- SIONS. 182 Conclusions. soil and upon the food-crops which it bears. Could the produce be increased even by one or two bushels per acre, as Sir JameS Caird estimates, the difficulty of population would be met; but without more manure the soil cannot do it, and the export both of crops and manures is removing instead of adding to its fertility. Meantime the increase of water facilities, through Government aid, calls for the ase of more manure, but the latter is for the greater part wasted because the supply of wood for use as fuel is inadequate. What is the position of Government in the matter? For practical purposes Government are in the place of a landlord, and as such it is their duty to look after their property, and to see that it is kept up, and not be allowed to become impoverished. The present system is one of gradual soil-exhaustion, which must end in a decline, slow it may be, but still a decline of fertility and of productive power. It behoves Government, therefore, for their own sake, to take this matter into serious consideration, and» while there is yet time, to push forward active steps for prevent- ing the decline in the value of their property, Unless this situ- ation be faced, Government must be distinctly prepared to see the land bring in a diminished revenue, and to find the people less able to live upon the land. Nor must the bearing upon the question of Famine be ignored. Mr. Nicholson has pointed out that in times of serious drough manured land is able to yield at least something, or even a moderate crop, whilst unmanured land may produce absolutely nothing, The existence of some crop, instead of total failure ‘may make all the difference between famine and no famine, Lastly, there is the consideration that if more manure be supplied, the land will become more fertile, and be capable of returning an increased revenue to the State. It therefore becomes, I maintain, the duty of Government, both to them- selves and to the people, to supply manure to the land, In this, now, must rest practically — the Improvement of agri- culture. Of what benefit will it be to cover the country with Agricultural Schools, and to teach better methods unless the one great want of the ‘cultivator be met, viz. more Manure? Of what use will it be to demonstrate at Experimental Farms the value of manure, and how to preeerve ‘it, when the cultivator has to burn it because he has nothing else for fuel ? The one way in which alone this question of paramount impor- tance can be met is by supplying more Wood, and thus setting Conclusions, 133 free the manure for use on the land. I shall deal in the next chapter with the exact way in which wood might be supplied, but I may say here that it is in this connection mainly that I advecate the establishment of “Fuel and Fodder Reserves.” To adopt the method followed in my earlier chapters, of sum- marising possible improvements in agriculture—it has been seen that considerable differences exist in agricultural practice according as the facilities for manure supply are greater or less. Improve- ment in agriculture will take place through the modification of these differences. This cannot be effected directly by the people to any great extent, although, here and there, as with the Kdchhi cultivation, example will tell, Government will be able to assist in the work by the epread of Agricultural Education. Education will have a powerful influence in breaking down prejudice, and, by it, the better practices and their advantages will be made known. But the work of Government does not stop here; positive measures, too, must be taken. First and foremost, Government must supply wood for agricultural purposes, to take the place of the cow-dung at present burnt. Then, Agricultural Depart- ments must, by means of an organised system of agricultural enquiry, ascertain the manurial facilities and needs of each part of the country ; they must acquaint themselves with the practice of the best parts, and transfer it, when possible, to others; they ‘must ascertain and demonstrate at Hixperimental Farms the value of various manures, and, in especial, the benefit of littering cattle and the better preservation of manure. It is evident that in.this work advantage will have to be taken, not only of a knowledge of indigenous practice, but also of Western science and experience, In this connection I would urge, as most desirable, the appoint- ment of an Agricultural Chemist, who may render much assist- ance in utilising existing manurial sources, in demonstrating their use and value, in possibly discovering new manurial resources, and in solving various questions bearing on the relation of soils, crops, and manures, ‘ 134 Con clustona, BEOCUMENDE: RECOMMENDATIONS. 155. I advocate,— The establishment of “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves,” for the primary purpose of.supplying wood to take the place of cow-dung as fuel. The inauguration of a system of Agricultural Enquiry, to ascertain the manurial facilities and requirements of each part of the country, The spread of Agricultural Edueation, to assist in teaching the value of better practices, and to break down pre- judice. The. employment of Experimental Farms, for the purpose of showing how manurial resources can be best’ used and conserved, and for demonstrating the value of, and extending, the better practices of other parts. The employment of: an Agricultural Chemist, to. assist in utilising existing manurial resources to best purpose, in discovering fresh ones, and in the. solution of agricultural problems. 135 CHAPTER VIII. CHAPTER VIII, woop. Woop, . 156. Frow the last: chapter, in which the manurial resources of Injia were considered, I pass now to discuss the wood supply of the country, and how it may be increased, primarily with the view of setting free more manure for the land by the substitution of wood for cow-dung as fuel. In order to understand bow agricultural ends in the matter of wood supply arete be best served, it is necessary to briefly review the policy which, in the early days cf the Forest Depart- ment, was adopted in regard to forests and other supplies of wood, and also the changes which have been called for in more recent times, 157. At the time of its creation, abouf 1866, the Forest arty poticy of Department found the forests of the country fast disappearing AQrisistration, before the spread of cultivation, and before the reckless destruc- tion carried on by the people. Agricultural resources were vanishing, and the climate was, not improbably, being affected injuriously. None too soon did the Forest Department step in to prevent the entire deforestation of the country, whieh. would most certainly have taken place. As the demand for cultivation spread, so would the forests have disappeared before the plough, had not a strong hand been interposed to save what was still remaining, The people, left to themselves, have never been able to manage forests properly, nor to understand how forests. may be conserved and utilised to the best advantage. Their practice had been simply to cut and clear the forest to make room for cultivation, and, as soon as the virgin soil was spent, they pushed on, broke up fresh land and cleared more forest. And this, if allowed, they would still do, thinking only of the immediate present, and not of the future. , But the Forest Department, by its intervention, has stopped Good work done in a great measutg the work of destruction, and has not only Bororttont, brought: in @ lathe, and ensured a continuous, revenue to ‘Government, but it has laid the foundations of a system which, if properly directed, may be made to conduce greatly to the agricultural prosperity of India. But when it began its work its chief duties were the preservation and develop- ment of large timber forests, such: as_ the teak forests: of Lower Burma, the sé/ forests of Oudh, and the deodar forests of the Himalayas, or the forests of the. Western Ghats, Its objects were in no sense agricultural, and its success was gauged mainly by fiscal considerations ; the Department was to ke a Its success reyenue-paying one. Indeed, we may go so far as to say that 3ccsmeahy. its interests were opposed to agriculture, and; its: intent was ‘eters. rather to exclude agriculture than to admit it to participation Causes of a change ofpolicy, Agricultural requirements in respect of wood, The paramount importance of supplying wood to replace dung as fuel, 138 Wood. in the benefits. The chief reason for this was, that the admission of grazing into the forests would have destroyed the young seedlings, and have rendered the maintenance of the forests by natural reproduction impossible. So far as the original design went, the Fore:t Department deserves full recognition of the admirable work which it bas done in saving to the country the forests now under its care, but which, if left to the people, would have been ruthlessly destroyed. 158. At that time, however, these large timber forests were not in contact with important tracts of cultivation, but were, for the most part, situated on hills and mountain ranges only oceasionally bordering on cultivation, and that of a sparse and backward kind, often carried on by half-wild tribes. As the population increased, and the pressure on the land called for extension of the cultivated area, so the latter spread to the borders of the forests, Again, of recent years, there has been a feeling that the forests and other wooded tracts ought to be made to serve the interests of agriculture more directly than they have done in the past, and that areas should be reserved and fresh ones be - created in the midst of the cultivated land, and vot merely on hills and mountain ranges, The Govern- ments of India, Bombay, and Madras have been urging their respective Forest Departments in this direction, and have endeavoured to extend the influence of the forests from the remoter hills to the cultivated plains, In this way the policy of the Forest Department has been undergoing a change, in order to meet the altered conditions of agriculture, The old traditions which animated its officers, viz., that the sole aims of a forester were to grow big timber and to show a large revenue, are wearing off, and, whereas considerable prejudice existed in thé past against the Department, by reason of its being opposed to agriculture, a feeling is now growing, among the more enlightened of its officers at least, that one great object should be to directly serve agricultural interests, It is this altered policy that 1 wieh to support, and to show, if possible, the need of giving fuller scope to the usefulness of the Depart. ment. 159, The requirements of the tie, wo respect of wood 4, are, 8ma]l timber for house-building, wood{ for making imple- ments, and firewood ; the last-named prirvipally to take the place of the cow-dung which, though the most valuable manure at the raiyat’s disposal, is, nevertheless, generally burnt as fuel in default of wood. 160. In the last chapter, after reviewing the various sources of manure supply, we saw that they were very limited in number, and that the only material available in any quantity was the ordinary ecattle-dung. Further, we found that, wherever wood was sufficiently abundant, dung was used for the land and it was not burnt; but that where wood was deficient, manure was burnt in the absence of any other source of fuel, _ Early Policy of Forest Department. 187 and that the land was thus deprived of it. The dependence of the son) for its fertility upon the supply of water and of manure was also instanced, The conclusion was, accordingly, drawn that the supply of wood to serve as fuel forms one of the most impor- tant factors in maintaining the fertility of the soil, or, in other words, the prosperity of agriculture, I can hardly put this too strongly, for it is ¢#he one practical measure on which I place the most importance; it is that which calls for the most urgent attention, and from which the greatest benefits may be expected to follew. I make, in my Report, other recommendations and suggestions, it is true, but I consider them mzor ones compared with this. Let us once more review the position, A country exporting manures as well as crops, not utilising even the night- soil, and then burning the cattle-dung because fuel is scarce; an ever-increasing population, and a greater demand on the land: to supply more and larger crops, these latter depending on more manure being available. What more ready plan than to supply wood as fuel in order to save the manure for the land? In the substitution of wood for cow-dung no question of caste prejudice is involved, such as is the case in the use of bones or of night- soil, Itis a measure which the people would adopt, and bave adopted, on their own account, wherever it has been possible, Further, the improvement thus to be effected is one which pro- ceeds upon the right lines, viz., the improvement of Indian Agri- culture from within rather than from without, _ I therefore do not hesitate to say that, just as Government tne importance foresaw the difficulties of the people in supplying themselves with ois... water, and so provided it for them, so must attention be now turned to the difficulties of the people in the matter of fuel; and, seeing how impossible it is for them to provide it for themselves, Government must do this for them too. It is not in the inter- ests of the people alone that I would urge this, for, having fully ‘discussed all other ways of increasing the manure supply, it is © clear that this is ¢4e one way in which it can be effected, and, if not effected, sooner or later the land must fall off in productive © power, and the revenue derived therefrom by the State must de- cline too. Accordingly, I regard the provision of fuel as the most potent means of maintaining prosperity, not alone to the cultivators, but to the State itself, and as a measure which the latter, im tts own interests, should take up immediately. If wood ° could be made to take the plaee of dung for fuel we should soon come to realise that more wood means more manure, that more manure means mofe crops, and more crops an increasing revenue to the State; whilst, to the cultivator, it implies more fodder, better cattle, and more manure again to ensure the future fertility of the soil, _ 161. I do not take to myself credit for more than emphasising previous \what others have already pointed out on this subject. As much oxpressions of as 17 years ago Mr. R. H. Elliot, writing in the “ Times,’ "°” urged the necessity of “ Fuel Reserves” for India, and much that “he then said has since proved to be true, The same views have Other advantazes of tree-growing. Influence on climate, Protection from winds and sun, Supply of leaves, Famine food, What Govern- ments bave al- ready done in this direction, Sir D. Brandis’ work, 138 Wood. . been urged by others, but there is call now for more definite action than there has been in the past, What has been done so far, whilst not without benefit to agriculture, has, to my mind, taken mainly the form of supplying wood for the requirements of large towns and railways, Although agriculture bas been indirectly heiped by the smaller amount of dung burnt in consequenee, yet I think that hardly enough importance has been attached to the bearing of the wood supply upon the fertility of the soil, and to the need of supplying firewood to villages as well as to towns. 162. The influence of an extended growth of wood upon the climate has been fully dealt with in paragraph 38° of Chapter IV, and has been referred to as affording a possible, though perhaps only local, amelioration of the severities of climate. There is another feature about tree-growing which must not be forgotten, viz., the shelter and protection afforded from. the burn- ing sun, and also from the violent winds, Mr. Nicholson points out that many tracts in the Coimbatore district are exposed to severe winds. He says :— Dharapuram District.—* Hedges and belts of trees would be peculiarly “useful in this wind-swept tract.” Udamalpet.—‘‘It is the most open ¢aluk in the district, having fow * hedges and very few trees; hence the winds of the south-west monsoon are severely felt.” Many parts of Mysore suffer greatly from damage by wind, On the North-West frontier the presence of trees is indispensable to the growing of grass. The advantages of tree growing in connection with the supply of leaves for litter and for manure have been spoken of in Chap- ter VIE (see paragraph 149), and to this may be added the pro- vision of food afforded both to men and cattle in time of famine, if suitable kinds of’ trees be grown, 163, Whilst laying particalar stress, as I have done, on the need for an extended wood supply, and mainly for the purpose of providing fuel, it would be wrong to.ignore what the respective Governments of India, Bombay, and Madras have done, or, at least, have urged on their Forest Departments the necessity for doing. Without going into particulars, I would. indicate the general lines that have been taken. It was Dr. (subsequently Sir Dietrich). Brandis, the real founder of the existing Imperial Forest Department, who gave the great impulse to the growth of what. may be termed “ Agricultural Forest: ”? It was he who elearly saw the line which the Forest policy ofthe future would have to take, and who did his best to guide it in this direction, Already in 1873, at his suggestion, tracts had been taken up in Ajmere-Merwara, a little territory under direct Imperial control, and. thus available for the purpose. This will be explained more in detail later, but it may be said here thatt he results were very satisfactory, and Sir D. Brandis wrote :— y “Tt may be pointed out that in all except the most arid tracts, or where “denudation is complete’ and of' long standing, mere protection aided by Importance of Wood supply. 189 “sowing and planting im suitable places, will gradually clothe grounds with “ trees and shrubs” Sir D. Brandis, at the close of his Indian career, went himself to Madras to assist the Madras Government in framing their policy of “ Agrieultural Forests,” and largely to his efforts it is due that in Madras so much has been done to make the Forest Department serve agricultural imterests, The Famine Commissioners showed that they were alive Recommends. to the way in which the forests might assist agriculture. Gomnisien They said in.their Report :— “So far as any immediate advantage is to be sought from “the extension of forest in respect to protection against “drought it will, in our opinion, be mainly in the direction “ of the judicious enclosure and protection of tracts 5.8 ‘from which improved and more certain pasture may be “secured for the cattle of the vicinity; a sapply of fire- ™ wood secured which may lead to a more general utilisation “of animal manure for agriculture, and a possible addition “ made to the power of the subsoil’ to retain its moisture, and “to the prospect. of maintaining the supply of water in the “wells.” The Government. of. India, in following up the recommend- Government of ations of the Famine Commission, issued, in March 1883, 4 Resolution of Resolution calling attention to the growing decrease in the “1% area of grazing land and wooded tracts in many parts, notably the Punjab, the North-West Provinces, and the Central Provinces, and. to the damage done. through excessive grazing. They quoted numerous cases, such.as Banda, where, in the famine of 1878-79, grazing areas had been instru- mental in saving thousands of cattle; and other instances, such as Jhansi and Rohtak, in which thousands bad perished for lack of these areas. They asked, therefore, the attention of Provincial Agricultural Departments to this question, and the co-operation of the Forest Department. It was suggested that enquiry should be made by district officers, with a view of ascertaining how far cattle needed protection, aud what lands, either Government property or else purchas- able at reasonable rates, were available for the formation of what were thenceforth to be termed “Fuel and Fodder Reserves.” It was recommended that the purchase of land should be effected, provided the price came within a limit of, Rs. 20,000 for 10 square miles. The actual management of the “ Reserves’ was intended to be in the hands of the Forest Department. Enquiries were next made, at Government suggestion, as to whether suitable spots for “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves ” existed along canal banks and lines, of railway. As: the result of the enquiries made, it was ascertained: that Action taken in in the Doab; (North-West Provinees): saline land .(wsar) could’ be Peon P rovinces and unjab, 140 Wood. obtained in abundance, and also a certain amount of ravine land, both of which would pay for growing trees and grass upon, Ravine lands at Etawah and at Jhansi were subsequently taken up, and canal plantations have been established at Cawnpore, Agra, Rurki, Delhi, and other parts of tae North- West Provinces and the Punjab. Other plantations, such as those of Changa Manga, and Shahdara, near Lahore, had been previously created by the Forést Department: Mention was made just now also of the “ reserves ” established at Ajmere-Merwara at the instigation of Sir D. Brandis, action in But it is in Madras that more has been done than anywhere else to assist agriculture by means of the forests. One great reason for this is, that in this Presidency the waste land is the property of Government, and they can therefore dispose of it as they like. This is also the case in Bombay, and wherever no permanent settlement of the land exists, The exceptional circumstance that Ajmere-Merwara was under the direct control of the Government of India enabled land similarly to be taken up there for the purpose of forming “reserves,” Again, in Madras, cultivated land is more or less mixed up with undulating wood-producing country, and thus field and forest come in close proximity, presenting a great contrast to the vast level plain which includes the Punjab, North-West Provinces, and Bengal. The large 164, I propose now to deal in succession with the different fimder-producing wavs in which at present. the supply of wood is maintained, and then to consider in what directions extension for agri- cultural ends is most needed. First of all come the large témber-producing forests. Everyone must recognise the necessity of having these; they supply Europe with teak, for example, and are requisite for all building purposes, and. for providing railway sleepers, fur- niture, etc. As we have seen, they are for the most part still removed from the general area of cultivation, and it is mostly on the hills and mountain ranges that they are found. They are clearly demarcated and defined as being forests for the primary purpose of supplying large timber, and should, I think, be rightly treated as such, In them the main end should be kept. in view, and every means be used to grow as fine and as large timber as may be required, From these forests grazing must be excluded entirely, if the forest’ be worked on the jardtmage system ‘(that aceording to which trees of all ° ages, from seedlings to mature trees, are mixed up together, singly or in groups, everywhere over the whole area, the *fellings being similarly located at short intervals wherever a suitable tree may happen to be). The object being to encourage natural reproduction and re-stocking, grazing would do great damage, inasmuch as the seedlings would speedily be nibbled off or “trampled down, If the forest be worked in. blocks, trees of like age being classed Measures taken to establish Wood “ Reserves.’ ‘V4. into separats groups, it would perhaps be possible, without direct damage to the forest, to admit grazing into partieular blocks at certain times, In any case, in time of drought these forests would be the means of keeping alive many of the cattle of the country. But, beyond this exceptional event, in forests of this class I should like the forest officer to have full liberty and every facility for growing large timber independently of any minor considerations ; also, I think that he should -be allowed to strictly enforce rules for preventing forest fires and for exeluding grazing, ete., as well as all others that are necessary to the attain- ment of his main purpose, It is, in short, impossible to have timber forests and agriculture Impossibitity of on the same area; the most that these forests can do for agricul- Pouch aed ture is, to provide, for the immediate vicinity, a certain amount Agriculture on of small wood and firewood obtained from the timber that is felled, and to serve as a refuge for cattle in time of drought and famin 2, Of this nature are the Coorg forests, which I visited under the guidance of Mr, H.C, Hill, Officiating Inspector General of Forests. They are at a distance from, and not in the midst of or near cultivation, aud they could not now be brought to benefit directly the actual cultivators of populated villages at a distance. Around them is only a scattered agriculture and a meagre population. Here, I should say, are forests which hy their position are best adapted for timber-growing purposes, and for such purposes they should be kept. They are too far off to supply the cultivator with firewood at a rate which he could afford to pay, and which would at the same time be remunerative to the Forest Department; whilst, to the cultivator, even were there any considerable agricultural population, the eost of carting would be prohibitive, It may, however, pay quite well to remove large logs, such as con= tractors or railway companies would buy, I am obliged, there- fore, to look on these forests as likely to do but little to increase the supply of manure available for the land through the substitu- tion of wood for cow-dung as fuel. Whilst advocating the closer attention of the Forest Depart- ment to agricultural ends, and commending the step taken in 104, which brought the Department under the Imperial Depart- ment of Agriculture, I have no wish to urge interference with the necessary and legitimate purposes which the Jarge timber- -growing forests serve for the good of the country. Large timber is, and always will be, required, and to make the supply a means of obtaining a large revenue is a very proper end, ‘where, as I have shown, other interests do not suffer thereby, I am, accord. Necessity of ingly, in full sympathy with the Forest Department in their conten- Forest rales tion that, where the object is to grow timber, it is necessary to aise” close these forests altogether to grazing, or at least only to open certain blocks at a time, and to’ enforce stringently the rules which exist in regard ‘to the prevention of forest fires, I have myself seen, over and over again, during my tour through the Coorg forests, instances of the damage done by forest fires ; how that seedlings are killed and the entire natural reproduction, so 142 Wood. essential in a timber forest, is completely stopped. I can quite understand, too, ihe damage that will be done in a forest where reproduction is going on, either on account of cattle trampling down the seedlings, or by goats pulling down the branches and young trees bodily, or by goats and sheep nibbling off the young shoots, Goats, in particular, must have no place in a forest of -this kind, Much has been said by certain writers in favour of the annua setting on fire of the forest grass, in order to get a fresh growth of herbage, The occasional clearing of the coarse dried grass by fire may result in the growth of a temporary crop of fresh grass to feed cattle for a month or so, but it simply means ruination to the forest, and the infliction of damage from which the forest will not for many a year recover, I have, therefore, no sympathy whatever with those who have maintained that it is a good thing to have an annual burning of the forest grass, or that the forests ought to be thrown open to unrestricted grazing. But I wish to make it clear that I am here speaking of forests which are essentially, by situation and nataral conditions, ¢imber- producing forests. Cineatneation (a 165, The Forest Department recognises three classes of forests : : (1) * Reserved Forests,” or those which, being the property of ‘Government, or over which they ‘have proprietary rights, have been set aside and constituted “Reserved Forests ;”? (2) “ Protected Forests,” or those which, though the property of Government, or over which Government have proprietary rights, have not been included in a “ reserved forest;” in these Government may declare any class of tree reserved, or close any part for a term not exceeding 20 years; (8) all other forest lands are termed “ Unclassed Forests,’’ ** Protected 166. Of “ Protected Forests ”’ I need say little more.than that Soa I think it would have been very much better to, have made them all ‘Reserved Forests,” The retaining of certain rights by Government, aud allowing the people to do otherwise as they like is not conducive to the forest serving the best purposes. In many cases, notably the Punjab, the creation of “ pro- tected ’’ forests has arisen, I believe, mainly from the fact that the Local Government have not had the courage to extend full protection to land which ought really to have een “reserved”? forest. A partial protection only has been extended to them, the Local Government fearing.to cause frietion with the people. In view ofthe important issues of forest preser- yation, the reckless use of the forests by the people when uncon- trolled, and the general unsatisf{actoriness of the working of “ protected ’” forests,.it would, I think,:have been much: better to have taken the bold step atthe outset. Inthe ease of any land that is reserved, exclusion from it may be necessary for.a time-at first, but before long the benefit-of doing this. will be apparent, and even in the ,first year a quantity of grass will probably be available for cutting as fodder. Different Classes of Forests. 143 167. Among “Reserved Forests” are included the timbers “Reserved growing forests which I have referred toin paragraph 164, I Faveets net now intend to deal with those “ reserved forests?’ which are near the cultivated areas, and which can be made to serve agricultural ends, ‘The action taken by the respective Governments of India, Bombay, and Madras in extending the influence of the forests from the hills to the cultivated plains was, undoubtedly, a good one, But, from one cause and another, it has come abont that, with some exceptions, the advantages of “ reserved forests ” have hardly been brought home to the agricultural population, and too often the The advantages, latter have been inclined to regard the reservation of a forest as }y'te people. their exclusion from it, rather than as the means of providing a benefit for them. It is necessary to look briefly at the causes which have brought The reasons for this about. Undoubtedly in the past there has been a tendency on ““* the part of the Forest Department to grow large timber only, and to reap a large revenue by doing this, We have seen, in para~ graph 157, how this naturally came about, and that it was the result of the duties with which the Department was charged at the outset. ‘But the traditions have not altogether passed away even The traditions now, and there is still need of reminding the Department, as Sir PS nent’ D, Brandis did in 1883, that the growing of big timber is not the only, and often, indeed, may not be the main, object of a forester’s existence. Sir D. Brandis wrote in 1883 :— “Tt must now be distinctly recognised that not only does the provision “of timber and firewood come within the legitimate scope ef forest admin- “ istration in India, but one of its most important duties will, in future, be * to increase the supply of cattle fodder, particularly during seasons of drought in the drier districts.” , There have been, undoubtedly, considerable difficulties in the pisculties tn way of the Forest Department, and where, as in the case of "ue me Ajmere-Merwara, there has been no hindrance to procuring land, the Department has shown its readiness to minister to the more agricultural needs as well as to the growing of timber. Nevertheless there is, I think, a great deal more that can be done, and what is chiefly needed is, to extend the action taken by the Madras Government. I should, in justice, say here that among the officers of the Forest Department there are many who recognise the importance of the objects to which Sir D. Brandis refers, and who carry them out as far as they can, Some such men I met during my tours. 168. What prevents extended action is not any check from. the piticulttes Government of India, nor yet from the Forest Department, but Srendnd sotion it is a financial check, and one which accordingly prevents Local in an agrical. Governments from taking action, The Forest Department is my, gnancial : practically called upon to show a large revenue, and is naturally check. proud of the profit it makes. At thesame time it is a notoriously andermanned Department, but is unable to increase its staff * Reserved Forests” often better adapted to other purposes than timber- growing. Rab, Pollarding and lopping of trees, 144 Wood, materially (as would be necessary were the more agricultural pur- poses closely followed), unless by showing a still larger surplus to meet the expense of additional officers. So it has come about that, in the majority of cases, the officers have turned their efforts mainly to producing large timber wherever they could, even though the circumstances of the ‘reserved forests’? would, in the wider sense of the good of the country asa whole, have often adapted them better to other purposes than timber-growing, 169. It is by no means the case that timber-growing will always be the purpose to which the forest is best suited naturally, or the most desirable one when all considerations are taken into account. Areas have been taken up in the past, and the attempt has been made to grow on them timber for sale, whereas these areas were never fitted for such a purpose, but only for growing scrub-jungle and for providing grazing, There are many such instances in the Madras Presidency. If the Forest Deparment is told to conserve timber it will do it,; °""" 1888 Mr. Ozanne sowed eight acres of cultivated land with babul seeds put in furrows ; one-half of the area has had no artificig! watering whatever, the other half only one watering, viz.,in the first year. The. interspaces between the rows have been sown with crops of bdjra, gram, ete. At the time of my visit, in August 1890, the plantation was growing well, some of the best plants were 4 feet high, and plantation had cost nothing whatever, the crops grown between the rows having paid_all the expenses. It is very clear, from the instances I have given, that there is a good deal of land on which “ fuel and fodder reserves’ might Land available for “ Fuel. and Fodder Reserves.” 159 be. formed, and: if only systematie enquiry be made it will result. in showing, as Messrs, Wilson and Darrah’s experiment in the North-West Provinces did, that. there is very much. more land. available than has been stated. In almost every district there are uncultivated spots among exist- ing cultivation which would grow babul or similar wood per- fectly well, Although it may not pay Government to take up these plots, yet, if the example of tree-growing were set, encourage- ment would be giver to native proprietors (zemindars) and others.to adopt the plan also, 187. Having dealt with the difficulty of finding land, the Bow to acquire second one, that of how to acquire it, must'be taken. According to the ownership and the terms under which Jand is. held, so will the procedure to be adopted vary. Where waste land, as in Madras, is the property of Goyernment, No digicalty there is no diffienlty whatever, and, as we have.seen, under, the jent waste term “waste land” is included much land, such as the beds of!*4 tanks, etc., which is not ayailable in. other, Presidencies. The matter for regret is, that, with the exception of Madras, and. possibly the Central Provinces algo, the amount of waste land still left is very small, but where there is any, and so placed as to be of probable benefit to the people if it were turned into a ‘‘fuel and fodder reserve,” such land should be thus converted. There is one provision I should like to, see made, viz., that Reservation of when trees are grown on waste land, such as the bedz of tanks fr Bratt, and streams, etc., the wood should be devoted primarily to the for local use. ” use of the people around, and that the trees should not, as is. at present the case, be periodically eut down ex bloc and be sold by auction to the highest bidder, often being taken far away from, the district, A period then elapses until the fresh trees that, spring up are ready again to be cut. These plantations (they are mostly of dabud) should be kept for the wants of the district. where they grow, becoming thus really “ village plantations,” and they should not be cut down in one mass, ‘The natural reproduct* should also be meantime looked after. — 188, Next comes the vexed matter of the “ village wr whether it should be taken up by the Forest Depar worked for the people’s benefit. “This could not be dc for a time at least, keeping the cattle off and excludir from any use of the land, until the “reserve ”-wa’ lished. Where the “ waste” actually belongs to ’ I must cay, a doubtful policy to interfere with the honoured rights, and they can hardly. be exclr without considerable friction being caused, which © At the same time, as I shall show in the next c of the “ village waste” is greatly evae>- * * whether it is not productive of ° as feeding areas the ‘‘villag- out of ten, and serve little ing room and exercise theless, it- would be v Possible case where acquisi- tion of village waste is desirable. ** Village Jrests,”” Alure of empts to i) them. Torest 160 Food. and, if it is possible, it is better to avoid dealing with the “ village waste. ’? What may, however, be hoped for is, that in the more advanced parts the people, after seeing the good which “ reserves ” have effected in other parts, will enclose it, or a part of it, on their own account. That there is hope of this being: done is exemplified by the instances of Etawah, Ajmere, and Kapurthala, already recorded, In these cases land belonging to private individuals and villages was voluntarily handed over to be worked by Government. as “ fuel and fodder reserves” (see paragraphs 178 and 181). The one case in which “village waste” might be directly dealt with is where the amount of waste land is mauifestly in excess of the requirements of the villages. This occurs fre- quently in the Central Provinces, and also in parts of the Punjab. The difficulty of taking up waste belonging to a village is, that only that particular village could share in the privileges, whereas if the land be Government land, or be acquired by purchase, it would be available for as many villages as it could serve, Again, the existence of rights in an enclosed area may hamper future action, aud render the dealing with these rights a matter of difficulty, On the other hand, it may often be the case that, in order to be of any use to the villages as supplies of fuel, ‘‘ these reserves”? will have to be near the villages, and in many parts, therefore, the only way to establish them will be to appropriate portions of existing village wastes or commons. 189. The suggestion to form “ village forests,’”” which should include the village grazing grounds and be protected and managed by the people themselves, was made by Sir D. Brandis, but the efforts to establish them have successively failed. In the Indian Forest Act (1878), a chapter (Chapter IIT) was inserted to provide for the assigning of the rights of Government to or over any land constituted ‘‘a reserved forest”’ and for calling it a ‘‘ village forest.”’ This chapter has, however, been quite inoperative, owing, I am “-formed, to the impossibility of determining adverse rights, and _ crating the rights of the community from the private rights proprietors (zemindars) and others. Often, for instance, be several zemindars, and thus several people to settle ow, no ‘* village forests’’ have been taken up or assigned apter, which is accordingly a dead letter. a attempt was made to amend the Land Revenue law by inserting a fresh chapter (Chapter VIII) to read © the landowners desire, or the Local Government con- nart of the common waste lands of an estate be * timber, fuel, or fodder, the Local Government ~xceeding one-fifth shall be so managed.” ‘ted on this suggestion, and, -to as to the value of such a ~ was felt that there would -pulsorily dealing with Bill, the Honourable Village Forests. 161 Colonel Davies, on bringing it before the Viceregal Council in July 1886, said:— = “ There can be little doubt that a power of this kind is very much wanted “in the interests of both the State and the people; and from my own ex- “ perience, T think I may confidently state that in many parts of the Punjab the intervention of Government to bring about the results aimed at by this “‘ chapter will be welcomed by the people.” The Secretary of State, however, on the matter being referred to him in November 1886, cénsidered Chapter VIII as an innova- tion, and that interference in the internal affairs of villages might possibly be distasteful to the communities concerned, so he expressed the hope that the reply would be very carefully considered. The subject was thereupon dropped for the time. The Madras Government, in their Resolution of October 1890, Madras Resolu- already alluded to, discussed this matter and the various efforts! 0 18. which had been tried. Their opinions were expressed as follows :— Para, 23.——“ The Madras Government now (October 1890) is of ‘€ opinion that the idea of village forests must be altogether aban- *€ doned ; that it is desirable to have the sources of fuel and fodder ‘supply under Government control, and to have the reserves in *¢ fairly large blocks.” It is a mistake, I think, to assign any rights to a village com- Government ana munity, and to have village forests munneat by the community must bave ie uncontrolled. The tendency of our system of government has, to @ foresta. considerable extent, been to break up village communities, and now for the most part they are heterogeneous bodies rather than communities. What is wanted is, while retaining control over these forests, to work them for the people’s interests. 190. Short of actually purchasing land outright, there is a provision in provision in force in malguzari tracts, such as the Central Prov~ font Mor inces, by which the proprietor (ma/guzar) may be called upon to trol common use excess waste land for the common good. : Tn the Settlement of the Central Provinces it was stipulated central Prov- that the rights of ownership to forest land would be subject to '™* restrictions in the interests of the village communities, and of the country as a whole. Tenants were to retain their customary rights of “user, 7”? and Government had the power of prescribing rules to prevent reckless clearing of land and sale of all the timber. In the Central Provinces Administration Report for 1887-88 it is said :-— The increasing value of jungle produce leads malguzars ‘© to advance claims of exclusive right to the use of village wastes ‘© and forests, and they sometimes cut down and sell all the timber *¢ of their village. This is opposed to the principles of malguzaré *¢ settlement. Aatyats have a right to the use of the village waste * for grazing, and a right to cut wood in the village jungles for fire- *¢ wood and agricultural implements.’” Such a provision is, in effect, an Act to “ control common user,’’ Pisa a and the extension of it to other tracts might be usefully em- such provision ployed for the purpose of preserving the fuel supply of villages. *""™** In Bengal and other zemindari tracts an Act might, accordingly 11 Land Acquisi- tion Act, The work of afforestation must be done gradually. Enquiry is needed to ase certain areas suitable, Estimate of cost of land purchased, 162 Pood. be passed to lay the obligation on the proprietor to grow firewood, and to preserve these supplies for the common good. The shortest and probably the best way, however, in zemindaré tracts is for Government to step in and buy the land outright. 191. It is a question, I believe, whether a simple ruling of section 6 of the Land Acquisition Act could be taken to include the formation of areas for “fuel and fodder reserves,” or whether the Act would have to be amended so as to include the formation of these. This is a point I can express no opinion upon, except that it is very desirable that Government should be able to purchase land with this object in view. The amount of Government waste land, though sufficient perhaps in Madras, is, for the most part, manifestly deficient elsewhere, and the acquisition of fresh land is undoubtedly called for in order to supply the proper amount of fuel required, 192. I am far from advocating the covering of the country all at once with village forests. Whatever is done must be done care- fully, and at first experimentally ; even where a large area of land is available, ii may be better to take up only a portion at first and to extend it if successful. But the plan should be given, what it has not yet had, a fair trial, By enquiry alone can it be ascertained whether there are -any purchasable areas, and whether they would be suited for the pur- poses contemplated. No general rule for purchase can be laid down; all depends upon where and what the land is, and what it costs. 193. Where land has to be purchased, it is recognised that, as soon as this fact is known, absurdly high prices are asked, although the land may be bringing in next to nothing. The estimate of the North-West Provinces Government was, that, so long as land did not cost above #s. 20,000 for 10 square miles, or a little above #s. 3 an acre, it would pay to buy it, and, as has been stated, when Messrs. Wilson and Darrah came to enquire, they found far more land available and purchasable within the price fixed than had been expected. Further, they found that the financial prospects were fair, even after making calculations unfavourable to the scheme. The estimate of cost, it should be ° said, included that of fencing with stone uprights and barbed wire. In the North-West Provinces there is almost any quantity of salty land (usar) available, but its frequent occurrence amidst cultivated land adds to the cost of purchasing blocks which include cultivation, and to the expense of enclosure, which would then be necessary. Still, there are many tracts which are entirely usar land. In the Central Provinces, Government is generally able to purchase unculturable land at 1 rupee per acre, and culturable though uncultivated land at 2s. 2 per acre, so that here, where cultivation has not as yet pressed on the land, the problem of obtaining land for “ fuel and fodder reserves ”’ is not a difficult: one. The Acquisition of Land, 163 That land could be taken up at this rate and worked profitably there can be little doubt, judging from the experiments in the North-West Provinces, where the purchase price was ‘Rs, 3 an acre, 194. Some practical details may now be mentioned in the work- Practical details ing of those ‘ fuel and fodder reserves 7? which will have to be ereated, ‘fuel and fodder othe by the taking in of waste land or by the purchase of fresh “’*"* and. 2 The area to be taken up should not be too small; a minimum of Size of area. 100 acres, or possibly 200 acres, should be fixed, unless there are a number of small blocks close to one another, for which one and the same supervision would suffice. ‘here is not, I think, need of Enclosing nt permanent enclosure or fencing, and guards’ (chowkidars) should rule * suffice for the purpose. Even should a stray animal find its way in occasionally, the harm done will not be great, and the owner would be liable to have his privileges forfeited if the act were repeated. Even if enclosure were found necessary it would be quite feasible to enclose a portion at a time, and by growing a live hedge behind the protection of a barbed-wire fence, the latter could be moved on as the hedge became established. In this way successive areas of 20 acres at atime might be taken up, until the whole ** reserve”” was formed. It is only where small blocks occurin the midst of cultivation that the necessity of fencing is likely to arise, and then a small mound and ditch will answer best, unless it be where thorn, aul, cactus, prickly pear, aloe, eupdordia, or other hedge material will grow readily. Aloe hedges and earth walls occur near Mysore; stone walls are Gost ofen: used in the Deecan ; at Dumraon a hedge of euphordza enclosing 15 regulsier acres of land took three to four years to establish itself properly, and the cost of throwing up an embankment all round the area, and planting the hedge was Hs, 53 only. At Gursikran, near Aligarh, 718 acres of salty land (wsar) are enclosed merely by a small ditch and low mound, and the cattle do not get in at all. Mr. W. B. Hudson gave me particulars of some enclosing which he had done, He made a ditch with sloping sides 6 feet wide at the topand 2 feet at the bottom, the earth being thrown up to form a bank on the top face of which thorn is planted. The whole cost was Rs. 5 per 100 yards, or Rs. 88 per mile. In Messrs. Wilson and Darrah’s experiments stone uprights and barbed-wire were used and the cost was 1 rupee per 9 feet (Rs. 587 per wile), or as much as Rs. 6°6 per acre for enclosing a block of 200 acres extent. Major Wingate at Mian Mir, Kohat, and other places, has, however, carried out ditching, banking, and hedging at much lower rates than those stated in the Report of Messrs. Wilson and Darrah, In Messrs. Wilson and Darrah’s experiments it was necessary to entirely enclose the land, but in the case of a ‘‘ fuel and fodder reserve ’’ the entire charge of fencing, etc., might, I think, be replaced by guards (chowkidars), at a salary of ts. 24 per month each, : Ila Exorolse of privileges. Control of ** reserve,” Cutting of timber and grass, 164 Wood. The privileges of using the ‘‘reserves ’’ should be exercised in the way I have indicated before, viz., by the granting of an annual license on payment of a certain yearly sum entitling the holder to timber, firewood, grass, etc., in specified portions of the “ reserve,” so long as these are reyuired only for domestic use, but not for sale; also to grazing (when it can be allowed) for cattle which are the bond fide property of cultivators. In the establishing of such blocks, and in advising as to their management and working, the aid of the Forest Department must undoubtedly be sought. Where the blocks are large enough in extent, or numerous enough to warrant it, they should be put under a Forest Officer, or be included in a Forest Circle; but where they are nothing more than village blocks, and far away from “ re- served forests, they would not warrant the employment of a special officer, and in this case they should be placed under the Collector, Deputy Commissioner, or other local Revenue authority. The person who has the actual responsibility should be the village headman, the individual known in different provinces by the various names, patel, lambardar, monigar, mukaddam, ete. Chowkidars would be employed as the guards in actual charge. iAs firewood is to be taken out by the people as required, and not sold by the head-load, the need of special forest guards to check the amount would not be experienced. In many parts which I visited, the desire was expressed by the people that they should be brought, in such matters, in connection with the Collector or similar Revenue official, rather than that they should have “ fresh Departments ’’ to control them, Although I am aware how over- burdened the Collectors in many cases already are, 1 cannot see a better way, where blocks are small or scattered, than the plan I have indicated. Aboveall, there must be no collision of authority. Generally speaking, the Collector is the man who knows best what is adapted to the needs of the district. It would be necessary to close the blocks entirely at first for a few years, to allow of their establishment, but the object should be, not to grow trees of any large size, but rather to grow sufficient and suitable wood for implements and for building requirements, and mainly quickly-growing trees, such as dabul (Acacia arattca), jhand (Prosopis spictgera), dadk (Butea frondosa), and any scrub, brush-wood, etc. These should not be allowed to stand a long time, as in a timber-growing forest, but should be cut downas soon as can be done consistently with keeping up a continuous supply. One-fifth or one-tenth might be cut over each year. The trees once started, grass would rapidly make its appear- ance too, and I am not at allsure whether the best plan would not be to only allow the grass to be cut, but not tv admit grazing at all, except in case of severe drought. Goats certainly should not be admitted unless parts can be specially reserved for them. There are many other details into which I need not enter ; such as, whether blocks should be reserved for grazing; whether the whole Enclosure and Control of ‘* Reserves,” 165 should be cut in rotation or not, and other points, ‘They are questions for the Forest Department to decide upon. In some parts it will be possible, as has actually been done in Vittage com- the Central Provinces, to have a village committee or panchayet ™'** to manage among themselves the internal arrangements, under the control of the Revenue authority, and to this panchayet the village headman would be responsible. In the case, too, of villages which might in the future follow the example set and decide to- turn their village waste into a ‘‘ reserve,” the working of it through a panchayet would be a good plan. In the majority of cases it will, Government will however, be found that the “‘ reserves ”’ will, at first at least, have to thework. be worked practically by Government, and in this matter, as in the — kindred instances of tea and cinchona, the Government will have to éinitiate the work, and then they may withdraw. 195. As to the financial prospects. Taking, for example, an area The financiat of 500 acres; there would be the purchase of the land, say 1 rupee Prospect. per acre, the cost of planting and maintenance, and, as annual charges, the interest on Rs. 500, say at even 6 per cent., * together with the wages of two guards at fs. 24 each per month, say As. 60 per annum. An annual charge of 1 rupee per householder would, in all probability, meet the cost, and, without pressing in any way unduly upon the people,. would supply them very cheaply with wood, fuel, and grass. But, as I have indicated before, it is not the question of actual rhe financial return alone that has to be considered. It is also the well-being Jatemnot ine of the people, and the maintenance of the soil’s fertility. In no tion. way can these be better secured, and the Land Revenue to the State be ensured, than by supplying wood to the people as fuel, and thus enabling the cattle-manure to be used on the land, It ‘is not, therefore, a matter which can be judged purely by the- direct financial return, but is one the utility of which must be judged by wider considerations, such as, that, if it be neglected, it may imperil the fertility of the soil, the prosperity of the people and the wealth of the country. A good deal of this work may be considered as ‘* protective”? in « Retief work.” character, and may be carried out as a measure of relief in times of ‘scarcity or famine, and he paid for out of the “ famine fund,”’ 196. In this connection I would urge the consideration that the Part of the pro- profits obtained by the Forest Department should not go, as at berrment present they do, simply to swell the Imperial Revenue, but that shonldbensed a portion of them should be devoted to the work of increasing the “ inetiand, one supply of wood for agricultural purposes. Outlay will certainly be required, if the scheme is to be realised, and it would be only right that a portion of the profits should be set aside for a work having such an important bearing on the welfare of the country at large. * ‘This is probably unnecessarily high; 4 per ceut. might be sufficient, CONCLUSIONS, 166 CONCLUSIONS. 197. In so far as the differences which exist between the agricultural conditions and practice of different parts arises from varying facilities for the supply of wood, an improvement in agriculture may be expected to come from a modification of these differences. Such modification can be effected by increasing the supply of wood, more especially of firewood, to those parts which are insufficiently provided with it. . The task of doing this is one clearly beyond the reach of the people, andit isto Government that they must look for help. It is possible that in some cases the people will follow, in a small way, the example set them, but the duty is one which Government must take upon themselves, just as they have done that of the supply of water. The provision of wood as fuel, to take the place of the cow- dung at present so largely burnt because wood is so scarce, is the only practical way to ensure the sufficient manuring of the land, and the keeping up of its fertility. I£this be not done the State must be prepared to meet a diminution in the revenue derived from the land, and a decrease in the prosperity of the cultivating classes. There is no doubt that forests have been destroyed, and that cultivation has been pushed on without sufficient reservation of land for the supply of fuel. The Forest Department, happily, has stepped in to prevent the further destruction which the people, if left uncontrolled, would have continued to carry on, Originally the duties of the Forest Department were non-agricultural, and consisted in the preservation and development of large timber forests. The success was judged from the financial standpoint alone. In later times, however, cultivation has spread nearer to the large forests, and wooded tracts have been reserved among existing cultivation. This has called fora change in the policy of the Department, and its functions have necessarily become more agricultural. Much good work has been done by the Department, but it is still necessary to extend it in a more agricultural direction than before. The forest ‘reserves ”’ in Ajmere-Merwara afford a good example of what can be done, and of the policy which should be adopted on an extended scale. After reviewing the existing sup- plies of wood, it is evident that the requirements of agriculture are very insufSciently met, and that the creation of further supplies throughout the country is urgently called for. The establish- ment of ‘‘ Fuel and Fodder Reserves” is the most desirable form in Conclusions. 167 which effect can be given to this recommendation. Such ‘reserves’ should be primarily adopted to serve agricultural ends. There is a considerable amount of land which might be taken up for this purpose. In some cases Government waste land is available, in others land must be acquired by purchase. The results must not be gauged by financial considerations alone, but by the benefits conferred on the agricultural population, the keeping up of the soil’s fertility, and the maintaining of the Land Revenue to the State. Enquiry is needed in order to ascertain exactly what the requirements of each district are in respect of fuel, etc., and how these may be met. Continued encouragement should be given to the spread of Arboriculture. The Forest Department is certainly undermanned, and. the present financial check placed upon its further development in an agricultural direction should be removed. RECOMMENDATIONS. 198, I recommend :— The creation of fresh ‘* Reserves ’’ of wood, fuel, etc. (“ Fuel and Fodder Reserves’), primarily for agricultural purposes, The increase of Plantations along canal; banks, railway lines etc, The further encouragement of Arboriculture. The establishment of Agricultural Enquiry to ascertain the requirements of each cultivating district in the matter of wood supply. . Whe setting aside yearly of a portion of the Forest Revenue, to be applied to the extension of “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves 7’to meet agricultural needs. RECOMMEND - ATIONS. CHAPTEB IX. Grass, Grazing areas in distant fureats, Grazing in “* reserved forests,” Géiran in Bombay, Forest revenue from grazing land, 168 CHAPTER IX, GRASS. Grazing. 199. The subject of gras supply is closely connected with that of the foregoing chapter, inasmuch as the forests provide the prin- cipal grazing areas, and the “fuel and fodder reserves” afford a certain amount of grass for cutting. Included among the more distant forests are large pasturage areas, the value of which for this purpose has always been recognised, and which, on this account, have never been broken up. To these tracts professional graziers and hereditary castes of cattle-breeders resort, taking with them from the plains the most valuable of the ruiyats’ cattle, for the purpose of seeking shelter and pasture for them during the hot season, The retaining of these aress for the purposes of cattle-breeding is very desirable ; it is, however, not the actual cultivators who directly make use of them, but particalar castes who make this their special business, and who often bring cattle from a long distance. It is in these grazing areas that the bulk of the native butter called gz is produced. 200. In addition to the pasturage provided in the open and more distant forests, there is another class, but still distinct from the village waste ” or common land to which T shall refer later. This class comprises the grazipg areas belonging, or which till recently did belong, to villages or individuals, but which are now included in the “reserved forests.” In the Bombay Presidency (where these areas for the most part occurred) the Jand was known as gdirdn or “ grazing,” 7.¢., land set apart for grazing cattle. It differs from the “waste”? immediately around the villages in being really useful for the purpose, whereas the latter, as a rule, is little more than bare ground. The Forest Department fre. quently found it necessary to take in these Jands when forming their ‘‘ reserved forests,” and in Bombay, according to the new grazing rules of 1890, the term gdirdn is to cease, and free graz- ing is to be provided in the open part of the forest for the “agri- cultaral cattle ” of villages which have contributed gdirdn to the formation of a forest block. These areas are let out, and commu- nities often combine for the right of cutting grass in them. The Forest Department derives a considerable income from the foregoing grazing lands, and in looking at the Forest Revenue it is well to bear this in mind, and to remember that, whereas formerly the returns derived from forest pasture land were included in the general Land Revenue, they now go to swell the Forest receipts, Grass. 169 201. The provision of grazing in “ reserved forests ”’ is at once Proviston of | a desirable and legitimate object by which the interests of cultivas ésts desirable. tors may be served. I would repeat Sir D. Brandis’ note, quoted in the last chapter :— “Tt must now (1883) be distinctly recognised that not only does the provi- sir D, Brandis* ‘sion of timber and firewood come within the legitimate scope of Forest admi- opinion, 1883. “nistration in India, but one of its most important duties will, in future, be to ‘inorease the anpply of cattle fodder, particularly during seasons of drought in “the drier districts.” The Madras Resolution of October 1890 concurs in this expres padras Reso! a- sion, and affirms that the provision of pasture, small timber, fuel ti» 169. and leaves, is the chief object of the “reserved forests ” through. out the greater part of the Madras Presidency (sce paragraph 175), The importance of the forests in time of drought is very great. rmportance of The Government of India’s Resolution of March 1883 pointed out forest grazing in that even the growing of fodder-crops would not replace grazing land, because, in time of drought (except in the few secured tracts that are thoronghly irrigated), the fodder-crops would fail too, The service done by grazing areas in the famine of 1878-79 has been referred to in paragraph 168, During the Jast Mysore famine many cattle were lost through the owners having no place where they could feed them. ‘This perishing of the cattle involved not only a direct loss to the cultivators, but also a loss of manure to feed the subsequent crops. Had there been throughout the country such “fuel and fodder reserves” as have been suggested in the last chapter, many valuable cattle would, undoubtedly, have been saved, 202. But, notwithstanding the benefits which “reserved Provision of forests ” and “ fuel and fodder reserves ” may afford in exceptional absolute meres times, I cannot regard the provision of grazing in “reserves” as tides an absolute necessity in ordinary times, It is a desirable purpose for the “ reserved forests ” to serve, if it can be given consistently with other considerations, and in times of drought it may prove invaluable ; but I could not assert more than this. In brief, I would say that I consider the provision of fuel to-be of the greater importance, and that it would, as a rule, be better to have the grass cut than grazed by. stock, 203. When, without interfering with the general Purposes Conditions which a “ reserve ” is to fulfil, grazing can also be permitted, well paste ney be and good; but it must only be carried on under conditions which ?°™ + do not destroy the main utility of the “ reserve,” Where natural reproduction of trees is going on, grazing: Exclusion must, for atime at least, be altogether excluded, If land is Peprodsstion ie heavily grazed the soil gets hard, the seed that falls from the £™°™ frees is eaten or broken, or, if it comes up, the shoots are trampled down. The surface soil is rendered impenetrable to forest seeds, and trees can only be got to grow by means of planting, In a forest where clearing is done by “selection Sir D. Brandis’ Opinion, Vawillingness of forest otficers to provide grazing, Restriction of proming ¢alled ‘or by bad treat - tment of forests in the past. The number of cattle must be restricted. 170 Grazing desirable but not absolutely necessary. of trees over the whole area, reproduction is going on continuously, and grazing would alwaysdo harm. Often it is the case that the forest cannot be treated in any other way. But where it is possible to work it in blocks, then it may be quite feasible to admit graze ing in special blocks atatime. Thereis, of course, the difficulty of preventing cattle, when admitted, from straying over the whole area, This I noticed to be the case at Etawah (see paragraph 181). The people having complained about being shut out from grazing, they were allowed this privilege in one part of the “ reserve.” However, they abused the concession, and when I visited Etawah I found cattle straying over other parts than those in which graz- ing was permitted, The Madras Resolution of October 1890 says on this point :-— “ The working plans for the ‘fuel and fodder reserves ‘should contain “ proposals for throwing open certain areas to grazing, while keeping others s* closed against all heads. ” The necessity of restriction was recognised by Sir D, Brandis. He held that during the first few years some restriction in grazing must be entailed in the formation of new “ reserves.” He said :— ‘* At first protection must be absolute, but meantime the grass that grows “up abundantly can be cut, and supply fodder till the forest is sufficiently “advanced to admitof grazing.” 204, Restriction in grazing sometimes arises from the un- willingness of forest officers to provide it ; sometimes from the past bad treatment of forest land by the people rendering restrie* tion imperative. On the Shahdara (Lahore ) plantation the space for grazing is confined to the portion which is about to be cut over in the then year, or year following, Even to this the forest officers object, saying that grazing makes the soil hard, and pre- vents the shoots from coming up afterwards, whilst, if the cattle were allowed among the medium-sized trees, they would get at the boughs. I fear that where wood-growing is the object there will always be considerable difficulty placed by the forest officials in the way of providing grazing facilities, At Salem, which used to be a great cattle-breeding district and noted market for stock, 1 heard great complaints that since the forests bad been ‘‘ reserved ” the people could not keep so many cattle, and only had their own fields to feed them on, whereas formerly they had free grazing rights in the “ reserves ” two miles off. Grazing was still allowed, but it was at a minimum in consequence of the way in which, by excessive grazing, the “ reserves ” had been treated in the past. 205. Itis not enough to confine grazing to particular blocks at a time, but the number of cattle admitted must also be limited, for unrestricted grazing is fatal, and isthe chief cause of the many bare plains and hill sides that are to be seen in India, © Grass, : : ~ 191 The Government of India’s Resolution of March Ist, 1883, pointed out that:— *¢ The cultivated area had increased at the expense of the grazing area, “and uncultivated land had been rendered bare and unfertile by unre- “stricted grazing of sheep and goats, causing vegetation and scrub to *¢ disappear, as in Scotland.” The latter referenceisto the Cheviot Hills, which have long Chevict Hills, been the resort of breeding flocks of sheep. These flocks have re- moved a great deal from the soil, and, in particular, phosphate ‘of lime, so that now the hills do not carry the amount of stock that they used to. The Madras Government, in their Resolution of 1890, made Attn in provision that the cattle required for agriculture and for domestic F purposes should have the first claim on the Government “ reserves,” and that surplus cattle should only be allowed when circumstances permitted. The grazing rates for agricultural cattle were to be oneshalf those for others. In the Bombay grazing rules limitations have been imposed on Action in the number of cattle allowed to graze, and the order in whichthe privilege may be exercised has been determined. This has led to a difficulty as regards the definition of the term “ agricultural (Agrsmiteral eattle,” inasmuch as, according to the Forest Department’s inter- pretation, milking-cows, buffaloes, and cattle used for transit would be excluded, and only such cattle as are used inthe plough, or are worked at wells, would beincluded. This close definition does not appear to me at all a fair one, and the permission should certainly be extended to all cattle which the cultivator keeps for boné fide agricultural purposes, 206. Next, there must be restrictions not only as to the number, hag tne epee but also as to the Aind of stock admitted to grazing, Comparing admitted, cattle with sheep or goats the former are decidedly preferable, sheep and goats eating much more closely, and doing far more damage Grazing by to trees and shoots. Goats, there is little question, are highly epasaossactions objectionable animalsto have in a forest ; the destruction they do to young trees by climbing up and pulling down the branches, and often whole trees, cannot be contested ; besides, they eat off the bark and kill the young trees. I quite agree with suggestions made, that goats must either be excluded from forests altogether, or else be only allowed in a special part demarcated for the purpose. The rearing of goats is not one likely to be given up, and where it is an important industry it may be necessary to mark off special areas for their use; but, speaking generally, as their presence in a forest simply means ruin to it, they must be excluded, Bothin France and in Germany it has been found necessary to altogether prohibit grazing by goats in forest areas, According to the Bombay grazing rules, only one goat is let in to graze to every 50 sheep, there being an idea in Bombay that sheep will not graze unless led by a goat. In both the Bengal and the Madras proposals for the formation of “ reserves”? ti are excluded entirely from grazing, Sos except in areas set aside for 172 Restriction of Grazing in Fo.ests, them. Camels may be classed with goats as being equally destruc- tive, but sheep graze more than they browse, and are not nearly so oe as goats, for they do not climb up nor tear down the branches of trees. Other roatrio- 207. Free grazing by cattle should never be permitted if it can : be avoided, and the system of payment per head of cattle admitted is very preferable to that by area grazed. “Close” season, I can quite understand the necessity of having a “close” season, when grazing is not permitted, though this, unfortunately, may come at the very time that the cattle would find the forests most useful. Thus, in April and May there is great danger of fire, owing to the dry nature of the grass, and people coming in with cattle and kindling a light may easily cause great destruction to the forest. In June and July, again, there is no growth of grass, and to admit stock to the forest then is often to destroy it al- together for the future. Of forest fires I have spoken, and the damage they cause to the future growth, so that, although a tem- porary growth of grass may come as the result of setting the dry coarse grass on fire, this is obtained only at great loss to the forest (see paragraph 164), Cutting of erase 208. Unless where distant forests are concerned, or where preferableto ‘‘reserves’” are sufficiently large to permit of grazing, I am in favour grazing, of grass being cut and removed rather than of its being fed off by stock. At ru/h Jelleke (near Changa Manga) the people pay 1 rupee for the privilege of cutting and removing one head-load of grass each day during one month. At the Etawah “reserve’’ the grass is cut by a contractor, and is sold on the spot for } anna per head-load of abuut 100 lbs.; this is sold at 2 annas in the village, and the price in Cawnpore is 6 annas. The grass is principally palwa (Andropogon pertusus), a good feeding grass. Ddb grass ( Brazrostis cynosuroides), used for thatching, and 6a¢6 grass (Poldinia eriopoda), used for making bedding, ropes, and paper, also grow well. The quantity of grass being beyond the requirements of the village, a scheme was set on foot to get hay presses, and to send the pressed hay to Surplus of grass Cawnpore. A great deal of the grass is, indeed, wasted. This leads into hay, or else me to remark that in the case of an over-abundance of grass there mio silage. ig no reason why it should not be made into hay and stacked ; or, if the weather be wet, the grass may be put green into pits simply dug in the ground, and so be available as silage. Either of these plans would form reserves of fodder which in times of scarcity would be invaluable. The “village 209. Passing now from forests to the common grazing grounds metee of villages, the village commons, or, more properly, the village “¢ wastes,’’ I may say at once that I regard these simply asso much standingroom and ‘‘as exercise grounds,’’? As for providing any herbage, they are, except perhaps Just when the rains come, abso- lutely useless and the existence of them is only an invitation to keep so many more half-starved cattle than the land can carry. They are instances of the destruction done by over-grazing; for, no sooner does a blade of grass snow itself than it is nibbled off, and the place is soon left bare. Grass, 1738 Mr. Sen, writing of Burdwan (Bengal), says:— “Tho system of cattle-grazing—and it is the same all over Bengal— “ig most wasteful; cattle roam without restriction, the grasses have no s opportunity to grow, and it is a struggle for existence between them and “ the cattle.” Throughout the Deccan the village grazing ground is nothing more than ‘ cattle standing-room.’’ I have frequently examined these ‘‘ village wastes,’ and have generally found them to be bare during the cold and the hot seasons, and during the rains to have little more than a covering of annual weeds. Such was the case, for example, at Baroda. At Nadiad, where the cattle were well cared for, 1 found that the cultivators did not use the village common at all. Their cattle were fed with the grass grown asa border round their fields, and on the village common were only the cattle belonging to tradesmen and others in the town, but not those of the cultivators. But there is a more serious side to this matter of the “‘ village waste.””? Were its influence merely negative, one might stop here, but there is no doubt that these bare open spaces are often pro- ductive of positive harm. Not only do they permit of hordes of miserable cattle being kept on them, but the number of the latter is constantly being increased by the offspring of parents, the one as wretched as the other. Religious prejudice prevents the slaughter- ing of these cattle, and so they drag out their miserable existence until death comes, or disease sweeps them off wholesale. If once the latter appears, it makes short work among animals so little prepared to resist it, and the “ village waste’’ becomes a hotbed of disease, and a nidus for spreading it over the country around. The impossibility of segregating affected cattle while these ‘‘ village wastes *’ are open is one reason for the enormous loss of cattle by disease which takes place in India. The only way to render these ‘‘ wastes ’’ useful would be to en- close them and then let. only a limited number of cattle in. It would be possible to show the people what effect enclosure, even of a strip, would have; but the village common, as shown in the last chapter, is a difficult matter to interfere with, and, except where the’ area is more than the village requires, Government could not well step in and take up the land. In some parts, asin Kapurthala (see paragraph 178), the people may spontaneously follow the example set them of planting trees, but this must be left to them, although much may be doe in giving them encouragewent to do so. 210. Canal banks and plantations afford, in some cases, graz- ing or a supply of grass for cutting. Along the canal banks near Frequently a source of harm, How to make the village waste useful, Grazing along canal banks and Cawnpore no cattle are allowed, but the grass is cut and removed ge yaniene between Hurdwar and Rurki grazing is allowed along the canal banks; it is let for from Rs. 20 to Rs. 50 a mile, to the highest bidder, without limit as to the number or kind of cattle. Grazing along the Eastérn Jumna Canal is confined to the village that happens to be in the immediate vicinisy ; as a consequence there is no competition for it, and the whole grazing along such astrip may be let for as little as 3 annas. The canal banks outside the Changa Grasa-growing by caltlvators, Nadiad. The provision of grazing is ni 174 The‘ Village Waste.” Manga plantation are leased to the Forest Department; and the latter gives ‘‘ permits ”’ for grazing for one month at the rate of & annas for each cow and 6 annas for each buffalo. _ In the Changa Manga plantation itself there is no grazing, if being irrigated by water channels from the canal. In such cases grazing is out of the question. But there is, as I shall show more fully in a later paragraph, a great deal of grass grown in the plan- oe and in open spaces, which might be utilised either as hay or as silage. 211. In some parts of the country the people themselves are aware of the advantage of growing grass along the edges of water channels and the borders of fields. This is the case at Huospet (Madras), the people cutting the grass from the canal banks for their cattle. At Ahmedabad I saw grass being cut from the rail- way banks. On the journey between Rewari and Hissar (Punjab) I frequently noticed grass patches along the sides of fields, and drovers in charge of cattle which were grazing there. But the instance of greatest care in this respect that eame under my notice was at Nadiad, in Gujarat (Bombay), where, as I said just now, the cultivators do not use the village common land for their cattle. But every one of their fields is enclosed with a hedge and then comes a headland of grass from 15 feet to 20 feet wide all round the field and producing capital grass. This is the more remark- able, inasmuch as the rent of the landisas much as Rs. 5 per acre. There is a double object in this practice, for, as the fields are hedged and have trees round them for supplying firewood and wood for implements, the people know quite well that crops wiil not grow when thus shaded, but that grass will. They obtain four or five cuttings of grass in the year as food for their cattle, and when the fields are empty the cattle are let in to graze on them. At Baroda the same plan is adopted, but the grass is not of such good quality. I was naturally led to ask why this practice was not followed elsewhere, but in many cases, fcr example, on the black soil of Khandesh, the grasses that would grow would not be the fine ones found at Nadiad, but coarse, deep-rooted ones which would soon spread over the whole land and become a regular pest. Also where rain, as in Khandesh, is not plentiful, hedges would not grow without irrigation. ___ Dib grass (Cynodon Dactylon) in many parts comes up natu- rally or may be easily propagated from cuttings simply stuck in the ground. Asa crop for irrigation it gives a great yield, and is about the only grass that keeps green in hot weather. To one coming newly to the country it is surprising to notice how, from an apparently burnt-up and dead surface, a crop of fresh grass will spring up on the first fall of rain. 212. There was an old Muhammadan rule which provided that of grace Sen there should be one acre of grazing land to every 10 acres of culti- existence of the best cattle, vated, and in the State of Jeypore new settlers still receive 25 acres of grazing in every 100 acres of their occupation. But where cultivation has pressed upon forest and waste land, the area under grass has had to give way. In Nadiad there were formerly 900 Grass. 175 acres of grazing for 9,000 acres of cultivated land, but now the former is diminished to 250 acres, Ihave made many enquiries to ascertain whether cattle are dependent on having grazing or not, and, though it may, undoubtedly, be a great advantage for them to have it, I do not find grounds for regarding its provision as an absolute necessity, nor does it appear that where grazing is the most plentiful the best cattle are always to be found, In Bengal, for example, there is grazing in abundance, but the cattle are poor and small; in Champarun (Behar) there is plenty of grazing, and good grazing, too, and yet the cattle are the worst of anyin Behar. At Nasick (Bombay) there is no grazing, yet the cattle are splen- did; at Mahim, with its heavy rainfall, grass is plentiful, but the ae are very small, though buffaloes are, by way of contrast, very ne. Mr. Faller tells me that in the Central Provinces the worst cattle are found, as a rule, where village grazing is most practised. This is the case in the Chattisgarh division and generally where there are rice lands. Numbers of cattle die from disease in Chat- tisgarh. The one exception is the Balaghat division; here the main crop is rice and there are no village grounds, but the soil is good and all the cattle are stall-fed. Pulse crops are grown along the top of the embankments of the rice fields. In the Punjab gene- rally there is little grazing at the command of the cultivator, but the cattle, fed as they largely are on fodder crops, are hardly any- where to be found better, and are kept all the year round on the holdings, the buffaloes being the only animals that require to be driven to the forests or river sides in the hot weather. In the North-West Provinces and elsewhere cattle may be seen roaming over the fields after the harvest hasbeen reaped and subsisting on apparently nothing ; but with what they pick up and the straw chaff (64use) which is given te them, they manage to get on, and as soon as the rains commence the fields rapidly become covered with grass, : Instances. 213. The next question is, Will the growing of grass ever form win the raiyat a part of the raéyat’s ordinary cultivation ? I do not think that it Keep aed under will, Here and there he may be induced to grow grass for the supply of military stations or camps, but these, especially the latter, are ever liable to be changed. At Belgaum fields are grown with grass, two cuttings are obtained yearly, and 6 annas is the sum paid for 100 lbs. of green grass. No seed is ever sown, only the grass that comes up naturally being used. In a few parts, such as Kalyan, near Bombay, and Culna, near Calcutta, grass is cut, and hay of an inferior kind is sent to the respective cities; but the ratyat, as a rule, looks to his field to supply himself with grain and his cattle with fodder, and I cannot help thinking that- he is right, Again, he could only grow a continuous supply of grass by the aid of irrigation, and he is hardly likely to afford this for his cattle alone. He may, and should, grow fodder- crops, but he will not, I think, grow grass. At Salem each cultivator used formerly to bave a bit of pasture land which was given at the low assessment of 4 annas. an acre, Cantonment Grass Farmeand military rukha, System started in 1882, 176 Grass-growtng by Cultivatore, If this system were revived, the cultivators would again grow pasture. In this district, where the sale of cattle is an im- portant one, it might possibly pay, even now, to keep some land down to grass, But the idea of making one part of the land feed the other is foreign to custom. A large proprietor can set land apart for this purpose, but not a ratyat with an average holding of 24 acres or so. Mr. Nicholson says of Coimbatore :— “* Occasionally grass is sown for pasture (haridli and kolef-kattei) ; it is kept **down some years and then ploughed up and re-sown, or other crops sown. ’’ “Early in thecentury all the best lands were under cultivation, and only “inferior ones in grass. Up to the time of the new Settlement (1880) the “tenant used to hold one-fifth of his farm as pasture at one-quarter its “* assessment, and only changed to full rates when he turned it into arable “land. This was abolished at the new Settlement.” Where pasture is urgently required, encouragement may be given to its formation by giving remission of assessment, but it is only exceptionally that the cultivator will put land in grass if he can grow another crop on it. Grass Farms, Haymaking, Silage. 214. I have visited several of the Grass Farms which are under the Military Department, and which are intended to supply grass, hay, ete., for the requirements of the mounted service, My particular object was, to form an opinion as to whether grass could be grown, and either be cut and given green, or be made into hay or silage, so as to render it profitable to the raiyat to keep some of his land under grass. The Grass Farms were the only ones from which I could obtain any definite particulars as to what bad beea done, and [ have pleasure in acknowledging the readiness with which full information was given to me by the authorities, In addition to the Cantonment Grass Farms, such as those at Allahabad, Cawnpore, and elsewhere, there are the rukhs or uncultivated grass lands devoted to military purposes; these occur largely in the Punjab, The word ruké originally meant a tree; this shows that these areas originally were wvoded ones, Now the word is equivalent in meaning to “ grass run,” 215. Without going into descriptions of any of these Farms, I may briefly say that the system of enclosing grass lands for the purpose of supplying fodder to mounted troops was started in 1882 by Sir Herbert Macpherson at Allahabad, and since then has been extended largely, so that now there are two Circles, the Eastern and the Western, under which the different Farms and rukhs are included. In the Western Circle, which comprises the greater number of rukhs, Major Wingate has been appointed Special Forage Officer, Previous to the introduction of the Grass Farm system, the practice bad been to send out “grass-cutters,”’ whose duty it was to cut and collect grass for the troops from wherever Grass. 177 they could. As the grass chiefly came off the cultivators’ The former fields, great friction was caused between the raiyats and the sien ‘‘erass-cutters,’’ and serious fights often occurred, In addition to the ‘grass-cutters’ for British mounted corps, one “ grass-cutter” was maintained between every two sowars or Native Cavalry soldiers, and a pony was kept for bim. Pensions had to be provided for the *‘ grass-cutters,” and, altogether, their cost might be fairly put at Rs. 53 a month for each horse kept. In addition, very considerable sums had to be paid to the Native Cavalry as compensation for fodder purchased in order to make up the short supply of grass obtainable by the “ grass-cutters,” The cost of hay is reckoned at 8 annas a maund (80 lbs.), and that of feeding a horse, at 2 annasa day, or Rs, 4a month; besides this, the sowar had to feed himself, and along with another sowar maintain one “grass-cutter’? and a pony between the two of them. If the “ grass-eutter” could not get sufficient grass, then fodder had to be purchased. The Govern- ment scale of reckoning at Allahabad was that 35 maunds of green grass, or 40 lbs. of silage, were equal to 25 ]bs. of hay or 20 lbs.. of straw-chaff (44usa), If the monthly cost of the rations exceeded tis, 134, then compensation was paid to the Native Cavalry at the Government rate. 216. Owing to a full supply of grass being now obtainable Changes effected by the “ grass-cutters’? from Government grass lands, not Farm system. only have a large number of the “‘grass-catters’? of British mounted corps been dispensed with, but the claims for compensation for dearness of forage which used to be paid to the Native Cavalry have lessened very considerably at nearly all the Stations, and have ceased altogether at several of them, In 1889-90, payment of compensation had entirely ceased at six Stations in the Western Circle, Great saving has further been experienced by the reduction in the number of pensions to be paid to ‘“‘grass-cutters,’ Thus, not only is there an -actnal money saving, but troubles with cultivators have been stopped, the horses are believed to be less subject to anthrax (the grass. no longer coming from unprotected ‘and suspicious sourees), and the Stations have been much improved, the covering of grass having prevented the blowing about of dust. A more healthy state of surroundings is also produced by the growing of grase instead of that of ordinary crops, which latter would in almost all cases have tobe irrigated, 217. The result of the operations shows that a very large The foaneial saving to Government has resulted from conserving the” ~ grass lands of Cantonment and military rukss, and the system is one that ought to be extended wherever practicable, Allababad bas, perhaps, been the most conspicuous success, and besides the great credit due to Sir Herbert Macpherson, to Colonel Marriott and other officers who have been successively in charge, special mention should be made of Sergeant Meagher, who has shown much energy and ability in carrying 12 The cost of haymaking in India. Rate for cutting grass. 178 The “ Grass cutter” system. out the practical part of the work. The saving to Government at Allahabad in 1889-90 was estimated at Rs. 25,000, and for the seven years, 1882—89, at Rs. 91,158; in other words, these are the sums whieh Government would have had to pay had the usual rations of straw-chaff (44usa) been issued to trans- port and other animals, had full complements of “ grass-cutters ”’ been maintained for British mounted corps, and had compensation been paid to the Native Cavalry for fodder purchased to make up the “ grass-cutters’ ’? short supply of grass. The amount of grass grown at several of the Stations, in- eluding Allahabad, has been so increased that it is now possible to supply not only the British troops, but also the Native Cavalry with it. It is, however, with the actual cost of the operations of cutting, haymaking, and ensiling that I have mainly to do; though, I should add that, in making any critical remarks, it must be remembered that in most of the Stations the operations are still in their infancy. 218. The great difficulty on the Grass Farms is the employ- ment of sufficient labour, and hence, to anyone with ideas of cheap labour in India, the cost of haymaking, etc., will appear very high for that country, I am also prevented from instituting the full comparison I wished to make, because the profits stated are not the actual profits of the Farms by sale of produce in the open market in competition with private enterprise (vepresent- ing what is actually over and above rent, cultivation, etc.), but the returns are merely comparative, viz., as to what Government would have had to puy if the Farms had not existed. So I must content myself with giving a few items and making a few sugges- tions, Itis generally reckoned in India that from 24 to 22 tons of green grass will yield 1 ton of hay, At Allahabad the amount is 67 maunds (of 82 lbs.) of grass to 1 ton of hay. The following table gives the cost of cutting and haymaking, etc., at Allahabad and other Stations :— : Taste XII. Cost of Cutting Grass and Making Hay at Grass Farms. English ona Per Ton | equivaient, = of fivay ade: bake Bas Hay made. Hay made. ay MAGS, ee 1 Ae Allahabad, 1888-89:— Annas, | Rs. a. £84 Cutting grass, | anna per maund . * e . . 4 4 2 0 6 2 Making, stacking, and thatching hay . 2 1 2 0418 Torat Cost of Haymaking . 3 6 4 | 0 7 10 Cawnpore, 1890 sew te Ae ditto ditto m 4 J 7 oO 010 6 Bareilly, 1890 . «2 . + « ditto ditto 6 9 0 013 «6 ditto 4 7 0 0 10 6 The Punjab generally, (accord-) ,. ing to Major Wingate) ee } ditto From 1 anna to 1} annas per maund (80 lbs.) of green grass may be taken as the general rate.for cutting. Grass, 179 219. In the comparison which 4 shall make I purposely take comparison the Farm where the operations have been longest practised, viz., faymeting in Allahabad ; at the same time, the cost here is the lowest, England. Unmanured land atPAllahabad is reckoned to yield about 48 maunds, or somewhat less than 2 tons, of green grass to the acre, but by using manure (night-soil and town-sweepings, see para- graph 143) the yield has been increased from an average of 2 tons of green grass per acre in 1883-84 to one of 5} tons, or about 2 tons of hay to the acre over the whole Farm, The extent of the Farm is 3,558 acres in all. The yield of grass per acre (5} tons) is not unlike what ordinary good land would give in England, but this is the average over the whole of the Allahabad Farm, there being only sufficient manure to supply it to portions in f\rn. Where a heavy dressing of manure is newly put on, as mues as six crops of grass can be got in a year, five being cut for feeding green and for silage, and the sixth for hay, while for five years the manured land will keep on producing an average of 221th tons of grass per acre yearly. To compare next the relative costs of cutting grass in India and in England. In England 1s. an acre forcutting by machine, aod 2s. 64. per acre for cutting by hand, are prices frequently met with, The yield of hay per acre in England is from 1} to 14 tons, sae as against the 2 tons per acre at Allahabad, so that the cost in india. of cutting would at most be only 2s,a ton in England as against 6s. 2d. in India. A rate of 6s.2¢d. per ton of hay, for cutting alone, must be considered enormously high ina country of cheap labour like India, where an agicultural labourer, one may say generally, can live quite happily on 2 annas (or about 2d.) a day, The total cost of haymaking in Efteland will vary much according to the crop, its weight, ete,, but 10s. ax acre all round, giving from 1} to 14 tons of hay, may be taken as a fair average in the case of grass like that met with in India, This would give a total cost of from 6s. 8d. to 8s. @ ton of hay, as against the 7s. 10d. per ton at Allahabad. Weare obliged, therefore, even when taking the most favour- Hay making at able estimates, viz., those of Allahabad, to conclude that, at {is fami present, haymaking on Grass Farms in India isa dear process, the expense of cutting beiyg the main cause. Besides, there is not the difficulty and expense of turning the hay which is met with in England, for in India the hay practically makes itself. 220. When rent and other chargesare reckoned, the cost of the estimated production of grass at Allahabad is stated to be Rs. 3 As. 10 v#ueof hey. per ton, and of hay, Rs, 10 (say 158.) a ton. The grass is estimated to be worth Rs. 7 per ton, and the hay Rs, 20} (say 31s.) This, it is true, is merely an estimate based on the fact that, if the hay had not been there, it would have had to be replaced by straw-chaff (d4usa) bought J2a This value is too high, Pressing and baling of bay for cams p 2 Experiment at Changa Manga. 180 Cost of Cutting Grass and Making Hay. from contractors at the current ‘ates of grass supplied by “ grass- cutters.” The estimated value of hay, 3ls. per ton, and for such hay, or rather dried grass, as is obtained, is m@th above the real value, and is very apt to lead to misapprehension, for, if the ratyat could get anything like that sum for growing grass and for haying it, he had better lay out bis land for it at once wherever sale of hay is possible. A fair value to puton hay in India is from 8 to 10 annas per maund (80 lbs.), which makes it Rs, 14 to Rs. 17 a ton (say 21s. to 26s.). These estimates, as I have shown, do not enable one to judge whether grass-farming pays as farming independently of sale to Government at comparative rather than competitive values. However useful, therefore, Gaass Farms have been in the past, and whatever large econom‘tis have been effected, there is ample room for great economy still, if the cost of cutting grass and of making hay be cousiderably more in a country of cheap labour than it is in one of dear labour like England. 221. The experiment has been tried, and at times with success, to press and bale hay for transport to camps. Thus, for the Muridki camp in 1889, grass was cut from two ruths at Mian Mir, and from the forest plantation at Changa Manga. Bales of hay, weighing 60 lbs. each, were made, and altogether 18,500 maunds of hay were delivered in camp, at a cost of 9 annas a maund (80 lbs,), which included 2 annas for carriage. The then price for loose dry grass in the camp was Re. 1 As, 4 per maund, and a saving of Rs, 9,000, or over 100 per cent., was thereby effected in the expenses of the camp, Besides this, if there had been less grass, and consequently a greater demand for it, the price current would have gone up, and even a larger saving would have been shown. As regardg the hay sent from Changa Manga, the experiment was carried out by the Forest Department, and 5,075 maunds of baled hay were forwarded to the Muridki camp. The grass cost 1 anna a maund to cut, and at first 2 annas, then later 3 annas, per maund to make into hay. After baling and all other expenses had been paid, the Forest Department, by receiving from the camp 7 annas a maund for the grass (exclusive of carriage), realised Rs. 2,190 by the sale, and made a profit of 1 anna 8 pies on every maund, or 33 per cent. on tbe outlay. Not only this, but, after arrival at Muridki, the Commissariat Department, as we have seen, made a paving of over 100 per cent. in the camp expenses under this head. The result of the Changa Manga experiment may be sum- marised thus :— Cost of. 5,075 maunds baled hay, delivered at Rs. Muridki, at 10 annas 8 pies per maund . - 3,201 Cost of dry grass at Muridki, at price current, 1 rupee 4 annas per maund . . . « 6,344 —— Saving by the experiment. . Rs. 3,098 Grass ; 181 When I add that, on account of the difficulty of getting labour, the Forest Department ask now to be relieved from the trouble of continuing the work, and that.the Commissariat Department say. that they cannot get hired labour to send to cut the grass, it must strike everyone with regret that such an undertaking, yield- ing 33 per cent. profit to one Department, and effecting a saving of over 100 per cent. to another, should be stopped. In another case, hay was made on rukhs Katlakput and Chandra, near Lahore, Altogether, 1,147 maunds of grass were cut, and tlre hay was sold at Katlakput without being baled. In all, 952 maunds of hay were sold at 6 annas per maund, and the account stood thus :— Rs, Total ‘cost (including carriage from Chandra to Katlakput) é 780. . . 285 Cash received, at 6 annas per ea . ‘ . 357 us — Profit . Rs, 122 er 51 per cent, The requirements of camps are, of course, exceptional, and a continuous demand for grass supply may not exist; without this, it is probable that the undertaking might:____-/a paying one from year’s end to year’send. a Nevertheless, Changa Manga migve_hayays be used for supply- ing hay to Quetta, to which Station 2 Zakhs (2,00,000) of maunds of straw-chaff (64us2) are annually sent from Amritsar.’ A great saving would be effected if hay were sent instead from Changa Manga. The Forest Department says that its establishment is The objections for forestry and not for grass-eutting, and, while allowing that the 5ine errs, result of the Changa Manga experiment was successful financially, supplying grass the Department says that this was only so because it did the work itself, and,.in so doing, left a lot of its forestry work untouched. The work needed a lot of supervision, and would only tempt local labour, this being insufficient for the purpose. It is also stated -by the forest officers that the greater part of the grass in the Changa Manga plantalion is a coarse grass called gharam (Panicum antidotale), which the Commissariat will not use, even for litter. When, however, I went to Changa Manga I saw a large amount of anjan (Pennisetum cenehrotdes), and of chhimbar (Eleusine flagellifera), both of which .are capital fodder. grasses, and might have made good hay or silage. 222. The Jabour question is indeed a perplexing one; the main The labour reason of the difficuliy in procuring it is, that the people will not %#™4% leave their own fields to come and cut grass, for labour is required ‘just at the time that they want most to attend to their own ‘crops, This is at the end of the rains, when the lands have to be ploughed. Cheap labour, too, is often very inefficient labour, and I have seen with ‘positive annoyance, near Mian Mir, coolies leisurely cutting grass with small sickles, while squatting down on The ~se of machinery upon Grass Farms. 182 Pressing and Baling Gay. the ground, the sickle in one hand and their pipe (4ootah) in the other. Acooly gets 1 anna for a bundle of grass weighing not more than 100 lbs., and, having cut that, he generally goes away. It is seldom that a man will stay to cut three bundles a day, and, meantime, thousands of tons of grass are going to waste. The Commissariat Department has to pay even more, v7z,, 1 anna 8 pies per bundle, the cutting being let out to a contractor. T could not help looking with regret at the great possibilities open, when such quantities of grass, and fair grass, too, were waiting to be cut, and would in the end be wasted. The saving that could be effected to the country from this source alone would surprise any one who looked into the matter. And, while I urge the extension of grass schemes for military purposes, as having proved a distinct saving already, it behoves the authorities to look much more closely into the a of economy inthe charge for labour, and to see if the &“ulties cannot be met. I simply throw out a suggestion: yi.y“labour is not procurable is, because the work is not continuct&; might it not pay to keep upa regular staff to do this work, instead of depending on the occasional cooly who a choose to come and cut his bundle, get his anna, and then goo 9,23.. Larould make another suggestion. Iam quite certain that overiching reas, such as many of the Grass Farms and rukhs cover, an imy. we. saving might be made by using mowing machines in place of ch _inen. by hand, Iam not in favour of introdu- cing improved implements extept in special cases, but this is one in point. Where ground is very uneven, a machine cannot, of course, be used, but there are many places where, seeing the enormous cost of cutting by hand, and the difficulty of getting labour, a mowing’ machine would effect great economy. I have heard some of the Farm Overseers object to mowing machines, and to say that the grass gets knocked down rather than cut. This, however, I believe to be merely due to prejudice. It is true that a machine does not cut so closely as the Native’s sickle does, and so the yield of grass will be less. But mowing machines have been tried with success at Mhow (Central India), and an acre of grass land only costs 14 annas to cut with a machine. A European will cut seven acres a day, a Native from five to six acres, with the machine. To cut an acre of grass by hand costs, on an average, on unmanured land, Re. 1 As. 13, I am quite certain that on large areas simple machinery for cutting, tedding, etc., will pay well. Elevators for stacking hay would often be very useful. There is no reason, either, why battery horses should not be used for drawing the mowing machines. Another want is that of a portable press for compress- ing fodder. Those in use at present are mostly ‘‘ Boomer’? cotton presses, and they are all of them too heavy. What is wanted is to bring the presses readily to where the fodder is, Grass. 188 . Silage. 224. Ensiling, or the preserving of green fodder, has been rhe ost of carried out at Allahabad, Cawnpore, Hissar, Mian Mir, and, ™abing silage. ou an experimental scale, at other military Stations; also on Government Experimental Farms and elsewhere, : From the statistics which I have gathered I have been able to institute a comparison between the cost of haymaking and that of making silage, and the result is decidedly unfavourable to the latter. The loss of weight incurred in the process is surprisingly large, and the cost is so great that if would, in most cases, have been far more profitable to have made hay. The following table will illustrate this:— Ta aya el es Cost Cost Per- L Grass | Silage | ‘Total | ner Ton perTon of] centage ie ene eusiled, | produced,| Cost. | of ‘Bilage’ | of gbod oil Grass cut. produced, | Silage, | °2508- Tons. Ton. Rs, Rs, as. 2s. as, | Per cent. | Per cents 1888-89 . 2,187 1,231 6,850 2 11 4 12; 66°28 43°72 Allahabad { * 1869-90 , 2,3245 ¥*1,073 2 1 ” i Cawnpore , 1888-89 , 560 170 721 1 56 4 4 30°42 69°58 1888-89 , o ~ 606 6 7 Hissar f he ; 1889-90 , 3 2 * Estimate. Taking Allahabad in 1883-89, we have the following com- eetoatise parison :— with haymaking. 2,187 tons of grass produced 1,231 ‘tons of silage, costing. to make\Rs. 5,850, or 4 rupees 12 annas per ton of silage (as above). If made into hay (23 tons of grass—1 ton of hay), 2,187 tons of grass would have given 7952 tons of hay, costing to make Rs. 4,175, or 5 rupees 4 annas per ton of hay (as per table XII, paragraph 218). Or, taking the figures of 1889-90 :— 2,3242 tons of grass are estimated to produce 1,072 tons of silage. 2,824.2 tons of grass would have produced 940 tons of hay. The value of hay being, as we have seen before, more than twice that of grass, it is manifest that, whichever year we take, it-would have been very much cheaper to have made hay. The grass has to be cut whether hay or silage be made, and this is the heaviest item in the cost. Owing to the time of year at which grass is cut for silage it costs less than when cut for hay. Thus, grass for silage is often cut at Allahabad for 6 pies (3. anna) a maund, but when cut for hay it will cost 9 piesa maund in Sep- tember and October, 1 anna in November and early December, and 2 annas afterwards. 184 Cust of Making Silage. Until silage can be made with very much less loss and at much cheaper cost than in the instances given above, itis very certain that it will not be able to compete with haymaking. Estimated velue 225, At Allahabad, silage is valued at 5 maunds (of 80 lbs.) to iat the rupee, which makes it 5 rupees 9 annas a ton, or, in English equivalent, 8s. 4d., a figure which, evenin England, would be considered high. This estimate is based upon the cost of its production, but here, again, the estimate is merely a comparative one, based upon what the Farm would otherwise have had to pay for purchased fodder, so that it gives us little guidance as to whether the ordinary cultiva- tor would be justified or not in making silage. Other instances 226. The following are other instances of the making of silage :— ue making of silage. : Ba wpa ‘ i Hissar. At Hissar, where grass can be irrigated, it is cub for silage, as it is found to be too coarse to make into hay. At Mian Mir cutting of grass begins about the middle of August, and goes on to the end of December; there are four silos on rukh Terab, in each of which from 800 to 900 maunds of silage are made yearly. I eaw very good silage indeed in a silo on the Government Cinchona plan- tations at Ootacamund. Fifteen and a half tons had been made at a cost of 4 rupees 4 annas a ton; this, it will be noticed, is about the same cost as at Aliahabad and Cawnpore. arth toa depth of 4 feet, and giving a pressure of about 400 tbs. to the square foot, was used to weight the silage, this being, I thought, an unnecessarily large amount; 1 foot depth of earth is quite enough for all purposes. Messrs. Thomson and Mylne make silage at Beheea, putting the grass into a pit simply dug in the soil. Belgaum, At the farm attached to the Agricultural Class at Belgaum there is a silo dag 16 feet deep in the scil, the sides being plastered with dung and well beaten. 8 Bhadgaon Silage has been made for several years past at the Bhadgaon Experimental poe Farm. The silos are circular masonry pits. At my suggestion a “ silage stack ” was made by simply bnilding up green fodder, grass, roadside cuttings, eto., just as a haystack would be made, but weighting the whole with stones, or any other inexpensive waterial that was at hand. Poona and At the Poona and Nagpur Experimental Farms silage has been made on Nagpur, a small seale. The quality of 227. I can speak very favourably of the quality of the Indian silage. silage produced at the different Farms and Stations mentioned above. Its chief fault is that it is unnecessarily dry. Of course the value depends mainly on the nature of the material used, and rich silage can never be obtained from poor material, although the process of ensilage may render coarse food more palatable. Mian Mir. Ootacamund, Behéeca, The advanteges 228. One advantage of cutting an early crop of grass for silage of ensilage, ig that there are many grasses, such as numerous species of Panicum, which seed in the rains: these may be secured as silage if rain continues, whereas the other grasses, being kept back some- what, yield a good hay crop about October when the rains are over, Grass, 185 It may further be said in favour of silage that, by means of it, some grass, which would otherwise have been altogether lost owing to the heavy rain, is saved by being put into the silo. | 229. It is, however, when one goesinto the figures of the cost Improvement _ of production, and examines the actual loss of weight between the hetnods of — time of putting in the grass and of taking out the silage, that one ™>Hxs silsee. sees great room for improvement in the methods of making silage in India. I may, therefore, make a few suggestions here, It is quite true that the real value of the process of ensilage consists in saving what would otherwise be lost, and hence it is not always fair to compare the cost of making silage with that of making hay. This Iam ready to allow, but toa very limited Suegestions for extent only, for I have myself seen at Allahabad, Hissar, Mian in the practice. Mir, and other places, silage being made in large quantities when the weather was, and had been, as fair as possible, and when there was not the least excuse for making silage ; indeed, what was going into the pits had been lying about and was really half-made hay already. I would insist strongly that this is a great mistake, and that, as I have endeavoured to show, it is false economy to try and make silage when hay can be made perfectly well. To allow grass intended for silage to lie about is also wrong. The essential feature of silage is that it is a wet or green ‘ food, therefore it should be packed in the silo as auickly as possible, be rammed down close, and covered over rapidly. If it is left about, it may just as well be made into hay at once. I was reminded, when speaking in India on this point, that, in order to make so-called “ sweet’’ silage, it is necessary to let the grass lie about for several days after being cut, so that it may get partly dry ; but my advice to those who are going to make silage is not to trouble about whether it be “sour ” or *‘ sweet ”’ silage, but to get the grass packed away in the silo as quickly as possible, and then shut it up closely, thus avoiding loss, and getting finally us much succulent green fodder as possible for use when all else is dried up. The great waste incurred in making silage is due partly to loss of moisture before the material goes into the silo, partly to imper- fect pressing and the nature of the sides of the pits, and, lastly, to loss in taking out the material. Of the first I have spoken; as to the second, I am convinced that where a silo is to bea regular institution, and is not merely used for an occasional crop, it will pay infinitely better to have it made in hrick-work or masoury (pucea) than to have a silo with earth sides and bottom (kutcha), The extra initial expense will soon he covered by the extra amount of fodder saved. As regards the third point, I have noticed that, on taking out the silage, the usual practice is to remove the whole of the covering af once, and to leave the bulk exposed. This, again, is a great mistake, for the pressure 186 Improvement in Making of Silage. should be continued as long as possible, and the covering over the silage should only be taken off the portion which is actually being cut into for daily use. Divepreenienk 230. I have gone at some length into the silage question expressed as to because I differ entirely from the opinions of one of my predeces- grest county sors, to the effect that India is the great field for the development a of ensilage. That it is the field for haymaking I am much more ready to think. With asun and climate such as exist over the greater part of India I cannot see how it conld well be otherwise, Hay requires no making, for it makes itself. Silage, I repeat, will only be useful- when by means of it can be saved what would otherwise be lost, fbe unsuitable. Still less do I think there is scope for any of the patent appli- rat applionna ances advogated for “ stackesilage” making. The raiyat may (gr ine making possibly be shown how to preserve green fodder, roadside grass, ' ete., by building it up into a stack and weighting it with stones, timber, or other inexpensive material, but where is he to find the money to purchase such appliances as have been sometimes adyo- cated, and which cost from 12/, to 20/., and even more? Such mechanieal appliances may have a certain value upon large estates possibly, but surely none upon five-acre holdings. Experimental It becomes, however, one of the useful functions which a Gov- Farms should ernment Experimental Farm ean fulfil, to conduct careful trials the miking of wpon different methods of making silage, and to ascertain how it oa can be made with the least loss, and in the most economical manner. Information may thus be gained as to the crops best adapted for ensiling, and as to the adaptability of the process to the raiyat’s circumstances. Suggestions for 231. There are some points in connection with the management themanasemert Of Grass Farms wherein improvement can be effected. The Station of Grass Farms. Farms are worked mostly by Grass Committees, of which the President and Secretary are the principal members, while a general supervision is exercised by the Commissary General of the Circle, aided by his Special Forage Officer, the Quartermaster General in India being referred to in all matters requiring the orders or approval of the Commander-ia-Chief, Grass I cannot commend the Grass-Committee system. With Pre- Committees. —_ sident and Secretary constantly changing, it is most discouraging for a Forage Officer to work. No sooner does a President or a Secretary get to know a little of the system at one place, than, aa arule, he is transferred to quite different work, and a totally new and inexperienced man is put in his place. At Umballa the Secretary has changed six times within 18 months, and at Mian Mir the President about as often. This cannot mean either econo- my or efficiency. If, instead of Grass Committees, there were a special Forage Branch of the Commissariat, the difficulties would be greatly lessened. Farm overseers. Tn the next place, the overseers of the Farms are non-commis« sioned officers, temporarily withdrawn from their corps. But they Grass. 187 are uot properly selected, and care is not taken to choose the men who, from their previous acquaintance with the work, or from any aptitude shown for it, are the best fitted fgr the post of overseer. At one rukh which I visited I found a farm overseer, with the very best intentions, making silage out of grass that had been lying about for several days, The sun was then, and had been, pouring down with intense heat all the time, but the order had gone forth to make so many tons of silage, and he was doing his best to comply with it. I asked him (though I felt the question was needless) whether he had ever made silage before; no, he had “never heard of the stuff before, until the order came.” He was the station butcher! Such a man is to be pitied rather than blamed, but it does seem wrong that, where the field for economy is so large, it should not be better aimed at. Anothar ground I have for complaint is, that when capable men have been selected or after they have acquired some expeti- ence, their services are not retained at the work in which they have shown aptitude. A farm overseer, if he keeps to his work beyond a certain period, does so at the risk of losing promotion, He should be a permanent non-commissioned officer of the Com- missariat Department, “ seconded ’* in the departmental list, so that he may not lose promotion. This is, I fear, a fault of the entire Indian system, and is, thus, one hard to alter; but, in the interests of the country, I would strongly urge the desirability of retaining the services of men for work in which they have shown special capabilities, Sergeant Meagher, of Allahabad, is such a man as this, and, knowing the energy he has displayed in the practical discharge of his duties, it would bea pity were his knowledge to be Jost to this branch of the Commissariat, or he himself lose promotion by remaining where he is. The saving which the Military De- partment might effect: in matters of this kind alone would go a long way towards providing the funds required for the otber “agricultural improvements ” which Iam recommending in this Report. * This term means that an officer while employed on work outside his legitimate ephere, would still retain his departmental position, and share in any promotion, reverting, at the expiry of his outside duty, to his position in his Departnient. The frequent changes in management, CONCLUSIONS, 135 CONCLUSIONS, 232. There are differences in agricultural conditions and prac- tice which result from the greater facilities for grazing and grass supply provided in one part of the country than in another, Im- provement may come from a modification of the differences through supplying these facilities where they are most needed. Little is to be expected from the people; the most they are likely to do is, in a few cases, to follow an example set, and pos- sibly to eonvert the “village waste,” or a portion of it, into a “reserve ”’ for the provision of grazing and supply of grass. But the work will practically fall entirely to the share of Government, In taking up this work, Government will have to avail itself not only of a knowledge of indigenous practices, but also of Western science, as shown in economical methods of haymaking, silage-making, and the use of machinery, such as mowers, hay- tedders, presses, etc, : The provision of grazing by means of the pasturage areas in the more distant forests is very desirable, especially for the purposes of eattle-breeding. Similarly, where “reserved forests ”” and plan- tations nearer cultivation cau afford grazing without detriment to the other interests which they are called on to serve, the provision of grazing in them is a legitimate and very serviceable end for forest officials to keep in view. In times of drought all classes of forests and woods may prove invaluable to the saving of cattle, and they should then be thrown open. Inasmuch, however, as in ordinary times the supply of grazing cannot be regarded as an absolute necessity, and since the existence of it is not necessarily coincident with the occurrence of the best cattle, it should be restricted by proper rules as to the area to be thrown open at a time, the time of year when allowed, the number of stock admitted, and also the kind of stoek. Where natural reproduction of’ trees is going on, grazing must be excluded, and goats should only be allowed if separate areas can be given to them. The enforcement of rules as to forest fires is absolutely necessary. In “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves”' it will be generally found better to allow cutting and removal of the grass than to admit grazing. The “ village waste’ is almost always useless for grazing pur poses, and often tends greatly to the spread of disease, Conclustone. 189 It is only exceptionally that the raiyat will be induced to keep land in pasture. Grass Farms have done a great deal of good, and have effected considerable economies by reducing the number of “ grass-cutters ”” attached to mounted troops, by preventing troubles with cultiva- tors, and by saving large sums that used to be paid as compensa. tion for scarcity of fodder. At the same time, it is clear that haymaking, as carried out on these Farms, is much too expensively done, and great economies are possible in the saving of labour by having a permanent staff, and by the employment of machinery. The management of Station Grass Farms by Grass Committees is not good, and the whole should be worked by a special Forage Branch of the Commissariat. The officers in charge of the Farms, as also the overseers, should be selected with more regard to their aptitude for the work, and, when they have shown themselves capable men, should be retained at it, without running any risk of losing promotion thereby, The Forest Department should co-operate more than it has done in providing grazing and grass for agricultural purposes, and in utilising the grass from plantations, ete., by means of pressing and baling hay, for military purposes. Ensilage is at present an expensive process in India, and great improvement in the methods employed is possible. There are certain advantages in adopting the process in particular cases, but it will not become a general one in a country like India. RECOMMENDATIONS, 233. I recommend :— The creation of more “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves,’ in order to supply Grass for agricultural purposes, and also Grazing where it can be permitted under proper restrictions. The extension of Grass Farms, and their management by a special Forage Branch of the Commissariat. The carrying out of investigations at Government Experi- mental Farms on the best methods of making Silage. BECOMMEND- ATIONS, CHAPTER X, Fopprr-Crors 4nD Axpags, Fodder-crops, Fodder-crops not essential to existence of oattle. Experiment at Woburn, England, Experience at Bhadgaon (Bombay), Mr, Sabapathi Mudliar’s experience at Bellary, Experience at Grass Farms, Fodder-crops necessary for improvement of cattle, 190 CHAPTER X. FODDER-CROPS AND HEDGES, Fodder-Crope. 234. In the last chapter I came to the general conclusion that the provision of grass, and of grazing in particular, while highly desirable, could not be called absolutely essential. Nearly the same must be said of the growing of special fodder- crops. Undoubtedly, great advantages follow the giving of these to cattle; the cultivation of them, atleast where cattle are appreciated and cared for, should be encouraged, and the endeavour be made to extend the system to parts where it is not practised. More parti- cularly is this desirable where the provision of grazing is very limited, and possibly entirely absent. Nevertheless, after enquiring into the matter with some care, I have not received more than the general reply that, while cattle are undoubtedly far better for green food of some kind, yet they can live quite well on dry food alone. This coincides with my own experience in England. In an experiment which I carried out at the Woburn Experi- mental Farm a few years back, I found that bullocks, when fed on cake, meal, and hay, along with water supplied to them separately, but receiving no succulent food whatever, such as roots or grass, throve perfectly well, although the result of the feeding with hay did not prove to be an economical one, At the Bhadgaon Experimental Farm (Bombay) experience has shown that cattle will do quite well on dry food during the hot weather, provided that they have a little cotton seed given to them. Mr. A. Sabapathi Mudliar, of Bellary, told me that he liked to give fodder-crops to cattle if he could, but that they would do quite well on dry food. For cattle in hard work, or for transit bullocks, he did not think green food so desirable. In time of famine, however, he had found -the latter invaluable. At other places also I heard the same opinion expressed, viz., that fodder-crops were not so suited to working cattle. At the military Grass Farms there is a similar objection to the giving of silage to animals from which speed is required, 235. It is one thing, however, to speak of a food not being essential for the existence of cattle, but quite a different thing to speak of it being necessary for the improvement of cattle. This is where, I believe, the growing of fodder-crops will be required, It is true, as pointed out in the last chapter, that the existence of pasturage is not always coincident with that of the best cattle, but yet instances were adduced where, as at Nadiad, Baroda, Hospet, Fodder-crops and Hedges. 191 etc., the feeding of cattle with green grass from the headlands of fields, the banks of watercourses, etc., was pursued with manifest advantage. The Punjab supplies the best instances of similar advantages [npn derived from fodder-crops. In this Province the people depend jab. greatly on their cattle, and they take proportionate care of them. The district of Jhang is an especially good example, several kinds of crops being here grown entirely for the use of cattle, The Pun- jab cattle are, as the result, exceptionally fine. The same is seen in Behar, when the cattle of the European 2. In Behar. planters are compared with those belonging to the native culti- vators. The former are fed with sugar-cane judr (Sorghum), oats, etc., as fodder, while the latter only have what grass they can pick up, supplemented by straw-chaff (64usa). The following quotations exemplify this still further :— 3, In Kurnool. Mr, Benson, in his Kurnool (Madras) Report, says :— * Tn the Cumbun and Markapur faZeks where the soils are generally poor “and thin, Nellore cattle can rarely reach a live-weight of 700 to 800 Ibs. In the “Nandyal valley, on rich black cotton-soil, the same breed fed on the juar * (Sorghum) straw develop to 1,000 to 1,200 Ibs.” : - : 2. e . 4 : = Mr. Nicholson, in his “ Manual of Coimbatore, writes :— eee * Kangyam cattle are famous in Dharapuram talk because of the extent “and quality of the pastures. . - -The raiyats are dependent on ‘+ pastures aud fodder-crops for the food of their cattle during the hot weather, “and the hedges, acacias, and wild shrubs give a good deal of good fodder, “fuel, and common timber. . . .» ~~ Fodder-crops are grown for Kang- “yam cattle, cholum or kambw being sown thickly in garden land in Febru- “ary, irrigated and cut before earing.” 236. The crops most largely used as fodder-crops are judr (Sore principal crops ghum vulgare), known also as chart when grown for fodder, and in ts¢0,98 fodder. S. India as eholum; bdjra (Pennisetum typhotdeum) also called chambu in Madras ; thirdly, and mainly in S, India ragi (Eleustne Coracana). The main differences between growing a crop for fodder and nick seeding the same seed for a grain crop consist in the thicker seeding and the °f fodder-crops. earlier cutting in the former case. Whilst, for example, 5 to 6 lbs of judr seed to the acre suffice for the grain crop, as much as 120 lbs. of seed per acre are used for the fodder-crop. Fodder judr is sometimes fed green, and sometimes stacked when dry. Over the Punjab generally fodder-crops are grown for cattle, guar, bairs, and judr, or chart, as it is there termed, is the usual one. ey In Behar, judr_ is largely cultivated as a fodder-crop, When young it is believed to be poisonous, and is put rouvd the borders of fields to keep the cattle from trespassing on to the crops. This crop is also grown in Gujarat (Bombay), at Poona, and other parts of Bombay, At Belgaum itis a frequent sight to see the fodder judér growing on the embankments of the rice fields ; and dotted here and there over the fields may be seen single plants of judy which are cut for fodder. Sugar-cane, Maize. Oats, barley, wheat, Gram, Turnips, Rape, Lucerne, Guinea grass, Sorgho, Prickly pear. 192 Usefulness of Fodder-crops. Bajra, in many instances, takes the place of judr, but is con- ~ sidered inferior to the latter as fodder, In Madras, réyi mostly. takes the place of judr, though the latter, there known as cholum, is also grown, as well as bdjra (chambu), The straw of rdgi is considered to be the most nutritious of all, and that of both judr and bdjra to be superior to rice straw. Adgi is used both as green fodder and also in the dry state. Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum), as a fodder-crop, is used principally by the European planters in Behar. Like char it is sown thickly, It is chopped up when green and is mixed with dry er such as oat straw, eto. This makes a very good mixture for cattle. Maize (Zea Mays), called in the Punjab makki, is extensively used as fodder in the Punjab and also in Behar and elsewhere. Oats, barley, and even wheat are grown for fodder, the two former principally by European planters or on Government Stud Farms. Oats are either cut green and chopped up as fresh fodder, or are allowed to ripen and are used as straw food. Oats and barley are taken by the indigo planters as change crops for indigo. In the Punjab wheat is by no means infrequently fed off in its early stages; this strengthens the subsequent crop and prevents it from being beaten down by wind and storms. Gram (Cicer arietinum) is grazed over in the Punjab when still young. In the Balaghat district of the Central Provinces pulses are grown along the tops of the embankments of rice fields and are used for cattle. Turnips are largely grown in parts of the Punjab as a fodder- crop. This is the case in the Jhang, Gujranwala, Montgomery, and Multan districts, Rape is another crop similarly used in the Punjab, Lucerne, where irrigation is available, is one of the most valu- able fodder-crops, especially as green stuff for horses. Not only can several cuttings (often five or six) be taken during the year, but the plant will last three or four years before requiring to be ploughed up and re-sown. Lucerne is always grown and extensively used at Government Stud and Cattle Farms, such as Saharanpur, Hapur, and Hissar, as also at Poona and other Experimental Farms. Next, I would mention two crops which, though tried experi- mentally with considerable success, have not yet come into general use, The first is ‘‘ Guinea grass ’’ (Panicum jumentorum), and the second, the variety of Sorghum saccharatum knownas Sorgho. I saw both these crops growing at several of the Experimental Farms, and at the Seebpore Farm, Calcutta. There is a ready demand for Sorgho in Calcutta by men who keep milking cows. It can be cut three times in the year. Prickly pear (Opuntia wulgare) has been successfully used’ as food for cattle, andas (unfortunately for agriculture) it is only. Fodder-crops and Hedges. 193 too abundant in Southern India, the utilisation of it in time of scarcity would be most desirable. The thorns with which it is covered are an obstacle to its use, but this difficulty has been over- come by Mr. A. Sabapathi Mudliar, at Bellary. On this gentleman’s Utilised by | Estate I saw prickly pear being largely used as green food for Madliarat bullocks. Women were employed to remove the thorns from the °°" shoots after they had been cut and brought in. This they do, holding firmly the pieces of prickly pear with one hand by means of pincers roughly made out of scrap-iron bent into the requisite shape, then, grasping with the other hand a pair of tongs, also made out of scrap-iron and with saucer-like ends, they seize the thorns with the tongs and pluck them cut. The pieces are then handed to another woman who cuts them into slices on a knife fixed vertically on a board, the latter being held steady by the woman’s foot. A woman, receiving 2 annas daily wage, will remove the thorns from, and cut into slices ready for feeding, as much as 120 lbs. of prickly pear in a day. Mr. Sabapathi Mudliar has had experience of the value of this Its valuein fodder, for during the famine of 1877, quite 75 per cent. of his “™°*°"' cattle were kept alive by means of it, they having vothing more to eat than the prickly pear and 1 1b. a head daily of rice straw. Right yearsago, when Mr. Sabapathi Mudliar became Chairman of the Municipality, he introduced this plan of feeding the muni- cipal cattle, and now they are fed regularly on the prickly pear, and the cost is only Rs. 4 to Rs. 5 a month per pair of bullocks, Mr. Sabapathi Mudliar is now trying to cultivate a thornless kind of prickly pear. 237. I now give some instances showing the necessity there is Need for extended use of for extension of the system of growing fodder-crops, fodder-crop, Mr. Moens, writing of Bareilly (N.eWe P. ), says, in an extract, Bareilly. already quoted :— There are two points on which our fagriculturists need instruction :—~ (1) growing green-crops for cattle; (2) the proper management of their. ** manure,” In Chota Nagpur fodder-crops are insufficiently known, for of chota Nagpur. Lohardaga Mr, Basu says :— “ Cattle are small owing to insufficiency of food. . . « « There is too “little straw in the country, not enough to give more than 2 lbs. per head to 6 working cattle daily, and this is only rice straw. . . « « There are no “ fodder=crops.” And of Palamau he says :— “ There is an insufficiency of stored fodder, but itis relieved by grazing in “jungle wastes. . . . « Alot of cattle ara bred in the south and west * parts in the forests.” Mr, Nicholson says of Coimbatore: Coimbatore, “Fodder-crops are rare; cholum or kambu is sometimes grown as a fodder “crop on ‘garden’ land, but none ever on‘dry’ land. The raiyat prefers to “grow cholum to maturity, and get the grain, and s0 double the yield, « Besides, it saves irrigation from wells.” j 13 194 Crops used as Fodder-crops. - At Avenashi (Coimbatore) I found that no fodder-erops were grown specially for cattle. In the rains the “dry” land quickly gets covered with a coating of grass, and this feeds the cattle. ‘Trees as fodder. 238. Trees are frequently very valuable as supplying fodder for cattle, Among the hill tribes many trees are so used, but in the plains there are also trees that serve this purpose well. The badul (Acacia arabica) is one of these. Its pods are capital food for sheep and goats, and the shoots and leaves are also eaten by cattle. Other trees and shrubs so utilised are the Mahua (Bassia latifolia), different species of Dalbergia and Terminalia, the Jack- frutt tree (Artocarpus integrtfolia), different species of Zizyphus, ete, Bie i eee 239. Little is known as to the relative nutritive values of feeding values different fodders in India. Dr. Van Geyzel, Chemical Examiner, of indian fodders. Madras, has made analyses of South Indian fodders with the ob- ia ject of seeing whether they throw any light on the general prefer- ence given to some kinds over others, notably to chodum and rdgt, as against rice straw, and also for ascertaining how Indian fodders compare with English and American fodders. ‘The investigation is not, to my mind, at all complete or satisfactory ; the variations between different samples, though collected from the same district, are far too great to allow of any real conclusion being drawn, Thus, rice straw from Madura gave, in one case, 6°2 per cent. of albuminoids, and in another only 3:5 per cent.; while rice straw from Tanjore contained only ‘87 per cent, of albuminoids. The amounts of woody fibre are wade to vary from 20 per cent. in one sample to 322 per cent. in another; the ash in samples of rdgi straw from Salem varies from 8°2 per cent. to 14 percent. Many other instances I might give, all showing how much depends on the time at which these samples are harvested, the vircumstances ‘ under which they are grown, etc. The relative out-turns per acre are not given, and without this there is little to go upon, for what is really wanted is to know the total amount of constituents per acre, and which fodder supplies the most and the best of these, as well as whether one sample is individually richer than another, in- dependently of the yield per acre. As I know from experience, analyses of isolated samples taken at random will give little real knowledge, and the whole subject of food-value of straws and Need of agricul- grasses is a very difficult one. But this instance shows well the tural chemist. need that there is of investigation, not from the purely analytical side, but from that of agricultural chemistry specially. Hevers. Hedges. seating tual 240. In close connection with fodder-crops comes the subject and saving man- of hedging and enclosing fields. Attention has been directed to rj the way in which, by affording a certain amount of fuel, live hedges may help to increase the supply of manure to the land. Fodder-crops and Hedges. 195 Again, they are very useful in preventing cattle-trespass and Use in prevent. destruction of crops. Hedges are found over the greater part of aoe Coimbatore, and Mr. Nicholson, writing of this, says :— ** Cattle-trespass is rare; cattle and crops are protected, boundaries respected, : lore quantities of fuel supplied, and protection is given to growing * trees,” 7 ee ‘ Mr. W. R. Robertson (late of Madras) mentions, in a Report on Bellary, that hedgee of thora would do much good there’ by affording similar protection. In Anantapur (Madras) fencing is unknown. It-is in the Madras Presidency that hedges and enclosing of Their occur- fields are mostly found. I met with them generally in the Avenashi, Erode, Madura, and Salem districts, also at Hospet. But they occur in other parts of India also; for instance, I saw them at Mahim (Thana), Nadiad (Gujarat), Baroda, Ahmedabad, Jeypore, Ulwar, and-also at Hoshiarpur in the Punjab. The special way in which, at Nadiad, the hedges and grass borders to the fields are utilised has been mentioned in the last chapter (see paragraph 211). : eee 241. As materials for enclosing fields, mud walls are used in Metoriale used the Ulwar State, prickly pear at Jeypore and many parts of fields.” Madras, cactus hedges at Hoshiarpur, euphorbia hedges around Abmedabad, as well as generally in Madras, and aloe bushes in Mysore. One of the most useful hedging materials is the mudlu- kiluvet (Balsamodendron Berryt), a thorn which is largely used in Coimbatore and parts of Salem and Madura. It is easily propas gated by cuttings. Oo Mr. Nicholson, speaking of the advantage of hedging fields, gives the following proverb :— : . «6 Note the field that is hedged, and the cattle that are pastured.”' Or, to put it in another form : ‘‘ Compare the cattle that are penned and the cattle “that are (merely) grazed,” ; meaning that the condition of the penned cattle is far superior. Where hedges are not grown jt is not infrequently the case that a, few rows of a special crop, such as linseed, hemp, or chart ( Sor- ghum vulgare) are put round a field in order to protect the main crop. Cattle, for example, will not eat the linseed bordering a wheat crop ; hemp is poisonous, and chart in its young state is also injurious to cattle. 242. Lastly, there is a certain amount.of value to be derived Hedge material from hedges themselves as food for vattle. Mr. Nicholson points “ saci this out in extracts already given in this chapter, and there is little doubt that in time of searcity hedge material would supply, as was found in the case of prickly pear at Bellary, a useful store of fodder . 13a CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDA: TIONS, 196 CONCLUSIONS. 243. In so far as differences in agricultural practice are the outcome of attention being paid, in the better districts, to the growing of fodder-craps for cattle, and of enclosing fields with hedges, while in other parts these are neglected, it will be possible to effect improvement in agriculture by modifying these differences. It may not be possible to grow hedges everywhere, but the system isone undoubtedly capable of much extension; so also is that of growing fodder-crops, both being followed with much benefit. We have here to deal with the third class of differences alluded to in Chapter II, viz., those arising, not from purely external sources, but directly from a want of kuowledge. The remedy must be sought, not in any direct measures which Govern» ment can introduce, but in the- gradual adoption of the better practice by the people. Government, however, and Agricultural Departments in particular, can aid greatly in the extension of agricultural knowledge, and in the transference of the practice of more advanced districts to those which are more backward. Fodder-crops, we have seen in this chapter, are necessary for the improvement of cattle, and in times of scarcity such materials as hedgesclippings, prickly pear, and trees, will be found immensely valuable. But little is known as to the comparative values of different Indian fodders, and there is a considerable amount of work in this direction which can only be done with the aid of an Agricul- tural Chemist, RECOMMENDATIONS. 244, I recommend ;— The extension, wherever practicable, of the systems of grow- ing Fodder-crops, and of Hedging or otherwise enclos- ing fields, more especially in parts where no pasturage exists, or where it is very scarce, The employment of an Agricultural Chemist for India, to investigate, among other matters, the comparative values of different Indian Fodders, 197 CHAPTER XI. CHAPTER XI. LIVE STOCK AND DAIRYING. Live Stoox anp Datgyina. 245. Tae subject which we now proceed to disctiss is one on which there is not much to be learnt from the ordinary éultivator and his methods, and, in attempting improvement, the experience of Western practice will have to be drawn upon largely. I have already spoken of cattle as affected by climate, by the existence of grazing, and the provision of fodder-crops. Their importance as supplying the main source of manure to the land has also been fully dealt with. Gn points connected with the breeding of cattle I am not qualified to enter, and hence my remarks must be of a very general character. 246. Inasmuch as both climate and_ soil largely influence tmprovement of the breeding’ of cattle, more especially in respect of their size, hunt vithin it is clear that, while improvement of the smaller and inferior limits. breeds is possible, it is nevertheless only so within certain limits. : Phe Bengali will maintain that his cattle, though small, are strong for their size, and that bigger ones would mean more gsain for them and more cost to keep. In the Punjab, on the contrary, the bullocks are large and fine; they aré well fed and carefully tended, 247, Cattle represent the raiyat’s capital; they provide the ee labour in ploughing and other field operations; they are used for cattle. drawing water from wells, and they supply manure for the crops. In return for this, all that they get, in many parts, is the grass they can pick off the fields and roadsides during the rains, the stubble left after harvest, and the broken straw (44usa) of cereal crops, In other parts, as, for example, in the Punjab, they are well eared for, and are fed with special fodder-crops, with green grass, oil-eakes, etc. or else they are driven out to pasturage and shelter during the hot months, The principal oil-seeds giver to cattle as food were fully treated of in Chapter VII, paragraph 127. These are #22 seed, safflower, eotton seed, earth-nut, and linseed.. In addition, gram and dél (Cajanus indicus) are often given, 248, It must be allowed that thera are excellent cattle to prccnent cattle be found in the country, for, in going through if as I did, or in may be found in visiting Agricultural Shows, ore may see as goood cattle as can "“™ be desired. I was greatly struck with the appearance of many of the cattle exhibited at the Saharanpur and Meerut Shows, aud no one can fail to be impressed with the general excellence of 198 Breeding and Selection cf Cattle. the bullocks used for transit purposes, as also of those employed in military service. The trotting cattle and driving bullocks that one meets with in Mysore, Rajputana, and elsewhere, are singularly hardy and strong, But, though individuals. may be able to rear fine cattle and to keep up special breeds, this is something quite apart from the improvement of the cattle of the country generally, the cattle of the zaiyat, Taeatien oe 249. The reason why better agricultural cattle are not more cattle, generally found is mainly because of the inattention paid to the matter of breeding and selection. Further, the supersti- tion that exists against the killing of bad cattle militates against the hérds being better than they are. Still, it is not everywhere that breeding and selection of cattle are neglected, In the Bombay Presidency the Gavlis, or milkmen, follow wheropri a system in breeding their cattle; it is mentioned in Reports of the Bombay Agricultural Department that in some villages of the Presidency the people are known to purchase stud bulls at their joint ‘expense. In Gujardt a great deal of attention is given to cattle, judicious crossing is studied, and calves are cared ‘for; oil-seeds as well as fodder are given to the cattle, A bullock will work here for 10 years.at a well, or for 15 years if not put to well work. ‘In the Southern Mahratta country, cattle are, as a rule, good, Nellore cattle are famous throughout the Madras Presidency, and in certain other parts. The bulls are quite big at two years old, and cost Rs. 150 to Rs, 200 a pair, Nellore cows are greatly prized also. Alambadi cattle are held in high esteem in the Salem district. The. bulls cost from Rs, 150 to Rs. 250 a pair. The Administration Report of the Central Provinces for 1887-88 says:—“ In most districts “the bullocks used for agricultural purposes are of very good “quality.” The Punjab owes, in large measure, the existence of its fine cattle to the bulls sent froia the Hissar Cattle Farm. From Palamau (Bengal) it is reported that the cattle have been improved’ by half-bred Bebar bulls, Bhagalpur cows are in demand all over Bengal; the bullocks are used too, but are said to eat 24 times as much as indigenous cattle. The Amrit Mahal (Mysore) herd was broken up in 1885, but acertain number of breeding cattle are kept ‘by the Mysore Government at Hostr, The Bhadgaon (Bombay) herd took ' its origin from this. Gansritty Though the above instances can be given, it is very generally neglected, the case that the breeding of cattle is left almost entirely to chance, and that no selection is exercised. It has been pointed out in Chapter IX, paragraph 209, how largely the blame for thie attaches to the “ village waste,” where herds of miserable cattle mix indiscriminately together, Live Stock and Dairying. 199 In mauy parts of India the young bulls are the only sires of the young stock, They run among the herds until they are four years old, when they are castrated and turned into bullocks for plough or draught work. In this way the yoang bulls often become sires before they are physically fit to get good stock, After they are turned three years old they prob- ably make fair sires, and the strongest animals do the most duty. Still, it isa nof uncommon sight to see an old bullock driving away a young bull from a cow, with the result that the latter may lose an entire season through not being served. 250. The old Hindu system of breeding is carried on by means of the sacred bulls, or “ Brahmani” bulls, as they are generally termed. These bulls, dedicated to Siva or some other deity, are let loose when still young, on the occasion of funeral ceremonies, or in fulfilment of a vow, They are picked cattle, and, being sacred, are allowed to roam wherever they please, no one being permitted to kill them. The custom is still maintained, and in some parts there are too many Brahmani bulls. Sometimes considerable dissension exists regarding the bulls, and frequent troubles between Hindus and Muhammad- ans arise on this account. In many parts, however, the Brahmani bull is quite extinct, this being due chiefly to the decrease in free pasturage area, and to the decline of faith in the old religious beliefs, The Brahmani bull, where he exists, is almost always a fine ereature, fed on the best of everything. All that a cultivator may do is to drive the bull off his own field, though it: may be only for it to go onto his neighbour’s. So well does the Brahmani bull fare that itis frequently asserted against him that he gets too fat and lazy to pursue his proper calling, and that the cows get served by the half-starved bulls of their own herds instead. Nevertheless, it is very certain that were it not for the Brahmani bull many villages would be very badly off. In some parts, however, Behar for example, the bulls are too nuuierous, and cause serious damage to the crops of the indigo planters. Though they do noteat the indigo shrub itself, they tread it down while searching for the grass that grows under its shade, but nowhere else. Much expense has, accordingly, been incurred by the planters in putting ditches and hedges around their indigo fields, When the bulls get too many in number, Municipalities often seize them, and work them in the town carts, This pro- ceeding, so long as the bulls are not killed or sold, is quietly acquiesced in. In the North-West Provinces considerable trouble has been -eaused by the depredations of cattle-stealers and Muhammadan butchers. Muhammadans, being meat-eaters, have not the same sacred feeling towards the Brahmani bull as the Hindus have, The Brahmani bull, Legal decision as'to cwnership of Bralmani boll, Distribution of stud bulls to villages by Government, Selection of native cattle preferable to foreign sires. 200 The “ Brahmani’’ Bull. and the complaint of the latter is loud that numbers of these cattle are stolen for the purpose of being slaughtered, and that their flesh is sold, Thus, I heard at Bharwari that the value of a bull had risen from Rs. 10 to Rs. 25 in consequence of the demand for its flesh. Near Cawnpore I heard complaints that there were no Brahmani bulls left, and that the cultivators have to go to the nearest man who has a bull, of whatever kind it may happen to be. The agi- tation has, more recently, been increased by a decision given by Mr. Justice Straight, in which he declared the Brahmani bull to be “no one’s property,” inasmuch as it could not be said to belong to any particular owner, The bull is thereby deprived of the protection of ownership, and becomes more than ever the prey of the cattle- stealers and butchers, while the villagers are deprived of the means of getting their cows served, Surely, such a decision cannot be allowed to stand. That aen should be allowed to steal and realise money by the sale of the flesh of stolen animals, and then escape punishment on the ground that the animals are ‘no one’s pro- perty, ” seems manifestly unjust, and, in the interests of the agricul- tural communities, the practice should not be permitted to continue, 251. It is very certain that without good bulls no improvement in the cattle of the country can take place, Where Brahmani bulls exist in sufficiency there is no need of doing more ; but where they are extinct, or where good country bulls do not exist, then Govern- ment can do much good by the distribution of good stud bulls. As I shall presently show, much benefit has been derivedin the Pupvjab from the distribution of bulls from the Hissar Cattle Farm. The same good might be done by the Government supplying other parts of the country, just as it has done in the Punjab. ‘The pri- vilege, when given, does not appear to have been abnsed, A bull located in a village or town should be under the charge of the village headman (the patel, dambardar, or similar official), and the latter should be required to repert periodically to the local author- ity. Further, it should be the duty of the Provincial Director of Agriculture to keep himself informed as to what is being done in each district to which bulls have been distributed, Ido not think that any trouble need be taken about the food of the bulls. If good bulls are given, the people will see that they are fed, and the responsibility on the village headman will suffice. The system adopted at Hissar, by which the cultivators can go to the Farm and choose exactly what suits their requirements, is decidedly the best one, and should be encouraged. It is needless to say that the result to Government cannot be a directly paying one, but it is one which should be undertaken in the interests of the people as agricultural classes. 252. It is well, perhaps, that I should here interpose a remark to show that, when I speak of improving the cattle by using better sires, I am not at all in favour of trying to improve Indian cattle by crossing them with English bulls, The main Live Stock and Dairying. 201 object in India is to produce cattle suited for work, and not, as in England, to produce either meat or milk. At the Bhadgaon Farm I saw a bullock that was a cross between a Mysore cow and a Shorthorn bull, abig, beefy animal, that ate a great deal, but was net adapted to ploughing. Again, it is not enough, nor yet always the best way, to bring in fresh sires; attention must be paid also to the selection, for breeding purposes, of the best cattle of a district, 253. The distribution of stud bulls for agricultural purposes catte-brecding involves the retention of Hissar or other cattle-breeding Farms, and ¥#™s necessary, the location of bulls at Government Farms or other suitable places, I am inclined to think that the good which has already been done by Government in this direction is apt to be overlooked. I had the opportunity of inspecting both the Hissar Cattle Farm in the Punjab and the Bhadgaon herd at the Farm of the Bombay Government, and without, as I have said, presuming to speak too definitely on points outside my particular sphere, I must say that Iwas much struck, not only with the excellence of the cattle at these Farms, but, what is more to the point, by the impress which they had left upon the cattle of the surrounding country through which I was then touring, 254. The Hissar Cattle Farm, at the time of my visit and for gissar cattle some years previously, had been under the able management of Faruw © CaptainjMarrett. It covers 67 sqaare miles in all, and has about 7,000 head of cattle on it, these being divided into herds accord- ing to the different breeds and ages. It was started as long ago as 1813, the primary object being to supply cattle to the army for artillery purposes, a secondary one was to supply agricultural bulls for the Punjab and North-West Provinces. The artillery cattle are variously bred, according as they are required for “ pole cattle ”’ or for “ leaders,” or for other special purposes. The Gujarat cross and the Nagore cross are mostly used as ‘‘ pole cattle,”? and the Mysore cross as “ leaders, ”” About 350 head are supplied yearly to the Commissariat Department. Tn addition, from 70 to 80 bulls are sold annually for agricul- tural purposes at the Government price of Rs. 150 each. Intend- ing purchasers are allowed to go to the Farm and to choose the bulls for themselves. On a farm of such extent there is almost unlimited grazing ground, but the grass is, seemingly, very poorand thin. It is only on spots where the water lodges that enough grass grows to afford acutting. Thbereis a further difficulty, that of procuring water, for the water-level is so low that wells, if made, would have to be over 100 feet deep, Captain Marrett’s efforts to supply green fodder in the form of lucerne, judr (Sorghum), etc., are frustrated by the irregular supply of canal water, the Farm being situated at the very termination of the canal, and what water there is to spare goes first to the native proprietors (zemindars). Impress made on cattle of surrounding districts, Bhadgaon Farm, 202 Hissar Catt’e Farm. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the Farm appeared to me to be capitally managed, and the stock bred on it were unquestion- ably fine. What struck me especially was the really splendid con- dition of the young stock. The calves were left alone in the yards during the day, but had their mothers with them at night; the latter were not stall-fed at all during the rains, but simply grazed throughout the day ; and the fact that they were able to support themselves and their calves too, isa proof of how much the grass, unpromising as it looked, could do for them, All the cattle seemed to me excellent and in capital condition, and the spot must evidently be one well suited for breeding purposes, Of the suitability of the Hissar cattle as transport and artillery bullocks I cannot speak, but I have no doubt of the agricultural good that is being done by the Farm. Hissar was the first stopping-place in my Punjab tour, and as I went afterwards to other districts I made a point of particularly observing the cattle. I may briefly say that almost wherever I went in the Punjab I found that the existence of good eattle could be directly traced to the presence of an Hissar bull in the neigh- bourhood, Thus, at Ferozepore and at Gdjrat (Punjab) the ordi- nary cattle were exceilent, and in each case I came across fine Hissar bulls, roaming over the fields, just as the Brahmani bulls do. These bulls, I found on enquiry, had been given gratis by Government, but the boon had been appreciated by the people, for they are very fond of cattle. A pair of working bullocks at Ferozepore will cost from Rs. 80 to Rs, 100. In further support of what I noticed myself, I give the following extracts from the Punjab Administration Report for 1888-89 :— Karnal.—* There were six Hissar bulls in the district at the end of the “year; in 1888-89 ten more were got and ten more were applied for, as the “demand was keen and increasing. Practical farmers are deputed to Hissar to select for themselves.” Hoshiarpur.— There are 24 Hissar bulls in the district, which are effect- ‘ing an improvement in the local breed. The zemindars highly appreciate ‘them ; they are no expense ; they are turned loose in the town.” Rawal Pindi.—* There are 14 Hissar bulls in the district.” The following is from Major Massy’s Report of the Kapur- thala State for 1889-90 :— « Hissar ‘bulls areregularly imported. Fifteen Hissar bulls were distributed “among the tahsils, and were highly appreciated. . .. The young stuck are “very promising.” Major Massy adds :—~ “ Tt is notorious that animals of this class were never possessed before by “the Kapurthala peasantry.” T also find that in 1887 two Hissar bulls were sent as far as Arrah (Behar) for use on the Government Estates there. 255. On two different occasions I visited the Bhadgaon Farm of the Bombay Government. Cattle-breeding has been established here for about 11 years, the herd having taken its origin from Live Stock and Dairying, 203 the Amrit Mahal herd of the Mysore Government, since dispersed. The main object of this part of the Farm is to breed Mysore bulls for crossing with and improving the cattle of the country around, Here, as at Hissar, I could not but recognise that stock were being reared which were very greatly superior to those found in the country generally, and which could not fail to improve the latter if the right steps were taken to distribute the benefit, But it was not that the stock at the Farm alone were good, for, as I passed through the district, I saw evidence of the impress which the Mysore cattle reared at the Farm had made upon some of the other Infiuence on cattle, and how superior.to the ordinary cattle were those which “*? %as"+ had the Mysore “touch” in them. The people of the district have now come to appreciate this, and there is an eager demand for any young bulls that are for sale. In 1889 nine young bulls, two to three years old, were sold at an average of Rs, 58 each. The young stock I saw at the Farm were also most promising. A short time after my visit, ozz., in October 1890, 27 young bulls, varying in age from ‘six months to 18 months, were sold at an average of Rs. 40 each for breeding purposes, By this sale alone, gatistactory Rs, 1,080 were realised, whereas in the Farm Report issued pres sales. vious to the sale these same animals had been valued at Rs. 650 only. I regard this as a strong proof that the people of the country will before long come to appreciate any source from which good cattle can be procured. The maintenance of the Farm as a breeding-farm for cattle is very desirable, and it.is to this purpose that, I think, itis admirably suited ; more so, indeed, than as an ‘Experimental Farm in the stricter sense. 256. I have said that the result of distributing stud ‘bulls gesutts must from’ these ‘centres cannot'be a directly paying one ; in many cases, pot be judged indeed, it may at first be necessary to provide the bulls free to stand-point villages, But the work of. breeding good balls, and of improving °°" the cattle, must not be judged:from the financial standpoint alone, but from that of the good effect produced in the country generally. 257. Where conditions are suitable, and where localities Government require it, I am distinctly in favour of Government Farms being ae made breeding-farms for the supply of good bulls for agricultural located at them. purposes. Where conditions are not ‘suitable for breeding, but where good sires are wanted, stud bulls might be located at Gov- ernment Farms. This is done, for instance, at the Saidapet Farm, Madras, If stud bulls were located at the Cawnpore Farm it would, to some extent, remedy the deficiency already referred to in the matter of good bulls. Court of Wards’ Estates, again, would'be very suitable places atso Court of at which to locate bulls. ‘It is not, -however,:enough to: merely W#"4 Estates. place the ‘bulls:at these Farms, but personal energy on the ‘part. of Directors of Agriculture will have tobe shown in getting the people to avail themselves of the benefiis offered. ‘When ‘this is once done, the people will not fail, before long, to appreciate the result, and to make use of it in the future, Improvement required in the system of management of cattle-breeding Farms, Plough cattle, Buffaloes. 204 Bhadgaon Parm— Distribution of Stud Bulls, 258. I cannot pass from this part of the subject without applying to cattle-breeding Farms under the Military Depart- ment remarks very similar to those which I applied to the military Grass Farms and ruthie. I refer to the evils of the system by whieh an officer in charge of such a Farm is limited in his tenure of the appointment toa term of five years. The management .and breeding of stock require special skill and technical knowledge. It is not every, or any, man who is naturally a judge or breeder of stock, or who can ever become one. When, then, a man has been found who does understand these matters, and who likes the work, and shows ability in its discharge, it seems very false economy to remove him just at the time that he has got the Farm into good working order, and is in a position to effect considerable saving in its manage- ment as the result of the experience he has gained. But what too often happens is, that, just at this time, his tenure of offices expires, and he is replaced by a novice who may quickly undo all the good and throw away allthe work of the past through inexperience, A breeding stud is much more easily spoiled than it is formed. : _ Itis very desirable, therefore, that the men who are to hold in future the position of Superintendents should be those who have shown some attitude for the work,and they shculd receive beforehand the practical training, under the Superintendent, for which the Farm provides the opportunity. It would also seem desirable to attach an officer of the Com- missariat Department fromtime to time to the Farm, in view of his acquiring, under the teaching of the Superintendent, that knowledge of cattle and of farming operations generally which all Commissariat officers should more or less possess. 259. Bullocks are the general cattle used for field operations and for drawing water from wells. Bulls as well as bullocks are, in some parts, used in the field. The cow, as being a sacred animal, is only rarely worked, and only by Muham- madanus. This is the case at Serajgunge (Eastern Bengal), the Muhammadans regularly using cows for ploughing, but the Hindus not. The same reverence is not always extended to the she-buffalo as to the cow. At Belgaum, when the buffalo cows do not calve, they are sent to the plough or to work the wells, 260. In some regions of heavy rainfall, such as Méhim, Igdtpuri, and other parts of the Western Ghats of Bombay, as well as in districts of Eastern Bengal, the bullocks are small and weak. Buffaloes, on the other hand, revelin a wet climate, and are the principal plough cattle; indeed, the ploughing of the rice fields could hardly be carried out without them, for it is literally ploughing in mud eovered over with several inches of water. But where these wet climatic conditions do not. exist, the he-buffalo is generally reckoned a misfortune, I saw lee Live Stock and Dairying. 205 buffaloes being used for ploughing on the Nadiad Experi- mental Farm, though this is not done elsewhere in the district. Going about the country as Idid, and noticing buffalo cows in abundance, and only here and there a buffalo bull or bul- lock, I was often led to enquire what becomes of the young bull calves, In Gujarat (Bombay) the he-calf is simply starved off by withholding miik from him. In other parts, he is driven away to the forests to become the prey of wild beasts. In Bengal he is often tied up in the forest and left, without food, either to starve or to be devoured, And yet tha people who do this are those who would not allow an animal to be killed outright even if it were in extreme suffering ! 261. The system of Government advances, known as Taceavi ad- tagcavi, has been discussed in. Chapter VI, paragraph 107: cane. these advances may be made for the purchase of plough cattle as well as for the digging of wells, etc, There are, I believe, objections to giving advances for the buying of cattle, inasmuch as the purchase represents so much * eapital which may in turn be parted with, and which is not, like a well, a fature onthe land. However, in cases where the cattle ofa district have been swept off by disease, and when the cultivator has no cattle left with which to plough his lands or water bis crops, the facility for re-stocking his holding moust come as a very decided boon. Dairying. 262. Asa dairy animal the she-buffalo is more esteemed yieia ana than the cow;it yields a larger and richer supply of milk, amity of mitk, and is generally better cared for. In parts of the Punjab the dairy cattle, purchase of a buffalo is the first indication of prosperity. The two most striking features in Indian dairying are, the small yield of milk given by the cows and the richness of the milk of the buffalo. In Bengal the ordinary country cow will not give more than 2 lbs, of milk a day. In Madras it may yield from 2to41bs, a day. As a rule, the cows will only milk for six months, and often have only one ealf in the course of two years. _ The milk of the buffalo, on the other hand, is very much richer than average cow’s milkin England, for whereas the latter may be saidto contain 3104 per cent. of butter-fat, and 12 to13 per cent. of total solids, buffalo’s milk has no a ae 7% per cent. of butter-fat and 18 per cent. of total solids, The yield of milk will, of course, depend upon the breed of the cattle, the food given them, and the care bestowed upon 206 Dairy Cattle. them, The Gujarét, Sind, and Nellore cows are specially noted for their milking properties, qualities in which the Mysore breed, for instance, are deficient, The cattle of these special breeds are, however, very different to the ordinary country cattle, Throughout Chota Nagpur the village cows are very poor, owing to insufficiency of food and want of fodder-crops; no oileake or other additional food is given to them. From I lb, to 14 lbs, of milk a day is all that they yield, and their value is from Rs, 7 to Rs. 10 each. Buffaloes, however, cost here Rs, 25 each, and will yield about 5 Ibs. of milk per diem, Oilcake is fed to them in the dry season, At Sirajgunge, in Eastern Bengal, 2 lbs. of milk is the average daily supply of a cow, In Dacca, cows are rather better cared for, and oileake is given to them as well as to buffaloes. They will yield, in consequence, about 4 lbs. of milk a day. In Gujarat (Bombay) milking-cattle are much more valued. Thus, a cow will milk for seven months, giving 5 to 10 lbs, of milk a day, and will cost from Rs. 20 to Rs. 50. The buffalo is still more prized, and, being. fed with oilcake, cotton seed, judr * fodder, ete., will keep in milk for eight months, giving, for the first three months 20 lbs., the next three 12 Ibs., and the last two 6 lbs. of milk daily, Its value is from Rs. 80 to Rs. 100, Nellore cows are good milkers, Some that I saw at the 2 Saidapet (Madras) Farm gave about 20 lbs, of milk a day. They were being fed on 5 Ibs. per head daily of earth-nut cake and bran, with cholum fodder. Improvement of 263. When such differences exist as are instanced ahove, it milking~cattie. is very clear that in many parts improvement in the milking- cattle is possible, As regards buffaloes, the people seem to appreciate their value, and there is little, I think, that need be done further. But there is a good deal that may be done towards improving cows, more particularly where the sale of milk or the manufacture of the native butter, called gh¢, is carried on. This will be found to be chiefly the case where pasture and grazing areas abound, and where the professional graziers resorf with the cattle of the villagers, generaliy taking payment themselves jn a share of the milk. Beyond where such pasturage exists, little is done to maintain the cow specially as a milking animal; but the buffalo takes its place, and the cow is looked on rather as the breeder of future plough eattle. Thus, while the distribution of stud bulls for breeding working-cattle is capable of wide extension, it will, I think, only be in special parts, and where pasturage exists in abundance, that improvement of the milking strains of the country cattle will be effected to any great extent, This matter has, however, not been altogether neglected at Government Farms, for, at Hissar, Mysore eattle are crossed with Sind, Gujarat, Angole, and Nagore breeds, partly with the object of improving their milking properties, the Mysore breed being specially deficient in these. At the Bhadgaon Farm, Malvi cows are kept'as nurse cows for the young Mysore stock ; and at Poona, investigations have for some time ‘been carried on hy. Live Stock and Dairying. 207 as to the milk-producing qualities of Gujarat and Aden cows, and on the influence of different foods upon the yield of milk. 264. Of late, efforts have been made to extend the practice of Dsiry Farming Dairy Farming in India. Mr, Ozanne, who, at the time ofmy visit, was Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture in the Bombay Presidency, was foremost in the endeavours to foster this industry. A considerable impetus was given to the movement by the visit to India, in 1889, of mr. .a, Howe Mr. H. A. Howman, a well-known dairy-farmer, from Warwick- 135°" shire, England, and who came out on behalf of the Dairy Supply Company, Limited, of London, for the purpose of introducing the mechanical ‘“ Cream-separators,” for which that company were agents. These separators were of Swedish make, the invention of Dr. de Laval, and were of a size which could be worked by hand. power. Mr. Howman also took over with him a number of other appliances for making butter. The native way of making butter native method is, to boil the milk as soon as drawn from the cow, then to cool it, of matin 9h. and, after adding a little sour milk, to let it stand from 12 to 20 hours in a brass vessel narrowed towards the top, After standing, the milk is churned by the rapid twisting round in it of a stick which is kept spinning round by the hand, first warm and then cold water being added now and again, but quite empirically, The butter “‘comes”? in about a quarter of an hotr, and is strained off on to a cloth, the sour butter-milk, called ¢é# or chds, being much relished by the people. The butter is collected, put into another brass vessel, and melted over a fire. This operation requires careful watching, and good g4i makers are adepts at it. In the heating, the water is evaporated, and a portion of the mass, which is probably the enclosed curd, deposits at the bottom of the vessel, the remainder being poured into jars. and stored, This is the gfe, or native butter, so largely used in cooking, ete., and it has the property, which ordinary butter has not, of keeping good for a long time Mr. Howman, when he first came to India, was inet with what mr, Howman’s proved to be a diffculty,—the exceptional richness of buffalo milk, °P¢tenee Bat this was soon overcome, and wherever the mechanical separa- tors were shown at work, the opinion was universal that capital butter was produced, and that the system which Mr. Howman demonstrated, that of making butter without it being at any stage touched by the hand, was an immense improvement on, anda far more cleanly method than, the native one. The butter which Mr. Howman made would also keep quite well fora week. He further showed that he could not only make gi from the butter pro- duced, but that from the separated milk the sweetmeats and curds, in which the Native delights, could be made perfectly well. The separation also gave, in the form of freshly-separated milk, a per- fectly sweet and wholesome article of drinks In England the main difficulty with the cream-separator has-been the utilisation of the skim-milk, and this is likely to prove the same in India, If the Natives show a readiness to take it, either for drinking or for manufacture into sweetmeats, this obstacle may be overcome, Need of an agricultural chemist. Steps taken to follow up Mr, Howman’s teaching, Is there likeli- hood that improved dairying methods wil! spread in India? 208 Ur, Howman’s Visit to India. bat not otherwise. It was, however, when Mr. Howman put himself into competition with the skilled giz makers that he failed in showing that he could produce more g/z than the native manipulator. He could always get more butter, but in making it into ght the Native excelled. I cannot, however, regard the trials as by any means satisfactory or complete. In one butter- making trial which I witnessed, the native operator showed himself very clever in making up his butter with a great deal of water, so that it might weigh heavy, whereas Mr. Howman’s butter contained no superfluous amount, Then, when Mr. Howman’s butter was made into ghz this was done by the g4z makers, and it is very certain that in some cases, at least, it was spoils by them. But the chief consideration is the following. In the absence of any chemical investigation into the nature and composition of ghz, it is impossible to say what giz exactly is, and whether, as made by the Native, it is purely butter-fat, or whether it does not contain some amount of curd. The latter, indeed, is probably the case, The butter, as made by Mr. Howman, was merely butter-fat, without curd; this may account for the fact that Mr, Howman obtained more butter but less ghz. What is really wanted is the investigation of such points as these by an agricul- tural chemist resident in India itself, Mr. Howman’s visit undoubtedly showed that great improve- ment was possible in dairy matters in India, but whether the benefit will extend beyond the European community is questionable. 265. Mr. Ozanne was. not slow to follow up the stimulus given to the plans he had had for some time in contemplation, Mr, Keventer, a Swiss, who had assisted Mr. Howman, was retained in India by the Bombay Government, and the Agricul- tural Department started a Working Dairy in the city of Bombay. This was fitted with cream-separators, churns, refrigerators, etc., and so successful was the sale of butter, that, after a time, the concern was taken over by a private capitalist and worked by him. Then another capitalist started a second similar business, and, at the time I left, both were succeeding well. At Poona, also, butter is similarly made by the Agricultural Department, and is sold in the town. Mr, Keventer was lent for a time to the North-West Government, and at Cawnpore and elsewhere he showed the process of butter-making. He was also engaged in demonstrating that cheese might be manufactured in India. The berries of Punerza, it may be mentioned, can be used in India for the purpose of curdling milk; they are obtained from Sind. At the Saidapet Farm (Madras) a cream-separator is used. There is a ready sale for cream, and more is sold as such than as made into butter. The students of the college (Natives) do not care for butter, so I was informed, 266. This leads me to the consideration whether butter- making by improved methods is likely to make much advance in India. I must say I hardly think that it will, so far as the native population is concerned. Butter will not replace giz, for the reason that it will not keep anything like the time that Live Stock and Dairying. 209 ght does, The Native, again, makes giz with the simple utensils he has at hand; he could not make butter in this way. But, wherever there is a considerable European population, then, I think, English dairying may be pursued with much benefit and comfort to the community. I could not help wondering how, in such towns as Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Poona, Allahabad, and others, the English residents put up with the so-called “ butter” with which they are supplied. 267. But of greater importance than butter-making is the Unsatisfactory question of the milk supply ; of the conditions under which it is vai sunny ie 7 generally carried on the less said the better. The surroundings ™"* in almost all cases are most insanitary ; the manure heaps are too often close beside the wells and drain into them; the vessels are washed in this water, and the cattle drink it or other equally bad water. Seeing, as we know only too well in England, how readily disease is propagated through the medium of milk, the wonder is that, in India, epidemics have not been more closely traced to impure water, or to insanitary surroundings affecting the milk supply. The supply of milk to military cantonments is one affecting vitally the health of our troops in India, and that this should go on, as at present, without any control, is highly prejudi- eial to their welfare, There is little or no check upon either the state of the places where the milk is produced, nor upon the adulteration (often with impure water) which constantly goes on. Bumbay and Poona are exceptions to this statement, as careful supervision is exercised there. Wherever troops are stationed, the supply of milk should be carried out by regular contract, and the sheds where the cattle are kept and the milk is produced should be under constant inspection and control by sanitary officers. 268. Schemes for the establishment of regular Dairy Farms in connection with the supply of milk to troops have been suggested by Colonel Marriott, of Allahabad, and others, and I regard the proposals very favourably. Where troops are regularly quartered such Farms might with advantages be established, and should have a herd of good milking cows, with two or three stud bulls. In addition to the milk supplied, the cows would produce calves, which, if females, would be the future milking animals, and if males, would do for entering into Government service as transport and artillery bullocks. The attention of the Commissariat Department should be strongly directed to this important matter of a pure milk supply to troops. Dairy Farms, In addition to military cantonments, Jails are institutions which would benefit from a regular and supervised system of milk supply. At Madura, what was formerly the Experimental Farm of madura Farm, the Agricultural Society is now kept up as a Dairy Farm. 14 Horses, Horse-breeding Operations of Government of India, 210 Improvement tn Dairy Methods and Milk Supply. There are about 15 cows here, most of them good covntry cows, and a few Aden cattle. They are reckoned’ to give about 121bs, of milk each daily, when in full milk, and are fed with earth-nut cake and gingelly cake. Milk is gold to the town, but not cream, butter, or gz. This part of the Farm pays very well, and would seem to show that a good milk supply would be appreciated in native towns as well as where Europeans are in considerable numbers, Mr. Ozanne has in prospect the establishment of a lurge Dairy Farm for supplying Poona with milk, butter, etc. 269. Horses do not in India come under the term “agri- cultural live stock ;” but, inasmuch as the Horse-breeding Oper- ations of the Government of India are included under the work of the Agricultural Department, a passing reference should be wade. The object of the Horse-breeding Operations is, primarily, to supply Remounts for the Cavalry, Formerly there were army studs at Hapur and elsewhere, but these are now given up, and the Cavalry have been supplied with horses imported from Australia and New Zealand. The endeavour of the Horse-breeding Department has been to improve the horses of the country by mating the country-bred mares with :pure-bred sires, The selected sires are either Norfol’k Trotters or thorough- breds, imported from England, besides a few Arabs. At the different Fairs and Shows, country mares are chosen by the officers of the Department, and are branded as being eligible to be served by a stallion belonging to the Department, Their produce are intended to supply the remounts. ‘The stallions are quartered in different parts ‘of ‘the country. I went over the Hapur Farm, near Meerut, and saw the stallions of the Horse-breeding Department, and also the breeding mares, and the young stock belonging to the Army Remount Department, It is found necessary to buy ‘the ‘produce of Government sires at as early an age as one year, for, if left till older, the horses are found to be mostly injured permanently. Also at Bhadgaon, Lahore, Gijrat (Punjab), Hoshiarpur, and Salem, I ‘saw stallions df the Horse-breeding Department that were quartered there. In addition to the horses, there were, both at Harpur and at the other depdts, donkey stallions kept for mule-breeding purposes. Inthe Punjab and North-West Provinces these were very popular, put in Bombay the idea has not taken at all, In the Rawal Pindi district (Punjab) alone, there are 25 horse stallions, and 47 doakey stallions, belonging to Govern- iment, In the Central Provinces, Government stallions are located, but are not much used, trotting bullocks ‘being ‘generally used for transit purposes, Live Stock and Dairying. 211 It would be travelling beyond my sphere were I to pass any detailed criticism on the way in which the Horse-breeding Operations are conducted. I can, at most, mention my general impressions of what I saw, without wishing to attach much importance to them. But, after seeing Norfolk Trotters in England, I cannot say that I was favourably struck with the representatives of the breed that bad been sent out to India ; they appeared to be too heavy, ‘too Jarge-bodied for their legs, to kave a lack of style and a coarseness of teg which did mot bring back to my mind the specimens I had seen in Hagland, It is, I believe, questionable whether the Norfolk Trotter is the right kind o! horse to cross with the country mares in order to ‘produce a cavalry Remount; the appearance of the young stock would indicate their suitableness for dragging guns rather than for making riding horses. In the case of the thorough-breds, ‘the acquiring of a good animal seems to have been sacrificed to the obtaining of a high- sounding pedigree. Ofa number-of horses that I saw at Hapur, the majority were rather “ weedy-looking,’ and several were lame. But the money difficulty comes in here, and when, as isthe case, the purchase price is restricted to 250 guineas, or 300 guineas at the outside, one can hardly expect to get a really good sire, The Arab stallions were, as a rule, very good, oecasionally a little light: the best I saw was one named “ Ajeel,” then stand- ing at Hoshiarpur. Some of the donkey stallions were also good. The general, fault with them was, that they showed a shrinking of the hoof. ays Sheep and goats, 2°70. Of other farm live stock I need say but little. Attempts have been made ‘by Colonel Coussmaker and others ‘to improve the breeds of sheep, and to obtain a better wool, but nothing of a lasting or general nature has been accomplished. At the Saidapet Farm a fresh cross-breed, called the “ Saidapet breed” has been established. At the Hissar Farm Jeypore sheep have been crossed with the progeny of Leicester tups and Bikamir ewes. It is stated that ‘the sheep now give wool, vather than the hair which they produced before. ‘The country sheep (Bikavir) have also been crossed with Australian Southdowns, but the latter only lived six months. Their produce, bowever, seemed to show an improvement in wool, the price realised for it off the farm being Rs, 25 per maund, whereas the general price for country wool ts only Rs. 17. The question of im proving sheep and goats is partly one of ‘providing for'them a more abundant supply of food, and not leav- ing them to pick up merely what they may chance ‘to find. But it is probable, also, that much can be done by careful ‘selection of tthe stock already in the country, rather than by importation of breeds from other Jands. ; l4a 212 Horses, Sheep, Goats.—Cattl Disease. Cattle Disease. Cattle Disease. 271. Comparatively little is known in India on the subject of cattle disease, and yet it is one of great agricultural importance, for, when an epidemic breaks out, the cattle perish in thousands, and do not seem to have a power of resisting it equal to that possessed by English cattle. The Natives believe that cattle epi- demics are visitations of the goddess Mata, and that they can only - get rid of the epidemic by propitiating the goddess. The variety of names by which diseases are known to the Natives in different parts makes it hard to ascertain how far they really recognise the particular ones and the respective symptoms. To a certain extent it appears that the people are aware of the advantages of isolation, and make some use of it. The herding together of a lot of miser- able half-starved cattle on the ‘* village waste ”’ is, as I have previous- ly remarked, one of the most potent means of spreading disease. In the Central Provinces, enquiries were lately made as to the means of checking the spread of disease, and the replies received indicated that the people would welcome Government interference to prevent the cattle of villages where disease existed, from mixing with those of other villages. But the proposed isolation of indivi- dual cattle in a village hospital pound was not so readily approved, and it was felt that the owners would want to go and feed their cattle, and thus would themselves be the means of spreading infection. Yet another difficulty is that of preventifig the spread of disease through the sale of hides. When cattle die the Chamars or leather-dressers come at once and skin the animals, taking the hide for sale. The hide is their perquisite. It would seem that the only way of remedying the evil arising from this source is to give compensation for the hides destroyed. Mr. Nicholson, in describing the state of Anantapur, says that lakts of rupees are annually lost by cattle disease. He points out that fencing is not done here, and that segregation would prevent much loss. Efforts made to 272. Within recent years efforts have been made to gain a scope with cattle epidemics, Knowledge of the diseases of cattle, and of their treatment. At Lahore (Punjab) a Veterinary College was established in 1882, and now has 90 students. A dispensary and hospital are attached to it. At Poona (Bombay) College there isa veterinary course, and men who have passed through it are qualified to take charge of the local dispensaries which have now been started at Ahmedabad, Nadiad, and other towns in the Bombay . Presidency, Dispensariee, These dispensaries are used to some extent by the different muni- cipalities for the treatment of their working cattle, and their wider usefulness is beginning to be appreciated. In the Punjab also, there are similar dispensaries, and in the Central Provinces veteri- nary hospital assistants are sent out-to different districts to treat the cattle in them. Bacteriological The most important step which has of late been taken is the Laboratory at appointment of Dr, Lingard, a man of established scientific reputg- Live Stock and Dairying. 218 tion, as Imperial Bacteriologist to the Government of India Dr. Lingard, after considerable European experience under mén of such note as Drs. Koch and Klein, was brought out to India in 1890, and located at Poona, a special laboratory being established for him there by the Government of India, for the express purpose of enabling him to pursue original research and investigate the causes and cure of cattle diseases in India. This appointment is one of great, importance, and is almost the first in which a man trained in scientific investigation has been brought to India and enabled to follow original research. Associated with Dr. Lingard is a selected veterinary surgeon, who undertakes the survey of cattle diseases in India, and in this capacity brings to Dr. Lingard’s notice any outbreaks or new diseases which manifest themselves in the country. There is a probability that a bacteriological laboratory will also be started at Lahore, in connection with the Veterinary College there, and be used for the investigation of equine and bovine diseases. 273. In Madras, the step taken has, on the contrary, been of a retrograde retrograde character, as the Government have abolished the cattle stim Madtas. disease branch of their Agricultural Department, and have given up, for the time, all attempts to cope with epidemics. The out- come of a Government enquiry was to report that the veterinary staff was insufficient and inefficient, and that the cultivators offered opposition to the action of the veterinary officers, These do not appear to me valid reasons for giving up the attempt to learn more about the epidemics which annually clear off so many of the cattle of the country. The first duty should be to providea proper training for the men who are to go about the country, such as is, for instance, being provided at Poona and Lahore, When aclass of properly trained men is obtained, and efficient supervision is provided, then it will be the duty of Government to draw up wise provisions for isolating cattle when affected, and for the treatment of disease, aud then to insist firmly upon these being carried out. Such work should manifestly be part of the duties of an Agricultural Department and not (as it has been made in Madras) that of the Education Department. I believe that the subject of cattle diseases in India opens a great field for investigation, and that wide-spreading benefits may accrue to the agricultural community thereby. CONCLUSIONS, 214 CONCLUSIONS. 974. Differences in agricultural conditions and practice which result from the varying qualities of the cattle of one district as compared with another arise in part from external and physical causes, such as climate, grazing facilities, etc., and in part directly from want of knowledge in breeding and selection of cattle, The impossibility of altering physical surroundings in any material degree, prevents more than a partial modification of the agricultural differences. To some extent, however, it is possible to modify the differences and improvement in agriculture will be effected by providing for she better supply of stud bulls, and for their distribution through- out the country. The people themselves will do little in this direction, and the initial work will have to be undertaken by Government. The people, however, may, as they have done in the past in the Punjab, slowly come to appreciate the advantage of obtaining good cattle. In effecting any improvement im cattle the examples of native practice will not suffice, but. the experience of Western practice must be applied also. The people, may, however, be induced to follow the practices already adopted in some parts of India, and may grow hedges for penning cattle and fodder-crops for feeding them. The retention of Cattle-breeding Farms is very desirable, but improvements in the system by which they are managed should be made. The chief alterations desirable are, the better selection of Superintendents and the continuance, in their position, of men who have shown themselves specially qualified for the work. Government Experimental Farms and Court of Wards’ Estates should have good stud bulls standing at them, these bulls being available for the use of the neighbourhood. In Dairying there is but limited scope for improvement. Where a considerable European population exists, or where troops are quar- tered, the introduction of better methods of butter-making is likely to succeed, and it is very desirable that it should do so. With the native population not much progress will be made. The question of milk supply to troops as well as to the European population, to jails, Conclusions. 215 and other institutions isa mostimportant one and demands urgent attention. The establishment of Dairy Farms is the best way to provide for the want of a pure milk supply. Where dependence has to be put on native milk dealers, the various establishments should be under control. Up to the present there has been no scientific study of dairying matters in India, andan Agricultural Chemist should be appointed to carry this out. Encouragement should be given to,‘ the. study of cattle disease, and to the employment of methods to prevent the isolating spread of epidemics. The enforcement of regulations for affected animals will have to be firmly carried out, even if opposition be at first shown by the people. RECOMMENDATIONS. 275. I recommend :— The continuance and extension of Cattle-breeding Farms and the distribution from them to villages, through Government agency, of stud bulls suitable for improv- ing the agricultural cattle of the country. The making Experimental, Farms and Court of Wards’ Estates centres for the location of stud bulls. The establishment, of Dairy Farms for the supply of Milk to Troops and Government. Institutions. The appointment of an AgriculturalChemist to investigate matters connected with Dairy Farming. : The prosecution of Enquiry into Cattle Diseases, and into the means of preventing cattle epidemics, RECOM- MENDATIONS. "216 OHAPTER XI. ; CHAPTER XII. ImpLeMENta. IMPLEMENTS. Not much scope 276. Psruars in no direction have efforts at improving Indian for improved implements agriculture been pushed more than in that of introducing new or ander existing so-called ‘‘improved’’ implements. Even at the present time it is not unusual, among people who speak of the raiyat’s farming as being “primitive” to say, ‘‘ What can you expect when he uses a plough which merely scratches the soil?’ After seeing for myself what is used, and what have been suggested for use, I am obliged to conclude that there is not much scope for improved implements under existing conditions. Not that the ones the ratyat uses at present are perfect, or that others have not advantages, but it is equally true that the existing implements have also advantages, and the suggested ones disadvantages, both of which have often That improve. been overlooked in the past. That there is some room for improve- ment is posible ment is shown by the success which has attended the introduction Behe sugar- of the Beheea sugar-mill. Still, when this has been mentioned, I confess that one cannot go much further; and if the history of the Beheea mill is looked into, it will be found that it succeeded only after a close study had been made of native ways and require- Native require: Ments, and after the machine had been adapted to these. I have ments. must be no hesitation in saying that if this method be not followed it will be quite useless to spend time and money in trying to effect im- provements. Even if a thing be good in itself, patience, persever- ance, and energy are required to make the Native comprehend its advantages, but when once he is thoroughly convinced of its utility he will not be slow to follow itup. It took several years of waiting before the Beheea sugar-mill began to make its way, but when once it was introduced into a district the demand for it often exceeded the supply; this has led in the past to many imitations and new adaptations of it, some bad, some good. Ploughs. 27'7. Ploughs have often been made the subject of attempted improvement, and yet the native wooden plough holds its own, and will continue to do so, I expect, whereas not one of the new kinds of iron ploughs have had more than a local fame. Almost every Gov- ernment Experimental Farm has its “ pet” plough ; the ‘ Kaisar ” Tron ploughs in the “ Duplex’? (Colonel Pitcher’s) and the “Watts/” plough,at Cawn- inont Farmsete, pore ; the “ Saidapet ” plough and the “‘ Massy ” plough, at Madras ; the “ Stormont ” plough, at Khandesh ; the ‘‘Seebpore”’ plough, at Calcutta. Then there are the “8.8.” (Seeley’s) and the ‘* Hindoos- tan ” (Avery’s) ploughs, both in use among the Behar indigo plan- ters. A certain number of the ploughs are sold annually in the parti- cular districts named ; but, except among the larger landowners and the planters, they do not, it must be admitted, find their way. The Objections touse reasons are several, the first being that of cost. The raiyat’s f iron. ploughs, 6 : : y 4. Theitcost, Practice is to buy an iron share in the dazar, for 4 aunas; this he Implemenis, 217 takes, along with some dad wood, to the village carpenter, who then makes the plough. In Eastern Bengal a wooden plough costs 8 annas only, but Rs. 2 to Rs. 4 may be considered the general range of prices throughout India. The cheapest improved plough will, however, cost Rs. 5 to Rs, 6. The prices are as follows: the “ Duplex,” Rs. 5; the “ Kaisar,” Rs. 6; the “‘ Seebpore,’’ Rs. 6; the “Watts,” Rs. 7; the “ Saidapet,”’ Rs. 8; and the ‘‘ Hindoostan,” Rs. 12, As. 8. Every attempt has been made to lessen the cost, but without avail. Until it can be brought down to the razyat’s standard, he will be loth even to give a fair trial to a plough the advantage of which has not as yet been made clear to him. In Gujarat (Bombay) 2a complete set of farming implements can be purchased for Rs. 20, and one may see, as.I did, the oxen returning from the fields drawing along, in one load, some four or five implements, including plough, bullock-hoe, leveller, and seed-drill. A second objection which the ratyat makes is the weight of an iron plough ; it is, he says, heavy to work; his cattle are not strong enough, and he cannot carry it himself, as he does his wooden plough, on his shoulder from field to field. These contentions are often true, but not always. The native plough, generally speak- ing, weighs about 25 lbs.; some are even lighter; the Konkan plough, for example, weighs only 20 lbs. An “ improved’ plough , will weigh from 30 Ibs. to 80 lbs. But frequently, the native “ plough is considerably heavier than this. The Khandesh plough, one in common use by the ratyat of that district, weighs no less than 150 lbs. ; it costs Rs. 5, is worked by one pair of oxen, and goes down 7 inches into the black soil, turning up heavy clods, which afterwards weather down. The Nagél plough of Gujarat (Bombay), on the contrary, weighs 60 lbs. (with yoke) and is drawn by from six to eight pairs of oxen. Why there should be this difference, the smaller number of cattle being used for the heavier plough, is hard to explain; still, it is the practice, so Mr. Ozanne assures me. The heavy Deccan plough is worked with as many as 12 pairs of oxen. At Shiyali (Madras) Mr. S. Sabanayagam Mudliar uses an “ improved ’’ plough, but his cattle are much superior to those of the surrounding country, and being better fed, they are able to work the plough, whereas the ordinary country cattle could not. The value of the latter is Rs. 10 a pair, and those of Mr. Sab- anayagam Mudliar, Rs. 50 a pair. The contention as to the greater weight of ‘‘ improved ”’ ploughs is, thus, not always correct, but yet taking the ploughs in more general use throughout India, and omitting those on heavy black and sticky soils, it may be said that the raiyaét can, asa rule, carry them on his shoulder from field to field or to his home. This is a decided consideration, for it may happen that a cultivator has land in two different places some little way apart; besides this, ploughs and other implements are never left out on the fields at night, for fear of their being stolen. 2, Their weight, A third and more potent objection is the difficulty of repatr- 3, pimeulty ot ing ivon ploughs. When, occasionally, I have found iron ploughs 4 used in a district, is has been where a proprietor owns a smail foundry, and is able to execute the repairs there. This was the case at Bellary. Mr, A Sabapathi Mudliar sells a number of 4. The Native will not use an iron plough in the proper way, Objections to deep ploughing in India, 218 Objections te Iron Ploughs, Swedish ploughs here. Those used on the black soil go 1 foot deep, and require six to eight pairs of oxen; they cost Rs. 50 each, but a smaller size-used on red soil costs Rs. 25 only. One thousand ploughs, inall, have been sold, the repairs, however, are all done at Mr. Sabapathi’s factory. Mr. Sabanayagam Mudliar, at Shiyali, also has his own workshop, where repairs can be ex- ecuted. Messrs. Thomson and Mylne, who make the Beheea sugar- mill, have found this same difficulty of repair, and have met it by establishing local depéts, taking back the worn-out mills from the cultivators, and replacing them by new ones, in preference to trust- ing to local attempts at repair. The manufacture of wooden ploughs, again, is a regular employment of the village carpenter ; he forms part of the village community, and does not charge for his labour, but is kept up at the general expense of the villagers. At harvest time he gets a proportion of the grain, and, in return, repairs and makes new ploughs all the year round. His occupation would be in great measure gone were iron ploughs substituted. for the wooden ones. There is yet another objection. The razyat, ifhe be givena furrow-turning plough, will not use it as it ought to be used, viz., allowing it to run flat on the sole; but he will stick the point into the ground, just as he does with the native implement, and the work will be both faulty and difficult to manage. It was at Nadiad that I saw a Native working with the ‘‘S aidapet” plough ; the front wheel was quite up in the air, and never ran on the ground at all. I saw the same done at Seebpore, witha plough introduced by Mr. Sen; but, when the man was shown how to use it properly, the work was very good. Until the foregoing objections, notably the first and third, (cost and difficulty of repair), are met, I do not think that iron ploughs will be used to any considerable extent. 278. Even if properly used, a plough that goes deep may do harm where a native one would not, véz., by turning up inferior soil, and by bringing lumps of limestone (4ankar) to the surface, Again, it is quite possible that, were deeper ploughing to be in vogue, the moisture, which, in the case of some soils, it isso necessary to retain, might be lost. The turning over of a furrow is not always an advantage in India; if the soil be at all stiff, the sun will rapidly bake the slice turned over ; it will remain, more like a brick than like soil, and will not readily pulverise again. This would not occur with the native plough, the action of which is more like that of a pointed stick running through the ground, just below the surface, say 24 to 3 inches deep, simply stirring and loosening it. For hard and sun-bakedZground, such as is often met with, no action could be better adapted, and, ina trial at Meerut, I saw an English plough completely fail on such land. Thave Mr. W. B. Hudson’s (Tirhoot) authority for saying that for breaking up land in wet weather the native plough is better than a furrow-turning one, for the latter throws over a slice which will not break down readily. Implements. 219 In black soil, too, a plough that goes deep is bad, if no rain falls after ploughing. The fine tilth produced by the frequent ploughing with a native plough produces a surface which will absorb. water better if rain follows, than would that left by a furrow-turning plough. _ Against deeper ploughing it may also be said that there is so little manure to go on the land, that more would be lost if the soil were turned up to a greater depth. Even when deep ploughing is employed, as by Mr. Sabapathi Mudliar at Bellary, this is only done once in four years with oe Swedish plough. The native plough is used for the rest of the time. Further, land is. frequently infested with weeds, such as funda (Saccharum ciliare), which, if buried, will readily spring up, and whereas the native plough, with its digging action, tears the weed out and brings it to the surface, a furrow-turning plough would cover it over, and give to it.the very bed it required for propagating itself. So, too, would it be with a field covered with duh grass (Cynadon Dactylon), every joint of which will grow again. For rice cultivation, nothing but a digging and stirring plough, like the native one, would do any good, working, as it does, among mud with several inches of water over it. For break- ing up new land the native plough has also advantages, and some- what, resembles the tearing action of the “‘ steam-digger. ’” 279. At the Meerut (North-West Provinces) Agricultural Show qriais of native I was a witness of work done by native ploughs brought into ia competition with English and ‘‘ improved ”’ ones. The field had oat- , stubble on it, and but few weeds. The English ploughs, drawn by horses, were altogether handicapped by the smallness of the plots, and by the difficulty of turning, so that they had no chance of even showing quick work. But the long slice turned over (the ground being wet below the surface) soon began to dry in one mass, and looked very like forming into a hard brick under the’ influence of the hot sun, whereas the native plough just scraped the soil up, leaving it very fairly pulverised,’and the stubble exposed on its surface. The best work, in the judges’ opinion, and in my own also, was done by a ‘‘ Watts’’ plough, for the soil was quite inverted, and yet it crumbled as it fell, covering over the stubble com- pletely, and leaving the appearance of the field far more even than in the case of the other ploughs. The covering im of the stubble, as I shall explain presently, may be an advantage or a disadvantage, according to the nature of the weeds and grass turned in withit. But, afterall, the judging of the merits of ploughs by mere inspection of the ground ploughed, partakes greatly of the nature of speculation. Before the question of “improved” as against native ploughs can be settled for India, there must be actual demonstration of the superiority of the crops grown by one method as against those by the other. I am well aware that deep ploughing has been advocated by Mr. Benson and others of great experience in India, and also that some Numerous ploughings given by Native to his ficlds, 220 Ploughs. experiments carried out on a small scale at the Cawnpore Farm seem to point to the advantage of deep as against shallow plough- ing; but, although I am ready toallow, as I shall state later, that there are occasionally instances where deeper ploughing may be useful, Iam obliged to conclude that it has not yet been proved that it would be of general advantage, and I could not therefore recommend it. Nor has it been shown that a mould-board is required on ploughs in India. As to the Cawnpore experiments, Ido not regard themas conslusive, and they are on much too minute a scale. If the rafyat can be shown, not a small plot, but a whole field divided into two parts, one ploughed with the native plough, the other with an “improved” plough which he can purchase and also work with his own cattle, he may beled to believe in the superiority of the deeper ploughing when he sees a better crop produced on that half than on the other. 280. It has been said that if the native cultivator had “improved ” ploughs he could dispense with the many ploughings which he gives to the land, and that he would thus save himself the cost of going over his field again and again, crossing and re- crossing, These ploughings are always 3 or 4 in number for ordi- nary crops, and 8, 12, and even as many as 20, for sugar-cane and other special crops. But the answer is, that the end is achieved in time, a finer and better tilth is obtained, and the moisture is not lost. Besides, the raiyat has his bullocks, and it costs no more whether he works them or not, and his labour is not, asa rule, hired labour for which he has to pay, butis his own or his family’s, Ploughing, too, is generally done ona mutual accommodation system, neighbours working together on one another’s fields, and in turn lending bullocks for the ploughing. It has been pointed out by Mr. Benson and others how impor- tant it is to get sowing done early, and that a crop is often lost by the land not being sown in time. But ploughing is an operation which goes on more or less the whole year round, and it is mainly where a broad stretch is put in -with one and the same crop that there is the urgeney spoken of, and this urgency is rather in the sowing than in the actual ploughing or breaking up of the land. I cannot see that the greater area which an “improved” plough would prepare in a given time would compensate for the disadvan- tages which the raiyat would meet in the extra cost, difficulty of repair, and the need of stronger cattle, whilst, as regards the soil itself, I think it would in most cases be left in a better condition by the native plough. Had the raiyat to pay for the labour, I could understand that this item would counterbalance the cost of an “improved ” plough, but this, as I have stated, is seldom the case, Where cultivators are, as a class, inferior, it is quite possible that they may delay sowing too long, but this is hardly the fault of the native plough, and it would not occur among the better culti- vators, as, for example, those of the North-West Provinces, Implements. 221 281. There are cases, however, where “improved” or English ploughs may be profitably used. This will be, I think, only where there are large areas to be cultivated, time being thusa matter of importance, and the economy of quick labour and improve- ments having room to show itself, so that the question of first cost becomes relatively of no consequence. This, in my opinion, accounts for the adoption of the “ Hindoostan” plough by the indigo planters of Behar over their wide fields, but the razyat, though I hear that he likes the plough, cannot afford to go to the expense of adopting it on his small plot or holding. Both Mr, Sabapathi Mudliar, at Bellary, and Mr, Sabanayagam Mudliar, at Shiyali, are large landed proprietors, and I could understand the advavtage to them of the “improved” ploughs. The latter gentleman had 287 tillage cattle, and he reckoned that he could do 13 acres with the “improved ” plough in the time that the native wooden plough was doing 4 or, at most, 5 acres, So this meant to him an economy of cattle, In Behar I have seen even the steam-plough do good service, and Mr. W, B. Hudson told me that he considered it a good plan to plough with it about half an inch deeper each time, so as to bring a fresh layer of soil into use. Again, at Captain Chapman’s estate at Bati, Oudh, I saw asteam-plough at work, The * cultivator’? was employed for the purpose of breaking up land and bringing it under cultivation. The land had previously formed the bottom ofa lake, and such a matting: of weeds and roots I have seldom seen, The 'steam-plough had as hard a task set as was possible to imagine, but it did its work splendidly; side by side was other land which had before been in the same state, but now, mainly as the result of steam-ploughing, was bearing magni- ficent crops. Had not the well-known zeal and energy of Captain - Ckapman brought the resources of improved machinery to bear on this land, it would be uareclaimed still, for Tam sure that no im- plement other than the steam-plough could have possibly done the work, There are yet other cases in which I think an iron plough might do good. When land is clean and free from weeds such as kunda (Saccharum ciliare), the turning over of a furrow would bury the stubble, so as to allow it to rot and serve as manure to the land, In the trial of ploughs which I saw at Meerut the native ploughs left the stubble (oat-stubble) exposed on the surface of the soil, but with the ‘‘ Watts’’ plough the stubble was entirely covered in, and the field was left very even andclean, If there be nothing but stubble and harmless weeds, the turning in of these would enrich the soil by the added manure provided inthe decomposing stubble and grass, instead of wasting it as the native plough would. If, however, the weeds were of such a nature as to spring up again after being buried, the harm done by inverting the soil and covering them in would be much greater than the benefit received manurially. In preparing land for sugar-cane,a Native will plough 8, 12, or even 20 times, in order to get deep enough, and to render the Cases where a roved oi ploughs may be used profitably. The steam- plough, Tron ploughe useful on clean land, Iron ploughs usefal for sugarcane, lron poten useful when rains very heavy. Little scope for use of seed- drills, mowing “and reaping machines, threshing machines, etc. Threshing machines and winnowers, Their limited use. 222 Deep and Shallow Ploughing compared. soil fine enough. Here I am sure that deep ploughing at the first would effect a great saving of labour. The possible loss of moisture has not to be considered, for sugar-cane is almost univer- sally watered artificially. Asa matter of fact, in the sugar-culti- vation around Poona it is the practice to plough 7 inches deep with an 8-bullock plough. Lastly, it sometimes happens that, when heavy rains come on suddenly, the surface soil may get super-saturated and water- logged, the lower layer remaining firm and dry, whereas, had the soil been deeper ploughed it would have retained the water better and have allowed it to sink in to a greater depth, instead of soaking merely the surface soil, and then running off. 282. If for ploughs of new designs there be but little room, still less is there for more expensive implements, such as seed- drills, mowers, reapers, threshing machines, ete. The native seed-drill will strike every one who sees it at work as being wonderfully efficient, and leaving little to be desired. At the Saidapet Farm was an English seed-drill which had been purchased at a cost of Rs, 77, but that the ratyat, having already an efficient implement, would ever go to this expense is most improbable. I can, however, understand that when one watches the slow process of reaping a crop, a number of men (and often women too) squat- ting down, cutting handfuls at a time, laying them in bundles, and then leisurely taking these home, he will naturally think that; a mowing or reaping machine would pay better in the ‘end. But it is far otherwise, for there is no fear of rain falling and thus injuring the crop, and the ratyat gets all his work done in time, and very mach morecheaply than if he used machinery. Experi- ence shows that, even in England, when labour falls below a certain level, it does not pay to use machinery, and reaping by hand may still under some conditions be more economical than by machinery. So is it with threshing machines; the cultivator has his ballocks ; they may as well work'and tread out the grain; he has no fear of bad weather coming, and no urgent call on his time, nor hired labour to pay ; besides, he gets the broken straw and chaff (J4u8a) soft, so that his bullocks will eat it readily, At the Cawnpore Farm there is a threshing machine the price of whichis Rs, 188, but it is almost needless to say that none of this kind have as yet been sold. 283. Threshing machines and winnowers, however, demand somewhat more attention, by reason of the importance attaching to the cleaning of grain, more especially that of wheat. It is only on large estates, the “concerns” of indigo planters, and by Kuropeans generally, that threshing machines will have any actual use on the farm itself, and then it will be because in such cases there is a great deal to thresh, labour has to be hired, and saving of time is thus an objectin view. Against them it is urged that they break and chip the wheat a good deal ; that they do not separate gram from wheat ; and that the b/usa is not rendered short or soft, as it is by the process of treading out with bullocks. Tnastauch as the planter grows his oats, barley, or other grain Implements. 223 not for export, but for use on his estate, the objection as to the appearance of the eample does not matter to him, and he finds, too, that his cattle, after a short time and on getting used to it, will perfectly well eat the straw thrashed by the machine. How- ever, to meet the objection (one, I think, based on custom and idea only), in some modern threshing machines an arrangement for softening the straw has been added. Winnowing machines have met with more favour from the cultivator than have thresh- ing machines, and he is ready, I think, to admit their usefulness. T£ a small and not overexpensive machine could be supplied to the ratyat, as an inducement towards cleaning his grain better, he might adopt it. But where exporting of wheat is practised, the grower is met by the trade.difficulty that he cannot get a better price for clean wheat than for uncleaned, and as long as this is the case there will be only the inducement of saving of time to act in favour of threshing machines and winnowers. To the raiyat this is of no consequence, and some experiments conducted by Mr. Finucane tend to show that treading-out of corn by bullocks is more economical than steam-threshing. It may be said generally, as regards machines, that, where speed is not required, cattle-power will always beat steam-power in India. 284, Anyone who has watched the clever devices of the native caltivators in the implements which they use for harrowing, level- ling, drilling, raising water, etc., will see that if anything is to re- place the existing implements it must be simple, cheap, and effective. He will indeed le a clever man who introduces something really practical. I was especially struck with the effectiveness of a small hand-pick, in common use for dig- ging holes to put seedlings into. Another useful implement is the fodalt or hoe; I have heard indigo planters say that, if they could afford it, they would prefer to have their fields broken up with this hoe rather than with any kind of plough. The Native raises the kodali above his head and brings it down with force into the soil. It penetrates about 4 inches, and brings up the soil in large blocks which are left to weather down, Dd grass (Cynodon Dactylon) can be exterminated in this way. A short-handled hoe, called, in some parts, a mamdti, is in general use also, and is a most handy tool. I was very pleased, again, with a kind of wooden sledge which I saw at Igatpuri, and which is used for carrying rice seedlings from one place to another for transplanting. As many as would make head-loads for 10 men are piled upon the sledge, and it is safely dragged by bullocks over fields.:and roads, however rough, and sometimes to considerable distances. Cattle-power and steam- power com- pared, Native imple- ments ingenious and effective. In speaking of attempts made at improving native implements, tmprovement IT am reminded of a story which I heard about a man who tried to introduce spade digging into India. Hearing that the Native did not wear shoes, he had a broad piece of iron fixed on to the spade, so that the foot might be put on it more easily; but he quite forgot that the Native never uses ‘his legs or feet for driving anything into the ground with force, but.does.so entirely with his must be on native lines, Improvement in Implements has been effected. Implements sold at the Cawnpore Farm, . The Cawnpore pump, Sugar-mills, 224 Reaping, Threshing, and Winnowing Machines, eto, arms, It is useless to try to make the Native do anything of this kind except in his own way. Take, for example, the case of men mending a road and shovelling stones on to it ; they do not work as English labourers would, but one man holds the handle of the shovel while another pulls at a rope fixed on the lower part of the handle just above the iron. In this way the stones are scraped up on to the shovel and deposited where wanted. It is the same with ploughs; a Native, if given a double handled plough, would naturally conclude that it was meant to be guided by ¢wo men, one at each handle. 285. Ingenious though native implements be, and hard though they be to improve upon, there are, nevertheless, instances to show that here and there it can be done. These I proceed to consider. 286. At the Cawnpore Experimental Farm several kinds of implements are manufactured and sold yearly. In 1888-89, 84 ploughs (“ Watts’ and “ Kaisar ’’), 22 pumps, 24 corn-grinders (costing Rs. 25 each), and 8 chaff-cutters, were sold at the Cawn- pore Farm. Sometimes implements are given out on trial, but most are sold outright. The pump sold here is generally known as the “Cawnpore pump.” It is a kind of chain pump, and is admirably suited for raising water the depth of which below the surface does not exceed 20 feet. The pump has had considerable success in the neigh- bourhood, though it hardly comes within the ratyat’s means; the prices are, for 3 feet to 10 feet depth, Rs. 40; for 15 feet depth, Rs. 45; and for 20 feet depth, Rs. 50. This pump is an adapta- tion from one brought by Sir Edward Buck from Australia. After a long series of careful trials and modifications, made under the supervision of Mr, W. J. Wilson, of the Irrigation Department, North-West Provinces and Oudh, it was found that for depths between 15 feet and 20 feet the pump could beat all the native devices for raising water, but that at depths shallower than 15 feet or so, and again at depths exceeding 20 feet, the native appli- ances were superior. 287. The success that has attended the introduetion of iron sugar-mills has been touched on in passing (see paragraph 276). In many parts they have quite replaced the old clumsy native wooden mills. The native mills are either the #ol/u, a mortar and pestle arrangement, in which the cane is bruised and pressed, or else wooden roller-mills, of which there are two kinds, the gundi or cherki, consisting of two, or sometimes three, upright wooden rollers, and the delwa, used in the Punjab, and made of two horizon- tal wooden rollers, The wooden mills cost Rs, 20 to Rs. 30, and last about 10 years, They are hard to work, and do the pressing very ineffectually, the canes having to be passed through the rollers several times, always three or four, and sometimes as many as eight times, The only points in favour of the wooden roller-mills are, that they can be made locally, and that the canes have not to be chopped up or cut into short lengths, as is the case with the kolku and with the iron mills; thus, the fibre, after pressing, is available for rope-making, and especially for ropes for wells, For Implements. 225 the latter. purpose the sugar-cane fibre is much prized, as it will stand the constant immersion in water necessitated by the employ- ment of the Persian wheel, the method of raising water most com- mon throughout the Punjab. Still, it has been rightly pointed out that there are quantities of munj grass (Saccharum ctlvare), which would serve the same purpose quite as well. 288. Anyone possessing a knowledge of the chemistry of fer circumstances mentation is well aware how great may be the gain or how great Setting the the loss resulting from attention to or neglect of the numerous, =. and often seemingly minute, points which affect the condition of fermentable substances, such as the juice of the sugar-cane, Clean- liness, rapidity of expressing, speedy transference to evaporating- pans, rapid boiling, extent of surface exposed, removal of non-crys- tallisable matters, proper desiceation, and final careful storage, are considerations which favourably influence, in a most marked way, the out-turn from one and the same quantity of original material worked upon. There are a number of other determining factors, ‘uch as, the variety of cane grown, the method of cultivation, the manuring given, the influences of soil, weather, and watering, the time of cutting the canes, and the rapidity with which the canes are taken to be pressed. On all these matters knowledge in Need of scien- India is but limited, and a wide field is still open for enquiry, On ‘°ena7t- one or two points there is some general knowledge, as for instance, that the quicker the juice be expressed, and the more cleanly the process be, the larger will be the actual yield of sugar. In these respects the Beheea sugar-mill and its imitators show gavantages of great improvement over the native methods. The iron mill has the iron sugar also the advantage of being portable, and it can be worked by the native mills, labour which the ratyat can command. The Beheea mill was introduced in 1873-74, and, as first manufactured, was a two- roller one, costing from Rs. 80 to Rs. 100, but within the last seven years a three-roller mill has been introduced, and is agreatly improved, though necessarily more expensive, machine, It crushes the cane before it is pressed, and thus presents it flat to the pressing rollers. I have spoken of the difficulty attending the repair of the iron mill, and how the proprietors, Messrs. Thomson and Mylne, have met this by establishing depéts throughout the country, where worn-out mills can be replaced by new ones. The careful and prolonged study of what the Native really requires has, in this instance, resulted in the production of a machine the advantages of which have been clearly grasped by him ; hence the progress made. ‘ 289. I give the following instances of the extension of the use Instances of extension of ue of the iron sugar-mill :— ot ron supa milk, The Punjab Administration Report (1889) speaks of the Beheea sugars), punjab, mill and its modifications as being “the only implement successfully in- “troduced into the Punjab in late years.” In Rohtak it is “driving the old ** kolku (native mill) out of use”; in Kapurthala the substitution of it for weoden mills is actively encouraged. At first the cultivators would not take it; but when, in 1886, as the result of competition, the price came down first 30 wills were purchaced, and later on 200 more. There is abundance of munj grass (Saccharum cilieare) at Kapurthala to serve for well ropes. In 15 2 Bengal, 8, Madras, 4. Bombay. 6. North-West Provinces, Respective merits of rival iron sugar- mills. Work for Agri- cultural Depart- mente, Shallow evaporating- pan, Sugar “‘turbine.”? Other imple- ments, 226 Sugar-mills, Hoshiarpur the iron mill is coming into use; the native mill (belna).is worked by three pairs of bullocks and the cane bas to be passed through the rollers several times, From Bengal there are many reports of the extension of the use of the iron mill, e.g., in Lohardaga, Palamau, and Rungpore. In Palamau the native kolhu has been driven out of use, and in Rungpore, on one Estate (Balashan) alone there are 300 iron mills in use. At Hospet, in Madras, I found that 75 Beheea mills had_been sent there between January and August 1884 alone. Mr. Goud, of Hospet, has since pushed the sale of iron mills largely, and they are highly appreciated ; there are now 600 Bebeea mills in the district, and the wooden mills are alJ gone. The iron mills are hired out for one rupee per day. Mr. Goud told ine that there is a large field for iron mills in Hyderabad, as the people have not yet given up their wooden mills. From Bombay it is reported that in one village alone, viz, Velur, in Valva taluk, Satara, there are 120 iron mills in use. The mill is pushing its way in the Deccan, but in Gujardt, with few exceptions, the wooden mill still holds sway. It is in the North-West Provinces that most advance has been made, and iron mills are almost general. The Beheea firm have depdts at Saharanpur and elsewhere. 290. It is not for me, without special investigation and trial, to go into the respective merits of rival iron sugar-mills, but I would say that these are legitimate points for Provincial Agricul- tural Departments to enquire into. Experimental Farms are places where such trials should be exhaustively carried out. 291. Passing from the sugar-mill, I would next mention an implement the extended use of which would be attended with much benefit ; I mean the shallow iron evaporating-pan for boiling the expressed cane-juice in, The more rapid evaporation effeeted by the broad shallow pan, as against that with the narrow and deeper pan generally used, would give much less opportunity for secondary fermentations setting up, and for impurities finding their way into the juice. Both of these cireumstances will cause a loss in the amount of crystallisable sugar yielded. In Palamau (Bengal) the shallow pan is in use, but not in Lohardaga, nor yet in Dacca; in the latter earthen pans are employed. In Gujarat (Bombay) the use of the shallow pan is universal, but it is not known in Bassein, where deep narrow copper pans are in vogue, 292. Still more recently a centrifugal “ drier” or sugar “ turbine” has been introduced into India; it effects the rapid separation of the molasses from the crystals of sugar. Though worked by hand, and very efficient, it is of necessity expensive, and cannot as yet be expected to be applicable except where sugar is made on a tolerably large scale, or by a combination of raiyats. A sugar “turbine” of 36-inch size will deal with 50 maunds of crude sugar in 10 hours. 298. Ploughs, winnowing machines, and iron sugar-mills are about the only implements which the Natives have in any way appreciated, and, among these, the success of the last-named has been much the most marked. Of other implements, I must say that it is not likely that they will enter to any extent into the radgad’s agricultural system Implements, 227 Chaff-cutters may, perhaps, be here and there appreciated, anda few bave been sold at Cawnpore; so, too, may it be with corn- grinding machines, Others, such as bone-mills, water-pumps driven by wind, cream-separators and other dairy implements, mowing, reaping, and threshing machines, elevators, cotton-presses, etc,, will only be employed on large Estates, on Grass Farms, or in connection with towns, T can, however, indicate one implement of. which there is need ; 4 portable oile this is a portable oil-pressing mill. At present the mortar and pestle arrangement adopted in the native wooden oil-mill, though effective, is cumbrous. Its cost is Rs. 50. In consequence, all the oil-seed has to be bronght to a place. where there happens to be a mill, What is wanted is an oil-mill of a domestic size, which a woman can work inside the enclosure of her own house, A way seems open for some one to replace the present oil-mill with some such machine as that with which Messrs. Thomson and Mylne supplanted the wooden sugar-mill. 294. But improvement in implements, or rather in the [mprovement by cultivation by their means, need not always proceed from pe? of native outside existing Indian practice. Sometimes it may be found ? that in a particular district an implement is unknown, or is inferior to one in use elsewhere, and improvement may be effected by the transference of practice. At a little.distance from Ferozepore, on the way to Ludhiana, Mr. E. B. Francis showed me some light sandy land on which when a shower of rain falls soon after sowing a crust is very apt to form, so that the young shoots cannot force their way through it. This is especially the case with barley and rather less with wheat; when it forms, the people habitually re-sow the crop, for they have no implement corresponding to a harrow. I have instanced how careful the Behar indigo planter is to break up this crust the instant it forms, using a bullock-rake or harrow having spikes some 8 inches long and penetrating about 2 inches into the soil, An implement of this kind if introduced at Feroze- pore would entirely dispense with the necessity of re-sowing. The improvement here would consist in a transference of native methods, not an importation of foreign ones. A similar instance is that of a seed-drill for “ dry ’” (unirrigated) cultivation. In the northern or Telegu portion of Madras such a drill, is used, but notin the southern or Tamil portion, where the grain is sown broadcast on “dry ”? land. 295. Experimental Farms have in some cases been, and ought Trials of imple. to be still more, the places where different implements should be Experimental put to thorough tests. Subsequently they might be the centres fintion st’. for distribution of such implements as had been found to be really implements by beneficial, and which the raiyat would be able to avail himself of. But much more care must be exercised, I think, than has been given Need of greater in the past before a machine goes out with the Farm’s imprimatur past. on it. Ifit be found to be useless, or if it be beyond the ratyat’s reach, it will not redound to the Farm’s credit, nor to that of the Agricultural Department of the Province. I have seen at Experi- mental Stations implements which there was not the remotest chance of the va¢yat ever using, and, unless these are really required 1h 4 228 Sugar-mtlls, Evaporating-pans, Oil-milis, ete. for the economical management of the Farm, their presence for demonstration purposes is a useless expense. Destat eo 296. In conclusion, I would remark on the desirability of associating men 6 5 : os . 5 e ofscientife employing in agricultural enquiries men of scientific attainments, apneuitural”” such as engineers, chemists, botanists, geologists, etc., whichever the eA nMney, circumstances of the case demand. If this be not done, such experi- mental trials will lose the greater part of the value that might attach to them, and there will be no guarantee as to their being properly, that‘is, scientifically, conducted. On the other hand, real value may be derived from such experiments when carried out on a right system and with scientific help. It is most desirable there- fore that Agricultural Departments should employ in their enquiries the aid of skilled experts. 229 CONCLUSIONS. CONCLUSIONS » 297. In considering the differences of agricultural practice which arise from the possession, in one district, of implements unknown in another district, we have passed entirely beyond the second main division of differences laid down in Chapter II, No longer do external surroundings enter, but it is altogether with the third division that we have to do, viz., the differences which arise directly from want of knowledge. On this account the people can do little or nothing to effect improvement, while from the peculiar conditions of Indian agricule ture, the Government cannot do much either. In brief, I donot think that there is any great scope for - jmprovement in the raiyat’s farming implements, Further, where any improvement is possible, it will come mainly from without and not from within, i.e, by the application of Western science to native ways and requirements, Very occasionally only will it be possible to extend the use ofa native implement already in use in one part but unknown in another. The introduction of the Iron Sugar-mill has, however, clearly shown that marked benefit may arise from the employment of machinery of Western origin, provided this be carefuliy adapted to the needs of the Native. Unless this provision be taken failure will certainly result. Similar benefit may result from the use of shallow evaporating+ pans for sugar-boiling, and there is an opening for a portable oil-pressing mill, Although in some instances deep ploughing is advantageous, this is not generally the case in India, and I do not think that iron ploughs will take the place of the native wooden ones until the difficulties as to initial cost and repair can be met. For winnowing machines, chaff-cutters, and corn grinders a limited future may be open, but other implements, such as mowers, reapers, threshing machines, elevators, bone-mills, cream-separators, etc., a use will only be found on large Estates, Grass Farms, or in towns. 230 Conclustons. The work of Government in connection with the introduction of new implements is to submit them to exhaustive trial at Experi- mental Farms and to work them side by side with the native methods, If the advantage of a new implement is clearly demonstrated, then the Provincial Agricultural Department should make its Farm the centre from which to distribute the implement and its Shows the means of exhibiting the machine at work. In conducting any exhaustive trials the Provincial Agricul- tural Departments should make use of experts in the particular branches of science connected with the enquiry. RECOMMEND: RECOMMENDATIONS. ATIONS, 298, I recommend :— The exhaustive trial of new implements at Government Experimental Farms, The association in trials of Implements of men specially skilled in the respective sciences concerned in the enquiry. The distribution of approved Implements from Government Farms and the utilisation of Agricultural Shows for demonstrating the working of such Implements, 9381 CHAPTERSXIII. CHAPTER XIII, CROPS AND CULTIVATION, Gaszeaern CouxtrvaTIon. 299. A puscriPTion either of the crops of India or of their Scope of thfs cultivation is not called for in my Report, and I shall therefore sh a only deal with these matters in so far as any suggestion for their improvement can be made. 300, Ihave remarked in earlier chapters upon the general Possibility of excellence of the cultivation; the crops grown are numerous and varied, much more indeed than in England. That the cultivation should often be magnificent is not to be wondered at when it is remembered that many of the crops have been known to the raiyats for several centuries ; rice is a prominent instance in point. Yet, that improvement is not impossible may be seen in the spread, within recent times, of indigo and jute cultivation, the introduction of tea-planting, the raising of the potato and other vegetables, the growing of maize, etc. 301. The increasing demands of other countries for wheat, Changes pro- oil-seeds, cotton, etc., have exercised an important influence upon the “"* °7 "7" systems of Indian agriculture, and, whereas the raiyat formerly looked to his field yielding him a crop which would provide grain for himself and his family, as well as straw for his cattle, the element of export has now entered into his calculations, and has marked changes in the kinds and extent of the crops grown. > Thus, in the Punjab, in the year 1888-89 alone, an increase of Increase in wheat 11 percent. was recorded in the area devoted to wheat-growing, *** no less, than 54 per cent. of the rabé or winter-cropped portion, or 81 per cent, of the whole cropped area of the year, being now taken up by this cereal. In the Hoshiarpur district, sugar-cane is no longer considered the best-paying crop, but its place has been taken by wheat, sngar- cane coming next in importance, and then cotton. 3802. In tke preceding chapters muchshas been said in regard Review of m- to improvements which can be effected in crops or in cultivation, Piftivetion dis- through internal and external means. It has, for instance, been te cn shown that the breaking down, of caste prejudice would induce : better cultivation; that the extension of systems of irrigation and of embanking land, together with improved working of the taccavi * rules, would enable larger crops to be grown; and that the better * See footnote page 80. 282 Crops and Cultivation. conservation and increased supply of manure, the provision of “ Fuel and Fodder Reserves,’’? the growing of fodder-crops, the better breeding of cattle, the adoption of certain implements, and other ape ’* means, would directly improve agriculture. I will not refer again to these metiods in the present chapter, but will confine myself to a consideration of possible improvements not already treated of, and which are of a kind more nearly connected with the individual crops themselves. Such improvements are those which may result from the practices of fallowing, rotation, selection and change of seed, or from the introduction of new crops or new Variesties of crops, the extended cultivation of parti- cular crops, and so forth. Fallowing 303. When discussing, in Chapter V, the question as rota ticable to «whether the soil of India is becoming exhausted or not, I referred to the practices of Fallowing and Rotation (see paragraph 49). The more special treatment, however, of these subjects comes in here, Fallowing is quite well known to the Indiav cultivator, and its value is understood, but the practice of it is greatly reduced by the pressure of population on the land, and by the increasing demands made upon the soil. The in- stances cited in paragraph 50 bear testimony to this, although the evidence also shows that the raiyat will fallow his land if he can afford it. In some of the cases quoted, a prolonged fallowing and renovation of the land was effected by allowing it to revert to its original state of forest and jungle, and then, after a time, clearing it for crop-growing, As population presses and cultivation spreads, fallowing will, of necessity, be employed even less than at present, and, therefore, it is of no use to advocate it as a remedy. The ratyat will do it, as I have said, if he can afford to, and he will do it if ie is obliged, “Mixed crops." 304, Itis quitea mistake to suppose that Rotation is not understood or appreciated in India. The contrary is the case Frequently more than one crop at a time may be seen occupying the same ground, but one is very apt to forget that this is really an instance of rotation being followed, It is not an infrequent practice, when drilling a cereal crop, such as judr (Sorghum vulgare) or some other millet,to put in at intervals a few drlls of some leguminous crop, such as arhar (Cajanus indicus). The grain crop grows the more rapidly avd keeps the other back; it is duly reaped when ripe, and the land which 1t occupied is then ploughed. The pulse crop, thus free to extend itself, grows on apace, spreading partly over the intervening area, and becoming the crop of the field, until, in due time, it too is reaped, The next year the same “mixed crops” may be sown again, and thus to the casual observer it might appear that continuous cropping was being practised, This, however, is not so, for there is a perfect rotation of cereal and legume, This is, perhaps, the simplest form of rotation, but there are many more complicated than that of ‘ mixed Advantages of cropping.” The latter, however, has the advantage of providing sopping.” against the fluctuations of season, for, should one crop from apy Pallowing, Mized-eropping, Rotation, 938 reason fail, the other will probably stand and cover the ground, This is a matter of no small moment, seeing that a raiyat’s entire holding is only few acres in extent, and that it has to feed him, his family, and his cattle, and to pay the rent as well. In an experiment made at the Bhadgaon Farm it was found: that a greater profit was obtained by intersowing cotton with /udr or arkar than by growing the cotton alone, “ Mixed crops” are not confined to two in number on the ground at the same time, but several sorts may be sown together ; for instance, wheat, barley, and gram (Cicer arietinum), or these with rape (s¢rson) as well, Wheat and gram often occur together, so also wheat and linseed, the latter frequently fringing the wheat field, and thus serving to keep cattle off, inasmuchas they will not touch the growing linseed. Cotton with judr, cotton with arhar, and wheat with. mustard, are other instances of “ mixed crops.’ There are many systems in ordinary use which are far more complicated than the above. For instance, not only may there be the rows of crops side by side, as noticed above, but the alternating rows may themselves be made up of mixtures of different crops, some of them quick-growing and reaped early, others of slower growth and requiring both sun and air, and thus being reaped after the former have been cleared off. Again, some are deep-rooted plants, others are surface feeders, some require the shelter of other plants, and some will thrive alone. The whole system appears to be one designed to cover the land, and thereby to prevent the bareness and consequent loss to the soil which would result from the sun beating down upon it, and from the loss of moisture which it would incur. Itis known also that the process of nitrification in soils is much more active when a growing crop is on the ground than when the latter lies fallow. 305. In most parts it will be found that, whilst rotation is Rotation. practised, no regular order in the crops forming a rotation is kept to, but that considerable latit ude is exereised in their choice. Never- theless, the crops will generally be found to follow certain rules of rotation, such as cereal after legume, and fruit-bearing crop after bulbs. The ove crop with which rotation is not practised is rice. Why this should be so may be better under stood when the condi- gotation not tions under which rice is grown are considered. Rice flourishes Practised with on silt-renewed lands that need little or no manure, and whichare plentifully supplied with water. The water itself, by its con- stant renewal, probably makes the soil-constituents more readily available. Under these circumstances the rice plant becomes semi- aquatic in character, and is more independent of manure, and of the manurial benefit» effected by rotation. Differences in the mode of cultivating rice may, however, be followed ; thus, in some parts of Bengal it is the rule to sow rice broadcasted one year, and trans- planted the next. Instances of Rotations practised, 1. Panjab, 2. North-West Provinces, 3, Bengal, 4, Central Provinces, 5, Bombay. 234 Crops and Cultivation. 306. The following are instances of Rotations practised in different parts :— In the Punjab :-— On “dry ” ( bavant) land. On Fallow Wheat and gram. Chari (fodder judr). Fallow. Fallow. Wheat and gram. Chari. In the North-West Provinces -— Barley and ley and peas, Fallow, " Wheat. In Bengal :+«— Ist year, marua (a millet). 2nd ,, gora (rice). 8rd ,, urid (pulse). rich land. Cotton Wheat or barley, with gram Senjé (a millet), and oil-seeds. Sugar-cane. Judr or bdjra with pulses. Maize. Fallow. Wheat. Fallow. Cotton. Wheat or barley (as above). Judy or béjra (as above). Millet, Fallow (@reen erop ploughed in). Wheat or other winter cereal. Millet. In Lohardaga, on uplands. Ath ,, gondlé (millet), followed by an oil-seed or pulse. C) 1, Cotton. 2. Gingelly (oil-seed). 8. Kodo (millet). In Palamau. ree —e . (6) 1. Maize or some millet. 2. Wheat for two or three years. 3. A leguminous crop for a year or two. In Dacca, (2) 1. Potatoes. 2. Rice or jute. 3. Chilies. é 1. Jute. ) 2. Tobacco or @ pulse crop. In the instance from Lohardaga there is a four years’ rotation, giving five crops, of which three are cereals. In Palamau the same cold-season (rabi) crop,;whether cereal or pulse, is never grown on the same Jand for more than two or three years successively, but itis always followed by a rabid crop of a different character or growth, In the Central Provinces :— Judr, kodo (a millet), and arhar (pulse) sown together. Wheat. In Bombay :— In Gujardt. 1, Cotton. 2. Wheat or judr. 3. Gram or some pulse. In Surat. 1, San hemp ploughed in and fol- lowed by sugar-cane. 2. Sugar-cane. 3. Rice with arkar or some pulse. 4. A pulse crop. In Méhim, 1. Botel vine, two years. 2. Ginger. 3. Sugar-cane. 4, Plantains, two years, 5. Bice or régi (loc. ndgii), on rébed seed-bed. In the Konkan, on hill land. 1. Nagli. 2. Warai (a millet), 3. Niger seed (oil-seed), then Faliow for five to six years, Rotation 235 A general rule in“ garden-land ” rotation in Gajardt is:— * ee follow fibrous, and that which bears fruit should follow ulbs.” The rotation instanced at Méhim is a seven years’ course on “ garden- land,” but another, of five years’ duration only, is made by the omission of betel vines, and is also practised largely. In Madras :— i haeae In Coimbatore, though there are variations caused by early or late rainfall, a frequent practice on “dry” land isto sow cholum (sorghum vulgare) or gingelly (sesamum indicum) in May, to reap in August, and to follow in October with cotton or gram. On “garden land” régi (eleusine corocana), sown in May, is followed in October or November by tobacco, and this by cholum in the next April. Sugar-cane is followed by cereals. In Tinnevelly, cotton succeeds ambu (millet) and pulses; it is sown with the cereals, and remains after that crop is reaped. 307. Sufficient proof has now been given that rotation of Improvement crops is both uuderstood and practised. Whether the rotations * "™#™% are of the best kind, or whether they might be improved upon, is another matter, and one upon which my limited knowledge of the crops and their habits does not allow me to give an opinion, I have frequently read statements as to inferior cultivation being ‘he result of injudicious rotations, but I have seldom seen any suggestions as to what. should be done instead, Much mus: depend on the climate, the nature of the soil, the facilities for water and manure, etc. In England the use of artificial margres enables great liberties to be taken with rotation, and ma: . ven cause it to be partly suspended in case of the market fav: ‘ring the growing of a particular crop. In the same way it is more than likely that the razyaé will, in general, be the best judge of what his land can do. 308. Though the ratyat may have little or nothing to learn Selection and about rotation, he is very ignorant in regard to selection and “8° %*d. change of seed. In this respect the Indian cultivator might well follow the European planter)as, for example, in the careful selection of indigo seed. Even in Gujarat (Bombay), where the indigenous cultivation is excellent, the benefit of selection and change of seed is not appreciated; throughout Bengal it is x scnor ally unknown, except in the case of indigo. The Hoshiarpur (Punjab) practised. Settlement Report says: “It isto be regretted that the cultiva- tors should ordinarily exercise so little care in the selection of “seed for their crops,” The Rawal Pindi Settlement Report speaks of the absence of careful seed selection by the cultiva- tors. The same neglect is shown in the Central Provinces; both here and elsewhere this is especially the case with cotton; indeed, the complaint that the long-stapled varieties, such as Broach, are deteriorating, is traceable to the want of selection of seed, or rather to a mixture of seed being given to the cnl- tivator to sow. There are several proverbs, such as one which Mr. Benson found current in Kurnool, pointing to the desirability of selecting seed. “As you give gifts to the deserving, so select The cause of the neglect. Money-lenders, Improvidence of the raiyat. Cause of deterioration of cotton. 236 Crops and Cultivation, “seeds for your soil,” runs the proverb, but the practice is different to the precept, and seed is not habitually selected. Now and again selection of seed is practised to a certain extent. Thus, in the Rawal Pindi Settlement Report, Mr. F. A. Robertson points out that the Arains or Malliars are the best cultivators, and that they select their maize seed. The crop is, in consequence, far superior to that grown by the other cultivators, He adds, ‘“‘ What is wanted is careful selection of seeds by the “ cultivators, and the fostering care displayed by the Malliars “in bringing their crop to maturity.” At Hoshiarpur I found that, when judr was grown as a fodder- crop, fresh seed was obtained every year from another district, vtz., Ludhiana, It is very certain that if more care were taken in the selec” tion of potatoes for seed, and in change of seed, the crop migh be greatly improved. 309. The root of the mischief lies in the system by which the cultivator is not bis own seed merchant, but is entirely dependent on the daniya, mahajan, or similar individual of the money-lending class. These men supply the ratyat with seed, charging in- terest at an exorbitant rate, for they know that he must have seed or else he cannot grow his crop. The accounts between merchant and cultivator, thus begun over seed transactions, are seldom allowed to lapse, and often assume enormous proportions, leading to mortgaging of land and other evils. Jt is in this that the utter improvidence of the raiyat is shown, and that he fre- uently becomes .a prey to the money-lender. Having saved no seed for himself for re-sowing, and having no money to purchase elsewhere, he has recourse to the means so ready at hand, and the land is practically charged with an extravagant burdea, and one of the ratyat’s own creation. It is strange, indeed, what a hold the money-lenders have on the people; in one district of the Central Provinces I found well-to-do cultivators, who could easily have purchased their seed in the open market or from other cultivators, but who, nevertheless, went to the mehajan for it, because they liked to be on good terms with him; so they regu- larly borrowed from him, and paid him back at the end of every halfeyear. Mr, Fuller, iv one of his Reports, says, “ Borrowing seed- grain is incompatible with improvement by seed selection,” and this is strictly true. But the practice has become almost universal, aud the mahkajan is a regular institution, so that improvement cannot proceed te any great extent unless by an alteration in the ratyat himself. In the case of cotton, the cultivator sells both fibre and seed, and the grain merchant, receiving many small lots of seed, often of different varieties, mixes them up together, Later on, the grower buys back the mixed seed and sows it, and, thus, durity of seed and uniformity of quality are altogether lost.) Selection of Seed. 237 810. As the raiyat, even under the best of circumstances, Selection and can hardly free himself from resorting to the money-lending grain seed by aus merchant, because he has nowhere else to go for his seed supply, ronatrres” it becomes one of the most useful acts which Government can °@ do, to provide the cultivator with seed, or rather, with the facili- ties for obtaining it. The business of a seed merchant, as understood in. Europe, is unknown in India, and I do not think that there would be any scope for it, even if it were desirable to introduce it. But Government, by means of its Farms, might serve a most useful end in growing pure seed and in making it available for distri- bution to cultivators. This has not been altogether neglected Good work in the past, and the Cawnpore Farm of the North-West Prove 2!#4¥ done. inces especially, and also the Farms of the Bombay Government, have done good work in showing the advantage of selection and change of seed, and in the establishment of distributing centres for good seed. But much more extended action is required before fxtenied action the cultivator can be rendered independent of the grain merchant. ; The Farm at Cawnpore cannot now supply enough seed to satisfy the demands made upon it. There ought to be not only Expe- rimental Farms, but Seed-growing Farms, where the raiyat could buy pure and good seed at a moderate cost, instead of, as he does at present, going to the bazar and getting what he thinks looks best. If the experiments at some of the Government Farms were curtailed, and more land were laid out in producing selected seed for distribution to the district around, I think more good might be done. This work does not imply the existenee of a distinetly experimental farm, nor of a skilled staff, but there might well be, under Provincial Agricultural Departments, a Seed Farm in each distriet to provide for the requirements of that district, The Bombay Agricultural Department distributes seed in Sind to zemindars on the simple condition that the amount of seed given is subsequently returned to Government. At Nadiad the local Agricultural Association has established a seed store in the town, for the sale of selected seed at cost price. The plan is slowly making way with the cultivators. Court of Wards’ Estates, again, would be very suitable places at which to grow selected seed, and they might act as distributing centres for the supply of seed to the neighbourhood. nee acilities sho Not only must the seed itself be available, but encouragee be given for ment and facilities must te given to the purchase of good Dy asst seed. The system of ¢accavi* advances is applicable to the case of seed-purchase, equally as to the digging of wells and pure chase of cattle. But in the case of seed, advances are given only in time of scarcity, and not in ordinary times. There would be no need of such restriction if Government became the grain supplier, As long as the cultivator resorts to the money-lending grain merchant, the working of ¢accavi advances * See footnote, page 80, Introduction of new varioties, 1. Wheat. 2. Cotton. 9. Maize and Sugar-cane, Need of caution in trying new varieties, 238 Crops and Cultivation. for purchase of seed will be unsatisfactory, but if Government were to supply the seed from their Farms or from other distributing centres, the cultivator might be freed from having to resort to the baniya, In other words, Government micht practically become the dantya themselves. 311. Improvement may be effected not only by selection and change of seed, but by the introduction of new varieties. Experimental Farms have, in this matter also, done very useful work in showing what new varieties are likely to have any permanent value, and in some cases considerable benefit has accrued from their distribution, At the Cawnpore Farm other varieties of wheat than those in local use have been tried ; the Muzaffarnagar variety, in particular, meeting with considerable success. Thus, in 1888-89, about 40,000 ibs, of Muzaffarnagar wheat were distributed; and over 7,000 lbs. of seed oats. The Bombay Agricultural Department also dues a very considerable work in trying new varieties of seed, The 1888-89 Report states that a soft white variety of wheat from the North-West. after acclimatisation, was distributed to 65 zemindars in Sind, It proved very successful, and 2,815 acres in the Nara Valley (being one-eighth of the total wheat area) had been sown with it. It is found to ripen quicker, to yield more grain and more straw, and to be less liable to ‘‘rust” than the hard local variety ; besides, the price obtained for it is Ra. 2 As. 14 per maund, as against Rs. 2 As. 8 per maund for the Sind wheat. The Report further says:—‘ The experiments show that the “interchange of seed between various Provinces is most success« “ful,” In Reports of the Bengal Agricultural Department it is stated that Buxar wheat has been successfully introduced into Bhagalpur, and has produced a wheat which fetches quite 6 annas a maund more than the local grain. Mr. Ozanne, the Director of the Bombay Agricultural Depart- ment, has made many experiments with a view to improving the quality of cotton produced in the Presidency. American varieties of cotton have been acclimatised at Dharwar, and then transferred to Khandesh and other districts, and an endeavour is now being made to perpetuate the long-stapled varieties of Berar cotton known as dani and jart, It is found that the American varieties give a smaller yield until they have been acclimaticed to a district, and hence the cultivators do not eare to risk the immediate loss incurred. This militates against the spread of the growth of better varieties of cotton in India. It is very certain that, not in wheat and cotton alone, but in maize and sugar-cane cultivation too, improvement may be effected by the introduction of varieties new either ta a par- ticular district. or to the country, It is necessary, however, to interpose a caution against trymg changes of this kind on any but an experimental scale at first. There should also be some primd facie indication, such as would be derived from a similarity in the climatic Seed Distridution—New Varieties. 239 conditions of the respective regions, that the transference is one hkely to succeed. The unsuecessful attempts to introduce English wheats into India are instances of want of under- standing of the relative conditions of English and Indian agriculture, and provincial Departments of Agriculture would do well to consider these before they accept the assurances of enterprising seed merchants in England. The season in India is too short for English wheat; to mature, and, although grown in the cold season, the wheat does not (except in the hills) lie under snow, nor is it subject to severe frosts. Consequently, 20 to 30 days of heat will cause it to grow rapidly, and if the grain be not formed by February the crop will be prematurely ripened, What is wanted is not so much to try exotie or im- ported seed, which may be good one year and fail to produce good results the next, but to try indigenous varieties which have already been found by the experience of other districts to be well adapted. When, however, a new variety has been found to be, beyond Use of Expert- doubt, superior to a local one, Experimental Farms can do a fn distributing most useful work in distributing the new seed; as also in 2¢ varieties. selecting and perpetuating pure and good local varieties. 312. It is not alone in the introduction of new varieties, Introduction of but also in that of new crops, that improvement is possible,” °°” Here, again, Experimental Farms have not been backward, and though it may be asked how many of the new crops tried at these Farms have ever been fairly introduced, I maintain that such work of enquiry is a legitimate one, and that it is the necessary fate of all experimental work that only one or two things out of a hundred tried may possibly sueceed ; never- theless, the record and observation of what has been done will not be altogether thrown away. It will be known what has been tried, and so need not be tried again; also, what may possibly sueceed under other circumstances, Introduction of new crops may take place in two directions, The crops may be either entirely new ones to the country, or merely new ones to the particular district. The history of the present erops of India is one telling largely of importation ; such imported crops are.the numerous millets (the principal food grains), maize, tobacen, tea (though the shrub was subsequently found and cultivated in India), coffee, the potato, and many other kinds of vegetables, There is, therefore, no reason why other crops should not be imported also. At Government Stud Farms lucerne has been introduced with much success, Where a crop is not known to one district, but is to another, improvement .may often be effected by the transference of practice. There is little doubt that the cultivation of the potato might with advantage be introduced to fresh districts. At Salem (Madras) vegetables, such as the onion, the pumpkin, the egg-plant, etc., are grown in profusion, but the to is not raised ; the people say they do not know how to cultivate Extension of cultivation of existing crops, Diseases of crops, and insect attacks, Onut-turn of crops. Crop experi- ments, 240 Crops and Cultivation, it. Wheat might be grown in parts of Eastern Bengal where it is not now known. Oats might usefully find a wider sphere than they occupy at present. 313. An impetus can, in some cases, be given to the extended cultivation of remunerative crops, such as sugar-cane, potato, etc. This will, hcwever, result rather from the adoption of better modes of cultivation or of manufacture, than from other means. At Dongasara, in the Central Provinces, I found evidences in the dis- used stone presses still lying about, that sugar-cane was formerly grown here, but now it is not cultivated. With the help of the new iron sugar-mill the cultivation of sugar-cane might once more be profitably followed. Potatoes grow very well in Dacca, but the acreage under this crop is very small, and might readily be in- creased. I believe that good may be done also in increasing the variety of crops grown, and in obviating thereby the placing of so much dependence on one crop alone. Tanjore, for example, depends practically upon rice, Bellary upon cotton. If other crops were more extensively cultivated, the consequences attending the failure of the staple crop would be minimised. 314. I wish to note here the desirability of gaining more knowledge as to the diseases to which crops are liable, and of the injurious insects which attack and destroy them. It is satisfactory to note that the Government of India have, with fhe co-operation of the Trustees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, made a beginning in this direction, and that the services of Mr. E. C. Cotes, of the Ento- mological Department of the Museum, have been utilised, not only for teaching at the Forest School, Dehra, but also for investigating the history and prevention of insect attacks on plant life. The valuable services which, in England, Miss E. A. Ormerod has rendered to agriculture may be taken as illustrative of the good that may be done similarly in India. 315. There is still much to learn in respect of the out-turn of different crops. A system of ‘‘ crop experiments,’’ or experimental cuttings, is conducted in the Bombay Presidency and in a few other parts, and has been found useful for Settlement purposes. The trials are conducted by District Officers, the crops over small accurately- measured areas being cut, and the produce weighed. The object is not only to get to know the yield of different crops, but also to find out the incidence of assessment on the value of the gross produce, and thereby to ascertain if the land-tax has been justly estimated. In a few cases further special experiments over entire holdings are made for the purpose of ascertaining whether a fair return is given for the cost of cutivation, etc. Considerable difficulty is experienced in getting these trials carried out accurately, and the returns need to be subjected to careful examination and criticism before being accepted. I regard the work, however, as a very desirable one to carry on, for, by the compilation of these returns, considerable agricultural knowledge may be gained as to the yield of crops in different parts of a Province, as well as of India generally, while, as stated, they will also be found useful for assessment purposes. New Crops— Diseases of Crops. 241 316. Improvement, both in crops and in their cultivation, may Transference of be effected by a transference of method from one country or locality ™°* to another. The introduction of new crops and of new varieties affords in itself instances of this improvement by transference of method. Many of the improvements which I have summarised in para- graph 802 come under this same head, and are connected more or less nearly with cultivation. I shall, therefore, only give now some improvements which are directly concerned with actual crop- growing. 317. Rice, in its many varieties, is not sown in the same way Improvement of everywhere. Sometimes itis sown broadcast, sometimes it is trans- ee ee planted from seed-beds. It is known that the out-turn of trans- ‘ planied rice is greater than that of broadcasted, and only the better varieties of rice are used in the former case. Yet there are districts where transplanting is the rule,others where it is not, and the question naturally arises whether the better practice might not be success- fully introduced into districts ‘where it is not known. Mr. Fuller pointed out to me that rice is sown broadcast in the Raipur and Bilaspur districts of the Central Provinces, and is not transplanted even on the best lands. Enormous waste of seed is thereby incurred, In the Sambalpur and Bhandara districts, on the contrary, rice is very extensively transplanted. The rice cultivation of Tinnevelly is far superior to that of yenuring of Tanjore, and the out-turn is much better. The difference is the rico lands, result of the inferior cultivation in Tanjore. Whereas in Tinnevelly it is the rule to manure the land by ploughing in green crops, wild indigo, etc., this is not done in Tanjore. The practice of manuring rice land is now becoming much more frequent. At Ahmedabad I found that it was the rule to manure with cow-dung; tank silt was alsoused. At Belgaum all rice fields are manured with cow- dung and with ashes from the villages. Again, in the better districts itis the practice to plough up the ptoughing ot land directly after the rice crop is cut. This is done in Tinnevelly. mee land Before being told of this, I had, when in Tanjore, been struck by harvest, the hard and baked surface of the rice fields after harvest, and I could not help thinking that an improvement might be effected if the land were ploughed up while the moisture was still in it. If the land is left to get hard and dry, evaporation is more rapid, and when rain comes it is not so readily absorbed-as when the land is in a finely-tilled state. But if the field were to be ploughed after harvest it would be easy to work, the stubble would be allowed to rot, and to mingle with the soil,.subsequent ploughing would be rendered much easier, and a quickly-growing green or ‘‘catch’’ crop might be meantime sown. This is not universally practicable, I am aware, but there are very many parts where it might be done quite well, At Shiyali (Tanjore) the cultivators allowed that after the rice was cutin February, a crop of grain might be sown and reaped green in April, but they said it was too much trouble to do it. Later on,I heard of parts where this was actually done. At Mahim, if there 16 Waste of secd sowing rice, Excessive water used for rice cultivation in some parts, #db cultivation of rice, Early grazing of iros by cattle, 242 Crops and Cultivation. is enough moisture after the rice is off, a crop of gram and some- times even of castor (Ricinus communis) is sown. At Belgaum almost all the rice land gives a second crop either of peas, lentils, or barley. The seed is thrown on in the rough, and there is no great preparation of the land beforehand. I find that Mr. Nicholson, in speaking of Coimbatore, remarks onthe advantage that would follow the ploughing of waste lands after harvest in November, thus enabling the November rains to be more utilised. From the Reports of the Bengal Agricultural Department I take the following :-— “Rice has been so long oultivated that there is little to teach the ratyats, ‘but those of one part can learn a great deal from those of another ; ¢.g., the “Burdwan raiyat always uses oil-cake. Again, ploughing of rice lands after harvest, to weather and sweeten the soil, would be an advantage ........ 3 ‘in parts of Bengal ratyats spread hide salt to get rid of what they call a ‘© disease,’ but which is really the consequence of leaving the land unploughed.” Great waste of seed in sowing rice is undoubtedly often in- curred. Mr. Nicholson found that in Coimbatore 80 to 100 lbs. of seed-rice per acre were used in the transplanting process; he estimated that on the 87,000 acres of rice land in the district no less than 3,100 tons of seed, costing Rs 1,40,000, were used, Mr, Sabanayagam Mudiiar is also of opinion that far more rice is used in sowing than is. necessary, and at Shiyali he adopts much thinner seeding than is usually practised around him, As instanced above, there is much waste of seed when, asin the Raipur and Bilas- pur districts of the Central Provinces, rice is sown broadcast, instead. of by transplantation, Inferior cultivation of rice is sometimes. due to the fact that water is allowed to stagnate on the fields; this is the case at; Dacca, and I have also seen it at. Ferozepore.. There.is little doubt, that water. is frequently shamefully wasted, in rice cultivation, and though plentiful. water is requisite, stagnation is harmful to a crop. Mr. Nicholson says:—‘‘The difference between a paddy (rice). ‘field and a swamp is that in the former water is not allowed to ‘stagnate on the.surface.”’ He instances that as much as 12 feeti depth of water is sometimes used’ in a single season for rice cultiva- tion. It might be possible to effect improvement by a transference of practice in respect: of the moderate use of water. I mentioned in paragraph 131, when speaking of, réé cultivation, that in some parts of Bengal, where soil'is poor and weeds predomi- nate, a.kind of d¢6 pracess is.used, all manure being burnt before it is put'on the land. In other parts. this. process is not employed. In Bombay the reasons for use or non-use of the rdéb process are well understood, but, this is not the case in Bengal, and it is quite possible that a transference of method in this respect may be followed. by benefit in parts where the system is not known, An actual instance of the adoption of transference of method, was mentioned to me by Sir Edward Buck. The Burmese rice-growers. often complained of: the crop: getting too tall, ard of the seed drog-. ping out, but. when some Behar cultivators came and settled. in Burma,they introduced the practice of letting their cattle graze Improvement of Rice Cultivation. 243 over the young rice, thus keeping it back. This practice was there- after followed by the Burmese cultivators with success. _ Thus, even with a crop of such ancient cultivation as rice, there Possibility a is, in some parts, room for improvement of its cultivation through rice cultivation the transference of the practice of one locality to another. ae eener 318. There is much that one district can learn from another in Improvement the better cultivation of Sugar-cane. The native method of sowing if ayraion sugar-cane is to plough the land some 12 to 14 times, the plough going round and round the field and forming a fine seed-bed 4 or 5 inches deep. Next, the field is levelled and the cuttings of seed- cane are scattered broadcast over the surface. The seed is then lightly covered over with soil. In consequence, the cane grows pifferont irregularly, and a jurigle is formed; weeding cannot be properly eee done, and air and light cannot properly penetrate. cane, _ The Mauritius system is to place the cuttings in holes about 9 inches deep, placed along rows 34 feet to 4 feet apart, or else to lay the cane along channels or furrows in the bottom of which the manure is put, and the cane above it. The ‘‘ hole”’ system is mostly used on undulating ground, but the ‘‘ furrow ”’ system is the best wherever irrigation is required. Thus the ‘‘ furrow ”’ system is the one best suited to India. If the plan of sowing the seedécane in far- rows were to entirely replace that of simply levelling the ground advantage of and sowing the cane broadcast over the field, a very much increased Mepitins yield of sugar would be the result. Messrs: Thomson and Mylne have clearly demonstrated at Beheea that this would be the éase, and that the cane grows very much thicker if planted deeper. Nevertheless, the Behar cultivator, even on Messrs. Thomson and Mylne’sown Estate, continues, with few exceptions, to adopt his old: plan of broadcast sowing, and non-use of manure. It is noteworthy, however, that the iron sugar-mill is now universally employed. — Although in many parts, as in Behar, the old method of sowing is adhered to, yet in the best districts, and among the best classes of cultivators, the ‘furrow 7’ system has made great advance, and it is recognised that it yields far better results; what is wanted is to make the practice aniversal. As 4 contrast to careless methods of sdwing, I call to’ mind a practical’ y, stances, demonstration which a cultiyator at Méhim gave me, of the way in which sugat-cane is grown in the Théna district of Bombay. The entire pro- ceas was carried out on a small scale before my eyes, and I could uot but wonder at the great care displayed in every detail. The lines in which the cane was to be sown were pegged and marked out with strings; the seed-cane was set at regular intervals, a stick being used to mark the respective distances apart ; the soil was next covered over, and water was allowed to flow on gently, though not in excess; the manure (castor refuse) was put on, not broadcast, but in small handfuls around each plant (the latter z being supposed then to have grown) ; lastly, the leaves were tied round the stems, as the rainy season was represented to be coming on. Little wonder is it that the out-turn is so large and the crop so remunerative. Again, as contrasts, I mention the following from Mr. Basn’s Report on the Agriculture of Palaman: “ The cultivation of sugar-cane is very “negligent, as now carried on; cuttings are sown at random and lightly “covered with eoil; the fields are not hoed properly, and light and air do “not getin. This is very different to that of the central districts of Bengal, 16a 244 Crops and Cultivation. * where large kinds of cane, e.g., samsera, are grown, and are planted in “furrows, the stems being wrapped up in leaves in the rainy season, thus “letting in light and air; here oil cake is used as manure, and the fields “are hoed.,,,...99 the Palamau raiyat gets hie 25 maunds of unrefined sugar ““(gur) per acre, while the raiyat of Burdwan or Hooghly will obtain 60 maunds.” The Mauritius system of cultivating sugar-cane is practised around Calentta, but is unksown in Bhagalpur and the greater part of the Patna Division, The cultivation of sugar-cane is much better in Burdwan than in Shahabad, though the manufacture of gur is, on the other hand, superior in the latter, At Hospet (Madras) sugar-cane is largely grown; it is always planted in furrows, these being split after about three months. At Meerut, Saharanpur, Hoshiarpur, and generally throuzhout the North- West Provinces and the Punjab, the “furrow ”’ system of planting is adopted by the better cultivators. Improvementin 319. The cultivation of the Potato is carried on much better enutivernof in some parts than in others, I find it stated that in Rawal Pindi— “ Potato cultivation is not good and leaves much room for improvement ; “large and quick returns are obtained for a year or two and then fall off, “owing to want of careful husbandry.” In Lohardaga, potato cultivation is not carefully carried on, but in Hooghly and Hast Burdwan it is good. Other instances 820. The sowing of ‘dry ” (unirrigated) land in Northern of method, Madras by means of a seed-drill has been mentioned, whereas this is unknown in Southern Madras (see paragraph 294). In Tinnevelly cotton is not drilled, but it is very probable that if this were done much less weeding would be requisite. Mr. Hill, Officiating inspector General of Forests, in his Report on the Coorg Forests points out the benefit that would resuit from teaching the Kurubars of Coorg the plan of teak seed planting adopted by the Karens of Burma. At the commencement of the rains the seed is laid down in beds from which, as it begins to germinate, it is picked out and transferred to land on which rice, vegetables, etc., are grown. The teak seed is put in lines 9 feet apart, and 4 feet intervene between each seedling. The rice or other crop is reaped and the young teak plantation is left. I might mention many other instances where benefit would follow the transference of cultivation methods, but the foregoing will fully suffice to make my point clear, 245 CONCLUSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, 321.( The differences which are met with in methods of cultivation throughout India are largely those belonging to the third class of differences set out in Chapter II, v#z., those arising directly fiom want of knowledge.) The variety of crops grown is, of conrse, bounded to a great extent by physical conditions, such as climate, soil, water, etc., but, as has been shown, it is in some degree also due to want of knowledge. (Improvement in Agriculture will, as before, result from a modification of these differences. ) Such modification will be effected mainly by the transference of method from one district to another, and even from one country to another) The practice of other countries, as seen in the case of the many imported crops now common in India, as also in the planting of sugar-cane, may often be usefully adopted ; so also may that of the better indigenous districts, In the work of transference of method the people are likely to do but little or notbing, aad the duty once more falls upon Government, and upon Agricultural Departments in particular. The principal improvements that can be effected are: in dewonstrating at Experimental Farms (the benefits of selection and change of i) in giving facilities for the supply, purchase, and distribution 6f good seed fin demonstrating the utility of new varieties of existing crops; in testing and introducing new crops ; in investigating the diseases and attacks to which crops are subject ; in transferring a better method of cultivation to a district where an inferior one prevails, It is very clear that no work such as is contemplated in tle foregoing suggestions, and more especially in the last-named, can possibly be carried out without a very thorough knowledge of existing practices. This knowledge, it seems to me, is still wanting, and can only be attained by a definite system of Agricultural Enquiry. RECOMMENDATIONS, 322. I recommend: — The continuation of Experimental Enquiry at Govern. ment Farms in regard to selection and change of seed, growth of new varieties of crops and of crops altogether new, methods of cultivation, ete, RECOMMENDA- TIONS, 246 Conel ussons. The Establishment of Seed Farms under Provincial Agricultural Departments for providing good seed for the various districts ; and the giving of facilities and encouragement for the purchase of seed from these Farms by the cultivators, The pursuit of the study of Diseases and injuries of crops. The organisation of a system of Agricultural Enquiry, for the purpose of obtaining a thorough knowledge of present Agricultural methods, and for the transfer- ence of better methods to districts where inferior ones prevail, 247 CHAFTER XIV, CHAPTERXIV. | AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES AND EXPORTS. Acnrovyronar NDOETRIBS AND Exports, 323. In addition to the ordinary crops which the ratyat cul- tivates for his own use, there are some, such as tea, coffee, indigo, sugar, and tobaceo, which undergo a process of manufacture before becoming marketable articles, aud others, such as cotton and wheat, with which special considerations in the matter of export are bound up. In the previous chapter cultivation only was dealt with, and suggestions were madé as to how it might be improved. I propose here to treat of points in which I think an improvement, either in manufacture or in the conditions of export, may be effected, T said then that it was no part of my duty to describe crops or Score of this cultivation, so it is not for me here to describe manvfacturing processes, or to touch upon the relations of trade between India and other countries, or upon the varying elements which affect it. During my tour I had the opportunity of seeing the industries cannected with the utilisation of the above-named crops, aiid I shall briefly note any points which specially struck my attention as affording evidence of.the possibility of improvement, Sugar. Sugar, 324, Sugar-cane is certainly one of the most profitable crops’ for the ratyat to grow. There is always a ready market for the manufactured sugar, and, generally speaking, the area of land under sugar-cane is not sufficient to meet the local demand for the. unrefined sugar or gu7,asit is termed.{ As aconsequeace of this, and of the high rates for transmission within the country itself, a great deal of sugar is imported from Mauritius, In the Bomwbay Presidency it is estimated that, after deducting all expenses, a profit of from Rs. 30 to Rs. 40 per acre may he made by sugar-cane cultivation, The general out-turn of unrefined sugar (gur) may be put at one ton per acre, 7 Sugar-eane is a crop particularly well suited to India. The went suited t soil is adapted to it, and the climate is by no means unfavourable, 14% Where irrigation is obtainable, cane can, a3 a rule, grow well, and yield a very rici return, India, isdeed, in the matter of sugar production, ought to be an exporting rather than an importing country. It is well, therefore, to look at some of the reasons which have caused the present condition of things, and to consider whether they can be removed. / 325. In the last chapter I have spoken of the cultivation tmprovement im of sugar-cane, and have shown that there is room for im- Protvetion of provement in it, The improvements will consist principally ~ ° 248 Agricultural Industries and Exports. in adopting the ‘furrow’ system of planting (see paragraph 318). Beyond this, there are points connected with the manufacture of sugar from the expressed juice, which have been touched on under the head of “‘ Implements ”? (see paragraph 288). If I were asked what had tended most to render the manufacture of sugar not as satisfactory as it might be, I should be inclined to say, “The little that is really known as to what influences the yield of sugar.”’ On these points I will briefly touch. Improvement in 326. In the first place, although it has been shown at Beheea sowing. that cane planted according to the Mauritius plan produces more sugar than when sown broadcast, more precise knowledge is required in regard to other parts of the country also, and the demonstration of the fact should be made clear to the people. The yields from Next, whereas many different varieties of cane are grown, very different varie little indeed is known as to the yield of respective varieties. In one district one. kind of cane is in favour, in another a different kind. Sometimes a cane is required for eating purposes, some- times one that will resist the attacks cf white-ants, or one that jackals will not destroy. But, though each may have its special metits, next to nothing is known of the actual amount of sugar that each will produce. Mr. F. M. Gill, of Nellikuppam (Madras), in a report issued not long since, points out the great differences which exist in the juice of different varieties of cane. From his own experience he deduces the result that the variety of cane known in Trinidad as ‘‘ Green Salangore’’ gives a better juice than any variety of cane grown in Barbadoes. This variety Mr. Gill believes to be the same as the ordinary Coimbatore cane. He therefore advocates the cultivation of this variety in preference to any other. Mr, Gill strongly urges the necessity for investi- gation into this branch of the sugar industry, and that careful analyses and records should be made and collected. Influence of 827. The influences of weather, soil, water, and manure, in weather, soil, determining the yield of sugar, are but little understood. The manure, reason is not far to seek. If‘is, that no one has specially worked out the question for India. Here and there a few analyses have been made, and at one factory a chemist is regularly employed who has made some investigations, but the information needed is that from a muchwider source, and embracing conditions not peculiar to one part of India alone. To givea single instance: in the neigh- bourhood of Poona, where cane is very extensively cultivated, and where the night-soil of the town is employed as a manurial agent, there is an idea that the ‘‘ poudrette ”’ (as the manure is called) gives a juice poor in crystallisable sugar. Whether this is actually the case or not still requires demonstration; at all events, it is given as. one of the reasons why the sugar factory at Poona is not successful. The period of ripening is, it is known, affected by the use of cer- tain manures, but the particular way in which they act is not under- stood. It has been noted already (see paragraph 99) that the native cultivator has a partiality for well water in preference to canal water, if both be obtainable, and that he sets a certain, store upon water of a particular kind whichis highly charged with. Sugar. 249 soluble salts, and which he considers especially favourable to sugar- cane and tobacco crops. The use of earth impregnated with nitre, for putting round the stems of sugar-cane as a manure, has also been referred to (see paragraph 133). Jf 328. Next, there is uncertainty as to the right time ‘for cut- ting the cane. ‘This can only be definitely arrived at by careful investigation and by the aid of chemical science. It is well known, however, that the measure of success attained depends much upon the time of cutting. If the cane be cut too early, the saccharine juice will be found not to be sufficiently developed, whereas, if left too long, some sugar will be transformed into fibre and other constituents. The desideratum is to take the cutting at the time of maximum development of sugar/ The chemist at the Rosa Factory in the North-West Provinces has made analyses show- ing that the top joints of the cane contain no cane-sugar, even when nearly ripe, and that the common practice of reserving whole canes for ‘‘seed”’ is a wasteful one. The West Indian planter only uses the top of the cane for ‘‘ seed,”’ and this, though done in parts, ought to be done universally in India. 329. Another pcint on which there is very uncertain informa- tion is the extent to which the system of “‘ ratoon ’’ growing is a profitable one. In some parts, the cane, instead of being freshly planted each year, is allowed to stand over fora second, third, or even later season, and is then called ‘‘ ratoon 7? cane. At Poona I saw such a crop of the sixth successive season, but the opinion is general in the district ‘‘ that ratoon-growing ”’ will pay for three years, but not longer. The advantages are, that much less labour is required, and that only half the amount of manure is used. On the otber hand, there are the objections that after atime the land gets sticky, and cannot be worked properly ; also that the new shoots spring out from ‘‘eyes’’ higher up the stem than they did when the cutting of seed-cane was deposited below the ground, and in this way roots grow out above the surface of the soil, giving the cane a less firm holding and less power of drawing upon the nourishment placed below it. I could not, however, obtain anything but expressions of general belief, and it will not be un- til the respective systems have been tried side by side, and the cultivation expenses, out-turn of sugar, and other items have been drawn up in a balance-sheet, that really reliable information can be given. Such work as this would be a most useful one for Agri- cultural Departments to undertake, and I would urge it being done, not only cn Experimental Farms but on land in the actual occupation of cultivators. Where, as on an Experimental Farm, all labour is hired, cultivation expenses are very different to those which the raiyet would have to meet, and therefore it is of advan- tage to take land under ordinary cultivation, and to see exactly what it would cost the raiyat to carry out one or the other of two competing systems, Time of cutting cane, The ‘' ratoon ** system, Experiments should be made upon its value, f. 330. The point at which, perhaps, the greatest waste of sugar Transfer of cane ‘occurs is after the cane has been cut, and itis largely in conse- tajuty'o. quence of imperfect management in the stages snbsequent to the pressing. cutting that India is an importer of foreign sugar, i Advantage of Beheea mill. Evaporating- pans and rapid boiling, Necessily of cleanliness. 250 Agricultural Industries and Exports. we Rapidity of transfer of the cut canes to the pressing machine, and rapid expression of the juice, are most essential, or the loss of erystallisable sugar through the setting-up of fermentation will be very great./ There are few things which are capable of more rapid transformation into less valuable products than is sugar-cane juice, and every effort should be made to limit the action of fermen- tation. /L£ the canes, after cutting, be left about, or have to be carted long distances, or if the pressing process be long delayed, loss of sugar must supervene. /It is in obviating such difficulties as these that the Beheea iron mill has done so much good. It can be easily transported to the spot where the crop is grown; it presses the cane rapidly, and does not necessitate the repeated passing of the canes through it as the old native wooden mill did, nor the cut- ting up of the cane into the short lengths required by the ‘‘ mortar and pestle ’? mill (4o/4x). Roth these elements in the native method of procedure promote acidification and consequent loss of sugar. Dr. Waldie aad others have shown that about 10 per cent. more crystallisable sugar is found in the unrefined sugar (yur) obtained 4 the Beheea mill than in the product made by the native mills. 331. Not only must there be rapidity in pressing, but also in transferring the expressed juice to the evaporating-pans, and in the boiling of the juice. / It is in this latter respect that a great improvement has of late been effected through the introduction of wide, shallow iron evaporating-pans in place of the narrow, deep, copper or even earthen pans that were universal before. The exposure of a large surface promotes rapid evaporation and gives less time for changes. to take place. Another essential fo success is the removal of scum and of non-crystallisable bodies from the juice as it is being evaporated. 332. Perfect cleanliness of all vessels used in the manufacture is requisite for obtaining the maximum yield of sugar. The pres- ence of any foreign material, dirt, etc., will speedily set up fermen- tation ; so, too, will the use of any vessel with an imperfectly cleaned surface. Messrs. Thomson and Mylne pointed out to me that they had effected considerable improvement by inducing the native culti- vators around them to collect the expressed juice in tin vessels, such as are used for holding paraffin, instead of in their earthenware vessels or gharrahs, The tin vessels can be readily purified by burning sul- phur in them, and thus be kept sweet and clean, but the juice soaks into the porous earthenwaie pots and turns sour. Washing will not remove this and the vessel is never sweet; the consequence is that, when fresh juice is poured in,- the acidifying’ process is quickly set up, and acertain amount of crystallisable sugar is there+ by lost. Captain Montgomery, in the Hoshiarpur Settlement Re- port, says:— “ After pressing, a decided improvement might be effected in greater “‘ cleanliness ;.the vessels’ which hold the: juice are not cleaned as often as “ they should be, and the juice therefore is very liable to acidification, “while the general disregard of the ordinary rules of cleanliness in the “ sugar refineries is beyond description.” Sugar. 251 333. In Coimbatore and many other parts it is usual to throw “ Refoiog lime into the juice as it is being evaporated, in order to neutralise °°*” any acidity, but this is done in a quite haphazard way. In other cases no process of purifying the sugar is used. In Lohardaga and Palamau only the scum is removed, and there is no demand for sugar of superior quality. The solid sugar called gur is the juice boiled down and allowed to cool into a mass. A liquid sugar called r¢é is made by not boiling the juice as much as in making gur and by clarifying it while it is being boiled; the juice is then left to cool in earthen vessels, and purified sugar may be made from it by a process of straining and crystallising-out which is conducted by the reg ular trader, though not by the cultivator. The process takes three to four months. The liquid sugar or rd6 may also be purified at once by the “‘ centrifugal drier, ”’ or “‘ sugar-turbine, ”” introduced by the «centritugal Messrs, Thomson and Mylne (see paragraph 292). The molasses drier.” drain away and leave the dry crystals. As much as 50 maunds (of 80 Ibs. each) of r¢6 may be thus made into sugar in 10 hours. Proper desiccation and storage of the sugar after preparation by any of the above methods is necessary, and the “ centrifugal drier’ will be very useful where sugar is made in any quantity. / A difficulty in the way of improving the refining of sugar wative objection is that the demand for sugar of any kind is so great that the infe- 'e ‘efined sugar. rior qualities fetch a high price, and the better quality will not command sufficiently more to make the refining remunerative. A prejudice exists, too, against refined sugar, owing to the belief eurrent among the Natives that it is purified by using the bones of animals, _ 334. The establishment of central Sugar Factories has been sagar Factories, urged as a means of increasing the sugar yield of the country. It has been pointed out that while there are 2,500,000 acres under sugar-cane in India, the produce is only about one ton of sugar per acre, whereasin the West Indies it is about two tons per acre, Improvements in cultivation are, as I have mentioned, possible, ciication in but the Factory system, though it has been tried, has, with a few Indiaand exceptions, been a failure. The reasons are various. One difficulty pared. in growing sagar-cane is, that enough manure cannot be obtained, and dependence has also very often to be put on canals which afford uncertain supplies of water. Then, the rainfall is more regularly distributed in Mauritius than in India, and the produce will be affected accordingly, Again, sugar-cane is cultivated in India on a number of small patches, often some distance from one another, and not on large areas as in Mauritius ; consequently there is con- siderable loss in cutting and carrying the canes any distance to a Factory, and the portable iron mill is found to be the most con- venient machine to use. The high price asked for the raw material is another and true obstacle to the success cf Factories, The local demand for gur is, great, a good price is given for it, and there is an unwillingness to pay more for refined sugar. /The working Export avd import of sugar, Date-sugar. Extension of cultivation of sugar-cane, 252 Agricultural Industries and Exports, season in India is only about 75 days ; in Mauritius, Demerara, etc., it is from 100 to 140 days. Lastly, only a few of the Factories are allowed to make rum from the molasses, and the prohibition, when exercised, destroys the profit of refining. The Factories at Poona and Baroda have failed from these reasons, but one in Kolha- pur (a Native State) pays because liberty is given to make rum. The Rosa Factory in the North-West Provinces pays fairly, I un- derstand, and it is worthy of notice that the Company employ a chemist of their own. 835. In 1889-90 nineteen million rupees’ worth of sugar was imported into India, chiefly from Mauritius, whilst nine million rupees’ worth of unrefined sugar was exported, cbiefly from Madras. Import is mainly confined to the Bombay side, and here Mauritius sugar has quite driven out the North-West Provinces sugar, owing to the cost of transit within India being so great, On the other hand, export takes place on the Calcutta side and from Madras. The question naturally suggests itseli—Why do not Madras and Bengal supply Bombay ? Sugar is,in a few cases, derived from other sources than the sugar-cane ; for instance, the Date-palm (Phenix dactylifera) is sometimes used for sugar manufacture in the Lower Provinces of Bengal. Its use is, however, declining very mach. 336,/ There is no doubt that a much larger area of land could be put under sugar-cane. More manure would be needed, and per- haps more water facilities also, | Still, it is noteworthy that, around Beheea, when Messrs. Thomson and Mylne first came to it, there used to be only 1 per cent. of the cultivation under sugar-cane, and now there is 10 per cent. Mr. Nicholson points out that in Coimbatore there are tens of thousands of acres of wet land on which Rs. 20 an acre are spent in order to grow a crop of food grain worth Rs. 40, whereas on the same land rich crops like sugar-cane and plantains, worth Rs. 150 an acre, might grow splendidly. Rich mer- chants, however, buy the land as an investment, and hand it over to poor tenants for cultivation; these latter cannot put a single rupee into the land, but are obliged to utilise it for growing grain crops to feed themselves. Mr. Nicholson esti- mates the profit on the growing of sugar-cane to be from Rs. 75 to Rs, 125 per acre, or, if made into sugar, from Rs, 85 to Rs. 105 per acre. Mr, Sen, in his Report on the Agriculture of Dacca, says :— “The extent of land capable of growing sugar-cane is probably greater “than in any part of Behar and Lower Bengal, and the supply of sugar- “cane for local consumption comes from places so far distant as Ghazipur “and Benares (both in the North-West Provinces). The soil is fertile, “bat the cultivators are lazy and devoid of enterprise. If properly ‘utilised, the land can produce sufficient sugar to supply the demands of “the whole of Bengal, but the cultivation of sugar-cane is at present * extremely limited.” Sugar-cane used to be extensively cultivated in the Central Provinces. ‘The juice was boiled over wood fires, and large areas : Sugar. 253 were denuded for the purpose of getting the firewood. Now, owing to the scarcity of firewood, the cultivation of sugar-cane has been largely given up. Mr. Faller, on coming here from the North-West Provinces, introduced the practice common in Meerut and Robilkhund, and showed that the juice could be boiled quite well by using the megass or spent cane after it has passed through the rollers, and that firewood couid thus be dispensed with. This is a good instance of improvement by transference of practice. 337. In the various points upon which I have touched I have, Need for I think, made it abundantly clear that, in the cultivation and iis manufacture of sugar, there is sufficient ‘work to call for the em- ployment of a chemist for the purposes of that industry alone. Occasional assistance in the numerous questions awaiting decision may be rendered by a Government chemist temporarily giving his attention to such matters, but the subject is one really large enough to justify the tellmg-off of a man specially for this work. If a single Factory finds, as I am assured that it does, that it must have its own chemist, how much more reason is there for the deputing of a man to work, ’from the chemical wide, at the questions affecting an industry of so much concern to Indian agriculture. A considerable duty also rests on Agricultural Departments to Pooh Agta collect precise information as to the cost of cultivation, the out-turn, ments, and the merits of different implements and methods of manufacture, so that the most profitable one may be introduced and be generally practised. Cotton. Cotton, 338-Cotton, like sugar-cane, is a very profitable crop for the raiyat to grow,~ The actual cultivation of it is thoroughly well understood, and I am not aware of any suggestion that can be made for improvement in this respect. There is, however, a great deal of information to be gathered in regard to the respect- ive yields of different varieties, and towards ascertaining which is the most profitable one to cultivate. Cotton is generally a single year’s crop, but perennial varieties are occasionally grown which are left for a second or a third year. I saw perennial cotton growing at Ahmedabad and at Avenashi (Coimbatore). The indigenous varieties now generally cultivated give a short-stapled, bard cotton, although finer and longer-stapled varieties are still cultivated in some parts of Berar, in Broach, and elsewhere. American varieties of otton were introduced about Acclimatisation 60 years ago, and have been acclimatised, principally at Dharwar ; ee they yield a fine and long fibre. For the last 20 years there has been a steady deterioration in the quality of the cotton exported from India and the long-stapled varieties, which, under the special names, ‘‘Oomras,” ‘ Broach,” ‘‘ Dhdrwars,” ete., had acquired special favour in the Liverpool market, have been subject to an in- ereasing and now enormous amount of adulteration with the in- ferior, shorter-stapled kinds, so that the significance of the old names “ Mixing” of has now almost disappeared, and complaints as to the inferiority of °*'°™ 854 Agricultural Industries and Haports. Indian cotton have been very great. The cotton most largely used in this way is the Vilayati or Varadi cotton of Khandesh, The cotton grown in Bengal, the North-West Provinces, the Punjab, Réjputana, and Central India generally, is known as _“ Bengals ;”” that from Madras and Western India generally as “ Westerns,” Attempts to im- 339. Many efforts have been made, and even Government Prove cote. Jegislation has been tried, in order to keep pure the finer qualities of cotton, and to prevent the increased growing of the coarser native kinds. But all these efforts have failed, and at the present time the cuitivation of the indigenous varieties is more extensive than ever, The reasons are, briefly, that the country cotton is a better-yielding variety, it is earlier, and more hardy than the long-stapled kinds; besides, it commands a good price, the crop pays the raiyat well to grow, and there is a ready de~ mand for every bale that is grown. The ratyat, therefore (and, as it seems to me, wisely), concludes that he is justified in continuing’ to cultivate the coarser kinds, and he does not care to run the risk of growing a smaller-yielding and less certain crop, besides having to wait longer for it, and in the end getting but little more return for it. A quick return means, to the raiyat, that he can the sooner repay the loan he has obtained for the seed and the cultivation. The general opinion is that it is useless to interfere by legislation, and that unless it can be shown to the ratyat that he will get more for growing fine cotton than he does now, and more than will cover the risk he runs in the smaller and less certain crop, he will eontinue to grow the country cotton, and legislation will fail, as it has done before, fo prevent him from getting and sowing the seed which he knows will succeed. As long, too, as there is the ready demand which exists for the country cotton, and so long as merchants will not give higher prices for better kinds, the supply of country cotton will be maintained. But if the complaints made against Indian cotton proved to be so well founded that the merchants had to stop purchasing the cotton, then, I believe, the raiyat would very quiekly alter his practice and grow the finer kinds. In this matter, asin many others, the cultivator would show himself quite alive to his own interests, and he may be very well trusted to do what- pays him best. The preserva: 340. There may, however, be some fear that if there were a tion of better ~~ sudden demand for finer cotton the raiyat would not have the seed for growing the crop. Therefore, I regard with favour a proposal made by Mr. Ozanne, to grow and to perpetuate a certain quantity of pure seed of some of the better varieties, such as bani and jart, hich are still known in Berar. It would, further, appear very desirable to have some recog nised trade-mark description for the various kinds of cotton grown, At present there is no protection for any of the admittedly finer varieties, although merchants might be willing’ to pay a higher price for them. The misfortune as regards the cultivator of the better kinds of eotton is, not only that there is no protection afforded to him whereby a certain name and better price would be secured for his Cotton. 255 cotton, but that, through ‘the system of obtaining seed-cotton by advances on it from the grain merchant, a pure seed is not obtained for re-sowing. The cotton pickers are always paid tn hind, receive ing so much seed in return for their labour; they take the seed in small lots to the grain merchant, who mixes all the seed together, and the cultivator buys back, not his pure seed, but a mized lot. Thus the purity of a variety becomes lost. ~~ The Cotton Presses whish are now distributed over the country Cotton Presses, are, it would appear, responsible for a part of the sys- tematic “ mixing’” which goes on, The cotton is brought in, cleaned, and packed by the Presses for transmission to Bombay and other ports for shipment. A Cotton Press which I saw at Jeypore bad paid all its expenses in the first three years of ite existence, The ‘‘ mixing” of cotton which goes on up-country is due, in great «ising ” of measure, to the fact that the merchants at Bombay and other ports, cotton. instead of purchasing direct, leave the execution of their commissions to native local traders, in whose hands is, therefore, the entire manipulation of the cotton. 1f the merchants were to go up- country themselves and purchase direct from the producers, a better state of things would prevail. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that all the “ mix- ing ” of cotton goes on up-country, On the contrary, the Buro- pean merchant is greatly to blame, and very much of the “ mix- ing” goes on at the ports of shipment, under the eye of the heads of European firms. AL. The whole question of the adulteration of cotton is one the. Theremeds rest remedy for which seems to rest rather with thetrade than with” agriculture. If there were a demand for long-stapled eotton, and. if the trade were willing to give more fcr it, the cultivator would. soon grow it; but so long asthe demand for cheap cotton is so great, no change can be made, and it would be unwise to interfere with trade by legislation, or to try to oblige the ratyat to grow only certain varieties of cotton, ~ 342. Dr, Watt estimates the total annual production of cotton pyrort of cotton in India at 9,200,000 ewt., of which, 3,500,000 ewt. are consumed 24 cotton seeds in Indian mills, and 5,700,060 cwt. are exported, principally to the United Kingdom, I have spoken of cotton seed as a food for cattle, and have men- tioned that itis but little exported (see paragraph 127), Dr. Watt has called my attention to the fact that, reckoning from the cotton produced, and after deducting what seed is used for home consump- tion and for sowing again, there ought to be fully 600,000 tons of cotton seed available annually for export. Indigo. 343. The cultivation of indigo is, perhaps more than that of any other crop, beset with considerations which are rather of a po- litical than of a strictly agricultural character. If would be foreign to the objects of my Report were I, with my limited experience, to enter into the discussion of matters which call for a wide knowledge Indigo, Its cultivation, Continuous cropping with indigo, Poseible explanation. 256 Agricultural Industries and Exports. of the political relations of planter, zemzadar, and raiyat, as well as of the past and present condition of the people in the indigo-growing districts. These points, all important though they be in their bearing upon the indigo industry, must be left to others to deal with, I shall, as I have done before, confine my remarks to a few matters which came under my notice when visiting the indigo districts of Behar, 344. Indigo is grown under several different systems, the merits of which I will not discuss, but, generally epeaking, the razyat covenants with the European planter to grow indigo for him over a certain proportion of his holding, There is no stipulation as to how the land thus set aside shall have been previously cultivated. The planter bas, in addition, a certain amount of land around his factory which he cultivates himself, growing on it principally indi- go, with an occasional chanze to oats or barley, or else sugar-cane, judr (chart), maize or some other fodder-crop for feeding cattle (see paragraph 236). The cultivation of indigo has been very greatly improved by the European planter, and the native growers have to some extent followed the example set them. I have noted in previous chapters (see paragraphs 55, 278, 294) how great is the care exercised in tilling the soil, in obtaining a fine even surface,in preventing any loss of moisture, and in breaking up any crustthat forms after rain has fallen. I have pointed out also that selecton of seed is carefully attended to (see paragraph 808), and that imported or “ improved” implements have an opportunity of being usefully employed in indigo cultivation (see paragraph 281). On the indigo estates or “concerns,” as they are called, there is a large area to be sown, and it is all important to gei this done quickly and just at the right time. Hence the indigo planter usesa drill which will sow, not one, but several rows at a time, and he uses a large num- ber of these drills. 345. Whenever it is possible, an indigo crop is taken on the home land, but occasionally a change in the cropping is made. This, however, can hardly be termed ‘‘rotation;’” it is merely a ‘rest’? to the land from growing indigo, and is resorted to when- ever the crop shows any signs of failing. During my tour, land was pointed out to me which had been under indigo for as much as forty years with only a very occasional change of crop. The capa- bility of the soil thus to grow indigo successively is, in my opinion, closely bound up with considerations which have been quite recently brought to light by scientific investigation. It has been shown that certain plants of the Natural Order Leguminosae have the power of assimilating indirectly the nitrogen of the atmosphere. This power is exercised, not by direct inspiration through the leaves, but by the medium of particular ‘nodules’? which form upon the rootlets of the plant, and enable the plant to utilise the nitrogen supplied from the atmosphere (see paragraph 60). The indigo plant (Indégofera tinetoria) belongs to the Natural Order Leguminos@, and, although scientific investigation has not, Indigo. 257 as yet, been specially directed to it, I have little doubt that it will be found to possess properties similar to those already established in the case of other Leguminose that have been studied. Presuming this to be the case, we may have in this the explanation of the continued cropping with indigo that is such a remarkable feature in India. It is not, I should point out, a parallel case to that of con- Comparison with tinuous corn-growing, the possibility of which has been clearly cropping. shown in England; nor yet is it like the continuous cultivation of. such crops as sugar-cane, coffee, tea, etc., in the West Indies and elsewhere. In these cases the continuity is maintained by the. heavy application of manures which supply the demands of the plant, and accordingly, if there be manure enough, and of a suitable nature, rotation may within limits, be dispensed with. Thus, at Rothamsted, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have grown wheat and barley continuously for 50 years without change, by the aid of: artificial manures. At Woburn, I myself have under observation: similar experiments where these corn crops have been sown year’ after year for 16 successive seasons, and still continue to yield an undiminished produce, The limit, so far as the practical farmer is practical limites concerned, is that of the expense and trouble of keeping the land clean, and of freeing it from the weeds which are the invariable concomitant of these crops. These can best be got rid of by introducing a change of crop, and by growing one the habits and cultivation of which differ from those of the crop which has preceded it. In this sense aroot crop may be termed a © cleaning ” crope But though the case of indigo is analogous in the respect Manuring for of requiring an occasional “cleaning,” it is very different in ™“®™ ~ that of manurial treatment. Broadly, it may be said that the- only manure for indigo is indigo itself, in the form of the refuse indigo twigs and leaves, termed seet, which are removed from the vats after steeping has been done, Artificial manures have made no way in India, and where they have been tried for indigo. they have not clearly shown any compensating benefit. Even with simpler manures, such as lime, gypsum, nitre, etc., there is uncertainty as to their efficacy. Seet, on the other hand, is known to be beneficial, though it has yet to be established ow it acts, whether by virtue of the nitrogen which it supplies, or on account of the vegetable matter which it returns to the soil, or possibly even by its physical effects and moisture-holding pro- perties. What the planter does complain of is, that he has not. as much seeé to put on the Jand as he would like, Indigo cultivation, accordingly, is not an illustration of rotation being dispensed with by means of heavy manuring, but the explanation of its continuation may possibly be found in the power which it shares with some others of the Leguminosae, of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen. This opens up a very’ interesting field of investigation, for which India affords special opportunities. 846. While indigo may thus be, and is, taken year after Change of year, it is known that a change of cropping is occasionally “”?"™ 17 Inseot ravages, Advantage of change o cropping. Selection and change of seed, Unsolved questions as to cultivation, Thick or thin seeding. Manuring. 258 Agricultural Industries and Exports, desirable or even necessary. This is termed a ‘‘rest” for the land. Similar, though more serious in result if not freely practised, is the change required with clover-cropping in England, the land being rendered “cloversick,’”’ as it is termed, if clover be too often repeated during the course of a rotation. Misg Ormerod, lately Consulting Entomologist to the Royal Agricul- tural Society, has shown that, concurrent with,even if not causative of, this “clover sickness,” is the presence of a destructive eel- worm (Tylenchus devastatriz), whose extermination is best effected by “starving it out;” in other words, by growing in place of the clover some crop on which the 7ylenchus will not thrive, and in not repeating clover until the pest has died out. Similarly, the indigo crop has its own particular pests, al- though their ravages are not so general as to prohibit the cultivas tion of the crop. Caterpillars and a kind of cricket called zirwat, which burrows in the ground, are its principal enemies, A change of cropping is the most effectual means of getting rid of the pests, both insect and vegetable, which attack the plant, and which are more or less fostered. by the continuance of one and the same crop upon the land. A change in culti- vation is also beneficial to the soil, and the growing of a crop different in its plant-requirements to the preceding one enables dormant or non-utilised constituents in the soil to be made use of to the advantage of the new crop. I believe that change of cropping might be usefully followed in indigo cultivation to a much greater extent than is now the case, and this without expenditure of more manure, What has told in the past against the practice is the anxiety of the planter to get his money as quickly asas possible out of the indigo cultivation, and therefore to put as great a breadth of land in indigo as he can, 347. Care is shown in the selection of seed, for in this respect the European planter does not follow the Native. There are English merchants at Cawnpore and elsewhere who make it: their business to select and sell good seed to the planter, and the planter in turn is very particular to get a change of seed, 348. There is, however, considerable uncertainty as to whether thick-seeding or thin-seeding is the better. Then, uncertainty exists as to manuring, except in the value attached to the refuse indigo plant or sget. The seet water, or water run off from the settling-tanks in which the finely divided indigo deposits itself, issometimes used on the land with a manurial object in view, but it is more often allowed to run to waste, as being worthless. Its value has yet to be demonstrated, and I could form no definite opinion on the point without chemical examination and experi- mental trial, There is much difference of opinion, again, as to whether seet should be spread on the land thickly or thinly. Each planter has his own idea of what is best, and he holds to that. Another disputed question is, when the see¢ should ‘be put on, Some planters cart it out fresh, straight away from .the steeping- vats, others prefer to let it rot and:to apply it when old. \ Iadigo. 259 _ .‘T have been on estates where it is the practice to collect bones, to-grind them in a mill, and use them as manure; more often they are -collected, broken and bagged for export. Thus, even by the European planter, the value of bones has not been established, -or, rather, a better return can be got by the sale of the bones. Ihave been with a planter whose belief in the sulphate of lime (gypsum) and other sulphates was almost unbounded, also with another who thought that nitre was what was wanted for indigo, whilst many more whom I met ridiculed equally either idea. But I never saw anywhere what I would call a “ comparative trial,” conducted on a ‘level uniform Neglect of piece of land, with portions marked off, one cultivated in one way’ cabermental and another in a different way. Suppose, for example, one :plot indigo thickly sown, the adjoining one thinly; one manured with seet =” thickly spread, the other with a thin dressing only.; one on which seet water had been poured, the other with the same volume of ordinary water only ; one manured with fresh scet, the other with old see¢ ; one manured with bones or with nitre, or else gypsum, and @.corresponding one without, These might all form useful experi- wental trials, and I might easily multiply them, but enough. has been said to show what scope there is for, enquiry in connection with the cultivation of the indigo crop, The -most I could hear from any planter was that he had tried this or that plan ove year, but he could not see any benetit from it, and.so did not repeat the trial. But I cannot regard these as “ comparative trials.” An experiment, to be a real one, must be a test of one practice against another, carried on side by side, under.as similar conditions as possible, and it may have to be repeated, and ought to be repeated, before a definite conclusion can be.come to, It is not that a large area is required, or ‘that the risk of heavy outlay is incurred, Por an experimental area, an acre, ‘or even half an acre of Jand would be ample, and if every field had such an area, and if it were made the “learning school’’ for ‘future extension of one or ‘the other practice, great benefit would result, and an answer be given to the many questions awaiting solution. But the planter prefers to put a whole large area under a so-called “experiment” and to incur risk and expense in giving it a thin or a heavy dressing of seef, of bones, or other manure, without having previously ascertained by any trial on a small. and inexpensive scale whether it is likely to succeed or‘not. - If only planters would adopt the simple plan of making “ com- parative trials’? on a smali scale at ‘first, they would gain knowledge which would repay the ‘trouble over and over again when they came to applying the result to the larger area. But what happens is, that when the crop is ready to cut, all that the planter thinks about is to get it carted home and to put it in the vats as soon as possible, and so. the “ experi- ment” has togoto the wall. Iknow only too wellthat this is the general fate of experiments in England as well asin India, and‘ the ‘indigo planter in no way differs from the averagé a gs Iva 260 Agricultural Industries and Ezports. good English farmer, who, though he may be induced to start and to watch an experiment while it is in progress, yet fails at the last by not reaping the produce separately and weigh- ing it, but allows ‘‘ estimate” or ‘‘ guess-work” to take the place of ascertained “fact,’’ and recorded result. I know that there are difficulties to contend with, and that the separate reap- ing and weighing at harvest involve trouble which comes at the most awkward time, but I am equally certain that until planters will go to the trouble of seeking truth in the way which I have indicated, no definite progress will be made, ae zt many questions affecting this important industry be ecided, Unsolved |, _ 49. If the remarks which I have made apply to the culti- manufacture of vation, similar ones might be made with even more force fadiep upon the manufacture of Indigo. It is allowed on all sides, even by the planters themselves, that the manufacture, as at present conducted, is a mere “‘rule of thumb ”’ one, and utter!. unscientific in character. So, indeed, I found it to be, thou y it is no easy matter to say off-hand how it should be altered. I saw enough to warrant me in saying that there is ample scope for improvement, for instance, in the replacement of a “rule of thumb ”’ method by a strictly scientific one, one, that is, in which the details of every step are thoroughly understood. But, at the same time, I could see that it would not be done by any one coming as I did and simply throwing out a sug- gestion or two; but that it would require the aid of some one who had made a thorough investigation of the whole subject from the chemical side, and who could study each detail, ascertaining exactly what changes take place at each step, and then following these throughout until the final stage is reached. The same difficulty which attends experiment in the field accompanies experiment in. the factory. There is the anxiety to get on as quickly as possible, the impossibility of checking any process when in actual operation and the preference to continue in known ways rather than to run the risk of failure with new ones. And so, I fear, it will al- ways be, until some one lays himself out to carefully work. at the subject, and to experimentalise, so that the changes which take place and the conditions which regulate these changes may be fully understood. The planter is not a man naturally of a scientific turn of mind, and he does not care to experi- ment in directions not understood by him. The same causes, ‘Patents’in L regret to say, make him, not unfrequently, the victim of jndigomanu- the pretensions or persuasions of men who, with some smat- tering, perhaps, of scientific knowledge, induce him to adopt this or that patented method of their own, assuring him that thereby he will distance his brother-planters in the quantity and quality of his out-tum, It is surprising what a readiness is shown by the planters to take up and to work for a time the invention of some adventuring so-called ‘chemist, ’’ although previous efforts of the latter may be known to have. proved. disastrous failures. There is always some one ready to take on Indigo. 261 the new ‘‘ patent process,” and to embark upon it, in the hope that, out of the many plans that have been put forward, one at least must turn out a success, and thatit will be his good fortune to secure that one chance out of the hundred. If planters, instead of endeavouring to gain an advantage one over the other, would only combine together to have the whole subject carefully worked out by a man of eminent scientific standing and of known integrity, the result might be attended with enormous benefit to the whole of the planting com. munity, and the enquiry could be carried out at an infinitely lower cost than is now expended by individual planters or trading firms in abortive attempts to secure an advantage over their com- petitors, 350. To take some of the points in dispute. Itis still Packiag at unknown which is the best way” to pack the bundles of indigo vats. plant in the steeping-vats ; whether, for instance, they should be tightly or loosely packed. Some planters support one view, others the opposite, while many maintain that the manner of packing is quite immaterial. The kind of water which it is ad-~ Kind of water ‘visable to use is another matter for discussion, It is argued, "+ though quite empirically, that the white streaks often found run- ning through the blocks of manufactured indigo are the consequence of a hard water being used, that is, one containing a quantity of lime salts. To obviate thiy difficulty, some planters have employed a process for softening the water before it is run into the steeping- vats. But there is no satisfactory evidence as to whether this is essential or even desirable. The superior quality of the ‘‘ mark ”’ of a particular factory is frequently put down to the kind of water used, and there is a general agreement that soft water is preferable to hard, and that muddy, stagnant, or foul water is prejudicial to the production: of a good quality of indigo. I have little doubt that the kind of water used is of material importance, for soft and hard waters have very different extractive powers, But it has still to be determined whether the matters capable of being removed from the indigo plant by the one kind of water and not by the other are conducive to a larger or better out-turn or otherwise. The length of time which steeping should occupy is another Duration of debated point. Some say that the best colour is got by short “°""™ steeping, and that though the quantity obtained may be less, the best paying result is obtainable in this way. Others will steep for nine to ten hours, or even for as long as twelve and thirteen hours; 851, Over the question as to whether the cut plant should be The use ot steeped in water alone, or with some chemical re-agent, a great ‘™™™ deal of speculation and a great deal of money have been expended, and so far with little result. It is this stage which has been the principal field for the ingenuity of the “inventor.’”? The use of nitre, ammonia, alum, carbolic: acid, caustic soda, and other materials has been brought forward, and each plan finds some The “ beating ” process, The “ boiling ” Process, The practical and the chemis cal views com- pared, 262 Agricultural Industries and Exports. planter or other whois willing to take it up from time to'time, although as to what the action of the added chemical is, thete is complete ignorance. 352. When we pass on to consider the “ beating ” process, the want.of harmony between practice and theory is.more than ever apparent. The accepted ideas of each are indeed almost dia- metrically. opposed, What is effected by “ beating” the indigo-con- taining liquid after it has been run off from the steeping-vats is very far from being known, and until some one of high chemical attainments can work.at the subject, not simply in the laboratory, but also in conjunction with the actual manufacturing: process, the real solution of the question will be very distant. The entire manufacture, from the beginning to the end, is one which should be intensely scientific, and should proceed on the most definite lines, instead of which it is, as I have described it, a “rule of thumb ” procedure. To take a single instance. The time at which “ beat- mg ” should cease is determined by a very rough test, the object of which is to see whether the indigo has been separated out from the water. If the finely-divided indigo settles down quickly and leaves no blue solution above, the “ beating’ ’’ is considered complete. This may serve as a rough indication, but is not more, and if ought'to be replaced by a chemical} test which would indicate more certainly whether a quantity of indigo was being run to waste or not. 853. After the indigo has deposited itself in the “ beating-vat’? and tbe supernatant liquid has been run off, the finely-divided indigo. or “‘ fecula ” is transferred to the boiling-vats. But, here again, difference of opinion exists as to whether it should be boiled once only, or twice, and also as to the temperature which it is best to employ in boiling. 354. Dr. Watt, in the able article which he has written on indigo in the “Dictionary of Economic Products,” reviews fully the bearing of scientific investigation upon the manufacturing process, and emphasises the failure to apply the former to the latter. The main question, as to what ‘‘ beating”’ effects, resolves itself into that of whether oxidation is produced in the beating-vat or whether the change is one of a purely mechanzcal nature, The colouring matter contained in the indigo plant is a soluble glucoside termed ¢ndican, which, on maceration of the:plant with water, is convertad into iudigo-blue, and this latter, on fermenta- tion, is reduced to tndigo-white. The view of the practical man is that when the plant is steeped in the vat, fermentation takes place, ¢ndigo-white is produced, and in the “beating process ” this is oxidised: black iagain {8 indigo-biue. Consequently, several patents have been introduced with’ the object of : facilitating: fermentation and rapid’ oxidation, and they consist in the addition of ‘substances, such as nitre, alkalies, ete., to the steeping-vat, or to the beating-vat. If oxidation is effected by the “beating,” the diquid as.it enters the beating-vat from the steeping= vat must be indigo-white, and this, by- the oxidation, becorhes Indigo. 263 converted into éndigo-blue, But if the” liquid as it enters the beating-vat is already finely-divided indigo-blue, there can be no use in putting oxidising materials into the beating-vat, and the change produced by the “beating ” must be a purely mechani- cal one. The chemist who has worked most at this subject is Schunck, in Germany, and he has clearly shown that oxygen is not necessary either for the decomposition of the colouring matter zndiean in the plant, nor for the formation of txdigo-blue. Therefore it is hard to see what good purpose the addition of oxidising agents can effect, and possibly it may do harm, The further investigations of chemi- cal science have led to the conclusion that fermentation is not required at all, but that by simply macerating the plant with water or with a little acid, zwdican is extracted and is decomposed at once into indigo-blue and an indigo-sugar, called indiglucin. What is needed, therefore, is, not to assist, but to prevent fermentation the effect of which would be to decompose the indigo-blue into indigo- whete, and necessitate its re-oxidation tc iadigo-blwe, The process of manufacture as now generally carried out would appear to be this latter one, and to comprise really three stages, eiz., the forma- tion of indtgo-biue, the reduction to indigo-white, and the re-con- version to indigo-blue, whereas the chemical process would be a single one, véz,, the formation of indigo-biue, and its retention in this form by arresting fermentation. 855. It would be of little use were I to enter further into the dise The necessity cussion of what takes place, but I have said sufficient to show that {or 2PEliMe. og at almost every stage of the manufacturing process there is an aes absence of any definite knowledge, This knowledge can only be : obtained by the aprlication of chemical science to the manufaefuie, Tn hardly any other branch of industry where chemical processes play an important part is there such neglect {to obtain the scientific help that is required for the proper working of the industry. But, in the case of indigo, the old ways are kept to, and no advance is: made. Meantime, chemists are busy in England, Germany, and- elsewhere, in working ont methods for successfully replacing the’ natural product by artificial means, just as they have done in the case of cochineal, madder, and other dyes, I regard it merely as amatter of time when this will be successfully done, and it. can only be postponed if those who are engaged in the indigo industry will make use of the very best scientific assistance they can obtain, for the purpose of putting the manufacture upon a rational and ‘scientific basis. I£ the indigo planters would but combine together to engage a chemist of high standing who would take up this in- vestigation in a thorough manner, it would be the very wisest thing they could do; otherwise they must be content to see the prosperity of the industry gradually decrease, 356. Undoubtedly there are irnprovements which can be effected tasatistactory in connection with the system under’ which indigo‘is cultivated, indigo o ‘ ra cultivation, Under the assamiwar system (the one most generally adopted) 8 the planter takés'a lease fromthe’ zemindar, and the’ raiyat’ is 264 Agricultural Industries and Euports. virtually a tenant of the planter, butis obliged to put a certain pro- portion of his holding under indigo each year for sale to the planter. It must be acknowledged that indigo-growing under these con- ditions is not altogether a voluntary system on the part of the raiyat. He does not look on the indigo crop as he does on a food crop ; there is not the same inducement for him to grow a good crop, since he is paid one of two rates, either for a full-crop or for a half-crop, and not according to the actual yield. The raiyat’s constant endeavour is, therefore, to give his worst land for grow- ing indigo, whilst the planter’s aim is to get the best land. On the other hand, the planter has his own Aifficulties. For instance, he has a large capital invested in his manufacturing plant, while he is himself placed to a great extentin the zemindar’s hands in regard to the continuance of his lease ; he has to meet the difficulty of procuring sufficient land for growing the crop under the system generally prevalent, whilst were he toadopt that of pur- chasing the plant from the racyat by the bundle (the Akushi sys- tem) he might not get sufficient crop. The prevailing system, it is right to say, is not a creation of the English planter ; he found it existing when he came, and has simply continued it. Lastly, all alike, whether planter, zemindar, or ratyat, suffer from the non-existence of a proper Record of Rights, in which the ‘areas of holdings and the rents charged should be clearly defined. Tea. 357. I took the opportunity afforded by my travels, of seeing something of tea cultivation both in the Neilgherries and at Darjeeling. This industry, like that of indigo, is one in which empirical rules take, to a great extent, the piace of ascertained and clearly-defined truths, and both in the growing of the crop and in the manipula-. tion of the tea, there is much still to be learnt. My visits were of too hurried a nature to enable me to do more than get a general insight into eome of the questions which are waiting for solution. Tea, Unsettled points 358, There appears to be still a good deal of ignorance as to the niesenluvation. elevation best suited to tea cultivation, Thus, in the Neilgherries, tea is grown as high as 7,300 feet above sea-level, while in the Ouchterlony valley the elevation is 3,500 feet only. In the Dar- jeeling districts similar wide variations are found. Then, in respect of the soil, little is known as to its requirements, In the Neilgheriies, for instance, there is good reason to believe that a deficiency of lime, if not of available potash also, has had to do with the decadence of tea cultivation there, On almost all sides there is but little known about manures, even about those which are available, such as oil cake and bones; the different oil cakes are. classed together just as if they were the same and of equal value; it has not been established whether bones are useful, Tea. 265 whether green-manuring is advantageous, and still less on which lands the systems should be or need not be employed. The infiu- ence of particular fertilisers, sach as nitie or other potash-containing manures, or else of phosphatic or nitrogenous manures, upon the quantity and quality of the tea is not definitely known. In regard even to tillage there are questions, for example, as to what depth of soil should be turned up, whether the land shonld be left in clods or be tilled finely, how far drainage is requisite, ete. 359. The same kind of difficulties are met with in the manu- unsettled points facture of tea, and the delicate processes of drying, withering, roll- 2°, tare, ing, fermenting, firing, etc., are carried on with an almost entire ignorance of the chemical changes which take place at each stage, and without the power of controlling them in any way. By long practical experience a great deal of knowledge has been gathered by skilful manipulators, and the changes of appearance in the leaf at the different stages are closely watched and taken as a guide, but this is very different to knowing exactly what does take place, and how to regulate each operation, so as to produce the best result. 360. Another field of enquiry consists in the study of the Insect and other insect and other ravages to which the tea plant is exposed, and in ”**** devising means for combating them, The ‘‘red spider”? (Tetranychus biseulatus) and the ‘tea bug ”” (Helopeltis theiovora) are the main insect pests, and, as yet, no suc- cessful way of preventing their attacks has been found. Mr. Wood- Mason in particular has given a great deal of attention to the study of the work of these insects. At Darjeeling I found that ** sulphuring ”’ was largely made use of to guard against ‘‘ red spider,’’ butit was an expensive process, costing quite Rs. 20 an acre. 361. It is an acknowledgment of the importance of scientific appointment of inquiry in connection with the cultivation and manufacture of tea, {hams nes that the Indian Tea Association have commenced a definite line of Association. investigation, and have secured an analytical chemist of their own. Mr. Bamber was originally appointed in October 1890 for a term of 14 years, and has already presented his report of the progress made during the first year; this has had to do with enquiries as to the soils, cultivation, and manuring of the tea plant. It is now pro- posed to continue them for one year more, but more specially to devote investigation to the manufacture of tea. I am far from saying that an enquiry lasting over 24 years The insufictency will not be productive of some good, but I am decidedly of opinion *'™® "1" that the time is far too short to allow of the solution of any but a few of the many problems which have been sketched out for deci- _sion. It seems a pity that an enquiry affecting an industry of such importance and representing so much capital as the tea trade possesses, should be limited to so short a term. The first thing that a man coming out to take up a work ee method this nature must do, is, not to make discoveries off-hand or to in- % sauiry. vent theories, but to make himself thoroughly conversant. with Coffee. Problema in coffee cultivas tion, Elevation. Boil, Shade, 266 Agricultural Industries and Eaports. what has been done before, both in the cultivation and in the manus facture. It is only after this that he can be expected to usefully apply his scientific knowledge to the actual details.’ This is a work, not of'a year or two, but of several years, and it necessarily involves patient work and patient waiting, though sooner or later I am sure that the industry will reap the benefit, as others have done which have made use of the application of science to practice, Coffee. 362. My tour took me through some of the coffee-growing districts ‘of Coorg and Mysore, and, besides meeting a number of planters, I stayed some time with Mr. R. H. Elliot on his coffee estate at Bartchinhulla, Munjerabad, where I had a good opportu- nity of learning about this industry. As compared with tea, the industry is a much simpler one, for the manufacture does not involve the careful manipulation that is requisite with tea; but the actual cultivation isa matter of equal importance in each case. 363. I may briefly say that the same questions which I have alluded to as being still in dispute as regards the cultivation of tea, present themselves when dealing with coffee-growing. Theimportant matters of elevation, aspect, and shade, are by no means determined, nor are they attended 'to as they ought to be.. The nature and requirements of the soil have not been sufficiently studied, whilst there is much to learn in regard to manures, their use and relative values. Liastly, there are diseases and injuries to which the coffee plant is liable, but which have not yet been success- fully combated. A suitable elevation, as in the case of tea, would seem to have much to do with the successful cultivation, though along with it must be taken the’ consideration of rainfall. The Bartchinhulla estate is about 3,000 feet above sea-level, and the rainfall is from 90 to 100 inches, but at’ Messrs: Cannon’s estate, where coffee of the highest repute is grown, the elevation is 4,500 feet and the rainfall is only 60 inches. _ The kind of soil, or rather, its earlier history, is a point of the highest importance. If the land has previously been old forest land, thinned for the purpose of growing coffee, it is likely to do well, butif it be that which has before been under cultivation, more especially of the class known as kumri- cultivation (in which the land is cleared by cutting down the’ wood, setting fire to the vege- tation, and growing crops without' manure of any’kind) it is not nearly so valuable. The aspect must be studied, chiefly in the matter of shade: while both the presence of shade and the kind of shade provided are most essential points. Perhaps nothing affecting the culti- vation of coffee impressed me more than the importance of shade. I have been over estates where shade has been attended'to, and T have noticed the healthy and’ natural growth of the bushes, Coffee. 267 Thave also been to other estates where shade has been neglected and dependence has been placed upon heavy manuring. The result has been that a foreed unnatural growth of the bushes has taken place and an unhealthy appearance has been caused by the » presence of a heavy crop with but very little leaf or young wood. A heavy crop of berries may in this way be produced for a few years, but then the bushes will in all probability fail, and in the end will not succeed like the shade-protected and less forced bushes, even though, for the time, the latter may yield a lesser crop. A sure’ sign: of the land being-too highly manured is the appearance ef shoots all up the stem. ‘The indication of a good bush is, on the contrary, the healthy growth of new wood on the branches to form the fruit-bearing branches of the year to come. I have little doubt that the failure of many coffee estates is due to the clearing: away of the.trees, and the neglect to provide otber shade. The provi- sion of proper shade constitutes a study in itself, to which too much importance cannot be paid, and if it be neglected it cannot be made up, more than temporarily at least, by any quantity of manuring or other means, The amount of shade should vary with the aspect and -be.so arranged as chiefly to protect the plant from the sun at every point during the hours when itis at its fiercest. It is recognised that trees differ very much in their suitability as shade» givers. While some-supply but little leaf deposit for renewing the soil and spread out their roots along the surface of the ground, thereby depriving it of moisture and nourishment, others, such as the Jack-fruit-tree, and the cubbusarree, gout, mittli, poonarul, ete., are of a different habit of growth, and afford a large leaf deposit. Nor is it, enough simply to provide shade at the outset, but there should be a swecession of shade, the older and taller trees being successively removed for timber or fuel as the younger ones come on to take their place. The mechanical cultivation of the soil must be closely attended Titage. to, for it must be kept constantly stizred: and not be allowed to get hard. To-.go on theland when it is wet is certain to do great harm. Perfect ‘drainage is of the highest importance. Holes called! *‘ reno- vation pits’’ are dug on sloping ground inorder to hold up: the soil « Renovation and prevent it from being washed away-by the heavy-rains in the Pi” wet season. These are generally 3 x 2 x1} feet, and are put between every four bushes; into them the leaves which fall from the shade trees are swept, and: in them the fine earth is retained as it washes down. the slope. When the holes are again dug, this earth and leaf mould is. spread around the.stems of the-shrubs. But: I could not help thinking that the ‘‘ renovation pits:’’ were often’ unnecessarily numerous and close together. The digging. of them is laborious work, and the ground is apt to get somewhat consolidated, besides which, in the digging, many of the’rootlets of the coffee-plants are cut ‘actoss and sometimes even the larger roots too. Therefore I think that the number of ‘“ pits ” should not be greater'than is'neces« sary’in ‘order to stdp the surface wash. At present it is thé’ prac+ tice to regard these pits as means of’ bringing the subsoil to’ the surfdee, as well as of catching any wash, or of holding’ vegetable matter. Tt by no meanis follows that it is always an ‘advantage ‘to 268 Agricultural Industries and Eeports, bring the sub-soil up, for it may be poorer in quality and the richer top-soil may thus be buried. Soil-constitu- As to the soil itself, judging from analyses which$I have made — of coffee-soils from Mysore, there appears to be clear evidence (see paragraph 63, as also Appendix B) of the want of lime in the laterite soils, also that phosphoric acid and potash (see paragraph 65 and Appendix B) are less abundant than in soils of alluvial nature in other parts of India. The frequent use of bones by coffee plan- ters as a manurial agent is a support to the belief in the need of phosphatic manures, and it is probable that potash-containing manures might also be usefully ee In Appendix B I give some detailed analyses of Munjerabad coffee soils, and I would, in passing, comment on their richness in vegetable matter and in nitrogen resulting therefrom. This is accounted for by the fact that the landis old forest land, and it is likely that lime and mineral ingredients are what the soils require rather than more vegetable matter such as would be contained in oil cake, cattle-dung, etc. It is, indeed, quite possible that over-richness in nitrogen may produce a rankness of growth, and over-development of leaf to the exclusion of berry. In other cases, and where a lesser richness of surface soil is found, the reverse may be the case, and there may be decided need of organic manures. All soils cannot be treated alike, but each must be considered in its own special relations. Application of Differences of practice occur in the manner of applying manures, ce w some planters preferring to throw manure broadcast and to fork it in, others thinking it better to dig a trench round the bush about 1 foot or 14 feet from the stem, and to put back the soil mixed with whatever manure it is intended to apply. But Iam not aware of any comparative experiments that have been made in order to test which is the better plan, and, indeed, it would very probably be found best to put one kind of manure on in one way, and another ina different way. The plant food thus supplied should be put where the rootlets can best avail themselves of it, and therefore I should be in favour of scattering manure about rather than of accumulating it in one spot or even in a circle, so long as it is not too widely scattered or put beyond the plant’s reach. Bulky manures, such as catitle-manure, leaves, and similar vegetable matter, require to be incorporated with the soil, so as to exercise a beneficial, mechanical as well as chemical effect on it, whereas soluble salts, such as potash manures, may well’be sown on the surface or be lightly forked in. The time of application will also differ accord- ing to the nature of the manure, bones and other materials which take long to decompose being better suited for early application, and more readily decomposable or soluble manures for a later dressing. Tf coffee planters would make a few small but careful experi- ments for themselves they would certainly be able to obtain more information as to their particular land than could be given by anyone advising them, but who does not possess the requisite information as to the soil, the situation, and other local conditions, or even as to the manures which are readily obtainable. Manures, such as bones, oil cake, etc., are too generally used because they Coffee—Cardamoms, 269 have always been used, and because there isa general belief in their utility, but itis more than probable that in some cases large sums are needlessly expended on them, while, in others, lack of lime, potash, or other soil-constituent, may be responsible for a diminishing yield. 364. The coffee-plant, like the tea-shrub, has its own particu. Diseases and | lar enemies, of which the chief are the “borer” and the “ leaf coifee plant. disease.” By planting good kinds of shade trees the “ borer” has been largely suppressed, and is now but little dreaded under the best conditions as to shade. In open plantations or under bad kinds of shade trees “leaf disease’’ inflicts much damage, but not under good shade or on well-cultivated land. As to liability to disease, the most that can be said is that if the plant be maintained in good active growth, and not be unnaturally forced, itis less prone to disease and attacks than if the soil be not maintained in fertility, or if the plant be forced on so as to produce berries to the exclusion of a fair proportion of leaf, Mr. John Hughes has examined healthy and diseased leaves of the coffee plant, but the analyses, though showing the com- parative poverty of the diseased leaves in soluble organic and mineral constituents, do not point to the presence or absence of any particular constituent which might be considered deficient in the soil or be supplied in manurial form. Sulphuring and limewashing have been put forward as remedies for “leaf disease,” and I might suggest another, vtz., the use of “blue-stone” (sulphate of copper), in the form of the mixture with freshly slaked lime, known as “ Bouillie Bordelaise,” and already used with much success in vine cultivation. Unfortu- nately, the difficulty of transport, and the difficulty of getting labour, would militate against the success of such remedies, and against their extensive application even if they should be found to be protective in character. But it would be well worth making experimental trials in order to ascertain the efficacy _ of any such applications. 865. Two main difficulties which coffee. planters have to 77min. - contend withare, that they cannot get enough labour and that; coffee-growin . they cannot get enough manure. As to labour, although high wages are given (Rs, 7 per month for men, and Rs. 5 for women), it is very difficult to procure enough just at the time when itis most wanted, while, as to manure, the difficulty and cost of transport are heavy, and there is nota sufficient supply of manure to meet the demand. The extension of railways will undoubtedly help much in removing the difficulties both as to the supply of labour and that of manure. Cardamoms, Cardamome, 366. Associated with coffee-growing, more especially in Coorg, is the cultivation of Cardamoms, an industry which, until lately, was most remanerative, andto which I would merely allude in passing. It is found that after continuously 270 Agricultural Industries and Exports, growing this crop for some time, the produce declines mates rially, and it is clear that consideration ought to be turned to the manurial point of view of the cultivation, a subject which up to now has been quite neglected. Tobacco, Tobacco. _ 867. The cultivation of tobacco is one on which great care is bestowed. Like opium and sugar-cane, the crop earries with it considerable profits, but it is almost entirely grown upon good land and where both manure and water are available. Speaking generally, the crop is grown in rotation with other crops, batit isnot unusual in some parts to grow tobacco year after year on thesame land. In Gujarét (Bombay) and Sind it isthe common opinion that the quality of tobacco is much improved by the continuous growth of it for many years on the same spot,and fields can be pointed out which have produced tobacco for 40 years and more, and are specially noted, the produce often fetching quite “fancy’’ prices, Manure is, of course, used lavishly, “But this continuous growth of tobacco in certain districts is remarkable,and well deserves investigation, inasmuzh ag in other parts, for example, Khdndesh and Belgaum (where the prodifée is also good), the cultivators will not take a tobacco crop oftener than once in ten years, alleging as the reason the impossibility otherwise of keeping down the parasite (Orobanche Nicotiana), which affects the plant so seriously (see later on, paragraph 372). Tobacco is grown principally as a garden” (irrigated by wells) crop, but sometimes also asa “dry” (unirrigated) erop, the seed-bed only being watered by hand. I have instanced the preference of the grower of tobacco for particular kinds of water, and in paragraph 99 I have given an analysis of a well water which had the reputation of being specially suited to thecrop. I also mentioned in paragraph. 133 that in some parts itis the eustom to spread round the plants earth which is impregnated with nitre. The cultivation So far as the cultivation goes, I see nothing in which ths very careful. yaiyat can improve, for, like other “garden” crops, tabacco is one over which no trouble is spared. It may be possible to get better information as to the effect produced by manures of various kinds, such as cattle-manure, nitre, oil cake refuse, ete., upon the. quantity and quality of the leaf, but this will hardly be the case so long as the Native uses his present crude methods of curing, “When, however, as is now beginning to be done in Madras, private firms turn their attention to the proper manu- facture of tobaecoand cigars, there will be the call for guiding the cultivation also in the most favourable direction. Manuring for 368. In Gujarét (Bombay) a great deal of tobacco is grown. ieee At Nadiad I met Rai Bahadur Becherdas Viharidas Desai, a most enlightened and leading agriculturist, who has given a great deal of attention and also money in attempts to improve oe t the growing and the curing of tobacco, At the farm of the : Nadiad Agricultural Association, of which Mr, Becherdas Tobacco. 27h Desai is an active supporter, many experiments have been carried out,-and are still in progress, in order to find the manure best suited to the tobacco crop. Thus, the effect of the following manures was being tried at the time of my visit : cow-dung, goats’ droppings, castor cake, saltpetre, and tannery refuse, The general conclusions obtained thus far are, that saltpetre gives the largeat yield, but does not produce a tobacco which is relished, and . that for quantity and quality together, the best results are given by the goate’-droppings and by the tannery refuse, Mr, Becherdas Desai, in addition, has cultivated tobacco on a large farm near Nadiad, and has endeavoured to introduce the produce into the European market. Though the tobacco is pronounced ‘by experts as being carefully cured, a peculiar strong flavour is noticeable in the smoking, which renders the leaf unsaleable. Mr. Becherdas Desai is quite cognisant of this, and has tried long, though without suceess, to ascertain whether the drawback lies in the growing or in the curing. Finally, he has had to give up the attempt to create a European sale for the tobacco. _ 2 369. Curing of tobacco as conducted by the Native is done in a Native methoa very primitive way.* The leaves are not removed one by one when tobacco.” ready for picking, but, after a few spots have begun to appear on the lower leaves, the entire plant is cut off close to the ground, and is left exposed to the night dew. Next day the plants are arranged in small circular heaps, about two feet high, with the stalks outwards. At the close of the day the heaps are opened, and the leaves are spread out for the night.’ The next day they are heaped again, and so on until after about five days they ‘begin to turn yellow. Then the plants are hung upon horizontal poles for 15 to 20 days, the stalks being pressed close to each other. After this the leaves are again packed in square heaps, and these heaps are opened and re-packed every two or three days. The leaves begin then to sweat and finally to turn black. This blackening is a sign of fermentation being finished, an@ the leaves are then stripped off the sta]k and tied up in bundles and baled. Often, crude molasses (jagrt) and water are sprinkled on the leaves after fermentation is over, 370. This process of curing is evidently a very crude one improvement in and admits of very great improvement. The curing of tobacco “mR. requires every stage to be carefully watched, the temperature to be observed, and fermentation to ibe induced or checked atthe exact point which experience has determined as being best. Every leaf indeed should be treated as a unit by itself, and not simply.as one of many leaves comprising a bundle or heap. But it cannot be expected that the Native cultivator will ever be able to.do much more in this direction than he has done, and, wherever a hhetter leaf is required, it will have to be obtained through the establish- ment of separate curing-places, such as these which have been om * This description is taken from a Report by Mx, H, Caine, of Madras (Balletin .N ae ‘ 4989-60, Agricultural Department, Madras), : one Me ee aa ae Prospects of the industry, Tobacco parasite, Flaw. 272 Agricultural Industries and Reports. started in the Madras Presidency, and which will be under the care of practised “ experts,” 371. Endeavours have been made by Messrs, Begg, Dunlop, & Co, at Pusa in Tirhoot, and also at Ghazipur, North-West Prov- inces, to establish tcbacco-growing and manufacture for the European market. Considerable advance has been made upon native methods, but it cannot be said that the undertaking has in either,case been successful. A fine or even fair quality of leaf has not as yet been produced, though whether the soil, the climate, or the curing, has been at fault has not been ascertained. The failure to grow a high-class leaf in the above places and also in Gujardt, may be due partly to the soil but more probably to the climate which is not sufficiently uniform throughout the year, but exhibits extremes of dryness and of wet at different periods. For this reason the more regular warmth met with in Southern Madras and the greater freedom from extreme conditions may account for the larger measure of success which has attended the efforts in that Presideney to establish the manufacture on an improved basis and with the assistance of expert knowledge from other countries. The prospects of the industry in Southern India are decidedly encourgiang. 372. The tobacco plant has a great enemy in the Orobanche Nicotiana or “ Bodu,’’ a vegetable parasite which grows out from the root-stock of the plant, It is an annual, but the seed is readily propagated and is hard to get rid of. It is very certain that it attacks weakly plants by preference, and that it occurs on poor rather than on rich soil. The only way to effectually remove it is to detach it from the tobacco plant before the seeding of the parasite,has begun. Being an annual its preparation may thus be prevented. Thorough hoeing of the land is very neces- sary, and careful cultivation is said to keep it down (sce para- graph 367). Flag and Jute. 373. Flax or linseed is grown in India entirely for the sake of the seed, and not for the fibre, Indeed, experiments which have been made would seem to point to the ordinary linseed of the country being best adapted as an oil-giving and not as a fibre-yielding plant. It has been urged that considerable im- provement in the preparation of fibre both from the linseed plant and from san hemp (Crotalaria juncea, which is not really a hemp at all) could be effected if men skilled in the manufacture could be obtained from other countries to teach the Native how to dress the fibre. But more than this is involved. It would, firstly, have to be ascertained what kind of seed is the one best calculated to produce a good fibre rather than seed; and, secondly, the method of cultiva- tion would have to be altered. In order to produce fibre, the plant must be sown thickly so as to grow tall and upright ‘and not short and bushy, as is the case at present. Further, Flar—Jute—Silk. 273 it is more than likely that a good fibre-producing plant could only be grown well on a particular class of soil, a sandy and not a clayey one being requisite, The experiment bas been tried in the Punjab, but the manufacture of flax was not found to be a profitable one, Mr. Ozanne also tried the growing of flax for fibre at the Bhadgaon (Bombay) Farm, but it did not succeed, for, even though thickly sown, the shrub was found to branch too much, and would not grow properly. When tried asa rainy-season crop, Mr. Ozanne found that it would not stand much wet, owing to its liability to a kind of “rust,” and when tried as a cold-weather crop it proved to be exceedingly delicate. Again, the preparation of flax fibre is much harder than that of either the sax hemp or of jute, and it needs skilled supervision and the employment of an “ expert”? in flax-dressing. But the principal objection is that it is impossible to: grow seed and fibre on the same plant; if seed be desired, the fibre must be sacrificed, and vice verséd. As long, therefore, as the cultivator gets a good profit by selling the seed he is not likely to risk the production of fibre, and if he is wanted to grow flax it must be made worth his while to do so. Even as regards san hemp (the preparation of which for fibre is easier than that of flax), its place as a fibre has been virtually taken by jute. 374. At Serajgunge in Eastern Bengal I had the opportunity Je. of seeing the cultivation of jute, and also its preparation and manu- facture. The damp hot climate that prevails here especially favours the crop, and, inasmuch as it ismostly cultivated on rich inundated land which is constantly silt-renewed, there is little need of manur- ing, asarule. Occasionally cow-dung is used, or a pulse-crop is fed off previously. to sowing the jute. Silk. Silk, 3'75. The decline of the Bengal silk industry is believed to be in great measure due to the spread of certain diseases among silk- worms. The worst of these is known as pebrine, and so serious have been its ravages that an effort was made a few years back to investigate its nature and the means of prevention, Mr, N, G. Mookerjee, of the Bengal Agricultural Department, was deputed to Europe in 1888 to study the methods of silkworm-rearing prac- tised in Italy and France, and more especially to acquaint himself with the system introduced by M. Pasteur, of examining micros- copically the moths intended for laying the eggs or “seed,” as they are termed. The eggs of any moths which are found to be affected with disease are rejected, and only healthy “seed” is kept. It was hoped in this way to establish a pure race of silkworm free from disease, and by distributing the pure “‘seed’’ to silkworm-rearers to thus get rid of the evil. A central “seed-station” was sub- sequently started at Berhampore. It must be acknowledged, however, that the work has not been altogether satisfactory, and the steps taken in India have not begn 18 274 Agricultural Industries and Exports. successful in perpetuating silkworms which are free from disease, at least in the silk districts of Bengal. Mr. Mookerjee, who has had charge of the experiments, has been able to rear silkworms free from disease in places such as Dehra Dun which are far removed from the silk districts, but as soon as the seed is removed to the silk districts of Bengal pebrine appears and it is no longer possible to keep pure “‘ seed,” Grain-clean- Grain-cleaning. ue 3'76. The export of wheat and oil-seeds from India has in- troduced important considerations as to the cleaning of grain and seeds, and on these I wish to touch. “ Indian wheat has, without doubt, acquired a name for being “dirty ” and of being inferior to the Canadian and American a Dicty wheats put upon the English market. It is stated that a con- conditionof siderable amount of earth, and of seeds other than wheat, come Indian wheat. With the grain, and that this necessitates special cleaning of the deliveries after their arrival in England. In addition, Indian wheat has to be washed, partly 1m order to soften it (Indian wheat being véry- hard), and partly so as to get rid of the earth and dirt which are invariably found along with it. A lower price con- sequently rules for Indian wheat, and many millers who would be willing to purchase it are kept back from doing so by reason of the expense involved in providing special appliances for cleaning the grain. / : The basis of sale =» 377, It has been customary to sell Indian wheat on the basis eat, é ee fe 4 e, Sot of its containing a certain amount of impurities, the exact amvunt varying with the place of export and the time of year when export takes place. In the case of Calcutta wheat, 5 per cent. of im- purities used to be allowed for ante-monsoon shipments (previous to lst July), and 6 to7 per cent. for post-monsoon shipments (after Ist July). For Bombay wheat a somewhat lower percentage, viz., 4 to 5 per cent. was allowed, but wheat from Karachi was reckoned as being more impure than that from Calcutta or Bombay, and the ante-monsoon season also extended to 80th September. i The causes of wheat being shipped in this impure condition were alleged to be the inferior cultivation of the Indian razyat, the habit he has of growing wheat, not alone, but as a “ mixed” crop, and the imperfect means at his disposal for threshing out and cleaning the grain. 1t was argued that as the cultivator threshes his corn by treading it out upon an earthen floor with his bullocks, the earth must of necessity get mixed with it; besides this, that the means of sifting out foreign seeds beivg crude, and the raiyat having no machinery for the purpose, impurities arising from the crops gtown along with the. wheat must prevent a good clean sample from being obtained,~ i How Indian 378, That a certain amount of foreign seeds and. dirt. finds beditye° its way into Indian wheat from the above causes is undeniable; but as I shall presently show, this does not account for Grain-cleaning. 275 anything like the percentages of “dirt”? which it has been the custom to fix. When first the export of wheat began to assume any considerable dimensions the purchase of shipments was con ducted on the system of ‘‘ mutual allowances,’’ the ee eee any superiority in cleanness shown above the arranged limits and the shippers paying for any deficiency. Samples of the different cargoes were submitted, on arrival in England, to the Corn Trade Association for analysis, and the percentages of impurity were fixed thereby. But it was soon found out that, despite the statements that had been made as to the ratyat’s imperfect methods, Indian wheat generally arrived in so clean a condition that the buyers had in most ¢asés to pay for the extra cleanness. They soon got tired of doing: this, an accordingly dropped the system of mutual allow- ances. They resolved only to purchase upon the basis of ‘‘ fair average quality ” (f. a. q.), this implying that the wheat might contain the percentage of impurity or “ refraction,’ as it is termed allowed accord= ing to the port and time of shipment, but they refused to pay for any superiority over the “ refraction 7’ limit, though they still claimed'an allowance for any inferiority shown, leaving the exact amount to be settled by arbitration, The result. of this action soon made itself apparent. Indian wheat, which up till then had been coming over clean, now began to deteriorate, and the London or Liverpool buyer talked loudly of its “ dirty ’’ condition, and assigned thisas a reason for giving a lower price for it than he would for Canadian, American, and other wheats. But the change in the character of Indian wheat was the direct consequence of the English buyer’s. action, inasmuch as the Indian shippers, finding that they no longer gota penny j.4.s:nat more for wheat which they setit over clean than for that which adulteravion. had the full allowance of impurity, naturally took good care not to ship any which had not the Sull amount of impurity. This has led to a-deliberate system of adulteration of wheat being practised, and, however pure the grain may be when itcomes cff the cultivator’s field, it is always made up to “‘ fair average quality?’ as under- stood in the English market, before it leaves the place of export. 879. When this change in the condition of exported grain was Attempts to brought about, strong representations were made by those interested indian whest. in the Indian trade, and also by millers in England who had been using Indian wheat and would have gladly continued to use it had there not been the difficulty of dealing with it im consequence of the dirt and impurities it contained, and the expense they were put to in removing these. Messrs. McDougall Brothers, of-Mark Lane, London, specially interested themselves in this matter, and laid before Viscount. Cross, the then Secretary of State for India, much valuable information upon the subject. Messrs. MeDougall’s enquiries elicited the facts that not only was clean Indian wheat desired, but that an extra price would'be paid for it, and increased use be found for it. The desire of the millers was that admixture should be limited by contract to 2 per cent. . Reports and papers were laid before Parliament in 1888 and conterence at 1889, and on May 8, 1889, Viscount Cross presided at a Conference the India Otice, 18a Views of Liverpool Corn Trade Associa- tion, Views of millers, Attempts made in India to supply clean wheat, Bengal Agricultural Department. 276 Agricultural Industries and Exports, held at the India Office to consider the question of Indian Wheat Impurities. In the course of his opening address his Lordship pointed out that no less than three million ewts. of dirt are im- ported every year with Indian wheat, and that this implies a use- less and foolish expense, The London Corn Trade Association on their part maintained that the conditicn of Indian wheat was a natural one, due to the methods of the raiya¢ in cultivating and threshing, and that the basis of 4 per cent. of impurity for Bombay and 5 per cent. for Calcutta wheat was accepted by shippers as being the normal condi- tion of wheat as grown. Shipment ona 2 per cent. basis, they maintained, would imply cleaning at the place of export, and would necessitate English millers paying a proportionately higher price which they would not be found willing todo. The London Corn Trade Association raised objections to selling wheat on analysis, (in the same way that linseed is sold), and they deprecated Govern- ment interference ina trade matter which would gradually right itself and effect the desired improvement in time. The Liverpool Corn Trade Association differed entirely from the London Association, and saw no difficulty in fixing a 2 per cent. ‘refraction’ standard, at least for Bombay wheat ; they believed that if a 2 percent. limit were fixed in England, the wheat would soon come from India of the required purity. The term fair ‘‘ average quality ’’ they felt, was a very elastic one. A point of considerable importance was raised by millers in the Midlands and other inland counties of England. They pointed out the disadvantage they were atin having to pay not only for the extra dirt, etc., coming from India to London, Liverpool, or other English ports, but that they had to pay as well for its conveyance at high rates along English railways. In this way the smaller millers and those inland were much prejudiced, for they could less afford than the larger millers to put up the requisite machinery for removing the impurities which had been deliberately put in, and for which they had had to pay extra carriage. It was not to be expected that any general agreement could be come to at the Conference, when interests so divergent were con- cerned, but, although a few large millers, who had already gone ta the expense of setting up special machinery for dealing with Indian wheat, were in favour of matters remaining as they were, the National Association of British and Irish Millers, and millers generally, strongly urged that improvement ought to be effected, that wheat should be shipped cleaner, and that wilful adulteration should be punished. 380. In India itself, enquiries were made, and efforts were put forward to inducea trade in clean wheat. The Reports of the Bengal Agricultural Department showed that the unsatisfactory state in which wheat was exported was not due to the inferior cultivation and dressing which it received ‘rom the raiyat, but that when clean wheat was offered, the merchants, owing to the action of the buyers in England, positively declined to give apy better price Gratn-cleaning, 277 for it than for wheat with 5 per cent. of impurities. Mr. Finucane, Director of the Bengal Agricultural Department, instances that in August 1887 the Manager of the Dumraon Raj wanted to grow wheat largely and to supply it in a clean state, if he could get a remunerative market for it. He proposed giving the rayats advances of seed and money by way of inducing them to grow wheat alone and not as a ‘‘ mixed crop;’”’ hair also to set up machinery for cleaning wheat. But he was obliged to give up the idea, for the merchants would not give a higher price, and, what was worse, the clean grain was deliberately mixed with mud so as to make it up to the 5 per cent. ‘‘refraction *’ before it left for shipment to England. The Manager of the Raj relates that, near Buxar, he used to sell wheat to an agent of a leading wheat-exporting firm, and that his servants were instructed how to make little pellets out of mud and water, which would resemble wheat, and to mix 2 maunds of this earth with every 100 maunds of grain whenever the wheat was found not to contain 5 per cent. of impurities, 381. The Bombay Chamber of Commerce have repeatedly proposals of urged the London and Liverpool Corn Trade Associations to accept Bombay Cham- a basis of 2 per cent. of ‘‘ impurities,’ and have said that, were it merce. adopted, there would be no difficulty whatever in getting any quantity of wheat cleaned to that extent. To these proposals the Liverpool Association seemed to be favourable, but the London Replies of | Association declined to assent. In place of it they proposed, in Liverpool Corn November 1889, the following ‘‘ refraction” limits for ante-monsoon Associations, shipments: 3 per cent. for Bombay wheat, 4 per cent. for Calcutta wheat, and 5 percent. for Karachi wheat. Of these ‘ total impur- ities” about 14 percent. was to “ bedirt.”? *Somewhat higher per- centages were fixed for post-monsoon shipments. The Liverpool Association joined in the recommendations. In vain the Bombay Chamber pointed out in reply that the analyses of Bombay wheat, as gives by the Official Analyst of the London Corn Trade Association, showed even less impurities than the latter Association proposed, but so the matter stands. 382. I was naturally desirous of forming my independent con- My own enqui- clusions upon the question of clean wheat, and “therefore made my "™ own enquiries. Mr. John Marshall of the Bombay Chamber of Com. merce, Mr. Wishart (Cawnpore), Mr. H .M. Ross (Calcutta), and others, kindly gave me much information as to the practices of the trade; but,in addition, when pursuing my general enquiry up-country, I kept this object, among others, in view. I ascertained that each country, such as England, France, Italy ,etc., to which Indian wheat is exported, has its own requirements, and wants particular grades of purity accordingly. Wheat comes into Bombay, for instance, of all degrees of impurity, containing, it may be,2, 4, 6, 8, or even more per cent. of ‘‘impurities’’ and, before being shipped to its destination, it is made up to the particular degree of impurity required by each country fo which it is being sent. It would be quite easy, I am assured, to clean all wheat to 2 per cent. of impurity. If the Eng- lish merchants really want to have clean wheat, they have only * The term “ dirt ” includes earth, chaff, ard mircellaneous weed seeds of no intiinsic value, Adulteration of wheat seen by me, The quality of wheat from the cultivators’ threshirg-floors, 278 Agricultural Industries and Lrporte. to insist upon its being supplied, and it would at once be forth- coming, Any doubts that I may have had as to wilful adulteration of wheat being practised were seé at rest by my seeing, as I was passing Changa Manga railway station (in the Punjab), a large heap of wheat being deliberately mixed with earth. This was going on in full view of everyone. 883. My attention was next directed to ascertaining how the impurities that are found in wheat exported to England find their way into the grain. or this purpose I endeavoured to find out what the quality of wheat is as it leaves the threshing-floor of the raiyat, whether, in fact, it does contain all the dirt that it has been represented to have, for instance, the mud from the threshing floor, and the gram and other seeds from the “ mixed’? crops grown with the wheat. Accordingly, when staying at Cawnpore with Mr. Holderness, Director of the Agricultural Department of the North-West Prov- inces and Oudh, I obtained through his Personal Assistant, Mr. Lachman Parshéd, six samples of wheat which were taken, accord- ing to my detailed instructions, direct from the. threshing-floors of cultivators in the neighbourhood of Cawnpore, and just as the wheat was about to be sent to the nearest bazdr for sale. The wheat was accordingly in the state that it left the cultivator, and as it passed into the bands of the local traders for transmission ‘to agents of the large wheat-exporting firms, and for subsequent despatch to the port of shipment. The heaps of wheat as they lay on the threshing-floor, ready for removal and sale, were carefully sampled by turning each over and drawing from it handfuls from different parts, turning it over again and taking fresh handfuls, and so on, until an average of the whole was obtained, which, by subsequent division and sub-division, was reduced toa lesser bulk. The final samples were sent to me and the separation of the wheat and the impurities was carried out in my presence ; the results of the separation were as follows:— Grain-cleaning. 979 Taste XIII, Mechanical Analyses of Samples of Wheat taken from Threshings mechanical i j istry analyses of floors of Cultivators in the Cawnpore District, eae ggled ot eae eae is ne 5 wi heat. Impurrries, i es (a ) Crran No. VIBLAGE. Bren ma neste” Chaff, Banc” asst Total Waar. éther Pulséd, | ImmiAture || Weed-teeds, with Wheat, and Fine | Inipurities, Earth. ete, Earth, Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.|Per cent. 1| Binaitpor . ona _ — 15 99°85 2|Gawnpore . 35 1:18 4 | 177 | 9993 8|Gotaya. 20 134 “24, 178 98°22 4 |Likhanpor . 16 1-972 +28 2°16 97°84 5 | Rawatpor . ~ 68 03 “1 99°29 6 | Nawabganj . _ 111 ‘12 123 98°77 Average of six samples : 3 ° 1:30 98:70 ee Norz,~No, 1. This sample was exceptionally clean and the impurities were too small to classify. > 2s (a) mostly Lathyrus sativa, mung, and gram ; (4) barley and small wheat; (c) rape, «» 3. (a) Lathyrus sativa, mung; (b) emall wheat : (c) fine earth. ay 4. (@) Zathyrus sativa ; (b) barley and small wheat ; (c) fine earth. « 5. (6) oats, chaff; (c) rape. » 6. (4) small wheat, oats, barley, earth ;(¢) weed-seeds, fine earth, Other details of the Analyses are piven in Appendix N, From my own inquiries, therefore, I am convinced that the wheat, as it leaves the raiyat’s threshing-floor, contains only about 13 pet cént, of anything but wheat, and that there would bé no dificilty whatever in supplying clean wheat on a basis of 2 per cent, “refraction,” if only it were wanted. There is aiiother significant feature, namely, that if the earth that is so much complained of came from the threshing. floor, it would much more probably be the fine crushed éarth and not the small limps which are so gewerally found in im- ported wheat, The case of wheat is different to that of linseed, for, while the latter is geridrally pulled up by the roots along with thei? adhering earth; wheat is, as a rule, ¢u¢ and not pulled, 384. The charge against the raiyat, that be sends dirty oy. seat we wheat into the market is, accordingly, not substantiated. What in which : really happens is, I believe, that the traders or middlemen fnteandige: between the cultivator and the exporter all have their profit ¥"*% to make out of the wheat as it passes down to the place of export. This they do, as I myself saw being done at Changa Analysis of wheat from Cawnpore market. The fault ies with the home buyer. The induces Menta to keep up the pretent -system. 280 Agricultural Industries and Exports. Manga station, by mizing earth or foreign seeds with the wheat, The middlemen take good care that the cultivators send them the wheat clean, otherwise they would not be able to make their own profit out of it, and if the racya¢ delivered the wheat to them dirty they would refuse to take it. But, as the grain passes on from hand to hand, each man makes his little profit by mixing other material with it, and finally it reaches the place of export; here it is made wp according to the requirements of the trade with each country, and thus in the case of wheat sent to England, the 5 or 6 per cent, of impurity, necessitated primarily by the action of the London Corn Trade Association, is gradually added, shipped to England, and on its arrival has all to be taken out again, That this is what really takes place was foreed upon me still more strongly by an examination which I made of a sample of wheat taken from a bulk in Cawnpore market, exposed for sale there. This bulk I saw myself, and had a large sample of it drawn, and the impurities were sifted out and weighed in my presence, The results were :-— Per cent. Clean wheat . . 7 - 96:37 Barley . . . . . 88 Gram, da/, and other pulses. . 156 3°63 Small barley and chaff . . . °44, Rape, unripe wheat, earth, ete, ; 75 100°00 Se This wheat was of the description known as “ No, 2 Club.’? A noticeable difference is found between the amount of im- purities inthe sample from Cawnpore market and that in the samples from the cultivators’ threshing-floors in the surround- ing district. This tends to support the view which I have expressed, that the impurities find ‘their way in as the wheat passes from hand to hand, _ I found also that at Cawnpore the refuse from the flour-mills in the town had a substantial value in the market. 385. I lay the blame for the impurity of Indian wheat not upon the raiyat, nor yet upon the exporter, hut upon the home bayer, as represented by the London Corn Trade Associa- tion in particular. The home buyer does not want to have pure wheat. If wheat were sold on the basis of absolute purity, this would lead to more arbitration upon samples, and would minimise speculation, If a margin of 4 or 5 per ‘cent. of impurity is given, the buyer will look at a sample and judge very fairly whether it has 3 per cent. of admixture or more than this, but if the basis of sale were “absolute purity,” or else 1 per cent. of impurity, there would constantly be arbitration as to the exact amount, and the buyer, instead of as now. getting a delivery sometimes better than usual, and Grain-cleaning. 281 being able to resell it at an advantage, would have the element of speculation removed and only be able to sell on the certified quality. The presence of admixture in Indian wheat keeps its price below that of Canadian and other wheats, and thereby offers the inducement of a lower price to buyers, and promotes speculation. So long as the term “fair average quality” is retained, the meaning to be attached to it will be a very elastic one. : Undoubtedly, too, not only are the merchants opposed to any change in the existing practice, but there are also large millers to whose interest it is to keep Indian wheat ‘‘dirty.’? They have put up extensive and costly machinery purposely to enable them to deal with Indian wheat, and, being able to buy the latter at the lower quotation, they secure an advantage over their smaller rivals who cannot go to the same initial outlay. 386. It has been suggested that if the ‘‘elevator’’ system, qe «clevator” which is in vogue in America and in Russia, were to be introduced system. into India, the grain might be screened in bulk and be graded at the different depdts, so that it would sell according to its gscertained quality. ; But there are difficulties which make the system inapplicable Teapplledble to: to India. Apart from the undesirability of subsidising, as has India. been suggested, any private firm for a term of years to carry this: scheme out, and apart from the impossibility of Government taking in hand the whole wheat trade of the country, there are consider- ations as to the nature and methods of cultivation which place Indian wheat on a different footing to that of other countries. In the first place, Indian wheat will not deep for any length of time, but is liable to the attacks of weevil; it is thus much better suited for bagging than for keeping and selling in bulk. Secondly, the number of different kinds of wheat grown is so large, and the individual areas over which they are distributed are so small, that to grade these numerous small lots would be a difficult if not impracticable task. In America and in Russia, for instance, we should find one single variety grown over a wide extent of country, but in India the wheat is grown on small patches, one kind in one field, another in another, a hard wheat here, a softer wheat there. Altogether, some thirty different descriptions of wheat are sent ,from India to Europe, 387. The real remedy for the condition of Indian wheat will rhe remedy to be found in the abolition of fixed rates of “refraction.”? As long Sbolis,fred as these are maintained, the exporters will work up to them,|but if “fraction.” the English buyers say that they must have clean wheat it will be speedily forthcoming. France and Italy have both refused to receive dirty: wheat from Jndia, and the consequence is that they have it sent to them cleanZ Russian barley is sold on a basis of 3 per cent. of impurity, and this plan works quite smoothly. When clean linseed was insisted upon by Caleutta merchants the raiyats up-country soon began to screen it and to deliver it clean. At one time the same difficulties that exist with wheat occurred also with rice, but these have been now removed, and rice is sold on a “ pure ”” basis. 282 Agricultural Industries and Exports, The same might be readily done with wheat if the trade really wanted to have it clean. Legislation et Tf, however, the trade are not willing to set the practice right be necessary. “themselves, there only remains the enforcement of legislation to oblige the sale of wheat on a “ pure ’’ basis, and to make it a penal offence to adulterate wheat, or to export or trade in adulterated wheat. il , The trade, and ‘in particular the Londen Cord Trade, have the power of remedying this themselves, but they have shown little disposition to do it, and it is, I think, time that stronger measures should be taken to oblige them to put the Indian wheat trade upon an honest basis, Ltnsced, Linseed. 388. My inquiries on the matter of grain-cleaning extended to linseed as well as to wheat. A large number of samples were collected for me in the Central Provinces by Mr. T. C. Wilson, then Settlement Officer at Damoh, and by others of Mr. J. B. Fuller’s (Commissioner of Settlements and Agriculture, Central Provinces) staff. Most of these samples were taken direct from the cultivators’ stores or threshing-floors, and in the manner described before. The samples were brought by me to England, and the mechanical analyses were performed in my own laboratory. In Appendix O I give the detailed results of analyses of 389 samples collected from different districts. Mechanical The seed was first passed through a coarse sieve which retained sae fom all coarse earth and large seeds, then through a finer sieve which critivators’ retained the linseed, allowing the fine earth and small seeds to ‘threshing-floors, pass through. The amount of ‘‘sieved linseed’? was thus obtained. Finally, the sieved linseed. was hand-picked, and every- thing was removed that was not ‘‘pure linseed.’? The following table gives the summary of the results :— Taste XIV. Mechanical Analyses of Samples of Linseed taken from Cultiva- tors’ Stores and Threshing-floors in the Central Provinces, — Fa kei (hand- | ‘otal Impurities. Per cent. Per cent. 18 samples from Bilaspur distriet ‘ 92°83 7713 4 » 9 Raipur, ; 93-94 6:06 2 45 x dubbulpore ,, . 95°81 4:19 De is » Damoh ¥ ‘ 91°60 8°40 ll _ ,, ” Nagpur ” . 95°79 421 Average from all districts A 94 6 Further details of the analyses are given in Appendix O, Linseed. 288 To one sample in particular (No. 81 in Appendix O) I would Linseed at Rall refer, This is one from the Nagpur district, and was taken PMT *t* at Messrs, Ralli Brothers’ store, or ‘ godown,’’ from linseed which had been brought in in carts for sale at the ‘‘ godown,”’ It gave:— : Per cent. Per cent. Coarse earth and large seeds. » 63 Fine earth and small seeds. - 118 Stalks, chaff, etc., removed by hand- picking e e . . . "85 —_— 2°66 Total impurities ; - 266 Pure linseed . >. . - 97°34 100:00 es The different samples give varying amounts of impurities, but, on comparing the results with those obtained in the case of wheat, it will be noticed that the average amount of impurity is higher when linseed is the erop. This is but to be expected, inasmuch as the linseed is generally gathered. by pulling up the plant bodily with the roots and adhering soil, also the foreign seeds, short stalks, and chaff, are much Harder to separate from linseed than they are from wheat. Yet it would appear from the results given above that when the merchants want well-cleaned seed, they can get it readily enough. 389. I ascertained at Bombay thati the usual plan followed sethoa of pure in buying linseed for export is as follows:—The seed is bought ee from the up-country raiyats by the dealers ; the latter’ bring it to linseed. Bombay or some other port and place it in the bazdér. An inter- mediary called the muccadam buys the seed in the bazdr and cleans it; he brings samples to the various seed-shipping firms, and covenants with them to supply a certain amount like the sample, of a definite percentage of purity and at a certain fixed price, The linseed is generally bought in India on a basis of 94 per cent. purity, and is sold to buyers in London and elsewhere on a. basis of 96 per cent, The muceadam is responsible for the purity, and if, on arrival in England, the seed is found, acecrding to the test of the Oilseed Association, to come out below guarantee, an allow- ance is made for it, and the muccadam has to pay this to the shipper. But if the English buyer gets a seed of higher purity, he is not called on to pay for anything above the guarantee. Accordingly, the shipper’s chance the deduction being made for anything below the guarantee,‘and take care not to send any seed of above 96 per cent. purity. Formerly, linseed was bought on the “reciprocal basis,’”’ the purchaser paying more for the cleaner seed, and being allowed for that which was less clean, This clause, however, was eliminated by the home buyers, and at once the quality of linseed deteriorated, as it was no longer to the interest of the exporter in India to yet pure seed. 284 Agricultural Industries and Exports. About five years ago it was decided by the London Oilseed Association to buy upon the ‘basis of ‘absolute purity,”’ but this proved a dead letter, as there was no demand in the home market for ‘pure ’’ linseed. With linseed, as with wheat, it would be quite possible to get clean seed if there were the demand for it, but, unless buyers are willing to pay on a higher scale for pure seed, the trade will continue as at present and the seed be graded to just the per- centage of impurity which meets the requirements of the market. 285 CONCLUSIONS, 390. The improvement of particular agricultural industries, such as those connected with sugar, indigo, tea, coffee, tobacco, ete., would benefit agriculture generally. But the carrying on of these industries is, as a rule, confined of necessity to certain parti- cular localities, and cannot be indefinitely extended over the country. Improvement in agriculture, through the modification of differences in practice, can have, therefore, but limited scope. It is rather to a bettering of practice in each industry that atten- tion must be directed. In sugar cultivation and manufacture, however, there are clear cases in which better methods are employed in some districts than in others, and if would be within the power of Agricultural Departments to extend the knowledge of the better practice. It is very certain that sugar cultivation might be very much extended, and that by better ways of dealing with the canes and with the expressed juice the out-turn of sugar might be largely increased, and India become less dependent upon the importation of foreign sugar. Beyond the work which Agricultural Departments can do in demonstrating the advantages of certain modes of cultivation and of approved implements such as the iron sugar-mill and the shallow evaporating-pan, there are numerous questicns affecting the production of sugar which can only be solved by the applica- tion of chemical science. €&o much work is there to be done in determining the causes which influence the out-turn of sugar, that it almost warrants the employment of a chemist for this industry alone. The indigo industry is one which pre-eminently calls for the assistance of chemical knowledge, and for its application to the processes of the manufacture at every stage. In per- haps no other industry where chemical processes are involved is so little known of their nature or how they may be con- trolled. A skilled chemist should be set apart for this work alone. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMEND- ATION 286 Conclustons. This is, however, a matter, not for Government, but for these engaged in the indigo trade. The quality of Indian cotton is no doubt inferior to what it used to be, but the cause is the demand for cheapness, and the remedy is not with the raiyat, nor with the Government, but with the trade. It is advisable that seed of the better varieties of cotton should be preserved in case of a demand arising for them in the future; also, it would be very desirable to secure by recognised trade-marks the various kinds of cotton which are grown; Govern- ment can, however, do but little else. In the cultivation and manufacture of fea, there are many points which call for the aid of the chemist. This has been already recognised by the Indian Tea Association. The same applies in some degree to the cultivation of coffee, and still more so to the curing of tobacco. The employment, however, of the necessary scientific assistance isa matter for those engaged in the parti- cular industries rather than for Government. The fact that the Indian wheat imported into England has the name of being ‘‘dirty,’’ arises, not from bad cultivation or from carelessness on the part of the racyat, but from the action of the English Comm Trade. Clean wheat is not desired by English buyers, and exporters consequently make ‘up their cargoes to the reyuirements. Wilful adulteration of grain consequently takes place in India. If clean. wheat were wanted it would be at once forthcoming. The elevator system is not applicable in the case of India. The remedy for ‘‘ dirty ?? wheat'will be found in the abolition of fixed rates of ‘ refraction,”’ but, unless the trade itself adopts the remedy, it will be necessary to make adulteration of wheat a penal offence, as also the export of, and trading in, adulterated wheat. RECOMMENDATIONS. 391. I recommend :— The setting on foot of Enquiry by Agricultural Departments in order to ascertain the best methods of cultivation and manufacture of crops, such as sugar-cane, indigo, tea, coffee, tobacco, ete., and the endeavour, by demonstrating these methods, to extend the cultivation and increase the out-turn, . Conelusions. 237 The employment of chemical science in the investigation of problems affecting these industries, and more particularly that of an Agricultural Chemist in connection with the sugar industry. The making it a penal offence to Adulterate wheat, or to export, or trade in adulterated wheat. CHAPTER XV. Eoonomioan AND PoriticaL ConpItIoNs. Reasons for not treating of these in detail. 288 CHAPTER XV. ECONOMICAL AND -POLITICAL CONDITIONS, 392. In my opening sketch (Chapter II) of the grounds upon which I considered that improvement in agriculture was possible, I mentioned the existence of differences in agricultural practice which could not be traced either to physical conditions or to want of knowledge, but which resulted from varying economical and political conditions. As an instance, I mentioned the effect which pressure of population, or the absence of that pressure, would produce upon the agriculture of any part, and I indicated that a modification of the differences which exist might be accompanied by achange in the agricultural practice. Thus, if in one part the conditions of living are easy, the agriculture will often be found to be lax; whereas, when the struggle for existence is harder, the agricultural methods will frequently be more closely attended to. Another element which will affect agriculture is the extension of railways and other means of communication, resulting in the development of an export trade. Other influencing circumstances are the varying systems of land tenure, the relations of tenant to landlord and of people to the State, the indebtedness of culti- vators, the want of capital in agriculture, and the sub-division of land. 393. These and many others are matters which exercise an important bearing upon the way in which agriculture is pursued, and if Ido not do more than touch upon them, it is not because I am not aware of their importance, but because I do not feel myself qualified to treat of them. They involve questions of economics, and an acquaintance with political conditions, the consideration of which belongs to a different sphere than that of the agricultural chemist. Besides this, I feel that a thorough knowledge of the people, the languages, and the political relations, are requisite before one can venture to speak to any good purpose upon these intricate points. Tt may be said, perhaps, that if, whilst I acknowledge the im- portance of such considerations as the foregoing, I do not treat of them, of what use, then, are my suggestions? To this I reply that, even were the Government demand for land revenue remitted by one-half, it would not result in the production of that which Indian agriculture requires most of all, vz., more manure to put on the land, While this need remains unsupplied the actual produce of the soil cannot be increased, however low the rent payable by the cultivator may be. Nor can a better system of land tenure directly produce an increased yield of a single bushel per acre, nor can it provide wood to replace cow-dung, and so set free the latter for its right use upon the land. Improvement in tenure, remission of Want of Capttal and Indebtedness, 289. rent, etc., may make the condition of the cultivating classes better, but they will not provide more manure, better cattle, more pas- ture or better seed. 394. The smallness of the holdings occupied by cultivators Small holdings constitutes a limit to the possibility of improvement. The average capital size of a holding is probably below five acres, and each man’s first concern is to provide food grains for himself and his family. Consequently it often happens that land which might grow highly remunerative erops is given up to the growing of grain crops, and the best use of it is accordingly not made. Mr. Nicholson says of Coimbatore :— . “The land is often handed over to poor tenants who cannot wait for rich crops like sugar-cane and plantains, but must grow food grains. Sugar-cane “and plantains, worth 150 rupees per acre, would grow splendidly on tens of *' thousands of acres of wet land, but, instead of this, 20 rupees are spent to grow “a crop worth 40 rupees.” : The smallness of the area also limits the obtaining or the laying out of capital, as well as the benefits of superior imple- ments, and the employment of better cattle. It has been rightly said that ‘‘ what is wanted is not increased in the umber of five- “‘ acre farms, but more capital put into the existing ones.”” It is not as if we were dealing with farmers occupying some two or three hundred acres each, and where capital, education, and enter- prise are present; but it is the absence of these, and the sub-divi- sion of the land into small patches, that make the problem’of improvement so hard a one. 395. The conditions under which land is held in the different systems of lana Provinces of India have important bearings upon the agriculture. “""* Under the raiyatwari system of Madras, for example, the State deals directly with the peasant proprietor, and the latter, so long as he pays the assessment which has been fixed, is able to do with his land as he likes. This, however, as Mr. Nicholson points out, begets a tendency to rent out the land to others, and to live upon the proceeds. Land may thus become the object of competition, and rich merchants frequently buy it as an investment, handing it over for cultivation by poor tenants who are themselves unable to put any capital whatever into it. There may, in this way, be undue extension of cultivation, the ratyat (here really a proprietor) being allowed to take up any quantity of land, regardless of whether he can do justice to it or not. A proprietor (ratyat), so long as he pays his fixed assessment, is able to rent his land to sub-tenants at any figure which he can obtain, and the sub-tenants become really tenants-at-will, liable to be turned’ out by a higher bidder. There is, consequently, a disinclination on the part of the sub-tenant to put money into the land, as, for example, by sinking awell; whereas, to the proprietor there is the inducement to get the profits of a petty landlord rather than those of the hard-work- ing cultivator. On the other hand, a great dealof land is cultivated on the metayer or sharing system, the tenant paying for the cultivation’ 19 200 Economical and Political Condétions. and taking one-third or one-fourth o£ the produce and all the straw, and handing the remainder over to the landlord, the latter paying the Government assessment. The interests of tenant and proprietor thus become one. Other systems prevail in other parts, each with its special advantages ot disadvantages, but into these I must vot enter, nor yet into the vexed matter ef the influence of a permanent settlement as opposed to that of a re-seitlement at intervals of 20 or 80 years, Indebtedness of 396. The natural indebtedness of the cultivating classes, caltivating and their recklessness in the matter of marriage expenditure , and in litigation, are features which affect most seriously the possibility of improving the agriculture, But here, again, I am on ground where I can make no useful suggestion, and on subjeets which have for long engaged, and now are more than ever occupying, the earnest attention of Government. By the introduction of the taccart system of advances, and by loans for the purchase of seed, cattle, etc., in time of scarcity, the State has endeavoured to afford advantages to cultivators. But the latter have not as yet fully availed themselves of these advantages, the chief reason, in most cases, being that Money-lenders. they are too deeply in the hands of the baniya or money- lender to offer any security for the advances made. The baniya is also the grain merchant, and itishe to whom the cultivator resorts for the seed which he needs before his grop can be sown, The Saniya advances the seeds, generally at, exorbitant rates of interest, 25 per cent. for six months being quite an ordinary rate. But the cultivator must have the seed, end, having kept none over for himself, he resorts to the grain meichant, and thus a crop is often mortgaged even before it is Marriage grown, The sums spent by cultivators in marriages and Itigation, «displays ‘are enormous when compared with their incomes, and for these, as well as for what they require im Htigation, the taiyats yepair to the money-lender. So long as there is any- thing on which security ean be given, be it crops or be it land, the daniya is willing to advance, and when once in his hands it is seldom that the borrower comes out again. The accounts thus opened are rarely closed, and increase with astounding rapidity, interest being added to principal, and becoming the new principal. On interrogating cultivators in villages in the Central Provinces, I frequently found that. there was not Indebtedness One who was not in debt to some extent or other, and yet this almost universal. was not because of the poverty of the soil or the inferiority of the crops. It was a habit, and one carried 0 such an extent, that even those who were well able to purchase their seed went, nevertheless to the baniya, if only to keep up friendly relations with him. In one case I found that an original debt of Rs. 120 had in a few years mounted to one of Rs, 600; a decree had been obtained against the borrower, but there was not the least intention of enforcing it, and it was elicited also that the same cultivator had already spent Rs, 400 Money-lenders, 291 in weddings, and was now aboat to spend another Rs. 50 in order to marry off his son, . Near CawnporeI came to a village owned by four zemindara, holding 2,600 brghas (bigka = % acre) between them. All four were more or less in debt. One owed Rs. 5,000 and bad mort- gaged his land, paying 10 annas for Rs. 100 per month; a second had had several lawsuits, and had given the bantya a mortgage, the principal and interest to be repaid in ten years; a third had found an existing debt on the property when he came into it ; and the fourth was Rs, 16,000 in debt. It was clearly impossible for these men to do anything to improve their tenants’ position. The zemindars often are too encumbered to lay out money for well digging or for water supply by tanks, In parts of Chota Nagpur and the Central Provinces the forests have been cleared in consequence of the indebtedness of the landed proprietors, and in order to provide the latter with ready cash. In these ways the land passes from its hereditary possessors and falls into the hands of the money-lenders. In Théna (Bombay) almost all the land has become the property of non-cultivators. in the Hoshiarpur (Punjab) Settlement Report it is stated at— “ owing to the pressure of population and the special tendency to litigation, “and to spending large sums on marriages, the district is loaded witha ** large burden of debt. The area mortgaged in the last 30 years has been ** 116,000 acres, and that wold, 31,000 acres, or 16 per eent. and 4 per cent. “‘ respectively of the cultivated area. Still the mass of the rural population “is better off than in most of the districts of the Punjab.” e In the Central Provinces the amount of indebtedness is deplorable, and here it is the “absolute occupancy tenant” who saffers most, as he possesses the most rights, and they favour credit being given, The cultivators are, as a rule, comfortably off, and thir keing in debt is mostly the result of their ability so give security. To have a large sum in the daniya’s book is, indeed, considered a sign of prosperity, and the possession of good credit,? The existences of the baniya is the result, and not the cause, of the indebtedness of the ratyat, and amongst the surest signs of real poverty are the paucity of édantyas and the abseuce of jewellery on the females. The habit of getting into debt is strengthened by the almost total absence among the cultivators of any system of keeping accounts of income and expenditure. 397. The remedy for indebtedness is not the extermination of the baniya, even were that possible, but it .will be found in an increased general prosperity, which will make the people more self-reliant and independent, Mr. R. H. Elliot, of Munjerabad, Mysore, told me that formerly the cultivators arouzd his estate used constantly to come to him to borrow money, to -pay the Government tax (he leading it to them without interest), so that they might not increase their indebtedness to the baniya; but that more recently, by haying their own patches of land in coffee, and by working in plantations, the cultivators had, Oa Indebtedness hindrance ta improvement, Remedies for indebtedness, Matual benefit Bociety at Hospet, Messrs,Thomson aod Mylne’s action at Beheea. Measures to curtail money- lenders’ action, Want of enter- prise. 292 Economical and Political Conditions. to a great extent, become free of the baniya, and now rarely came even to him (Mr. Elliot) to borrow money. In a few cases the people have combined for mutual protection against the exorbitant charges of the money-lenders. In Hospet (Madras) a Mutual Benetit Society bas been established in conse- quence of the money-lenders charging as much as 24 and 80 per cent. interest. The founding of the society has brought the charges of the baniyas down very considerably. At Beheea Messrs. Thomson and Mylne practically got rid of the native daniya by giving loans themselves to their tenants ata much reduced rate of interest. They pointed out to me, however, the absolute necessity that there was of being on the spot, and of knowing all the circumstances of the individuals who applied for loans. In some instances it may be necessary to adopt stringent measures against the action of the money-lenders. It would certainly seem right, after what bas been said, that enquiries should be made not only into existing debts but also into the history of these debts. Mr, J. B. Fuller told me that, according to an old Hindu law, no greater arrears of interest could be recovered at any time than amounted to the principal sum, and he thought that this rule might well be revived. Mr, Fuller was also in favour of Govern- ment granting loans to cultivators in some parts of the Central Provinces where good security was undoubtedly present, to enable them to pay off their debts to the bantyas. heir past experience of the extortion of the money-lenders had* been so bitter that they would, Mr, Fuller thought, avoid its recurrence in the future if they could once be set free from it. In the Saugor district of the Central Provinces the land belongs almost entirely to money-lenders, and, in consequence of the way in which the raiyats were ground. down, the plan was devised of alleviating them by giving a lower assessment to the proprietors, provided that they undertook in turn to charge less to their tenants, This plan Governinent approved. ¢ . But the same remedy will not apply in one Province that does in another, and each will bave to be dealt with according to its particular circumstances. 398. Next to indebtedness and extravagance comes, as a draw- back to agricultural progress, the want of enterprise sometimes met with among cultivators, Mr. Nicholson says of Coimbatore :— “There is a low level of social comfort, and the desire for progress is pre- « vented thereby ; there is a disinclination to economy in time and land, or to * exertion in unusual times and seasons. The tendency is to rent out the land, s© and to live on the proceeds.” Of Anantapur Mr. Nicholson ‘writes :— “The total absence of effort and determined struggle, except the old ‘lines, on the part of the people, is the cause of career Sires rae This lack of enterprise is not always the result of the hardship of circumstances or the poverty of the soil. Frequently it may Want of Enterprise—Ezxport of Gratn, 293 ‘be the precise reverse, The Central Provinces have been described as a country of “rude plenty.” The soil naturally produces enough to make the people comfortable, and for more than this they do not care. I have described in an earlier chapter (Chapter III, para- graph 23) how improvement in circumstances might be produced Natural sdvan- were the cultivators in the wheat-growing districts to raise other (eee ns crops than wheat. But they get all that they want, and their pot.conduciveto wheat gives them only about two months’ or three months’ work, provement. at the most, whereas, if they grew other crops, they would have to work more, and also to irrigate the land. They are ready to admit that embanking of land (bunding) does good, but they will not go to the trouble and expense of doing it until positively obliged. As compared with the North-West Provinces, the density of population is 400 or 500 only to the square mile of cultivated land, as against 1,090, but the produce of wheat per acre is less than in the North-West. Were enterprise present, the wheat produce in the Central Provinces might be much more than it is, Assessment, too, is low as compared with the North-West; but a low rate of assessment is by no means synonymous with prosperous agriculture, Of many parts of the Central Provinces it might be said that, were the assessment higher, the agriculture would improve, in order to enable the increase to be met. Around Deamoh the people have been obliged to embank their land so as to make the crops pay. It is certain that there are many parts where an increased difficulty of living would bring about improved practice of agriculture. It is not where population is least dense that the best agriculture is seen, but more frequently in the most congested districts, such as those around Benares, Azamgurh, and other parts of the North-West Provinces. As the struggle for existence becomes harder, there is the inducement to put forth effort to meet its demands, whereas comparative eace in cireum- stances, a light assessment, and a naturally fertile soil, may prevent the exercise of energy, and may foster a backward condition of agriculture. Where such is the case an improvement can only be expected to come from the disturbance which time or pressure of population will make in the easy circumstances which exist. 399. Attention has of late been turned greatly to the subject Expert of grain. of the export trade in wheat, and it has been debated whether, in order to meet the distress caused by famine, the export of grain from India should not be restricted or stopped altogether. This question has been so fully and ably discussed by such authorities as Mr. J. E. O’Conor, Sir Edward Buck, and Mr. Holderness, that there is no call for me to say more than to emphasise the general conclusion come to that what is exported is practically the overplus, often specially grown for the purpose of export, and that if it did not pay the ratyat to export it he would soon give up growing it for this purpose. Besides, in time of scarcity, the price of wheat would rise in India, along with that of other food grains, and it would then pay better to keep the wheat in the country than to export it. The amount of wheat exported is at present only about one 294 Economical aud Political Conditions, per cent. of the total of the food grains produced, and only one-tenth of the total wheat crop. Railways have, itis true, greatly facilitated export, but they have also done service in preventing fluctuation of prices in differ- ent parts, whilst their value, in time of famine, for conveying food to distressed districts can hardly be over-estimated, - 295 CONCLUSIONS, 400. In this chapter I have touched on some few of those economical and political conditions which have an importang bearing upon agriculture and on the possibility of its improvement. Many others there are, such as social habits, emigration, ete., but my purpose has been merely to introduce a few, lest I shoald be thought guilty of ignoring their influence on the progress of agri- culture, I bave, however, expressed my inability to discuss them properly, and, besides, they are such as do not strictly fall within the scope of my more special enquiry. I therefore refrain from making any recommendations under this chapter, CONCLUSIONS, CHAPTER XV. PRactTicaL AGBICULTUBAL Enquiry, Scope of the present chapter, Necessity of combining practice and Bcience, The scope of enquiry, 296 CHAPTER XVI, PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL ENQUIRY, 401. The foregoing chapters consist of a review of the agricul- tural conditions of India, as they presented themselves to me during my tour. As each sobject has been successively dealt with, I have indicated where improvement may, ian my opinion, be effected. In the concluding chapters of my Report it will be my ojbect to discuss in detail the agency by which the suggested improvements may be carried out, I have had occasion, in almost every one of the sections, to point out the necessity which exists for a systematic enquiry into present agricultural practices, and to insist upon the acquirernent of definite knowledge before attempts are made to feack any fresh system, or éo carry out any extended work of experimental research. It is with this matter of practical enquiry into agricultural con- ditions and methods that I shall occupy myself in the present chapter. 402. Practical enquiry, or, as I may here put it, the obtaining of knowledge respecting agricultural practice, precedes both scien- tific enquiry and experiment. The scientist, without some know- ledge of the practical issues involved, is unable to push his enqui- ries in the right direction, and, however able his researches, he may fail from being unpractical, Similarly, the experimenter, without a knowledge of what is done elsewhere, or of what is within the reach of the cultivator, may waste both time and money in trying what has no chance of ever becoming of any practical value. The practical man must first become thoroughly conversant with what is being done in native agriculture, and with the conditions under which it is carried on; then the scientist may come in and explain the rationale of the practice, and may apply these princi- ples Go the & ;tension of the better systems, and to the discovery of further resources ;*- slly, by the happy combination of sezence and practice, the work of experiment may proceed in a definite and use- ful direction. In this way some advance in agriculture may be made. 403. As I said in my opening chapters, I believe that it will be possible here and there to graft on to Native practice the results of ‘Western experience, but the main advance will come from an en- quiry into native agriculture, and from the extension of the better andigenous methods to parts where they are not known or employed, Necessity of Practical Enquiry, 297 In addition to the improvement of agricultural methods, there comes another most important branch wherein enquiry is absolutely necessary ; this is the ascertaining of the requirements of different parts of the country in respect of facilities present in some, and deficient or absent in others. To this class belong those physical surroundings which I have summarised in paragraph 18 (Chapter II), and which are comprised, mainly, in the supply of water, manure, wood, and grazing. 404. It must be clear to every one that, before any improvement, The necessity of in the agriculture of a country can be effected, the first preliminary recogoised, is that a knowledge of the country, its conditions and its needs, be obtained. I may also say, without fear of contradiction, that, as regards India, comparatively little is known of its agricultural methods, and that they have only been, so far, the subject of casual and isolated enquiry by individuals. An organised system of enquiry, on the other hand, might result in the collation of definite knowledge of the agricultural resources and needs of the country. The Famine Commission recognised the necessity of careful and By the Famine . . . Commiesioners. organised enquiry in order to get a real knowledge of the agricultural state and conditions of India. TI repeat the quota- tions from their Report, already given in paragraph 15 :— * The defect in the efforts made by Government to instruct the cultivator “bas consisted in the failure to recognise the fast that, in order to improve © Indian agriculture, it is necessary to be thoroughly acquainted with it.” This view was also entertained by the Government of India in By the Govern- their Resolution of December 1881, in which they strongly urged ™™ oe the ‘“‘ prosecution ofagricultural ezquiry’’ and insisted that “it “ must precede any attempt at agricultural improvement.’’ With this view the Government of India initiated the ‘‘ agricultural analysis,’ which was to ‘‘indicate the condition of each tract of the country, “ glike for its protection against famine and for the improvement of the agricultural system.”’ The Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab (Sir. J. B. Lyall), in sir. 8. tyatrs a recent note, says :— o opinion, “J am altogether averse to attempts to give instruction in the practical * business of agriculture . . . our positive and comparative knowledge of the “ subject are alike insufficient to warrant such an attempt at the present time.” In a Note prepared for the Agricultural Conference at Simla in Mr J.B. Fuls October 1890, Mr. J. B, Fuller writes :— ler's opinion. “© We have far more knowledge of European than Indian agriculture at our “command ... . laborious investigation is required before we can trace * out the causes which have®stimulated development in some parts of India, “and have retarded it in others.” The Note of the Madras Government presented to the same opinion of the Conference says, in reference to the failure of experimental work in fate” @°""™ that Presidency :—~ © The experiments .. . were doomed to failure, either from want of in- “trinsic suitability or from want of knowledge of indigenous practices-and 4 conditions . . « the faults . . . would not bave occurred had there been a 298 Practical Agricultural Enquiry, “ department of wide knowledge and full experience of native and, especially, “local practice and conditions.” The policy proposed by the Madras Government contains as its first recommendation, ‘‘ the institution of a careful and definite system of enquiry into existing practices;’’ and it mentions “* the importance of enquiry as an essential preliminary to any origi« nal endeavours to improve Indian agriculture.’’ “Agricultural = 4.05, The ‘agricultural analysis ’’ proposed by the Government g prop ’ seen enntust to of India has, up to the present time, been confined to the collec+ ofaaustice tion of Land Revenue statistics, and of information regarding the liability of districts to famine, and there has been no enquiry into agricultural methods with a view to agrictltural improvement. The cause of this has been the absence of any organisation for the purpose, and the want of money for instituting it. Accordingly, whilst “Land Records”’ have beep put on asatisfactory basis, agri- oultural knowledge and improvement have remained much where they were when the Famine Commission issued their recommendations. This wasnot the = That it was not the intention of the Government of India to Governmentof confine an ‘* agricultural analysis ’’ to the collection of statistics ee is shown by the following extracts from their Resolution of Decem- ber 1881 :-— “It is necessary to point out that the agricultural enquiry should not be *“ confined to the mere collection or collation of statistics, in the ordinary accept- “ ation of the term. An examination of the portion of the Famine Commis- “sioners’ Report which deals with agricultural enquiry will show that, in * recommending with reiterated force an intelligent system of investigation, ‘‘ their final object, is to urge through its means, and as a practical outcome of “its results, the policy of maintaining agricultural operations at the highest “attainable standard of efficiency. The Government of India fully accepts “ this definition of a most important aim of agricultural enquiry.” Again -— “From a system of agricultralenquiries . .. will follow the gradual ‘* development of agricultural improvement in its manifoid variety, and the * Government of India will be satisfied if, on the first constitution of an ‘* Agricultural Department, the organisation of agricultural eaquiry is placed * in the hands of qualified officials, to whom may be committed the subsequent “ preparation of carefully considered proposals for agricultural improvement.” Sir Edward Buck, in reviewing, in March 1890, the position of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, says :— “The agricultural conditions have only been studied with the view of ‘« getting general knowledge as to the liability of famine, but not as regards “agricultural practice, its advantages and the desirability of extension, its ‘* deficiencies and possible remedies.” o foe 406. The above extracts show abundantly that the need of acquiring knowledge of agricultural practice is fully recognised as a preliminary to any scheme of agricultural improvement. Before considering what agency is best able to deal with the work of enquiry, it will be well to set out in more detail some special points on which that agency might usefully occupy itself, Seope of Practical Enquiry. 299 in addition to the general one of becoming acquainted with the systems of agriculture practised in different parts. Firstly, it is important to ascertain the requirements of each district in regard to the provision of water, of manure, of wood, and of grazing, and to decide in what way the needs can best be met; whether, for instance irrigation by canal or by wells is best suited ; whether embanking of land should be done; whether ‘‘ Fuel and Fodder Reserves ”’ can be usefully formed ; where grazing can be pro- vided; whether the ¢accavt system of advances for agricultural im- provement is properly brought before the people and utilised by them ; and so on. Secondly, it is desirable to ascertain where a transference of the practice of one part may be beneficially made to another part. Of this nature are, the embanking of land; green-manuring; hedg- ing and enclosure of fields; sheep-folding ; the use of leaves; the growing of fodder-crops ; the ploughing of rice fields after harvest ; the use of castor and other oil-seed refuse as manure ; the utilisation vf night-soil and town-sweepings ; the planting of sugar-cane in furrows ; the use of the iron sugar-mill and shallow evaporating- pan in sugar manufacture; the extended growing of sugar-cane, potatoes, and other crops. Thirdly, there area number of questions of a practical nature which await solution, and which, though mainly of the nature of experiment, cannot proceed without first employing _ practical enquiry. Such questions are: What is the outturn of different crops? What is the right amount of seed to use in sowing rice? What quantity of water should be employed in rice cultivation? Does manuring of rice fields pay? Would draining of rice fields be advantageous? What is the relative outturn of sugar from different varieties of cane? Does continuous growing of sugar- cane pay? Willit pay in the long run to grow a long-stapled vatiety of cotton rather than the short-stapled varieties generally grown? Is interculture of other crops with cotton profitable? Is the use of bones advantageous? Lastly, there are points more connegted with the introduction of foreign agricultural practice; for example, the ‘possibility of introducing hew crops; the growing of new varieties ; the acclimati- sation of seed ; the selection of seed; the making of silage; the use of new implements; the use of litter and preservation of urine; the better conservation of cattle manure; the reclamation of salty land (usar), of ravine and other waste land. 407. The enumerationof the subjects set out in the last para- The need of an graph clearly points to the necessity of having an agency of an “P's? expert nature to deal withthem. They are not matters which adininistrative genius, a high intellect, or even ordinary common ‘sense can decide, but which need the application of special technical ‘knowledpe of agricultural conditions and practice. This has been ‘yéeognised alike by the Famine Commistioners, the Government of India, and by individuals qualified to speak on the point, 300 Practical Agricultural Enquiry, Opislong! I must here repeat the extract quotated in Chapter I, para- iaiedioners-and graph 4, from the Government of India’s Resolution of December Goveroment of 1881, when commenting on the Famine Commissioners’ Report :— India. “The Famine Commissioners have, with great distinctness, intimated “that ....apermanent agency should be closely associated with the ex- “isting authorities in each Province for the systematic prosecution of agri- “cultural enquiry. The importance of this view, which directs attention to “ those duties of the Agricaltural Department which must precede any attempt * at agricultural ¢mprovemené, has hitherto been far too greatly overlooked.” The Resolution also says :— “ The desirability of closely aseociating the permanent agency thus required ““ with the existing administrative staff is throughout the Report of the Famine “Commissioners, strongly indicated. The system, they write, should be ** worked by tke ordinary official staff, supplemented, where necessary, to meet ‘* the special circumstances of the case.” And later :— “ The Department having thus primarily turned its attention to those parts “of the country in which agriculture is depressed, or its results uncertaia, ‘‘may hereafter give consideration to the general improvement of agricul- “ture, . . . It may, as time goes on, become the duty of the Department ‘*to associate with itself in this investigation the assistance of qualified “ experts.” The Notes presented to the Agricultural Conference at Simla in October 1890, by the Government of India, the Bombay Government, the Madras Government, the Bengal Department of Land Records and Agriculture, the Poona Agricultural Associa- tion, and by Mr. J. B. Fuller, contain references to the need that exists for the employment of agricultural experts. Note of Govern- The Government of India’s Note says:— ment of India, ‘ May 1890. “ Continuous enquiry should be maintained by means of Experimental ‘* Farms or other similar agency, with the view of ascertaining the possible * results which may be gained by the introduction of new, or the modification “© of existing, processes and practices connected with agriculture.” Note of Govern- | The Bombay Government point out that they have appointed Tog’! Bombay, 2 European expert as Superintendent of Farms, and have estab- lished agricultural branches of the Colleges at Poona and Baroda. The Madras Government’s Note says :— © Note of Madras “Theexperts . . ~. werechiefly occupied with farm and college duties, foreroment, and could not work continuously and closely at the numerous investiga- ; “tions suggested or thrust upon them from time to time, and which re- ‘‘ quired the organised staff of a Department.” The second of the Madras .Government recommendations (the first being the institution of a careful and definite system of enquiry into existing practices) was, ‘‘the inauguration of experiments under the control of trazned agriculéwrists.’’? Andit was suggested that ‘‘a certain number of agricultural inspectors should be em- ployed on a careful and minute study of agricultural practices, their work being carefully directed and supervised by European experts.’’ In addition to having the present Assistant Director of -Agricul- ture, if was resolved to apply to the Secretary of State for a second European expert to be primarily employed .in investigations into the methods of agriculture followed in the various parts of the Opinions on Necessity of Enquiry. 801 Een, and to attach two of the agricultural inspectors to this officer. The Bengal Department of Land Records and Agriculture, Note of Bengal which was only started in 1885, recognised at the outset the of tant Records need of agricultural enquiry, and employed two or three of the $2¢Asticulture, Assistants in the Department who bad made a study of agriculture in England, to enquire into the systems of a few of the most im- portant districts in the Presidency. The Reports on the Agricul- ture of Dacca by Mr. Sen, and on that of Lohardaga by Mr. Basu were outcomes of this policy. The subsequent usefulness of the special officers was, however, greatly destroyed by their trans- ference to other Departments, or their employment in purely office work. The note of the Poona Agricultural Association advocates the note of the placing of Provincial Farms under the management of ‘a European 5 err ttaral “* well trained in the theory and practice of agriculture and horticul- Association, “ture, and haviog Indian experience,’’and adds that he should have ‘one or two native assistants under him educated in Indian agri- cultural schools, and preferably belonging to the agricultural classes.”’ ‘Lastly, Mr. J. B, Fuller, in his Note, says :— Mr, Fuller's note, . **Much success . . . cannot be hoped for unless Agricultural Depart- “ments are officered by men who are not only trained in agricultural “science, but also nave an intimate acquaintance with Indian agricul- “ture. . «+ ~ Very little success can be expected unless a permanent “technical assistant is attached to each Department.” ~ 408. From the time accordingly, when the improvement of agriculture was first seriously considered, until the present time, there has been a strong expression of opinion, in which I fully con- cur, that the work is one which requires a permanent agency, and the assistance of men possessed of the requisite technical knowledge. Agriculture is a distinctly technical subject, and no one without a special training in it can be expected to deal successfully with it. At present the only agency that exists is the Director of the rhe present Department of Land Records and Agriculture in each Province, **°"°- together with his office staff. The latter, with few exceptions, are men who have had no previous acquaintance with agriculture, either by their early training or by their surroundings, and their duties are mainly those of compiling Statistics and keeping Records. In Bengal, as I. noted just now, Assistants to the Director have been appointed from time to time for special agricul- tural work, but it has not been continuous in character ; in the North-West Provinces, in Bombay, and in Madras, Assistant Di- rectors of the Department have been appointed, but all of them have laboured under difficulties, and their principal duties have been those of office work, and not those of a strictly agricultural nature. , Coming next to the Director of the Department of Land the Director of Records and Agriculture (for this is his correct though somewhat tri on Roecrds cumbersome title, and not that of ‘‘ Director of Agriculture,’’ as he 204 4ariculture. 302 Practical Agricultural Enquiry. is conveniently but erroneously called), it must be at once said that, with rare exceptions, he has not the necessary technical knowledge to fit him for the work of agricultural improvement. The early training of the future Civil Servant is not one which directs his attention specially to, or encourages the pursuit of, Natural Science, but it is rather one of a classical, mathematical, or literary character. After the selection of men by open competition there is no special inducement given to them to study natural science. It is only within the last few years that Agricultural Chemistry has been introduced into the final examination as an optional subject along with other branches of Natural Science. Briefly, the man whose bent is towards those sciences, a knowledge of which would be useful to him later asan Agricultural Director, is at a disadvantage compared with the classic or mathematician. I am well aware of the difficulties which stand in the way of allowing probationers to study agriculture as a special subject before going out to India, and I do not advocate that this should be done, for there are other more important duties for which the Civil Servant has to undergo a special preparation at home. But I mention these matters for the purpose of showing that, up to the time of his landing in India, there is nothing to distinguish the future Agricultural Director from the subsequent Collector or Judge, and that he arrives with- out having acquired any technical knowledge whatever of agricul- ture. Not even after arrival in India is the case much better, for all alike pass through much the same course of district work. In this way a man acquires a certain amount of acquaintance with the agriculture of the part where he is placed, but it is mainly with the work of the court-house (cutcherry) that his time is occupied. Later on, administrative and magisterial duties have the firet claim upon a Revenue officer, and, unless it should fall to his lot to be entrusted with the Settlement of a district, he hardly comes at all into close relations with the agricultural practices and conditions of the part where he happens to be. An acquaintance with agri- culture is, as a matter of fact, no necessary qualification for the appointment of Director of Agriculture, nor would a man hesitate, en the ground of his not having any special knowledge of agricul- tural matters, to accept such a post, were it offered to him. So it comes about, and the past history of Agricultural Departments abundantly shows it, that the Directors are simply men of adminis-. trative ability, taken out of the regular Revenue line, for one reason or another, but zot of necessity because they have shown any aptitude for dealing with agricultural questions, or because they have any special leaning towards the pursuit of Natural Science. The consequence is that, too often, after their appointment, they are brought face to face with subjects whicherequire technical knowledge for handling them aright, and the absence of this know- ledge leads to the practical neglect of the more strictly agricultural duties of the office. There are other reasons, too, for this neglect. The administrative duties of the office are numerous and varied ; there are Land Records to be kept up, and the work of inspection of village accountants (patwaris) to be done, so that, with these and the necessary office work, the Director has but little time -te The Directorship of Departments of dgricuiture. 303 give to the study of the details and systems of agricultural ‘practice, or to the possible improvement of agriculture which may arise from that study. Some Directors of Agriculture, indeed, have openly avowed their intention to confine themselves to the work of Land Records, and not to attempt the larger one of agricultural improve- ment. Thus, in effect, the Director becomes what he is strictly defined as being, viz., Director of the Department, rather than what the holder of such an office should be, viz., the Director, or, better still, the Commissioner of Agriculture. The agriculture of the country can hardly be said to be capable of being directed, but the oversight of it in a Province may be committed to the care of an individual. From having, therefore, his time fully occupied with adminis- trative duties and with other work, but mainly from not having the technical knowledge which may fit him to deal with agricul- tural questions, the Director of the Department is, in most cases, obliged to leave the work of agricultural improvement alone. It is significant to note that in January 1878, subsequent to the appointing of a Director of Agriculture and Commerce in the North-West Provinces, application was made to the Secretary of State for an Assistant to the Director, on the ground that ‘‘ the “ discharge of the duty devolving on the Director requires the posses- ‘‘sion of qualifications which cannot be aequired without special “training.”’ It would not be right, however, were I to pass without acknow- ledgment the good work that has been done by some few members of the Covenanted Service who have held the position of Director of the Agricultural Department of their respective Provinces. But, when I come to examine the individual cases to which [I refer, I find that in every instance the success has been the outcome of an innate love for Natural Science, and move especially for those branches of if which are most closely allied to agriculture, or from their having already possessed some practical acquaintance with agriculture. Unless one or the other of these elements be present, I fear that success will seldom follow even well-intentioned efforts. A further hindrance to progress is met with in the frequent changes which take place in the occupancy of the Directorship. A Director no sooner has got his staff into working order, and possibly has entered upon some line of enquiry, or commenced some protective measure against famine, than he is liable to be called away to fill some higher post, while his successor may have no sympathy with his efforts, and thay allow them to lapse. In this way the work of Agricultural Departments has largely been the rerult of spontaneous efforts of individuals rather than of-one con- tinuous system of enquiry maintained throughout. Continuous enquiry cannot be carried on without a regular agency for the purpose, and so long as it is entrusted to men whose tenure of office has no element of permanency about it, the results will be dis- appointing. I might mention the reclamation experiments. at Awa and at Jhansi (see paragraphs 70 and 75), as instances of enquiry begun but not concluded, in consequence of changes of the Agricultural experts, 304 Practical Agricultural Enquiry. kind alluded to. So also might it be at any time with respect to the ravine reclamation carried on at Etawah (see paragraph 70), the usar experiments in the North-West Provinces (see paragraph 75), and other similar work. 409. Technical knowledge of agriculture is, we have now seen, the missing element in the existing agency of the Departments of Land Records and Agriculture. I shall, therefore, proceed to con- sider how this lack of technical knowledge can be best supplied. It has been maintained by some who have turned their atten- tion to this subject that, so long as the interests of agriculture are entrusted to Departments constituted as the present ones are, with a Civilian at the head instead of a practical agriculturist, no good can be done. It is argued that, justas in the case of the Geological Survey, the Botanical Department, the Meteorological Department, and others, the man who is the Director should be an expert in the particular branch, and that Agriculture should form a Department quite separate from that of Land Records. The Director and the Assistants being expert men, they would, it is said, be far more likely to work out some improvement in agriculture than the present organisation. I fully allow that there is a great deal to be said in favour of this view, and were the circumstances of India different from those which exist at present, there would be much to recommend it. Undoubtedly men trained in agriculture, and with a knowledge both of its science and its practice, would be much better qualified to deal with purely agricultural questions than the ordinary Civilian Director, just as it needsa geologist to deal with geological subjects, and a chemist with chemical ones. Could everything be reconstructed, and the whole system of administra- tion in India be altered, this change would be one that I should recommend, but at the present time I cannot see that it is a feas- ible proposal, and so I do not advocate it. My work is to suggest what cam be done rather than what ought to be done, and it is not for me to propound schemes which cannot, at present at least, be carried out, Besides this, agriculture stands on a different footing to sciences such as geology, botany, chemistry, ete. The truths of these sciences hold good everywhere alike, and the phenomena may be studied in whatever districih they present themselves, without avy direct reference to the people of that district, An officer of the Geologigal Survey, for instance, may pursue his enquiries equally in the gold mines of Mysore, the ruby mines of Burma, the coal measures of Bergal, or the oil districts of Beluchistan. He need he confined to no one locality, but may be drafted in suc- cession to each, and thus have no particular head-quarters. But whenever one. attempts to deal with agriculture, he is brought at once into close relation with the people, their habits, their condition, and mainly their relation to the State as the supreme landlord. All questions of agricultural improvement touch upon the circum- stances both of the people and of the State, and it is impossible to divorce the two, Wherever he goes, the agricultural enquirer, as I know from my own short experience, will be brought face to face Agricultural Experts, 305 with matters in which, not agricultural matters alone, but also the administration of Land Revenue is concerned. The Famiue Com- mission recognised that agricultural progress was bound up witn considerations of a Revenue character, and for thiy reason they did not reeommend the formation of an Agricultural Depurtment administered by experts alone. They hinted rather that it might be found necessary to associate with the Department the assistance of qualified experts. This is the opinion which I hold, too, although I would more strongly press the absolute need of obtaining this expert knowledge withoutdelay. There are, as 1 have pointed out, duties other than those of being practical agriculturists which fall to the share of the Director of an Agricultural Department, and which could not be discharged by experts alone. Besides this, unless the agricultural expert be in complete touch with the Revenue authorities, and unless he have placed at his disposal the services of the Revenue subordinates, his progress in the way of agricultural improvement is hardly likely to be facilitated, or his position become an enviable one. On the other hand, if he proceeds to his work under the authority of the present Director, and in harmony with the Revenue authorities of adistrict, he is likely to be provided with all facilities in making his enquiries. These may seem points of small importance to one unacquainted with India, bnt to anyone who knows the country they are very material con- siderations. I must take India as ¢¢ is and not as I think zé © should be, and my endeavour is, therefore, to graft improvements upon existing systems, rather than to suggest the subversion of the latter. After giving much attention to this subject, I have eome to the conclusion that the want of technical knowledge in the existing agency can best be supplied by the employment: of agricultural erperts, such as were contemplated in the recommendations of the Famine Commissioners and of the Government of India; and whieb are also indicated in the several notes presented to the Agri- cultural Conference at Simla, in October 1890. Tf with the Director were associated one or more Assistants, who were trained experts in agricniture, and whose duties would be purely agricultural, the lack of technical knowledge in the Department would be supplied. It would be necessary that these experts should not be hampered with the routine of office work, but be free to pursue, under the orders of the Director, the practical work of enquiry. With the help of such an Assistant or Assistants the administrative ability of the Directorate would be supplemented by. that knowledge of a special character which is required to enable it to deal with practical questions, az well as to carry on a con- tinuous system of enquiry and, possibly, of experiment. The regulative skill and administrative qualifications of the Director would still be employed in seeing that the time of the Assistant was being usefully employed, and both enquiry and experiment would form a part of the work of the Department, thus constituting it in reality one, not of Land Records only, but also of Agriculture, Under the orders of the Director it would be possible, by a careful 20 306 Praclécal Agricultural Engniry. study of the requirements ofa particular district and of its agri. cultural practises, to effect a transference of method from one part to another, or to introduce a new erop, or, perhaps, a new imple- ment, and to pursue the other enquiries whick I have sketched out in the earlier part of this chapter (see paragraph 406). In this way I believe that the Department might be made of really practical benefit to the cultivator, as well asa necessary administrative branch of the Executive. It must, bowever, be clearly understood that to carry this out efficiently an Assistant must be free to employ his whole time in this work, and to pursue it among the people themselves; it would be inadvisable to have an enquiry conducted merely during the intervals of leisure from office duties, for, an enquiry once begun, must be continuous throughout, The men who are appointed must be those who would take up the study of agriculture as the business of their life, meaning to devote their whole attention to it. Ono fault of the past fod been that when Natives have been employed in agri- cultural work they have not been taken from the right ¢lasses, nor have they had the training best fitted for them, so they have not regarded agriculture as their profession at all, but have waited for their chance of obtaining an appointment in some other branch, or of turning to the Law. Agri- culture ought to be a distinet professinn, and the man who enters it Nontd prepare for it, intending to devote himself to it in just the same way as the Forest Officer enters the Forest Department or the Engineer the Public Works Department ; that is, with the intention of remaining attached to that service. Agricalture, on the contrary, has had no permanent agency to carry on ils work, and no staff of native suberdinates who have been trained in it, or encouraged to continue in its pursuit. Should 410. The question now forces itself upon consideration: Ought agricultural . my, * aa experts be 1¢ agricultural experts to be Europeans or Natives? Without Naver’? attempting to lay down a rule to be followed in all cases alike, I would indicate my opinion that they should, by preference, be Natives, and Natives trained in India, not in England, Frequent have been the attempts to provide the expert po - sessing agricultural knowledge; fivet, by sending home to Eng- land seleeted Civil Servants, to enable them to qualify, by a study of agriculture at Cirencester or elsewhere, for. the Acri- cultural Directorship on their return; then by sending Natives. who have graduated in the University, and allowing them to study agriculture in England, in the belief that cn their return they would make useful agricultural officers. But neither plan hag worked well asa whole, though in the case of the Civil Servants it must be said that they have fully justified their selection, and have shown the good results of the instruction given to them. But the study of agriculture at a College does not constitute a man a praetical agriculturist, and unless the instructioa be followed by practical experience on a farm it is not complete, Again, a man has to learn Indian and not English agriculture, and this canaot be taught at an institution like Agricutturad Heperte. 807 Cirencester College, There are further diffieulties in the matter of furlough, and in the changes in tenure of the Direetor’s office, which make it only occasionally desirable to equip a Civil Servant in the regular line with such special traming in agriculture as would be obtained by a two years’ residence at an Agricultural College in England.. On these grounds, and because of the duties of the office being also largely administrative, I do not think it generally feasible to have the Direetor himself an expert agri- oulturist, Some of the arguments advanced tell also against the employ- ment of Ruropean expert assistants. ‘They may have a knowledge | of English sere but if they begin to apply what they know, before they have studied the conditions of Indian -agricul- ture, they will but repeat some of the many blunders which have made people in India doukt the possibility of improving Indian agriculture at all through the agency of English experts, It is true that in most, cases the right men have not been sent out, and that the first lot of agriculturists (so-called) were nothing. more than gardeners, and unacquainted with agriculture. But, whether from this cause or from others, a disbelief in the expert has, anyhow, been begotten. /Other men of 9 very different stamp, such as Mr. Robertson and Mr, Benson, bave been brought to Madras, and have laboured there under circumstances of, it must be said, a very digcouraging nature, for they have received neither the sympathy nor support of their Government, and have been the victims of a continual ehange of policy on the part of that Government. Duties of office work, or of a tutoria? nature, have prevented them from devoting themselves to strictly agricultural work, whilst a zeal on their part to introduce new implements and new methods has net been always moderated with the necessary caution in applying Engtich to Indian agriculture. An Agri- eultaral Department, the Directer of which is purely a Revenue man, and who does not spend a eertain portion of each year in camping about in his Province, is hardly likely to be in full sym- pathy with efforts made to improve the agrieulture, and so it has preved to be the ease in Madras, Now, at length, the conclusion is arrived at that it is first necessary to learn more about the methods of Indian Agriculture, and the Madras Agricultural Committee of 1890 have recommended the empleyment of experts to engage in the work of diveet enquiry. i The chief points gained in selecting Natives as experts instead of Europeans are, firstly, that they start with great initial alvan- tages in knowing the language, the habits of the people, and (if they be wisely selected) the conditions of agriculture and the methods saphved 3 secondly, that the selection of Natives would be very much more economical. The advantages with which a Native starts are those which it would take a European a long time to acquire, ani the latter would probably never be so closely in toush with the people as the Native expert. Oceasionally it may be desirable to have one European expert Assistant to tha Director, but this will be guided much by financial considerations, 204 Where should they be trained ? Training in India preferable, The number of Assistants, 808 Practical Agricultural Enquiry. and, if only the proper training be provided, I consider that the work: may be done quite well by Natives, If a European be selected he should be a man who has gone through an agricultural - course of training, such as is provided at Cirencester, Downton, or ' other Agricultural College, but supplemented (and on this I wouid insist) by practical experience on a farm, In the matter of salary the procedure adopted by the Forest Department with the men who pass out of Cooper’s Hill College and who join the Forest Service might be followed, a similar rate of pay and in- crease, according to time of service, being given. It is, however, in the end, to the Natives. that we must look to carry out the work of agricultural enquiry, and it becomes, therefore, important to consider how a training in agriculture may be imparted to them. This subject will occupy a subse- quent chapter in my Report. Suffice it to say here that Iam dis- tinctly in favour of giving an agricultural education in India, rather than of sending Natives to England to study. Past expe+ rience has shown that the men selected for a Huropean training have not been those whose associations and interests have been with the land, but they have been men of literary inclinations, who have graduated with distinction at the Universities. Their sharp intellect and wonderful facility in picking up any subject to which they devote themselves have made them apt students of the literature rather than of the practice of English agriculture, and in most cases they have tacked on a study of Law to that of the subject to acquire which they were sent over to England at Government expense. On their return to their country they. no longer live as they used to, but adopt European ways and costume, more or less, and become generally discontented with the position which they occupy. In short, the residence in England has had the effect of spoiling them for occupying the position in the Agri- cultural Department for which they were intended to qualify, and they take the first opportunity they see of becoming ‘ pleaders ”’ in the Courts. In this way the expensive education given to Natives sent home to England is, as a rule, lost to the Agricultural Depart- ment, while those who still remain connected with it are dissatis- fied with their position and prospects. On these grounds, therefore, I strongly advocate a training in India for Native experts. As to the numker of Assistants which a Director would require, this must vary in different Provinces, and according to the work to be done, but one for each Division would probably not be more than would eventually be found useful. As the essence of success turns upon the acquirement of local knowledge, the Assistants must of necessity be provincial, and not be removable from one Province to another like the Director. [ would add here that care should be taken in the selection of experts, 80 as to choose, as far as possible, men from the agricul- tural classes, and such as have an interest in the land, and who have lived amid agricultural surroundings. Too often men have been taken from the ranks of those who, asa rule, follow the Lhe Training of Experts. 809 profession of the Law, and who do not regard the pursuit of “Agriculture as in any way a profession. _ 411. I have now discussed in considerable detail the question views of the of the employment of agricultural experts, and would conclude by eel mentioning that when I submitted my views (subsequently only Sim, 169 slightly modified) to the Agricultural Conference afi Simla, in Oetober 1890, they received a very general approval, expressed in hes terms of the two following Resolutions passed at the Con- erence :--—— First.— «‘ That, in the opinion of this Conference, it is essential, ‘*for the proper performance of the duties demanded from the Agri- “ cultural Department in the direction of agricultural improvement, ‘that the Director of the Department should be provided with an ** Assistant or Assistants who are experts in.the practice and theory *¢ of agriculture.”’ Second.—‘‘ That it will be preferable to train Natives to be “¢ qualified for the post of Assistant in the Agricultural Department ‘‘in this country rather than in Europe, and that this end cannot be ‘attained unless there be a high-class education established in this *© country.”” CONCLUSIONS, 310 CONCLUSIONS, 419, Before any real improvement can be effected in agrical- ture, the institution of organised enquiry into existing methods and donditions is absolutely nevessary. Thus fat, little more has been done than to collect statistics and information as to the liability. of districts to famine. The expressed opinions of the Famine Com missioners and of the Government of India have clearly indicated that more than this was intended, and that enquiry into agricul- tural practices was recognised as 4 preliminary to agricultural improvement. ‘The time has now arrived when practical agricul- tural enquity should be initiated. The principal directions in which enquiry should proceed are, firstly, the obtaining of definite in- formation as to the requirements of each district in the matter of supply of water, manure, wood, and grazing ; secondly, the study of agricultural practices, with a view to the transference of the better methods to districts where they are not known. The agency which Agricultural Departments possess at present is inadequate to carry out such asystem of enquiry, and a technical knowledge of agriculture is a necessity. The Directors of Departments of Land Records and Agricul- ture are principally occupied with administrative duties, and have neither the time nor the technical acquaintance with agriculture which would enable them to devote themselves to the subject of agricultural improvement. Further, the constant changes in the tenure of the office of Director prevent the continuity of any experi- mental enquiry. While, for administrative reasons, it is desirable to retain the Director of an Agricultural Department in his present position, the want of technical knowledge of agriculture must be supplied ; this can best be dove by associating with the Director one or more expert Assistants who will make agriculture the business of their lives, and whose duty it will be to investigate, under the Director’s orders, the agricultural conditions of the different districts of a Province, The men selected as agricultural experts should be, by preference, Natives who have been trained in India, Conclusions. 3)1 RECOMMENDATIONS. 413. That a definite system of organised’ Enquiry into agricul- tural conditions and practices be instituted forthwith. That a Permanent Agency be established for this purpose, and consist of the association with the Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture ofan Assistant or Assistants who are trained experts in agriculture. That such experts be, by preference, Natives of India, and be trained in the country itself, That high-class Agricultural Education be provided in India so as to train the men who are to become agricultural experts. RECOMMEN- DATIUNS. CHAFTER XVI, ScrENTIFIC AGRICULTURAL Enquiey, The connection of science with practice. The results of combining science and practice, 812 CHAPTER XVII. SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTUBAL ENQUIRY. 414, Tae important services which science has rendered to agriculture are now universally recognised, and the marked deve- lopment of agricultural knowledge during the last half-century is the direct outcome of the application of science to practice. It is the domain of science to explain the principles which underlie good practice, and to extend the application of these prin- ciples, as well as to make fresh discoveries that may be of benefit to agriculture. The work of improvement, had it proceeded simply from the practical side, would have been, as it has always been, slow ; but when science set to work to find out the causes of well-ascertained facts in practical agriculture, progress at once became rapid. The application of science to practice may be briefly described as ‘the accurate knowledge of facts and the discovery of their ‘*causes.’? When the underlying principles have been discovered, science can apply these to further developments of practice, and to new discoveries. I might briefly illustrate the importance of scientific investigation in regard to practical agriculture by refer- ring to the difference between the state of our knowledge at the present time and that which existed prior to the introduction of scientific enquiry. Formerly, it was enough to know empirically that certain prac- tices were good, that certain kinds of soil were suited to particular crops, that certain foods were useful for cattle, but no one could say more than that these things were so, and not why they were so. Now, however, the connection between soil, air, plant, and animal has been worked out, and our knowledge is being continually added to; we know, in great measure, what plants are composed of, whence they draw their nourishment and in what forms it must be supplied to them, what the constituents of food are, and the changes which they undergo in the animal economy. We are enabled thus to provide for the needs of field crops by suitable manuring, to repair the demands made upon the soil, to feed stock on a rational system, and to cultivate the land on other than stereo- typed lines. Distant countries have been put under contribution to supply manurial resources for our crops and food for our stock. In short, a definite knowledge of the processes taking part in the practice of agriculture has been obtained through the medium of scientific enquiry. At the present time an enquiry is going. on which is of the highest importance to practical agriculture. refer to the possible assimilation of the nitrogen of the atmosphere by certain plants, The establishment of this theory will go a long way to explain much that has so far not been understood in agri- cultural practice, and may also have important bearing upon the practice of the fnture. Sctentifie Method in Enquiry. 318 - Practical enquiry will always be needed to keep up the know- ledge of what is being done, and to provide a field for scientific enquiry; but it is, nevertheless, from the latter that, wherever it is possible for development to take place, any great future advance will be made. Z , +. The special ' 415. The above remarks have been made in reference to agri- The special, culture in general, and not to Indian agriculture in particular. India limit the I have shown, indeed, in earlier chapters, that the conditions of oie Sinaaie 7 agriculture in India are such as to greatly limit the possible scope for improvement, and, consequently, to narrow the field for the application of scientific enquiry, As Mr. Thiselton Dyer points out, the history of agricultural progress in Britain shows it to have had its origin mainly in the existence of a classof landowners who had iutelligence to attempt the work of improvement by the application of the teachings of science, and also wealth to carry it through; but the poorer tenant farmers would never have initiated such enquiry, although they were not slow to adopt its results when they saw that it paid. The non-existence in India of any class corresponding to the resident English landowner of in- telligence and wealth is a bar to the progress of original agricul- tural investigation, and will limit the pursuit of enquiry to such matters as seem to have a direct bearing upon the immediate well- being of the people. Further, the smailness of the holdings, the paucity of capital, the habits and prejudices of the people, and the financial obligations of the Government, are bound to impose obstacles which would not present themselves to such a degree in — other countries, , l _ 416. Nevertheless, adopting even this restricted view of the Ssientite possibility of applying the results of scientific enquiry to agricul enqory ture, there are abundant reasons for its not being neglected al- "°°" together, and for advocating its pursuit whenever practicable. Primarily, let me say that, if practical enquiry is to be success- ful, it must be scientific in its methods, it must proceed on a well- regulated plan, and its results must be submitted to careful and critical examination. ‘The mere collection and reeord of facts is not enough; they must be put intoa connected and useful form, and they must be verified by experiment, Suzh work as this can- not be adequately performed without the possession of a scienti- fie training of mind by those to whom it is entrusted. So far as India is concerned, I regard the proper ‘regulation of practical enquiry, and the examination of its results, as one of the most use- ful ways in which scientific knowledge may be applied to the prac- tice of agriculture. 417. While acknowledging the bearing of sciences such as Botany, phe relation of Geology, Physiology, Engineering, and Meteorology upon agri- chemistry to culture, it is Chemistry more than any other that bas been pro- diesia ductive of the greatest results to agriculture in the past, and from which, as coming most in contact with agriculture, the greatest - benefit may be expected in the future, 314 Scientific Agricultural Enquiry. Morenver, itis with the application of chemistry to the improve- ment of Indian agriculture that the present Report is largely coneerned, Such rapid strides, however, has the science of chemistry mode within recent years, and so widely has it ramified into almost alt branches of industrial occupation, that agricultural chemistry, -or the application of chemistry to agriculture, has become a branch by itself, involving separate and special study. It will be my business, in the remarks that follow, to see how agrieultural chemis- try may be most usefully brought to bear upon the improvement of agriculture in India. Opinions Sic, 418. The need of bringing in the aid of agricultural chemistry of having an "to the problems of Indian agriculture has been admitted on many chemist in India, hands, though nothing special has go far been done to supply it, I might refer to my first chapter, where, in paragrapha $, 7, and. 8, are mentioned the repeated applications both of the Government. of India and of Agricultural Conferences for the appointment of an Mr, Medlicott, gericultural chemist to India. Mr, Medlicott, when Director of "the Geological Survey, writing in 1877 upon the “ Keh ” enquiry, said: * Observation and experiment cannot be profitably made by men, however “ otherwise intelligent, without any svientific knowledge of the matter under “investigation. I would therefore advise that a well-qualified agricultural chee “mist be engaged . » .~ under the Department of Agriculture to devote ‘ himself to this special investigation.” Governmont ot ‘The need of an agricultural chemist was foreseen by the Govern- India, 1681. = ment of India in 1881. In their Resolution of December 1833 they said :— Finally, the science of agricultural chemistry will be demanded for the solu- “tion of many important agricultural problems. ” Government of _ 10 1883 the Government of India formed a strong opinion tiat India, 1883, {here should be an aprieultural chemist for the Northern Provinees, and mentioned the vast unculturable tracts that existed on account of the occurrence of soda salts which impregnated the soil, They considered that the aid of science might reclaim these lands. Con- sequently in their Despatch of 8th February 1888, they asked the Secretary of State to sanction the appoiutment of an agricultural chemist who. could be used for this work and for educational pur- poses as well. It was proposed to establish an Agricultural College in the North-West Provinces, and to attach an agricultural ehe- mist to it. The Secretary. of Btate refused the application on the ground that the matter was a provincial and not an imperial one. Government of Successive recommendations for the appointment of an agricul- ise, 165, ‘tural chemist have been made by the Imperial Agricultural Departé ment in 1882, 1884, 1886, and 1888, and have each time been supported by the Government of India, The Secretary of State, however, while allowing the importance of the matter, has express himself as not satisfied with the methods proposed. Agricaltaral The Conference of Agricultural Directors at Simla, in October ‘onference, Getober, 180, 2890, expressed their opinion that there were an enormous number of questions which they. (the Agricultural Directors) wanted Need for an Agricultural Chemist. 315 to be answered, and which only a chemist could answer . . . ‘‘it was self-evident that an agricultural chemist was needed for ‘India, just as the Royal Agricultural Society of England found. ‘‘ that one was needed for them . . . a chemist was needed for ‘investigation, and as 4 referee, quite apart from the question of *“ education.”” Sir Edward Buck, in conversation with me, succinotly stated sir nawara hig opinion that all attempts at agricultural improvement must '™°t-1s%- have for their basis some scientific proundwork, and as chemistry ig the science that comes most in contact with agriculture, he considered that an agricultural chemist, to act as an agricultural expert, is the man most needed and most important, 419. In the preceding chapters I have, when dealing with scope tor work of each subject in detail, taken occasion to point out where the assist- *pog;.eu™™ ance of an agricultural chemist could be usefully employed. have instanced several matters of agricultural import which await investigation because of the want of a man with special knowledge of agricultural chemistry, and who could deal with them on the spot. Aimong these are the following: the possible exhaustion of . ... sige the soil by the present mode of cultivation, and the export system ; investigation. the sufficiencies and deficiencies of different soils in respect of the various soil constituents; the nature of alluvium and black cotton- soil; the influence of over-irrigation upon the soil; the amount of nitrogen in the rainfall; the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by the deguminose, and possibly by other plants as well, and their influence in restoring the soil’s fertility; the nature, origin, and femoval of saline deposits (re/) ; the differences between canal water and well water; the composition of various kinds of well water; the composition and use of different manurial substances, and their applicability to particular crops; the discovery of fresh manarial suppliess the better preservation of cattle manure ; the explanation of the ré6* system; the composition of food products, and the relative values of different fodders; the nature of native clarified butter (y#z) and other dairy products; the causes which affect the out-turn of sugar; the investigation of the chemical changes which take place in the manufacture of indigo, and the parts they respectively play in influencing the produce; the examination of suggested improvements in indigo manufacture; the influence of manuring upon the cultivation of tea; the investigation of the processes employed in the manufacture of tea; the manurial treat- meat of coffee; the curing of tobacco. 420. But there are other duties which an apricultural association of chemist would be éalled upon to discharge, and these, while chemist ni iy somewhat of a different nature to the above more independent and 24 experiment, acientific investigations, are of great economical importance in the progress of agricultural enquiry and experiment. I allude chiefly to the work of planning, regulating, and watching practical: enquiry and experiment, and of. critically examining avd sys- tematically recording the results obtained. My own experience has 8:¢ foothote page 37. Illustrated by tear enquiry, Enquiry into canal and well waters, Methods of butter-making. 816 Scientific Agricultural Enquiry, abundantly shown me that, though the undertaking of a __ practical enquiry or of an experiment in practical farming may appear at first sight a simple enough matter, it is the general fate of all such efforts to fail, or to fall short of the full benefit they might confer, whenever there is an absence of scientific design, supervision, and examination. Ido not say that it is necessarily an agricultural chemist that is required, for, indeed, a man who is purely a “‘labo- ratory man ”’ or, in other words, nothing but a skilful analyst, but who has not also an acquaintance with the details and require- ments of agricultural practice, will not be at all a suitable person to select. But itis rather the man of a scientific turn of mind, and able to appreciate where science can be usefully applied to practice, who will be best fitted for undertaking the work of enquiry. It will not be long, too, I think, before he finds that he has to call in the assistance of more specially chemical experience to aid him. If, then, in one person can be combined both the chemical skill and the appreciation of the practical points involved, the most suitable man is found. I have often examined so-called ‘¢ practical?’ experiments, which have failed because the plan was not devised so as to lead to any definite or satisfactory conclusion, or because there was not that critical examination of the results which would enable a right conclusion to be drawn. In these details of practical enquiry and experiment the assistance of an agricultural chemist would be of undoubted service. I have in an earlier page referred to the experiments on recla- mation of salty land (usar), and have stated my belief that chemical ssience should have been employed in the enquiry. It should have been known, for example, not only that the land in question was “ salty, ?? but also to what extent it was “‘ salty ;’”’ to what depth the saltness extended; to what particular salts it was due; what the surface water was, and what the subsoil water. -Then, again, to what extent the various reclamation processes respectively succeeded in removing the injurious salts; what quantities of the salts proved harmful, and at what point the reclamation might be considered effected; whether the various salts were equally in- jurious or not. - Again, I mentioned the enquiries made as to the respective merits of canal and well water. No chemist would have thought of speculating vaguely as to what the temperature of either water was, or whether one contained abundant lime, and the other not, when there existed for him ready means of absolutely determining the questions raised. To take yet another instance, in Chapter XI, paragraph 264, I spoke of the competitive trials instituted, at the time of Mr. Howman’s visit, between Native and European methods of ‘butter-making. That the Native manipulators succeeded in obtaining a larger weight of butter from the milk given to them showed no more than their cleverness in incorporating with their butter a great deal of water, while Mr. Howman’s butter was free from any excessive quantity. It also left undetermined whether all the native-made butter was pure butter, or had some Work for Ayricultural Chemist, 317 amount of curd with it. These are points where the help of the chemist must be brought in, and which can only be satisfactorily decided with his co-operation. Many have been the experiments carried out at Government: ssperiments on Farms and elsewhere on the use of different manures, but, though Government to the practical man it may be enough to determine, possibly, . whether this particular material is better than that, the chemist would not be satisfied with the limited results from such enquiry, results, too, which would have to be repeated each time anew as a fresh material came before his notice. If, however, he can get at the principle or rationale of manuring, and can ascertain what it is in each material that produces the result, then the chemist can apply the knowledge he has gained to the utilisation of other materials containing like properties. The association of a scientific adviser with experimental enquiry would, without question, result in restricting both experiment and expenditure to more useful ends than has altogether been the case in the past. It is very desirable, also, that the information to be conveyed pyamination of by practical experiment should be set out systematically in a resultsof form in which it may be intelligible and useful. The bare record’ of what has taken place, the harvest results merely stated en masse, or, what is perhaps even worse, the drawing of conclusions from each experiment without relation to what has gone before, are only likely to lead to the accumulation of tables and literature which no one will attempt to wade through. A single experiment con- ducted simultaneously at four or five different places, and under varying conditions, is likely to lead to the acquirement of more solid knowledge than is the attempt to collate some 30 or 40 results at one experimental spot. It needs, therefore, someone who shall adopt a scientific and critical method, and be able to look beneath facts to the principles that underlie them. 421. Perhaps one of the chief needs of agricultural experi- the reed of mental enquiry is to have someone associated with the enquiry contionity in whose recognised duty it shall be to preserve the continuity of experiment. How often could it be said of agricultural experiments in India that they had failed simply because there was no one whose duty it was to look after them, to see that they were maintained, that the results were duly recorded, and that they were made available for use! How many have been the men, who, eager to do something towards agricultural improvement, have begun this work or the other, and then have been transferred to some other district or Province, leaving their task to a successor who in all likelihood has not had the least interest in it, and so has let it drop altogether! This is the general fate of agricultural enquiry in India, and it will always be so until a continuous and responsible agency is substituted for the present system of spontaneous and amateur effort. In this way the Awa experiments on usar reclamation (see paragraph 75) failed, and such might be at any time the history of every work of experimental enquiry or every Experimental Farm. Good The need of a “ referee ” or ** geientific adviser.” Chemical know- | ledge of food products, ete, $18 Skientifie Agricultural Enquiry, work has been begun, but no one has been charged with the over- sight of it; it has been always a matter of personal choiee and inclination, and what has been no one’s duty, has, after a time, too often been neglected and lost sight of. An agricultural chemist of the type I have suggested might, on the contrary, be definitely charged with the duty of maintaining the continuity of experi- ment, of watching its progress, of suggesting its development, and of examining and collating its results in useful form. In some such way alone ean experiment be carried to a successful terminae tion, and the work is one which might well be conducted by a man possessing a fair practical knowledge of agriculture combined with a more special one of chemical science and scientific methods. In the course of my tour I went to see an experiment on the reclamation of ravine land by means of embanking (dunding)* it, so as to hold up the water, and thus provide water and irrigation. Wells were hard to dig, the water-level being low and the ground rocky.. One object of the enquiry was to see if the water-level of the country would be raised by the embanking of the land. On enquiring whether any rise had resulted, I found that it was impossible to tell, for, either the level at starting had not been taken, or, if taken, it had not been recorded; at all events, no one at the Station knew about it. This does not require a chemist, if is true, but if is an instance of what will happen over and over in India unless work of enquiry be entrusted to men of a scientific tura of mind, and also he put in the hands of a cau- tinuous and responsible agency, and not be left te amateur and spontaneous efforts. 422. Another function which an agricultural chemist of. standing could usefully serve would be that of acting as a ‘‘yeferee’’ or “ Government adviser’? in chemico-agrienltural matters, There ought certainly to be someone in India who would be able to give an authoritative opinion on points where the relation of chemistry tio agriculture is concerned. The advan- tage to Government of having someone to whom they might eon- fidently turn for guidance in chemico-agricultural matters, invelv- ing, as they often do, very eonsiderable expenditure, needs no demonstration. Nor, again, is it necessary to explain how very useful such an adviser would be to the Agricultural Directors of the different Provinces. Without having the power of interfering in any scheme initiated by an Agricultural Direetor, the ‘* adviser’? would be available if the Director wished toseek his auidanee, alike in commencing, conducting, and usefully summarising the results of any experimental enquiry. a Associated with such an office would be the duty of adding to chemical knowledge respecting the foad products, crops, and other resources of the country, a work which has, so far, been but very imperfectly done. * See footnote page 31. Continutiy of Eaperiment—Agriculiural Education, 319. 423. Lastly comes the need of having an agricultural chemist An agricultural in eonnection with the development of Agricultural Education. Somction ‘Phough not proposing, as I shall presently show, that the with educational suggested <‘ scientific adviser ’’ should be himself directly charged with the work of teaching at any fixed centre or centres, I neverthe- less consider it very desirable that he should supervise such instruction as is given, and be responsible for its proper conduct. Let me say at once that, while I hold the teaching of Agricultural Chemistry as aspecial branch of science to be a desirable part of a general scheme of Agricultural Education, I by no means wish it to be regarded as indispensable for agricultural improvement under the conditions that exist in India. ‘That there should be someone who has a good and practieal knowledge of Agricultural Chemistry I certainly consider a necessity ; but 1 do not imply that it will be necegeary. to spread instruction in that particular branch of science in order to achieve any success. The mere teaching of Agricultural The tetthing of Chemistry will not, in itself create agricultural prosperity, though chemistry. if may open the mind, and lead te an understanding of the principles upon whieh practice is based. In its methods it is explanatory and regulative rather than creative. In India there is great fear that if Agricultural Chemistry be taught as a neces- sary part of an agricultaral curriculum it will be studied in a purely academical manner, as an additional subject ofa Course. Ihave had opportunities in England of judging how this is likely to be the case, having: had experience as an examiner of Indian students who have come over to study ‘agriculture at Cirencester and elsewhere. With wonderful powers of getting up any subject to which they apply themselves, and with marvellously retentive memories, they are able, by their aceurate replies to the questions set them in an examination, to acquit themselves with credit and distinction ; nevertheless, to an examiner who has them before him for vivd voce examination, it is apparent that there is not that practical under- standing of the subjeet, and that grasp of it, which are likely to lead to future benefit as the result of the study. The knowledge which these Indian students possess precents itself to me as that of a subject studiously and carefully got up with the aid of great natural abilities, but which remains merely as an impress on the mind for a time, and which fails when the call comes for its application to practice. Therefore, I do not look for great results to follow at once the introduction of the teaching of Agricultural Chemistry, and I would not suggest. that provision be made for if on any large seale at first. Still, I think that there should be one or two places, perhaps, where instruction in Agricultural Chemistry eould be given, both theoretical and practical. For the right con- duet, and efficiency of such teaching, and for its development when called for, the ‘‘ seientific adviser’ should be responsible. In another branch of edueational work the “‘ scientific adviser ”’ preparation of eould render useful service. This is in the preparation of a text- txbovks. book or text-books on Agricultural Chemistry, which shall be ~ specially adapted to the case of India. At present there is no such book existent, and. though it is true that the principles of a Summary of duties of “ scientifie adviser.’? The qualifica- tions neces poudrette (night-soil), and bone-dust are tried. There are several duplicate unmanured plots; but in the statement of results neither the quantity of manure (in 1888-89) nor its cost per acre are given. On the other hand, details, such asthe area of the field, the serial number of experiment, the number of hand-weedings, and the number of bullock-hoeings might well be omitted. The plan of the experiment is good, and (I refer tothe 1888-89 Report) the results are consistent, and would show the soil to be suitable fof experiment. The next series is termed “green-soiling on cotton,’ bemp being the crop usedas manure. By “green-soiling” is, however, properly meant that acrop is grown and fed off on the land, generally by sheep. What was done here was green-Manuring, 7. ¢., the ploughing in of a green crop preparatory to putting in the corn crop that preceded the cotton. In this case, again, there are duplicate reference plots. The results of this experiment = nah eonclnaive, and their publication might with advantage have been eferred. Trials were made with cotton seed prepared for sowing by steeping it in sulphuric acid, to remove the wool, as against the native practice of steeping it in cow-dung and water. The same was done in 1886-87, the results being then unsatisfactory, but in 1889-90 they seemed to give some evidence of benefit accruing from the sulphuric acid treatment. Further confirmation is clearly needed before more can be said. After this follows a manurial experiment upon fé2 (Sesamum indicum). The experiment, however, hardly starts on a fair basis, for these same plots, with the same manures each year, had been previously used for a permanent series with wheat. Consequently the plots did not begin level, and the experiment is rather one upon rotation than on the ¢é/ crop alone. So little, too, is known aboat the ¢i2 crop or about the manures likely to benefit it, that I should consider it better to take fresh land, and not that upon which manures had already been used for’a number of years previously. I should also be inclined to regard ¢2/ as not a very suitable experimental crop. Great anomalies are seen inthe returns, owing, I believe, in great meacure, to the previous manuring and to the unsuitability of the crop. 1n 1889-89 bone-dust and saltpetre gave aless produce than either used alone, and in 1889--90 cattle-dung and bone-dust gave less than cattle-dung alone. It is possible that bone-dust has done no good, butI do not believe in the possibility of its doing harm. There was no duplicate unmanured plot. In another case sorgho (Sorghum saccharatum) was grown for the purpose of making sugar, but very little erystallisable sugar was obtained, Experiments on silage-making with vioaig (Sorghum vulgare) and Guinea grass (Panicum gumentorum) were rather more successful, but the losses, Nagpur Farm, 365 amounting to 33 percent.in one case and 49 per cent. in another, between the weights of green stuff putin and the silage taken out are far too high, Where silage is to be made every year, I would certainly advocate brick or masonry silos in preference to those merely dug in the soil, which have only earthen sides and bottom. The out-turn of crops is gathered from other plets on which some 12 different crops are grown. So much depends, however, on the soil and the manuring given that the results are but of limited value, With cold-season (radi) crops trials have been made on the effect of embanking land in the case of wheat and linseed. The results are not ercouraging, but the native method had not been properly studied previous 40 the commencement of the trial. Green-manuring, or green-soiling, as it is imaccnrately called in the Report, has been carried out with wheat and linseed, and in another part different manures,; such as bone-dust, gypsum, dung, and hemp, have been tried. In neither case are the results properly comparable. The most satisfactory series has been the permanent one on the manuring of wheat, this crop having been grown year after year, with the same manures each year, these being, allof them, such as might well be used for wheat. The existence of this experiment in duplicate adds much toits value. What is wanting in the statement is the cost of the manures. The duplicate experi- ments agree very fairly with one another, several distinct issues are broaght out, and the influence of season is checked by the repetition year after year ; altogether, the experiment is a very good one. The averages are also given for the past five years, and the following interesting comparisons with the Woburn (England) experiments for 10 years may be drawn :— Produce of Wheat- Produce of Straw. — — Manuares per Acre. | Bashels per Acre Cwt, per Acre, Nag: . | No manure . i 13 9 © 4 Vener ditto eee Se 7 17 Nagpur . | Saltpetre, 240Ibs. 2. 193 14 2 { Woturn . | Nitrate of soda, 275 Ibs. 24 25 Nagpur . | Cattle-dung, 6 fons . . 143 / _ 3 { Woburn -| Farmyard manure, 4 tons 21 — In the returns no attempt has been made (andI think wisely) to assign any money value to the different yields. T do not like, however, the method of returning the produce as “ percentage of increase over prodace of unmanured plot ;” it would be much better to simply give it as“ increase per acre over unmanured produce. ” An experiment more of the nature of scientific enquiry is that termed “the Ville series *’ on wheat. Acomplete manure, composed of ammonium chloride, superphospate of lime, salphate of potash, and sulphate of lime, is used on one plot, and on the others oe of the ingredients is in succession omitted and the rest puton, the object beimg to see which constituent it is thatthe plant requires most. In addition, trials have been made with different sugar-mills; different vaticties of wheat have been grown; selected cotton seed has been distributed to cultivators; and a limited number of new implements have been sold. But one of the chief functions which the Farm performs 1s that of being the training and instruction ground for the Agricultural Class, of which further mention will be made in the next chapter. The Nagpur Farm has not hadthe advantage which the Cawupore Farm enjoys, of beinz old enough for the character or the qualities of the land to be sufficiently brought out, and there is still agood deal to be learnt about ombay Farms, Bhadgaon Farm. 866 Experimental Farms, ¥ before experimental work can be fully satisfactory. Besides this, the soil does not appear to meso well suited as the Cawnpore one to the purposes of experiment. In general, the plan set forth is good, and the details are accurately carried out, but the results require A good deal of careful sifting before it can with any safety be stated that a definite conclusion is warranted. At the close of the Report ig a summary or “comparative record” of results. This is done in accordance with the recommendations of the Agricul- tural Conference which: met in Caléutta in 1884, but this summary is, I think, both useless and misleadiog. The same result is made use of over and over again to institute comparisons, even where the conditions Lave been quite diverse, and the consequence is, that if a conclusion be faulty from any reason, it is brought in time after time, and may lead to other faulty conclusions being drawn, even where the immediate premises are good. 481, Bombay Farms.—-The Bombay Govertiment owns two Experimental Farms, one at Poona, the other at Bhadgaon, near Pachora, in Khéndesh. But neither is experimental in the full sense, the Poona Farm being used mostly for educational purposes in connection with the agricultural: branch of the Poona College of Science, and the Bhadgaon Farm approaching more to a “‘ Modek Farm” than any other in India, and being also devoted largely to the breeding’ of cattle. The Farms are the outcome of the movement in 1869 to establish “Cotton Farms” in India. At the time’ of the Ameri- ean Civil War attention was turned to India as a main source of the future cotton supply, and, accordingly, “ Cotton Farms’’ were established throughout that country under the charge of men sent out from England, but who, as a rule, were really nothing better than gardeners. After the Civil War was over, the cotton trade returned to its normal state, and the Farms then became Model and Experimental Farms, and were transferred in 1873 from the Cotton Commissioners to the Provincial Governments, In a few cases the “cotton farmers”’ brought over were retained as Managers of the Farms, but in most cases they were found unfitted for the duties. 482, The Bhadgaon Farm comprises 1,200 acres, of which only 65 acres are experimental, and 600 acres are cultivated in the ordinary course, the remainder being grazing and pasture land. In 1888 the loss on the Farm was Rs. 990, not including the Superintendent’s pay of Rs. 3,000; in 1889-90 it was Rs. 3,743, including the Superintendent’s pay. This, therefore, represents the net cost to Government. It is not an Experimental Station in the sense that Cawnpore and Nagpur are, butis really a farm where improved cultivation is attempted, where cattle are bred, and where, now and again, a few experiments are tried over a limited area. Regarding it simply asa Farm, I may express my opinion that I think it is carried on very ably, and that it is doing.genuine good work, although the results. may: be slow in showing themselves. In regard to crops grown, there isa striking. superiority over those of the cultivators around, and in this respect the Farm may rightly be termed a “model” one. Mr. P. R. Mehta, the Manager, and a Diploma holder from Cirencester, is a capable ahd thoroughly pratical man, who takes great interest and displays much assiduity in carrying out the work. He is one who can and does turnhis hand to atiything that is required onthe Farm, and is himself no mean “ cattle doctor.” I was greatly pleased with the Bhadgaon Farm as a general though not Experimental: Farm, and I think that it is most creditable that-the expense incurred: by: it-is' Bhadgaon Farm. 867 so small asit is. The amount spent is really very tvifling, and the advaritagdés it is likely to afford in the future as a tyaining ground, when agricultural education is more developed, will be very cheaply obtained. I am quite sure that few of those who complain of the expenditure incurred can have been at the Farm, or have taken the trouble to see how it is actually worked, or how favourably it eompares with the cultivation around. Least of all can they have seen the excellent herd of eattle, or have noticed, as they might most certainly have done, the: impress which it is beginning to make upon the stock of the district. There are respects, undoubtedly, in which the Bhadgaon Farm might be improved, but it is, 1 am confident, an institution of which the Bombay Government and Agricultural Department may very well be proud, It is sure ising to me that the expenses are so nearly met, for it has to @ remembered that the produce of the different fields is all gathered separately, and. thrashed. and weighed separately, many records have to be kept, and hired labour has to be employed. If the crops could be all put together, and thrashed and stored at once, the Farm would be able to pay its expenses quite well, but then it would be a pity to lose the informae tion that can be obtained here, Seeing this, I do not think that.the Superin- tendent ought to be needlessly tied down by considerations of cost. It would be much better to devote annually to the Farm a certain sum which past experience has shown it to require, and so long, as the Farm is con- ducted as at present, the Bombay Government may be assured that the money is not being uselessly expended. It is reckoned that about Rs. 5,000 a year are wanted, and I should not call this out of the way, seeing that the out-of-pocket expenditure on the Woburn Farm of the Royal Agricultural Society of England amounts to nearly 600/. annually, and the aoreage is about the same as at Bhadgaon. I cannot help noting the tendency’ of Commissioners and Collectors, and Under-Secretaries, who report on the Farm, to devote their remarks: principally tothe fixancial side; and: to say" but little as: to the way: in which the Farm is influencing the: agriculture, andl more especially the cattle, of the neighbourhood. I need not say more than I have given in Chapter XI (paragraph 255) about tie cattle-breeding operations at Bhadgaon, in order to show that the Farm is doing good. The readiness of the people to buy the young stock is a proof that the operations are appreciated. It is to stock-breeding, purposes that the Bhadgaon Farm should be more particularly devoted, and’ this has now been recognised by the Government. Forty acres of land have been set:apart for field. experiments, but beyond: this it is not intended to carry on unremunerative trials. This area has, yery properly, been sown all over with the same crop, in order to equalise it before beginning’ any: regular’ experiment. Such experiments. as have been conducted have been upon the’ growing of different varieties of cotton, different kinds:of wheat and barley,. the pickling of grain, the prevention of weevil in grain, and the growth. of special crops and trees, such as. arrowroot,.divi-divi.(Caesalpinia .coriaria; a material used instanning), mangoes, and guavas, as.also on the making of. silage and the tria} of: certain implements, More recently an experi- ment has been started on the cost of establishing a “ fuel and fodder reserve.” This I have referred to in Chapter VIII (paragraph 186). Silage has been made without difficulty, and since I left India the experiment has been tried to make a “stack silo” in the open, instead of'digging a pit in the ground. Mr. Ozanne, the Director of the Agricultural’ Department, is endeavouring’ to keep up. the supply of pure Gant and’ jaré' cotton (Berar long-stapledé varieties): by growing: them at the- Farm, as also American varieties which’ have been-acclimatised’ at Dharwar. A! certain amount. of selected’ seed of' different kinds- is: yearly: distributed from the Farm, and.there are seven irom’ suit =mills which are let out on hire in the district; Goats thrive well’at’ the Farm,.and-haye now replaced the sheep with, which. it. was intended to tiy improvements. The cattle are: a pedigree herd’ of the» Mysore breed, knowni as Whillaré, and Malvi cows are kept as nurse cows. A Government: stallion: (Arab) is also located here, but is not much appreciated as yet.. A great fault of the Farm is its isolation; it is hard to get.to and cone sequently cannot be easily visited. Half-a-day’s- journey. has to be taken: from. the. nearest station) and several rivers’ have to be: crossed' or fordee! Poona Farm, Nadiad Farm, 868 Buperimental Farms. The Farm is unnecessarily large, and is not suited as an experimental area. The distance from any large town makes the sale of the produce not so remunerative as it would otherwise be. In many ways the cultivation is superior, and I noticed here an attempt made to preserve the cattle-manure, A large quantity is made and kept in a pit, but it might be improved in quality if better stored, turned over occasionally, and then heaped together more closely; it was allowed to lie too loosely and to become too dry; a large amount of straw and stalks, which might quite well have been used for litter, was left in a dry state, and not mixed up with the cattle-droppings and so allowed to decay, while the urine from the sheds was wasted to a considerable extent, and during the rainy season it mingled with the rain water from the spoutings of the sheds. It would be much better to spread the dry stalks, straw, or even fine earth, under the cattle, and thus to soak up the urine. By showing how this could be done, Government Farms like Bhadgaon might prove good practical examples. There is an educational purpose that the Bhadgaon Farm might usefully fulfil. It would be a capital place at which to send into resideuce for a time the agricultural students of the Poona College. Here they might see carried out on a practical scale what they had learned theoretically, and they might do the actual farm work themselves at Bhadgaon. A practical class of this kind, following upon the instraction given at Poona, would be of great benefit. The Bhadgaon Farm might also be utilised as a place to which apprentices might come and receive a practical training before going out to act as managers of estates, or to look after their own landed property. 483. The Poona Farm, as I have said, is not an Experimental but rather an Educational Farm. Different crops are grown, and their yield is estimated; a few cattle are kept, and an attempt has been made to estimate the relative milking properties of different breeds, but on a scale far too small to be of any use. What experimental work has been done has not, it appears to me, been directed to any special end ; as the manager told me, he has to get as much out of the land as he van, and it does not pay him to try experiments. The whole area of the Farm is 66 acres, and it is very conveniently placed as regards the town and the College of Science. Silage has been made ‘here, but no light is thrown on what tke cost has been, or whether the system is remunerative. The manure from the cattle is very badly stored, the urine is almost entirely wasted, and the manure heap is little more than a dry rubbish heap. A great improvement in this respect might be made, more especially at a place where students come for instruction. In one case a comparison has been tried between Khandesh judr (Sorghum vulgare) and the local kind grown, but, as the previous trop was partly ene sane and partly gram (pulse), the plots did not start under level conditions. As a place where the students of the College can come and see different crops grown, and become familiar with them, and with the outlines of farm operations, the Poona Farin has an educational value; but, inasmuch as the students do not work on it themselves, it would seem to me very desirable that during their course they should be sent to the Bhadgaon Farm, where they could see the work carried ont on a practical scale. It should also be mentioned that at Poona Mr. Ozanne has got together a very complete collec- tion of native agricultural implements, There used to be another Farm at Hyderabad, in Sind, but there is no longer a Government Farm, it having been given up in 1889. ‘The experi- ments here were of no value. 484. At Nadiad, in Gujardt (Bombay), there is a Farm of 12 acres, inaugurated in 1878, and kept up by the. Agricultural Association, It is made use of in connection with the Agri- Poona—Nadiad— Baroda Farms. 869 cultural Class attached to the High School. The soilis a rich red garden loam, and very deep. Manurial experiments form the principal work. These are upon rdgi (millet), éus (pulse), and judr faalley also an extensive series upon tobacco, to which reference has been made in psragraph 368. Different varieties of cotton, American and indigenous, as also of the castor-ojl plant, are tried. Male buffaloes are used in ploughing, a practice not locally adopted, but which it is songht to introduce, and iroa ploughs are also employed. There is a museum attached to the Farm, containing specimens of cotton, cereals, etc., and in the town is a seed store, main- tained by the Association, where pure seed can be got by cultivators. The Farm is given rent-free by Government, so long as it is available for the Agricultural class; the yearly expenses, amounting to Rs. 400, are more than covered by the out-turn. The Association hold a Cattle Show biennially at Nadiad. 7 485. In the Native State of Baroda Farms in experimental work bids fair to make a good beginning, for not only doeg His Highness the Gaekwar take a great interest in agriculture, but he hag also secured the services of Mr. Middleton, formerly a distinguished agricultural student at home, as Professor of Agriculture at the Baroda College. In company with Mr. Ozanne and Mr. Middleton I went over the proposed Experimental Farm, and I need but say that I am sure that what Mr. Middleton does he will do well, and his presence in India will be a distinct gain to agriculture in that country. As the experimental area had not been taken up when I was there, it is of no use for me to refer further to it, except to say that I look to much good resulting from it, as Mr. Middleton is, perhaps, the first man who has come ont tu India who has combined » practical acquaintance of agriculture with good general know- ledge of agricultural science. When at Baroda I also visited another Experimental Farm, as it was termed, carried on by Mr. Kacherao Jadhava, an ex-student of the Royal Agricultural -College, Cirencester. An Agricultaral Class is sapposed to come here for practical instruction, and at the time of my visit I saw the students working away on plots a few yards square, which had about a dozen plants of some crop growing on them. All looked pretty enough, but I could not say more. Attached to the Farm was a wonderful collec- tion of implements, gathered, I should say, from all parts of the world, and at great cost, too, but with utter disregard to the conditions of Indian agriculture. Here, for example, was a huge waggon from Germany, used in that country for bringing brewers’ grains and beet-root pulp and distilleries, and requiring, perhaps, some six horses to draw it! Here, too, were huge iron seed-drills, heavy iron ploughs, manure distributors, and seed-barrowa for sowing clovers and rye grasses, amongjbarley. Mr. Kacherao also had a chemical laboratory in the town—at least, there was a very complete set of chemical apparatus there, if nothing else. This Farm and its belongings must have cost a very considerable sum, and I should like to have seen the money better bestowed in the cause of agricultural improvement. 486. / Fruit Farms, In addition to the Farms in the Bombay Presidency here mentioned, there are fruit gardens at Ganesh Khind, near Poona, comprising 80 acres, and devoted to the growing of mangoes, and more especially to the pro- pagation and sale of grafted mango trees. This culture is also carried on to a more limited extent on a part of the Poona Farm. A large quantity of grass is cut greén from off the Ganesh Khind plantations. 487. The plans fcr future experimental work in Bombay com- Vishavciuiae prise the establishment of a Stock and Dairy Farm at Alegaon and im Bombay. the starting of new Experimental Farms of small extent in five or six different districts of the Presidency, notably the Southern 24 Madras Farms. Saidapet, 370 Experimental Farms. Mahratta country, the Konkan and Gujarét. The object of these is to test in one locality the results obtained at others, and so to establish their value in relation to the different conditions and soils that occur throughout the Presidency. With the view of supervising these, a European Superintendent of Farms has been appointed, whose special work it will be to look after the Farms and the experiments at them. Against these proposals I have no decided objections to urge, so long as it can be clearly established that a distinct need exists for the Farms; but on this I can hardly give an opinion. The wants of one district will not be those of another, and crops and methods of cultivation will differ too. If arrangements can be made for efficient supervision, and if, as I have said, a primd facie case can be made out for the establishment of a Farm, or for the testing of any particular local practice, then there is the warrant forits existence. But unless the object be clear and unmistakable, and the necessity for experimenting in a particular district be shown, I do riot regard the starting of fresh Farms as advisable.“ Something more is needed than a “ general idea ’’ as to the usefulness of an Experimental Farm. 488. Madras.—Saidapet Farm. The earliest of all the Experi- mental Farms was Saidapet, established in 1865. Itis also the one on which the greatest attempts have been made to introduce . new practices and new implements to the notice of the Indian culti- vator. The past expenditure onthe Farm has been considerable, and it has now been finally abandoned as an Experimental Station. From 1871 to 1887 it was under the direction of Mr. W. R. Robert- son, and was supplemented in 1876 by the starting of an Agricul- tural College. It is not for me here to go into the past history of the Farm, nor to discuss at length the steps which have led to its abandonment. It is enough to say, in the words of the Director of the Madras Agricultural Department, ‘‘ The results attained at the * Farm are so far as the agriculture of the country is concerned, purely “ negative ; no attempt is made to connect the one with the other.” Undoubtedly this failure to bring itself into sufficiently close com- munication with native agriculturists has had much to do with the result, but there have been other causes too, prominent among which has been the constant change of policy adopted by the Madras Government towards the Farm, and the refusal to ‘supply it with the necessary funds ; yet another has been the unsuitableness-of the spot chosen for the Farm. It is, as I have described it elsewhere, little more than a sand-hill, and ought never to have been selected asthe site ofa Farm. It is too small for stock-breeding, and too poor and barren for crop-growing. It may serve in some ways as an Educational Farm for the use of agricultural students at the Saidapet College, but for little more. At the time of my visit experimental work had been almost entirely given up. From being partly under the Agricultural and partly under the Educational Department, the College is now to be separated from the Farm, and to be placed, along with its Principal, under the Educational Depart- ment. The 300 acres of which the Farm originally consisted have now been reduced to 60 acres, and will simply serve the purpose of illustrating the growth of different crops, Saidapet Farm. 871 The cattle I saw at the Farm were 12 Nellore cows and 16 Nellore and Aden bulls, and they were very good indeed. The bulls are kept for stud purposes, and their services are available, at a low fee, for stock belonging to cultivators, but they are not much made use of, I have mentioned pre- viously an experiment carried out on sheep; four being fed on earth-nut cake with other food, and four without the cake; but I pointed out also how inadequate the number of animals was for the purpose (see paragraph 458). There ig, however, one point that the Saidapet Farm has done very considerable gond in showing, viz., that cattle can be kept perfectly well on the “ box” system, that is, with litter ender them, and that the manuro obtained in this way is far more valuable than that got in the ordinary way. During roy Madras tour I came to ons or two farms where cattle were littered, and manure kept in heaps, well beaten down and covered with earth, and I think the Saidapet Farm has done a useful work in demonstrating the advantages of the system. Iam sore that its adoption would be one of the best ways of benefitting Indian agriculture; that is, by making the manure supply more valuable, and allowing Jess wasie to take place. No Experimental Farm has worked harder than Saidapet in trying to introduce iron ploughs, and here and there (more especially where there has been a considerable area to till, so that time has been a matter of importance) some few iron ploughs are used by landed proprietors; but they have hardly come down to the small cultivators yet, though mush ingenuity has been expended on simplifying them, and on decreasing their cOst. 489. I visited at Madura what was formerly the Experimental Farm of the Madura Farmers’ Club, but which has now been given up, except so far as the dairy part of the Farm is concerned. It comprises 80 acres, and was started in 1883, under the care of a student from the Saidapet College. Experiments were carried ont with improved ploughs and water-lifts, with fodder-crops ani tobaceo, and on the breeding of stock. But it dees not appear that any definite fresh experience was gained, and interest was secon lost in the Farm. There is, however, a ready sale for milk in the town, and this part of the farming has been kept up and pays well ; there are some 14 cows in milk, very fair cattle, some of them Aden cows, the others country stock, and the are fed with earth-nut cake, fodder-crops, etc. The average daily yield of mil per cow is 12 lbs. 490. In September 1883 an Agricultural Committee was ap- pointed to enquite into the operations of the Madras Agricultural Department, and the Report of this Committee was presented to, and considered at, the Agricultural Conference at Simla, in October 1890, As regards Experimental Farms in Madras, the Report does not speak favourably. Efforts at improving the breeds ing of cattle, sheep, and horses have, it is said, not done any real good, nor has anything been introduced in the way of machinery which. has taken a real hold upon the cultivators except the Beheea sugar- mill. At the Saidapet Farm the value of deep tillage,and the possi« bility of growing fodder-crops, have been shown, but very little more, and even these have had but little practical result. The Report in- dicates that the chief reasons of failure have been the absence of an organised Department, an insufficient staff, imperfect supervision, and the want of knowledge of indigenous practices and conditions, The mistake made at the beginning was, that the racyot wanted teaching, and thatall his practices and implements would have to be altered, and that the ‘‘Model Farm”’ was to teach him his business, In place of this the Agricultural Committee now recommend the abandonment of she idea of teaching the raiyat, until, after careful Q4ha Madure Farm, Report of Madras Agricultural Committee, 189. 372 Erperimentul Farms, enquiry, more is known as to the native practices and conditions. The Committee also advise the inauguration of experiments under the control of trained agriculturists. It is now proposed to have experiment and demonstration carried on at some five or six Farms, each not exceeding 30 acres in extent, in different parts of the Presidency. Each is to bea combined Agricultural School and Farm, or Farm School. The Farms are to be under the manage- ment of the head master of the school, who is to be a graduate of Saidapet College, and acquainted with agricultural practice. Mean- time the Saidapet College and Farm are to be retained as training grounds for future teachers. T have already thoroughly endorsed the recommendations of the Committee as to the necessity of abandoning the attempt to teach the ratyat until more is known, through careful enquiry, of what his practices really are, and the conditions under which he pursues them. I am not so certain, however, about the advisability of starting at once some five or six different Farms, partly experi- mental, partly educational, or demonstrative, in different parts of the country. If there be efficient and sufficient supervision for them, the plan may be adopted with benefit, if kept toa limited scale, and if the sites be suitably chosen. It is said that there are qualified graduates who have passed out of Saidapet College, and that they could be utilised as Superintendents of the Farms. Of their quali- fications for such posts I can hardly speak, but cannot help noting that the Government Order (No. 515, Revenue, 4th July 1890), which, in paragraph 12, approves of the plan recommended by the Agricultural Committee, also says, in paragraph 11, ‘‘special ‘instruction in agriculture, however, is almost non-existent, owing to “the want of men competent to give it.”? I should be afraid of the former blunder being repeated, and I think that 1t would be better only to establish a Farm which is at all experimental in character where there is a positive call for it, and where there is fully compe- tent superintendence. Unless this be the case, Agricultural Educa- tion would be better helped by Farms ofa purely illustrative character, : Nor can I agree with the recommendation to extend the Saida- pet Farm, and to make it more complete and practical. The Saida- pet Farm, by reason of its soil and situation, will never be a suit- able place for illustrating agricultural operations, still less for try- ing experiments. And this I say not merely from what I have read or heard, but from what I have seen myself. If asked to start an Experimental Farm there, I should, if possible, decline at once to do so, for the place neither is, nor can be, at an 'y reasonable cost, made suitable. A part of it is even blowing sand. I do not at all agree with some remarks made by Mr. Nicholson in his note to the Agricultural Committee’s Report, to the effect that, even ifthe soil be poor, as described, it should be possible to improve it, and to show what the raiyat might then do with it, and that if the Farm cannot show this, ithasno right to be called a ‘‘Model Farm.” It must be remembered that there are soils in England as well as in India on which any expenditure on improvement is simply money thrown away ; there may be soil that is not worth reclaiming or Madras Agricultural Cummittee. $73 improving, at least under existing circumstances; the influence of manures and other means of bettering soils depend, for their efficiency, onthe responsiveness of the soil, and what may be retained on the one may pass through the other, and so be wasted; on certain lands of good productive power it may pay perfectly well to use, say, 2 ewt., or even as much as 4: cwt., per acre of nitrate of soda, costing from 20s, to 40s. an acre alone, whereas on another soil even 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda an acre would be thrown away. Again, a great deal depends upon what the crops may be, and what the market conditions are. An English farmer would not grudge to spend Jarge sums in manure if he could get thereby, say, an early crop of potatoes; batif they came a fortnight later, a {oss instead of a gain might result, though the potatoes might in either case be equally good in themselves. So, too, with low prices of a grain crop of ordinary kind, it will not pay to go to any great expense ; but if, owing to favourable soil, situation, and other conditions, a superior malting kind of barley can be grown, a good return for outlay is ensured. .I have laid it down as a condition of success in experiment that the soil must be fairly responsive to manare and cultivation, and if one kas to. do with a bare sand or soil like that of Saidapet, the improve- ment of it is simply the sinking of capital in a medium unworthy to receive it, and incapable of responding to it. The best to do with such land, if it has to be cultivated, is, not to see how much can be sunk init in hope of getting benefit one day, but how dittle need be expended upon it. I maintain that the chief end of experiment is to see how land thatis fairly productive can be got to produce more, and not how land that is not fit for culti- vation can be brought under the influence of methods and practices applied in England and elsewhere to the increasing of the crop- return, There may be circumstances where the restoration of deteriorated soil is called for; but I do not think that the credit of an Experimental Farm, whose object it is to introduce practices applicable to the ‘zzcrease of crop in cultivated and culturable soils, should hang upon .the results obtained upon what is little better than a sand-hill, 491, Bengal Farms—Experimental Farms in Bengal are three in pumber, and they are all of recent creation, for, previous to 1884, there was no Director of the Agricultural Department of Bengal. The three Farms are Dumraon and Burdwan, both established in 1885, and Seebpore, started in 1887, I visited Dumraon and Seebpore, but not Burdwan ; indeed, the position of the latter is so unfavourable that it is contemplated to give it up. 492. Dumraon Farm covers 15 acres, and is intended to be an Experimental Station in the stricter sense. The Maharajah of Dumraon pays all the expenses, which, including the Bengal Farms, * Dumraon Farm, overseer’s pay of Rs. 600 and rent, amount to a vet cost of Rs. 1,200 . annually. An overseer was obtained from the Cawnpore Farm, but he can only give partial attention to the Farm, having the charge of other parts uf the Vamraon Raj, or Estate, as well. Occasionally, one of the Assistants to the Director of the Agricultural Department visits the Farm, perhaps once 874 Experimental Farms, or twice a year, but it was evident to me, from the state of crops, that there was 8 lack of regular supervision. The first experiment I noticed was one on the growth of sugar-cane with different manures, as well as by trying the Native against the Mauritius plan of sowing. But the sugar-cane crop was growing on land that was too wet and low, and the crop looked very inferior, As an experiment this one was worthiess. Again, the manures used had little relation one to the other; they were oow-dung, castor cake, saltpetre, and a mixed manure termed “normal manure.” In choosing manures, they ought to be arranged with some regard to their constituent parts, co as to enable an experimenter to gain some information as to whether it be the nitrogenous, phosphatio, or potassic properties, or else the ptesence of vegetable matter, that proves most effectual; this point solved, more special experiments can be tried with materials containing the particular ingredients. But here the state of the crop rendered comparative results misleading. Where the native and Mauritius system of planting were compared, the question was further complicated by manurial issues as well; this seems to me very undesirable. Single issues should be set out as far as possible, and these only. There were no duplicate plots at all. The next series was on the manuring of winter rice sown broadcast; 15 plots (a far too large number) were taken up, though in no case with duplicatisn of experiment. Shallow and deep ploughing for rice comprised two of the plots,a slight advantage being attributed to the latter. The manures used were, as before, of a very varied kind, and allowed of no deductions being drawn except as concerned the actual material employed, but supplied no information as to the most deSirable class of manure, whether vegetable, or phosphatic, or saline. Green-manuring, cow-dung, lime, saltpetre, oil cake, and sweepings were tried. Saltpetre, either alone or with lime, gave the best returns, but, on going into figures, its use is found not to have been financially successful. This I can well understand, and it seems to me to need little practical demonstration to show that a very readily soluble salt like saltpetre is thrown away upon a crop that grows frequently with an inch or so of water standing on the ground, Another series on the same lines, but with transplanted instead of broadcasted rice, followed. _ The next was on wheat, with the same manures as were used for rice, Here, again, saltpetre gave the best returns, though the increase is stated to be year by year a declining one. I cannot say that I considered the Dumraon Farm a good Experimental Station. The first mistake made with it was to take up the whole area, té divide it into squares, and to crain in as many plots as would well go into the space. The consequence is, that there is no room for extension of experiment, or for re-testing what has been done. Then, as all the experiments are manurial ones, the ground is practically done with, so faras future experiments are concerned, unless with a considerable break of crop-zrowing without manure. Next, there is no duplication of plots, and more especially of unmanured plots; nothing seems to have been done to test the suitability or evenness of the larid for experimental purposes, and, indeed, the Report says “the “surface of a large portion of the Farm is uneven, and, unless it is properly * levelled, it is idle to expect a uniform growth of crops. As it is, these “may thrive sufficiently well in the hollows, and get stunted and burnt up ‘in the intervening patches of high ground. The unevenness of the “ground also stands inthe way of irrigation.” This, to my mind, sur- renders the whole point as to the Farm being a good Experimental Station, let alone what Ihave said as to the absence of supervision and of design in the plan of experiment. Seebpore Farm, 4993. The Seebpore Farm is only a little way ont of Calcutta, and includes about 96 acres, of which 18 acres are experimental. The soilis rather heayy alluvial land, with a good deal of clay. It was formerly jungle land, Its depth is about 2 feet, and Dumraon and Seebpore Farms. 375 then it gets more sandy and light. The Farm is in charge of an overseer who originally came from Cawnpore. The Seebpore Engineering College adjoins the Farm, aud a proposal is on foot to establish an agricultural branch at the College, and to use the Farm in connection with it. At this Farm I saw the process of preparing bones for manure by crushing them in the native mill or dhenki. 1t is said that with the dhenki three men can break up 20 seers (40 lbs.) of rough, and 20 seers of fine, bone-meal in 5} hours, and that the cost is 12annas a maund (80]bs.), against 14 anvas when a modern bone-mill is used. T also saw at work here a wrought-iron plough, costing Rs. 43, introduced by Mr. Sen, and called the “Seebpore’? plough. It worked well when properly used on land that was fairly soft, and inverted the soil,- going 3 to 4 inches deep; but, ifleft to Mimself, the man working it would insist on digging the point of the shareinto the ground just as he would do witha native plongh. : There was ina building on the Farm a good collection of implements of different kinds. Sorgho (Sorghum saccharatum) is largely grown as a fodder-crop, and yields three cuttings in the year, a very good sale for it being obtainable in the town to people who keep cows. The use of bones as a manure is extensively tried; but, so far, I could not gather that the results were at all conclusive. Bones cost in Calcatta Rs, 2 to Rs. 23 per mannd of 80 iis. The experiments are upon rice, jnte, sugar, maize, barley, oats, wheat, and potatoes. They are almost entirely manurial experiments, but orfe is upon early and late ploughing for wheat, one upon the Mauritius system of caue- planting, and one upon new varieties of sugar-cane. As at Dumraon, the greater part ‘of the available area has been taken up, and plotted out, leaving but little space for extension of experiments; also, too mich ground has been given to manurial, and too little to cultivation, experiments, while there is no duplication of the manurial or unmanured plots, nor anything to test the suitability of the land for experimental trials. ; The cultivation is better than at Dumraon, and the fields seemed more suitable in regard to situation. The Report, however, says that the results obtained at this Farm have,in many cases, been abnormal, the unmanured plots often yielding as much or more than the manured ones. In the absence of duplication of plots I am unable to say whetber this is due to the soil or to other causes. Inasmuch, however, as the land previously was jungle land, it is probably too rich, more especially in vegetable matter, for any manures to exercise an influence, until by constant cropping it has lost some of its excess fertility. This is the reverse of what was found at the Saidapet Farm (Madras), and these two cases afford useful proof of what I set ont earlier, (see paragraphs 446 and 490), v7z., that a soil may be either too rich or too poor for the land to serve as a suitable Experiments] Farm. One thing is very certain, that it would well repay the t'me lost atthe beginning were . more care given to ascertaining beforehand whether a field was a suitable one for experimental purposes. 494. The Agricultural Depsrtment of Bengal has endeavoured ena to carry on experiments through a large number of razyats and and semtndars, gemindars. In the account of these it is stated that, from the nature of the circumstances, it was not found possible to give accurate quantitative remglts. { have myself tried in vain to make out anything from the mass of confused, and often contra- ‘dictory, results obtained, and I think that experimental work on such ascale as here attempted, and in the crude way employed, can do but little real good, 876 Experimental Farms, Eatai 495. The foregoing accomt. embraces the Farms which I ts actually visited when in India, The remaining ones that exist, but which I could not see, were those in Burma; these, I believe, are devoted mostly to the growing and curing of tobacco. The attempt has been made to grow wheat also, but the people do not take to it, as rice grows so much better. In Berar there used to be a small experimental field, but it is now given up, so also is one that formerly existed at, Ajmere, In the Punjab, in Assam, and in Coorg, there have not been any Experimental Farms. € 377 CONCLUSIONS, + 496. Experimental enquiry, conducted by means of special Experimental Farms, is a necessity in Indiafor the development of agricultural improvement, It may be orged that the Farms which have already been in existence for some number of years have not been pronounced successes, and have fallen far short of what they were intended to accomplish ; but, after visiting the Farms, and after reviewing the work done at them, I can only express my satisfaction at finding them so much better than I had been led to believe, and my surprise is great that so much has been accomplished with the imperfect and ever-changing machinery employed. The expense incurred for Experimental Farms, though perhaps rather large here and there, has, in my opinion, been by no means excessive, and the Farms compare very favour- ably in this respect with similar institutions in England and other countries, What is chiefly needed now is, that there should be a better system of guidance in laying out the plans of experimental work at Farms, better supervision, continuity of enquiry, critical examination of results, and publication and dissemination of useful conclusions in a clear and intelligible form. In accomplishing this, the association of a ‘‘scientifie adviser ”’ with the work of Experimental Farms will be invaluable. Farms, omitting those directly connected with educational institutions, should be of two distinct kinds, (1). Experimental Farms, and (2) Demonstration Farms, The work o £ Experimental Farms should be, mainly :— (2) To institute comparisons between methods of cultivation practised locally, and those in use elsewhere, which it may be considered desirable to introduce, (8) To test upon. different crops) the effects of manures which are available, or which may probably be use- fally applied in the future. (c) To introduce new crops and new varieties of crops. CONCLUSIONS. 878 Conclusions. (2) To institute trials of new implements side by side with native or locally used ones. (e) To improve the breeding of farm stock. (7) To grow and distribute selected seed. e (9) To be Depéts for the locating of stud bulls. Before any Experimental Farm is established, there should be a definite reason for its existence; there must be efficient supervision, a suitable situation and soil. A definite and well-devised plan of experiment should be drawn up, the outcome of the experiment having a distinct bearing upon the practice of the cultivating raiyat. There must be critical examination of the results, duplica- tion and repetition of experiment, and, finally, publication and dissemination of the results, the issue of these in the vernacular not being omitted. The success of Experimental Farms must not be gauged by their financial result, and they must not be expected to pay their expenses; but a sum of money ought to be laid out annually for their efficient carrying on. Demonstration Farms should be established for the purpose of showing on a practical scale, and of bringing to the door of the cultivators, the results of what has been found on Experimental Farms to be an improved practice. Such Farms should be ex- pected to pay for their cultivation expenses. an RECOMMENDA: RECOMMENDATIONS. 49%. That agricultural enquiry be continued by means of Experimental Farms. That distribution of selected seed and location of stud bulls be undertaken by Experimental Farms, as also the breeding of farm stock, where circumstances are favourable. That Demonstration Farms bé instituted in connection with Experimental Farms, in order to set out the results of successful enquiry. 379 CHAPTER XIX, AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, 498. It is not enough that improvements in agriculture should be effected py direct Government agency, and that measures, % the result of enquiry and experiment, should be taken in the péo- ple’s benefit, but it is necessary also that the people themselves should be brough: to an intelligent understanding of what is being done, and that the endeavour be made to teach them how they may help themselves. This is the work of education. In my second and third chapters I have shown how the spread of General Education will aid in removing many of those prejudices associated with “ caste”’ and custom which render one class inferior to another in cultivating ability, and which frequently prevent the adoption of the more remunerative agricultural systems. This work, it was pointed out, will of necessity be a slow one, but it is a sure one, and its benefits have already begun to be felt. As regards the culti- vating raiyat, there is very little doubt that as primary education spreads in his direction, he will become more intelligent, less afraid of authority and officials, less disposed to regard them as opposed to his interests, more able and willing to set forth the grievances under which he suffers, while in bis practice he will become more ready to receive new ideas, 499. It is not, however, with General Education, but with Agri- cultural Education particularly, that Iam concerned. At the out- set it must be borne in mind that by the Government Resolution of 1889 on Technical Education, the Agricultural Departments have had put upon them specifically the duty of “ taking positive mea- sures for the education of the rural classes in the direction of agri- culture ’’ (see Chapter I, paragraph 6). As Sir Edward Buck most precisely laid down at the Simla Agricultural Conference, in Octo+ ber 1890, it is no longer a matter of choice whether Agricultural Departments will take up the subject of Agricultural Education or not, but it is a positive duty which they cannot evade unless released by the Secretary of State from the obligations put upon them. The importance of the subject was reflected in the prolonged and close attention which the Agricultural Conference at Simla gave to it, and in the several Resolutions which were passed upon that occasion. : 500. For myself, without a knowledge of the langua very limited one of the people, it was much harder to come to a definite conclusion upon matters connected with Education, more especially that which would meet the raiyat’s wants, than ‘to form an opinion upoa what I could see with my own eyes, such as the practice of agriculture or the conduct of experiments.. Agricul- tural Education, again, cannot be taken out of its connection with CHAPTER XIX, AGEIOULTUEAL EpvoatTion. The influence of General Education, The obligation to promote Agricultural Education, es, an My enquir ges, and 3 limited: 380 Agricultural Education. General Jiducation, and I had neither the time nor the power to acquaint myself with the systems of general education as carried out in different parts of India. My observatious upon the various grades of schools where I think that agriculture might enter as a part of the educational scheme may, therefore, not be assigned to their right divisions, or be only of partial and not of general appli- cability to India as whole. Thy beniloney 501. There is very little doubt that the tendeney of education in the paat, the past has been too much in a purely literary direction, and that it has been diverted from, rather than turned towards, the staple industry of the country, vzz., agriculture. Agriculture is by far the most general pursuit, and it is that which contributes the bulk of the Revenue of the country. According to the Census Returns of 1881, 72 per cent. of the whole male population engaged in some specified occupation are directly supported by agriculture, and the estimate of the Famine Commissioners was that 90 per cent. of the rural population live, more or less, by the tillage of the soil. Never- theless, it is found that the tendency of education at the present time is to draw the rising generation away from the land, and to give a purely literary training, which ends in a young man making his aim the obtaining of a post under Government, or the following of the profession, of a ‘‘ pleader”’ in the Courts. Agriculture is not regarded as a profession, but too often as « medium for deriving an income off the land; owners of land do not look after their property themselves, but leave it to the care of superintendents, and prefer to make money in the town by trading rather than by agriculture. So it comes about that estates worth a Jakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000) are managed by men on a pay of Rs. 25a month; there is no intelli- gent farming class, nor even a good class of superintendents ; the young man, after receiving his education, seldom goes back to the farm, but soon sees that the best chance of utilising his education is at the Bar, or else in Government employ; the student at an Agricultural College will rather take a Government appointment worth Rs 50 a month than devote himself to the management of his farm, or superintend that of some one else ; and, lastly, there is a general impression that everything pays better and is more dignified than farming. As a well-to-do landed proprietor at Madura ex- pressed it to me, “the cleverest son is sent to the Law, the next into “‘Government employ, the dullest one goes to Agriculture or else to Trade.”’ The following extracts may be given in support :— Sir E. Buck’s “The fault of our educational system is, that nothing in the scheme of ‘Spintons “instruction sufficiently connects the knowledge to be acquired by the scn “with the cultivation of the paternal acres.” (Sir Edward Buck’s Minute on Technical Education, 1886.) Sir A. Macken. ‘‘ There is need of something more than a purely literary curriculum ‘ zle’s opinion. <¢' our graduates . . .« have schemes by thescore for reforming the Empire, "butnoidea of exploiting and developing its resources.” (Sir A, Mackenzie’s Minute on Technical Education, 1890.) Mr. F.A. Nichole ‘© The education given has little orno connection with a lad’s after-life, son’s opinion, ‘There is nothingin it to teach him to farm, it does not teach him to observe, or think about, or think new thoughts. about, his processes and ** products,’* (Mr. F. A. Nicholson on the Condition of Anantapur, 1887.) The directton Agricultura! Education should take. 381 ‘ 502. The present system of education is not sufficient to The remedy and create and maintain that interest in the cultivation of the land ‘>?! which ought to be taken in an essentially agricultural country, and the only way to effect this is to substitute Agricultural Education for a part of the present educational programme. The advantages of such a course would coon be apparent, for, where so large a pro- portion of those who are to be educated are brought up amid rural surroundings, it must be simpler to bring before them objects which are familiar to them in their every-day life, than to instruct them in the literature and history of a foreign country totally different to their own. The benefit of a more technical course of educa- tion is, that it maintains the connection between the teaching which a lad receives and the calling which he is to follow in after-life; in no branch could this be more important in India than in agricul- ture. The teaching of the rudiments of science also is far more likely to lead to habits of observation, and of desire after enquiry than a purely literary training. Even in the very simplest form of education the illustration of the lesson by means of the ordinary objects and operations of agriculture is the most ready help, and is more likely than anything else to awaken the interest of the scholar and to bring home the lesson to his comprehension. Object lessons can nowhere find more apt illustrations. Then as we go higher in the scale of education, the same subject is fertile in ideas familiar to the pupil, and then it is that an effort should be made to awaken his interest in the great industry, and fo impart a know- ledge ofits principles which may be of use to him in his after- career. Nor need this interfere with the course of a lad’s general education in reading, writing, etc. ; it merely helps his comprehension by bringing before him familiar objects and gives him, later on, the opportunity of utilising the knowledge of those elementary princi- ples which he has learnt in his early days. When, asI have shown, the problem of agricultural improvement is so great a one it becomes all the more necessary that early in life a sound teaching should be imparted in the elements of agriculture, so as to enable those whose lives will be largely spent in its pursuit to enter it with a fair understanding of its aims and guiding principles. ) 503. The Agricultural Education of the masses, though it is Frogress must what must be aimed at, can at first have no immediate effect. - . There are not merely the scholars at the different grades of schools to educate, but there are also the teachers who will require system- atic instruction before they can properly direct the training of their papils. All this will require time to develop, but the sooner the work is begun the better. In addition, there are landed proprietors who require education in agriculture, there are the future “agricul- tural experts’? to whom the work of enquiry is to be entrusted, and, lastly, there is the large class of subordinate officials of the Land Revenue Department, for whom an agricultural training is an undoubted desideratum. 504. The existence of different classes for whom Agricultural the direction in Education is to be provided in the near future points to the neces- tural udacstion sity of beginning the work, not from the lowest level alone, nor yet show Proceed, Special Avricultural Colleges not required, 882 Agricultural Hducation, from the highest point alone, but from both simultaneously. Just as if would be unwise to neglect Agricultural Education of the higher type, and to provide merely for instruction of an elementary nature without seeking to improve the standard in the future by the accession of men who have received a higher training, so would it be equally unwise to delay the commencement of the education of the masses untila fully competent teaching element had been provided, which might cause the stream of agricultural instruction to filter down from the upper to the lower classes. It seems to me that the best plan is, to make use of such resources as at present exist, and to seek to improve them by securing a succession of teach- ers who have received a high class training, and have in their turn become fitted to be the instructors of other more elementary teach-~ ers. In short, I think that the work of high class and of elemen- tary instruction in agriculture should go on simultaneously, and that no system will be satisfactory which does not provide for both. A University training such as can be provided at Colleges and special Institutions is requisite for the instruction of those who may be fitted to occupy the higher posts of the Revenue Service, or to enter the Agricultural Department as “ experts’ ; so also for those who will become instructors at the High Schools and Agricultural Classes distributed throughout the country. Again, for those who will occupy subordinate posts in the Revenue Department, or who may qualify as teachers of lower schools, sound Agricultural Educa- tion of a more elementary nature will manifestly be called for also. It is not, therefore, a question of whether education shall proceed from above downwards or from below upwards, but progress must- be made in both directions simultaneously, 505. Taking, for convenience’ sake,the highest instruction first, we have to deal with such agricultural education as would be imparted at Colleges or special Institutions where agriculture forms one of the subjects taught, and where students prepare for a Uni- versity degree or career. The Poona College of Science and the Saidapet College at Madras are instances of such Colleges. The question arises at once, whether agriculture in its different branches should be taught at special Agricultural Colleges, or whether it should. merely form a part of the instruction at existing Colleges where a general training in science is provided. In its origin Sai- dapet was representative of the former, as Poona is of the latter. After careful consideration, I express myself as not favourable to the establishment, at the present time, of special Institutions for the teaching of purely agricultural subjects alone, but I advocate rather the utilisation of existing institutions where a training in science is given, and the tacking on of agriculture to the subjects taught. My reason for coming to this conclusion is, that in the present state of agricultural knowledge in India I much doubt whether there is adequate teaching power to provide instruction in the various branches of a complete agricultural course, and also whether, in a purely Agricultural College, there would be sufficient employment Agricultural Colleges and the Universities. 888 for teachers of ability in those departments of science alone which are connected with agriculture. The Madras Agricultural Com- mittee (1890) reported that the results of agricultural education at the Saidapet College were disappointing, and that the sole object -of most of the students joining the College was to obtain employ- ment or promotion in Government service, very few indeed of them subsequently engaging in farming. The Poona College of Science, on the other hand, has only had agriculture as one of the many branches of science taught, and the results have, on the whole, been fairly successful. Within recent times the University of Bombay has given recognition to the study by conferring a Diploma in Agri- culture on students who pass in that branch. The advantage which a general Science College, such as Poona possesses, is, that it can employ capable teachers of botany, chemistry, geology, ete., who, while not engaged purely for agricultural students (as would be the case at an Agricultural College), nevertheless give courses which such students can attend, and other courses which are specially designed for them. I am, therefore, decidedly in. favour of this latter system, for the present at least, as agaiust the establishment of special Agricultural Colleges, feeling, as I do, that there is not sufficient call for the latter, and that adequate high-class instruction cannot as yet be provided in them, Looking to the futnre it is possible that in time, perhaps, there will be occasion for one or more Central Colleges of Agriculture, but there will always be a difficulty in finding a central place, more especially as the agriculture of different parts is so varied. For the present I prefer, as I bave said, the utilisation of existing Science Colleges and Institutions to the establishment of any fresh one specially for agricultural training. 506. I have mentioned the recognition which the University Teaching of agriculture of Bombay has given to the study of agriculture, and the testimony beneficial even of men of long experience, such as Dr, Theodore Cooke, of Poona, for its own sakes is, invariably, that unless a teaching Institution be in some way connected with the University it is sure to fail, No doubt this is, in great measure, consequent upon what has been noted at Saidapet and elsewhere, viz., that the aim of the students is not to study agriculture for its own sake, but for the sake of getting Govern- ment employ or preferment. It is, of course, unfortunate that this is so, and especially that it is not merely a tendency, but an almost universal rule. J do not think that there is much likelihood of a change, and therefore it is better to provide for things as we find them, and not as they might be. It will belong, I think, before we shall find among the Natives, many workers in pure science who will study it for its own sake. So, too, will it be with agriculture. If a lower ideal has to be taken, it ig nevertheless desirable to ensure, as far as possible, that the training shall be that which is most likely to be of benefit to the men in the spheres which they will subsequently occupye It would unquestionably be well that Tastanood in. the men who, later on, become Land Revenue officials, and who in youno officiale, their daily work are brought in contact with agricultural conditions and surroundings, should get some knowledge of the principles cf agriculture during their earlier training. Even if they do make the attainment of a University deyree the main object, and study Recognition of Agriculture by Universlties, A degree desirable. The training at Colleges must be practical as well as theoretical. 354, Agricultural Education. agriculture in an academic way, it is more likely to be productive of good in the end than if they had followed a purely literary course. To take a single instance—in Bombay the higher class of Revenue officers, such as the Taksildars and Mamlatdars, are invested with considerable influence in the distribution of advances. for agricultural improvement (¢accavi* advances), and in the manage- ment of local funds. It is obvious that a man of this class who has had a good training in agriculture is very much more likely to use that influence wisely, and to understand the agricultural require- ments of his district better than one whe has had merely a literary training. Nor is the advantage confined to Revenue officials only, for it would tell favourably also upon those who did not go into Government employment ; they would, at least, be fitted with a training which they could turn at any time to practical account, viz,, in the business of agriculture itself, whereas a classical or literary education would not so qualify them. I fear that one must not look for any great change in the aims of students at Colleges and Institutions; therefore, a greater endea- vour should be made to render the Institutions of as practically useful anature as possible. Seeing, too, the demand that there is for the employment of officers in the Revenue Department, and that they are brought into close contact with the cultivating classes, I consider that the call for the introduction of agriculture into the educational system has been amply justified. 507. The next point is, in what form a University may give recognition to the study of agriculture. At Bombay the efforts to obtain a Degree in Agriculture were not completely successful, and a Diploma was granted instead. But, undoubtedly, a diploma will never be considered as carrying the same weight as a degree, and this will certainly militate against the pursuit of agricalture as a study. A diploma is a sort of half-way house, better than nothing, but not the equal ofa degree. Ido not think that it is satisfac- tory, and I do not see why a University degree might not be given for Agriculture just as much, for instance, as for Engineering. I do not mean to imply that the improvement of Indian agriculture is in any way dependent upon the conferment by the Universities of an agricultural degree; but I do think that, seeing how matters stand, the granting of a degree would give a stimulus to the study of agriculture which a mere diploma would fail to pro- duce. I do not suggest, I should explain, that agriculture should be studied as a subject by itself. and that a degree should be given in it without reference to the different branches of science con- nected with it, such as botany, chemistry, geology and physics, but I propose that after successfully qualifying in these branches by the earlier examinations, a student should be at liberty to take up agriculture as an optional subject in the final course for a degree. 508. Returning to Colleges, it is not sufficient to give merely a theoretical training in agriculture, but the instruction should be accompanied by practical illustration. This: can be accomplished * See footnote page 80, Agricultural Classes and High Schools. 885 by having a Demonstration Farm attached to the College, where the students may see the actual operations of husbandry, and the cultivation of the different crops carried out. ‘I'hey should also be taught to do the work on the farm themselves, or have a pieve of land which they can cultivate with their own hands. This may be sufficient for a College career or for a University degree, but more is needed before a man can be turned out from a College, and be fitted to manage a farm of any size or to superintend an estate. It is in respect of the opportunities which it offers of seeing practi- cal work on a large scale that a Government Farm like Bhadgaon can be of great use, and it would be well to make it a condition that passed students of Poona or similar Colleges should not be promoted to the management of a farm or estate until they have spent some time in practical work on a farm like that at Bhadgaon. The complaints of landowners, that they cannot gei competent superintendents, would in great measure be remedied by a provision of this kind, and it would prevent men from leaving the different Colleges with nothing but a theoretical knowledge of agriculture. 509. Passing from Colleges to High Schools, we have to con- Agricultural sider the Agricultural Classes which, in the absence of any special to High Schools, College, have been established in several parts of India, and which are, as a rule, attached to the High Schools. Those which I visited were at Nagpur, Belgaum, and Nadiad. With the first-named I was particularly pleased, and I am confident that. it is doing decided good. It is quite true that here, as elsewhere, the prominent idea wagpur, among the students is to get into Government employ, but it must also be remembered that in the Central Provinces there is a steady demand for men who are to be -employed inthe Land Revenue and Settlement Departments, and it is certainly far better that the appointments should be filled up by those whe have had a distinctly agricultural training, and who have, possibly, acquired a decided interest in agriculture, than by men who have followed a purely literary career. The former are far more likely to under- stand the condition of the people, their wants, and the ways in which agricultural improvement may be effected. I was very much pleased to see that the students at Nagpur were obliged themselves to do the work of the farm attached to the Agricultural class, and that, in addition, each one had a piece of land which he cultivated entirely himself, and the crops of which he was allowed to convert to his own use. A Demonstration Param is a natural and necessary adjunct of an Agricultural Class, and on it there should be practical work carried out by the students. Ifa certain area can also be devoted to experimental work it may be a further advantage, but all depends upon the superintendence available. Of 17 students in the Nagpur Class during 1889-90, 14 passed well and obtained appointments as Revenue Inspectors. It is worthy. of note, as showing the necessity of providing agricultural education of a high. character, as well as that of an elementary nature, that the Nagpur Agricultural Class is depend- ent for its teaching power upon the Poona College of Science, the 25 Nadiad, Belgaum, Value of Poona College for supplying teachers, High Schools, Hlustration Farms, Middle Schools, Drawing. Illustration. Plots. School Gardens. Primary Schools, Agricultural “readers,” and pbject lessons, 886. Agricultural Education, Principal and his two Assistants being passed students of that. institution. = s At Nadiad the Agricultural Class is attached: to the. High. School, agriculture being an optional subject in the school ‘“final,’’. The farm of the Nadiad: Agricultural Association is utilised: for. the instruction of the Class. At Belgaum also, the Agricultural Class is. attached to. the High School, and a farm of seven acres is utilised for it. The teachers must have passed at the Poona College of Science. “Agri- cultural. Classes are, likewise attached to nine of the principal High Schools.in Bombay. Each of these is under an instructor who has qualified, either af Poona. or at Saidapet, and who reports to the Poona; College. The. examination papers are set from Poona College, and passed students.are qualified to join the College. The above instances ‘show, if proof were needed, how: necessary it is to maintain the agricultural teaching at the Poona College in a high state of efficiency. — 510. At High. Schools more attention should be paid: to: the study of. physical science, and: the instruction should also, be made more distinctly agricultural in its bearing than ig. the case at present. Although: there may. not. be the necessity which exists: in the case of Agricultural. Classses and, Colleges, for having farms on which the scholars of High Schools, may. work, it, is. very desirable that there should; be what I may. best term Illustration. Farms, on which the scholars may see the, principal. crops: cultivated in the district, and have illustrated to them in this. way the lessons which they are taught. Illustration: Farms of this. kind) will help to bring home the instruction given and to give: point: and’ interest to it. ~ ; : 511. In Middle Schools the elements of physical science should’ be taught, and it would be well, too, were more attention. given to drawing. I noticed, when present at an examination at. the Forest School, Dehra, a great lack of power on the. part'of' the students to represent. by means of a figure any object’ about which they were speaking, If drawing were more extensively taught, at an earlier stage of their education it would bea cana able gain, Agricultural. science might be introduced in Middle Schools by means.of. text-books in the vernacular, so also might elementary. botany and physiology., There is no call for farms in’ connection with these schools, but there might ‘be a few Illustration Plots, where some of the principal field crops could be grown on'a small scale, just. for the purpose of illustrating the lessons. In the Central Provinces a scheme. is on foot to establish School Gardens, | d, as an encouragement, on which the boys may work, and be allowe me 2 a to keep the crop proceeds themselves. 512° At Primary Schools the most that can well be done in order® to further agricultural teaching is to introduce “readers,” having familiar agricultural ‘topics and illustrations as their subject, and also td'give ‘object lessons,””’ In the lattér, nothing will be #0’ Training of Teachers—-Tent-books, 387: quickly: comprehended:by the youthful mind as the common every- | day: objects which a lad sees. around him, and: none will. be more familiar to him than those connected with agriculture.. Sir Edward Buek remarked. at the Simla Agricultural Conference that:he had. often watched the country visitors’ to the Indian Museum at. Caleutta,. and that there was no show-case that attracted so much attentioti’ as‘those which contained clay models illustratinp’ the simple agricultural operations in a village. It is the familiatity of the subject which attracts, and so it’ will be fourid'in’ primary’ education, for no’ illustrations are so apt as thosé drawn from'the’ every-day life of those who come to receive instruction. 513, There remains’ but one other class of schools of which I Mgunel schoo shall’ speak; the Normal Schools for teachers. The'teacher¥ cane" not alf go through a special’ training ‘in agriculture, seeing’ that agriculture is but otie of several’ subjects which they will have’ to téach, but it is very desirable, and, indeed, neseatat that* they, should receive sufficient instruction in it themsélv饒 to’ beable’to understand and to intelligently teach out ofan’ abiticul- tural’ text-book. To merely teach agricultural principles ag’ a’ lesson to be committed to memory, but nbt'to comprehend what’ the words mean, is utterly useless. Therefore, there should‘He' some provision for‘ the special instruction of teichers in ‘agrictilture; whereby they may obtain a'sufficient knowledge of the subject’ to’ enable them fo teach it to their scholars: At Nagpur, arritie--’ ments-have been-made for.a-special Class for teachers in connection with the Aprieultural Class: held. there, and probably similar. arrangements couldibe wade elsewhere for. the instruction‘of the teachers-of! Primary; Schools,. In some parts,: the-Central- Provinces. for-example, peripatetic. lecturers have been engaged- to go. from- place to-plaee; and to hold classes specially for-this ‘purpose, but the: ageney:has,-I believe, been:found-rather an-expensive one.- Whether this or some other plan; such as that adopted-at Nagpur, of forming, a-special Class-for teachers, be the better;! depénds- mué¢h upon-the- facilities which already exist for giving instruction, It-is-signifieant, ; however, that in England (where at the present time a strong move is being inade ‘in the direction of technical agricultural edieation) the same necessity has-been ‘felt of educating the*teachers of' Village® Schools’ in’ the rudimetits‘ of agri¢ulture. It is recognised’ now; moré or’ léss’ arerely, ‘that, while agricultural education’ of’ a’ high class’ will’ be needed; there ‘ix’ not’ much 6 be’ expectéd ‘so far as those* now’ actually erigagéd’ in farting’ are’ concerted; but - that’ if ‘will be in the training’ of the-young ‘and’ rising génerh-- tion ‘of ftiture farmers that’ the benefit of an agricultural’ education’ will be-found. In India; as ‘ini England, attention must, therefore,’ be specially given 'to the’ training ‘in’agticulturé of those’ whd ‘are torinstruct the fature generation ‘of cultivators, and the'teachers in’ Pritiaty Schbols‘ought to ‘show ‘their’ capability for ‘doing’ this, 514. A maniféstinesd: is the isstes of Apiicultaral: Textome need of , books'andAgrieultaral’Primers, A‘ féw‘of*these“do“already: exist, Aeticulturat* The best’ known is:Mr.J. B, Fullet’s* Agricultural Primer,’ ofigi- nally written for'the’ North-West? Provindes;: aad’ subbdquestly’ 254 388 Agricultural Education. re-written and adapted to the Central Provinces, upon Mr. Fuller’s transference to the latter. This little book is simply and admira- bly written, and in its 100 small pages it contains a mass of useful information set out in quite an elementary way. The Primer has been translated into Hindi, Mahratti, and Uriya. More recently, an agricultural Text-book, suited specially to Southern India, hay been prepared by Mr. C. Benson, Assistant Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Madras, and Mr. C. Subba Row, the Sub-Assistant Director. One or two other Text- books or Primers have also been issued by native agriculturists. But very much more is needed than a text-book here and there. The conditions of agriculture are so diversified that any such book, if it is to keep its elementary nature, can be applicable only to quite a limited area. As Mr. Fuller says in his preface,—when he came to revise his North-West Primer and to adapt it to the Central Provinces, he had to re-write fully two-thirds of it, and he adds that not one book for the whole of the Central Provinces, but at least one for cach of its divisions, is needed. The same is true for any other Province of India, and thus there is urgent call for simple but reliable and applicable text-books upon agriculture. T look to the appointment of ‘‘ agricultural experts ”? and the co- : operation ofa “ scientific adviser ”’ as likely to help greatly in this necessary and important work. tancauns ie 515. One of the difficulties in the way of spreading education diffculty in the is, undoubtedly, Zanguage, or rather the multiplicity of languages, serena of I noticed this when teas at the Forest School at Dehra, during the holding’ of an examination there. In the higher Classes in- struction is given in English, but the teaching is in the vernacular (Hindustani) for the lower Classes. The answers given by the pupils in the vernacular Classes were brought out with far more readiness than by the senior students, and it was often hard to make out whether the latter did not know the answers or whether they merely did not understand the questions, It will be just the same with text-books. A text-book in English will not be understood like one in the vernacular, and it is far more likely to be learnt off as a lesson and committed to memory. Even in one and the same Province several different lan- guages and dialects will be spoken and the text-book will have to be translated into each. At the present time there are in use in Colleges in India, books such as Wrightson’s “ Principles of Agri- cultural Practice,’” Warington’s “ Chemistry of the Farm,” Johnston and Cameron’s “ Agricultural Chemistry and Geology,’’ all of them capital books in their proper application, but not at all intended to meet the special case of Indian agriculture, and, indeed, even calcu- lated to mislead the Indian student in many important points. Where the differences in agricultural practice between England and India Vernacular text. 27¢ 80 great, dependence ought not to be put on English text-books books, only, but India should supply its own. That this has been done to so small an extent in the past is a proof of the need of paying more attention to the furthering of agricultural education. Encouragement to Study of Agriculture, 389 516. I have spoken in Chapter XVII, (paragraph 423) of the teaching of agricultural chemistry as a special subject, and have expressed my belief tha, though useful as an adjunct, 1 do not anticipate any great results to follow immediately from it. Never- theless, it isa subject which should quite rightly enter into a regular agricultural course, such as is given at Saidapet or at the Poona College, or into that of the Forest School at Dehra. 517. The relation of the proposed “ scientific” adviser to the conduct of agricultural education throughout the country has also Teaching of agricultural chemistry, Relation of ** scientific adviser” to agricultural been spoken,of in Chapter XVII (paragraph 428), and was dwelt education. upon at considerable length by the Simla Agricultural Conference, I do not think that, if a‘‘scientific adviser ’? be appointed, his connec- tion with education can be anything more than of a very general nature. Certainly he can never exercise any control over education, or prescribe on what lines it is fo run. The most he can dao, it seems to me, is to generally watch its progress, and, possibly, to throw out suggestions for its improvement, but more he can hardly do, even had he time for it, which he most certainly would not have. ~Again, it would be inadvisable to have any conflict of authority between the Agricultural and the Educational Departments, and on this account, too, I think that the “scientific adviser ’’ could do little more than express his opinion when asked, or make, as occa- sion permitted, some suggestion as to the line which agricultural education should take. 518. The question next arises: granted that there is a need of men more agriculturally trained, what inducements are to be given to them to pursue the study of agriculture. If young men go to other employments because there are no openings for them in agriculture, how are these openings to be made? Only by giving as good ‘‘prizes’’ for agriculture as for the Bar or for Government employ. The Land Revenue Administration needs a regular sup- ply of men to fill posts in it; Land Revenue Inspectors are required whose business is with the people in their agricultural relations, and who have todo with the soil and the crops, Surely those best fitted are the ones who have had an agricultural training, and the administration of matters con- cerned with the land will be best carried out by the men who understand agriculture best. In England a land steward is not a man who is taken out of a bank, or who has done no more than take a high University degree in classics or mathematics. So should it be with Land Revenue Inspectors ; they should be men who have passed through the Agricultural Classes, or through Tastitutions that give a training in agriculture. In the course of my tour I met many Inspectors whose mind seemed to be quite a blank on the subject of agriculture; in other parts, as in some districts of the Central Provinces, I found them to take a decided interést in agriculture, These latter were men who had passed through Mr, Fuller’s Agricultural Class. In Bombay it is’ now provided that all candidates for the staff of Inspectors of Village Records must qualify by passing a course in agriculture, 890 Agricultural Education. I cannot put these views into-better general terms than those adopted ‘in ‘the following two Resolutions adopted at the Simla Agricultural Conference, in October 1890 :— Resotvtion VI.—It is highiy desirable that the claims of men trained ‘in Scientific Agriculture to appointments in the Revenue and cognate Depart- ments should be as freely recognised as those of men trained in Law, Arts, and Engineering. Resotution VII.—That where appointments in the Revenue or cognate Departments are made on the result of competitive examinations, Scientific Agrion|bure, should be included as an optional or necessary subject in the exami- nation course. : : Forest students. The Forest Department has for some time past felt the necessity of having betterreducated men to occupy the post of Sub-Assistant-Conservator. Efforts are now being.made to effect an improvement in this direction, and the introduction of a more agvicultural education among these men would qualify them better for their work. Patwaris, Lastly, as regards the hereditary class of keepers of Village Records (patwarts), it would ‘be a clear advantage if these men, whose office passes on, as-a rule, from father to.son,iwere in their early life'to receive a ‘training in the principles of agriculture, and also in drawing, instead of having,.as is now the case, to be formed into special Classes later on in order:to learn their par- : ‘ticular work. ee 519. It may be desirable here to summarise the different classes Nativesfor | of Natives for whom agricultural education should be specially whom agricul- *- + tural education provided, pe oyey ote (1) “ Experts” of the Agricultural Department. (2) Subordinate officials of the Land Revenue, Settlement, Forest, or cognate Departments. (3) ‘Teachers of agriculture.at High Schools. (4) Teachers of Middle and Primary Schools where the elements of agriculture are taught, (5) The youth of the cultivating classes. (6) Non-official landed proprietors (zemindars, -ete.). Agricultural 520. It now remains for me to note briefly: upon the Agvicul- Colleges and ~—_ tural College, Classes, and other Institutions which T visited, Poona Collegeof _ Lo take, first, the Poona College of Science, so far as its agti- Science. cultural course is concerned. , ee ‘This:college in its agricultural branch is virtually the Agri , of the Bresidonny, and those who havo. had anything. $0 dg ite we ee greatly, its success has been the outcome of the devotion of ae Principal, Dr. Theodore Cooke. Successive Governors of Bombay, and more especially Lord Reay, have also interested themselves greatly in it, LI have already made numerous references to.it, and have shown what.a large amount of the agricultural teaching ialueady given throughout the, country oes its origin to, Poona. The College has the advantage of being affiliated to the Bombay University, the latter giving a diploma in agriculture. The students have the further benefit of the farm attached to the College, and are lodged close to the farm, spending some time-on it every day. The course is a fe years‘one. Mr, Mollison, the-Superintendent of ‘Government, Farms .io.Bombay, Poon College—Saidapet Oollege. “BQ1 teathes agriculture for two months inthe year ‘Here. In thé first year mathe- ‘matics and natural stience (heat, botany, and agriculture) are taken up; in‘the second year, higher mathematics, natuial séience (chemistry and systematic botany), vetétinary science, and agriculture; ‘in the third year; hatutal science (agricultural botany, geology, atid chemistry with analysis), surveying, veteti- nary. acienge, and agriculture. me _ The main points that strike me in this scheme are, firstly, that I think it would be better to let students qualify in general,science subjects before passing on'to the more specidl one .of agticulture; and, secondly, that ‘I would not hamipef an agricdltural student’s progress by keoping:him -at a ndn-agrioultatal subject like mathematics for -a «second year. It is quite.tight that.a :man should reach a sufficient qualification in mathematics and physics, but I would let. him get this done in’the first year of the course, and ‘otto’ be'éroubled with it further. Also, it ig well that he should attain a gufficjetitly high standard ‘in géneral scievids subjects, such as shemistry, botany, And Bedlogy; before he éntiers onthe special study of apriduiture. Agriculturé tijgHt be taken ‘the - second year, atid be madé'the principal subject during thé ‘third year, When, {00;‘it would be quite early enough to take up veterinaty work. — What I should suggest would be :— First Year's Course. Mathematios. Elementary Botany. Physies. Elementary ‘Geology. Elementary Chemistry. Second Year's.Course. Chemistry (Theoretioal . Drawing. _ and Practical). ‘Agriodlture, Biology. ee Third Year's Course. Agricultural Chemistry. Surveying. Agriculture. Veterinary :Seience. In lookiag:over the syllabus:in agtidulture, it is elédr to me that it Has béén drawn onan English and;not on 4n Indian model. ‘Thus, practiced sich as “paring and burning” and “ warping of land” are mentioned ; maniiies such as sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, soot, and artificial mailires, noné of ‘which. have any place in-Indian agriculture, até introduéed ; thé tequiretharits of “ fattening.animals’” are supposed to be learnt, and this in 4 country whére no fattening of animals whatever is catried on. On the othér hand, iiany sub- jects-which haye.a special interest in Indian agriculture are omitted, such as eanal and well irrigation, hkankar, dil-cake réfuse, gi, etc. The principal requisite for the Poona conrse is, to my, mind, to make ipro- ‘vision ‘that the students have more acquaintance with ,the ,pragtical side WE agricultare, either by themeelves working upon:the farm, or by. having a portion of land which they may cultivate themeelvea, .or else by Spending a certain time:npon the large farm. at Bhadgaon. , Certainly, too, before men ‘pass out from Poona to take’ charge of .estates, thay cought .to -have (previouely qualifted by a residence.at the ‘Bliadgaon:or.similar farm. Attached to the ‘Poona’ Collegé is a Veterinary Hospital, where animals -are treated and Classes are aie Bseill later, an: iiportant' branch has been added nocnoet’ by the Governinent of India, a’Bacteridlogieal Laboratoty having 'beon started emia and put under the nidnagement of Dr. Lingeid, with the view, principally, of laboratory’ studying the important matter of éattle diséases'in India. ‘521. At Baroda great advances have been anade lately -in- the paroaa College. development of agricultural education, and the Gadkwar has _ shown great interest in the subject. — An agifodléuval ‘biaach of ‘the “Bérod Gollegs bas been fornied, avd ‘is affiliated to the University of Bombay for the diploma in -agtieuléure. Belgaum, Nadiad, Saidapet College. 892 Agricultural Education. Mr. T. H. Middleton, who passed a distinguished career as a student at Hdin- burgh University and elsewhere, has been appointed Professor of Agriculture, and Demonstration Farms have been started under his guidance. The students are to reside on the farms. This College and the Poona College of Science will constitute the two Agricultural Colleges of the Presidency. 522. The other Bombay Agricultural Institutions which I visited were the farms, or rather fields, in connection with the Agricultural Classes attached to the High Schools at Belgaum and Nadiad. As mentioned a little before, there are Agricultural Classes attached to nine-of the High Schools in Bombay. At Belgaum, bursaries of Rs. 4 per month are paid out of the local funds, and are tenable for three years, The field is seven acres in extent, and the out-of-pocket cost is Rs. 240 a year, which the Municipality gives as a grant. Theoretical instruction is given in the High School to the better and English- speaking classes, while, for the others, text-books in Mahratti are provided : the lads work three hours a day on the farm. The teachers must have passed at the Poona College. At Nadiad the farm of the Agricultural Association is thrown open to the students attending the Agricultural Class of the High School. A museum, with specimens of crop products, implements, ete., is attached. 523. Passing next to Madras, the Saidapet College calls for special attention. Its history bas been dealt with in the last chapter (see paragraph 488), and now I have only to remark on what I noticed when I visited the College and Farm. Of the unsuitableness of the Saidapet Farm, either as an experimental or even as an educational farm, I have already spoken, and, after having seen it, I am not inclined to regard at all fayourably its proposed extension, even as a farm for teaching purposes. Owing to the constant change of policy pursued by the Madras Govern- ment with respect to the College and Farm, these have laboured under con- siderable difficulties ; and although the Farm had, at the time of my visit, been given up, with the exception of a small area, the future of the College was in a very unsettled state. Originally started as a purely Agricultural College, Sai- dapet has now become little more than a general Science College for Madras, at which agriculture merely forms one of a number of subjects taught. This is abundantly clear from a perusal of the syllabus adopted. The agricultural course contains far too many subjects, and, to all appearance, far too great attainment in these is expected. Mathematics (including trigonometry and logarithms), mensuration, statics, building-materials and construction, physio- graphy, forestry, and other subjects find a place, along with agriculture, agri- cultural chemistry, and veterinary science. If properly carried out, the sylla- bus would involve each man being turned out a master of the partioular branch taken up; the veterinary programme, for instance, ought to make a man a qualified veterinary surgeon; the qualifications demanded in statics would only be attainable by a very few, and it would be far better to confine this branch to elementary mechanics, with special application to machines used in agriculture; the syllabus in agriculture is largely occupied with subjects that come more properly within the domain of agricultural chemistry. The general couclusion forced on me was, that a syllabus had been framed with the inten- tion of comprising all the points about which knowledge had been obtained by men of science all over the world, and that the teaching was expected to embrace all these as far as possible. In short, an ideal syllabus was set, and the teaching had to be worked wp to it, instead of the syllabus being set ac- cording to the standard of the teaching, and to what might fairly be expected of the students. The result of such a treatment must be to make the men rely entirely on books, and upon getting them up by heart. So I was not surprised to hear that the students did no practical work upon the farm, or that they turned out in most cases inefficient superintendents of farms when they left the College. Nagpur Agricultural Class—Forest School, Dehra 393 A syllabus should not be framed so as to be far above the heads of the pupils, and appal them with the array of all that they have to get up for it, but it should be set so as to be an index of the requirements which the edu- cation given could fairly supply. The main point to determine with regard to the Ssidapet College is, I think, what its future is to be. Is it to be an Agricultural College ? If so, the course ought to be a more purely agricultural one, with superfluous sub- jects struck out, and practical work substituted for them. If, however, it is to be a general Science College, then let this be clearly understood, and let agriculture merely take its place as one of the subjects taught. 524. The Central Provinces do not possess any Agricultural College, or even Science College where agriculture is made a special part of the instruction. The nearest approach to this is the Agricultural Class at Nagpur, of which I have already spoken favourably. At the time of my visit there were 38 students, 10 of whom were boarders, pag ree aerial: and most of them Brahmans. The principal object of the students is here, as : elsewhere, to get Government employment, but in these Provinces there is a decided want of men to fill subordinate posts in the Land Revenue and Settile- ment Departments. In the previous year 14 of the 17 passed students of the Class had obtained positions as Land Revenue Inspectors. A prominent feature in the training is, that the students ave obliged them- selves to engage: in manual labour on a farm of 20 acres attached to the Class. The Nagpur Experimental Farm is also available for the instruction of the Class, and, in addition, each student has half an acre of land which he culti- vates himself, and the crops off which he is allowed to have. Unfortunately, owing to the difficulty of getting men and labour just when they are wanted, this cultivation is somewhat hindered, but the students take a decided interest in it. A certain number of the scholarships of the Educational Department are tenable at the Agricultural Class, the course extending over two years. The teaching agency is entirely supplied from the Poona College of Science. I thought the arrangement of subjects taught, and also the syllabus, very satisfactory indeed; there were no superfluous subjects, and all of them had a direct bearing upon the principal subject, agriculture. They comprised agriculture, elementary chemistry, botany, geology, elementary veterinary science, land surveying, and drawing. Thus, it will be noticed, the students did not have their time taken up with non-agricultural subjects. At the end of each week a written examination is held, and, as the instrnetion is given in English, it is found that the plan of having the weekly examinations is very useful in familiarising the students with expressing themselves clearly in English. There are small laboratories and a museum and library. All that there was was excellent of its kind, though on a very limited scale. The Class at Nagpur illustrates the difficulty which language presents to the spread of agricultural education. So far, teaching has been given only in English and with English text-books, but arrangements are being made to have a vernacular Class also. : 525. Bengal possesses no Agricultural Colleges, or educational pengai Institutions where agriculture is specially taught. Instead of this, it had been at one time the practice to send selected Natives to England to study agriculture at the Cirencester College, This has, however, now been abandoned. In place of it, it ig proposed to have an agricultural branch at the Seebpore College of En- gineering, near Calcutta, and to utilise the Seebpore Experimental Farm which adjoins the College. - In the North-West Provinces there is no Agricultu ee : ral College, Notth-Weat nor special provision for the teaching of agriculture, ge, . Provinces, 394 Agricultural Education, Punjab. In the Punjab the only step in an agricultural direction has been Veterinary the establishment of a Veterinary School at Lahore. This was College, Lahore. started in 1882, and has been decidedly successful. Forest School, 526. The last institution that I need mention is the Forest Dana School at Dehra. This, though not a College for imparting instruction in agriculture, has in some ways, nevertheless,.an agricultural bearing. There are courses for Foresters (conducted in Hindi), for Rangers (in English), and for the highest grade, that of Sub-Assistant Conservators. The number of students is about 70, and the expenditure, which amounts to about Rs. 33,000 cae. is debited to the various Provinces who send up students to be trained. Every year some twenty men qualify as Rangers, and, after five years’ set'vice, they are eligible for Sub-Assistant Conservatorships as vacancies occur. It is almost unnecessary to say that ont-door instruction forms an important part of the course. The scheme.of instruction drawn up appeared to me to be an excellent one, and the teaching, in the main, to be very well given. For instruction in chemistry, botany, and entomology, the school depended until lately upon lectures given during a few weeks by non- resident lecturers. There.is, however, a very suitable chemical laboratory at the school, and, as explained in an earlier chapter, it is hoped to provide shortly for regular instruction in agricultural chemistry. I happened to be at Dehra when the sessional examinations were going on, and was allowéd the opportunity of putting several of the -students through vivd voce examinations in botany.and chemistry. I can speak in high terms of the degrae of proficiency attained by the students.in the former subject. The students whom I examined were especially well acquainted with vegetable -morphology,-and had evidently received avery careful training. Their know- ‘ledge of chemistry was, however, poor. The groundwork of the science had not been thoroughly taught.them, and while they could answer some of the ‘more: advanced: questions, “simpler ones, such as the definitions of an aéid, an alkali,and.a salt, were not known. I was chiefly struck by the fact that the teaching‘in chemistry did not seem to haye been directed to those points which would be most useful: to the men as forest officials. For instance, I do not remember that any one could give me a clear idea of the composition of leaves,.or of the different forms of combination in which carbon exists in vegetation. In ‘listening to the examinations ‘in other subjects I was struck by the inability of the students to draw any figures by which they might illustrate their answers; also by the need that existed for more out-door examination ; the students did not seem able to desoribe clearly such operations as that of digging'a well, making a road, bridging a channel (nwlah), blasting a rock, etc. Undoubtedly they experienced some difficulty in expressing themselves in ana and seemed to be always trying to remember something out of a ext-book. ‘There wore what seemed to me marked defects about the examination itself, though I ‘believe that these have to some extent been since remedied, ‘Thus, the examinations ought not to be conducted (as they used to be) by the teachers of the school alone; :a student, after failing once, should not be allowed to go in for a special-examination a short time afterwards and :try to pass‘then ; and, thirdly, far too much time was taken up by the examin- ations. “The one that I was present at for a time was fixed to last from March 5th to March 29th, and was entirely of a vivd voce nature. During its pro- gress all.the work of teaching was disorganised and, in fact, suspended except in one Class. I sat out.the third day.of the.examination in forest engimeer- lng, itself a subsidiary subject, and I felt that it was.quite impossible .for.any examiner to keep up his interest all this time. Half-an-hour's .wivd voce examination is more than enough to ascettdin a man’s real ktiowléddge of a subject, and I should like-to see -this supplemented. by written periodical ex- aminations. These are points which can readily be remedied, and it is. but right that I should say I thought very well of the teaching asa whole. There Nagpur Agricultural Clats— Forest School, Dehra, 395 isa demand for a better olass of men to fill the post of Sub-Assistant Con- servator, and it is very desirable to maintain the instruction at the Forest School in a high state of excellence, so that the men sent out may hava a more intelligent view of their duties. The introdnotion of a more agricul- tural element, even if by the teaching of agricultural chemistry alone, is likely to give the students a better idea of the important connection of their work with the improvement of agriculture. CONCLUSIONS, 896 CONCLUSIONS. 527. The spread of education will be an important element in the improvement of agriculture. It will do much to remove the pre= judices attaching to “caste”? aud custom, which prevent progress in agricultural methods, and it will give rise to a more intelligent farming class. : Ina country where, as in India, agriculture is the chief em- ployment, Agricultural Education especially should be encouraged. Until lately the tendency of education has been in a purely literary direction, and has turned attention away from the land rather than towards it; the fault can now be best remedied by substituting Agricultural Education for a part of the present educational programme. The work must proceed simultaneously from above downwards and from below upwards. Elementary instruction should be given in Primary Schools. by means of ‘readers ”’ and “ object lessons ,’? which introduce familiar agri- cuitural subjects. In Middle Schools the elements of physical science, the use of Agricultural Primers, accompanied by Iléustra» tion Plots on which the ordinary farm crops are grown, should form part of the instruction. In High Schools more attention should be given to physical science and to agriculture, and J/Jus- tration Farms or fields should be attached to the Schools. Agri- cultural Classes should be established where Colleges or Institu- tions that specially teach agriculture do not exist, and these should have Demonstration Farms attached, and land on which the pupils - can themselves work. Special attention should be directed to the agricultural educa- tion given in Colleges, in order that the teachers supplied to High Schools and to Agricultural Classes may be well-trained men, and that the Land Revenue, Agricultural and cognate Departments may be supplied with subordinate officials who have studied agri- culture, both theoretically and practically. I do not consider it advisable to establish special Agricultural Colleges, but I think that it would be better to utilise existing Colleges of Science and to form agricultural branches at them. Universities should encourage the study of agriculture by making agriculture an optional subject in the course for a degree, and the Conclusions, 397 claims of men who have passed in agriculture should be fully recog- nised for appointments in the Revenue and cognate Departments. There is great need of Agricultural Text-books suited to the cir- cumstances of the different parts of India, and these should be in the vernacular as well as in English. RECOMMENDATIONS. 528. That General Education be extended among the agricul- tural classes. That Agricultural Education form a part of the general educa- tional system, and be introduced as a prominent subject in the Schools of the country. That Text-books on Agriculture, adapted to the different parts of the country, be prepared as early as possible. That encouragement be given to the higher study of Agricul- ture by recognising more fully the claims of men who have’ passed in scientific agriculture, for appointments in the Land Revenue and cognate Departments. RECOMMENDA TIONS, junior Civilians | 398 CHAPTER XX, AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS. 529. Tue previous chapters have of necessity been concerned largely with the work of Agricultural Departments, considered under the different heads selected for those'chapters: There remain, however, some few matters which may be usefully discussed,: but: which do not come specifically under any of the foregoing heads. These I shall treat of’in this conclidity chapter: 580. The origin, development, and general history of Agricul- tural Departments in India have been narrated’in Chapter I) as well.as their scope-and aims. But their. constitution has. not. been fully dealt with. One of the most important matters, to my mind, and one to which, itiseems to me,.far'too'little attention has been’ given’ in the. past,. is; the early’ training of the men whovare.to-form the personnet.of Agricultural. Departments, and moreespecially- of those. who may in future be appointed Directors of Agricultural Departments. The necessity of guiding in a more scientific and more agri- cultural direction the training of Indian Civil Servants who may, later on, occupy posts in Agricultural Departments, impressed itself strongly upon the Famine Commissioners in 1880, and has also been made the subject of representations by successive Secreta- ries of State. The Famine Commissioners laid considerable stress upon the training of junior Civilians in agriculture, and they recommended— (1) That more weight should be given to natural and physical sciences in the open competitive examin- ation. (2) That agricultural and organic chemistry should replace some of the compulsory subjects in the intermediate and final examinations of probationers for the Civil Service. (3) That candidates who distinguish themselves in these subjects should, further, be allowed to spend an additional year in England for the purpose of study- ing agriculture; the time to count as service on two- thirds pay. (4) That these selected officers, after a period of service in the ordinary line in India, should be enlisted in the Agricultural Departments. (5) That, in the meantime, a few selected junior Civilians should be sent to England after five years’ service to study for a year or more at some School of Agri- culture. Training of Juntor Civilians. 3.99, Although these proposals had a great deal fo recommend them, The Government there were absions defeats mbioh tha Governmant pf India, with, “’™"""""" T think, much justice, pointed out in their reply. It was,urged that a knowledge of agriculture could only be of special. value to a few in the Civil Service; that a Civilian must first be fitted for ordinary executive and administrative functions, and that. his pro- bationary training in England should be framed with this view. It was impossible that a man could get more than a theoretical or book knowledge of agriculture by. the time that. he passed his final examination, and what knowledge he could get would not be appli- cable to the peculiar conditions of Indian agriculture. So. the Gov- ernment of India objected to giving any agricultural training to Civilians previous to their arrival in India, but they favoured any. measures to arouse interest in the subject of agriculture, and. conse- uently endorsed Mr. Ilbert’s recommendation to admit agricultural chenntetry: as an optional subject of the final examination, along with botany, geology, and zoology. The Government of India further proposed to give definite privileges to officers selected in. Tndia, to induce them to undergo an agricultural training in. India, viz., by allowing men selected by Local Governments to take fur- lough after five years’ active service (instead of the usual eight years), and by authorising Local Governments to select one officer every two years to go on furlough to England to. study agriculture. Lastly, they considered that every Revenue officer.shonld have a rudimentary knowledge of Surveying, as practised in India for. the. purposes of Land Settlements, To.these proposals: the Secretary of State gave,:in- December Secretary of 1883, aigeneral-approval. He allowed agricultural chemistry: to: be December 1853," an optional subject. inthe final examination. But he objected:to the withdrawal of officers from their duties. in India, and: declined to, lay down any general. rule, though consenting to.act,.in special cases, in the spirit of. the above proposals when Local, Governments submitted special recommendations. As the outcome; agricultural. chemistry became; and now forms, agricuitural an optional subject: inthe final: examination, and ‘a limited” number chemis'y a of Civilians have, been. sent home to, study agriculture at the final examina. Cirencester College ;. also, something, has been done. to provide” instrugtion jin, Surveying to. Revenue. officers. 531.. With: what ‘has: been done I can, in’ the main, agree, I My conclusions, do not" think it-is-possible to send’out Civil Servants who shall be practical agriculturists also; [recognise (as I have expressed myself in Chapter XVI}. paragraph 408): that the Service demands other requirements in its members than that’ of being agyriculturists, and’ that'a man must learn primarily to be an executive and administra- tive‘officer. I-do not think, therefore, that practical apriculture can’ usefully be included'in a probationer’s examination. I can, further, see that’'there are ‘objections ‘to keeping'a man in England a year, longer for, the, purpose of. studying agriculture; and, besides the fact, that, the ‘apge i foo short, and that- Indian; agriculture.-is, very different. from English, there,, is. the, consideration. that). a. man would by so doing get out of the regular_line.and, thus raise. 400 Agricultural Departments. difficulties as to promotion, time of service, pay, ete. But I do endorse most thoroughly those recommendations of the Famine Necessity of | Commissioners, and of the Government of India, which have for giving more their object the giving of more weight to the study of Natural study of Natural Science. I maintain that what is needed is not so much to have oe men, or I will say Agricultural Directors especially, who shall be practical agriculturists, but to have men of a scientific turn of mind who have some knowledge of what science has accomplished in the past, and of what it is likely to effect in the future; men who will have some appreciation of scientific work and of workers in science. Now, this can only be gained by an early training in scientific subjects, and, although the details of agricultural practice can be acquired ata later date, the pursuit of scientific methods and their application to praetice cannot. I have been much struck in India by the almost complete isolation in ideas of the few men who have gone out to the country possessed of some knowledge and appreciation of natural science. They have, as it were, stood almost alone, unappreciated, or, rather, not understood, by their more classical or mathematical brethren. Yet I can see quite well that, among the men who have done most to help on agriculture, in many cases the impulse has been given by their love and apprecia- tion of natural science. I think that the tendency of modern education to proceed in the direction of a more liberal and scientific training will carry with it important results which will indirectly influence even Indian agriculture, and that, with the coming of more Civilians to India who have had a certain amount of training in natural science, a class of men will be obtained whose presence will aid the improvement of agriculture by making the application of scientific methods more easy, and better appreciated. I think, accordingly, that the giving of more prominence to scientific subjects, both at the open competition and at the later examinations for the Civil Service, would be attended with decided benefit, aud that from the men who have distinguished themselves in this branch some might be selected who would subsequently prove useful officers in the Agricultural Department. / — Herioniiral 532. As to agricultural chemistry, now an optional subject at final eramina- the final examination, although I am, as an examiner myself, si obliged to allow that many candidates take up the subject purely with the view of swelling the total of the marks that may stand opposite their names, I have every year, so far, found some few men who have shown more than a passing interest in it, and who, if opportunity were given them of subsequently turning their attention in an agricultural direction, would, undoubtedly, be able to derive and to impart benefit from their study of agricultural chemical principles. It is men such as these who should be noted when they have done well, anditis from them that the future Agricultural Directors might advantageously be selected. Employment of 583. But it isnot enough to merely note such men; it is neces- in Department, Sary, too, that they should, on arrival in India, be brought into con- snd Agriculing tact with agriculture and its conditions, and be encouraged to-study it in its varied relations. Employment of Junior Civilians in Agricultural Departments. 401 It is universally acknowledged that a young man on his first coming out to India is, to put it broadly, of very little use. He cannot be entrusted with any post until he has got to know some- thing of the language, the people, and the district where he is. As a Collector of experience told me, “the best thing is to send the new ~“ comers out into the fields for four months or so and then they may “begin to pick up something.” If, on the other hand, they are left to gather their experience in the court-house (cutekerry) they soon lose the little agricultural knowledge they had, and never get to understand thoroughly the conditions of the people and of their agriculture. It would be well, therefore, that when men come fresh to the country, a certain proportion should be drafted into the Depart- ment of Land Records and Agriculture, and in this way come to know at the opening of their career something about the country, the people, the crops, the system of Revenue Administration, and the agricultural conditions generally. How, I might well ask, is a man to be expected to understand the important issues involved in the establishment of ‘* Fuel and Fodder Reserves ”’ if. he has not had some insight into the circumstances which call for their creation? At the same time, these junior Civilians might be in- structed in the principles of Land Surveying. At the departmental examinations, after arriving in India, men are examined upon the local tenure system, and upon the law of the district where they happen to be fixed ; but why should they not be examined upon the local agriculture also? I think that this would be one of the best ways of picking out the men who showed an interest in agriculture, and who gave promise of being able to deal well with it. If Agri- cultural Directors were selected from men who. had undergone some training of this kind, instead of being chosen (as at present) without any or with very little regard to their agricultural know- ledge or powers, it would be very much better for agriculture. It would also be a useful stimulus to these men if encourage- ment were given them to study agriculture in other countries when absent upon furlough, 534. It is not only in the method of selecting Directors of Agricultural Departments that a better system should prevail, but it appears to me that there should be some alteration as regards the position which a Director occupies, and chiefly in his relation to the existing Revenue Administration. At present the descrip- tion I have heard applied to the Director that of being a “fifth wheel of the coach”’ 1s very near the truth. He has no administra- tive powers, and can only act as an adviser; he has not.even the power of fining or of dismissing an Inspector who does not see pro- perly to the keeping up of the Land Records in his district, but he must refer the matter to the Revenue authority. His title ‘* Direc- “tor of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture,’’ as I have remarked before, is a most cumbrous one, and in some Proviaces the first portion of it only is retained, to the exclusion of agriculture. Itis very certain that in different Provinces different circumstan- ces will prevail, and hence it may not be possible, and indeed would 26 Departmental. examinations in agriculture, Encouragement to study agri- culture when upon furlough. The position of Directors of Agricultural Departments. 402 Agricultural Departments. not be wise, to give the Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture the same position everywhere alike. Nor can his' duties be everywhere the same. He must, in brief, be made to fit into the existing Revenue organisation in each Province, and be put where he will go best. He should forma part of the Revenue Administration, and not have his duties confined merely to the giving of advice. As I pointed out earlier (Chapter VI, paragraph 113), he should have a large share in the management of taccavé advances for the purpose of digging wells, etc., even if the actual control and disbursement cannot be left in his hands. Again, he should have the power of making representations, as to the giving, in special cases, of exemption from assessment, and of reporting upon instances of over-assessment. As regards other Revenue officials; a Director ought to stand higher than he does at present, The post is one that should be occupied by. a moderately senior man ranking with the highest grade of Collector, but a little below a Commis- Commissioner of Sioner. I would much prefer to see the title ‘‘ Commissioner of Agricultare § Agriculture’? given to him instead of the present one, as the title would more adequately describe his duties and define his position. The need of 535. The desirability of an Agricultural Director’s spending a a considerable time each year in touring should be self-evident, and yet there are Provinces in India where the Directo1 does not go on tour at all, or where very little touring is done. To get by personal enquiry and observation a knowledge of the agricultural require- ments of a district, whether as regards water supply, wood supply, cattle, seed, or the incidence of assessment, is of the very nature of a Director’s duties, and how he is to discharge these properly with- out going about in the districts of his Province I fail to see. It this part of the work be given up, it is little to be wondered at that the Director will leave out agriculture from his title and confine himself to Land Records, TheSecretary of 536. The above remark applies ina special manner to the ‘ApHoultcral Secretary of the Imperial Agricultural Department. With numer- Department. ous duties and a variety of subjects to deal with, on add of which he cannot be an authority, the Secretary of the Departrhent must rely upon others. It is well, therefore, that he should be brought from time to time into touch with the officers of the Provincial Departments. There will frequently arise matters which call for personal inspection, or, it may be, for personal explanation, and the experience of a Secretary who has knowledge of what has been done in other Provinces may often be of much use in guiding the counsels of Provincial Departments, Without unduly forcing upon a Provincial Department any particular line of action in individual cases, it is well that there should be uniformity of purpose, and the same guiding principles, alike in Provincial and in Imperial Agri- cultural Departments. An occasional meeting of the chief officials would be beneficial in securing harmony of action and the promotion of common interest. In this respect I would like to see, combined with the office of Secretary, duties which are more akin to those which would fall to the lot of an Inspector General. Direetor of Agriculture—Work of Agricultural Departments, 408 While on this subject, I mightadd a word expressive of my Zhe value of belief in the usefulness of occasional Conferences, for the, purpose penne of exchanging views on agricultural questions, and of bringing. into closer harmony the work of Imperial and of Provincial Agricultural Departments. My own experience of the Conference held at Simla, in October 1890, impressed this. very clearly upon me, and I have to acknowledge much benefit, and information which I derived from the interchange of views by representatives com- ing from different parts of the country, who in this way. brought their experience to bear upon the particular points set for consider- ation. 537. The general work of Agricultural Departments ‘may be Classification ot described by giving the different headings under which the Govern- agricuitoral ment of India has prescribed that the Reports of the Operations of Peartments the Departments should be made. These are as follows :— I, Organisation and Maintenance of Village Records. II, Analysis of Districts with reference to security from Famine. ITI. System of Collection of Revenue and Rental in precari- ous Tracts. IV. Measures of Protection against Famine. V. Agricultural Experiments, including Farms. VI. Cattle-breeding and Veterinary Establishments. VII. Agricultural and Fiscal Statistics. VIII. Trade and Trade Statistics. IX. Museums, ete. X. General, Most of these subjects have already been dealt with in this Report, while others, such as Statistical Records, are not connected with my special work. It will but be necessary to touch upon a few general points not already noticed, and to mention special features of the work of individual Provincial Departments. 538. I frequently had the opportunity of inspecting Village Re- Vitage Records. cords, and of watching the work of the Village Accountants (pat- warts), District Inspectors, etc., as also the maps relating to Set- tlement operations. It was very clear to me that a great deal of care had been given to the perfecting of the work of Land Records, and to the training of the men to whom the keeping up of these is entrusted. mat The one matter in which there seemed to me to be a lack was, They necd to he that the statistics obtained, say, for individual fields or holdings, gyeued ™¢ need to be collected together and to be then digested. The main points brought out by the figures require translation into words, so that useful general conclusions may be drawn from them, 264 Analysis of districts, Bombay. North-West Provinces and Oudh, Madras, Central Provinces. Punjab. Bengal. 404 Agricultural Departments. Thus, it is not enough to merely record that irrigation has decreased over a certain area, or that a less acreage is occupied by a parti- cular crop. One wants to know the reasons for these changes. Then, there are apparent discrepancies which need explanation, and general results ought to be collected for each district. The real requisite is, it seems to me, a central Bureau of Agricul- ture, where the returns would be gathered together, examined, digested, and put ina handy form for general use. Something similar to the useful work done by Mr. J. E, O’Conor for the Trade of India should be instituted in connection with its Agricul- ture. In Bengal, in consequence of the existence of a permanent settlement, there are no Village Records, except those relating to Government and private Estates. These Estates cover altogether about 20,000 square miles. There is, consequently, no regular patwart staff. When speaking of indigo cultivation in Behar I mentioned the difficulties which arise in consequence of there being no Record of Rights; from what I could see I should be strongly of opinion that the Cadastral Survey of Behar, which it is intended to set on foot shortly, will be prodactive of immense benefit, in that it will put an end to the troubles that have arisen from the absence of any Records defining and demarcating the different holdings and occupation rights. 539. The Analysis of districts is a most important work, and one which in many cases has been well done. But it has, so far, had reference mainly to the question of security against famine; what is now needed is, that there should be an analysis of districts with regard to their general agricultural capacity and condition. In such work the employment of trained ‘‘ experts ”’ will be very necessary. The most elaborate work as yet done in the analysis of dis- tricts has been the compilation of the ‘ Statistical Atlas of Bombay.’’ This atlas comprises an immense amount of information and statistics respecting the agriculture of the different districts of the Bombay Presidency. In the North-West Provinces and Oudh the Annual Reports of the Department give, from time to time, statistical maps show- ing the distribution of different crops throughout these Provinces. In Madras the exhaustive analysis of a few districts has been undertaken, and in these the agricultural features have been set out. Of this nature are the Reports on the Cuddapah District, and upon Kurnool, both by Mr. C. Benson. I should also add here the valuable ‘* Manual of Coimbatore,’? by Mr. F. A. Nicholson, of which I have made copious use in this Report. , Nothing has yet been done in this direction in the Central Provinces or in the Punjab, beyond what is contained in different Settlement Reports. In Bengal, however, afew districts have been specially reported upon, notably the Dacca District by Mr. Sen, and the Lohar- daga District by Mr. Basu. Ihave read both of these Reports Work of Agricultural Departments, 405 with considerable interest, and I think it would be a great ad- vantage if the work were continued successively for the different districts throughout the Presidency. 540. Under “ Measures of Protection ” are included the establish- Messures of ment of ‘Fuel and Fodder Reserves;” the formation of plantations ”*°""™ along canal banks and railway lines; arboriculture; irrigation ; taccavt advances for digging wells, and for other purposes; recla- mation of ravine and salty land (wsar) ; embanking of land; emigra- tion, ete. Sufficient has already been said under each of these headings, 541. Under “ Agricultural Experiments, including Farms, ’’ it, Agricultural is the general rule to mention Agricultural Shows. These call for” special note here. The plan of having periodical Agricultural Ex- hibitions is in vogue in Madras, Bombay, the North-West Provinces, and Bengal. It cannot be said to have been universally successful, and in several instanees it has been decided to give up Shows which were formerly held regularly. The non-success has been, perhaps, most marked in Madras, and what appears to me the chief reason of failure is, that the Shows have merely been held because the Provincial Agricultural Departments ordered that they should be held, and not as the outcome of any general interest on the part of the people or of would-be exhibitors. During my tours I had the opportunity of visiting two or three Agricultural Shows, and I was much struck by the differences be- tween them, even in the case of districts not very far apart. Thus, the first one I went to, véz., that at Saharanpur, though it was interesting in some respects, compared very badly, alike in the exhibits and in the interest taken, with the Show held a little later on at Meerut (Nauchandi Fair). 1. put thisdown mainly to the lack of local interest taken in the former, and to the little encouragement given by the English officials. In short, I believe that the success of a Show depends in great measure opon the Success depends efforts of the individual Collector or other resident officer, and that aad he has it largely in his power to make the Show a success or the reverse. Where, as I found to be the case in Madras, a Show was held mainly because the Government had decided that there should be one, it is not to be wondered at that the interest aroused was small. At Saharanpur no effort appeared to have been made to foster local industries, and the exhibition of local work was Joeal industries, very inferior ; at Meerut, on the contrary, the exact reverse was the case, and an admirable collection of the results of native and local talent was to be seen. Turning to the more agricultural side, I must say that I was quite surprised to see at Meerut a Show which would by no means have compared unfavourably with the Shows of some of our local Agricultural Societies in England. Horses and cattle especially made an excellent exhibition; whilst ploughing matches, trials of water-lifts, the working of the ‘‘ cream-separator,”’ and demonstration of English systems of butter-making, along with a large display of flowers, fruit, and vegetables, constituted a highly interesting and satisfactory Show. At the Meerut Show I noticed particularly the horse ring. It Horse ving Definite fixtures, Good advertisement, Annual Pro- vincial Show, Practical judges, System of judging at Horse Shows, 406 Agricultural Departments. was admirably constructed, and quite picturesque with its enclosure of bamboo fencing topped with straw. The arrangements for the entry and exit of the horses, and for sending them round the ring, as also for the judging, were capital. In some matters I would venture to suggest possible improve ments. I have seen it mentioned that in some cases the dates on which Shows are to be held are not fixed long enough ahead, and are altered after they have been once fixed; also that they are not suffi- ciently advertised. Both of these points must militate against the success of a Show. The fixtures ought to be made well ahead, and the dates be rigorously kept to, so that the Provincial Agricultural Department can issue, in advance, a list of the Show fixtures for the whole year. If dates are changed or if fixtures are lef{ uncertain, people are sure to lose interest, and it also prevents proper advertisement being given to a meeting. The notices of the Show should be in the vernacular, and the more widely distributed they are the better. It is well worth considering whether it would not bea good plan to follow the plan adopted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and to have one Great Show annually in a Province (the Zocale being changed from year to year), this taking in turn the place of the ordinary local Show held in any particular district. To this Show the Government subsidy might be confined, and a regular rota being determined upon, each district would be visited in turn and more outside interest be aroused. Next, every effort should be made to get good practical judges. It is, I know, the practice always to turn to the Collector, or to the Director of the Agricultural Department, but it does not at all follow that they are the best agricultural judges. Tn the awarding of prizes for horses, I noticed that as many as five judges are frequently appointed, one judge taking into account, strength, another judge, quality, a third, soundness, and 80 on; 20 points may be awarded for each item, and the decision ig given according to the highest total found on adding up the marks which each judge awards in his particular section. There is, how- ever, no separate veterinary examination. I very much doubt whether it is in the power of any judge to examine and to allot exact marks for one individual quality possessed by a horse, apart from the others which it has; it is rather by a setting-off of one against the other that a judge should base his award. Besides, the difference of standard necessarily adopted when as many as five judges officiate at once, introduces errors which, I believe, are greater than the advantages gained by collecting the opini- ons of several different judges. As a consequence, on looking into the figures when made up to a maximum of 100, I found that the differences, even with this large number of marks, were gener- ally very small, and it was seldom that as much as 20 marks sepa- rated the best from the worst horse in a class, although the judges allowed to me that the real differences amounted to very much Agricultural Shows. 407 more}; and so, too, it proved, for, in the not infrequent case of a tie’ occurring, the judges, without hesitation, expressed their decided preference for one animal over another, although the totals of the marks obtained on the individual system of judging were equal, There should, I think, be a veterinary examination of the horses, and unsoundness ought to désgualify and not merely to reduce the marks awarded, A Horse Show loses much in interest and appearance by the plan generally adopted of having the horses tethered outside, and forming practically a Horse Fair, instead of the horses being arranged in classes, and being put side by side so that they can be compared. I was told that this arises from the fact of one man being in charge, possibly, of a number of different horses, and not being able to attend entirely to one; still it is a defect. Another want in connection with Agricultural Shows is that of a Catalogue. The issue of a catalogue with corresponding num- bers on the exhibits would much add to the interest taken. From what I saw of poultry exhibited at Shows, I thought that very considerable improvement might be effected if more attention were paid to breeding and rearing. The system of awarding prizes for small samples of grain is open to great abuse. Quite small bags, sample bags in fact, of grain are allowed to compete for prizes, and there is not the least security that the specimen is at all representative of the crop from which it is supposed to have come. It is quite easy to pick over by hand asample of wheat or other grain and to make it look excellent. But there is not any certainty that the sample exhibited has come off the field of the particular exhibitor. I£ prizes are awarded for grain they should be for large bagged and sealed samples, or else for corn in the straw, and they should. be duly certified by some responsible person, But what I would much prefer to grain prizes is, that prizes should be given for excellency of cultivation, or for the best crop grown on a farm or field,—in fact, “farm prizes,”’ This would do a great deal more than grain prizes in stimulating improvement, and would be free from the objections to the latter. In regard to the exhibitors themselves, more care should be exércised in order to ascertain that they are dod fide exhibitors and cultivators. There is little doubt that in many cases men have made it a regular business to ‘‘farm”’ the prizes offered, by the aid of some particular exhibit of which they have obtained the use, though they may not be the genuine owners or exhibitors. Such abuse must have the effect of keeping the genuine cultivators from exhibiting at Shows. Horse fair. Catalogue. Poultry at Shows, Prizes for grain samples, Farm prizea preferable, Bond fides of exhibitors, The last point to which I shall refer in this connection is the Trialsof imple trial of implements. Without doubt, a considerable amount of interest is aroused by competitions of this kind on Show grounds, but Iam afraid that they are not always carried out with sufficient care, and it would be much more satisfactory if. more exhaustive trials were conducted at Experimental Farms, The latter are the places where such trials can best be made; and in the case of new implements, they should be submitted to rigorous tests before the smprimatur ments, Agricultural Departments should not compete with purchased implements, Shows in Bombay. North-West Provinces and Oudh, Madras, Bengal, Purchase ot horses by Army Remount De- partment, 408 Agricultural Departments. of the Agricultural Department is placed upon them. Again, it is the general practice for Provincial Agricultural Departments to exhibit at the various Shows, and to enter for competitive trial a number of implements of different makes which have been pur- chased by the Department. This appears to me hardly fair upon the makers or inventors of the implements, for the success or non- success depends very much upon the particular implement which the Department happens to have, the time at which it was pur- chased, and the way in which it has been kept and used. Thus, a sugar-mill of a particular make, which the Department has bought some years previously, and has probably used also in the meantime, may be brought into competition with a brand-new machine ex- hibited by some rival maker. If there are to be these competitions, the credit of the makers should not be dependent upon a, machine exhibited by someone other than themselves, but they should have the opportunity of being represented by the latest and very best machine which they can turn out at the time; after that, in the event of failure, they would not have any reason to complain that they have not been fairly represented. I notice that one year, in a competitive trial of sugar-mills at Saharanpur, the number of points awarded to a mill exhibited by the makers themselves was 88, while one of a different make and exhibited by the Agricultaral Department had 87 points given to it. Such minute distinctions as these, under the conditions of a rough trial, ought not to be drawn, and the fame of one firm should not be made at the expense of another, when there is no practical difference between rival exhibits, and more especially when one firm is represented by a new machine, and the other by one probably of earlier date. The Agricultural Departments would do well, I think, to refrain from entering as competitors, and to confine them- selves to demonstrating the working of different implements brought under their notice. In the Bombay Presidency some six different Shows are held annually, the annual Government contribution to them being about Rs. 8,000. The Horse Fairs at Poona, Ahmedabad, and Sind are the best-known Shows, the last named being generally very successful, In the North-West Provinces and Oudh the chief Shows are those at Aligarh, Meerut, Saharanpur, Etawah, and Muttra. Government awards over Rs. 1,000 annually for cattle prizes. In connection with these Shows the services of Mir Muhammad Husain, the Assistant Director of Agriculture, are invaluable, and to his energy their success is in large measure due, In Madras the chief Shows are those at Bellary and at Salem. In Bengal occasional Shows are held at about five different towns. __ At the different Shows held throughout the country a stimulus is given to Horse-breeding by the purchase of young stock for the Army Remount Department, some of the officers of which attend the Shows and buy animals which they think likely to meet Organisation of Agricultural Departments. 409 army requirements in the future. Mares are also selected to be‘‘ branded ’’ mares, and thus become eligible to be served by Government stallions. 542. Under the head ‘‘ Experimental Farms”? are also classed Ober branches seed distribution and sale of implements. Cattle-breeding, veteri- Agricultural nary establishments, etc., which come under the next head, have PeParments- also been fully referred to before. The other heads under which the work of Agricultural Depart- ments falls do not call for special mention by me. 543. The Organisation of Provincial Departments of Agricul- organisation of ture is not alike throughout India. In the Punjab, for instance, Rte Prov there is no separate Department, but it merely forms a part of the imc Land Revenue Administration, its Report being included in the general one of the Administration, and not being given under the different heads prescribed by the Government of India. In the Central Provinces there isa Commissioner of Agricul- central Prov- ture, who combines with his duties those of Commissioner of "°" Settlements. In Madras there was no separate Department until 1882, and Madras. the Director is not a travelling one, but always remains at head- quarters. In Bengal there was no separate Department until 1885, and Bengal. the one then started was established only as a temporary or tenta- tive measure. In the North-West Provinces, and in Bombay, there are sepa- North-West % z Provinces, rate and complete organisations. Nenitiag, 544. The Agricultural Deparfment has frequently been found The fature fault with on account of the mistakes which it has made, and of Policland. the number of minor matters which it has turned its attention to, ee while neglecting the larger and more pressing questions. It has been pointed out that the Department has exercised itself about the introduction of iron ploughs, of cotton-cleaning machines (ginning machinery), and has spent time and money in attempting impossible hybridisations of cotton, whilst it has declined to tackle urgent matters such as the indebtedness of the cultivating classes, the over-assessment of the land, and the working of the system of loans for agricultural improvement. It is not for me to defend the Department from such charges, or to say that they have not been justly made, but it is clear to me that the work of the Department has been greatly hindered by three main causes, want of sympathy, imperfect machinery, and want of money. I have attempted to prove that the first should not be any longer shown, that the second is capable of improvement, and that, thirdly, the further expenditare of money is an absolute necessity for the accomplish- ment of any real good. What line exactly the Department should take up depends entirely upon the machinery with which it is fitted, and upon the means placed at its disposal. I have indicated that I consider that one great problem which will have to be met in the immediate Punjab. 410 Agriculinral Departments, future is the provision of ‘ Fuel and Fodder Reserves,” in order to supply wood to take the place of dung as fuel, and so to set free the dung for its proper use as manure to the land. I have also expressed an opinion thata share in the management of loans (éaccavi system) for digging wells and for other agricultural improvements might with advantage be entrusted to the Agricultural Depart- ment, and that the Department should have power to enquire into cases of over-assessment, and to recommend exemption from assess~ ment in special cases, in order to encourage the carrying out of agricultural improvements. But such meaxures caunot be carried out without a more extended machinery than the Department pos- sesses, and without its having placed at its disposal considerably larger means than in the past. That a larger expenditure is ware ranted I fully believe, and I am confident that the outcome will be the bettering of the condition of the agricultural classes, and the increase of revenue to the State. In conclusion, I would urge once more the need of having uniformity and continuity of policy. In a country like India, where conditions are so diversified, there must of necessity be differences of method in the working out of any policy, and these methods may have to be altered according as the conditions alter. But there should be uniformity of general principle, and one policy alike should characterise the action of Agricultural Departments, both Imperial and Provincial, 411 CONCLUSIONS. CONCLUSIONS. 545. In order that Agricultural Departments may be equipped with the right kind of men to carry out the agricultural improve- ments which have been suggested in this Report, it is very desirable that more attention should be given tothe early training in a scien- tific direction of future Civil Servants, and that, on their arrival in India, they should have more opportunities of acquainting them- selves with the agricultural conditions of the country. This will be best effected by giving more weight to Natural Science at the open competition and at the final examination, and by drafting a certain proportion of the men, on arrival in India, into the Department of Land Records and Agriculture. Out of those who have distin- guished themselves by their proficiency in science, and subsequently by their interest in agriculture, the future Agricultural Directors might advantageously be selected. The position of Agricultural Director should be invested with some administrative power, and the granting of loans for agricultural improvements should be in part managed by the Agricultural Departments. Analyses of districts should be made in respect not only of security from famine, but also of general agricultural conditions and requirements. In order that the work of Agricultural Departments may proceed in the right direction, there are two esseutials, (1) a more competent machinery, and (2) an increased expenditure of money upon agricultural improvement, Lastly, there must be uniformity of principle in the action of Imperial and Provincial Agricultural Departments, and a conti- nuity of policy throughout. RECOMMENDATIONS, TIONS 546. That more weight be given to Natural Science in the open competitions for the Civil Service, and at the final examina- tion of probationers. That a certain proportion of junior Civilians, on arrival in India, be drafted into Departments of Land Records and Agri- eulture, That Agricultural Directors be chosen from those men who have distinguished themselves in Natural Science, and subse- quently by their interest in Agriculture, 412 Conclusions. That Agricultural Directors be given some administrative powers, and that a share in the management of Loans for Agri- cultural Improvement be entrusted to Agricultural Departments, That a considerably increased amount of money be placed at the disposal of Agricultural Departments for expenditure upon Agricultural Improvement, 418 APPENDIX. CONTENTS. Appendix. Pep uw tees eo ew a Analyses of Wheat Soils from Sirsa (Punjab) ‘ . Analyses of Coffee Soils from Munjerabad (Mysore) - Analyses of Well and Canal Waters from Cawnpore | Analyses of Indian Cattle-dung . . Analyses of Ashes of Indian Cattle-dung . 7 : Analyses of Drainings from Manure heaps . . - Analyses of Urine of Indian Bullocks. . . . . Analyses of Leaves and Twigs used for Litter . . Analyses of Oil-cake refuse ased as Manure . . . Analyses of Indian Feeding-stuffs for Cattle . . Analyses of Indian Bone-meals . 7 . . . Analyses of Materials used to Adulterate Indian Bone- meal . . e ° ° ‘ . . . Mechanical Avalyses of Samples of Indian Wheat . Mechanical Analyses of Samples of Linseed . . . Page. 415 416 417 418 418 419 419 420 420 421 422 422 423 424 Analyses of Wheat Soils. 415 APPENDIX. In this Appendix are given several analyses made by me of soils, waters, 4*?#">1*- manures, feeding materials, and grain samples, which may be of interest as bringing out some of the points mentioned in my Report, but which, for fear of overburdening it, I did not consider desirable to set out folly in the body of the Report. For the purpose of completeness, eome analyses already given in the Report are repeated, and explanatory notes are added where necessary. A. (see Chap. V, paragraphs 58—68.) Composition of Wheat Soils from the Sirsa sub-division (Punjab). No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. (Soils dried at 212° F.) From From Peas Ghaggar Sotar Gudah Bed. Valley. ° * Organic Matter and combined Water . 63 2°67 "65 Oxide of Iron . . s a 2°58 4:32 1:62 Aloming . lt a E ‘ ‘ 1:72 585 2-02 Carbonate of Lime y . ‘: 2°96 2°57 3°33 Magnesia . . < si ‘ . 1:07 1:97 1:07 Potash * * a ; z +39 74 31 Soda . : . ‘ a é . 15 "08 ‘11 Phosphoric Acid . . , . 17 23 19 Insoluble Silicates and Sand 3 « 90°33 81°57 90:70 100 00 100°00 100-00 * Containing Nitrogen . ‘ ‘ e 07 *02 trace, Equal to Ammonia 7 ° s “08 02 trace. No. 1 is soil from the bed of the Ghaggar, a stream which is crossed on the journey between Kalka and Umbalia. In the lower part of the coarse the bed is sandy. The soil was light-coloured, containing much fine sand with mica- ceous particles. No. 2 is soil from the Sotar Valley, which seems to have been formerly the bed of the Ghaggar; tbe bottom is firm and even heavy soil. It is reckoned to be the best soil in Sirsa. The sample analysed was free from mica, and was not nearly as five and sandy as No. 1. No. 3 is a soil called Howsli, a name applied in Delhi and the North-Weat generally to any sandy loam. It is very like No. 1, but is even finer and more sandy. The distinguishing features of these soils are that they are well supplied with lime and mineral constitvents generally, but are deficient, more especially Nos. 1 and 3, in organic vegetable matter, while all of them are very poor in nitrogen, No. 3, indeed, containing only traces. No. 2, the heaviest soil, is de- cidealy the richest, but is deficient in nitrogen. The quantities of phosphoric acid, potash, magnesia and lime are, more particularly in the case of No. 2, very good, and point to the probability of mineral constituents existing im the soils in sufficient amount to meet the demands of a long succession of crops. Renewal, 416 Appendix. however, both of vegetable matter and of nitregen will, I consider,! be very necessary in all three cases. Green-manuring, or the use of cattle-dung or simi- lar nitrogenous organic materials, will be the best means of supplying the defi- cienoy. ( For further remarks see Chap. V, paragraphs 58—68. ) B. (sce Chap. V, paragraphs 683—68.) Composition of Coffee Soils from Munjerabad, Mysore. (Soils dried at 212° F.) No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. * Organic Matter and combined Water . 7°16 13°73 13-30 Protoxide of Iron 7 ‘i A . trace. 1:54 2°54 Peroxide of Iron . . a 5°04 11:83 12:02 Alumina . . . . s 20°39 11°53 13°81 Lime : . 6 . 7 . _ 20 32 “32 Magnesia . . ‘ | ° 28 / 32° 30 Boissh os + os 6 OF 25 /10 10 Soda . . . ss : i é 12 12 ‘09 Phosphoric Acid . ° . . A 13 15 ‘10 Sulphuric Acid . . . . . ‘03 _ 02 04 Nitric Acid 3 . é ‘ ‘ — = _ Chlorine . ° . ‘ : ‘ ‘01 _ _ Insoluble Silicates and Sand . 5 . 66°40 | 60°34 57'38 10000 J 0°00- 100:00 * Containing Nitrogen . . 3 ‘ "032 \ ' #20 “20 Equal to Ammonia . . . ‘039 ae) "24 \ No. 1. Hindiganhulla, Ida Munoo, considered good coffe soil. No. 2. Bartchinhulla, Upper Toddyman’s field, where coffee does not do well, : No. 3. Bartchinhulla, Kemp Munoo, from Nui Gondas Heetloo, where coffae does not do well. It is primarily noticeable in these soils, as distinguished from the Wheat soils given in Appendix A, that the amounts of organic matter are very much larger, avd that the soiis also generally contain larger proportions of nitrogen. On the other hand, there is very much less lime, and, indeed, what I should consider a decided deficiency of it, so that liming would, I think, be very advan. tageonsly practised. Potash, too, is present in much smaller quantity than in the Wheat soils, and, for the requirements of the fruit (that is, the coftee berry), the amount does not seem sufficient, at all events, in the case of Nos. 2 and 3. Manuring with wood ashes, or some other source of potash, would be beneficial in all cases. Phosphoric acid is present in fair, but not in large, amount, and bones may still be advantageously used, because the fact that they yield lime at the same time as phosphoric acid must not be overlooked. The presence of iron and alumina compounds in quantity is a distinguishing feature of these laterite soils. On the other hand, the supply of nitrogen appears to be of lesser import- ance in the case of coffee, and the superiority of soil No. 1 to Nos. 2 and 3 would’ seem to rest in the excess of potash, the lesser proportion of iron salts, and very probably also in the fact that these latter are present in the more fully oxidised state of peroxide, and not in that of protoxide of iron. (For farther remarks see Chap. V, paragraphs 63—68, and Chap. XIV, paragraph 363.) Coffee Soils—Well and Canal Waters. 417 C. (see Chap. V, paragraph 99.) Composition of Two Samples of Well Water and Canal Water from Rawatpur, near Cawnpore, taken April 1890. Well Water. Canal Water. (Cawnpore Branch of Lower Ganges Canal.) Total Solid Residue (at 180° F.) Containing— Oxide of Iron and Alumina Lime . 7 Magnesia . Potash Soda. Chlorine ‘ Phosphoric Acid Nitric Acid ‘i - Sulphuric Acid Soluble Silica Free Ammonia . . a Albuminoid Ammonia és Grains per gallon. . 71'98 7°56 6°30 "37 20°53 9°20 78 5'50 6:30 1:96 002 “006 Grains per gallon. 15°16 ‘28 3°36 1°68 80 1:40 “30 06 1:06 1:26 001 ‘007 Combining the above constituents together in the forms in which they are probably present in the waters, the composition of the samples may be represented as follows :— Carbonate of Lime Carbonate of Magnesia Carbonate of Soda Carkonate of Potash Sulphate of Lime . Phosphate of Lime ‘ Chloride of Potassium . Chloride of Sodium Nitrate of Soda . A Oxide of Iron and Alumina .« Soluble Silica 4 Total Solid Constituents . Free Ammonia Albuminoid Ammonia Well Water. Canal Water. Grains per gallon. Grains per gallon. 4:09 4°65 13-23 3°52 16°41 2°39. — “60 10°71 1:80 1:59 13 “59 68 14°69 _ 8°66 a es « te 1°96 ® 1:26 A grains per “1a § gtains per 71°93 { gallon. 15°16 { gallon. “002 ” 001 ” ‘005 ” 007 ” (For detailed remarks on the above analyses see Chap. VI, paragraph 99.) 27 418 Appendiz. D, (see Chap. VII, patagraph 121.) Oomposition of Indian Cattle-dung. [ Solid Droppings of Cattle. } . Dung from | Dung from grain-fed -_ Lean Cattle. | Cart (Landy) Bullocks. (air-dried) (air-dried) Moisture . . . . 19°59 17°86 * Organic Matter 59°26 61°89 t Mineral Matter (ash) . 21°15 20°25 100°00 100'00 * Containing Nitrogen . 1:34 1-08 Equal to Ammonia 1:62 1:31 { Containing . Ne Indoluble Siliceous Matter 14°43 16-75 Oxide of Iron ce Aloumiria 3°36 1:36 Lime . 1:04 ‘85 Magnesia “44, 30 Potash 1:16 ‘60 Soda. "34, “26 Phosphoric Acid. “47 4 Equal to tribasic Phosphate - of Lime . . : 1:03 1:18 (For detailed remarks on above see Chap. VII., paragraph 191.) E. (see Chap. VII, paragraph 121.) Composition of Ashes of Indian Cattle-dung, after burning. Moisture ‘ ‘ « 2:04 * Organié Matter . : ‘ ‘i é « 2'40- Oxide of Iron and Alumina . ; ‘ i . 926 + Phosphoric Acid . 7 ‘ r ; . © 137 Lime 7 . . 1°76 tf Alkalies, iMiagtionias sta, : ; 7 - 297 Insoluble Siliceous Matter . : = . 80-20 or 100:00 * Containing Nitrogen . . . . » ‘17 Equal to Ammonia =. ‘ ‘ . 20 + Equal to tribasic Phosphate of Sind + 8 » 299 t Containing Potash « < : ° ° » 205 Catile-dung and. Cattle-urine. 419 F, (see Chap. VIT. paragraph 146.) Composition of Drainings from Manure heap (godra fépi) taken at Munjerabad, Mysore. oe md ashi aces 5 3 - 97-29 on-Volatile Organic Matters . ‘ ‘ 1:23 29. \ . * Mineral Matter(ash) =. ww. ta a Tatel Bae 106:00 Total Nitrogen . . ‘ « £ é 144, Equal to Ammonia ; wa 2 ‘ 174 * Containing ~ ilica 2 . i fe , 316 Oxide of Iron and Alumina. 7 . 243 Lime . . a . , “ -075 Magnesia . . 059 Potash . ‘i . ‘ ‘ . : *426 Soda. ‘ . ‘ . 029 Phosphoric Acid. ‘ 5 7 ‘ *050 Equal to tribasic Phosphate of Lime . ‘110 Specific gravity at 60° F. ‘ . 1:025 A standard English analysis of Drainings from Manure heaps: (Johnston and Cameron’s Hlements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, page 330) gives the following figures :— In 100 Parts Parts. Total Solid Residue 7 : A F a ; 1:939 Containing Chloride and Carbonate of Potash , ‘611 ss Phosphates of Lime and Iron .« . . 104 Total Nitrogen . < . < . . 044 Thus, the Drainings from the Indian Manure heap were slightly richer both in solid matter (includiog potash and phosphoric acid) than those quoted in the English analysis, and they contained considerably more nitrogen. It is evident, therefore, that allowing the drainings to go to waste is productive of considerable Ices in India, equally as it has been found to be the case in England. : , G. (see Chap. VIT, paragraph 146.) Composition of the Urine of Lean Cattle and Grain-fed Cart (dandy) Bullocks. Lean Cattle. Cart Bullocks. Water and Volatile Matters Non-volatile Organic Matters. * Mineral Matter (ash) Total Nitrogen. 5 a Equal to Ammonia. . * Containing- Silica eh 4 « Lime ‘ 7 Magnesia. ‘ Potash Soda ‘ 5 % Z Phosphoric Acid ‘i , 91:77 90°62 5 29 7°64 2°94, 174 100°09 10000 956 1168 1161 1-418 004 010 16) ‘080 -249 ‘570 1°528 "645 ‘050 *020 ‘022 024 (For detailed remarks eee Chap. VIL, paragraph 146) Q27 Aa 420 Appendiz. H. (see Chap. VII, paragraph 149.) Composition of Leaves and Twigs used for Litter in Mysore. 1. 2. 3. Leaves . Leaves. | (mainly Jack-fruit| Twigs. tree Leaves.) i % $ 7 : 10°72 10°73 11°63 * Coens Mane ‘ 84°68 78°44 84°65 $ Mineral Matter (ash) . é 460 10°83 8:72 100:00 -100:00 100°00 * Containing Nitrogen . : 1:18 91 72 Equal B anne . 4 1:43 1°10 ‘87 - " ie. Uae ee 04 3°53 -09 Oxide of Iron’. , “29 — "05 Alumina . ; 5 ‘i 03 — *44, ‘Lime. . - 7 1:04 _ 1:25 Magnesia si ; s 61 _ 33 Potash . . : 1:09 73 ‘68 Soda 5 : . 3 ‘07 - ‘ll Phosphoric Acid . ‘ 10 - “13 Equal to tribasic Phos- phate of Lime . j *22 1:07 28 (For detailed remarks see Chap. VII, paragraph. 149.) J. (see Chap. VII, paragraph 127.) Composition of Indian Oil-cake refuse used as Manure, Castor-oil Bean Cake or Castor poonac. ~ Hongay — lj) 3, |(Pongamia, Se From glabra) _ Calicut | From | 77°74 (milled).} Mysore. Moisture . ‘i ’ : : 10:72 9°49 10°65 12°19 * Organic Matter. s ‘i 82°88 74:93 84-01 83°42 Total Phosphates : ‘ . 5°29 4:95 401 2°37 Alkaline Salts, ete. . , . ‘AQ 2:90 “78 1:98 Insoluble Siliceous Matter : ‘69 7:75 55 04 10000 | 100°00 | 100°00 100°00 * Containing Nitrogen ‘ i 4°94 4°35 489° 364 Equal to Ammonia. ‘i ‘| 5:99 5-28 594, 4:29 Sample No, 2 was “milled,” é.e., crushed by macbinery ; the other samples were not, but were merely the refuse (after extraction of oil in the native way) roughly pressed together without the aid of machinery. Leaves for Litter—Oilecake refuse—Feeding-stuffs. 421 K. (see Chap. VII, paragrapb 127.) _ Composition of Indian Feeding-stuffs for Cattle. Earth-nut Cake. & ] ae 8 a 3 z Se ma 3 Ss (Decor- Seana he & = 2s (ouat)| cots | By | og | Bes . ‘ wm er a = — ee Moisture . . 7 ; 8:10 9:80 8°03 11:90 “9°58 Oil. . . ‘< 7:26 6°50 13°01 6°43 9°23 * Albuminous Compounds .; 47°81 | 47:31] 8892] 3401 | 2493 Carbohy drates, Digestible | 26°02 19°8 22°12 22:27 47°42 Fibre, ete. Woody Fibre . . * 4°86 10°26 470 17°14 470 + Mineral Matter (ash) 6°95 6°85 13:22 8:25 414 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°60 | 100:00 100°00 * Containing Nitrogen -| 7:65 757 6-22 544, 3-99 + Including sand ‘ . 3°25 — 2:89 125) — Mahua (Bassia latifolia) — " yefuse from Distillery. Moisture . s - . a 17°92 Oil . . i - m . - ‘46 * Albuminous Compounds . ‘ : eS 3°44 Gum, Mnoilage, ete. , < 5 a 3°08 Sugar . ; . is ‘ * 6440 Digestible Fibre. F . i . 3°14 stan Woody Fibre. < ‘ae 3 i 2:13 + Mineral Matter (ash) . ‘ . ‘ «643 10000 * Containing Nitrogen ‘i ‘i ‘ , "BB + Including sand ‘ ‘ : 3 4 2 2-90 The large amount of sugar in the Makua refuse is noticeable, 422 Appendix. L. (see Chap. VII, paragraph 136.) Composition of Indian Bone-meals. 1. 2, 3. 4, —=-: (Pure.) | (Pure.) ea ak i Moisture. . «. « «| 8650 7:76 6'50 7°32 * Organic Matter 28°85 29°33 18°75 23°43 + Phosphoric Acid 25°00 24°08 18°15 22°08 Lime . 33°79 | 3256 | 37°55 33°88 Magmiesia, Alkalies, etc. Z F 8-46 f 1°03 324 2°36 { Carbonic Acid . . : 3°00 11°80 715 Insoluble Siliceous matter. .| °40 224 401 3°78 100-00 | 100-00] 10000 | 10000 *Uontaining Nitrogen. 412 | 404 978 | 835 Equal to Ammonia -| 5°00 4:90 3°38 4:07 {Equal to tribasic Phosphate of | 54°58 52°83 39°62 48°21 Lime. f Equal to Carbonate of Lime 682 26°82 16°25 | = M. (see Chap. VII, paragraph 139.) Composition of Materials used to adulterate Indian Bone-meal. (Samples taken at Mazagon Dock, Bombay, 10th January 1891.) —- A. B. C, Moisture 3°29 - 4°37 Lime : - , . 43°78 33°23 40°43 Magnesia . . 1:35 _ 20°00 Oxide of Iron and Alumina 478 7°65 2°30 * Carbonic Acid . ‘ . 29°64, 24°64 28°55 Alkalies, etc. . 4:70 5°83 4:05 Insoluble Silisoous Matter 12°46 28°65 | ‘30 "100-00 100°00 100°00 * Equal to Carbonate of Lime 67°36 56:00 | 64°89 A. Grey-coloured. B. Shell-sand. C. White. Probably powdered magnosian limestone. Bone-meal—Impurities in Wheat. 428 N. (see Chap. XIV, paragraph 383,) Meonanioat Anatysgs of Samples of Indian Wheat taken from Threshing-floors of Cultivators in the Cawnpore district, “In chapter XIV, paragraph 383, I have given a table setting out the per= centages of the various kinds of impurities found in six samples of wheat collected for me from thresning-floors of cultivators and oleaned in my presence. It may be convenient, however, in addition to stating the impurities under each heading, according as they happen to be large seeds and lumps of earth, or chaff, or small seeds and fino earth, etc., to give the impurities under the headings that are recognized by the London Corn Tyade Association. sie No. Village. Barley, eto.* Dirt.t con Witer per cent. per cent. per cent. 1 | Binaitpur 5 > j 072 054, 126 2 |Cawnpore . . «| ,. 1:06 “600 1680 8 |Gotaya. «. . 1120 “590 1'710 4 |Likhanpwr . . «| F010 1-010 2-020 5 | Rawatpur é ‘ : “390 ‘280 670 & | Nawabganj . . “660 540 1:200 Average . , 720 B12 1-232 * The term “barley, ete,” includes all grain of intrinsic yalue, such as barley, peas, linseed, etic. + The term “dirt” includes earth, chaff, and miscellaneous weed seeds. 3 : : . Total other No. — 1 Batley, .etc, Dirt. than Wheat. per cent. per cent. | per cent. 7 | Bulk in Cawnpore ‘| Market a . 271 92 3°63 ¢ (For further details see Chap. XIV, paragraphs 383—4.) 424 Appendtx. O. (see Chap. XIV, paragraph 388.) MecnanicaL ANatysss of Samples of Linseed taken from Cultivators’ Stores and threshing-floors. Mechanical Analyses of 18 Samples of Linseed from Bilaspur district, Central Provinces. a | Impurities removed | Impurities removed a | by sieving. by hand-picking. se « an Whence taken. — é Sieved | Impari- Pure Total q Linseed. ties. Linseed. | Impurities. per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. 1 | From threshing floor . 95°62 4°38 94°49 5°51 2 » Storein house. 90:21 9°79 87°70 12°30 3 » threshing-floor . 96:18 3°82 94:26 574 4 ” si Ber Se 94°17 5°83 92°89 711 5 » storein house ~ 97-07 2:93 95:81 4°19 6 ” » Gye cae 93°83 617 92°07 7°93 7] on ” » +, 90°08 9°92 87°88 1212 8 's ‘9 3 .} 95°35 466 98°61 6°39 9) » ” » «| 95°88 4:67 93:10 6'90 10 ” 9 » 91°32 8°68 89°83 |. 1017 iL ” 3 "8 94°31 5°69 92°93 7°07 12 ” 2 » . 9424, 576 92°81 - 719 13 a ” ” . 94°72 5°28 93°12 6:88 14; » ” » «| 96°08 3:97 9418 5-82 15 ” ” » 8 92°12 7°88 89°33 10°67 16 ” ” ” - 96°29 371 95°52 448 WV % ” Sis oa 96°28 3:72 95°36 4°63 18 ” ” ” . 97°86 214 96°66 3:34 Average . ‘ 92°87 7.18 Mechanical Analyses of Four Samples of Linseed from Raipur district, Central Provinces. a Impurities removed Impurities removed 7 by sieving. by hand-picking. & Whence taken. Ge = Sieved sp Pure Total 2 Linseed, |!mpurities, Linseed. | Impurities, ! per cent. er cent. er cent. i. £19 | Consigument to a 98°53 maa Por TT m8 Trader. 20 | Raipur market. 94°88 5°12 92°85 7:15 a1| ,, » +e | 98°59 6°41 91-97 8-08 22 ” ” .| 95°07 4°93 93°16 6°84 Average ; 93°94 6-06 Impurities in Linseed. 425 Mechanical Analyses of Two Samples of Linseed from Jubbulpore district, Central Provinces. S Impurities removed | Impurities removed a by sieving. by hand-picking. = Whence taken. a Sieved Impuri- Pure Total wi Linseed. ties. Linseed. | Impurities. per cenf. | percent. | per cent. per cent. 238 /. a : . -| 96°38 3°62 9489 6:11 24\. : 97:20 2°80 96°72 3:28 Average . . «| 95°81 4°19 Mechanical Analyses of Two Samples of Linseed from Damoh district, Central Provinces. 6). . 94°45 555 92°84 | 7-16 26|. =. 94-21 5°79 90°36 9-64 Average . . 91:60 | 840 Mechanical Analyses of 11 Samples of Linseed from Nagpur district, Central Provinces. 27 | Stored in house .. . 96°33 3°67 94°97 5:08 28 % bate AG -| 97:22 278 96:24 3°76 29 | From threshing-floor 99:00 1:00 98°10. 1:90 30 | Stored in house ‘ 98°00 2°00 96°76 3:24 81 | Brought to Ralli at ; Brothers’ store . 2 98:19 1:81 97°34 2°66 32 | From threshing-floor .| 9646 3°54 94°61 5:39 33 es ” ” . 97°20 2°80 96 05 8°05 34 ai es 95:12 4°88 91°44, 8°56 35 55 ee 96°70 3°30 9451 549 36 | ” 35 7 96°59 3°41 95°02 4°98 37 ” ” -| 99°15 “85 98°60 1:40 Average . | 9579 421 Summary. (| 94 6 Average of Samples from all the Five Districts 4 ee Tien: | Linseed. | purities. 427 MY TOURS, 1889-90. nouns, (See Map of Tours.) Arrival in India, December 10th 1889, First Tour - Dec. 10th 1889 to May 19th 1890. Second Tour . July 14th 1890 to Sept. 12th 1890. Third Tour » Nov, 28rd 1890 to Jan, 10th 1891. Departure from India, Jan. 10th 1891. Residence in India, 13 months, First Tour, Norr.—The references in the following account are to Paracrapus jn the foregoing Report. First Tour, Dec. 10th 1889 to May 19th 1890. 1889 : Ox November 21st 1889 and within a week from the time that my delega- endeulk tion to India was decided upon, I left London for Marseilles, and at the "°°" ov.21, latter port joined the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steamship Marseilles, Nov. “ Bokhara,” the yessel which, singularly enough, had conveyed Sir James Caird te India when he wens out in Qetober 1878 as one of the Faming Commissioners. Hardly was I on board before I came in close and pleasant acquaintance with Indian agriculture in the person of Mr. R, HL Elliot, of Clifton Park, Kelso, whom 1 had previously known as a Sootch agriculturist, and who was then on his way to his coffee estates in Mysore. The deep interest which Mr. Elliot felt in the progress ef agriculture in India, and in aay movement for its improvement, rendered our meeting an invaluable assistance te me, and one which I had reason throughont my tour to be extremely glad ef. Oar daily conversations, anda study of the “ Statistical Atlas of India” (a copy of which Sir Charles Bernard had kindly leat me ), sooa egnvinaed me that I had before me a difficult and responsible task. On board the “ Bokhara” I met Mr. Justice Jardine, of the High Court, Bombay, Mr, Harvey James, Secretary to the Government of India in the Legislative Department, Dr. Warburton (Kapurthala), Mr. H. F. Brown (Kilburn & Co., Caloutta), Mx. Apperley (indigo planter, Bettia), one or two tea planters, a Panjab irrigation officer, Mr. Oldham (late ef the Publis Works Department), and others more or less ¢onnected with Government Departments or with agriculture. On coming within sight of Bombay I received a cordial invitation from Bombay, Dee, 10. Lord Beay, the Governor of Bombay, to go direct to Government ames House, Malabar Point. Here, in addition to the Governor, I met Mr. Ozanne, Director of the Bombay Department of Agrienlture, and Dr. fheodore Cooke, Principal of the College of Science, Poona. At an informal meeting next day with these gentlemen, Mr, Elliot, and Mr. Bhimbhai, Assistant Director of Agriculture, Bombay, we diseussed the general points to which my attention would specially be directed during my tour. Qn December 12th I travelled with Dr. Cooke fo Poona, and there mek Poona, Dec. 12, Mr. Howman, who had come over from England in order 40 introduce the a mechanical ‘“‘ cream-separator” and English systems of butter-maki. (para. 264). December 13th was spent in going over the College of Science ‘para. B20), and the Experimental Farm px. 483) attached to theCollege. eturning to Bombay, I left again on the evening of D a 14th tor Pashora, Mr. Bhimbhai sepomuaay ine Urs We were met at Pachora by Mr. P. B. Mehta, a former student and diploma holder of Cirencester College, now the Superintendent of the Bhadgaon Experimental Farm. Bhadgaon, Dec, 16, Calcutta, Dec. 18—22, Cawopore, Dec, Bilhaur,Dec, 24. In camp, Dec. 24—28, Cawnpore, Dec, 29, Etawah, Dec, 80- Aligarh, Dee, 31. 1890: Agra, Jan, 1—3, { 428 My Tours. I inspected the Bhadgaon Farm (para. 482) that day, seeing the cold- weather (rabé) crops, and the Mysore herd of cattle. I Jeft the following morning, having received directions to proceed at once to Calcutta to meet Sir Edward Buck, Secretary of the Imperial Agricultural Department, before he went on tour. Arrived at Calcutta, I spent from the 18th inst. tothe 22nd inst.in making the acquaintance of the principal officials of the Agricultural Department, and in calling upon representatives of commercial houses more or less connected with agriculture. His Excellency the Viceroy (the Marquis of Lansdowne) gave me the honour of an inter- view, and I met also at Caloutta the Hon. Mr, Hutchine, Member of Council for the Agricultural Department; Colonel Ardagh, Private Secretary to the Viceroy; Mr. Harvey James; Mr. Finucane, Director of Agriculture, Bengal Presidency; Dr. W. King, Director of the Geological Survey; Dr. George King, Director of the Botanical Gardens; Mr. Muir-Mackenze, Under Secretary, Agricultural Department, Government of India; Mr. J. E. O’Conor, of the Financial Department; as well as Mr. N. Banerji and Mr. N. G. Mookerjee, of the Bengal Agricultural Depart- ment, two Natives who had previously been students at Cirencester College. | Mesrss. Octavius Steel & Co. kindly gave me information in regard to the use of improved agricultural machinery ; Mr. Ross (Kelly & Co.) as to the trade in and conditions of export of wheat and oil-seeds; Messrs. Mackillican & Co. and Messrs. Kilburn & Co. as to the trade in bones and other mauures. Sir Edward Buck was at this time about to leave Calcutta onatour in part of the North-West Provinces, and thence through Agra, Gwalior, and Indore, to Berar, Hyderabad, and finally Coorg and Madras. As the Cawn- ore district, to which he was first going, was the one in which Sir Edward ad previously served, he thought it would be of advantage to me if I accompanied him, and this I was very glad to do. Mr. H. C. Hill, then Officiating Inspector General of Forests, was also of the party. The first halt was at Cawnpore, reached on December 24th, and here we met Mr. F. N. Wright, Collector of Cawnpore, Mr. W. B. Wishart, Secretary Upper India Chamber of Commerce, and Mr. Muhammad Husain, Assistant Director of Land Records and Agriculture, North-West Provinces and Oudh. The greater part of the day was taken up in esamining the experiments which were being tried on reclaiming sterile salty land (usar) at two places near Cawnpore. The first was the Juhi enclosure (para, 75), and the second the Amramau farm (para.. 75). A brief visit was also paid to the Cawnpore Experimental Farm = (para. 478), and in the evening we pushed on to Bilhaur, where we went into camp. For the next few days we constantly shifted our quarters, moving from village to village, and in the course of our march I was enabled to get a capital view of the agriculture of this district of the North-West Provinces, and to gain from Sir Edward Buck much that was the result of his own experience as a district officer in these parts. The cold-weather (rabi) crops were then on the ground, including a good deal of wheat, and we olso went over large stretches of salt-destroyed plains (usar). land. Besides this, I had the opportunity of seeing, at the different halting places, the village records and maps of the village accountants (patwaris), and of learning how the Land Record system was maintained in these Provinces, Among the places at which we stopped were Aima, Sanda, and Kairnagar. On the morning of December 28th I left the camp, and, in company with Mr. Muhammad Husain, rode back to Lilhaur, and thence went by train to Cawnpore, where I made a close inspection of the Cawnpore Experimental Farm (para. 478), and of the workshops (para. 286) attached to it. On the evening of the 29th Mr. Muhammad Husain took me with him to Etawah, to show me the work that had been done in reclaiming ravine land along the banks of the Jumna, and in converting it into a “ Fuel and Fodder Reserve” (paras. 70 and 181). We then journeyed to Aligarh, going, on December 31st, to the Chherat Farm (para. 75), where we saw the experiments which Mr. Muhammad Husain had been conducting on the reclamation of salty land (usar). This done, we made a short stay at Agra, and I again met Sir My Tours. 429 Edward Buck, and travelled on with him to Jhansi. We stayed with Mr. Jhansi, Jan, 4. Lang, the Commissioner of Jhansi, and early on the morning of January 4th set out for Raksha, io order ts go over some of the rough hilly country overlooking Jhansi, on which efforts at reclamation bad been made. This had been done by embanking the land, and thus preventing the rush of water down the sloping side; the endeavour has been made also to grow roe and grass, as well as to hold up water for irrigation purposes (para. From Jhansi we passed by rail through the fertile Nerbudda Valley, then Indore, Jan. bearivug rich crops of wheat and oil-seeds, and on to Indore, where we 5~%& : halted a day. We left on the 6th inst. for Akola, in Berar, where we Akola, Jan, again met Mr. H.C. Hill. I saw here the cultivation on the rich black 7-9 cotton-soil which abounds in these parts. From Akola we went, on January 9th, to Poona, vid Bombay, and at Poona T parted company with Sir Edward Buck, he proceeding to Hyderabad, whilst I was to journey on with Mr. Hill towards Mysore and Coorg. During a short halt at Poona I again visited, on January 11th, the Poona Poona, Jan, 11. College, and in company with Mr. Woodrow (the Professor of Agriculture) and Mr. Dadina (the manager) the Poona Experimental Farm. The same evening I started off with Mr. Hill and Mr. Dickinson (lately Deputy Cou- servator of the Coorg Forests) on a tour which wasto take me through the Coorg Forests, and to give me some idea of the working of a forest and of the duties and relations of the Forest Department. We travelled by rail through the Southern Mahratta country, past Belgaum, Dharwar, and Hubli, into Mysore territory, and halted at Bangalore. After a short stay here, we Bangalore, Jan. proceeded to Mysore, which was reached on the 14th inst. On the 15th we 13- drove out to Hunsur, and went once more into camp, being joined by Mysore, Jan, 14, Mr. McKee, Deputy Conservator of the Coorg Forests. At Hunsur [ Hunsur, Jan, 16, saw the sandal-wood depét of the Mysore Government, and also the timber depdt connected with the Coorg Forests (para. 164). Our route from Hunsur led us thrqugh the Hutugat and Nalkeri Forests, and taking Coorg Forests} daily, as we did, long marches through the woods, I had a capital oppor- Jan. 15—22, tunity of seeing the details of forest management, the establishment of plantations, the spread of forests by the securing of natural reproduction, the system of protection by means of fire lines, and the methods of exploiting} timber. Teak (Tectona grandis) and Honne (Pterocarpus marsu- pium) were the most valuable trees grown, as well as bamboos. From Mr. Hill I hearda good deal about the Forest School at Dehra Dun, where the native forest subordinates are trained, and which I visited ata later date. We camped on the 16th at Murkal, in the eastern zone of the Hntugat Forest, and the following day rode into the middle zone. Oa the 18th we passed into the Nalkeri Forest, and encamped at Nagerholé. Here I saw a sandal-wood plantation, and, going on next day into the middle and western zones of the Nalkeri forests, we came across instances of the class of cultivation known as kumri, which is carried on by the aboriginal forest tribes, the Karubars. We encamped again at Nagerholé, - and passing on came, on the 20th, to Karmad,-and’ halted at Arimame Bassi. Our next day’s march brought us to Tittimatti, on the way to which we passed several coffee plantations, At Tittimatti I left my friends, and accompanied only by my native servant I proceeded, on January 22nd, in bullock carts to make my way to Munjerabad, in Mysore, where I was to meet Mr. R. H: Elliot, and to learn something about coffee cultivation. The journey was neither easy nor uneventfal, but it took me through a beautiful stretch of country. I first came to Polybetta and Jemmagundi, where I met Mr. Breithaupt, the Polybetta, J Secretary to the South Coorg Coffee Planters’ Association, and was intro- 39°" ™ duced by him to a number of the planters.around; they having, as it chanced; met here on the day of my vistt. I was shown over several plantations and saw the picking of the crop and its preparation for market, besides which I heard a great deal from the planters as to what’ were their main require- ments and their experience (para. 362 ef seg.). I was most hospitably received and set comfortably on my way, reaching Mercara on the morning of January 23rd. Here Colonel Clarke, Commissioner of Coorg, showed me oe Manjerabad Jan, 27— Feb, 8, Madras, Feb, 5—7, Shiyali, Feb, 8. Madura, Feb. 9% Avenashi, Feb, 10—11, 430 My Tours. much kindness and facilitated ‘very greatly my rather difficult pecan through the, to me, unknown country. After calling on Mr. W. S, Sullivan, I found my way on to Mr. J.S. Trelawney, at Coover Cooly, where I stayed the night. On the 26th I pushed on through Somawarpet and Sanavada Santa (o Kodlipet, halting there and fixing up my quarters in a disused schoolroom. Thence, after much difficulty, I succeeded in getting my drivers to take me into Mysore territory, and pushed on to Sucrara Santa. Here! paid a visit to Mr. Butcher, whose coffee plantations I went over, and then proceeded to Suklespoor, halting there for the night. The next morning’s march (January 27) brought me to my destination, Bartchinhbulla, Munjerabad, where Mr. Elliot met; me, and here I remained until February, 3rd. Under Mr. Elliot’s guidance I went over his different estates and neighbouring ones, seeing both the cultivation and the pre- paration cf the coffee for sale (para. 363). In this way, and in long conversations on matters concerning Indian agriculture in general, my time was fully and profitably engaged, and the help Mr. Elliot gave me then and since was simply invaluable to me. On February 3rd_I had to leave, and proceeded by way of Chickmanglur and Kadur, the Southern Mahratta Railway, and Bangalore, to Madras, which I reached on February 6th. At Madras I was met by Mr. C. Benson, Assistant Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, with whom IT stayed. His Excellency the Governor (Lord Connemara) gave me two interviews, and I also had others with the Hon. Mr. (now Sir Henry) Stokes, and the Hon. Mr. Garstin, the two Members of Council; also with Mr. H. F, Clogstoun, Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, Mr. C. A. Galton, Revenue Secretary, Mr. J. D. Rees, Private Secretary to the Governor, Mr. D. Duncan, Acting Director of Public Instruction, Mr, C. G. Douglas, Examiner of Forest Accounts, and Mr. W. Kiess, Acting . Principal of the Saidapet College. In company with Mr. Rees I visited the Saidapet College and Farm on February 6th (paras. 523 and 488). Early on the morning of February 7th a conference was held at Mr. Clogstoun’s house, at which, in addition to Mr. Clogstoun, Mr. Benson, Colonel Olcott, and myself, several of the leading native landowners were present, among them being Mr. S. Subramania Iyer, Mr. R, Ragunatha Row, and Dr. M. Iyaswami Pillai ; also Mr. P. Rajaratna Mudliar, and Mr. C. K. Subba Row, Sub- assistant Director of Agriculture. In this way I wag enabled to get some idea of the most pressing needs of agriculture in Southern India, and to learn in what respects its circumstances differed from those in the more northern parts, I started off the same evening with Mr. Benson on what was to mea very instructive and enjoyable tour through some of the districts in the southern part of Madras. Leaving Madras, we arrived on the morning of February 8th at Shiyali (Tanjore), after crossing the Coleroon river and coming upon the Tanjore delta, where rice was the principal crop then growing. At Shiyali we were met by Mr. C. Sabanayagam Madliar, who took us over his estate and showed us the rice oultivation upon it (para. 317), and bis well-cared-for bullocks and improved iron ploughs (para. 281). In the eyening we continued our journey by train, arriving vext morning at Madura. Mr. Ramasubba Aiyar, and Mr. Tillanayagam Pillai, the Depaty Collector, the Mayor of the Municipality, and other gentlemen met ug and drove us to the farm which formerly belonged to the Madura Farmers’ Club (para. 489), but of which only the dairy-farming portion was maintained. Here our hosts had collected a number of the subordinate revenue officials and of the leading raiyate, and with the aid of an interpreter we had a long and, to me, most interesting conversation, or rather conference. Similar gatherings of this kind were held at other stopping places during the tour, and in this way I was enabled to get much information. Mr. Benson also had arranged for representative men to come up from some of the more distant parts, such as Tinnevelly, which, for want of time, I was unable to visit myself. We left Madura in the evening, and, passing by Trichinopoly, traversed the valley of the Cauveri until, gradually rising to the higher ground, we reached Erode, where soil and cultivation began to alter. Changing here on to the Madras Railway, we continued to rise until we came, in the afternoon of February 10th, to Mangalam (Avenashi Road) in the My Tours. 431 Coimbatore district. We were taken to see the “garden” (irrigated by wells) cultivation, and the system of enclosing fields with hedges (para. 240). Going onto Avenasbi itself, we were shown befel-vine plantations, the folding of sheep and goats on the land (para. 126), the utilisation of mud from tank beds (para. 132), the growing of perennial cotton (para. 888), the manufacture of saltpetre (nitre) (para. 183), and the breed of Coimbatore sheep. Late in the evening of February 11th we left Avenashi, and, while Mr. Benson went direct to Salem, I struck off alone to Metta- polliam, and thence drove up the hill to Ootacamund, reaching this lovely . hill station on the morning of the 12th inst.. I was unfortunate in not Ootenmand, finding Mit. Lawson, the Government Botanist, in residence, but I met Mr. D. Hooper, the Government Qninologist, and also Major-General Morgan, who told mea good deal about tea-growing in the Neilgherries (paras. 357 and 358). The next morning Mr. Hooper took me over the Government cinchona plantations and storés, and also over the Dodabetta Tea Estate. I left Ootacamind on the evening of the 18th, and joined Mr. Benson at Salem on the 14th. Preparations were then being made for an Agricultural 59m, Feb. 14 Show that was shortly to be held here. Mr. Benson and I drove out some 10 miles into the country and saw the cultivation both on unirrigated (“dry”) land and on that irrigated from “tanks,” and that wotered by wells (“ garden” land). Millets, tobaceo, sugar-cane, and many kinds of vegatables wete prominent crops, and here I saw the old-fashioned wooden sugar-mills at work (para. 287). On our way back I went to see Mr. Hooper, Deputy Conservator of Forests, and had 2 conversation with him apon tke administration of forests in Madras. The same evening I left Salem and returned to Madras on February 15th, where I paid a second ideas. ok visit to the Saidapet College and had an interview with Mr. Kiess, the issie’ acting Principal, after which His Excellency the Governor gave me a second audience. The next day I visited the Hon. Mr. Stokes and subse- quently Mr. Van Gaezel, the Chemical Examiner of Madras, leaving in the evéning for Bombay, en route for Saugor in the Central Provinces, where I was to meet Mr. J. B. Fullar, Commissioner of Settlements and Agticulture, Central Provinces. The first portion of the journey took me nib through the Bellary and Raichur districts, and I arrived at Bombay on the HOU AT. ene morning of February 18th. I employed the day in interviewing commercial mea in Bombay and in getting from them information as to the conditions ~~ of the trade in wheat (para. 376 ef seqg.), oil-seeds (para. 388), cotton (para. 338), feeding cakes (para. 127), bones (para. 142), and other manures, as well as agricultural machinery. Among others, I met Mr. John Marshall, Secretary of the Bombay Chamber of Commerce, Messrs. Finlay, Muir & Co., Messrs. Volkart Brothers, and Mr. Shallis. In the evening I left again, going on, vid Bhusawal and Itarsi, to Saugor, which was reached on the Saugor. Feb.20, morning of February 20th. My. Fuller arrived in camp on the 21st, and meantime I hada look at the cultivation around, a great deal of it con- sisting of market-gardening. We did not move on until the morning of the 23rd, but then shifted our camp daily until in successive steges we reached Damoh on February 28th. Mr. T. C Wilson, Settlement Officer, joined us on the march. The principal orops which I saw were wheat, linseed, gram, avd other pulsés. Durfug the journey I was made acquaitited with the systems of Land Classification and of Land Settlement (para. 46) adopted in these Provinces, and I examined in many places the work and maps of the village accountant (patwar?) staff, and their respective inspectors and district inspectors. We camped at Dongasara on the 28rd, and on the 24th, after passing Sanoda, we halted for the night at Shahpur. ‘Op to now we had been going over the black soil of the Saugor district, but on the 25th we érossed on to the redder soil of the Vindhyan sand- stone formation, and arrived at Damoh on the evening of February 27th. Damob. Feb. 27. I took leave of Mr. Fuller the next morning and pushed on to Jubbul- Jabulpore. pore. Here I called upon Mr. Lindsay Neill, Divisional Commissioner, a Sed and Colonel Van Someren, Conservator of Forests, In the evening I lett Aig’ for Allahabad, arriving at the latter i on the morning of March 2nd. I made the acquaintance here of (the late) Mr. 8. A. Hill, of the Muir College, one of the few scientific chemists sent out from England to India, I had along conversation with Mr. Hill relative to the position of Cawnpore, Maroh 3—4, Aligarh, March 5-6, Meerut, March 7, Hapur, March 8, Delhi, March 9—10. Saharanpar, March 11—13, Debra Dun, March 13—18, Meerut, March 19—20, Saharanpur, March 21—23, 432 My Tours, scientific men (para. 436) and the prospects of Native students becomin workers in chemical science (para. 423). The same evening I travell towards Cawnpore, came there next morning, and went out to the Cawnpore Experimental Farm (para. 478). The corn crops were at this time nearly Tipe. Mr. J. F. Duthie, Director of Botany for Northern India, joined me in the evening, and next morning we went together to the Cawnpore Farm, where I made the acquaintance of Mr. T. W. Holderness, Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, North-West Provinces and Oudh. We drove out to the Juhi Reserve and the Amramau Farm, to see the experiments carried out on the reclamation of sterile salty land (usar) (para. 75). In the evening Mr. Duthie and I left for Aligarh, where, on 5th March, we carefully inspected the Chherat Farm (para. 75), and on 6th March the Gursikran Fafm (para. 75), at both of which places experiments on salty lands (usar) reclamation were being conducted on a large scale, and were kept under botanical observation by Mr. Duthie. On 7th March we left Aligarh, Mr. Duthie going to Saharanpur and I to Meerut. I called on Mr. Whiteway, the Collector, and in the after- noon was driven out to see the splendid market-garden cultivation carried on around the city by the Jat, Lodha, and S4ni castes (para. 149). I also was shown over the farm belonging to Rai Bahadur Debi Singh, which was formerly an Experimental Farm: of the Agricultural Department of the North-West Provinces and Oudh, and on which improved iron ploughs are still employed (para. 476). The next morning I drove on to the Baboo- ghur Farm (para. 269), at Hapur, where there is an Army Remount Depdt, and where horse-breeding operations are carried on. Captain Goad, Assist- snot Superintendent of the Kemount Department, took me over the Depot and Farm, and showed me the horses and the methods of cultivation em- ployed, such as the growing of oats and lucerne, ploughing with iron plougha drawn by horses instead of bullocks, and the working of wells by horses. Leaving Hapur on the morning of 9th March, I returned to Meerut, and then went on to Delhi, where I spent a day seeing the sights, and left again on the morning of the 11th for Saharanpur. Arrived there, I met Mr. Duthie and also Mr. Patterson, the Collector. On 12th March Mr. Gollan, the Superintendent, took me over the Saharanpur Botanical Gardens (para. 479), and in the afternoon we went to the Saharanpur Agricultural Show (para. 541), which was specially interesting to me as being the first of the kind I had seen in India. At the invitation of Colonel Dean, Superintendent of the Army Remount Department, I saw the Saharanpur Depdt on the morning of the 13th, the horses here being principally Australian horses (“ Walers”) imported for the use of medium cavalry and field artillery. Colonel Dean also drove me over the adjoining farm, lucerne and oats, as at Hapur, being largely grown. After this, I posted from Saharanpur to Dehra Dun, reaching the latter in the evening, and cing to Mr, E. Fernandez, then Deputy Director of the Forest School. he next morning I called on Colonel Bailey, the Director, and shortly afterwards Mr. H, C. Hill, Officiating Inspector General of Forests, arrived. The sessional examinations of the Forest School were in progress at this time, and as these were vivd voce ones, I took the opportunity afforded me of attending them, and of ascertaining in some measure what the standard of teaching attained in the Forest School was (para. 526). Mr. C. Bagshaw, Conservator of Forests, Central Circle, NorthsWest Prov- inces, (the late) Mr. W. E. D’Arcy, Assistant Inspector General of Forests, Mr. L. Mercer, Deputy Conservator (Dehra Dun district), and Mr. A. Smythies, Instructor of the Forest School, were present, in addition to Colonel Bailey, Mr. Hill, Mr. Fernandez, and myself. I attended the examinations for four successive days, and was allowed to question a number of the candidates in chemistry and in vegetable morphology (para. 526). T also went over the school buildings, chemical laboratory and museums. On the night of 18th March I left Dehra, going back to Saharanpur, and thence to Meerut, where the Nauchandi Fair and Agricultural Show was being held (para. 541). This interested me greatly, especially the ploughing cowpetition (para. 279), and I met again Mr. Holderness, Mr. Whiteway, and Mr. Muhammad Husain. I returned to Saharanpur the night of the 20th, and spent the next three days there, going over the Botanical Gardens, the Museum My Tours, 435 and Herbarium, and being taken by Mr. Gollan to see the cultivation of the neighbourhood, which was largely market-gardening of a high class, the culti- ‘vators being principally Sénis. At Saharanpur I met Mr. Benson, the District Judge, at whose house I was staying, and who was brother of the Assistant Director of Agriculture, Madras ; also Mr. W. Ward Smith, Executive Engineer, Eastera Jumna Canal, from whom I learnt much abont the irrigation system of the North-West Provinces. On 24th March, at Mr. Ward Smith’s suggestion, I travelled to Hurdwar, and was fortunate enough to find there Mr. King, the Executive Engineer. Mr. King most kindly took me to see the head-works of the Ganges Canal, and the system by which the Ganges is diverted into the canal. After this I drove in a light native cart (ekta) along the side of the canal from Hurdwar to Rurki, seeing, on the way, the three great works by means of which the canal is carried, firstly under, then through, and lastly over, the river torrents that cross its path. In the evening I reached Rurki, and took the train for Lucknow, passing en route through Rohilkhund and thence into Ondh, arriving at Lucknow on the evening of 25th March. On the 26th I was met by Mr. Muhammad Hasain, and went with bim to the Lucknow Botanical Gardens (para. 479), whicb are under the charge of Mr. Ridley, the Superintendent. Next morning I left for Cawnpore, and became the guest of Mr. Holderness, Director of Land Records and Agriculture, North- West Provinces and Oudh. I stayed from then until 2nd April in the Cawn- pore district, being taken on daily excursions by Mr. Holderness, as well as minutely examining the Cawnpore Experimental Farm. We went over several Estates belonging to the Court of Wards, and among other places visited Rura, and spent the day iu seeing different Foldings on either side of the canal (Lower Ganges Canal, Etawah branch). Here the influence of canal irtigation was very marked (para. 88). On 2nd April the corn crops of the experimental plots at the Cawnpore Farm were being brought in, threshed, weighed, and_ recorded, and I saw this in progress (para. 478). In the evening of the same day I left Cawnpore in company with Mr. W. B. Wishart, on a tour through the indigo- growing districts of Behar. After passing Mirzapore and Chunar, the Ganges, was crossed at Mogul Serai on the 3rd April, and we proceeded to Gahmar where we stayed witb Mr. George Fox. Here for the first time I saw the indigo crop growing, and also the machinery vused in the manufacture (para. 343 e¢ seg.). I also saw in the neighbourhood some excellent market-garden cultivation by men of the Koeri caste. From Gahmar we went on to Beheea, in the Shahabad district, apd were received there by Messrs. Thomson and Mylne. On the following morning I was driven over a considerable portion of the Reheea Estate, and saw not only the cultivatioa of sugar-cane, but also the manufac- ture of sugar by the aid of the Beheea mill (paras. 287, 288, 330), the shallow evaporating-pan (paras. 291, 331), and the “centrifugal drier” or sugar “ turbine ” (para. 292), introduced by Messrs. Thomson and Mylne. Indigo was also largely cultivated on the Estate. 1 was also shown the records and maps kept by Messrs. Thomson and Mylne for the purpose of managing their Estate, which extends to about 25,000 acres. In the evening we journeyed on to Garaul on the Tirhoot State Railway, and visited the Batoulia Estate and factory, which are ander the charge of Mr. F. G. Wilkinson. Qn the 7th April we took the train on to Mozufferpore, where I was entertained by Mr. A. C. Brett, the District Jadge. At Mozufferpore I met a large number of indigo planters who had come in from the surrounding districts, ss also Mr. Schrottky, who bad been resident some time in India, and was then regarded by some as & “chemical expert ” in the manvfacture of indigo (para. 349). On the 8th instant a visit was paid to the Jainpur Estate, Motipore, then managed by My. H, Abbott, and here Mr. Wishart and I stayed a couple of days, returning to Mozufferpore on the evening of the 9th. On the llth instant we went to see the Bhicanpur factory and estate of Mr. G. Richardson, comprising, in all, 7,000 acres. In the evening I set off alone to make my way to Pupri in the Darbhanga district, which I reached next day after riding 30 miles on a trolly kindly provided for me by Mr. Welton, the engineer of the line, the extension from Durbhanga to Pupri not being then completed. At Pupri Mr. Bobert Wilson took me over his factory and land, avd showed me the different experiments he had made in manurixig for indigo (para. 348). On the morning of the 14th I started back on my trolly journey to Durbbanga, and thence went by rail right on to Seguwlie in the Champaran district, where 28 Hardwar, March 24, Luckoow, March 26, Cawnpore ard district, March 27—April 2. Bura, March 31, Gabmar, April 3—4, Beheea, April 6, Garaul, Aprik 6. Mozufferpore, April 7. Motipore, April 8-9. Bhicanpuy, April 11, Papri, April 12 13. 434 My Tours, Segowlia, at Mr. J. J. Macleod’s estate (Lall Seriah) I again met Mr. Wishart. We Aprill4—16. — spent two days here, and saw the cultivation in the neighbourhood. Two out- lying factories on the estate were visited, oiz., Rajgbat (Mr. D. C. Reid) and Dhokrah (Mr. H. Apperley). On the afternoon of the 16th we all travelled to Motihari, Motihari, where on the following day there was 10 be a parade of the Behar April. Light Horse. Here again I met a large number of the indigo planters of the districts around, as well as Mr. W. D. Blyth, the Collector, and Mr. Seeley, Papea, Rpvit 16 engineer. From Motihari we went on the evening of the 17th April to Pepra, 2 Naas wig. and stopped at Mr. Wyatt’s factory. On the 18th we drove from Pepra to eeraha, Apri!l9. vy, W. B. Hudson’s at Seeraha, and went over his estate and factory the day Beheea, April 20. following, leaving in the evening for Bara (Mr. Gale's) and thence by train to Beheea, where I patted company with Mr. Macleod and Mr. Wishart, and paid another short visit to Messrs. Thomson and Mylne. Onthe morning Riianaed of the 21st I took the train to Allababad, and, arriving there in the evening, April 22-24, met Mr. A. J. Hughes, Supervising Manicipa) Engineer, North-West Prov- jnees and Oudh. It had been arranged, with the consent of the Government of India, that I should visit certain towns in the North-West Provinces where it was proposed:to introduce new water supplies and sewerage schemes, and I was to report upon these from a chemical aud agricultural point of view. I had originally intended to make a short tour in the Punjab atter my return from Tirhoot, but I found the season too far advanced to permit of this, the eold-season (rabi) crops being already off the land. Consequently I adopted the alternative plan and visited in succession Allahabad, Cawnpore, Benares, aud lastly Naini Tal. At Allahabad, on April 22nd, in company with Mr. Hughes, I saw the new waterworks then in course of construction. In the afternoon I was shown over the Allahabad Grass Farm by Colonel Marriott of the Commissariat Department (para. 215 ef seq.), and he explained to me the syste on which the Farm is worked. Grass was then being cut and put into silos (para. 224). On the morning of the 23rd I examined with Mr. Edmonson, the sanitary officer, the system of town-cleansing, the trenching of night-soil upon land at Futtepore Bichwra (para. 149), some little distance out of the town, and another site at Naini which it was proposed to utilise fora sewage farm. At Allahabad 1 met again Mr. 8, A. Hill, also Mr. F. W. Porter, the Collector, and Dr. Hall, Superintendent of the Gaol. I went with Mr. Hughes on the morning of the 24th to see the pumping station and new intake from the Jumna. After this I left Allahabad and travelled with Captain F.C. Chapman to Bharwari on the East Indian Railway, A RGA from which place we drove on the Captain Chapman’s Estate at Bati, crossing Pra the Ganges shortly before coming to our destination. The Estate is in the Province of Oudb, and comprises about 13,000 acres situated along the banks of the Ganges. Here I saw how Captain Chapman, by making a vast embank- mentand keeping out the Ganges, as wellas by draining and pumping, had succeeded in reclaiming and cultivating a large amount of land that was formerly a lake (para 71). The steam-plough was then at work on a portion still unreclaimed (para.281). A good deal of ravine land was also reclaimed by terracing and by keeping back surface flow of water (para. 70), Two days were spent here in riding over the property and seeing the villages included in it and also their cultivation. I travelled to Cawnpore on the evening of await: ag the 26th April, and put up at Mr. Wishart’s. The next morning I went with 27—May 2. Pr" Mr. Wishart to the bazér, and took saniples of wheat, the different impurities in which were subsequently separated out for me and determined in Mr. Wishart’s office (para. 384). We then crove to the canal side and saw the plot of land called “ Buck Sahib’s village,” on which Kéchhi cultivators use the town refuse, and after that to other land outside Cawnpore where night- soil was being trenched (para, 149). On the 28th I went over somo cotton mills, and on the 29th inspected; with Mr. Hughes, the proposed intake of water from the Ganges, after which I met Mr. Walter Butler (engineer), Mr. F. N. Wright (the Collector), Major Baddeley, of the Army Harness Factory, Dr. Condon (civil surgeon), and Mr. J. Rogers (engineer), ‘he next day Mr. G.B. Allen took me over Messrs. Couper, Allen & Co.’s Army Boot Factory, and then I went on to the Cawnpore Experimental Farm. The next day, after inspecting the site for a proposed sewage farm, Major Baddeley took me to see the Army Harness My Tours. 435 Factory, and in the evening, Colonel Worsley and I walked over the Canton- ment Grass Farm (para. 214). Or May 2nd I met Mr. W.J. Wilson, Junior Secretary, Irrigation Department, North-West Provinces and Oudh, and travelled with him the same evening to Lucknow, I going on to Benares. Here Mr, A. R. Wilson, Municipal engineer and resident Benares, May engineer of the Benares Waterworks, took charge of me, and we visited the 58: proposed intake from the Ganges, and on the following day the land intended to be utilised for the purpose of a sewage farm. At Benares I made the acquaintance of Mr. Adams, the Commissioner, Mr. James White, the Collector, and Mr. W. Venis, analyst to the Monicipality. From Benares 1 returned, on May 5th, to Lucknow, where I met Dr. Fiihrer, Lucknow, May 6, keeper of the Lucknow Museum, and Mr. E, Smith, of the Archzological Department. I went over the Museum, and then drove out to see an artesian well-boring 1,200 feet deep, which it was hoped would give a supply of water for the city. In the afternoon I left again by the Oadh and Robilkhand Railway for Naini Tal, meeting en route Colonel Pitcher, formerly Assistant Director of Agriculture, North-West Provinces and Oudh, and Mr. W.J. Wilson, with whom I continued the journey. Naini Tal was reached the Naini Tal, May afternoon of May 7th, and here I stayed until May 16th. At Naini Tal 1 7—)6 met a number of the officials of the North-West Government, and had many interesting interviews. Among these I would mention one with His Honour the Lientenant-Governor (Sir Anckland Colvin), and several with Mr. T. W. Holderness (Director of the Agricultural Department), Colonel Pitcher, Mr. T. H. Wickes (chief engineer, North-West Proyinces and Oudh), and Mr. A. J, Hughes. In addition, I had the pleasure of meeting the Hon. W. Woodburn (Chief Secretary to Government) and Colonel Erskine; also Mr. &. Smeaton (Financial Secretary to Government), Mr. C, J. Connell (Secretary, Board of Revenue), Colonel Thomason, Colonel Harrison (chief engineer, Irrigation Branch, North-West Provinces and Ondh), Dr. Bichardson (Inspector General of Civil Hospitals), and Dr. @. Hutcheson (Sanitary Commicsioner). During my stay I was the guest of Mr. W. J. Wilson, whose experience in irrigation as well as in experimental work on reclamation of salty land (usar), and on the establishment of “Fuel and Fodder Reserves,” was of great advantage to me. Mr. A, Grant, supervising engineer, Irrigation Department, North -West Provinces and Oudh, was also staying there. An inquiry, similar to those at the other towns in the North- West Provinces which I had visited, was then in progress, and, accordingly, I examined the proposals both for utilising a fresh water supply and for disposal of the sewage of this hill station. On May 17th I left Naini Tal, calling, on wy way down the hill, at Mr. S, L. Whyrper’s, an old school- fellow of mine. Taking the train at Kathgodam, I travelled on to Bareilly, and thence, vié Saharanpar, to Umballa, which wus reached by the evening of May 18th. Posting from here through the night, I came next morning to Kalka, and finally arrived at Simla early in the afternoon of May 19. I stayed in Simla from that date until July 14th. I employed simla, May 19, this interval in putting together the notes I had taken during my tour, in reading Settlement and other Reports of the districts I had visited, as well as the principal Government papers upon subjects with which my inquiry was more specially concerned. I had also the opportunity of meeting a tiamber of the high officials of Government, ail of whom received me most kindly and gave me much assistance. His Excellency the Viceroy espe- cially showed much interest in the matter of my inquiry, and gave me renewed interviews. The Members of Council, Sir David Barbour, Sir George Chesney, Sir Charles Elliott, the Hon. Mr. Hutchins, and Sir James Lyall also allowed me to discnss with them the views I had formed. Among other officials whom I met, and by whose experience I benefited greatly, were the Hon. W. C. Benett (then acting for Sir Kdward Buck in the Agricui- tural Department), Colonel Forbes (Inspector General of Irrigation), General Badeock (Commissariat Department), Mr. Muir-Mackenzie (Under Secretary, Agricultural Department), Mr. H. C. Hill, Dr. George Watt, Mr. Harvey James, Mr. J. ¥. Finlay, Mr. J. E. O’Conor, Mr.F. A. Robertson (Director of Agricultural Department, Punjab), Mr. 8. A. Hill, and Major Elliott (Commissariat Department). The library and records of the Agricultural Department were placed at my disposal, and Mr. Tucker, the Registrar, 284 436 My Tours. helped me in every way he could. Before leaving for my second tour, I drew up my general conclusions in the form of “Preliminary Notes,” which were printed and circulated, and subdequently discussed at the Agricultural Conference in the following October. Second Tour, Second Tour, July 14th to Sept. 12th 1890. Just after the rains had set in I started off again on my travels, and Simla, July 14 Jeaving Simla on July 14th in company with Dr. Hendley, of Jeypore, made my way again to the plains. Passing by way of Delhi, we orrived on the evening of July 16th at Jeypore. Here I had an agricultural talk with rt July the chief Member of Council of the Jeypore State, Rai Bahadur Kamtee Mookerjee (paras. 110, 212), and after seeing, under Dr. Hendley’s guidance, the Museum, Hospital, School of Art, the Jeypore Cotton Press, ete., I went on to Abmedabad, arriving there on July 19th. I stayed with Mr. H. E, M. James, the Commissioner, and the next morning we were joined by Mr. Ozanne (Director of Agriculture, Bombay), and Mr. Middleton (Professor of Ahmedabad, = Agriculture, Baroda College), who were to be my guides and companions in July 20-21, my tour through the Bombay Presidency. We spent two days at Ahmedabad seeing the cultivation of the neighbourhood, including irrigation of land from tanks, also the growing of perennial cotton, the sowing of rainy-season crops, and the preparation of land for rice, and the transplanting of rice. From Nadiad, July Ahmedabad we pass:d on, early on the 22nd, to Nadiad, where we were a: » joined by Mr. Kacherao Jadhava, a Native in the service of the Gaekwar of Baroda, and formerly a student at Cirencester College. We were met at Nadiad by Rai Bahadur Becherdas Viharidas Desai, a leading agriculturist, by Mr. Motibhai, the President of the Municipality, and by the Secretary of the Nadiad Agricultural Association. After visiting a store in the town established for the purpose of selling pure seed (para. 310) we went to the Experimental Farm of the association (para. 484), and to Mr. Becherdas’s own farm, After this we. went out again to see the cultivation of the neighbourhood, the fields enclosed with hedges (para. 240) and with borders of grass around them (para. 211) being prominent features. We also visited here a hospital (Pinjrapol) for disabled and dying cattle. The same evening we left for Baroda, and stayed there with Mr. F, A. H. Elliott (Survey Commissioner). On the next morning we went over the fields out of which it was proposed to form an Experimental Station and Farm in connection with the Baroda Coilege (para. 485). After breakfast we drove to the Gaekwar of Barcda’s palace, and had a long interview with His Highness, principally upon the subject of agricultural education. Subses quently we visited Mr. Kacherao Jadbava’s experimental station, and his laboratory (para. 485), and still later the Baroda College (para. 521), meeting there the Principal, Mr. G. S. Tait. At Baroda I also met the Resident, Sir Harry Prendergast, and Mr. W. 8.2 Price, superintendent of the Baroda Survey. In the evening we left, and travelled to Palghar, in the Mahim, July 24, Théna district, whence we drove to M4him. Here we saw the splendid “garden” cultivation, the growing of sngar-cane, plantains, ginger, etel- vine, and other remunerative crops (para. 119), besides the system of seed- bed formation, known as rdb (para. 137), for rice and millet (ndgli) growing. At Mdhim we met Mr. Dhondo Vinayek Dandekar, a leading landed proprietor, Mr. Padmaker Narayan, Mamlatdar of MAhim, and many others. In the afternoon we drove back to Palghar, and thence by Bombay, July train to Bombay. The next day I called on Mr. John Marshall, of the 25, Chamber of Commerce, and had a long talk with him on the subject of wheat-cleaning (para. 376 e¢ seg.), and oil seed cleaning (para. 358) and upor the trade in cotton (para. 338). From Messrs. Croft, Wells & Co. I gathered information on the collection and export of bones (para. 142), from Messrs. Volkart Brothers on trade in ecottou, bones, and manures, and from Messrs. Glade & Co., on the manufacture and trade io oil-cakes (para. 127), On the 26th inst. we went on to Poona, I leaving the others Poona, Jaly at Kirkee, asI was to be His Excellency the Governor's (Lord Harris) guest 36—28, at Ganesh Khiud. Mr. Lee-Warner, Political Secretary to Government, Raroda, July 23. My Tours, 437 was also staying at Ganesh Khind at the time. With Mr. Ozanne I went over the Ganesh Khind Gardens (para. 486), and on July 28th drove with him and Mr. Middleton to Mundwa, a few miles out of Poona, to see the sugar-cane and other cultivation of the district which is carried on by canal irrigation and ‘the use of night-soil (poudrette) (para. 149). We also went over a distillery where spirit is made from the fruit of the Makua tree. In the aftern on I met at the office of the Department of Land Records and Agricul ure Mr. Bhimbhai, the Assistant Director, and later on we held a conference with the ptincipal landowners, agricolturists, and native officials of Poona. Among those present, besides Mr. Ozanne, Mr. Middleton, Mr- Bhimbhai, and myself, were Rai Bahadur Mahdeo Govind Ranade (Judge under the Deccan Relief Act), Rai Bahadur Yeshwant Moreshwar Ke lkar (Orienta) Interpreter te the Government), Mr. Dorabji Padamji (President of Poona Municipality), Mr. Naoroji, manager of Reay Paper Mills), Mr- Namjoshiand Mr. Ghotandekar, editors of native papers, Mr. Kupaswami Mudliar (Secretary of the Agri-Horticultural Society of Western India), Mr. Dandekar (Educational Inspector of the Berars), Mr. Nata and Dr. Ghole, landowners. We had along and interesting conversation and interchange of views, more especially on points connected with forest adminis« tration, questions of irrigation, and agricultural education. In the evening we started of by traia for Belgaum, which we reached on the 29th July, and stayed with Mr. A, Keyser, the Acting Commissioner. Mr. J. Fairlie Mair, 2° the Collector met us later on, and we went out to see the 6xtensive rice-growing by the tank irrigation system. At the Collector's office was a large collection of the implements in common use in the district, and from the District Depnty Collector, the Hon. Gahrshitapa Virbasapa, we heard of the snegess which had attended the efforts to popularise the system of Government Advances (éaccavi) for agricultural purposes (para. 109). Next day we inspected thefarm attached to the Agricultural Class of the High School (para. 522), and then went to see the market-gardening around the town. At noon we left fot Bellary, passing en route Dhdrwat, Gadag, and Hubli. At Bellary, where we arrived on the morning of 31st July, Mr. A. Sabapathi Mudliar met us and took us to his farm, where he showed us the utilization o prickly pear as green-fodder (para. 236), the Swedish ploughs which he uses on his estate (paras. 277, 281), and the preparation of bones for manure, (para. 143). Owing to the late coming of the monsoon and absence of irrigation there were hardly any crops onthe ground, so we did not stay long here, but retraced our steps to Hospet, which we came to in the afternoon. Mr. C. H. Goud met us here, and under his guidance we saw the rice and sugar-cane cultivation of the district. The enclosure of the fields with trees (para. 240), and the lopping of the trees for supplying green manure for the rice fields (para. 136), as also the growing of grass for cattle aloug the ‘water- channels (para. 211), were peculiar features here. Irrigation is by means of channels taken off from the River Tungabadra, and the cultivation is excellent ; the cultivators are mostly of the Liugayat caste. Iron sngar-mills are used extensively here (para. 289). We were entertained at Hospet by Mr. F. Parsons, Head Assistant Collector, and the day following visited the ruins of Humpi. In the evening we left by train on the return journey to Poona, but Mr. Middleton and I halted a day at Bijapur, where we called’ on Mr. Fleet; the Collector, and were shown much kindness by Mr. F. Goldsmid,: Superintendent of Police. Continuing our journey, we reached Poona ou the morning of 3rd August, and, meeting Mr. Ozanne again, we went over the Poona Experimental Farm together. After this I hai a long interview with Mr. Wroughton, Conservator of Forests, with reference to forest matters in their relation to agriculture in the Bombay Presidency (para. 174). Inthe afternoon Mr. Middleton and I went over the College of Science, and then once more with Mr. Woodrow to the ‘Experimental Farm, where we met several of the pupils of the Agricultural Class. In the evening Mr. Ozanne, Mr. Middleton and I left’ for Kalyar, where we halted a few hours to seo the rice and millet (xdgiz) cultivation in these wet parts of the Western Ghats. Then resuming, we travelled up the Tull GbAts into the Nasick district and alighted at Igatpuri. Here we saw more Tice and millet (ndgZi) cultivation, some of it by the seed-bed system called véb, there being no irrigation, but simply very heavy rainfall. Buffaloes were here the plough cattle (para. 260). In the evening we took'the train again Belgaum, July Bellary, July 31. Hospet, July 81. Humpi, Aug, l Bijapur, Au 2-3, P a Fe Poona, Aug, 4 Kalyan, Aug. 6, Bhadgaon, Aug. 6-7, Nagpur, Aug. o=10, Calcutta, Aug, 13. Serajgunge, Avg, 14—17, Caleutta, Aug, 18-19. Duwraon, Aug, 20-21, 438 My Tours. and reached Pachora on the morning of 6th August, going on thence to the Bhadgaon Farm, which we reached after crossing four dilferent civers ; these were then in flood, and presented considerable difficulty to our passage. Arrived at the Farm, we went carefully over it (para. 482), seeing then the rainy-season (kharif) crops, just as on my previous visit I had seen the cold-weather (abi) crops. We also saw the herd of Mysore cattle (para. 255), the formation of a babu! (Acacia arabica) plantation (para. 186), and the making of silage (para. 226). The pext day we left, and, after visiting a cotton-cleaning (ginning) factory en route, at Pachora I parted company with Mr. Ozanne and Me. Middleton. Taking the train on to Nagpur, f[ arrived there on the morning of the 8th, and went to Mr. J. B. Fuller’s, where I stayed thisand the next two days. At Nagpur I had an interview with Mr. (now Sir Alexander) Mackenzie, the Chief Commissioner, and among others I met and discussed agricultural matters with Mr. J. Neilt (Judicial Commiss oner), Mr. A. Munro (Director of Public Instraction), Colonel Van Someren and Mr. R. T. Thompson (Conservators of Forests), and Colonel Scott. Mr. Fuller took me over the Nagpur Experimental Farm (para. 480), the management of whichis inthe hands of Mr. Mahaluxmivala. After this, we inspected the Agricultural Class and musenm (para. 524), Mr. Joshi, formerly a Poona student, being teacher of agriculture. At other times we visited the plots of land cultivated by the students of the Agricultural Class, and also the land ontside the town where the night-soil and town-refuse are utilised by the Kdchhis and other cultivators who have followed their example (para. 149). On the evening of August 10th I left Nagpur for Calcutta. At Allahabad I met Mr. A. J. Hughes, Supervising Municipal Engineer, North- West Provinces, and travelled part of the way with him, hearing from him what had been done in furtherance of the sanitary schemes we had discussed before. It was now the middle of the rainy season and a great part of the district passed through was covered with water. Arriving at Calcutta on the morniog of the 13th, I spent the day with Mr. Finucane, Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Bengal, and in the evening set off with himand Mr. P. Nolan, Revenue Secretary, for a short tour in Eastern Bengal. The train took us as far as Goalundo, Dr. Comins, Superintendent of Emigration, travelling with us. At Goalundo we embarked on the steamer for Serajgunge, and during the sail up the Brahmapootra river we saw the numerous villag.es on the islands dotted about on the river or along its banks, together with their rice and jute cultivation (para. 374). At Serajgunge, Mr. Cuthbert Macdonell, manager of the Serajgunge Jute Mills, and his assistant, Mr. Ogbourne, met us and took us off in theirsteam launch to their house. We stayed here until the 17th, and met My. Andrew Hannah, Mr. 8.Gowan, and other jute commission-agents. On the 15th instant we took a long trip of about 30 toiles in the steam launch to Solanga, going up the streams then intersecting the country and noting the jute and rice growing everywhere along the banks, On the 16th we saw over the Serajgunge Jute Mills, and in the afternoon Mr, Finucane and I went about in a boat and called at several of the islands - for the purpose of seeing how the oultivation was carried on, as well as the preparation of the jute and its packing for market. On the1l7th we left Seraje gunge, and returned to Calentta on the 18th. Thesame afternoon I went with Mr. Finucane to inspect the Seebpore Experimental Farm (para. 493), and met here Mr, Basa and Mr. Banerji, of the Bengal Agricultural Department, The day following I had an interview with Mr. BR. Blechynden, Secretary of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, in relation to the coming of a chemist to India to enquire into problems connected with the cultivation and manufacture of tea (para. 361). In the evening Mr. Nolan, Mr. Finucane, and I left for Damraon, where we were to meet His Honour the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, Sir Steuart Bayley, then on tour. This we did, and with His Honour went round to see the school, hospital, museum, and other places, subsequently meeting again at a dinner given in the Lieutenant-Governor’s honour. Among the party were Mr. C. C. Stevens, Officiating Chief Secretary to Government, Mr. W. Kemble, Opium Agent, Bankipur, Mr. J. Charles, Judge of Shahabad, and Mr. J. Bernard, Officiating .Collector, Shababad. On the 21st we went over the Damraon Experimental Farm with Mr. Basu (para. 499), and subse- quently bad an interview with the Maharajah of Dumraon and Rai My Tours. 489 Bahadur Jai Prakash Lal, the manager of the Dumraon Estate( Raj). In the afternoon Mr. Finucane and I left Mr. Nolan and the others and crossed the Ganges af Mokameh, proceeding into Tirhoot for a short tour there in order to sed the manufacture of indigo (para. 340). We first went to Bara, and drove to Mr. W. B. Hudson’s at Seeraha, where we arrived on the morning geeraha, of August 22nd. I was just in time to see the cutting and steeping of the Aug. 22-28, indigo plant, and the subsequent preparation of the dye in its different stages. Leaving Seerabs on the 23rd we went on to Motihari, and stayed Motihari, with Mr. W. D. Blyth, the Collector. Here I met again My. Apperley Aus: 23. and Mr. Seeley, On the morning following, we went with Mr. Blyth by train to Bettiah, and were the guests of Mr. T. M. Gibbon, manager Bettiah, of the Bettiah Estates, The country here was much flooded, but we saw “°8: 2% the cultivation as far as we could, and I had much interesting conversa- tion with Mr. Gibbon. The following morning we left again, and at Motihari I ended my tour with Mr. Finucane, and proceeded alone to Allahabad, which I reached on August 26th. Here I visited Mr. 8. A. Allahabad, Hill and Captain F.C. Chapman, and went over the Allahabad Grass “8: 2% Farm again with Captain Hallowes and Sergeant Meagher (para 215) A large quantity of silage was being made at the time (para, 224), I took the night train to Cawnpore, and, arriving there on the 27th, I Cawnpore, drove to the Experimental Farm and made another inspection of it Aug 27. with Mr. Lachman Parshéd, the personal assistant to the Director. A fter calling on Mr. Wishart I left again for Hissar, where on the 28thinst. I was to. meet Mr. F. A. Robertson, Director of Land Records and Agri- culture, Punjab, and to make, under his guidance, ashort tour in the Punjab. I duly arrived at Hissar and met Mr. Robertson, we both staying with Captain Marrett, Superintendent of the Hissar Cattle Farm. On the Aissar, morning of the 29th Captain Marrett drove us over the Grass Farm for some 4"s 2930. 10 miles to Khairwan, where we saw the different herds of cattle kept on the farm (see para. 254), On our return we found Colonel Patch (Com- missary General, Northern Circle, Bengal) and Captain (now Major) Wingate (Special Forage Officer), and had a conversation upon the system of Grass Farms (para. 215). We then went over the Home Farm, and saw the young stock, as also the growing of lucerne and other green *crops (para, 236), and the making of silage (paras. 224, 226). Next day we met Mr. A. Anderson (Deputy Comwissioner), and went with him to see the cultivation of the neighbourhood, both on canal irrigated and on unirrigated (“dry”) land. Later on we visited the sheep and goat-breeding Farm (para. 270), and left in the evening for Ferozepore, arriving there early on August Ferozepore, 3lst. Mr. E. B. Francis (Deputy Commissioner) took charge of us, and Ave. 31—Sept. drove us round to see the cultivation near the towv, as well as the system” of inundation canals (para. 92), On September Ist we drove out towards Ludhiana, and saw several villages where the cultivation was mainly carried on by men of the Jat caste. In the afternoon we left for Changa Manga, changa Manga, and put up at the Forest bungalow. Mr. A. V. Munro, Assistant Con- Sept. 2. servator, and Mr. Fazil Din, Sub-assistant Conservator, took us over the “reserves” (paras. 177, 221) and grass runs (rukhs), as also to the more distant rukh Jelleke. In the evening we took the train to Multan, and got there early on muttan, Bept. 3, September 3rd, going to the Deputy Commissioner’s, Mr. H. C. Cookson. Mr. Cookson drove me round the town, showing me the cultivation and the inundation canals (para. 92), and later on to the more outlying parts, where, among other things, I saw the manufacture of indigo according to the native method. On September 4th Mr. Cookson, Mr. Smith (Executive Engineer, Sidhnai Canal), and I, went by trainto Rashida, and then rode pashiaa, out to see the system of canal distribution and some of the villages which Sept. 4, kad been established along the Sidhnai Canal since the latter had been brought to the district (para. 86). Previous to this only a small part of : the area had been under cultivation. On the morning of September 5th Mr. Cookson and Mr. Smith returned to Multan, and I continued my Journey with Mr. Robertson to Lahore, Montgomery being passed on the Way. On the 6th inst. Mr. A. V. Munro met us again, and took us over the Shahdara plantation (para. 177), a little outside Lahore. After this Uabiorsl EeDe® Gajrat (Punjab), Sopt. 7, Mian Mir, Sept, & Amritsar, Sept. 8—9, Kapurthala, Sept. 10. Hoshiarpur, bept. 11. 440 My Tours, we went to the veterinary school, dispensary, and hospital, and saw the stallions of the Horse-breeding Wepartment which are kept here ( para. 269). Starting off again in the evening by train, Mr. Robertson ani I reached Gujrat (Punjab), and were met by Mr. E. B. Steedman, Deputy Com- missioner, and formerly Director of Agriculture, Punjab, and by Captain Davies, Settlement Collector. The following morning we rode out and saw the crops, here mostly irrigated from wells. We passed also large tracts of land flooded with silt from the mountain streams and channels, and which form the rich wheat-growing stretches of these parts (para. 138). Splendid cattle, which came originally from Hissar, were seen here (para, 254), and there was alsoa Depdt of the Horse-breeding Department (para. 269). We left Gujrét at night, and arrived next morning at Mian Mir, where we halted to see one of the military Grass Farms. The one we visited was rukh Terah, and the grass was then being cut, and a great deal was being packed into silos dug in the ground (para. 229). From here we went on to Amritsar, and became the guests of Mr. J. A. Grant, Deputy Commissioner. Mr. Grant took us in the afternoon to see the tewn, its temples, etc., and also the system of fown sanitation so successfully adopted here (para. 149). On September 9th we were out early, and spent a lon morning in seeing the extensive market-garden cultivation carried on all around Amritsar by the help of irrigation from the canal ( Bari-Doab Canal), and the night-soil and sweepings from the town (para. 149). Vegetables were being raised in great profusion; also sugar-cane and maize. We passed on to a village, Sultanwind, on the other side of the canal, where canal irrigation is only partial, and wells are dug for supplementing it. Retarning toAmritsar, we made a closer inspece tion of the sanitation system (para. 149), and went to other land on which the sullage water is pumped. Later in the day 1 met Mr. H. Nicholl, the Secretary to the Municipal Committee, and he explained to me in detail what had been done. In the eyening we left for Kirtapoor, where Dr. Warburton met us and drove us out to Kapurthala, Here we were mef by Major Massy, the Superintendent of the Kapurthala State. We received a visit next morning from the Rajah of Kapurthala, which we returned in the afternoon. Meean Aziz Bukhush, the Collector of the State, also came and had an agricultural conversation with me. I have to acknowledge much yaluable information and many useful suggestions given to me by Major Massy during our stay. Later on we drove out to see the cultivation and the plintations that had been started round the town. On the morning of September 11th we left Kapurthala, and drove, vid Jallundur, to Hoshiarpur, a distance of 36 miles. The road took us past excellent cultivation, and we made several halts on the way to see this or that object of special interest. Cultivation by well irrigation was a marked feature, and we Sawa great deal of digging | of wells going on, the wells, in aa Mus n pat acess aoe ote ms ree alam Aeibn nan ¢ nee fa nn wine ane ne eee My Toups, 441 un attack of malarial fever, contracted, doubtless, during my Punjab tour with Mr. Robertson, for Mr. Robertson was laid up at the same time, and unfortunately was ill for some time afterwards. My altack lasted but a short time, and on getting well enough, Dr. Watt took me with him fora very enjoyable three days’ trip to the Suni Valley, and the basin of the Sutlej river. On my return J found myself once again among the officials whom I had met in the previous May and June, and who had given me so much help. In addition I met Mr. R. 8. Whitall, Mr. Mcintyre, and Mr. J. H. Lace, all of the Forest Department. ‘ Mr. J. B. Fuller (Commissioner of Settlements and Agriculture, Central Provinces), arrived in Simla on September 29th, previous to the sittings of the Agricultural Conference, and on October 4th Sir Edward Buck returned . from farlough, and resumed the duties of his office. Mr, Clogstoun, Mr. Nolan, Mr. Ozanne, Mr. Finucane, Dr. Theodore Cocke, and Mr. Middleton, and other wembers of the Agricultural Conference arrived subsequently, and spricuttural the first meeting was held on the afternoon of 6th October. There were Conference, seven sittings inall, and the Conference broke up on October 13th, after giving ae Otte a general approval to the proposals which, in the form of “ Preliminary : Notes,’ I had submitted for consideration. The subjects which chiefly engaged the time of the Conference were, the appointment of an Agricultural Chemist for India, the conduct of experiments at Government Farms, and Agricultural Education, The Conference over, and the members dispersed, I returned to my former work, and read through several Settlement Reports of the districts which I had visited, and made copious extracts from Government Papers and Records which I found in the library of the Revenue and Agricultural Depart- raent. On November ist I began the actual writing of my first Report, and from now until the 23rd instant, when 1 left Simla, I wrote and had printed off the first twelve chapters, in such aform that I was able, before leaving India, to send them to different people for perusal. In the correction of these proofs Sir Edward Buck, Mv, J. B. Fuller, Mr. J. E. O’Conor, Mr. Ozanne, Mr. Finucane, and Mr. H. C. Hill, gave me most valuable help. Third Tour, November 3rd 1890 to January 10th 1891. Third Toor, T left Simla on November 28rd, and after reaching Umballa, took the train Simla, Nov, 23, for Ajmere, where I had arranged to meet Mr. H. C. Hill, and tosee the Ajmere-Merwara forests (para. 181). I got to Ajmere very early on the Ajmere, Nov, 25, morning of November 25th, and later on set off with Mr. Hill to the Nagpahr forests, where we saw the “ reserves’’ that had been made on the hill sides around Ajmere. We then came down the hill again, and went . first to Pokhar, where nurseries are formed, and then to Pushkar where a Fair was being held, and at which there werea great number of horses, many of them very good. Inthe afternoon Mr. Hilland I went to the Mohwa bir (para. 181), another “ reserve ” on the other side of Ajmere. We made an early start next morning, took the train to Biawar, and rode until we came Ajmere reserves, to the “ Chang reserve,” which is principally used for supplying firewood, Nov. 26, small timber, and grass, as wellas for grazing in time of drought. This we went carefully through (para. 181). Sirdar Hira Singh, the Sub-assistant Conservator, was present to point everything out tous, and we ended up at Sendra. From this place I proceeded next morning alone, but met Sir Edward Buck in the traiv, and we went on incompany to Bombay, taking the train in the afternoon to Poona. Inthe train with us were Dr. Steel Bombay, Nov. 23 and Dr. Graiager, of the Veterinary Department. Mr. Ozanne and Dr. poona, nov, 28— Theodore Cooke met usat Poona, and the same evening I made the ac- Dec, 3. quaintance of Dr. Lingard, who had lately arrived at Poona as Imperial Bacteriologist, and I was shown by him his newly-established Bacteriological Laboratory. By invitation of His Excellency the Governor of Bombay (Lord Harris), Sir Edward Buck and myself went out to Ganesh Khind, and stayed there aday. At Poonal met Sir Charles Pritchard, Member of the Bombay Council, Mr. J. B. Hallen, Superintendent of Horse-breeding Operations, and Mr. Mollison, the newly-appointed Superintendent of Government Farms, Bombay. Wo stayed at Poona until December 3rd, when Sir Edward Buck 442 My Tours, Bombay, Dec. 3. and I returned to Bombay. Here I left Sir Edward Buck the same evening, and travelled through to Calcutta, arriving there on the morning of December Calcutta, Dec. ¢ 6th. At Calcutta I met again many of the officials whom I had previously 2, seen at Simla, including Mr. H. C. Hill. Mr. D. B. Allen, a diploma holder of Cirencester, Captain Chapman, Mr. Bamber, and other gentlemen interested in agriculture, came to see me during my stay at Calcutta, and I also visited Dr. George King at the Botanical Gardens, Howrah. On December 24th Colonel Sergeaunt ( Director General of Railways) and Colonel Begbie ( Ac- er countant General, Public Works Departiaent ) took me with them ona trip a a to Darjeeling, which was most enjoyable. I spent one of the days of my stay : there in going over tea plantations. Mr. G. W. Christison, manager of the estates of the Leebong Tea Company, took me over the plantations and factory, and gave me every possible information both as to cultivation and to manufacture (para. 357). On returning in the evening, I met Mr. G. A. Maclean, a tea planter in the neighbourhood, who had beena fellow-passenger with me from England. Lieutenant Bower, the noted traveller, was then also at Darjeeliag. We left Darjeeling on Dezember 28th Caleutta, Dec, 29 aud reached Calcutta on the morning of the 29th, and then I paid a long —Jan, 6,1891. -yisit to Dr. Warden, Professor of Chemistry at the Medical College. From now until January 6th, when I left Calcutta, I employed my time in drawing up an Abstract Report to Government, which has since been printed and circulated. Sir Edward Buck returned to Calcutta on January Ist, and again 1891; gave me much help in my work. His Excellency the Viceroy gave me a * finalinterview on January 8rd, 9s also did Sir Charles Elliott (then recently made Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal), the Hon. Mr. Hutchins and other officials. Then having settled all my affairs, and handed in my Abstract Report to Sir Edward Buck, I left Calcutta on the evening of January 6th for Bombay, Sir Edward Buck comirg to see me off. Mr. Duthie travelled 9 with me ag far as Bhusawal. I reached Bombay onthe eveningof January 9th, and here Mr. Ozanne met me again, Wewent out to see the dairy es- tablishments that had been set upin Bombay for selling butter made from cream obtained by the “separator” avd of skim milk (para. 265), and after- wards, with Mr. Boileau, of Messrs. Croft, Wells & Co.. we went by? train to Théna and saw there the bone-grinding mills of the last-named firm (para. 145). On my return I called on Messrs. Volkart Brothers and other business houses. On January 10th Mr. Ozanne, My. Boileau, and I drove out to the Mazagon Dock and the Frere Bunder and saw the grinding of bones for use Left India, Jan, 28 Manure, as if is conducted by the native merchants (para. 145). It was 10, then time for metoleave, and at noon I went on board the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship “Siam,” and quvitted India after a stay of exdctly thirteen wonths in the country, during which timeI had received kindness on every hand, which I shall always remember gratefully, and opportunities for gaining knowledge which it rarely falls to thelot of anyone to enjoy. Bombay, Jan, —10. 448 Extract from the Proceedings of the Government of India in the Department of Revenue and Agrieulture,—No, 8—37-21, dated Calcutta, the 20th March 1897. Reap— Part I, Famine Commissioners’ Report. Despatch No, 19, dated 14th March 1881, to Secretary of State. Despatch No. 55, dated 16th June 1881, from Secretary of State. Government of India, Resolution No, 6—340-50-G., dated 8th December 1881. Despatch No. 151, dated 26th May 1882, to Secretary of State. Despatch No, 197, dated 21st July 1888, to Secretary of State. Despatch No. 104, dated 13th December 1888, from Secre- tary of State. Despatch No. 6, dated Ist June 1889, to Secretary of State. Despatch No. 108, dated 7th November 1889, from Secre- tary of State, Government of India, Resolution No, 545—55 C.L., dated 25th March 1890, Government of India, Resolution No. 24—21-17, dated 22nd June 1893. Government of India, Resolution No. 2—13-1, dated 81st January 1894, Government of India, Resolution No. 15—-93-1, dated 7th September 1895. Government of India, Resolution No. 17—95-1,dated 17th September 1895. Government of India, Resolution No. 19—=98-1, dated 20th September 1895. Government of India, Resolution No, 20—353-1, dated 2nd October 1895, 444 Resolution, READ ALso— Dr. Voelcker’s Report on Indian Agriculture, 1893. Calcutta Survey Conference Proceedings of 1882. Calcutta Statistical Conference Proceedings of 18838. Delhi Agricultural , 5 » 1883, Simla ” ” ” » 1890. ” a9 33 33 2 1893, Letters from the Chief Commissioner, Burma, Nos. 123-— S—3, dated 6th December 1895, 784—11-A—-1, dated 27th March 1896, and 86—8-A—8, dated 8rd July 1896. Letter from the Secretary for Berar to the Resident, Hyderabad, No. 124, dated lath May 1896, Letters from the Chief Commissioner, Assam, Nos, 62-A.— 2016-R. and 276-A.—2019 R., dated 30th May 1896, and No, 185-A.—2099-R., dated 4th June 1896, Letters from the Government of Bombay, Nos. 4587, dated 10th June 1896, and 1337, dated l5th July 1896, Letter from the Government of the North-Western Pro- vinces and Oudh, No. 2012, dated 10th June 1896, Letter from the Government of the Punjab, No. 198-S., dated 17th June 1896, Letter from the Government of Bengal, No, 630-T.-R,, dated 24th June 1896. Letter from the Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, No, 2416, dated 7th July 1896. Letters from the Government of Madras, Nos. 438 and 491, dated 24th September 1896. 445 Resolutions on the Proceedings of the dgricultural Conferences of 1893 and of 1895-96. FIRST RESOLUTION. PREFATORY. In October 1893 a conference was held at Simla attended by delegates from all provinces for the purpore of discussing the scheme of agricultural enquiry and improvement, for the promo- tion of which departments of land records and agriculture had been constituted under orders issued by the Secretary of State in 1881. The report of the Conference of 1898 was circulated to all local Governments and administrations for preliminary consideration with Resolution No, 2, dated 31st January 1894. In asubsequent Resolution No, 15, dated 7th September 189 By each provincial government was invited to arrange for a local conference which should discuss the question how far the pros posalsand recomendations embodied in the report of 1893 could be adapted to the circumstances of the province addressed The proceedings of all conferences, together with the views of all local governments and administrations ‘hereon, are now vefore the Government of India who, as intimated in 1894, will deal with the subjects concerned in u series of separate Resolutions. The present or first Resolution will be confined to an historical summary of the circumstances which have led up to the present position, and toa brief statement of the subjects which will be dealt with in the Resolutions to which it is a preface. 2, The policy of creatizvg special departments to investigate the conditious of agriculture in India with a view to agricultural im- provement was first brought forward in 1866 by the Commission appointed to deal with the Orissa famine, and the subject was brought under very full consideration by Lord Mayo’s Government in 1870. The result of the deliberations then held was an im- portant scheme for the constitution of both imperial and provincial departments of agriculture, It was represented to Her Mejesty’s Secretary of State that while a central department was necessary for co-ordinating the programme of enquiry and the results of in- vestigation, yet that toe ‘ real work of studying and improving agriculture must rest. with provincial departments’, 16 was pro- posed, therefore, that a department should hé created in every prov- ince under the control of an official director. In accordance, hows ever, with the Secretary of State’s instructions the step first taken was the formation in 1871 of a new branch of the imperial secte- tariat which was to deal withthe development of the general scheme, ‘This measure was followed in 1875 by the establishment of a provincial department of agriculture in the North-Western Provinces by Sir John Strachey who had as a member of Lord 446 First Resolution, Mayo’s Government taken a leading part in the original pro- gramme, Further development was checked by the financial diffi- culties which were due to the famine aud scarcity prevailing in 1876, 1877 and 1878, and which not only prevented new action in the provinces, but led to the temporary suppression of the imperial departmert in 1879. It is interesting, however, to note that the very famine which thus arrested progress brought about the resus- citation of Lord Mayo’s scheme on a wider and firmer basis by attracting renewed attention to the importance of improving Indian agriculture. The original scheme had been initiated by the Com- mission which dealt with the Orissa Famine. The revised scheme was. put forward ten years later by the ‘Famine Commission’ which investigated the causes and phenomena of famine in all parts of India, The fact that the creation of agricultural departments has thus been twice due to the deliberate and unprejudiced conclu- sions formed by special Commissions appointed to advise the Government on the action which should be taken to cope with famine and scarcity, brings into prominent importance at the pres- ent time, when the empire is again suffering from a widespread failure of the harvests, all questions relating to the development of the scheme for agricultural improvement. 8. The Famine Commission was sent out in 1878 to this. country at the instance of Parliament with a mission to enquire( “ how far it is possible for Government, by its action, to diminish the severity of famines or to place the people in a better condition for enduring them. 7? The Commissioners, after a prolonged tour through India, submitted their report. in 1830. They gave pro- minent consideration to the desirability of extending railways and communications ; of enlarging the canal system; and of otherwise expanding the large protective works of the country. They also suggested the measures which should be taken on the actual occur- rence of scarcity or famine, But the greater part of their report was occupied with recommendations for the reform of land adminis- tration and for the promotion of agricultural improvement. Theyj considered that agricultural prosperity in ordiuary times was th best shield against the difficulties and trials of a season of drought and insisted on the necessity of taking every measure which might, on the one hand, prevent or minimize agricultural loss and distress, or, on the other hand, tend to increase and improve the produce of agricultural land. They advised that for dealing with these mat- ters imperial and provincial departments of agriculture should be established, _ 4 In pursuance of the Famine Commissioners’ advice an imperial department was created in 1881, which at once, under the instructions of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State, took measures to arrange with the local Governments for the organization of pro- vincial departments. In an opening Resolution of 1881, the duties of the new departments were summed up by the Govern- ment of India, following the Secretary of State, as agricultural enquiry, agricultural improvement, and famine relief. The third of these duties, which is concerned with the conduct of operations Prefatory. 447 in the actual event of scarcity, has been dealt with in the famine codes drawn up in 1882 and revised in recent years, and forms no part of the discussions now under review. Present considerations are confined to the measures which should be taken to secure an effective scheme of agricultural enquiry, ¢.¢., the collection of agricultural information, facts and statistics, and to open the way to improvements in agricultural methods and practices. 5. No pains were spared by the imperial and provincial Govern- ments to subject the recommendations of the Famine Commissioners to the most intelligent criticism that could be brought to bear upon them. Every scheme or measure of importance that was from time to time proposed or suggested was placed before a con- ference at which every province concerned was represented by selected officials and experts connected with the administration of land or with the conduct of the agricultural departments. Thus, in 1882, & first conference was convened at Calcutta at which the principles were determined on which future cadastral surveys which are the basis of agricultural statistics should be conducted. A second general conference, held at Calcutta in 1883, prepared a scheme for the registration of inland trade statistics, and for the compilation and publication of agricultural and trade returns. A third at Delhi in 1888 dealt with the important subject of agricultural education. 6. In 1889, correspondence with Her Majesty’s Secretary of State led to an important event in the history of the agricultural programme, v22., the deputation to India of a second Commission from home in the person of Dr, Voeleker, consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society, whose mission was ‘ to advise on the best course to be adopted in order to apply the teachings of agricultural chemistry, and in order to effect improvements in Indian agriculture.’ Every branch of agricultural enquiry and reform was thus to be open to his examination. Dr. Voelcker, following the example of the Famine Commissioners, made a tour through India and gained a general knowledge of the directions in which agricultural enquiry and improvement might be developed. His report may be viewed as an amplification in detail of the re- commendations of the Famine Commissioners, with which in all important matters his views were in general accord. In every province he had the opportunity of consulting the local authorities, and before writing his report had the advantage of meeting, at Simla, a fourth general conference of delegates and experts from all provinces who went over with him the whole ground of the Famine Commissioners’ recommendations so far as they applied to agricultural enquiry andimprovement. His report when received two years later was submitted in Simla in 1893, to the coasideration of a fifth general conference, whose recommen- dations have now been separately discussed by a committee of se- lected officers at the head-quarters of each province, 7. The Governor General in Council is not disposed to regret the time which has been occupied by continuous deliberation. The scheme of .1880 was so vast in its design, so important in its 448 First Resolation, objects, so wide in its scope, as to demand that the utmost care and caution should be bestowed on its full development, Material progress has indeed been made. The earlier years~ of the past decade were occupied in laying the foundations of agricultural enquiry by the organization of land.record establishments, io inaugurating investigation in many important directions, and in developing plans of agricultural experiment. Each successive conference led to further advance and to new measures. But the general principles and policy by which the whole scheme of agri- cultural enquiry and improvement were to be governed had not been finally or precisely formulated, The very complete examina- tion of the issues left for decision, which has now been made by provincial authorities and local Governments, places the Govern- meut of India for the first time in a position to amplify, with fur- ther approach to precision, the instruetions of the Kesolution of 1881, in which the duties of imperial and agricultural departments were necessarily sketched only in broad and rough outline, It must be understood, however, that progress has only advanced to one more stage, Every step that is taken in future years will lead to further knowledge of facts and conditions, and will open up new issues. The time may soon come when the combined advice and counsel of provincial authorities, and of the experts by whom they are aided, will again be required for placing provincial and imperial governments in a position to decide what further measures are necessary to secure safe progress, 8. The despatch in which the duties of agricultural depart- ments were formulated by the Secretary of State indicated the desirability of postponing any general cousideration of the possi- bilities of agricultural improvement until a proper system of agricultural enquiry had been set on foot. The Government of India adopted this view. They pointed out, however, that an inves- tigating agency must be established before enquiry could begin. ‘The Resolution of 1881 indicated that the first measure must be the organization of machiaery for the continuous collection of facts and statisties concerning the agriculture of the country. Ten years previously Lord Mayo had insisted that the “splendid local machinery of which we are in possession iu our local establishments closely connected with the operations of agriculture, should be utilized in the collection and production of those agricultural statistics which are so essential to the development of agricul- tural progress.’ The same opinion was held by the Famiue Com- Missioners, and was accepted by both the Secretary of State aud the Government of India. : The measures taken to introduce or improve land-records establishments, will form the subject of the second Resolution ; the system adopted to utilise their services and the agricultural statistics supplied by them will be dealt with in the ¢hird Resolution, 9. But the scheme. of agricultural enquiry, as set forth by the Famine Commissioners and by the Secretary of State in 1880 and 1881, involved the investigation of wider fields than that occupied . Prefatory. 449 by the facts and statistics of the land records. These latter, it is true, supply continuous information regarding crops, irrigation, the occupancy and cultivation of land, and other circumstances connected with agriculture, without which no sound conclusions can be formed as to the general conditionand needs of each agri- cultural tract. But, as pointed out by the Famine Commissioners, and later on by Dr. Voelcker, investigation had to be extended to all matters which affect agricultural prosperity. The character of soils and the manures suited to them ; the diseases of cattle ; the diseases of plants—their causes, and the means by which they can be prevented, minimized or cured ; the extension of irrigation ; the effect and value of canal water ; the improvement of fuel and fodder supplies; the reclamation of waste lands; meteorological phenomena ; economic products; improvement of old, and intro- duction of new, staples and agricultural implements ; possible reforms in the methods and practices of cultivation : all such sub- jects as these were to form part of the programme of enquiry. 10. It was evident that in exploring the fields of investigation thus briefly sketched, the agricultural departments, imperial and provincial, must, as the Famine Commissioners had indicated, be assisted by competent experts. Some of the ground indeed had already been occupied by scientific investigators : thus for many years geological officers had been engaged in ascertaining the rocks and strata of each province ; systematic botanists had explored and arranged the flora of forests and fields; a meteorological depart. ment had laid the foundation of a knowledge of: the weather and climates of India ; while in some provinces, and notably in Madras, measures had been taken to investigate and improve agricultural conditions. But it was obvious that much more was necessary for the completion of the programme of enquiry, and it was equally clear that the responsibility of directing its gradual expan- sion must be, for some time to come, divided between the imperial -and provincial authorities. In other words, that there must be an imperial as well as a provincial scheme of scientifie enquiry. In many directions the work of investigation was national rather than local in character. It demanded the services of first class experts, such as each province could not afford and did not indeed separately require. The existing departments of geology and meteorology were cases in point, Scientific research in such fields could not be restricted $0 geographical or administrative limits, and would, if confined within narrower limits than those of the empire, involve waste of power and unnecessary expenditure. Influenced by these views, the Government of India accepted the responsibility of widening, under imperial direction, the scheme of national investigation, hitherto covering only a limited portion of the ground which had to be occupied, Thus, economic products, cattle diseases, agricultural entcmology, were some of the subjects which were between 1880 and 1890 brought for the first time under systematic enquiry by experts attached to the imperial department, : The general character of the national scheme of scientific 29 450 First Resolution. enquiry under imperial direction, the extent to which it has been widened, the directions in which further amplification is necessary or desirable, and the association with it of provincial co-operation, form the subject of the fourth Resolution of this series, 11. To provincial departments, under the control and direc- tion of local Governments, is left the largest share in the pro- gramme of scientific enquiry. It embraces all such investigations by experts as may properly and usefully be confined within geographical and administrative limits : and includes, therefore, almost all enquiries and efforts directly aimed at the increase of agricultural produce, Such are, for instance, investigations hav- ing for their object the improvement of old, and the introduction of new, staples; the effect and value of canal water; reform in agricultural methods and practices, and the like. Enquiries of this kind are dependent on local conditions of soil, climate, custom, ete., and have often indeed to be carried out at various centres within each province. Government farms, eStates under the management of Courts of Wards, estates belonging to Govern- ment, farms of landholders willing to co-operate with the pro- vincial departments ; these are the experimental fields in which the local experts are mainly required to work. The general character of the scheme of scientific enquiry under provincial direction will be dealt with in the #/¢4 Resolution, 12. The recommendations of Dr. Voelcker, of the two confer- . ences of 1890 and 1893, as well as of those recently held, have confirmed the view that investigation must precede improvement. But, as investigation proceeds in the numerous fields in which it has been or will be inaugurated, palpable and conclusive improve- ments are, as experience bas shown, continually brought to light ; remedies for existing evils are discovered and useful modifications of agricultural practices are ascertained, Every effort should now be made to take such measures as will permit the country to derive the fullest advantage from these results, The most impor- tant matter is the proper education of the agriculturist. For the Government of India still hold to the opinion expressed in the opening Resolution of 1881, and againin the Resolutions conven- ing the conferences of 1890, 1893, and 1895-96, that no impor- tant reforms can be safely or widely introduced into the agricul- tural system without the general co-operation of the farming classes, whose intelligent and willing aid-cannot be expected ‘ until their education has been go directed as to enable them to appre- ciate and, where expedient, to adopt the results obtained by the systematic and continuous enquiries of experts.’ This view has been strongly confirmed by the various conferences which have recently discussed the question, and has been supported by all local Governments and administrations concerned, The subject of educational reform, so far as it concerns agricul- tural interests, will be dealt with in the sizth Resolution of the series, q 13. In the despatch of 1881, in which the views of the Secre- tary of State on the duties of the new departments of Agriculture Prefetory. 461 wers communicated, attention was drawn to the obligation which the Famine Commissioners had disired to be placed on them, ‘ to render available agricultural and economic facts and statistics for every part of India in order that Government and its officers may always bein possession of an adequate knowledge of the actual condition of the country, its population and resources,’ A wide in- terpretation must ba given to this injunction. It must be held to mean that the results of investigation in every branch of enquiry which istaken under the control of the imperial and provincial departments, must be intelligently collated and published on such plan as will bring the information gathered in an accessible form to the early knowledge of those whom it may concern. Much has been done in this direction, but the development of the scheme of publication still stands in great need of the farther attention and co-operation of provincial departments. The measures which have been taken or may be requiredfor giving effect to the injunctions of the 1881 despatch and for establishing a sound system of publishing information bearing on the condition, population, and resources of the country will form the subject of the seventh Resolution. 14, The agricultural conference of 1893 recommended in the course of their proceedings that the form of the annual reports of Agricultural Departments should be so revised as to bring them into greater conformity with the seheme of their work. The subject was not formally discussed at the recent conferences, in view of the fact that no general scheme could be elaborated until the whole series of conference proceedings had been brought under the review of the provincial and imperial Governments, But the Government of India is now prepared to formulate the peneral principles on which departmental reports should be framed, and these will be sug- gested in the ezg4th and final Resolution of the series, 15. The Resolutions which have thus been announced are the outcome of the experience and developments of the fifteen years which have passed since the Famine Commisioners’ report was, under the orders of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State, first made the foundation of an agricultural programme. They purposely avoid instructions on matters of detail, but aim ataclear and full definition of the large and broad principles on which the scheme of agricultural enquiry andimprovement should proceed. They are thus primarily designed for the guidance of officers m charge of agricultural departments upon whom the duty of giving effect to them should be strictly imposed. In view, however, of the importance which the Government of India attachés to the possession by all officials of a general knowledge of the policy which has been gradually developed from the Famine Commis. sioners’ recommendations, the Resolutions should, when opportu- nity occurs, ‘be studied by all land revenue officials, and the Govern- ment of India suggest that they might with advantage be made one of the subjects to be read for the official examinations which junior revenue officers are required to pass. 294 452 SECOND RESOLUTION. Lanp Recorp EstaBLISHMENTS. The foundation of all land administration is the field, More specially must agricultural inquiry and reform, which are now recognized as an integral part of land administration, be based upon the facts and figures recorded in connection with each indi- vidual field of an Indian village. ‘To quote the words presented to Her Majesty’s Secretary of State twenty years ago— “India is an agricultural country composed of a multiplicity of minute holdings, and almost every subject which we take in hand in connection with the administration of the country must be referred to the units of which it is. formed. A measure which makes a very slight alteratien in the condition of each unit may have a very important effect on the whole country, since what may be termed the atomic changes are combined by enormous multiples. It mey seem a little thing to ensure the correct record of facts connected with a single field, but when we consider that the conntry is nothing but a congeries ef single fields, the subject assumes an importance which is apt to be lost sight of in discussing the manipulation of a village register.” The first requisite in any programme for agricultural inquiry and improvement is, therefore, the efficiency of the land-record ~ establishments. - 2. To each village or group of villages in this country there had always been attached a village accountant. His hereditary. duties are to provide annually for each field a correct record of area, occupancy, rent, crops and of other facts and statistics called for by his official superiors. In some parts of India a hereditary claim to the office has been scrupulously maintained. In others the hereditary right has been greatly weakened or entirely aban- doned. But whatever may be the position of the hereditary ciaim, the hereditary duties of the office have still to be performed, and since the cunduct of Jand admmistration and agricultural reform depend largely on the records of the village officer it be- comes a primary duty of the authorities to take such measures as may be necessary to secure his efficiency. 3. As soon as the subject came under the special consideration of the Government of India, it was found that in many provinces the hereditary. claim to the office had been allowed to override more or less the claim of the State to the efficiency of the holder of it 3 that the village officer was often incompetent, and not seldom so Incompetent as to require an assistant for the performance of his work ; that the land records had become incomplete and ‘un- trustworthy ; that in some districts attempts to maintain anything like a correct record had ceased ; that in others the office itself had been allowed to die out, Land Record Establishwents. 453 It had been proved, on the other hand, by results already ob- tained in more than one province that the village registers could be made to yield that punctual information of the circumstances of every agricultural tract which the Famine Commissioners had urged to be necessary for timely provision against scarcity ; that the accountants could be trained to correct their maps from year to year in accordance with facts upon the ground ; that their records, when carefully maintained, teuded to facilitate the work of civil and land revenue courts, to cheapen litigation, and to provide every person concerned with an easy means of ascertaining or establish- ing his rights and interests in land. It haa been foreseen, too, that many direct economies should be effected by improving the village staff ; that in some of the temporarily assessed provinces a correct record would mean a material reduction in the cost of periodic settiements ; that, by a proper use of the village agency, expendi- ture on field surveys alone might be reduced from something like Rs, 200 to Rs. 50 a square mile; and that a series of annual statistics extending over a long period would afford a safer and broader basis for land assessment than the facts and figures hastily collected in a single year at great cost by huge temporary estab- lishments. 4. When, therefore, in pursuance of the Famine Commissioners’ recommendations new departments were, under the orders of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State, created in each province for the purpose of dealing with agricultural facts and statistics, as a foun. dation for agricultural improvement, the Government of India desired that they should be made specially responsible to the local Governments and administrations for the restoration and improve- meat of the Jand record, and for the competence and efficiency of the officials by whom it wasto be maintained. This, indeed, was to be their first duty. The Famine Commission held the belief, to which expression had been given by Lord Mayo’s Government ten years earlier, that ayricultural science applied to Indian soils could materially inerease the prodace of the land and would thus go far to minimize the sufferings of the people in a season of scarcity ; and it was in this view that they demanded the employment of agricultural experts and the creation of agricultural departments, But it was foreseen by the Government of India that attempts at -agricultural development would require many years of continuous and patient investigation by experts before they could be expected to yield important or safe results; that in many cases they must be based on facts and figures which could only be derived from a long series of correct maps and records, and that everywhere the introduction of improvements into the agricultural system would require the instructed intelligence and co-operation of a class whose education had hardly yet begun. In the opening Resolution, therefore, of 1881, which preseribed the duties of the new depart- ments, it was laid down that attempts at agricultural improvement must be for a time subordinated te agricultural enquiry, This meant that tke provision and the maintenance of correct’ maps and records, upon which enquiry was to be based, must be the first stage in schemes of agricultural reform, 454, Second Resvlution, 5. Another important consideration justified this course. It was anticipated that after the excitement caused by the 1878 famine had subsided, the time might come, when, under circum- stances of financial pressure, costly departments whose efforts should be confined to scientific experiments of an apparently unre- munerative character would be subjected to hostile criticism. It seemed desirable, therefore, to make every effort to turn the first attention of the new departments to remunerative work. It had already been argued that the improvement of the land record and of the machinery by which it was maintained could at least cheapen the expensive operations of surveys and settlements, would minimize the work of law courts, and would facilitate the current ‘business of district administration. Here, then, was a direction in which the outlay might be recouped at the same time that a sound foundation could be laid for agricultural reform, The policy was justified by subsequent events, The Finance Committee of 1886, which included among its members the writer of the Famine Report of 1880, and was, therefore, fully cognizant of the important advantages of agricultural investigation and ex- periment, came to the definite conclusion that expenditure on agri- cultural departments could not, under existing circumstances, be justified unless it could be shown that they were or would be directly remunerative. The departments were subjected accord- ingly to this financial test, In almost every case it was found that, independently of the indirect advantages derived from an improved land record, a direct financial saving was or would be effected aggregating a total of from 200 or 300 lakhs of rupees ; that the economy was mainly due to the training, utilization, and proper supervision of the village officer ; that where excess expen- diture had occurred, it was in some degree due to the partial exelu- sion of the village officer from the scheme, and to the substitution for him of more expensive agency. The question then arose whether in those provinces where outlay exceeded income the de- partments could be retained. 6, The Government of India, in dealing with the results of the financial enquiry, accepted the fact that the indirect advan- tages of a land record were so great as to afford, even in the one or two cases in which outlay was found to exeeed income, a strong plea for the maintenance of the provincial departments, They recog- nized that the extent to which the services of the village officer were financially useful must vary with the conditions of each prov- ince; that in the permavently-settled districts of Madras and Bengal, for instance, his charts and records would not be required for purposes of assessment to the same extent as elsewhere ; that while, on the one hand, in the eastern provinces a new map was called for every year by the fluctuations of the cultivated area, due to accidents of floods or to the practice of shifting tillage, on the other hand in the great ryotwari tracts of the southern and western presidencies what was justly termed ‘a magnificent piece of machinery’ dependent for its solidarity on pillars marking the boundary of every field, had been constructed, which would, if Land Record Establishments. 455 maintained, go far to minimize the employment of the village officer on annual or periodical revisions of survey. Influenced by such considerations as these, as well as by the fact that in almost every province the utilization of village establishments had been found remunerative, the Governor General in Council did not impose any further condition on the mainten- ance of departments of land records and agriculture than to require, with the concurrence of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State, that the maximum use shall be made of the village officer under all cireumstanees in which his employment can lead to further economy, In this view the claim of the State to his efficiency must be held to be paramount over all other claims. 7. In dealing with the question the following circumstances must be borne in mind. The class to whom, by custom or hy right of descent, the office belongs is intelligent and quick to learn ; the status of the hereditary appointment, however poorly paid, is, where the right is strictly maintained, so far an object of ambition to the members of the family to which it is attached, as to justify a condition that they should, after a sufficient term of grace, qualify themselves for it; that cheap educational instituticns pro- vided at public expense are available to all who are likely to be candidates for the office ; that, according to the evidence adduced at the recent conferences, supplementary schools can, at no great cost, be established for training them in those special branches of their duties which lie outside the ordinary educational curriculum. It may, therefore, safely be laid down that after a given date no village officer should be admitted to an appointment, who cannot satisfy the educational test required. : The test imposed must, in the opinion of the Government of India, inelude a sufficient knowledge of survey and mensuration to enable a village officer to maintain correctly a map of the cirele under his charge. Even in districts where surveys will require least revision, the village officer must be competent to enter new fields and sub-divisions of fields upon his map. But whether or not he is likely to be called upon to-execute an actual field survey, he should in any case be made to acquire that intelligent comprehension of a map, and of the relation between a map and the records based upon it, which can only be gained by practice in map construction on the field. The Government of India would bave some hesitation in en- forcing this obligation if it entailed any real difficulty. But the evidence adduced at the recent conferences and the quick results obtained even in provinces and native states where the education of village officers had for many years been neglected have proved that any school lad of the class from which village accountants are drawn ean, as a rule, be taught in a few weeks all that is necessary for the field survey, under proper supervision, of any part of a village. 8. The proceedings of the conferences indicate that the eficiency of village officers has reached its highest level in the Punjab, and explain why this should be the case. In that province the organi- zation of village establishments had been taken in hand before the 456 Second Resclution. creation of the new departments of land records; the hereditary claim, though not disregarded, was made strictly subservient. to efficiency ; close supervision was exercised over the village officials ; the salary of the office was gradually raised ; and considerable en- couragement was given to those who held it by ensuring the pro- motion of the best men to supervisorships and other higher appoint- ments. The rules lay down that at least two-thirds of the super- visors should be taken from the ranks of the village officers. The Government of India are not prerared-to advocate that the Punjab rules should be taken as a precise model for other provinces, but they commend the principles underlying them assound, They think that the time should come when in every province a fair edu- cational test including competence to survey, should be strictly imposed; adequate pay for the office should be provided; and excellence of work encouraged by reasonable promotion to higher appointments. They consider, however, that, on the one hand, care should be taken, in those parts of India in which the educational standard of the agricultural popalation has not reached a high level, that the status of the village officer is not so unduly raised as to give him too masterful a position in the village or group of villages under his charge, and that, on the other, the admission of village officers into the ranks of their supervisors should not be wade so free as to endanger the high standard of excellence which the con- trolling staff is, for reasons hereinafter given, expected to attain. 9. The history of the supervisor is very similar to that of the village offic2r. As in each village there was, under native rule, an accountant, so to each of the administrative circles, containing perhaps one or two hundred villages into which a district was divided, there was attached an official whose main duty it was to collate the returns received from village accountants, and to obtain such inform- ation of the agricultural and financial condition of the circle as might be required for purposes of assessment and of land revenue administration. On investigation the original functions of tbe office were found to have been often forgotten ; sometimes the office had disappeared ; almost) everywhere the hereditary claim to it had overridden all other considerations; not infrequently the incumbent was 80 illiterate or ineapable as to be unable to perform without assist- ance any official duties at all; and, asa general rule, the duties aopened to him were quite outside the traditional functions of his office. 10. When the reform of the land record system was taken in hand, the first step in almost every province was to restore the hereditary duties and functions of the circle officer. In some parts of India, where the hereditary responsibilities had been forgotten, the hereditary right to the office had been nevertheless even more strongly maintained than that of the village officer, and much care had to be taken to prevent it from being unduly interfered with by the initiation of too trenchant reforms, In such cases older men were allowed to appoint substitutes or educated relatives ; time was given to the younger to learn how to perform efficiently the real duties of their office ; only those of the latter who were hopelessly Land Record Establisiments. 457 incapable were ejected. At the same time it was found that a material expansion of the staff had become necessary, The exten- sion of cultivated area, the growth of population, the demand for more elaborate statistics, all these and similar causes had doubled the work which bad to be done. The number of circle officers that had sufficed for the needs of the earlier years of the century was wholly inadequate now. In almost every province, therefore, the staff was largely increased by the incorporation in it of the best of the men who bad been for some years engaged in supervising the subordinate establishments of survey and settlement parties in the field, These recruits brought into the ranks of the effete service the very experience which was wanting. They were active men, accustomed to direct and control, and experts in the constructioa of field maps and field records, Their example proved of great value to the hereditary staff. The duties, partly peripatetic and partly sedentary, of the office, had, so far as they had been performed, been hitherto amalgamated. They were now divided. ‘The circles were increased in number, aad the areas correspondingly contracted. To each circle was attached a “ peripatetic” officer for inspecting and controlling the work of 40 or 50 village officers. At the head-quarters of each of the administra- tive sub-divisions of a district, perbaps from 5 to 10 in number, and each comprising 2 or 8 peripatetic circles, was located the ‘* sedentary ”’ official, The younger and more active of the staff were placed in charge of the smaller peripatetic circles. The older men were assigned to the sedentary office, The main duties of the peripatetic circle officers were to instruct the village officers; to examine their work; to note and report defects ; to relieve as far as possible the higher officials from the necessity of personally in- specting the village officer’s mapsand records; to provide for bis circle quick and early information of any kind that might be urgently called for in connection with the Jand or the people upon it, as well as periodical reports on the agricultural condition of the area under his charge; and finally, to fulfil the various executive duties which a season of scarcity of famine migbt entail, The main duties of the “sedentary” officials were to examine the various returns sent in from the villages and to compile them in abstract forms for his group of circles. At the head-quarters of the district a head supervisor was established, who was to make a similar compi- lation for the whole district and to superintend generally the work of the whole staff. The functions of the higher officials and coven- anted officers were, as rointed out in an imperial Resolution of 1883, no longer to include the detailed inspection of the village officers’ maps and records, but: were to be confined to such an examination of the supervisor’s work as would prove whether or not their duties of inspection and control were being properly performed, and to the adoption of such measures, punitive or otherwise, as might tend to improve their efficiency. : _ Such was the general character of the scheme of inspection and supervision which, with due regard to the varying conditions of each province, has been established in every part of India, except in those permanently-settled districts of Madras and Bengal in 458 Second Resolution, which the village officer has either disappeared or bas not been brought under official control. The proceedings of the recent con- ferences have now afforded to the Government of India the oppor- tunity of ascertaining in what directions the improvement of the supervising machinery may in some provinces still be possible, 11, One important matter is the confinement of the supervising officers to their proper functions, They should not, on the one hand, be allowed to perform the duties of the village officers, or, on the other, those which properly belong to other officials on the district staff, In some cases an excessive regard for the hereditary claims of the village officers, or a distrust of their capacity to learn, has led to the transfer of a portion of the village duties to the super- vising staff, The extravagant tendency of this procedure was pointed out by the Finance Commission. In other casas the im- portant duty of inspection has been interfered with by the practice of using the supervisors for enquiries and reports on matters un- connected with the village records. This may, as in the Punjab, be checked by forbidding any order for reports and enquiries, other than for those preseribed by the rules, to be issued by sub-divisional or district officers, On either hand a transgression of the limits ‘within which the duties of the office should be confined. must be carefully prevented. 12. The next point to which attention may be drawn is the proper instruction of the supervising staff in survey. Inthe imperial: Re- solution of 1882 * in which the general Pa ia dated 4th Sep- Jyineiples on which the sidan sur- veys of the country should be con- ducted and maintained were discussed, the advantage and economy of utilizing the corrections made by the land-record staff in field maps for the periodical revision of topographical charts was pointed out, But unless confidence in the accuracy of village field maps -ean be assured by professional supervision, and unless the maps themselves are professionally connected with the survey stations laid down throughout India by the trigonometrical and topographi« cal departments, there may always bea danger that the details supplied by the provincial establishments will not be accepted by the professional officers responsible for topographical cartography, and that the details already mapped by the land-record staff may have to be mapped over again at great and unnecessary cost by the professional staff. Hitherto the survey operations which have been conducted in almost every province have not only supplied a large percentage of recruits, professionally trained in survey, for the circle staff, but have afforded a field for the instruction of the previously existing circle officers, This will not be the case in future. Henceforward a practical knowledge of, and experience in, approved professional methods will, if precautions be not taken, gradually die out ; and, as has already occurred in some cases, the field maps will become more and more inaccurate and unequal in quality. It is of importance that this result should not be allowed to occur, especially as, independently of the requirements of cartography, the maintenance of field maps up to a reasonably Land Record Establishments. 459 fair standard is for all purposes. of administration desirable, It is considered insome provinces that the best security against a gradual decline in the value of field maps, whenever these have been initially laid down on professional lines, is the periodical transfer of a limited number of survey officers of responsible posi« tion from the professional staff, whose duty it should be to pre- serve a knowledge of correct methods throughout all grades in the Jand-record staff and to personally supervise or inspect all surveys which are of a materially more important character than the mere revision of a village map. This policy has been accepted in Mad- ras, in Bombay, and to some extent in the Central and North- West Provinces, while very full effect has been given to it in Burs ma, Where the exceptionally shifting character of the cultivation has justified the employment in every district of a superior officer who is either transferred from the Survey Department or is thoroughly trained in survey. The Governor General in Council now desires that the question may receive full and careful consideration in every province, in which no measures have yet been taken, for providing for the maintenance o£ maps on a correct professional basis and how far the central guidance of competent experts is likely to be useful. 13. A third matter is the improvement of the supervising staff by securing for the best men in it a reasonable prospect of promo- tion to higher service. The advan- tages of this course were pointed out in an imperial Resolution of 1883, It was then urged that promotion should not merely be permissible ‘but obligatory; that it was not unnatural that vacancies in the ‘regular jine should usually be offered to thoze officials, or to their ‘friends, who come most into personal contract with the officers in ‘whose hands patronage rests, and that since the duties of circle officers usually confine them to outlying parts of the district, their claim to promotion in the regular line is apt to be overlooked an- less a certain number of such appointments are strictly reserved for duly qualified members of the supervising staff, No, 339, dated 14th March 1883, 14, Very inadequate effect seems to have been given to this policy except in the Punjab, where its success has been marked. No less than one-third of the circle officers have been in the last few years admitted to the higher revenue appointments, and now no difficulty is found in attracting young men of good family and high educational attainments as candidates for the supervisorships. By degrees-the educational test has been raised, and the time will doubtless come when the appointments will be readily sought for by men who have obtained a graduate’s degree at a University or a diploma at an Agricultural College, - A further advantage of the policy was indicated in the 1883 Resolution. 1 was contended that, as the supervising officials ac- quire from the natare of their duties a considerable knowledge of agriculture and of the condition and circumstances of the agricul. ‘tural classes, a free-flow of promotion from their ranks would 460 Second Resolution. infuse into the upper grades of the revenue service a useful acquaint- ance with the agricultural conditions of the district or province in which they hold office. The Government of India is pleased to observe from the proceedings now before them that this view has received strong support from both the conferences and the local Governments, and that the advantage of leavening the revenue ser- vice with officials who have learned their work in the field is fully recognized In the Punjab the valae of the experience gained by a circle officer is so thoroughly appreciated that every candidate for @ revenue appointment, whether a circle officer or not, is made to serve an apprenticeship, which may extend to two years, asa supervisor, and the plan is commended to the notice of all local Governments and administrations, 15. A difficulty is, in some provinces, presented by the circum- stance that the educational standard prescribed for entry into the upper grades of the revenue service is far higher than that which is, or can for some time be, imposed for a circle supervisorship. The difficulty is greatest in those provincesin which education has ‘been most highly developed, in which universities are of the longest Standing, and in which at the same time the inspecting staff has been allowed to fall into the worst condition of neglect and delay. While vbe revenue appointments have gradually become an object of ambition to university graduates, the hereditary officers have been filled by men from whom no educational test of any value has heen required. The one service has slowly advanced, the other slowly declined in quality; a gulf has been created between the two which it is not easy to bridge. In other provinces again, of which the Punjab may be taken as an example, the measures taken to improve the supervisor class were autecedent to the introduction of that high education which is represented by a university. A long period of survey and set- tlement operations, conducted, as a rule, without the assistance of the professional survey department, had created a large supervis- ing staff in Which existing cirele officers were temporarily included, and from which it was easy to select for transfer to the permanent circle staff, intelligent and capable recruits with the very experience that was wanted for the management and control of village officers. On the other hand, the educational standard for higher revenue posts was, as is still the case, low in comparison with that in prov- inces with universities of long standing. The new men, with their practical experience, were found to be often better and more intelligent officers than many of those occupying higher positions in the regular establishments. There has been no wide gulf to bridge, and the dovetailing of the two branches of the service has been, therefore, a simpler matter. 16, The Government of India, while recognising the fact that the attainment of a policy of perfection must be a work of slow growth, conceive it to be necessary that a ‘ working plan’ should be laid down for the gradual development of a sound system, and that the wide breach, where it exists, between the peripatetic service and the administrative service must be gradually narrowed Land Record Establishments. 461 and eventually closed. In provinces which have in recent years undergone survey operations, no wiser course can probably be followed than either to select for the peripatetic appointments the best of the survey supervisors who have gained a practical knowledge of field duties, or to train existing circle officers up to the same standard. But a date should be named after which mere field experience and an acquaintance with tke village Jand records should not, without much higher qualifications than these, admit a candidate to a circle appointment, 17. Taking a broad view of the subject, the Government of India have, upon a review of the conference proceedings and tha letters with which they are forwarded, arrived at the following conolusions. They deem that a serious obligation rests upon the State to atilize to the utmost extent for the benefit of the public service the educational system established in the country ; that the time mast come, as indeed in some parts of India it has come, when all officials required for the conduct of business connected with the land, excepting only those whose duties are of entirely a subordinate character, must attain the educational standard represented by a graduate’s degree or some equivalent diploma; that it is of equal importance that every official who has to do with land adminis- tration should have learned by practical experience the conditions prevailing upon the land with which he will have to deal; that he should be familiar with its agricultural system, with the character and customs of the people uponit, with the methods and principles on which the record of changing facts and circumstances is maintained ; that in this view the experience of the large peripatetic staff em- ployed throughout the empire, to the number of several thousands, on daties which ensure the requisite experience, should not be thrown away ; that no opportunity should be lost of drawing from its ranks selected men of proved excellence fcr service ia the higher appointments; and that in order to give effect to this policy, the educational standard of the peripatetic staff must be gradually so raised as to guarantee the intellectual fitness of the men who are to be drafted from it, With the advance of education, increasing competition for pensioned employment, and a widening opportu nity of promotion to the upper grades of official service, there will, in the opinion of the Government of India, be no need to fear that the field service will fail to attract candidates of high -educationa! attainments. Such a result would be desirable in the interests alone of the maintenance ofa correct land record and of the proper training and control of the village subordinates by whom it is ‘maintained ; but it has an even higher importance in securing the efficiency of the higher official service upon which the conduct of the land administration of the empire mainly devolves. ' 462 THIRD RESOLUTION, Utitization oF Lanp Recorps, 1, In 1874 Her Majesty’s Secretary of State pressed upon the Government of India the desirability of utilizing the facts and statistics obtainable from village records with the object of collect. ing agricultural information, and, in a despatch of the following year on this subject, explained that the object aimed at by Lord Mayo’s Government in proposing the establishment of agricul- tural departments had been the establishment of a specific branch of the administration whose prime duty it should be to suggest measures for the development of agricultural industry; that one part of this duty was to consist in the collection of statistics which might throw light on questions of agriculture and on the possibi- lities of improving the resources of the country ; that the basis of the scheme should be the utilization of the records maintained by village accountants. Four years later the Famine Commissioners, adverting to these injunctions, confirmed the Secretary of State’s view, and re- corded their opinion that‘the revenue system in the greater part o£ British India is such asto present unrivalled means of ascertaining inthe fullest manner all necessary facts relating to ' agriculture, but that those means have nowhere been completely utilized or made as efficient asthey might be.’ They then re- commended that a director of agriculture chosen for his knowledge of the people and particularly of the agricultural classes should be appointed in each province who would control the land-record system ; would advise the local Government on all matters re- lating to agriculture and statistics, and superintend all measures desigued to improve the agriculture of the country. The creation of imperial and provincial departments of land records and agriculture in and after 1881 was designed to fulfil the objects thus explained. The establishment of a scheme for the effective utilization in the interests of agriculture of informatiun obtainable through theland records is therefore a primary duty of the direc- tors of agricultural departments, The question was one of the most important discussed at the recent conferences, 2. The opening Resolution of 1881, in which the duties of the new departments were first described, explained that an examination of the Famine Commissioners’ recommenda- tions in connection with agricultural enquiry showed that their final object was to urge, as a practical outcome of an intelligent scheme of investigation, the policy of maintaining agricultural operations at the highest attainable standard of agricultural efficiency ; that this policy included the prevention of deterioration as well as the attainment of positive improvement ; that it was necessary, therefore, first to localize every agvicultural Utilization of Land Records. 468 defect, then to discover its cause, and, finally, to devise such pro- tective arrangements as may remove or alleviate its injurious action, As an important illustration of the character of the investigation which was to be made, the examination of each agricultural tract in respect to its liability to suffer from drought on the one hand, or the extent to which it was or could be protected from drought, on the other, was suggested. The whole scheme of investigation was afterwards briefly designated as ‘ district analysis. ” 8. The form in which the programme of investigation was put forward in the 1881] Resolution and the special attention which was drawn tothe desirability of mapping out the tracts of a prov- ince in relation to their liability to failure from drought led in some provinces to a misconception of the scheme. It was assumed that a general enquiry into the agricultural condition of each district made once for all, and a special investigation of the liabi- lity of each part of it to failare from drought, would meet the design of the Resolution. It was not clearly apprehended that the scheme was to be slowly and gradually worked out ; that one by one every agricultural defect should be in the course of time closely analyzed and carefully studied with a view to the possible discovery of remedial action; and that for the purpose of ascertaining the exist- ence and extent of each defect, the utmost use should be made of the information which the land records could be made to yield. Thus, while in many parts of India excellent reports, maps, and atlases were published in illustration of the general condition of each district, bo precise enquiry was set on foot as to the agricul- tural circumstances of each village or group of villayes ; as to the particular defect or defeets which prevented each locality from teaching ‘the highest standard of agricultural efficiency ’ ; or as to _ the possibility of remedial action in each case, 4. The enquiries, however, that were actually made in some provinces threw much light on the position, They proved that, notwithstanding the hereditary experience of the Indian cultivator and the special knowledge which he possessed of methods and appliances suited to the locality in which his crops are raised, many defects do exist in the agricultural condition or system of almost every district which, if they cannot be altogether removed, can at least be considerably modified and lessened. At the agricnltural conference of 1890 which met Dr. Voelcker before his report was written, the necessity ‘of laborious investigation before we can trace out the causes which have stimulated develop- ment in some parts of India and retarded it in others’ was pointed out, and the advantage of utilizing village records asa basis for detailed enquiry was urged. Dr. Voelcker’s report went far to prove the existence of innumerable defects in agricultural condi- tions and practices, and the importance in many cases of an in- telligent analysis of facts and statistics, and of well-organized enquiry from village officers, The conference which reviewed Dr. Voelcker’s report in 1893 took the same view. 5. So matters stood when the subject was brought before the recent conferences for consideration and discussion. It was 464 Third Resolution. represented to them that agrienltural failure, ¢.¢., ‘failure to reach the highest attainable standard’ might be‘ (1) of occasional, (2) of gradual, or (3) of persistent character ’ ; that it was to be the object of the whole scheme of enquiry to minimize agricultural distress and agricultural loss in each class of cases ; and that the first step was to decide how far the land-records machinery could be utilized in the investigations under each head, (1) Occasional failure was explained as “ sudden distress due to unforeseen calamity, such as failure of rein, hail, storm, inundations, ete., requiring, as a rules, immediate relief.” In these cases the land records are of primary service to district officials as indicating the extent and character of the calamity. The functions of the director of the land records department are confined to organising or to suggesting how to improve the system under which promptand continuous information supplied by the records should be brought before the responsible authorities and to ascertaining that proper effect is given to the system. It is left to the district officers to take suitable action, The examina- tion which was made at the recent conferencesof the measures which have been taken in the lastfew years to utilize the land records for this purpose proved that the system now established in every part of India in which land records are maintained is ex- cellent, and that the results have already been most satisfactory, (2) Gradual failure was explained as ‘ gradual deterioration due to ascertainable causes requiring early and special measures of frevention and relief.’ Considerable distrass had been known to have occurred in many parts of India in consequence of neglect to relieve the population of agricultural tracts which had suffered from cattle murrains, from swamping due to the interference of drainage by railway embankments or canals, from the growth of a noxious weed, and from other causes which gradually reduce the value of land or affect the prosperity of the people. ‘In almost every povince,’ it was written, ‘ the detailed records now maintained under careful inspection by village officers provide, although in scattered forms and in troublesome detail, all the information necessary for indicating the serious deterioration of any agricultural tract ; and it only remains to make provision for sucha clear and simple abstract of the information and statistics embodied in the village registers as will enable district officers to grasp the pertinent facts without real difficulty or unnecessary waste of time.’ One of the most important results of the recent conferences has been the practical adoption of this plan. In every partof India, in which land records are maintained, a book is now to be kept up by each ‘ circle ’ officer, in which will beentered in English figures under appropriate heads euch statistics as are calculated to show at a glance the advance or decline in prosperity of every village ; such, for instance, as the cultivated and irrigated area of the year, the arrears outstanding, the sales of mortgages of land, and so on. Half an hour’s examination of acircle book thus kept will indicate at once whether a village or group of villages is declining in ‘agricultural condition; and this fact known, the cause of - failure ‘ean be ascertained and remedial action suggested.. It is imnortant Utilization of Land Records. 465 in the opinion of the Government of India that the recommendation, recorded in the proceedings of almost every conference, should be adopted, to the effect that the books should be periodically in- spected by some responeiblejdistrict official, so that within very few years the condition of every village should come under intelligent review, and that notes should be entered by the inspecting officer, ex- plaining the cause of any marked or serious deterioration, and of any suggestions made or action taken to meet the ease. In- dependently of the advantages of the system for purposes of current administration the series of circle books thus maintained will form an historical: record of great value to officers who may be hereafter called upon to revise the assessments of land revenue. Directors of departments of land records and agriculture should be instructed: to consider it one of their chief duties to ascertain that the circle books are punctually and intelligently examined in every district. On the other hand, district officers should be required to com- municate to the Dirzctor, for entry in his office ledgers, the proved. existence of any serious agricultural deterioration that may have occurred in a locality, (3) Persistent failure was defined as failure to reach the highest attainable standard, due to causes or defects of a more or less persis- tent character, and requiring prolonged investigation. Such causes or defects are, it was explained, want of irrigation, frequent liability: to failure of rain, insufficiency in the wood or fuel supply, cattle. diseases, plant diseases and blights, want of drainage, the prevalence of saline efflorescence, proved imperfections in agricultural practices, the want of suitable manures, and so on, 6. It is to this class of cases that Dr. Vuelcker’s report chiefly refers. Many of the defects such as those enumerated demand scientific enquiry by experts including experimental investigations on the departmental farms or on the estates of the Courts of wards or of landlords willing to assist in the work. This branch of en- quiry will be dealt with in the succeeding Resolution. But the land records and the land record establishments can often be utilized for providing a basis for more detailed enquiry. Thus, the distribu- tion of irrigation, the character of the rainfall in each tract, the extent of the wood supply can be ascertained from the records themselves. Information as to the occurrence of particular cattle and plant diseases, the areas affected by the outcrop of salts, facts’ as to agricultural practices, and other agricultural matters can be attained by well-organized enquiry from the cirele and village: officers, to whom a series of questions bearing on the subject under investigation may be circulated, 7. These suggestions are sufficient to indicate the importance of the information which the land records and the land record es-. tablishmevts can under intelligent direction be made to yield, The plan of enquiry must, however, in each ease be worked out by the, director of the agricultaral department with the assistance of the ex~ perts placed at his disposal ; and whatever system be adopted,. the work is one which in its broader aspects must extend over periods of many years, The necessitv for detailed enquiries will 20 466 Third Resolution. robably never cease, Whether in the working plan which is to be faid down enquiry at any one time should be limited to one or two subjects was a question which was discussed at the recent con- ferences, but will be dealt with inthe succeeding Resolution. What the Government of India desire now to insist upon is that, what- ever may be the agricultural defect which is brought under in- vestigation, the officers of the agricultural department should, as a first. step, consider how far the land records and the establish- ments maintaining them can be utilized for providing information necessary to the enquiry. 8, Although the relation of land record establishments to famine administration was not included among the questions placed before either the conference of 1898 or those recently held, it must not be forgotten that one of the objects with which the Famine Commissioners recommended the organization of those establish- ments as well as of the formation of provincial departments of agri- culture and land records wasin order thatthe administrative aud executive officials responsible for dealing with famine might at alt times have at their command both the fullest information regard- ing the condition of every agricultural tract and the people upon it, and in seasons of scarcity be provided with a well-organized agency through which, in the first place, continuous intelligence of the state of every village and every suffering person in it would be communicated to them, and, in the second place, direct relief could be in case of need administered under their direction. These first objects of the land record machinery were fully considered in the famine codes drawn up in 1882, immediately after the constitution of the new departments had been directed. Fortunately, since those codes were first issued no scrious famine or widespread scarcity has until now afflicted the country, and time has been thus given to bring the establishments into good working order. Their utility has indeed been partly proved on the occurrence of sporadic distress iu limited areas during the past 15 years. But full evidence of the immense advantages foreseen by the Famine Commissioners, resulting from the existence of a well-organized “ intelligence de- pee has only been brought now before the Government of ndia. 9. The key note of the svstem is the division of tke whole country into easily managed circles of 50 to 100 villages each. It has been estimated that in the temporary settled provinces there is at the present time at the disposal of the district officers an army of some 200,000 village officials who form a well trained and Gisci- plined rank and file, commanded by a staff of 5,000 or 6,CO0 circle inspectors, who may be well compared to the commissioned officers of regiments, The duties laid down for the latter in the famine codes and by provincial rules are that in ordinary years they should, as already explained, provide the fullest information and statistics regarding the crops and agricultural conditions of every village,—a duty which in every province has in recent years been, so far as cricumstanees have admitted, well performed; and that in times of famine they should at frequent intervals visit every village Utilization of Land Records. 467 and, if necessary, every house for the purpose of ascertaining whe- ther any person or persons are suffering from want of food or from sickness ; whether relief is distributed in accordance with direc- tions received ; and whether private charity is encouraged and organized ; thatthey should promote the employment of Jabour on agricultural operations ; invite applications to construct wells and other agricultural improvements ; make known the places at which relief works are opened, the nature of each work, and the classes of persons to whom such work is open; conduct the dis- tribution of gratuitous relief to persons unable to leave their homes ; report on the price of food, the state of the people and cattle, the condition of the water-supply ; and generally bring to the immediate notice of the district officials any occurrence deserv- ing attention. In the performance of these duties each circie in- spector has, to aid him, some 20 to 40 village officers. 10. Under the stress of the present calamity by which so many - provinces of the empire are afflicted, the services of the land record establishments have proved of the greatest value, and have materi- ally reduced the ditficulties which on former occasions of famine re- sulted from the absence of organized machinery. 304 468 FOURTH RESOLUTION. —mt Sclgn11F10 AND NATIONAL ENQUIRY UNDER YMPERIAL DIRECTION. It has been briefly explained in the prefatory Resolution of this series that the responsibility for maintaining and developing a ‘ national scheme of agricultural enquiry’ devolves primarily upon the imperial department of revenue and agriculture. The term ‘agricultural enquiry ’ must here be understood in its widest sense, It must be interpreted to include investigations in all branches of science which bear directly or indirectly on agricultural interests and on the development of the products of the soil, and the word ‘national’ must be held to apply to all enquiry which cannot, for sufficient reasons, be conveniently confined within geog raphical or administrative boundaries, The national scheme of agricultural enquiry thus explained embraces, so far as it has up to the present time been developed, the following sciences or fields of investi- gation i= (1) Geography .« . . Represented by the Survey Department. (2) Geology : : . By the Geological Department. (3) Meteorology . . . (Including solar, magnetic and astro- nomical observations) by the Meteorological Department. — (4) Botany ° . . By the “ Botanical Survey of India ”. (5) Economie Products . By the Department under the Reporter on Economic Products. (6) Veterinary Science . By the Civi! Veterinary Department. (7) Bacteriology . . By the Bacteriological Branch of the Veterinary Department. (8) Agricultural Science . By the Department of Agricultural Chemistry. (9) Entomology . » By the National Museum at Calcutta. (10) Statistics . . a By the Statistical Department. (11) Forestry . e . By the Inspector General of Forests. 2, Tke chief considerations which justify'the maintenance of imperial direction over investigations conducted in the fields of enquiry summarized in the preceding paragraph will be briefly noted. The first consideration is that scientific investigations must, with few exceptions, be national and not provincial,—in other words, that scientific research cannot, as a rule, be confined within administrative boundaries, In 1890 it became necessary to point out to the Secretary of State how the system of provincializing investigation in the field of botany ‘had led to the curious restriction of research to special localities or provinces, while others, forming in the aggregate the larger section of ‘the empire, had been left without investigation of any kind.’ But inequality of results is not the only defect which results from confining scientific enquiries to separate provincial action, The unnecessary duplica- tion of labour is another and perhaps more serious defect. For Scientific and national enquiry under imperial direction, 469 example, the economic products of two adjacent provinces are to a material degree the same, the exceptions forming buta small percentage of the whole. A cattle murrain, again, may be due to identical causes throughout India. It would be a waste of labour that simultaneous enquiries should be made by scientific experts as to the botanical character of the same plant in two contiguous areas, or that the bacteriological origin of an epidemic should be sought for at great cost to the State at every provincial centre. Such work can be done once for all at one place for at least a group of provinces. The second consideration’ is the importance of securing first class experts for purposes of scientific research. The value of results depends mainly on the competence and qualifications of the investigator, especially in a country in which conditions vary much from those prevailiag in Europe. In view of this circumstance and of the financial impossibility of providing every province witb a staff of first class and highly paid experts in each branch of scientific research, it becomes necessary to place scientific investigation, as a rule, under central direction. The third consideration is that scientific investigation must be conducted on the basis of a well-considered working-plan. The development of the scheme cannot be entirely left to the occasional and partial initiation of individual governments. In the despateh of 1890, already quoted, it was shown that the distribution of scientific research has hitherto been unequal, both in relation to the sciences represented and to the areas covered by it, partly because ne authority had been made responsible for initiating research in new fields, and partly because action taken ip one province had not been taken in others, Systematic botany, for instance, in some provinces, and systematic geology throughout India, have been strongly represented for a long series of years, whereas the study of the useful and economic products of the country and the practical investigation of minerals had until very recevtly been neglected, | while in sume of those fields in which modern science has in recent years been working in Europe, such as for instance that of. bacteriology, research has hardly commenced, 8. In accepting the responsilility for the general direction and control of the scheme of national research, the Government of India have no desire to exclude the co-operation of local Govern-. ments and Administrations. ‘Yhey would, on the contrary, wish to obtain their advice and assistance at every important step that may be taken towards the development of the scheme, and to receive for favourable consideration any suggestions for initiating or extending scientific research, of which the importance may be shown. Nor will they refuse, whenever circumstances may admit, to transfer any expert attached to an imperial department tothe temporary or partial control and direction of the provincial authorities. Effect has indeed in recent years been given to this policy by placing officers of the geological and botanical departments for a definite period under the orders of a local Government, and again by arranging that the services of certain officers of the meteorological department 470 Fourth Resolution. should be ehared by the imperial and provincial authorities, Thus the national character of the scheme of research does not altogether preclude provincial independence and co-operation. 4. In 1881, when the orders of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State were received for the creation of agricultural departments upon which the responsibility of organizing a scheme of enquiry was to be placed, the position was found to be this :—Geographi- cal exploration was in the hands of a large imperial department of survey ; geology was represented by a well equipped staff of im- perial experts ; research in systematic botany was confined to Ben- gal and the North-Western Provinces, A meteorological depart- ment comprised one imperial officer and four officers partly imperial and partly provincial. Astronomical, magnetic and solar observa- tions were shared by Madras, Bombay and the Government of India, Forestry was represented by provincial and imperial departments. No other acience found a place in the scheme. Since 1881 material expansion, sometimes of the icvestigating staff, sometimes of the programme committed to them, has been effected. A brief account will now be given of the measures which have been taken for the development of enquiry in each field of investigation since that year. 5. Geography was in 1881 represented by a well equipped and important survey department, of which the cost to the State con- siderably exceeded 20 lakhs a year, The programme which it bad undertaken was a large one, and may be briefly described as the trigonometrical, the topographical, and the cadastral surveys of India, In 1881 tbe first of these great surveys had almost approached completion. Considerable progress had been made in the second, while the third was shared with local Governments, each of the presidencies, for instance, having separate cadastral departments of a professional character. At the same time the recently iitro- duced policy of financial decentralization augmented the tendency in many provinces to effect cheap cadastral surveys with non-pro- fessional establishments, thus entailing a danger that the provin- cial maps could no longer be accepted for embodiment in the geo- graphical charts of the professional department, Previously to 1881 financial considerations had required that imperial expenditure on geographical survey should be reduced. An immediate limit of 20 lakhs had been laid down. But the sud- den reduction of a long established service was found impossible, and shortly after 1881 the alternative was adopted of diverting a large portion of the staff from unremunerative to remunerative work, ‘The latter was found in the detailed surveys of forest and of agricultural lands, For this purpose local Governments were in- vited to permit the professional parties to lay down for each district a skeleton map which should be scientifically connected with the stations, of the trigonometrical charts, asa basis for the field or cadastral maps plotted in by the cheaper agency, and were asked at the same time to atilize the survey officials for instructing the local surveyors, This policy was carried ont to its fullest extentin the Central Provinces, where almost the entire survey was conducted on Scientific and national enquiry under imperial direction, 471 these principles, Partial effect was given to it in the North- Western Provinces, Burma and Assam. Nothing could be done in provinces in which, as in the Punjab, cadastral maps were approach- ing completion by a well trained loca] agency, but, on the other hand, in provinces where the local agency had not been trained, much of the field plotting itself had to be done by the professional surveyors, The advantage to geographical science of the system advocated is that wherever the field maps have been thus professionally con= nected with the trig onometrical stations, new topographical details, entered from time to time as changes in the features of the land surface may require in the field maps, can bz at once transferred to the geographical charts. Simultaneously with the development of the large geographical scheme, as represented by the three important branches of survey, other scientific work, such as tidal observations, latitude investiga- tions, and cartographical development, has beeu carried on by experts of the department. In the meantime the staff of the imperial department bas been gradually reduzed, and will, as the demands on it diminish, be brought under further contraction. At rpesent the recent annexation of Upper Burma, the development of the North-Western frontier, the opening of a cadastral survey in Bengal, the new requirements of forest departments and the uncompleted portion of the topographical scheme in the older provinces, form an extensive programme, for the execution of which large establishments are still required. 6. Geology has for many years past been represented by a strong corps of experts which, till 1881, was mainly devoted to the scientific examination of rocks and strata. After 1481, the policy was introduced of directing the attention and labours of the geolo- gical officers also to practical investigations, In 1893, the depart- ment was reorganized. Scientific exploration was, as a basis for the study in detail of the mineral resources of the country, still to hold the first place, but a small section of the officers employed, in- cluding, whenever required, experts imported for temporary employ- ment, was set apart for the special examination of mineral fields. Changes were made in the rules under which recruits admitted into the department were required to undergo practical training in mines or in laboratories. At the same time the principle of decentraliza- tion was so far adopted as to admit of the services of a geological officer being temporarily transferred fur sufficient reasons to any provincial Government, Recently an inspector of mines has been attached to the department, 7. Meteorology was, in 1881, represented partly by an imperial ard partly by provincialdepartments. The Famine Commissioners laid muck stress on the promotion of meteorological enquiry. 1t was, they wrote, of primary importance that meteorological obser. vation should not only be maintained in complete efficiency, but also so strengthened and improved as to ensure the early and -punc- tual supply of information to officials and to the public of weather conditions and prospects. Protection against famine, the safety of 472 Fourth Resolution, shipping, warning against floods, were objects to be held in view. Since 1881 the department has been materially strengthened. A second European expert has been attached to the central office, A complete system of warning signals has been established along the coasts. The number of observing stations bas been considerably increased inland, Information is brought by telegraph from 116 instead of as formerly from 50 of the principal stations; detailed statistics illustrated by charts are daily despatched by post, and an abstract of them by telegram, to every part of India, The character and causes of meteorological phenomena which occur on the con- tinent or on the adjacent seas are being carefully worked out, The provincial officers, who have other local duties not con- nected with meteorology to perform, conduct their meteorological work in co-operation with and under the general guidance of the central department and furnish the local Governments with such sup- plementary details as they may require. 8. Botany, like geology, is ascience which has been officially represented from the earlier years of the century. But, as was long the case in Europe, investigation was confined to the field of syste- matic botany, ¢.¢., to the collecting, arranging and naming of species and varieties of plants. Physiological botany and the economic and agricultural uses of plants were not made the subject of organ- ized enquiry. As systematic botany was at one time a favourite occupation of most men with scientific training and tastes, much had been done independently of official agency by medical officers and others in many parts of India. But no organized scheme had ever been worked out for the whole country, In 1881 two officers, one at Calcutta and one at Saharanpur, were officially engaged on completing the botanical survey of Indian plants, but their labours were practically restricted to the two provinces of Bengal and the North-Western Provinces in which they were located. In 1885 a third officer was, at the request of the Government of Madras, attached to that Presidency. Thus, of all India, only three provinces were included in the area of botanical enquiry. In 1890 the Government of India, in communication with the Kew authorities, expanded the scheme of botanical investigation. The Calcutta officer was placed at the head of a‘ botanical curvey of India ;’ the entire empire was, for the purposes of the survey, divided between the three experts, with the occasional assistance of a fourth in Bombay ; botanical investigation was to take, as far as possible, a practical direction ; and the officers of the provincial de- partments of agriculture were to co-operate with the botanical officers in arranging working-plans of enquiry. Whether in view of the needs to be metin other branches of scientific investigation the staff employed on the botanical survey of India can always be maintained at its present strength, isa question which is still under consideration, 9, The economic products of India had not previously to 1881 been brought under systematic investigation. Much scattered in- formation had been embodied in official and private publications, in Scientific and nalt:-nal enquiry under imperial direction. 473 scientific journals and the like, but was of little practical use, be- cause it had not been collated and published in any accessible form. Advantage was, therefore, taken of the various requisitions made for collections of the products of India, on behalf of a series of in- ternational exhibitions ending with the Indo-Colonial Exhibition of 1886, to allot to an expert official the duty of making a fall col- lection for all India, illustrated by a catalogue raisonnée which has recently been completed and published as a ‘dictionary of the econ- omic products of India.’ The work has occupied 10 years. In 1887 the appointment, hitherto a temporary one, was made per- manent, The collections were placed in the national museum at Caleutta, and the officer holding the appointment, whose duties had been, pending the completion of the dictionary, confined to the col- lation of matter already recorded, is now engaged in making sup- plementary investigations regarding those economic products in respect to which information is wanting or incomplete. 10. Veterinary scienceThis includes the investigation of animal diseases, and of the means by which th ey may be prevented or cured, The enquiry is one of great importance to agricultural in- dustry. The annual loss due to animal disease has been estimated in crores of rupees. It has indeed been officially stated by the local Government of one of the northern provinces that ia the course of any five years the destruction caused by rinderpest alone was greater than that caused by drought. Up to the year 1881 the only step taken towards serious inves- ligation was the appointment in 1868 by Lord Mayo’s Govern- ment of an important Commission whose report fully confirmed the necessity of further enquiry and of well organized measures, No further action, however, was taken until 1890, when proposals were sanctioned by Her Majesty’s Secretary of State involving the attachment of a veterinary officer transferred from the military staff to every province and of two officers with central duties to the imperial department of revenue and agriculture, A scheme was then drawn up for a so-called veterioary survey of cattle and of cattle diseases. The survey is primarily directed by one of the imperial officers whois engaged with the co-operation of the provincial o flicers in collecting and collating iaformation through- out India regarding the various breeds of cattle and other animals useful to agriculture in the country and of the diseases to which they are subject. 11. Bacteriology.—Simultaneously with the veterinary survey investigation is being made as to the possibilities of preventing or curing cattle disease. ‘The treatment of many diseases is known and veterinary schools under the direztion of the provincial officers have now been established at almost every provincial centre for the instruction of native practitioners, A lead in this direction had indeed already been given in Bombay, the Puvjab and Madras, But no successful method of dealing with the most fatal and destructive epidemics, such as anthrax, rinderpest, and surra—a disease confined to hot and moist climates—had yet been discovered. Three possisle systems of dealing with them had, from time to 474 Fourth Resolution. time, been suggested which may be summarized as extermination, segregation, and inoculation. The first of the three, extermination of diseased or suspected animals, is the method in which most confidence is placed in European countries, but, owing to religious prejudices, is impossible in India, The second, segregation of infected animals, cannot be effected without legislative measures and a large staff of inspectors or police, Various proposals have since 1881 been submitted to the Government of India for legislative action, but have been, with the general concurrence of all local Governments consulted, condemned in view of the harrass- ment to the people and the great expenditure to the State that they would entail. The third measure, inoculatiou, which demands bacteriological investigation, is, therefore, the only preventive measure that may be possible, except indeed in those eases in which medicinal cures cau be discovered. In this view the services of a coms petent expert, Dr. Lingard, were obtained from home, and a bacterio« logical laboratory was established at Poona, The climate, however, not proving favourable for laboratory investigation, the institution was transferred to a colder site in the Himalayas, In the mean- while the character and causes of the destructive epidemic, known as surra, of which the wide distribution had not hitherto been suspected, and which is due to a blood parasite, of which the life- history could be worked out in any climate, were investigated by the expert at Poona, and the valuable results of his researches have already been published. The Government of India is now considering the desirability of strengthening, by the addition of a second expert, the bacterio- logical staff attached tothe Himalayan laboratory. Rinderpest, which was declared by Lord Mayo’s Commission to be more destructive than all other diseases put together, and which is suspected to be probably amenable to vaccination, will be the primary subject of investigation. The enquiry is one to which epecial importance is attached, in view of the fact that it can only be conducted in a country in which, like India, the slaughter of suspected animals is notcompelled by law. The discovery where- ever made of an effective vaccine for rinderpest would, therefore, be a boon to every country in the world. 12, Agricultural science is a field in which provincial, as con- trasted with national enquiry, can be usefully carried on. Indeed most of the work mustbe done by local observers and experts. Nevertheless it was deemed that, as urged by a conference of provincial officers in 1885, the services of a first class agricultural chemist of European reputation as an investigutor of many difficult problems of importance connected with soils and cultivation throughs out India, would, if attached to the imperial department, be of considerable use. His main duties would be, in consultation with provincial officers, to co-ordinate scientific investigations, to initiate enquiries, to construct working-plans for provincial farms, and generally to guide with his advice the course of experiment and to preserve continuity of action. He was intended indeed’ to be little more than the professional adviser of provincial departments. Scientific and national enquiry under imperial direction, 475 1t was in pursuance of correspondence with Her Majesty’s Secretary of State on this subject that Dr, Voelcker was deputed by the Royal Agricultural Society of Great Britain to ‘ advise on the best course to be adopted in order to apply the teachings of agricultural chemistry to and in order to effect improvements in Indian agriculture.’ He fully confirmed the advice of the 1885 conference. He gave a long list of questions which demanded scientifie investigation ; dwelt on the necessity of scientific advice to provincial departments; explained the advantage of central direction for the preservation of continuity; recommended that instruction in agricultural chemistry should be provided for natioral colleges of agriculture ; and urged that * general agricultural enquiry’ could not be conducted without men who had made agricultural chemistry a pacticular study. The conference which met Dr, Voelcker in 1890 supported his opinion that an expert was reqoired for purposes of scientific investigation independently of the needs of agricaltural education, Acting on this advice the Government of India applied for the services of two experts—one for assisting in the conduct of laboratory experiment and for lecturing in agricultural colleges ; the other for the more important duty of guiding general agricultural investigation, The valuable report which Dr. Voelcker, himself an agricultural chemist, had made on the general conditions and needs of Indian agriculture, gave sufficient promise that the measure would lead to the ultimate development of the sound working-plans of scientific enquiry and experiment. Two experts selected by Dr. Voelcker, under whom they had served as assistants, were accordingly deputed for a term of five years. Sufficient time has not yet been afforded to judge of the practical success of their mission. 13. Eutomology isa science which, as applied to agriculture, must be held to include investigstion into the causes of all plant diseases. The loss occasioned by diseases of plants is even greater than that caused by diseases of animals. For instance, the value of wheat annually destroyed by the weevil alone is estimate: at some crores of rupees. As in the case of cattle diseases, there are two distinct branahes of enquiry—the onea survey of plant diseases, the general distribution and character of each, and the extent to which damage is caused by them ; the other an investi- gation as to the causes of each disease, and as to the possibilities of prevention or remedial action. Again, the diseases themselves must be classed under two broad divisions, vtz., those which are due to insect pests, of which the life history is known, or can with comparative ease be worked out, and those which are due to obseure blights, of which the origin and transmigrations are imperfectly understood. Up to 1888 entomology had not been represented. And since that year the only agency which the Government of India has had the opportunity of employing on research in this field has been one of the officers on the staff of the national museum at Calcutta, by whom a survey of the insect pests injuriously affecting agricul- ture was commenced in 1888 in Correspondence and. consultation 476 Fourth Resolution. with the officials of provincial departments of agriculture, and by whom, under the direction of the Trustees, a great deal of valuable information as to the character and distribution of insect: pests has since been collected and published. The importance of prosecuting such enquiries with vigour under competent experts has been urged at many of the recent conferences, and the question of expanding the scheme of investigation with the view of coveriag the whole ground of enquiry is under the consideration of the Government of India, The subject isone which has received’ considerable attention in the United States under the direction of the Washington agricultural bureau, and it is satisfactory to learn from the reports published by the Indian museum officer that many of the entomo- logical enemies to agriculture are common to India and America, and have been more or less successfully combated to the material advantage of agricultural interests in the latter country, Practical results ought, therefore, when the agricultural community are sufficiently educated to accord their co-operation, to be quickly achieved. 14. Statistics may properly be included in any scheme of scientific research, and oceupy indeed the first place in the pro- gramme committed to the special departments created under the orders of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State in 1881. The com- mercial and agricultural statistics of each province had, from the time when they were first collected, been, as arule, reviewed and turned to practical use by the local authorities, but no measures had until recently been taken for their comprehensive examination and review by any central bureau. In 1895 proposals were submitted to and sanctioned by Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for the constitution of av imperial department of statistics. It was explained in the Resolution announcing this measure that the disconnected manner in which provincial statistics had hitherto been compiled and published seriously detracted from their value; that their intelligent examination, collation, and discussion was necessary in order to secure uniformity and to render them as use- ful as they mighé and should be; and that they would henceforth be placed under the control of an officer skilled in such matters who would deal with them continuously upon a uniform plan, and would collate and publish the results in a properly digested form. The first series of reviews will shortly be issued by the newly- constituted statistical bureau. 15. Forestry is a science which has during the last 20 years received much practical attention. A properly organized depart- ment was created in 1864, “and has from that time continuously been under the central guidance of expert officials brought from Germany, to which country India owes the successful introduction of scientific forestry into this continent. The executive adminis- tration of forests in each province is in the hands of the local authorities, but the imperial Government has nevertheless a large share in developing the system and principles upon which the science of forestry is practically applied, All forest officers may Scientific and national enquiry under tmpertal direction, 477 be said now to be experts, and for the most part their scientific investigations are carried out under the direction of the local Govern- ments whom they serve. On the other hand the education of the European officers in the science of forestry is provided for ata college supported by the imperial Government in England, and of the native officials at a national school directed by an imperial officer in India. All schemes for the management and develop- ment of provincial forests technically called ‘ working-plans ’ are in their scientific aspect scrutinized and corrected by imperial officers: and the forests themselves are periodically visited by an imperial Inspector General with a view to the guidance of the executive officials in the scientific investigations which are to deter- mine the character of the trees adapted to each locality and climate and the appropriate treatment ofthem. Finally, it is the task of the Government of India to formulate, in consultation with local Governments and the imperial experts, the broad principles upon which the scheme of investigation and development is to be based. 16. The share in the national scheme of the agricultural en- quiry which devolves primarily upon the imperial authorities has now been explained ; the measures taken, since the new department was created in 1881], towards the expansion and promotion of scientific and agricultural enquiry under central direction have been briefly described; and the position in which the programme now stands has been roughly indicated. There are still many defects in the general scheme. It is still unequal and incomplete. What may be termed the older sciences—geography, geology, and botany—continue, for instance, to occupy a much greater share of the State expenditure devoted to scientific investigation than the newer sciences which comprise researches into the obscure diseases of animals and plants. Long standing departments have profited by the traditional respect which has been paid to them. Those of more recent birth have had to struggle against financial difficulties and against the opposition which is necessarily offered to anything new. The Government of India have not omitted to take under consideration the question of equalizing the claims of each branch of scientific enquiry, and will as time goes on take such oppor- tunities as may offer themselves of expanding investigation in the more modern fields of research. 17, The Government of India cannot, however, work alone, In view of the considerations which have been explained they are compelled to initiate and organize under central direction the various departments of national enquiry which have been described, but the work that is done in the field requires the active and sympathetic co-operation of all local and provincial authorities. Asalready indicated, this principle has been recognized by the Gevernment of India in decentralizing, so far as it has been possible, the operations of the survey, of the geological and of other departments, of which the officers have been temporarily placed under the orders of provincial authorities. The occasion is now taken to explain to local Governments and Administrations the material aid which can be given to the development and to the effective working of the scheme by the active co-operation and 478 Four'h Resolution, intelligent adviceof the provincial departments of agriculture. Already in the proceedings of the recent conferences the Govern- ment of India is pleased to observe that strong recommendations have been recorded in favour of promoting active research, in con- nection with the nature, prevention, and cure of plant diseases due to insect pests and other more obscure causes. So, too, at the agricul- tural conference of 1893 a request was made that botanical investi- gation might be made to take a more practical direction. Appeals such as these for the extension and development of scientific enquiry from departments and officials who have the opportunity of observing in the course of their field duties the real needs of the agricultural community will at the same time assist the Govern- ment of India in developing the scheme of investigation in right directions and strengthen their hands in organizing on a sound basis a staff of scientific investigators. 18. But the duties of agricultural departments will not end here. The officers of the departments should take every opportunity of working out, in conference and personal consultation with the expert investigators, a plan of operations, and of assisting them in obtaining the facts and statistics which they may require. Thus in the case of botany they should explain to the botanical expert when he visits or is invited to the province in what directions further information is required regarding agricultural plants, and should assist him to compile, and, if necessary, to publish a complete account of the field crops, fodders, and other useful products of the locality. Similar action may be taken in the case of minerals in consultation with the geological officers. Again, they should make themselves acquainted with the measures being taken by the veter- inary officers for the survey and study of cattle disease, and should assist them in obtaining the information which they may wish to collect from agriculturists. They should bring to the notice of the reporter of economic products any facts and details which are likely to b2 of interest to him, and supply him freely with informa- tion under all branches of their work which it may be desirable for him to publish ; they should bring to the notice of the forest officers or of the authorities responsible for the administration of land the needs of each locality ‘for ‘forest or fodder reserves, and skould assist them to devise useful schemes by which require- ments may be met. Above all, they should take the utmost ad- vantage of the advice and guidance of the agricultural experts attached to the imperial department whose services have been freely placed at their disposal by the Government of India, and who themselves stand in need of the local knowledge and special experience which only the provincial officers possess. If during the next few years the active and intelligent co- cperation of the provincial officers is thus accorded to the various departments and experts who are engaged in the investigations which directly or indirectly are required by agricultural interests, the Government of India are assured that, with the advice and assistance of local Governments and Administrations, they will be able to effect material progress in the great national work of scien- tific research, 479 FIFTH RESOLUTION. SorENTIFIC AND LOCAL ENQUIRY UNDER PROVINCIAL DIRECTION. 1. It is important to bear in mind that the creation of agri- cultural departments in India has been due to the occurrence of famines. The Commissions appointed on the occasion of two serious famines, in 1866 and 1878, to advise the Government on the action to be taken for the mitigation of distress caused by failure of harvests in the future, recommended, as a principal meas sure, the creation of agricultural departments for the institution of scientific enquiry and experiment which should lead to the gradual increase of the food-supply of the country and to the greater sta- bility of the agricultural outturn. The scarcity by which so many parts of the empire have, in the present year, been afflicted brings renewed importance to the main object for which agricultural departments were designed, and imposes fresh responsibility upon all local Governments and Administrations to give the fullest pos- sible effect to the policy advocated, a policy which was explained in the Famine Commission’s report of 1830 in the following words: — ‘Qur report,’ they wrote, ‘has clearly shown how greatly agricul- ‘ ture predominates over all other interests and employments in ‘ which the people are engaged ; how essential we think it that tech- ‘nical agriculture should be called in to enable the productive power ‘of the soil to be applied in the most effective manner, not merely to ‘add to the wealth of the country, but also to secure a food-supply ‘ which shall keep pace with the increase of the population.’ 2. In the opening Resolution of 1881, in which the programme of the new department constituted was set forth, the Govern- ment of India endorsed this view; they explained that the chief aim set before agricultural departments by the Famine Commis- siopers was ‘ the maintenance of agricultural operations at the highest attainable standard of efficiency.’ They admitted that the first step must be the organization of machinery by which facts and statis- tics could be collected; that the ascertainment of agricultural defects was necessary before remedies could be provided to cure them; that the departments themselves must be made financially useful to the administration previously to embarking upon schemes involving material expenditure ; that as it would only be through, and by, the native community that agricultural improvements could, on aby important scale, be carried into the country, measures must be taken to secure their co-operation by a proper system of intelligent instruction in the schools; but they agreed that when preliminary action had been taken to attain these objects, the principal efforts of the departments were to be directed to ascertaining how agricul- tural defects could be cured; by what methods agricultural produce could be increased, and by what measures the stability of the agri- cultural outturn could be strengthened and maintained. 480 Fifth Resolution. 8. During the first few years after the constitution of the provincial departments the Government of India were content to know that the new establishments were devoting their main at- tention to the organization of the system under which agricultural facts and statistics were to be collected with a view to their utiliza- tion—firstly, for the introduction of remunerative reforms into the land revenue administration; and secondly, as a basis for agricul-. tural experiment and improvement. They proposed, however, that. when sufficient progress had been made in this direction, renewed attention should be drawn to the main object for which the new departments were created. And an earlier occasion than that now presented would have been taken to discuss with local Governments and Administrations the general plan on which agricultural experi- ment and reform should proceed, but for the desire of Her Majesty’s’ Secretary of State that ona matter of such great importance to the country the opinion of an acknowledged agricultural expert should first be obtained. It was in accordance with this view that Dr. Voelcker, the consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society, was deputed to this country with instructions ‘ to advise on ‘the best course to be adopted in order to effect improvements in ‘Indian agriculture.’ Acknowledging the judiciousness of a measure which was designed to prevent the inauguration of extravayant. and ill-considered schemes of agricultural reform, the Government of India deemed it wise to take the utmost advantage of Dr. Voelcker’s mission by inviting local Governments and Administra- tions to depute such officers and experts as might be most compe-. tent to assist him with their combined advice to meet him, on the conclusion of his first tour round India in 1890, at a general con- ference, the object of which was declared to be ‘to secure the enun-* ciation by the Government of India of those general principles which it is required to lay down in such form as will primd facie be acceptable to local Governments.? Dr. Voelcker availed him- self of the advice of the conference, of the value of which he recorded his acknowledgments, in the exhaustive report which he submitted two years later and in which he recommended that positive action should be taken in many directions. Again the Government of India considered it desirable that, before dealing with these recom- mendations, or formulating principles based upon them, a second conference of selected officers and experts from all provinces should be assembled in 1893 to di-cuss the measures finally suggested by Dr. Voelcker. The Government of India were thus constrained to await not only the recommendations of Dr. Voelcker himself and of the conferences which examined his proposals, but also the views’ and opinions of local Governments and Administrations before endeavouring to formulate the principles upon which the agricul- tural reforms advocated by the Famine Commissioners should be attempted. In order to ensure a full and careful ccnsideration of the questions concerned conferences were held fora third time in each province during the recent cold weather. The time has now come when His Excellency in Council is in a position to announce the general plan upon which the provincial departments of agricul- Scientific and local enguiry ander provincial direction, 481 ture should be called upon to base their efforts to fulfil the prin« cipal object for which they were designed and created. 4, There is, perhaps, no subject upon which more diverse opinions have been expressed than that of the possibility of improving under official direction the agricultural conditions of India. It has been held that the natives of an oriental country have learned by experi- ence the methods best suited to their own soils and climate ; that practices successful in the western are unsuited to the eastern hemisphere; that the lessons taught on an English farm have no bearing on the cultivation of an Indian field; that the labour-saving machines of Europe and America are useless in a country where manual labour is extraordinarily cheap; that interference with the indigenous system of agriculture is dangerous; and that, above all, officials who have had no agricultural training are less suited than any others to direct or suggest reforms. While admitting that these and similar arguments require that great caution should be exercised in framing official schemes for the improvement of agriculture in any part of the empire, the Government of India cannot allow them to be accepted as barring the prosecution of official effort. The time has indeed arrived when neither the imperial nor provincial Governments are justified in taking up any such position. Putting aside all other consideras tions, the strong expression given to opposite views by the two Commissions appointed by Her Majesty’s Secretary of State to advise the Indian Government on these matters, vzz., by the Famine Commission of 1880 and by the special expert sent out ten years later—views confirmed by conferences of sélected officers and experts from all provinces—has practically taken the decision of the issue out of their hands. At the same time the Government of India are convinced on independent grounds that official direction of efforts aimed at agricultural reform will be, and indeed has been, in this country productive of practical results-of importance. It is true that hitherto in accordance with the deliberate policy put for- ward in 1881, and for the reasons already explained, the attention of agricultural departments in the provinces has been diverted from, rather than directed to, positive agricultural reforms ; that they have been urged to effect financial economies and to organize careful schemes of agricultural enquiry before entering upon a serious eampaign in the field of agricultural experiment; that they have been told not to expect widespread results until the educational system of the coantry has been improved. Nevertheless in some provinces, and notably in the two presidencies of Madras and Kom- bay, not only has considerable advance been made in establishing schemes of useful and scientific experiments underthe direction of competent experts, but examples have been forthcoming of their financial value to the State and to the agricultural community. Failures have, it is true, been numerous, but, as pointed out at the Bombay Conference, a failure means at least success in setting a doubtful question at rest, while one financial success outweighs the cost of many failures, A few instances noticed in the proceedings of the recent conferencesor in Dr. Voelcker’s report may be given of substantial and profitable results which, amid many failures, have followed agricultural investigations officially directed. 31 43% Fifth Resolution. 6. (1) In 1877 aconference attended by officers of the geological and of the revenue and irrigation departments of more than one province, of whom two were the late and present secretaries of the imperial department of revenue and agriculture, was held in a dis- trict of the North-West Provinces for the parpose of discussing the possible methods of reclaiming lands rendered unculturable by an excess of salts. There are in various parts of India, and espe- cially in the north, several thousands of square miles of lands thus excluded from cultivation, An elaborate scheme of experiments, including flooding, drainage, the application of chemical and other manures, and various methods of agricultural treatment, was laid down by the conference, and was carried out by experts of the agricultural and irrigation departments. After some years, a system of treatment, within the reach of any enterprising agricul- turist, was developed which admits of the profitable reclamation of saline lands hitherto condemned as unculturable. Although the widespread extension of the process of such profitable reclamation cannot be expected until the land-owning classes have been so educated as to take spontaneous interest in the work, yet the results obtained have proved that a material addition to the cultivated area of the country can, in the course.of time, be made, and that saline land once thoroughly reclaimed may be made capable of producing excellent crops. Itis estimated that every hundred square miles that can be recovered will, if, as is often the case, the land is within reach of the canals, produce annually upwards of a million of maunds of food-grains. (2) In Bombay the Agricultural Department undertook the introduction of European methods of manufacturing dairy produce. A Swiss experi was imported and experiments were set on foot. The following account of the results is given in the proceedings of the recent conference held in the Bombay Presidency. ‘ No enquiry * was necessary to prove the superiority of the English and continen- ‘tal methods. What was essential was to popularize the improved ‘ methods and teach the use of improved machinery. Local dairies ‘ were established af Poona and Bombay. The demonstration was ‘successful, and as success was secured the departmental dairies were ‘closed. Up to date about five lakhs of rupees worth of improved ‘dairy machinery has been imported and the improved methods have ‘spread throughout India. Milk separators are now privately set ‘up in villages on railway lines and the separated cream imported to ‘ cities, where it is made up into butter whence it is largely exported ‘to foreign countries. The price of milk in out-lying villages has ‘ risen and milch cattle have increased in number.’ The success obtained in Bombay led to the temporary transfer of the Swiss expert to the North-West Provinces, where within two or three years he was established on the very saline lands which were visited by the conference of 1877 and which have been since con- verted into a profitable dairy farm whence dairy produce is now exported to Assam, Baluchistan, and other remote parts of India. (3) Another experiment, initiated in 1885 at the instance of the Agricultural Department in a district of the North-West Prov- inces, and referred to in Dr. Voelcker’s report, has borne fruitful BSeientific and local enquiry under provincial direction, 483 results which have been recently noticed by the local Government. Land ‘ which was mostly a net-work of ravines affording grazing of the poorest description’ was experimentally enclosed as a fuel and fodder reserve. An expenditure of R3,000 has at the end of 10 years brought in an annual income of over R1,000 from the wood and grass raised in what had been, as Dr. Voelcker observed, sim- ply waste-land. There are, it is believed, several hundreds of square miles of waste ravine lands on the banks of the large rivers of Northern India, of which the reclamation would be of material advantage to agricultural interests, and the success of the experi- ment has already led to the extension of the system in similar tracts, : (4) One more example may be given of material financial Yesults obtained by investigations conducted on a scientific basis under official direction. Between 1870 and 1880 careful field-to« field enquiries were made in the North-West Provinces and later on by the agricultural and canal departments in the Bombay Pre- sidency as to the cost of applying canal irrigation to cultivated land. These have led directly and indirectly to an improvement in the canal revenue of something like thirty lakhs a year not only without detriment to, but with distinct advantage to, agricultural interests, in view of the fact ascertained in both Provinces that the lavish use induced by unduly low rates of canal water on un« manured land leads to its deterioration. These illustrations will suffice to indicate that important financial and agricultural advantages can be secured by éxperiments and investigations intelligently conducted under official direction. But they also show that the controllirig officials must be assisted by competent experts; that continuity of intention and effort is necessary } that occasional success can only be obtained amid many failures ; and that a long period of years is required for the definite ascertainment of positive results. ; 6. The Famine Commissioners strongly insisted on the neces- sity of employing, under the general direction of the provincial departments of agriculture, competent experts trained at home. ‘There must,’ they wrote, ‘be employed a certain limited number ‘of persons possessing superior technical and scientific knowledge ‘of practical agriculture whose task it would be to aid the Govern- ‘ment in its endeavour to introduce improved methods of cultivation. ‘These should be trained specialists, and their number might prob ‘ably be at the rate of two or three to a province, and in all cases ‘their scientific training should be followed by a year of practical * application to agriculture before they are sent out to India.’ The agricultural conference of 1890, while considering it essential that a director of an agricultural department sbould be provided with competent expert assistants, contemplated the possibility of their being eventually obtained from high class agricultural colleges in this country, but admitted the necessity in the meantime of a Euro- pean training. This view was confirmed by Dr. Voelcker and by the agricultural coaference of 1893. Dr. Voelcker advised that the expert assistants employed ‘should have passed through a train- ‘ ing such as that given at Cirencester or similar institutions followed 8la 484 Fifth Resolution, ‘up by—and this is essential—subsequent practical experience on “afarm.’ ‘The reservation he added, as ‘ to practical experience is, in ‘ my opinion, so important that it constitutes my reason for advocat- ‘ing the employment, at first at any rate, of European rather than ‘ native assistants, though it is quite possible that natives will ‘ occasionally be found with the necessary qualifications.’ The con- ference of 1893 endorsed this view in a resolution to the effect ‘ that ‘it is essential to the interests of agricultural improvement that ‘ there should bein each province a highly-trained technical assist- ‘ant to the director of agriculture, and that unless and until natives ‘ sufficiently well trained and qualified are available, he should be a « European expert.’ They further urged that the expert should be supplemented by astaff of native assistants trained in this country, and that suitable institutions should be established for their educa- tion. The conferences recently held have in all the larger provinces supported the recommendations of the conference of 1893. 7. Influenced by this strong consensus of opinion, the Govern- ment of India have arrived at the conclusion that the time has now come when in every province in which no such arrangements have yet been made, a definite scheme should be drawn up under which a strong and efficient staff of agricultural experts will be within a limited period placed at the disposal of the provincial department of agriculture, and that, as recommended by the conference of 13938, unless and until natives sufficiently well-trained and qualified are available, the staff should include a European expert. They are aware that the present moment is one at which no avoidable expenditure on vew establishments can be immediately proposed, and that they must at present be satisfied ifa programme is arranged, with due deliberation and regard to future requirements, to be carried out as soon as circumstances admit. But the very cause of present financial difficulties, famine, is in itself, as the Commissions of 1866 and 1878 have indicated, the strongest argument which can be used in favour of expenditure as soon as financial pressure is relieved of which the main object is increase of the food-supply ; while the few illustrations which have been given of the financial and agricultural advantages which have already followed intelligently directed experiment, indicate the remuner- ative character of the outlay whieh will be incurred, and the increasing protection which will be afforded thereby to the agricul- tural community against the difficulties and distress in the seasons of failure which must inevitably occur from time to time in future years, 8. These observations do not apply with equal force to all provinces. In the two presidencies of Madras and Bombay, for in- stance, the measures already taken or contemplated for the equip- ment of the agricultural department are possibly adequate; while in the two provinces of Burma and Assam, where agricultural condi- tions are of exceptional character, and where rice is the staple pro- duct, action is not so urgently called for as in other parts of the empire. But the Government of India desire to be informed by every local Government and Administration what, in their opinion, Scientific and loccl enquivy under provinetal direction. 485 will be the full staff of agricultural experts and assistants which should, when circumstances admit, be placed under the control of the provincial department, in order to enable it to efficiently prosecute its primary and most important duty. 9. The employment of European experts and a trained staff of assistants involves the establishment of experimental farms. On this subject nothing has been recorded in the proceedings of the recent conferences which affects the opinion of the Famine Com- missioners and of Dr, Voelcker that ‘ experimental enquiry conducted ‘by means of experimental farms isa necessity in India for the. ‘ development of agricultural improvement.’ To what extent experi- mental farms should be multiplied in any one province is a question which it must be left to each local Government to decide from time to time as the scheme of agricultural experiment is developed. ‘ The ‘decision must,’ writes Dr. Voelcker, ‘be partly based on considera- ‘tions of expenditure and staff, but the main consideration should be ‘ whether there is anything definite to learn, a particular question to ‘solve, and whether this has any relation to the agricultare of the ‘country around.’ In the meantime the Government of India have no: hesitation in requiring that the definite scheme for which they have called should include at least one central experimental farm ad- equate both in area and in the staff with which itis equipped to ensure the conduct of experiments on the system advocated by Dr. Voeleker. 10. It has been frequently urged thata single experimental farm in a large province is on account of the varying character of soil, climate and other agricultural conditions, inadequate for the purpose of testing suggested improvements, for ensuring the apypli- eability of methods more or less successful in one locality to other parts of the province; or for bringing useful results to the notice of the agricultural community of various distriets. It was partly for these reasons that Dr. Voelcker advocated the establishment of supplementary ‘ demonstration farms’ on which the results of useful experiments might be tested and exhibited. The Government of India are not afraid to look forward to a time when native gentle- men and landlords under the influence of a well-designed system of general education will undertake the expansion of experiment and demonstration on their own estates, but they trust that in the meantime the utmost advantage will be taken of the opportunity to set them an example by utilizing estates under Government manage- ment for the intelligent trial of agricultural improvements. This policy was strongly urged by the Famine Commissioners, who ad- vocated that managers of such estates should act as an enlightened and prudent landowner would act in respect to his own property by utilizing the results of science and adopting any well-tested and clearly demonstrated improvement in methods of farming. The Government of India have been pleased to observe that prominent attention has recently been called to this opening for the expan- sion of agricultural reform by the Lieutenant-Governors of Bengal and of the North-West Provinces, and they desire that the directors of the provincial departments and managers of estates under official control may in every province be required ‘o give their earnest and 486 Fifth Resolution. continuous attention to this plan of developing and testing all agri- cultural experiments which have in them any reasonable chance of possible success. Where estates under the management of Government officers are not available, it may be desirable to considerjDr. Voelcker’s sug- gestion of the establishment of demonstration farms. 11. The system on whicn experimental and demonstration farms should be conducted has not been examined at any of the conferences which have been held, nor in the opinion of the Government of India could any precise recommendations have been usefully for- mulated for general guidance. Dr. Voelcker’s chapter on the subject offers many useful suggestions which should be carefully considered by the agricultural staff responsible for the conduct of experiment, but it must be left entirely to the officers of the pro- vincial departments to decide, in consultation with the imperial chemist, what the detailed arrangements should be. It is natural that these should differ in each locality. But there are certain broad principles neticed by Dr. Voelcker to which prominent attention may be drawn. The jirs¢ and most impor- tant is the necessity of a working-plan which, asin the case of forests, must be continuously maintained and, unless for strong reasons sanctioned by the director of the department, not interfered with until the experiments once set on foot have yielded definite results. The second is ‘that the issues in each case should be simple, ‘and that the object of an experiment should, asarule, be the only ‘ varying factor involved in it, in other words, that an experiment should be confined to the trial of a single issue. The ¢Aird is that the recording of results should be as far as possible on an uniform plan, and that they should be published ‘and circulated for general information. The framing of the working-plan and the system on which results should be reported are matters which should be arranged in consultation with the imperial officer who has been placed, with this object, at the service of the provincial departments. 12, When in any province the department of agriculture has been equipped with a European or equally competent expert, with a staff of trained assistants, and with an experimental farm or farms, a programme or working-plan will be formulated not merely, as above directed, of the experiments to be carried out on the farms, but also of the series of investigations which are to be made into the defects in the agricultural system for which it is the object of ex- perimental action to providea remedy. Dr. Voelcker, in his report, gives a long list of primd facie defects, to which the atten- tion of agricultural departments should be directed, and it is known that many others exist to which Dr. Voelcker made no re- ference, The question how these should be dealt with has received prominent attention at the conferences which have recently been held, and the general conclusion arrived at has been that it would be desirable,—firstly, that a cursory enquiry should be made which, by the examination of the agricultural system in a few typical dis- tricts, would indicate roughly the most important defects for the Scientific and local enquiry under provincial direction. 487 removal or minimizing of which remedial action is required ; secondly» that when this had been done, enquiry and experiment should be concentrated for a definite period on a very limited number of ‘defects.’ It was generally agreed that, though exceptions to this course might be occasionally made at the discretion of the director of the department, it would be found embarrassing to enter upon a campaign at one and the same time against all the various evils known or suspected to interfere with agricultural prosperity. This view commends itself to the Government of India who, while not desiring to restrict the power of the agricultural departments to expand their field of enquiry for good and sufficient reasons, think it desirable that local Governments and Administrations should understand that His Excellency the Governor General will be satis- fied to know that at least one prominent agricultural defect is being subjected to searching investigation and experiment in each prov ince. : 18. The adoption of this view renders it inexpedient for the Government of India to attempt anything like a review of the numerous recommendations contained in Dr. Voelcker’s report for the improvement of agricultural conditions. Taken one by one, the subjects with which his report and the proceedings of the 1898 conference deal will occupy the attention of the agricultural departments for very many years to come, and each subject must be carefully studied by itself in all its bearings at the time when it is taken up. The illustration given in the succeeding paragraph willexplain what is meant by the term ‘agricultural defect’ and the: general character of the enquiry and action needed in dealing with it. 14, The order in which defects should be selected for succes- sive enquiry and experiment will depend on the conditions prevailing in each province and must be left to the discretiun of the directors of the provincial department under the orders of the local Government. But the Government of India may point to one subject which, in view of its important and . universal bearing on the agricultural outturn, they deem to deserve special attention in every part of the empire and which, if no reason to the contrary exists, they would be glad to see taken up as the first subject of enquiry in all provinces. The subject is this. In other oriental countries, ¢.g., in Japan and in China, as well asin the western countries of Europe and America, manure provided by cattle and other animals is, as a rule, whether liquid or solid, strictly conserved, In India there are great difficulties in the way of preventing the latter from being used as fuel, but the former or liquid manure is mostly allowed to run to waste, and the practice of securing it for the fertilization of the field is hardly? known. The results of scientific experiments in America have, however, indicated that the productive value of the liquid is even greater than that of the solid manure and lead to a conclusion that the utilization of the former would very materially increase the food-supply of the country. The defect may thea be thus defined:—‘a neglect to use a highly valuable manure which is within easy reach of every cultivator.’ 488 Fifth Resolution. The advantages of dealing with this particular agricultural defect are that any reform which can be effected does not involve serious outlay of capital ; that it is one that can, as proved in China, be carried out successfully in a tropical climate and without Euro- pean appliances ; that the neglected mauure being within the reach of every cultivator, any increase in produce which can be effected by it is capable of indefinite multiplication. 15. As the discussions at the recent conferences imply that some doubt has existed as to the system on which the investigation of agricultural defects should proceed and also provide some useful. suggestions for a plan of enquiry, an indication will be given of the general method which may be followed in conducting an investigation into the subject which has been suggested for enquiry. Firstly.—Existing facts and practices must be ascertained. For this purpose local enquiries should be made by the director, the agricultural experts, and their assistants in convenient localities as to the use, if any, which is now made, of the liquid manure in each district or agricultural tract. Secondly.—A series of questions should be drawn up, and circu- lated for reply to managers of Government estates, circle inspec- tors, officers of the land record staff and other selected officials, as well as to any intelligent landowners or farmers willing to take part in the enquiry, with the view of eliciting detailed information as to existing usages in every part of every district. Phird’y.—A careful study should be made of the conclusions arrived at in America and Europe both as to the best methods to be adopted, and as to the actual value in increased outturn, of the application of liquid manure to various crops. Fourthly.—The system in other oriental countries should be ascertained, In connection with this and the previous question the imperial officer whose duty it would be to provide the required -information should be consulted. Hifthly.—A series of experiments should, in consultation with the imperial officer, be set on foot at the experimental farms, ‘with the view of ascertaining how the most approved practices in other ‘countries can be brought within reach of the Indian cultivatox hy the adoption of simpler methods and cheaper appliances, Sirthly.—When methods promising primé facie success have been worked out on the experimental farms, they should be sub- jected to more practical trial on estates under Government manage- ment or on the farms of intelligent landowners willing to accord co-operation. Seventhiy.—The progress made in the investigation in each prov- ince should be periodically communicated to the editor of the Agricultural Ledger for publication in that journal in order that the agricultural department of each province may be kept informed of the character and results of experiments being made in every other province. It is understood that already in some provinces investigations and experiments, the result of which would be of. Scientific and local enquiry under provincial direction, 489 general interest, have already been set on foot. An account of these should be published. 16. The defect which has in this case been suggested as the subject of general enquiry is the neglect to use a manure which is universally available, and the application of which would un- doubtedly result ina material increase in the food-supply of the country. The full investigation of the subject will, if it is taken up, probably occupy many years. The same may be said of many other enquiries. And for this reason doubt has been expressed at one or two of the recent conferences, whether the policy of confining attention to one subject at atime is desirable, and whether it should not be left entirely to the discretion of the provincial agricul-. tural departments to decide what the scope of their enquiries should be. 17. In order to prevent misapprehension on this point, the Government of India consider it necessary to explain that their intention is not so much to demand any rigid restriction of the provincial programme as to point out that the absence of any limitation of the field of experiment has in many provinces appeared to lead to indefiniteness and uncertainty in design, and to want of continuity in action; that enquiries commenced by one officer have been put on one side by his successor; that the agricultural defects and difficulties which have to be dealt with are, as indicated in Dr. Voelcker’s report and in the proceedings of the agricultural con- ferences, so numerous and grave that any attempt to deal with them simultaneously and exhaustively cannot, with the small staff at the disposal of the agricultural department, fail to prove embarrassing ; that the investigation of any one subject must, if itis to yield successful results, be complete and thorough; that when a question has once been taken up for examination it should not be abandoned until an answer to it has been found, and that the programme or working-plan of the -department must, however much or little it may be restricted, be at least clear and definite. 18. The Government of India have in the immediately preced- ing paragraphs been dealing with the complete and thorough in- vestigation of large and important questions, and have not intended to refer to the working-plan of an experimental farm. The main object of such a farm is the trial of a long series of continuous experiments for the purpose in each case of proving a single fact. Here the working plan may legitimately include the simultaneous trial of as many experiments as the director, guided by his advisers and by the imperial expert, may determine to be eventually- required for the broader investigation of any subject. Thus, assuming that the question of improved seed grain is one which has been decided to defer for five years, there would, nevertheless, be every reason to ascertain in the meantime by continuous experi- ments on the farm plots whether selection of seed does in five years make any material difference in the outturn of any particular crop, What would be deferred to the fifth year would be the general investigation into the practice and conditions obtaining in each district. : 490 Fifth Resolution. 19, Subject to these considerations the discretion of the departments to expand the field of enquiry and experiment need not, especially in those provinces where an adequate staff of experts and assistants has been provided, be restricted by any absolute rule. It would not indeed under any circumstances be desirable that the investigation of a single subject, such as that offered as an exem- plar, should be carried to the end before a new question is taken in hand. The time and attention which each subject demands must necessarily be greater in the first year or two of enquiry than in subsequent years when the most useful lines of experiment have been determined. What the Government of India do wish to demand is that every agricultural department should always have before it for special and thorough investigation at least one agricul- tural defect of importance; and that if more than one are brought under enquiry at one time their number should not be so great as to lead to desultory and imperfect action in the case of any one of them. 20. In conclusion it must not be forgotten that an important factor in the success of the working of a provincial agricultural department is the qualification of the director himself. This officer should, wrote the Famine Commsisioners in the first part of their report, be chosen for his knowledge of the condition of the people and particularly of the agricultural classes, while in the second part they advised that a certain number of officers should receive a preliminary training at home before going out to India, and that meanwhile any officer selected should be allowed to spend a year or some longer period ata school of agriculture in Europe. The Government of India granted this last permission, of which advan- tage was taken in two provinces, and in 1889 local Governments were asked to offer their opinion as to the manner in which junior officers could-be best trained in future so as to secure a succession of efficient officers to an appointment which requires technical knowledge and special experience. The replies that were received were almost unanimous to the effect that the director should be an officer who had served an apprenticeship in the settlement depart- ment, and in view of the importance then attached to the organiza- tion of the land record system which was to form the basis both of land settlements and of agricultural enquiry, the Government of India were content to accept this decision. ‘here seems, how- ever, to be no doubt that in some provinces questions of agricul- tural improvement have been too greatly subordinated by the director to. land record work, and that, as suggested by Dr. Voelcker, the agricultural duties of the office have been practically neglected. The Government of India are not disposed to press the view of the Famine Commissioners that training of a technical character in an agricultural college is necessary, though it certainly may be use- ful, for the qualification of a civilian officer to direct the agricul- tural department. If the department is equipped with a com- petent European expert and with trained assistants, the general direction of the department may, they think, be left to a carefully selected officer who has shown aptitude and inclination for the class of duties which the superintendence of the department involves. Scientific and lacal enguéry under provincial direction, 491 They are not, however, assured that in all cases sufficient consider- ation has hitherto been given to the agricultural side of the depart- mental programme in the choice of the officer to whom the control of the department is committed, or, as suggested by Dr. Voelcker, that progress in agricultural enquiry and experiment has not been hindered by too frequent changes in the incumbency of the appoint- ment, 21. Akin to this important matter is the question placed before the recent conferences whether with a view to their co-operation in the development of agricultural enquiry and improvement the training of junior civilians could not be improved, and in one prov- ince—Bombay—in which considerable attention has been given to the subject, it was suggested that all young officers should go through a short course at an agricultural college or farm during which they might at least learn something of the various crops raised in the province and of the general agricultural system which prevails in it. The question is one which deserves the considera- tion of local Governments and Administrations. Among those ‘ who -*have a bent towards naturals ciences and practical investigations’ it will probably be easy to appoint an officer from time to time to the staticn to which the college or farm is attached to receive a course of instruction in the agricultural department, in addition to their ordinary duties. From these eventually successors to the director- ship may be chosen. It is of special importance, too, that now that settlement operations are coming under contraction, some steps should be taken to ensure the better qualification of a certain num- ber of officials to co-operate in the scheme of agricultural enquiry. On this subject the Governor General in Ccuncil invites the further opinion and views of all local Governments and Administrations. 492 SIXTH RESOLUTION. AGRICULTURAL EpUcATION. 1. The subject of agricultural education in country schools was one of those to which the Famine Commissioners, in their Report of 1880, advised that the attention of agricultural departments should be directed. Inthe opening Resolution of 1881 the Govern- ment of India pointed out the necessity of securing the co-opera- tion of the native community in working out any programme of agricultural improvement, and in correspondence which ensued with Her Majesty’s Secretary of State on the general policy which should be followed by agricultural departments represented that no general] advance in the agricultural system could be expected until the rural population had been so educated as to enable them to take a practical interest in agricultural progress and reform. 2, These views were confirmed by the agricultural conference. of 1888, which urged that the measure most immediately demanded was that of educating teachers competent to give instructions of the required kind, and in the same year the Government of India, dealing with the proceedings of the 1888 conference and with the report of the Finance Commission on the expenditure of the new department, issued a resolution in which a clear explanation of the No, 345-35 C, I, dated general policy advocated was put forward. 25th March 1890. It would be the duty of every Government, it was urged, to ascertain by careful and continuous experiment and enquiry what improvements were possible, and during the long period of years which these investigations would occupy, te give serious attention to the education cf the agricultural classes. Extravagant expenditure on attempts to introduce improvements, until they had been thoroughly tested by experiment and until the agricultural population was prepared to receive them, was to be avoided. A resolution issued in the same year in the Home Department’ on educational policy placed a direct obligation on agricultural and educational departments in every province to work out a practical scheme of agricultural education. 3. In one province, Madras, in which an agricultural college had been established for many years, considerable attention had been already given to the educational question, and when in 1849 a committee, appointed by the Government of the presidency to examine the working of the agricultrral department and of the college, submitted its report, it was found that the conclusions arrived at pointed in the same direction. ‘Itis to school and college ‘ education’ wrote the Madras Government, ‘that the committee ‘attach most importance, and more than half of their report is ‘ devoted to this subject’ In view of the fact that the practical experience attained and the serious consideration given to the question fora long period of years in the Madras presidency Agriculiurul Education. 493 entitle the opinion of the committee to great weight, a brief ex- position of their views, confirmed as they have been by the con- ferences recently: held both in Madras andin other provinces, deserves a prominent place in this resolution. Their whole report indeed is one which merits the careful perusal and attention of all officers connected with the work of agricultural administration. 4. The main defects in the Madras scheme of agricultural education were found to have been that instruction was specialized in a college of high class, had no connection with the educational carriculum of primary and secondary schools, and was confined to students designed for agricultural employment either as officials or on their own estates. The verdict of the committee was this. ‘We do not look forward ’ they wrote, ‘to all students of the college ‘engaging in the direct exercise of agriculture; we are firmly con- ‘vinced that the end in view, the dissemination of higher scientific * knowledge of agriculture and of the sciences allied to it, will be * greatly furthered by leavening the Revenue, Forest, Educational ‘and other Departments and callings by men who have received a ‘thorough course of instruction in the agricultural college.’ Turning then to the broader questionof general education, they continued: «We are persuaded that no means of increasing the efficiency of the *‘ Agricultural Department can be really effective unless the people ‘are taught to understand what is defective in their present system ‘of agriculture, where it is capable of improvement, and the best ‘means to that end. We believe that this can only be done, first, ‘by extending their general education, ¢.e., by teaching them not ‘only to read, write and cypher, but to use their knowleddge so «that they may, in however humble a manner, become thinkers, ‘observers, experimenters, * * * * Unless the intelliyvence of the ‘cultivator be developed, and developed in such a direction as to ‘lead him to devote a better trained intelligence to his own art, and «to apply thought, observation, and experiment to matters which ‘concer his material well-being, we believe that progress, if not «absolutely impossible, must be so low as to effect little appreciable «change ina generation. We assume, as an axiom, that the wealth ¢of this country may be enormously increased by improved methods < of cultivation, by the introduction of new products, and by -the «rational treatment and development of stock. Education is the « mightiest lever that can be applied, however great and beneficial the «influence on the intelligence of the people of railways, roads, canals, «good markets, and good ports and outlets for produce may be; these sare necessary and helpful to agriculture as educators, but they «must fail to produce the greatest material progress possible, and «secure that progress when attained, if the people remain ignorant «and wedded to bad and, often, injurious methods.’ 5. Impressed by the value of these conclusions, founded as they were on practical observation of the inadequate resulis of an im- perfect system, tha Government of India commended them to the special notice of the agricultural conference which was to meet the Secretary of State’s delegate, Dr. Voelcker, in 1890, That con- ference fnlly supported the Madras views. It urged the extension of primary education; the combination of agricultural teaching 494 Sisth Resolution, with it; and the employment of students agriculturally trained in all departments of Government service in which an opening could be made for them. In convening the agricultural conference which was to deal with Dr. Voelcker’s Report in 1893, the Government of India again drew the prominent attention of local Governments and Administrations to the subject; and, alluding to the request contained in the Home Department’s Resolution of 1888, that the Educational and Agricultural Departments should be required to work out in concert a practical programme, stated that ‘it was essential that, with the co-operation of the Educational ‘ Departments, measures should be taken which will render the ‘ agricultural population capable of assimilating new ideas and of ‘ understanding any suggestions made to them, as time goes on, for ‘ the improvement of their agricultural methods, and whichwill ‘qualify them to take that active part in the scheme of agricultural * reform without which no effective results can be expected.’ 6. These views were confirmed by the conference of 1893, and in the Home Department’s Resolution of 1894, reviewing the pro- gress of education, the policy of ‘ making instruction in the rudiments ‘ of agriculture part and parcel of the primary system of instruction ‘in the country rather than teaching it as a subject apart from the ‘general educational programme,’ was impressed upon the Educa< tional Departments, at the same time it was admitted that there was already evidence of a general tendency inthe provinces to modify the course of primary education in a practical direction. 7, Finally, in 1895 the Government of India decided to invite local Governments and Administrations to require the subject to be thoroughly examined in each province by a committee which should be composed of selected officers of the provincial, revenue, and agricultural and educational departments,, and which an officer on the imperial staff should be permitted to attend for the purpose of providing facts and statistics from other provinces. 8. Hitherto general principles rather than actual practices had come under consideration. The leading objects of discussion were now to be the positive ascertainment of any defects that might exist in the present scheme of primary education; the extent to which effect had already been given to the principle of including agricultural and practical instruction in the ordinary school curs riculum ; and the reforms which were still possible in the direction of developing in the younger students the habit and powers of obser- vation. In bringing these questions forward in 1895 the Govern- ment of India took the opportunity of explaining in the appended Resolution that the essential matter was not so much the adaptation of the educational. scheme to the training of agricul- turisis as the framing of the plan of instruction so as to promote in the pupils taught the power of assimilating any kind of technical instruction; that the mere acquisition of knowledge was to be subordinated to the development of faculty; that the powers of observation should be brought into play and improved by exercise ; and that the actual teaching of a particular trade was of less impor tance in the first instance than educational methods which will A gricultural Education. 495 adapt the pupil for the subsequent of technical of any descrip tion. These views were supported by quotations from recognized authorities. The late Professor Huxley had written that‘ a ‘system of education which does nothing for the faculties of observa- ‘tion, which trains neither the eye nor the hand, and is compatible ‘with utter ignorance of the commonest natural truths may be re- ‘garded as strangely imperfect.” In a report of the Royal Commis- sion on technical instruction it had been stated that ‘while the ‘ system hitherto prevailing in English rural schools actually unfitted ‘the children of farmers for an agricultural career, yet there was ‘nothing in any scheme of rural education specially designed for the ‘ agricultural classes which should unfit the children for any other ‘career for which they were specially suited.” The scheme was to be based, they said, on what a child could see round him, and it followed, therefore, as pointed out by the agricultural conference held at Simla in 1893, that ‘any such system established in rural ‘schools must, for whatever class intended, acquire an agricultural ‘colouring because the surrounding objects are themselves ‘ agricultural.’ 9, His Excellency in Council has been much gratified by learn- ing from a perusal of the proceedings of the recent conferences and of the reviews thereon by the local Governments and Administra- tions that these views have met.with universal aceeptation; that much has already been done to give effect to the principles em- bodied in them; and that the deliberations of the conferences are likely to lead to many important and practical reforms in the same direction. Itis interesting also to observe that since the discussions were held a strong movement has been made in the United Kingdom for legislation with the object of removing the defect, noticed in the Resolution of 1895, w7z., the absence of any such preliminary training in primary and secondary schools as is required to enable the students to understand and assimilate the teaching offered in technical institutions. The conclusions arrived at in the course of the recent discus« sions will now be briefly explained. , 10. The basis of the enquiry which the conferences were invited to make in connection with the adaptation of the educational scheme to the interests of agriculture was a series of recommendations which were recorded by the agricultural conference of 1893 and which grouped themselves under four heads :— I.—Primary education. TI.—Readers and text-books. III.—Training schools. IV.— Higher education in agriculture. These divisions may be conveniently taken under separate and successive consideration in the present Resolution. 11. L—Primary Hdueation.—The definition of “¢ primary education’’ adopted in 1886 by the Education Commission in their report was ‘ that primary education be regarded as the instruction © of the masses ¢hrough the vernacular in such subjects as will best 498 Sixth Resolution, ‘fit them for their position in life and be not necessarily regarded as ‘a portion of instruction leading up to the University,’ and the advocated that ‘the standards of primary education be revised wit ‘a view to simplification and to the larger introduction of practical * subjects such as native methods of arithmetic, accounts and men- ‘ guration, the elements of physical and natural -science and their ‘ application to agriculture, health and industrial arts.’ 12. The general principles thus put forward are in sufficient accord with the policy which, as already explained, has met with general acceptance, but are, under the strict letter of the definition adopted by the Commissioners, only applicable to vernacular in- struction. It would, in the opinion of the Government of India, be unfortunate if this restriction were to be held to exclude any lower schools, in which education is commenced from the begin- ning in English, from the material advantages afforded by a system of instruction based on principles which are almost uniformly accepted in all civilized countries, which were advocated by the Educa- tion Commission, and which now, after discussions extending over many years, have been strongly arged for adoption as a basis for all educational schemes by the general consensus of provincial authorities. In most of the provinces of India no such exclusion is possible. But the position is not the same in all. 18. The despatches received from Her Majesty’s Secretary of State in 1854 and 1859 on the subject of national education in-” dicated that a distinction should be made in the educational courses prescribed for the rich, middle, and poorer classes respectively. In several provinces the same elementary instruction in the verna- cular is provided for the younger pupils of all three classes, and can be moulded into any form which the local Government con- siders to be best. The trifurcation comes later. In some of the eastern provinces, on the other hand, a separate scheme is provided for each of the three classes from the lowest stage, and in such in- stitutions as may adopt English as the language through which elementary instruction is conveyed the course of study may be determined not so much by the provincial authorities as by the re- quirements of the course leading to educational diplomas and degrees. 14, The Education Commissioners represented that ‘their atten- ‘tion was not called to this important variation in the educational * scheme of different provinces until discussions on primary education ‘had been closed, when it was too late to find time for its considera- ‘tion;’ they took some pains, however, to marshal all the argu- ments on both sides, but stated that ‘in the con flict of views, and ‘ considering that no opportunity had been given of arriving at a ‘ definite conclusion, they refrained from expressing an opinion.’ They explained at the same time that by the system under which the three ccurses were kept entirely distinct the main object sought was ‘to keep down the standard to the requirements of the masses ‘ and not to raise it by considering the wants of the well-to-do classes ‘ who are not, properly speaking, the masses.? The Government of India have no desire to enter on the present occasion into any Agricultural Education. 497 detailed discussion of the merits of the two systems, but consider it expedient to point out that the reforms now suggested in the prim- ary education of vernacular schools are in no way connected with the special wants of the well-to-do classes; that they are founded on general considerations equally applicable to every class; and that if they conduce to the better development of the intelligence of all children, of whatever condition in life, it would seem to bea question whether this advantage should be withheld from the well- to-do classes. The question is one which seems at least to deserve the consideration of local Governments and Administrations of prov- inces in which any class of schonl is excluded from reforms. admitted into the general scheme of early education. 15. Turning now to the position of primary education in schools —and in most provinces this means all schools—in which the plan of elementary instruction is controlled, under the direction of the local Government, by the educational departments, it appears to have been ascertained in the course of discussion at the recent con ferences that, while in many provinces, and notably in Bombay, material effect had been given to the principles advocated, yet that substantial defects did often exist which it would be desirable to remove. The nature of the imperfections discovered and the character of the remedies suggested will be more easily comprehended if it is first explained what the plan of education ought to be if based on the principles supported at all the conferences. The first point is that in all schemes of practical education designed to train pupils at an early age in habits of observation, the readers and text-books—which should deal, as far as possible, with familiar objects—must be illustrated and explained by the con- current exhibition of the objects themselves or of pictures and models of them. Thus ‘ object lessons’ play an important part in the elementary teaching of every ‘ subject,’ whatever that subject may be, which enters into the curriculum. Even such an abstract ‘ sub« ject’ as arithmetic may be elucidated by ‘object lessons,’ while in communicating a ‘ knowledge of the commonest natural truths,’ to use Professor Huxley’s phrase, ‘ object lessons ’ are absolutely essen- tial. . The next point is that all pupils should have the opportunity of gaining a ‘ knowledge of common natural truths’; in other words, should be taught elementary science. It is not necessary for this purpose that the pupils should be taken through a course of lessons and text-books dealing with each particular science from the abo of it to a very advanced stage. School boys have no time to receive instructions in every science from the beginning to the end. But that they have no time to go to the end is no reason why they should not be so taught that they may grasp the elementary facts and. principles on which the most important sciences are founded ; that they may obtain an intelligent knowledge of common natural truths; and that they may have their faculties so developed that in their subsequent career they can easily assimilate instruction in any subject or science which they may elect to take up. - 16, Three defects, involving important departures from the canons laid down in the preceding paragraph, were, in one province 32 498 Stath Resolution, or another, found to exist. The first was that in the educational curriculum ‘ object lessons’ are sometimes treated as a separate ‘sub- ject,’ and not only so, but as an ‘optional subject, ’ that is to say, pupils may choose whether or not they willlearn ‘object lessons’ at all, and if they do so choose they study ‘ object lessons ’ as something apart from other subjects. It has now been admitted at all the recent conferences that ‘object lessons’ should be treated as a ‘ come pulsory system’ of education and not as an ‘ optional swbject.? This indeed is how they are treated in Bombay and in some other prov- inces where readers and text books in practically all subjects are illustrated and explained ‘by object lessons.’ 17. The second defect was that many pupils are debarred from attaining a knowledge of common natural truths and principles because the ourriculum is so framed as to exclude the teaching of elementary truths and principles in any science or subject; unless that science or subject is followed by the pupil to the very end of the school course. Thus, ‘ geography’ is in some provinces allowed to be an optional subject and the lowest or most elementary ‘ standard ’ in geography, ¢.e., the ‘standard ’ laid down for those boys of the lowest class in a school who take up that subject is ‘ instruction in the meaning of a map or plan’ supplemented by ‘ making maps of the school room and its compound or by comparing maps of the village and of its surrounding fields with the faets on the ground.’ It is obvious that all boys whether they take up geography or not should be taught in this way the meaning of a map or plan, a proper cow- prehension of which is necessary for all professions, including agri- culture, as well as for the ready understanding of all educational works which are illustrated by maps, plans, and diagrams. But under a curriculum which makes ‘geography’ an optional subject and gives to it exclusive possession of instruction in the meaning of a map or plan, a boy who elects not to learn geography is deprived of the opportunity of learning what a map or plan means. 18. The same subject, geography, may be employed to illustrate the third defect, which is that for purposes of elementary education instruction in any one subject taken up is carried too far ; so far indeed that time is not left for others equally important. Thus boys who had taken up geography were found to be learning by heart the name and position of every county in England ; the advan- tage which when they first joined the school they had gained over other boys, in learning how to read maps and how to draw plans, was thus handicapped later on by the disadvantage involved in the ae of time devoted to acquiring knowledge practically useless o them, . It was admitted at the conferences where the subject was dis cussed, that when once the principles of geography have been learned, and a knowledge of those geographical facts likely to be useful to the pupil through life has been gained, valuable time should not be lost in a wearisome study of details of which a know- ledge does nothing to improve the faculty, and is otherwise of little or no positive use ; that the time would be far more usefully em- ployed in acquiring a knowledge of ‘ common natural truths’ in other branches of science. . Agricultural Education. 499 19. Ibis not the intention of the Government of India to fol- low province by province the discussions which turned on these yuestions or to criticise the. suggestions made in the direction of reform at each conference. They deem it sufficient to, observe, that there seems to have been little difference of opinion on the questions raised ; that where defects of the kind described had existed the officers représenting the education departments supported by the Other members of the conferences have agreed to suggest appro- priate reforms; and that the local Governments have in every case Indicated their willingness to accord favourable consideration to their proposals. oe, mle ie ee 20. On three points only do they consider that definite sugges: tions or remarks may be useful. The first is this: It appears to have been rightly assumed at the earlier conferences that the term ‘elementary science’ may be so widely interpreted as to include object lessons illustrating ‘ natural truths,’ the meaning of a map or-plan and other simple subjects of the kind, as well as the elements of botany, of Zoology and of other so-called ‘sciences,’ Taking this view, they suggested that ‘elementary science’ thus interpreted should bea ‘compulsory ’ and not an “ optional’ sudject. This was a step in the right direction. But at the later conferences it was advised. that ‘elementary science’ should not appear in the curtictlum at all as a séparate subject, but be taught in school readers illustrated by Object lessons, care being taken that no important eleméntary science should be omitted from the books supplied to the reading classes. This latter plan has already been adopted in the educational scheme of the Bombay Presidency and to a certain extent in that of some other piovirices, and is commended by the Government of India for favourable consideration elsewhere. 21. The second matter to which attention may be drawn is of importance. In the educational despatch of 1854 Her Majesty’s Secretary of State, quoting from the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces, stated that the land record system in ‘Indian provinces ‘offered the stimulus of a direct interest for the ‘acquisition of so much knowledge as would enable each man to look ‘ after his own rights,’ thus indicating that it would be an advantage to the communify to include instruction in this subjeét in’ the edu+ cational course. The conference of 1893 fook up this question. § The ultimate objects,’ it was said, ‘ at which-the education of an agri- ‘culturist aimsare not all of them directly connected with the ‘tillage of the soil. It is ofimportanee to every cultivator that he ‘should. be able to understand and interpret the meaning of entries ‘in a cadastral map ; that he should have proper acquaintance with ‘the system of rural accounts ; and that hé should be able to read and * comprehend the land records maintained by the official staff. . For ‘these purposes he should receive instruction in drawing, arithmetic, ‘and such simple surveying and mensuration as can be easily taught ‘toany boy. It is equally desirable to bear in mind both that the ‘ objects enumerated in the preceding paragraph are often of as much ‘importance to those who, though not actually tillers of the'soil, are likely in after-life to hold any interest in land as to those who cuts tivatée it, and that instruction in the direction indicated is as useful 324 500 Sizth Resolution, ‘ for general purposes of education as any other kind of teaching. ‘It is perhaps even more useful.’ The same arguments were pressed at some of the recent cons ferences. The plan had already been introduced in some provinces, among others, in Assam, where ‘the advantage of teaching the ‘people the use of the cadastral village map’ was held by the director of the land record department to be ‘very great, as gradually en- abling them to become more independent of officials in arranging ‘their own affairs.” The Financial Commissioner of the Punjab, sup- ported by the conference, went further in urging that, as the bulk of the population whether actually engaged in tillage or not were intere ested in land instruction in the village map and records would be generally useful to the whole community. The Government of India, adopting the same view, have no hesitation in inviting local . Governments and Administrations to require their educational officers, in consultation with the departments of land records, to devise, where this has not already been done, some plan under which instyuction in village maps and land records should be included in the curriculum of education for all classes. Similar arguments exist in favour of instruction in simple commercial accounts. 22. The third matter which deserves notice is the position which ‘agriculture’ should take in the school course. Two questions were considered. One, whether ‘agriculture’ shouldbe taught as a separate subject at all, or, like elementary science, be embodied in readers ; another, whether, if admitted as a separate subject, instruction in it should be optional or compulsory, ; It seems to have been generally agreed that in the earlier train- ing of boys in the lower primary schools the interests of agriculture would be sufficiently served by compulsory instruction in elementary science (on the system already advocated through readers illustrated by object lessons) in view of the fact, noticed in a preceding para- graph of this Resolution, that almost all instruction conveyed in rural schools through the medium of object lessons must acquire an agricultural colouring, because the surrounding objects used for illustration are themselves connected with agriculture. In these opinions the Government of India is disposed to agree. In most provinces, however, it was considered that ‘ agriculture’ and ‘ sciences ancillary to agriculture’ should be at least made optional subjects at a later stage in the school curriculum. Opinions differed as to the exact point in the school course at which these should be brought in and as to the character of the instructions to be given But it was generally recognized that a distinction would have to be made between instruction designed for general educational purposes and a course of study leading to an agricultural diploma or degree. With these remarks the Government of India is content to leave the questions at issue to the decision of the local Govern- ments and Administrations, 23, I1.—Readers and text-books.—The distinction recent conferences between ‘ readers’ and ‘ text-books’ seer a the former contain easy lessons on a variety of subjects, the latter Agricultural Education. 501 deal exclusively with a particular subject or science. The agricul- tural conferences of 1890 and 1893 laid much stress on the neces- sity of simplifying both readers and text-books. The defects pointed out in school books dealing with elementary science and agricul- ture were that the language employed was often above fhe compre- hension of young boys; that the terms used were too technical ; that the vernacular translation of English scientific words was frequently imperfect ; that the subject-matter was not seldom badly selected ; and that the text-books sometimes aimed at carrying the pupil further than was necessary for any practical purposes, 24, The Government of India is pleased to observe from the proceedings of the recent conferences thata great deal has been done during recent yearsin almost all provinces to reduce these defects and that further attention is now to be given to the subject. The compilation of good readers and text-books for the young in connection with agriculture and sciences ancillary to agriculture is a task of which the difficulty is not always appreciated. In Eng- land the best text books on such subjects have often been written by men of the highest scientific reputation. In some of the conti- nental countries they are compiled and issued under the supervision of the central bureau of the Government. In India, on the other hand, while there have been many useful books compiled for school use, no uniform policy has been adopted in their preparation, and there appears to be in consequence a considerable inequality in the character and value of both readers and text-books in various prov- inces. Taking the case of agriculture, one primer on this subject has been compiled by a civilian, another by an agricultural expert, ‘others have been based on these two books by educational officers, while others again have been independently compiled by non-officials. Evidence was given by a skilled witness at one conference that the current text-books on agriculture and other such subjects are quite unsuited for young learners; that they are too abstruse; and that they deal with chemical problems and other matters beyond the comprehension of the pupils. 25. Uniformity in India is impossible. Any attempt at precise uniformity in teaching was deprecated by the Education Commis- sion, The differences of language; of climate and physical condi- tion ; of the natural objects used for oral lessons, or as illustrations of school books; of local customs and practices; all these are insur- mountable obstacles to uniformity of text in readers and primers required for educational purposes. But it may be doubted whether these variations need stand in the way ofa general uniformity of plan and system. 26. It has been said that nothing requires a higher exercise of the intelligence than to serve up knowledge ina form in which it can be easily assimilated and digested by the young, and so far as this is the case, the compilation of school books demands the em- ployment of the best intellects in the country for the work. The question indeed has been raised whether the scheme on which elementary readers and text-books relating to agriculture and allied sciences are to be framed should not be worked out and re- vised from time to time by a competent committee of educational 502 Sixth Resolution, _and other official experts who would, initially, deal only with the frame-work and general design of the educational books, leaving details to be filled in by provincial authorities, so as to suit the circumstances of each locality and who would subsequently offer criticisms on any defects which might present themselves to their notice in the completed books. The subject is, however, one which demands fuller consideration. At present the Government of India are content to record their opinion that. readers and text-books dealing with agriculture and allied sciences should not only be brought up to an equally high standard of arrangement, simplicity, and clearness throughout India, but also that they should not fall in these respects below the best standards in Europe; that it would seem difficult to attain this object unless some of the very best men available in the country are allowed to devote for a certain period the whole of their time and attention to the subject; and that the matter is one of such grave importance in connection both with the interests of agriculture and with. the sound education of the people as to deserve deliberate investigation. 27. I11.—Training Schools,—The Conference of 1893 insisted on the necessity of providing teachers competent.to give instruction in the elementary principles of agriculture. The conferences which have now been held go further, They. demand that teachers should. be trained.to teach all elementary. sciences on the system. of ‘readers and object lessons ’ and in many provinces lay stress on the impossibility of introducing the system unless schoolmasters are specially trained in it themselves. That something has been done in this direction has been admitted, but that, taking India as a whole, progress has not been sufficiently great is clearly proved. One obstacle. exists in the fact that the teachers in the lower classes of.schools are so poorly paid that, they cannot in many parts of India be compelled to go through a course in training schools; another that even in the case of those who do attend the training schools, it. is not. always easy to provide for them at those schools competent instructors in what is really a difficult branch of a school master’s work. 28. The desirability of instructing schoolmasters how to teach by means of object lessons and readers has been acknowledged by local Governments and Administrations, to whom must. be left the decision as to what practical. measures can be taken to develop train- ing schools in this direction. But apart from this general question there appeared to. be, at more than one of the recent, provincial con- ferences, a strong feeling in favour of requiring training school students, either before or after appointment as masters, to pass through a course on an agricultural farm. This measure had indeed been urged by the conference of 1893, — 29. In Madras, where the’ subject has for some years been. under discussion, it was proposed that training. school students should go through a course under a competent agricultural master on experi~ mental farms jn the vicinity of training. institutions. 'The manage- ment of the farm would be in the hands of the agricultural depart- ment and the instruction of training school students in the hands of the educational department, who would utilise the agricultural Agricultural Education. 503' farrh-and the experiments condueted on it for purposes: of illustra- tion. The Madras Government, while apprehending’ that a consider- able time will be required to bring the scheme into operation, have accepted these views as sound. In the Central Provinees practicah action has beentaken im sending annually from each of the western’ districts’ four students or schoolmasters after they’ have passed through the training schdols for a six months’ course under an Educay tional officer at the agricultural farm in Nagpur. Strong evidence was given inthis province that schoolmasters thus trained: were . the only efficient teachers of agricultural subjects and of cognate spiences in the schools: The extension of the system! was stroigly advocated by the revenue officials on the conference, 80. In the North-Western’ Provinces a few students go through a two, years’ course at'a Government farm, some of whom are understood to be designed for schoolmasterships, and the Alla- habad University hag so farsupported the movement in the interests of a supply of agricultural teachers as to allow a special examination in science and: agriculture from those of the farm students who go: up for the ‘school, trial’ certificate. The students are not, how- ever, as proposed in Madras, and as is the case in the Centrab Provinces, trained by the educational, but: by the agricultural, de- partment, and the course is perhaps too long and. the numbers too few to have any wide influence on the educational staff. _ 81. In Bombay, where special. attention has been paid in the training schools to the practical instruction of teachers, one of the seven training schools is provided with an agricultural teacher who has obtained a College diploma, ‘and it has been recommerided by the Bombay conference that all the training schools should be similarly equipped, The. question of using farms for the instruc- tion of training school students was not raised af Bombay, but. the principle has been accepted as regards training school teachers, in the suggestion fig) fh College diploma shal! include a practical course on the Poona farm. : In Bengal the utilization of the’ Government: farm for the: pur-. pose of training schoolmasters was recommended.,: Thus, there is a decidell movement which has: already taken: some positive form in the diréctiow of according’ to schoolmasters @ practical training’ in! agricultural subjects. . 82. The Government of India recégnizé the undoubted ufiltty’ of the’ policy advocated and accept the préliminary success obtained’ in the Central Provinces asx grithd facié evidetice of its practical! results and feasibility. They’ invite all local’ Governtients and . Adrainistrations!.to. bring the question, whére' this has not already been done, under the serious consideration of their agricultural: ands educational: departments,: and to state, im forwarding the: agricul- tural report of the year; what: views they havé formed on the subject. os ? _ 83, IV .—Higher agricultural’ education.—The discussions on these:subjects led: to.important conclusions. The Government: of India have not' hitherto pressed for the’ early’ establishment of high- class:agvicultural institutions.in view of the fact that no sufficient’ 504 Sixth Resolution. evidence had yet been produced to show that students trained at them would find any satisfactory opening in life. They held too that high-class educational institutions professing to teach such subjects as agriculture, forestry, veterinary science, etc., should be national rather than provincial; that one or two national colleges would meet the present needs of all India; that the colleges, if founded at all, must be equipped with a highly competent staff of teachers; and that the reduplication of the expense in every province would not be justified. Following this view, the 1890 conference considered that the agricultural college already existing in the Madras presidency and a second to be attached to the Forest School at Dehra would satisfy the needs of all India. 84. Dr. Voelcker recommended that special attention should be directed to agricultural education in colleges, but added that separate institutions would not be needed if existing colleges of science were expanded by the addition of an agricultural branch, The conference of 1893 did not formulate any specific reeommenda- tion, but agreed with the conference of 1890 ‘ that the claims of ‘men trained in scientific agriculture to appointments in the revenue ‘and cognate departments should be as freely recognized as those of ‘men trained in law, arts, and engineering. 35, The question has now been put on a somewhat new footing by the argument urged in the three provinces of Madras, Bombay, and Bengal, that a thorough and practical education in agriculture and allied sciences, ending in a high-class college diploma or in an agricultural degree, develops the intelligence of students just as well as a literary course; that it certainly fits them as well, if not better, for duties in the land revenue and cognate services; and that it is very desirable to encourage the appointment of men so trained. This policy has long been advocated by the Madras Government, who have recently carried it into practical effect by a Government order making the diploma in agriculture of the same value as a B.A. degree as a qualification for higher Government service. It was further pointed out at the Madras conference that the proposed measure of passing all training school students through a practical course on a Government farm would require a staff of training school teachers instructed in the more advanced branches of agri- culture; and that in recent years ten per cent. of the college stu- dents belonged to the land-owning class. The college was, there- fore, needed—(1) for a large number of candidates for official em- ployinent, (2) for a certain number of training school teachers, and (3) for a material number of landowners. 36. Itis evident that if the policy indicated is followed in other provinces there may be justification fora larger number of high-class agricultural colleges than the two advocated by the conference of 1890. The policy has been very strongly pressed in Bombay and is supported by the authorities there on similar grounds to those urged in Madras. ‘ We want,’ it was written in a note submitted to the Bombay Government, ‘as officials in the ‘ districts, rather than technical experts, men who have had their ‘thoughts directed to agriculture and whose minds have been Agriculturval Education, 505 ‘taught to dwell on it; whose reports on the state of the crops, the ‘imminence of famine or the condition of the agricultural popula- ‘tion will be animated by personal interest and intelligence of ‘ things agricultural; who, when endeavours are made to help the ‘cultivating classes by a State loan, distribution of seed, and so ‘ forth, or to stimulate them to adopt well-tried improvements, will * have their zeal quickened by sympathy with, and appreciation of, ‘the measures proposed.’ The conferences in Berar and the Central Provinces followed the lead given in Bombay and suggested that students should be sent from those provinces to the Bombay College. ‘The Bengal conference, adopting similar views, claimed that the province was justified in having a college of its own, and recommended that the engineering college at Seebpur, near Caleutita, should be expanded for the purpose. The conferences held in the Punjab and the North-Western Provinces endorsed the arguments put forward in Madras and Bombay, but were prepared to advocate the establishment of one college for the two Provinces. In Burma and Assam local conditions did not justify proposals for a high-class agricultural institution in either province, though it was admitted that students might occasionally be sent to one or other of the colleges elsewhere. Thus, the outcome of the delibera- tions of the conferences has been that there should be four high- class agricultural colleges, viz.:—at Madras, at Bombay, at Calcutta, and at some place in Northern India, These four in- stitutions would meet the ordinary requirements of Berar, the Central Provinces, and the Punjab, and the occasional needs of Burma and Assam. ‘The opinions of local Governments on the question will be separately invited. 87. In every province which possesses or makes use of an agricultural college, there must, it has been urged, bea special school course leading up to it, This has been provided in Madras and Bombay, and will doubtless be arranged for elsewhere when the ‘time comes to do so. In Bombay the question has been raised of establishing an agricultural degree at the University, in addition to the College diploma, and was, when the conference closed, under the consideration of the authorities. 38. A subsidiary question was discussed at the conferences, whether in addition tothe college there should bea school at which students should be trained for certain subordinate revenue appointments and for such posts as assistant managers on court of wards’ estates, etc. School classes have already been established at the Government farms in Nagpur and Cawnpore with this object, the Nagpur farm being also utilized by the educational department for the instruction of training school students and schoolmasters. The periodef the agricultural course is two years in both places, but the course for schoolmasters is at Nagpur only six months. In Bengal the conference suggested that there should be two courses of different lengths at the same college, the shorter for subordinate officials, the longer for those who aspire to the College diploma. The question is one which requires further consideration and which would be perhaps more satisfactorily worked out by inter-communication, with the consent of local 506 . Sixth Resolution. Governments between the educational and agricultural departments of the provinces concerned, and by a review of the results which have been obtained at Nagpur and Cawnpore. 89. The local Governments and Administrations in their reviews of the conference proceedings have generally agreed in the policy pug forward—and the Government of India are themselves prepared to give it every encouragement. But they look upon this, as on all other approved recommendations of the conferences, as only a part of a genéral working-plan which must be developed as circum- stances admit. For the present they are content to place upon record the conclusions which they consider to be justified by the discussions which have been held :— (1) that agricultural degrees, diplomas, or certificates should be placed on the same footing as corresponding literary or science degrees, etc., in qualifying for admission to Government appointments and more particularly those: connected with land-revenue ad- ministration ; (2) that there should be not more than four. institutions giving.a high-class diploma, viz., at Madras,Calcutta, Bombay and some place in the North-Western: Provinces, and that these should be’ utilized by other. provinces:; (3) that the diploma should eventually be compulsory in the case of certain. appointments, ¢:9., agriouliirat teachers at training schools, assistants to the director of agriculture, etci; ore (4) that the’ practical instruction of candidates for cértain ‘subordinate appointments at a school class or an ex-" perimettal farm should be further considered’; (5) that.a special school course leading up to the agricul-® tural diploma, degree or certificate is required ; (6). that the practice of allowing schoolmasters either. before: or after appointment to pass through a: course of- a, few months on a Government farm is one which-de- serves consideration. 507 Agricultural Education. AppEnpiIx to Sixta Resonyrion, Fetract fromthe Proceedings of the Government of India in the Department of Revenue and Agriculture,—(No, 19—98-1, dated Simla, 20th September 1896.) Read— Paragraph 25 of Government of India, Home: Department Resolution No. 199, dated 18th June 1888, on the Review of Edueation in India in 1886. Proceedings of the'fifth meeting of the Agricultural Conference held at Simla in October 1893. Paragraphs 527 and 528 of Dr. Voeleker’s Report on the improvement of * Indian Agriculture. _ Paragraph 17 of Government of India, Home. Department, Resolution 0. 2, dated 7th September 1894, on the Progvess’ of Education, 1887-88 to 1891-92. , 7 RESOLUTION, In paragraph 17 of the second Resolution mentioned: in the preamble, allusion was' made to the suggestions of Dr. Voelcker respecting. the education of the agricultural classes, The sub- ject has now to receive renewed attention in connection with the recommendations of the agricultural conference which was con- vened in October 1893 to consider Dr. Voeleker’s Report. 2, The general view taken by the Government of India in the Resolution of 1894 was that greater success is to be expected: from making instruction in the rudiments of agriculture part and parcel of the primary system of instruction in the country, than from teaching ‘it as a subject apart from the general educational‘ pro- gramme, and that such general enlightenment and: intellectual - expansion of the agricultural classes as would enable them to per- ceive for themselves the small reforms-which are. within their means and opportunities, would be more likely to produce’ substantial results than special instruction in particular agricultural: processes. This view isin. practical accord. with the-opinions:expressed by the delegates of. Local Governments and Administrations: at the Conference of 1893. Im their-second: Resolution they. recommend that, asa general rule, instruction in agriculture should. be combined with the existing course of education. and not depenton separate special institutions. 3. The principles which govern’ the’ introduction of agricul- tural instruction into the educational system’ apply also to all branches of technical instruction, The question, therefore, is not merely low to adapt education to the training of agriculturists, but how’ so to fashion the plan of instruction as fo promote in the pupils taught the power of assimilating easily any kind of technical’ instruction, The moulding of the educational scheme into a form which will lead to such a result is one on which ideas and' methods have during recent years undergone a.radical change in: alli of the 508 Siath Resolution, more advanced countries of Europe. One great feature in the change has been the substitution of the idea of development of faculty for that of mere acquisition of knowledge. It is now acknowledged that the hand and the eye should be trained ; that the powers of observation should be brought into play and improved by exercise, and that the actual teaching of a particular trade is of less importance, in the first instance, than educational methods which will adapt the pupil for the subsequent reception of technical instruction of any description. “A system of education, ”’ writes the late Professor Huxley, ‘‘ which does nothing for the faculties of ‘‘ observation, which trains neither the eye nor the hand and is com- ‘patible with utter ignorance of the commonest natural truths, may “naturally be regarded as strangely imperfect”. All technical in- struction must indeed be founded on a preliminary training of a prace tical character in primary and secondary schools. In the reports recently submitted from various counties in England on the results achieved at technical institutions a common cause of failure was found to be the absence of any training of the powers of ob= servation in the scheols of lower grades. On similar grounds a charge was laid against the educational system formerly prevailing in the rural schools of England that it “actually unfitted the chil- *¢ dren of farmers for an agricultural career.’’ ‘‘ Nevertheless,” wrote the author of the second Report published by the Royal Commis- sion on technical instruction, ‘‘ there need be nothing in any scheme ** of rural education specially designed for the agricultural classes *« which should unfit the children for any other career for which indi- ‘¢ vidually they may be better suited.” The Government of India hold the same view. They admit indeed that agriculture, as the mainstay of the prosperity and wealth of the greater part of the population of India, deserves, more than any trade or profession, the special attention and care of those who are responsible for the instruction of the rural classes, but they are convinced that the early school instruction which is most calculated to produce even- tually the best agriculturists will be equally useful to those who intend to follow any other occupation. 4, At the same time the circumstances and surroundings of rural schools must give to any educational plan based on the princi- ples already indicated a leaning towards agriculture. In the official, syllabus for rural schools in France it is laid down that “ teachers “ should commence by directing the attention of pupils to visible and *¢ tangible objects which they should make the children see and feel, ‘Cand then put them face to face with concrete realities, from an ‘intelligent comprehension of which they will be led, by a gradual * exercise of their reasoning faculties, to the formation of abstract “ideas.” And in the Report of the Royal Commission, already quoted, it is urged that ‘‘ rural education should be based on what *‘a child can see round him.’’ The view recorded in the proceed« megs of the Conference of 1893, that any system of practical educa- tion in rural schools must, for whatever class intended, acquire an agricultural colouring, because the surrounding objects are themselves agricultural seems therefore to be unexceptionable. 5. In the Resolution of 1894 on Educational Progress the Gov- Agricultural Education. 509 ernment of India have acknowledged that there is a general ten- dency to modify the course of primary instruction in the desired direction. In some Provinces material progress has been made. But they are not fully aware how far the principles advocated have been systematically adopted, or to what extent opportunities exist for their wider introduction. Nor have they been informed what action, if any, has been taken .on the suggestion in the 25th paragraph of the Resolution of 18th June 1888 that conference should be held with which the Agricultural Department should be associated for the purpose of discussing the educational systems in its bearings on agriculture. It is true that the questions under examination have not, so far as the agricultural classes are con- cerned, yet assumed the general importance, which they will possess in the future, in view of the fact that, as a rule the rural population actually engaged in tillage have not hitherto made any appreciable use of the rural schools otherwise than with the object of training their children for occupations which have no immediate connection with agriculture. But the time must soon come when this position will be changed. Serious discussion of the subject ought not to be longer postponed. 6. The Governor General in Council desires'therefore that the suggestion of the Resolution of 18th June 1888 should now be carried out, and that advantage should be taken of the visit of the officer deputed by the Government of India to discuss the proposals of the Agricultural Conference of 1898 to hold in each Province a Conference of such officials as the Local Government may appoint, including, it is suggested, representatives of the Educational and Agricultural Departments, for a formal examination of the Resolu- tions recorded at the fifth meeting of the Conference of 1893 with the view of submitting definite suggestions and proposals for the consideration of the Local Government or Administration. 7. The Government of India do not wish, until Local Govern- ments and Administrations have had the opportunity of recording their own views, to deal further with the specific proposals of the Conference, nor do they desire to authorize the officer deputed by them to convey any final judgment on the issues raised. The chief duty of that officer will be to place for their information before the Local Governments or their representatives either facts and statis- tics obtained in other provinces, or the reports of other Provincial Conferences. For the present a sufficient indication has been given of the general views of the Government of India and of the desire of the Governor-General in Council that the subject should be earnestly examined in the interests of future agricultural develop- ment. 510: SEVENTH RESOLUTION. PUBLICATION OF AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION, The despatch of Her Majesty’s Secretary of State directing in 1881 the formation of departments Ne. 86, dated 16th Jung 1881. of agriculture, stated that one of their main objects was to be ‘the rendering available of facts and ‘statistics in order that Government and its officers may always be “in possession of an adequate knowledge of the condition of the coun- ‘try, its population, and its. resources,’ This injunction must be held to include the publication in an easily accessible form of all information likely fo be useful to the general public. 2. The various agencies established or contemplated by which information, facts, and statistics are or will be collected have already been described. They have been brought under three niain divi- sions—(i) Land record establishments ; (ii) Scientific departments under imperial direction; and (iii) Provincial departments of agricul- ture and their experts. The duties in respect to collecting and publishing pe oeeanen which devolve in each case upon the pro- vincial and imperial departments, respectively, will now be con- sidered, L—Information derived from land records, __ 8, Information supplied by the land records and by the estab- lishment maki maintain them can be ‘ rendered available ’ in three ways: Firstly; by the arrangement of the records themselves in such form that they can be easily searched by district officials and be made to yield readily information of any kind that is required. This has been, or now will be, effected in every province in which village records are maintained. The system accepted at the recent conferences for providing a simple abstract of the facts and statis- tics for each village, which will at once indicate its progress or. decline, has already been described in the third Resolution of this series. And the whole scheme of land records has now been so arranged in every part of India which possesses land record estab- lishments that information is promptly conveyed to the authorities of injury or distress caused by sudden calamities. Secondly, by the collation and review of the statistics for each’ district and division for the province and for the whole empire, This duty is respectively performed for the province in the annual or periodical reports of district and divisional officers, in the review of them by the land record department, by the higher revenue authorities, and by the local Governments; and for the empire by the compilation and discussion of them in the statistical depart- ment of the Government of India, by which department they are published for the information of the general public of the home authorities and of Parliament. Publication of agricultural iuformation. 511 . ‘Thirdly, by the. collection and collation of special facts and Statistics under appropriate subject heads. The method which is advised of arranging information under subject heads, with a view to its eventual publication in an intelligible form, will now be described. , 4. The system may be most conveniently described as a system ef ‘ledgering ’ and is an essential duty of the departiients of land records and agriculture. In every departmental office arrangements should be made for the separation of pamphlets, extracts, letters, reports, etc.; ieferring to each subject which is of sufficient inipor- taneé to deserve a distinet heading, in stich a manner that all paperd relating to that subject may be brought together for convenient reference, If this principle is observed the details may be left to the discretion of the departmental officers. But as the systém ig one which has been successfully elaborated in the offiee of the Reporter on Heonomie Products, that official has been instructed to publish a brief description of it for general information. 5. The Government of India have already indicated in thé third Resolution of this series how the land records aud the land record ¢stablishments can be utilised for supplying facts and statis- tics in respect to any agricultural practices or conditions which may be the subject of enquiry—such as methods of cultivation, the diseases of agricultural plants and of cattle and so forth. Informa- tion thus directly solicited would be naturally ledgered under its appropriate head and published, if necessary, by the department or supplied to the scientific department which requires to utilise it. 6. Beyond the information thus specially sought for there are soany facts and statistics which are brought tothe notice of district officers in their inspection of the records or otherwise, which ate of sufficient ,interest to deserve compilation and perhaps eventual publication by a central office. Thus, in the abstracts (to which allusion has already been made) of village statistics, (the occurrence of various agricultural defects in particular localities may be brought to light. Inone group of villages it may be the prevalence of a noxious weed, in another the continual recurrence of a plant disease, in a third the spread of saline efflorescence, in a fourth the appearance of an obscure cattle murrain. Some system should now be established under which district officers should be encouraged to: communicate to the department of land records notes of any remarkable facts bearing on agricultural conditions whi i come to their notice through. the village abstracts. It woul pas ably suffice that: an order should be given’ by the district officer directing that a copy of any entry in the circle books recording the occurrence and cause of any serious detérioration affecting a group of villages or an agricultural tract should be sent to the office of the Department of Agriculture. : 7. It willbe presently explained that the system of ‘ ledgering * advocated will not require that any facts and statistics thus supe plied need be immediately utilised by the central. department of the province. It will suffice that they should be recorded in their proper place, until the time comes when the subject to which they. 512 Seventh Resolution, relate is brought under special examination. Information thus collected will, when eventually collated and reviewed, be of material use in providing that ‘ adequate knowledge of the condition of the country ’? which Her Majesty’s Secretary of State called upon agri- cultural departments to supply. Il.—Information published by scientific departments under tmperial control, 8. The second agency by which information is collated and published includes the scientific departments directed by the Gov- ernment of India. Some of these are independent of provincial aid, their publications being regulated by the heads of the departments in communication with the imperial Government. 9. In every branch of work progress in executive operations is published in annual reports. But other information of more general interest is published in special reports, the character of which will now be briefly described. In the Survey Department the maps and charts that are issued at the head office practically embody the greater part of the geo- graphical information secured by Survey operations. The Geological Department publishes special memoirs contain- ing a detailed account of the results of any important investigation made by its officers, and exhibits its collections for the inspection of the public in the Indian Museum at Calcutta. An annual review of the mineral products of India for the information of those interested in mining enterprise and others is published annually at the request of Parliament, and is edited by the reporter on economic products. The Meteorological Department is one on which the obligation to provide full and ample information for the use of officials and of the public was strongly urged by the Famine Commissioners. The measures taken, under the direction of the Government of India, to fulfil this object have been already indicated in the fourth Resolution of this series. By daily maps and weather reports tele- graphed and posted to all parts of India, by storm warnings, by weekly and monthly reviews, annual reports on weather published in the official gazettes and by special memoirs on storms, tides and rainfall, the meteorological department has given full effect to the policy which has been pressed upon it. The Botanical Survey of India has recently commenced the issue of a series of ‘records,’ edited by the director, in which are embodied the results of the tours and investigations of the botanical officers throughout India. Special monographs are also published by the director under the title of ‘ Annals of the Botanic Garden,’ while the herbaria at the head-quarters of each officer are open to the inspection of the public. The botanical officers are further required to communicate to the reporter on economic products for eventual publication by him any facts of interest which their in- vestigations may bring to light in connection with plants of economic value. Publication of agricultural information. 513 Economie Products have, since the Imperial Department of Revenue and Agriculture was created in 1881, constituted the largest field in which organised measures for collating and publish- . ing information have been taken by the Government of India. In no department of science is information more required by the com- mercial and general public as well as by officials engaged in ad- ministrative work. As already explained in the fourth Resolution of this series, a descriptive catalogue under the title of a ‘ Dictionary of Economic Products ’ has been prepared and published by Dr. George Watt, the official reporter, its compilation having occupied ten years. But the dictionary was only designed to bring together facts and statistics already recorded in some form in books, reports, and journals, or in the manuscript papers of Government offices. The still more important work of collecting and collating new information has now been commenced, with a view to its ultimate incorporation ina revised edition of the dictionary, as well as to the current publication of so much of it as may be of immediate interest. 10. Ascheme has been drawn up under which the current work is divided into three branches :— (1) The compilation of ‘ handbooks,’ which are practically revised ‘ dictionary ’ articles, relating to a limited number of economie products, about twenty, of which collections are annually sent to the Imperial Institute. The handbooks are designed for circula- tion and sale in England and other countries, as well asin India. (2) The issue of a series, designated ‘the Agricultural Ledger,’ of pamphlets containing any information of interest communicated to the official editor (the reporter on economic products) by any of the scientife or provincial departments. This series covers more ground than is occupied by economic products, includ- ing as it does notes on any subject connected with agriculture; but economic products, under which head are comprised all field and garden crops and all forest produce, occupy the largest space in the publication. The agricultural ledger is intended for circulation to all officials interested in the subjects dealt with, as well as for distribution to the public. (8) The collection by the reporter of extracts from journals, from settlement reports, and other such sources of information, as well as of notes communicated from time to time by private or official contributors. These are ledgered in the reporter’s office on a system which brings together all papers referring to the same subject in such manner that the information they contain can be readily utilised, and, if neces- sary, condensed, whenever the subject may be even- tually dealt with, whether in a handbook, a number of the ledger series, or, finally, in a dictionary article. At the same time any matter of immediate interest 33 514 Seventh Resolution, to the commercial public is communicated in special circulars to those concerned in anticipation of. more formal publication. 11. The heads of all departments, provincial and imperial, have - already been invited to bring to the notice of the official editor any passages in reports and publications connected with their work which deserve to be brought fo his notice for inclusion in his office ledgers or for communication to the public. The Government of India take the present opportunity to direct continuous attention to this useful-practice, which tends to the preservation in an acces- sible form of much valuable information which would be lost sight of: in the pages of reports on current administration or of other blue books which are ‘relegated to the shelves of: official record-, rooms and seldom again consulted. / , 12. Inthe Veterinary Department a system of ledgering similar. to that employed in the economic product department is adopted. When sufficient information of interest on any subject connected with cattle, horses, animal disease, ete., has been collected by the special officer who, as stated in the fourth Resolution, is charged with this duty, it is communicated in the form of a number of the agricultural ledger series for publication by the official editor. “The Bacteriological branch of the department. publishes the results of its investigation in a series of special memoirs, which are issued whenever sufficient matter is available for_publication. In some cases these would be communicated to the agricultural ledger. Information collected in the department of Agricultural Science is communicated in the manner already. explained to the official editor of, the agricultural ledger for, issue in that series. In the section of Agricultural Entomology memoirs are issued from the Indian Museum by the officer on the staff engaged in investigations in that field. The informtion collected by him is also. made available for publication in the agricultural ledger séries. General information about Forestry is conveyed to the public in an annual review published by the Inspector-General of Forests, while any detailed facts and statistics of interest are published in the agricultural ledger series, A useful periodical entitled the ‘ Indian Forester,’ to which Forest officers are the chief contribu- tors, is utilized-by the Department for conveying interesting information to the official and general public. oe Tn) the department of general Séatistics periodical reports reviewing the statistics received from all provinces and depart- ments, will now be published periodically by the Director-General of the ‘newly-constituted department. These comprise, among others, monthly, quarterly, and annual reports on exports and im- ports, on inland road, rail and river-borne traffic and crop forecasts andoutturns. One of the most important publications is an annual return of the agricultural statistics of British India presented to Parliament. = Independently of the new statistical department, the imperial Publication of agricultural information. B15 department of agriculture undertakes'the' publication, periodically revised, of a statistical atlas’ in which the’ circumstances and resources’ of the empire are illustrated by’ maps, statistical dia! grams} and brief descriptive essays contributed by’ directors of scientific’ departments or by other selected officials. The second editiod of this work has'recently been published. — Art’ and Industries, though not represented by any separate impérial department, have not, in the scheme of publication, been overlooked.- An illustrated journal of Indian, art, to which all officials and others interested in the subject in India. or in, Europe, are invited to contribute, was, in. the year 1888, . brought out ab the instance and with the aid of the imperial, Department. of, Revente and Agriculture by a well-known London: art publisher and is issued monthly. A ‘technical art series’ containing illustra- tion’- of Indian‘ art and architecture is‘ also’ published’ by the officer in: charge of: the Photographic’ section of” the’ imperial’ survéy:office Both-of the'abdve publications’ ard partly designed’ for- educational purposes ~ as well‘ as for’ preservinp»a * knowledge’ of the best art of“ the couiitry. A third’séries; designated“ draw-" ing examplés? and alsd‘publlished ‘by'the Survey Departmelit, con=" tains a-spetial ‘selection of * oriental art 'drawings'for' usé ‘in ‘schouly: II1.—Information published by Provincial Departments. 18. Thé third “agerity ‘wpon * which ‘the duty devolves’ of pub” lishing’ informativn, facts and statistics ‘on’ agricultural’ and‘ scien-" tifil ‘subje¢ts’ othérwise {han ‘in’ cohnection ‘with ‘land-records, com-" prises thé‘aptictliural departments ‘of the’ provinces ‘and | expétta‘ under their control. : 14; The system of ‘agricaltural ledgers’ adopted by the Govem-" ment of India was taken from Madras, in which presidency: for" some years the practice of issuing ‘agricultural bulletins’ had been established.“ Thefe'are’ many subjects'of provincial’ importance which are too dependent ‘ori local conditions and’ circumstances to be of useful intérést to-“other provinées or ‘to thé’ geveral public. The maintenarcé of a provincial as well as of an’ impérial series of publications is; thereford, most desirable, arid’ sone “other provinces have ‘now followed thé’ example of Madras, and” thé’ Government of India ‘would ‘be glad’ td'‘séé’’ the “ practice’ adopted in every province, ; _ 152 Those papers ‘in a provincial series which are ‘of general interest otitsite thé provitice are,” undér ‘a ‘sclénie ° for’ provincial césopéefation recently circilated; to‘bé edmmilnitcdtéd tothe editor of the imperial setiés’for” wifer’ circilatitu,atdin “this view the painphlets of both provineial ‘and-imperidl- publications are’ to be of the sdmé pattern. 16, -Thé Government’ of India carinct press too strongly upon local Governments and Administrations the desirability. of encour- aging the directors of agricultural departments to provide for the free ‘and coristant contribution "of ‘useful “information ‘to the: im- périal editor. As éxplainéd under the previous sections, such inform- ation maybe of: -two - kinds, ‘either for immediate publication in ~ 383A 516 Seventh Resolution. the imperial series, or for inclusion in the ledgers of the editorial office. With this object the agricultural department should, sub- ject to the instructions of the Local Government, devise a system under which, as in the imperial departments, all passages in official papers and reports, of which the preservation for future publication may be desirable, should be marked and brought to their notice. To no class of reports do these remarks refer more particularly than to settlement and land administration reports. Much of the interesting information on agricultural subjects contained in them is lost to future generations of officials unless promptly extracted and ledgered under appropriate heads. A schedule of the headings which should be adopted for this purpose has been elaborated in consultation with provincial authorities and is now in force throughout India. 17. There is another class of facts and statistics in which the Agricultural Department is essentially interested and which especially demand a careful system of ledgering, viz., the results of experiments on Government farms or of investigations into agricultural practices and conditions. These, which are often of a technical character and of interest only to those actually engaged in agricultural experiment, do not always come within the scope of the agricultural ledger series or of the provincial bulletins. But papers on each subject, intelligently ledgered, may, as previously suggested by the Government of India, be usefully communicated direct by one provincial department to another, and may, whenever of general interest, be published in the provincial bulletins or com- municated for inclusion in the ledgers of the imperial editor. Every provincial department must at least be required to in- clude inthe information thus communicated to other depart- ments— (1) a statement of the working-plan arranged in consulta- tion with the agricultural chemist for every experi- mental farm and of the progress made in carrying it out each year, in order that the officials of the agri- cultural department in each province may be kept punctually informed of the experiments, their objects and results, which are being carried out in all other, provinces ; (2) a statement each year of the agricultural defect or defects which have been made the subject of special enyuiry during the past 12 months and a report on the progress and results of the investigation ; (3) any remarkable facts which may at any time come to the notice of the department, and which are likely to be of interest to the agricultural departments of other provinces, 18. In the Bombay Presidency the system has heen followed of publishing a statistical atlas, on the plan of the imperial atlas, in . which the conditions and circumstances of each district are illus- Publication of agricultural information. 517 trated by maps and statistical diagrams, and the measure is recom- mended by the Government of India for general adoption. Such atlases are of use and interest to the general public as well as to the administration. 19. The main principle which the Government of India conceive it necessary to bear in mind in the development of the scheme for recording facts and statistics is that the record of them in general reports dealing with a variety of subjects is of little or no practical use, unless those which are of interest are af once seized upon and preserved in ledgers under intelligent direction. The principle was accepted by the agricultural conference of 1893, and the Government of India trust that it may now, as far as possible, be carried into effective practice on a well-organised system by the departments of land records and agriculture in every province in which action has not yet been taken to this end. 518 EIGHTH RESOLUTION. Awwvat Reports. 1. One of the subjects which was brought before the agricul- tural conférencé of 1893 was the form which should be adopted for fhe annual reports prepared by provincial agricultural departments. Tt was," however,’ decided that the question could best be dealt ‘with’ when the ‘agricultural’ programme, © yuk was to be based upon the proceedings of the conference, had been definitely deter- mined:’ The scheme which is to be worked out by provincial departments has iow been finally settled in communication with local authorities and Governments and is embodied in the preceding Resolutions of this series. The annual reports should, in the opinion of the Government of India, follow, as far as possible, the arrangement which has been observed in those Resolutions. 2. The Government of India last dealt with the subject of departmental reports in the 3rd paragraph of their Resolution No. 52, dated 14th September 1887, and do not require that any material departure should be made in future from the instructions which it conveyed and which had for their object the curtailment of annual reports. The paragraph referred to is quoted below for purposes of easy reference :— Paragraph 3 of Resolution No. 52, dated 14th September 1887. 8. Report of the Department of Land Records and Agricul- éure.—The annual publication in every Province of the Report of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture in the form pre- scribed in Circular Resolution No. 54 A., dated the 28th April 1884, is, in the opinion of His Excellency in Council, essential for the purpose of indicating the progress which may-be annually made by the Department of Land Records and Agriculture in connection with the measures adopted in pursuance of the recommendation of the Famine Commissioners in each portion of the Empire. The report consists of two main divisions—Land Records and Agricul- ture—and is designed to show the executive work of the Depart- ment, not to comprise discussions on administrative measures, or to contain any description or summary of the economic or agricul- tural circumstances of the season. The Local Government may, however, require information of this kind to be submitted by the Department to the Chief Revenue authorities of the Province, for utilization in preparing the Land Revenue Administration Report and may prefer that for that purpose it should be included in the land record section of the Departmental Report, rather than be submitted by independent communication. There will be no objec- tion to this course. But there seems to be no reason why statis- tical statements concerning crops, irrigation, tenures, etc., should find a place in the Report of the Department as well as in the Annual Land Revenue Administration Report, to which latter they Annual Reports. 519 should, in the opinion of His Excellency in Council, be confined. The Agricultural section of the Departmental report should be restricted to an account of the executive operations of the Depart- mental officers, and to a brief description of, or reference to, any results of special interest which may have been obtained during the preceding twelve months, whether in farms, gardens, Government estates, or otherwise, but should avoid lengthy discussions on agri- cultural subjects and need not contain any detailed examinations of the working of gardens, farms, or other agricultural institutions which should be dealt with in the Department by orders on the annual reports. In accordance with the above remarks, His Excel- leney in Council is of opinion that rio other review of the Annual Report of the Director of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture than that which may be included in the review by the Local Government of the Land Revenue Administration Report is necessary, and that it will suffice if a copy of the Report, together with any orders which may be passed thereon, is submitted for the information of the Government of India. 3. The question which remains for consideration is the arrange- ment which should be followed in framing an account of the execu- tive opal of the Department. In Circular No. 54 A., dated 28th April 1884, headings had been prescribed which were based upon the agricultural programme embodied in the Resolution of 1881 dealing with the duties of agricultural departments. These will hereafter be replaced by headings corresponding with. the subjects dealt with in the Resolutions which are now issued in supersession of the Resolution of 1881. ; 4, The first Resolution’of the new series is prefatory and requires no notice in the annual report. But it will be desirable that the annual report should commence with a prefatory chapter in which will be recorded, among other matters, a brief noticé, any changes which may have occurred in the personnel of the Department, and a short description of the tours taken by the Director, and of thei general object. 5. The second, Resolution deals with the measures taken to improve land record éstablishments. The work of the department in connection with land records is in most provinces described in a separate report which is incorporated with the land revenue adminis- tration report of fhe year. The Government of India have no wish to interfere with this procedure, which is doubtless the most convenient to all branches of the administration concerned. But they desire that fhe annual report of the department should contain a brief notice of the progress made in efficiency and knowledge of survey by the land record establishments ; of any new measures which have been takeri during the year fo improve the standard of the land record officers; of the extent to which promotion has been granted to the higher revenue service; and of any other circum- stances of a canara character which may indicate that the gradual improvement of the land record staff is held in view. 6: The third Resolution deals with the utilization of the land records. Under this head should be described the general working No. 18, dated 25th May 1892, 520 Eighth Resolution. of the system prescribed for the maintenance and inspection of circle notebooks ; it should be explained whether, as rule, they are punctually maintained and _ intelligently examined by district officials ; and some general indication should also be given of the use made of the land record staff to supply information on agricultural questions under enquiry in accordance with the instructions of Resolution V or otherwise. 7. The fourth Resolution deals with the scheme of scientific enquiry carried out by imperial departments. Under this head the report should state to what extent during the course of the year the provincial department has lent its co-operation to, or made use of, any one of the imperial departments named in the Resolution ; and should describe any work done in the province, whether with or without the aid and advice of the imperial officers in any of the fields of scientific enquiry to which the Resolution refers. The progress made in Civil Veterinary work should, in accordance with the instructions of paragraph 13 of the Resolution marginally quoted, be especially described under the various heads detailed in that Resolution. 8. The fifth Resolution refers to positive agricultural experi- ment and improvement. As stated in the orders of 1884 already quoted in the second paragraph, it is not desirable that the annual report should enter into any lengthy discussions on agricultural subjects or describe the working of the farms. The separate reports on the farms themselves, which are submitted to the local Government, as well as the notes on any interesting experiment or improvement which the Department is required to communicate to the editor of the Agriculiural Ledger will supply detailed informa- tion to all who may require it. Theannual report is only intended to indicate the general character of the programme which the Department is carrying out. The section of it which deals with the subjects of the fifth Resolution should, therefore, open with a conspectus of the farms which are under the control of the Depart- ment and of the staff by which they are managed ; it should indicate the system, if any, which is adopted for carrying experiments into estates under Government or private management, and for obtain- ing the co-operation of native landowners. It should then. give a brief description of, or reference to, any results of special and material interest which have been obtained on farms or estates during the preceding twelve months. It should next explain what particular agricultural defects have been made the subject of special investigation during the year, and if a report on the results of such investigation has been already published in the Agricultural Ledger, should refer to the number and date of the journal in which it has appeared, such reference obviating the necessity of giving any special account of it in the annual report, Finally, it may include a record of any interesting facts which have been otherwise brought to light during the year in connection with agricultural enquiry and improvement, although in these cases also a reference to. the Agricultural Ledger ought to prevent the necessity of any- thing more than a brief allusion to them. Annual Reports. 521 9. The sixth Resolution deals with agricultural education. Under this head should be included a statement by the Director for the information of the local Government how far the educa- tional system of the province is found to mest the requirements necessary for the instruction of boys or students designed for village accountantships, for circle appointments, or for an agricultural call- ing; and to what extent that system is or should, in his opinion, be eu e mele! by special departmental arrangements and educational classes. a In dealing with agricultural education he should, as far as pos- sible, follow the arrangement adopted in the Resolution on that subject and bring his remarks under the various heads there given. 10. The seventh Resolution deals with the publication of information, facts, and statistics. Under this head the following points should be noticed in the annual report :— (1) The extent to which information has been obtained from the district circle note-books of the occurrence and cause of serious agricultural deterioration. This may be illustrated by a record of the number of com- munications received. (2) The system maintained for ledgering useful facts and information from district and settlement reports, from the reports of the scientific departments or from similar sources of information, and the general pro- gress which has been made, or the difficulties which are found in the ledger work. (3) The publication, or measures, if any, taken for the pre= paration of a statistical atlas or of any other special works designed either to illustrate the agricultural or economic conditions of the province, or of any part of it, or to indicate the position and needs of any agricultural or commercial industry. (4) The number of papers communicated by or through the agency of the Department to the Agricultural Ledger. A list of these should ‘be given in an appendix to the Report. (5) The number of papers received from, or communicated to, other provincial departments. 11. In conclusion, it is left to the discretion of the Director, under such instructions as he may receive from the local Govern- ment, to bring forward any matter of interest which has been brought to bis notice during the year and which bears upon the work of his department. 12. Under the instructions of this Resolution the headings of the chapters of the Director’s report will be— I. Prefatory. II. Land Records Establishments. IIT. Utilization of land records, IV. Scientific and national enquiry under imperial control, 522 Eighth Resolution, V. Scientific:and local enquiry under ‘provincial direction. VI, Agricultural education. VII. Publication of agricultural information. Vill, Final. The Government:of Madras. ” oF Bombay. a » Bengal. * mF North. West- tern Provin- ces and Oudh. ” 43 Punjab. The Chief Commissioner, Central Provine ces. ” » a Burma, ae “ie a Assam. ” ”» ” Ajmere. Noo ae ” Coorg. The Resident, Hyderabad. > Inspector ‘General of Forests. » a ? Civil Veter- inary Department. The Agricultural Chemist to the Government of India. The Reporter on Economic Pros ducts to the Government of India. ‘Order—Ordered, that a copy of the foregoing Resolutions ‘be for- warded to the Iiocal Governments and Administrations and officers noted in the margin for information and guidance, and that the Reslou- tions be published in the Supplement to the Gazette of India for general information. Ordered also, that a copy be forwarded to Sir E. Buck, lately Secretary to the Government of India, on special duty. (True Extract.) DENZIL IBBETSON, Secretary to the Government of India. 523 INDEX. —+— A. ACACIA ARABICA (babul), 53, 57-8, 148-9, 150, 153, 154, 157-9, 163, 164, 194 Acclimatisation of seed, 238, 239, 253 Acknow]edgments, personal, 7, 8, 9. . See also Tours, 427-42 . Aden cattle, 207, 210,371 Adhatoda vasica, 107 Adulteration : of bone-meal, 117,422 of manure cakes, 118 of wheat, 274-82, 423 of linseed, 282-4, 424-6 use of chemist is checking, 117-18 Advances, Government. See Taccavi advances. Aghani crops, 26 Agra: : need of irrigation at, 79 canal plantation at, 140, 148 “ Agricultural analysis,” 2, 32, 92, 297 “ Agricultural cattle,’ 168, 171 Agricultural Chemist : application for, 4, 5 sanction given to enguiry by, 5 opinions on need of, 314-15 © Agricultural Chemist, work for : sammary of, 315-20 — in investigation on soils, 84, 42, 48, 47, 62, 315 ete in irrigation 814-5, 316- in reh and usar enquiries, 52, 61-2, 315-16 eter in manurial enquiries, 93, 96-7, 100, 110, 114-15, 116-18, 133, 314-15 in fodder enquiries, 186, 194, 314-16, 318-19 hs in dairy tters, 207-8, 214-15, 814-15, 316-17 =” in checkin adulteration, 118 in sugar in ustry, 224-6, 227-8, 248, 249, 250, 252-3 in indigo industry, 258-9, 260-5 in tea industry, 264-5, 266 in tobacco industry, 270 in coffee cultivation, 268-9 as “referee” or “scientific adviser,” 318 : in agricultural enquiry, 4, 17, 183, 227-8, 315-16 in agricultural experiments, 315-16, 817, 318, 347-8, 854,355 in connection with education, 4, 818-19, 323-5, 387-9, 898-4 Agricultural Chemist : i : qualifications of, $20 duties of, 320, 323-24, 827, 328 remuneration af, 328-30 questions, 76-8, 112, Agricultural Chemist—conténued. relations of, to private industries, 327-8 =, to Municipalities, 328 Agricultural Chemist, Assistant: need of, 323-5 qualifications of, 325 duties of, 324, 327 remuneration of, 329 Agricultural Chemistry : teaching of, 5, 319, 828-5, 389, 490, 393-4 in Indian Civil Service Examina- tion, 399, 400 Agricultural classes (educational) : at Faroda, 369 _ at Belgaum, 386, 392 at Nadiad, 368, 886, 892 at Nagpur, 22, 385, 893 Agricultural colleges. See Colleges. conditions, varieties in, 10, 12, 15, 25-8, 35, 64-7 o —- conferences : usefulness of, 403 Delhi, 4 Simla, 6 its views on appointment of Agricnltural Chemist, 314, 822, 329 its views on employment of agricultural experts, 308 its views on appointments for agricultural students, 389 Agricultural “Department : first created, 1 failore of first, and causes, 1 reconstituted, 2 Imperial, Secretary of, 402 of Bengal, 301,339, 873, 378, 408 of Bombay, 157,237, 288, 299, 409 of Madras, 371, 408. of North-West Provinces, 1, 404, 409 formation of, 1 experiments of, on ravine land, experiments of, on ugar land 57-60 Agricultural Departments : provincial, formed, 2 Lord Mayo’s views on work of, 1 Sir R. Temple’s views on work of, 1 Sir John Strachey’s views on work of, 1 Sir Edward Buck’s views on work of, 3 classification of present werk of, 403 duties of, defined by Famine Com- mission, 2, 3 524 Agricultural Departmente—continued, in connection with agricultural im- provement, 8, 14, 16, 17, 32, 80, 188, 214, 237, 245, 299, 408-10 in relation to education, 4, 379 in relation to Forest Department, | 138-9 expenditure of, enquiry by Finance Commission into, 3 organisation of, in different Prov- inces, 409 want of technical knowledge in, 299-306 employment of “practical experts” in, 304-9 employment of scientific officers in, 330 employment of junior Civilians in, 400 future policy of, 409-10 requirements of, 409-10 Director of. See Director. Agricultural Education, 379, 396 benefits of, 17, 132, 383 necessity for, 308, 381 duty of Agricultural Departments to promote, 4, 379 encouragement to pursuit of, 388-9 classes for whom required, 389-90 of Civilians, 398, 399 work of agricultural chemist in con- nection with, 5, 319, 320, 323-5, 387-8, 393 Agricultural Engineer, in association with Agricultural Department, 92, 227-8, 330, 331 Agricultural Enquiry : practical, 296-311 scientific, 312-385 experimental, 336-378 need of, 2, 3, 16, 17, 82, 67, 80-1, 133, 167, 245, 252-3, 296, 297, 298, 299 recommended by Famine Commis- sion, 2, 8, 12, 297 present agency for, 301-2 permanent and expert agency re- quired for, 17, 299-800 employment of scientific men in, 228, 330 work of Agricultural Chemist in convection with, 5, 17, 91-2, 133, 227-8, 315-16 Agricultural Entomologist, 240, 330 — Experiments. See Experiments. —— Experts, 304-10, 319-20, 387-8 facilities, provision of, 12-3, 16, 28-9, 63, 133, 166, 187 “‘___.. forests,” 138, 139 Agricultural Improvement : obligation on Government of India to promote, 2, 3, 4 possibility of, 10, 12, 13, 18 dependence of, upon enquiry, 3, 17, 31-2, 80-1, 133, 296, 297 Agricultural methods, transference of, 17, 227-8, 241, 242, 243-4, 298-9 —— practice : general opinion on, 11 a a by variable conditions, 26, Index. Agricultural primers, 387-8 —— progress in Britain, cause of, 313 —— “referee,” need of, 318: * — research, 312, 313 —— shows, 405-8 statistics, 2, 298, 403 text-books, 319, 387, 388 Agriculture : : population engaged in, 380 relation of chemistry to, 313 inducements to study of, 388-9, 400 recognition of, by Universities, 384 departmental examination of Civil- jans in, 400 Indian, erroneous ideas concerning, 10 , geveral opinion on, 11 Agriculturiats’ Loans Act, 87, 88 Ahmedabad, 85-6, 102, 121-2, 160-1, 157-8, 174 Aima, 102 . Ajmere, 79, 153 —— -Merwara forests, 138, 139, 145, 153-5 Akola, black cotton-soil at, 47 Alambadi cattle, 198 Alegaon Farm, 369 Alexander, Mr, 155 Aligarh, 58, 59, 85, 154-5, 163 experiments on user land at, 57-9 Allahabad, 121, 209 —— Grass Farm, 121, 176-180, 183, 184, 185 Alluvial soils, 35, 42, 48, 66 Aloe hedges, 163 Amanat river, 79-80 America : tree-planting in, 149-50 experimental stations in, 357 Ammonium chloride, 344-5, 361 Amrawau, experiments on usar recla- mation at,-57 Amrit Mahal herd, 198, 203 Amritsar, 68, 94, 157-8 market-gardening at, 22, 68 utilisation of night-soil at,.22-3, 120 Anaimalai (Madras), 38 “ Analysis, agricultural,” 2,32, 92, 297 Analysis, chemical : value of, 34, 61-2 of fe 34, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 415, of waters, 76, 77, 78, 417 of cattle-manure, 98, 122-3, 418, 419 of leaves, 122-3, 420 of manure cakes, 105, 420 of feeding-stuffs, 421 of bone-meal, 422 Analysis, mechanical ; of samples of wheat, 279, 280, 423 of samples of linseed, 282, 283, 424, 425 Analysis of districts, 40%, 404 Anantapur, 71, 88, 195, 212, 292 Andropogon annulatus ( janewa), 58 —— laniger (gandel), 59 —— pertusus ( palwa), 172 Angole cattle, 206 : Anjan (Pennisetum cenchrotdes), 68 59, 181 Anogeissus, 153. Index, Apatite, 113 Appointments, scientific, training insti- tution for, 338 Arab stallion, 211, 367 Arachis hy pogea (earth-nut), 104, 206, 346-7, 870, 371, 421 Arains, 119-20 Arbor societies, 149 . Arboriculture, 31, 149, 150 Arcot, South, 105 Arhar (Cajanus indicus), 26, 46,119, 197, 232, 283, 234 Army Remount Department, 210, 408 Arrah (Behar), analyses of soils from, 44, 48, 49, 50 Arrowroot, 345, 367 Arsikeri, waste land near, 158 Artocarpus tree), 127, 149, 194, 267, 420 Artriples nummularia (salt-bush), 59 Ashes of cattle-dung, 95-100, 103, 104, 418 Assam, 25, 26, 64, 158 Assamiwar system (indigo), 268 Assessment $ excessive, 402 exemption of improvements from, 78, 86, 88-9, 157-8, 402 remission of, for tree=planting, 157, 158 Assistant Agricaltural Chemist. See Agricultural Chemist, Assistant. Assistants to Agricultural Directors, 304-9 Atlas, Statistical : of India, 8, 26, 85 of Bombay, 404 Avardt (Cassi a auriculata), 107 Avenashi (Coimbatore), 86, 104, 112, 122, 125, 126, 158, 194, 196 Avery plough, 216 Awa, experiments on usar reclamation at, 55, 57 Azamgurb, 293 B. BABUL, See Acacia arabica Bacteriological laboratory at Poona, 212, 331, 391 Baib grass (Pollina eriopoda), 172 Bdjra (Pennisetum typhoidewm), 168, 191, 192, 234. Balaghat, 72, 175, 192 Balnshan, 226 Baling of hay, 180 Ballia, 89 Balsamodendron Berryi, 195 Bamber, Mr., 265 Banda, 72, 139 Bangalore, 107 Bani cotton, 238, 254, 367 Baniya (money-lender), 84, .85, 236, 938, 290-2 Bara, 126 Barbadoes, 248 Bareilly, 21, 66, 107, 126, 178, 193 want of firewood at, 102 integrifolia (jack-fruit | 525 . BarieDoab canal 68, 70, 120, 148 Barley, experiment on varieties of, 362 Baroda, 27,173 Agricultural Class, 369 College, 369, 391 sugar Factory, 252 Bartchinhulla, 97, 125, 266 Basalt, 35, 47 Bassia cake, 105 Bassia latifolia (Mahua), 105, 149, 194 Basu, Mr., 88, 89, 79, 151, 193, 243, 301, 404 ‘ Bath and West of England Society, experiment of, 351 -Bati (Oudh), 63, 64, 221 Becherdas, Mr, Viharidas Desai, 128, 270, 271 Beerthoom (Bengal), 102 Begg, Messrs. Dunlop & Co., 272 Behar, 26, 28, 48, 69, 106, 110, 111, 116, 12], 191, 199, 227, 256 cadastral survey of, 404 Beheea, 252 sugar-mill, 216, 225, 250 Belgaum, 27, 82, 85, 87, 151, 175, 204 working of taccavi system at, 87 Agricultural Class at, 386, 400 Fellary, 55, 79, 88, 116, 190, 193,| 217, 219 want of irrigation at, 79, 81 scarcity of wood at, 151 Belna sugar-mill, 224, 226 Benares, 78, 89, 293 Bengal, 16, 36, 66, 72, 86,102, 108, 109 110, 114, 122, 157, 175, 404 climate of, 26-28 cattle in, 28,197, 198 Eastern, 25, 26, 28, 64, 102, 110 Department of Land Records and Agriculture, 301, 339, 373, 375 409 Farms, 373-5, 393 “ Bengals” (cotton), 254 Benson, Mr. C., 7, 307, 404 on importance of manure, 94, 103, on use of litter, 125, 126 on fodder-crops, 191 _ on scarcity of firewood, 151, on deep ploughing, 219 his text-book, 388 Berar, 112, 253 black cotton-soil of, 15 Berhampore, 273 Bernard, Sir Chas., 7 Betel-vine, cultivation of, 73, 105, 144 Bettiab, 157 Beyreah, 28 Beyts, Mr., 102 Bhadgaon Farm, 107,127,158, 184, 190, 202, 233, 339,341, 357 review of, 366-8 Bhadoi crops, 26 Bhagalpur, 198, 238, 244 Bhandara, 241 Bharwari, 200 Bhendi (Hibiscus) tree, 144 Bhils, 21 . Bhusa, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 197, 222 Biawar, 102, 154 526 Bikanir sheep, 211 Bilaspur, 86, 88, 241-42 Bilbaur, 95 Black cotton-soil, 15, 42, 47, 49, 50, 65 Blasting of rock for well making; 8), 82 Blue-stone, 269 Bodu (Orobanche Nicotiana), 272 Bombay, 20 Agricultural Department, 158,: 237, 238, 800, 409. Forest Department, 108, 146, 168, 171 climate of, 26, 27, 28° rab cultivation in, 108 price of firewood in, 150. waste land in, 158 grazing areas in, 168,171: dairying at, 208 rotation practised.in, 234 Farms in, 366:9 © Chamber of Commerce; on’ cleaning of wheat, 277 University, diploma-in' agriculture, 384 Bones, 113-7 export of, 113, 259 - collection of,.114 . as manure, 115, 116, 264-5, 268-9, 346; 360-1, 364,'375 Bone-crushing, 116, 375 - Bone-meal, 118, 422: : adulteration of, 117,422 -. Bone-mill, 116, 375 —-—superphosphate, 361 “* Borer” (coffee), 269 - Borrowing of seed, 236i Botanist, need iof, in agricultural len- quiry, 330 : Bouillie bordelaise, 269 :: Brab mans, 14, 21, 22 Brahmani bull, 199,'200° Brandis, Sir D., 188, 139; on’ duties of | Forest Department,.143; on .“ fuel .and, fodder reserves,” 152, 153: on grazing in forests, 169,170 Bratties (cow-dung cakes), 96,'101,.102, 150,.151 “ Broach” cotton, 235, 253 Buck, Sir E., 7, 21,°76, 95,419, 242,:360;| , appointed Secretary. of Agricultural Department, 3 ; his views ‘on work of Agricultural .Department, 3; on the «ek question, 56, 595 on import-' ance of manure, 103,119; on®* fwel: and fodder reserves,”.152,. 158 }:in- troduces Cawnpore pump,\ 224; on need of agricultural chemist, 315; on agricultural education; 379, 880- ° Buffaloes, 28, '204,'205, 206, 369 - Bullock rake, 227. ° Eullocks, 28, 197, 198; 202, 204, 212. trotting, 212 Bulls, Brahmani, 199, 200 "stud, breeding of, 198, 200.4 Bunding (embanking) of land, 31, 53, 78,157, 293°’ Burdwan, 83, 102, 105, 107, 126, 178,' 242, 244 Burma, 26, 64, 376 Index, Butea frondosa (dhdk), 60, 148, 155, 164 Butter, 168, 206-10, 315, 316° Butter-fat, in milk, 205 Butter-making, 207, 208, 316 Mr. Howman’s experience, 207, 208, iv Bombay and Poona, 208° Butter-milk (ehds or ¢ék), 207° Buxar, 121, 238, 277' C. CACTUS, 163 Cadastral survey of Behar, 404 Caesalpinia’cortaria (dévi:divi),'367 Caird, Sir Jas., 5, 6 his estimaté of provision’ agairist famine, 41, 132: ae, influence of' trees! on climate of, Cajanus indicus (Arhar Dal), 26, -46;" 119, 197, 232,.233,' 234 - Calcutta, 6, 8, 111,114, 116,: 175; 209, 252, 333 . Calotropis gigantea (madar)y,'107 Canal Irrigation : the problem of, 70 over-cropping as result of, 75 cultivation by, compared’ with: welt irrigation, 73 - Canal plantations, 31, 140,148/:149;4 38, 173, 174 —— silt, 57, 71, 76, 110 : —— water: its relation to reh, 56, 67, 58, 68) 71 waste of, 74 - analysis of,'76, 417 - comparison with well water,“76° Canals, or River Channels, 65, 71° ene by Government, -16, influence on climate, 29 classification of, 65 beneficial influence of, 68 primary use of, 68 objections urged agninst, 68-71 bad management of, by people, 83 Inundation, 65, 71 perennial; 65,67 ; Agra, 148 Bari-Doab; 68,-70,:1205148 Cawnpore,66,'148): Ganges, Lower, 77, 148: ' Ganges, Upper,‘148." Jumna, Eastern, 83, 148" Jumna, Western, 69 ' Orissa, 43, 69 Sidhnai, 67, 87; 101,186." Cantonment Dairy Farms, 209 Capital, raiyat’s want of, 88; 94, 116, 236, 288, 289 Carthamus tinctarins 197 Cassia auriculata (avérai), 107 - Caste : ae of, 14, 15, 20£23,.114, 119, Castes and Races, 20, 21. (safflower), 105, Index, Castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis), 55, 95, 104, 105;,106, 242, 369: Castor cake (castor poonac); as, manure, 104, 105, 243, 362, 374, 420°. Casuarina, 149 Caterpillars attacking. indiga-plant, 258 Cattle, 197-206 : influence of climate on, 28,.197- food of, 105, 190-4, 197, 206. mortality: of; 113: losg of; by, famine, 139, 169. selection of, 198, 200, 201: breeding. of, 201-35357, 367. Gisease, 173, 212-13. Farma., See Farms. at Bhadgaon, 190, 198, 202-3, 367: in Bhagalpur, 198 in Gujarat, 198, 206). at Hissar, 198, 201-2 - at Hostr,.198. in S. Mahbratta country, 198. io Punjab, 202 “ apricultural,” 168;:171, Dairy, 205-7,:209-10, . plough, 204 Government. advances, for purchase of, 205 Cattle, breeds of : Aden, 207, 210, 371 Alambadi, 198 Angole, 206 Gujarat, 201, 206, 207 Khillari, 367 Malvi, 206, 367 . Mysore, 198, 201, 203, 206, 367 Nagore,, 201, 206 . Nellore, 198,206, 371, Cattle-manure. Seg also, Manure, 14,.45, 96-103 analysis of, 98, 418. ashes of, 98, 103, 104, 418 . badly kept, 122-7, 368 _ well kept, 127, 128,.129 , loss from burning, 99, 100. ite. poe and, non: nan. foe foes 100-3, 13 Cattle shows, 197, 405,408. at Meerut, 197, 405 , at Nadiad, 369 . at Saharanpur, 197, 405-. Cauveri river, 66,76), Cawnpore, 10, 21, 69, 70, 74, 77, 9%5:-85, 102,126, 200 . soil ot Farm at, 44, 49, 50;. reclamation of land at, }53,,58, 59., kdchhi, cultivation. at, 21, 119 use of night-soil at, 120; 121 canal plantations af,,140,.148, , price of firewood at, 150_ pump, 224. —— Farm, 44, 49,50, , 106,107, 114, 216,220, 222,224, 237, .238, 342, 844,, B45, 347" review of, 359-63 implements sold at, 224 seed-distribution at, 237,:, —— Grass Farm, 176, 178, 183. Central Provinces 15, 16, 20, 36, \89,, 64, 130,-165, 234, 236. climate of, 27, 64 527 Central Provinces— continued, waste land in, 157, 158; 160; 161, 162 arboriculture in, 149° grazing in, 175 cattle in, 198 Centrifugal ‘‘drier * (for-sugar), 226; 251 Ceylon, 114 Chaff-cutters, 227 - Chamars, 102, 114, 120; 212: Chambu. Ste bajra. Champarun, grazing and cattlein, 174-5 Chandra, rukh, 181 Chang “reserve” (Ajmere), 168-4 ' Changa Manga, plantation at, 140; 148, 172; 173-4, 180,'181- Change of seed, 235,.286,.258 « Chapman, Capt. 8,53, 54,:180;:221 - Chari.: See gudn. Chas or ték (butter-milk),: 207° Chattisgarh, eattle in,.175:- Chemical Examiners, 328;.332, 333° Chemist. See Agricultural Chemist. Chemists, Municipal,'328; 343 '- Chemistry : relation of) to agriculture, 313. teaching of, in Forest School, 344 teaching.of,:at Poona College, 390 Chenab, river, 79 Cherki (sugar-mill), 224 Cheviot, Hills, excessive grazing on, 171 Chherat, usar experiments at, 59: : Chhimbar (Hleusine flagellifere), 181 Chingleput, need of irrigation at, 79, 88 Chittagong-Assam Railway, waste land along, 158 . : Choh land, 54: Cholum. See judr Chota Nagpur, 21, 78, 107, 206/291 - want of fuel in, 151: : need. of fadder-crops in, 198 ‘ nears (forest--guards),: 168;: 164, Cicer arietinum, See-Gram. Cirencester, Royal Agricultural College, 306-7, 308, 393,:399 - : Civilians, junior ;. training of, in agriculture, 398 - employment of,-in- Agricultural ' De- partment, 339 Civil Surgeons, 332 «- Clay in Indian. soils,.48. ' Clay soils, 35, 42, 48, 57, 66; 72; 218 Clibborn,. Major, on the- construction of wells, 78, 74-82 : Climate, 25-32 influence.of, 26-28 influence of. trees on, 29-31: ** Close”. season for forests, 172: Clover-sickness, 258 '- ; Coffee, 266-69 + minures for, 268 - problems in cultivation of, 266” importance of-shadefor, 266=7 '- work for chemist in connection: with,. 268, 269°. és eee injuries of, 269 -- oimbatore, 38, 93, 102, 104, 176: 249- 251, 258 oe eet “ garden” cultivation of , 10, 73: 528 Coimbatore— continued. irrigation by wells in, 79, 81 leaves used as manure in, 107 soil-mixing in, 110 fodder-crops in, 191 hedges in, 195 rotations practised in, 235 perennial cotton in, 253 Manual of, Nicholson’s, 38, 71, 81, 103, 157, 191, 404 Cold-season crops, 25, 26, 27,150, 231, 234, 365 Coleroon river, 76 Colleges, 382-5 Baroda, 369, 391 Poona, of Seience, 5, 23, 326, 866, 368, 382, 383, 386, 390 Saidapet, 370, 372, 382, 383, 392, 293 Farest School, Dehra, 4, 326, 386, 388, 394, 395 Seebpore Engineering, 393 Royal Agricultural, Cirencester, 306, 307-8, 393, 399 Comwmissariat Department, 180, 181, 186, 187, 201, 204, 209 Commission, Famine. mission. —, Finance. sion. —, Forest, 108 Commissioner of Agriculture, 3038, 402 Common land, 150, 157-8, 159-60, 161, 172, 173 Conferences. . See Agricultural Confer- ences, Continuity of experiment, 317 Continuous growing of corn, 37, 257 — of indigo, 256, 257-8 Convolvulus, 107 Cooke, Dr. Theodore, 8, 383, 390 Coorg, 49, 50, 105, 111, 112, 113, 269 —— forests, 141 ,146 Coprolites, 112 Corn trade, Londonand Liverpool, 275 276, 277, 280, 282 Cotes, Mr. E.C., 240, 330 Cotton, 27, 233, 234, 253-6 cause of deterioration in, 236 bani and jart, 238, 254, 367 perennial, 253 acclimatisation of, 238, 253 © mixing” of, 253, 255 export of, 257 experiments on, 238, 862, 364, 367 Farms, 366 presses, 255 seed, 105, 106, 197, 255, 362, 364 soil, black, 15, 42, 47, 49, 50, 65 Court of Wards’ Estates, 208, 237, 359 Coussmaker, Col., 211 Covered sheds for cattle, 125, 127, 371 Cows, 199, 205, 206, 207, 371 Cow-dung. See Cattle-manure. Cow-dung cakes, or bratties, 96, 101, 102, 151, 152 Cream-separators, 207, 208, 227 Croft, Wells & Co., Messrs. 9, 118 €ropping: over, 37, 75 mixed, 11, 232, 233 See Famine Com- See Finance Commis- Index. Cropping—continued. continuous, with indigo, 256, 257 , with wheat, 37, 267 change of, 258 Crops, 25-7, 231-39 rotation of, 232-5 out-turn of, 240, 362, 365 fodder, 28, 190-4 imported, 239 diseases of, 240, 258, 265, 269, 272 Cross, Viscount, on Indian wheat trade, 275, 276 Crotalaria juncea (san), 107, 272, 273 Cubbusarree, 267 Cuddapah, 30, 88, 103,106, 151, 158, 404 Culna, 176 Cultivation: excellence of, 11 “garden,” 73, 95 by well aud by canal, compared, 73 kéchhi, 21, 22, 119 kumri, 266 Caltivators, 20-3 good or bad by heredity, 13, 14 indebtedvess of, 290-2 = want of enterprise among, 292, 293 Cynodon Dactylon (dub), 53, 64, 58-9 174, 219 D. DAB grass (Eragrostis cynesuroides), 58, 59, 172 Dacea, 126, 206, 234, 240, 242, 252, 404, Dairy, Working, in l’ombay, 208 cattle, 205-7, 210-11 —— Farms: at Alegaon, 369 at Madura, 209, 371 at Poona, 209 for cantonments, etc., 209 Dairying, 205-10 work cf chemist in connection with, 208, 215, 315, 317 Dal. See Cajanus indicus. Daergto sissu (shisham), 148, 150, 153, Damoh, 48, 293 ae Messrs, W. J. Wilson and, 155 Date-palm (Phenix dactylifera), 59, 252, 363 ia Davies, Col., 161 Debi Singh, Rai Bahadur, 359 Deccan, 27, 55, 64, 79, 150, 168 grazing grounds in, 173 plough, 217 Deep ploughing, 218-22, 362 Degree in agriculture, 884 Dehra, as locale for laboratory, 326 ee oe School, 4, 326, 386, 388, 394, Delhi : canal plantations at, 140, 148 irrigation around, 70 Conference, 4 nen Farms, 341,342, 358, 359, 5 Index. Denison, Sir W., on afforestation, 30 ‘Deo estate, 157 Deodar forests, 185 - Dera Ismail Khan, reclamation at, 60 Dhak tree (Butea frondosa), 60, 148, 155, 164 Dharapuram, 138, 191 Dharwar, 27, 108, 238, 268 “ Dhdrware’? (cotton), 253 Dhenki (mill), 116, 375 Dhodkrahar, 28 Diploma in agriculture, 884 Director of Department of Land Records oe Agriculture, 91, 200, 301-5, 400, Assistants to, 305-9 Diseases of cattle, 173, 212-13 . ——— of crops, 240, 247-8. 265, 269, 272 Dispensaries, veterinary, 212, 213, 391 Distribution of seed, 237, 238, 342, 357 Districts, analysis of, 403, 404 Divi-divi (Casalpinia coriaria), 367 Doab, 66, 67, 139 Dongasara, 86, 240 Donkey stallions, 210, 211 Drainage of land, 70, 79 » subsoil, 60-1, 70 Drawing not sufficiently taught, 386, 394 Drills, See Seed-drills. Dub grass (Cynodon Ductylon), 58, 54, 58-9, 174, 219 Dumraon, enclosure by hedges at, 168 —— Farn, 343, 346, 373 review of, 373-4 - Raj, 277 Dung. See Cattle-manure, © Duplex,” plough, 216 Duthie, Mr., 8, 58. ; Dyer, Mr. Thiselton, 5, 313 E. EARTH-NUT (Arachis hypogea), 104, 206, 347, 371, 421 Earth walls, 163 Economical and political conditions, 18, 16, 288-94 Economy of labour, 182, 220, 221, 222, 223 Education (General) : influence of, 15, 23, 879 past tendency of, 380, 381 ——, Agricultural. See Agricultural Education. » Technical, Resolution of Home Department on, 4 Educational Department, 4, 331 in Madras, 213, 870 Eleusine Coracana (ndgli, rdgi), 108, 191, 192, 194, 234, 235 Slagellifera (chhimbar), 181 Elevators for grain and hay, 182, 226-7, 281 Elliot, Mr. Robert H.,7,8, 23, 29, 82, 97, 112, 127, 137, 266 Elliott, Sir Chas., 8, 14, 39 Embankment of land, 41, 53, 54, 78, 157, 293, 299, 364 529 Enclosure of land, 189, 163, 195 Engineer. See Agricultural Engineer, Enquiry. See Agricultural Enquiry. ——» Experimental. See Experiment. Ensilage, See Silage. Enterprise, wanting among cultivators, 292, 293 Entomoldgist, need of, in agricultural enquiry, 240, 330 Eocene beds, 112 Eragrostis cynosuroides (déb), 68, 59, 172 Erode, 38, 93, 195 Etab, 70 Etawah, 31,53, 54, 57, 140, 154-5, 170,172 Euphorbia, 153, 163, 195. Evaporating-pans (sugar), 226, 250 Examinations : at Forest School, Dehra, 394 departmental, of Civilians, in agri- culture, 400-1 Indian Civil Service, agricultural chemistry at, 400 : Exemption of improvements from assess- ment, 78, 87, 89, 158, 402 Exhaustion of soil, 36-41 : Expenditure of Agricultural Depart- ments, enquiry by Finance Commis- sion, 8 Expenditure on Experimental Farms, 888, 856, 357, 363, 866-7, 373 Experiment : need of continuity in, 317 supervision of, 316-7 object and plan of, 343-51 recording of details and results of, 352, 353, 361 examination and publication of results of, 317, 354-5 work of Agricultural Chemist in connection with, 316, 816, 817, 354, 355 Experiments: on reclamation of ravine and waste land, 63, 64 , on reclamation of usar land, 57-60 on amount of water used in irriga- tion, 74 Mr. Ozanne’s, on rdb cultivation, 108 on formation of plantations, 158, 367 on deep ploughing, 221, 362 on littering cattle, 125, 371 on baling of hay, 180 with the Cawnpore pump, 224 on green-manuring, 361, 364-5 on silage-making, 365, 367, 368 on out-turn of crops, 240, 362, 365 on barley, 362 on cotton, 238, 362, 364, 367 on indigo, 362 on judr, 864, 368 on leguminous crops, 362 on maize, 361, 362 on rice, 374 on sorgho, 862, 364, 375 on sugar-cane cultivation, 243, 362, 374 on #il, 364 on tobacco, 271, 369 on wheat, 862, 363, 365, 374 34 530 Experiments—continued. Ville series of, 365 conducted by ratyats and zemindars, 376 on private farms, 359 of Bath and West of England Society, 351 Rothamsted, 37, 41, 46, 257, 344, 348, 357 Voorn 87, 106, 190, 340, 344, 347, 3 examples of, desirable, 347-8, 351 feeding, 190, 347, 348, 371 manuria], 114, 860, 861, 362, 363, 864, 365, 868, 374, 375 practical, 344, 348 scientific, 315, 343, 344 Experimental Farms, See Farms, Ex- perimental. —— field: size of, 342 conditions of, 342-3 —— plots:: size of, 348 arrangement of, 350, 351 ae stations in United States, 35) Experts. Export : influence of, on soil, 39, 40, 106, 137 of bones, 114-15 of grain, 274, 293, 294 of oil-seeds and oil-seed refuse, 105, 283 of sugar, 252 See Agricultural Experts, F. FACTORIES, Sugar, 248, | 252, 263 Allowing, 11, 36, 38, 39, 282 Famine, 26, 64, 70, 81, 139, 165, 169, loss of cattle by, 189, 169 Madras, of 1877, 193 Mysore, 169 Code, 3, 4 Famine Commission, 1, 2, 3, 4, 12, 26, 36, 89, 139, 152, 297, 300, 305, 398 duties of Agricultural Departments defined by, 2, 3 Famine Food, trees as, 138, 149, 194 «. fund,” 165 —— work, 165 Farms, Cattle, 201, 203, 204, 256-7 Amrit Mahal, 198, 203 Bhadgaon, 190, 201, 202, 206, 366-7 Hissar, 183, 184, 185, 192, 200, 201-2, 206 management of, 204 =—-, Dairy 209, 210 Alegaon, 369 Madura, 209, 371 Poona, 206 aa Demonstration, 341, 342, 358, 359, 38 Farws, Experimental, 336-378 past work of, 337 duties of, 128, 186, 203, 227-8, 287, 239, 357-8 249, 251, Index. Farms, Experimental—continued. enquiry (1884) into conduat of, 338 expenditure of, 338, 356-7, 363, 366-7, 373 supervision of, 389, 369-70 conditions for suitability of, 339, 343 experiments suited to, 8347-8, 357 for cattle-breeding purposes, 208, 358 for seed-distribution, 237, 8&7 for trial and sale of implements, 227 Baroda, 369 Bhadgaon, 107,127,158, 184, 190, 202, 233, 339, 341,1357, 366-8, Cawnpore, 44, 49, 50, 106, 107, 114, 216, 220, 222, 224, 237, 238, 842, 344-5, 347, 359-63 Domraon, 343, 346, 373-4 Nadiad, 347, 368-9 Nagpur, 114, 339, 346, 347, 357, 363-6 Poona, 126, 192, 206, 208, 345, 346-7, 368 Saidapet, (125, 126, 203, 206, 208, 211, 216, 222, 340, 345, 347, 357, 370-3 Seebpore, 192, 216-7, 339.40, 343, 373, 374-5 Farms, Grass, 176-87, 190, 227 Allahabad, 121, 176,177, 178, 179, 183, 184, 185 Bareilly, 178 Cawnpore, 178, 183-4 Hissar, 183, 184, 185 Rs Mhow, 182 Mian Mir, 180, 181, 18%, 185, 186 Umballa, 186 management of, 182, 186, 187 Farms, horse-breeding, 192, 210-11, 239, 359 : —, illustration, 386 ——, model, 1, 338, 359, 371 ——, private, 358 ——, seed-growing, 237, 342, 358 Farukhabad, 21, 119, 120 Feeding experiments, 190, 8347, 848, 370 Feeding-stuffs, analyses of, 421 Ferozepore, 126, 150, 202, 227 Fever resulting from canal irrigation, 68, 69, 70 Fields, Experimental. Fields. Finance Commission, enquiry into ex- penditure of Agricultural Depart- ments, 3 Finucane, Mr., 7 on “ fuel and fodder reserves.” 157 on use of threshing machinery, 223 on grain-cleaning, 277 Fires, forest, 141, 172 Firewood : scarcity of, 101, 102, 103, 150-1 connection of supply of manure with, 100-3, 137, 139, 151 need of supplying, 137, 188, 139, 143 existing supplies of, 141, 145, 147-8, 149, 152-6 proposals for supplying, 145-6, 147, 151-2 156-9, 162-5 See Experimental Index. Fish manure, 118 Fisher, Mr., 155 Flax, 272-3 Fodder : grass as. See Grass, nutritive values of different kinds of, 194 trees as, 138, 148-9, 194 hedge material as, 195 ecrops, 28, 190=4 enquiries, work of chemist in con- * nection with, 186, 194, 315, 318-19 Forage, compensation for dearness of, i —— Branch of the Commissariat, 186 —~ Officer, 176 Forbes, Colonel, 74 Forest Act, Indian, 54, 160 —— Commicsion, 108 —— Department: its creation and early policy, 135-6 work.of, 31, 135, 186, 188, 140, 145- 6, 147 duties of, 136, 143, 144, 145, 146-7 duties of, defined by Famine Com- mission, 139 fature policy of, 146-7 revenue of, 135, 165, 168 relation of Agricultural Depart- ment fo, 139 in Bombay, 108, 146, 168,171 ~ Forest fires, 141, 172 — rales, 141, 171 — School, at Dehra, 5, 326, 386, 388, 394, 395 —— students, education of, 390 Forests : * agricultural,” 138, 139 their influence on climate and rain- fall, 16, 28-31, 138 their influence on manure supply, 16, 103, 108-9, 137 classification of, 142 grazing in, 136, 134, 140, 141, 142, 146, 168-72 firing of grass in, 142 cutting of grass in, 172 Ajmere-Merwara, 138, 153-4 Coorg, 141, 146 Patri, 152 protected,” 142 reserved,” 142, 148, 145, 147, 156 rights in, 145, 146 annual licenses in, 145-6 timber, 140, 141 “ village,” 156, 160, 161 Francis, Mr. E. B., 126, 227 Frank, Dr., 47 Fruit gardens at Ganesh Khind, 369 Fuel. See Firewood, Fuel and Fodder Reserves: use of, 16, 29, 108 already existing, 140, 152.6 need for creation of, 188, 189, 151, 162, 410 Jand available for, 156-9 acquiring of land for, 159-62 working of, 163-5 grazing in, 169-72" 140, 145, 581 Fuel and Fodder Reserves—continued. experiment at Bhadgaon on formas tion of, 158 Faller, Mr. J. B., 8, 22, 258, 282, 860 on taccavi advances, 87 on “fuel and fodder reserves,” 152, 158 on borrowing seed grain, 236 on indebtedness of cultivators, 292 on need of agricultural enquiry, 297, 301 and Nagpur Experimental Farm, 863 his “ Agricultural Primer,” 387 G. GADAG, 55, 158 Gdirdn, 168 Gandel (Andropogon laniger), 59 Ganges, river, 54, 66, 72, 78,110, 165 — canal, 56, 77, 148 water, analyses of, 76-7, 78, 417 Ganesh Khind, 369 4 Garden” cultivation, 10, 11, 78, 74, 76, 95, 96, 235 Gardens at Ganesh Khind, 369 —— at Saharanpur and Lucknow, 54, 363 ——, Sehool, 386 Gavlis (milkmen), 21, 198 Geological map of India, 9, 25, 35, 42, 65, 66 —— types of soils, 35 oes teaching of, at colleges, 390-1, Charom (Panicum antidotale), 181 ee , Western, 15, 26, 27, 28, 64, 135, 04 Ghazipur, 89, 252 Gi (native butter), 168, 206-10, 315 Gilbert, Dr., and Sir John Lawes, their experiments at Rothamsted, 3, 41, 46, 257, 344, 348 Gill, Mr. F. M,, 248 Gingelly (é (Sesamum indicum), 104, 284, 235, 3 —— cake, 105, 124 Ginger, 73, 96, 105, 234 Goats, 142, 164, 171, 172, 211, 367 Godaveri, river, 66, 112 Gonda (Oudh), 38 Gondli, 234 Goni (shade tree), 267 Gora, 234 Gorakhpur, 38 Government of India: carries out recommendations of Famine Commission, 2, 4, 12 and forest policy, 136, 152-8 . on need of Agricultural Chemist, 4, 5, 314, 315 Resolution of December 1881 on agricultural enquiry, 3, 17, 32, 297, 298, 800, 314 Resolution of March 1883 on fuel and fodder reserves,’ 139, 152, 169, 171 84a 532 Government of India —continued. Resolution of 1889 on technical education, 4, 379 Note of 1890 on Farms, 300 Government of Bombay, and the forests, 136 Note of 1890 on Experimental Farms, 300 Government of Madras: on agricultural enquiry, 298 and cattle disease, 213 Resolution of 1890 on Forests, 147, 152, 161, 169, 170, 171 Note of 1890 on experimental work, 300 Government of North-West Provinces : and * fuel and fodder reserves,” 162 Government of Punjab : and tbe forests, 142, 160 Government of Central Provinces : and “ fuel and fodder reserves,’’ 162 Grain, export of, 39, 40, 231,274,293 ,294 —— elevators, 281 —— -cleaning 274-84 Gram (Cicer arietinum), 26, 27, - 192, 233, 234, 235, 242, 279, 280 Grass, 168=39 3 in ‘‘ fuel aud fodder reserves,” 153, 154.5, 156, 164, 172 in plantations, 148, 173 burning of, in forests, 142 cost of cutting, 178, 179, 180, 183 cutting of, at Etawah, 172 cutting of, at rukh Jelleke, 172 yield of, 179 for litter, 124 for rdb, 108 for silage. Sce Silage, usar, 57, 58-9 Grass, kinds of: anjan (Pennisetum cenchrotdes) 58, 59, 181 . baih (Follinia eriopoda), 172 chhimbar (Eleusine flagellifera), Experimental 158, 151, 182, 181 dab (Eragrostis cynosuroides), 58, 59, 172 duib (Cynodon Dactylon), 53, 54, 59, 174, 219 gandel (Andropogon laniger), 59 gharam (Panicum antidotale), 181 guinea (Panicum gumentorum), 192, 362, 364 janewa (Andropogon annulatus), 58 eens (Saccharum spontaneum), 54, ker usara (Sporobolus pollidus), 58 kunda (Saccharum ciliare), 54, 55, 219, 221 munj (Saccharum ciliare) 225 musel (Lseilema laxum) , £8, 59 narrs (Diplachne fusca) 59 palwa (Andropogon pertusus), 172 Grass Committee system, the, 186 —— -cutter system the, 177, 178 —— Farms. See Farms. — “eron ing by cultivators, 174, 175, 7 Inder. Grass Committee system—continued. —~— headiands, 27, 174 —— “rons,” or rukhe, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 184, 187, 204 Grazing, 168-76 in forests, 189, 141, 142, 146, 168, 169 in “ fuel and fodder reserves,” 152, 158, 164 along canal plantations, 148, 173, 174 the provision of, 174 harm done by excessive, 16, 170 171, 172-3 restriction of, 169,"170, 171, 172 Grazing areas, 139, 168 —— grounds of villages, 159, 160, 172, 173 —— rules, in Bombay, 171 Green-manuring, 45, 107, 361, 364 © Green Salangore ” (sugar-cane), 248 “ Green-soiling '’ for cotton, 364 Ground-nut. See Earth-nut, Guavas, 367 Guinea grass (Panicum jumentorum) 192, 362 364 Guizotia abyssinica (Niger seed), 105, 234 Gujarét (Bombay), 12, 101, 102, 105, 107, 111, 127, 128, 174, 191, 195, 217, 226, 234, 235, 270, 868 —— cattle, 198, 201, 205, 206, 207 Gujars, 21 Gujrat (Punjab), 65, 78, 110, 126, 202, 210 Gundi (sugar-mill), 224 Gur (sugar), 244, 247, 250, 251, 363 Gurgaon, 86 Gursbidapa Virbasapa, Hon., 87 Gureikran, 58 Gwalior, 79, 157 Gya, 121 Gypsum, as manure, 112, 259, 361, 362 H. HAGARI river, 71, 80 Hand-pick, 223 Harialé grass, 176 Hapur Farm, 192, 210, 211, 359 Harrow, 227 Hassan, waste land at, 158 Hay: yield of, 179 value of, 179, 180 from “fuel and fodder reserves,” 172 for large towns, 174-5 pressing and baling of, for camps, 180, L181 pressing of, experiment at Changs Manga, 180 peeing of, on rukks near Lahore, elevators, 182, 227 presses, 172, 182 Index. Haymaking : cost of, 178, 179 compared with silage-making, 183 use of machinery in, 182 Headlands, grass, 27, 174 Hedges, 27, 138, 163, 194-5 Helopeltis theiovora (‘* tea bug’?), 265 Hellriegel, Prof., 46 Hemp, san: as fibre, 272, 273 as green manure, 107, 361, 364, 365 Hibiscus (bhendi), 144 High Schools, 881, 885, 386, 393 Hill, Mr. H.C. 8, 141, 145, 244 Hill, Mr. S. A., 8, 44, 47, 49, 50, 832 Himalayas, 26, 64, 66, 135 ** Hindoostan ” plough, 216, 221 Hindus as non-meat-eating people, 113 Hindu system of breeding cattle, 199 Hissar, 10, 28, 79, 95, 111,174 Grass Farm, 183, 184, 185 —— Cattle Farm, 192, 198, 200, 201-2, 211 Hoe, 223 Holderness, Mr. T. W., 7, 58, 61, 77, 278, 293 Holdings, smallness of, 289 Home Department, Resolution on téch- nical education, 4 Hooghly, 107, 244 Horses, 210-11, 405, 406 Horse-breeding operations, 210-1], 408, 409 -dung, 361 — fairs, 210, 407, 408 —— (stud) Farms,192, 210-11, 239, 359 — shows, 405, 406, 407, 408 Hoshiarpur, 10, 22, 28, 54, 73,88, 94, 96, 101, 105, 107, 111, 120, 150, 202, 211, 226, 231, 236, 244, 250 Hospet, 68, 75, 101, 102, 107, 144, 174, 226, 244 Hospitals, veterinary, 212, 213, 391 Hostir, cattle-breeding at, 198 Howman, Mr. H. A., 207-8, 316 Hubli, 138 Hudson, Mr. W. B., 8, 163, 218, 221 Hughes, Mr, John, 97, 99, 100, 269 Humus, 44, 52, 155— Hunsur, 102, 151, 158 Hurdwar, 173 Husain, Mr, Muhammad, 7, 58, 59, 61, 360, 404 Hyderabad (Sind), Farm at, 368 I. IGATPURI, 27, 109, 204, 223 Ilbezt, Mr., 399 Illustration farms, 386 — piots, 386 Imperial Department of Agriculture. See Agricultural Department, Implements, 216-230 improvement of, 216, 224, 227 at the Cawnpore Farm, 224 at Baroda, 359 trials of, 219-20,407-8 533 Import of sugar, 252 Improvements, non-taxation of, 78, 86-7, 89, 158 Indebtedness of cultivators, 290-3 —~— of landowners, 86-7, 291 India : division of, according to irrigation requirements, 64 ee map of, 8, 25, 35, 42, 65, 6 Government of. See Government. Rainfall map of, 8, 25, 26, 64 Indian Agriculture, See Agriculture, Indian. Forest Act, 54, 160 —— Museum at Calcutta, 240, 330,887 Indigo (Indigofera tinetoria), 255-64 continnous cropping with, 256, 257-8 expcriments on, 362 for green-manuring, 341 wild (Wrightia tinctoria), 107, 241 cultivation of, 15, 26, 48, 227, 234, 255-64 unsatisfactory conditions of cultiva- tion of, 263-4 manufacture of, 260-3 chemistry of, 262-3 manuring for, 106, 112 257, 258-60, refuse (seet), 106, 258, 361 Industries, private, relation of Agricul- tural Chemist to, 327, 328 Injuries to crops, 240, 258, 265, 269. 372, 380 Tusects, injurious, 240, .258, 265, 269, 330 Inundation of tracts by rivers, 65, 110 canals, 65, 71 Investigation, scientific, 315, 343, 344 Iron in Indian soils, 50 Irrigation : geographical distribution of different systems of, 64-7 influence of, 68 extension of, 29, 79, 80, 81 waste of waterin, 69, 72, 74, 75, 242 harm done by excessive, 48, 63-70, 75-6 : Irrigation, canal ; the problew of, 70 cultivation by, compared with well ” frrigation, 73-4 over-cropping as result of, 75 the connection with the spread of reh, 57 Irrigation, tank, 72, 82, 83 —, well, 67-8, 72, 73-4 compared with canal irrigation 73 — Department : work of, 64, 67, 69, 70, 74-5, 80-1 of N. W. P., its experiments on reclamation of usar, 57 questions, work of Agricultural Chemist in connection with, 72-3, 74, 108, 306-7, 308-9 —— works, 80, 81, 82-3 Isedena lazum (musel), 58, 59 534 JACK-FRUIT tree (Artocarpus én- tegrifolia), 127, 149, 194, 267, 420 Jagri (molasses), 271 Jails, milk supply to, 21 Janewa (Andropogon annulatua), 58 Jardinage system, 140 Jari cotton, 238, 254, 367 Jarman, 148 J&ts, 14, 20 Jaunpur, 89-90 Jelleke ruth, 172 Jeypore, 88, 174, 195 Shand (Prosopis spictgera), 149, 164 Shang, 191, 192 Thansi, 53, 79, 189, 154, 303 ravine land at, 53, 140 Jhelum, 65, 110 Jobnston and: Cameron's Agricultura) Chemistry and Geology, 98, 123, 388 Judy (Sorghum vulgare) 191, 192, 195, 206, 2382-5, 236, 364, 368 Suhi, 58, 59 Jullundur, 88, 150 Juwna river, 53, 54, 66, 67, 110, 158 black cotton-soil near, 47, 49, 50 silt of, 110 canals, 69, 83, 148 Jute, 27, 110, 234, 273 K. KACHHI cultivation at Cawnpore, Nagpur and Farukhabad, 21, 22, 119-20 KA&chhis, 14, 20, 21, 102 Kacherao Jadhava, Mr., 369 Kainit as manure, 362 “ Kaisar ” plough, 216, 217 Kaler (saline efflorescence), 60, 155 Kallépuram, 80 : Kalyan, 27, 109, 175 Kambu (millet), 235. See also Chambu, Kanara, North, forests, 107 Kangyam, 191 Kankar (limestone), 35, 49, 58, 112, 218 Kans grass (Saccharum spontaneum), 52, 54,55 Kapurthala, 22, 60, 85, 88, 150, 155, 202 ae usare grass (Sporobolus pallidus), 8 Karachi, 114, 274, 277 Kardai, or Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), 105 Karens, 244 Kainal, 70, 202 Kardr, 151, 157 Katlakput, rukh, 181 Keventer, Mr., 208 Kh4ndesh, 27, 107, 174, 216, 217, 238, 254, 270, 366, 368 ; Khéndesh plough, 217 Khara (brackish) water, 76, 112 Kharif crops, 25, 26, 150 Khillavi cattle, 367 Index, Khuské system of indigo cultivation, 264 Khymore Hills, 157 Kinch, Prof., analysis of soils by, 44, 48, 49, 60 Kistna River, 27, 55, 66 Kodali (hoe), 223 Kodo (millet), 234 Koeris, 21 Kohat, 168 Kohlapur sugar Factory, 252 Kolhu (sugay-mill), 224, 225-6, 250 Kolei-kattei, 176 Kolinji (Tephrosia purpurea), 107 Kolis, 14 Kols, 14, 21 Kondampatti, 83 Konkan, 108, 217, 234, 370 Konkan plough, 217 Kugalur, 157 Kumbos, 120 Kumri cultivation, 266 Kunbis, 102, 120 Kunda (Saccharum ciliare), 54, 56, 219, 221 Kurwis, 14, 21 Kurnool, 79, 88, 94, 126, 157, 191, 235, 404 Kurubars, 244 Kyaries (irrigation beds), 76 L. LABORATORY for Agricultural Che- mist, 323-4 —— location of, 325, 326 , Bacteriological, 212-13, 831, 391 Labour, economy of, 182, 220, 221, 222, 223 —— difficulty, the: on Grass Farms, 181-2 in coffee-growing, 269 Lachman Parshdd, Mr., 278, 359 Lahore, 68, 148, 157, 181, 210 Veterinary School at, 212, 394 Lake land, 64, 221 Land : acquisition of, 138-9, 158-62 available for ‘“ fuel and fodder reserves,” 156-9 draining of, 70, 79 embanking of, 53, 54, 78, 298 enclosing of, 139, 163, 195 “ choh,” 54 dry,” 95, 158, 234, 235 “ wet,’? 95, 107 “garden,” 73, 74, 95, 235 lake, 54, 221 ravine, 62, 53, 140, 155, 158 usar, 37, 61, 55-62, 139, 154, 155, 156, 157-8 waste, 54, 55, 156-8, 218-19 Land Acquisition Act, 162 —— reclamation, 4, 36, 52-62, 154-5 —— Record System, 2, 3, 4 ~—— Records and Agriculture, Depart- ment of, 298, 301-5, 401-403, 409-10 Indez. Land Acquisition Act—continued. ——Revenue Organisation, 8 — Law of Punjab, 160 -——-tenure, systems of, 289, 290 Landowners, indebtedness of, 86-7, 291 Language a difficulty in the spread of Education, 388 Laterite soils, 49, 60, 61, 112, 268 Latrines, 121, 139 Lawes, Sir J, B., and Dr. Gilbert, their experiments at Rothamsted, 37, 41, 46, 257, 344, 348, 357 Lenf- disease (coffee), 269 Leather-dressers. See Chamars, Leaves: as manure, 106, 107, 108, 127, 144 for litter, 128, 124, 127 analysis of, 123, 127, 420 Leguminosa, assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen by, 46, 47, 256, 257, 386 Leguminous crops, 46, 47, 232, 233, 234, 362 Lime: in Indian soils, 49, 264, 268 action of, 49 as & manure, 112, 874 in water, 6, 77, 261 carbonate of, 35, 48, 4 sulphate of (gypsum), ti, 259, 860, 362 “ Limestone. See also kankar : ~ —~, magnesian, 118 Lingard, Dr., 213, 331, 391 = Linseed, 105,233, 272-3, 282=4 mechanical analyses of samples of, 282, 283, 424, 425 export of, 283 cake, 106 Litigation, 290 Litter : use of, 99, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126-7, 368, 371 earth as, 124, 368 leaves as, 123, 124, 127 Live Stoek, 197-215 Liverpool Corn Trade Association, 275, 276, 277 Loans. See also Taccavt advances, Government, 84-91, 205, 237, 290, 292 private, 85, 86, 87, 236, 290, 291, 292 Loans Act, Agriculturists’, 87, 88 Lodhas, 14, 21 Lohardaga, 38, 79,102, 193, 226, 234, 301, 404 London Corn Trade Association, 275, 276, 277, 280, 282 Lncerne, 192, 201, 239 Lucknow, gardens. at, 54, 863 Lyall, Sir J. B,, oo agricultural enquiry, 297 M. MCDOUGALL BROS,, 275 Machinery, use of, on Grass Farms, 182 Mackenzie, Sir A., 8 on ¢accavi advances, 86 on the educational system, 380 535 Macleod, Mr, J. J., 8, 28 Macpherson, Sir Herbert, 176, 177 Madar (Calotropis gigantea), 107 Madras, 10, 25, 27, 39, 45, 46, 66, 79, 81, 82, 85-6, 88, 114, 157, 195, 208, 216, 227, "935, "959, 272, 326 Madea Agricultural Committee, 371, 372 Madras Agricultural Department, 371, 409 Madras Famine of 1877, 193 Madras Farms, See Farms (Saidapet, Madura). Madras : forest work? in, 189, 140, 147, 152-3, 161, 169, 170, 171 Government of. See of Madras. Madura, 30, 79, 83, 101, 121, 151, 195, 209 -——Farm, 209, 371 Magnesia in soils, 50 Magnesian limestone, 118 Makajan, 236 Mahaluxmivala, Mr., 364 Méhim, 10, 11, 27, 28, 64, 73, 94, 96, 1038, 105, 107, 109, 144, 151, 158, 175, 195, 204, 234, 235, 241 Mahratta country, Southern, 55, 150, 158, 198, 369-70 Mabua tree (Bassia latifolia), 105, 149, 194 Maize ( Zea Mays ), 192, 234, 286 experiments on, 361 362 Mekki (maize), 192 Malabar coast, 107, 127 Ualguzar, malguzari, 86, 161 Malis, 21 Malliars, 236 Mallyah, 28 Malvi cows, 206, 367 Mamati (hoe), 223 Mamlatdar, 86, 87 Mandla, 72 Mangalore, 113 Mangoes, 150, 367, 369 Manual of Coimbatore, 38, 71,81, 83, 103, 157, 191, 404 Manure, 93, 134 value recognised, 94, 95, 96 need of more, 42, 137, 150-1 interdependence of water and, 80, Government 94-5 connection of supply with that of firewood, 100-3, 137, 139, 150-1 badly kept, 122-7, 368 well kept, 127, 128, 129 bonesas, 51, 114, 115-16, 259, 264, 268, 346, 361, 364, 375 gypsum as, 112, "259, 361, 362 indigo refuse (sect) as, 106, 257, 258, 361 leaves and twigs as, 106, 107, 108, 127, 144 lime aa, 112, 374 night-soil as, 118-22 nitre as, 111, 249, 259, 361, 364, 374 silt as, 76, 110, 241 536 Manure, Cattle—- See also Cattle-manure : analyses of, 98, 418 ashes of, 98, 103, 104, 418 loss from burning, 99, 100 use and non-use as fuel, 100-3, 187 Manure, Farmyard ( English ), 98, 99 Fish, 113 ——, Liquid. See Urine. cakes, 104, 105, 420 heaps, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129 -——), — $—drainings from, 125, 419 Manures, artificial, 117, 257, 344-9 —, phosphatic, 112 » potassic, 112 —, adulteration of, 117-8 —, export of, 39, 106, 137 Mapuring : by inundation and silt, 65, 110 by sheep-folding, 104 by soil-mixing, 110 Manuring, Green-, 45, 107, 36], 864-5 Manurial enquiries, work of chemist in connection with, 98, 96-7, 100, 110, 114-15, 117, 118, 133, 315 Maps. See Geological Map and Rainfall Map. Mares, 210, 409 Markapur, 191 Market-gardening, 21, 22, 68, 78, 120 Marrett, Capt., 8, 201 Marriage expenses, 290, 291 Marriott, Col., 8,177, 209 Marshall, Mr, John, 9, 277 “ Massey ” plough, 216 Massy, Major, 8, 22, 88, 202 Mata ( goddess ), 212 Mauritius sugar, 247, 251-2 ——system of sugar-cane cultivation, 243, 244, 248 Mayo, Lord, his views on work of Agri- cultural Departments, 1 Mazagon dock, Bombay, 117 Mead, Col., on “ protective ” irrigation, 82 Meagher, Sergt., 177, 187 Mechanical anulyses : oo of wheat, 279, 280, 23 of samples of linseed, 282, 288, 424, 425 Medlicott, Prof, : his views on the rek question, 56 his views on the need of an Agri- cultural Chemist, 314 Meerut, 20, 73, 94, 120, 244, 253, 359, a Agricultural Show, 197, 219, 221, 5 Megass (spent sugar-cane ), 253 Mehta, Mr. P. R., 366 a azadirachta (Neem), 105, 148, 154 ; Mercara, 151 Merwara, See Ajmere-Merwara, Metayer system (land), 289 Meteorology, 304, 331 mhow, 182 yiian Mir ian 163, 180, 181, 184, 183, Index. Middle Schools, 386 Middleton, Mr, T. H., 869, 892 Military Department, 176, 187, 204 Milk. See also Dairying. - yield and quality of, from Indian cattle, 205, 206 supply, unsatisfactory of, 209, 210 Milking cattle, improvement of, 296 Millers, views of, ou adulteration of wheat, 275-6 Mills, See Bone-mills and Sugar-mills. Mirzapore, 79, 158 Nittli ( shade tree ), 267 Mixed-cropping, ,11, 232, 233 Mixing of entton, 258, 255 of seed, 236, 255 of soil, 110, 111 Model Faris, 1, 338, 359, 371 Moens, Mr, 102, 107, 126 Mohwa bir, 153 Moisture in soils, 42, 43 Money-lenders, 84, 85-6, 236, 237, 238, 290-2 : Monigar, 164 Montgomery, Capt., on facture, 250 Montgomery District, 87, 192 Mookerjee, Mr. N. G,, 273, 274 Mowing machines, 222 “for use on Grass Farms, 182 Mozufferpore, 121 Muccadum, 164, 283 Mubammad Husain, Mr, See Husain, Mubammadans, 113, 174, 199, 204 Muir, Mr., 87 Muir-Mackenzie, Mr., 8 Mule-breeding, 21C, 211 Mullu-kiluvet (Balsamodendron Berryi), 195 Multan, 10, 27, 65, 67-8, 79, 85, 87, 101, 120, 151, 192 Municipalities and town sanitation, 120, 121 condition sugar manu- —, relation of Agricultural Chemist to, 328 Municipal cattle, 193, 195 Municipal chemist, 328, 383 Municipal gardens, 54 nae grass ( Saccharum 22. € ctliere ), Munjerabad, 4°, 50, 125, 266, 268 Muriate (chloride ) of ammouia, 344, Muridki camp, 180 Musel ( Isetlema laxum ), 58, 59 re Indian, at Calcutta, 240, 330, Mussoorie, 112 Mustard, 105, 107, 233 ——cake as manure, 362 Muttra, 158, 408 Mutual Benefit Society at Hospet, 292 Muzaffarnagar wheat, 238, 362 Mylne, Mr, See Thomson and Mylne Messrs. Mysore, 23, 49, 50, 80, 105, 112, 113, 123, 127, 138, 158, 163, 195, 266 ——cattle, 198, 201, 208, 206, 367 ——famine, 169 Index, N. NADIAD, 11, 27, 101, 102, 110, 128-30, 151, 173, 174, 190, 218, 237, 270, 271 Agricultural Association, 237, 368 Agricultural Class, 868-9, 386, 392 Cattle Show, 369 Farm, 347, 368-9 grass-growing at, 174 seed store at, 237, 369 Négaél plough, 217 Nagli. See Eleusine Coracana, Nagore cattle, 201, 206 Nagpahar forests, 153 Nagpur, 119 Agricultural Class, 385, 393 kachhé cultivation at, 22, 120 Farm, 114, 184, 339, 346, 347, 357, 863-5 Nallamalais, 157 Nambiy tir, 157 Nara valley, 238 Naraianpur, 59 Narri (Diplackne fusea), 59 Nasick, 158, 175 Native butter (gh7), 168, 206-10, 315 ——— Cavalry, 177, 178 = implements, 223-4 ——~— method of curing tobacco, 271 ploughs, 2, 17, 218-19 Natural Science, study of, 302, 3803, 22, 387, 400 Nauchandi fair, 405 Nawabgang, 53, 120, 279 Neem tree (Melia azadirachia), 105, 148, 154 Neilgherries, 29, 49, 112, 264 Nellikuppam (Madras), 248 Nellore cattle, 198, 206, 371 Nepaul 157 Nerbudda valley, 39, 48 Nicholl, Mr. E., 120 Nicholson, Mr, F, A., on exhaustion of soil, 88; on irrigation, 72, 80, 81; on importance of manure, 93, 94, 132; en cattle-manure not being used for fuel, 103; on utilisation of night-soil, 118; on waste of manure, 126; on need of firewood, 151, 157; on grass- gtowing, 176; on fodder-crops, 191, 1933; on use of hedges, 195; on cattle disease, 212; on rice-sowing, 242; on sugar cultivation, 252; on want of capital and enterprise, 289, 292, 293; on Experimental Farms, 372; on the educational system, 380; hia Manual of Ccimbatore, 38, 71, 81, 303, 157, 191, 404 Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica), 105, 234, 421 : Night-soil : prejudice against, 21, 22-3, 119 utilisation of, 21, 22, 23, 59, 60, 118-22, 130, 179 general neglect of use of, 122 Nitrates : in soils, 44 in well waters, 76 77-8, 112 537 Nitre or saltpetre, 61, 111,112 as manure, 111, 249, 258-9, 261, 864-5, 874 Nitre-containing earth, 111, 112 Nitrification, 44, 49, 111 Nitrogen : in soils, 44, 45, 47 in rainfall, 45, 46 fixation of atmospheric, by Leguminosae, 46, 47, 256-7, 315, in cattle-manere, 98, 99, 4/8 lost in burning cattle-manure, 99 in urine, 122-8, 124, 419 in leaves, 123, 127, 420 in castor poonae, 105, 420 Nobbe, Prof., 46, 47 . Norfolk Trotters, 210, 211 Normal Schools, 387 North-West Provinces, 26, 28, 42, 66, 82 94, 101, 104, 105, 111, 114, 139, 150, 156, 199 Agricultural Department of, 1, 404, 409 arboriculture in, 149 ravine land experiments in, 53 usar land experiments in, 57, 58, 61 Nuliahs, 53, 113 0. O’CONOR, Mr. J. E., 8, 114, 293, 404 Oats, 192, 242 Obligations, expression of, 6,7,8,9. See also Tours, 427-42 Oil of vitriol, 117, 364-5 Oil cakes, 104, 105, 124, 197, 206, 210 Oil-pressing mill, 227 Oilseed Association, 283 refuse (oil cake) as manure, 104, 105, 264, 268, 271 Oilseeds, 104, 105, J13-14, 192, 198, 284, 282-4 export of, 39, 40, 103, 106 *Oomras ” (cotton), 253 Ootacamund, 29, 184 Onverations of Agricultural Departments, 403 : Opium (poppy), 55, 95, 107 Opuntia vulgare (prickly pear), 192, 198, 195 oe watter in Indian soils, 44, 45, 4 Organisation of Agricultural Depart- ments, 409 Orissa, Canal, 43, 69 — Famine, 1 Ormerod, Miss EB, A., 240, 258 Orobanche Nicotiana, or ‘* Bodu,” 270, 272 “Ottley ” system (reclamation of land), 60 Ouchterlony valley, 264 Oudh, 38,111, 185, 404, 408 Out-turn of crops, 240, 362, 365 Over-cropping, as result of canal irrigas | tion, 75 Uver-watering, effect of 76, 242 538 Ozanne, Mr. EB. C,, 8, 217, 347, 357, 368, 369; his experiments on rd, 108 ; ex- periment on formation of plantation, 158; his promotion of dairy farming, 207, 208; attempts the improvement of cotton, 238, 254 P. PAHARA, 158 Palamau, 83, 102, 104, 126, 193, 198, 226, 244 Palghat, 161 Pallachi, 126, 151 . Palwa grass (Andropogon pertusus), 172 Panchayet (village committee), 165 . Panicum antidotale, 181 — — miliaceum, 107 Papilionace, 46 Parasite, tobacco (Bodu), 272 Parshéd, Mr. Lachman, 278, 359 Parsons, Mr., 112 Pasteur, Mr., his system of examining silk moths, 273 : Pasturage, 168, 169 Pasture, as part of the ratyat’s cultiva- tion, 175, 176 Patel, 164 Patidars, 129 Patri forest, 152 Patwaris, 36, 302, 390, 403, 404 Pebrine, 273-4 Peile, Sir Jas., 7 Penner River, 71, 80 Pennisetum cenchroides (anjan), 58, 181 —— typhoideum (bdjra), 158, 191 192, 234 Pepul tree, 148 Persian wheel, 120, 225 Phagwara, 155 Pheniv dactylifera (Date-palm), 59, 252, 363 Phozphatic, manures, 112-13, 248 ~—— nodules, 112 Phosphoric acid in Indian soils, 50, 51 Fhysical improvement of soils, 44, 100 Pichasa, 102 Pick (hand-pick), 223 Pigs’-droppiugs, 361 Pitcher, Col., 8, 360 ——’s, Col., plough, 216 Plantains, 73, 96, 105, 107 Plantations: — along canal banks and railways, 31, 140, 148, 149, 173, 174 acreage of, in N. W.P.,149 at Changa Manga, 140, 148, 172, 174, 181 at Shahdara, 140, 148, 170 experiment on formation of, 158, 367 Planters, as exporters of bones, 216 Plots, Experimenta), 348, 349-50, 351 ——-, Illustration, 386 Plough eattle, 204 ae deep and shallow, 43, 218-22, Index. Pioughs : trial of native and “improved,” at Meerut, 219-20 “improved ” where useful, 221-2 iron, 216-18, 221-2 ——, objections to use of, 216-18 native, 217 steam-, 221 Policy of Agricultural Departments, 409-10 Pollarding of trees, 144 Pollinia eriopoda (baib), 172 Ponds (shallow tanks), 66, 72 Pongamia glabra, 105, 107 Poona, 68, 86, 94, 96, 102, 105, 107, 120, 150, 208, 209, 212, 248, 249, 408 as locale for laboratory, 326-7 —— Agricultural Association 301 — College of Science, 4, 28, 300, 326-7, 8366, 368, 382, 383, 885-6, 390 — Farm, 126, 192, 206, 345, 346-7, 368 — sugar Factory, 248, 252 —— Veterinary School, 212, 391 Poonac. See Castor cake. Poonarul (shade tree), 267 Poppy, 55, 95, 107 Population, pressure of, 40, 288, 293 Potash salts, 112, 268 Potash in Indian soils, 51 Potato, 15, 22, 95, 239, 240, 244 Poudrette, 22, 120-1, 248, 361, 362, 364 Poultry, 407 Practice and science, the necessity of combining, 296, 312, 313 Prazmowski, Prof., 46 ‘“ Precarious ’’ tracts, 64 Prelaslin caste and race, 15, 21, 22, 23, i 121, Press, Cotton-, 255 —, Hay-, 172, 182 —, Oil-, 227 Prickly pear : as hedge material, 163, 195 as food for cattle, 192-3 Primary Schools, 386-7, 390 Primers, Agricultural, 387 Prince Edward’s Island, arbor societies in, 149 Prize system at shows, 407 Prizes, farm, Prosopis, 149, 164 “ Protected ” forests, 142 a epee »* measures, 81, 82, 165, Pump, Cawnpore, 224 Puneria, 208 ° ’ Punjab, 26-7, 28, 42, 48, 48, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 75, 87,110, 112, 126, 142, 156, 160, 191-2, 197, 198, 200, 201-2, 225, 231, 234, 409 ——, Land Revenue Law of, 160 Purchase of seed by ¢aceavi advances 88, 237 —— of cattle by 205 : Purtabgurh, 38 Pusa, 272 taccavi advances, Inder. Q- Quetta, 181 R. RAB (sugar), 251, 363 Réob cultivation, 27, 108, 108-9, 242 Mr. Ozanne’s experiments on, 108 the supply of forest material for, 144, 145, 146, 147 Rabi crops, 25, 26, 150, 231, 284, 365 Races, 20, 21 Rdgt (Eleusine Coracana), 108, 191, 192, 194, 234, 235 Railways, plantations along, 31, 140, 148, 149, 158 ——-—, influence of, on export, 288, 293-4 Rainfall, 23 relation of, to famines, 26, 64 variations in, and their influence on agriculture, 25-8, 64, 65 influence of trees on, 29-31 Map, 8, 25, 26, 64 Rainy-season crops, 25, 26, 27, 150 Raipur, 242 Ratyat, the. See also Cultivators, compared with the British farmer, 11 his chief wants, 93 his improvidence shown, 236 Ratyatwari system of Madras, 156, 289 Rajghat, 28 R4jputana, 26, 48, 64, 198, 254 Rajputs, 14, 21, 22 Raksha, 53 Ralli Bros., 283 Rave seed, 105, 234, 279, 280 Rape cake, 106, 118 Rashida (Multan), 68, 101 Rasurpur, 102 ‘* Ratoon *” system (sugar-cane), 249 Ranchi, 151 Kavi, river, 79 Ravine land, 62-3, 140, 154, 158 Rawal Pindi, 104, 127, 202, 236 Rawatpur, 76 Reay, Lord, 8, 390 Reclamation of land, 4, 36, 52-62, 154-5 Records, Land. See Land Records, ‘* Red Spider ” (tea), 265 ‘* Referee,” need of scientific, 318-9 Refining of sugar, 251 ** Refraction ” (grain impurity), 275, 276 277, 279, 281 Reh, 37, 51, 52, 55, 68, 71. Usar. origin and occurrence of, 56-7 -— Committee, 55, 56 Remounts for Army, 210, 211, 408 ** Renovation pits” (coffee), 267 Rent, variations of, ina N. W. P. village, 95 Repair of ploughs, 217 of sugar-mills, 217, 225 Research scientific, 312, 313, 315 Reserves, See Fuel and Fodder Re- serves, t —— , Village, 154. See also §39 e Reserved ” forests. See Forests, Reservoirs: at the termination of canals, 70 for storing water from rivers, 71 Revenue and Agricultural Department. See Agricultural Department. Rovenue of the State, influenced by fuel and manure supply, 21, 119, 137 — of Forest Department, 135, 165, 168 Rewari, 158 Rice: dependence on climate, 26, 27 Cultivation of, by tank irrigation, 72 rdb, cultivation of. See Rdb. seed-beds for. See Rab. waste of seed in sowing, 242 transplanting of, 108, 241 waste of water in cultivation of, 72, 242 early grazing of, 242 improvement in cultivation 241-3 experiments on the growing of, 374 Bice fields : ploughing of, 28, 110, 219, 241, 242 manuring of, 107, 241 Ricinus communis (Castor-oil plant), 55, 95, 104, 105, 106, 242, 369 River water, storage of, 71 Road-scrapings as manure, 361 Robertson, Mr. F. A., 7, 286 —, Mr, W. R., 103, 307, 370 Rock-blasting for well making, 81, 82 Roeky soil, 35, 42, 66, 79, 81, 82 Rohtak, 189, 225 Rope-making, 224 Rosa sugar Factory, 248, 249, 252 Ross, Mr. H. M., 8, 277 Rotation, 11, 36, 47, 282-5 Rotations, examples of, practised, 234, 235 ‘ Rothamsted Experiments, the, 37, 41, 46, 257, 344, 348, 357 Royal Agricultural Society of England, 5, 9, 258, 329, 340, 341, 357, 405 Rukhs, 172, 176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 184, 187, 204 Rungpore, 104, 110 “Runs,” grass. See Rukhs. Rura, 69, 85, 106, 107 Rurki, 140, 148, 150, 152,173 + Rust in wheat, 78 Ryot. See Raiyat. of, s. SABANAYAGAM, Mr. S., Mudliar, 127, 217, 218 Sabapathi, Mr. A., Mudliar, 116, 190, 193, 217 Saccharum officinarum. cane, —~ ciliare (kunda or munj), 54, 58, 219, 221, 225 _ ~— spontaneum (hans grasa), 62, 54, 65 Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) or Kardat, 197 . See Sugar- 540 Saharanpur, 244, 408 market-garden cultivation gardens at, 54, 363 — ‘Agricultural Show, 197, 405, 408 Saidapet College, 370, 372, 382, 383, 892, 893 Farm, 126, 203, 206, 208, 211, 216, 222, 840, 345, 847, 357 review of, 8370-3 littering of cattle at, 125 sheep- breeding at, 211 unsuitability as Experimental Farm, 340, 370, 372 — plough, 216, 218 Sdl forests, 135 “ Salangore ” cane, 248 Salem, 86, 101, 102, 104,111, 122, 157, 198, 239 pasturage at, 170, 176: 6 at, 120 Salt-bush (Artriplew aimpen lait) 59-: Saltpetre. See Nitre. Salt Range, 110, 112 Salty land. See Usar. Sambalpus, 157, 241 San (tdg) hemp (Crotalaria juncea) : as fibre, 272, 273 as green manure, 107, 361, 364, 365 Sanads (vernacular notices), 87, 89 Sand in Indian soils, 48 Sandy soils, 15, 35, 42, 48, 57, 72 Sénis, 120 Sanitary rules, hardship of, 128-30 Sanitation of towns, 118, 119, 120-1 of villages, 121, 128 . Sasseram, 157 Satara, 226 Saugor, 48, 80, 86 Sdwdn, 107 School gardens, 386 Schools. See High, Middle, Primary, Normal, aud Veterinary Schools. Schunck, Dr., on chemiatry of Indigo, 263 Science, connection of, with practice, 296, 312 313 -——, Natural, the study of, 302, 303, 400 “Scientific Adviser,’” Agricultural Chemist, Seientific men: needed in agricultural enquiries, 228, -830 position of, in India, 331 Scientific Appointments, ‘Training In- stitution for, 333 investigation, 315, 343, 344 -———~ method in enquiry, 313 Scott, CoJ., 87 Seasons, 25, 26 Secretary of Imperial Department, 402 —— of State, 2,3, 4, 5,161, 275, 314, 398, 399 Seebpore Farm, 192, 216, 339-40, 343, 373 review of, 374. 5 =—— Engineering "College, 393 —— plough, 216, 375 Seed: acclimatisation of, 238, 239, 253 borrowing of, 236 318-30. See also Agricultural Tidex, Seed—continued. distribution of, by Agricultural Departments and Farins, 237, 239, 842, 357 mixing of, 236, 255 purchase of, by faccavi advances, 88, 237 selection and change of, 235,236, 258 waste of, in sowing rice, 242 Seed-beds, See rdb. — -drills, 222, 227, 244, 256 —— -growing Farms, 237, 842, 358 —— merchants, 236, 237 —— store, at Nadiad, 237, 869 Seeding, thick and thin, 191, 258 Seeley plough, 216 Seet (Indigo refuse), 106, 2578, 259, 361 —— water, 258, 345, 361 Segowlie, 28, 157 Selection of seed, 235, 286, 258 —— of cattle, 198, 200, 201 Sen, Mr., 102, 218, 801, 875, 404 Serajgunge, 102, 204, 206, 273 Sesame (Sesamum indicum), 104, 1927, 234, 235, 364 Settlement operations, 2, 3, 35, 78, 89 Shade trees for coffee, 267 Shahabad, 244 Shahdara plantation, 140, 148, 170 Shahpur, 65, 110 <| Shallow ploughing, 43, 218-22, 362 Shamilat (common land), 150 Sheds, covered, for cattle, 125, 127, 371 Sheep: damage done by grazing of, 16, 142, 171, 172 experiments on feeding of, 347 —— -breeding, 211 —— -dung as manure, 361 —— -folding, 104 Shell-sand, 117-18 Shisham (Dalbergia sissu), 148, 15, 153, 194 Shiyali, 75, 102, 122, 126, 127, 151, 241 Shorthorns, 201 Shows, 197, 405-8. See also Cattle Shows. Sidhnai canal, 67-8, 87, 101, 156 Silage, 172, 104-6, 361, 367, 368 advantages of, 184 cost of making, 183 quality of Indian, 184 value of, 184 improvements in making, 185 future of, in India, 186 experiments on, 364, 367, 368 Silk, 273-4 Silkworms, M, Pasteur’s system, 273 Silt, 71, 76, 110, 241 —, canai, reclamation of usar by, 57, 71 Siwla, 6, 325 —— Agricultural Conference, 6, 309, 314, 323, 329, 390 Sind, 64, 65, 71, 237, 238, 270, 408 Sindhi wheat, 362 Singhouli, 21 Siripur, 44, 48 Sirsa, 15, 44, 49, 560 Index. Strson (rape), 288 Sissu. See Shiskam. Siva (god), 199° ‘ Sledge for carrying rice-seedlings, 223 Society, Royal Agricultural, of England, 5, 9, 258, 329, 340, 841, 357, 405 —~—, Bath and West of England, 351 Soda salts: in soils, 37, 51,52, 55-7, 60, 62, 111 in waters, 76-8, 112 Soil, 15, 34-62 Soils: absence of scientific study of In- dian, 34 chemical analvais of, 84, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 415, 416 alluvial, 35, 42, 48, 66 black, 27, 39 clay, 35, 42, 57, 66, 72, 218 coffee, 49, 50, 51, 268 cottonshlack, 15, 42, 47, 49, 50, 65 laterite, 49, 50, 51, 112, 268 red (Dharwar), 27 rocky, 35, 42, 66, 81, 82 sandy, 15, 35, 42, 48, 57, 72 wheat, 44, 49, 50, 415 Soils, classification of, 35 ——, constitaents of Indian: water, 42, 43 organic matter, 44, 45 nitrogen, 44, 45, 47 sand, 48 clay, 48 ‘lime, 49, 264, 268 iron, 50 phosphoric acid, 50, 51 potash, 51 soda, 51 ' magnesia, alumina, etc., 50 Soils, exhaustion of Indian : no positive evidence of, 86, 37 instances in support of, 38, 39 explanation of there being no ap- parent, 41 ——,, improvement of, 36, 43, 52 ——, investigation of, by Agricultural Chemist, 34, 42, 45, 47, 62, 315 ——, mixing of, 110, 111 ——, types of, 35 Son river, 79 : Sorgho. See Sorghum saccharatum. Sorghum saccharatum (Sorgho), 192, 362, 364, 375 —-vulgare (judr), 191, 192, 195, 206, 232-5, 286, 364, 368 Southdowns, 211 Southern Mahbratta country, 55, 158, 198, 369-70 Spirit from Mahua tree, 105 Sporobolus pallidus (kar usara), 58 Stack-silage, 184, 186, 367 Stallions, horse and donkey, 210, 211, 408-9 ‘ ——., Arab, 211, 367 State, Revenue of the. States of America: Timber Culture Act in, 149 “ arbor societies? in, 149 experimental stations in, 357 160, See Revenue, - 541 Statistical AtIns: of India, 8, 25, 35 of Bombay, 404 Statistical maps in N, W. P. and Oudh, 404 Statistics, agricultural; 2, 298, 403 Steam-power and cattle-power com- pared, 223 Stone walls, 163 “torage of water from rivers, 71 Stormont plough, 216 Strachey, Sir John, 1, 360 his views on work of Agricultural Departments, 1 Straigbt, Mr. Justice, 200 Strawechaff. See Bhusa, Stud Farms, 192, 210-11, 239, 359 Subsoil drainage, 60, 70 Suez canal, 31 Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum), 20, 22, 55, 78, 94, 95, 96, 111, 120, 234 well suited to India, 247 yield from different varieties, 248 Saale affecting yield, 225, 24) time for cutting, 249 us a fodder-crop, 192 experimenta on, 243, 362, 374 Sugar, 225-6, 243-4, 247-53. See also Gur and Rdb. : export and import of, 252 refined, objection of Natives to, 251 need of scientific enquiry into ‘cultivation and manufacture of, 225, 228, 248, 250, 251, 254 Factories, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253 from Date Palm, 252 Sugar-cane cultivation : around Poona, 22, 94, 120 at Mébim, 243, 244 maauring for, 104, 105, 111, 112 iron ploughs for use in, 221 profit on, 247 oe Maaritius system of, 243, 244, 248 in gs and Mauritius compared, . 251 extension needed, 240, 252, 253 improvement in, 243, 248 “‘ratoon” system, 249 Sogar manufacture: points to be observed in, 224-5, 250 evaporsting-paus, 226, 250 ‘refining, 251 centrifugal “drier ” or “turbine,” 226, 251 Sugar-mill, the Beheea: success of, 216, 227 advantages of, 225, 250 repair of, 218, 225 Sugar-wmills : native (wooden), 224, 250 trisls of, at Experimental Farms, 226, 227 trials of, at Shows, 407 Sugar “ turbine,” 226, 251 ‘Sulphurie acid (oil of vitriol), 117, 364 Suai valley, 107 Superintendent of Bombay Farm Surat, 122, 234 Sayer 542 Survey, cadastral, of Behar, 404 —— Department, 25 Surveying, study of, by Revenue officers, 39) Sutlej river, 79, 110 Swomps, drainage of, 79 Swedish plough, 218, 219 Sweeper caste, 119 Sweepings of houses and streets, manure, 118, 119, 120, 121 as T. TACCAVT system of Advances, 80, 84-91, 205, 237, 290, 292 variable administration of, 84-88 objections of cultivators to, 85 the popularising of, 89, 90 better administration of, 90, 402 for purchase of plough cattle, 205 for purchase of seed, 88, 237 Tag. See San hemp. Tahsildars, 83, 85, 86, 90 Tdk or chds (butter-milk), 207 Tamarisk bush, 158 Tanjore, ‘10, 240, 241 Delta, 76 Tanks, 66, 71 irrigation by, 72 management of, 82, 84 repair of, 83, 84, 90 —~—., shallow, or Ponds, 66, 72 Taxation of improvements, 78, 87, 89, 158 Tea,,264-6 —— cultivation, 264 —— manufacture, 265 —— plant, Insects attacking the: “red spider,” 265 “ tea bug,” 265 —— Industry, work for chemist in connection with, 264, 265 ‘ —— Association, Indian, appointment of chemist by, 265 Teachers, Normal Schools for, 387 Teak forests, 135, 140 —— seed-planting, 244 ae Education, Resolution on, 4, 379 : Technical knowledge, want of, in Agricultural Departments, 299-306 Temple, Sir R., views on work of Agricultural Departments, 1 Tenure of land, 289, 290 Tephrosia purpurea, 107 Terah, rukh, 184 een bisculatus (“red spider’’), 2 Terminalia, 194 Text-books, agricultural, 319, 887, 388 Thana, 10, 28,117, 195, 243 Thomson and Mylne, Messrs., 8, 184 in relation to sugar cultivation and manufacture, 218, 225-6, 243, 250, 251, 252 ——, giving of loans to tenants by, 292 Index. Threshing-floors of cultivators, Wheat and Linseed from, 278-9, 282 Threshing machines, 222 Til (Sesamum indicum), 104, 197, 235, 286, 364 Timber, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 164 —-— forests, 135,140,141 | —— Culture Act (America), 149 Tinnevelly, 104, 107, 127, 241, 244 Tirhoot, 126, 158, 218 Tobacco, 270-2 cultivation of, 76, 111, 284, 2385, « 270 native method of curing, 271 experiments on, 271, 369 —— work for chemist in connection with, 271 —— industry, prospects of, 272 Tobacco parasite (Bodw), 272 “ Tope ” rule, 149 Touring, need of, by Agricultural Directors, 402 Tours, itinerary of, 427-42 Town sanitation, 118, 119-21 Training of junior Civilians in agrie culture, 398 —-~ Institution, Central, for scientific appointments, 338 Transplanting of rice, 108, 241 Travancore, 30 Tree-planting: benefits arising from, 29, 80, 31, 53, 138, 149, 155 encouragement given to, 149, 157-9 damage caused to crops by, 150, 151 Trees. See also Arboriculture and Leaves: as providing famine food, 138, 149, 194 as providing litter, 127 for pollarding and lopping, 144 —-—, shade, 266, 267 Trichinopoly, 83 Tungabadra river, 68, 107 “ Turbine” (sugar), 226, 251 Turva (soil), 94 Ty lenchus devastatrix, 258 Types of soil, 35 Uv. UDAMALPET, 38, 83, 188 Ulwar, 195 Uwballa, 186 Uncultivated areas available for “ Fuel’ aud Fodder Reserves,’ 156-7, 158 Universities, recognition of Agriculture by, 384 University of Bombay, diploma in Agriculture at, 384 Urine : aualysis of, 123, 419 value of, 124 a of, 119, 120-1, 127, 128, waste of, 122, 123, 125, 126 Index. far (salty) land, 37, 61, 65-62, 189, 154, 155, 156, 187, 158 extent of, in N. W. P., 55 experiments on reclamation of, 58, 60 need of chemist in enquiries on, 62, 61-2, 816 V. VALVA (Bombay), 226 Van Geyzel, Dr. : analyses of rain water, 45, 46 analyses of Indian fodders, 194 Vanjaris, 21 Varadi cotton, 254 Vegetable-growing, 20, 21, 22, 95, 120, 244, See also Market-gardening. Vellola caste, 21 Velur (Bombay), 226 Venis, Mr. G., his analyses of Ganges river water, 78 Veterinary hospitals and dispensaries, 212, 213, 391 —— Schools: : at Lahore, 212,°213, 394 at Poona, 212-3, 391 Wigeroy. (Msrquis of Lansdowne), H. E, the, Vilayati cotton, 254 Village committees (panchayet), 165 — common, See Village “ waste.” — grazing groand. See Village “ waste.” — foresta, 156, 160, 161 — headman, 164, 165, 200 — records, 403, 404 — © reserves,” 154 —— sanitation, 121, 128 —— “waste,” 149-50, 157, 159, 172,178 ; “Ville” series of manuria)] experiments, 365 Vitriol, oil of (sulphuric acid), 117, 364 Voelcker, Dr. J. A.: deputation to India, 5 objects of mission, 5 tours in India, 6, 427-42 analyses by, 44, 47, 49, 50, 77, 98, 105, 123, 279, 282, 415-25 160, W. WALDIE, Dr., 250 Walis (earth und stone), 163 Want of enterprise among cultivators, 6 292-3 Ward Mr. G., 53 Wardha (Central Provinces), 87 Warington, Mr, &., 46, 388 Warth, Dr., 112 Waste land, 54, 55, 157-9, Village “ waste.” Waste of seed in rice cultivation, 242 — of water in irrigation, 72, 74, 242 See also 548 Water, 64-92, See also Canal water, River water, Well water, Irrigation, in soils, 42, 43 interdependence of, 80, 94-5 : ingenious devices of the Nativo for raising, 73, 223, 224 waste of, 72, 74, 75, 242 removal of superfluous, 70, 71, 78 and manure, 79 analyses of, 77, 78, 417 kind of, in indigo manufacture, 261 — -level raised by coming of canals 69, 70 —— pumps, 224, . ae rate, payment of, by quantity, 5 —— supply, main sources of, 65-6,; Watercourses, 74, 76 loss by pertolation in, 74 Watering, over-, effect of, 76, 242 . Watt, Dr. Geo., 8, 105, 107, 255; his article on Indigo in “ Dictionary of Economie Products,”? 262 “ Watts” plough, the, 217, 218 Nee eal (Adhatoda vasioa), 10 Well, 66, 67, 72-8 cultivation by aid of, 72, 78, 74-5 destruction of, through coming of canals, 69 Major Clibborn’s Report on Con- struction of, 74, 75, 82 conséruction of, by Government, 81, 82 digging of, in rocky ground, 79, 1 scope for extended digging of, 80, 88-9 — for drinking water, 130 Well water : preference of cultivator for, 76 analysis of, 77, 78, 417 salts in, 76, 77-8, 112 “Westerns” (cotton), 254 “© Wet” land, 95, 107 Wheat: mee of, in different countries, continuously unmanured, at Rot- hameted and Woburn, 37, 257 “rust” in, 78 as & fodder-crop, 192 —, varieties of : Buxar, 238 ans attempts to aeclimatise it, 3 Muzaffarnagar, 288, 362 Sindhi, 362 Wheat, Indian : trade in, how conducted, 280, 281.2 export of, 293, 294 impure condition of, 274, 275 wilful adulteration of, 275, 278 attempts to secure purity of, 275-7 mechanical analyses of samples of, 279, 280, 423 544 Wheat-growing, 26, 27, 110, 283, 234, 238, 298 —, increase in, 75, 231 —, experiments on, 361, 362, 363, 865, 874 Wilfarth, Prof., 46 Wilson, Mr. W. J., 8, 224 -—, Messrs, W. J., andi Darrah : on land for ‘fuel and fodder re- serves,” 155 on enclosure of land, 163 Wingate, Major, 8, 163, 176 Winnowers, 222-3 Wishart, Mr. W. B., 7, 277 Woburn Experiments, the, 37, 106, 190, 340, 344, 347, 357 expenditure on, 357, 367 Wood, 185-168. See Arboriculture, Firewood, ‘“‘ Fuel and Fodder Ke- serves,” and Timber. agricultural requirements for, 136 Wood-ashes, 132 Wool, waste, 344, 361 Wrightia tinctoria (wild indigo), 107, 241 Indez, x. YIELD of wheat in different countries, 40 -—— of wheat on unmanured land at Rothamsted, 37 —— of wheat in India on different kinds of land, 41 —— of grass, 179 — of hay, 179 = wk sugar, 225, 243, 244, 247, 248, —— of various crops (crop out-turn), 240, 362, 364 — of wilk from cows, 205, 206 Z. ZEMINDARS, 87, 68, 148, 150, 154, 159, 160 - indebtedness of, 86, 291 Zemindari tracts, 161 Zirwah (insect), 258 Zizyphus, 153, 194 Govt. of India, Central Printing Office.—No, 337 RB, & A.—6-10-0%.— ; ae a Ba ar SA Sa Se St ae Sah it