& es peeenmnenaieteaios an oot timtieshe Anime a ih i s ee x rb yMeeteep | nt Sey 9m earnyy Ei tp en rite ahem m hain ib , " y of eters AP A rece = ina na et Rr IER cc i é c PRODU a {5 N 1O} SBA BY CARLW GAY BS HU CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE Flower Beterinary Cibrary FOUNDED BY ROSWELL P. FLOWER for the use of the N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 1897 This Volume ts the Gift of Dr. D. La Grange ‘ornell University Libra Productive horse husbandry, “| “The first farmer was the first man, and a historia nobility rests on possession and use of land —EMERSON. LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA; DIRECTOR OF HORSE BREEDING, STATE LIVESTOCK SANITARY BOARD, COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By G. E. DAY, B.S.A. Ontario Agricultural College $1.50 net PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY By H. R. LEWIS, B.S. Rutgers College, N. J. $2.00 net PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By C. W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. University of Pennsylvania $1.50 net PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING By FRED C. SEARS Professor of Pomology Massachusetts Agricultural College $1.50 net PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY By W. C. COFFEY, M.S. University of Illinois In PREPARATION PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D. Professor of Animal Nutrition, University of California In PREPARATION COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M. Purdue University In PREPARATION Propuctive Horss HusBanpry. LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett). PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY BY CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA; DIRECTOR OF HORSE BREEDING, STATE LIVESTOCK SANITARY BOARD, COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. 176 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT “Tf vain our toil, i We ought to blame the culture, not the soil.” Pope—Essay on Man. PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U.S. A. PREFACE Ir has been the author’s purpose to emphasize industry as applied to horses. If the production, marketing, and use of horses were regarded as an industry and conducted more gen- erally along business lines, with a definite purpose in view, more uniform results could be obtained and with greater profit to those engaged. It is quite generally conceded that the investigations of the experiment stations, as well as the instruction in the schools and colleges, have been more exhaustive in their application to cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry than to horses. This is unrepresenta- tive of the importance of the horse industry and inadequate to its needs. The aimless, hit or miss, haphazard system prevails in the production of horses more than in any other class of live stock; the scrub stallion is less in disrepute than the sernb bull, and most producers of market cattle, hogs, or sheep devote them- selves more intelligently to their enterprise than do the breeders of horses. Commonly the original producer receives a lower percentage of the price which a horse ultimately brings than is the case with most market products. Indifference to market demands and lack of information concerning the best means of meeting the require- ments are largely responsible for the advantage of the middle- man. In fact, they constitute the principal asset of a certain class of dealers who derive their profits in direct proportion to the ignorance of those from whom they buy and to whom they sell. Notwithstanding the keen competition between the horse and the motor in some fields, the horse-business in general is on a sound basis and bids fair to continue so, as far as can be fore- seen. But to successfully compete requires most careful atten- tion to detail. Hconomic efficiency is the standard by which com- parisons are made. Science and system must govern in the profitable production of market horses and their subsequent service. Vv vi PREFACE Economy and efficiency have, therefore, ruled in the prep- aration of this subject-matter. The scope of the work outlined is too broad to admit of an extended discussion of all points referred to. Duplication of other texts has been avoided, as far as possible, while those phases of the subject that have received the least mention prior to this time have been most fully developed. This book is intended to present to students of live stock husbandry the same systematic and complete study of the horse that has been accorded the other classes of live stock. Works on the horse are legion, and many of them excellent, but the majority of writers view the proposition from an angle which does not comprehend the student’s requirements so fully as is attempted here. The author duly acknowledges much valuable information gleaned from the current literature on the subject, while he claims no authority but assumes entire responsibility for the accuracy of much that is said. He deeply appreciates the counsel and assistance of a wide acquaintance of practical horsemen in acquiring the fund of horse lore from which the material, here- with presented, is drawn. Sectionalism and partiality to special classes or breeds have been avoided. Emphasis has been laid upon the practical side of horse husbandry. Students as well as horse breeders have been kept in mind while preparing this book. It is hoped that short-course students and college students will alike be able to use the text to advantage. The grouping of the chapters into four parts should aid in rapid reference and student work. CarL W. Gay. UNIVERSITY oF PENNA., Nov., 1913. CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. XI. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. CONTENTS PART I—STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION THE BREEDS OF HORSES........ 0.000 c cece cece eee DRAWT BREEDS ie 65 hoses hides Gace Hae aa ent aaah eRe PART III.—THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. Tur BREEDING OF HORSES.........0 0000 cece cece ene eae PART IV.—THE HORSE IN SERVICE. RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER........... 00000008 THE FEEDING oF HORSES... 2... 0... cee tenes STABEBS 5 iobied oe ia.a Oe Mead een aha salamat eeatite dt adeda aioe gies eee INQUITA TION iis estar cee eee Sw BG owe TA EG SRS ee bos VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE... . 660. MARKETS AND SHOWS) < 6.6% c4 cc acaaavane date te tate acess TRANSPORTATION 34.454 eee had Goes Oe ee ad ars Wa eeepc aS "THB! WEGUW iso halen GS cre ne SE OPERAS OY Bes Ae ee acltade ete Tri MOTOR:-AS A FACTOR...: 0 sccce cae died ise ae ERE SRS Oe 8 FIG. owooaon oO _ 11. 12. 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. ILLUSTRATIONS Productive Horse Husbandry.....................-. Frontispiece . Hind Legs, Propeller; Forelegs, Supportive to the Extent of Lifting the Forehand. (Exterior of the Horse)....................... . Skeleton of the Horse, Showing the Vertebral Arch and the Bone Columns. (Adams’ Horseshoeing).................20..0.0005 . Each and Every Phase of the Stride is Demonstrated.......... ee . Situation of the Centre of Gravity in the Horse. (Exterior of the HOUSO) Sana xcigiehed naka Als eaiNee sagAe made etectine aes Soe Reve g . Diagram Showing Contact of Feet in Various Gaits.............. . During the Greatest Effort the Base of Support is Rectangular, the Horse Being Practically on All Fours. (Exterior of the Horse). . . Regions of the Horse Seen in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse)..... . Normal Eye. (Exterior of the Horse)... .. Sea See arena st ail . Plantar Surface of Right Fore-Hoof. (Adams’ Horseshoeing) ..... . The Erect Standing Position of the Forcleg, Viewed from in Front, as Determined by the Plumb-line. (Exterior of the Horse) ..... The Correct Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from the Side. (SCH WEITER) a uts! 4. Ltend ania dea dae dew Sean Doar aoe UAE GA ant ROWLTE Daee The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the Rear. (Exterior of the Horse)... ....0.....000 00. c eee eee The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the Side. (Exterior of the Horse)..............0000 0c cece eee eee The I'ast Trot, Characterized as a Diagonal Gait of Extreme Exten- sion and Rapidity of Stride..........0..0000.0. 000.0000 0 cee eee The High Stepping Trot, Showing Extreme Flexion of Knees and Hocks. (Champion Hackney Pony Berkley Bantam).......... The Pace, a Lateral Gait of Extreme Extension and Rapidity of ULI G Foie nso esti ine ia cea cha een sa Gls tern teen ana ranat tec tact noes Position of Direction of Leg to Course Taken by Foot in the Stride. (Adams’ Horseshoeing) .......0.00. 0000 c cece cece eens Knee-sprung or Over on the Knees. (Exterior of the Horse)...... Calf-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse). .............02..000 00 e eee Too Straight Pastern. (Adams’ Horseshoeing).................. Base Narrow, Toe Wide, Nigger-heeled, or Splay-footed. (Exterior Of the: HOrse) i135 oni s-o ees abies slags aeares ue ep aooaa ee enon ban md PAGE 14 15 15 18 19 20 21 22 24 25 25 25 * ILLUSTRATIONS 24. Toe Narrow or Pigeon-toed. (Exterior of the Horse)............. 25. Knock-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse)...............00000 ee eee 26. Bow-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse)...............000 000 eeeeee 27. Too Close at Ground. (Exterior of the Horse)...............--. 28. Too Wide at Ground. (Exterior of the Horse)................-. 29. Bent, Sabre, or Sickle Hock. (Adams’ Horseshoeing)............ 30. Cow-hocked. (Exterior of the Horse)..............0000000 ee eee 31. Bandy-legged or Wide at the Hocks. (Exterior of the Horsc)..... 32. The Draft Type, Showing the Weight, the Low, Wide, Compact, Massive Form, the Bone and the Muscling which Characterize the Horse of Power. (Percheron Gelding, Champion International Live Stock Exposition). 2.0.2.0... 00.02 33. The Way a Draft Horse Should be Able to Move. (Carnot, Im- ported Percheron Stallion, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by W. 8S. Corsa, Whitehall, Ill. Courtesy of he O) Wek dsc sr ctesnoeus, Sussunsasset nl tae apt SMbterses aestalac eat eaghOONS Gnseons SIRE 34. The Speed Type, Representing the Long, Rangy, Angular, Narrow but Deep Form Correlated with Length and Rapidity of Stride. (Champion Trotting Mare Lou Dillon, 1.5814) ................ 35. The Show Type, Representing the Close and Full Made Form. (Champion Hackney Show Mare, Lady Seaton)...............04. 36. A Weight Carrier, Illustrating the Bone Muscular Development which, with a Short Back and Legs, Render a Horse “up to” Two Hundred Pounds or More. (Prize Winning Heavy Weight Hunter, MOUTAILE) |. =e istins ead dane na EAS red OR Da eA MLE I ER Aw oe Be 37. The Saddle Type, Showing the Short Top and Long Under Line, Sloping Shoulders, the High, Well-finished Withers, and the Long, Fine, Supple Neck Essential to the Saddle Horse. (Cham- pion Saddle Mare, Sonia). ........... 00.0000 cc cece eee eee 38. A Trey or Three-way Hitch of Drafters to Truck, Showing the Seale, Form, and Conformation of Horses of this Class, also the Manner of Hitching. (Prize Winning Percheron Geldings Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the owners) . 39. A Draft Pair of Unusual Quality and Attractive Color............ 40. A Six-horse Draft Team to Packer’s Van, Showing the Relative Balance between the Lead, Swing, and Wheel-pair, also Complete Appointments. (Prize Winning Clydesdale Geldings).......... 41. A Pair of Chunks to Truck, Showing the Extremely Drafty Form, Bone, and Ruggedness Typical to this Class. (Percheron Geldings Owned by H. 8. Beaston, Philadelphia, Pa. Courtesy of the OWNED) aceds ceahecGes As anawarn: Gadciad x Ghee oee Some ats webs 42. An Expresser for Light Delivery Service, Showing the Combination of Draft Horse Size and Substance with Coach Horse Form and Finish. (Prize Winning Light Delivery Gelding, Owned by Strawbridge and Clothier, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the Owners) 36 38 42 43 50 51 51 52 53 43 44. 45, 46. 47. 48. 49, 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. ILLUSTRATIONS A Class of Coach Horses to Brougham and Victorias. (Harness Class, Philadelphia Horse Show).............00..0000 000 cee A Park Mare to Sayler Wagon. (Champion Hackney Show Mare, Phe Wp) ps'eSene corgi gana ence wae avlels Remade deed amioate A Runabout Horse, with a Fair Degree of Both Pace and Action. (Champion Trottingbred Harness Horse, Newsboy)............ A Cob to Runabout, a Big, Little Horse of Extremely Compact and Rotund Form. (Champion Small Harness Horse, Young Moun- PAINCCL) Soe ddd desta es estae eas ated en ae a te oan Rokudde miceaing emails The Bent Hock-joint. (Exterior of the Horse).................. A Gentleman’s Road Mare. (Champion Road Mare, Allie Nun)... A Trotter to Sulky. (Champion Trotting Mare, Sweet Marie, 2.02, MeDonald ip) 25. 2c osacena tied. nhac ad dah COR WG PRESS ER URER The Straight Hock-joint. (Exterior of the Horse)............... A Steeple Chaser, Showing the Speed and Saddle Form of the Running Race Horse. (Merryman, Virginia bred hunter. Courtesy of the National Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) A Gaited Saddle Stallion. (Kentucky Choice, Owned by Mrs. Richard Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. Courtesy of the Owner. Matt. Cohen Up) sce decebesed eases edad bases Jeeeae ean A Walk-trot-canter Horse. (Champion Walk-trot-canter Saddle Horse, Poetry of Motion) .......... 0000.0 c cece eee eee A Class of English Saddle Horses. (Saddle Class, International Horse Show, Olympia, London. Courtesy of the National Stock- man and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.)..........0..0. 00020 e eee A Light-weight Hunter. (Prize Winning Hunter Mare, Sunday IMB OTII Ed igo aac enccens age ade tie Saree iarneenscale ees eaneig’y sis eae eae ene Heatherbloom, the World’sRecord High Jumper. (Record, 8 feet 314 inches. Dick Donnelly up)...........0......0.00000008. A Combination Horse. (Prize Winning Saddle Horse, Confidence, Owned by Dr. Oscar Seely, Philadelphia)..................... The Fine Harness Horse of the South. (Kentucky Choice in Harness) A Harness Pony under 46 Inches in Height. (Prize Winning Shet- land Pony, Lysander, Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, Il. Courtesy of the Owner)... 4:52 eisuo cee ery ki toa ed Ree ee seed ie A Twelve-hand Ride and Drive Pony of Exceptional Merit. (Prize Winning Harness and Saddle Hackney Pony Mare, Helen Miller, Owned by Willisbrook Farm)............000 50000 e eee eee A Pair of Twelve-hand Ponies Properly Turned Out. (Prize Win- ning Pair of Welsh Ponies, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, Il.) A Polo Pony, Fast, Game, Handy, Intelligent, and up to Weight. (Prize Winning Polo Pony, Redman).............-.+++4++e0es Arabian Stallion, Showing the General Refinement Characteristic of this Breed. (Naaman, Owned by Herman Hoopes, Philadelphia, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) ..... 2.06... cece e eee eee eee 54 55 55 56 58 58 59 60 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 67 67 68 68 xil 64 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 7A, 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. ILLUSTRATIONS . A Thoroughbred Stallion, the Sire of Race Horses. (Rocksand, Recently Sold by August Belmont to a Foreign Syndicate for PIO OOO) 5 acstate ica faced dee cragiot oo Reraxctcraoreutnimoanm lela aucune goeauadansls auNiee aa A Thoroughbred Stallion Suitable to Get Saddle Horses and Hunters. (Chilton) 5 ve isacndars 22 ones aces aeety alee dda tepals Bi aeatie Tey A French Post Coach Used Early in the Nineteenth Century. (A Manualof Coaching). occ. ce aud eee aes ee fou tee Ga we ale nee A Diligence Still in Use in Switzerland. (A Manual of Coaching).. An Old-fashioned Percheron. (Stallion, Sultan, Imported by Wm. T. Walters, Baltimore, Md., 1882)... 0.0.0... ..06 00. c cece eee A Percheron Stallion. (Imported Imprecation; Champion Inter- national Live Stock Exposition, Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the Owners) ............. savage A Belgian Stallion of the Most Acceptable Stamp. (Prize Winning Imported, Xavier, Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the Owners)............. 00000 c cece eee ee A Clydesdale Stallion of Most Impressive Character. (Flisk Prince, Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Courtesy of Owners) A Shire Stallion of Most Approved Type. (Lockinge Hengist, Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by Truman’s Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, Il]. Courtesy Of the Owners) wy v's cn ste you sted y a4 dee Sak iene Sand ad wat bid dedncdaae A Suffolk Stallion of the Punch Form. (Rendlesham Sunshine, Imported Prize Winner, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes- Barre, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners)..........0...0000 000 eee A Hackney Stallion. (Oxford Champion, National Horse Show, Madison Square Garden, New York City. The Only American Bred Horse that ever Won this Honor. Owned by Wm. White, Frazer, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner)..........000....00..0044 A French Coach Stallion of the More Refined Sort. (Decorateur, Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by McLaughlin Brothers, Columbus, Ohio. Courtesy of the Owners) A French Coach Sire which has Produced High-Class Harness Horses with Remarkable Regularity. (Troarn, Prize Winner, Owned by Geo. D. King, Springboro, Pa. Courtesy of Owner)... A German Coach Stallion. . 0.0.0.0... ccc eee ee eee The Lead Pair in this Road Four are Pure-bred Orloffs. (Owned and Shown by Judge W. H. Moore).................0....004. Carmon, at the Head of the Government Stud of American Horses. (Courtesy of Geo. M. Rommel).......0.0 00.0. cc cece ccc eeeeee Pair of Trotting-bred Heavy Harness Horses to George IV Phaeton. (Lord Brilliant and Lord Golden, Many Times Champions) ...... A Standardbred Stallion, a Leading Sire of the Breed. (Bingen, Recently Deceased)! .< tecsoe Seu voowans bees became oY ee oa habs 78 80 86 87 88 89 92 97 99 103 104 105 107 82. 83. 84. . Inscription on Monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. ILLUSTRATIONS Hambletonian 10, at 23 Years of Age.......... 0.00. ceeeeeueeee Monument over Grave of Hambletonian 10, at Chester, N. Y. (Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University)... . Green Mountain Maid in 1873.......0000 0.0. c cece cece cece ceuee (Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University)... . An “Ideal Representative” of the Standardbréd. (Moquctte, 2.10, Owned by W. H. Davis, Washington, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) A 16-hand, 1200-pound Standard Performer. (Stallion Sisalson, Owned by Henry Palmer, Avondale, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) Original Photo of Ethan Allen, made in 1859.................... A Morgan Stallion. (Bobbie B.)...........00000.0 00.0 cece ee eee General Gates, at the Head of the Government Morgan Stud...... An American Saddle Stallion. (Bourbon King One of the Leading Dires'of Kentucky) vvs cove csey yen yee Sey nee Sawa Riga bak The Old Country Idea of Shetland Type is a Miniature Draft Horse. (Eirik and Silverton of Tamsey, Champion Shetland Stallions and the Highland Royal Shows) ..........0...00.000 0c cee eeuen A Shetland Stallion, American bred. (Grandee, Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, Ill. Courtesy of the Owner)................. A Welsh Pony Stallion, Showing the Size and Form Characteristic of the Breed. (Llwyn King, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, Til. Courtesy of the Owner)... 2.0... eee cece A Hackney Pony Stallion. (Horace, Jr., Imported Champion, Owned by Willisbrook Farm, Malvern, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners)... Dentition of the Horse, as a Whole. (Exterior of the Horse)... ... Longitudinal and Median Section of a Permanent Inferior Pincer. (Exterior of the Horse) ..... 0.0... eects Birth: None of the Incisor Teeth has Penetrated the Gums. (Ex- terior of the Horse)... 6... 0.0.00. c eect teen eens One Year: Viewed in Front, All the Milk Incisors are Visible. (Exterior of the Horse) ......... 0.0.0.0 cece eee cee Two Years: Jaws Belonging to a Colt of a Lymphatic Race, Having been Fed Almost Entirely on Forage. (Exterior of the Horse)... Three Years Past: Viewed in Front, the our Permanent Pincers are Seen. (Exterior of the Horse).................0 002. ee Rising Four Years: Viewed in Front, there are Seen in Each Jaw, Four Permanent Incisors. (Exterior of the Horse)............. Four Years: Viewed in Front, All the Permanent Superior Teeth are in Contact with the Inferior. (Exterior of the Horse)....... Four Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Superior Permanent Inter- mediates are in Contact with the Inferior Intermediates, and on the Same Level as the Pincers. (Exterior of the Horse) ........ Rising Five Years: The Four Milk Corners have Fallen Out and are Replaced by Those of the Second Dentition. (Exterior of the Horse) 116 118 119 120 124 125 126 131 136 137 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 106. Five Years: The Mouth is Entirely Made. (Exterior of the Horse) 107. Six Years: Viewed in Front, the Jaws Present Almost the Same Char- acters as at Five Years. (Exterior of the Horse)..... he eat ara 108. Seven Years: Viewed in Front, the Teeth Appear Whiter. (Exterior Of the: HOrse@) icc oa ces eed ee ethne ean pak neha tS weeks wees 109. Eight Years: The Direction of the Incisors Notably Changed. (Ex- terior of the Horse)»: 0.3 .een0 i eebeu ee eee dee be gains eee ba 110. Nine Years: Nothing Special is to be Seen upon the Jaws in Front or in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse). ...................0.... 111. Ten Years: When Viewed from Front, the Jaws Become Prominent. (Exterior of the Horse): «sc ss ose $Ea wabde £84 Ka dade ow doce 112. Eleven Years: In Order to See the Teeth in Front, it is Necessary to Raise the Horse’s Head. (Exterior of the Horse)............ 113. Twelve Years: The Incidence of the Jaws is More Oblique Than at the Preceding Age. (Exterior of the Horse)................ 114. Fifteen Years: Viewed in Front, the Inferior Teeth Appear Shorter than the Superior. (Exterior of the Horse)................... 115. Twenty-one Years: The Teeth have Become so Horizontal that, when Viewed in Front, it is Difficult to See their Anterior Face, Unless the Head of the Horse be Raised. (Exterior of the Horse) 116. Thirty Years: The Characters of this Puriod are of Extreme Old Age. (Exterior of the Horse).............000.00.0 000 e cece 117. This Horse has a Record of Twenty-three Years in the Delivery Service of a Large City Department Store. (Blue Roan Horse, Owned by Gimbel Brothers, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the OWAICES) 222 aL aucesnae, Stantsae danke ath ed aad eae mca nues aaerereome ee 118. This Horse has Served Eighteen Years in the City as an Ambulance TEL OTS Osan ce teste apt chats an enna whe eed aan ee IE ee a / 119. This Horse has been Rendered Unserviceable by the Same Work An ONG: Wea: 9 ¢:21gia's een gin Samia ect Gad cline tubs 4, helms goad Gao nee de 120. A Pedigree Registry Certificate. (Courtesy of Gurncy C. Giey Sec- retary, American Hackney Horse Socicty)..................... 120a. Reverse Side of Registry Certificate ..........0...0..00..20.... 121. A Breeding Stud. (Irvington Stud Farm, Owned by W. D. Henry, Sewickley, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner)...................... 122a and 122b. A Successful Sire of the Right Type. (Carnot, Courtesy of W. 8. Corsa, Whitehall, UL).....0 00.0.0. cece e ccc e eee ee 123. A Producer—Sweet, Tetned, and Feminine. (Thoroughbred Brood Mare, Iuka. Courtaay of Jas. A. McCloskey)............ 124. A Brood Mare of Proven Worth. (A Clydesdale, Pride of Drum- landrig, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners). ..........00000.0 00 ccc eee eee eee. 125. The Line of Draft. (A Manual of Coaching).................... 126. The Angle Formed by the Traces with the Hames Should be as Near a Right Angle as Possible. (A Manual of Coaching)...... 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 174 186 187 193 195 199 200 224 127. 128. 130. 131. 182. 133. 134. 1385. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154, 155. 156. 157. ILLUSTRATIONS sae The Scapulohumeral and Elbow-joint. (A Manual of Coaching)... 226 The Breast or Dutch Collar in Proper Position. (A Manual of . The Model Work Horse Stable, Showing the Main Alley-way and General Interior Arrangement. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew- ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa)......... 0... cece eee eee ee 256 A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew- ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.).......... 0.00.0 cece eee eee ee 257 A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brewing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) ........... 00. e eee eee eee 257 Plan and. Specifications for a Small Work Horse Stable with Open Front Stalls. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania)... ............0.0.0 000s eee 258 Floor Plan and Specifications for a Convenient, Comfortable, and Sanitary City Stable. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania)................... 258 A Vacuum Grooming Machine in Opcration. (Courtesy of the J. and P. Baltz Brewing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.)............ 260 An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Toe, which Breaks the Foot Axis Backward. (Adams’ Horseshoeing)....... 263 An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Heels, which Breaks the Foot Axis Forward. (Adams’ Horseshoeing)........ 263 Hoof Dressed and Foot Axis Straightened. (Adams’ Horseshoeing). 263 Tongue Held Back to Show the Bars of the Mouth upon which the Bit Bears. (Exterior of the Horse)...................00005 272 The Jointed Snaffle Bit. (A Manual of Coaching)............... 273 The Four-ring Snaffle Bit. (A Manual of Coaching)............. 273 Port of Curb Bit. (A Manual of Coaching)...................-. 274 The Liverpool Bit. (A Manual of Coaching).................--. 274 The Elbow Bit. (A Manual of Coaching)....................-. 275 The Buxton Bit. (A Manual of Coaching)... ...........-....544 275 The Pelham Bit. (Exterior of the Horse)...................---- 275 The Side Check or Bearing Rein with Bridoon Bit. (A Manual of CoaCHiIn€) soscite ycunetn nasa eae Pattenden waged BASU sd wet 276 The Pulley Bridoon Bearing Rein. (A Manual of Coaching)...... 277 Adjustment of the Coupling Reins. (A Manual of Coaching)..... 278 Reins Held. in Left: Hand... 0024 cage nese eed Sew E TR ek ee Eee 281 The: Pakecback oy saci cawn sod eh eames Se NA eee ea edd eames PARSE 282 ‘The Lworhand Gripe sig 353 4b eg pts ee me cee Rode we URS died 283 Riding Reins in One-hand Grip.......-. 66002 e eee e ee eee eee 284 Riding, Two-hand Grip........ 0.000 e eee cence eee ees 284 The Evolution of the Wheel. (A Manual of Coaching)........... 287 The Cylindrical Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching)............. 288 The Tapered Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching).......... w..e. 288 Tapered Axle Arm Pitched, (A Manual of Coaching)..........-. 288 158. 159. 160. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. ILLUSTRATIONS An Unpitched Tapered Axle. (A Manual of Coaching)........... 288 The Dished Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual of Coaching) ae ade hence tis a vee den tooo se bead etauaoensawex 289 The Staggered Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual Ol COB CHINE) acdsee oo banc p ass dua aunts apeysia Slane BG misseeanaudee a ane awa 290 . One of the Cumbersome and Pretentious Early Coaches. (A Man- ual-of Coaching). 29:2 4ne sam aie eee Wie paaudialenae Aedwagialenaa gies 290 . Strap Supports in Which the Body of the Vehicle was Slung. (A Manwial of Coaching). ..— & I . ! / / / ’ 4 \A | ‘ \ \ Vy Course taken by the foot in _ Course taken by the foot Course taken by the foot correct standing position. in base or toe wide direction in base or toe narrow direc- of leg. tion of leg. Fic. 19.-~Relation of direction of leg to course taken by foot in the stride. the inner or outer quarter is higher. The dircetion of the leg de- termines the course taken by the foot during its stride, whether advanced in a straight line or describing the arc of a circle inward or outward, depending upon the deviation in the direction of the lee (Fig. 19). The form of the foot and the direction of the leg are correlated, usually, so that their combined influence on the way of going may be considerable. WAY OF GOING—THE FUNCTION 25 The following are the common deviations in the direction of the leg. Foreleg viewed from the side: Figs. 20, 21 and 29. Foreleg viewed from in front: Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28, Hind leg viewed from the side: Fig. 29. Ilind leg viewed from the rear: Figs, 30 and 31. Breeding has most to do with the particular gait at which a horse goes. One may visit a collection of foals or weanlings in a field, and upon starting them off across the field note that some Fic. z0.—Knee-sprung Fic. 21.—Calf-kneed. Fic. 22.—Too straight or over on the knees. pastern. square away at a long, reachy trot, others go high enough to clear the tops of the daisies, while still others break away in an easy gallop, each gait being executed with equal ease and naturalness. The reason is found in the fact that the first described lot are Trotting-bred, the second are Hackneys and the others are Thoroughbreds. In each of these the particular way of going is a matter of breed character, and the instinct to go that way is almost as strong as for either the field dog to point or the game bird to battle. Heredity.—Type, conformation, direction of leg and form of foot are all more or less hereditary characters and are asso- 26 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION ciated with a corresponding instinct. A colt is not likely to be endowed by inheritance with an instinct to trot and at the same time inherit a structure which is only adapted to galloping. Tforses are occasionally seen, however, which, though bred prop- erly, manifest a disposition to do what they are physically inca- pable of doing. Others seem structurally qualified for superior performance of some one sort, but fall far short of doing anything remarkable, because they do not know how. Hence, we know that the highest order of performance can only be attained when the inherited instinctive tendencies are in line with the horse’s inherited physical development. Fic. 23.—Base narrow, Fic, 24.—Toe narrow Fic. 25.—Knock-kneed. toe wide; nigger-heeled or or pigeon-toed. splay-footed. Schooling.—ITorses, like men, reflect in their attainments: First, their inherent capabilities, and, second, what has been made of them. All the graduates of a given academic or gymnasium course are not equals, either in their mental or physical aceom- plishments. Neither are all those who have been deprived of any educational advantages destined to a common level or rank in society. Some from the latter class may even reach a higher rung on the commercial or social ladder than others from the first class. An individual may owe his proficiency to either his opportunities or what is in him, exclusively, or to a favorable WAY OF GOING—THE FUNCTION 27 combination of both. Only the highest education, in accordance with the strongest natural aptitude, can accomplish the greatest attainment. Hence, it is hardly worth while to spend time and money in educating a colt in ways to which he is not adapted. It is a difficult and unsatisfactory task to school a born trotter to an acceptable show of action. Ample proof of the accuracy of this statement, reversed, is found in the earlier days of horse shows in this country. It was common to find single-minded horsemen resorting to all sorts of ingenious ways and means of Fic. 26.—Bow-kneed. Fic. 27.—Too close at Fic. 28.—Too wide at ground. ground. preventing a horse from going high in order to make a trotter of him, They often gave up in despair, and sacrificed him to the knowing buyer, who, by changing tactics and schooling him along the line of action for which he had a strong inclination, finally turned him out a show horse of note. If, on the other hand, we take a natural character and develop it by artificial means, we may expect results far in advance of what could otherwise be obtained. No race or show horse, of any class, comes to his high degree of proficiency without an education. The trotter must not only be trained to make him physically fit for the race but he must be taught to step. The same is true of actors, saddle horses, 28 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION jumpers, and others. They are all given the natural aptitude to begin with, but that is not sufficient to get the best out of them. Handling.—Handling is but the application of the school- ing. It is painful to see a well-schooled saddle horse, to whom every little movement of hand or heel has a meaning, with some awkward man up who is reaping the fruits of his ignorant hand- ling in a ride that is most distressing both to himself and his mount; or to see a horse, on whom much effort has been spent in teaching him to flex his neck, knees, and hocks in a proud, col- Fic. 29.—Bent, sabre, or sickle Fic. 30.—Cow-hocked. Fia. 31.—Bandy-legged or hock. wide at the hocks. lected, high way of going, put in light harness, with the omni- present Kimball Jackson overdraw, and a heavy-fisted driver up who boasts of how fast the horse can step. It is as essential that the handling be in accord with the schooling as that the schooling should follow the line of natural aptitude. The handling offers the stimulus, the schooling makes possible the response; har- mony is, therefore, imperative. There are individual differ- ences in the methods of different handlers, though the same gen- eral system may be employed. Among all race and show riders or drivers, each fundamentally correct in his methods, there is always one who is capable of better results than the others, WAY OF GOING—THE FUNCTION 29 Mechanical appliances are chiefly accessories to the handling and schooling of horses. They consist of the bit, shoes, weight, and hopples. Bit.—The influence of the bit is strongly suggestive of one or the other ways of going, as discussed under equitation. Shoes.—The style of the shoe and the dressing of the foot for its application have considerable influence on the way of going. By shortening or lengthening the toe, the breaking over is either facilitated or retarded, with a consequent shortening or lengthening of the stride; by raising or lowering the inner or outer quarter, the point at which breaking over takes place may be regulated, within limits. Werght.—By either putting weight on or taking it off the foot, the stride is heightened or lowered. Weight may be secured either by permitting an abnormal growth of the foot itself or in the shoe. Weight fixed at the toe promotes extension on the prin- ciple of the pendulum, the weight coming into play toward the end of the stride to carry the foot out. On the other hand, weight well back in the shoe, toward the hecl, is believed to be conducive to action by calling for extra flexion, in order to lift the foot. Whatever alterations are made in the matter of shoeing or weighting must be gradual, in order not to unbalance the horse in his stride. Hopples.—By uniting a hind and a fore leg by means of hopples, a horse is held to his stride and prevented from break- ing, mixing, or going any other gait. The straps are crossed or straight, depending upon whether the horse trots or paces. Hopples about the pasterns are sometimes put on harness horses to develop action. Going Surface.— While not of a mechanical nature, the char- acter of the surface on which the horse steps has a marked influ- ence on the kind of stride he takes. As a general rule, heavy, soft, or deep going causes a high stride, while a hard, smooth surface is more conducive to speed. Of the speed horses, trotters and pacers require the hardest, smoothest track. Heavy going frequently influences double-gaited horses to trot instead of pace and seriously interferes with pacing performance. Runners dou 30 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION best on the turf or a dirt track that has had the surface loosened by a seratch harrow, Defects and Peculiarities in Way of Going.—lorging.— Striking the ends of the branches or the under surface of the shoe of a forefoot with the toe of the hind foot. Interfcring.—Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock with the foot of the striding leg. It is predisposed in horses with base narrow, toe wide, or splay-footed standing position. Paddling.—An outward deviation in the direction of the stride of the foreleg, the result of a toe narrow or pigeon-toed standing position. Winging.— Exaggerated paddling, noticeable in high going horses. Winding.—A twisting of the striding leg around in front of the supporting Jeg in much the same manner as in paddling. This is most commonly seen in wide-fronted draft horses at the walk. Scalping.-—Hitting the front of the hind foot above or at the line of the hair against the toe of the breaking over forefoot. Speedy Cutting—The spreading trotter at speed hits the hind leg above the scalping mark against the inside of the break- ing over forefoot as he passes. Cross-firing.—Essentially forging in pacers, im which they hit the inside of the near fore and off hind foot or the reverse in the air as the stride of the hind leg is about completed and the stride of the foreleg just begun. Pointing.—A stride in which extension is much more marked than flexion. It is especially characteristic of the Thorough- bred. The same term is also used to indicate the resting of one forefoot in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons, Dwelling.—A perceptible pause in the flight of the foot, as though the stride had been completed before the foot has reached the ground. Most noticeable in actors. Trappy.—A quick, high, but comparatively short stride. Pounding.—A heavy contact usually accompanying a high stride. Rolling.—Excessive lateral shoulder motion as in wide fronted horses. wr NS gs 10, WAY OF GOING—THE FUNCTION 31 REVIEW . Name the features of the stride. . How may the pace be distinguished from the trot? . What are the special advantages and disadvantages under which pacers labor? How may the gait of a racking horse be recognized in the dark? . Describe a cross canter. . What is the importance of changing leads at the canter or gallop? How may a horse’s way of going be predicted without seeing him move? . To what extent may the schooling determine the horse’s way of going? . What effect does weight in the foot, also the surface over which the horse steps, have on the stride? What is understood by forging, interfering, pointing, and dwelling? PART I TYPES AND BREEDS CHAPTER IV THE TYPES OF HORSES A norse’s usefulness depends upon his power of locomotion, and whether he moves with power, speed, show, or to carry weight will determine whether he is a draft, a race, a show, or a saddle horse. The sum total of those characteristics, by which adaptability to the different kinds of service is determined, con- stitutes the type. Draft Type.—The service of the draft horse is to furnish power to move the heaviest of loads, usually over the paved surfaces of traflic-congested city streets (Fig. 32). Special efficiency in this line of service depends upon the possession of : 1. Weight sufficient (1500 to 2400 pounds) to hold the horse to a secure footing during muscular exertion, by inercasing the friction between the shoe and the opposing hard, smooth surface of the roadway or pavement. Weight thrown into the collar also supplements muscular exertion. 2. Low station, to bring the centre of gravity as near the base of support as possible, thereby increasing stability of equilib- rium, as stability of equilibrium is the measure of power. Length of leg is largely determined by length of canon bone, and a short canon is correlated, and therefore indicative of a short, broad, deep, and compact horse. 3. Breadth, to give a horse ample skeletal foundation for the support of great muscular development, and also to increase laterally the base of support, which affords a much more stable balance and in turn increases the power. 4. Depth, to afford heart, lung, and digestive capacity, which is a most essential asset to a horse which must expend much energy, almost continually, for long hours, and six days a weck. 5. Compactness, to insure a short vertebral column, bring- ing the source of power, the hindquarters, nearer to the applica- tion of power at the shoulder, thereby minimizing loss in trans- mission, and making for strength and rigidity of the shaft, as it were. 35 36 TYPES AND BREEDS 6. Massiveness, which suggests heavy muscling with the thick, bulky power variety; therefore, a horse cannot be drafty without being imassive. 7. Bone. The muscles operate the bone levers by contracting upon them through a fixed point and a movable insertion. For that reason the resisting power of the bone must be proportionate Fie. 32.—The draft type, showing the weight, the low, wide, compact, massive form, the bone and the muscling which characterize the horse of power. to the contracting force of the muscle. TIorses have been known to fracture their own bones by the power of muscular contraction. Furthermore, a horse has the appearance of being unbalanced in his makeup if too fine in his underpinning. Hence the demand for heavy bone in draft horses is fully warranted, but should be made with a full knowledge of just what it means. The region of the canon, usually regarded as the index of bone, in- cludes, in addition to the canon bone proper and the two rudi- THE TYPES OF HORSES 37 mentary splint bones, the flexor and extensor tendons, the suspen- sory ligament, a variable amount of connective tissue, and the skin and hair. The total circumference may, therefore, be con- siderable and yet not represent real bone. The bony structure itself is made up of inorganic and organic constituents; the former are the more essential to wear and determine the texture. As a matter of fact, coarse texture of tendons, ligaments, and bones themselves, together with too much connective tissue, a thick hide, and coarse hair, tend to increase size in the canon region without increasing the wearing qualities of the bone. It is therefore real, and not apparent, bone which counts, and the eye and hand are more reliable than the tape line for determining its amount. Furthermore, the object of “ big bone” is not to insure against fracture of the horse’s leg but to furnish joint surface of sufficient area and durability to insure the horse re- maining sound under stress of the wear to which it is subjeet in the course of its work. The bone of the canon region is, there- fore, but an index after all. 8. Quality, not being correlated with substance, is more diffi- cult of attainment in a draft horse, but there is an increasing favor expressed for more refined heads and necks, gencral finish, and better texture of bone, hoof, and hair. As much quality as is consistent with the required substance is desirable. 9. Temperament of the draft horse is generally lymphatic, but sluggishness is discriminated against. While the nature of his work requires that the draft horse be steady, patient, and readily tractable, it is, nevertheless, essential that it be per- formed willingly and with some snap and aggressiveness. Dis- position should be good to offset frequent provocation. 10. Way of going. Most drivers, for well-regulated draft horse stables, are instructed to walk their teams both when loaded and light, and experience seems to justify such action. In the first place, a draft horse must walk at least one-half his time, and if he is never allowed to trot he acquires a rapid, snappy walk which will accomplish as many miles in the course of a day’s work as can be done by the horse which is compelled to trot and allowed to walk only for the purpose of resting. The weight 38 TYPES AND BREEDS of the draft horse is so great and the surface he walks over so hard that concussion is a big factor in endurance and durability, and concussion is increased immeasurably at the trot. Condi- tions of trafic in most city streets are such as to make trotting impracticable. Lowever, any draft horse should be able to trot well, The trot accentuates all features of the walk, so that to be able to trot well insures a good walk (Fig. 33). The draft horse gait, then, is the walk, a powerful, prompt, swinging stride of as much length as the short legs will allow. _.Fia. 33.—The way a draft horse should be able to move. A powerful, straight, free stride, hocks sharply flexed, well under and close together, good knee action but no rolling or pounding in front. The notion that a longer legged horse, with his longer stride, can accomplish more is not borne out in experience, except with mules. Sx Oia Rimahout A. Roadster ; a ae ITD. Light (Trotter ae Harness rs B. Speed a Ry (Pacer SS . Race Horse (Runner) / . Walk-trot-canter fe Gaited / Hunter / Combination J IV. Saddle BDODP . Under 46 inches(Shetland)| // . 11-2 to 14-2 Polo Pony V. Pony Qbb> The Work Horse Division.—Drafiers have already been deseribed as the power type. Drafters are worked in single, pair, three-way, four-, or six-horse hitches. The demand for the highest class of draft horses comes chiefly from city business firms who make the appearance of their horses and wagons on the streets a feature of their advertising policies (Figs. 38, 39, and 40). 4 50 TYPES AND BREEDS In a consideration ‘of draft form, height is secondary to weight and station. In the selection of market draft geldings, however, height is important. While the low set, compact horse is most powerful, such chunky form is not conducive to as great size as that of more range and higher stature. This is especially true of immature draft colts. There must be considerable “stretch ” to them if they are to attain the required size at maturity. An upstanding growthy two-year-old gives greater ra PTs Fia, 38,—A trey or three-way hitch of drafters to truck, showing the scale, form, and con- formation of horses of this class, also the manner of hitching. promise than the smoothly turned, mature looking chunk of the same age. Growth takes place first upward, then downward and outward, Appearance, as well as power, counts in the service for which the highest class of draft geldings are bought, and unless a horse has stature he appears “squatty” before the big wagons or trucks to which he is put. Loggers are wp to draft horse requirements in all but quality. They are too coarse, unsymmetrical, low bred, or badly blemished THE CLASSES OF HORSES 51 to satisfy the city demand, and are therefore relegated chiefly to the lumber camps, where hard work only is required. Chunks represent the extreme of draft form, as their uame Fig. 39.—A draft pair of unusual quality and attractive color. Fie. 40.—A six-horse draft team to packer’s van, showing the relative balance between the lead, swing, and wheel pair, also complete appointments. implies, but are deficient in scale, ranging in weight from 1200 to 1500 pounds (Fig. 41). They are handy work horses, taken chiefly for the hauling of heavy loads which must be delivered more rapidly than can be done with draft horses, as in the case 52 TYPES AND BREEDS of breweries. The lower grade of chunks meets the demand of the contractors and the farm trade. Expressers are rapid draft horses, capable of working at the trot. They have enough of the draft form to insure the requisite size, substance, and power, at the same time departing from the draft type in that they are more rangy and less massive, in order that they may be capable of stepping away at a sharp trot (Fig. 42). They have been referred to as “ drafters with coach horse finish ” and as “ coachers with draft horse substance.” Ex- pressers vary in weight from 1250 to 1500 pounds, and serve a wide range of uses in the numerous lines of delivery service. 4 eae bt Pa! Fia. 41.—A pair of chunks to truck, showing the extremely drafty form, bone, and rugged- ness typical of this class. Feeders are thin horses of any of the above classes, the de- mand for which comes from those who make horses the medium through which to markct their corn. A feeder, to be profitable, must have class and be deficient only in condition. Heavy Harness Horse Division.—There is a suggestivencss about the term heavy harness which is not generally compre- hended. Harness horses are of two classes, heavy and light, the adjective in cach case qualifving the harness and not the horse. The heavy harness horse is one of fashion, of English creation, and it is to English sentiment that he owes his name. He con- forms to the Englishman’s idea that “to drive handsomely one THE CLASSES OF HORS D3 must drive heavily.” Their vehicles are designed on lines of dignity and elegance, which make them in some cases almost ponderous. The harness, by which the horses are put to them, is of necessity correspondingly heavy, characterized by weight of leather, Kay collars, metal mountings, Liverpool, elbow, or Buxton bits, with side or no bearing reins. The horse, to complete this equipage and be capable of both acting and looking the part, must be close and full made with extreme finish, style, and action—the show type. Fic. 42.—An expresser for light delivery service, showing the combination of draft horse; size and substance with coach horse form and finish. Coach horses are hig, substantial, heavy harness horses with enough size and substance to pull a brougham or coach, yet sufh- ciently refined to make a good appearance (Fig. 43). They must have an elegant, bold, commanding way of going about an eight- mile pace, with manners that will insure safe conveyance through city trafic, or standing in pose for long periods of waiting. Coach horses are put to the brougham, Jandau, or, as wheelers especially, to the brake, drag, or coach, hitched singly, in pairs, or fours. Park horses, as the name implies, are for park driving, not 54 TYPES AND BREEDS for town work. They are the show harness horses, only suffi- ciently close and full made to have that rotundity of form which looks best in heavy leather, possessing a degree of refinement equaled only by the park saddle horse and the most extravagant flexion of knees and hocks. They should be capable of a pace of twelve miles an hour, which greatly enhances the flashiness and brilliancy of their action. Park horses are driven singly, in pairs, and fours, put to the gig, the Sayler wagon, an Amer- ican four-wheeler which has taken the place of the gig quite generally (Fig. 44); demi mail, Stanhope, spider or George IV phaeton (the latter for ladies’ use), park drag or victoria. Fra. 43.—A class of coach horses to brougham and victorias. Pair on the right to brougham show the size and substance which distinguish the coach horse from the park horse. Usually owners drive in all but the last instance. Park horses are classified by height, ranging from the pony limit of 14-2 to 15-8 hands. Runabout horses are defined by the name under which they are classed, that is, handy little harness horses with which to get about (Fig. 45). They are small, not over 15-1 as a rule, in order to have the requisite handiness and combine some of the step of the road horse with some of the shape and action of the park horse, although extreme action is not typical of this class. Manners must be of the best to insure them standing without hitching, backing out of tight places, and going anywhere. Run- about horses are put to the light four-wheel wagon designated by the same name. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 55 LE Fig. 44.—A park mare to Sayler wagon, representing the extreme refinement and brilliant action which distinguish the park horse from all other harness horses. Fia. 45.—A runabout horse, a handy, shapely, well-mannered little horse, with a fair degree of both pace and action. Cobs are of a type readily distinguished from any of the other classes in the heavy harness division, although the term cob is loosely used in referring to any docked horse, whether of 56 TYPES AND BREEDS cobby build or not. The typical cob does not stand over 15.1, is low set, extremely close and full made, has unusual bone and muscular development, and a short but trappy way of going (Fig. 46). He may be briefly described as a big little horse, of a rugged though not coarse appearance. Cobs are used to both ride and drive and are remarkable weight carriers. Light Harness Horse Division.—Light harness horses are as distinctly American in their origin as the heavy harness are English, and it is interesting to note the reciprocal favor which each is receiving in the other country. Fic. 46.—A cob to runabout, a big, little horse of extremely compact and rotund form. Since maximum speed requires minimum draft, American road wagons are built of such material and in such fashion as to impose upon the horse the least weight that is consistent with the safe and comfortable conveyance of one or two people. They are, therefore, in striking contrast to the English carriages and require harness correspondingly light. The light harness horse follows the speed type but differs from the running race horse in being somewhat lower in the fore- hand, longer and more sloping in the croup, longer from the hip-joint to the hock, with the hocks set further back and the THE CLASSES OF HORSES 57 i below the hock directed more downward and forward (Fig. 7). True pacers, as a rule, are longer in legs, lower in the fore- hand, with longer, steeper croups and more bent hocks than the trotter. The size of the light harness horse is too variable to be defined by any but the widest limits. If horses of this type are of good size, well made, stylish, straight gaited, even though not possessed of extreme specd, and have good manners, they are classed as gcntlemen’s road horses (Fig. 48). On the other hand, extremely fast horses, either at trot or pace, whether they have anything else to recommend them or not, are classed as speed horses (Fig. 49). Road horses are hitched singly or in pairs, while speed horses are seldom used to pole. The road wagon is the typical roadster hitch, while speed horses are hooked to bike sulkies, or speed wagons, the lightest type of vehicle built to meet the amateur requirements, which call for a four-wheeled wagon. Speed horses are classified according to their record performances, Saddle Horse Division—The saddle horse was primarily a utility horse, as a matter of necessity, in pioneer times prior to the construction of roads and vehicles, but he has become in addition a most popular "S477 The bent source of pleasure, with circumstances attending his use so diversified as to call for a variety of types. Some horses are ridden for the ease with which they carry one, while others are used for the exercise and liver stimulation which they afford. Then, again, some are ridden in a dignified manner in the parks and on the boulevards, while others are ridden “rough” in the field and cross country. The distinction be- tween the first two, in this country, is very largely one of school- ing and trimming, although the English type of walk-trot-eanter saddle horse is quite distinctive in breeding and general make-up. The race horse is the truest exponent of the speed type, but is used essentially as a saddle horse, a galloper, and is therefore 58 TYPES AND BREEDS Ml: Fic. 48.—A gentleman's road mare. Although of speed form, she is of good size, symmetri- cal shape, faultless conformation, and shows great refinement, style, and intelligence. Fic. 49.—A trotter to sulky, adhering strictly to the speed type yet possessing more size and substance and better conformation than is common in horses of this class. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 59 classed in the saddle division. Runners are distinguished from trotters and pacers by greater development of the forehand, by a shorter back, more level croup, straighter hind legs (Fig. 50), with less proportionate length from hip-joint to hock and more from hock to the ground. Their way of going is also distinctive ; they have a wonderful reach and length of jump at the run, and gallop beautifully, but have a low, pointing stride at the trot (Fig. 51). They race on the flat, or over the steeple chase course of jumps, according to their own natural aptitude and the schooling which they have received. Running race horses are handicapped by the weight required to be carried, an impost of only an ounce making a considerable difference in a horse’s finish. Gaited saddle horses are the distinctly American saddle horses (Fig. 52), althongh ambling saddle horses were at one time used in England, and at present the gaited horse is apparently losing favor in some important parts of this country to the walk-trot horse of English idea. Gaited horses are required to go at least five gaits: the walk, either the run- ning walk, fox trot, or slow pace; the trot; rack; and canter; all described under gaits. They carry full mane and tail and are the ideal of the Southern and Western saddle horse contingent. Walk-trot-canter saddle horses do just ™% 50.jThe straight what is enumerated in the name, are usually docked and their manes pulled (Fig. 53). Many of our best walk-trot-canter saddle horses are converted gaited horses, show- ing that there is no distinction in type except in their per- formance. The collected, springy, weight-carrying trot of the saddle horse should be distinguished from the extended, fast trot of the speed horse on the one hand, and the high acting, sometimes pounding, trot of the heavy harness horses on the other, Walk-trot-canter horses are referred to as hacks, and a dis- tinction is made between park and road hacks. The former have 60 TYPES AND BREEDS the finish and style characteristic of all park horses, and are usually saddle bred, while road hacks are of a somewhat plainer but more serviceable stamp, capable of taking a run cross country in connection with a road ride, if desired. There is also a tendency to differentiate between the Saddle bred walk-trot-canter saddle horse and the one of Thoroughbred breeding and type. The former is characterized by high ear- = tb Fia. 51.—A steeple chaser, showing the speed type and saddle form of the running race horse. riage of head and tail, alleged to resemble that of a peacock, more knee and hock action and usually less substance—the latter by a more exclusively saddle form perhaps, but too often an erratic disposition and a low going trot, that are not conducive to either a safe or satisfactory ride (Fig. 54). Some most ac- ceptable representatives of the latter type have been brought out, however. Saddle horses are classified on the basis of height and the weight to which they are up. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 61 Hunters are ridden to fox hounds, cross country, and, as a rule, with considerable weight up. In order to qualify they must, in addition to being able to carry weight, stay for long, hard runs, jump safely, and preferably in their stride, all common cbstacles in the field, such as fences, walls, and ditches, and gallop fast enough to keep pace with the pack. They must also Tig. 52.—A gaited saddle stallion; one of the best representatives of this class, which is the most popular of any in the South and West but has met only limited favor in the East. have good heads in order not to become hot in company and run away through fences or into quarry holes. Tn order to meet these requirements, a horse must have all the features of the weight carrier conspicuous in his make-up, especially strong, well-developed shoulders and withers, mus- cular quarters, and ample bone (Fig. 55). Quality is sacrificed to substance, but a hunter must show breeding and not appear 62 TYPES AND BREEDS cold. He is not good looking in the same sense as the park horse, but has, nevertheless, a most impressive appearance, as a horse of great resourcefulness and serviceability. Size is being more a more insistently demanded by buyers and users of a ae es ee ees horse, Spore the mold of form, the extreme refinement of head and nec e peacocky carriage, the style and intelligence that are represent: in highest degree ‘of the American idea of a saddle horse of this class. e sane hunters, and for apparently good reasons. In the first place, a five-foot jump is four inches lower for a 16-hand horse than for one of 15 hands height. Many hunting folk are in the sport to keep down their weight, so that it takes a horse of some size to be up to the weight at which they ride. Finally, the big THE CLASSES OF HORSES 63 —A light-weight hunter having strong, well-developed, sloping shoulders, high Sts al back: muscular quarters, ample bone, and sufficient breeding to insure the requisite courage, stamina, and pace. 64 TYPES AND BREEDS horse is claimed to give a safer ride on account of the momentum of his greater weight, insuring him a better chance of breaking through a fence in case of a blunder, instead of being tripped by it and coming down. Ilunters are classified according to the weight they are capable of carrying, as light weight, up to from 135 to 165 pounds; middle weight, 165 to 190 pounds; and heavy weight, 190 pounds or over. A heavy weight hunter is shown as “a Fie. 56.—Heatherbloom, the world's record high jumper. weight carrier” (Fig. 36). They are also classified as green or qualified, the latter having hunted one season with a pack recognized by the United TIunts and Steeple Chase Association. All hunters are jumpers in some degree, but a high jumper is by no means necessarily a hunter. A jumper may clear six feet at one time, and at another blunder over an ordinary post. and rail fence, while to be a safe cross country horse he must be a consistent jumper of from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet only. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 65 The record high jump of Heatherbloom, over 7 feet 9 inches, in 1908 still stands (Fig. 56). The use of hunters is not restricted to the hunting field, although the number demanded for that purpose alone is rapidly increasing with the extension of the sport. Horses of this type are preferred by many who never ride to hounds, because they are most useful horses to ride and even to drive, The Combination Horse.—It is customary for all saddle horses, even some hunters, to go well in harness, but their forte, a Fre. 57.—A combination horse, departing somewhat from the saddle type in being of a more “‘harnessy’’ form. nevertheless, is under “ pigskin.” There is, however, a combi- nation class of horses from which an equally good performance, either to ride or to drive, is expected (Fig. 57). Combination horses, although shown customarily in harness first, are more especially saddle horses that drive well than they are harness horses capable of giving a good ride. They are distinguished from saddle horses by being some- what more of a harness form and showing more speed at the trot, with good manners when driven, 5 66 TYPES AND BREEDS A combination horse may go either the three or the five gaits under saddle, but those which walk, trot, and canter are usually driven in heavy harness, while those which are gaited are driven in light harness. The “ fine harness” horse of the Southern shows, distinct from the “light harness” horse in that he has no speed but is a “model” horse capable of going ten or twelve miles an hour in the best form, is in reality a gaited saddle horse in harness (Fig. 58). é Fic, 58.—The fine harness horse of the South, a model of conformation, quality, style, and way of going. The Pony Division.—Generally speaking, any horse under 14-2 is a pony, but diminutive stature alone does not constitute pony type. There is a distinct pony build or form, characterized as an exaggeration, in miniature, of either the draft or heavy harness types. An undersized light harness horse, for instance, would be a runt, not a pony. Ponies permit of classification into three groups: (1) Those conforming to the Shetland standard of a 46-inch limit, (2) those 11-2 to 14-2 hands, and (3) the polo pony. af THE CLASSES OF HORSES 67 Fic. 60.—A twelve-hand ride and drive pony of exceptional merit. Fic. 62.—A polo pony, fast, game, handy, intelligent, and up to weight. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 69 Ponies not exceeding 46 inches should be of a miniature draft horse pattern, although a preference has been shown in American show rings for one with somewhat more refinement and action. These ponies are used almost exclusively for small children to ride and drive (Fig. 59). Ponies 11-2 and Not Exceeding 14-2.—These ponies are pocket editions of the coach horse, as it were, or little cobs, well adapted to the use of youths and misses who may have graduated from the Shetlands (Figs. 60 and 61). Polo ponies are race horses or hunters on a small scale, used chiefly to play the game (Fig. 62), although making very accept- able little hacks in case they are mallet shy, or for any other reason are kept out of the game. Cutting cattle and playing polo are very similar so far as the requirements of the horse are concerned, and the type is practically identical, but as the cow pony seldom gets to market, class preference is given to the polo pony. REVIEW . What is the distinction between a type and a class? . Name the hard, solid colors and give examples of the influence of color on the market value of horses. Name the market classes of horses. . Deseribe a typical expresser and give reasons for each feature. What is a cob? What is required of a roadster besides speed? . Compare the performance of the park horse with that of a road horse. 8, What are the chief distinctions between the gaited and the walk- trot-canter saddle horse? 9. How does a hunter differ in appearance from a park saddle horse ? 10. Describe what should distinguish a pony beside diminutive stature. Doe SAU Sr WE Se CHAPTER VI THE BREEDS OF HORSES A BREED is a group of individuals possessing distinctive char- acteristics not common to other members of the same species, these characteristics being sufficiently well fixed to be uniformly transmitted. It is these distinctive features which give to each -breed its greater or less economic importance. Curiously enough, there is scarcely a breed which does not possess at least one dis- tinctive characteristic, in respect to which it surpasses all other breeds. . In arriving at a fair conclusion of what constitutes “ the best breed,” it is necessary that conditions to be met and char- acters required be specified, as the same breed may not be “ best ” for each specific case. Too much importance should not be attached to the partisan favor in which different breeds are held. The average buyer of market horses has very little consideration for the particular breeds which may be represented in his pur- chases, yet striking uniformity of breed character among the lot which he selects may be manifested. This is due to the fact that the characters represented in the buyer’s standard or ideal happen to be more typical of one breed than another, It has been noted recently that the accepted types of the draft, breeds, for instance, are approaching more closely a common standard, as shown by show ring awards, but the desir- ability of such being the case is questionable. It is not well to lay too much stress on the minor features of breed type which have no utility value, but inasmuch as each breed has distinctive characteristics, rendering representatives of that breed espe- cially well adapted to particular requirements, their distinctive- ness should be retained. For instance, the Percheron breed has, from its inception, been characterized by features which could not be duplicated in any of the other breeds, and these features should not be sacrificed in favor of others which are character- istic of other breeds, 70 THE BREEDS OF HORSES 71 The inherent qualities of a breed have been put there by one or more of three general agencies, therefore the possibilities in what can be gotten out of a breed are as definitely determined as is the character of a horse’s get fixed by his ancestry. The three factors determining breed characteristics and, through them, the economic importance of the different breeds are: 1. The origin in blood which constitutes the hereditary force with which the breed is endowed. 2. The environment by which these blood lines have been molded. 3. The purpose for which they have been bred, constituting the ideal to which the breeders have selected. The study of the breeds should, therefore, resolve itself into a consideration of the following essentials : 1. Origin: (a) In blood. (b) Geographical. 2. Development: (a) Men. (b) Methods. 3. History: (a4) Men. (b) Events. (¢) Dates. 4, Characteristics: Breed types. 5. Economic importance. Foundation Stock.—The origin in blood is of greatest his- torical interest, if not the most important, of the factors which determine breed characters. The modern breeds have been more or less composite in their origin, involving, to a greater or less degree, those breeds or stocks which had already attained distinc- tion on account of merit. In some cases, the combination of blood lines was intentional, but it was more often incidental or even accidental. These historic horses can in turn be traced to a more limited group of common ancestors and so on until the blood lines focus in but a very few basic stocks. Darwin believed all races had descended from one common ancestry, and attributed the extreme differences noted between modern breeds to environment. The more commonly accepted theory has been that all modern breeds trace their origin in blood directly or indirectly to one or all of three primordial stocks, the Wild Black Horse of Flanders, the Oriental Horse, and the native pony stock indigenous to Northern Europe and Asia. The latter has played a more or iess important part. The Flemish horse was native to what. is now a part of 72 TYPES AND BREEDS France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany. The country was generally low lying, and therefore conducive to a coarse, rank, luxuriant growth of vegetation. The horse developed thereon partook of the same general nature. The Flanders horse was characterized by: First, his huge size and bulk; second, his gen- eral coarseness; third, his uniformly black color; fourth, his profusion of hair, showing in heavy mane, tail, feather and even a moustache, and tufts on the anterior face of knees and points of hocks; fifth, his sluggish, lymphatic temperament. The Oriental horse, native to the desert regions of Northern Africa and later found in Arabia and Asia Minor, was charac- terized by extreme refinement, beauty of form, grace of move- ment, speed, stamina, spirit, intelligence, and an active, nervous temperament. The so-called Oriental Group was said to consist of the Barb, Turk, and Arabian. Recent researches of Professor J. Cossar Ewart, of the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, and Professor William Ridgeway, of Cambridge, have shown that the fountain source was not reached in either the Flemish horse or the so-called Oriental Group. Ridgeway concludes that all horses can be traced to one or more of three original stocks: the Libyan horse of Northern Africa, of which pure Barbs and Arabs are typical; the common horse of Upper Asia and Europe, represented by the Mongolian pony, and the Celtic pony of Northwestern Europe. Origin. of Thoroughbred—He traces the Thoroughbred, through his alleged Barb, Turk, and Arab ancestors, to Libya, in Northern Africa, where he establishes a definite origin, about 1000 z.c., in a horse characterized by a bay color, sometimes accompanied by body, leg and cven head stripes, a dark colored skin, white markings, as a star, a blaze, and pasterns or “ brace- lets,” a short, fine head, well-carried ears, a peculiar depression in the skull just in front of the orbits, a light, fine, high-set tail, the total absence of chestnuts on the hind legs, and either ab- sence or small size of the ergots at the fetlocks, an unusually long hoof, extremely docile disposition, a refined, expressive voice, and great speed. Origin of Other Horses.—Ridgeway also establishes a small, coarse, thick set, short necked, plain headed, big boned, light THE BREEDS OF HORSES 73 colored, slow but hardy pony of Upper Asia and Europe as the original progenitor of all other horses, except those which have resulted from a blending of these two, and the Black Flanders horse is shown to have such an origin. In 1902 Professor Ewart described what he called a “ Celtic pony,” a true pony and not a dwarf horse. It has a small head, with prominent eyes, small ears, a heavy mane, slender legs, small joints, well-formed, small hoofs, and “ tail lock.” ARABIAN No race of horses has enjoyed a more sentimental popularity nor had its history more obscured by myth and tradition than the Arab (Fig. 63). It is only comparatively recently that any very definite information concerning them has been available. Arabs have been considered in a general way as the original source of the best blood, but this is not the case. There is every reason to believe that horses similar to the best Arabs were in Northern Africa more than one thousand years before horses were known in Arabia. Their introduction was apparently from Africa and took place some time between the first and the sixth century. , The number of good horses in Arabia is much smaller than is generally supposed, and these are chiefly in the hands of cer- tain families or tribes in the interior desert. The rank and file of the horses in the hands of the common people are either the common bred Kurdish ponies, descendants of the criginal Euro- pean stock or the produce of these by true Arab sires. The Arab proper, a descendant and not an antecedent of the original Libyan horse, is known as the Kohl breed, so named on account of the peculiar blue black or antimony tint which characterizes the skin of the body. The breed is composed of five strains which, in turn, are believed by the Bedouins to be derived from a single mare, named Keheilet Ajuz, and the most prominent strain is named Keheilan, after her. They are mostly bays, the fastest of any, and resemble most closely the English Thoroughbred. The Darley Arabian, the greatest foundation sire of the Thoroughbred, was of this strain. The others are 74 TYPES AND BREEDS the Seglawi, “ powerful and fast, but not particularly hand- some”; the cLbéyan, generally the handsomest but sinall, and resembles the Thoroughbred least ; the Lfamdaini; and the fHad- ban. Collectively, the strains are termed Ld Khamseh and are extensively interbred. There is much confusion in this country concerning the ehar- acteristic color of the Arab. Almost any odd color or marking, such as pure white, piebald, skewbald, leprous or tiger spots, are attributed to Arab blood. On the other hand, such significance of any of these colors has been absolutely denied. As a matter of fact, bay with white markings is most characteristic, and, in the Fic. 63.—Arabian stallion, showing the general refinement characteristic of this breed. light of recent knowledge concerning the origin of the Arab in the Libyan horse, is most desirable. Grays are also common, chestuuts and browns are not uncommon, while blacks and even pure whites are found. It is true, too, that. the whites usually show the Kohl spots about the eyes, muzzle, and elsewhere. While the odd colors referred to as suggesting Arab breeding are never found among pure bred Arabs, they are noted among their half breeds, the piebalds and skewbalds, especially, occurring with a considerable degree of uniformity when the common stock of Upper Asia and Europe is crossed with Arab sires. This is shown in the piebald ponies of Thibet, Stunatra, Ieeland, the THE BREEDS OF HORSES 75 Faroe Islands, Java, India, and in our original American range ponies, which were not many generations removed from an Oriental foundation. The line back is another feature which is marked in the various shades of dun, cream, and mouse color of half-bred Arabians. THE BARB There are many horses in the Barbary States of Northern Africa which are not true Barbs. Pure bred Barbs are found only in Morocco, where there has been no introduction of foreign blood, as has been done in the other States, where horses from France and England, in Algiers especially, Arabs from Syria, and the common-bred Italian horses have been crossed with the native Barbs. It is, of course, assumed that the pure Barb is the direct descendant of the original Libyan horse. Description—The Barb is described as being from 14 to 15 hands in height, body comparatively short in proportion to length of legs, his whole form being conducive to speed. The head is well proportioned, with a fine ear, broad, full forehead, large, clear, prominent eye flashing fire and yet expressing in- telligence, a deep jowl with open angles, a trim muzzle, and a nostril that is thin at the margin, capable of great dilation and continually in play. The head is well set on a long, high crested neck, well cut out in the throttle, and giving the head a lofty carriage; shoulders well laid in and sloping, well set up at the withers; a round, deep rib; a somewhat drooping croup but high-set tail; straight hind legs, long pasterns, and rather deep, narrow feet of the most superior texture of horn. The charac- teristic bay with white markings indicates the pure Barb, an out-cross introducing browns, chestnuts, blacks, and grays. THE TURK The significance of this name applies, generally, to the horses of Turkey in Asia, there being but few horses in European Turkey. Originally, these consisted of Turcoman and Kurdis- tan ponies, representatives of the common Northern Asia and European stock. These were later, however, extensively inter- bred and improved with Arabs, so that it is probable that the 76 TYPES AND BREEDS Turks referred to in Thoroughbred history were of this breeding. The influence of the so-called Oriental blood has been well extended. The Darley Arabian, Byerly Turk, and Godolphin Barb, with the Barb or Royal mares, are considered the real foundation of the Thoroughbred. The Percheron owes much to the Oriental sires with which the native French mares were mated. Gallipoli and Godolphin were two of the most important of these sires. The Norfolk trotter was the result of mating Barbs with the black trotters of Friesland. The Cleveland Bay represents a Barl-Yorkshire cart horse cross, Bars I, progenitor of the Russian Orloff, was three genera- tions removed from Smetanxa, a gray Arabian imported into Russia. The Prussian Trakehner is derived from an admixture of Oriental and Thoroughbred blood with the native stock of the country. In America, imported Grand Bashaw, a Barb brought from Tripoli, founded through his immediate descendants the Clay, Patchen and Bashaw families. Leopard, an Arab, and Linden Tree, a Barb, presented to General Grant, were used by Ran- dolph TIuntingdon in his creation of the Clay Arabian. Zil- eaadi, an Arab from Turkey, sired the dam of Golddust, the founder of the Morgan family of that name. THE THOROUGHBRED Thoroughbred is the proper name of the English running race horse breed, and any other application of the term to horses is incorrect. It should not be confused nor used synonymously with “ pure bred,” the adjective employed to denote the absence of any alien blood in the ancestry. It is not probable, in view of what we know of the history of horses in Great Britain, that the origin of the Thoroughbred was of Oriental blood exclusively, although their lineage has been carefully guarded for so long that all trace of the common stock of the country, if any ever existed, has long since been bred out, and they are therefore truly “ thoroughbred.” THE BREEDS OF HORSES 77 The principal foundation to which the Thoroughbred traces consists of the Barb or Royal mares, imported by Charles Second (1660 to 1685), and the Darley Arabian, a pure Anazah, im- ported in 1706; the Byerly Turk, imported in 1689; and Godol- phin Barb, brought from Paris in 1724. The latter had been working in a water cart, a discard, no doubt, from the stable of some member of the nobility to whom he had been presented, as was commonly the custom, There are prominent families in the Thoroughbred and derived breeds which can be traced direct. to each of these sires. Eclipse, the most conspicuous individual in the history of the English turf; Blaze, the foundation Hackney sire, and Messen- ger, the progenitor of the American Standardbred, were respec- tively four, three and six generations removed from the Darley Arabian. King Herod, a great race horse, was a line descendant. of the Byerly Turk, and Matchem, a noted race horse and sire, was a grandson of Godolphin Barb. It has been stated that the American bred Thoroughbreds are, as a rule, closer to their Oriental ancestry than the English Thoroughbreds and that they follow their type more closely. Early Racing.— While the real era of Thoroughbred breed- ing is usually considered to have begun with the importation by Charles Second, horse racing of a primitive character was re- ported in the latter half of the twelfth century. The first real race was run in 1377, between Richard Second and the Earl of Arundel, Henry the Eighth was the first king to maintain a racing stable of his own, and the English sovereigns since that time have been enthusiastic patrons of the turf. Through these centuries of breeding the most iigid selection has been practised, turf performance alone being the standard. Customs of conducting races and the types of horses that could win have undergone considerable modification within recent generations, however. Prior to 1880 it was customary to run four mile heats and carry top weight, while the present system is to sprint short distances under close handicaps, starting as two-year-olds and campaigning for entire seasons, Thoroughbreds were introduced into this country by the English colonists in Old Dominion, and the Thoroughbred sen- 78 TYPES AND BREEDS timent is still strongest there, especially in Virginia. The first Thoroughbred of note to be imported was Diomed, the winner of the first English Derby, the classic race in England. He was brought over in 1797. Ina straight line of descent from Diomed came Sir Archy, the first truly American Thoroughbred ; Boston his grandson, conceded to have been the greatest American race horse, and his son Lexington, a scarcely less remarkable per- former than Boston and a most influential sire, figuring in American Standardbred and Saddle families as well as in the Thoroughbred. es cobs Fria. 64.—A Thoroughbred stallion, the sire of race horses. Deseription.—The Thoroughbred represents the speed type in the extreme, and, having been the first breed improved, their distinctive characters are well marked (Fig. 64). Most char- acteristic are the extreme refinement; the small, well propor- tioned head; clearly defined features; straight face line; neat ear; fine throttle; sloping shoulders; well-made withers, mus- cular thighs and quarters; straight hind legs; usually slightly bucked knees; oblique pasterns; and a rather small foot of dense horn. Their way of going is especially characterized by being low and pointing at the walk and trot, but perfection at the THE BREEDS OF HORSES 79 gallop or run. Their temperament is naturally racy, of such a highly nervous organization as to cause them to become “ hot ” and erratic. Bay and chestnut with more or less white markings are the common colors, although black, gray, and white were frequent among the early Thoroughbreds. Typical Thoroughbred weight is about 1000 pounds, and they stand from 15 to 16 hands high. Sir Walter Gilbey estimates an average increase of 1 hand 214 inches from 1700 to 1900, 15-214 being the average at the present time. Relation to Other Breeds.—This breed is of the greatest his- toric importance. It was the first breed improved, and barring the Oriental from which it is derived it has the purest blood lines. For it the first studbook was established. Having been the first breed improved, the blood of the Thoroughbred has been most freely used in the improvement of other breeds and types. In all but the draft breeds the influence of the Thoroughbred may be demonstrated. In the heavy harness division the foundation blood lines are significant. The Hackney descends from Shales, the son of Blaze, a Thoroughbred, out of a common mare of Norfolk. The French deme sang refers to the cross of the Thoroughbred on French mares. Thoroughbreds are used ex- tensively in German studs, the Prussian Trakehner being pro- duced from both Thoroughbred and Oriental sires. The York- shire Coach horse represents a Thoroughbred—Cleveland Bay cross. The three most important foundation sires of American horses, Messenger, Justin Morgan, and Denmark, are credited with Thoroughbred pedigrees. In addition, the majority of hunters and polo ponies, as well as a great many saddle horses, are clean or part bred. The greatest value of the Thoroughbred as foundation stock has no doubt passed, as the breeds which have been evolved from a Thoroughbred foundation have been improved along their respective lines to a point where an out-cross to the Thorough- bred might be a step backward, although Thoroughbred ancestors are within a very few generations of some of the most noted and successful Hackney, French Coach, Saddle and even Standard- bred sires. 80 TYPES AND BREEDS There is a strong prejudice against the Thoroughbred in some parts of this country, where he is looked upon merely as a racing machine. But any one familiar with the stamp of horse bred in Virginia, for instance, will recognize in the blood of the Thoroughbred a breeding leaven, which judiciously and intelli- gently used produces most desirable results. When breeders of the Thoroughbred practice selection to saddle rather than to race horse requirements, with good dispo- Fic. 65.—A Thoroughbred stallion suitable to get saddle horses and hunters. sition, size, shape, and substance as the features sought, this breed will not be so exclusively dependent on the status of the racing game for patronage. _ “ Blood” is a term frequently used to indicate Thoroughbred breeding; “ of the blood,” “blood like,” and “ blood horse,” all refer to the Thoroughbred. This being the blood and this breed being altogether of it, horses carrying but a fractional percentage are designated as part bred and the number of parts are specified as two, or half bred, in the case of the get of a Thoroughbred THE BREEDS OF HORSES 81 sire, out of a common bred mare; three parts or three-quarters being used to designate the get of a Thoroughbred out of a half bred mare. seven-eighths. Record of Best Performances on the Running Turf. The blood is accounted for in this way even up to DISTANCE. Name, Age, and Weight. Place. Date. Time 4 mile..... Bob Wade, 4............0000- Butte, Mont........ Aug. 20, 1890.| 0.2114 84 mile..... Atoka, ca 103 lbs.......... Butte, Mont........ Sept. 7, 1906.| 0.33% 314 furlongs. | Colisse, 2, 123 lbs............ Juarez, Mexico...... Jan. 17, 1911.] 0.39 2-5 4 mile..... Geraldine, 4, 122 1S. occ eons Morris Park (st. c.)..} Aug. 30, 1889.| 0.46 41 furl Preceptor, 2, 112 lbs........ Belmont Park (st. ¢.).| May 19, 1908.| 0.51 2 turiongs. Joe Morris, 2, 103 Ibs....... Louisville (C.Downs).| May 8, 1909.| 0.52 4-5 56 mile..... Maid Marian, 4, 111 lbs...... | Morris Park (st. c.)..| Oct. 9, 1894. | 0.5634 514 furl { Plater, 2, 107 lbs........... Morris Park (st. c.). .| Oct. 21, 1902.| 1.0214 % furlongs. Fern L., 3, 92 Ibs. ......... Seattle, Wash’n. Aug. 8, 1908.] 1.05 *Puturity c..| Kingston, aged, 139 lbs....... Sheeps’d B.(C.I. J. Cc. ) June 22, 1891.] 1.08 6 furl Artful, 2, 130 Ibs........... Morris Park (st. c.)..| Oct. 15, 1904.| 1.08 urlongs..-| ) Prince Ahmed, 5, 117 lbs.... | Empire City, N. Y...| July 29, 1909. 1.11 Priscillian, 5, 113 lbs Hamilton, Ont...... June 19, 1911.| 1.11 61% furlongs. Lady Vera, 2, 90 lbs . | Belm’t P., L. I. (st. eo Oct. 19, 1906.| 1.16 3-5 Brookdale Nymph, 4, 124 Ibs. Belmont Park, L. I...| Oct. 14, 1907.] 1.17 2-5 1 { Roseben, 5, 126 Ibs . | Belmont Park, L. I...}] Oct. 16, 1906. | 1.22 7 furlongs. --| ] Colin, 2,132 Ibs....... 2... Belm’t P., L. I. (st. c.)| Oct. 16, 1907. | 1.23 714 furlongs. Restigouche, 3, 107 Ibs........ Belmont Park, L. I...| May 29, 1908.) 1.31 1-5 Salvator, 4, 110 Ibst........ Monmouth P. (st. c.)} Aug. 23° 1890.) 1.351% Kildeer, 4, 91 lbs........... Monmouth P. (st. ¢.)| Aug. 13, 1892.| 1.371% iI Kiamesha, 3, 104 Ibs....... Belmont Park, L. I...| Oct. 9, 1905. | 1.37 2-5 1mile...... Dick Welles, 3, 112 lbs...... Chicago (Harlem)....) Aug. 14, 1903. | 1.37 2-5 Fern L., 3, 80 0 ibs. gern dt Sh din Seattle, Wash’n...... Aug. 15, 1908. | 1.37 2-5 Bourbon Beau, 3, 112 Ibs.. Juarez, Mexico...... Feb. 14, 1912.| 1.37 2-5 f Macy, 4, 107 TS cece each soe Chicago (Wash. Park)| July 2, 1898.] 1.40 1m. 20 yds. Maid ‘Marian, 4, 106 lbs. ... | Chicago (Wash. Park)| July 19, 1903.] 1.40 \ Six Shooter, 5, lillbs....... Chicago (Wash. Park)| June 27, 1903.) 1.40 Preen, 4, 104 WS occ cet peas Buffalo, N. Y........- June 16, 1906. | 1.42 1m. 40 yds. { Main Chance, 3, 114 Ibs. ...| Buffalo, N. Y....... June 29, 1907. | 1.42 1m. 50 yds.| Vox Populi, 4, 104 Ibs........ Seattle, Wash'n...... Sept. 5, 1908.] 1.40 4-5 1m. 70 yds.| Bubbling Water, 4, 121 lbs. . Oakland, Cal........ Nov. 30, 1910. | 1.42 1-5 1m. “100 sas. Rapid Water, 6, 114 Ibs....... | Oakland (Cal. J. C.)..| Nov.30, 1907.| 1.44 1-5 Royal Tourist, 3, 104 Ibs.. Oakland, Cal........ Nov.11, 1908 | 1.44 1-5 1 1-16 miles. | Green Seal, 4, 109 lbs. . Seattle, Wash’n...... Sept. 12, 1908. | 1.44 2-5 Gretna Green, 5, 100 Ibs. .. | Fort Erie, Ont.......| Aug. 28, 1909.| 1.43 3-5 1 ‘i Charles Edward, 3, 126 lbs. . | Brighton Beach. July 16, 1907.| 1.50 3-5 1% miles. Green Seal, 4, 107 lbs ss ipa thas Seattle, Wash’n. . Aug. 20, 1908. | 1.50 3-5 1 3-16 miles.) Scintillant IL, 6, 109 Ibs...... Chicago (Harlem) Sept. 1, 1902.| 1.57 2-5 1 3 Broomstick, 3, 104 Ibs...... Brighton Beach...... July 9, 1904, | 2.02 4-5 1% miles.) ) Olambala, 4, 122 Ibs........ Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.)| July 2, 1910.| 2.02 4-5 1 5-16 miles. ; Ballot, 4, 126 lbs............. Sheepsh’d Bay (C.I.)j July 1, 1908. | 2.09 3-5 1m. 500 yds.| Swift Wing, 5, 100 Ibs........ Latonia, Ky......... July 8, 1905.} 2.10 1-5 1% miles.| Irish Lad, 4, 125 Ibs.......... Sheepsh’d Bay (C.I.)| June 25, 1904. | 2.17 3-5 1's miles.| Goodrich, 3, 102 Ibs.......... Chicago (Wash. Park) | July 16, 1898. | 2.3017 154 miles.| Fitz Herbert, 3, 122 Ibs....... Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.)| July 13, 1909. | 2.45 134 miles.}| Major Daingerfield, 4,1201bs..| Morris Park, N. Y...| Oct. 3, 1903.) 2.57 1% ~~ miles.) Orcagna, 4, 96 Ibs............ Oakland, Cal........ Mar. 2, 1909. | 3.17 3-5 2 miles.| Everett, 4, 107 ie neses haere ee Pimlico, Md.. Oct. 31, 1910. | 3.25 3-5 2 1-16 miles.| War Whoop, 4, 96 lbs........ Ontario (Tor’ to J.C. ). Sept 23, 1905.) 3.3414 2% miles.| Joe Murphy, 4, 99 Ibs........ Chicago (Harlem).. Aug. 30, 1894. | 3.42 24 miles.| Ethelbert, 4, 124 WDSc Samad Brighton Beach, N Aug. 4, 1900.] 3.49 1-5 216 miles.| Kyrat, 3, 88 Ibs... 0. ce eee eee Newport, Ky........ Nov. 18, 1899.| 4.2414 254 miies.| Ten Broeck, 4, 104 lbs........ Lexington, Ky....... Sept. 16, 1876.| 4.58 M% 234 miles.] Hubbard, 4, 107 lbs..... Saratoga, N. Y...... Aug. 9, 1873.| 4.58% 3 miles.| Mamie Algol, 5, 108 Ibs. . . | New Orleans (City P.)| Feb. 16, 1907.| 5.19 2 Lucrezia Borgia, 4, 85 lbs. t.. Oakland (Cal. J. C.)..| May 20, 1897.] 7.11 4 miles.| 1 Messenger Boy, 5, 106 Ibs... | Louisville, Ky....... Oct. 7, 1911.} 7.141-5 #170 feet less than 34 mile. 6 + Races against time. St. c., straight course. 82 TYPES AND BREEDS Heat Races. Dist. Name, Age, and Weight. Place. Date. Time. 14 mile.} Sleepy Dick, aged.......... Kiowa, Kan....... Oct. 19, 1888. |0.2114% -0.221% 8% mile.| Bob Wade, 4.............. Butte, Mont. ......| Aug. 16, 1890. |0.3634 0.3634 Eclipse, Jr.,4............ Dallas, Tex........ Nov. 1, 1890. |0.48-0.48-0.4 144 mile Bogus, aged, 113 lbs...... Helena, Mont...... Aug. 22, 1888.|0.48 -0.48 Bill Howard, 5, 122 Ibs....} Anaconda, Mont. ..| Aug. 17, 1895. |0.4714 —-0.4814 5% mile Kittie Pease, 4, 82 lbs.....| Dallas, Tex........ Nov. 2, 1887.|1.00 -1.00 8 i Fox, 4, 113 Ibs........... San Francisco, Cal. | Oct. 31, 1891. |1.00 3-5-1.01 1-5 3 il Tom Hayes, 4, 107 lbs. ...| Morris Park (st.c.).| June 17, 1892. |1.1014 -1.1234 4 mile.) 4 Linzie S., 5, 118 lbs,......| Louisville......... Sept. 28, 1883. 1.1314 -1.1314 1 mile.| Guido, 4, 117 Ibs........... Chicago (Wash.Pk.)| July 11, 1891. |1.4114 -1.41 1 (3 in 5)| L’Argentine, 5, 115 lbs...... St. Louis.......... June 14, 1879. |1.43-1.44-1.4734 1 1-16 m.| Slipalong, 5,115 lbs.......... Chicago (Wash.Pk.)| Sept. 2, 1885. /1.5114 -1.4814 114 miles.| What-er-Lou, 5,119 lbs...... San Fran. (Ingleside)| Feb. 18, 1889.|1.56 -1.5434 1144 miles.} Glenmore, 5, 114 lbs........ Sheepshead Bay....| Sept.25, 1880.|2.10 -2.14 114 miles.| Patsy Duffy, aged, 115 lbs.. Sacramento, Cal. ..| Sept.17, 1884. |2.4134 -—2.41 2 miles.| Miss Woodford, 4, 10734 Ibs. . Sheepshead Bay... .} Sept. 20, 1884.|3.33 -3.3314 3 miles.| Norfolk, 4, 100 lbs. Sacramento, Cal.. .| Sept. 23, 1865.|5.2714 —5.2914 4 miles. Glenmore, 4, 108 Ibs. Baltimore, Pimlico..| Oct. 25, 1879.|7.3014 -7.31 The English Derby, Epsom Downs—(English Turf.) (Distance, about 1% miles, run since 1788.) YEAR. Owner and Winner. Sire. Time. Second. -Leopold de Rothschild’s St. Amant..... St. Frusquin . | 2.45 4-5 | John O’Gaunt. Lord Rosebery’s Cicero.......... Satire....... 2.39 3-5 | Jardy. Maj. Loeder’s Spearmin Carbine......| 2.36 4-5 | Picton. ... | Richard Croker’s Orby .. Sbisvsctire | ORMEC: oe 0.5230 2.44 Slieve Gallion. 1908... | E. Ginistrelli’s Signorinetta er eres Chaleureux... | 2.39 4-5 | Primer. 1909... | King Edward’s Minoru............... Cyllene...... 2.42 2-5 | Louviers. 1910... | Mr. Fairie’s Lemberg*................ Cyllene...... 2.35 1-5 | Greenback. 1911... ] J. B. Joel’s Sunstar...................] Sunbridge. ... | 2.36 4-5 | Steadfast. 1912... | W. Raphael’s Pagalie..............0... Cyllene...... 2.38 4-5 | Jaegar. On June 28, 1918, Whisk Broom 2d, owned by Harry Payne Whitney, stub heal anew turf record when he won the Subur- ban handicap at a mile and a quarter in two minutes flat, carry- ing the heavy impost of 159 pounds. Te was ridden by Notter. It is a noteworthy fact that the record price for which any horse has ever been sold was paid for a Thoroughbred. A French racing man, Edmund Blane, gave $200,000 for the ten-year-old English Thoroughbred stallion, White Knight. Previous record prices were $196,875 for Flying Fox, $157,500 each for Cyllene and Diamond Jubilee, and $156,250 for Ormonde. Rocksand has recently been exported from this country at a price of $150,000, THE BREEDS OF HORSES 83 CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS Breeds may be classified according to the type to which their representatives conform, as: Draft Breeds.—Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, and Suffolk. Heavy Harness Breeds.—Wackney, Yorkshire Coach, Cleve- land Bay, French Coach, German Coach, and Russian Orloff. Light Harness Breed—Aicrican Standardbred. Saddle Breeds.—Thoroughbred, American Saddle Horse and Arabian. wo le nn SANS Ponies.—Shetland, Welsh, and Iackney. REVIEW . What is a breed? And of what importance are breeds? . What are the three factors that determine breed characteristics ? . What are the essential things to consider in a study of the breeds? . What have been considered as the foundation stocks from which all breeds have had their origin? . What additional light have the investigations of Ewart and Ridge- way thrown on this subject? . What are the most important facts concerning the horses in Arabia? . To what extent may color indicate Arab blood? . Review the important facts in the history of the Thoroughbred. . Diseuss the Thoroughbred in its relation to other breeds. . What are the possibilities of the Thoroughbred at the present time? CHAPTER VII DRAFT BREEDS Tue breeds of draft horses here considered are the Percheron, the Belgian, the Clydesdale, the Shire, and the Suffolk. THE PERCHERON Trance affords an example of the community system of breeding. While the production of the different types of horses is extensively practiced in the country at large, the breeders of different districts are devoting themselves to the production of one type more or less exclusively, with the result that many a horse breeding section is noted for a class of horses distinctive of and bearing the name of that community. Thus, we have the Percheron of LaPerche, the Boulonnaise from that part of the country contiguous to Boulogne, the Nivernais of Niévre, the Ardennaise of Ardennes, and others. In America, by common consideration and studbook regis- tration the Percheron is distinguished from the other French draft breeds collectively. In France, both the Percheron and Boulonnaise are represented by studbook associations. LaPerche is a district comprising about three thousand square miles, situated in the northern or inland part of Normandy. It has a country-wide reputation for its grass land and the horses produced thereon. Flemish blood predominated in what may be regarded as the native stock of France. On this cold blood base, repeated top crosses of Oriental blood were made, the relative proportions of hot and cold blood varying in the case of the different French breeds. The foundation of the Percheron was composed of the Nor- man descendants of the original Flemish stock, mated with Oriental stallions, these crosses being either incidental to cur- rent events or made with a definite purpose in view. They had a most important significance in determining the type of horse 84 DRAFT BREEDS 85 which the Percheron was to be. When the Saracens invaded France in 732 and were defeated by Charles Martel, the Orien- tal horses upon which they were mounted, mostly stallions, fell into the hands of the Franks and were eventually, by this means, distributed throughout the different parts of the country. The successful Crusaders also brought back with them entire horses, as the spoils of war, and here was a direct though unintentional infusion of Oriental blood. . Later when the desirable effect of this Oriental top cross was manifested, there were more or less systematic importations of Oriental sires, the most notable of which was Gallipoli, a gray horse, introduced from the Orient in 1820, whose impress on the horses of the country, especially through his grandson Jean Le Blane, was most marked. Good grass and selection are the other factors chiefly respon- sible for the Percherons we have to-day. LaPerche is world- famed as a grazing district. Early Service.—The service in which the Percheron first attained distinction was as a stage-coach horse, in the ante-rail- road days, when all freight and express as well as passengers were moved in this way (Figs. 66 and 67). It was a rapid draft job, hauling loads at an eight mile clip for long and hard stages. An ordinary road horse could not pull the load, while an ordinary draft horse could not stand the pace nor the dis- tanee. The breeders of LaPerche specialized in the production of this type of horse, and their success marked the beginning of Percheron popularity (Fig. 68). The advent of railroads in the nineteenth century struck a telling blow at the diligence or stage-coach horse. At this crisis the French breeders displayed a foresight that might well be emulated by horse breeders of the present motor period. Instead of howling calamity and defaming the locomotive, they had fore- sight enough to perceive a new era of agricultural production on the one hand and of commercial traffic on the other, which had never before been possible, and which would require horses in greater numbers than ever. But the nature of service in the new field created essentially by the locomotive and railway train would require horses of quite a different stamp than had pre- TYPES AND BREEDS 86 *AIN}UO Y}Ud9}eUIU 94} Ul A[1va pasn aIaM SUOLEYoIag JO S}Uapaoajue 9Y} YIM Jo SuIsoy oy} IOJ YIvodD ysod yous W—"9g9 “Ply eS 87 DRAFT BREEDS Fic. 67.—A diligence still in use in Switzerland, that is fairly representative of that which was common in France during the first of Percheron history. epoch 88 TYPES AND BREEDS viously been produced in LaPerche; the loads to be moved would be greater, the distance less, and time allowance more liberal. The true draft horse was to supersede the old “ diligence ” type, but even in their efforts to meet the demand for a horse of greater weight and power, the LaPerche breeders did not lose sight of the desirable characteristics of hot blood derivation, and so far as they were correlated with the increase in size and draftiness, attributes of the cold parent stock, they were retained. To this l'1g. 68.—An old-fashioned Percheron, a rapid draft horse of a type evolved in the diligence service. may be attributed the most distinctive features of the present Percheron. Distinctive Features——He may attain ton weight and yet possess a refinement of head and neck, a general suppleness of form, a texture of bone and hoof, a degree of quality and finish throughout, together with an energetic, yet perfectly tractable, temperament and disposition, not equalled in any of the other draft breeds. Furthermore, the typical Percheron bears his great weight with an airiness and boldness that is unusual. DRAFT BREEDS 89 But to the same source may be charged some of his deficien- cies. He is sometimes too fine, not sufficiently drafty in scale or form, and too hot in disposition to qualify, acceptably, for the heaviest draft work. The features by which the Percherons (Fig. 69) may be most readily distinguished from representatives of other draft breeds, reckoned on the basis of averages, are size, fully up to draft requirements but hardly equal to that of the Shire and Fria. 69.—A Percheron stallion, showing the breed character, the form, and the color that are most typically Percheron. Belgian; form, that is somewhat more up-standing, more rounded in contour, iess square ended and blocky, at all events not as squatty as in the Belgian, although he is not a leggy, light quartered horse; head of good proportions, sharply defined fea- tures, prominent, full, bright eyes, rather neat ear, a fair length of neck, well finished in crest and throttle; bone of good texture but in some cases too fine, as determined by popular standard ; canons devoid of feather; well-formed feet, of medium size and of the very best texture of blue horn. h 90 TYPES AND BREEDS / Color is gray or black most commonly, the former more typi- cal and growing in favor, as expressed in the demand, although bays, browns, chestnuts, and even roans are encountered. Way of going is not more accurate, but manifests a snap and boldness not displayed by draft horses as a rule. Respects in which some Percherons are not strong and to the correction of which conscientious and intelligent breeders are giving their attention are the set of the hind legs, the conforma- tion of the hocks, and the slope of the pasterns. Economic Importance.—Percherons outnumber in this coun- try all other draft breeds combined, and their popularity seems to be increasing proportionately. This is no doubt due, in part, to the good start given the breed by the pioneer breeders and importers. From the time of their introduction into Union and Pickaway counties, Ohio, in 1851, through their period of de- velopment in Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa, especially, they have been given every opportunity to make good. But more important than this, perhaps, has been their general adaptability to meet the con- ditions of the average American farmer. Even though the de- mand for the highest class of draft horses is from the cities, their production must, of necessity, involve the farmer. It is uselee to attempt to interest the practical farmer in a proposition which does not appeal to him in a practical sense. From the very first the Percheron has made a strong bid for his favor. The adapt- ability which characterizes the Percheron as a breed may also be noticed in his use as a pure-bred sire. From a patronage of the most miscellaneous sort of mares, a Percheron will average a large percentage of marketable colts, varying, it is true, from weight-carrying saddle horses and hunters, and even harness horses, to the draftiest of draft horses, but each good in his class. The fact that most native American mares have some degree, if not a preponderance, of hot blood in their ancestry and may, therefore, be expected to nick better with Percheron stallions, may account for the manifest excellence of the latter in this respect. THE BELGIAN Belgium is a part of the original territory to which the old Flanders horse was indigenous, and as the history of the breed DRAFT BREEDS 91 records no other stock, we conclude that this breed is, directly and exclusively, descended from the old Flemish stock. There are two respects, however, in which the Flemish ancestry is not indicated, namely, the absence of much hair and the infrequeney of the black color. Selection may account for these modifications, however. Belgium is essentially an agricultural country, flat and low- lying for the most part, and horse breeding in a limited way is followed by most farniers. Each one has a colt or two to turn off each year. The Belgian Draft Horse Society has done much in the way of conducting shows, offering prizes, and providing subsidies to promote the interests of the breed. Three Original Types.—There were originally, according to Herr Van Schelle, who had charge of the Belgian Government horse exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition, three types of draft horses in Belgium: The Flemish, the largest, produced nearest the coast; the Brabacon, an intermediate type, bred farther in- land ; and the Ardennaise, a small, rapid draft horse similar and akin to the French horse of that name, bred in the border dis- tricts. There has been more or less amalgamation of these three sriginally distinct types in the evolution of the present-day Belgian cart horses. The American Type of Belgian.—It is claimed that the type has been considerably modified in accordance with the demand of American buyers. The old fashioned, more massive, but much less refined stamp still receives most favor in Belgium. The accepted type of Belgian horse in America is perhaps the most uniformly drafty of any of the breeds, short legs, a compact body (Fig. 70), wide, muscular ends, and deep, wide, spreading ribs being the rule. The head is square and medium sized, the neck short and heavy crested. Roans and chestnuts predominate, though bays, browns, and occasionally grays and blacks appear. Hoofs deficient in circumference, bone that is not sufficiently flat, and necks that are too short and heavy, with a general absence of refinement, are features in which average representa- tives of this breed are still subject to improvement. They show an interesting conformation of the hamstring, the muscles being apparently inserted directly upon the point of the hock, without the usual tendinous continuation. The extreme width of the 92 TYPES AND BREEDS Belgian may cause him to roll or paddle somewhat at the walk, but it is surprising how well many of them trot, The Belgians have made wonderful progress in this country, considering that they have been attracting much attention here only since about 1900. The improvement noted in this time has been equally remarkable. The Belgian sire has the effect of most consistently improving the draft form of his get, especially those Fic. 70.—A Belgian stallion of most acceptable stamp, embodying the desirable features of draftiness and good middle, and subject to little criticism of head and neck or legs and feet. from leggy, light-waisted mares, and mares of this stamp are most likely to have the degree of quality requisite to offset the defi- ciency, in this respect, sometimes shown by the pure-bred Bel- gian. Belgian grades are especially popular among feeders, it being characteristic of the breed to be good doers. They also ship unusually well. Belgians have probably shown, in this country, ereater percentage increase in numbers and in merit than any other draft breed, DRAFT BREEDS 93 THE BRITISH BREEDS Horse history in Great Britain dates back to 55 n.c., the date of the Roman Conquest. Czesar’s description of the chariot maneeuvres, by which his advance was opposed, would indicate the existence at that time of a horse, diminutive in stature, but drafty in build, whose feats of handiness were remarkable. British coins, issued in the first century, confirm this opinion by the powerful type of horse struck on the metal. During the seventh century horses came into use for riding. The chief demand was for the mounting of infantry forces, as a means of transportation only, the idea of cavalry or any form of fighting from horseback being suggested later by the Normans. As the soldier’s chain armor at this period was heavy and the marches were hard, a large, stout horse was required. Later (1300) when plate armor began to replace chain, and the horses themselves were protected, the effectiveness of weapons having been increased, the weight imposed upon them became still greater and size more essential. Horse breeding was given most careful consideration by the Throne. The use of small stallions was discouraged and even prohibited by royal edict. The condition existed until modified methods of con- ducting warfare, incidental to the invention of gunpowder (1650), led to the discarding of armor and consequently of war horses of this type. Advent of Draft Horses.—Up to the eighteenth century draft work had been done principally by oxen or by inferior horses, not fit for service in war. After the beginning of that century, with its relegation of the war horse from the battlefield to become a humble beast of burden, the real era of the draft horse began. In the latter part of the eighteenth century two distinct types of cart horses are mentioned by Young, the Large Black Old English horse and the Suffolk Punch. Thus the British draft breeds have had a long period of development, the primary motive of which was war, not work. During, or even before, the first century, horses possessed some of the same characters which are now dominant in these breeds. 94 TYPES AND BREEDS THE CLYDESDALE This breed takes its name from the Clyde River in Scotland, in the valley of which, especially the counties of Ayr and Lanark, it has been developed. The Clydesdale district is characterized by a rather broken surface and a stiff clay soil. The earliest history of horses in Britain describes a horse akin to the Seandi- navian ponies, the size of which was systematically increased, by royal edict, after the importance of greater size in war horses was impressed upon the Britons by the Roman conquest. While the original British stock was more or less composite, there is no evidence to contradict that the blood of the British draft breeds was derived, essentially, from the Flanders source. The importation of Flemish stallions into both Scotland and England in numbers as great as one hundred at a time, as in the ease of King John, is a matter of record. Furthermore, the interchange of horses across the border is acknowledged, even up to comparatively recent times, so that the distinguishing dif- ferences between the three British draft breeds must be ac- counted for in other ways than by their origin in blood, which it must be granted had much in common. The conditions of life surrounding these breeds during their formative period, and especially the variance in the notion of what constitutes a draft horse, as expressed by the Scotchman and the Englishman, are ample to account for whatever differences in type there may be. The Scotchman’s standard attaches especial importance to the locomotory apparatus, legs, pasterns, and feet, and the way a horse moves. A free, springy stride executed with a wonder- ful degree of trueness and as much flash as is consistent with power have received primary consideration. As a consequence of the inevitable law of correlation, there has come to be asso- ciated with this character of stride more length of leg and back, less width and massiveness, and a somewhat shorter rib than is characteristic of the extreme draft type. Characteristics of Clydesdales—While Olydesdale and Shire grades, and even pure breds, which depart somewhat from the true type, may have much in common, there is no difficulty DRAFT BREEDS 95 in distinguishing typical representatives of the two breeds. In contrast with representatives of most other breeds, the Clydes- dale is recognized as a horse standing over more ground, with a toppy carriage, lacking somewhat in width and compactness, but well set up on legs, the direction of which, viewed from either the side or the end, is most accurate (Fig. 71). The quality of the Fic. 71.—A Clydesdale stallion of most impressive character, showing the form, set- ting of hind legs, slope of pasterns, quality of bone, feather, and distribution of white most desirable in this breed. bone is ideal; the conformation of the hocks the most perfect of any of the draft breeds; the slope of the pasterns offers the great- est relief to concussion, and at the same time affords an angle of greatest degree through which to lift. In size and form the feet reflect the great care that has been exerted in selection, although the texture of horn, especially in white points, is not as dense and tough as in the case of the Percheron. The amount of feather has been materially reduced in compliance with American demand, 96 TYPES AND BREEDS its quality being of the finest. The Scotchman still holds to the presence of feather, even stimulating its growth by artificial means in some instances. The superiority of the Clydesdale in action is a point quite generally conceded. The direction and conformation of his legs are such as to insure the straightest, springiest stride of which a draft horse is capable. Color.—Gray Clydesdales have been common at times in the history of the breed, but are now discriminated against in favor of bays and browns, with occasional blacks, chestnuts, and roans. White markings are characteristic, to the extent of splashes of white on the body or an even distribution of white hair through- out the coat, in addition to white in the face and on all four legs. Judged by the standards of other breeds, the Clydesdale has been criticised as deficient in scale and draftiness, and as be- ing plain in the head, low in the back, short in the rib, with a shelly foot, and too much white, with no regularity of distribu- tion. Although introduced at a comparatively early date, the Clydesdale has not received the consideration in this country which he seems to merit. THE SHIRE It has already been pointed out, in reviewing the history of the Clydesdale, that from essentially the same original material the Scotchman has evolved the Clydesdale and the Englishman the Shire, in accordance with their own divergent conceptions of what a draft horse should be, and that, while they have much in common, the characters which distinguish them are extremely unlike. To be sure, the low-lying fenn country of Cambridge and Lincolnshire is more conducive to massive growth than is Scotland, it being also the home of the largest breed of sheep. Here the Shire and his antecedent, the black Lincolnshire cart horse, have been chiefly bred, but this environment has only sec- onded the English breeder in the attainment of his ideal. Characteristics—The typical Shire will weigh more on the average than any other draft horse, although he is scarcely as blocky in form as the Belgian (Fig. 72). He possesses the most substance, such as it is, but there is an absence of quality, marked DRAFT BREEDS 97 in size and contour of head, texture of hair, bone, and hoof— the hair showing an inclination to be coarse and kinky, espe- cially in the feather, the bone to be round and meaty, and the hoof to be of a loose, spongy, or shelly texture. His tempera- ment is extremely lymphatic, rendering him slower than is desired by many. On the basis of the scales and tape line stand- » [ Fie. 72.—A Shire stallion of most approved type, combining an unusual degree of quality and character with the size, substance, and draftiness typical of this breed. ard, the Shire measures up well, but analyzed in minute detail he is subject to some criticism, especially in so far as his materials of construction are concerned. Color.—The range of color in the Shire is greater than in any other draft breed. Originally of sooty black, with white points, he may now be found of any color, from black through the different shades of bay, brown, and chestnut to roan and 7 98 TYPES AND BREEDS eray. A considerable amount of white, frequently too much, on face and legs is common. The popularity of the Shire in this country has been re- stricted rather than general. There are some parts where he is bred almost exclusively, others in which he is almost unknown. His grossness, abundant feather, and sluggish movements pre- vent him from making a strong bid for general favor in compe- tition with the other breeds. Crosses.—A percentage of Shire blood, especially in the dams from which market geldings are produced, is acknowl- edged to be a valuable asset. Attention has been called to the fact that much credit which belongs to the Shire has been as- signed to other breeds through just this sort of mating, the sires usually being most conspicuous and the dams obscure. Size and substance can be derived with greater certainty from Shire blood than from any other line of breeding. SUFFOLK The Suffolks are characterized as being of the purest lineage, most uniform color, and are bred more exclusively for farm work than any of the draft breeds. Their origin is untraced, but horses of this stamp are known to have been bred in Suffolk for over two centuries. So care- fully has their lineage been guarded that practically all of the pure-bred representatives of the breed trace back to a common ancestor, The Crisp Horse of Ufford, foaled in 1768. They are produced almost exclusively in Suffolk and adjoining Essex, in eastern England, by farmers and for farming purposes. Their especial adaptability for farm service is found in their good dispositions, which render them so easy of control as to make it possible to work them in tandem hitches without lines; their easy keeping quality, working long hours between feeds; and their persistence at the collar, pulling true under all cireum- stances, Their distinguishing characteristics are the invariable chest- nut color of varying shades (Fig. 73), with little if any white, but often with flaxen manes and tails; their smooth, rotund form; DRAFT BREEDS 99 and a clean boned leg, devoid of feather. The old-fashioned ex- aggerated punch form is no longer common. Suffolks have been alleged to be under draft weight, too light in bone, unbalanced in he proportion of body to ies, and with a foot. inlining to be flat and shelly. These points have all been materially spenpiliened 3 in the most approved type of the present- day Suffolk. Fic. 73.—A Suffolk stallion of the punch form, the clean bone and the chestnut color char- acteristic of this breed. Distribution.—Suffolks have never been imported or bred in any considerable numbers in this country, although in some sections there is an unaccountable prejudice in their favor, espe- cially among farmers, and in many instances they have been enthusiastically received when shown. It is claimed they are not available in large numbers, the area devoted to their produc- tion being limited and there being an active demand for them 100 TYPES AND BREEDS at home and in South America, Africa, Russia, New Zealand, Australia, and Canada. Crosses.—So far as their grades have been seen, they have been of a rich chestnut color, making it easy to match up a team, smooth turned, well formed of body, of good size, and set upon feet and legs not subject to serious criticism. The prepotency of the Suffolk sire on grade mares is well marked in other re- spects than color. Grade Suffolk mares are said to make most acceptable dams from which to breed mules on account of their smooth form. REVIEW . Name the draft breeds and the country to which each is native. . How are the most distinctive characters of the Percheron aecounted for? 3. To what is the general popularity of the Percheron in this country due? 4. What characteristics of the Belgian are responsible for the increas- ing favor shown them in this country? . What improvement has been marked in this breed since its intro- duction into America? . Review the early horse history ef Great Britain. . Compare a typical Clydesdale and a typical Shire and give reasons for the differences noted. . Describe a representative Clydesdale stallion. . Of what value is Shire blood in the production of grade geldings? . To what kind of work is the Suffolk, as a breed, claimed to be best adapted and why? Wok oN NO oo ns CHAPTER VIII THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS Stx breeds are here included. They are discussed in the following order: The Hackney, the French Coach, the German Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the Yorkshire Coach, and the Rus- sian Orloff. The American Carriage Horse, now being bred by the U. S. Government, is of this type. THE NMACKNEY “uriously enough, this horse, which is preéminently a show- harness horse today and more generally criticised as deficient in stamina than in any other one respect, was originally a road horse of most unusual endurance, used chiefly under saddle and earry- ing great weight. The very name “ Hack” to which Hackney was contracted is suggestive of this type of horse. The term Hackney is adapted from the French Haquenée, originally de- rived from the Latin Kquus. Early Hackney history was set in Norfolk and adjacent counties where there existed a remarkable family of distance trotters as early as the latter part of the eighteenth century. This was in the primitive days of roads and vehicles, so that these Norfolk trotters, as they were called, weve used chiefly under saddle. Well-authenticated records of seventeen miles an hour over ordinary roads exist. The fact that this was the first line of trotters is most significant. England had already developed the running race horse, and there had existed at one time ambling riding horses, but this was the first horse in the world to trot fast. This fact is emphasized, as it has a bearing on the later evolution of our own Standardbred trotter. This trotting instinct in the prototype of the modern Hackney has been accounted for in various ways. Since these horses were originally stoutly made, blocky, and heavy-fronted and have remained so until comparatively recently, it is reasonable to suppose that they carried, in addition to the Thoroughbred blood which predominated at that time, some degree of cold blood. 101 102 TYPES AND BREEDS Dutch stock has been suggested as a possible source of this. There were big black trotters in Friesland, but they showed no such speed at this gait as did the Norfolk Cob. Perhaps the speed, courage, and stamina of the Thoroughbred, coupled with the natural inclination to trot of the colder blooded Friesland ‘“ hart-draver,” resulted in the square-gaited, fast, enduring, and rather high going Norfolk trotter. The real beginning of the Hackney breed is fixed at the original Shales horse, foaled 1760, by Blaze, Thoroughbred race horse, three generations removed from the Darley Arabian, out of a stout, common, probably hunting mare of Norfolk. Families conspicuous in the history of the breed have been the Fireaways, the Denmarks, the Danegelts and the Purick- willows. Leading sires at the present time are Polonius, Mathias, Royal Danegelt, and His Majesty. With the improvement in roads and vehicles, Hackneys were used more in harness, and their naturally high, trappy step was cultivated. They have eventually become the harness horse par excellence in America as in England. Description.—Typical Hackneys are comparatively short legged horses, rarely standing over 15-3, although they weigh well for their stature. They are of true harness form most uni- formly of any of the breeds (Fig. 74). Their heads are square in outline, deep in the jowl; necks well crested, but frequently too strong, lacking finish at the throttle, and giving a heavy forehand. Natural action, especially in hocks, is perhaps their most distinguishing feature ; but it must not be a labored action that hits the ground hard. Color.—Chestnut color, with flashy white markings all *round, has been most common, although bays, browns, roans, and blacks are all acceptable. Originally, hard, solid colors pre- dominated in the breed. Popularity.—-The Ilackney’s premier position in the show ring’in this country is only occasionally contested by represen- tatives of any other breed, and they contribute largely to the ranks of the park harness horse. The Hackney stallion is strong THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 103 in the impress of his shape and action, and nicks most satisfae- torily with either Standardbred or Thoroughbred mares in the production of a high class of harness or saddle horses. Registration.—The American Hackney Horse Society main- tains, in addition to the full registration in its studbook, a half registry, to which the filly foals of registered Hackney stallions, out of mares of Standardbred or Thoroughbred breeding that r _ Fic. 74.—A Hackney stallion, showing in high degree the distinctly harness form, the finish, the bold carriage, and the flash markings which have, together with their natural action, enabled them to win premier rank in the show ring. have been approved by an authorized representative of the So- ciety, are eligible. The filly foals of half-registered Hackney mares are eligible to full registration. FRENCH COACH Origin.—Since the seventeenth century, when the Govern- ment studs or “ haras”’ were established, the French have been systematically breeding horses for army service. Their method 104 TYPES AND BREEDS up to 1840 was to mate Thoroughbred stallions with the native French mares of Normandy, where much of this breeding was done. These mares being of Flemish descent, the mating con- stituted practically a hot top cross on a cold base. Horses so bred were called, most appropriately, demi sang (half blood). Since 1840 the half-breds have been inter-bred, although Thor- oughbred blood is still close up to many of the French coachers that have come to this country. Fic. 75.—A French coach stallion of the more refined sort. One of the imported stallions, Young Rattler, brought to France in 1820, gave rise to the side line of coach horses, whose production was originally incidental to the breeding of cavalry mounts. The get of Young Rattler for succeeding generations were notable for their heavy harness form, style, and action. Some of the demi sang horses show considerable speed. Trot- ting races, on the turf under saddle for distances from two to three miles, are common events. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 105 There are really three types of demi sang: The cavalry horse, the trotter, and the so-called coacher. The latter have been most extensively imported to this country, although there have been some record trotters ainong them. The correct type of French Coach horse as we know him in this country (Fig. 75) is a good-sized, rather upstanding indi- vidual, close and full made, but quite bloodlike in head and neck, withers, feet and legs. The big, drafty coacher is not Fic. 76.—A French Coach sire which, mated to trotting bred mares, has produced high- class harness horses with remarkable regularity. typical of this breed. As a class, they do not flex their hocks so sharply as do the ITackneys, and are not always faultless in knee action. Color.—Bays, browns and chestnuts, with occasional blacks and roans, are the usual colors, with one or two but rarely more white points. The French Coach as a Breeder.—Some almost perfect in- dividuals are found in this breed, yet they have never proven a great success in the stud in this country. There are two possible reasons for this: Having had a cross-bred origin not so many 106 TYPES AND BREEDS generations back, the type is not always fixed, as is exemplified among the breed representatives themselves, hence they may not breed true; they have been largely mismated, being stood along with draft stallions and getting only those common bred mares that were considered too small to raise a draft colt. Bred to trotting-bred mares, results have proven very satisfactory in many instances, in the production of good-sized, well-shaped, and high-going harness horses (Fig. 76). GERMAN COACH Origin.—The different States of Germany have been pro- ducing big, stout horses for mounting the German cavalry for so long a time that their origin is obscure. Some Thoroughbred crosses have been made, no doubt, more especially in certain States, but as a rule the German horse shows very little of the refining influence of this blood. It is probable that some Oriental crosses have also been made, but cold blood dominates in their veins. They have been bred more or less under government super- vision, although the system is not so complete as in France. Each State has been, to a certain extent, a law unto itself, and has developed a type somewhat distinctive. Size and substance requisite to carry the heavy weight of the fully equipped Ger- man trooper have been sought more regularly than the pace and action of the harness horse, The type of German coacher which has been brought for- ward in this country is derived chiefly from Oldenburg and East Friesland. It is the largest of any of the heavy harness breeds (Fig. 77), weighing 1500 pounds in some instances, with an ideal harness form, if not too drafty, as may be the case, but quite gen- erally deficient in quality, finish, style, pace, and action—in short, too cold. The more refined individuals present a most imposing stamp of coach horse, and some go very well. Color.—Hard, solid colors are so prevalent that importers will sell a stallion under a guarantee to get a high percentage of colts that will be bay, brown or black, with very little if any white. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 107 Influence when Mated. mated with mares of trotting or Thoroughbred breeding, possess: ing the quality and snap which the sire lacks, have produced wath a fair degree of uniformity high class harness horses of the Fic. 77.—A German Coach stallion, showing the size, shape, and color typical of this breed. brougham type. Their long line of pure breeding has made the German Coach horse more prepotent than his Freneh contem- porary. Mated with drafty mares, the result is not satisfactory. The coach horse is strongly of cold blood extraction, and coupled with a mare of like inheritance the produce is neither one thing 108 TYPES AND BREEDS nor the other. A good rule is never to mate a coach stallion with mares larger than he is, CLEVELAND BAY The Cleveland Bay was an old-fashioned stagecoach horse, occupying much the same position in England as the diligence Percheron did in France, although never so popular nor so ex- tensively bred. Like the latter, too, he was largely put out of business by the locomotive. Unlike the Percheron, however, the line of breeding of the Cleveland Bay, following the advent of the railroad, resulted in such a dissipation of the blood as to practically exterminate the breed. The original Cleveland Bay could not qualify as a harness or saddle horse, so the mares were bred to Thoroughbred sires. In turn the best half-breds were inter-bred, or remated with the Thoroughbred, and produced either good hunters or carriage horses. YORKSHIRE COACH The Yorkshire Coach horse is the result of such breeding. The Cleveland Bay takes its name from the Vale of Cleveland in Yorkshire, the coach horse from the county itself. THE ORLOFF The Russian Orloff is not of much economie importance in America, but is of interest in that it is the only other light har- ness breed beside our own, and from the fact that there is a decided interest in American trotters in Russia. The breed was developed solely by Count Alexis Orloff Tschismensky, from whom it takes its: name. The Orloff foundation was laid in a quarter-bred Arab stal- lion called Bars I, whose dam: was a Dutch mare (another in- stance of the trotting instinct tracing to the black trotter of Friesland, The sire’s dam was a Danish mare. The grandsire was the gray Arab Smetanxa. This breeding was begun early in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 109 7 Fig. 79.—Carmon, at the head of the government stud of American carriage horses. 110 TYPES AND BREEDS What few Orloffs have come to this country have been con- sidered as heavy harness horses, and the breed is therefore classed in this division, leaving the Standardbred supreme in the light harness division (Fig. 78). AMERICAN CARRIAGE ILORSE The United States Government has taken advantage of the fact that it is not unusual to find a trotting-bred horse conform- ing to heavy harness specifications and that certain blood lines are most uniformly productive of this type (Fig. 79), to as- . Fic. 80.—Pair of trotting-bred heavy harness horses to George IV phaeton. Undefeated At a day, either single, as a pair, or tandem, by representatives of any other heavy harness reed, semble such representatives as are available, for the foundation of an American Carriage Horse breed. It will apparently yet require many generations of selective breeding before these horses can fulfil the requirements of a breed. Trotting-bred heavy harness horses are better qualified to meet “ pace and action ” requirements than they are those of the high stepping classes (Fig. 80). Their action is frequently unbal- anced, being deficient in hocks, but they can step away. Or Be vO ooan THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 111 REVIEW . Deseribe the Norfolk trotter and show his relation to the Hackney and the Standardbred. . What breed characteristics have enabled the Hackney to win suprem- acy in the show ring? . Name a noted Hackney sire. . Explain fully the meaning of the term “ demi sang.” . Account for the lack of uniformity in the representatives of the French Coach breed imported to this country, also among their get. What are the most commendable features of the German Coach horse? . To what sort of mares should coach stallions be mated? . What was the original parentage of the Yorkshire Coach horse? . Deseribe the origin of the Orloff. . What is the so-called American Carriage Horse? CHAPTER IX AMERICAN BREEDS Native American Horses.—Conditions in this country have proven most congenial for the production of horses, yet there were none inhabiting this continent when it was discovered by Columbus. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact that fossil remains of a prehistoric horse have been found in abundance in different parts of this country. It is believed that the horses originally on this continent passed over what is now Behring Straits, into Asia, during the early ages. The restocking of America was coincident with its explora- tion and colonization. Columbus landed horses on his second expedition, but it is not known whether or not they ever reached the mainland. The horses brought by Cortez, in his conquest of Mexico, in 1519, are credited with being the first to gain American soil. In 1527, Cabeza de Vaca brought horses to St. Augustine, Florida, which were afterward liberated. De Soto’s expedition was equipped with horses when he discovered the Mississippi in 1541, although the majority of them were killed for their flesh after De Soto’s death. These Spanish horses were derivatives from a Barb foundation with which Spain was orig- inally stocked. Horses, presumably of the old Norman and Breton stock, were taken by the French into Nova Scotia in 1604, and four years later were introduced into Canada. One stallion and six mares, Thoroughbred, reached Virginia with the English in 1607. In 1625 Dutch horses, possibly the black trotter of Fries- land, arrived at New Netherlands. In 1629 the first horses to inhabit New England came with the English to Boston. This was the composite origin of the American horse stock, out of which our breeds have been evolved. As early as 1678 the descendants of horses that had escaped from, or were liberated by the early Spanish expeditions, were ranging wild in great bands over the prairies of this continent. The American breeds of horses are the Standardbred, inelud- 112 AMERICAN BREEDS 113 ing the Morgan, and the Saddle horse. The first pure breed to gain a foothold here was the Thoroughbred, and naturally the Thoroughbred has been the chief contributor in the foundation of the American breeds. STANDARDBRED This breed is so named because the members are bred to a standard of speed performance, that is, one mile in 2.30 or better Fig. 81.—A Standardbred stallion, a leading sire of the breed. trotting, 2.25 or better pacing. In fact, the question has been raised whether or not the Standardbred fulfils the requirements which constitute a breed, as long as individuals may become standard by performance, though not by breeding. It is prob- able that in the very near future the rule admitting horses to registry by standard performance alone will be rescinded. 8 114 TYPES AND BREEDS Origin.—Orange County, New York, was the original seat of this breed; then Kentucky, and eventually the States in general, California in particular. The chief interest in trotters centered about New York City, where the improvement in the construction of roads gave a great stimulus to road driving. Their foundation blood lines were laid in Orange County. The two most notable foundation sires in America were im- ported Messenger and Justin Morgan. Messenger was a gray Thoroughbred, six generations re- moved from the Darley Arabian, imported from England, as an eight-year-old in 1788. Ile stood most of his hfe about New York and Philadelphia, where he left numerous progeny. Al- though himself a running race horse, brought to this country for the improvement of runners, he soon became noted as a sire of trotters, and upon his trotting sons and grandsons, daughters and granddaughters, the Standardbred is based. It has been suggested that the fact that the horse stock about New York was descended from the horses brought over by the Dutch, and that a family of trotters were native to Friesland, would account for so many of the get of Messenger being trotters. The infer- ence is that Messenger imparted ihe speed andl stamina, while his get derived their instinct to trot from. their Duteh-bred dats. The most notable of Messenger’s sons was Mambrino, the sire of Mambrino Paymaster and Abdallah, Mambrino Pagmastel in turn sired Mambrino Chief, from whom the Mambrino family of trotters and the Chief family of Saddle horses of Kentucky are descended, Abdallah sired Hambletonian 10, the most conspicuous sire of the Standardbred. Hambletonian 10, or Rysdyk’s Hambletonian, is regarded as the progenitor of the Standardbred, so far as one individ- ual can claim that distinction (Fig. 82). He was foaled the property of Jonas Seeley near Chester, Orange County, New York, in 1849, but soon passed into the hands of the man he made famous, Wm. M. Rysdyk. Notwithstanding the faet that his stud fees later amounted to $184,725.00, Beeld: dick- ered a long time before the purchase price of $125.00 for the mare and foal was agreed upon. This would indicate that neither party to the transaction had any conception of the ultimate value AMERICAN BREEDS 115 and importance of this colt. Attention was first directed to Hambletonian by his gelded son Dexter, who in 1864, 1865, 1866, and 1867 defeated the best horses of the day, George Wilkes, George M. Patchen, Goldsmith Maid, Lady Thorne, Flora Temple, and others. The year that Dexter began his sensational performances Hambletonian bred 217 mares and got 148 colts; subsequently he was so extensively patronized that Tic. 82.—Hambletonian 10, at 23 years of age. he commanded a service fee of $500.00. Tt need not necessarily detract from his name and fame to state that no horse ever had such an opportunity in the stud. Tt was thus that he became the founder of the breed, being the sire of 1321 colts. He died in 1876, and a monument was erected to his memory (Fig. 83). Hambletonian’s best son was George Wilkes, a small but powerfully made brown horse, foaled 1856, out of Dolly Spanker, a good road mare of untraced ancestry. George Wilkes was both a race horse and a sire; after a most remarkable racing career 116 TYPES AND BREEDS he was retired to the stud, first in New York, later in Kentucky. His prepotency was marvelous and is still breeding on. To designate a horse as of Wilkes’ breeding means little in view of the numerous ramifications of this family. George Wilkes’ best sons were Brown Wilkes, Alcantara, Aleyone, Bourbon Wilkes, Baron Wilkes, Jaybird, Kentucky Wilkes, Onward, Patchen Wilkes, Red Wilkes, Simmons, Wilkes Boy, and Gambetta Wilkes. Fie. 83.—Monument over grave of Hambletonian 10 at Chester, N. Y., located on a lot in outskirts of town with a house on either side. Other sons of Hambletonian were Alexander’s Abdallah, Messenger Duroc, Belmont, Electioneer, Almont, Volunteer, Aberdeen, Happy Medium (sire of Nancy Hanks), Harold (sire of Maud 8.), Dictator, and Strathmore. The dam of Ilambletonian 10 was the Charles Kent mare of ordinary road ability, sired by Bellfounder, called at that time a Norfolk trotter, but in the light of present knowledge a Hackney. AMERICAN BREEDS 117 The Blood Line.—The following arrangement of blood lines is interesting, in view, first, of the prevalence of the trotting instinct in both, and second, of the successful manner in which Standardbreds and Hackneys nick. Darley Arabian Flying Childers Blaze Shales Se Diiver ee Jenkinson’s Fireaway Mambrino Wroote’ Pretender Meas (Imported) Stevens! Bellfounder Manibeiae | Jary’s Bellfounder Coe eee ambrino Paymaster | Chas. Kent mare. y-———Mambrino Chief—- | Mambrino family of | Chief family of trotters saddle horses. Hambletonian 10 Other families that have been interwoven into the fabric, as it were, of the Standardbred are: The Clays, descended from Henry Clay, whose ancestry is shown below. Imported Grand Bashaw (Barb from Tripoli 1820) Young Bashaw Andrew Jackson Henry Clay The Mambrinos descended from Mambrino Chief, who sired Mambrino Patchen, and he in turn sired Mambrino King. The Pilots descended from Pilot, Jr., the son of a Canadian pacer, so-called, and noted as a brood mare sire. Tis _ best daughter was Miss Russell, the dam of Maud S., Nutwood, Lord Russell, and many others. The Hals, the most distinguished and exclusively pacing family, descended from Kittrel’s Tom Hal, a roan stallion brought from Canada, His get, in Tennessee, founded this 118 TYPES AND BREEDS Fia. 85.—Inscription on monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford. AMERICAN BREEDS 119 pacing family through Tom Hal, Jr., or Gibson’s Tom Hal, the sire of Brown IIal, who begot Star Pointer and a numerous progeny of Tals, all very fast pacers. In Kentucky the Hals are identified with the foundation of the Saddle breed. The greatest brood mare in the foundation of the Standard- bred was Green Mountain Maid (Figs. 8+ and 85), daughter of Harry Clay, and dam of Electioncer, one of the most. con- spicuous sires of the breed. The greatest pacing dam was Sweepstakes. Fia. 86.—An ‘ideal representative’ of the Standardbred. In addition to 2.10 speed, he possesses beauty of form, finish, style, and intelligence. Demand for Standardbred Horses.—The popularity of har- ness racing and road driving has enabled this breed to make remarkable progress in a half century. They are now the recog- nized exponents of the light harness type, and are exported in large numbers, especially to Russia and Austria. In fact, the rate at which some of the best stallions and mares are being taken abroad indicates a lack of the true constructive breeder’s spirit, and forebodes ill for the future of the breed. Unfortunately, 120 TYPES AND BREEDS speed performance alone has been the standard of selection, and while attainments in this line have been great, there is a woeful lack of uniformity among trotters. They come in all shapes, sizes, and colors. Among the representatives of the breed are many ideal individuals with a wide range of adaptability (Fig. 86) to almost any kind of service, but too many are otherwise. a 4 a Fic. 87.—A 16-hand, 1200-pound standard performer, whose, get are the general-purpose horses on the majority of farms within a wide radius of his home. The show ring has served a commendable purpose wherein the race track has failed in this connection, and it is gratifying to see a uniform standard of excellence gradually being evolved. The versatility of the Standardbred is demonstrated by the fact that the champion heavy harness horse of this country, Nala, and the champion saddle mare of a few years back, Miss Anne, were both of this breeding, while in many parts of the East, big, stout, good-headed trotters are doing the farm work (Fig. 87). Many hunters are all or part Standardbred, and this AMERICAN BREEDS 121 blood seems to be most favored for the production of army re- mounts by those who are well informed. There are great possi- bilities in the breed which have been overlooked in an ill-advised effort to raise race horses and race horses only. Rules of Eligibility—The significance of the name Stand- ardbred is made clear by a consideration of the rules of eligi- bility to registry in the American Trotting Register. The Trotting Standard.—When an animal meets these re- quirements and is duly registered it shall be accepted as a Stand- ardbred trotter: 1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a registered standard trotting mare. 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, and he himself has a trotting record of 2.30 and is the sire of three trotters with records of 2.30, from different mares. 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting record of 2.30 or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2.30. 4, A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, pro- vided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2.30. 5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, pro- vided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by a regis- tered standard trotting horse. The Pacing Standard.—When an animal meets these require- ments and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a Standard- bred pacer: 1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and a registered standard pacing mare, 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 2.25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2.25, from different mares. 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered standard 122 TYPES AND BREEDS pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2.25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2.25. 4, A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, pro- vided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2.25. 5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, pro- vided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by a reg- istered standard pacing horse, 6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare. Speed Records.—The following are the record perform- ances to date for one mile (from “ Horseman’s Annual ’’): Gelding, trotter................ SP Uhlan) oe cian dacaleaa given aia 1.5834 Gelding, pacer..............05. “Prince Albert”. ............005. 1.5914 Stallion, trotter.............. sstbNé HarVvesten” s.ccomaoccrgeoar ess 2.01 Stallion, pacer................. Me Dam Patehy ovens wastewater vies wee 1.5514 Mare, trotter................ af aa Tilion Yi ghey eee eae eaes 1.5814 Mare, COT) jas eiatecce Rae Bee ‘Dariel” Mare, pacer Sete a Cots ate ase “Lady Maud C” | honors even.... 2.0074 Yearling, trotter...............4. “Miss Stokes” filly. ............. 2.1914 Yearling, trotter................ “Wilbur Lou” colt. ............ 2.1914 Yearling, pacer...........-...-. “Present Queen” filly............ 2.2014 Yearling, pacer..............655 “Frank Perry” colt.............. 2.15 Yearling, pacer................. “Rollo” gelding. ................ 2.2814 Stallion, trotting to wagon...... “John A. McKerron”’............ 2.10 Stallion, pacing to wagon.......‘Dan Patch” ................... 1.5714 Mare, trotting to wagon...... “Lou Dillon”. .................. 2.00 Mare, pacing to wagon ...... “Aileen Wilson”’...............4- 2.0414 Gelding, trotting to wagon...... OST ean 9 ad ace Serta aaa oA CRG 2.00 Gelding, pacing to wagon....... ‘Little Boy - ines Miran a uk Ga ald ane 2.011% Team, trotting............. { “Rocity \ sigs ade pe Se RAR A ARV 2.0734 “ce ” Team, pacing..........66+. Te te cen | emeeaees 2.0284 The Light Harness Type——The Standardbred (Fig. 81) represents so truly the light harness type that his detailed de- scription would be a duplication of that already given under the light harness division, in the classification of horses (see Chapter V). THE MORGANS The propriety of designating the Morgan a breed is ques- tionable. To be sure, there is a studbook maintained which has been duly recognized, but the requirements for registry are so AMERICAN BREEDS 123 open as to include many individuals that could not fulfil the specifications of a breed. The important part played by the Morgan horse in the establishment and development of the Stand- ardbred and the American Saddle horse is sufficiently important, however, and his characteristics distinctive enough, to justify his being considered apart from the other breeds with which he has been closely identified. Justin Morgan shares honors with Messenger as a founda- tion sire of the Standardbred, and the correction and verification of pedigrees of noted sires and dams have increased the credit due him. He was a remarkable individual foaled at Springfield, Mass., in 1789, and lived to be thirty-two years old. He was a small horse, about 14-2 hands high and 950 pounds weight. Of him wenderful performances of endurance, speed, pulling power, and intelligence are recorded. THis individuality was no more striking than the prepoteney with which he impressed his get. Tad the Morgan blood been kept pure, there can be little ques- tion of its having ultimately fulfilled all the requirements for recognition as a breed. Even the wide dissemination of the blood has not resulted in the complete obliteration of the Morgan character, which may be discerned though but a fractional part of Morgan inheritance is represented. The breeding of the original Morgan horse has never been satisfactorily established, as the horse himself and those who knew of him were dead before any effort was made to trace his ancestry. Colonel Joseph Battell, who has devoted much time to an investigation of this matter, has given the sire as a Thor- oughbred called Beautiful Bay and the dam as a member of the Wildair family of Thoroughbreds. Such breeding is not indi- cated, however, by the descriptions of the horse with which we are furnished, although the Thoroughbreds of his time were more like him than are the Thoroughbreds of the present. A Dutch origin similar to that of the Norfolk trotter has been sug- gested and does not seem unreasonable, since Dutch blood was available at the time of his breeding and he more closcly re- sembles in type the old-fashioned Hackney than any other breed. The Thoroughbred ancestry, however, is the one usually ac- cepted, though not altogether satisfactory. 124 TYPES AND BREEDS Sons of Justin Morgan.—The three most notable sons of Justin Morgan were: (1) Bullrush Morgan, the descendants of whom are especially noted for their size, substanee, and sound- ness, and represented by the Morrill family; (2) Woodbury Morgan, who is described as possessing attractive action and spirit and who was the progenitor of the Gifford and Morgan Eagle branches; and (3) Sherman Morgan, from whom came, in senha mgneene Let rtiber popy ett tua OA tier ca IG Me ~ AR aN cag Fre, 88.—Original photo of Ethan Allen made in 1859. It shows the inaccuracy of some of the old cuts alleged to be true likenesses of this horse. successive generations, the three greatest horses of their days, Black Hawk (Vermont or Thll’s), Ethan Allen (Fig. 88), and Daniel Lambert. In Daniel Lambert the type nnderwent some alteration, as the blood lines of the two foundation American sires were brought together, Fanny Cook, the dam of Lambert, being by Abdallah, grandson of Messenger and sire of Hamble- tonian. Morgan Blood in Other Breeds.—With the development. of trotting speed and the increasing popularity of the Tambleton- AMERICAN BREEDS 125 ians, the prestige which the Morgans had enjoyed as road horses was shattered. Morgan mares were mated with sons and grandsons of Hambletonian, and later those of Denmark, to such an extent that for years the breed, in its original purity and type, has been threatened with extinction. To this very fact, however, may be attributed, in some part at least, the merit that has been attained in the Standardbred and the American Saddle horse. A study of the blood lines of a great many of the most conspicu- ya | Fic. 89.—A Morgan stallion, showing the size, form, and character typical of this family of horses. ous representatives of the two breeds reveals to what extent the Morgan has been incorporated, especially through foundation mares. The blood has, therefore, been spent rather than lost. A description of Justin Morgan is typical of his descendants (Fig. 89). He was brown, slightly over 14 hands in height, 950 pounds in weight, very compactly made, with a short, strong back, round, deep rib, broad loin, and strong coupling; a breedy head, proudly carried, rather heavy neck, with prominent crest, short legs well set and of nnusual substance; and an airy, busy, but not high way of going. Bay, brown, and black colors prevail 126 TYPES AND BREEDS in the breed outside the Lambert family, where chestnut with a light sprinkling of white predominates. Improving the Breed.—The United States Department of Agriculture has undertaken to assemble enough representative Morgans to form the nucleus of a stud, the object of which shall be the preservation of the stock and improvement in the line of a more approved type, better calculated to meet modern demand, Fria. 90.—General Gates, at the head of the government Morgan stud. especially in the matter of size (Fig. 90). We are reminded, in this connection, of the statement that when an. Arab exceeds 14-2 he ceases to be an Arab. There is reason to believe that it may be necessary to sacrifice some of the most distinctly Morgan characters in order to attain the desired size, and in view of the active demand for cobs, which old-fashioned Morgans are, the wisdom of such a course is not altogether apparent. The Morgan Horse Club, recently organized, has inaugu- rated an active campaign in the interest of the Morgan horse. AMERICAN BREEDS 127 At recent Vermont State fairs and National horse shows some very creditable classes of Morgans have been exhibited under the auspices of this club. THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE The development of this breed has been parallel in many respects with that of the American trotter. Both are the result of a Thoroughbred top cross on what might be termed a native mare foundation, and in each case the descendants of one indi- vidual have constituted a family which has dominated the breed. Their respective histories are also more or less contemporaneous. Denmark, the Thoroughbred whose progeny founded the Saddle breed, was foaled in 1839, while Messenger reached this country in 1788 and his great grandson Hambletonian was foaled in 1849. Evolution of the Saddle Horse.—The chief differences which influenced the evolution of the Saddle horse and the trotter are those which concerned the native mares and the ends in view of the breeders. The original American Saddle horse was born, of necessity, on the frontier where horses’ backs afforded the chief means of transportation. The easy, lateral, ambling gait was cultivated, and those horses which showed greatest aptitude in this direction were selected for breeding. On the other hand, road and vehicle construction progressed most rapidly in the vicinity of the large Eastern cities, hence the breeding of the trotter or road horses centered around New York City and Phila- delphia, and the foundation was laid in mares which had proven themselves best adapted to trotting in harness. While horses were more extensively used for riding than for driving purposes in this country during the earlier period, the Saddle breed, in its present degree of development, is of more recent origin than the Standardbred. Furthermore, selection in the case of the Saddle bred horge has not been to a standard of performance alone, but ideals in type, conformation, and quality as well have been. sought and are as clearly marked in the prepotency of the foundation families as is performance. 128 TYPES AND BREEDS Foundation Stock.—In order to establish a definite begin- ning, the American Saddle Horse Breeders’ Association orig- inally accepted these sires as constituting foundation stock: Denmark (Thoroughbred) by Imported Hedgeford. John Dillard, by Indian Chief (Canadian). Tom Hal (Imported from Canada). Cabell’s Lexington, by Gist’s Black Hawk (Morgan). Coleman’s Eureka (Thoroughbred and Morgan). Van Meter’s Waxy (Thoroughbred), Stump-The-Dealer (Thoroughbred). Peter’s Haleorn. Davy Crockett. Pat Cleburne, by Benton’s Gray Diomed. Influence of the Thoroughbred.—The extent to which the Thoroughbred has been involved in the origin and development of the Saddle breed is shown by the following census of the breeding of all individuals registered in Vol. I of the studbook : Thoroughbred + seeses we ssa dle see ed sae eee ees 3 50s per cent. Thoroughbred blood............ 50 25 per cent. Thoroughbred blood............ 296 12% per cent. Thoroughbred blood............ 343 6% per cent. Thoroughbred blood............ 152 3. per cent. Thoroughbred blood............ 36 WINCEI GAIN .25hs. 5 stare, Seaeeiabete memkeeat ents Wieluaaceas 203 Denmark was a Thoroughbred, by Imported Hedgeford, of whom little else is recorded, foaled in Fayette County, Kentucky, in 1839. He never achieved great fame as a race horse, although it is claimed that his races were characterized by unusual game- ness and stamina. He had a numerous progeny, the most notable of which was Gaines’ Denmark, whose dam, the Stevenson mare, was a great natural ambler, representing the then common stock of the country and believed, by some, to be of greater foundation importance than Denmark himself. Gaines’ Denmark is considered the founder of the breed, although other lines have since been developed from which good AMERICAN BREEDS 129 results have been secured, either independently or in combina- tion with the line of Denmark. These blood lines are shown below. Gaines’ Denmark 61 Washington Denmark 64 Crigler’s Denmark 1855-1868 Polly Hopkins 46 by Cockspur. Rex Denmark 840 1884-1902 Star of the West Daughter of...... Mohawk Daughter of Black Eagle 74......... King William 67 1869-1888 Kitty Richards (th.) Black Squirrel 58. REX McDONALD 833, 1890 1876-1898 Giltner’s Highlander (Mollie 70............-. Lucy Mack 2459. Betty 69 by McDonald Old Star Davis tars cine a veal Molliesee cccaamsis'g seas os Martin's Farmer {(Mambrino Chief. Clark Chief............ Wo, 11. No. 89. Little Nora. Harrison Chief... ‘ No. 1606 (8.). Joe Downing. No. 710. . Lute Boyd............. Eagle, by Robert Bruce. Bourbon Chief... . wa No. 976 (8.). ees Denmark. wu No. 64 (S.). nae Latham’s Denmark..... a No. 69 (8.). Queen. S Belles .escvscays oes No. 48 (8.). 3 Bellfounder. a Byes Wake tec ast ates o 4 Clark Chief. 4 Harrison Chief......... Noi 89 az No. 1606 (8.). Lute Boyd. a Wilson's King... . : cc No. 2196 (8.). Parsons’ Abdallah. = BY... sss eee eee eee ee By Yellow Jacket. a | No. 112 (8.). Annie C........ Indian Chief. Richelieu. ........... ++ No. 1718 (8.). Byieces tates ns ¥ Kentucky Chief, by Indian. Chief No. BY anc se nvamante see clg 1718 (.). By Salmon’s Glencoe Th.). 130 TYPES AND BREEDS The above pedigrees of two of the greatest sires of the breed represent the two lines of breeding, the former being a strongly bred Denmark, while the latter has a combination of the blood of Mambrino Chief, Gaines’ Denmark, Edwin Forrest, and Black Hawk through Harrison Chief, Latham’s Denmark (grandson of Gaines’ Denmark) and Indian Chief. The pedi- gree of Bourbon King also shows a degree of close breeding which is rather typical. The Chief family which Bourbon King rep- resents are the principal contemporaries of the Denmarks. Other prominent sires are Highland Denmark and Chester Dare, both by Black Squirrel and out of daughters of Dave Akin, Montgomery Chief, by Bourbon Chief, Wilson’s King, by Har- rison Chief, and Wyatt’s Red Cloud, by Indian Chief, the latter two being more particularly the sires of harness horses. Three of the greatest producing mares are (1) Nannie Gar- ret, by Dave Akin, (2) Annie C., by Wilson’s King, and (3) Little Kate, the dam of four of the best horses shown in 1913— Kentucky’s Choice, Kentucky’s Best, Kentucky’s Selection, and Undulata Queen, all by My Own Kentucky. The chief centres of Saddle horse breeding are the central counties of Kentucky and the region about Columbia and Mexico, Missouri. The War a Setback.—The Civil War caused a serious set- back to the progress of the Saddle horse breed, all available mounts being pressed into service, many of which were sacri- ficed, while others were kept out of breeding for a considerable period. Some of the most noted stallions of the breed served as officers’ mounts during the Civil War. This breed also suf- fered from the increased popularity of the Standardbred during the period subsequent to the war. Many of the best Saddle bred mares were mated with Standardbred stallions. The present popularity of the Saddle horse has brought this breed into a more conspicuous position than it has ever before occupied. Characteristics.—The Saddle horse is characterized by being rather up-standing, possessed of a most beautifully molded and set head and neck, a very smoothly turned form, short back, level croup, and high set tail (Fig. 91). From an artistic point of view, he is perhaps the most beautiful of all horses, being the AMERICAN BREEDS 131 extreme embodiment of quality and finish, an ideal which has been fostered by the so-called “ model ” classes of Southern shows. Some have been bred so very fine, however, as to be markedly de- ficient in substance. His flashy way of going, with head and tail carried high, has led to his being rather contemptuously dubbed a “ peacock” by advocates of the plainer but perhaps more substantial part-bred hack, E Fic. 91.—An American Saddle stallion, showing the beautifully molded form, the stylish carriage of head and tail, and the extreme refinement characteristic of this breed. Colors of the Saddle horse are not confined within any limit, although certain families are very uniform in the transmission of color, especially black in the Denmarks and chestnut in the Chiefs and Kings. Bay is also common. Gaits.—Saddle horses were previously required to go the five gaits in order to qualify, but the increased demand for walk-trot- 132 TYPES AND BREEDS canter horses has led to their being given more consideration by Saddle horse breeders. Uses.—The American Saddle horse is not used exclusively for saddle purposes. Not only are all representatives schooled to go in harness, but some of our best American bred harness show horses have been produced by Saddle breeding. Also some of the best harness horses in Kentucky and Missouri have event- ually become winners in the saddle classes of the greatest Ameri- can shows. Horses of this breed meet the present demand for combination horses more naturally than those of any other breed. Their intelligence, instinctively good manners, beautiful con- formation, style, and finish, as well as their dual usefulness, enable them to command the admiration especially of those who use horses for the horse’s sake. Their ability to go the slow gaits has also led to their being used for riding after cattle and for general business saddle purposes, REVIEW . Review the original stocking of this continent with horses. . Why is the foundation of the Standardbred laid in New York, that of the Saddle horse in Kentucky? 3. Explain the relation of Messenger to the Standardbred. 4. Identify Hambletonian 10, George Wilkes, Mambrino Chief, Green Mountain Maid, Henry Clay. . Of what economie importance is the Standardbred? . In what respects were the foundations of the Standardbred and the American Saddle horse similar and in what respects did they differ? . Describe the Denmark branch of the American Saddle breed. . What of the outlook for the American Saddle horse, and why? 9. Who are Bourbon King, Rex McDonald, Cabell’s Lexington, Har- rison Chief, Little Kate? 10. Deseribe Justin Morgan and explain his work as a foundation American sire. toe an an CHAPTER X PONY BREEDS Here are discussed the Shetland ponies, the Welsh ponies, and the Hackney ponies. THE SHETLAND PONY Environment has had more to do in determining the charac- teristics of the Shetland than any other breed of horses. It has not, however, been the only factor, as suggested by Darwin, there having been a separate pony race indigenous to this part of the world, the Hquus celticus of Ewart. The Shetland Islands, situated about 200 miles off the north coast of Scotland and within 350 miles of the Arctic circle, are rough and unproduct- ive, and the people poor. Only a few of the large group of islands are inhabited. This breed of ponies has developed under the most adverse conditions, being close companions in adversity with the native: crofters, even to the extent of sharing their huts and provisions. Their most characteristic diminutive size, hardiness, good dis- positions, and meagre requirements may be thus accounted for. Their chief occupation in the islands is to carry peat for the use’ of the crofters, the customary load consisting of from 120 to 140 pounds, which is packed and earried over the roughest and hardest of trails. The first real impetus to their systematic breeding came from’. Scotland and England, where they were found to be of service in working out the shallow veins of coal. They were bred most’. extensively for mine use by the Marquis of Londonderry. It was later that there arose an active demand for Shetlands as children’s ponies, and it is claimed this call came chiefly from America. The type of the old country Shetland is that of a draft horse (Fig. 92) in miniature, the maximum of horse power in the smallest compass. In this country more refinement, in keeping 133 134 TYPES AND BREEDS with saddle and harness use, is desired (Fig. 93). A slightly less blocky pony not so low down is better shaped for riding and will have more stride. Fig. 92.—The old country idea of Shetland type is a miniature draft horse. Fic, 93.—A Shetland stallion, American bred, and representative of the type most in favor in this country. This breed’s chief asset for their work in this country is their patient, docile, and demonstrative disposition. They are generally fearless and thoroughly reliable under all circum- stances. They do not have an ideal saddle conformation nor PONY BREEDS 135 heads and necks that make for light mouths, but the notion enter- tained by some that they are bullish and wilful is largely due to the fact that, being naturally tractable, they receive but the most elementary schooling. A standard height of 42 inches has been fixed in this coun- try, with a proportionate discount up to 46 inches. If in excess of this they are disqualified. Colors.—Solid colors, black or a cinnamon brown being most typical, are preferred by breeders, while buyers of ponies to use generally express a preference for the skewbalds and piebalds. The widest range of oddest colors is permissible, but broken colors are suggestive of some Iceland or Faroe Island foundation in the remote ancestry. Too Little Discrimination While the demand for chil- dren’s ponies is strong and they meet with ready sale, there is not sufficient discrimination among buyers to stimulate much im- provement in the breed. All ponies look alike to the majority, it seems, and so long as they are clever and safe, no further ques- tions are asked. The result is that the average pony falls short of ordinary horse standards, leggy, coarse-headed, flat-ribbed, steep-rumped, cat-hammed, and crooked-legged individuals, with no step, being all too common. On the other hand, some wonder- fully typical, good-going ponies have been brought out by those who have given time and study to their production. THE WELSH PONY The Welsh pony is native to the rough mountain districts of Wales, but has long been bred for actual road work. Their open life, ranging in bands, has made them extremely rugged and thrifty. Some improvement in their way of going has been’ secured by the use of small Norfolk trotting stallions from time to time, although not enough crossing has been done to destroy the original integrity of the breed. The true type of Welsh pony is comparable to a miniature coach horse (Fig. 94), pony built, yet with a good head, neck, and forehand, well formed legs, and considerable speed and action at the trot, with unusual endurance. They are snappy and free, 136 TYPES AND BREEDS all horse for their size, and are, therefore, better adapted to the use of junior equestrians than as playmates for little children, the field of the Shetland pony. The foreign Welsh Pony and Cob Studbook gives this classi- fication according to height: A. Ponies not exceeding 12 hands, 2 inches. B. Ponies 12 hands, 2 inches to 13 hands, 2 inches, ©. Ponies 13 hands, 2 inches to 14 hands, 2 inches. D. Ponies 14 hands, 2 inches to 15 hands, 2 inches. Fia. 94.—A Welsh pony stallion, showing the size and form characteristic of the breed. The last three show an increasing percentage of the Norfolk cob blood. Those of class D are in excess of the pony limit and are therefore cobs proper. Colors are chiefly bay, although brown, chestnut, gray, and roan occur. Importance of Size.—The frequency with which motors are met on the road and the consequent danger in sending children PONY BREEDS 137 out unattended make a pony of more size than the typical Shet- land in greater demand than formerly. Furthermore, Welsh ponies are really useful and need not be confined to children’s use. A smart pair, properly appointed, is well adapted to ladies’ use. THE HACKNEY PONY The Hackney pony is a representative Hackney under 14 hands, 2 inches (Fig. 95), eligible to the same registration and Fic. 95.—A Hackney pony stallion; a typical representative of the Hackney breed, under the pony limit of stature. frequently bred in similar lines on one side as are full-sized Hackneys. As Hackneys have been used in the improvement of the gait and action of the Welsh breed, there has no doubt been a reciprocal cross in the making of Hackney ponies. Some Welsh breeding in the dams of registered Hackney ponies is not uncom- mon nor prohibited by the rules of registry. Show Ponies.—Ilackney ponies are the smartest thing in horse form, possessing all the flash and excessive action of their larger namesakes in an exaggerated degree. A distinction should 138 TYPES AND BREEDS be drawn, however, between a child’s pony and a show pony, and few of the sensational Hackney ponies of the show ring inspire much confidence in their trustworthiness for children. OTHER PONY BREEDS Other pony types or strains to which reference is sometimes made but for which no studbooks exist, in this country at least, are the Exmoor, Dartmoor, New Forest, Cumberland, and West- moreland of England; the Connemara of Ireland; the Galloway and Highland ponies of Scotland; and Arabs under 14 hands, 2 inches, as many of them are. REVIEW 1. What is believed to be the foundation stock from which all pony breeds are derived? 2. Which of the pony breeds has been most influenced by environment and how? 3. What is the difference in the accepted type of Shetlands in America and Great Britain and how is it accounted for? . To what breed characteristics does the Shetland owe its universal popularity ? . Describe the origin of the Welsh pony. . What out-crosses have been made and why? . What larger type is the typical Welsh pony the miniature of? What classification of Welsh ponies and cobs is made? . What is the Hackney pony; to what purpose are they chiefly devoted? 10. Name the other pony stocks, i CONAN CHAPTER XI JUDGING HORSES Purpose.—Judging is selection; the means by which the breeder molds forms by mating the approved and culling out the undesirable individuals. It should not be understood to mean the placing of awards in the show ring only, although that is a most important function of the judge, imposing upon him the responsibility of establishing ideals and standards which are to lead or mislead the rank and file of breeders. The successful buyer or breeder must be a competent judge, whether he has ever placed a ribbon in a show ring or not. What Judging Involves.—Judging is more than measuring to a standard or the analysis of the individuals under considera- tion; the element of comparison must figure in the observations, from which definite conclusions can be drawn. It is the balanc- ing of the sum total of merit and deficiency of one individual against that of another, after the same fashion that a judge on the bench weighs all the evidence before returning a verdict. There are capable buyers of market horses, who, in car load after car load, will not have a poor one, yet they would not essay the task of designating the first, second, third, and fourth choice in any one car lot. They have a definite standard in mind by which they can accept or reject, with unerring accuracy, but when it becomes necessary to arraign an especially good head and neck but rather defective hocks of one against a good back but poor feet of another, they fail. Yet selection in breeding and buying most frequently involves the choice of one from among several, as does the ranking of show entries. Accuracy and Rapidity.—The dispatch with which decisions are arrived at is second only to the accuracy of the decisions themselves. The man who stands at the sales ring side and buys at the rate of a horse a minute must have rapid, accurate decision ; so must he who picks his short leet and ultimate winners from a class of half a hundred stallions. The expert is able to place an 139 140 TYPES AND BREEDS entire class of show horses or to pick out a car load in the time required by the novice to score one individual. The former has a fixed standard and a trained eye, which enable him to discern instantly any deviations from his standard. Furthermore, he recognizes the law of correlation and goes by indices, largely, without delaying to consider each detail minutely. One feature or part is correlated with another, while to a third it may be extremely opposed. Dimensions of the same class are correlated, for instance, while those of opposite classes are related as extreme. A long legged horse is also long in neck, body, and stride, but is proportionately narrow and_ shallow bodied ; a horse in which width is marked will be short and deep bodied, with a short, thick neck, low set on his legs, and having a short but perhaps trappy stride. A systematic method of making observations contributes both to accuracy and dispatch in judging. By this means each look is made to count, repetitions or omissions are avoided, the pro- portions and relations of the parts are kept in mind, and a more comprehensive conception of the whole is obtained. System of Examining.—The most logical system of exami- nation begins with a view of the horse from in front, noting the temperament and disposition as indicated by the expression of the countenanee, all features of the head, the width and depth of chest, the station, the direction and conformation of the forelegs and feet. Then passing to the side, near side usually, consider the stature and seale, length or compactness, station, depth (espe- cially in the flank), the carriage and shape of head and neck, the shortness and levelness of the top line, the length and straight- ness of under line, height and shape of the withers, the slope of shoulder, direction and conformation of forelegs and fect, the hack, rib, loin, flank, coupling, croup, tail, stifle, thigh, direction and conformation of hind legs and feet. From the rear the svm- metry, levelness, width and rotundity of hips, fulness of thighs and quarters, direction and conformation of hind legs and feet may be determined. Viewing from the opposite side to confirm the original side view would complete the examination of the horse standing. He should then be moved away from the observer, in order JUDGING HORSES 141 that the directness and rapidity of his stride, especially behind, may be seen. Then as he comes back, or “ meets you,” note the directness, rapidity, and freedom of the stride in front, the bold- ness, courage, and manners displayed. As he is led past deter- mine the length, the height, spring, regularity, and balance of the stride, together with the placing or set of the horse in action. An expert judge may seem careless of and indifferent to any system, yet this very manner may have been acquired from long practice, in a systematic way. A show ring judge should not act without good and sufficient reasons. He should have the courage of his convictions and be able to give a full account of the whys and wherefores of his work. The wisdom of an award appears very different. to on- lookers at the ring side many times, with the light of the judge’s reasons thrown upon it. Features to Consider in Judging Horses.—The featurvs to which the judge should give special consideration in making his observations may be summarized as follows: 1. General Appearance: (a) Height, (b) weight, (c) style, (d) symmetry, (e) color and markings. 2. Form: (a) Station (setting on legs), (b) width, (c) depth, (d) compactness, (e) contour, 3. Conformation. (As outlined in Chapter IT.) 4. Quality: (a@) Hide and hair, (0) bone, (¢) finish, (d) general refinement. 5. Substance: (a) Proportion of weight to height, (b) bone, (ce) muscling. 6. Constitution: (a) Chest and abdominal capacity, (b) evidence of thrift and vigor. 7. Condition: (a) Degree of fatness, (b) fitness for work. 8. Way of Going. (As outlined in Chapter IIL) 9. Age: (a) Determination of, (b) significance of. 10. Soundness: (a) Examination for, (b) importance of. 11. Temperament and Disposition. SCORE CARD The score card consists of a word picture of the ideal horse in which a numerical value is attached to each part for the pur- 142 TYPES AND BREEDS pose of indicating its relative importance. The hock is a no more essential part of the horse’s anatomy than the forearm, yet the defects to which the hock is subject are so much more numerous, and their effect on the serviceability of the horse of so much more importance, that it is deserving of more careful con- sideration. On this basis the hock is allotted six units or counts, the forearm two. Scoring is the application of the score card as a standard of merit to the individual, for the purpose of determining and expressing numerically his degree of perfection. Applied suc- cessively to a number of individuals, it affords a means of deter- mining their relative merits. However, this system is not appli- cable to show ring judging or sales ring selection. The chief use of the score card is in the classroom, where continued practice in scoring affords the best means of training the eye in making accurate observations, while there is being acquired, at the same time, a mind picture of the ideal. Once the ideal expressed on the score card is indelibly fixed in the mind, the card may be given up and the mental picture take its place as a standard of judgment. In the development of good judgment the score card is indispensable, but for the practice of judging it is of little use. Condensed or summarized score cards have been arranged which facilitate scoring for such objects as the advanced registry of dairy cattle and other purposes, but for students’ use the full, detailed accounting of every part is essential. The Draft Horse Score Card.— Following is the seale of points and standard of excellence for the draft horse: General Appearance.—16. Counts Dh Wier hits sa sa:a.y she nap wales a greed Ba gae yee enereen HAS AE a Awe eee heR 2, HOPG oe seve hee ERGs BSE UR AEG mares Hog a ubeurdua ida benoada 3. Form—low station, wide, deep, compact, massive.............. 4 4. Substance—bone ample, joints broad, proportioned to scale...... 4 5. Quality—bone dense and clean, tendons and joints sharply defined, leg broad and flat, hide and hair fine, refinement of head, ANISH yeaa caches gin viecualds ee hee Wa ee east ook eae esa ratte eee, 4 6. Temperament—energetic, disposition good, intelligent. ........ 4 Head and Neck.—7. 7. Head—size and dimensions, in proportion, clear cut features, straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw................... 1 8. 9. 10. 11. 12, JUDGING HORSES Muzzle broad, nostrils large but not dilated, lips thin, even, PVM igs 2a fake sas eed ase Pie-aion BSG aia OS eseaceN acag dew Ses nce fauas oteca Eyes—prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even CUBVAUUPS a acin cicces oot arya cae ack Wa Ne ema. gras Weald vitae Bea a Ie Forehead—broad, full... 0.0... 0. ccc ccc eee eee eee Ears—medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert........ Neck—long, muscular but not thick, well crested, throttle well cut out, head well set ON... cece cece cece eet e teen eevee ete eeees Forehand.—24. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18, 19. 20. 21. Shoulders—long, sloping, smooth, muscular.................... Arm—short, muscular, elbow in...... 0.0.0... cece cece Forearm—wide, muscular ............... 000 cece eee eens Knees—straight, wide, deep, strongly supported ............... See ane broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well REN Sa cc aed eas acceg sia ned sen tency we etna ra bias ecto antas Sgebeces simian Fetlocks—wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported ..... Pasterns—long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong............. Feet—large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frogs large and elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of toe; horn dense, SmOOth;, ark COLO oo. ens sea eies wae oie Gens Pooh dan dese) woe acd Rae es Legs—direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre OL THEEOOE aya a-25 5s AAR ate Seen h wih oun aeeiganeatate dg Ml HG onal eh ss elavaabey Body.—11. 22. 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. Withers—well defined but muscular. ................00 000000 CHESt—Wides COED secs ice ctoo ded seg eet oe tua's che Darga ececeass us ae nike ain Ribs—well sprung, long, close... ............-.00 000.00 ee eee Back—short, straight, strong, broad...................00.2004 Loin—short, broad, strongly coupled. ...............2..-.-005 Flank—deep, full, long, low under line.....................004. Hindquarters.—32. 28. 29. Hips—wide, level, muscular ......... 6.0 c cece e eee eee eee eee Croup—long, level, muscular . .......... 6... eee eee eee eee . Tail—attached high, well carried..................0000000008. . Thighs—deep, muscular... 6 icacs ei seals acdsee eee me ea! ole . Stifles—broad, thick, muscular....................00.0.00.00, . Gaskins—wide, muscular............. 00. eee c eee ce eee eee . Hocks—straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, wellisupported sc cocccsueeedsods dvease Sis eveesareceeeaden . Canons—short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well DAG let rictak ecg ea rete a ees SRN Go LAIN Raat Ss eat SN Un ed . Fetlocks—wide, tendons well set back, straight, well supported. . . Pasterns—long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong........ ei . Feet—large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of toe; horn dense, smooth, dark color................:++++000e 143 bw ee ee —_ NNN NNWNW BPNNWNnNrdy Onn O&O NNNENWW 144 TYPES AND BREEDS 39. Legs—direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of tHe TOOL dees dus Maan ahi dE ANNA Mura OM OURS oa Rte ea as ee Way of Going.—10. 40. Walk—straight, strong, active ........ 0.66. 41. Trot—powerful, free, moderate action.........-.... 045 eres eee The Heavy Harness Horse Score Card.—The following is the standard of excellence and scale of points for the heavy harness horse : General A ppearance.—12. Ae THICI BING ee sin Rech hes lawned 0G Seine aden’ Ha madden ae ane Hea 2. Wei ghitic x conc cutenasmaa cea dee niin yan ts Aue d Moin brash ass hunni tea ash. Bice BACT ING 3. Form—close, full made, smooth turned, symmetrical. .......... 4. Quality—bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general re- finemient,, finish... 3. 00.392 22 peasy Sees sess Oa eke sees se 5. Temperament—proud, bold, stylish, disposition good, intelligent. Head and Neck.—7. 6. Head—size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, straight face line, wide angle in lower Jaw................... 7. Muzzle—fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even............... 8. Eyes—prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even 9. CUP IE cing oe eS 8S Pe SEA AERA OO ee TN HE Eas Oe GES Torehead—broad, full... 0... tee eee 10. Ears—medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert... .... 11. Neck—long, lofty carriage, high crest, throttle well cut out, head ‘well.set: On; BUIa JNOYPIM PaMolA O18 sael OY} JVq} JOVJ OY} OF ONP SI STAT frorzedns ey} UBY} 10,1048 ieedde 4399} s0lesUt oy} ‘7Uouf UT POST A ssiveX Useyjl{—' FIT “A TYPES AND BREEDS 170 171 JUDGING HORSES Fie. 115.—Twenty-one Years: The teeth have become so horizontal that, when viewed in front, it is difficult to see their anterior face, unless the head of the horse be raised. The triangular interstices, situated at the base of the superior incisors, augment more and more; this shows the convergence of the jntermediates and the corners at their free extremity. In profile, the jaws are thin. The inferior corner, almost horizontal, has caused the disappearance of the notch on the superior corner. This disposition causes the formation, in these two teeth, of a surface of friction which is elongated from before to behind, or, rather, from the external to the internal side, instead of remaining triangular. The superior tables, in the pincers and the intermediates, are wide from their anterior to their posterior border; they are regularly triangular; the central enamel, in most instances, is absent. The inferior tables tend to become flattened from one side to the other and more and more divergent in front. TYPES AND BREEDS 172 *1aY}0 94} 0} OpIs 9UO WOU; IvOTTIWOOI pus MOIIVU AIOA 918 SOIB DAISTOUT 94} ‘A][VUI ‘Joueue jereydtied 671 yo paatidep st Yorya ‘ouryuop oy, uodn pordde Ajjoa11p ‘yueula9 [eVoIpel Jo 10AB] HOI B AG PpopUNosins pue SUINS oy} 07 YSoW]s UMOP UIOM o1e Say} ‘AIBI}TOD OY} UO ‘sauT} 10430 4B iperseddesip yaA you sey Jeweus [eszU90 oy} WAY} pus ‘YIZU9] SAIss0xKe UB PomMbow oavy 4190} OY} ‘Y}Oq Ul SousT} 4B PUL ‘sepwoIe OAISTOUL OY} JO OUO UT SoUITOTIOS “MOTISOdSIp IB[TUNIS B sBY [euTeUA [viaydiied Iteyq} pus ‘estes OUT’S OY} UL poua}j}ep o1B sa[qey oy ‘ssoqy ‘“lepioq 1o1sa}sod sey} Wor ived -destp 0} spua} Jousue jereyduoed oy} :repnBueiq 10 ‘apis 0} Spis WOIJ pous}jey 1B $97qv} JOOJUT oy, “SIV OY} JO [Ad] OY} 9B J9q}0 You wo} payeivdoes pus urq} o18 smeUl oq} ‘s19u100 oY} A[[BIDedsa ‘]e}UOZIOY AIOA BIE SIOSTOUT IOLIOJUT 9q} ‘ayfoud UT *yoUljsTp sIOW puB s10UL gauI00aq Sa}{BIPSUIa}UL JY} PUB SIOUIOO OY} JO BITaTIOAMOD OY} ‘peMoIIVU A[QuIOPIsUOd ST YOIGA ‘1OTIaFUT oy} SdE[IaAO opBols rowadns 34} ‘quoif UL :SMOT[OJ SB pazepNyideoal aq Avul Ao], ‘e3¥8 plo 9MeI}xX9 Jo 9804} o1U potied stq} Jo siozoBIVYyO OY, :s1v9X APY T— 9IT “Ol = JUDGING HORSES 173 This is more in response to demands of buyers than to any real depreciation in the serviceability of the horse. The average horseman reckons the probable period of usefulness as the dif- ference between the present age and the age to which the average horse lives; but there are too many other influences which may impair a horse’s usefulness or terminate his existence altogether to make this a sound line of reasoning. A horse that has with- Tea Fie. 117.—This horse has a record of twenty-three years in the delivery service of a large city department store. The reason is evident in the superior breeding and conforma- tion which he manifests. stood ordinary wear so well that he is comparatively fresh and sound at twelve years of age gives promise of having more years of usefulness ahead of him than the average six-year-old just from the country. Both city stables and the farm afford numer- ous instances of horses that have been from sixteen to twenty years on the job and still give little evidence of the infirmities that are supposed to come with advancing years (Fig. 117). The 174 TYPES AND BREEDS i Mies LOW ca Fic. 118.—This horse has served eighteen years in the city as an ambulance horse and, by virtue of his superior type, conformation, and intelligence, is still serviceable. TET ete i es hi, & 8, 4t D DY ODED, Fia, 119,—This horse, off type and of inferior conformation, with little sense, has been rendered unserviceable by the same work in one year. JUDGING HORSES 175 mechanical excellence of conformation is a much more important factor in determining the period of usefulness of a horse than his age (Figs, 118 and 119). Disposition and intelligence have much to do with a horse’s usefulness. Together they determine the character of his per- formance, within the limits of his possibilities as fixed by type, conformation, and soundness. A good, honest, game horse will oftentimes give more satisfactory service in spite of some phys- ical infirmity than a sound horse that is sour, erabbed, or deficient in horse sense. Whether one rides or drives for profit or pleasure, that end is greatly enhanced by the cheerful responsiveness with which the horses do their work. Both intelligence and disposition are reflected in the horse’s countenance—the expression of the eye, the poise of the ear, and his general behavior. REVIEW 1. What are the responsibilities of the judge? 2. What does judging involve beside an analysis of the individuals under consideration ? 3. Of what assistance is the law of correlation to the practical judge? 4. What is the importance of a system of examination in judging? Outline the most logical system. 5. What features are to be considered in judging? 6. Discuss the proper use of the score card. 7. Upon what will the importance of an unsoundness depend? 8. What is the relation of conformation to the possible oceurrence of unsoundness? 9. How do the teeth come to have a definite appearance at different ages? 10. What ean be said in defence of the old horse? 12 PART III THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING CHAPTER XII THE BREEDING OF HORSES Tue breeding of horses is done on a limited scale as a side issue to a general farming proposition, more commonly than the breeding of any other class of stock. The majority of farmers raise only a few colts, the bulk of the market supply being pro- duced on a small rather than a large scale. Ideals Differ Geographically.—The corn belt farmer is most concerned with the weight of a horse, and scorns all that cannot work, no matter how proficient they may be in other lines of service. On the other hand, the Kentuckian is for a “ model” horse, possessing quality in the extreme and capable of a sporty performance, either in the show ring or on the race track, be he saddle or harness horse. The Southerner has no more time for a “bull” of a drafter than his contemporary of the Middle West has for the “‘ dude” show or iniquitous race horse. In many partsof Virginia the first thought concerning a horse is “ How well can he jump?” and it is regarded as desecration of blood to breed to anything but a Thoroughbred stallion. The average Eastern breeder measures all other types to a road horse standard, and he may be found stinting common farm mares to a little crooked legged pacer that may happen to be the idol of the community since winning the county race at the last fair. It is all a matter of difference in the point of view, and in some communities this point is so indelibly fixed as to make it. unwise to advocate a change, but rather to recommend the pursuit of the local ideal in the most intelligent manner. There is a ready market for a good horse of almost any type, and a breeder will usually do best by that which he favors most. It may be imprac- ticable, for instance, to force the breeding of draft horses on the Kentucky farmer whose family traditions, intuitive genius, and available blood all make for a very different stamp of horse. Investment.—Horse breeding requires a larger initial in- vestment for a longer time than most other live stock enter- 179 180 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING prises, but if well managed yields a proportionately greater return. Principles of Breeding.—Breeding is the direction and con- trol of the inherent life forces, heredity and variation, by means of selection and mating. Its practice offers a means of regulat- ing the progeny by control of the parentage. Improvement should be the motive, it being something more than a mere mul- tiplication of numbers in the next generation. The forces involved are heredity, by means of which char- acters are transmitted from generation to generation; and varia- tion, through the agency of which new characters are introduced. The natural tendency in reproduction is toward variation, or the production of unlike individuals, with heredity acting as a brake or check, opposed. The more intense the hereditary force, the less marked the variation. The strength of the hereditary force, so far as a specific character is concerned, is determined by the extent to which that character is represented in the an- cestry. The greater the number of individual ancestors there are which possess it, and the greater the degree in which it is possessed, the stronger the likelihood of its being transmitted. Heredity is, therefore, not a matter which involves only the individuals mated, but all those ancestors whose characters and hereditary forces the individuals in question possess. If the pre- potency of all individuals in the ancestry were equal, the relative influence of succeeding generations and individual ancestors would be in accordance with Galton’s law as shown in the fol- lowing table: * Effective Heritage Contributed by Each Generation and by Each Separate An- cestor According to the Law of Ancestral Heredity as Stated by Galton. c Effective contri- Effecti tri- G t V N b f 2 ec Ave contri. backward axchyeneccton | ‘torriuvolved, |g, Wao of 1 ¥ or 0.5 2 Y{ or 25.0% 2 YY or (0.5)? 4 1/16 or 6.25% 3 1/8 or (0.5)3 8 1/64 or 1.564% 4 1/16 or (0.5)! 16 1/256 or 0.394% 5 1/32 or (0.5)5 32 1/1024 or 0.09+-% *Davenport, “ The Principles of Breeding. ”’ THE BREEDING OF HORSES 181 There are usually a few individual ancestors who, by their great prepotency, dominate the ancestry and have more than their regular fractional influence in determining the nature of the progeny. The more of such impressive ancestors there are, provided their impressiveness is along the same line, the stronger the transmission of their characters will become. Line, or in- breeding, is practiced with this in view, the same individuals being used as many times as possible, thus intensifying the hereditary transmission of their characters. : The germ plasm, representing the union of the two sex cells, is the physical basis of heredity. It represents both the char- acters of the ancestry which are dominant in this generation, and will therefore be manifested by the individual developed from the germ plasm, and the potential characters of the entire an- cestry, which may remain recessive in this generation and not be manifested in this particular individual, but may, in the next succeeding generations, become dominant, some in one indi- vidual descendant and some in another. Thus the unlikeness of brothers may be accounted for. Transmission is, therefore, not from the individual parent but from the ancestry through the parent. The individual mani- fests but a part of the characters which he inherits, and is con- sequently capable of transmitting characters which he himself does not possess. All the possibilities of transmission can be learned only by a study of the ancestry. Unknown individuals in the ancestry introduce unknown possibilities into the progeny, hence the advantage of the pure-bred parent, the known excel- lence of whose ancestry is established. A superior but short-bred individual may happen to manifest all the good qualities of his or her ancestors but transmit none of them. A lack of uniformity in the ancestry is sure to result in a miscellaneous progeny. However, registration and pure breeding are not sufficient, as inferiority possessed in uniform degree by the ancestors will render the progeny of a correspondingly low order of merit; and even some pure-bred and registered horses are inferior in both individuality and ancestry. Pedigree is but a record of the ancestry, and the value of the pedigree, provided it is complete in recording all ancestors of 182 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING the first five or six generations, is in proportion to the merit of the individuals recorded. Prepotency is the breeding power of a stallion or mare, measured by the degree with which their likeness is transmitted to their get. It sheutd be distinguished from fecundity, which is the reproductive power, measured by the regularity with which progeny are begotten by the sire or produced by the dam. Prepotency is determined by the uniformity of the ancestry, which, in turn, is most intensively insured by line and inbreed- ing. There is, furthermore, a difference in the prepotency of individuals similarly bred. Fecundity is marked in certain families, showing its hered- itary and transmissible nature, and is frequently associated with longevity. The individual element is also a factor in fecundity. Line breeding is the mating of two individuals having a common ancestor but a few generations removed. It is prac- ticed for the purpose of intensifying the hereditary force derived from certain individuals. It is a compromise on inbreeding. Inbreeding is the mating of brother and sister, sire and daughter, son and dam, thus eliminating all but the blood from certain individuals. It is rarely practiced by horse breeders. Cross-breeding is the mating of purebred individuals but of different breeds. Indiscriminate cross-breeding is to be con- demned, but intelligently conducted it is justifiable for certain purposes, as in the production of hunters in this country. Cross- breeding has the effect of producing variation. The more radical the cross the more extreme and uncertain the variation. It is resorted to for several purposes: (1) Either to restore vigor and fecundity to stock that has been bred too long in one line or under the same environment; (2) to graft on one breed some desirable characters of another; (3) to blend, permanently, the breed characters of two breeds; or simply to combine these char- acters in the progeny of one generation. To this end it may consist either of making a single infusion of the blood of an alien breed, as the Thoroughbred cross on the Standardbred ; of making cross-breds the basis of a new breed, as in the foundation of the French Coach from the demi sang ; or continuing to cross breed without interbreeding the cross breeds, as in the production THE BREEDING OF HORSES 183 of the original demi sang (French half-breed) for army service; also in the production of hunters, Most uniform results are obtained when the hereditary tend- encies of the two breeds crossed incline in the same general direction, as in mating a Standardbred and a Saddle horse, or a Thoroughbred with either, and are least satisfactory when radi- cally opposed hereditary forces are united, as in breeding a trotter to a Shire. Such extreme crosses may prohibit any blend of characters and often result in a colt possessed of a draft horse head and body on a trotter’s legs and feet, or some Similar combination of the extreme characters of each. Cross-breeding was attended by much greater advantages during the formative periods of our breeds than can be claimed for it at the present time. With a particular breed especially well adapted to almost all requirements, there is little excuse for mixing them up. Some of the renovating effects of cross-breeding may he se- cured, yet the identity and integrity of the breed maintained, by resorting to the so-called climatic out-cross, the mating of indi- viduals of the same breed but reared under different conditions of environment, as English and American or Australian Thor- ‘oughbreds, or Kentucky and California Standardbreds. The most extreme system of crossing involves species instead of breeds, and is called hybridization. Equine hybrids are the mule and the zebroid. The common ancestor within the genus, in this case, is so extremely remote as to render the hybrids sterile. Bovine hybrids, however, are more or less completely fertile, the supposition being that their common ancestor was more proximate. The nick, commonly referred to by horse breeders, is a mating resulting especially favorably in a foal superior to either parent. It is supposed to be due toa special affinity of hereditary forces which results in a most harmonious blend or union. A mare may produce good colts to the service of one stallion, but mating with another stallion of equal merit as a sire may result in utter failure, so far as the character of the get is concerned. Atavism or reversion is the reappearance of the type of a remote ancestor or a harking back to a preéxisting form. It is 184 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING most likely to follow hybridization, and is exemplified by the line back and leg stripes commonly seen on mules. A pure bred is, practically, one whose sire and dam are both registered. The “purity” of the breeding depends upon the eligibility rules of the respective registry associations. Lit- erally, a pure bred is one in whom there is no trace of alien blood, but such a degree of purity is approached only by the breeds of greatest antiquity, as the Thoroughbred and the Arab. Grading up is the mating of common bred mares to pure bred stallions, or the reverse, producing half-breds. By mating the half-breds back to pure breds, of the same breed, the percentage increase of the pure blood will follow the proportions of three- quarters, seven-eighths, and so on, for each successive generation. A horse so bred is called a grade, and the greater the number of generations through which the grading-up process has been car- ried, the higher the grade. A mongrel or scrub is one whose fractional breed identity cannot be established. Top cross refers to the male line of ancestors—the sire’s sire, his sire, and thus on back. Dams.—First, second, third, and fourth dams represent the female line of ancestors—the dam’s dam, her dam, ete. Brothers in blood are the progeny of mating full brothers with full sisters, the same stallion with full sisters or the same mare with full brothers. In each case the mating results in in- dividuals whose pedigrees after the first generation are identical. Pedigree and Studbook Registration——In order to keep pedigree records complete and accurate, as well as reliable and authentic, registry associations representing the different breeds have been formed. Entries are made in either alphabetical or numerical order, and show the name, date of foaling, description, breeder, and owner of the horse, with the name and number of sire, and name, number, and usually some of the breeding of the dam. These records are published in book form at more or less regular periods, annually, if the association does sufficient business, and are available to any one at a nominal charge. Transfers of ownership of registered horses are required to be recorded for the purpose of keeping all records up to date. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 185 A pedigree certificate of registration (Fig. 120) has no nego- tiable value unless properly issued and executed by the officers of the association whose seal and signature it bears. Its value, even then, is contingent upon the standing of the association. Formerly an aceredited list of studbooks was issued and vouched for by the United States Department of Agriculture, but their authorization has since been withdrawn, and the standing of the different associations is based on the personnel of their officers and members. The eligibility rules for registry are drawn up by the asso- ciations themselves and are not uniform in their requirements. The term “ pure-bred,” as applied to the different breeds, has a significance that is arbitrarily determined by the respective associations. For instance, a horse may be “ pure-bred ” on the basis of eligibility to registry in the French Draft Studbook yet be ineligible to the Percheron Studbook, end therefore of impure Piataliermn breeding. In the same way a “ pure-bred ” Morgan may not be clivibla, to Standard registration and, as a matter of fact, may possess but a small percentage of Morgan blood, on account of the open nature of the Morgan register. When a pure-bred, registered horse or mare is bought for breeding purposes, the pedigree certificate often plays a more important part in the transaction than the horse itself. The real value of such a horse lies in the blood lines which he is capa- ble of transmitting, and no just claim to these blood lines can be made unless verified by a pedigree certificate. Title to breeding ean be conveyed by no other means. Many pure-bred stallions are deprived of the full credit to which they are entitled through the carelessness or indifference of owners in keeping up records and transfers. Duplicate pedigree registry certificates can be secured upon application to the secretaries of the associations and by sub- mitting satisfactory evidence that the original has been lost. or destroyed. Eligibility to registration is established by conforming to the rules of entry of the registry associations. These rules are not uniform in the different associations, nor are they fixed, but are subject to change whenever authorized by vote of the association, e THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 186 sayeogiyie0 A1jsigal aa1stpad W—0ZI ‘DI "Gs eunr “MYO, Ma Aaprry yep enpouby: pe ee, ny ypuotey Up ML -——==-=*ssey ‘U{NOWATA “PHIS ASUXOEH YNOWATA “UePIOL “Cd usqd “7/00/77 8¢¢ II Kqued pioT “dui Ay = <-=UeTIeN PteN 290T “”% fy (HLT) aieseuer 4% = Zhe WoYmWos] VoUTIE “AUT = 477" a4TuaM Jay1O OU pue HIS SynUIsSoyD © ea) —-€06T SSOP ====920, = = + = tet Perr CPE? ae bypihe, We flEYHMAE pa hyey UP Y YYPt YOM JP MOOT (ELS MOINYWOVE, NVORTARY Wu TII ZZ ue yy pau LAPLOrY? BOUYYS fp fOLUEBL Ug tt “kK "N ‘4GOk MEN ‘N¥NaVHD H “a /“Y/ a IDM Sis) = so le “oy, os ese AESPOORT VW" ON aay “BOCT ‘OTT *a}VoYT}100 AIYSTFoI JO apts esIaAdy THE BREEDING OF HORSES 187 ai ae Sal aN \ G V4 Bites g \ QQ o Kernel YY L pif, y PULL) Ty WIE fort YUP uy Lit) flO? tf wif Yh VIAL LY, Ht MY IN MMIDA MY AU f “4/ YLYTII Cy), 114 “fe LMU YY SILT’ be YOU) ‘ Af MIU IY YL 9° LYDYD ML PLC “Yi POM ype APPA LLM f1Ub YRIYIL? , UN Ld) 247. 4 fl YM af AIM AY “Y/ eee MALY \aurts Z We fey Pty DIAIDD ID Ny © DIAPDA AM \ \ NY La PHM, go PLN Ad Dy MY Pht ~ » ee - = 2 nf = = a i cq a (G = § oN oa ons i x Pry Se 4 $ e oes i 5, 2 th yn aA i A = w a 2 ¥ a ns, = & Ge a= pe ER =e : “oe é =< A ct us i lone A HAM. Ahiyrry Cihipuale will to wssted bande “the ni tf (le PU MENS Uf Mh wsytndet tf ts ste fils Mihi Hy til AME MAMYUHHE Vif Ji Ltn yer: Pe We at | vrn by wots i te bwin Hackney Sid bork wntl wth Disord SMI WHE Witt feet fut fen Sly wiredid, Ea, am SESS 188 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING Revision of the rules is generally in the direction of increased requirements and is justified in the case of comparatively new or young breeds which have increased in numbers to a point where the old and more liberal rules are no longer necessary. The American Trotting Registry Association has already dropped rules which during the formative period of the breed were essen- tial. It is reported that they contemplate further tightening up their requirements by elimination of the “ standard by per- formance ” clause. Stallion Legislation—Stallion license laws have been passed by anumber of the States. Because of the much longer time and greater capital involved in the breeding of horses than of other classes of live stock, some legal regulation of the standing of stallions for public service, having in view the protection of the mare owner and the promotion of the interests of the good breed- ing sires, is important. The idea is not new; all foreign coun- tries in which horse breeding has made any great advancement have either patronized or protected the horse breeding interests by statute. The French system is perhaps the most elaborate. The French System.—All breeding stallions in France are either owned by the government or have government authority to stand for service. All privately owned stallions which are aecepted for service must be free from roaring and moon blind- ness or periodic ophthalmia, as determined by inspection to which they are required to submit, and this fact is attested by the star branded on their necks. Then they are classified according to merit. Those of the best class are designated as “ approved,” and many of them are liberally subsidized in order that they may be made available to all owners of high class mares; those which are not quite up to the requirements for approval but are yet desirable sires are classed as ‘ authorized”; while all others which have passed the veterinary inspection covering roaring and moon blindness are simply “ certified.” The stallions from the government “ haras ” are systematically distributed through- out the breeding districts during the season. Ideals in stallion license laws differ, there being a marked lack of uniformity in the provisions of those enacted in the dif- ferent States. A stallion may be licensed to stand for service THE BREEDING OF HORSES 189 in one State while barred from service in another. Local con- ditions govern, of course, in the case of each State, but there can hardly be sufficient difference in the prevailing conditions to warrant such a variety of laws. The objects of stallion laws should be (1) to protect the mare owner, by preventing misrepresentation of the breeding or the soundness of the stallion; (2) to protect the owners of supcrior breeding stallions by eliminating or discouraging the use of infe- rior competitors ; (3) to promote the interests of the mare owners by encouraging the purchase and standing of better stallions; and (4) to promote the interests of the stallion owner by edu- cating the mare owner to be discriminating in his patronage. The first object is best insured by requiring an examination of the pedigree registry certificates and a uniform inspection, by one board or commission, of every stallion for which applica- tion for license is made, all stallions found acceptable tu be class- ified according to breeding, whether pure-bred, grade or scrub, sound or unsound, and said classification to be specified clearly in the license certificate. Purity of Breeding.—Pure-bred is such an arbitrary term, contingent upon so many conditions, that it is more accurate and just in many eases to certify a stallion to be registered or unreg- istered rather than of pure breeding or not of pure breeding. In many instances ineligibility to registry may be strictly technical, due to neglect on the part of previous owners, and may not in any way alter the purity of breeding of the stallion or his value asasire. The fact that the horse is unregistered, however, can- not be disputed. Hereditary unsoundness is such an elusive condition, so difli- cult of prognosis, that to specify just what conditions of unsound- ness shall, by their presence, disqualify for service, will necessi- tate the elimination of many individuals of much breeding value, although their get may be in no way predisposed to the unsound- ness which they themselves possess. The same unsoundness may be quite regularly transmitted in one case while perhaps never appearing to be hereditary in another. The most careful obser- vation and inquiry warrant the conclusion that spavin and roar- ing, for instance, can only be regarded as of an hereditary nature 190 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING when their transmission has actually been demonstrated in the progeny. The existence of a defective conformation is to be regarded with as much apprehension as the actual unsoundness itself, especially if the latter be unaccompanied by an apparent pre- disposing cause. In making such a determination, it must be borne in mind that some unsoundnesses, as roaring, may uot manifest themselves, even though transmitted, until such age that the horse in question may have been lost track of, although, as a rule, a sire of colts that develop unsoundness with any degree of uniformity can soon be detected. Suitable Laws.—Any law to be workable and meet the varied conditions, as they exist in most States, should have some flexi- bility in its application, permitting arbitrary consideration of each case by those in charge of its administration. With a suffi- cient number of registered, sound stallions available to the breeders of a community, a law might be very strict in its re- quirements as to breeding and soundness, but there are localities where the interest in horse breeding is such as to need a boost and is not capable of withstanding much of a knock. As long as the State itself is not empowered or equipped to place there a good stallion, but must depend upon private ownership for whatever beens there is done, stallions that should be barred from service, if in competition eh good sires, may be permitted to stand, if not doing more harm than sso. Meanwhile, the efforts of the stallion board or commission may be devoted to an educational campaign which will ultimately bring better stallions into that district. Difficult Points——It is most difficult to establish the fact that a stallion is unfit for service on account of an existing un- soundness or a short pedigree, while his get are annually selling for more than the colts of other stallions fully accredited on the basis of strict stallion law requirements. Not until the poorest pure-bred is superior as a sire to the best grade and until much more is known of hereditary unsoundness, can we consistently make legal discrimination against all grade and all unsound stallions, without effecting detriment to the breeding industry. Elimination of the unfit is only one means of protecting and pro- THE BREEDING OF HORSES 191. moting the interests of the fit, and what constitutes fitness itself is more or less arbitrarily determined by local conditions. The average of merit of stallions standing for service is so low that it will take time to attain to the theoretical or ideal in actual practice. France, with her system of government owner- ship, can afford to be much more independent and dictatorial than our States, which are dependent on private enterprise and capital for whatever breeding there is done. Too oppressive re- strictions may be so discouraging as to destroy the business alto- gether. An individual or company, for instance, may invest $2,500 in a two-year-old draft stallion, which at the time of pur- chase passes an examination for soundness and is accompanied by a registry certificate. In the course of a year or two this colt may develop an unsoundness or some fraud may be detected in his pedigree registry certificate. To require his retirement from service on either of these accounts, would entail a most unjust financial loss upon his owners, and would undoubtedly dissuade them from ever making a similar investment. The Attitude of Mare Owners.—The mare owners, while not directly named in stallion license laws, should receive a share of the consideration of the administrative boards. They really hold the key to the whole situation, in the discrimination they show and the amount of the fees they will allow in their patronage of stallions. Stallions capable of becoming good sires are costly, and their fee must be sufficient to insure some return on the investment. With a liberal policy adopted by the mare owners, there need be no dearth of good sires. The scrub is costly to patronize though the fee is low. As long as the serub ean command his share of the patronage, there is little to induce one to invest in a first-class stallion. It is a fact worthy of note that the average stud fee prevailing in those States from which the bulk of the market supply of horses of this country is drawn is about double that of those districts where the horse business is given up as unprofitable. No law can compel mare owners to patronize superior stal- lions, nor is it constitutional to deny them the patronage of the inferior ones, unless they are proven to be an absolute menace to the industry. Education is the only solution, and that is 192 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING within the province of, and should be vigorously prosecuted by, the licensing officials. The Community System of Breeding.—There are many advantages in the breeders of a community getting together and working to a common end within the same breed. Such a system makes possible the use of a stallion which no individual member of the community could own. It promotes codperation and mutual helpfulness, which in time revert to the benefit of all concerned in the way of a district reputation for horses of what- ever type produced. Buyers are thus attracted where they could not be induced to come to see but a few widely scattered horses or colts, in the hands of jealous owners who were not disposed to reveal the whereabouts of other possibilities in case their own failed to meet the buyers’ requirements. Individual advantages are subordinate to the interests of the community, the general policy being to insure the buyers finding the horses sought, each owner helping his neighbor to make a sale, in case he himself has nothing to suit. Once satisfied, the buyers are most. likely to return when those who were unable to sell the first time may have their inning, When different types and breeds are represented in a com- munity, partisan sentiment is almost certain to prevail. Each breeder cannot accomplish alone what might be possible by the combined effort of all, and their offerings in any one line are not sufficient to attract the best. buyers. The Breeding Stud.—A horse breeding establishment is spoken of either as a stud or stud farm, the breeding sire as the stud horse (Fig. 121). The equipment of a stud farm should consist of comfortable and hygienic quarters, productive pastures, preferably underlaid with limestone and provided with ample shade and running water, safe fences, and competent help. Quarters.—Breeding stock does not do well in close confine- ment, but dry, light, roomy, loose boxes or sheds, well bedded, should be provided, to which the horses may have ready access voluntarily, if not regularly stabled. For stallions, box stalls opening into paddocks, the doors fastened back, are best; mares are better cared for in the same way if practicable, although they THE BREEDING OF HORSES 193 do fairly well in open sheds and lots, if too many are not turned together and there are no quarrelsome ones in the lot. For draft mares that are worked regularly, the paddock would be superflu- ous, but they should be allowed loose boxes in which they can lie more comfortably as pregnancy advances. Maternity stalls may be kept purposely for foaling, but as mares are more finicky than other females at parturition time there is some advantage, so far as their peace of mind is con- cerned, in keeping them regularly in the quarters that they are to be permitted to foal in, alongside of their accustomed mates. Pastures.—The greatest horse breeding districts are char- acterized by luxuriant pastures, a most important feature of any ‘ Fig. 121.—A breeding stud. In the work ring are two Hackney stallions in the fore- ground, two Hackney pony stallions to the left, two show pony mares, the product of the stud, on the right; show horses, brood mares and foals, weaning colts and fillies in the back- ground, The stallion stable is on the right, the quarters for mares and colts on the left. breeding farm. Size and early maturity are sought in all but the ponies, and since the body is 6 to 9 per cent bone, and bone is 60 to 70 per cent ash, and 80 per cent of the ash is caleium phosphate, a limestone foundation is a pasture essential. The seeding should include such variety of grasses and legumes as to keep the forage coming all through the season. Pastures should be well drained, not too rough or stony ; all dangerous places, such as quarry holes, pits, bogs, and stump lots, should be well guarded. Shade, run- ning water, and possibly a fly flap complete the pasture requisites. Fences should be at least four and one-half feet high, strong, and of material and construction affording no opportunity for the horses to be snagged or cut. The post and rail, common in the East and South, is perhaps the most satisfactory horse fence. If 194 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING any barbed wire is used, it should be the top strand kept tight. The ideal fence has been described as “ hog tight, bull strong, and horse high ”—such is the post and rail, four rails high. THE STALLION Selection of the sire is the most important single step pertain- ing to the establishment of a breeding stud. His is the most potent influence for either good or bad in the operation. Like the bull, he is more than half the herd. On account of his being the parent of so many individual offspring in a given season, his influence is much more extended than that of the mares. It would require the use of as many superior mares as a stallion may beget foals to accomplish the results that might be attained with a single stallion, and then the progeny would be much less uniform. In the case of an individual, his dam may have as much to do with determining his merit as the sire, and it is important that only good mares be bred, but the most practical method of improving the mares of future generations is to grade up by means of a su- perior sire. But one parent being pure-bred, his or her characters will dominate in the offspring, since purity of breeding is a cause of prepotency. Asa rule, the purebred parent will be the sire. In selecting a stallion, whether it be to head a select band of pure- bred mares or to patronize with but a single mare, he must be considered from three angles,—as an individual, as representing and transmitting the characters of an ancestry, and as the pro- genitor of a future generation. As an individual, he should be just what is desired in his get, te., of the right type, good conformation and sound, being strongest in those respects in which the mare or mares with which he is to be mated are most deficient (Fig. 122). Further- more, he must be masculine in appearance, possessing that de- velopment of forchand, hardness of feature, and boldness of demeanor which bespeak the impressive sire. Testing Stallions——The ancestry is the antecedent of the progeny and should be carefully studied in order to forecast the character of the progeny. Just as the proof of the pudding is in the eating, so the real value of a sire cannot be determined with- out an inspection of his get. They alone are sufficient either to THE BREEDING OF HORSES 195 ee Fies. 122a and 122b.—A successful sire of the right type, good conformation, sound, and masculine in appearance, whose prepotency is demonstrated by the trueness to type and uniform excellence of his get. 196 THE PRINICIPLES OF BREEDING commend or condemn the individual as a breeder. None but a proven sire should be put at the head of a breeding stud. The in- feriority of a horse as a breeder may not be manifested until his get are fairly mature; in the meantime, the best mares have been bred to him, perhaps for more than one season, and the damage wrought in the stock as well as the time lost may take generations to efface. The prospective sire should be tried out in a limited way with a few mares before being trusted in premier place. It is only for this purpose that the use of stud colts is justifiable. Early service cannot improve the development of the colt, and unless carefully managed may be harmful, yet from the owner’s point of view it is often desirable to know, early, something of the youngster’s ability asasire. To this end he may be used as a two- or a three-year-old on a few selected mares, all to be served in a short period, so that there may be no interruption in his growth. The care and management of the stallion through the breed- ing season may be summarized in a discussion of the feeding, ex- ercise, regulation of service, and grooming. A mutual balance between food and exercise is the key to condition of the stallion in service. A most effective prescription employed by a prominent veterinarian in one of the most extensive horse breeding districts of this country is, “‘ Halve the ration and double the exercise when the stallion is not giving a vigorous, sure service.” Feeding.—V igor and tone are secured for the sire by a ration rich in tissue-building, protein and ash, but with little of the fat forming starches, the whole to be counterbalanced by exercise of some form in the open air. No better grain ration can be offered than oats, but for the sake of variety and relish there may be substituted a little barley or corn, and bran is always a valu- able supplement to any grain ration, since it relaxes the system generally, corrects or prevents digestive disorders, and furnishes an abundance of bone and tissue-building material. The draft stallion is most likely to be the victim of a stimu- lating ration that is not counterbalanced by sufficient exercise. The demand for ton horses is responsible for a system of fitting which is not intended to insure foals. Many draft stallions offered for show or sale are in anything but breeding condition. On the other hand, it should not be considered necessary to THE BREEDING OF HORSES 197 reduce a draft stallion to anything like race horse condition in order to insure virility. It is natural for a draft horse to be fat in a degree which would be abnormal in a road horse, and he is not at his best in any other condition. There is what might be termed an optimum or best normal weight for any horse, 2.¢., his weight when in normal condition as to flesh, muscular tone, and vigor. If that can be determined and then maintained by estab- lishing a balance between feed consumed and exercise taken, the greatest virility may be expected, Exercise.—If a horse is gaining over his normal weight, in- crease his exercise first, and if he continues to gain, reduce his ration. If he falls below normal weight and is receiving only a reasonable amount of exercise, increase his ration first, then, if necessary, reduce the exercise. But it is generally the former rather than the latter condition which the stud groom has to meet. The old country practice of travelling the horse is one of the most practical means of solving the exercise problem, and is for that reason commendable, although there seems to be a prejudice against it in some parts of this country. It is often found practicable to give the draft stallion work about the farm. If there is no such opportunity, he should be led or driven several miles per day, but at a walk. This is the draft horse’s gait, and if a more ingenious than industrious groom imagines that he can concentrate the benefits of a long walk into a short trot, he will find the results much in favor of the walk. Exercise is just as, essential to the best breeding condition of the light stallion, but the trotter is more certain of his daily jog and the Thoroughbred of his morning gallop than is the drafter of his walk. In the lighter classes of stallions there is not the premium placed on weight which induces the feeder to fatten the horse beyond all reason. Regulation of the services of the stallion is of vital impor- tance. Opinions differ as to just what such regulation should be, but nearly all agree that many horses are misused in service. It is well to remember that a horse’s success is not measured by the number of mares he serves, but by the number and character of the colts he gets in a given season. No definite number of 198 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING mares can be assigned as best to allow the horse, since the num- ber that can be properly bred will depend upon their distribu- tion through the season, the age of the horse, and his preparation and fitness for the work. The most conservative estimate is an average of one service per day the season through for a mature horse. However, the mares do not always come in regular order, distributed throughout the entire season. Hence, it often be- comes necessary to make two or even three covers in a single day, and this may be done, occasionally, with no injury to the horse. It should not be repeated, however. Grooming is necessary, not only to make the horse more at- tractive in appearance, but to assist exercise in maintaining the best: of health and condition. The functions of the skin must be kept active. A lack of exercise and neglect in grooming are together responsible for many serious conditions about the legs and feet of the big, lymphatic draft stallions, especially those with much coarse feather. The grooming must not be so rough nor severe as to cause irritation either of the skin or temper, but it should be thorough, with special care taken to keep all parts clean and free from any foulness. TIIE BROOD MARE We have as yet no definite information to show that. the parent of either sex has any special influence in determining the char- acter of the offspring apart from what is governed by prepo- tency. The relative influence of sire and dam is apparently in favor of the sire because the female line is so often lost or un- traced. Many noted families, however, have been founded by females, and the evidence of Arab pedigrees, which have been traced through the dams for centuries, demonstrates the impor- tance of the mare. The dam is not only a source of hereditary transmission, like the sire, but she serves as a host to the developing fcetus. Selec- tion of the brood mare involves the same general consideration as selection of the stallion. Wer manifestation of sex character is found in a comparatively light forehand, a sweet, refined head THE BREEDING OF HORSES 199 and neck, and a matronly appearance throughout (Fig. 123). In order to sustain the growth of the foetus well, she should be deep-ribbed and roomy, and somewhat more openly made, with more length, than is desirable in the stallion, She should pos- sess every indication of capacity and vigor (Fig. 124). Care and Management of the Brood Mare.—The feed, work, and care, at and after foaling, are of greatest importance in con- Fic. 123.—A producer—sweet, refined, and feminine. nection with the mare. Food and exercise, together, so regulate the condition of the mare as to determine success or failure in the production of a foal. It is a matter of give and take between them. A balance is manifested by the condition which is indi- cative of the greatest activity of the vital functions, @.e., vigor, expressed in the clear eye, the sleek coat, and the keen appetite which the feeder describes as “ hearty,” together with a general evidence of nerve and muscle tone. The mare in this condition 200 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING \ will carry no superfluous flesh, but is herself sufficiently well nourished to insure ample nutriment for the perfect development of the foal. The ideal conditions for the brood mare, namely those in which the balance between feed and exercise is most easily main- tained and the feed of the best sort secured, are those surround- ing mares at pasture. Fresh air and sunshine, without exposure, Fie. 124.—A brood mare of proven worth, deep-ribbed and roomy, with every indication of capacity and vigor. freedom to move about at will, with little danger of slips or fatigue, and an abundance of nutritious, succulent forage, fur- nishing the elements essential to the growth of the foal and the production of milk by the dam, are the things nature has pro- vided at the season of the year when most females naturally bring forth their young. These can hardly be improved upon, and if they must be modified or substituted on account of economy, they should still be the standard by which other systems are measured. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 201 However, the average farmer must either breed his working mares or work his brood mares. The question which confronts him is how to secure natural conditions for his mares while per- forming artificial service. It must be borne in mind that feed furnishes energy and tissue-forming material, and that the performance of work re- quires energy and uses up tissue. Thus the balance between them is maintained. The mare at work is just as well off, in the matter of exercise, fresh air, and sunshine, as the one at pasture, but she has imposed upon her labor which demands more energy and uses more tissue-building material. She is also subject to fatigue, mechanical injuries, and nervous disturbances that never come to the mare at pasture. Exercise and Work.—In general, the management of the brood mare should have for its object the feeding of such a ration as will supply the demand for energy and tissue and still allow ample nourishment for the development of the foal, either before or after birth, together with such a regulation of the work as will protect the mare from becoming tired, overheated, or in- jured in any way. She must not be fretted either by another horse or by a rough hand, while heavy, jerky pulls, extreme speed, rough saddle work, or jumping are to be strictly prohibited as pregnancy advances. But to work a mare up to within a month of foaling and then confine her in a stall with no exercise whatever is almost as injurious as to begin working her hard after ten months’ rest, following breeding. It is not unusual for mares to foal, successfully, while in the field at work, but it is safer to gradually diminish the work, so that during the last few weeks of pregnancy only the lightest work is done or exercise in the yard is taken. Avoid Extremes.—It is a peculiar fact that, while the two extremes in condition are both unfavorable to breeding, statistics indicate that the birth rate among nations has shown a marked increase following devastation by war and famine, conditions of life in which the females become reduced to the extreme of low condition. This would seem to be in response to a natural law for the preservation of the race, and should not be taken to 202 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING indicate that starvation and extremely low condition are favor- able to reproduction. It is true that a thin mare is more apt to breed than a pampered one, but a mare in low condition has no reserve on which to draw for the nourishment and growth of her colt. Her whole system is in an impoverished condition, which must be corrected before the nutrients will be available for the growth of the foal. Feeding—The quality of the ration is of as much impor- tance as the quantity. Fat production is to be avoided, and the formation of blood, muscle, and bone sought instead. IIence, a comparatively narrow ration should be fed. The tendency of females to fatten as pregnancy advances must.be guarded, as mares may become so fat as to interfere with the development of the foal, and cause abortion or trouble at birth. Just before and after foaling, the ration of the dam should be lightened and made more laxative by the addition of bran, either dry or in a mash, to be continued until both dam and foal have fully recovered from the ordeal through which they have just passed. After Foaling.—Exercise should be permitted after the sys- tem of the mare has readjusted itself, but regular work should not be begun inside of three weeks. It is better not to work the mare until the foal is weaned. THE FOAL Navel Infection and Impaction of the Bowels in Young Foals.—Thcre are two active causes of death in young foals, a better understanding of which might materially reduce the fatalities ordinarily reported during the foaling season. One, perhaps the most common, is due to an impaction in the bowels of the excrement accumulated during the development prior to birth. This material is called meconium, and its prompt re- moval is essential to the well-being of the new born animal. Nature has provided for the accomplishment of this by giving to the fore-milk or colostrum, as it is called, purgative properties. Thus, if Nature’s plans are not interfered with and the first THE BREEDING OF HORSES 203 milk is taken, there is usually no trouble in clearing the bowels after birth. However, the dam may have some trouble with her milk at first, or the young, through weakness, may not get a good draft of fore-milk ; in some cases even, care is taken to draw off the colostrum before the young thing suckles, in the belief that it is unfit to be taken; and the colt suffers accordingly. In order to avoid the difficulties arising from this cause, the first care should be to insure a good portion of the fore-milk for the young creature, Then if, from any cause, the digestive tract has not been cleared of its contents within twenty-four hours, the bowels must be stimulated to action by a tablespoonful of castor oi] and a warm water injection. The other cause of many deaths in young animals is infec- tion with pus and disease germs through the navel. At the moment the umbilical cord is ruptured there is a direct commu- nication from without to some of the vital internal organs and blood of the foal. This opening is later closed naturally by the swelling and final drying and sloughing off of the end of the cord, There is thus a brief opportunity for the entrance of bacteria which may later affect the system generally or locally and produce serious results. It has been satisfactorily demonstrated that the so-called navel or joint ill, in foals, is due to organisms entering through this channel. Tf this affection has prevailed in a stable it would be well to remove pregnant mares to clean, uninfected quarters and allow them to foal there. The new-born foal should be dropped only on fresh litter, and it would be safer to wash the stump of the cord with a saturated solution of boracie acid and then dust with borie acid powder. These precautions have been the means of eradicating the difficulty from many stables where deaths had occurred year after year. It is not advisable to cut or ligate the cord, but allow it to break naturally, as it will do if left alone. A torn or broken blood-vessel will not bleed, whereas, one that is cut directly across will, and it takes a skilled hand and sterilized materials to make a ligature that will not do more harm than good. If it were more generally known that the newly broken umbilical cord 204 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING offers a channel of infection which may admit the most danger- ous bacteria, more care would be taken to prevent such infection. During the existence of the colt as a suckling some especial precautions must be taken in addition to those already men- tioned. The milk flow must be maintained by succulent forage, the colt must be fed often, and the dam must at no time be in such a condition as to render the milk injurious to the foal. Most breeders advise leaving the colt in the stable while the dam is at work, but others allow the colt to follow the dam to the field. The objection to the former method is that unless the mare is returned at least once during each half day the colt becomes very hungry, and when the mare comes to him sweat- ing he gorges himself on the milk with which the udder is dis- tended. This milk is often rendered injurious by the heated condition of the mare, and it thus becomes a cause of serious digestive disorder, especially when so much is taken. It is a good thing to encourage the colt, as it grows older, to take a few oats, preferably crushed, from its mother’s allowance, or a creep may be especially constructed for the foal to feed in. If two mares and foals are allowed together, the youngsters will form an attachment for each other which will prove of great service in reconciling them to the weaning process. The Next Breeding.— Observations have shown that a mare may be bred with greater certainty of success on the ninth day after foaling than at any subsequent date. It is also known that mares which have their sexual ardor somewhat suppressed by a moderate degree.of fatigue are more apt to conceive than mares in an extremely nervous condition at the time of service. It is for this purpose that the Arab gives his mare a sharp run just prior to service. Breeding Two-Year-Old Fillies—The advisability of breeding fillies at two years of age is an economic question which is frequently considered, and concerning which there is a great deal of difference of opinion. It may be said, in the first place, that it all depends upon the filly. Horses of draft breeding mature much earlier than the hot-blooded sort, so that a THE BREEDING OF HORSES 205 draft filly at two years of age is often as forward as one of trotting breeding almost or fully a year older. Again, there is a great difference in individuals and their development. Usually a smoothly turned, neat, well-finished youngster makes its growth much sooner than an apparently rougher but more growthy indi- vidual, although as a rule the latter attains, eventually, to much greater scale. Furthermore, the same individual may develop in much less time in the hands of the feeder who keeps her con- tinually “doing” than when required to make all her growth on pasture, with a material setback due to improper feeding each winter season. It does not seem feasible to include in this discussion any but the well-matured draft filly, she being the enly one which should, under any circumstances, be bred as a two-year-old. It is not reasonable to suppose that, from the point of view of the filly herself, early breeding is beneficial, but as a business propo- sition it has been demonstrated that, whatever slight injurious effect the filly may suffer, it is not sufficient to offset the advan- tage of having her make some return, as a three-year-old, to the man who has his money invested and is paying for her keep. Tt is more satisfactory to have a two-year-old filly pay her way by raising a foal than by going to work in the field, as she is very much more apt. to suffer permanent injury from this than from being bred. Even though a great many two-year-olds are capable of doing a considerable amount of selected work, they cannot take the. full part of a horse’s work without danger of its becom- ing detrimental to their ultimate worth. The breeding of fillies is believed to insure their becoming better mothers and more certain and regular breeders, eventually, than though they be permitted to fully develop and become some- what “ staggy,” as they do occasionally, before being bred. Practice Elsewhere.—The best means of solving this prob- lem is to accept the findings of the other great horse-producing countries where it has been thoroughly worked out. In Scot- land, for instance, the practice is to breed the Clyde fillies the spring they are two years old, allowing them no work whatever that season. Then, after weaning their foals, they are taken up 206 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING as three-year-olds and put to work, but not bred again until they are tour years old. This seems to be a very practical system and worthy of our adoption. Spring or Fall Foaling.—The natural time for foals to ar- rive is the spring, and under ordinary conditions, especially in breeding studs, this is customary. However, nature is perverted in many ways by modern incthods of domestication, so there are circumstances which make it more desirable to raise fall colts. With good stables, abundance of feed, and the necessary help, there is no reason why mares should not be made to foal in the fall, if it is more convenicnt. to have them do so, This may be the case with farm mares which are expceted to do the season’s work in addition to raising a colt. In fact, if one is forced to choose between a spring foal, with no chance to properly favor the mare, and a fall colt which arrives and is suckled while the mare is laid by, the latter would be more desirable. During the winter, however, both mares and foals will require.more attention and should not be “ roughed through.” By late foaling the youngsters can be given a good start before they are set back by the inevitable short pastures and flies of midsummer. Of course, breeders of race and show horses take every ad- vantage of the age limit and therefore favor early foaling. There are also the unquestioned benefits to be derived from the life in the open and the new grass to commend the spring time for foaling, but prejudice against the fall date is not altogether warranted and cireumstances may be such as to make it most advantageous. Weaning the Foal——The foal is usually weaned at from four and one-half to six months of age, depending upon the cir- cumstances. If pasture is short, or if for any reason either mare or foal is not doing well, it is advisable to wean the foal com- paratively early. If, on the other hand, the mare has a full flow of milk and her services are not needed, there is no reason for making a change under six months. Weaning is.more a matter of preparation than of the absolute removal of the foal from THE BREEDING OF HORSES 207 the dam, and the simplicity of the weaning process itself depends upon the thoroughness of the preparation. If the proper provision is made for the foal to take more and more grain as he grows older, he will gradually reduce the amount of milk taken from his dam, so that when the time for weaning arrives very little if any setback or disturbance is caused either foal or dam. If, however, the foal must learn to eat after being deprived of his ordinary source of sustenance, he will require some time to accommodate himself to the new régime, while the mare will demand especial care on account of the removal of the colt before her milk supply has been to any ex- tent diminished. Furthermore, a little foal acquires a spirit of independence as he becomes self-sustaining, and for that reason the absence of the dam becomes a less disturbing factor to him, especially if he has the company of another foal, than to the young thing which has been entirely dependent upon its dam until she is suddenly taken away. When once the dam and foal are separated it is hetter for both if the separation is com- plete; if, after both have become reconciled to the parting, they are permitted to see, hear, or smell each other again, all that has been gained up to this time is lost, and it will be necessary to begin over. Especial care should be taken to see that the new quarters, where the weanlings are confined, are so constructed and arranged as to make it impossible for them to injure them- selves, in case they make a demonstration of their resentment at being so treated. Care of the Colt’s Feet.—The relation between the direction of the colt’s legs and the form of his feet is so close as to make the care of the latter a most important means of enhancing his usefulness in later years. In the first place, the natural attitude of the leg determines, in large part, the form of the foot. But, on the other hand, the natural attitude of the leg may become altered to conform to an unnatural condition of the foot resulting from neglect. Therefore, if the natural attitude of the leg is correct, the natural form of the foot should be guarded in order to preserve the correct position of the leg. It is even 208 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING possible, within certain limits, to so shape a colt’s foot as to induce correction of some defect in the position of the legs which existed at birth. For example, the horse which stands toe wide, nigger heeled, or splay footed as it is commonly called, will have the inner wall of his foot much shorter and more upright than the outer wall. The condition is probably due primarily to the position of the legs, the foot at birth appearing normal. If, however, the animal had been born with the legs straight, but for some reason during the first few months of his life the outer wall of his foot had been allowed to become longer than the inner wall, this unnatural form of the foot would tend to bring about a toe wide position of the legs which were originally straight. Or, if the feet of a toe wide colt had been kept in proper form, they would have influenced the toe wide legs to assume a proper direction, Tlorses become unsound of limb when the wear and tear is not equally distributed, certain parts bearing an undue amount. Equal distribution of weight bearing and other functional activ- ities are possible only when the form of the foot and the direc- tion of the leg are correct. Any deviation from the proper standing position of whatever degree will, in all probability, cause a proportionate overtaxing of certain parts with its result- ing unsoundness. Handling the Foal—It is much easier to train the young plant or to mold the clay before they are set in some definite form. In the same way the young animal, and notably the horse, has fewer ideas of his own, and is more ready to accept the direc- tions of a superior intelligence the younger this work is taken up. The too common notion that education and work are insepar- able is largely responsible for the fact that so many colts are allowed to assert their independence until such time as they are fit to go to work, their general usefulness being in most cases impaired on this account. The horse should be reasonably -ma- ture before he is called upon to do any service, but any time spent on his education prior to the date at which he first goes into commission, as it were, will be repaid many-fold in the more satisfactory manner in which he performs his service. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 209 The profit and pleasure to be derived from the use of a horse of any class are so dependent upon his being readily subservient to his master’s will that the earlier this spirit is created the better horse he will be. A common custom in the Middle West is to take the unbroken two- or three-year-old, put him between two or three other horses to the gang plow, and thus “ break” him. He pulls when the others pull, makes the turns when they do, and finally becomes of about as much service at that work as the other horses in the team, but he is not broken. Take him by himself and he will not stand, back, lead, rein, or allow a foot to be picked up without as much or more resistance than was offered before the breaking process began. Subordination.—Little foals should be taught subordination at the very start, and not allowed to become wilful or head- strong. An early effort in this direction will not only simplify that culmination of their education, too often most properly termed ‘ breaking,” but it will insure that end being more com- pletely accomplished. On the other hand, the idea of fear must be kept as remote as possible, as the timid horse is usually the one which has some terrifying experience to remember. Even before the time for haltering arrives, the youngsters may be taught to stand over, have their feet raised, and in a general way to respond to the master mind. Halter Breahking.—When halters are to be placed on the colts in order that they may become accustomed to them, one of the light web variety is preferable to the heavier strap halter commonly used, and care should be taken not to pull heavily on the nose band at any time. Many deformed face lines have been caused by this means. It is not necessary to drag a colt by the halter in order to suggest to him that his business is to follow. As a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder a colt is pulled, the harder he pulls back. Tf, on the contrary, he is coaxed along some accustomed route, as to the water trough and back, he will soon catch on and follow promptly whenever the halter is taken in hand. The first time the colt is tied up by the head, see to it that the halter will hold him in case he pulls. If it does and he fails in 14 ' 210 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING the first few attempts, a string will probably serve as well as a chain to keep him in his place thereafter, while if he succeeds in freeing himself at the first few attempts he will never cease trying to repeat what he has once accomplished. Bridle and Harness.—The first step toward getting a colt going successfully in harness is to properly bit and mouth him. In the old countries a common practice is to back the colt into a slip stall and hold him there by cross-ties snapped in the bit rings. Ie thus works against the iron, first bearing, then vield- ing, until he becomes accustomed to its presence and the pressure exerted by it. The dumb jockey or more simple bitting ring, commonly used here, serves much the same purpose, but no mechanical device is as effective as the pressure of the hand on the rein; better mouths are made in this way. One of the most effectiveways of developing a good mouth in a colt and of teaching him to flex his neck is by riding him as soon as he is old enough to be “ backed.” Many of the best harness horses received much of their preliminary schooling from the saddle. Inasmuch as the conveyance of the master’s thought to the horse’s mind, for execution, is via hands, reins, bit, and mouth, no progress can be made and none should be attempted until this fundamental means of communication has been established. Simple physical power is a poor means of control when applied to the horse. On the contrary, control is a matter which involves to a greater extent the mental faculties of both horse and master. If he has been inspired from colthood with the idea of man’s dominance, obedience will receive a great deal more consideration from him than will rebellion. While teaching the horse subordination by leading him to underestimate certain of his powers, it is also essential that he be made to believe that there is no limit to certain others. In the breaking process the kick strap should not be left off until the habit has been acquired, nor should any pains be spared to prevent an initial performance at either rearing, backing, wheel- ing, or running. On the other hand, it is just as important not to overload a pair of draft colts, with a view of creating in them the notion that they can pull anything with two ends loose. For THE BREEDING OF HORSES 211 the same reason a prospective race horse should be given no occasion to believe that he is anything but invincible. Thus by exaggerating our equine servant’s notion of those of his powers which are most useful to us, and at the same time deceiving him as to those attributes which, if realized, might impair his use- fulness, we promote his serviceability. It is not necessary here to discuss the various systems of breaking, nor the art of driving. The idea is simply to impress upon the breeder the importance of properly handling the colts and fillies which he has bred. At all events, give them a liberal education and begin early. Then, when the buyer comes along, the colt so handled is more likely to sell well for three reasons: (1) He is worth more; (2) the owner has a better opportunity to show the colt off to his own advantage, presenting him with the best foot forward, as it were; and (3) the buyer has a much better chance to observe the real merit that he possesses, STERILITY Sterility is the cause of considerable loss to horse breeders annually. Since actual test in the stud is the only means of de- termining its existence, large prices may be paid for breeding animals which prove utterly useless for that purpose. Some knowledge of the causes of sterility may enable the breeder to guard against the purchase of barren animals, to prevent it in his breeding stock, or to regain the breeding power of animals in which it is temporarily impaired. Sterility may be either permanent or temporary, and involves both sexes. Permanent sterility is usually congenital, the result of an incomplete or abnormal development of the generative organs. Temporary sterility is caused by injuries or disease affecting the genital system, or such general constitutional con- ditions as may result from a change of environment, either ex- treme obesity or general debility, and excessive use in the stud. Sterility in the stallion may consist either of an inability or an indisposition to serve a mare; or that operation may be accom- plished but with no resulting impregnation on account of the 212 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING absence of live, vigorous spermatozoa. Sterility of the latter class may be complete or only partial, as when the breeding powers are impaired but not lost. Double eryptorchids, in which both testicles are retained undeveloped in the abdomen, are usu- ally sterile, while single cryptorchids (ridglings), in which one testicle only is involved, may be sure breeders. The latter are objectionable as sires, however, since the condition is frequently transmitted, thereby seriously complicating the operation of castration. Many instances are reported of imported stallions which have had successful stud seasons abroad proving impotent the first year or two in this country, after which their potency is regained, Stallions remain potent to an old age as a rule. Many valu- able sires are sacrificed just as their true worth is beginning to be appreciated, because they are growing old. Experienced breeders who retain their proven sires find them potent to an advanced age and much more valuable than many untried young stallions prove to be. Most stallions are sold with a guarantee to get 60 per cent of brecdable mares in foal, but a much higher percentage is maintained by some. Sterility or barrenness of the mare consists of an inability to produce a living colt. She may either be unable to conceive, to carry the foal the full period of foetal development, or to de- liver the foal alive at the conclusion of gestation. Some mares are so irritable or excitable in the presence of the stallion as to make it necessary to resort to artificial impreg- nation in order to get them bred. If a twelve- or fourteen-year-old mare has never had a foal, her generative organs have probably undergone more or less atrophy from disuse, and the possibility of getting her with foal is much lessened. There are numerous instances, however, of quite old mares having become pregnant for the first time. Mares frequently suffer from cysts or tumors of the ovaries, the irrita- tion of which keeps them almost continually in heat and renders them practically useless, yet they fail to get in foal, when bred. Such mares should be spayed and considered as work geldings rather than brood mares. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 213 Extensive breeders of imported mares have experienced con- siderable difficulty in getting some of them in foal the first season or two after their arrival unless they were in foal when brought over; others breed as readily as native mares. Occasionally a mare is encountered which breeds only every other year. Others will not come in season, or at least conceive, while suckling a foal. It is usually more difficult to get mares in foal in the fall than in the spring. The age to which mares will continue to breed is variable, but many have remained pro- ductive after passing the quarter century mark. Their breeding power declines gradually, being marked by occasional misses, occurring with increased frequency. A mare which produces a good foal regularly is of priceless value in the breeding stud. When an apparently valuable breeder, although not in foal at the time, is offered for sale, it is safe to assume that she has proven herself barren or at least a shy breeder, unless, of course, there are other obviously good reasons to account for her being sold. Hermaphrodites, individuals in which the sexual organs of both sexes are more or less completely represented, are, of course, sterile, Reproduction is a natural function which requires simply a normal state of health and vigor for its accomplishment. The stallion does not need the artificial stimulation of drugs to in- sure his potency, neither can there be any virtue in “ breeding remedies ” for mares, other than that they may, like any anti- septic preparation, overcome acidity or correct a catarrhal con- dition in the genital tract. When intelligent management of breeding animals, insuring, especially, a balance between feed and exercise, fails, it is probable that breeding is either structurally or functionally impossible. COST OF RAISING HORSES Reports have been received from about ten thousand cor- respondents of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture upon the cost of raising colts on farms to the age 214 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING of three years. The average for the United States is found to be $104.06; or, if we deduct the value of work done by the horse before he has passed his third year, namely, $7.52, the net cost is $96.54; this is 70.9 per cent of the selling value ($136.17) of such horses. The cost varies widely by States, from an average of $69.50 for New Mexico, $71.59 for Wyoming, and $82.47 for Texas, to $156.60 for Rhode Island, $149.98 for Connecticut, and $141.80 for Massachusetts. Itemized, the cost is made up as follows: Service fee, $12.95 ; value of time lost by mare in foaling, $10.06; breaking to halter, $2.22; veterinary service, $2.04; care and shelter, first year, $4.98 ; second year, $5.36; third year, $6.35; cost of grain fed, first year, $4.98; second year, $7.14; third year, $9.56; hay, first year, $4.14; second year, $6.61; third year, $8.48; pasture, first year, $2.56; second year, $5.41; third year, $6.21; other costs, $5.01; total, $104.06, The total cost foy all feed is $56.30, being $21.68 for grain, $19.23 for hay, $14.18 for pasture, and $1.21 for other feeds. The total cost of care and shelter is $16.69. Of the total cost, 54 per cent is charged to feeds, 16 per cent to care and shelter, and 30 per cent to other items, as enumerated above. As more than half the cost of raising a three-year-old horse on the farm is chargeable to feeds, it is readily observed how important is the influence of variation in prices of feedstuffs upon such cost. REVIEW . Deseribe the forces involved in breeding. . What is the relation of the parent to the ancestry on the one hand and the progeny on the other? 3. Explain the greater breeding value of the pure-bred parent. What is the pedigree? . What is meant by prepotency and upon what may it depend? . What are the objections to cross-breeding and when is it justifiable ? . What is the importance of studbook registration? . What are the objects of stallion legislation? . Why is “pure bred” an arbitrary term? . When may an unsoundness be considered hereditary? ray Lo SANA oe 10. 11. 12. . Deseribe the ideal brood mare and direct her care and management. 14, 15. THE BREEDING OF HORSES 215 Name the advantages of the community system of breeding. Of what does the proper equipment of a breeding stud consist? Describe the ideal sire and direct his care and management. What can be said of breeding two-year-old fillies; of fall foaling? What should the proper care of the foal from birth to marketable age include and how much should it cost? PART IV THE HORSE IN SERVICE CHAPTER XIII RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER History.—The first reference to the domesticated horse is in the Book of Genesis, Chapter xii, verse +3, and records him in use by the Egyptians in Joseph’s time, 1715 bec. Modern research, however, leads us to believe that the Egyptians derived their horses and ideas of horsemanship from the Libyans, the people of the other division of the Hamitie branch of the white race inhabiting Northern Africa and with whom the Egyptians were frequently brought in contact. From this centre the general distribution of horses throughout Arabia, Asia Minor, Asia, and Europe was accomplished with greater rapidity than has marked the advance in the domestication of any other animal. Con- trary to a popular belief, there were no horses in Arabia at the beginning of the Christian Era. The horse has been and is yet, in primitive countries, preceded as a beast of burden by the dog, camel, ox, and ass. Recently archeologists have unearthed evidence that the horse not only existed but was subjugated to the service of man in the Old Stone Age, when men lived in caves, worked and fought with implements and weapons of stone of most crude design, and were supposed to have domesticated only the dog and the reindeer. The first use made of the horse was in warfare. The war chariot has been regarded as a creation of the Egyptians, but it is believed now that the design was borrowed from the Libyans. Later, the war horses were ridden, and hand-to-hand combat with spear or lance and shield was waged by their riders, although at first the horses served only for the transportation of the com- batants to the field of battle, where they dismounted and fought on foot. With the adoption of armor, the size of the horse was materially increased, in order that he might be capable of carry- ing the gross weight of rider and armor both for man and horse. 219 220 THE HORSE IN SERVICE With the invention of gunpowder the type of war horse was modified in accordance with the change in methods of warfare. Our modern cavalry charger is quite a different horse from the ancient “‘ Great Horse ” of the armored knight, which eventually became the prototype of our present drafter. In ancient times it was customary for the victors in a con: flict to drive their chariots through the towns in celebration of their victory, a practice now emulated by college students. This led to the adoption of the chariot as a feature not allied to war but representing the Church and State. White horses were pre- ferred for this service, and a race of white horses was perpetu- ated in Lombardy and the purity of their lineage was guarded with great zeal solely for this purpose. The horse has been an important factor in civil and religious ceremonies ever since. At an early period the horse was engaged in the sports and pastimes of the people. During the latter half of the twelfth century primitive horse sports, the most remote antecedents of modern polo and the gymkhana, were popular in England. In 1877 the first race was run between Richard Second and the Earl of Arundel. Racing and hunting have been followed in England for five centuries. The general use of horses in the industries came later, although there is evidence of their having worked at draft in England during the eleventh century. Their importance in this line of service has increased in proportion to the development of agriculture and commerce, Man’s Obligation to the Horse in Service.—The horse is an involuntary, dependent party of the second part to all contracts; a silent and submissive partner in his alliance with his master. Theirs is a business relation in which the credits are all on one side, the debits on the other, and the horse is never accorded an accounting. Yet if the master would be fair and equitable, he must either concede a moral if not a civil obligation to pay for services rendered, or exact only such service as his care and management of his horses has placed to his credit. In the feral state the horse is self-sustaining, expending his energy by utilizing his power or speed in securing feed, water, RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 221 and protection from the elements and predatory foes; under natural conditions such expenditure may be considerable. In Domestication.—The husbandman, with his syste of domestication, substitutes an artificial for a natural environ- ment, relieving the horse of all responsibility in the matter of feed, water, and protection, conserving to himself the energy that would otherwise be expended for that purpose. There is thus made available to the husbandman energy for work of whatever character the horse is capable, and to just the extent that energy has been saved. To balance the account, horses working up to their full capacity must be furnished all that is required for their subsistence and comfort; to underfeed or overwork is to overdraw the account, and against one who has not the usual privilege of protest. Economic efficiency of the horse in service is more essential now than ever before, on account of the high cost of feedstuffs and the continued improvement in the motor vehicles with which the horse is in competition. Two men may ride or drive the same horse or team over the same route with the same load and in the same time, yet there will be a marked difference in the condition of their horses after having accomplished the same task. This difference is due to a more intelligent use of the available motive power in the one case than in the other. If the various ways in which energy may be expended in the performance of work were more care- fully taken into account, both the period of usefulness and the daily capacity of the average horse would be much increased. A Horse’s Capacity for Work.—The unit of measurement by which work is expressed is the foot. pound or the foot ton, 2.e., the power required to lift a weight of one pound or one ton to a height of one foot against the force of gravity. The energy re- quired to do work equivalent to 33,000 foot pounds per minute constitutes a horse-power. This estimate of a horse’s power is not literally correct, however, but exceeds the capacity for work of the average horse by about one-third. Horses have been forced, experimentally, to do the equiva- lent of 7800 foot tons in a day, but that is far in excess of their normal capacity, as shown by the marked loss in weight which 222 THE HORSE IN SERVICE attended such efforts. Three thousand foot tons has been fixed by Col. Fred Smith, Veterinary Department, English Army,* as a reasonable daily requirement of the horse, in work. This amounts, in actual performance, to: , Distance travelled. Walking at 3 miles an hour for 8.7 hours...... 26 miles Walking at 4 miles an hour for 5.3 hours...... 21 miles Walking at 5 miles an hour for 3.7 hours...... 18 miles Trotting at 8 miles an hour for 1.5 hours...... 12 miles Cantering at 11 miles an:hour for 1 ......... 11 miles The same authority has determined a horse’s maximum muscular exertion to be GS to 78 per cent of his body weight, as registered by his pull on the dynamometer, not on the load. Such a pull, however, could be exerted but a few seconds, as in the starting of a very heavy load. The walking draft of a horse is given by Xing t as about 50 per cent of his body weight, while for a steady, continuous pull a draft of from one-eighth to one-tenth of his own weight is all that can be expected. The weight-carrying capacity of a horse as reported by Smith is from one-fifth to one-sixth his weight, at severe exertion. If the pace-is more moderate the weight carricd may be increased. The weight carried is expressed in England by stone—one stone being fourteen pounds. The factors determining the severity of a horse’s work are the draft. of the load, the pace at which the load is hauled or ear- ried, and the duration of the period of work, Draft of the Load.—The traction required to move a load is dependent upon the following conditions, acording to King: 1. The extent to which the pull is opposed ly the force of gravity. The increase in the draft required to move a load up hill is proportionate to the increase in the grade. A 10 per cent ve increases the draft. 10 per cent. of the load. . The resistance offered by the road-bed to the wheel. This is nae when the road is smooth and hard; greatest. when rough or yielding. Rough roads impose a series of obstacles over which * Veterinary Hygiene. T Agricultural Physies. RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 223 the wheel must travel, while the depression of a soft road surface by the wheel creates a grade up which the wheel is continually being drawn, in effect, the degree of the grade being proportion- ate to the depth to which the wheel cuts. Experiments have shown that the traction of a given load over a common road is from three to five times as great as in the case of a well- paved surface. 3. Friction of the box on the axle. The degree of friction depends, primarily, upon the weight of the load, but may be modified by the style and condition of the axle and bearings. 4. Width of the tire. On the ordinary road the wide tire reduces the necessary draft by distributing the weight borne by the wheel over a greater area of road surface, thereby reducing the tendency of the wheel to cut into the roadway and giving the effect of a hard road, with its advantages. In an unusually soft or muddy road the wide tire may be a disadvantage. The saving in draft of as much as 120 per cent has been effected by the use of a six-inch tire instead of a one and one-half inch tire on ordinary going. 5. Size of wheel. It has already been shown that the de- pression of the road by the wheel results in that wheel being con- tinually pulled up a.grade, the steepness of which is in inverse proportion to the diameter of the whecl. Furthermore, the la- bility of the wheel to cut is in direct proportion to its diameter. The larger the wheel the greater the base of support for the load and the less the tendency to depress. Therefore, the smaller the wheel the greater the draft. Also, the greater the diameter of the wheel the more easily it is lifted over the obstacles which the rough surfaces of some roads present (Fig. 125). 6. The distribution of the load on the wagon. When only part of a load is carried it is customary with teamsters to place ‘it well forward ‘on the wagon for obvious reasons, but when a full load is put on it should be so distributed as to balance and divide the weight equally on all four corners, if the wheels are of equal size, or if the hind wheels are somewhat larger, as is usually the case, more weight should be allowed on the rear axle. Lightening the load forward has the advantage of per- mitting a certain amount of play in the front axle over rough 224 THE HORSE IN SERVICE going. If the load is not evenly distributed, whichever wheel or wheels are overloaded cut more deeply into the road-bed, thus increasing the draft as described above. Furthermore, by the cutting in of one or more wheels the weight of the load is shifted in that direction, which increases the degree of the cutting still deeper. 7. The line of draft. Asa general principle the line of draft should be parallel to the direction in which the wheels travel. On an absolutely unyielding surface this plane is parallel to the general surface of the roadway, hence the draw bars on railway ears and locomotives line up parallel with the rails. The ordi- nary wagon, however, is hauled over surfaces more or less yield- ing, consequently, allowing for the depression of the wheels, T D C Fia. 125.—The draft acting in the line A B pulls on a bent lever, B C D, raising the weight which may be considered as concentrated at D. The longer the arm B C and the shorter the arm C D, the more easily will the draft raise the weight of the wheel and for the same sized obstacle the larger wheel will evidently have the advantage. In the figure the lines of draft make the same angle with the radius-arm of the lever. If the lines of draft are parallel, the advantage of the larger wheel is still greater. they are really travelling more or less up hill at an angle with the apparent surface of the road. There should, therefore, be a corresponding slant in the line of draft, to avoid pulling down upon or against the incline of the depressed surface. The ad- justment of the line of draft is governed by the length of the traces, on the one hand, and the height of their attachment at both hame and single-tree, on the other. In making such adjustment it should be borne in mind that, other things being equal, the traction is less the nearer the team is to its load. 8. Attachment of traces to hames. Whatever adjustment of traces is made for the purpose of giving the proper line of draft, it should not interefere with the angle which this line RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER 225 forms with the hames. With a properly fitted collar, the pull should be as near as possible at right angles to the line of resist- ance, the hames, in order that the collar may bear directly against the shoulder, and not be borne down upon the withers nor up against the trachea. Furthermore, the height on the hames at which the attachment of the traces is made should be such as to distribute the bearing proportionately over the collar- bed, and allow the greatest freedom of shoulder motion. If attached too high the greatest weight is borne on that part of the collar-bed which is least capable of sustaining it, while if attached too low, as is more commonly the case, the point of the shoulder is overworked as well as being seriously hampered in its movement, (Fig. 126). 9. The fit of the collar. While not directly influencing the degree of traction required to move a load, it has much to do with the application of the power by which the load is pulled. A horse’s draft capacity is very often seriously impaired by his inability to exert himself to the limit against an ill-fitting collar. It is far easier to keep shoulders right than to restore them to that condition once they have gone wrong. The collar should be so well made as to retain its shape in use; it should be perfectly smooth and quite hard on its bearing surface, sweat pads more often inducing than correcting shoulder ills; it should conform to the general shape of the forehand of the horse, draft horses, with their comparatively low but muscular withers, requiring ample width at this point; and it should fit in such a way as to insure the best relation between the collar itself and those structures constituting the collar-bed with which it comes in contact (Fig. 127).