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THE GIFT OF

U.S. Dept. of Labor Lib.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
REPORT OF COMMISSION

ON

OCCUPATIONAL
DISEASES

TO

HIS EXCELLENCY

GOVERNOR CHARLES S. DENEEN

©

JANUARY, 1911
WARNER PRINTING
COMPANY
367 S. Clark St., Chicago

 
Tehleat Conhete

PAGE
I. Report of Commission . , : ; é 4 3 5
Il. Reports of Investigators . ; ; 4 ; ‘ ~ el.
1. Dr. Hamilton : ‘ ‘ ‘ : 3 i 21
General . . : oo ae. el
Smelting and refining ; ‘ ; 25
Metallic lead : ; : : : ; . ef
Printing trade ‘ , . ; 28
Plumbers’ trade . ; ; 5 ; : . 30
White lead works . : ; : 31
Manufacture of dry colors » 85
Paint houses . ; , : : j : 36
Painting trade. : ; j . 36
Mechanical artists . ; : ; ? 38
Litho-Transfer works ; ‘ ; 3 . 40
Storage batteries. ; 40
Putty powder, cut glass, clazes ‘and enamels . 42
Rubber, tinware, glass, etc : 5 : : 43
Arsenic , ; ‘ : 4 ; : . AT
- 2, Dr. Hayhurst ; : ; ; ; . ; 49
Brass chills, etc.
_ 2a. R. H. Nicholls ; ; : : : ; . 84
‘Turpentine.
3. Dr. W. S. Haines j : : : , 88
Carbon monoxide poisoning : . oc. 88
Use of cyanide by photo-engravers . : 97
Silvering mirrors, etc : ‘ p : . 98
Dr. M. Karasek ' : : ; ; : 96
Mrs. M. Karasek : ‘ 4 ‘ 5 . 96
Metol in photusraphy : : 3 ; ; 96
Dr. G. L. Apfelbach ; ‘ . . . . 88
4. Dr. Peter Bassoe . ; : ' ; ‘ 99
Compressed Air Disease . , ; . . 99
5. Dr. George E. Shambaugh . 5 : ¥ ‘ 150
Boilermakers’ deafness ‘ . ; 4 . 154
6. Dr. F. Lane : ‘ : ; ; . : 155
Dr. J. B. Ellis. i : ; ‘ , , . 155
Miners’ Nystagmus : 4 ; ; : 155
lI. Legal.
1. Bills for amendment of present law. ; : . 157
IV. Instructions and Warnings . ‘ : . ‘ ‘ 165
V. Appendix.
1. Provisions of protective laws in states of the union... 173
2. Protective legislation in the Wanted Stakes : ' 208
Phosphorus |. | !.' F i . : i : 215

‘ i Bok
fs

anes «| POET
OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
REPORT OF COMMISSION

His EXCELLENCY, GOVERNOR CHARLES S. DENEEN.

Sir: The Commission on Occupational Diseases appointed by you
has the honor to offer the following report:

I. The Joint Resolution of the Legislature and the Subsequent
Acts.

The Commission was created by House Joint Resolution No. 16,
Forty-fifth General Assembly, in the following terms:

Wuereas, The limited time at the disposal of the present session
of the General Assembly is insufficient to take up, much less consider
carefully, the important subject of occupational diseases and diseases
peculiar to the employment of persons in mercantile establishments,
factories, mills, workshops, mining,. railroading, electrical generating
and construction; and,

Wuergas, The health and safety of the vast army of employes (in
such establishments) is_of the most vital importance to the general
security and prosperity of the commonwealth; and,

_ Wuerzas, It_is well known that sickness, due to unwholesome
conditions, is one of the chief causes of extreme poverty and distress, of

the interruption of the use of costly machinery and other capital, of the
estruction of the lives of the men whose energies in health are a source
of wealth to the nation and the support of dependent families, and thus
become the occasion of immeasurable moral misery in the dread of
apprehended trouble and the sorrow of actual bereavement; and,

Wuernas, It is well known that very much of disease may be
prevented or diminished by suitable means and co-operation of an
enlightened public; and,

Wuereas, It is universally recognized _as the moral duty of every
ivilized state to secure and_ publish i tion of vital importance to
all citizens to promote safety and health, and to foster and regulate
insurance against loss of income by accident and disease; there, be it

Resolved by the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring
herein, That the Governor is hereby authorized and requested to appoint
a commission of nine members to be composed of the State Factory
Inspector, the secretary of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the president
and secretary of the State Board of Health, two reputable physicians
and three other representative citizens of the State, who shall serve with-
out remuneration, and whose duties shall be to thoroughly investigate
causes and conditions relating .to diseases of occupation, and to report

 

 
to the Governor the draft of any desirable bill or bills, designed to
meet the purposes announced in this resolution, for consideration and
action by the members of the Forty-sixth General Assembly.

Adopted by the House March 12, 1907.

Concurred in by the Senate March 20, 1907.

The Commission had not time after its appointment to conduct the
investigation before the date named; therefore the Forty-sixth General
Assembly continued its activity by House Joint Resolution No. 26, which
provided :

“That said Occupational Diseases Commission so appointed by the
Governor and it is hereby perpetuated, and the time given said Com-
mission for its investigation is hereby extended until the next regular
session of the General Assembly of the State of Illinois, at which time
it is directed to make its report.” (Session Laws, 1909, p. 488.)

The General Assembly, at its special session, by an Act approved and
in force February 18, 1910, enlarged the purposes for which the fifteen
thousand dollars appropriation made at the regular session might be
used. (Page 77 Session Laws of Illinois for 1909.)

Houssz Brit No. 730. APPROVED JUNE 16, 1909.

AN ACT to provide for the ordinary and contingent expenses of: the
State Government until the expiration of the fiscal quarter after
the adjournment of the next regular session of the General Assembly.

Sixty-ninth: To the Commission on Occupational Diseases, for
printing, stationery, postage, telegraphing, stenographers, railroad fare
and expenses of members of the commission, the sum of $15,000, or as
much thereof as may be necessary.

II. The Work of the Commission.

The members of the Commission first appointed by the Governor were:

George W. Webster, M.D., President Illinois State Board of Health.
Charles Richmond Henderson, University of Chicago.

Edgar T. Davies, Chief Department of Factory Inspection.

Ludvig Hektoen, M.D., Memorial Institute for Infectious Diseases.
Arnold C. Klebs, M.D., Director Chicago Tuberculosis Institute.
James Simpson, Vice-President Marshall Field & Co.

James A. Egan, M.D.; Secretary Illinois State Board of Health.
David Ross, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Alice Hamilton, M.D., Memorial Institute for Infectious Diseases.

Dr. Klebs resigned on account of residence abroad, and Dr. Alice
Hamilton resigned in order that she migl.t qualify as medical investi-
gator. The Governor filled these two vacancies by appointing Dr. Walter
S. Haines and Dr. W. H. Allport.

1. The full Commission held ten meetings.

2. The special sub-committee appointed by the Commission to have
immediate charge of the investigation were: Dr. L. Hektoen, Mr.
James Simpson and the Secretary, and they had frequent conferences.

6
3. The investigators appointed by the Commission were: On
Lead Poisoning, Dr. Alice Hamilton, general supervision of investiga-
tion, assisted by the following persons working under her direction (Dr.
Hamilton took for her special departments, lead, arsenic and mercury) :

Dr. E. R. Hayhurst, assisted by Miss Anne H. Martin Conditions
in brass foundries and examination of men for brass and lead-
poisoning. Conditions in zinc smelters and examination of men.
Examination of cases referred by investigators in the lead trades,
in trades using turpentine, acetone, methyl alcohol, naphtha,
benzine and allied substances. Analysis of dust from brass and
zinc works and printing establishments. Experiments on ani-
mals to determine cause of brass chills.

O. F. Funkhouser, M.D., and T. E. Flinn, M.D., assisted Dr. Hay-
hurst in special cases.

S. M. Hartzmann.—Conditions in engraving, lithographing, adver-
tising and picture post-card houses, in wallpaper factories, tailor
shops, metal and junk shops, picture-frame factories. Hxamina-
tion of records in hospitals, dispensaries and trade unions.

W. P. Harms.—Conditions in the painting and printing trades and

in the making of storage batteries.

. P. Hunt.—Search for cases of known or suspected lead-poisoning
in printers in collaboration with Dr. Hayhurst.

W. E. Nestor—Examination of records of Painters’ and Decorators’

Union. Search for cases of known or suspected lead-poisoning

among painters in collaboration with Dr. Hayhurst.

E. E. Watson.—Conditions in plumbers’ trade. Search for cases of
lead-poisoning among plumbers in collaboration with Dr. Hay-
hurst. ,

R. H. Nicholl—Use of varnishes, varnish removers and turpentine.
Search for cases of poisoning by these substances in collaboration
with Dr. Hayhurst.

Miss Anne H. Martin.—Examination of records of fraternal organ-
izations. Conditions in the artificial flower industry and in dry
cleaning establishments in collaboration with Dr. Hayhurst.

Miss Myra G. Reed.—Cut glass.

Miss Nadina Moore.—Conditions in metal shops and in the glazing
of pottery and tiles.

Dr. P. F. Becker.—Investigating the records of two hospitals for the
insane. =

H. J. Corper.—Brass founders’ ague—experiments.
On Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: Dr. Walter 8. Haines, mem-
ber of the Commission, assisted by

Dr. Matthew Karasek and Dr. George L. Apfelbach.—Gas poisoning
in steel works, in foundries, in tunnels and in tailor shops.
Poisoning from cyanides, chromates, hydrofluoric acid. Study of
conditions in foundries, in glass and mirror works and in photo-
graphic establishments.

Dr. Peter Bassoe.—Compressed air disease.

Dr. George E. Shambaugh.—Boilermakers’ deafness.

Dr. Francis Lane and Dr. John B. Ellis—Miners’ nystagmus.

7

Ss
Mr. A. H. Hirsch made a trial exploration in respect to wood dust.

A summary of the methods and results of the medical investigators
is printed as part of this report. Since these were scientific studies their
authors are entitled to distinct and separate recognition, and to the
right to publish any or all of their studies in scientific magazines for
professional readers. All that can be used for our present purpose 1s
embodied in this report.

4. The Secretary was authorized by the Commission : (1) to make
contracts with the investigators, on advice from medical members of
the Commission; (2) to keep accounts and pay bills as approved by the
President of the Commission under the law and by the Auditor of
State; (3) to study the legislation of various states and countries and
the publications of scientific societies, so far as related to the objects of
the Commission, and recommend to the Commission suitable measures
for protecting the health and lives of the workers involved, whether
further laws, improvements and administration, or practical warnings
and counsels for shops where the workers are exposed to draught.

The Secretary was assisted at first by Mr. V. H. Helleberg and later
by Mr. A. J. Norton, both of whom had legal training. They were
faithful, industrious and efficient.

The University of Chicago placed a large hall at the disposal of the
Secretary of the Commission, with light, heat and janitor service, with-
out charge; gave the free use of its library and reading rooms, the time
and strength of the Secretary, and many students co-operated without
cost in collecting data.

The Memorial Institite of Infectious Diseases placed its facilities at
the disposal of investigators, and Professor Walter 8. Haines gave the
use of his laboratory at Rush Medical College for chemical analyses.

The John Crerar Library and the Public Library of Chicago were
generous in supplying books and documents and giving unstinted atten-
tion to the needs of the Commission. Their attendants and officers
seemed to take genuine pleasure in promoting our labors.

The Bureau of Labor at Washington also gave desirable information
and co-operated with the Commission in a study of the conditions of
health in laundries. Professor E. Freund, of the Law Faculty of the
University of Chicago, rendered important service by a critical exami-
nation of legal measures, and served without pay.

Mr. Samuel A. Harper, of Chicago, formerly attorney for the Indus-
trial Commission, the Employers’ Liability Commission, etc., of the
State prepared the draft of the bill herewith presented. His services
and experience were of great value to the Commission.

5. Hach medical man on the Commission gave, of course without
pay, personal attention to the problems before us and directed investi-
gators in particular fields of inquiry, and tested their results, as indi-
cated in the table showing the division of labor.

We herewith present summaries of the results of the different investi-
gators, with indications of their significance and importance. It must
be remembered that the Commission was in fact given only a little more
than nine months for the actual examination of workplaces and workers.
It was necessary to limit the investigation to a very few of the many
fields which call for similar and even more extensive study.

8
While non-medical persons have been employed to collect some of
the facts from written records or oral statements, no diagnosis of a
patient has been set down without a professional examination of the
person by a competent physician. When the statement rests on other
kinds of evidence it is clearly shown in this report. Rumors and reports
which could not be verified have been rejected. Therefore the state-
ments made should be regarded with confidence as substantially correct.

The Commission in this report has been careful not to give names of
firms and persons without their express consent. But the original notes
of the investigators have been carefully preserved though kept from the
public. The purpose of the Commission was purely scientific and
humane and it gave careful instructions to all whom it employed to carry
on their inquiries entirely in this spirit.

The Commission expresses its indebtedness for valuable information
and advice to the following gentlemen:

Officials and members of—

Painters’ and Decorators’ Union,

Allied Printing Trades,

Electrical Workers’ Union,

Plumbers’ Union.

Mr. William Hoskins, Chemist, Mariner and Hoskins.

Professor Bleininger, University of Illinois. :

Mr. Frederick Hoffman, Statistician of Prudential Life Insurance
Company. ‘

Mr. Edward Cornish and Mr. William Tolman, National Lead
Company.
es Mr. Frank Hammar, Hammar Bros.’ White Lead Works, Hast St.

uis.

Mr. Charles Siepline, Sherwin Williams Company.

Mr. H. B. Brosser, Gates Potteries.

Mr. C. 8. Miner, Chemist, Western Leather Laboratory.

Mr. Philip Elting, Adams & Elting.

Mr. Sidney Benedict, Paper Mills Company.

Mr. M. L. Barrett, 219 Lake street.

Mr. Howard Coonley, Enameled Wares, Clyde.

Mr. Holman, Royal Enamel Sign Company, Desplaines.

Mr. M. Bromberg, Fur Dresser, 1406 North Halsted street.

Mr. Clifford Dyer Holly, Chemist, St. Louis.

Mr. R. W. Evans, Picher Lead Company, Tacoma building.

Mr. Karl Kahmann, Taxidermist, 2457 Lincoln avenue.

Mr. William Dorflinger, Cut Glass, New York City.

Mr. EB. R. Taylor, Manufacturing Chemist, Pen Yan, N. Y.

Dr. Wm. Burry, Illinois Steel Co.

International Harvester Company.

III. The Scope of the Field of Industrial Hygiene.

In order to show clearly the relations of the particular inquiries of
the Commission, and to indicate the vast labor which remains untouched,
we here outline and illustrate with all brevity the scope of industrial
hygiene.

There are general principles of industrial hygiene which must be
observed in all legislation, administrative rules and orders, and in

9
the customs of workplaces; and there are particular industrial poisons
and sources of injury to health which require specific measures of
protection.

The principles of industrial hygiene are derived from a study (1) of
the causes of diseases found in the conditions of industry; (2) in the
study of the best methods of diminishing or removing these causes, as
shown by experience in all modern countries.

The causes of disease found in various occupations may be classified
as follows? :

1. Vitiation of the atmosphere due to (a) the products of breath-
ing; (b) irritating and poisonous gases and fumes; (c) irritating and
poisonous dust; (d) infection carried principally by dust in the atmos-
phere.

2. Another group of causes may be traced to the nature of the
material which comes in contact with the bodies of the workmen apart
from contamination of the air, as irritating substances affecting the
skin and producing eruptions, etc.

8. A third group of causes includes those due to the nature and
condition of the trade process, as (a) the temperature of the shop,
extremes of heat and cold; (b) extremes of dryness and humidity; (c)
defects in lighting; (d) abnormal atmospheric pressure; (e) injuries
from jarring, shaking and deafening noise; (f) danger from overstrain,
fatigue, hurtful postures and overexercise of parts of the body.

In our preliminary report to the Governor and transmitted by him
to the Legislature in a Special Message in April, 1909, we sketched in
outline some of the dangers to which workmen are exposed. That out-
line was a demonstration of the necessity of a prolonged and thorough
study of the whole subject with special reference to conditions in Illinois.
It was, as we there said, impossible in a few months to compass this
immense field. In order to offer more than mere superficial and worth-
less results we confined our attention to a few subjects in accordance
with the unanimous advice of experts whom we consulted in Europe
and America and in accordance with our own judgment of what would
give the most reliable results.

For convenience we reprint here the tentative analysis of the general
situation and a provisional estimate of the dangers to which many
thousands of the employees in our great industries are constantly
exposed.

“An analysis of the industries of our commonwealth, as exhibited in
the report of the chief factory inspector, and of the diseases which the
medical profession often find associated with these industries, will bring
before any intelligent and competent citizen the vastness and complexity
of the problem.

1. In metal industries we are informed that corresponding to the
several branches of trade, certain diseases are found, due in some meas-
ure to the nature of the occupation.

1. Iron.—Blacksmiths and horseshoers are liable to hypertrophy of
muscles, burns, inflammation of the eyelids, hernia, aneurism, bronchitis,
rheumatism, palsy.

*In the main the outline of J. Rambousek, Lehrbuch der Gewerbe-Hygiene.

10 ‘
Steel workers are exposed to excessive heat and are liable to pneu-
monia, phthisis, disturbances of circulation, digestion and urinary
organs.

Watch workers are exposed to lung troubles.

Workers in the manufacture of wire, tacks, and employees in rail-
road shops are liable to affections of the eyes, viscera, and nervous
system.

2. Workers in copper are exposed to numerous dangers to health.

3. Painters, typesetters and all others who handle lead and its com-
pounds, are liable to be poisoned, and in Illinois many thousands of
employees seem to be exposed more or less to these perils.

4. There are apparently about thirteen hundred (1300) men who
come in contact with zinc, which also acts as a poison.

5. We have no figures for the number of workers in mercury, but
it must be considerable.

6. A large number of persons engaged in industries which involve
tin and zinc plating. The chemicals used in some of these operations
present peculiar perils.

7. The industries requiring the manipulation of chromatic arsenic,
phosphorus, and aluminum should be carefully studied, as our informa-
tion is vague and inadequate.

II. Illinois has over fourteen thousand (14,000) persons employed
in the manufacture of bricks, marble and other stone works, in glass
works, and in other industries where the workmen are constantly exposed
to lung diseases, lead-poisoning, sudden changes from heat to cold, with
ensuing rheumatism and nervous disorders. Workers in glass are ex-
posed to special forms of disease of mouth, lungs and eyes.

III. Turning to occupations in which the workmen are exposed to
the dangers of dust, to the injury of lungs and general vitality, we
know that a vast army of men and women risk their lives in occupations
of this class. More than sixty-five thousand (65,000) men labor in
mine’; many hundreds in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods;
others in great numbers handle furs, hair, rags and mattresses and
inhale dust with its bacteria.

Bakeries and mills are not free from conditions injurious to health.
Workers in tobacco, coopers, woodworkers, carpenters, furniture men,
carry to their physicians problems which originate in their place of
work.

Carriage manufacturers are injured by paint and varnish.
,

IV. Leather Industries—Tanners may be injured by diseased hides.
Shoe factories show a great liability to consumption and nervous diseases.
Workers in rubber goods are exposed to carbon bi-sulphide poisoning.

V. The paper industries have their perils which call for study.

+ There is a careful study cf phosphorus and making of matches in a Bulletin
of the Bureau of United States Labor, by Dr. John B. Andrews.

11
VI. In the preparation of food more than forty thousand (40,000)
persons are daily engaged in the most necessary social service with a
certain exposure to sickness.

Thousands of workingmen in breweries and distilleries are exposed
to conditions which make them bad insurance risks.

VII. The story of the clothing manufacturer recalls the pathetic
“Song of the Shirt” by the sympathetic poet Hood, and more than sixty-
three thousand (63,000) men, women and children in Illinois are
engaged in this industry. The medical men tell us of consumption,
anaemia, indigestion, and various ailments, caused by conditions under
which they work. The study of these conditions and of measures for
relief alone would require many months of expert investigation.

VIII. We need a satisfactory and authoritative investigation of
morbidity and mortality in the chemical industries which are becoming
every year more important. Gas, steam, chlorine, alkalis, sulphur, car-
bonic oxide, tar, cyanides, are employed in various industrial processes
and may be dangerous to workers.

IX. The very useful and necessary manufacture of fertilizers and
glue in connection with the production of meat supplies requires scien-
tifie consideration in relation to hygienic conditions.

X. The manipulation of wood, coal, petroleum, fats, varnish, and
turpentine involves perils to health.

XI. The influence of certain industries on the neighborhoods in
the production of impure air, polluted water, evil drains and unpleasant
odors should be considered with utmost care.

XII. Closely related to industrial diseases in the strict sense are
the effects of unhygienic habits and surroundings of the workers.

In some occupations the direct and demonstrable connection between
the work and specific diseases is more manifest than in others. We may
select those occupations which are included under the recent British
Compensation Act, which requires employers to pay indemnity to work-
men who have become sick in consequence of the nature of their work,
although some of the diseases may be very rare in this country.

Anthrax is a disease caused by handling wool, hair, bristles, hides,
and. skins.

Lead-poisoning and its sequelae are found in connection with any
process involving the use of lead or its preparations or compounds, as in
making paint, or painting surfaces, or typesetting.

Phosphorus poisoning is found to be caused by any process, as
match-making, where this substance in certain forms is used.

Arsenic is a dangerous poison and is used in several trades.

This was the list included in the British law, but the departmental
committee on compensation for industrial diseases, after a long investi-
gation, reported in 1907 that certain other occupations should be added
as clearly causes of specific ailments. These were: Poisoning by nitro-
derivations of benzene (dinitro-benzol, anilin, and others) ; poisoning
by carbon di-sulphide; poisoning by nitrous fumes; poisoning by nickel

12
’

carbonyl; arsenic and lead-poisoning; poisoning by African boxwood ;
chrome ulceration, eczematous ulceration of the skin produced by dust,
or caustic or corrosive liquids, or ulceration of the mucous membrane
of the nose and mouth produced -by dust, or epitheliomatous cancer, or
ulceration of the skin, or of the corneal surface of the eye, due to
pitch, tar, or tarry compounds; scrotal epithelioma, nystagmus, a miner’s
malady; glanders; compressed air illness; the miner’s beat hand; the
miner’s beat knee, acute bursitis over the elbow (miner’s beat elbow),
oe of the synovial lining of the wrist, joint, and tendon
sheaths.”

List oF INDUSTRIAL PorIsons.

A valuable document of the International Association for Labor
Legislation is the (“Entwarf einer Liste der gewerblichen Gifte”) list
of industrial poisons, by Sir Thomas Oliver, M.D., Prof. Dr. Felix
Putzeys and Prof. Dr. Th. Sommerfeld, Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1908.
An English translation of this may be found in Bulletin of the Bureau
of Labor No. 86, January, 1910. This list has recently been revised,
but it is impossible to make one which will be exactly true of all coun-
tries or even of all workplaces of the same kind in a single state or city.
From this bulletin the following paragraphs are condensed:

The dangers to which workmen are exposed in different occupations :

Poisons may enter the body of the workmen either through the
mouth and digestive system, through the respiratory system, or through
the skin.

’ Among the substances used in various industries which may injure

health or even deprive of life are:

Alcohol, used in various processes of industry.

Alcohol, methyl, in manufacture of varnish, polish, preparation of dyes,
ete.

Ammonia, as in’ gas works, refrigerators.

Aniline colors.

Antimony, in alloys, paints, glazes.

Arsenic, in chemical works, glass industry, artificial flowers, stuffing
animals.

Arseniuretted hydrogen gas, as in treating iron and zine with hydro-
chloric and sulphuric acid, soldering.

Benzene, in manufacture of rubber goods, cleaning clothes, dyeing.

Carbon dioxide, in any situation where combustion or decomposition
occurs.

Carbon disulphide, in extraction of fats, vulcanizing india rubber.

Carbon monoxide, manufacture of iron, steel, smelting furnaces, brick
workers, coal mines, heating with open coal pans, chemical
laboratories.

Chloride of lime, bleaching establishments, chemical works.

Chlorine, laundry work, bleaching.

Chromates, in tanning, steel corrosion, photography, mordants, dyes,

matches. é

13
Dinitrobenzene or binitrobenzene, in the manufacture of explosives.

Formaldehyde, in disinfection, manufacture of tar dyes, preservation of
organic compounds. ; .

Hydrochloric acid, in chemical works, enameling, soldering, bleaching.

Hydrofluoric acid, manufacture of glass, glass etching, superphosphate
industry. :

Lead, in many combinations, in reducing the ores, in manufacture of
sheet lead, pipes, alloys, shot, printing, colors, painting.

Nitrobenzene, in tar dyes. ;

Manganese, in chlorine industry, preparation of oxygen, coloring glass,
dyeing, lacquer, varnish, oil paints, charging of galvanic cells.

Mercury, in extraction of gold and silver, gilding, bronzing, filling ther-
mometers, manufacture of felt hats, photography. :

Nitrous gases, in chemical works, celluloid works, aniline dyes, etching
of metals, electro-metallurgy.

Phosphorus, in extraction from bone ash, making of matches, tar dyes.

Picrie acid, in chemical works, explosives.

Hydrocyanic acid, in preparation of certain organic compounds, electro-
typing, photography.

Pyridin, in denaturation of spirits.

Sulphur chloride, india rubber industry.

Sulphuretted hydrogen, sewer work, water closets, coal gas manufacture,
making of certain colors.

Sulphurous acid, in roasting of sulphur ores, manufacture of sulphuric
acid, bleaching, candle making, brick works, manufacture of glue.
Until we have thoroughly studied all the industrial processes in our

state we cannot tell how many of these poisons are actually in contact

with workmen; many of them we already know are sources of sickness,
pain, disability, death. The list shows how vast is the field for such
inquiries.

MEANS OF ALLEVIATION.
’
The preventive measures must correspond to the nature and the
causes of disease. Many of the most important causes of disease are

due to contamination of the air, and the remedy is found in adequate
methods of ventilation.

So far as the unwholesome conditions of the shop are not due to
contaminated air they may be diminished or removed by avoiding con-
tact with the irritating substances; by cleanliness of shop and clothing
and person of the workmen, etc.

So far as the diseases are caused by other external conditions just
classified above the methods of prevention will be found in the removal
of the evil conditions and by the discovery of technical processes or
machinery which do not require these dangerous conditions.

While these general principles are applicable to a wide range of
industries, and may serve as the basis for the general law of factory
inspection, they must be applied in detail to each particular industry
and to each particular kind of industrial poisoning in accordance with
the nature of the case. Thus, in addition to the ordinary principles of

14
ventilation and cleanliness we must have special measures and rules
governing the conduct of shops where lead, arsenic, cyanide of potassium,
mercury, or other specific poisons may be introduced into the body
either by respiration or by outward contact. It is always a difficult
question to decide how far these specific regulations shall be embodied in
a and how far they may be left to administrative bodies or
officials.

The recommendations we have to offer are embodied, in accordance
with our instructions, in the draft of a bill, herewith transmitted.

IV. Principles of Effective Legislation for the Prevention of
Diseases of Occupation.

1. The law must provide for assuring the general conditions of health in
workplaces, as ventilation, cleanliness, freedom from overcrowd-
ing, proper temperature and humidity, drainage, sanitary con-
veniences, etc.

2. The law must provide special measures of protection on account of
the greater susceptibility to disease of children, youth and women.

3. There are recognized specially dangerous and unhealthy industries,
which must be brought under special kinds of regulation.

4. The law must provide suitable organization of administration to
make it effective.

The law under which the inspectors are authorized to inspect and
order changes in shop arrangements must be expressed in general terms.
It should include only the essential principles of industrial hygiene, and
must leave many points to be interpreted by some authority. Such
phrases as “as far as possible” or “reasonable” must be applied in par-
ticular cases by some legal authority. Primarily this authority is the
factory inspector, and where there is no dispute his decision is final,
but where there is a dispute about the interpretation of the law as
applied to the particular situation, the factory’inspector is empowered
to carry his ruling before the proper court. The court will interpret the
law according to the information which it possesses. Necessarily, the
decision, whether made by an administrative or a judicial authority,
requires information in regard to the technique of the particular branch
involved, the dangers to which its workmen are exposed, and the methods
of protecting health. This will vary with each department of industry,
and therefore it is necessary to provide information not only for factory
inspectors, courts, and arbitrators, but also for the employers themselves
and the workmen. Such information must be modified from time to
time by changes in the nature of the process brought about by innovations
and improvements in machinery and in organization of shaps. This
report contains some forms of information which may serve to illustrate
the value and importance of the subject, but it is manifest that to meet
the constant changes the state must have some administrative agency
equipped with training for studying the best methods of prevention and
of furnishing instructions in proper form.

The advantage of making a law as full of details as possible for
particular occupations is that it makes known to the employers and

15
manufacturers precisely what their duties are and preserves them from
capricious action of inspectors. Manufacturers are naturally unwilling
to be subjected to the caprice of inspectors and desire to know in
advance how far the inspectors have power to control their business.

On the other hand, there are important advantages in giving con-
siderable latitude to the administration, even from the standpoint of
the manufacturer. The conditions of various industries and workplaces
vary considerably, and it is desirable to adapt methods to particular
circumstances, which can be done if there is an administrative agency
with some freedom of choice in regard to methods, machinery, de-
vices, ete. ¢

Jn countries where social insurance is legally organized, as:in Ger-
many, many of the points in dispute are readily settled by committees
composed of representatives of both employers and employees, who
have the advice of expert medical officers, and who are all interested. by
their common participation in the costs of insurance, in making pre-
ventive devices as perfect as possible., The manufacturers and the
workmen know more about the difficulties and dangers of their particu-
lar branch and of the particular shop than any outside officials can
possibly know, and they are most directly interested under a good system
of insurance, in reducing the costs of accident and disease to the min-
imum. But we must wait a while for this.

A medium ground must therefore be discovered between a law which
enters into minute details and a statute which is too vague and general
to have much value for particular trades.

Much might be done to reconcile these contradictions by making the
law as complete as is consistent with the nature of the general regulation
and then to supplement the general statute by regulations for specific
trades and by orders of a competent administrative body. The tendency
in this country is in the direction of providing in the administration
for a variety of new conditions; but we are compelled to recognize con-
stitutional limitations.

But even short of legal and administrative rules much can be accom-
plished by the wide publication and posting in shops of the dangers
attending particular processes of manufacture and the best means of
preventing injuries.

_ V. Scope of Administration.

At present it may not be wise to change very much the present
machinery for enforcement of the laws of our state relating to the
health, safety and comfort of employees. Already honorable advance
has been made in this direction by our office of factory inspection;
although the staff should be greatly increased and should be strength-

ened by the addition of medical inspectors and specialists in various =

branches of engineering. What we have to propose for presen: ion
is put in the form of bills for the coniaitoratibn cf the PER ee
Perhaps the time will come in Illinois when, as in the older countries
of larger experience, we can have a genuine labor code, into which shall
be brought in logical, clear, intelligible form all the legal regulations
16
t

affecting the well-being of our army of employees in mines, mills, fac-
tories, workshops, and mercantile establishments.

Some of the members of the Commission wish to have this thought
brought to the attention of the public at this time, although these
members do not suggest immediate action of a radical nature. ¢

But even the fragmentary additions to the present laws which we
do suggest ought to be considered in relation to the gradual and careful
development of a large public policy which can go forward with steady
experiment and criticism. A contribution to the development of such a
policy is given in the form of propositions on legislation and administra-
tion in the field of industrial hygiene which will be found in the appendix
to this report. The necessity of having a labor code, with an efficient
and trusted agency to administer it, arises first of all from the amazing
energy, initiation, and inventiveness which characterize contemporary
industry. Millions of competitors vie with each other in the discovery
of new and better methods of production. In their laboratories the
students of physical science are daily revealing to the practical world
hitherto unknown qualities of matter and force, new combinations of
chemical reactions, and inventors follow closely on their tracks, showing
the immediate use to which such discoveries can be put. To regulate
the use of these new forces and methods so that human beings shall be
served and not destroyed by them requires constant modifications of law
and rules. Just as scientific textbooks are rubbish in ten years and
fine machines are scrapped before they are«half worn out, so laws soon
become obsolete; yet, unless we fall into anarchy and misrule, we must
learn to make laws and live under them and apply them to a progressive
world. The same changes wrought by discoveries, invention and man-
agerial genius require a board of state administration which can daily
" watch the process and meet emergencies as they come.

VI. Recommendations of Rules, Posters, Forms of Instructions
and Warning by Trades.

Many cases of illness, disability and death are due to ignorance of
facts and causes; and the employers and workmen would be able to
prevent much suffering if they were put in possession of the results of
modern scientific study. We have, therefore, printed as a part of this
report some of the forms whose use may diminish these dangers. Pro-
vision should at once be made for preparing other similar instructions for
various branches of trades.

.

VIII. Trade Risk and Sickness Insurance.

This subject is included in the joint resolution by which the Legisla-
ture created this Commission, as cited above.

The facts brought out in our investigation leave no reason for doubt
in respect to the reality of what has been called the “risk of trade”; by
which is meant a danger to health which still exists in some degree after
all known precautions have been taken both by employers and employees.
Our expert investigators came upon many examples of this risk. No.

17
doubt the progress of medical science and of mechanical aes ae will
remove some of the present factors of peril, but not all; an ‘ e@ IM- ,;
creased activity and energy of productive enterprise, spurred y ie
petition and by demand for dividends, will in many directions Introduce
new perils to life and health.

Under present laws in the United States this risk is borne chiefly
by the injured workmen, while in all other nations which profess to
be civilized this risk is treated as part of the cost of production and in
the cost of compensation or insurance is levied on the consuming public
through the employers.

This truth is in part already recognized by some of the larger and
more enlightened corporations which provide hospital care, first aid,
and sometimes slight indemnity at their own cost and charges. What
the most advanced employers do voluntarily is an admission that it
ought to be done thoroughly, legally, and by all employers.

As not all sickness is caused by injuries in the occupation, though
all disabled men need insurance, whatever the origin of their temporary
or permanent unfitness for work, the premiums for sickness insurance ...
should be paid partly by the workmen and partly by the employers. In
Germany the former pay two-thirds of the premiums and the latter one-
third; but after the fourteenth week of illness the employers pay all
the cost of insurance when the disability is due to occupation. In the
British Compensation Act a certain number of occupational diseases are
treated as if they were accidents and the employers are legally obliged
to pay a certain definite compensation; therefore they insure themselves
in casualty companies to cover this risk and provide a fund for payment
of indemnities. Other countries have still other methods, but all admit
the principle.

An essential part of a scheme of protection must include social insur-
ance legislation and a system of legally obligatory insurance working
automatically to prevent both accidents and diseases, as is demon-
strated by European experience for a whole generation. The organiza-
tion for such a system and laws necessary for its basis should be the sub-
ject for the study of a special commission.

In connection with the subject of sickness insurance we may cite
the evidence furnished by the Board of Commissioners of Cook County,
Illinois. In a report given out by them on September 20, 1910, they say:

“Section 1. Increase of Hospital Population—We find that the
hospital (that is of Cook County, public charity) is greatly overcrowded.
In 1903 the daily average was 835; in 1908, five years later, it was 1303, °°
showing an increase of 56 per cent in daily average population. During
the last year the daily average was 1451. This increase is due to a
number of causes: (1) The increase in the population of the county ;
(2) the extension of industrial pursuits which resulted in an increase ...
of accidents and occupational diseases endangering human life; (3) the
popularization of the hospital idea.” :

In Section 6 of the same report this board recommends a bond issue
of three million dollars for the construction of five new buildin s to
meet the increased demands.

18
This evidence is in accordance with the experience of older countries
with their extended systems of sickness and accident insurance, and the
statistics carefully kept for this purpose. These statistics show that
sass is a far greater cause of disability of workmen than industrial
accidents.

Where statistics have been kept in this country the same fact is made
apparent.

IX. Recommendations as to the Continuation of the Study of
Occupational .Diseases in Illinois by This or a
Similar Commission.

Such a commission should have two years and not less than $30.000
for its necessary expenses.

We have in this report furnished abundant facts to demonstrate both
the necessity and utility of such further investigation. While we have
pushed this inquiry as far as was possible in nine months, consistently
with rigid economy of funds and thoroughness in method, we have
covered only a relatively small part of the field already outlined above.
Justice to the public health and welfare and to the workmen in other
occupations demands a continuation of the investigation which we have
only begun. Every great modern industrial state has acknowledged this
obligation. It is a public and not a merely class interest.

Such an investigation is required—

1. To furnish to the medical profession the facts which they need
for their guidance in the prompt discovery of the industrial causes of
many diseases. A treatment of symptoms which ignores the shop con-
ditions and the gradual and insidious introduction of poisons into the
body is likely to fail.

2. The knowledge thus acquired will be useful to employers of
labor. We here assume that no reputable manufacturer will deliberately
plan to poison or kill those who are in his service. But we have already
abundant evidence that employers are actually keeping workplaces in
conditions which must inevitably result in sickness, weakness, pauperism,
death, and sometimes better means are known which would remove at
least part of the danger.

A manufacturer makes his best profits with good tools, instruments,
and skill. In several places known to us the workplaces are so injurious
to health that the workmen are compelled to leave after a few weeks or
months, after skill has been acquired and their labor is of the most
value. This is a source of loss which, in great degree, can be reduced
by wise measures. Further research will reveal many other similar
situations.

4. The burden of the diseased, crippled, and disabled workman
finally falls on the community; and the community in self-defense must
inquire in a scientific way for the causes of that burden to learn how to
diminish its weight.

5. The employees in manufactories and their families are vitally

interested in this whole matter. With them it is not merely a question
of more or less money, but literally of life or death.

19
A policy of concealment and of obstinacy in wilful ignorance is a
folly unworthy of our noble commonwealth. The whole people is con-
cerned when any group of its membership is exposed to disease. It is to
the direct, immediate, and permanent interest of all citizens that evil
and harmful conditions shall be brought to light, that workmen be
taught their dangers and how they can best protect themselves from
injury, that enlightened and considerate employers shall be enabled
to introduce the best protective devices and methods, and that those who
wilfully ruin the bodies of their fellow-men shall be exposed and com-
pelled to change their ways.

But such a constructive, protective, far-sighted public policy cannot
be initiated and sustained without a broad basis of facts ascertained by
a thorough investigation in the hands of competent investigators, who
have special training and experience in this kind of inquiry. While
your Commission and its corps of assistants have devoted themselves
to this study, they most of all realize how little can be accomplished in so
short a time; so short that it was impossible even to put in shape for
publication more than a small part of the facts which they have dis-
covered. Two full years would yield far more satisfactory results, and
the people of Illinois would be spared much pain and loss, and all would
gain in wealth, health, and happiness for the expenditure of the neces-
sary time, money, and labor.

Signed by

Grorce W. WEBSTER, President.

CHARLES R1cHMoND HENDERSON, Secretary.
Epear T. DAviEs.

Lupvic HEeKrTorn.

JAMES SIMPSON.

James EH. Eean.

Davip Ross.

Water S. Haines.

W. H. Avior.

+The following letter from the Department of Health, Chicago, is one more
indication of a rich storehouse of recorded materials, which ought to be studied
for the public benefit:

Pror. C. R. HENDERSON, Secretary:

Replying to your letter of December 12th, will say that the statement of occu-
pation on our form of death certificate is arranged in such a way as to enable us
to collect data of vital importance.

In it we ask for the last oceupation—(a) profession, trade, or kind of work,
(b) industry or business, and the year from which to which so engaged; also
former occupation and industry, and the year from which to which so engaged, so
that by comparison with the duration of the disease, the occupation in which the
individual was engaged at the time the disease was contracted may be determined.

This also shows the occupations that have changed within five years prior to
death. Thus we have a rational statement of the occupation causing death, rather
than the oceupation to which the individual was driven by nature of disease or
injury.
2 Unfortunately we have not had sufficient clerical help to make these tabula-
tions. I am, therefore, unable to give you the results of the information so col-
lected, but I hope your Commission will continue and that you may have an oppor-
tunity to make a study of this valuable data.

Yours very truly,
December 15, 1910. M. O. Heoxarp, M.D.,
Registrar of Vital Statistics,
Department of Health, City of Chicago.

20
II. REPORTS OF INVESTIGATORS.

I. Report of Dr. Alice Hamilton on Investigations of the Lead
Troubles in Illinois, from the Hygienic Standpoint.

Lead is by far the most important of the industrial poisons. First,
because it has a far wider use than any other, and secondly, because it is
an insidious poison, being absorbed little by little and accumulating in
the system, where it remains a long time, and is very slowly got rid of.
Repeated doses, each one so small as to cause no discomfort at all, end by
pilmg up a quantity sufficient to cause a severe attack of poisoning.
Kven as little as one-sixth of a grain a day is enough, according to cer-
tain German authorities. This partly explains why lead-poisoning is
so common and also why the symptoms develop so unexpectedly. Many
investigators here and abroad during recent years have been studying
the question of the absorption of lead by the human body, and it is now
practically proved that absorption takes place chiefly through the alimen-
tary tract, sometimes through the vessels in the lungs, but probably not
at all through the skin. Lead reaches the stomach by means of food or
tobacco that is handled with dirty fingers, or by the breathing of dust-
laden air, in which case the lead is partly swallowed and partly carried
on to the lungs.

There is an enormous difference in the susceptibility to lead-poisoning
of different individuals. We have had cases in painters who have worked
for thirty or forty years without apparently suffering from the lead and
have then developed a typical attack of lead-poisoning. In some in-
stances it was an acute disease that broke down the resistance of the
body to the poison which it had absorbed. On the other hand, many
cases have come to us from lead smelting establishments, white lead works
and storage battery works in which the symptoms of lead-poisoning
developed in less than two months’ time. The most rapid case we have
found was one man who showed poisoning after three days’ work in
a white lead factory.

The symptoms of lead-poisoning are loss of appetite, foul breath,
indigestion, headache, and constipation; then, usually, an acute attack
of colic which is often very agonizing. _The man recovers from this
attack, and if he does not return to work he may show no permanent
effects, but if he does continue in a work which exposes him to. lead, he
probably will become a victim of chronic lead-poisoning with an occasional
acute attack of colic. The chronic poisoning shows itself in extreme
paleness, loss of weight, indigestion, constipation, rheumatic or gouty
pains. There is a slowly increasing disease of the blood vessels, liver,
kidneys and heart, so that death usually comes as a result of the secondary
effects of the poisoning rather than during an acute attack of colic. The
effect on the nervous system usually comes later, though sometimes it
appears very early in the history of the case. The most common result
is a paralysis which appears in the muscles which have been most used,
although later paralysis may be general. Thus the commonest form is
the “wrist drop,” but there are also instances of weakness of the muscles
of the shoulders or ankles. In other cases, the nerves of the eye are
effected and blindness results, temporary or permanent, or there may

21
be epileptic attacks, insanity or fatal convulsions. Opinions differ as to
whether every acute attack of lead-poisoning leaves serious or permanent
effects. Some physicians think a man can have perhaps two attacks
without permanent damage to his organs, but hardly more than two.
Others believe that even one attack leaves traces in the liver and kidneys.

The compounds of lead are dangerous in the following order, depend-
ing upon their solubility in the human body:

1. Sugar of lead, which is used in dry color works and in the making
of sanitary supplies, and in colors for textiles, etc. ; although this is
the most soluble, it is really not as dangerous as white lead, because its
decidedly disagreeable taste prevents it from being swallowed in any
quantity.

2. White Lead.—In white lead factories, dry color and paint works
and wherever paint is used, also in some pottery glazes and enamels, in
the coloring of wallpapers and textiles, etc. It is almost as soluble as
sugar of lead and has a faintly sweetish taste.

3. Lead oxide and sub-oxide, which comprise the fumes and the
skimmings wherever lead is melted. It is nearly as poisonous as white
lead, especially as the fumes from melted lead are very finely powdered
and thus are easily breathed in. Some authorities consider it more
dangerous than white lead.

4. Red lead and litharge, which are found in red lead factories, in
storage battery works, in dry color and paint houses, in the glaze of
potteries, enameled signs and sanitary supplies, and in the making of
rubber.

5. Chrome yellow and green, which are used in dry color and paint
houses, for painting, for dyeing textiles, artificial flowers and wallpapers.
This is about as poisonous as red lead.

6. Metallic lead and the other salts of lead are less dangerous,
because so much less soluble, but in the case of metallic lead, a fine coat
of oxide is continually forming on the surface and this is easily blown
off or comes off on the fingers so that lead-poisoning occurs occasionally
even in places where the lead is not melted but only handled in solid
form. It is, however, more frequent when the lead is present in molten
form. There is a general impression that melted lead is not dangerous
at a low temperature, because it does not volatilize under 1000° C. The
danger from melted lead is not only, however, that the lead may be
volatilized, but that the film of oxide which is continually forming on
the surface of the liquid lead blows off whenever the liquid is disturbed.

Of the men employed in lead industries in Illinois, part are skilled
workmen who speak English, part are unskilled, newly arrived immi-
grants, or negroes. Among the skilled lead workers are the commercial
artists of whom there are over 500 in Chicago alone engaged in making
catalogues, pattern books, etc., and who use white lead paint in such
a way as to be exposed to lead-poisoning. Skilled workmen are also found
in the painting trade, the printing and plumbing trades, although these
last two do not yield nearly so much lead poisoning as formerly, owing
to radical differences in method developed of late years. There are also
skilled workmen in parts of the lead smelting industry, in the making
of lead pipe, lead wire and tubing, sheet lead, tinfoil, etc., and as fore-
men in all factories. Unskilled foreigners and negroes form the mass

22
of the workmen in the white lead works, in the smelting works, the
making of dry colors, part of the painting of cars and agricultural imple-
ments, and also among the workers in factories where picture frames,
car seals, coffins, storage battery plates, are made, and in the sorting and
melting of junk and in brass* foundries.

The protection of workers in lead against poisoning must follow two
lines, first, the prevention of dust, and second, provision for the care of
the men’s persons; in other words, the workmen must not be exposed to
air filled with lead dust nor must they eat with face and hands unwashed
nor go home with lead on their clothes and bodies. The presence of
food in the stomach is a great safeguard. Nothing is worse than starting
work on an empty stomach, as many foreign workmen do who have the
habit of breakfasting two hours or so after they have begun work. Milk
is an excellent preventive. Tobacco chewing, which we find is generally
encouraged by American foremen and managers, is forbidden in all
European factories where lead is handled. The risk of carrying lead
into the mouth with the tobacco is great and the advantage which is
claimed by the advocates of chewing tobacco, namely, that the constant
expectoration clears the mouth of lead dust, is of very problematic
value. The plug of tobacco is kept in the lead powdered working
clothes, is handled with lead-smeared fingers, and passes often through a
lead-powdered mustache to the mouth.

In order to abolish dust there should be a lavish use of water wher-
ever this is possible, and a system of suction fans wherever the process
makes the use of water impossible. In processes necessarily dusty the
men should be obliged to wear some form of respirator, as light and
little bulky as possible. A simple muslin respirator does perfectly well.
No respirator, however, must be looked upon as completely protecting a
man working in dust, and therefore these men should be watched, and as
soon as they show signs of absorption of lead they should be shifted to
safe work, a proceeding that is perfectly possible in most lead works in
Illinois, where the great majority of employees are unskilled.

For the proper care of the men’s persons it is not enough to provide
lavatories with hot and cold water. Soap, towels and nail brushes
must be provided too, and baths for all men engaged in very dusty work.
The washing before lunch and the washing or bathing before quitting
_ work must be made a part of the shop discipline, violation of which
results in a fine or discharge. The Illinois law provides that a separate
room for meals should be found in all these factories and that workmen
should not be allowed to eat in places where there is lead dust. It
would be well if there were in such rooms a stove, where the men could
heat their food. It would also be advisable to allow time in the morning
for the men to wash and to eat their breakfast, because European work-
men are accustomed to this and are often found eating bread or sand-
wiches in the middle of the morning while at work, with lead-covered
hands.

It is impossible to prevent a man from carrying home on his person
lead dust, unless he is made to leave his working clothes in the factory.
He must be made to change into overalls when he goes to work, and if
the employer does not provide and wash the overalls, he should oblige

23
his men to do so. Some form of head-covering should be worn by all
the men engaged in dusty work, and it should never be worn outside

the factory.

All of these measures are in force in England at present, and al-
though at first it was supposed that the employees would refuse to sub-
mit to them, the experience of more than twenty years has proved that
they are perfectly practicable.

The skilled, English-speaking workmen in the Illinois lead works
usually understand that the trade they are engaged in is dangerous, but
they do not know much about the dangerous features or how to avoid
them. They become reckless from familiarity with danger and need
constant watchir,; and warning. In every establishment where lead is
used the workmen should be made thoroughly acquainted with the proper
means of guarding themselves against poisoning. specially is this true
of the unskilled foreigners who enter upon the work utterly ignorant of
its dangers or with only a vague, unintelligent dread. These are the
men who furnish the most serious and rapid cases of lead poisoning to
the hospitals. For instance, a young Bulgarian went to work in a white
lead factory the first week he arrived in Chicago, and was put to emptying
pans of dry white lead. He was given no respirator and had no idea
that he had a right to ask for one. Nobody told him the white dust on

his hands and mustache was poisonous. He had only one suit of clothes __

and wore his working clothes home. He had a severe attack of lead-
poisoning at the end of five weeks. Another foreigner, a Russian Jew,
was set to making red lead paste in a storage battery factory. He was
utterly ignorant of the substances he was handling and used to moisten
his fingers in his mouth as he made the paste. He became severely
poisoned after ten days’ work. We have found almost no effort in
the lead works to instruct the foreigners in the care of their persons and
in the avoidance of danger.

It is gratifying to note that the evils in the lead trades tend to grow
less instead of greater because machinery is being introduced continually
and displacing hand-work. As the demand for lead increases, there is
more care taken against waste, which means that in well-managed estab-
lishments the fumes from smelting and refining lead are collected and
the dust from grinding and sifting. All this tends to diminish the
danger to the workmen. There is practically unanimous testimony from
the employees in the lead trades as to this steady improvement in
conditions.

Unfortunately this advance in methods of work has not been paralleled
by an improvement in the care of the men. This is very imperfect in
all the lead trades and in some there are apparently no measures taken
to protect the men against poisoning. It is in consequence, perhaps, of
this very general indifference to the welfare of the employees that we
find the dangerous lead trades in bad repute with the working class,
and as the employers themselves declare, only the most ignorant and —
helpless foreigners seek employment in white lead works or lead smelting.
There are exceptions in the case of certain well-paid, skilled depart-
ments, but for the most part the lead workers are poorly paid, non-
English-speaking foreigners or negroes. :

24
These workmen are a notoriously unsteady, shifting class, and there
is therefore in Illinois a large army of men who are continually moving
in and out of the lead trades. A foreman in one white lead factory
stated that his unskilled workmen hardly ever stayed more than a few
weeks. In a large lead smelting plant in Illinois it is necessary to
provide before each fortnightly pay day for new men, as 10 to 40 per
cent of the men usually leave. Inasmuch as it is only with a steady
force of workmen that the over-susceptible can be weeded out before
they have suffered severely and the others trained to protect themselves
against the dangers of the trade, it follows that this shifting of men
from place to place is productive of much more poisoning than would
occur among a permanent force of men. There are indications that
some of the larger establishments are beginning to recognize the eco-
nomic waste of this form of labor and several are planning reforms
which will result in protection of the men against lead-poisoning.

SMELTING AND REFINING.

There are three large smelting and refining plants in Ilinois, one large
plant which smelts and refines dross, not ore, one smaller plant doing the
same sort of work, and one in which the precious metals are refined and
lead is handled only as it occurs in connection with them. Two of the
smelting and refining works are in the south of the state and are modern
in construction and admirable in many ways. The third is in Chicago;
it is old and very unhygienically constructed.

The dangers from lead smelting lie in the fumes from the molten
metal, which consist in finely divided oxide of lead to which are often
added arsenic and antimony, in the dust from the ore and dross and slag,
and in the dust collected in the flue system. The danger from fumes
is greatest in the so-called “Scotch Hearths,” where the men work before
the open doors of the furnaces, raking the ore and pulling out lumps of
slag which are red hot and which, as they still contain much lead, give
off dangerous fumes. These men are exposed to lead fumes all the time,
as it is almost impossible to completely carry off the fumes from the
Scotch Hearths. In the two factories in Illinois, which use these hearths,
the system is far from perfect. Fortunately the Scotch Hearths are
being abandoned in both places and other methods are being substituted,
none of which are nearly as dangerous nor require the employment of
nearly as many men as do the Scotch Hearths. The other places in
which lead fumes escape are from the blast furnaces, from softening
and refining furnaces, and from all the open kettles into which molten
lead runs from the furnaces. The dangers from dust come from the
handling of ore and dross, the breaking up of slag, the charging of the
furnaces with these substances and the emptying of the flues, of the dust-
house or bag-house, and the shaking and repairing of the dust-collecting
bags.

In the two southern works all of the mixing of ore and dross and

fume for the furnaces is carried on in separate buildings so that the
men at the furnaces are not exposed to the dust. The charging is done

25
by machinery. In the Chicago plant the charges are prepared and the
heaps of material are left standing on the floor in the rooms where
all other processes are carried on, so that every man working in the
plant is exposed to dust. The charging of furnaces in the Chicago
plant is done chiefly by hand, and the men who do it are exposed to the
fumes from the open furnaces. In the southern werks there are hoods
and exhausts over the vents from the furnaces where the molten lead
runs out. In the Chicago works this protection has been neglected for
the most part. “Skip-cars” full of molten lead are drawn through the
room fuming, in all three places. The emptying of the flues is always
attended with dust, but it is only in the Chicago plant that men must
climb into the flues to clean them out.

The Chicago plant has no dust or bag-house. The other two have
large bag-houses to which the flues run and carry the lighter fume to be
. deposited in long canvas bags which are stretched from the ceiling to the
floor, the bottom of each bag being fastened to an opening in the
floor. Each day men go in and shake the bags, and if any tear they
repair them. When enough powder has fallen through the floor to the
tunnel below, it is set on fire to burn out the carbon in the dust and
the hot mass is then shoveled out and carried away in trucks. No at-
tempt is made in either plant to protect the men doing this work, and it
is extremely dangerous. There would be no injury to the dust if it were
wet down thoroughly, but this is not done.

These two factories have stone floors or concrete floors throughout,
and are kept very clean, so that there is no unnecessary dust, except in
the handling of the fume. Ventilation is very good. Machinery is used
wherever possible. In the Chicago plant ventilation is insufficient, the
floors are old and irregular, and there is a great deal of dust due to care-
less handling. There is also much hand work in filling and raking
furnaces. The two southern factories use an ore which has little if any
arsenic or antimony, but that used in the Chicago factory is rich in both,
and the fumes are easily detected by their odor.

In the factory which smelts dross but not ore, very few precautions
are used. The dross of all kinds lies in heaps on the floors, making a
quantity of dust. Furnaces are charged and raked by hand and there
is no hood to carry off fumes. The men working at the blast furnaces
are not protected sufficiently. In the smaller plant which does this same
work there is far better ventilation and a higher degree of cleanliness,
but there are great heaps of dross and junk of all kinds lying exposed on
the floors. The provision for carrying off fumes from the furnaces is
much better than in the larger plant. So little lead is handled in the
ae baa for refining the precious metals that there is almost no risk
o the men.

None of the Illinois smelters have really adequate washing facilities «

for their men, and in many the provision is very poor. Nowhere are the

men obliged to clean up before eating or quitting work. The smelting .

and refining of lead is dangerous, but the dangers can be lessened to a
great exent by providing for the escape of fumes and by preventing dust.
26
All handling of dry metal should be done in separate rooms, and as
far as possible the dust should be kept down in these rooms by continual
sprinkling. The charging of furnaces should be done by machinery or
under proper hood with an exhaust so that the charger is not exposed to
fumes. All furnaces or receptacles in which there is melted lead should
be protected by hoods with exhausts. The emptying of flues or bag-
houses should be done only after the fume powder has been thoroughly
sprinkled so that there is no dust. This does not in any way injure
the product. There should be adequate washing facilities and baths
provided for the men, and they should be obliged to use them before
eating lunch and before quitting work. A separate lunch room should
be provided and its use made compulsory. Where large numbers of
newly arrived foreigners are employed, special care should be taken to
warn the men of the dangers in the work and to instruct them how to
protect themselves, for which purpose it is advised that simple instruc-
tions written in various languages should be displayed about such estab-
lishments. Medical inspection should be made of all the employees at
regular intervals, and no man who has once been leaded should be allowed
to return to a dangerous part of the work.

It is impossible to state how much lead-poisoning occurs among the
men employed in the lead smelting and refining in this state. According
to physicians who practice among them, the greater number of those
employed at the Scotch Hearths and in the flues and baghouses become
poisoned sooner or later. The Scotch Hearth men are Americans, skilled
and well paid, and they usually return to work after an attack of lead-
poisoning until they are entirely incapacitated. The Greeks, Mace-
donians and Bulgarians are unskilled and usually leave after the first
attack. The workmen say that any man becomes leaded if he stays long
enough, and this statement is concurred in by some physicians.

Merauiic LEAp.

There are many trades in which metallic lead is handled, in some
without melting; in the majority it is melted, cast, rolled or drawn out
in tubes and wires. Some “junk shops” are places in which lead is sim-
ply stored, sorted and packed, though many junk shops also do some
melting and casting. These places are usually ill-kept and very dusty,
the facilities for washing are primitive or non-existent, but lead-poison-
ing does not seem to be frequent, probably because so little smelting of
the lead is done. In the places where it is done the work is usually only
occasional and employs few men. Sometimes it is done out of doors,
which is a safe arrangement. When indoors, the kettle is usually with-
out a hood and no effort is made to prevent dust or fumes

The largest factory making lead sheet, pipe, wire and plumbers’ sup-
plies in Illinois has fifty-eight men engaged in handling lead. It is a
beautiful, clean, new factory, in which most processes are mechanical.
No particular attention is paid to the men and there is poor provision
for cleanliness on their part, but there is good protection against fumes,
and though cases of lead poisoning have been traced to this factory, they

27
are certainly not numerous. All the other lead works in Chicago have
been merged with this one with the exception of a small place, employ-
ing ten men only, which is both clean and well equipped.

Among the other trades in which lead is melted, cast and polished or
stamped is the making of leaden coffin hardware which is done in
only one factory to any important extent. The lead used contains 12 per
cent of antimony, which renders it more dangerous to health than if it
were pure. Aside from the usual risks attendant on work at the melting
kettles, which here are not protected by hoods, there is the smoothing
and polishing at wheels with or without sand, which produces a good
deal of fine dust. Fifty men are employed here. The investigator inter-
viewed one man who had contracted lead poisoning at this work and was
told of two more.

In the other coffin factories the hardware is made of steel, with the
addition of only a few small lead ornaments.

Another lead trade is the making of car seals, which is carried on in
two factories, both employing girls. The smaller one has a perfectly pro-
tected melting pot, and the girls do not come in contact with the lead in
anyway. In the larger one there is no protection against fumes and
most of the twenty-seven girls employed handle lead also. The investi-
gator was told by a former manager, by three former employes and by
Dr. Pietrowicz that lead poisoning is common among the girls. One
case was interviewed by the investigators.

The majority of picture frames are made of steel or wood, but two
factories were found making leaden frames. The addition of antimony
to the lead to harden it is found here also. In neither place is there pro-
tection from fumes and the casting is done in the general workroom, as
is also the welding together of the different parts by heat. The case of
lead-poisoning traced to one of these factories was a man not handling
lead but working near a metal pot. About forty men are engaged in this
work.

A case of lead-poisoning was traced to a factory where tinfoil is made,
and two cases were reported to the commission by a physician who stated
that the girls in question had contracted the poison from wrapping
cigars in tinfoil. The tinfoil factory was found to be new, well-venti-
lated and clean, except for heaps of oxides on the fioor near the melting
pots. This and the presence of four unprotected kettles of melted lead,
one of them giving off clouds of oxides as the workmen stirred it, fur-
nished a plausible explanation for an occasional case of lead-poisoning.
Mere it would be easily possible to make the place quite safe by the sim-

ple expedient of protecting the settles and sweeping up the dust with wet
sawdust.

PRINTING TRADE.

__ The printing trade has undergone rapid changes of late years, lead-
ing to the substitution of mechanical processes of linotyping and stereo-
typing for the old method of setting type by hand. These changes have
not, however, done away with the dangers in the printing trade and it

28
must always be remembered that there are still many small establish-
ments in which the old hand work is carried on exclusively. The dan-
gers in the printing trade, as in all other trades where metallic lead is
handled, come from the oxide of lead which forms very quickly on the
surface of molten lead and more slowly on the surface of cold solid
lead. It is very light and easily carried by a draft of air.

Lead which is used in the making of type has a varying amount of
antimony added to it, and according to German authorities this mixture
is more detrimental to health than is either metal by itself. The
pots or kettles of type metal and those used to melt the skimmings or
so-called dross (oxide of lead) are usually not kept very hot—about
500° C. Lead does not volatilize under 1000° C. at the lowest, and it
is often believed that there is no danger of fumes below that tempera-
ture. There are, however, abundant fumes which rise from a pot of
melted lead at any temperature whenever it is stirred or skimmed or in
any way disturbed, as by the common procedure of dropping cold stereo-
type plates or type into the kettle to be remelted. If the melted lead is
left undisturbed as it is in the linotype machines, it is hard to see how
fumes of lead can rise from it, and cases of lead poisoning among lino-
typers are said by the printers to be very rare.

Aside from the filling and skimming and stirring of the melted
lead, dust is caused by the habit of emptying the ladle by knocking it
sharply on the edge of the kettle, also by throwing the skimmed-off
dross on to the floor, where it rises in dust; also the breaking of the
dross or meta! to prepare it for remelting.

Other dusty processes are the melting down of kettles full of dross,
cutting off the tails from the plates, which is done at machines furnished
with down suction, but which nevertheless is usually accompanied with
the formation of some dust. As for the solid lead, there is very little
risk, if any, in handling freshly made type or plates. It is old type
covered with oxide that causes the most danger to the compositor. Pol-
ishing this old type with emery, a task usually entrusted to girls, is very
bad. The blowing out of old type to get rid of the oxide dust is also
bad. Fortunately there is now an increasing tendency to remelt old
type instead of using it over again. ;

The following are the processes in printing in the order of their
danger :

Work around the kettles, especially melting dross and old type; pol-
ishing old type with emery; setting old type; stereotyping ; electrotyping ;
linotyping; the work of the stone men; compositors working with new
type.

The distinctive thing about the hygiene of the printers’ trade is that
all of the risks to health to which the printer is exposed are avoidable,
none of them are inherent in the nature of the work. This trade more
than any other lead trade that has been studied, suffers from the con-
ditions under which it is carried on. The majority of the places visited
are in dark, overcrowded, uncleanly rooms, sometimes in the basement.

29
The kettles are almost never sufficiently protected and in many places
not protected at all. Ventilation is practically never sufficient. Clean-
liness was found to be the exception. If any sweeping 1s done it is dry
sweeping. The floors are almost never scrubbed or even sprinkled. The
work done in these places is often very careless. Where the kettles are
protected by hoods with a draft only strong enough to carry off small
amounts of fume, the workmen are in the, habit of throwing in five
or six plates for remelting at once and raising an amount of fume which
spreads through the whole room. ‘The skimmings of dross are often
dropped on the floor. Dust is allowed to accumulate everywhere and
the blowing out of the old type is often carelessly done. Provisions for
cleanliness are sometimes utterly inadequate and in a neglected con-
dition. They are seldom sufficient to insure the men eating with clean
hands and not carrying lead dust home on their hair, face and clothes.

These evils are all entirely preventable and there is no reason why
the printers’ trade should not be healthier than almost any of the other
lead trades. The impression gained by the investigators was that the
conditions in the shops depend entirely upon the standards of the indi-
vidual manager. Some of the best places found are small and insig-
nificant, and some of the worst conditions are in large newspaper offices.

The authorities on lead poisoning state that in printers it usually
assumes the chronic form, seldom the acute, and our experience bears
this out. Only 36, possibly 40, cases of acute lead poisoning were dis-
covered, almost all of them having occurred during 1910. A study
of the death benefit records of the union shows that the causes of death
are suggestive of chronic lead poisoning, with hardening of the blood
vessels and changes in the heart and kidneys, for printers have an exces-
sive death rate from apoplexy, kidney disease and heart disease.

PLUMBER’S TRADE.

Both in the making of plumbers’ supplies and in the plumbers’ trade
far less lead is used than was the case twenty or thirty years ago, and
there tends to be still less, as the substitution of iron and brass for lead
becomes more and more general. In Chicago it was found that certain
parts of the city still use the old-fashioned form of plumbing, but over
the greater part of the city wrought iron pipes and traps are used. In
the largest plumbers’ supplies factory only 13 out of a total of 2800 men
handle lead pipes, tanks and solder.

The men engaged in the trade assert that lead-poisoning is becoming
a thing of the past, but investigation shows that there are still instances
of it to be found and that even the most modern plumbing requires the
use of some lead.

Analysis was made of some twenty-four samples of dust collected in
places where plumbers were working on the old-fashioned lead pipes,
the dust being collected from projections near the men at work. Less
than 50 per cent of the samples showed lead.

30
In order to discover any possible cases of lead-poisoning the members
of the Plumbers’ Union were interviewed by the investigators and a
large meeting of these men was called. One of the physicians employed
by the commission addressed this meeting, explaining the symptoms of
lead-poisoning and asking if any men present had suffered from it.
Thirty-seven of the 300 men attending the meeting presented themselves
for examination as possible cases of lead-poisoning, but only ten could
be pronounced such by the physician who examined them. Of six other
suspected cases, three were pronounced to be old cases of plumbism. A
similar examination was made of fifty-two cable-splicers doing under-
ground work for a large electrical company. Six mild cases were found
among these men. None of the nineteen cases thus discovered repre-
sented a severe form of lead-poisoning.

It would be a simple matter to rid the plumber’s trade of lead-
poisoning altogether, for the only thing needed is personal cleanliness.
The habit of chewing bits of lead (all but 16 out of 100 men questioned
as to this admitted that it was their habit), of chewing tobacco handled
with unwashed hands, and of eating lunch with unwashed hands, is
probably responsible for the few cases of lead-poisoning which do occur.

Wuite Leap.

There are four factories in Illinois which manufacture white lead.
Three of them use the old Dutch process, which consists in casting me-
tallic lead into thin plates, placing them in earthen pots with weak acetic
acid and burying the pots in stacks filled with fermenting tan-bark,
where the change from metallic lead to the white carbonate takes place.
White lead is very poisonous, because it is easily absorbed by the human
body. It enters the body chiefly through the mouth, being carried in
with food or tobacco that is handled with dirty hands, or being breathed
in with the air and either swallowed from the mouth or carried on to the
lungs. It is not absorbed through the skin. The processes through which
the white lead has to pass, from its formation in the tan-bark stack to the
final product, involve a good many dangers to the workmen, depending
largely upon whether machinery or hand labor is used and whether there
is a high standard of cleanliness in the factory.

First, the corroded lead, which is now white lead with a small amount
of uncorroded metallic lead, must be taken out from the tan-bark stack
and the uncorroded part must be separated from the corroded. ‘The
white lead is then ground in water, strained and bolted, and all the time
small particles of unchanged lead are being removed and carried off,
either to be melted again or to be corroded again. As soon as the white
lead is in water there is no danger to the workman unless the tanks leak
badly and the floor is allowed to dry and get dusty. In the emptying
of the stack and in handling the unchanged lead, which has a good deal
of white lead sticking to it, there is always more or less dust.

31
The ground white lead and water are pumped into large drying pans,
and when all the water has been driven out these pans must be emptied
by shoveling the white lead into some receptacle, sometimes a closed hop-
per, more often an open truck. This process and the original emptying
of the stack are everywhere recognized as the two most dangerous tasks
in a white lead factory, although it is almost equally dangerous to pack
the dry white lead in barrels and to head up the barrels. Some of the
dry white lead is ground in oil and this is a dusty process or not, accord-
ing to the care with which it is done. In some places it is quite safe.
Besides the lead ground in oil and the dry white lead, some factories also
make what is called “pulp lead,” which is by far the safest product as
far as the health of the workmen is concerned. No drying is needed for
pulp lead. The water is driven out by grinding with oil.

The fourth factory uses a rapid method of corrosion known as the
Carter process, in which the lead is reduced to a fine powder and
sprinkled with acetic acid. This process involves a great deal of dusty
work, more than any other, and is consequently the most dangerous proc-
ess known. This and one of the old Dutch process factories belong to
the National Lead Company ; the other two are independent plants.

Of the four factories in Illinois not one can be considered safe, be-
cause the American process of manufacture involves so much handling of
dry white lead. In Europe and England, dust is controlled by the liberal
use of water. The floors of the factory must be smooth and hard and
kept flushed all the time. The white lead in the stacks must be
sprinkled before it is handled. The separation of the white lead from
the unchanged lead is done under water. There are no large drying pans,
no shoveling of the white lead. All trucks are covered and there are
hoods with exhausts over all openings for the white lead.

The dangers peculiar to the American process are diminished to some
extent in the best managed Illinois factories. One has concrete con-
struction throughout, the other two have some concrete floors, although
not in all of the rooms. These are far better than wooden floors, be-
cause they are smoother and can be kept clean. One factory is experi-
menting with a pneumatic cleaner to get rid of sweeping. All three
which use the old Dutch process just described employ machinery to an
increasing extent and thus do away with an increasing number of work-
men.

The National Lead Company is devoting much attention and incurring
a large expenditure of money in the effort to improve its old Dutch
process factory in Ilinois. This is also true of one of the independent
manufacturers, who is very eager to do all he can to safeguard the men
working in his factory. Both of these are model factories, according to
American standards, and there is every reason to suppose that they will
go on improving. ‘The same cannot be said for the other independent
plant, where the construction is admirable in many ways, but the man-
agement is not so intelligent and there is no apparent effort made to pro-
tect the men from poisoning. Even in the two factories where the man-
agers are doing all that they believe possible to render the work safer

32
€

there still remain processes which are very dangerous, such as the empty-
ing of the stacks and of the drying pans and the heading up of the bar-
rels. So far no method has been devised for rendering these processes
safe. Only one of the three factories has done away with hand trucking
altogether, in the other two trucks are still emptied by hand. Wet
sweeping or flushing is the exception, dry sweeping the rule. Very
good lavatories are provided in all these places, but the men are not
obliged to use them. None of the factories provide working clothes nor
do they oblige the men to provide them. A man may go home in his lead
filled clothes without so much as washing his hands. Lunch rooms are
provided, but the men are not compelled to eat in them, although there
is some effort made to persuade them to. The use of respirators is gen-
eral in only one of the three, where the employer encourages the men
to use pads of moist cheese-cloth instead of the bulky, heavy rubber and
sponge respirator, which the men find very hard to use.

The one factory using the Carter process is the oldest of the four
factories. The construction is not modern, and as the process used in-
volves the handling of much dry lead dust, this is the most dangerous
of the four factories. In consequence, the company has adopted meas-
ures for protecting the workmen which are in advance of those used in
any other factory in the state, such as the compulsory use of respirators
and overalls, compulsory washing and bathing, and a careful weeding
out of over-susceptible men. As medical inspection is made of all
workmen, early cases of lead-poisoning can be detected and given appro-
priate treatment.

Although the present condition of this plant is not good, the investi-
gator has been assured that many improvements are to be slowly insti-

. tuted. The National Lead Company has an experimental Carter plant

in Chicago, in which new machinery is tested and when proved success-
ful it is to be installed in the present plant. This means that the work-
ing force will be greatly diminished, dust will be lessened and therefore
the amount of lead-poisoning in the factory will not be so great as at
present.

In England and in Europe the men working in white lead are obliged
to wash carefully before lunch and before quitting work. Those exposed
to dust are obliged to bathe daily in the factory. Time is allowed for
washing and bathing. Work clothes, sometimes including caps and
shoes, are provided, kept clean and mended by the employers. Respirators
must be worn by all men who are exposed to dust. ‘The use of a separate
lunchroom is compulsory. Half an hour is allowed for breakfast, which
is especially necessary, as there is much danger of lead poisoning if a
man is working on an empty stomach, and foreign workmen are accus-
tomed to breakfasting a couple of hours after starting to work, In
these countries there is also regular medical inspection, which includes the
men who quit work for unknown reasons, so that no case of lead poisoning
can escape the physician. A man who has once been leaded is not per-
mitted to go back to handling white lead.

In one of the Illinois factories belonging to the National Lead Com-
pany, there has been regular medical inspection for more than a year.

33
In the other the same system has just been instituted. In a third, an
independent plant, there is a physician employed to examine the men
who complain or who are suspected of being sick. There is no imspec-
tion at all in the other independent plant. In none of the last three
is an effort made to detect and dismiss over-susceptible men. In none are
the men who quit work followed up. In none is there any tule against
sending a man who has recovered from lead poisoning back to his old
work; on the contrary, in at least two of the four this is regularly done.

The comparative results of the European system and of our system
may be seen in the following figures:

In one English white lead factory employing 182 men careful medi-
cal inspection failed to discover one case of lead poisoning in the year
1909-10. In an Illinois factory employing 142 men, partial inspection
revealed 25 men suffering from lead poisoning last year. In another
English factory employing 90 men, no case was discovered for five suc-
cessive years. In an Illinois factory employing 94 men, 28 per cent of
all employees have had lead poisoning and 40 per cent of all employed in
the dustier work. The other two Illinois factories have not had medical
inspection and accurate figures cannot be given. One has sent four cases
of lead poisoning to a hospital during the last month, the other three.
These figures certainly do not represent even one-half of the probable.
number of cases, for many do not seek hospital care. Yet, even these
would mean an average yearly of 36 and 48 cases, respectively.

In the two last cases of lead poisoning reported from the County Hos-
pital, the men, evidently very susceptible to lead, had been put to work
at once in the drying room, with the result that one was poisoned after
five weeks’ employment, the other after eight.

The fundamental difference between the European and the American
white lead industries lies in the dustiness of the process used in America,
and the fact that the men here are not compelled to take care of
themselves. 2

The only way to make a white lead factory in Illinois a safe place to
work in and the only way to prevent lead poisoning is by strict super-
vision of the men, care to avoid unnecessary dust, short hours of work in
the most dusty processes, and a steady force of workmen from which the
most susceptible have been eliminated by the medical inspector and who
have been trained in the proper care of their health. Compulsory medical

inspection and compulsory use of washrooms, respirators and lunchrooms
are all essential. ‘

Interviews have been granted to one of the investigators by the man-
agers of all four white lead factories, and in three, two belonging to the
National Lead Company and one of the independent plants, there has
been expressed a desire to institute any suggested changes which are
found practicable; for instance, the compulsory use of the lavatories and
lunchroom ; compulsory medical inspection with rejection of over-sus-
ceptible men ; allowing time for breakfast; providing some hot food at a
small price for the noon meal and hot coffee for breakfast - arranging for
shifting of workmen from dangerous to safe tasks. There has been so far

34
no offer on the part of one of the independent plants to institute any
reforms, although they have an increasing amount of lead poisoning
among their employes, as shown by hospital and dispensary records.

The difficulty of protecting the workmen in our white lead factories
is increased. by the fact that the majority of the employees are newly
arrived foreigners, many of whom are quite ignorant of the dangers they
are exposed to and do not understand explanations given in English. It
is desirable to have affixed to the walls of these factories simple instruc-
tions in different languages as to the necessity of personal cleanliness, of
.the use of a respirator, etc.

MANUFACTURE oF Dry Cotors.

In the manufacture of dry colors certain salts of lead are handled,
such as lead acetate, or sugar of lead, the carbonate or white lead, chrome
or yellow lead, and the oxide or red lead. There are four large dry color
establishments in Illinois. In two, the plants are new, well constructed
and with concrete floors. The third and fourth are of older construction
and have wooden floors.

The dangers to the workmen in the dry color houses are connected
with the handling of the dry lead compounds, wherever this is done with-
out precautions against dust and without insuring the cleanliness of the
men when they eat and when they quit work. In one of these factories
the precautions taken are decidedly greater than in the others. The
whole building is of concrete and there is absolutely no dust in the greater
part of the factory. There is, however, danger in the shoveling of the
dry white lead from the barrels to the scales and from here to the oil
mixers, although the manager endeavors to have this done with care not
to raise unnecessary dust. There is an excellent lavatory in this factory,
but the men must provide their towels, soap and overalls. This factory
deserves unqualified praise as far as construction goes and the manager
is anxious to do all he can for the safety of the workmen, yet certain
precautions against dust are absent here, which would be found in the
most cheaply managed English factory.

The second factory is well constructed, but the handling of the dry
lead compounds is done far more carelessly and there is more dust. This
factory has many cases of lead-poisoning, although the management pro-
vides overalls and towels and soap, and compels the men to use them.
They also provide a lunchroom and claim that the men do not eat in
the workrooms. Their failure comes from neglecting precautions against
lead dust, and the results are shown in the statements obtained from
physicians which give a yearly average of about 11 cases of lead-poisoning
from the dry color department of this factory. Hight cases were inter-
viewed by an investigator. In contrast to this we may point to Borrell
& Company, Paint and Dry Colors, London, where 81 men are employed
and where there has been no case of lead-poisoning since 1902.

Of the other two dry color establishments neither is modern in con-
struction, nor clean, although one is far dustier than the other. In
both, dusty processes are carried on without any precautions and the

35
men working there are covered with the dry lead pigments. Soap and |
hot water are provided, but no towels, overalls or gloves, and the men
are allowed to eat where they please. There is lead-poisoning 1n both
of these factories.

Paint HovsEs.

Aside from the four dry color houses already described, there are
eight paint factories in Chicago. There is not as much danger to
the health of the men employed here as in the dry color works, the
only risk being in handling the lead salts before they are ground. Such
places can easily be made safe if the floors are smooth, if they are kept
clean and kept wet, if care is used to have hoods and exhausts over
the machines in which the lead salts are ground. ‘The eight places
visited in Chicago are none of them ideal, although two of them are
very clean. In the others the danger to the workman depends upon
the amount of white lead which is used in the establishment, for some
use very little, and employ instead comparatively harmless substances,
such as zinc or the sulphate of lead or barytes, so that even if there is
carelessness and dirt the men are not exposed to lead-poisoning. In
three, washing facilities are insufficient and inaccessible and the work-
men eat in their workrooms. The dusty processes are not separated .
from the not dusty work, as should be done. For instance, a girl
engaged in labeling paint cans in one of these paint houses contracted
lead poisoning because she was stationed near enough to the scales
where the white lead was weighed to inhale the dust raised in this
process. Fortunately for the workmen, there is a gradually increasing
tendency to substitute harmless or almost harmless pigments for white
and red lead. Graphite and the German reds are largely replacing red
lead. Zinc, sulphate of lead and barytes are to a certain extent
displacing white lead.

THE PaIntTING TRADE.

The painting trade is numerically the most important of the lead
trades; 27 per cent of all the individual cases on our list are painters.
This is not because the trade is more dangerous than the other lead
trades. It is simply because many more are employed in it than in
any other one lead trade. The lead poisoning of painters is apt to
be slower in onset than in many other trades. ‘The painters them-
selves state that it is very rare for a case of lead-poisoning to develop
during the years of apprenticeship. Sometimes it does not come on
till late in life, after pneumonia or some other disease has weakened
the body. Being a skilled trade, men are loath to give it up, even after
they know. that they are leaded, and they often return to it again and
again until finally they are incapacitated by paralysis. The ‘dangers |
in the painter’s trade come first from the paint being carried into the —
mouth by the fingers; second, from the dust which is formed during
the mixing of dry white lead or red lead, and during the dry rubbing
down of white lead paint.
nized by painters and can be easily guarded against by careful washing

36

The first danger is very generally recog- .'
of the hands before meals when this is possible, but in the large majority
of cases there are no washing facilities for men engaged in house and
sign painting. The second cause of lead poisoning, namely, dust, is
far more important and is often quite beyond the control of the painter.
Mixing of paints is not generally done. It is more often entrusted to
one or two men, who mix for the others. On the other hand, white
lead putty, when this is used, is handled by many men who also
sometimes add dry white lead to it to stiffen it. The most dangerous
part of the painter’s work consists in rubbing with sandpaper the coats
of white lead paint after they are dried so as to roughen the surface
and prepare it to receive another coat. This sandpapering produces
clouds of very fine white lead dust, which the workmen breathe in. It
is done usually inside a building, in interior work in houses, in the
painting of railway cars, street cars, carriages, coaches, automobiles and
even wagons. The room in which the work is done is tightly closed to
keep out drafts of air which might scatter dust on freshly painted sur-
faces. There is never any exhaust system to carry off the dust which
falls on the floor and is‘stirred up by the feet of the men. The paint
which is sanded often contains as much as 80 per cent white lead,
the putty, which is also sanded, may be 95 per cent white lead.

Very rapid cases of lead poisoning and very severe forms develop
as a result of this work of sandpapering lead paint. In one establish-
ment where railway coaches are manufactured, three cases developed
recently in men none of whom had worked more than four weeks.
One was a newly-arrived Italian, who had been engaged in sandpapering
all day. He was not a painter by trade, bad no idea of any danger
connected with the work. What made his part of the work especially
bad was that he was rubbing the painted ceilings of railway coaches
and in the small enclosure there was no escape for the dust.

Another danger the painters encounter is the rubbing down of old
lead paint in making repairs. Where the paint is burned off there is
far less danger, but even here the old paint falls to the ground, dries
and gives rise to dust.

The statement is usually made that it is impossible to protect the
painter from lead poisoning unless the use of white lead in paint is
altogether abolished, as it is soon to be in France. German, English
and Belgian authorities dissent from this, but they believe that the
use of white lead should be restricted to exterior work and zinc white
be used for the interior. This is said by many to be superior to white
lead for interior use.

In Belgium the law forbids dry rubbing of any lead paint. In
England, wet rubbing seems to be universal, even on the finest coaches
and automobiles. In Germany, the building contractor is obliged to
provide a warm, abundantly equipped lavatory in which the painters he
employs may wash and eat their lunch. This must be done even when
the buildings painted are outside of cities.

In order to protect the American painter, the first thing needed is
that he should be instructed as to how to take care of himself. He
should be taught that the danger comes from lead smeared food and

37
tobacco, not from absorption through the skin. If he is obliged to
work at dry sandpapering he should be protected by a system of suction
fans to draw the dust away from him. The floor of buildings in which
such work is done should be smooth and hard and kept wet. The men
should be furnished respirators, caps and overalls, should work for
short hours and be frequently shifted to less dangerous work.

The investigation made of this trade is very far from complete, for
there are in Illinois about 20,000 painters in the Painters’ and Decora- .
tors’ Union, and ‘supposedly half as many outside the Union. The officers
of the Union rendered much valuable help to the Commission and
through their records of sick benefits it has been possible to discover
cases of lead poisoning and to have medical examination of many of
those in which lead poisoning seemed to be indicated, but this last
could be done only in Chicago and is not yet completely done even
here. The work among non-union painters was attended with far more
difficulty, of course, and the number of cases discovered does not repre-
sent anything but a fraction of the real number. There is in all prob-
ability much more lead poisoning among the non-union painters than
among the union men, for they are employed largely in indoor work
the year round, painting railway and street railway cars, carriages and
automobiles, wagons and agricultural implements. Such work usually
involves the sandpapering of lead painted surfaces in closed rooms,
which is known to be the worse part of the painters’ trade.

It has not been possible, for lack of time, to search for cases of
lead poisoning among the non-union painters, except as these were
found in hospital and dispensary records or were reported by physicians,
and the investigators feel that many would be discovered if the men
employed in certain establishments could be examined. For instance,
there are carriage shops which are unable to keep anything like a steady
force of workmen and where the conditions are so bad as to suggest
that the men leave on account of ill health. One such place has a pay-
roll of only 13 men, but takes on 50 in the course of the year. Another
is obliged to employ 300 men a year in order to keep up an average of
50. In some of the shops where railway cars are painted or repaired,
there is every opportunity for rapid absorption of lead by the many
men who work in the same room. It is a very important branch of
the lead trades and one which merits much more study.

Mecuanicat Artists on RETOUCHERS.

‘This is a highly skilled trade, said to employ about 520 persons in
Chicago, both men and women. It is well paid, carried on under
pleasant surroundings and attracts educated and talented young people,
many of them earning enough to enable them to go on with their
training at the Art Institute. The work consists in making paintings
in color, or more often in black and white, for catalogues, advertise-
ments, picture cards, etc., also in retouching with white paint photo-
graphs for catalogues and pattern books so that these will reproduce
better. The engraving houses and large manufactures in which this
is done usually provide large, light, clean rooms for their artists, the
ventilation in which is not always good, because the sedentary employ-
ment makes the artists dread cold air. These artists are paid good

38
wages, their hours are usually not more than eight or eight and one-
half a day, but in spite of all these apparent advantages the profession
is notoriously unhealthful. The men say that they all have stomach
trouble, that they are obliged to take vacations from time to time, that
many cannot stand more than a few years of it, that they do not under-
stand where the danger lies. They use white paint, putting it on with
a fine brush which they habitually suck to bring it to a fine point.
Besides this, they use an “air brush” which by means of compressed
air sends an exceedingly fine spray of white paint over the picture. The
paint used is very powdery when it dries and if too much has been put
on, the excess is blown off by the “air brush.”

Most of the artists believe that this white paint is zine white and
state that their employers and foremen have told them so. The investi-
gators were also told that all the white paint used in certain establish-
ments was zinc white. ‘I'wo physicians reported to the Commission
puzzling cases of apparent lead poisoning in men using zinc paints.
Other cases came to the knowledge of the Commission where physicians
had been completely misled by the statements of their patients and had
consequently treated them for diseases which they did not have. On
questioning the men closely, some say that they believe it is dangerous
to put the brush in the mouth, others believe that the chief harm comes
from breathing the spray from the air brush. One man who was careful
not to put his brush in his mouth said that he noticed that his nostrils
were white after a day’s use of the air brush.

The Commission had analyses made of eleven of the whites used in
these establishments and found that seven consisted of white lead paint.
Only four establishments were found in which at least one variety of
white lead paint was not used. This is a trade in which protection of the
workmen would be comparatively easy, for what is chiefly needed is that
they should be instructed as to the nature of the paint they are using
and the dangers connected with it. They should be warned against
putting the brushes in their mouths and should be told of the danger
of eating without first washing the hands and rinsing the mouth. Some:
simple form of respirator, preferably a muslin bag, should be advised
during the time that the air brush is used. It is, of course, most
desirable that the rooms should be. kept clean, that there should be no
dry sweeping, and that the ventilation should be good.

LEAD OXIDE WorRKS.

There is only one factory in Illinois which manufactures the lead
oxides known as red lead and litharge. This is a modern factory, very
well constructed with concrete floors, and it is kept scrupulously clean.
The use of machinery is carried to a very high point. The dangerous
parts of this process are the handling of the refuse from white lead
factories, which is dried and full of white lead powder, the conveying of
red lead in open trucks to the grinder, and shoveling into the furnace
the dried refuse from this grinder. ‘The drying room is also unsafe
because the dry red lead must be shoveled into trucks and then into
grinders. Another dusty process is the packing of the dry red lead
into barrels. All these processes are recognized as dangerous in this

39
Illinois factory and every effort is made to replace hand work by
machinery and to provide a perfect dust-collecting system. The factory
compares well with the best of those in England and Europe.

LitHo-TRANSFER WORKS.

This work is done in lithographic establishments, only two of which
in Illinois have a litho-transfer department. The work consists in
making transfers which are used in impressing patterns on pottery.
The colors for this work are ground dry and are then dusted on to pre-
pared paper. It is the only dry color work that is carried on in a litho-
graphic factory ; the rest is all wet. The danger in color grinding is that
the dust of the lead colors escapes and may be breathed in and the
fingers of the workman become covered with this dust. In the transfer
work girls are usually employed, this being one of the few lead trades in
which many girls are found. It is a decided disadvantage, from the
point of view of industrial hygiene, for girls are everywhere recognized
as more susceptible to lead poisoning than men. Girls in litho-transfer
work usually do the color dusting at a table provided with a glass screen
and canvas flaps through which their hands pass. The protection
afforded is very incomplete, because the canvas is usually torn, also the
girls sometimes remove the plates of glass in order to see better. These
tables with the hand work are being displaced by large machines from
which there is very little escape of dust and which necessitate little hand
work. The girls employed at these machines, however, wear cloths to
protect their hair from the dust and these cloths, as well as their gloves,
are stained with colors, showing that the machines have not abolished
the lead dust. In one litho-transfer factory there is also a room -in
which aluminum foil is applied to prepared paper by hand. The girls
in this room are covered with light fragments of foil which sticks also to
their hands. This foil contains 7 per cent lead.

Litho-transfer rooms should be kept very well ventilated and as
dust free as possible. The floors should be often swept with wet saw-
dust. Special care should be taken that the girls wash before eating
and eat in a separate room. It is far better not to employ girls in such
a place. In the large litho-transfer factory in Chicago eight girls and
one man have come under the care of a physician for lead poisoning
during the last two years. The man was employed in color grinding,
the girls in dusting the color on paper.

STORAGE BATTERIES.

In the making of storage batteries a metal plate or grid with holes or
ridges is cast and the inequalities of the surface of this grid are filled
with a paste consisting chiefly of oxides of lead. There are four parts
of a storage battery factory in which the workmen are exposed to
danger. First, the casting room with the vessel of molten lead ; second,
the room in which the oxides are weighed and mixed; third, the paste
room, and fourth, the room in which the plates are dried. In Europe
this is recognized as a dangerous trade and it is hedged around with
many safeguards for the prevention of lead poisoning.

In Illinois there are no large storage battery works, but many small
ones, some employing only three or four men. In consequence the

40
equipment is usually very inadequate and the protection of the men is
not at all sufficient. The melting pot usually is not hooded and though
there is little escape of fumes as long as the lead is not stirred, there
is always some danger when the lead is ladled out for casting. The
dross on the surface is often skimmed off and thrown on the floor, so
that the room is very dusty. Frequently all of the processes are car-
ried on in the same room. The oxides are mixed usually with precau-
tions against dust, but the powder is given to each man to make into
paste and this causes a great deal of dust. In one place the pasters do
their work under glass screens with canvas curtains, through which
the men’s arms pass, but in most places they work at unprotected tables.
Their clothes, caps, shoes, faces, hands and hair are red with dust.
The drying room is usually small and the men are not obliged to enter
it, but can remove the plates by opening the door. These dry plates
can be handled without much risk, but in some places they are scraped
in order to get rid of the excess of paste, which should have been removed
while they were still moist, and this causes a dangerous amount of dust.

In places where worn-out plates are collected and recharged or melted
there is an additional source of dust, for these old plates give off a
fine powder of oxide of lead as soon as they are touched.

The washing facilities are very rarely adequate. A lunch room is
not provided in any of the establishments visited. Working clothes are
not provided, although it is true that most men are obliged to wear
special working clothes, because the red lead dust is so abundant that
their clothes and shoes could not be worn on the street.

The storage battery works in Illinois give rise to a great deal of lead
poisoning. The men acknowledge that they are usually ignorant of
the nature of the substances they handle, nor do they know the dangers
of the work. Some of the most rapidly developing and severest cases
of lead poisoning we have discovered have come from storage battery
plants. Yet it is possible to render such places quite safe and healthful,
as is shown by the records of large factories in England.

At the Hart Accumulator Works in London 80-100 men are employed
and there has been no case of lead poisoning for over a year. On the
other hand, one small plant in Chicago, belonging to one of the rail-
roads, employs only 15 men, but had two known cases of lead poisoning
in a period of nine months.

To render safe a storage battery factory the following measures
should be adopted :

The casting should be done in a separate room, clean, and with a
hooded kettle. The measuring, mixing and grinding of the oxides and
the making of the paste should be done by one man in a separate room,
well ventilated, the floors of which should be kept wet. The pasters
should work at a table with a hard, smooth surface so that it can be
washed clean, They should not be allowed to handle the powder, but
should be given the paste already made. There should be no scraping
of plates after they have left the drying room. The floors of the fac-
tory should be hard and smooth and kept wet. There should be ade-
quate washing facilities and the men should be obliged to use them.

41
The men should be obliged to change their clothes before leaving the
factory. A lunch room should be provided and its use made com-
pulsory. The men should be warned of the dangers of breathing or
swallowing the red lead dust. If old battery plates are reassembled or
remelted, they should always be sprinkled with water before they are
handled.

Purry PowbeEr.

There are two methods of finishing cut-glass, either by some strong
acid, sulphuric or hydrofluoric, or by a powder composed of three parts
oxide of lead to one part oxide of tin. The latter process is being aban-
doned gradually but is still in use in one of the eight cut-glass estab-
lishments visited. This powder, made into a paste, is applied to
the glass and the glass is then held against the polishing whee!, which
causes the thin paste to spatter in all directions over the person of the
workman, over his neighbors and over the walls and floor. As it dries
it forms a light dust, which spreads through the room. The articles
covered with this powder are washed and dried, usually by girls, who
may work in the same room with the polishers. In that way all the
employees may become exposed to the lead dust.

Polishing cut-glass is listed as a dangerous trade by the Prudential
Life Insurance Co., and the people engaged in it are rejected. In one
such establishment in Chicago where only two men are engaged in the
actual polishing, two cases of lead poisoning were reported by a physi-
cian last spring.

Such factories should furnish overalls and caps for the polishers.
Their work should be done in a separate room, the floor of which should
be kept wet. Everyone using the powder or handling glass covered with
it, should be given time and facilities for thorough washing of hands
and face before eating or quitting work. It is essential that the work-
men understand what it is they are using, and for this purpose simple
statements explaining the necessary facts should be displayed in these
establishments.

GLAZES AND ENAMELS.

Red lead is often used in the making of glazes and enamels for pot-
tery, enameled signs, sanitary ware, tiles and glazed bricks. There are
two ways of using red lead in the making of enamel, one of which is
safer than the other. By the first method the lead salt is mixed with
the glaze-forming constituents, is then melted and after it is completely
fused, reduced to a powder. This changes the lead from a soluble,
poisonous form, to a much less soluble and safer compound. By the
other method the original mixture is applied directly to the object to
be glazed without any previous fusion. The glaze in either case may be
applied wet by dipping or brushing or spraying, or it may be scattered
on dry. The last is, of course, attended with much more risk than the
wet process. In a few instances white lead is used instead of the red lead.

In investigating the glazes and enamels made in Illinois, it is found
that several do not contain lead oxide, zine being substituted for the glaz-
ing of pottery, tiles and bricks, in four of the nine establishments concern-

42
ing which we have information. Kitchen utensils seem to be invariably
finished with a glaze free from lead. The two largest establishments
in the state making kitchen ware were visited and information was
obtained concerning the smaller factories also. No lead is used in any
of them. The investigators also were informed that no lead is used
in the one large establishment making enameled signs.

Of the five potteries using either red or white lead, only two were
visited. In the one which uses white lead the dry salt is not handled
with much caution, though only four men are exposed to it. After it
is mixed with water the workmen dip this wet lead mixture from the
tub and pour it over the tiles, which they hold in their hands. The tiling
should be held in such a way that the lead glaze does not reach the
workman’s hands, yet their hands are soon covered with it.

The foreman stated that it was impossible to make the men wash
properly, but that they were foreigners and came and went all the time,
so that nobody knew if any of them fell sick or not. No towels are pro-
vided. About 1,200 pounds of white lead a day are used and 140 men
employed. The other pottery visited uses red lead mixed with water
and employs only two men.

There is one large establishment in Illinois which makes sanitary
supplies and in which about 200 men are employed in handling the lead
enamel. The enamel is melted and ground before being applied, so that
the lead is changed to an almost insoluble form. As several cases of
lead poisoning have been traced to this factory, careful examination was
made to determine where the dangers lay and the investigator concluded
that these dangers were largely avoidable, being due to careless handling
of the ground enamel. There is such an excessive production of dust
that some of the men become poisoned even though this form of lead
is comparatively harmless. The ground enamel is left lying in heaps
on the floor and.is tracked over the premises by the workmen’s boots.
It is applied dry to the heated basin or tub by a sprinkling apparatus
and while doing this work the men are in a cloud of dust. There is no
system of dust collection, nor are the men protected by respirators. It
would be easy to render such a place free from the dangers of lead
poisoning simply by removing the dust.

Rusper Inpusrry. GuLass. Tin UTEnsIzs, Etc.

There are certain industries which are regarded as dangerous trades
in many states and in Europe and England, but which are found in
Illinois to he comparatively free from the dangers of industrial poison-
ing. The rubber industry in Illinois does not use bi-sulphide of carbon
nor white lead, as is customary elsewhere. It uses a small amount of red
lead, but has substituted for white lead the comparatively harmless sul-
phate. No cases of lead poisoning have been traced to the rubber indus-
_ try in Dlinois. i

The glass industry of Illinois does not use lead. The making of
cheap tin kitchen utensils is a dangerous lead trade in England, but
in Illinois, so far as the Commission’s investigators have been able to
discover, cheap tin utensils are made of steel or iron covered with an ex-
ceedingly thin coat which has no lead mixed with it.

43
 

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46
DEFINITIONS.

Under “Conditions of Shop,” the terms “good,” “fair,” “unsatis-
factory,” “bad,” signify the following conditions.

By “good” is meant proper and sufficient ventilation, plenty of light,
both natural and artificial, general cleanliness of place, provisions of
sanitary conveniences, and plenty of room or air space according to num-
ber of employees.

“Fair” signifies the same sanitary conditions, which are, however,
somewhat less cared for. For instance, a shop may be clean and well-
ventilated, but also dim or dark; or there may be a lavatory in the shop
without any soap or towels, etc.

“Unsatisfactory” means neglected or lacking sanitary provisions, as
poor ventilation, dusty and unswept rooms, crowded conditions, etc.

“Bad” signifies the reverse of “good.” A shop wholly neglected with
respect to most or all of the desirable sanitary provisions is said to be
“bad.”

ARSENIC.

Arsenic is used in JIliniois‘in industry to a small extent only. White
arsenic is used in solution, 1 pound of white arsenic to 1 gallon of water,
by taxidermists to keep fur or feathers from being attacked by moths.
The making of the solution is done usually in the open air. The skins
and feathers are never handled after the arsenic has dried, and appar-
ently there is no ulceration caused by putting the hands in this solution.

Arsenite of copper, or Paris Green, is manufactured in two estab-
lishments and handled in a third. It is a very light and fluffy powder,
extremely hard to control. If it settles on the-skin and becomes
moistened by the perspiration, ulcers are apt to result. If it is breathed
into the mucous membrane of the mouth and nose, still severer ulcera-
tion takes place. Cases have occurred of ulceration of the feet when the
boots have become soaked with water holding Paris Green. The internal
effects of Paris Green poisoning are shown in intestinal and nervous
disturbances.

The largest Paris Green factory in Illinois employs 16-17 men. The
salt is precipitated in large tanks in a room where there is no dust, bul
the fumes from the tanks are said to make the men drowsy. The green
is run out in to filter presses, and is then carried to a hot room, where
it is dried, and then: carried on trays to the bolting machine, then to
the filling room, where it is filled into small kegs. All of the rooms
in both Paris Green factories are a vivid green color, but in the strik-
ing rooms the fioors are kept wet by constant flushing. In the rooms
where the dry powder is handled, there is very little effort to keep
down the dust; on the contrary, it is handled with great carelessness,
and consequently the air is full of it. In the larger factory, the filling
of little kegs is done under glass, with canvas flaps, and there is a
strong exhaust. Jn the smaller factory, there is no such protection: In

47
the larger, the men are furnished overalls, gloves and boots, and the
overalls are washed for them. They are also made to wash and bathe .
regularly. In the smaller, the overalls are not furnished and the men
are not compelled to use the washing facilities, but they are given boots
and gloves. There is no medical inspection of either plant, but the
foremen supply the men with some ointment for the face and nostrils
to prevent ulceration. The larger one, which employs 16-17 men, has
many cases of arsenical poisoning, and the men are continually shifting.
In the smaller, 3 men work during the rush season. They usually get
poisoned by the end of the season, when some quit, others take a vacation,
recover and come back again. In the third factory, Paris Green is packed
and shipped. The kegs in which it arrives are somewhat leaky, and
there is a good deal of dust when these are opened, and the Paris Green
repacked into smaller kegs. No precautions are taken here to prevent
dust or to pretect the men. The repacking is done by simply scooping
out this arsenic green and dropping it into kegs. The employees are all
negroes and frequently suffer from arsenical poisoning. Only 7 at the
most are employed here, but one physician has had four severe cases of
arsenical poisoning from this plant during this last year.

Because of the lightness of Paris Green it is hard to handle in such.a
way as not to dislodge it and give rise to dust, but this can be controlled
far better than it is in the [linois factories. The powder should not be
carried on open or on leaking trays. Great care should be used in empty-
ing the trays and in filling kegs, which last should be done under glass.
All floors should be kept wet. The men’s skin should be protected by
good rubber boots, gloves, caps and overalls, and by the use of ointment
on the face ard cotton in the nostrils. The men should be warned not
to breathe through the mouth. Bathing, as well as washing, should be
compulsory and all necessary appliances supplied. Simple instructions in
different languages should be displayed about the rooms.

There was said to be some arsenic used in a litho-transfer factory,
in a place manufacturing artificial flowers, and in wall-paper factories,
but the investigators were unable to verify these statements. Arsenic is
not used by furriers in this state. i

48
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CASE OF CHRONIC LEAD-POISONING

With double wrist-drop in a man of 53 years who was a printer—a metal
mixer—for 32 years.
 

CASE OF CHRONIC LEAD-POISONING

With wrist-drop and premature senility. This man is only 52 years old and has been totally
disabled for the last 6 years. He was a painter for 20 years.
 

 

 

 

CASE OF CHRONIC LEAD-POISONING
With paralysis and premature senility. This man is only 40 years old. He has been a house
painter ever since boyhood; has been incapacitated since 1905 with partial
paralysis of the hands, arms and legs.
2. Report of the Investigation of the Brass Manufacturing
Industry, Chicago (Cook County), and the Zinc
Smelters of La Salle County, Illinois.

BY

Emery R. Haynurst, A. M., M. D.

PART I.
INTRODUCTION.

A. Manufacture of Brass.
(a) The Alloys.
(b) The Brass Foundry.
(c) The Furnaces.
(d) Brief Description of the Process of Brass Founding.
(e) Some Physical and Chemical Factors of Hygienic In-
terest.

B. The Nature of the Diseases to which Brass Workers are Subject.
PART II.

A. The General Scope of the Brass Industry in Chicago.

B. Summary of Chicago Brass Foundries.

C. Summary of the Processes Supplemental to Brass Founding.

D. Lead-Poisoning among Brass Workers.

PART III.
The LaSalle County Zinc Smelters.

PART IV.

Summary of the Dangers of the Brass Industry, Hygienically Con-
sidered, with Recommendations as to its Control.

PART I.
A. MANvuFACTURE oF Brass.

(a) The Alloys. Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc.
Fine brass or red brass contains two parts of copper and one part of zinc.
However, as these two metals combine in practically all proportions many
alloys are possible. As zinc is by far the cheaper of the two component
metals its percentage in the alloy is likely to be much increased until a
so-called yellow brass is produced in which the zinc component may be
from 40 to 50 per cent. This the workmen style “cheap yellow brass.”

3 5 69 he ERY

173911
Bronze is an alloy consisting of copper and tin. Usually the copper
component is about nine parts to one part tin. In the industry, how-
ever, red brass is very often styled bronze, although zinc is the other
component instead of tin. It is only rarely that these two or three
metals are used exclusively in the particular alloy to be made, but, for
the purpose of conveying certain physical properties to the casting,
certain other metals are added, such as lead, aluminum, phosphorus,
nickel and antimony. There are some three-score of these various com-
positions which are well known and are made up for certain purposes.
For instance there is button brass, gilding brass, soldering brass, wire
brass, French gold (nine parts copper and ten parts zinc), pinchbeck,
aluminum brass, gun metal, statuary bronze, bell metal, phosphor bronze,
aluminum bronze (nine parts copper, one part aluminum), German
silver (six parts copper, two parts zinc, two parts nickel), pewter,
Britannia metal, babbitt (consisting of copper, tin and antimony), and
type metal.

In the usual foundry practice these various alloys are not made by
putting in certain proportions of the various metals but as a rule a large
percentage, from one-third to one-half on the average, of scrap brass,
copper and bronze consisting of all sorts and compositions of metal
gathered up usually by junk dealers, is melted down and then a little of
the proper copper, zinc or nickel ingot added to arrive at an approximate
composition. In fact a large amount of the so-called virgin copper, zine
and so forth used is bought from refiners of scrap metal and the compo-
sition is very uncertain. Certain foundries make a specialty of yellow
brass castings, others of red brass or bronze castings, others of German
silver, etc., while the refiners are concerned with the handling of all of
these metals and usually with a large amount of lead.

Consequently, the brass-manufacturing industry or more properly the
non-ferruginous metal-working trade is engaged in the handling of large
amounts of copper, zinc and tin, while it must not be overlooked that
lead, antimony, nickel, phosphorus, arsenic and cyanide compounds some-
times enter into these industries, as well as the handling of concentrated
and fuming acids (muriatic, sulphuric, nitric and hydrofluoric).

Finally scrap metal, old boiler tubes, ete., by the action of air and
moisture may be covered with more or less poisonous oxides and car-
bonates by which ignorant workmen may be poisoned both through
handling and breathing the metallic dusts. In addition to the metals
named above as entering into the composition of various brass alloys, the
salts with which they are combined to a limited extent require some
lat such as the oxides, the sulphides, the sulphates, silicates and
nitrates.

(b) The Brass Foundry. In “Modern Foundry Practice,” Sharp,
1900, page 632, the author states that a Brass Foundry of moderate size
and properly designed should consist of the following separate shops or
rooms:

(1) Offices.

(2) Warehouse.

(3) Pattern Shop and Store Room.

50

 
(4) Moulding Shop (meaning where the moulders work impressing
the patterns in sand and loam—an entirely cold process. Core making
is also usually done in this room, although in large concerns there is
usually a separate Core-room).

(5) Casting Shop (meaning the room where the metals are melted,
alloyed and poured into the moulds). Nos. (4) and (5) are often to-
gether but should be separate.

(6) Dressing Room (where the rough castings are preliminarily
cleaned up, the various processes being “blowing the cores,” in which
the casting, still hot, is let down into a tank of water and the sudden
change in temperature causes a mild explosion which dislodges and de-
stroys the cores within the casting; tempering and hardening ; tumbling
or washing in a revolving barrel of witer to free the dirt that may re-
main; grinding on emery wheels to remove the rougher and larger
metallic knobs remaining after knocking off the “gates’).

(7) Finishing Shop (polishing, buffing and machine work of all
descriptions. The last process and the polishing and buffing should be
in entirely separate rooms).

[(8) Dipping and Coloring Room.

(9) - Lacquering Room.

(10) Plating Room. ]

(c) The Furnazes. Brass furnaces may be earthen or graphite

crucibles heated within iron cylinders, reverberatory furnaces, or cupolas,
the latter the best. Fuel may be charcoal, coal, coke, gas or oil.

Catalogues of Furnace Manufactures show the following types which
may be used for brass, bronze, aluminum,-iron, steel, copper, ete. :

I. Crucible Furnaces— :
1. Pit type (below fioor, top on level with floor).
2. Lift out type (all above the floor).
3. Tilting type, upright (tip-over-and-pour).
4, Tilting type, horizontal (tip-over-and-pour).
5. Mint type (for fine bars and anodes).
JI. Muffle furnaces (especially for silver).

III. Reverberatory scrap melting (for all metals).

IV. Soft metal melting (for lead, tin, zinc, babbitt, ete.; for alloy-
ing, tinning, galvanizing, tempering, etc.).

V. Add to the above retort furnaces and the list is complete.

What is of hygienic importance is that such furnaces are illustrated
in these catalogues with broad overhanging hoods or canopies covering
the tops of furnaces or furnace area, and tapering above to a pipe lead-
ing to chimney or stack for collecting the furnace gases and vapors and
allowing them to escape.

(d) Brief Description of the Process of Brass Founding. This may
be quoted from Thurston’s “Alloys, Brasses and Bronzes,” pp. 205-214.

51
On p. 207 he states: “The flasks (moulds) and all details of apparatus,
tools, and work are very similar to those used in the iron foundry, and
the methods are the same in the main.” * * * “In the melting of
the materials in the making of alloys in the foundry two general methods
of procedure are practiced: in the one all the constituents are fused at the
same time in the same crucible or melting pot; in the other they are fused
one after another in a definite order, which is determined by the relative
fusibility, volatility, and liability to oxidation, or to absorb oxygen or
other gases. The first of these methods is, perhaps, the most common, but
the second is by far the best; thus in making the most common ternary
alloys (those of copper, tin, and zinc) the copper is best melted first, the
tin should be next introduced, and the zine, which is volatile and oxi-
dizable, is added last. If lead is to be used in such an alloy, it is found
best to put it into the crucible last.” Page 209, “In filling the furnaces,
the crucibles are slowly heated to avoid danger of breaking; they are at
first set bottom side upward. When well heated they are set mouth up-
ward and charged with the broken copper. The tin or zinc is heated at
the mouth of the furnace and is added gradually to the copper as the
latter becomes fiuid. The zinc is liable to volatilization and is, therefore,
when introduced, plunged well below the surface of the molten copper.”
* % * “The brass founder’s furnace consists of a vertical cast-iron
eylinder—lined with fire-brick. The flue is led off at one side at the top,
and the whole is covered with a plate having an opening of sufficient
size to permit the crucible to enter, and is fitted with a cover- plate.
* # * Hach furnace contains one crucible.” * * * “In large
establishments * * * the reverberatory (furnace) is generally
used.” Page 208, “The apparatus of the foundry * * * consists
of an air or wind furnace sufficiently large enough to receive the crucible;
* * * and utensils for weighing and handling the metals, fuels, and
crucibles.” A collection of furnaces is called a battery.

(e) Some Physical and Chemical Factors of Hygienic Interest.
With the starting up of the furnace fires in the morning, if furnace
ventilation is not good and particularly where coke or cil are used for
heating purposes, that part of the room about the furnace area or per-
haps the whole foundry may become filled with smoke and noxious fumes,
which, in bad weather, may hang about in the quarters for an hour or
so. Sometimes carbon monoxide gas is rich in these fumes, while at
other times a very sickening odor arises from incompletely burned oil.

As to temperatures concerned (“Modern Foundry Practice,” Sharp,
1900, p. 191):

Melting Points.

Deel tease true ares Gaya cars een alee 8250°F
Cast Tin: sarees ners seewaceaes Saabs 2750
Copper « aractitccidic iin 2G%cowet arsine slow 2000
Guin Metal niin otoa-carwe eaee asda 1900
BRAS Gt > sncva ges egs eal penta eter Seana anen 1834
LIVING Specs shia teat eta ea Re ed tN a 770
NGS RiG sadness te daos A ae ices bao kann oO ca 612
AISTIAS. 5 Wed ea ogee Sigh siars hoa at tvas boat eee ter 442

a
Temperatures Indicated by Color.

Welding Heat ..... Or eae cere 2800°F
WENT TO sages yates ates este oc op 2370
OPrenve ..ccnexs BE CLen aan cut 2010
EUeriy T pacwsmegucsnda newer 1650
Brilliant Red ................0.. 1470
TRG oe a areca acche eee senescent 1290
Faint Redo... 0... cece eee eee 960

_As to the behavior of zine at high temperatures (“Metallic Alloys,”
William T. Brannt, 1896, p. 143) :

“Generally speaking, the fusing point of brass lies at about 1832° F.
If brass in a fused state is kept for some time in a contact with air, its
composition undergoes an essential change by the combustion of the
greater portion of the zinc contained in it, which explains the change of
color frequently observed in brass fused for some time in contact with
air.

(And on page 168) :
__ “In case of strong overheating of the finished alloy (brass) a con-
siderable portion of the zinc volatilizes.”

(“Metal Workers’ Handy Book,” William T. Brannt, 1899, p. 35) :

“Zine is a readily fusible metal, it becoming liquid at 773° F. By
heating it to 932° F. its affinity for oxygen becomes so apparent that on
pouring it out from the crucible it burns with a splendid greenish flame
and when cool forms a white flaky body—zinc oxide.”

In answer to the question, “Does copper volatilize at the temperature
used in making brass and bronze?” we find (Thurston’s “Alloys, Brasses
and Bronzes,” p. 43): “The melting point of copper is given by Pouillet
as 2050° F. and vaporization occurs at the white heat, the vapors burn-
ing with the green flame * * * ” According to the table of tem-
perature colors above given, white heat is about 2370° F. Brass is usu-
ally not heated above 2000° F., because of the great loss of zine by
volatilization, while, of course, 2370° F. would volatilize all the metals
present. However, in the preparation of German silver it is necessary
to secure a high enough temperature to melt nickel, which metal is said
to melt at between 2700 and 2800° F. Consequently copper would here
have an opportunity to volatilize.

It then becomes necessary to secure a very high temperature in these
furnaces, whatsoever type may be used, in order to make brass and simi-
lar alloys—a temperature which is considerably above the volatilization
point of some of the softer metals, and particularly zinc. If the crucibles
in the ordinary cylindrical furnaces contain zinc, its fumes are emitted
to the atmosphere of the room whenever the furnace is opened either to
add more metal or to heap on more fuel. But it is at the time when the
metals have been heated up to the proper temperature to be poured and
while the crucibles containing the molten metal are being lifted out of
the furnaces and carried across the foundry floor and during the pour-
ing into the moulds that the great amount of metallic vapors arise from
the metal and fill the room. This process is accompanied by a more or

53
less display of green flames, scintillating sparks, and deflagration of the
zine component. Out of the whitish fumes will soon be noticed small
white snow-like fiakes, which are largely composed of zinc oxide. It is
to this whitish smoke and its sublimation products that the principal
cause for sickness among brass founders is found. On this account these
sublimation products have been analyzed by a number of authorities.
These various authorities do not agree upon a constant composition of
this metallic snow as might be expected from the inconstant composition
of the alloys producing it. A typical analysis taken from “Dangerous
‘ Trades,” Sir Thomas Oliver, 1902, p. 456, is as follows:

IMDOISCUNE 22 eis oeadcwauldiows aa ge em 9.64
Organic Matter so. we. caiwe viene din 39.42
Silicious Residue ..............05. 9.14
Oxide Of “Aam@ani sc cace vce is ede a eos 28.82
Oxidé Of TOs... cnc cae cee ewe 2.78
COBpeR. sack atds iawe se SHeOeedwieen 1.71
Other «Matter ~ isi caves ewes eeu 8.49

WOU: Stan sSeck eigen cient ante atop 100.00

Analysis of a similar specimen by a well-known firm of chemists and
assayers in Chicago was reported as follows:

YANG iw caseniein Spee cians entaes 44.9%

Others have reported the presence of cadmium, nickel, sulphur, traces
of arsenic, phosphorus and other metals and acids.

The exact metal, combination of metals or salts contained in this
sublimation product which is responsible for most of the sickness among
brass founders has not yet been definitely determined. The majority of
investigators are inclined to the hypothesis that some poisonous zinc
compound arising during the volatilization of the zinc is inhaled. Others
lean to the existence of some copper compound, while still others affirm
that an admixture of the vapors of the two metals is responsible.

.

B. Tus Nature or tHe Disease ro Wuich Brass Workers ARE
SUBJECT.

Pre-eminent among the afflictions to which workers in brass foundries
are subject is an acute condition known as brass founders’ ague (brass
chills, Giessfieber, Staubfieber, fievre des fondeurs, while the workmen
use cruder terms, such as “the shakes,” “smelters’ shakes” and “zinc
chills”). Brass founder’s ague is an acute malaria-like sickness which
comes on in the foundrymen or any who are exposed to the vapors which.
arise from the metals. Practically all recent investigators regard them
as an expression of acute zinc poisoning.

The symptoms, which appear usually several hours after the pouring
or after an exposure to the whitish smoke arising from the metal, are:
A dry parched throat, an irritating and unproductive cough, a feeling of
constriction in the chest, general lassitude, weakness and indisposition,
a partial loss of appetite, sometimes a feeling of nausea and sometimes

54

 
actual vomiting. Soon after these preliminary symptoms manifest them-
‘selves a shivering sensation begins to be noticeable, usually starting in the
back between the shoulder-blades, a slight dull headache develops and
soon a state of apathy is reached very similar to that experienced in
sea-sickness. Next follow distinct chilly sensations over the whole body,
which gradually increase into a distinct rigor, which may last from a
half to two or three hours, and is evinced by a severe chattering of the
teeth, a shaking of the whole body and a violent tremor of the extremi-
ties. The sick person is compelled to take to his bed with the beginning
of the chill and practically no amount of blankets or external heat appear
to have any influence upon the severity of the chill sensation. Also there
is a great desire to drink something hot and stimulating as much to
relieve the parched feeling in the throat as to counteract the chill, and
the workmen usually resort to whisky or brandy. Accompanying the
chill there are usually pains and cramps in the muscles, particularly
affecting the lower extremities. The victim feels that he is deathly sick.
At the end of an hour or so the chills and muscular pains rapidly sub-
side and are immediately followed by a most profuse perspiration, so
that blankets are removed and all external heat done away with. Accom-
panying this there is a feeling of great relief as the dryness in the throat,
the muscular pains, the headache and the nausea all cease, but the pros-
tration continues more marked than before. This sweating stage lasts
from one to several hours. In many cases it is accompanied by a distinct
rise in temperature. Sometimes the temperature rises during the stage
of the chill. It does not always rise and may become sub-normal. It
does not usually mount high. Following the stage of perspiration the
victim falls into a deep and restful sleep, from which he awakes after a
few hours with usually no remaining symptoms of his recent experience
other than a feeling of weakness or exhaustion, perhaps a metallic taste
in his mouth and a temporary loathing of food.

Especially characteristic of the brass founder’s ague, then, is the
combination of a dry and parched throat, chills or rigor, great apathy,
muscular pains, followed later by a period of most profuse perspiration
and exhaustion. The entire attack usually lasts from five to twenty
hours, seldom longer.

There are many conditions which seem to influence the onset and
severity of brass chills. The newer workmen, or those who have returned
to work after a week’s vacation, perhaps only after a day or so off, as
over Sunday, are the most liable. Unless the exposure to the metallic
smoke and vapors has been unduly severe, the workman continues at his
vocation all day without noticing untoward health effects. It is usually
after leaving the workshop at night-time that the sickness comes on.
Many state that as soon as the cold outside air strikes them the chill is
inaugurated. Hence the chills are far more common in the winter-time
than in the summer. Many state that while riding the street-cars home,
or perhaps on removing the clothes to go to bed in the evening after
a previous period of indisposition, the chill begins. The men claim that
it is because they breathe more vapors in the winter-time than in the
summer that chills are much more frequent in this season. This is
because, in an endeavor to. keep warm while at work and to keep the
furnaces and moulds from “chilling,” the windows, doors and skylights

55
are kept practically closed up; hence the fumes fail to escape through
their usual routes of ventilation as they do in the summer season.

Brass chills occur almost exclusively in brass foundries, but also in
foundries in which zinc, pure or with appropriate alloys, is poured. Also
they occur in zinc smelters. They do not occur in iron foundries nor in
bronze foundries. They also do not occur among galvanizers, the reason
being obvious that in this latter process the zinc is only melted and is not
heated above its point of volatilization. The method of alloying is of
great influence, as the frequency of the chills, other conditions remaining
the same, is almost in direct ratio to the percentage of zinc contained in
the alloys.

About seventy to eighty per cent only of workmen seem susceptible
to the metallic vapors and experience the chills. Hence some natural
immunity seem to exist. Also a tolerance occurs in about seventy. to
seventy-five per cent of workmen who work steadily at the trade. A fur-
ther twenty to twenty-five per cent sicken more or less regularly, but
usually not severely. Only in very rare cases do these attacks occur so
continually that a change of occupation is necessary.

All factors which tend to lower natural vitality are predisposing to
brass chills, especially alcoholism, poor quality of food as is consumed
by a large proportion of the foreign workmen, irregular hours, and ex-
cesses of all kinds. In addition weak, anemic individuals, young persons,
and women are more subject to brass chills than robust and strong indi-
viduals.

In large foundries with good ventilation, either natural or artificial,
brass chills practically never occur. Precautionary measures, such as
sponges, respirators, etc., have a restricted value, but are generally little
and reluctantly used.

No specific medical treatment has hitherto been discovered. As Dr.
‘Theodore Weyl, in his “Hand-Book of Trade Diseases,” says:

“The moulders consider the fever so commonplace and matter of
course—only a few having been exempt and many have had it as much as
one hundred times and more—that they do not go or send to the phy-
sician on account of same. At all events physicians, on this account,
have rarely had the opportunity of observing brass founder’s ague.”

Most of the workmen resort to whisky, although very few declare that
it is antidotal. It is simply a traditional remedy. The more careful
and observing workmen use mild emetics, since they claim that the pro-
duction of vomiting relieves the chilly sensations at once, while a good
purge seems as beneficial as anything. Many of them seem to derive
some benefit from drinking hot milk, to which they often add pepper.

A single attack of brass chills is in itself not dangerous, and as they
come on usually at night-time the workmen rarely lose any time from
work, at most not more than the day following the chill. Once back at
work they become rapidly inured and no longer subject to the chills. But
the constant repetition of these chills, or the constant exposure to the

56
conditions producing them, ultimately ends in chronic diseases, usually
affecting the lungs, digestive tract, nervous system and kidneys. Sir
Thomas Oliver, in his book on “Dangerous Trades,” 1902, p. 457, states:

“Brass founder’s ague * * * is only an acute expression of a
chronic malady, and one which rarely or never comes within the range or
experience of practicing physicians. In the out-patient department of
the Birmingham (England) hospitals one meets with enormous numbers
of brass workers complaining of various pulmonary and gastric dis- '
orders; but an experience of many years has never yet produced to us a
case of this so-called ague, although questions will very frequently elicit
the statement of its occurrence.”

On page 135 the same author gives a Comparative Mortality Table,
in which various trades are compared with that of the agriculturist. This
shows that brass workers’ mortality is at the rate of two and one-half
times that of the farmers, and that respiratory diseases, particularly
tuberculosis, is the pertinent cause.

In addition to brass-man’s ague, the peculiar affection, and to respira-
tory diseases, older brass workers suffer from a long list of digestive
diseases centering about chronic dyspepsia, biliousness and gall-bladder
diseases ; often they are slightly jaundiced, with obstinate constipation,
at times diarrhcea and hemorrhoids. Also a disease of the gums, called
pyorrhcea alveolaris and carious teeth, are common among them. Finally
the frequency of anemia and general appearance of ill-nourishment and
emaciation is so prevalent among them as to have been given a special
place in our tables which follow.

Historically considered, the brass trade has always had an ill-repute
from a health standpoint, even from the time of the ancients. The affec-
tion known as brass founder’s ague was confused with malaria until the
year 1830, when an Englishman, Thackrah by name, first described it as a
separate affection peculiar to brass workers. In 1845 it was recognized
and described by Blaudet, in France. In 1858 Greenhow, in England,
on the basis of his researches, came to the conclusion that “Brass pourers
and doubtless all workmen who deal with zinc vapors are easily attacked
with a disease similar to an intermittent fever of irregular type.” In
Germany, Schnitzer was the first to call special attention to brass chills,
in 1862. In 1906 J. Sigel,* in Wurttemberg, Germany, sums up the
entire literature concerning this peculiar malady and adds the results of
his own investigations, principal among which was the demonstration
of zinc in the urine after a brass chill. The literature upon the entire
subject is very scarce. In America a few articles have appeared in recent
years, usually reports of individual cases, among them being one by Drs.
Moyer and Lavin, of Chicago, in 1904; also one by Dr. 8. R. Pietro-
wiecz, of Chicago, in 1904. The disease, as well as chronic symptoms of
brass workers, is also commented upon by George M. Kober, of the Presi-
dent’s Home Commission, 1908.

*Dr. Julius Sigel: Das Giessfieber und seine Bekampfung mit besonderer
Beriicksichtigung der Verhdltnisse in Wurttemberg.—Vierteljahrschrift fiir
gerichtliche medizin und 6ffentliches sanitiitswesen. (Juli, 1906, und Oct., 1906).
Dritte folge, XXXII Band, 174, 384.

57
The finishing processes upon brass castings may also be associated
with some diseases. These processes consist of turning, filing, skimming,
burnishing, grinding, polishing and buffing, all of which produce dust.
The diseases found in these trades are bronchitis, bronchial catarrah and
pulmonary tuberculosis. It does not appear that the metallic dust parti-
cles of brass and similar alloys are any more poisonous in themselves
than any other metallic dust, but that their presence in the respiratory
tract, continually, produces chronic irritating diseases which predispose to
the onset of consumption. An exception, of course, must be made where
these dusts contain lead particles.

The effect of the brass trade upon longevity may be summed up in
the following quotation from Sir Thomas Oliver’s “Dangerous Trades,”
1902, p. 461: “Only ten brass workers out of 1,200 casters in Birming-
ham (England) were found living beyond sixty years. A superannuation
insurance for brass founders to begin at fifty-five years of age had only
three applicants in a period of some ten years.”

Part II.

A. The investigation here reported was originally intended to in-
clude the brass manufacturing industry only, but, because of the large
extent to which similar alloys and metals are used in association with
the manufacture of brass by the same workers, it has been thought best
to include those in this report. The “non-ferruginous metal-workers” is
the term commonly applied to this industry.

The general scope of the non-ferruginous metal trades, exclusive of
lead, tin and mercury, in Chicago and Cook county, Illinois, may be
roughly ascertained from the United States Bureau of Census Reports,
given below. These trades center about the Brass Manufacturing Indus-
try.

In Bulletin No. 52 of the Bureau of Census, United States Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labor, p. 32, is the following table (abbrevi-
ated) :

MANUFACTURES BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES, ILLINOIS, 1905.

Number Wage
INDUStTRY— Establish. Capital. Earners. Yr. Wages.
BRASS) 3 iu fiinauaise saxeaad Gnela yee 3 $ 90,406 25 15,742
Brass castings and finishing.... 31 2,314,789 975 577,259
Brags WATC.i0s sa de wre san aeate es 24 1,024,941 605 326,163

There are no zinc or bronze industries specified, while copper-smith-
ing is included with sheet iron workers. In galvanizing, five establish-
ments are mentioned with fifty-five workers. Hlectro-plating has twenty-
six establishments with 272 workers. It is very probable that these
reports do not include many large establishments which engage in these
trades as necessary adjuncts to their businesses, but whose finished prod-
ucts cause these trades to be lost sight of in classification. In the same
bulletin there is a similar table for Chicago, 1905:

Number Wage
Inpustry— Establish. Capital. Earners. Yr. Wages.
BTS. ny) chael ge ake ys waned ee 3 $ 90,406 25 15,742
Brass castings and finishing.... 19 1,251,605 415 270,397
Brags: WATOY get est cise cose aids esas 21 598,182 449 247,586

Both of the above tables are also found in Special Reports of Census
Office, Manufactures, 1905, Part TT.

58
In the Twelfth United States Census, 1900, Table 43, p. 518, under
Occupations, Chicago, all brass-workers are grouped together, there being
1,566 men, no women, 811 married, 3 negroes. Age periods show:

10-15 years. 16-24 years. 25-44 years. 45-64 years 65 years.
42 474 857 186 7

Under “Localization of Industries,’ Special Reports of the Census,
Manufactures, 1904, Part I, pp. cciv, we read:

“The manufacture of brass goods in their various forms, shown in
the Census Reports under the class ‘brass and copper rolled,’ ‘brass cast-
ing, ‘brass finishing,’ and ‘brass ware, is and has been for many years,
according to statistics, an industry controlled largely by Connecticut
manufacturers. The value of this class of goods in 1905, $99,083,837
for the United States, shows $53,916,445, or 54.4 per cent, for Connecti-
eut.’

Table V, same reports, Group 10, shows Illinois to rank about fourth
in the industry, the order, based on capitalization, being: Connecticut,
New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, New Jersey.

The smelting of the ores containing copper, zinc, tin, and aluminum
are practically unknown industries in Cook county, and, with the excep-
tion of zine, in the entire State of Illinois. In Special Reports on
Selected Industries, Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of
Census, Manufactures, 1905, Part IV, Table 6, p. 105, it is to be noted
that, although Illinois had one copper-smelting and refining company in
1900 included in “all other States,” none is reported in 1905. The extent
of Illinois zinc smelting is shown in the same report, Table 37, p. 123:

_ Census— No. Establish. Capital. Wage Earners. Wages.
TO ODE ctasese ne: ear eM veen aah 5 2,876,201 1,643 883,504
1900 cameos ec uawia snes 5 2,186,319 1,551 758.912

“The production of the Illinois (and Missouri) zinc smelters shows a
decrease at the census of 1905 over that of 1900.”

The Commissioner of the Chicago Brass Manufactures Association,
1112 Schiller building, Chicago, states that there are about 2,000 em-
ployees working inside of brass foundries alone in Chicago at present.
The number in past years has been as high as 4,000, but the advent of
machine moulding has made the difference.

The re-melting, alloying, casting, plating and finishing processes
on these metals are, then, all that concern the investigator in the city of
Chicago.

B. Summary or Cuicaco Brass FouNDRIES.
I. AS TO GENERAL STATISTICS.

There were eighty-nine firms visited which are engaged in the brass
foundry or refining business in Chicago, leaving not more than a dozen
small concerns employing less than half a dozen moulders unvisited.

Dates of Inspection. All these foundries were visited between June
10 and September 1, 1910. In addition, a large number of firms work-
ing on brass goods and parts other than founders were also visited.
These are included in Part II, C, of this paper.

59
The total number of all firms visited is 182. Of these eighty-nine
were concerned in foundry or refining work. A summary of these is
here made.

Quarters Occupied by Brass Founders, Smelters and Refiners. Of the
eighty-nine concerns visited sixty-eight are of enough magnitude to have
at least one or more buildings. This does not imply that these buildings
are concerned solely with brass foundry work, but that the concern at the
place where the brass foundry is located has at least one building for
manufacturing purposes. Of the smaller concerns which are engaged
in the foundry business six occupied part of a building, eight one fioor
in a manufacturing building and seven only part of a floor or a room
for their foundry purposes.

Time of Establishment. These firms date back to 1852. Dating
back for from forty to fifty-five years are six large concerns. There are
nineteen more firms established over twenty years. ,

In their whole works these various firms employ from one man, occa-
sionally, to 12,000 individuals at one and the same plant.

Women in Factories. Twenty of the eighty-nine firms visited employ
women. In one concern this was not especially investigated.

Women in Brass Foundry Work. There are three large concerns em-
ploying women in their brass foundries in rooms only partly partitioned
off and directly exposed to the vapors and fumes and general atmosphere
of the foundry. In addition there are three large firms employing
women in their brass foundry work in rooms partitioned off in one corner
or at one end of the foundry. In all cases these women are occupied at
making cores, wherein they handle moist sand and dirt and usually sit
at long benches. The work cannot be regarded as particularly unhealthy,
unless the women and girls so employed are subjected to the noxious
vapors of the foundry-room.

Proportion of Skilled Labor. This was inquired into at each firm
visited, but the various specialties of these firms were so great that sum-
marizing figures on this statement are of doubtful importance. As to the
foundry work, its statements will follow later regarding the various
proportions of workmen skilled and unskilled at various processes.

Labor Policies. Regarding unionism and organized labor, an inquiry
was made at each firm, with the following deductions: Of the eighty-
nine firms twelve were claimed by the officials thereof to be union, six
employed only union labor but had no closed shop policy, fifteen were
strictly non-union, fifty-three were open shop, and three may be classed as
mixed, that is, they employ union labor in certain processes wherein
proper labor is difficult to secure, as, for instance, teamsters, but not in
other processes.

Specialties. Of the eighty-nine firms doing foundry work there are
jobbers, 36; chandelier manufacturers, 8; plumbing supply manufac-
turers, 5; valve manufacturers, 2; smelters and refiners of old scrap
metal, 9; manufacturers of journal bearings for cars, 5, and those
engaged in the manufacture of some particular specialty, 25. The im-
portance of these various specialties lies in the one which concerns the

60
composition of the brass or similar alloys made. The alloys which are
most detrimental to the workman’s health from inhalation of vapors are
German silver, so-called white metal, yellow brass, and all compositions
with a high zine component. Practically all the jobbing concerns make
more or less German silver, as do also chandelier makers, plumbing sup-
ply concerns, valve concerns, smelters and many of the specials. Those
particularly concerned in the manufacture of yellow brass articles are
chandelier makers, plumbers’ supply house, soda-fountain manufac-
turers, smelters, and many of the specials, as well as the jobbers. Those
making rich zinc compounds at high temperatures are limited in number
because of the great loss from the burning up of the metal, as well as the
fact that the workmen cannot stand the vapors and fumes produced.
Smelters are practically the only ones so occupied. Manufacturers mak-
ing red brass, commonly known as bronze, include many of the jobbers,
plumbing supply concerns, valve concerns, journal bearing manufac-
turers and the specials. Red brass or bronze is the most expensive of the
alloys. Also in its manufacture the least amount of fumes is produced.
This is because the zinc component, which is cheap, is minimal in the
composition. Many of the jobbers refuse to manufacture “cheap yellow
brass articles.” By far the largest manufacturers are those engaged in
the manufacture of journal bearings for railroad cars, where hundreds
of men are employed in the foundries. These bearings are a very good
bronze composition, but still enough zinc is put into the alloy to render
the atmosphere of such foundries often the cause of great complaint
among the workmen there employed.

Processes Engaged In. Of the eighty-nine firms inspected twenty-
one were found to be founders only, twenty made founding their main
specialty, although they did some further finishing-up processes in addi-
tion, while with thirty-nine concerns their brass foundry was only an ac-
cessory to their general manufacturing business. Among the latter some
of the largest brass foundries in the city are found. Finally there are
nine concerns engaged in the smelting and refining of old scrap metal to
such an extent as to run their works continuously.

II. FOUNDRY QUARTERS.

Location of Foundry. The total of eighty-nine foundries had the fol-
lowing locations :
A special foundry building, 26.
One-story building, 30.
On top floor, 48.
On mid-fioors, 3.
First floors, 8.
In basements, 4.
In addition 3 located in half-basements.

Of the special buildings practically all are one-story. The special
buildings for foundry purposes do not correspond at all to any one type
or plan of construction. They vary in their age of construction from
those just constructed during the summer to others which appear to be
thirty-five or forty years old. Many of the special foundry buildings of
one-story height are worse situated as regards ventilation than are other
foundries upon top floors, because of surrounding buildings. Those

61
located on mid-fioors, first floors and basements are, of course, the poor-
est situated as regards ventilation. In the above table the item “one-
story buildings” duplicates the other places of location in most instances,
so that the apparent total in the table is thirty greater than the number
of firms inspected.

Surrounding Buildings of the Bighty-nine Foundries. Forty-five are
so situated that surrounding buildings interfere with whatever natural
ventilation they have, while in addition three more are questionably so
located.

Arrangement of Foundry-Rooms. The main feature concerning the
hygienic arrangement of a foundry is the separation of various processes
into separate rooms or compartments so that not all the workmen need
necessarily be exposed to the dangers arising from any particular process.
To ascertain how thoroughly this arrangement has been carried out in
the foundries of Chicago the investigation resulted in the following find-
ings:

Firms having separate furnace-room, 6.

Firms having separate core-making room, 12.
Firms having all foundry processes in one room, 71.
Total, 89. :

Firms having other than foundry processes in the foundry-room,
23, or about one-fourth of the total firms.

Size of Foundry Quarters. An inquiry was made at each place to
determine whether the cubic feet of air space per man was great enough.
Without exception no foundry was discovered with too little cubic air
space, although a few were evidently too crowded for the magnitude of
the business transacted. Also it is quite evident that foundries should
not have their cubic air space measured on the same basis as that for a
living room or school-room, visibly 500 cubic feet of air space per person.
This latter was the basis upon which the above statement is made for
foundries.

Ventilation. 1. The character of the ventilation in the eighty-nine
foundries has been summed up as follows: “
Good, 37.
Fair, 20.
Poor, 25.

The above tabulation ux.ans the obvious confinement of fumes and
gases within the quarters as seen during the summer season, that season
when natural ventilation is the best, because of open windows and doors,.
with a thought in the baekgreand always of what the conditions must be
in the closed-up wintry season.

2. Windows. ‘The number of sides of the foundry-room having win-
dows was also ascertained with the following results:

Foundries having windows on one side only, 9.
Foundries having windows on two sides, 46.
Foundries having windows on three sides, 24.
Foundries.having windows on four sides, 14.

62
3. Doorways available for ventilation :
Foundries having one such doorway, 35.
Foundries having two such doorways, 14.
Foundries having three such doorways, 4.

4, Roof Ventilation. Of the eighty-nine firms, seventy-five had some
form of roof or ceiling ventilation.

5. Artificial Ventilation, as suction fans, blow fans, etc. For the
entire foundry quarters of the eighty-nine foundries, only nine so pro-
vided, and almost without exception these very inefficiently so.

6. Adequate Ventilation, especially as regards any sort of inclement
weather. Only twenty-two firms could be said to have anything like ade-
quate foundry ventilation under such circumstances and none of these
could be considered better than fair.

Light. Light was ascertained as good, fair or poor:
Good, 50 foundries.
Fair, 21 foundries.

Poor, 17 foundries,
Artificial, 1 foundry.

Total, 89.

Temperature:

Good, 38 foundries.

Fair, 18 foundries.

Unduly hot, 25 foundries.

Hight foundries not running at time inspected.

Total, 89.

Cleanliness (whitewashed walls, absence of excess dirt, dust, and so
on):
Good, 30 foundries.
Fair, 35 foundries.
Poor, 24 foundries.

Total, 89.

Heating Facilities. Unfortunately, this was not thought of early
enough in the inspection to get a summary for all the foundries, but
suffice it to say that nearly one-half depend upon soft-coal stoves for
general room temperature in the winter-time and not a few upon sala-

manders.

Height of Roof, Clear, Feet:
Foundries with 10-foot ceiling, 4.
Foundries with 12-foot ceiling, 22.
Foundries with 14-foot ceiling, 19.
Foundries with 16-foot ceiling, 19.
Foundries with 18-foot ceiling, or more, 16.

Total, 80.
63
Type of Roof, whether flat, gently sloping or pitched.

Flat, 65 foundries.
Sloping, 15 foundries.
Pitched, 9 foundries.

Type of Roof Vents:

Lift Windows, 11 foundries.
Trap Doors, 21 foundries.
Cupolas, 10 foundries.
Monitors, 15 foundries.
Saw-teeth, 10 foundries.
Texas, 11 foundries.

Special, 7 foundries.

Absent, 13 foundries.
Adequate, 22 foundries.
Fairly adequate, 11 foundries.
Entirely inadequate, 50 foundries.

Eating Quarters:

Usually in the foundry-room, 88 foundries.

Other rooms available, 57 foundries.

Special room provided 2 foundries (one of the latter by no means
large enough).

Wash-up Places for Convenience of Workmen:

Located in foundry-room at 50 foundries.

Practically in foundry-room at 8 foundries.

In a separate or in a different compartment at 21 foundries.
Buckets only at 50 foundries.

Buckets usually at 5 foundries.

Washbowls at 3 foundries.

Inadequate washbowls at 5 foundries.

Sinks or wash troughs at 31 foundries.

Sinks or wash troughs inadequate at 6 foundries.
Hot water at 12 foundries.

Hot water not provided but available at 10 foundries.
Soap provided at 7 foundries.

Soap workmen furnish at 5 foundries.

Towels provided at 3 foundries.

Towels workmen provided at 5 foundries.

Shower baths at 4 foundries.

Adequate provision found in only 5 foundries.

Fairly adequate provision found in 17 more foundries.

Location of Toilets. This was also not determined in the case of
some of the foundries at the beginning of the investigation, but a total of
six were found to be practically in the foundry-room exposed to the

atmosphere of the foundry, while thirteen were only inadequately parti-
tioned off.

64
Ill. FURNACES.

Location of Furnaces:

1. Ina separate room, 4 foundries.

%. In one place only 77 foundries. In two different parts of room
or building, 8 foundries. In three different parts of room
or building, 2 foundries. In several parts of room or build-
ing, 2 foundries.

In center of room, 13 foundries.

In corner of room, 34 foundries.

5. Along a wall, 76 foundries. (Many of these are also toward
one corner of room.)

6. Having windows behind or above the furnaces, 19 foundries.
(In some places this is considered an advantage in point of
ventilation, but is very questionably so.)

re 9

Batteries of Furnaces:
75 foundries had only 1 battery of furnaces.
9 foundries had 2 batteries.
3 foundries had 3 batteries.
2 foundries had several batteries.

Furnaces in Hach Battery. These vary from one to fifteen, the gen-
eral average being six to eight. Such batteries may consist of simple old
type cylindrical crucible furnaces or of giant oil blast tilt furnaces, the
former having one to 200 pounds’ capacity at a time, the latter one to
four tons’ capacity.

Type of Furnaces as to Location on Floor:

Batteries entirely above floor, 37.
Batteries one-half pit, 10.
Batteries, pit, 50.

Crucible Hoist. This means the manner of raising the crucibles con-
taining the molten metal out of the furnace pots:

By hand, 60 batteries.
By machine, 31 batteries.

Crucible Carrying. This means the method of transporting the cruci-
bles containing the molten metal from the furnaces to the moulds:

By hand, 67 batteries.
By machine, 18 batteries.
Undetermined, 6 batteries.

Size of Crucibles. These vary all the way from 15 pounds to 675
pounds’ capacity. The main thing to determine is whether very heavy
crucibles have to be raised up out of the furnace pots by hand and car-
ried by hand or whether some form of machine hoist and carriage is pro-
vided. It was found that by dividing the crucibles used into small,
medium and large there were thirty-eight firms handling large size
crucibles with capacities from 180 pounds up. Consequently it will be

65
seen that there are a larger number of concerns handling large size cruci-
bles than there are concerns or batteries having machine hoists and carry-
ing apparatus, so that in not a few cases workmen are subjected to great
strains also while exposed to excessive heat, vapors, accidental injury,
ete.

Type of Fuel:
Hard coal, 53 batteries.
Coke, 26 batteries.
Oil, 21 batteries.
Gas, 1 battery.

Nature of Furnace Draft: \
Natural draft at 16 foundries.
Artificial blast at 63 foundries.
Undetermined at 12 foundries,

The point to this is that there are sixty-three foundries provided with
fans for driving or sucking the air through the furnaces out of the eighty-
nine inspected. Might not more of these install a little larger fan for
room ventilation purposes also?

Types of Furnaces used:
Cylindrical stove, 74 batteries.
Fisher oil blast, 14 batteries.
Swartz down-draft, 5 batteries.
Harvey oil blast, 3 batteries.
Anderson oil blast, 1 battery.
Rockwell oil blast, 1 battery.
Reverberatory, 2 batteries.
Cupola, 2 batteries.

Special brick kiln (oil), 1 battery.
Retorts, 1 battery.

Ventilation Provisions about the Furnace Area:

Skylight above, 53 foundries.

Skylight not far away, 10 foundries.

Canopy over furnace area, 3 foundries.

Very small hood and stack, 5 foundries.
Hood and stack over furnace area, 9 foundries.
Apron and skylight, 6 foundries.

Special suction fan, 6 foundries.

Small electric blow-fan, 2 foundries.

Adequate ventilation for furnace area, 4 foundries.
Fairly adequate, 13 foundries.

Absent altogether, 14 foundries.

Practically absent, 4 foundries.

Inadequate, 72 foundries.

Ventilation about Furnace Area when Visited:
Good, 23 batteries.
Fair, 18 batteries.
Poor, 40 batteries.
Not running, 9 batteries.

66
Temperature about Furnace Area:

Good, 19 batteries.
Fair, 19 batteries.
Poor, 43 batteries.
Not going, 9 batteries.

Metallic Flames Pouring into the Room Atmosphere from Furnaces:
Continuously, 30 foundries.
At intervals, 50 foundries.
Not running, 9 foundries.

Frequency of Pouring of Metals:
Pouring practically continuous all day, 31 foundries.
Pouring two to four times daily, 58 foundries.

Character of Crude Metal Used for Melting Up. In no foundries
were virgin ingot metals exclusively used. Practically all foundries use
a certain amount of scrap metal, varying from one-fourth to entirety,
_ while the large majority use from one-third to one-half. Also the so-
called ingots or pigs of virgin metal which they buy are in themselves
of very uncertain composition, since they usually come from the smelters
and refiners of scrap metal, who in a very rough soit of way attempt to
discover the percentage composition of the ingots and pigs they turn out
for sale. In only two smelting works were chemists found who determine
the percentage composition of metal for sale.

Character of Products Made in Various Foundries:
Largely yellow brass, 34 foundries.
Largely red brass or bronze, 37 foundries.
Considerable German silver, 16 foundries.
Considerable aluminum, 5 foundries.
Any and all compositions, 68 foundries.
Undetermined in 2 foundries.

IV. PERSONAL STATISTICS AT FOUNDRIES.

Employees in Foundry. These may be divided into moulders, furnace-
men, core-makers, laborers, including grinders and those at ulterior
processes. Practically only totals are important here, since nearly all the
workmen in a brass foundry are exposed alike, for most of the metallic
vapors which are responsible for most of the sickness arise from the
pouring processes, and such vapors invade the whole room. The total
employees in brass foundries was found to be 2,212, of whom 451 are at
ulterior processes and should be in separate rooms entirely, leaving 1,761
foundry-men in the eighty-nine foundries inspected. Above figures of
the division of these workmen are not available for totals, since at first
these were not ascertained for each shop, but the divisions are the same
in all foundries and are exemplified as follows for a foundry employing
twelve men:

Moulders, 7 men.
Furnace-tender, 1 man.
Core-makers, 2 men.
Laborer (grinding), 1 man.
Total, 12 men.

67
In some routine foundry work much of the moulding is done by ma-

chines, so that the proportion of moulders drops off. Also in some foun-
dries of like nature the number of core-makers drops off. ‘This is par-
ticularly so where large castings of one routine type are made. In foun-
dries where large castings are made the percentage of laborers is also
increased considerably in proportion.

Nationalities. These were ascertained as follows:

A large proportion American, 42 foundries. ;

A large proportion English-speaking, 63 foundries. ;
A large proportion Polanders, Bohemians, etc., 45 foundries.
A large proportion Scandinavians, 7 foundries.

A large proportion Italians, 2 foundries.

Greeks, Hebrews, each, 1 foundry.

Officials Consulted and Their Statements. There were a total of 114
officials consulted, representing eighty-three foundries. Their statements
have been considered as evidence for or against the existence of occupa-
tional diseases among their own employees or as particularly interesting
in the following proportions:

Positive (diseases in their own plants), 31 officials.
Negative (diseases in their own plants), 46 officials.
Interesting concerning brass-workers’ diseases, 26 officials.
Those making no comments of interest, 11 officials.

Workmen Consulted While at Work in Their Plants Regarding Occu-
pational Diseases. There were 187 of these, representing seventy-eight
plants. Of these workmen 146 complained of trade sickness or diseases.
From the first it was thought wise to ascertain whether these workmen
were consulted in the presence of an official or not, inasmuch as this cir-
cumstance might have much to do with their evidence. Of these at fifty-
five plants the workmen were consulted in the presence of officials. Their
testimony may be stated as follows:

Positive at the plants where they work, 40 plants.
Negative at the plants where they work, 38 plants.

Of the latter, nine, however, gave very interesting information, though ©
not directly blaming their own plants.

Forms of Sickness Complained Of:

Brass chills, 45 foundries.

Smoke inhalations, 26 foundries.
Other acute sicknesses, 4 foundries.
Other chronic sicknesses, 20 foundries.
Temperature variations, 11 foundries.
Fatigue, 3 foundries.

Appearance of the Particular Workmen Consulted:

Anemic, 45 foundries.
Ill-nourished, 29 foundries.
Emaciated, 13 foundries.

68
Years of Age of Oldest Men. Of the first twenty firms visited oldest
man, 53 years; of the second twenty firms visited, 664 years; of the third
twenty firms, 53 years; of the fourth twenty firms, 67 years; of the fifth
nine firms, 73 years.

Years Longest at Trade:

Of the first 20 firms, 1 man 35 years.

Of the second 20 firms, 1 man 44 years.

Of the third 20 firms, 1 man 30 years.

Of the fourth 20 firms, 1 man 52 years.

Of the fifth 9 firms, 1 man 53 years, but not regularly.

Years Longest at Present Firm:

Of the first 20 firms, 1 man 35 years.
Of the second 20 firms, 1 man 19 years.
Of the third 20 firms, 1 man 22 years.
Of the fourth 20 firms, 1 man 34 years.
Of the fifth 9 firms, 1 man 21 years.

Number of Men Over Fifty Years of Age. Total, 17.
Number of Men Over Forty-five Years of Age. Estimated, 60.
Number of Men Over Forty Years of Age. Estimated, 180.

The above figures are taken from the 1,761 foundry-men.

At forty-four foundries workmen also complained of conditions at
other firms where they had previously worked.

Of the Highty-nine Foundries:

63 were acknowledged as the centers of ‘trade sickness, either by
workmen employed in such foundries or who had previ-
ously been employed in such foundries, or by officials them-
selves.

7% were so decidedly racial or “family managed” that neither
workmen nor officials would acknowledge existence of trade
sickness, though all were hygienically among the poorest-
arranged foundries in the city.

6 were new concerns which had not yet experienced a winter
season to demonstrate the efficiency of their ventilation
system.

4 were small concerns employing two men or less.

5 were doubtfully well enough ventilated to prevent disease; at
best no complaints received.

4 had no complaints lodged against them and were undoubtedly
hygienically well enough equipped to prevent industrial dis-
eases.

69
C. SumMary or THE Processes SUPPLEMENTAL TO Brass Founnrne,
GENERAL STATISTICS.

These processes are usually termed the finishing processes and may
be divided into—

1. Grinding.
2. Polishing ana buffing.
3. Plating.

4, Lacquering.
5. Tool and machine work.

Location of Concerns. As before mentioned, many of the brass
founders are also engaged in the finishing processes. In fact, practically
all brass founders do some grinding in order to finish up their castings
to a certain extent and to save for re-melting the “gates” or tag ends of
metal which result from each casting. In addition, a large number of
firms are engaged in polishing, buffing and plating processes, some others
in lacquering and some in all of these processes plus tool and machine
work. These concerns are located in all manner of factory quarters, from
portions of single small rooms to the occupancy of large buildings.

Number of Firms Investigated. No attempt was made to cover this
field, but while investigating the brass foundries the departments en-
gaged in the above-mentioned processes were also visited, while many
firms listed as under brass manufacturers were visited as well.

Number of concerns visited engaged in polishing and buffing, 58.
Number of concerns visited engaged in plating processes, 30.
Number of concerns visited engaged in lacquering, 14.

Number of concerns visited engaged in tool and machine work, 61.

In the above concerns the number of employees were:
At polishing and buffing, 584.
At plating, 251.
At lacquering, 70.
At tool and machine works, 1,220.

Women in such factories:
At polishing and butfing, one factory, 35.
At plating, none.
At lacquering, 4.
At machine work, 27. (These were usually engaged in some
assembling process.)

Labor Policy. It was found that a large majority of the polishers
and buffers are unionized; that only a small part of the platers and
lacquerers were unionized ; that nearly all of those engaged in machine
and tool work were unionized, while those engaged in assembling pro-
cesses were usually unskilled labor.

Quarters. A general statement may be made to cover all the above
processes that the quarters occupied were in general keeping and appear-
ances equal to those of the balance of manufacturing concerns in the
city. In only a few establishments were polishers and buffers, platers,

70
lacquerers or machine workers found established in basements or par-
ticularly unhealthy locations, while it is true that many of them were
located in poorly-lghted rooms.

Ventilation. As this is the main hygienic feature concerning all
of these processes, each will be taken up separately :

Polishing and Buffing. Of the fifty-eight concerns visited it was
found that all those employing more than one man at either of these
processes had machines equipped with an air suction system according
to the legal requirements. It is true that in certain establishments
these were not in working order at the time visited, that the suction
force in some concerns was evidently not great enough to carry away
the metallic dusts which were arising from the emery wheels, cloth
wheels, belts, etc., and that occasionally some “blower” system was
actually found plugged up with dust and therefore its utility temporarily
nil. As this process, however, is well enough regulated by law the usual
artificial ventilation will not be further discussed. The breathing of the
dust created in the process is the dangerous feature. Of thirty persons
engaged at polishing and buffing who were questioned, all who worked
on machines equipped with the air suction system had no particular
complaints to make, although some appeared rather aneniic. Only occa-
sionally, where one man was employed at the process without sufficient
protection or perhaps with no protection from the dust, was there com-
plaint. Seven such individuals were seen. They usually did not work
at the process but a few hours at a time. Everywhere the general com-
ment was made by the workmen that polishing and buffing has become
a comparatively healthy and agreeable occupation since the installation
of the air suction system to remove the dusts. Sometimes these dusts
cause other affections which are minor in importance, such as a mild
skin inflammation or “brass itch,’ as the workmen style it, which is
more prevalent in the summer-time and is usually ascribed as due to
personal uncleanliness. In addition it was no uncommon thing to
find all those who were engaged in any dust-producing work upon brass,
copper and similar metals to have a green tint to the hair, perhaps a
greenish coating upon the teeth, and to comment upon the fact that they
often perspired green even after taking a thorough bath. However, all
such persons consulted had no associated physical complaints. I found
many older men engaged at this process than at brass founding. Many
of these said that previous to ten or twelve years ago, when the present
air suction systems were installed, they were subject to chronic coughs
and sometimes asthma, but in most cases this had entirely cleared up
since, so that very few such complaints are made nowadays.

Plating. Of the 251 employees seen at this process, some thirty
were engaged at dipping of castings into concentrated mineral acids and
alkalis in order to cleanse them preparatory to plating. At all estab-
lishments where two or more persons were constantly engaged at this
process, efficient hoods and air blasts were found to draw away the fumes
from the neighborhood of the workmen, but in twenty-four concerns
where this process was only engaged in a few hours at a time no hoods
or means of removing the fumes were provided.

Of the thirty plating firms visited, twenty-seven had processes requir-
ing large tanks of weak potassium cyanide solutions, of which seventeen

71
employed them at a temperature of about 110° F. Of these firms only
three were provided with any means of removing fumes which might
arise from the tops of these open cyanide tanks. Of the 251 persons
engaged at plating, seven were found who complained of having had
cyanide ulcers from being compelled to dip their hands into these’ cyanide
solutions, while two men actually complained of the effect of the cyanide
upon their health. Also two officials in two of the largest concerns
stated that all such cyanide tanks should be provided with hoods and
other means of efficient ventilation. Cyanide solutions are slowly solvent,
depending upon their concentration and temperature, hydrocyanic acid
being slowly given off. :

Many other poisonous compounds enter into the plating process,
chief among which is arsenic, used to produce a black plate effect in
certain ornamental work. However, this is a process which requires the
experience of an expert and usually the foreman of the department has
it in charge personally. It is also only occasionally done even in the
largest plants, and no evidence of arsenic poisoning could be found. Of
the 251 platers seen, seventeen complain of chronic or recurring rheu-
matism, which they declared was due to standing upon wet fioors or to
placing the hands and arms in and out of the various solutions used.
Careful inquiry was made regarding the occurrence of lead poisoning but
with negative results.

Lacquering. Of the fourteen firms engaged in this process it was
found that only three did lacquering by spraying the lacquer upon the
article to be coated. By far the usual process is. that of brushing the
lacquer upon the article or of dipping the article into the lacquer.
Lacquer rooms are usually very closely confined quarters, because the
least draft or air current raises enough dust to spoil the effects of the
lacquer. Consequently the fumes of the lacquer are usually quite strong
and make one cough upon entering the room. By far the usual solvent.
used is amyl acetate, and the pleasant odor of this fills the room. No
cases of actual sickness could be found traceable to the effects of lacquer-
ing or its fumes, although*two or three officials said that some persons
were so nauseated by the fumes that they could not stay at this kind of
work. Sometimes it was claimed that wood alcohol and benzine were
used as solvents for the lacquer, but in no place visited could direct
evidence of this be discovered. Many concerns employ girls or women
at lacquering. They work at long benches, usually brushing the lacquer
upon the article to be coated. No definite cases of trade diseases could
be discovered among them.

Tool and Machine Work. This process may also be made to include
all assembling processes upon brass parts. Here the danger to health is
as minimal as in any process of brass manufacture, for the dust produced
is small, while the borings are so heavy as not to get into the atmosphere.
Considerable work is also done as brazing parts together with brass
solder. These workmen stand over forges, but at no place were the
metals heated high enough to volatilize the zine, while the most dis-
agreeable feature was the breathing of the coal gases and the temperature.

are oe of eighteen brazers no cases of trade sickness could be dis-
covered.

72
D. Leap Poisonine Amonc Brass WORKERS.

_ With the point in view of definitely determining to what extent brass
workers may suffer from acute or chronic lead poisoning, since prac-
tically all the alloys they make up contain from traces to 6% or 7% of
lead, a symptomatic and requisite physical examination was made of
thirty-seven representative brass moulders of all ages who were assem-
bled at one of their union meetings and were from various shops all
over the city. From this number the following was determined :
Symptoms:

Chronic headaches, 7 men.

Recurrent abdominal cramps or colics, 6 men.

Constipation, said to be obstinate, 25 men.

Metallic taste in the mouth, 5 men.

Fainting spells, fits, dizziness, no men.

Loss of appetite, no men.

Nausea or vomiting (alcoholism?), 11 men.

Blind spells, 1 man.

Paralysis or weakness of wrist, no men.

Physical Findings:

Lead line on gums (this only suggestive), 1 man.

Anemia, 10 men.

Ill-nourished, 11 men.

Both wrists weak upon extension (these questionable), 2 men.

Diseases of the gums (all degrees), 9 men.

Teeth in poor condition, 8 men.

From the above, although alleged symptoms which may be taken
as significant of plumbism are common, the absence of the lead line
(which should be present in the younger men, if among any of them,
and which is the most constant of the specific findings of lead poisoning)
and the fact that none of the cases presented a combination of enough
of the above stated symptoms dnd physical signs to make a diagnosis of
lead poisoning, it may be stated that lead poisoning among Chicago
brass founders is uncommon. These men were all skilled moulders or
furnace men working in brass foundries. They do not include those
men who work in refining and smelting plants where usually lead is
the principal metal concerned. , They also do not include some supple-
mental brass and bronze processes, such as the lining of journal bearings
for railroad cars, which is largely lead work. Also it does not include
laborers who are engaged in junk houses at sorting old scrap metals,
nor laborers who are engaged at the pounding up of sheet scrap metals
into moulds in the production of “Cabbages,” in order to render such
forms of metal better capable of being handled.

Pani Ti.
Tre LaSatte County Zinc SMELTERS.

Inasmuch as zinc is so bound up in the manufacture of brass and,
as was stated at the conclusion of the part headed “General Scope of
the Brass Industry in Chicago,” that there were no zinc smelters in
Chicago, it was considered advisable to search the large zinc concerns
of LaSalle county, Illinois, for evidence of diseases similar to those

73
affecting the brass workers in Chicago. Such evidence was especially
necessary since the volatilization of the element, zinc, 18 blamed for most
of the diseases affecting brass workers. There are some firms listed in
Chicago as smelters of zine, copper, etc., but these concerns are really
refiners as they receive no crude ores whatever for smelting and such
work as they do in this direction is the regaining of. zinc, copper and
tin from furnace ashes, old crucibles, etc.

Location. The zinc smelters visited are located along the Illinois
River valley, all within a comparatively few miles of one another, and
are established here because of the coal fields solely, for there are no
zine mines in this vicinity. Of the three concerns visited, one of these
is located at the exact edge of the river in the river bottom, the other
two upon the neighboring hillsides or benchlands. The oldest of these
concerns was established in 1858; the youngest in 1904-06. They have
each occupied the same site since establishment.

Source of Crude Ores. The zinc ore is received from two sources,
that of the Joplin, Missouri, field and that of the Wisconsin zinc field.
It is zinc blende (sulphide of zinc). One analysis of the ore as received
from the mines is here given:

Raw Ore—Received September 14, 1910:

61.19% Zine.

31.12% sulphur.

1.61% iron.
54% lime rock.
45% lead.

3.80% silica.

1.29% undetermined (consisting mostly of manganese, mag-
nesium, iron oxide.)

(Consisting mostly of manganese, magnesium, iron oxide.)

It is asserted that absolutely no trace of arsenic is demonstrable in
the ore. The chief chemist of one of-the concerns stated that the
Federal Government stationed a chemist here two years ago whd was
unable to find a trace of arsenic in the ore at any time.

The Processes Concerned in Zinc Smelting. These are here stated
very briefly. There are first the processes necessary to prepare the zinc
blende for smelting. They are roasting, sizing and calcining. These
are to drive off the excess of sulphur and to heighten the percentage com-
position of zinc. Sulphuric acid is an extensive by-product of these
processes.

When the ore is finally ready for smelting in the great zinc retort
furnaces, which are modifications of the Belgian process, an analysis
shows the following composition :

Lhe “Charge” (or Roasted Ore):

87.24% zine oxide.
2.97% sulphur dioxide.
2.89% iron oxide.
54% lead oxide.
1.26% calcium oxide.
4.20% silica.
The above is an average analysis.

74
Each zinc smelting furnace with its hundreds of retorts is charged
once a day, usually by shoit-shift men who work from 5 to 11 a. m.
The charge having the above composition resembles coarse saud of a
terra cotta color. This is mixed with about equal parts of coal screen-
ings. When ready to charge a retort the spout of the latter, which has
been plastered on, is removed and this coal-zinc-ore mixture introduced
into the retort by means of narrow scoop shovels which the workmen
apply. As soon as charged the spouts are again plastered on the retorts.
A few hours later the workmen approach the spouts of the retorts with
long-handled iron ladles and a scraper, and remove from five to ten
pounds of molten zinc covered with dross, which, after skimming, they
pour into iron moulds. Thereafter, throughout the day and night, the
men keep interruptedly scraping out the spouts to recover the sublimed
zine.

These zine smelting furnaces employ about half of the total help of
each plant. They are located in one-story foundry type buildings.
Each furnace or “block” of retorts rises from the floor to eight feet high
and covers an area of about sixteen by sixty square feet. Hach block
contains from 600 to 800 retorts, arranged usually in seven layers, one
above another, so that the uppermost are just within reach of the furnace-
men. Half of the total retorts in each furnace are located on each side
of the furnace block. Fuel gas is used for heating purposes. Each
furnace resembles a river barge or scow rigged up like a battleship with
innumerable port-holes on each side, through which the muzzles or
spouts of the retorts protrude. By this arrangement ail of the retorts
are entirely within the furnace and not visible from the outside. The
spout is in reality a condenser projecting to the outside about one foot.
From each such spout, zine flames, with characteristic light smoke, are
pouring in a continuous blaze, though without much force or blast. The
smoke as it passes through the length of the spout has most of its zine
contents sublimed as metallic zinc. The smoke as it leaves the end of
each spout rises upward and most of it passes beneath a broad hood or
canopy which covers the entire furnace block and is connected with
stacks above.

In two of the concerns these zine slabs and ingots are many of them
further submitted to rolling mill processes and supplied to the market in
the form of large sheets. The chemist at one concern stated that brass
founders found it necessary to buy a grade of zinc which was relatively
very poor in lead content, usually less than 1%, although, in making
brass, lead was often added later.

Employees. hese varied from 450 to 800 in each establishment,
or a total of about 2,000. About half are engaged around the zinc
smelters. There are no women employees. There is, however, a small
per cent of boys or youths employed. This help is Polish almost to a
man. They are not unionized. They are not regarded as skilled labor,
although a little experience is necessary to become a good furnaceman.
They receive from $1.90 to $2 per day, some of them working in short-
shifts of six to eight hours, some in long-shifts of twelve hours.

The Buildings. These zinc furnaces are located at two of the con-
cerns simply upon the ground for a floor, while the third concern has

* 75
its smelters all raised above the ground about the height of a second _

story, with cement flooring. At one of these concerns each furnace block
is in an individual building, which, however, is no more than a mere frame
shell resembling a large barn with the sides and roof nearly all open. At
a second concern all of the furnaces are within one large enclosure, which
is also frame and covers an immense area, while over each furnace block
is a Texas roof having a great many openings for ventilation. At the
third concern the furnace blocks are arranged in long rows within two
long narrow buildings constructed of steel and cement, the roofs of each
building being of modern foundry type.

There were no buildings surrounding these in such a way as to inter-
fere with natural ventilation, although the surrounding hillsides. are
somewhat of an interference.

In none of the concerns are there any other processes within the zinc
furnace buildings than that of the smelting of the zinc.

The size of all these buildings was sufficient as regarded cubic feet
of air space per man.

. Ventilation. At two of these plants this was very good for the sea-
son of the year visited (the early fall). At the third, however, it was
very poor. At all three concerns great doorways seemed largely depended
upon for ventilation. Also the roofs in all cases were of as open a struc-
ture as could be considered compatible with inclement weather condi-
tions. At one concern, artificial ventilation in the form of a very elab-
orate blower system was installed, which seemed to add very materially
to the removal of the noxious zine fumes from the vicinity of the work-
men, and undoubtedly is efficient enough for all seasons of the year. I
was informed by the superintendent of one of these concerns that it is
necessary to close up these furnace rooms considerably in the winter-
time in order to prevent chilling of the furnaces.

Light. This was found good in two of the concerns, povr in the
third. It is of course worse in the winter-time because of the closing up
of the openings.

Temperature. This was found to be almost intolerable at one con-
cern in the vicinity where it was necessary for a great many workmen
to be, and here it was found that the workmen were frequently using
hose to cool down the sides of the furnaces and drive back the heat.
At a second concern, which was more open, it was better, but still far
from bearable for any length of time. At a third concern it was found
fairly good, due principally to the establishment of artificial ventilation
for controlling it. At all three concerns the workmen used huge iron
shields which they moved up and down on small tracks or runways in
front of the broadside of each furnace to protect them from the heat.

Cleanliness. In two plants this was found particularly poor, the
floors being of dirt, with the dust several inches thick, and the walls,
rafters and beams covered with smoke deposits. At the third concern,
cleanliness was good. Apparently whitewashing was very seldom Aone.

76
Heat in Winter. In two of the concerns this was found to be
unprovided for at all, while at the third the arrangements were not
noted. The heat from the furnaces themselves is depended upon.

Regarding the height of roofs, these were about alike in all places,
being about twelve to eighteen feet at the eaves and peaked upwards to
twenty to thirty feet at the centers.

Roof ventilation was of the Texas type, that is, steeply pitched on
both sides with long, central, latticed top extending higher.

Lunch Quarters. 'These were absent at all three concerns visited.
The workmen usually bring lunches in dinner pails and eat in the fur-
nace rooms or in whatever buildings they are employed. Their lunch
pails were found sitting around the furnace rooms and smelting rooms,
against posts or on boxes. The men were allowed half-hour noons, while
at one plant they were also allowed two lunch periods of about fifteen
minutes each in addition to the usual noon period. However, the smel-
ters were not continuously engaged, so that they had opportunity to
“take a bite’ whenever they wished. The drinking water appeared to
be a source of complaint at all three plants, both the officials and the ,
working men blaming it for the occurrence of severe attacks of abdom-
inal colic among the workmen during the summer-time, especially after
long exposure to heat. However, the water was obtained from artesian
wells at one place and from the company’s private wells at the twe
other concerns and was the same as used by the inhabitants of the towns.

Wash-up Quarters were lacking altogether at all three places. There
were faucets on pipes protruding through the floors in all the furnace
and smelting rooms, from which the men secured water in pails, often
set it alongside the smelters to warm it, and used it for washing pur-
poses. At one plant I found the concern gave the men time to strip
to the waist and to bathe from buckets before quitting time each day.
This was not allowed at the other two concerns. The men themselves
provided whatever soap and towels they used.

Toilet Arrangements. These were of the crudest sort at all three
plants, consisting of temporary frame out-buildings without sewer con-
nections, water or even seats in most instances. J] was informed at one
plant that they were re-constructed every couple of years at new sites.

The Employees. These were Polish almost without exception, many
of them having foliowed the zinc-smelting trade in this country ‘and
even at the same plants for the past twenty-five to thirty years. In
spite of this very few of them spoke English or appeared to understand
it. On this account it was usually necessary to converse with them
through interpreters. Many of the younger men were found to be sons
of the older men. Most of the younger men could talk English. As in
the brass foundries in Chicago, the vast majority of the men were under
forty-five years of age.

Evidence of Trade Diseases. This was somewhat difficult to secure,
both because so few men were found that could speak Mnglish or Ger-
_man, and probably because of fear from the presence of their officials,
although the latter assisted very much in bringing out facts. The evi-
dence secured from the workmen themselves, both in the presence of

17
ee

officials and alone, from the officials, and from doctors in the neighbor-
ing towns, may be summed up as follows: Wu

(1) As was the condition in the brass foundries in Chicago, neither
officials nor doctors who attended the sick brass workers were familiar
with the condition known as brassman’s ague or the “chills,” but, almost
from the first man consulted, the existence of “zine chills,’ “smelter
shakes” or just “the shakes’ was affirmed, the men here iaying the cause
to the breathing of the zinc smoke. However, zinc smellers were found
not to be as subject to this form of trade sickness as brass moulders
because they do not breathe the zinc smoke to the same extent nor are
they as much exposed to it. Also, it being the prime object of the
process to redeem all of the zine possible from the metallic smoke, its
concentration in volatile zinc is by no means as rich as that usually pro-
duced in brass foundries. ‘There is also some malaria in the Illinois
River valley at this point, but the doctors declared it very little preva-
lent and apparently disappearing altogether, while the workmen were
certain they could tell the difference between the malarial “ague” and
“smelter shakes.” The latter, they declared, one would always get if he
breathed the zinc fumes to any extent. The workmen attach very little
importance to these zine chills and rarely lay off on account of them.

(2) Both officials and doctors were cognizant of the presence of
some lead-poisoning among the zinc workers, while the investigator found _
definite symptoms of lead-poisoning among several of the workmen at
the different plants. The calciners seemed to be the most liable to such
poisoning because they work where the crude ore is first roasted. Next
to these came the lead-burners or the workmen who repair the enormous
lead tanks used for the concentration of the sulphuric by-product. The
last in order came the workmen around the zine smelters, some of whom
were found with symptoms of lead-poisoning. The roasted ore, as it goes
into the smelters, as shown in the before-stated analysis, contains about
the same per cent of lead as before it was calcined.

(3) A very prevalent condition found to exist was severe summer
colics, alleged to be due to the drinking of ice-cold water when over-
heated. Nearly all of the workmen had suffered from these and many of
them many times. This is a severe condition, causing the men to be off
from work one to two weeks at a time, and is accompanied by obstinate
constipation, many times by nausea and vomiting, and always by severe
prostration and suffering. One doctor gave evidence of having been
called to plants several times to give immediate relief to workmen suf-
fering with this condition. Whether this is the expression of a sea-
sonal form of lead colic, such as has been stated to exist abroad, or not,
could not be determined. Apparently the nature of the industry is one
of the factors concerned, since the men at the zine furnaces seemed to
be the only ones so attacked.

(4) Nearly all the older furnace men suffer from what they call
“asthma” a great deal. It is a “chronic bronchitis,” according to one of
the doctors, and “undoubtedly a great deal of it ends in tuberculosis.”
It is far more prevalent in the winter-time, even the younger men being
affected then, and it was found that not a few of the older men actually

78
laid off most of the winter because of this condition. They claimed
that it was due to the breathing of the smoke and fumes, which were
always more prevalent in the winter-time or in inclement weather.

(5) Alcoholism. This was found to exist to the same extent, if not
greater, than among brass workers. The workmen consider alcoholic
liquors antidotal to various forms of trade-sickness.

(6) Gas Poisoning. As all of the concerns make their own gas,
which is used for fuel in the smelters, they have quite extensive gas
plants. Officials, doctors and workmen spoke of the occasional accident
of “gassing.” Some of these cases resulted in fatality, although the
large majority were only slightly affected as a rule and soon back at
work again.

Names and personal statistics were secured of eight men who had
suffered from zinc chills, six men who had suffered from lead-poisoning
and four men who had suffered from colics. About sixty workmen were
consulted altogether, but only the most pronounced cases were selected.

e

PART IV.

SUMMARY OF THE DANGERS OF THE Brass INDUSTRY, HYGIENICALLY
CONSIDERED, WITH RECOMMENDATIONS AS TO THEIR CONTROL.

In this industry the dangers, other than accidents, are:
In the Foundry, Refining, or Smelting Processes.

1. Inhalation of metallic vapors (zinc, copper, tin, lead, phosphorus,
arsenic, antimony, and nickel).

2. Inhalation of carbon monoxide and other gases of incomplete
combustion from furnaces.

3. Handling of lead in some processes in its pure state (refiners,
resmelters, babbitt workers, journal-bearing liners), while lead is an
alloyed constituent of practically all brass and bronze compositions, and
indeed in all alloys of soft metals.

4. Effects of fatiguing labor. Workmen complain that they are now
required to do from one-half to double again as much as they were wont
to do ten to twenty years ago.

5. Women, girls and boys are more susceptible to poisoning from
metallic vapors and dust than men.

In the Finishing Processes.

6. Inhalation of brass and other dusts (grinding, polishing, buffing,
‘rubbing, skimming, turning, burnishing, boring, etc.).

7. Skin irritations from fine brass dust.

In the Plating Processes.

8. Inhalation of mineral acid vapors where castings are dipped into

such acids for the purpose of cleaning them preparatory to plating. The
acids commonly used are mixtures of sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric.

79
9. Inhalation of hot potash vapors (cleaning processes).

10. Inhalations from hot potassium cyanide solutions which are
contained in large tanks or vats and are used as electrolytic solutions.

11. Shellac vapors are always very noticeable and are detrimental tc
health where wood alcohol or benzine are used as diluents or solvents.

12. Effects of dampness, standing on wet floors, placing hands and
arms alternately in and out of water and various solutions.

In All Processes.

13. Eating in workshops often in the midst of smoke, vapors and
dust.

14. Lack of personal cleanliness often due to inadequate washing
facilities. Hence men handling metals eat and drink without washing
hands, ete.

15. Toilets directly exposed to workshop atmosphere.

16. Lack of cleanliness in the foundry or workshop, dust and smoke
deposits upon ceiling, rafters, walls, ete.

17%. Thermal exposures either to excessive heat from furnaces or to
exposures to cold in the winter.

18. Lunch periods too short for men to wash and eat. These were
found to vary from fifteen to thirty minutes.

All of the above dangers can be grouped under two headings: The
Manufacturer’s Responsibility and the Employee’s Responsibility,

(a) The Manufacturer's Responsibility.
In the Foundry, Refining, or Smelting Shop.

1. Metallic fumes. These arise from (A) the tops of furnaces
where lids are not close fitting, from spouts of zinc smelting retorts,
and from all oil furnaces because tops continuously emit the blasts
containing metal fumes to the air of room. (B) On opening tops
of furnaces to add more metal or fuel. (C) Upon removing cruci:
bles containing melted brass or similar alloys from furnaces. (D)
Upon the addition of zinc, lead, phosphorus, etc., to the pots of
molten metal after they are removed from furnaces. (E) Upon the
pouring of the metal into moulds. (F) While the metal is cooling
in the moulds. (G) On opening the moulds. Corrections advised.
(A) Provide all furnaces with proper hoods and stacks. (B) Provide
a so-called apron around furnace area. (C) Separate furnace-room
from balance of workshop. (D) Provide ceiling ventilators or sky-
lights which must be made as effective in inclement weather as in fair
weather. (KH) Provide suction fans installed in ceiling or upper win-
dows to remove such smoke in all places where melting and pouring is
a more or less continuous process all day, or where vapors tend to hang
about more than ten to fifteen minutes after a pouring. (F) Do not
employ sickly or anemic workmen at such processes.

80
2. Carbon Monoxide Fumes. These arise from the furnaces par-
ticularly on starting up in the morning, and chief complaints are from
oil-blast furnaces. Corrections the same as for metallic fumes.

3. Lead exists in all brass alloys from 44% to 7%. It is present
in all scrap metal (handled, sorted, melted), is often added to the molten
copper, brass, etc., and is present in zinc ores. Usually only one man ina
shop handles it where it is used in the shape of ingots to add to various
alloys. In some brass foundries separate lead kettles are used, open topped,
and thus certain men in brass foundry-work may become leaded. Correc-
tions: These are no different than those which must be observed wherever
lead exists as vapor, dust, in alloys, or has to be handled. In brief, sprinkle
all scrap metal before handling or sorting it. Provide proper ventilation
schemes as noted above for removing metallic vapors and dust. Respira-
tors and gloves for all workmen exposed to lead in finely divided parti-
cles or as fumes. Women and boys should not be employed in such
processes. Anemic or sickly persons should not be employed in such
processes. Examinations monthly by a physician of all workmen so
exposed, with the elimination of those who show signs of lead poisoning.
The personal factor is a great one: some persons are extremely susceptible
to lead and cannot endure exposure to it whatever.

A. Fatigue. There is considerable complaint among many brass
moulders of the constant physical and mental strain required at the
present day. A foreman or other expert sets a pace on a certain class
of work for a few hours or a day’s time, then men are compelled to keep
up to this record daily. Correction: Limit the number of standard
flasks or moulds or their equivalents which a man should be expected to
turn out in a day.

5. Women are employed in some large establishments as core makers.
They usually work in rooms inefficiently partitioned off from foundry
quarters and are thus exposed to foundry vapors, smoke, and dust. In
addition, some large firms employ women and young girls at polishing
and buffing processes, a very questionable procedure. Correction: Women
should be in rooms or on some floor outside the foundry, whence cores
may be sent to the foundry.

é

In the Finishing Processes.

6. Polishing, Buffing and Similar Dusty Processes. The large ma-
jority of workmen are now protected from inhaling brass dust by the
blowers or suction fans required by law. Still the law does not cover
one-man processes; nor when grinding is done upon large metal cast-
ings are the workmen well enough protected, since they are compelled
to remove the blowers, which are in the way, or none are provided at all.
Corrections: All concerns employing one or more men at polishing,
buffing, or grinding by dry processes for more than two hours a day
should provide an efficient blower system to remove dust. When such
processes are done upon large castings and especially with belts, travel-
ing emery wheels, etc., a large hood with very powerful air-suction sys-
tem should be provided and a regular inspection made to see that same
is in good working order.

81
7. Irritating Dusts. This is largely a question of carelessness in

personal cleanliness. At the most only a mild form of dermatitis de-

velops. Corrections: Limit the amount of atmospheric dust by means
above noted, and require workmen to bathe frequently.

8. Acid Fumes. These arise where castings are dipped into mixed
mineral acids for the purpose of cleaning them preparatory to plating.
The law requires hoods and stacks when such process is continuous.
Correction: A hood and pipe to a window or stack and, when necessary,
a suction fan for all pots or vats from which fumes arise.

9. Hot Potash Solutions. These stand usually in large vats. They
cause a dryness of the throat and an irritating cough. Corrections: A
low hung hood with connection to proper stack should be suspended over
such vats.

10. Cyanide Solutions. The unstable character of all cyanide com-
pounds causes them to slowly disentegrate and yield hydrocyanic acid
which is volatile. Potassium cyanide is the compound used in plating
and it is used extensively. It is also used hot and stands in large open-
topped vats. Correction: A low hung hood with connections to proper
stack should be suspended over such vats.

11. Shellac. The vapors from the solvent used (amyl-acetate, wood
alcohol, benzine, etc.) cause irritation of the respiratory tract and often
sicken the workmen. Corrections: These are difficult to suggest since
certain solvents are necessary. Also drafts or air-currents are said to
spoil the work. Probably only healthy men (not women) should be
permitted to do this. Not so detrimental in simple brushing or dip-
ping processes, but more so in spraying processes, for which some firms
have a machine with special hood and stack provided.

12. Water and Dampness. In most plating rooms, quarters are very
wet from splashing water and various solutions on the floor. Correc-
tions: Limit the unnecessary splashing as much as possible. Provide
elevated floor treads to stand and walk upon. Provide rapid drains to
remove water from the floor. Provide rubber boots and perhaps rubber
aprons for the workmen.

In All Processes. :

13. Eating. Practically all shops allow half an hour for noons and
workmen eat in the shops. Corrections: Should allow at least three-
quarters of an hour to. giye time for washing up properly before eating.
Should not allow workmen to eat in any foundry, smelting room, fur-
nace room, polishing or buffing room, or any place where smoke, metal
fumes, or metal dust pervades the atmosphere at any time of the day.

14. Washing Facilities. In practically all places no time is allowed
for workmen to wash before eating or leaving the plant. Very often
facilities are by far inadequate. No soap, hot water, towels; often no
sink, basins, or even buckets provided. Corrections: Allow five or ten
minutes’ time for washing up before noon and at quitting time. Pro-
vide enough basins, buckets, or other wash places, hot water, soft soap,
and coarse towels. Such arrangements should properly be outside the
workroom. Shower-baths should be provided for use of all furnacemen,

82
smelters, and refiners. Those. so far seen have been installed much
cheaper than ordinary plumbing for wash bowls, etc.

15. Toilets. In many places these are crude affairs inefficiently
partitioned off in the workshop itself. Corrections: Proper sanitary
arrangements and in quarters entirely separate from workrooms.

16. Cleanliness. As metallic vapors and dust cause a thick deposit
within a short time upon walls, ceilings, and all exposed surfaces, it is
recommended that all foundries, smelting rooms, polishing and buffing
quarters be cleaned down and whitewashed at least twice a year. Also
the sprinkling of floors or the use of petroleum oils will lay the dust.

1%. Winter Heating. In most foundries as they exist at present,
there is great variation in temperature throughout the day because the
men have to open the windows frequently for ventilation, which at the
same time causes them to suffer from the cold. Within a short time
they may all be suffering from the heat from furnaces or pouring also
because ventilation is not adequate. In some places the heat from fur-
naces or salamanders is depended upon for maintaining workable room
temperature. Corrections: Proper arrangements should be made to
maintain an even temperature in the foundry (steam, hot water, or hot
air) of at least 53° F., without exposing employees to noxious vapors
from furnaces, stoves, or salamanders.

18. Short Lunch Periods. Workmen in this industry should be
allowed at least forty-five minutes in order to wash up, leave workrooms,
eat and return.

(b) Employees’ Responsibility for Exposure.
Foundry Men. Many men needlessly and foolishly expose them-

selves to metallic vapors, gas fumes, handling of lead, etc. Corrections
are obvious.

Eating Place. Workmen should not eat in foundry rooms, smelting
room, polishing, buffing, or grinding departments, or any places exposed
. to metallic vapors, smoke, or where metallic dust of any kind may collect.

Personal Cleanliness. Workmen should wash hands, lips, and face
well before eating. Even putting tobacco in the mouth allows dirt to he
carried from the hands to the digestive tract. Dust on the moustache is
swallowed with whatever food or drink is strained through the mous-
tache. These workers should not wear moustaches, or should keep them
cut very close. All smelters and furnace men should take a shower bath
every day before leaving plant, at which time they should change from
their workshop underwear and clothes to their civilian suits. (German
workmen claim this is regularly done in Germany.)

When workmen notice the effect of vapors or smoke upon the throat,
lungs, stomach, or head after leaving the workshop, they should by all
means avoid the use of whiskey or other strong alcoholic drink. They
are recommended to use, instead, hot milk, oatmeal water, and other
such muciparous drinks, and to resort to mild purgatives, such as
Epsom salts, castor oil, or calomel, in the evening, followed by salts in
the morning.

83
There is no know specific for Brass Founders’ Ague. Avoid brass
fumes: Refuse to work in places where it is impossible to keep from
breathing them. When the chill comes on, go to bed at once, cover up
well, drink hot milk containing pepper, hot water or hot lemonade.
Avoid absolutely the use of whiskey Take some one of the mild purga-
tives above mentioned.

All workmen who are employed about lead kettles, melting pots, or
lead furnaces, or handle scrap metal, should wear gloves as far as prac-
ticable; should observe great care to wash hands, lips, and face thor-
oughly before eating or putting anything in the mouth. Such washing
should be done with warm water and soap. They should wear continu-
ously some form of respirator, they should not grow moustaches, they
should see that the floors and the metals which they handle are kept
sprinkled or oiled often enough to keep down all dust. Personally
they should see that the bowels are kept regular, they should quit
such work if they note that their general health is suffering in the least,
or if they note the unwonted frequency of headache, constipation, abdom- _
inal colic or cramps, dizziness, poor appetite, loss of sleep, loss of weight
or general indisposition.

2a The Effects of Turpentine Upon the Health of Workmen.
By R. H. Nicholl, T. E. Flinn, M.D., E. R. Hayhurst, M.D.

Among the trades in which turpentine is used extensively, and in
such a way that its vapors may affect the health of the workman, is that
of the painter’s and varnisher’s trade. It is where turpentine is used in
closed room or confined quarters that the effect of its vapors becomes
noticeable, hence it is that class of painters who work in paint shops,
carriage, wagon and automobile shops who are most frequently affected.

That turpentine may under certain circumstances be a decided poison,
we note the following quotations from a few eminent authorities:

H. C. Wood, Therapeutics, 1905: “Turpentine is a powerful irritant,
causing in a. very short time inflammation in any tissue with
which it comes in contact.”

Peterson & Haines, Legal Medicine and Toxicology, 1904: “Severe
poisoning may result from the long-continued inhalation of vapors
of turpentine, as by painters or varnishers or by those who sleep
in freshly varnished rooms. The symptoms are headache, dizzi-
ness, bronchitis, and often irritation of the kidneys. Tolerance is
readily established. ... Various forms of skin eruptions have
been described.”

84
George M. Kober, of the President’s Home Commission, in his book
“Industrial and Personal Hygiene,” 1908: “Turpentine vapors
in excess may preduce gastric and pulmonary catarrh, slow and
painful micturition (urination) and bloody urine, headache, roar-
ing in the ears, and o.ver nervous symptoms. Schuler observed
among the workers in calico-printing marked emaciation, loss of
appetite, rapid pulse, and more or less headache, which he attrib-
uted to the turpentine vapors.... The odor of violets in the
urine is one of its ‘remarkable effects. The use of impure tur-
pentine for cleaning purposes has been known to produce obstinate
eczema of the hands.”

In order to determine to what extent painters and varnishers may
have been afflicted with turpentine vapors in Chicago, observations were
taken upon a total of 62 men. Many of these men were seen at their
work places and the condition of their shops noted. Others were con-
sulted at their union meetings. An endeavor was made to pick out the
older workmen only and to rule out as far as possible all cases of lead
poisoning. It may be said that nearly all of these men claim to have
suffered more or less frequently the effects of turpentine vapor, such as
those stated above, and especially to have noticed the effects upon the
urinary system later. These latter were stated to be a desire to urinate
frequently, with the passage of only small amounts of urine, oftentimes:
with much pain and burning sensation, attended with high discoloration
of the urine, perhaps bloody urine, and the odor of violets. There was
often also complaint of pain in the flanks and back. These urinary
symptoms usually came on after the symptoms of drowsiness, headache,
nausea, loss of appetite and sometimes vomiting, and dizziness, noticed
while inhaling the vapors. Many workmen also blamed certain so-called
_ varnish removers for the production of temporary ill-health.

The age of the painters consulted varied from 24 to 64 years. They
may be grouped by ages as follows:

From 20 to 30 years of age. ...... cee eee eee ee 14 men
From 31 to 40 years of age.......... eendiewatas 20 men
From 41 to 45 years of age............005, ....11 men
From 45 to 50 years of age.......... eee e ee eeee 8 men
Over 51 years of age... .... cece cece 9 men

Of the latter, two were over 60 years of age.

Nationalities:
WIMELICANE ooo caee dad cain se Sa See Mes he Ree 24 men
GOTTMANS. tes sand beep ee ee Oe Ao oe tages 14 men
TPIS: Gs arses eee ee hs ea hy GA ewe Sewn eee 2 men
SceMG[Pavians .oe.ciecaneees SPS ewww ae KR ee 22 men
Po bal: Gio asp tan ad as eee ae ee: Bie ans 62 men

Of the foreign-born workmen, the newest arrival had been here eight
years, out of the first 30 men consulted. However, the last 32 consulted
were largely Scandinavians, and several were of more recent arrival.

85
Grouped according to the number of years in which they had followed
the painter’s trade, we have:

Under 2 years... .... cece cece cece eee enenees 2 men
From 5 to 10 years........-e eee eee eee eeees 13 men
From 11 to 15 years....... cece eee e eee eee ees 6 men
From 16 to 20 years....... see ee cece eee eens 13 men
From 21 to 25 years. ...... sec e eee e ence eeenee 8 men
From 26 to 30 years........e cece cence eeeeee 7% men
From 31 to 35 years. ..... cee cee eee eee e eens 7 men
Over 36 years.........-. eee ee i iscasaiRad suey once Gieeee 6 men

The oldest workman was 64 years of age, and he was also longest at
the trade—48 years.

At first an attempt was made to determine what particular part the
workman performed in the painter’s trade, such as varnisher, striper,
ete.; but it was soon found impossible to follow such a classification, as
all were engaged in every process some of the time.

Places of Work. An endeavor was made to get indoor painters only,
with the result that practically all of the 62 men consulted had spent
most of their time at indoor painting.

Of the 62 men consulted, 59 were members of various painters’ unions.

Habits as to Alcoholism. Only 30 men were consulted upon this
point. Of these, 22 admitted drinking moderately of alcoholic liquors,
none excessively, while 8 claimed to be total abstainers.

Dates of Sickness. An endeavor was made to determine just when the
effects of turpentine vapor were severe enough to produce urinary mani-
festations. Many of the older men dated this back from 10 to 15 years,
while nearly all claimed that the constant recurrence of these effects were
common. Of the total number of men consulted, 18 had had bladder and
kidney trouble severe enough to require the services of a physician.

The Character of the Symptoms. Of the 62 men, the following classes
of complaints were made:

Urinary disturbances ....... 0.0... cece ee eee 54 cases
Inflammation of the eye................ Lea wen 21 cases
Respiratory symptoms ............. 00. cess eee 14 cases
DOIN, ITTULATIOUS: 5.3 c ease aca) ckcs acd even a isle eles 7 cases

In some, genital irritations, pronounced nervous manifestations, and
occasionally rheumatism were laid to turpentine vapors, although with
doubtful relationship.

Resulls of Urinary Analyses. From the total of 62 men, 44 sub-
mitted specimens of urine for chemical and microscopical analysis. Of
these 44 specimens, 14 showed evidences of organic kidney*disease, based
upon the following findings:

Four showed both albumen and casts, 8 showed a considerable number
of casts only (the forms which are usually associated with chronic kidney
disease), and 2 showed a considerable amount of albumen without casts
or pus cells.

86
The ages of the 14 men whose samples showed evidence of chronic
urinary disease :

Below: AO asssiihe a wide a ceuenacsuecate taneuers ants awh sees 3 men
From 40 to 50 years......... cee cece eee eee 5 men
From 50 to 60 years......... ccc eee e ee eee eee 6 men

The lengths of time at which these 14 men had been at the painter’s
trade were:

Below 15 years oc .ese ee ee ceed nee eee es 1 man
From 15 to 25 years... 0... cece cece e eee eee 5 men
From 25 to 40 years........ cee cece ee eee eee 8 men

From the above it will be noted that the older men are especially those
who showed organic urinary disturbances, their relative numbers being
almost in direct ratio to their years of age and to their years spent at the
trade. Of course, it is impossible to ‘ascertain the exact extent to which
turpentine vapors have been responsible for this large percentage of
organic urinary disease, but only 3 of the 44 men whose urines were
examined gave evidence of ever having had lead poisoning, the next most
probable cause, as diagnosed by their physicians in the past. Inasmuch
as acute urinary disturbances are so frequently complained of by these
workmen after an exposure to the vapors of turpentine, it is reasonable
to suppose that the latter are in a large measure responsible for the ulti-
mate chronic disease which develops. It is known only too well that any
case of chronic kidney disease may at any time suddenly develop acute
symptoms of uremia, which so frequently ends in death.

Time Lost by the Workmen. According to the statements made by
the workmen, the 62 men had lost a total of 1,098 days, representing
about $5,200, due to sickness from temporary effects, or actual acute
Bright’s disease following the inhalation of turpentine vapors.

Benefits Received. According to the workmen, 5 of the 62 consulted
had received a total of $236 from their unions. None had received com-
pensation from their employers. Nine had sought charitable relief from
various dispensaries and hospitals.

The Effects on the Eyes. The temporary congestion of the conjunc-
tiva caused by turpentine vapors may end in actual inflammation, which
usually subsides, but may persist as a chronic condition. The frequency
with which one notes the appearance of red and inflamed eyes in painters
is evidence of this.

The Effect on the Respiratory System. Of the 62 men consulted, 14
complained of the irritative effects of turpentine vapors upon the respira-
tory system, often causing severe coughing while inhaling the vapors.
This was said to cease as soon as the workman got into the open air, but
it must be regarded as a factor in the production of chronic bronchitis

among painters.

The Effects upon the Skin. Many painters complained especially of
the effects of turpentine and certain varnish removers upon the skin.
Of 18 physicians’ certificates turned into one painters’ union within a

87
period of 4 months, 4 of them were for treatments of dermatitis (inflam-
mation of the skin), which the painters’ officials claimed were due to the
above causes.

Summary. From a study of the above tabulated cases it seems fair to
conclude that (1) turpentine vapor is readily absorbed in toxic amounts
into the human system; (2) that its vapors are a very frequent cause of
conjunctivitis; (3) that it frequently causes severe inflammation of the
skin; and (4) that its elimination by way of the kidneys is a common
cause of the great frequency of acute and chronic urinary diseases among
painters. The principal factor in this deleterious effect of turpentine
vapor is the workman’s exposure to it in a closely confined room or in a
poorly ventilated workshop. In addition, there are various substitutes
for turpentine, and inferior grades of turpentine, rapid dryers, varnish
solvents, and varnish removers, which are undoubtedly more harmful than
pure turpentine. Better ventilation and inspection of ingredients are
the obvious corrections. :

3. A Report of Investigations on Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
carried out by Dr. Matthew Karasek and Dr. George
L. Apfelbach, under the direction of
Dr. Walter S. Haines.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is well known as a powerful poison ; 0.05 per
cent present in the atmosphere renders the latter actively dangerous, and
even 0.02 per cent may cause severe symptoms. Several fatal cases of
poisoning from the gas are reported annually. The gas is generated in
great quantities in a large number of industries, and an investigation of
its effects upon the workmen exposed to it seemed desirable.

Owing to the enormous amounts of the gas produced in the steel
industry, and owing still further to the large number of men employed
in this trade, we directed our investigation particularly to this line.

In this state there are five extensive steel plants, namely, Illinois Steel
Company, South Chicago; Iroquois Steel Company, South Chicago; IIli-
nois Steel Company, Joliet; Wisconsin Steel Company, South Chicago;
and Federal Steel and Iron Company, South Chicago; in which col-
lectively nearly 20,000 men are employed, when running full capacity.
All of these have been carefully inspected, and also the large works at
Gary, Ind., and those at East Chicago, Ind., for comparison.

The gas is produced during the smelting of the iron ore with coke
and lime. Formerly it was a waste gas and allowed to escape into the
air, but now all the products of combustion at the furnace top are col-
lected and used for the heating of boilers, ete., and for the driving of
gas engines.

88
There is also in common use in the steel and numerous other indus-
tries a special furnace in which coal generates a gas used mostly for
heating. This is known as “producer gas.” ‘The following gives the
average compositions of these gases:

Average Percentages—

‘ Blast Gas. Producer Gas.

OOS Bos nie Oe eats Po Mt eet. ed 26 23

COX peo tnacheaaneees iki canwaue, 11-12 8

Den ar ccceiee Mob eae ad Eatin a nt eccalniey acetone 3.5 11

ane Mae Fe de er enh a eink Sth Chere 0.7
GS Aciadeescthne tates sates 1.0 0.2

IN 29h be Dos eas heed ae cathe hence aad aire arc 57.3 57.1

Oo Os Bek ee ERR oe eS 0.2 Trace

Whenever a worker is exposed sufficiently to blast or producer gas,
there occurs an intoxication technically known as “gassing,” with symp-
toms somewhat resembling ether narcosis. Fatal cases are not very
common owing to prompt removal to fresh air, but accidents such as
wounds and bruises are not infrequent by reason of unconsciousness and
subsequent fall from a height or into machinery; naturally burns are
very common under these conditions.

Our investigation however chiefly concerned itself in determining
the effect of frequent or constant exposure to smaller amounts of the gas.

We critically examined 240 workers in the various steel works, who
were frequently exposed to the gas, and found that very few of them
were in good physical condition, but it is extremely difficult to state how
much of this is due to carbon monoxide and how much to alcoholic
and other excesses, unhygienic living, venereal diseases, etc. Obviously
many of the conditions we noted, such as skin diseases, were in no way
connected with CO; but one constant and suggestive feature presented
itself. This was a deficient muscular power, as indicated by the hand
dynamometer.

A comparison of the muscular strength of the hand gave the follow-
ing results in 400 cases, selected as strictly comparable—crippled, dis-
eased or those otherwise unsuitable, being left out.

Ages 20-40—Steel company workers, South Chicago, exposed to CO,
average strength, 117.13.

Ages 20-40—Car company workers not exposed to CO, general
hygiene, etc., good, average strength, 146.11.

Ages 20-40—Workers in three companies not exposed to CO, gen-
eral hygiene ordinary, average strength, 134.43.

Ages over 40—Steel company workers as above, average strength,
94.30.

Ages over 40—Group II as above, average strength, 127.25.

Ages over 40—Group III as above, average strength, 113.01.

In the steel works at Joliet only 19 cases could be used for compari-
son, and we deemed this insufficient for any deductions.

89
We made blood examinations of 68 steel workers and found that in
practically all those exposed to blast gas there was an increase in the
number of red corpuscles, a condition technically known as polycythemia.
The counts ran between 5,500,000 and 9,600,000 per cu. mm., two-
thirds of them being over 6,000,000. No embryonal or other unusual
forms of red cells were present. Seemingly this is a conservative action
on the part of the system whereby the harmful effects of the gas are
mitigated and greater toleration is established.

In 22 differential blood counts, 6 showed an increase of the eosino-
philes, varying from 20 to 100 per cent above normal.

Further investigation concerning these blood changes and their sig-
nificance is desirable; and it is important to determine whether the loss
of power above noted is due to carbon monoxide. If such should prove
to be the case, it means a large economic loss in the numerous indus-
tries where workers are exposed to CO.

The majority of the men examined seemed below the average men-
tally, but 97 per cent of them stated that they used alcoholic liquors,
while 70 per cent admitted using alcohol in excessive quantities, conse-
quently it becomes very difficult to make deductions as to the exact part
played by CO. Since it is a well known fact, however, that prolonged
exposure to carbon monoxide may produce a profound impression on the
nervous system, we regard it as by no means improbable. that a part of
the sluggish mentality observed among the steel workers may be due
to frequent exposure to the gas. Further investigation along this line
is to be strongly recommended.

Insanities and psychoses of an incurable type have been reported as
consequent upon prolonged exposure to CO. During our investigation.
we found three cases among the steel workers of intractable mental
trouble produced, without the slightest doubt, by severe “gassing”; while
a fourth man, after a long exposure to the gas, was mentally unsound for
several days, but eventually recovered. Such cases, however, are rel-
atively rare.

Praces WHERE “Gassing” Occurs.

“Gassing” occurs with greater or less frequency all along the route
of the gas. Thus, it originates in the blast furnace; part of it escapes
at the top during loading of the furnace, and by leakage both above and

heakane in —<__—_——_
oa |
ue “Stoves”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

] Bustle and | Gas Gas |_| Gaso-
—__ Scrubbers — Washer fa meter
Blast other pipes m4
Furnace - |
Engines
Boiler House

 

 

 

 

 

 

90
through the walls of the furnace. From the top, the gas is led by tubes
or pipes (bustle pipes) around the furnace; to the boiler house for fuel ;
to the “gas scrubbers” and “gas washers” for separating undesirable ma-
terials; to the gasometers for temporary storage; and to the gas engines
for motive power. “Gassing” also occurs during manual cleaning of the
inside of any portion of this system, apparently from CO retained within
the deposits on the sides and has occurred repeatedly when gas mains
have been shut off by bulkheads for repairs or changes as no ordinary
structure of brick or clay will stop the CO from passing through.

The tops of furnaces are notoriously dangerous, but since the estab-
lishment of automatic top feeders the number of men at the top at any
time is reduced to a minimum of:—oilers present for about 20 minutes
each 12 hours; “cleaners” (or “sweepers”) to sweep up accumulations
from the dumping cart, working from half an hour to several hours,
according to the frequency of cleaning; “sailors” (or “riggers”), who
are repair men employed while the furnace is in operation only for
urgent repairs.

The “mantle” above the bustle pipes is nearly as dangerous as the
top. It seems impossible to prevent leakage of gas through the walls of
the furnace generally in a belt around the furnace about 12 feet from
the ground, at the “mantle,” very often in sufficient quantity to maintain
continuous combustion when once ignited. This gas, if unignited, gen-
erally affects those on the casting floor.

The great danger about the “stoves” is at the enormous burners from
adverse draft or puff-back of unconsumed gas and from leakage. A spe-
cial danger exists during the cleaning out of a “stove” through one open-
ing while gas is burning at the other. Explosions occur and the men
suffer from burns.

In the boiler house the same danger of puff-back is present except in
the later make of boilers which have the entering flue-burners sealed into
the brick work, and receive air from a point about two feet below. This
type of boiler we saw only in the Ilinois Steel Company’s alternating cur-
rent boiler house. With this kind of burner an explosion may occur if
the gas is carelessly turned on too rapidly at first. During our investi-
gations we noted many flue-burners with large leaks and rents, either
discharging the gas under pressure into the boiler room, or plugged
indifferently with clay stoppers. Cleaning out the boilers frequently
gives rise to “gassing” both in the removal of debris (“cinders”) from
the fire box and spaces, and of scale, etc., from the boiler drums. In
spite of the fact that the fires are stopped and the draft-doors opened,
thus allowing free air circulation, the men are gassed, probably from CO
retained in the deposits.

In the gas cleaning apparatus serious and frequent cases have oc-
curred at large works in Cleveland, Ohio, and we found one case recently
at South Chicago, of an employé in the gas cleaning house gassed while
seated in a chair.

91
Near the engines using blast gas instead of steam, danger lurks from
leakages. Only recently an engineer in a steel works was found dead
after falling asleep on the bed of the engine. The coroner’s verdict was

CO poisoning.

To illustrate the dangers of cleaning bustle pipes and flues, we cite
the gassing of 24 men in one plant on October 15, 1910, while so engaged.

At the time of our investigations the steel mills were running half
their full capacity or less. Of 10,000 steel workers 1178 were employed
in the following departments. The appended figures illustrate our
findings among these workers:

 

 

No. of Men | fatal cases Severe cases | Mild cases Sequelle
employed per year per year
Blast furnaces 900 fey aed 3 65 216 ee
Boiler Houses 212 1 ee
Gas engine 42 1 in 1910 4 variable
Open hearths 24 —_ 1 variable

 

 

 

 

 

 

The above were cases actually found. ‘The real number occurring
would be much higher, since mild cases are never recorded and are often
forgotten.

On October 15, 1910, 28 men were gassed at one time requiring
hospital attention, This occurred while cleaning a gas main.

PRESENT METHODS FOR PREVENTION AND TREATMENT.

We find that in the past decade or two a very marked decrease in the
number gassed in steel mills has occurred. This is due to the establish-
ment of closed top, double bell blast furnaces; automatic top charging;
thicker furnace walls with double instead of single riveted plates; con-
duction of gases in overhead mains instead of underground; the doing
away with “pits” where deadly gases were apt to collect; systematic rules
allowing no one above without special order; oxygen helmets for the
most hazardous places; the education of the employés to the dangers by
yerbal or printed instructions; and other general improvements during
the past few years.

The Illinois Steel Company has a hospital within the grounds at
South Chicago where prompt and efficient attention is immediately
available. Other works have emergency dispensaries. Instructions as
to what to do are given in some plants. Oxygen tanks are available and
used in two of the steel works with very good results.

92
On the following pages are shown copies of signs used in one steel
company to warn employees and others against dangers from blast gas:

5.

Posted at stairways leading to top of blast furnaces.

Posted at ladder and stairways leading above floor of furnaces.
Posted in engine house basements, etc.

Posted around gas engines, pipes and gas mains in basement.

Posted in out of the way places, enclosed spaces ahout furnaces,

engine-rooms, etc.

6.

7.

Posted at blast furnace plant to warn strangers.

Posted in boiler houses.
‘sgovuiny qsvjg Jo doy, 0} Suipvay sAuMIIe}S Je pasog ‘Tt ‘ON

 
 

No. 2. Posted at Ladder and Stairways leading above Floor of Furnaces.
‘oy ‘sjusWAseg asnoy oUIsuy UI palsog “¢ ‘ON

 
‘JuoWOsvE UL SILTY svg pur sadig ‘saursug svH punore paysog “Ff ‘ON

eCECTEMTEEET T= BILELET pu f iv am m

‘Diavz Ea

 
‘O}9 ‘SWOOI-OULS UG ‘saovuIny noge saovdy pasopougy ‘saovrg AVA\ 2} JO NG UL paysog “¢‘ON

 
a

‘STO TUBS UIE AL 0} JUL] IvUAN YT Isvig_ J poysog

BS Sree oe ire

eCPM arr
PAT PETRY 32 re VN29:

*

 

eT SEIS

ECM EA Mec Part: |
hd ne vi

oa)

‘Q°

ee ch

.

ed

 
Eri iT.

 

SOSNO TT ALO ul pesog ‘L (ON

Ud AAOUANV319 NWAZSYMUld ere
2

CMO l iT Gh enV \T ae
PoE PEM DAEs TE hel 2 Mra ou
RECOMMENDATIONS.

In view of the fact that leakages are bound to occur, we would
suggest :

Provision for prompt medical attention such as an emergency dis-
pensary within the grounds in all plants; physician or physicians con-
stantly present or immediately available.

Maintenance of readily accessible tanks of oxygen.

Oxygen helmets for emergency work, such as rescuing unconscious
workers.

Placards of instruction for first aid.

In order to decrease the numbers “gassed” we would urge:

Obligatory introduction of modern construction. The Illinois Steel
Company has shown commendable promptness in this matter.

Systematic record and observation of the movements of those in places
known to be highly dangerous from the presence of CO, so that those
overcome may be promptly rescued.

Thorough instruction of employés regarding the dangers, with
placards in various languages.

Prompt repairs of leaky parts.

Free ventilation where not present. One steel company has altered
the roof of their boiler house since our investigation began, with marked
decrease in the number of cases.

Refusal to employ around blast furnaces men who are at all under
the influence of liquor, since such men are readily narcotized, not appre-
hending the danger to drowsiness. Such men occasionally sneak away
to warm but dangerous places to sleep, and there fall victims to CO
poisoning. For the purpose of decreasing indirect injury from CO, we
believe that railings and guards are desirable to prevent: men, while un-
conscious, from falling from a height or into dangerous machinery. Of
22 men acutely gassed and immediately rescued, 3 showed notable burns
and 3 showed bruises, demonstrating that they were deeply and rapidly
narcotized. We cite the case of one worker who was burned almost to a
crisp before being taken out, and of another who fell to his death twenty-
five feet below. Many other illustrations like these could be given.

Abundant experience has shown repeatedly that it is impossible for a
man to enter a gaseous atmosphere, unaided by special apparatus, to
rescue another overcome by the gas. Rare exceptions occur. Oxygen
helmets make it possible to work continuously in a deadly atmosphere.

93
The following two cuts show such a contrivance furnishing fresh air to
the wearer. No doubt many other helmets of similar sort are on the
market.

 

FRONT VIEW OF APPARATUS.

CO POISONING IN THE ILLUMINATING GAS INDUSTRY

Lack of time made our investigation on poisoning by CO in the
illuminating gas industry brief and incomplete.

A large illuminating gas company in this city has 6 manufacturing sta-
tions giving work to a total of about 700 men. About 1,000 other workers
are distributed throughout Chicago putting in new mains, repairing
leaks, etc. The total number employed, however, fluctuates, as it ob-
viously must, and generally lies between 1,500 and 2,200 men. These
men are exposed while at work not only to acute “gassing” but also to
more or less continuous inhalation of small quantities of the gas, es-
pecially the underground workers in mains and conduits.

94
The average approximate composition of illuminating gas is:

CO Rrra cas Mer oneal vay ae gales 3.5%
CLD sn deetnaeesthdenarorbacaen crtiota tiem ie rari meme ara 28.0%
Inve Grollsmn ve ienen creed fees dead ewaas 12.0%
livid OD CIM ey atreers ce cise reste e ond ecteyee 4 38.0%
Meth an caer trots esters Aho nN cIS tec 18.0%
Oxy PONE tee tien ccs Were aeite 6 ais eee eae 1.0%
100.5

Its effects are principally due to CO and the findings in the few cases
carefully studied, were like those resulting from blast’ gas. Six blood
examinations on cases of recent gassing showed a like increase in the

number of red blood corpuscles. ,

 

RESCUE APPARATUS, COMPLETE WITH SMOKE
HELMET AND SINGLE CYLINDER.

We had no means in the limited time available to determine the exact
frequency of gassing, but judge that since the company has issued posters
showing how to treat those overcome, it occurs often enough to deserve

further investigation.
95
Incidentally to our work, we have noted many things which, to us,
as physicians, appear worthy of investigation, for probable injurious
effects on workers; such investigation might lead to a prolonging of life
and to economic gain. Among these may be mentioned.

1. Escape of products of combusion into the general work-room
from gas, gasoline, coke, crude oil, etc.

Of 6 tailor shops visited at South Chicago, every one prac-
ticed this.

Coke for heating iron, used at a tack company, at a car
company, etc. :

2. Dust of iron, lime, coal or glass, as in a tack company, a car
company, a steel company, etc.

3. Use of fusel oil in certain industries, lacquering, etc.

4. Use in various industries of acids such as sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acids. Heated wire coils are dipped into these to re-
move scale, and give rise to strong acid fumes and perhaps to
arsine, etc. Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid are used to re-
move oxides preparatory to electroplating.

5. “Sixty per cent of photo-engravers die of pulmonary tubercu-
losis.” (President of their union.)

Questions of ventilation and light.

Preliminary Report on the Injurious Effects of Metol, Platinum, Chromates,
Cyanides, Hydrofluoric Acid and of Materials used in Silvering Mirrors

By Mrs. Stella R. Karasek and Dr. Matthew Karasek.

Tue Use or Mrtou In PHOTOGRAPHY.

Metol is used in nearly every studio visited except where discon-
tinued because of evil effects. Chicago alone has 350 studios, and in
investigating the injurious effects of chemicals in photography, 31 cases
of metol poisoning were found in the 40 studios visited.

In all these cases metol produced an eruption, most often on the
hands; in perhaps half the cases affecting the arms to the shoulder; and
in some cases producing a rash over the body. The rash in the majority
of cases lasted a few days and subsided ; in other cases ulcers and running
sores resulted, which healed with great difficulty, occasionally lasting fox
many months. A recurrence promptly followed other exposures to metol.

96
Rubber gloves prevent metol poisoning and do not interfere with any
process in photography, but only two individuals were found during the
entire investigation who made use of this simple preven tive.

Tue Ust or PLatinum Paper.

In these same 40 studios there were found 8 cases of deleterious effects
from platinum paper, although many of the photographers had long since
discontinued its use. The effects are: pronounced irritation of the throat
and nasal passages, causing violent sneezing and coughing ; bronchial irri-
tation, causing such respiratory difficulties as to preclude the use of the
paper entirely for some individuals; and irritation, upon contact with the
skin, causing cracking, bleeding and pain.

THE Use oF BICHROMATE AND CHROMIC ACID IN PHoTO-ENGRAVING.

These are used in an emulsion on copper-plates preparatory to re-
ceiving the negative. The well-known chrome ulcers result wherever
these chemicals, especially the latter-mentioned, remain in contact with
the skin for even a very short time. Occasionally an obstinate eczema
supersedes the ulcers and recurs spontaneously after long periods. Only
two severe cases were noted, but nearly all the photo-engravers men-
tioned numerous cases, generally of mild or moderate severity.

THE UsE oF CYANIDES BY PHOTO-ENGRAVERS.

Potassium cyanide is a deadly poison whose acute effects are known
to all. Its chronic effects manifest themselves in these workers by
nausea, loss of appetite, headache, and a general disinclination to work.
Until two years ago there was an average of 7-12 cases of cyanide poison-
ing reported annually to the secretary of the union, but during the past
two years not a single case has been reported. This is due to the fact
that one man does not do the cyanide work for six or more photographers,
as was heretofore the case. Formerly, in many cases, the workers with
cyanides were able to do this work only a short time, perhaps six to seven
weeks, before having an acute attack of cyanide poisoning. In a few
cases 24 hours of work was sufficient to produce acute poisoning. In all
such cases a resumption of work with cyanides brought on another attack
within two weeks, which generally ended fatally.

Potassium cyanide is used in the process of developing of negatives
known as the “fixing” or “cutting.” Most often this is done in the “op-
erating” room, but in some places it is done in the “dark room” where
ventilation is not good and it is here that workers more often notice the
ill effects. It was surprising to find that the “dark room” in many
places was simply a portion of the main room with partitions extending

97
to within about 14 inches of the ceiling, and open above, allowing the
fumes from the “dark room” to mingle with the air of the general work
room; also, to find that most of these places had no provision for ventila-
tion except the outer windows, which were usually closed.

Mr. R. I. G——, an employé, wrote us: “The greatest boon we
could get would be ventilated workrooms.”

The following conditions were found and should receive attention:
In most places the workers are permitted to eat their lunches in the work-
rooms. No gloves are used and there are no posters, instructions or
warnings to employés regarding poisonous and dangerous chemicals;
neither were labels present on any of the bottles containing potassium
cyanide or other chemicals used in the rooms.

SILVERING Mrrrors.

Only one plant was visited and in this we found: 3 deaths during the
last decade or so, supposedly due to working .at this occupation. Four
eases of constitutional evil effects due to this work and manifesting them-
selves as, rapid progressive loss of weight; continuous headaches; a dis-
inclination to work, with a sense of muscular pain and weakness; a
marked anemia; and a craving for stimulants to overcome the feeling
of illness.

The men are unable to work at silvering for more than a few months
before becoming completely disabled. The causative factor of this illness
has not yet been determined, as time did not allow.

Hyprorivoric Acip IN ETcHIna oF GLass.

Because of the very short time available only two days were spent in
investigating this subject and only one place was visited. The fumes
arising constantly, give rise to severe irritation of nasal passages, pharynx
and bronchi and even of the lung tissue; to redness and marked swelling
of the eyelids. If the acid solution is splashed upon the skin it corrodes
the tissues like other caustic acids, leaving a slow healing ulcer. The
post mortem findings on one case said to have died from the effects were
fibroid lung tissue from repeated ulceration and scarring, and small
ulcers and abscesses at the bifurcation of the bronchi. A medical exami-
nation of a worker exposed to the fumes showed bronchitis, also redness
and swelling of the eyelids.

Gloves are used, but no protection for the eyes is afforded; neither are
any forms of respirators employed.

__We would strongly urge the use of goggles made throughout of cellu-
loid, and the provision of hoods with strong forced ventilation.

98
Report on Compressed Air Disease, by Peter Bassoe, M. D.

I.

Il.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.
VII.

CONTENTS

Introduction.

Essential Facts and Theories Regarding the Effects of
Compressed. Air on Man.

Abstract of Work on Compressed Air Conducted under
the Auspices of the British Admiralty.

Abstract of a Recent Article by an Engineer, Including
Consideration of the New York Law.

Recent Literature Dealing with Conditions Underlying
Caisson Disease and Selection of Men.

The Occurrence of Compressed Air Disease in Illinois.

(A). Previous Reports.
(B). Personal Observations.

Suggestions for Eventual Legislation.

The New York Law.

J. InrRopuctTIon.

Work in compressed air in the state has been done chiefly in con-
nection with the construction of (1) tunnels for water, sewers, and the
freight tunnels in Chicago, (2) bridges, mainly railway bridges, (3)
buildings (rarely). The investigation to be related has been made
chiefly in connection with the first two kinds of work. Divers also are
subject to compressed air disease, but as diving as an occupation plays
an insignificant role in this state, it has not been especially studied.

The purpose of the compressed air is to keep water out and to prevent
caving in while the work is in construction. ‘The methods by which air
is introduced and men and material can pass in and out are shown in

99
Fig. 1. A more complicated type of caisson, with separate locks tor

men and material, is seen in Fig. 2.

et

    

“Fram Comprossen

   

Timber Fioof of MoNing Chamber

  
    

Morbirg Chamber

    

(Ercovetio?

 

Bottom

FIG. lL
Cross-Section Caisson under Construction for C. & N.-W. Ry. Bridge, Chicago.

\From article by Dr. J. E. Owens. The Railway Surgical Journal, March 1908)

To Enter Caisson—Bottom door of lock is closed. Men enter from top door and close
it; then top valve being closed, bottom valve is opened, thus equalizing pressure. Bottom
door is then opened and men go down ladder to working chamber.

To Leave Caisson.—Top door of lock is closed.

lock through bottom door, and close it. Then bottom valve being closed, top valve is
Top door is then opened, and men climb out of lock

Men come up ladder and enter

opened, thus equalizing pressure.
into open air.

II.

Essentia, Facts anp TuHrorizs REGARDING THE Errects or Com-
PRESSED AIR ON Man.

In a paper read before the Chicago Medical Society on Jan. 26, 1910,
and printed in the Illinois Medical Journal, April, 1910, the writer

briefly sums up the main facts, as follows:
100
or a ae a
ESS ZENS

 

 

SZ SS

a THE.
Bote yee Fees

ee es

Sy OSLO Zz ZS

eee ee es,

PA nie 8 eee

cre

 

 

 

  

eo ete eee

e oe we STO e

ASSET

ES pin F eas

ght

RWI ERIS R,
ESS

   

FIG. 2.
ge over River T'yne.

From Thomas Oliver, Dis-

Diagram of caisson used for brid.
eases of Occupation, New York, 1908.

A ‘Material lock’’.

CDEF Doors. G Inlet valve. H Outlet valve

B ‘‘Air lock’’.

101
Effects of Compression: As the air is pumped in there is apt to be a
sensation of pressure on the ear drums which soon becomes a severe pain
if air is not rapidly swallowed or forced into the tympanum by the Val-
salva method. A person with impervious Eustachian tubes may have his
drums ruptured if he does not leave the compressed air in time. There
is likely to be numbness of the lips, one becomes unable to whistle, there
is a sensation of resistance to expiration and the voice becomes high-
pitchea. According to Erdman,’ there are no constant changes in the
rate of the pulse and respiration or in the blood pressure. When the
maximum pressure has been reached, nothing disagreeable is likely
to be felt; in fact, there is usually a feeling of exhilaration and increased
strength, to which the fact has been attributed that the caisson worker,
or “sand hog,” as he is called among working men, feels happiest while
in compressed air and is a poor worker under normal pressure.

Effects of Decompression: These are far more important than those
of compression, and practically all cases of disease originate in too rapid
reduction of pressure. The onset of symptoms is usually after normal
pressure has been reached. Of 1,419 cases of various types of caisson
disease observed by Erdman among the 3,500 workers on the Hudson
tunnels, 43 per cent. came on within half an hour, 32 per cent. between
one-half and one hour after leaving the caisson, or 75 per cent. within
the first hour. The most common phenomena are severe pains in the
limbs, chiefly the lower ones, called the “bends,” vertigo, known as the
“staggers,” more rarely dyspnea, the “chokes.” Fortunately paralysis,
anesthesias and other severe nervous symptoms likely to become perma-
nent are relatively rare. Thus, only 1 per cent. of Erdman’s cases had a
true paralysis, while pains in the legs were found in 74 per cent. and in
the arms in 388 per cent., abdominal pains in 5 per cent., vertigo in 7
per cent.

Silberstern? gives statistics of 190 well-studied instances of disease
occurring in Vienna. ~ The additional pressure was as high as 2.7 atmos-
pheres. There were 94 cases of pains in muscles and joints, all of which
recovered ; 35 cases of spinal cord paralysis and “angioparalytic disturb-
ances,” with 34 recoveries, while one remained permanently crippled; 17
cases of Méniére’s syndrome, with 12 recoveries, 5 completely disabled; 5
cases of other cerebral disturbances, with 4 recoveries and 1 complete
disability ; 12 cases of asphyxia, with 10 recoveries and 2 deaths; 27 cases
of disease of the drum or middle ear, with 26 recoveries and 1 partial dis-
ability. (Eleven were cases of hyperemia or extravasation of the drum,
12 se into the tympanum, 3 myringitis, 1 suppurative otitis
media.

“

Fatality: Before proper precautions came into general use, death
soon after emerging from a caisson was of frequent occurrence. Thus,
according to Rubner,® an English company lost 10 to 24 men in one year.
Thomas Oliver* states that at the building of the Brooklyn bridge there
were 110 cases, with 3 deaths, and that of 600 men employed on the St.

Jour. A. M. A., 1907, xlix, 1665.

? Weil: Handb. der Arbeiterkrankh., Jena, 1908, p. 612.

*Lehbrb, der Hygiene, 1907, Ed. 8, p. 48.
‘Dangerous Trades, London, 1902.

102
Louis bridge 119 had caisson disease and 14 died. At the first Hudson
tunnel there were 12 deaths in one year among the 45 to 50 men
employed, i. e., about 25 per cent. mortality, which sank to less than 1 per
cent. after a “medical lock” was put in use. The Firth-of-Forth bridge
in Scotland, the Blackwell tunnel under the Thames at London and the
Baker Street and Waterloo Railway tunnel (the “Bakerloo Tube”) were
constructed without any fatality.

Most: deaths occur within a day or a few days of the onset. Some
patients die later from infection arising in connection with urinary reten-
tion or bedsores in cases of cord disease which give the clinical picture of
disseminated myelitis. Varying degrees of paralysis or sphincter disturb-
ance or Méniére’s disease with permanent deafness may be left behind.

Pathologic Anatomy and Pathogenesis: It has been a recognized fact
for a long time that the serious symptoms occur during or after return to
normal pressure, and the long drawn out controversy concerning the gen-
esis of the symptoms must now be considered settled in favor of the gas
bubble theory introduced over 200 years ago. In 185% Hoppe-Seyler
independently evolved this theory on the basis of his own experiments,
as he was ignorant of the earlier work of Boyle and Van Musschenbroeck.
Still more elaborate and convincing was the work of Paul Bert,’ whose
book appeared in 1878. He brought out all essential facts known today
both regarding etiology, symptoms and prophylaxis. In the large book
by Heller, Mager and Schrotter® all previous work is thoroughly reviewed
and many new clinical, anatomical and experimental data added. They
fully endorse Paul Bert on every point, including his contention that
nitrogen is the main factor in causing trouble. This summary is as fol-
lows:

‘‘After rapid decompression free gas may be found in the circulatory system.
This gas is nearly altogether nitrogen. If the sojourn in compressed air has been
sufficiently long and the decompression rapid pathologic phenomena occur which
may be grouped as follows: 1. Severe affections of the heart and lungs which may
cause death directly. 2. Disturbances of the central nervous system, chiefly the
cord. All those occurrences are due to the presence of free gas in the circulatory
system, the cord symptoms being due to gas bubbles in the arteries leading to the
formation of multiple foci of necrosis. The phenomena after decompression may
generally be removed by recompression, the paralytic. phenomena, however, only if
textural changes have not yet commenced. The benefit derived from recompression
depends upon the shortness of the period between the appearance of symptoms and
the recompression, also on the degree and duration of the previous compression.
Inhalation of oxygen is of importance, as it directly improves the heart action and
respiration and thus indirectly aids in the elimination of nitrogen from the tissues. ’’

Catsaras, in his extensive work (Paris, 1890) on the similar affec-
tion among Greek sponge divers, also endorses the gas bubble theory.
Heller, Mager and Schrotter have compiled 137 reported deaths from
compressed air illness, 41 in divers and 96 in caisson workers, with 45
necropsies. In 70 of the cases with 27 necropsies, death occurred within
48 hours of the onset, in 36 cases longer time had elapsed, while in the
remaining ones exact data could not be obtained. In 18 of the 27
necropsies in early cases there are fairly complete records. In 9 evidence

5La pression barometrique, Paris, 1878.
*Die Luftdruckerkrankungen, Wien., 1900.

103
of air embolism was found, in most of them sufficiently convincing to
exclude the likelihood of invasion by the Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus
or other gas-producing organisms with which the earlier observers prob-
ably were not familiar. In the cases without bubbles there was evidence
of passive congestion, such as hyperemia, edema or hemorrhage of the
lungs, distended veins in the abdominal viscera and other signs of heart
failure ascribed to the heavy work performed in ridding the blood of the
excess of nitrogen within it. In the second group, death after two days,
the chief findings were foci of ischemic necrosis in the cord and such
terminal lesions as cystitis, pyelitis, decubitus and pyemia. It is note-
-worthy that cases resulted fatally in which apparently sufficiently long
time was used in decompression, in one case thirty minutes for an over-
pressure of 2.3 atmospheres (34 lbs.) and that serious symptoms set in
as long as six or seven hours after decompression.

Erdman had 7 necropsies in his New York cases. “Free bubbles or
collection of gas were found in the blood in all five cases in which
necropsy was performed within eighteen hours after death. The two
delayed cases showed no free bubbles.” In most of his fatal cases death
had occurred within twenty-four hours. Two patients with myelitis and
paraplegia succumbed from septic complications after several months.

The pathology of caisson disease is thus seen to be very simple and
readily understood if we apply Dalton’s law, that the amount of gas in a
liquid is proportionate to the pressure of that gas in the atmosphere to
which the liquid is exposed. During compression a much increased
amount of gas can be held. If decompression is too rapid, gas, in this
case mainly nitrogen, is set free and may cause mechanical injury, result-
ing in various symptoms. The frequency of lesions in the lower part of
the spinal cord has been ascribed to “the greater length, tortuosity and
attenuated condition of the small blood vessels in this region.’”

Prophylaxis: The following are the chief points agreed on by all
authors: 1. Selection of men. Young men should be preferred, and in
many places men over 40 have not been accepted. Snell,® among the
workers on the Blackwell Tunnel, found no cases of illness among 55
men between the ages of 15 and 20; among 145 men between 20 and 25,
10 per cent., were affected; among 302 between 25 and 40, 23 per cent.;
among 38 between 40 and 45, 26 per cent; 3 men between 45 and 50
were taken ill five times, or 166 per cent. Pelton® lays stress on a pre-
liminary physical examination, accepting men between 20 and 35 only,
and excluding all showing evidence of cardiac, arterial, pulmonary,
hepatic or renal disease. He particularly warns against accepting men
with signs of status lymphaticus, while he is more lenient as to alcohol-
ism, largely for the practical reason that otherwise it would be difficult to
secure enough workers. As before stated, men with disease of the upper
air passages or ears are likely to get into trouble during the compara-
tively harmless stage of compression, and will probably give up the work

"Moxon: Cited by Oliver, le, p. 747.
* Compressed Air Illness, London, 1896.
° Amer. Jour. Med. Se., 1907, exxxiii, 679.

104
on the first attempt if not rejected beforehand. 2. The degree and dura-
tion of compression must be in inverse proportion and the length of shift
regulated accordingly. 3. Sufficient time must be given for decompres-
sion. Abundant experience has shown this to be the most important
point. In this connection it is well to bear in mind that caisson disease
is not a chronic disease in the proper sense, but the result of a trauma
produced by liberation of gas bubbles and rupture of minute -vessels. If
such trauma is guarded against, no caisson disease will occur in men who
spend their lifetime at this work, while one single act of carelessness may
cripple for life or cause death. It is commonly agreed that it is unsafe
to lower the pressure more than two pounds per minute, or one atmos-
phere in eight minutes. The only modification of this rule which may be
accepted, though not without some risk, is that the first half of decom-
pression may be a little more rapid and that individual men after long
experience may learn that they can safely come out more rapidly.* How-
ever, permitting of exceptions soon leads to carelessness, and it is best to
have a rigid, even automatic regulation which makes more rapid exit
impossible.

Warm, dry clothing and a drink of hot coffee or soup should be pro-
vided on reaching normal air pressure, while beer and other cold drinks
should be avoided for some hours.

It is also of importance to furnish an ample supply of air in the
caisson, as an undue amount of carbonic acid and the frequent presence
of hydrogen sulphid and carbon monoxid lower the workers’ resistance
to actual caisson disease. Snell observed fewer cases of this illness when
ample air was furnished. Only electric light should be used in caissons.
Sudden changes in pressure within the caisson must be guarded against,
such as sudden rise when a compact stratum of soil is encountered which
prevents the escape of air at the lower end. A safety valve will guard
against this. Sudden fall of pressure from rupture of the air conducting
tube, or, worst of all, instantaneous decompression from rupture of the
caisson itself, must be rigidly guarded against, as well as sudden tilting
or sinking of it.

Treatment: The time to institute proper treatment is the moment
when symptoms appear, which, it will be remembered, is usually within
an hour of leaving the compressed air. Their appearance is a sign that
the blood contains more gas than it is able to hold in solution and that
serious trauma is imminent if the gas is not promptly redissolved. This
is readily accomplished if the pressure is raised; that is, by “recompres-
sion” of the patient. For this purpose it is essential and should be obliga-
tory to have in readiness a special, so-called medical or hospital lock, and
to instruct the men to hurry to it just as soon as they begin to be uncom-
fortable. Such a lock usually consists of two chambers, the innermost of
which is supplied with cots on which the patient may rest until he feels
relieved, when he is slowly decompressed. Sometimes a patient has to
return several times before he is adjusted to ordinary pressure. Even
complete paraplegia often clears up completely by this method. Thus, of
Erdman’s 21 cases of paralysis 13 were entirely relieved by one recom-
pression, 4 cleared up in from one to ten days, 2 in from two to six

* For discussion of the method of ‘‘stage decompression’’ see Part III.
105
months, while 3 resulted fatally from subsequent septic complications. .
Recompression is the only form of treatment which is “specific for
caisson disease. In cases of persistent symptoms due to permanent
lesions they are to be treated according to general principles.

= Ill.

Work on Compressep Arr DisEass ConpucTED UNDER AUSPICES OF
THE British ADMIRALTY.

A very exhaustive investigation of all the problems in connection
with compressed air illness was made by Boycott, Damant and Haldane,
working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine in England. At
the time the British Admiralty had appointed a commission on deep
diving, and the investigators mentioned were aided by the Admiralty
and, an interesting and encouraging fact, by numerous firms engaged in
caisson and diving work. Their paper, over a hundred pages long, was
published in 1908.1 It is subdivided as follows:

Part J. THEORETICAL.

A. The Rate of Saturation of the Body with Nitrogen During Exposure
to Compressed Air.

“When a man or animal is placed in compressed air, the blood passing
through the lungs will undoubtedly take up in simple solution an amount
of gas which will be increased above normal in proportion to the increase
in partial pressure of each gas present in the alveolar air. The experi-
ments of Haldane and Priestly”, which have since been extended by Hill
and Greenwood,’ show that the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
alveolar air remains constant with a rise of atmospheric pressure; hence
there can be no increase in the amount of carbon dioxide present in the
blood during exposure to compressed air. As regards oxygen, the amount
in simple solution in the arterial blood certainly increases in proportion
to the rise in alveolar oxygen pressure; but as soon as the blood reaches
the tissues this extra dissolved oxygen, which (except with exposures to
enormous pressures) is only a small part of the total available oxygen
in the arterial blood, will be used up, so that in the tissues and venous
blood there will be at most only a very slight increase in the partial
pressure of oxygen. For practical purposes, therefore, we need only
take into consideration the saturation of the body with nitrogen.”

Analysis of experiments by other observers and of their own exten-
sive experiments on goats led them to conclude that the progress of sat-
uration with nitrogen can be graphically represented by a curve which
is seen in Fig. 3.

It was found that saturation is approximately complete in about five
hours in man, and in a goat in about three hours, which is slower than
theoretically expected.

1 Journal of Hygiene, 1908, Vol. 8, pp. 342-444.

2 Journal of Physiology, Vol. xxxii (1905), p. 229.
® Proc. Roy. Soc., B., Vol. lxxvii, p. 442.

106
.

“Equally clear evidence of the existence of a far slower rate of sat-
uration is afforded by the experience of men working in compressed. air,
particularly in caissons and tunnels at moderate pressures. It is well-
known to those practically familiar with such work that the risk of symp-
toms occurring on decompression depends on the duration of the expos-
ure. There is very little risk on rapid decompression after short expos-
ures of less than than an hour to an excess pressure of two atmospheres
or even somewhat higher pressure; but as the duration of exposure

FIG. 3
joo

70h ———
§0 Z|

70 Z
wo LZ

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

<= ’ z 3 ¥ 5
MULTIPLES OF THE TIME REQUIRED TO PRODUCE HALF-SATURATION.

Curve showing the progress of saturation of any part of the body with nitrogen after
any given sudden rise of air pressure. The percentage saturation can be read off on the
curve, provided the duration of exposure to the pressure, and the time required to pro-
duce half-saturation of the part in question, are both known. ‘Thus a part which half-
saturates in one hour would, as shown on the curve, be 30% saturated in half an hour, or
94% saturated in four hours.—(From Boycott, Damant and Haldane).

increases hour by hour, so do the risks on decompression increase. We
are assured by Mr. HE. W. Moir (of the firm of Messrs. S. Pearson and
Son, Ltd., Westminster), who has had an exceptionally large experience
of tunnelling work in compressed air at excess pressures up to about 214
atmospheres, that the maximum of risk is not reached after even three
hours, so that a limitation of working shifts to three hours markedly
diminished the frequency of compressed air illness. Hence in some parts
of the body saturation with nitrogen must still be incomplete after three
hours. Another observation pointing in the same direction is that when
the daily working period was 814 hours under pressure with two inter-
vals of about 114 hours each for meals at ordinary atmospheric pressure,

107
.

cases of caisson disease usually occurred after the last decompression in
the evening and not when the men came out for meals.*

Our own observations on animals afford fresh evidence bearing in
the same direction. We found that in goats the risks on decompression
increase with the length of exposure to pressure up to from two to
three hours

In different warm-blooded animals the rate of respiratory exchange
varies, roughly speaking, according to the 1atio of body surface to weight.
The smaller the animals, therefore, the greater is the respiratory ex-
change per unit of body weight, and the more rapid must be the circu-
lation. In consequence small animals, when placed in compressed air,
must saturate their tissues more rapidly in proportion to their more
active respiratory exchange; and, conversely, they will free themselves
more rapidly, during or after decompression, from the excess of nitrogen.
Hence results obtained with small animals as to the time required for
complete saturation, or for safe decompression, are not directly applica-
ble to man. We selected goats for our experiments as they were the
largest animals which could be conveniently used; but their weights
averaged only about one-fourth to one-third of the weight of an adult
man. As the surfaces of different mammals are roughly as the cube
roots squared of their weights, we should expect that in goats of this
size the respiratory exchange per kilo of body weight would be about
two-thirds greaater than in man. Direct determinations showed that
this was the case. Hence if it required three hours’ exposure to a high
pressure to effect practically complete saturation® of the more slowly
saturating tissues of a goat with nitrogen, about five hours would be
required for a man. ‘An inspection of Fig. 3 will show that if these
tissues became 50 per cent. saturated in about 45 minutes in goats and
75 minutes in man, they would be 94 per cent. saturated in three hours
for goats, and in five hours for man. A higher degree of saturation
than this would scarcely be appreciable, and we have concluded that for
practical purposes any slower rate of saturation than this, and corre-
spondingly slower rate of desaturation, need not be allowed for, unless
the percentage of fat in the body is abnormally high. We must admit,
however, that there is some evidence, both from our own experiments and
from practical experience in work in compressed air,’ that in the parts of
the body which are the seat of ‘bends’ a still slower rate of saturation may
exist.”

NS

B. The Rate of Desaturation of the Body With Nitrogen During and
After Decompression.

“If the pressure is rapidly diminished to normal after exposure to
saturation in compressed air, and no gas bubbles are liberated in the

“G. W. M. Boycott, Trans. Inst. of Civil Engineers, Vol. clxv, 1906.

°*The only method apparently available to determine the time of complete
saturation in normal animals is to subject them to a series of experiments in which
the pressure and decompression are kept constant and.the time of exposure varied,
and to observe when the effects cease to become any worse. The method is open
to obvious limitations.

108
body, it is evident that for each part of the body the curve of desatura-
tion will be similar to that of saturation, provided the physiological condi-
tions are constant. The venous blood will give off practically the whole
of the excess of dissolved nitrogen during its passage through the lungs®
and at each round of the circulation will bring back a fresh charge of
nitrogen (at the partial pressure existing in the tissues) to be given off.
The parts which become half desaturated -by this process in a given time
will be three-fourths desaturated in double the time, and so on. The
slowest saturating tissues will thus, in accordance with our previous cal-
culation, take one and a quarter hours to become half desaturated in man.

“The normal combined gas pressure of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the tissues and venous blood may be estimated as about 90 per
cent. of an atmosphere, so that if the nitrogen pressure be more than
-an eighth above normal the total gas pressure will be above atmospheric
pressure. Supposing, therefore, that before decompression the most
slowly saturating parts of the body (i. e., those half saturating in one
and a quarter hours) had been saturated to an excess pressure of two
atmospheres of air, it would take about five hours at atmospheric pres-
sure to reduce this excess pressure to a sixteenth (or an eighth of one
atmosphere) and so bring down the total gas pressure in the parts in
question to about atmospheric pressure. The slowness of desaturation
must be as clearly borne is mind as the slowness of saturation, in con-
nection with all the phenomena of compressed-air illness.”

It is pointed out that desaturation is much slower than has hitherto
been recognized, and this slowness must be reckoned with in devising
measures for the prevention of caisson disease. That the measures which
have been proposed to obviate the slowness are inadequate is shown by
the following considerations :

In order to increase the difference in nitrogen pressure between the
venous blood and the alveolar air, it has been proposed to give a diver
oxygen to breathe during, or before decompression. As long, however,
as the pressure was above about one atmosphere in excess, or 15 pounds,
it would be impossible to do this safely, since, as will be explained more
fully below, the effects might be rapidly fatal, owing to oxygen poison-
ing. The possible applications of oxygen are thus somewhat limited,
while the complications involved would be very considerable. The same
end can, however, be attained in another way, as will be shown in the
following section.

®In view of the enormous surface (probably more than 100 square metres)
presented by the lung alveoli for diffusion it seems hardly possible to doubt that
the blood during its passage through the lungs becomes saturated or desaturated
to almost exactly the pressure of nitrogen in the alveolar air. According to the
calculations of Loewy and Zunta (Die physiologischen Grundlagen der Sauerstoff-
Therapie in Michaelis’ Die Sauerstofftherapie, Berlin, 1904), a difference in par-
tial pressure of oxygen of less than 1 mm. of mercury would account for the
diffusion of 250 ¢.c. of oxygen per minute through the alveolar walls. With a_
difference in partial pressure of nitrogen of two atmospheres, or 1520 mm. of
mercury, between the blood and the alveolar air only about 70 c.c. of nitrogen
would require to pass per minute in order to establish complete saturation, or
desaturation, of the blood. The conditions are thus enormously more favorable for
the taking up or giving off of this nitrogen than for the taking up of oxygen by
diffusion during normal respiration.

109
The rate of blood circulation can be increased considerably by muscu-
lar exertion. Quite moderate exertion is sufficient to increase the respira-
tory exchange to three or four times the normal, and the rate of blood
flow hrough the lungs must be increased to something approaching to a
corresponding extent. Unfortunately, the increased blood flow is chiefly
through the muscles which are working, but probably many parts of the
body participate to a greater or less extent in the extra blood supply.
Muscular work must correspondingly increase the rate of saturation of
the body with nitrogen. For this reason it seems desirable that where
work has been done in compressed air, so that the muscles and asso-
ciated tissues have probably become rapidly saturated with nitrogen,
there should also be muscular exertion during decompression. The rate
of desaturation will thus be increased so as to compensate for the
increased rate of saturation. In the case of short exposures to com-
pressed air, as in diving work, this is specially important. Hven, how-
ever, when there has been no special muscular work in the compressed
air, movements of joints and massage of the skin, etc., will probably
hasten desaturation. This has been clearly pointed out by Hill and
Greenwood."

C. The Limits of Safety in Decompression.

This chapter is quoted in full as the conclusions here reached form
the basis for the practical suggestions for the safe, and yet fairly rapid,
method of decompression formulated by these authors and endorsed and
further elaborated by Wm. Japp, whose paper will be found abstracted
below.

“Tt is a fact well known to those practically acquainted with work
in compressed air that even with very rapid decompression there is no
risk of caisson disease unless the pressure has exceeded a certain amount.
It seems perfectly clear that no symptoms occur with less than one
atmosphere of excess pressure, however long the exposure may be.
Whether any distinct symptoms ever occur with less than about 1.25
atmospheres (1814 pounds per square inch or 41 feet of sea water) seems
very doubtful; at any rate, they are very exceptional.? At pressures a
little above 1.25 atmospheres occasional slight cases begin to be observed,
and their frequency and gravity rapidly increase with higher pressures
unless the time of exposure is limited or slow decompression is resorted
to. The lowest pressure at which we have been able to find any record
of a death occurring from caisson disease is 23 pounds, or 1.6 atmospheres.
As will be seen below, we were able to obtain slight symptoms on rapid
decompression in one out of 22 goats after long exposure (four hours)
to 1.36 atmospheres or 20 pounds. With 25 pounds (1.7 atmospheres)
two cases of slight illness occurred out of 23 animals:

“Tf the risks of rapid decompression depended simply on the extent
to which the blood and tissues are supersaturated with nitrogen on
decompression, we should expect to find that even a short exposure to

"Proce. Roy. Soc., B., Vol. xxvii, p. 449, 1906.
*In the table of cases included in the present report such cases occurred. See
cases 13, 35, 43, 57, 72.

110
such an excess pressure as two atmospheres would be risky with rapid
decompression ; for there can be no doubt that within, say, half an hour
or forty minutes the tissues, and the blood returning from them, must
be for all practical purposes fully saturated in many parts of the body,
and particularly in parts of great physiological importance which are
richly supplied with blood. Nevertheless, it seems to be well established
that a man may stay without serious risk for forty minutes at a pressure
which would involve great danger on rapid decompression if he remained
in it for several hours.

“Parts of the body with a rapid circulation will become very com-
pletely saturated in a comparatively short time, but the highly super-
saturated blood which first returns from them on rapid decompression
can remain but a very short time supersaturated during each round of
the circulation, and on reaching the large veins will mix with less highly
saturated blood from other parts of the body. It would seem that the
state of high supersaturation in any portion of blood lasts for too short
a time to enable bubbles to form.

“Tf this interpretation of the facts is correct, we should expect to
find with small animals, which rapidly saturate and desaturate, that a
higher pressure would be required to produce symptoms on rapid decom-
pression after a long exposure than in the case of larger animals. The
general experience of previous observers is in accord with this, and our
own experiments showed that we could produce no obvious effects in
mice, and very few in rabits, rats, and guinea-pigs, by sudden decom-
pression after exposures at pressures which were invariably or frequently
fatal to goats.

“Since supersaturation to the extent of about 1.25 atmospheres above
normal atmospheric pressure can be borne with impunity, though a
greater degree of supersaturation is risky, it seems clear that, in decom-
pressing after prolonged exposure to high pressures, the rate of decom-
pression should be sufficiently slow to prevent any greater excess of
saturation than this in any part of the body at the end of decompression.
On the other hand, decompression should evidently be as rapid as is pos-
sible, consistently with safety. A pressure of 1 to 1.25 atmospheres
above normal corresponds to from 2 to 2.25 times the normal atmos-
pheric pressure; but the volume (not the mass) of gas (measured at the
existing pressure) which would be liberated if the whole excess of gas
present in supersaturation were given off is the same whether the abso-
lute pressure is reduced from two to one atmospheres, or from four to
two, or from eight to four. Hence it seemed probable that, if it is safe
to decompress suddenly from two atmospheres of absolute pressure to
one, it would be equally safe to decompress from four atmospheres abso-
lute to two, from six atmospheres absolute to three, etc. Our experi-
ments, which are detailed below, have shown that this is the case.° The
process of desaturation can therefore be hastened very greatly by rapidly
reducing the absolute pressure to half, and so arranging the rest of the

 

* Whether the law holds good for pressures much exceeding six atmospheres ig
still doubtful, as no experimental data exist.

111
decompression that the saturation in no part of the body shall ever be
allowed to correspond to more than about double the air pressure. The
main advantage of this plan is that the discharge of nitrogen from the
tissues is from the outset of decompression increased to the greatest rate
which is safe. The rate of discharge evidently depends on the difference
in partial pressure of nitrogen between the venous blood and the alveolar
air; and by keeping this difference at the maximum consistent with
safety a great saving of time is effected. Detailed investigations have
completely justified the adoption of this principle; they are described
below, and comprise, besides a series of observations on animals, a num-
ber of experiments in which Lieut. Damant and Mr. Catto were exposed
to excess pressures up to 80 pounds, or 6.4 atmospheres of absolute pres-
sure, in the experimental chamber, and to 9314 pounds, or 7.4 atmos-
pheres, in actual diving. The method greatly simplifies the problem of
safe decompression, and gets rid of many practical difficulties, particu-
larly in connection with deep diving. It may be conveniently referred
to as the method of “stage decompression,” and is so described in the
sequel, though its essential peculiarity does not lie in the decompression
being done in stages, but in its being rapid till the absolute pressure is
halved and slow afterwards.

D. Practical measures for avoiding compressed-air illness.

“From the foregoing discussion, the general nature of the meas-
ures needed to prevent compressed-air illness will be evident enough.
The risks may best be avoided by properly calculating stage decompres-
sion, or by cutting down the period of exposure to a safe limit, or by
both methods combined. In the case of work in compressed air in cais-
sons, tunnels, etc., it is for economic reasons very undesirable to greatly
reduce the period of exposure. In diving work, on the other hand, the
periods of exposure are generally short in any case, and they can, with-
out great inconvenience, be confined within limits which largely reduce
the risks of compressed-air illness. Long periods of decompression are
also very undesirable in diving, since changes of weather or tide or other
causes may render a return to the surface necessary without any long
delay in coming up, and since very prolonged stays under water are ex-
hausting, and the diver’s hands may become benumbed by cold.”

1. Dwing Work.

As the present report deals with work in caissons and tunnels, the
special peculiarities of diving will be omitted and we will pass to

2. Work in Catssons and Tunnels.

“The circumstances connected with work in compressed air in cais-
sons, tunnels, ete., differ in certain respects from those associated with
diving work.

“In the first place, the duration of exposure is far longer. A caisson
or tunnel worker is usually in compressed air for six or eight hours
daily, or even longer. The conditions of the work render any great limi-
tation of the periods of exposure very difficult and expensive. Usually,

112
however, the workman comes out for meals at intervals of about three
hours.

“A second difference is that the very high pressures to which a diver
may have to go are not needed in caisson or tunnel work. An excess
pressure of about 314 atmospheres, or 48 pounds, is, we believe, the
extreme limit hitherto employed ;?° and usually the excess pressure does
not exceed about two atmospheres, or 30 pounds. Decompression seems
to be usually effected in ten to twenty minutes, or even, with the lower
pressure, in three to five minutes.

‘With properly arranged air-locks for men and material, there should
be no need for hurry in coming out; and undue hurry is specially un-
desirable if the workman leaves the works at once, since he would be
liable to develop symptoms When he was so far away that he could not
be readily recompressed. To obviate this risk as far as possible, it is
customary to endeavor to keep men for half to one hour on the works
after they come out; and with the usual rates of uniform decompression
this precaution is very necessary. Evidently, however, it is greatly prefer-
able to prevent all practical risks of serious symptoms.

“In order to attain this end stage decompression, as recommended for
divers, may be employed. An accurate and easily read pressure gauge,
visible from both inside and outside the air-lock, is of course essential ;
and a reliable man should be in charge of the tap. As a further control,
it would be desirable to have an automatic graphic record of the varia-
tions of pressure each time the lock for men is used. As any very sudden
drop in pressure might cause mechanical injury, the outlet tap should
be so arranged as to prevent decompression at a maximum initial rate of
more than about one pound in five seconds.1* With this arrangement
and an ordinary tap, the rate of decompression would diminish consid-
erably as the pressure fell, and the proper point for interrupting the
decompression could be accurately reached.

TaBLE SHowina RATE oF DECOMPRESSION IN CAISSON AND TUNNEL
Work.

Number of minutes for each pound of decompression after the first rapid stage.

Working pressure in After first three Aftersecond or third three After six hours or more
pounds per square inch hours’ exposure _ hours’ exposure, following continuous exposure
an interval for a meal.

18-20 pounds............ 2 3 5

21-24 pounds............ 3 5 7

25-29 pounds............ 5 v 8

30-34 pounds............ 6 7 9

35-39 pounds............ 7 8 9

40-45 pounds............ 7 8 9

1%” Pressure up to 51 or 52 Ibs. has frequently been used in America.

“The delivery of the inlet tap should also be restricted, and the man in
charge should have strict directions to take care that the rate of admission or
discharge of air does not cause pain in the ears, ete., of any of the men in the
... lock. To avoid pain, a very slow rate of air admission may sometimes be needed,
but with practice a rise of pressure of one atmosphere per minute is often not
too much, so that any definite rule, limiting the rate to much less than this, seems
scarcely desirable.

113
“Jt will be evident from the last example that, in order to’avoid
waste of time in the lock, it would be preferable, with pressures exceed-
ing about 25 pounds, to keep the men under pressure continuously dur-
ing each shift. Thus, with two 3-hour spells of work, separated by a
decompression, the time spent in the lock would be 87 plus 100, equalling
187 minutes; whereas, if the meal were taken in the compressed air, the
two 38-hour spells would only imply 112 minutes in the lock.

“With working pressure exceeding about 25 pounds the airlock should
be roomy and comfortably arranged, and large enough to take the whole
of a shift of men. It should be provided with an electric heater, tele-
phone, and if possible some sort of lavatory accommodation,

“With pressures up to 45 pounds, or four atmospheres of absolute
pressure, there appears to be no substantial objection to keeping men for
six hours, or even more, continuously under pressure, provided that: the
mode of decompression is thoroughly safe. With pressures exceeding
about 40 pounds, the practice has hitherto been to limit the exposure to
about one hour, and employ rates of decompression which are danger-
ously rapid. This plan implies greatly increased risk and expense, since
for the accomplishment of the work the number of decompressions is
six times as great, and the men are idle most of the day. The actual
increase in risk must be very great.

“Tn tunnel work, or any other kind of work where plenty of space
is available, there would be great advantage in providing a large air
lock, or section of tunnel, in which the pressure was constantly main-
tained at a little less than half the absolute pressure in the working
section. The men could then pass rapidly (in two or three minutes)
from the working section into this intermediate lock or section, where
they could take their meals, wash, and change their clothes. After a
sufficient delay (dependent on the working pressure) they could then
pass out rapidly. If, for instance, the working section was at a pressure
of 30 pounds, the intermediate or “purgatory” lock could be kept at an
absolute pressure of about #848" =20.5 pounds, or 5144 pounds of
excess pressure.’*. At the end of the day’s work there would be a delay
of about 50 minutes in this large lock, during which the men could
wash and change, or take a meal. With this plan all delays during
actual decompression would be obviated, so that ingress and egress would
be free at all times, and the men could use the locks employed for ma-
terial. For persons going in for only short periods the delay in the
“purgatory” lock could be curtailed. The movement of the men while
employed in washing, changing clothes, etc., would hasten the process
of desaturation, and this would be a further advantage.

“In any case where it was specially desirable to reduce the period
of delay in the air-lock to a minimum, recourse could of course be had
to breathing oxygen during the period of slow decompression. This

_ A comparatively rapid fall in absolute pressure in the proportion of 2.2 to 1
is within practically safe limits, particularly if the previous period of continued
exposure has not exceeded three or four hours,

114

 

 
would about double the rate of desaturation, and therefore halve: the
delay. The oxygen could be breathed from a bag, and the carbon dioxide
absorbed by a purifier, so that very little oxygen would be needed. By
so arranging the mouthpiece that part of the expired carbon dioxide
was rebreathed, and the respiration and circulation thus stimulated, a
still better result would be attained.

“The results of some of our experiments seem to indicate that even
the very slow rate of stage decompression which has been recommended
above would be insufficient to completely obviate the risk of ‘bends’
occurring after prolonged exposure. The rate of saturation and de-
saturation of some of the tissues which are the seat of ‘bends’ is pos-
sibly slower than we have provisionally assumed. What we have aimed
at is to completely obviate the risk of any serious symptom, while at the
same time reducing the chances of ‘bends’ to a minimum.”

Part II. Exprermmentat.

Extensive experiments on goats were performed and the following
conclusions were reached :

“1. The susceptibility of different animals to compressed-air illness
increases in general with their size, owing to the corresponding diminu-
tion in their rates of circulation.

“2. The average respiratory exchange of goats is about two-thirds
more than that of man; they produce about 0.8 gram of carbon dioxide
per hour per kilogramme of body weight.

“3. The mass of the blood in goats is 6144 or 7% per cent of the
‘clean’ body weight.

“4, The individual variation among goats in their susceptibility to
caisson disease is very large. There is no evidence that this depends
directly on sex, size or blood-volume; there is some evidence that fatness
and activity of respiratory exchange are important factors.

“5. Death is nearly always due to pulmonary air-embolism, and
paralysis to blockage of vessels in the spinal cord by air. The cause of
‘bends’ remains undetermined; there are reasons for supposing that in
at least many cases they are due to bubbles in the synovial fluid of the
joints.

“6. In our experiments bubbles were found post-mortem most freely
in the blood, fat and synovial fiuid; they were not uncommon in the
substance of the spinal cord, but otherwise were very rarely found in the
solid tissues.”

115
The appearance of sections of the spinal cord is seen in Fig. 4.

 

FIG. 4

Showing gas bubbles in the spinal cord of a goat exposed for one hour to pressure
of 75 pounds and decompressed in 134 minutes; died in ten minutes.

IV.
ABSTRACT OF A RECENT ARTICLE BY AN ENGINEER.

Writing from the engineer’s point of view, Henry Japp’ contributes
a comprehensive discourse entitled “Caisson Disease and Its Preven-
tion”? which is most encouraging, as it shows how thoroughly the author,
who was managing engineer at the construction of the Hast River (Penna.
Tunnel and Terminal R. R. Co.) Tunnel, New York, has mastered the
physiologic and therapeutic problems which he approached in a scientific,
and at the same time eminently practical manner. To quote:

“In the light of past experience, the general conduct of the work was
framed on a few established rules which when condensed amount to the
following: No workman was allowed to enter the air-chamber without
a physical examination by the qualified medical officer of the contractors.
Sound physique was the chief requirement. The men were cautioned not
to enter the air on an empty stomach, to wear warm clothing on coming
out, and to drink hot coffee.

+ Trans, Am. Soe. of Civil Engineers, Dec. 1909, Vol. 65, p. 1.
116
“The time worked in the air-chamber was limited to 8 hours, with
half an hour off for lunch, up to 32-Ib. gauge pressure, and two spells of
3 hours each, with 3 hours rest between, for pressure from 32 to 42 lb.,
and two spells of 2 hours each for pressures greater than 42 lb., with 4
hours rest between, with no limitation as to decompression. Two med-
ical air locks were installed on each side of the river, well-warmed dress-

ing rooms were provided for the workmen, and there were covered gang-
ways for access to the shafts.

“The air was cooled before delivery to the tunnels, and samples were
taken in the tunnels by Mr. Noble’s engineers and analyzed daily. The
air was regulated so that the carbon dioxide did not exceed 10 parts in
10,000, and the tunnels were kept in a sanitary condition.

__ “Owing to the grade of the tunnels being so deep on the Manhattan
side of the river, the air pressure very quickly rose to 36 lb.

“Practically no cases of bends occurred until the pressure reached
29 lb., and then, within a few days of each other, two men died. These
men had entered the air-chamber without being passed by the doctor.
Then it became necessary to post outside each air chamber a guard whose
duty it was to keep out of the tunnel men who had no doctor's pass. At
this time reliance could not be placed on the tunnel foremen, as they were
likely to be absent from work, and new men had to be selected each day.

“For many months after the work started, while the men were being
seasoned, the tunnel gangs and foremen were in a state of change, owing
to the difficulty of getting good men and the frequent absences due to
caisson disease, and it was a long time before an efficient organization
was built up.

“As the tunnels were driven deeper beneath the East River, the
pressure quickly rose, and ultimately reached 36-lb. gauge pressure, with
only one set of air-locks in operation; but even the change at 32 lb.
from one shift of 8 hours to two shifts of 3 hours each gave no relief,
and cases of bends, sometimes fatal, continued all the time.

“It was not long after 27 lb. was reached that the more sensitive
members of the staff found that it did not pay to come out quickly, and
at 30-lb. pressure it became a custom to take about half a minute for each
pound. After one or two additional fatal cases occurred, it was decided
to limit the workmen to approximately the same rate of decompression,
or actually 15 min. for 35-lb. pressure.

“Many of the men complained that taking so long to decompress
gave them caisson disease, and it was difficult to compel them to take
long enough. The guards at the entrance to the tunnels had now to
record the time taken to decompress, and, as the workmen frequently
used the lower muck locks as well as the upper man lock, it was impossible
to tell when decompression commenced owing to the noise of exhausting
air. Therefore it became necessary to run a small 14-inch pipe from

117
the exhaust pipe of each lock to the cabin in which the guard was sta-
tioned, a whistle was attached, and a small ball of cotton was suspended
by a light string over each pipe. The clerk, noting when the ball was
puffed off for each lock, booked the workmen off as they left the lock.
The material locks were fitted with inner material valves and, in addi-
tion, man valves of smaller size, and a pressure gauge and a clock were
fixed in each air-lock.

“As the guard had already booked the men as they entered, he could
tell if any were exceeding the regular working shift, and his record was
valuable for checking the time-keepers. This rough method of checking
the duration of the decompression was quite good enough for the pur-
pose. An attempt to improve it was made when a 12-in. Crosby recording
gauge was installed on one air-lock, but it was ineffectual because the
air-lock was often sent out or decompressed with no one inside, and this
complicated the record, which was much too small, and involved consid-
erable trouble in locating the record of decompression for individual
gangs. No doubt a suitable recording instrument could be devised for
this special purpose.

“The effect of lengthening the decompression period to 15 min.
reduced the number of cases of bends, and no doubt prevented many
fatal ones, but they still occurred. As the tunnels had many months to
run at high air pressures, the question was: What else can be done to
prevent them ?

“The writer, on coming out of the tunnel with the workmen, ob-
served that the rate of decompressing was most irregular. One lock
tender would allow the air to escape slowly until the 15 min. was almost
exhausted, and then, by opening the valve, would let off the remaining
pressure very quickly. Others would reverse the process, and exhaust
quickly, and then keep the men under 2 or 3 lb. until the time expired.
To avoid this a simple decompressing valve was designed which gave a
uniform decompression from 35 lb. to atmosphere in 15 min. A some-
what similar one was designed for the medical air-lock, for 1 hour
decompression for 35 lb., with an automatic ventilator attached.

“These valves certainly improved conditions, but still fatal cases
occurred. After the first valve was under operation, the writer’s atten-
tion was called to “Modern Tunnel Practice,’ by D. McN. Stauffer,
M. Am. Soc. C. E., wherein a description is given of a needle decom-
pression valve used on the air-locks at the Kiel Dry Dock Works, in
Germany. A similar valve was also used for compression. On entering
the lock the air was admitted at the rate of 1.5 lb. per min., and was
decompressed at the rate of 34 lb. per min., or, for 35-lb. gauge pressure,
23 min. for entering the air, and 46 min. for leaving. The needle-valve
was often frozen up, but otherwise worked well.

“Such speeds seemed altogether too slow, and Mr. Stauffer in his book
states that ‘these rates would be deemed excessively slow in American
caisson practice.’ No date is given for the Kiel Dry Dock work, but
presumably it was under way in 1904.

118
“It was not thought advisable to increase the time of decompression
‘at that time, but preliminary tests under air pressure in the tunnels for
144 hours were then tried for green men, followed by a second medical
examination after decompressing in 15 min. A few men were eliminated
by this test, and one case of permanent paralysis resulted from the test
in 84-lb. gauge pressure. Fresh starters were made to stay in the tunnel

for one-quarter of a shift for the first half, and if no caisson disease fol- ~~

lowed they were allowed to work for the second half. This proved a good
safeguard.

“On November 8, 1906, a second bulkhead was put in operation
in one of the tunnels, and the pressure between the two bulkheads was
reduced to 15-lb. gauge. The number of cases of disease was very small
for that tunnel, and as soon as possible additional bulkheads were placed
in all four tunnels. The result was to have been expected from the experi-
ence in other tunnels where two bulkheads were used; the exercise of the
long walk between bulkheads, at low pressure, seemed to assist in driving
off the bubbles of air from the blood.

“The workmen were allowed to decompress from 35 to 15 lb. as
quickly as they pleased. They then walked for 500 feet along the tunnel
under 15 lbs., taking at least 5 min., and then decompressed from 15 lb.
to atmosphere in 10 min., so that in all about 16 min. were occupied in
decompressing. When the inner pressure was less than 32 |b., an 8-hour
shift was worked, with 14 hour interval for lunch, between bulkheads in
low air pressure. :

“Just when it looked as if the double bulkheads with stage decom-
pression had eliminated fatal and severe cases of caisson disease, two
deaths occurred in physically perfect subjects.

“In order to discover, if possible, the connection between the cases
of disease and other things, charts were plotted by the medical staff for
some months, showing the rise and fall of air pressure, hours worked,
humidity, temperature, percentage of carbon dioxide, and number of
green men in the tunnel, along with barometer readings, condition of
weather, direction of wind, and number of cases of bends. The results
were not very encouraging, but it was noted that the number of green
men, the height of pressure in the tunnel and the number of cases of
bends varied together.

“The percentage of cases in air pressure of 3144 lb. for 8-hour shifts
was no more than the percentage in 3244 lb. for two 3-hour shifts—in
fact, it was, if anything, less for the longer shift. The decrease in length
of shift added one extra gang of men, and probably many of these men
being green accounted for this.”

The author then reviews Haldane’s work advocating “stage decom-
pression” and describes how he profited by it:

“Some time after reading Dr. Haldane’s paper and studying his
theory, it became necessary to raise the pressure in the tunnels to 40-lb.
gauge. It was possible to make the workmen pass through three sets of

119
air-locks on leaving the tunnel. The inner chamber was kept at 40 lb.,
the intermediate chamber at 29 Ib., and the outer chamber at 1244 lb.

The men were ordered to take five min. in the first lock, 8 min. in the
second lock, and 15 min. in the third. There was a distance of approxi-
mately 1,000 ft. between each pair of locks. Walking this distance and
gathering in the stragglers generally required 10 min. to each chamber,
so that, in all, 48 min. were taken to decompress from 40 lb. to atmos-
phere. No severe or fatal cases resulted, and little time was lost by the
men through caisson disease, the cases being only slight. Under this
pressure 330 men were employed for 36 days, working 3 hours on, 3
hours off, and 3 hours on. It is true that no green men were used on
this work, as there were plenty of experienced air men available at
that time.

TABLE 4—(In Japp’s Paper.) Decompression Table Based on 9 Minutes
Being Safe for 27 Pounds Gauge Pressure.

 

 

 

 

Total time in air-| Total time in air-| Total time in air-
ee x ee lock after & lock after 3 lock after 2
hours’ work. hours’ work. hours’ work.
27 6 Ib. 9 ns
30 1% “ 24 wis
32 8%‘ 33 25
35 lo « aa 35
40 12% ‘“ a ; 48 oe
42 13% “ a 51 37
45 15 iy eo 42
50 17%“ ms $s 48

 

 

In caissons or tunnels with but one lock, it is a difficult problem
to allow workmen as long a time as Table 4 indicates, as no one can
enter the air-lock during decompression. One method of overcoming
this difficulty would be to provide a lock with two small end chambers
and a larger center chamber, four doors in all being necessary. Anyone
making a short visit to the caisson could pass through without disturbing
the pressure in the middle decompressing chamber.

Someone has suggested, for diving bells and caissons, a detachable
chamber like a boiler, which the men could enter, and thus take as long
as necessary to decompress.

The men on the East River tunnels rebelled against 15 min. for
decompression, but, after putting the responsibility up to the foremen,
in time they found that it was a safeguard and voluntarily lengthened
the time to 20 min., and gladly submitted to 48 min. for 40 lb.

The death rate due to caisson disease was comparatively small,
averaging 0.19 pct. for the whole of the compressed air work, and, from
the experience gained, it would in all probability have been much higher
if the decompression had not been lengthened.

120
The fact that the only recognized cure for caisson disease is recom-
pression in a medical air-lock followed by slow decompression, is a power-
ful argument in favor of slow decompression, and where it is at all pos-
a 7 future works regulated decompression will in all probability he
adopted.

In caissons with small air-locks, the volume of air remaining when

the lock is full of men is very slight, and very rapid decompression takes

place. The workmen have a good opportunity to become seasoned in a

caisson, as the pressure begins at 1 or 2 lb. and gradually increases

day by day as the caisson sinks, and the highest pressures are required
for but a few days.

On the East River tunnels two caissons were sunk to a final pressure
of 331% lb., and very few cases of caisson disease occurred, none of which
was fatal, although the decompression was rapid. On the other hand,
on account of the tunnels on the Manhattan side starting out at a high
pressure, the men had no chance to get seasoned, and many cases occurred,
though the time of decompression was regulated, but not to such an extent
as Table 4 indicates.

In the discussion, Haldane himself accepted the practical modifica-
tions suggested by Mr. Japp. After stating that his own figures were
based on experiments made at pressure as high as 75 lb., he continues:

_ “Work in tunnels and caissons, however, is conducted at much lower
pressures; practical experience is much more wide; and, thanks mainly
to Mr. Moir, recompression is usually readily available. It becomes a
question, therefore, whether the margin of safety which was allowed in
decompression cannot be narrowed without appreciable danger. The new
evidence which Mr. Japp has brought forward certainly seems to indicate
that this is the case. He records the fact that in the construction of
the East River tunnel 330 ‘seasoned’ men were employed for 36 days
in two 38-hour shifts at a pressure of 40 lb., and were decompressed
by a modified form of stage-decompression in 48 min., without a single
serious case of caisson disease occurring. Thus there must have been
about 24,000 individual decompressions without any mishap. On the
principles laid down in the writer’s paper, Mr. Japp calculates that the
maximum air-saturation left in any part of the bodies of these men at
the end of decompression corresponded to a pressure of 27 lb. The
writer’s calculations agree with this estimate. In view of these results
the author proposes to shorten stage-decompression in such a way that
in place of the 19 lb. of residual saturation which the writer has pro-
posed, 25 lb. should be left in the case of men who are ‘seasoned’ to the
work. ‘This would greatly shorten stage-decompression, end render it a
much more easily practicable process, although the pains in joints, etc.,
which are the most easily produced and least serious symptoms of caisson
disease, would not be prevented.

“The reason for the proposed 19 Ib. is that occasional serious cases
seem to occur at working pressures down to 20 lb., and that a fatal case

121
is recorded at 23 Ib. On the other hand, there can be little doubt that
for the great majority of men a pressure of 25 Ib. would not cause appre-
ciable danger. Provided, therefore, that susceptible men can be excluded,
Mr. Japp’s proposal would seem to be consistent with reasonable safety.

‘While a medical examination will probably exclude most of the more
susceptible individuals, it still seems very doubtful whether all can be
excluded in this way. With new men, therefore, it is desirable that
preliminary trials should be made with short shifts, as was the practice
in the East River tunnel work. These men should be carefully watched
after decompression, and promptly recompressed if they show any threat-
ening symptom; and any man who has shown threatening symptoms
should be rejected.

“With these precautions, in addition to having a medical air-lock and
keeping the men within reach of recompression for about an hour after
they come out, the writer thinks that in all probability Mr. Japp’s plan
would prove successful. For casual visitors, the duration of stay could
be limited, so that on coming out the maximum saturation in their bodies
should not exceed 19 lb.

“The conditions vary so widely in different kinds of work in com-
pressed air that it seems hardly desirable to lay down by legislation or
otherwise any hard-and-fast general rules as to decompression. The
writer, however, thinks that for any particular undertaking in compressed
air, special rules, suitable to the particular circumstances, should be drawn
up and strictly enforced. If these rules could also have some authori-
tative sanction, as, for instance, in the case of ‘Special Rules’ under the
Coal Mines Regulation Act in England, engineers and contractors would
be relieved to a large extent of what at present must be a very uncom-
fortable responsibility.”

Water T. Arms, aN ENGINEER, CoNTRIBUTED THIS PRACTICAL POINT:

“In nearly all compressed-air work there is difficulty in compelling the
workmen to take a reasonable time in the air-lock while decompression.
Believing that this is due largely to the extremely uncomfortable condi-
tions in the ordinary air-lock, a method for relieving the lock of the cold
and fog when decompressing was used at the Battery-Brooklyn Tunnel,
by introducing a constant flow of heated dry air while the lock was being
exhausted. In addition to removing the cold and fog from the lock, this
heated air also provided for ventilation while decompressing, a feature
not found in the ordinary compressed-air lock. The comparative freedom
from caisson disease at the Battery-Brooklyn Tunnel, where practically
no age limit was established, seemed to indicate the value of thus heating
and ventilating the air-lock during the decompression period.”

122
The New York law,’ which took effect on January 1, 1910, prescribes
length of shifts according to the following table (from Japp) :

TABLE 5—(FROM JAPP’S ARTICLE

 

 

 

Gauge pressure, Time under Interval between Uniform decom
in pounds. pressure spells Bressiony 20
ininutes
0-28 8 hours, less 30 consecutive min. 8%
interval spent in the open air
28-35.99 2 spells, 3 hr. each | At least 1 hour 24
36-41,99 ee At least 2 hours 42
42-45.99 QO. TER He cee At least 3 hours 46
46-49.99 QS ae ee 4 hours 50

 

 

 

 

 

No employee shall be permitted to work in pressures exceeding 50 lb.
per sq. in. except in cases of emergency.

The decompression shall be at the rate of 3 lb. every 2 min., unless the
pressure shall be over 36 lb., in which event the decompression
shall be at the rate of 1 lb. per min.

“This law is a great step in advance of anything attempted privately
in the United States, and the Commissioner of Labor is to be congratu-
lated, but if these rates are compared with the suggested Table 4 of this
paper, it will be found that the new law proposes a greater degree of
safety for the lower than for the higher pressures, and inasmuch as the
law requires that the decompression shall be uniform, the final pressure
in the blood on coming into the atmosphere will be much higher than
would result from stage decompression.

“In order that this may be seen more clearly, the writer has calculated
the pressure in the blood for various pressures, decompressing uniformly
as required by the law, and also by stage decompression, and gives the
results in Table 6.

“Jt will be noted that, whereas the stage decompression proposed fixes
the pressure in the blood on emerging from the air-lock at a constant of
25 lb. per sq. in., the uniform decompression periods required by the law
give pressures in the blood on emerging varying from 25.70 up to
32.50 lb., such a result being obtained in the case of 50 lb. with 17 min.
longer for uniform decompression than stage decompression; and when
it is noted that for a pressure as low as 9 lb. per sq. in. the law requires
2 min. for every 3 lb., or 6 min. for decompression, it will be seen how
inconsistent are the requirements. In other words, the new law requires

 

 

2 Por full text see Part VIII.
123
generally more time for uniform decompression than is needed for stage
decompression, while giving less safety.”

TABLE 6.—(FROM JAPP’S PAPER)

 

 

 

i Pressure in

Pome Time Uniform de- presence Stage decom-| “Ligod on
pressure, in esd - blood on pression, in ;

pounds, | worked, | compression, | emerging, | Pression, im | emerging,

(gauge) in hours. in minutes. in pounds. in pounds
28. 8 18% 25.70 14 25
36. 3 24 30.25 36 25
41.99 2 42 81.25 37 25
45.99 14g 46 82.00 35 25
50. 1 50 32.50 33 25

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

V.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE CONDITIONS UNDERLYING Com-
PRESSED A1R DISEASE.

H. Quincke* admits that air emboli account for many symptoms of
compressed air disease, but points out that the organs most affected are
not common seats of embolic processes, and that this discrepancy is not
accounted for by the difference in size or nature of the emboli. He
ascribes great importance to local liberation of air in cavities and tissue
spaces and suggests that the severe pains in the limbs (“bends”) may be
due to minute air bubbles in the skin, subcutaneous tissues and muscles,
particularly in the subcutaneous and interstitial fat, as such minute
bubbles may irritate the nerves much more than the larger collections of
air which we meet with in the usual forms of subcutaneous emphysema.
He lays stress on the special facility with which nitrogen and oxygen are
taken up by fats and lipoid substances, which has been proven experi-
mentally both by himself and by Vernon.? The affinity of the lipoids of
the cord substance for the gases of the air causing them to form bubbles
in the tissue spaces, together with the known facility with which air
bubbles form in the cerebrospinal fluid, explain, according to Quincke,
the frequency of cord affections much better than an exclusive air embo-
lism theory. As the circulation of the blood is more free in the gray
matter than in the white matter, and the gases thus more readily carried
off, the greater involvement of the white matter is accounted for. The
more perfect circulation in the brain and cervical cord as compared with
the dorsal and lumbar cord and the extremities which are farther
removed from the heart, explain in a way the preponderance of symp-
toms on the part of the lower half of the cord and the extremities.

Quincke’s experiments were of two kinds: 1. Determination of the
facility with which the gases of the air are taken up and set free in vitro
by the vatious body fluids and tissues at various rates of pressure.
2. Animal experiments.

* Arch. f. exper. Pathol. u. Pharmacol., 1910, 62, p. 464.
* Proe. Roy. Soe. Ser. B., 1907, 79, p. 366.

124
He summarizes his results as follows:

1. In water and 0.9% salt solution oversaturated with air or nitro-
gen at four or five atmospheres of pressure, air bubbles form and increase
in size a few minutes after removal of pressure.

2. In blood serum and albuminous fluids bubbles form much later
and are more scanty, the disappearance of the gases taking place more
gradually by invisible evaporation. This is still more true of oily fluids.

3. Foreign bodies, such as platinum wire and microscopic crystals,
favor bubble formation. ‘ .

4. Cerebrospinal fluid behaves much more like water than the albu-
minous transudates.

= The albuminous transudates seem to absorb less nitrogen than
water.

6. Olive oil, cod liver oil (and human fat) absorb three to five times
more nitrogen and oxygen than does water.

7%. Small animals, such as frogs, mice and rats, after decompression
from four to five atmospheres, usually show no symptoms, but liberation
of gases in the tissues is demonstrable even 20 or 30 minutes after
removal from the pressure chamber.

8. In the killed animal the liberation of gas occurs most freely in
the skin, tissue clefts (especially fibrous and adipose tissue), serous cavi-
ties and joints, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid and blood capillaries; much
less readily in the blood of the large vessels and the heart. It is particu-
larly free in the adipose tissue. The caudal half of the body retains the
gases relatively longer than the cephalic portion.

9. The manifold symptoms of caisson disease in man in many
cases depend on gas emboli. In other cases they are due to local libera-
tion of gases in the tissue clefts and cavities, such as subcutaneous tissues,
joint fluids, cerebrospinal fluid, the endolymph of the vestibule, and the
cord substance. For the occurrence and localization of this gas liberation,
the amount of circulation of blood and the high solubility of nitrogen in
fat are of importance.

Contribution to the Problem of Proper Selection of Men for Compressed
Air Work.

J. Plesch* of Berlin, in a paper devoted to the prophylaxis and treat-
ment of compresed air illness, hails the stage decompression method
advocated by Boycott, Damant and Haldane as a great advance, and
calls particular attention to the importance of exercising care in the
selection of men for compressed air work. The following six groups of
individuals must be excluded:

1. Adipose persons. This discrimination is based on the demon-
strated fact that fats and lipoid substances absorb six times more nitrogen
than other tissues rich in water.

1 Berlin Klin. Woch., 1910, Vol. 47, p. 709.
125
2. Victims of heart lesions, vasomotor weakness (neurasthenia, hys-
teria), or arteriosclerosis.

3. Victims of chlorosis and other forms of primary and secondary
anemia. In such persons the tissues are liable to degenerative processes
and very readily lacerated by liberation of air bubbles, even with slight
differences in tension.

4. Men with diseases of the central nervous system.

5. Men with edema and subjects of nephritis without edema. Aside
from the circulatory weakness, the increased volume of blood and tissue
fluids in such persons magnifies the difficulty in disposing of an excess of
nitrogen.

6. Victims of ear affections.

Vi.
THE OCCURRENCE OF CoMPRESSED AIR DISEASES IN ILLINOIS.
A, Previous Reports.

Aside from Jaminet’s' classical account of 119 cases of illness, with
14 deaths, at the construction of the first bridge over the Mississippi at
St. Louis, the writer has only found the following recorded observations
of cases in this state:

Dr. John E. Owens,? Chief Surgeon of the Illinois Central and
Chicago & Northwestern railways, in a paper on caisson disease read at
a meeting of railway surgeons, writes:

“The following case recently came under my care: T. G., 45 years
old; employed by Great Lakes Dredging & Towing Company, in a caisson
under construction for the Chicago & Northwestern Railway bridge at
Kinzie Street, Chicago. He left the caisson too rapidly. When he arrived
at the dispensary there was some bleeding from both nostrils; skin of face
and hands mottled; complained of weakness; fainting spells; no tem-
perature, but pulse was weak. He had been employed for six years in
caisson work and had not lost any time. His recovery was complete in a
few days.” *

In the discussin Dr. Frank Allport of Chicago said :

“T merely wish to report two cases of caisson disease that I remember
as having come under my observation.

“In one case, occurring some years ago, the drumhead was ruptured,
probably cn account of the rarefaction of air in the tympanic space. The
entire mucous lining of the tympanic cavity was congested and swollen,
presenting the appearance of having been operated on by a suction pump.
The other case, which also occurred some years ago, was one of total
blindness from hemorrhagic effusions in the choroid, retina and vitreous

*6. Physical Effects of Compressed Air, and of the Causes of Pathological
Symptoms Produced on Man by Increased Atmospheric Pressure Employed for the
Sinking of Piers, in the Construction of the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge over the
Mississippi River at St. Louis, Mo.’’ St. Louis, 1871.

? The Railway Surgical Journal, March, 1908.

126
humor. The vision cleared up from time to time, owing to the absorption
of effused blood, but the integrity of the vessel walls had eesti 80
ae that hemorrhage continually recurred until total blindness
ollowed.

B. Personal Observations.

By systematic canvassing, the writer secured interviews with a large
number of men who at various times have been engaged in compressed
air work in this state and elsewhere. The men who follow this occupa-
tion go wherever work is being done. Hence, many residents of Illinois
contracted their disease elsewhere and many outsiders have been afflicted
here. With the exception of 36 men seen at St. Louis, where a bridge
is in coustruction and where the most serious cases of illness occurred
on the Illinois side, all of the men were seen in Chicago.

One hundred and sixty-one cases concerning which fairly reliable data
could be obtained are tabulated. There are naturally many inaccuracies,
especially as to the exact year in which the attack occurred, the amount
of pressure, and particularly the length of decompression, i.e., the time
spent in the lock while the air was being let out. Experienced workers
say there is a tendency to overestimate the duration of this period, so
the figures given are apt to be too high. Even if the figures are correct,
it is obvious that this period has generally been very much shorter than
it should be. When not otherwise stated the place of work was in Chicago.

SUMMARY OF CASES.

Of the 161 men, 87 had various affections of the ear, and 65 of these
had resulting impairment of hearing, some of them also more or less
permanent ringing in the ears. One hundred and forty-one had pains,
chiefly in the limbs, and very severe at first, the so-called “bends.”
Thirty-four had paralysis, which was generally temporary, though three
men have permanent partial paralysis of one arm and two of the legs.
Eleven were left with considerable stiffness and pain in bones and joints.
Twelve present symptoms of some degree of permanent disease of the
spinal cord. Thirteen were delirious or unconscious during the acute
attack. Thirty-three complained of dizziness as a prominent symptom,
six of vomiting, and eleven of incontinence or retention of urine. Five
had numbness without paralysis. Six had “blind staggers” and two had
“chokes.”

Fatal CasEs.

From reliable sources it was learned that three men, two of them
negroes, died this year of compressed air disease at Hast St. Louis
(Mississippi bridge), and one during the construction of the Traction
bridge at St. Louis. According to the statement of patient 5 in our table,
two men died at Rockford on the occasion when he himself had a severe
attack, from which he is permanently crippled. The writer has been
unable to trace any fatalities directly attributable to compressed air in
Chicago. A resident of Chicago died last year of compressed air disease
contracted in northern Minnesota.

BENEFIT OF TREATMENT BY RECOMPRESSION.

Comparison of cases so treated, indicated by “Yes” in column 12,

with the others, is very convincing of the advantages of this method.
127
 

 

 

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141
ILLUSTRATIVE CASES.

Among those recorded in the table, the following will be cited as illus-
trations. Full records of all cases are in the possession of the writer:

Case 8. Severe type with permanent crippling. Aged 54 years. He
worked under compressed air on the Four Mile tunnel, Chicago, from
1890 to 1893, and had charge of the bricklaying. He had the “bends”
three times. The first time after an eight-hour shift he came out from
pressure of 22 pounds in two or three minutes, although he had been
advised by the engineer in charge to spend ten minutes, but this precau-
tion was seldom taken. In half an hour he was taken with severe pain in
the knees, shoulders and wrists, became dizzy, fell down on the street, and
was picked up by a policeman, who thought he was drunk until informed
by other workmen. He returned to work the next day. The second attack
was similar, starting with pain in the knees; then he was dizzy and
slightly dazed. He returned to work the next day. The third attack came
on one-half hour, after less than five minutes’ decompression, after an
eight-hour shift in pressure of 33 to 35 pounds. He was taken with
dizziness and pain in the knees. Was taken home, stayed in bed for
about thirty-six hours, was not clear mentally, sat up in bed and “mum-
bled.” He returned to work in a week, but the legs were weak and aching
and the back was painful on stooping. No sphincter disturbance at first,
but in a few weeks developed precipitate urination, which grew worse
and became permanent. He had to give up work and was a patient in
the Cook County Hospital from February to May, 1895. His case then
seemed to have attracted considerable attention. He has never recovered,
has suffered much pain, and walks very poorly. Has not been able to
work at his trade since then, and has been idle most of the time, but at
present has ap. easy position as night watchman. He was in perfect
health before working in compressed air. On examination there is found
opacity of the left cornea. The right pupil reacts to light. Hearing in
the right ear is defective, the watch only being heard on contact. In the
left ear it is heard at three inches. He cannot get the right heel down
to the floor except when the left heel is raised. The left knee jerk is
considerably exaggerated, the right about normal. Both ankle jerks
diminished, the left more so. Arm reflexes normal. Sensation normal.
While the man is said to have been a heavy drinker, the mode of onset
and the physical findings make it certain that he is suffering from typical
caisson disease.

Case 81. Permanent Deafness. Aged 53 years. Twenty-two years
ago worked on Four Mile tunnel, Chicago, as a bricklayer. One night he
came honte feeling dizzy; at 2 a. m. when wife spoke to him he was deaf.
He staid in bed for three days on account of dizziness. No bleeding or
discharge from ears. The deafness persisted and he consulted many
physicians, among them the late Dr. Holmes, who said both ear-drums
had ruptured. He had no “bends.” His wife says that his memory has
grown poor since the injury. He could no longer secure work as a brick-
layer, on account of his deafness, and now does any kind of cheap labor
he can pick up. The right ear is totally deaf; on the left he hears when
shouted to at close range. Without his wife I should not have been able
to converse with him. Severe tinnitus has been present ever since the

142 :
onset of deafness. Now he is accustomed to it, but it annoyed him much
at first.

Case 47. Permanent Joint Disease of the Type of Arthritis De-
formans, coming on after working two shifts. Aged 67 years. Carpenter.
Twenty years ago he worked on the Four Mile tunnel in Chicago without
trouble. Eleven years ago he did some carpenter work in the Oak Street
tunnel and worked two eight-hour shifts under pressure of about thirty
pounds, from which he came out rapidly. On the way home he got pains
in the legs, which became extremely severe and lasted all night. He says
that he was blue all over the body and that the physician could not feel
his pulse. The blueness disappeared after rubbing the skin. He went
to work in four days, but the legs were weak, especially the right one.
He has walked lame ever since on account of pain, which is chiefly felt
in the right groin, and especially comes on when he starts walking.
A year after the onset he saw the late Dr. Christian Fenger, who put on
an extension apparatus for ten weeks. Then he felt worse and had to
use crutches for a year. He has not worked since this time. He never
had any rheumatism, and was in perfect health before this occurrence.
The knee jerks are brisk, the ankle jerks normal. Sensation and plantar
reflex in the right leg normal. He had no sphincter disturbance, but
now has to get up nights to urinate. There is an apparent lengthening
of the right leg, which he says has been present ever since the extension
apparatus was used.

Dr. Hollis E. Potter took an X-ray picture of the right hip and
reports the findings as follows: “All changes are compatible with an
arthritis deformans of the hip joint, namely: The head of the femur is
flattened and mushroomed; the neck of the femur appears shorter and
wider ; cartilaginous space decreased; osteophytes laid down at edge of
cartilage, acetabulum and head of femur.”

The following two cases were rather severe, but nevertheless the two
men are doing active work, and in the first one no sign of permanent
injury exists:

Case 147. Aged 36 years; foreman. Seen at St. Louis. Has worked
in compressed air for ten years, much of the time as foreman or superin-
tendent; has made his own rules, and has stayed much longer in and
come out more quickly from the compressed air than the ordinary laborers
are permitted to do.

The first attack occurred at Canadian, Texas, in 1905. He staid in
a caisson which had sunk for 114 hours at pressure of 53 pounds, and
came out in about five minutes. Then stood out in the cold air for a
while, and after fifteen minutes suddenly became paralyzed from the
waist down. He had no pain, could not move the legs for eight days,
had to be catheterized for ten days, and required enemas to move the
bowels. He then improved rapidly, but had severe pain in the knees and
ankles for four days after recovering from the paralysis. He had full
control of the bladder after the retention ceased, but there was burning
on micturition for some time. The catheter had not been boiled and had
been passed by a “sand-hog.” The next attack occurred in Arkansas one

143
year ago, after he had spent 12 consecutive hours in a pressure of 40
pounds. He came out as rapidly as the valve would permit, and had
severe pain in the right shoulder for two days. He had no trouble when
working on the Traction bridge at St. Louis, but has had two attacks
while working on the new bridge since last February. The first one
occurred on the Illinois side last September. He spent seven hours at a
pressure of 5114 pounds and came out in 314 minutes, while the time
prescribed for the men was 35 to 40 minutes. Five hours later, when in
bed, he was taken with slight pain in the knees, and one hour afterwards
became paralyzed from the waist down. He was placed in the Hospital
lock forty-five minutes after the onset of paralysis, and movement re-
turned in thirty-five minutes. He staid in the Hospital lock for about
eighteen hours, and then was perfectly well and returned to work. The
second attack also occurred on the Illinois side, on October 25th. He
staid in a pressure of 45 pounds for several hours, came out in three to
five minutes, when half an hour later was taken with pain in the right
shoulder. He used hot applications without any benefit, and two hours
later he went to the Hospital lock, where he remained for seventeen hours,
during which he had no relief at all, and after coming out he was worse
than before. The arm is still weak and hurts a little. There was no
swelling. Reflexes and sensation in both arms normal. Knee jerks brisk.

Case 155. Aged 24 years. Seen at St. Louis. Beginning at St.
Charles, Mo., in 1903, he has been constantly engaged in compressed air
work. The first attack occurred in Arkansas three years ago. He was -
working on a railway bridge and on the last day of the work (shifts 8.
hours, out 14 hour for lunch) came out from pressure of 22 pounds in
seven minutes, and ten minutes later was taken with severe pain in the
left knee. He was given whiskey and a hypodermic injection, and went
to sleep. The next day the knee was sore when moved, and he was
entirely well in a few days. The next attack occurred when working on
the Traction bridge at St. Louis, 214 years ago. He was then working
two daily shifts of three hours each, at pressure of 28 pounds. After
coming out from the first half, in about ten minutes he was taken with
pain across the abdomen, and “knots” formed in the abdominal and chest
walls. He took a bath and was rubbed, then the pain left, but both legs
became paralyzed. The paralysis lasted only two hours, but he had to be
catheterized every day for two weeks, during which he was in a hospital
at Granite City, Ill. The legs have been a little numb ever since, and
easily “fall asleep.” After the retention of urine ceased there was drib-
bling for six or seven months. No difficulty with the bowels. “He returned
to work in a month and worked two 3-hour shifts at pressure of 30
pounds in one day. After coming out from the second half, in ten or
twelve minutes he was immediately taken with pain in the abdomen.
Took a bath and was then suddenly taken with extreme dizziness, tinnitus,
and nausea. He could not see plainly ; everything seemed to whirl around.
He did not vomit until a physician gave him medicine which he thinks
was an emetic. He was in the hospital for ten days, could walk after
four days, but some dizziness remained for two months. Tinnitus and
complete deafness were present the first three days, and hearing has never
been normal since. Then he had a couple of attacks of “bends” while
working on two bridges in Arkansas. The first one was slight and
affected the hips; the second one was rather severe, affected the left arm,

144
and he did not fully recover for a week. Since last February he has
worked on the bridge at St. Louis, and in April, while on the Ilinois side,
working two daily 2-hour shifts at pressure of 40 pounds, he had an
attack. Decompression lasted fifteen minutes, following which he was
taken with pain in the Jeft hip, which lasted all night, and finally was
relieved in the Hospital lock, but he had to go in and out four times.
Aside from these definite attacks he has frequently had some burning in
the skin of the abdomen and of the left arm after coming out. This has
occurred as a regular thing when the pressure was high. He has also
frequently been dizzy for about ten minutes after coming out.

Watch heard in right ear at three feet; in the left ear not heard on
contact; but C 2 tuning fork is heard. Both knee and ankle jerks are
’ exaggerated, and there is reduced pain sensation in the left leg.

VI.
SuecEsTions For Eventuan Lucistation. Is a Sprcran Law, Layine
Down Sreciric Rutes ror Tuts Dangerous Worx, DESIRABLE?

The following reply to an inquiry by Heller, Mager and Schritter,
received from the corps of engineers of the U. 8. Army, dated January 20,
1896, indicates fairly well the prevalent attitude in this country, where
special protective legislation is looked at more or less askance, and often
denounced as “paternalism” :

“The general government has not established any rules governing this
class of work, and any regulations that might be adopted would be under
state or local authorities. The main reliance against any violation of
known precautions in work of this class is the common law principle
that contractors and corporations are liable for any damage done to indi-
viduals if they can show culpable neglect. For this reason all contractors
adopt such regulations and rules as are proven by experience to be essential
to protect themselves from suits for damages being brought against them.
Another reason, aside from the humanitarian one of preserving life, is the
fact that if a work gains the reputation of being dangerous to health
or life, no help can be procured except at very high rates of pay.”
(Signed by H. W. Kuehnle, Assistant Engineer.)

As this investigation has shown, such regulations and rules are not
in general evidence in this part of the country. Men are not carefully
selected so as to exclude those physically unfit. Largely through pressure
- brought by the workingmen, the hours of work are generaly fairly suit-

able, but the all-important rigid regulation of the duration and manner
of decompression is not in evidence, largely because the men themselves
object to staying a long time in the lock. The advantage of having a
“hospital lock” in readiness where high pressure is used, is becoming
“recognized also in the West, largely through the good example set by the
New York Foundation Company. Any set of rules proposed should
include the following features:

145
1. Medical inspection of candidates for work; foremen and lock-
tenders to be forbidden to admit men not possessed of a medical certifi-
cate. Such inspection to be repeated at intervals, the frequency of which
should be proportionate to the amount of pressure used.

2. Regulations of length of shifts. The periods allowed in the New
York law (see above, Table 5) are acceptable, providing the decompres-
sion is strictly regulated.

3. Regulation of length of decompression, giving as alternatives the
uniform method of the New York law or the “stage decompression”
adopted by the British Admiralty.

4. Provisions for keeping the air in the lock warm during decom-
pression.

5. Provision for a warm place for changing clothes immediately
after coming out from lock.

6. A reliable gauge for the registration of pressure, and a reliable
clock, both in plain view of the men in the lock, should be provided.

7. When pressure exceeding 25 pounds is to be used, no person
should be permitted to act as a lock-tender who is not possessed of a
certificate issued by the State Factory Inspector on the presentation of
evidence that he is competent and acquainted with the existing laws
governing compressed air work. Interference on the part of anyone with
the carrying out of the regulations of this act by the lock-tender should
be punishable. State inspectors should make frequent visits and all
serious cases of illness should be reported to them.

8. Whenever the pressure used exceeds 25 pounds, a “hospital lock”
in charge of a licensed lock-tender should be in readiness within a short
prescribed distance.

_9. An abundant supply of fresh air should always be present in the
caissons. Whenever necessary, ventilating pipes should be provided.

VIII.

Tur New Yorx Law.!

Section 134-2. Hours of Labor. All work in the prosecution of
which tunnels, caissons or other apparatus or means in which compressed
air is employed are used shall be conducted subject to the following re-
strictions and regulations: When the air pressure in any compartment,
caisson, tunnel or place in which men are employed is greater than
normal and does not exceed twenty-eight pounds to the square inch, no
employee shall be permitted to work or remain therein more than eight
hours in any twenty-four hours and shall only be permitted to work
under such air pressure provided he shall during such period return to
the open air for an interval of at least thirty consecutive minutes, which

* Cited from Ninth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor of the State
of New York. Appendix VI. Laws relating to labor in force October 1, 1909.
Compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics,

146

 
' interval his employer shall provide for. When the air pressure in any
such compartment, caisson, tunnel or place shall exceed twenty-eight
pounds to the square inch, and shall not equal thirty-six pounds to the
square inch, no employee shall be permitted to work or remain therein
more than six hours, such six hours to be divided into two periods of
three hours each, with an interval of at least one hour between each
such period. When the air pressure in any such compartment, caisson,
tunnel or place shall equal thirty-six pounds to the square inch and
shall not equal forty-two pounds to the square inch, no employee shall
be permitted to work or remain therein more than four hours in any
twenty-four hours, such four hours to be divided into periods of not more
than two hours each, with an interval of at least two hours between each
such period; when the air pressure in any such compartment, caisson,
tunnel or place shall equal forty-two pounds to the square inch and shall
not equal forty-six pounds to the square inch, no employee shall be per-
mitted to work or remain therein more than three hours in any twenty-
four hours, such three hours to be divided into periods of not more than
ninety minutes each, with an interval of at least three hours between
each such period; when the air pressure in any such compartment, cais-
son, tunnel, or place shall equal forty-six pounds to the square inch and
shall not equal fifty pounds to the square inch, no employee shall be per-
mitted to work or remain therein more than two hours in any twenty-
four hours, such two hours to be divided into periods of one hour each,
with an interval of not less than four hours between each such period;
no employee shall be permitted to work in any compartment, caisson,
tunnel or place where the pressure shall exceed fifty pounds to the square
inch, except in case of emergency. No person employed in work in
compressed air shall be permitted by his employer or by the person in
charge of said work to pass from the lock in which the work is being
done to atmosphere-of normal pressure, without passing through an in-
termediate lock or stage of decompression, which said decompression shall
be at the rate of three pounds to every two minutes unless the pressure
shall be over thirty-six pounds, in which event the decompression shall
be at the rate of one pound per minute. Instruments shall be fitted in
all caissons and air locks showing the actual pressure prevailing. [Added
by L. 1909, ch. 291.]

Section 134-b. Medical Attendance and Regulations. Any person
or corporation carrying on any work in the prosecution of which tunnels,
caissons, or other apparatus or means in which compressed air is em-
ployed are used shall employ and keep in employment during the prose-
cution of such work, at the place where it is being carried on, one or
more duly qualified persons to act as medical officer or officers, who
shall be in attendance at all times while such work is in progress and
whose duty it shall be to administer and strictly enforce the following:

a) No person shall be permitted to work in compressed air until
after he shall have been examined by such medical officer and reported by
such officer to the person in charge thereof as found to be qualified,
physically, to engage in’such work.

(b) In the event of the absence from work, by an employee for
three or more successive days for any cause, he shall not resume work

147
until he shall have been re-examined by the medical officer and his
physical condition reported, as hitherto provided, to be such as to permit
him to work in compressed air.

(c) No person known to be addicted to the excessive use of intoxi-
cants shall be permitted to work in compressed air.

(d) No person not having previously worked in compressed air
shall be permitted, during the first twenty-four hours of his employment,
to work for longer than one-half of a period as provided in section 134a,
and after so working shall be re-examined and not permitted to work
unless his physical condition be reported by the medical officer, as here-
tofore provided, to be such as to qualify him for such work.

(e) After a person has been employed continuously in compressed
air for a period of three months, he shall be re-examined by the medical
officer, and he shall not be allowed, permitted or compelled to work until
such examination has been made and he has been reported, as heretofore
provided, as physically qualified to engage in compressed air work.

(f) The said medical officer shall at all times keep a complete and
full record of examinations made by him, which record shall contain
dates on which examinations were made and a clear and full description
of the person examined, his age and physical condition at the time exam-
ined, also the statement as to the time such person has been engaged in
like employment.

(g) Properly heated, lighted and ventilated dressing rooms shall be
provided for all employees in compressed air, which shall contain lockers
and benches and shall be open and accessible to the men during the inter-

mission between shifts. Such rooms shall be provided with baths, with

hot and cold water service and a proper and sanitary toilet.

(h) A medical lock shall be established and maintained in connec-
tion with all work in compressed air as herein provided. Such lock shall
be kept properly heated, lighted and ventilated and shall contain proper
medical and surgical equipment. Such lock shall be in charge of the
medical officer. [Added by L. 1909, ch. 291.]

Section 134-c. Penalties. Every person who, or corporation which,
shall violate or fail to comply with any of the foregoing provisions shall
be guilty of a misdemeanor which shall be punishable by a fine of not less
than two hundred and fifty dollars or imprisonment for one year, or
both. [Added by L. 1909, ch. 291.]

Section 135. Enforcement of Article. The commissioner of labor
may serve a written notice upon the owner, agent, manager or lessee of
a mine or tunnel requiring him to comply with the specified provision of
this article. The commissioner of labor shall begin an action in the
supreme court to enforce compliance with such provision ; and upon such

148
notice as the court directs an order may be granted, restraining the
working of such mine or tunnel during such times as may be therein
specified.

_ eae L. 1897, ch. 415, Sec. 128, as am’d by L. 1907, ch. 399,
ec. 1.

Section 139. Admission of Inspectors to Mines and Tunnels. The
owner, agent, manager or lessee of a mine or tunnel, at any time, either
day or night, shall admit to such mine or tunnel, or any building used
in the operation thereof, the commissioner of labor or any qualified per-
son duly authorized by him, for the purpose of making the examinations
and inspections necessary for the enforcement of this article, and shall
render any necessary assistance for such inspections.

Formerly L. 1897, ch. 415, Sec. 129, as am’d by L. 1907, ch. 399,
Sec. 1.

APPENDIX.

Laws IN OTHER CouUNTRIES GOVERNING ComMpRESsED AIR Work.

Holland. Largely as the result of Schrotter’s writings, according to
E. Roth,! the laws of May 22, 1905, and Jan. 26, 1907. were adopted.
Paragraph 1 gives rules for appliances in places of work, ventilation,
presence of hospital-lock, provision of a room for rest after coming out
of lock, medical examination of the workers, duration of compression
and decompression, duration of shifts. The rules were amplified by a
Royal Decree of June 27, 1905. The duration of compression should be
at least one-half minute per one-tenth atmosphere (114 pounds). De-
compression from pressure less than one-half atmosphere (714 pounds)
should be at a rate not exceeding one minute per one-tenth atmosphere.
From a pressure between one-half and 114 atmospheres (22 pounds) the
time should be five minutes plus 114 minutes for each one-tenth atmos-
phere above one-half atmosphere. For work in pressure of three atmos-
pheres (45 pounds) or more, men must be selected who are between
twenty and thirty-five years of age, and who have no disease of the
organs of circulation, respiration and hearing, or of the nervous system.

France. According to Roth (1. c.), the decree of Dee. 15, 1905, pre-
scribes that a medical certificate is necessary in order to permit a man to
do work in compressed air. Re-examination is required after the first
two weeks, then every month. At least 60 cubic meters of air are required
for each man every hour. There are detailed regulations for the time of
compression and decompression and equipment. Men under 18 years not
admitted to compressed air work.

1 Kompendium der Gewerbekrankheiten, 2nd Edition, Berlin, 1909, p. 274.
149
5. Reports of Drs. Geo. E. Shambaugh and G. W. Boot on Occu-

pation Deafness.

Occupation may lead to injury to the organ of hearing in the fol-
lowing ways:

1. By mechanical or chemical irritation of the external ear.

2. By causing catarrhal condition of the nose and throat, which lead
to middle ear catarrh.

3. By exposure to variations in atmospheric pressure.
4. By exposure to explosions.
5. By exposure to noises.

1. Workers in dust laden atmosphere, as chimney sweeps millers,
bakers, stokers, laborers in coal, cement workers, jute weavers, etc., may
have particles from the air accumulate in the external canal, where
aside from obstruction they may set up inflammatory conditions, such
as eczema. Workers in chemical industries, such as varnish, zine,
chromium and arsenic, are subject to eczema and furunculosis of the
external ear.

2. These same occupations lead to ear diseases also by first causing
catarrh of the nasal mucous membranes, either from mechanical or
chemical irritation of these membranes. This often leads to catarrhal
involvement of the middle ear with accompanying defective hearing.
Ear trouble arises in the same way from meteorological influences among
coachmen, miners, stokers, soldiers, sailors, postmen, engineers, fire-
men, ete.

3. Variation in atmospheric pressure, such as experienced by bal-
loonists, divers, caisson workers, frequently lead to injuries to the mid-
dle ear, such as a rupture of the drum membrane or a hemorrhage into
the tympanum or drum membrane.

Among tunnel workers in compressed air Erdman? found vertigo
to occur in 7% of the 1,419 cases which he examined. Vomiting oc-
curred in 2% of the cases. Nystagmus and deafness rarely occurred.

Philip ? found that rupture of the membrana tympani occurred both
during compression and decompression of caisson workers, and that hem-
orrhage into the membrana tympani occurred.

*Sach. Archiv. f. Ohrenhkde., LXV., p. 14, et seq.
* Sach. Archiv. f. Ohrenhkde., LXV., p. 14, et seq.

150
These injuries of the middle ear are most apt to occur when the
pressure runs up to 3 atmospheres, if the mucous membrane lining the
Eustachian tube is swollen. Caisson workers and divers in depths of
from 2 to 4 metres often suffer. Workers in great depths often suffer
from middle ear affections.

Habermann ® examined a number of workers under compressed air
whose ages ran from 19 to 50 years and found:

Eleven cases had hyperemia of the membrana tympani or hemorrhage
in the membrana tympani.

Two cases had hemorrhage into the cavity of the middle ear.
Three cases had inflammation of the membrana tympani.
One case had suppuration of the middle ear.

Gas embolism occurs in the internal ear in caisson workers. Con-
tinuous more or less loud subjective noises are apt to occur.

Such labyrinthine symtoms as total deafness, pallor, nausea and
vomiting, and syncope occur in caisson workers, and at times are no
doubt due to the hemorrhages that occur into the semi-circular canals,
the cochlea (generally the scala tympani) and into the trunk of the
auditory nerve. In certain cases the blood may be absorbed, but it is
often followed by inflammation and atrophy of the organ of Corti and
the formation of fibrous tissue.

4, Explosions, particularly of gas,.dynamite, cannon, etc., fre-
quently lead to deafness, due to injury to the internal ear. Temporary
deafness may also occur as the result of rupture of the drum membrane.

5. It has been found that exposure to noise has a bad effect on
_ hearing, particularly if the noise be loud and continued over a long
time and in a confined place. This is particularly noticeable in boiler
makers, locomotive engineers, artillerymen, spinners and weavers of
jute, riveters, telegraph operators, etc. Thus?:

_ Of %4 locomotive engineers four had a combined middle ear and
labyrinthine affection; 16 had double slight labyrinthine deafness.

Of 154 railway employers 6% were so deaf that continuance in the
service was not advisable ?.

’Habermann. Archiv. f. Ohrenhkde., XXX, 1, et seq.

‘Erdman. Jour. of the Am. Med. Assn., 1907, XLIX., pp. 1665-1670.

* Philip. Ann. d. mal. de l’oreille, du larynx, ete. Par. 1907, XX XIII, pt.
2, pp. 140-158.

151
Of 115 firemen two had otitis media simplex combined with laby-
rinthine disturbance; 25 had labyrinthine affection of light grade; 12
had labyrinthine affection of high grade ®*.

Of 106 engineers 10 had light labyrinthine affections; seven had
mild labyrinthine affection; two had one-sided labyrinthine affections ;
24 had high-grade labyrinthine affections; 11 had combined middle ear
and labyrinthine disease.

Twenty-five per cent of firemen had labyrinthine affections.

Ten per cent of firemen had severe labyrinthine affections.

Of 55 engineers over forty-five years of age 7% were normal; 47%
had middle-grade disturbance of the labyrinth; 48% had high-grade
disturbance of the labyrinth }.

In the above railroad men subjective noises and dizziness were prac-
tically absent.

Engines fired with oil make a great deal of noise?. The con-
ductor’s signals could not be heard on the engine. After a trip of eight
hours the auditory acuity of the engineer and fireman were lowered
one-third, but was regained during a 15-hour rest. The noise of the
burning petroleum, the whistle and the noise of the Westinghouse brake
were the most important factors.

Fourteen per cent of the employees of the Southern Pacific R. R.
have imperfect hearing, according to Minot ®.

“Slight deafness is widespread among jute operatives, but other tex-
tile workers may be affected in a similar degree. The excessive noise
of the weaving looms and the persistent loud hum of the spinning
frames presumably account for much of this. The looms, owing to
their large size and weight and speed of the shuttles, are particularly
noisy *.

“Artisans who are exposed to such loud noises as are made in ham-
mering rivets suffer from deafness. Boilermakers and riveters become
deaf at an early age.” ®

Intense noises cause deafness, depending wpon the age and time the
occupation has been followed. The deafness is bilateral, the ear nearer
the source of the noise being the one most affected. Subjective noises

“Sach. Archiv, f. Ohrenhkde., LXV., p. 14, et seq.

*Sach. Archiv. f. Ohrenhkde., LXV., p. 14, et seq.

* Costiniu. Bull. de laryngol. et rhinol. Par., 1904, VII. pp. 301-307.
* Minor. Internat. Jour. of Surgery, 1908, XXI., p. 359.

“Oliver. Dangerous Trades., p. 660.

* Oliver. Dangerous Trades, p. 660.

152
are present in about half the cases. Dizziness is occasionally present.
The duration of hearing for high tones is shortened, some of the high
tones being lost.

Arlidge* says that the most marked result of the boilermaker’s occu-
pation is the production of deafness. He found similar types of deaf-
ness occurring among riveters, artillerymen and workmen in engineering
shops. “Boilermakers and riveters become deaf at an early age, while
their comrades engaged in other kinds of work in the same shipyard do
not suffer. Several young boilermakers whom I examined stated that
they lost their hearing at an early age. The infirmity dated back to
their ‘’prentice days,’ when, as boys, they were sent into the boilers to
catch the rivets and were subject to the intense hammering noise inside
the cylinder. . . . . There is nothing I know that will prevent
boilermaker’s deafness short of substitution of machine for hand rivet-
ing, and once deafness is established there is no reliable cure for it.” ?

It has long been known that the defects in hearing arising from
exposure to sound were the result of injury to the nerve of hearing.
This conclusion was based on certain clinical tests which serve to dif-
ferentiate quite clearly between defects in hearing arising from injury
to the nerve and those that are dependent on some interference with the
apparatus that conducts the sound impulses into the labyrinth where the
nerve endings are located. Quite recently experiments on animals ex-
posed to sounds have demonstrated just what these injuries to the nerve
of hearing are.

It has long been known also that the noise associated with certain
occupations, as those pointed out above, was capable of producing defects
in hearing, while other noises did not. Experiments on animals have
demonstrated just what the character of the noises are which produce
changes in the nerve of hearing. .Clinically it is known that the volume
of sound to which the individual may be exposed appears to be of little
importance. For example, the noisiest department in the harvester
works is the department where binder twine is manufactured. Here the
volume of sound is very great, yet in an examination of a series of per-
sons who had worked continuously in this department for a number of
years, some as many as 15 to 18 years, we detected none where there
was defective hearing that could be attributed to the nerve of hearing.

Animal experiments show that low-pitched sounds are apparently
incapable of producing injury to the nerve, no matter what the volume
of thesé sounds may be. This is of great practical importance, since even
in the noisiest factories the sounds are usttally made up of tones in the
lower register of the scale. These animal experiments have shown thal.
the shrill, high-pitched tones are the ones which most readily result in
injury to the nerve of hearing. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated
in these experiments that the injury produced by tones of a certain
pitch are different from the injuries resulting from tones of another

"1 Agiidge. The Diseases of Occupation, pp. 191 and 548.
? Oliver. Dangerous Trades, pp. 563 and 752.

153
pitch. Presumably the defect in hearing resulting from over stimulation,
by the tones of a certain pitch may not, at least for some time, affect the
hearing for tones in a different part of the tone scale. Clinically this
conclusion has been substantiated from the occurrence of injury to the
hearing resulting from the shrill blast of a whistle of a certain pitch
wherethe defect has been chiefly for the tones in the same part of the scale
as of the whistle which produced the injury. Practically this is un-
doubtedly of great importance since, even in those occupations where
injury to the hearing by continuous over stimulation from noises occurs
most frequently, the injury affects primarily the perception for the tones
in the upper register of the scale of hearing and leaves, at least for some
time, the hearing for the lower tones unaffected to any marked extent.
Since it is upon the tones in the lower part of the scale that we rely for
conversation, even a more or less extensive defect, if limited to the
higher tones, need not be a serious handicap to the individual. One of
the most important practical questions to be determined by a further
study of occupation deafness is the extent to which these defects may
involve the part of the scale used in ordinary conversation. Is it pos-
sible for such defects to result in total loss of hearing or even to amount
to a serious handicap by making it impossible for the individual to con-
tinue with his work or to carry on ordinary conversation.

This question is answered already in the case of locomotive engineers,
as has been pointed out above. The deafness among boiler makers
obviously does not constitute the occupational handicap that this does
among locomotive engineers. It is important, however, to ascertain to
what extent boilermakers’ deafness may interfere with their carrying
on ordinary conversation. sy

BoILERMAKERS’ DEAFNESS.

First; it can be accepted as an established fact that certain occu-
pations associated with loud noises produce permanent injury to the
ear. Second; these occupations are chiefly the occupations ot engineers
and firemen on locomotives, also the occupations in boiler works.
Third; that these injuries may constitute a handicap is pretty well
established for the engineers on locomotives. It is still an open question
whether the degree of deafness resulting from work in factories such as
boiler works becomes severe enough to constitute an actual handicap.
Fourth; it is my opinion that a further investigation of this subject by
a commission would be desirable in order to determine if possible the
degree of deafness that may result from injury in such occupations.

I might add further that the impression I had previously held re-
garding the number of factories in which there is a great noise that
could affect the hearing has been very much restricted. Apparently,
the volume of the noise is not such an important element; the character
of the noise is the necessary factor.

154
Reports of Drs. Francis Lane and John B. Ellis.

Miner’s NystacMus.

The following is our report of our investigation of miner’s nystagmus
in the state of Illinois.

Two factors are operating to make this disease less frequent. Firstly:
The condition is limited to pick miners, and they are becoming less
numerous yearly on account of the increase of machine mining. The
following figures, taken from the Illinois Coal Reports for the year end-
ing June 30, 1908, show the percentage of machine mining:

Total quantity of coal mined by hand, 34,062,029 tons; total quan-
tity of coal mined by machine, 15,210,425 tons, or over 30%; total
number of men employed about the mine in all capacities, 70,841; total
number of men employed in actual mining, 46,194; total number of
men employed in machine mining, about 16,000; total number of pick
men, 30,194. From the foregoing we see that of the total of 70,841
employed only about 30,194 belong to the class of workmen subject to
miner’s nystagmus.

Secondly: The disease is. confined to those pick men who work with
the eyes in an unnatural position, that is, looking upward and to one
sidé. Previous to the passing of the Gross Weight Law some years ago,
the men were paid only for coal which would pass over a screen of a cer-
tain size. This caused the men to do a lot of overhead pick work in
order to obtain the coal in large pieces. The Gross Weight Law forced
the owners to pay for the entire quantity mined, and the miners now
assume a more natural position.

Of the 30,194 pick men in Illinois, we examined the eyes of about
500, or 1/60 of the entire number, without finding a single case. Two
men had complained of subjective symptoms of the disease in the past,
but at the time of the examination showed no objective symptoms.

Conclusions. The disease is rare, and, owing to the passage of the
Gross Weight Law and the increase of machine mining, it is becoming
less frequent in the state of Ilinois.

The only cure is cessation of the occupation which caused it. Respect-
fully submitted,

FRANCIS LANE,
JOHN B. ELLIS.

155
III. LEGAL.

Bills for Amendment of Present Law.

The following is a draft of a proposed bill, prepared by Attor-
ney Samuel A. Harper for the Commission, and which is submitted
as a definite recommendation, for needed legislation. It is neces-
sarily general in its terms and should ultimately be greatly extended
in its scope. Its general provisions were suggested by the
investigations the Commission has thus far been able to make.
While it does not begin to meet many of the existing evils, if
enacted into law it would, in the judgment of the Commission,
be a long step in the right direction.

A BILL FOR AN ACT TO PROMOTE THE PUBLIC HEALTH BY
PROTECTING CERTAIN EMPLOYEES IN THIS STATE FROM
THE DANGERS OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES, AND PROVIDING
FOR THE ENFORCEMENT THEREOF.

Section 1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinots, rep-
resented in the General Assembly, that every employer of labor in this
State, engaged in carrying on any work or process which may produce
any illness or disease peculiar to the work or process carried on, or
which subjects the employees to the danger of illness or disease incident
to such work or process, to which employees are not ordinarily exposed
in other lines of employment, shall, for the protection of all employees
engaged in such work or process, adopt and provide reasonable and
approved devices, means or methods for the. prevention of such indus-
trial or occupational diseases as are incident to such work or process.

Section 2. Every employer in this State engaged in the carrying on
of any process of manufacture or labor in which sugar of lead, white
lead, lead chromate, litharge, red lead, arsenate of lead, or Paris green
are employed, used or handled, or the manufacture of brass or the smelt-
ing of lead or zinc, which processes and employments are hereby declared
to be especially dangerous to the health of the employees engaged in
any process of manufacture or labor in which poisonous chemicals, min-
erals or other substances are used or handled by the employees therein
in harmful quantities or under harmful conditions, shall provide for
and place at the disposal of the employees engaged in any such process
or manufacture and shall maintain in good condition and without cost
to the employees, proper working clothing to be kept and used exclu-
sively for such employees while at work, and all employees therein shall
be required at all times while they are at work to use and wear such
clothing; and in all processes of manufacture or labor referred to in
this section which are unnecessarily productive of noxious or poisonous
dusts, adequate and approved respirators shall be furnished and main-
tained by the employer in good condition and without cost to the eim-
ployees, and such employees shall use such respirators at all times while
engaged in any work necessarily productive of noxious or poisonous
dusts.

157
Section 3. Every employer engaged in carrying on any process or
manufacture referred to in Section 2 of this Act, shall, as often as
once every calendar month, cause all employees who come into direct
contact with the poisonous agencies or injurious processes referred to
in Section 2 of this Act, to be examined by a competent licensed physi-
cian for the purpose of ascertaining if there exists in any employee any
industrial or occupational disease or illness or any diseave or illness due
or incident to the character of the work in which the employee is engaged.

Section 4. It is hereby made the duty of any licensed physician
who shall make the physical examination of employees under the provi-
sions of Section 3 of this Act, to make an immediate report thereof to
the State Board of Health of the State of Illinois upon blanks to be
furnished by said Board upon request, and if no such disease or illness
is found, the physician shall so report, and if any such disease is found,
the report shall state the name, address, sex and age of such employee
and the name of such employer, and the nature of the disease or illness
with which the employee is afflicted, and the probable extent and dura-
tion thereof, and the last place of employment; provided that the failure
of any such physician to receive the blanks of the State Board of Health
for the making of such report, shall not excuse such physician from
making the report as herein provided.

Section 5. The Secretary of the State Board of Health shall, imme-
diately upon receipt of any report from any physician in accordance
with the provisions of Section 4 of this Act, transmit'a copy thereof to
the Illinois Department of .Factory Inspection.

Section 6. Every employer engaged in carrying on any process or
manufacture referred to in Section 2 of this Act, shall provide, separate
and apart from the workshop in which such employees are engaged, a
dressing room and lavatory for the use of such employees who are ex-
posed to poisons or injurious dusts, fumes and gases, and such lavatory
shall be kept and maintained in a clean and wholesome manner and pro-
vided with a sufficient number of basins or spigots with adequate wash-
ing facilities, including hot and cold water, clean towels and soap and
shower bath, and the dressing rooms shall be furnished with clothes
presses or compartments, so that the ordinary street clothes of such
employees shall be kept separate and apart from their working clothes.

Section 7. No employee shall take or be allowed to take any food
or drink of any kind into any room or apartment in which any process
or manufacture referred to in Section 2 of this Act is carried on, or in
which poisonous substances or injurious or noxious fumes, dusts or gases
are present as the result of such work or process being carried on in
such room or apartment, and the employees shall not remain in any
such room or apartment during the time allowed for meals, and suitable
provision shall be made and maintained by the employer for enabling
the employees to take their meals elsewhere in such place of employ-
ment, and a sufficient number of sanitary closed receptacles containing
wholesome drinking water shall be provided and maintained for the
use of the employees within reasonable access and without cost to them.

Section 8. All employers engaged in carrying on any process or
manufacture referred to in Section 2 of this Act, shall provide and main-
tain adequate devices for carrying off all poisonous or injurious fumes

158

”
 

from any furnaces which may be employed in any such process or manu-
facture, and shall also provide and maintain adequate facilities for car-
rying off all injurious dust, and the floors in any room or apartment
where such work or process is carried on shall, so far as practicable, be
kept and maintained in a smooth and hard condition, and no sweeping
shall be permitted during working hours except where the floors in such
workshop are dampened so as to prevent the raising of dust; and all ore,
slag, dross and fume shall be kept in some room or apartment separate
from the working rooms occupied by the employees, and where prac-
ticable, all mixing and weighing of such ore, slag, dross or fume shall
be done in such separate room or apartment, and all such material shall,
so far as practicable, be dampened before being handled or transported
by employees.

Section 9. When any fiues are used in any such process or manu-
facture referred to in Section 2 of this Act, and such flues are being
cleaned out or emptied, the employer shall in every case provide and
maintain a sufficient and adequate means or device, such as canvas bags
or other practical device, or by dampening the dust, or some other suf-
ficient method for catching and collecting the dust and preventing it
from unreasonably fouling or polluting the air in which the employees
are obliged to work, and, wherever practicable, the dust occasioned in
any process or manufacture referred to in Section 2 of this Act, and
any polishing or finishing therein, shall be dampened or wet down, and
every reasonable precaution shall be adopted by the employer to prevent
the unnecessary creation or raising of dust, and all floors shall be washed
or scrubbed at least once every working day; and such parts of the work
or process as are especially dangerous to the employees, on account of
poisonous fumes, dusts and gases, shall, where practicable, be carried on
in separate rooms and under cover of some suitable and sufficient device
to remove the danger to the health of such employee, as far as may be
reasonably consistent with the manufacturing process, and the fixtures
and tools employed in any such process or manufacture, shall be thor-
oughly washed and cleaned at reasonable intervals.

Section 10. All hoppers or chutes or similar devices used in the
course of any process or manufacture referred to in Section 2 of this
Act, shall, where practicable, be provided with a hood or covering, and
an adequate and sufficient apparatus or other proper device for the pur-
pose of drawing away from the employees noxious, poisonous or In)urlous
dusts, and preventing the employees from coming into unnecessary con-
tact therewith; and all conveyances or receptacles used for the transpor-
tation about or the storage in any place where any such process or manu-
facture referred to in Section 2 of this Act is carried on, shall be prop-
erly covered or dampened in such way as to protect the health of the
employees, and no refuse of a dangerous character incident to the work
or process carried on in any such place, shall be allowed to unnecessarily
accumulate on the floors thereof. :

Section 11. It shall be the duty of the State Department of Fac-
tory Inspection to enforce the provisions of this Act and to prosecute all
_ Violations of the same before any magistrate or any court of competent

159
jurisdiction in this State, and for that purpose such department and
its inspectors are empowered to visit and inspect at all reasonable times
all places of employment covered by the provisions of this Act. In the
enforcement of the provisions hereof the Department of Factory Inspec-
tion shall give proper notice in regard to any violation of this Act to
any employer of labor violating it, and directing the installment of
any approved device, means or method reasonably necessary, In his judg-
ment, to protect the health of the employees therein, and such notice shall
be written or printed and shall be signed officially by the Chief State
Factory Inspector or the Assistant Chief State Factory Inspector, and
said notice may be served by delivering the same to the person upon
whom service is to be had, or by leaving at his usual place of abode or
business an exact copy thereof, or by sending a copy thereof to such
person by registered mail, and upon receipt of such notice calling the
attention of the employer to such violation, he shall immediately comply
with all the provisions of this Act.

Section 12. If any occupational or industrial disease or illness or
‘any disease or illness peculiar to the work or process carried on, shall
be found in any place of employment in this State by the Inspectors of
the State Department of Factory Inspection, or called to their attention
by the State Board of Health, which disease or illness shall be caused
in whole or in part, in the opinion of the inspector, by a disregard by
the employer of the provisions of this Act, or a failure on the part of
the employer to adopt reasonable appliances, devices, means or methods
which are known to be reasonably adequate and sufficient to prevent
the contraction or continuation of any such disease or illness, it shall
be the duty of the Department of Factory Inspection to immediately
notify the employer in such place of employment, in the manner pro-
vided in Section 12 of this Act, to install adequate and approved appli-
ances, devices, means or methods to prevent the contracting and con-
tinuance of any such disease or illness and to comply with all the pro-
visions of this Act.

Section 13. For the purpose of disseminating a general knowledge
of the provisions of this Act and of the dangers te the health of em-
ployees in any work or process covered by the provisions of this Act,
the employer shall post in a conspicuous place in every room or apart-
ment in which any such work or process is carried on, appropriate no-
tices of the known dangers to the health of any such employees arising
from such work or process, and simple instructions as to any known
means of avoiding, so far as possible, the injurious consequences thereof,
and the Chief State Factory Inspector shall, upon request, have pre-
pared a notice covering the salient features of this Act and furnish a
reasonable number of copies thereof to employers in this State, covered
by the provisions of this Act, which notice shall be posted by every such
employer in a conspicuous place in every room or apartment in such
place of employment. The notices required by this section shall be
printed on cardboard of suitable character and the type used shall be
such as to make them easily legible, and in addition to English they
shall be printed in such other language or languages as may be necessary
to make them intelligible to the employees.

160
Section 14. Any person, firm or corporation who shall, personally
or through any agent, violate any of the provisions of {his Act, or who
omits or fails to comply with any of its requirements, or who ob-
structs or interferes with any examination or investigation heing made
by the State Department of Factory Inspection in accordance with
the provisions of this Act, or any employee who shall violate any of the
provisions of this Act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and on
conviction thereof shall be punished for the first offense by a fine of
not less than 'Ten Dollars ($10.00) or more than One Hundred Dollars
($100.00), and upon conviction of the second or subsequent offenses,
shall be fined not less than Fifty Dollars ($50.00) or more than Two
Hundred Dollars ($200.00), and in each case shall stand committed
until such fine and costs are paid, unless otherwise discharged by due
process of law. :

Section 15. For any injury to the health of any employee proxi-
mately caused by any willful violation of this Act or willful failure to
comply with any of its provisions, a right of action shall accrue to the
party whose health has been so injured, for any direct damages sus-
tained thereby; and in case of the loss of life by reason of such willful
violation or willful failure as aforesaid, a right of action shall accrue
to the widow of such deceased person, his lineal heirs or adopted chil-
dren, or to any other person or persons who were, before such loss of
life, dependent for support upon such deceased person, for a like recov-
ery of damages for the injury sustained by reason of such loss of life,
not to exceed the sum of Ten Thousand Dollars: Provided that every
such action for damages in case of death shall be commenced within one
year after the death of such employee.

Section 16. The invalidity of any portion of this Act shall not
affect the validity of any other portion thereof which can be given effect
without such valid part.

Section 17. This Act shall be in force and effect from and after
the Ist day of July, A. D. 1911.

161
The following draft is also submitted as a suggestion for a law
to protect workers using compressed air.

A BILL FOR AN ACT TO PROVIDE FOR THE HEALTH AND
SAFETY OF EMPLOYEES ENGAGED IN THE USE OF COM-
PRESSED AIR IN CAISSONS, TUNNELS AND OTHER WORK,
AND PROVIDING FOR THE ENFORCEMENT THEREOF.

Section 1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois, rep-
resented in the General Assembly, that all work in the prosecution of
which tunnels, caissons, or other apparatus or means in which com-
pressed air is employed are used shall be conducted subject to the fol-
lowing restrictions and regulations: When the air pressure in any com-
partment, caisson, tunnel, or place in which men are employed is greater
than normal and does not exceed twenty-eight pounds to the square inch,
no employee shall be permitted to work or remain therein more than eight

hours in any twenty-four hours, and shall only be permitted to work ©”

under such air pressure provided he shall during such period return to
the open air for an interval of at least thirty consecutive minutes, which
interval his employer shall provide for. When the air pressure in any
such compartment, caisson, tunnel or place shall exceed twenty-eight
pounds to the square inch, and shall not equal thirty-six pounds to the
square inch, no employee shall be permitted to work or remain therein
more than six hours, such six hours to be divided into two periods of
three hours each, with an interval of at least one hour between each such
period. When the air pressure in any such compartment, caisson, tunnel
or place shall equal thirty-six pounds to the square inch, and shall not
equal forty-two pounds to the square inch, no such employee shall be per-
mitted to work or remain therein more than four hours in any twenty-
four hours, such four hours to be divided into periods of not more than
two hours each, with an interval of at least two hours between each such
period; when the air pressure in any such compartment, caisson, tunnel
or place shall equal forty-two pounds to the square inch and shall. not
equal forty-six pounds to the square inch, no employee shall be permitted
to work or remain therein more than three hours in any twenty-four
hours, such three hours to be divided into periods of not more than
ninety minutes each, with an interval of at least three hours between
each such period, when the air pressure in any such compartment, cais-
son, tunnel or place shall equal forty-six pounds to the square inch, and
shall not equal fifty pounds to the square inch, no employee shall be per-
mitted to work or remain therein more than two hours in any twenty-
four hours, such two hours to be divided into periods of one hour each,
with an interval of not less than four hours between each such period;
no employee shall be permitted to work in any compartment, caisson,
tunnel or place where the pressure shall exceed fifty pounds to the square
inch, except in case of emergency. No person employed in work in com-
pressed air shall be permitted by his employer or by the person in charge
of said work to pass from the lock in which the work is being done to
atmosphere of normal pressure, without passing through an intermediate

162
 

lock or stage of decompression, which said decompression shall be at the
rate of three pounds every two minutes unless the pressure shall be over
sixty-six pounds, in which event the decompression shall be at the rate of
one pound per minute. Instruments shall be fitted in all caisson and air
locks showing the actual pressure prevailing.

Section 2. Any person or corporation carrying on any work in the
prosecution of which tunnels, caissons or other apparatus or means in
which compressed air is employed are used shall employ and keep in
employment during the prosecution of such work at the place where it
is being carried on one or more duly qualified persons to act as medical
officer or officers who shall be in attendance at all times while such work
is in progress, and whose duty it shall be to administer and strictly
enforce the following :

(a) No person shall be permitted to work in compressed air until
after he shall have been examined by such medical officer, and reported
by such officer to the person in charge thereof as found to be qualified,
physically, to engage in such work.

(b) In the event of absence from work by any employee for three
or more successive days for any cause, he shall not resume work until he
shall have been re-examined, by the medical officer, and his physical con-
dition reported, as heretofore provided, to be such as to permit him to
work in compressed air.

(c) No person known to be addicted to the excessive use of intoxi-
cants ‘shall be permitted to work in compressed air.

(d) No person not having previously worked in compressed air
shall be permitted, during the first twenty-four hours of his employment,
to work for longer than one-half of a period as provided in Section 134-a,
and after so working shall be re-examined and not permitted to work
unless his physical condition be reported by the medical officer, as here-
tofore provided, to be such as to qualify him for such work.

(e) After a person has been employed continuously in compressed
air for a period of three months, he shall be re-examined by the medical
officer and he shall not be allowed, permitted or compelled to work until
such examination has been made, and he has been reported, as heretofore
provided, as physically qualified to engage in compresséd air work.

(f) The said medical officer shall at all times keep a complete and
full record of examinations made by him, which record shall contain
dates on which examinations were made, and a clear and full description
of the person examined, his age and physical condition at the time ex-
amined, also the statement as to the time such person has been engaged

~ in like employment.

(g) Properly heated, lighted and ventilated dressing rooms shall be
provided for all employed in compressed air, which shall contain lockers

163
and benches and shall be opened and accessible to the men during the
intermission between shifts. Such rooms shall be provided with baths,
with hot and cold water service and a proper and sanitary toilet.

(h) A medical lock shall be established and maintained in connec-
tion with all work in compressed air as herein provided. Such lock
shall be kept properly heated, lighted and ventilated and shall contain
proper medical and surgical equipment. Such lock shall be in charge
of the medical officer.

Section 3. It shall be the duty of the State Department of Factory
Inspection to enforce the provisions of this Act and to prosecute all
violations of the same before any magistrate or any court of competent
jurisdiction in this State, and for that purpose such department and its
inspectors are empowered to visit and inspect at all reasonable times, all
places of employment covered by the provisions of this act.

Section 4. Any person, firm or corporation who shall personally or
through any agent, violate any of the provisions of this Act or who
omits or fails to comply with any of its requirements, or who obstructs
or interferes with any examination or investigation being made by the
State Department of Factory Inspection in accordance with the provi-
sions of this Act, or any employee who shall violate any of the provisions
of this Act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction
thereof shall be punished for the first offense by a fine of not less than
$100 or more than $500, and upon conviction of the second or subse-
quent offenses, shall be fined not less thar’ $250 or more than $1,000, or
imprisonment for one year, or both.

164
IV. INSTRUCTIONS AND WARNINGS.
Cards of Instructions.

The following are cards of instructions suggested for the use of em-
ployees and workmen in dangerous trades. Similar instructions could
be made for all the trades in which poisonous substances are handled.

WHITE LEAD FACTORY.

Oxtp DutcH Process.
Employers.

The danger to the workmen in a white lead factory comes from the
breathing of dust, from handling food or chewing tobacco with lead-
smeared hands, and from getting his hair and clothing and body cov-
ered with white lead dust so that he carries it home with him.

.The precautions to be observed, consist in prevention of dust as far
as possible and in providing for and insisting on personal. cleanliness.

The dusty and therefore dangerous processes are: 1st, filling the
melting pot with dry cores, which are covered with white lead dust.
2nd, stripping the white beds. 3rd, trucking and dumping corrosions
or any form of dry white lead. 4th, emptying drying pans. Sth, filling
chasers by hand. 6th, filling barrels or small kegs. 7th, heading up
barrels.

The following precautions should be observed by the manager of a
white lead factory:

All floors should be smooth and hard and kept free from any accu-
mulation of dust. Dry sweeping should be forbidden. The fioors should
be kept wet as much as possible.

If hand trucking and dumping are done, the trucks should either be
sprinkled to keep down the dust, or covered. The dump must be so
arranged that dust is drawn away from the workmen.

All cores and returns should be handled only after a thorough wet-
ting. They should never be left lying exposed to draughts of air.

In emptying the drying pans, long-handled shovels should be used.

and the powder laid on the trucks, never thrown. All possible precau-
tions against dust should be introduced into this most dangerous part

of the factory.

If chasers are filled by hand, great care should he taken not to let
the dust fly. All chasers should be covered and the windows kept closed
when not in use.

165
Barrel and keg packing can be done in a cleanly manner without
risk to the men. This should be insisted on. No accumulation of
white lead should be allowed to form around the barrel packer, and the
barrels when rolled out to the shipping room should not be smeared with
white. No dusty process should be carried on in the same room with
non-dusty processes.

A lavatory with hot and cold water, one spigot for every six men,
should be provided, individual towels, or roller towels changed at least
twice a day, soap and nail brushes. Shower baths should be provided,
sufficient in number to permit all the men engaged in dusty processes to
bathe every day. Bathing towels should be provided.

A separate lunch room should be provided and, if possible, a stove
for heating the men’s lunches.

The men engaged in all of the dusty processes described above should
be furnished with some form of respirator.

All employees who come in contact with white lead should be re-
quired to

(a) Wear special working clothes and a cap, which clothes and cap
are never to be worn outside the factory. ‘These should be
kept reasonably clean.

(b) Wash thoroughly face and hands before eating lunch and before
quitting work.

(c) Bathe at least once a week. Stack strippers, dry room workers
and all exposed continually to dust should bathe each day
before quitting work.

(d) Wear respirators while engaged in dusty work. Employees
should be forbidden to chew tobacco while at work.

Medical inspection should be held regularly, preferably once a week.
The men pronounced unusually susceptible should either be dismissed
or assigned to work in which they are not exposed to lead. The same
rule should apply to men who return to work after an attack of lead-
poisoning.

Time should be allowed the men to wash thoroughly before lunch
and at the end of work.

Workmen.

It is dangerous to breathe or swallow white lead dust even in small
quantities.

Handling white lead is not necessarily dangerous, because the poison
does not pass through the skin. The danger of getting it on the hands
is that it may be carried into the mouth.

Lead is a poison that usually enters the body little by little, and
gradually accumulates until the system is full of it, when it produces the
symptoms of lead-poisoning. This explains why a man may work in
white lead for weeks or months without feeling any effects, and then
suddenly become violently sick. 5

166
The warning symptoms of lead-poisoning are indigestion, foul breath,
constipation, paleness, loss of appetite, muscular pains. Alcoholic drinks
of all kinds make a man much more susceptible to lead-poisoning.

Working without a proper breakfast in the morning makes a man
more susceptible to lead-poisoning. Drinking milk is a good aid against
lead-poisoning.

What shall a workman do to protect himself against lead-poisoning?

1. Do not breathe lead dust. Do not do your work or let others
do it in such a way as to raise unnecessary dust. Wear a respirator of
some kind over your nose and mouth while engaged in any dusty work.

2. Do not eat lead dust. Wash hands, nails, arms and face thor-
oughly before eating lunch. Do not eat in a room where there is lead
dust. Do not chew tobacco while at work, for you will get lead into your
mouth from your fingers and mustache and lips.

3. Do not carry lead dust home with you. Leave your working
clothes and cap in the factory. Wash face, hair, hands, nails and arms
thoroughly before quitting work. If you have been in the dusty parts
of the factory, take a bath before going home.

4. Do not drink alcohol.
5. Do not work before eating a sufficient breakfast.

6. Consult a doctor as soon as you feel any symptoms of sickness.

PAINTING.

Employers.

All painters who use lead salts, dry or ground in oil, are exposed to
the danger of lead-poisoning.

The most dangerous process is sand papering or rubbing the dry
lead paint. When this is done in a closed room, or still worse in the
interior of a railway coach, the workman cannot help inhaling the fine
lead dust. Mixing dry white lead with other paints is also dangerous.
The making and use of white lead putty is dangerous.

In order to protect the workmen from the risk of lead-poisoning the
following rules should be observed.

All sand papering or other dry rubbing of lead paint should be car-
ried on in a separate room and no workman not engaged in that process
should be allowed in that room. The rubbers should be obliged to wear

overalls, caps and respirators. The floors of the room should be smooth
and hard and should be frequently fiushed or swept with wet sawdust.
No dry sweeping should be allowed. This room should be well ventilated.

Dry white lead should be handled only in one special room, where all
‘ting of paints and putty should be carried on. The white lead should
be kept in a closed receptacle, and in handling it care should be taken not

167
to raise dust. The floor of this room should be frequently flushed or
swept with wet sawdust.

Painters using lead paints should be warned of the dangerous nature
of their trade. ‘They should be furnished overalls and caps. Wash
rooms, with hot water, soap, towels and nail brushes should be provided,
and the men obliged to wash thoroughly before lunch and before quitting.

A lunch room should be provided and no one should be allowed to
eat or keep lunch in one of the workrooms.

The use of tobacco should be forbidden during working hours.

In sand papering old paint the same precautions should be observed
as in sand papering new paint.

In burning off old paint, care should be taken to sweep up the frag-
ments of paint before they dry and become dusty.

Workmen.

Any man who works with lead paints, lead putty, or dry white, yellow
or red lead runs the risk of lead-poisoning unless he observes certain
precautions.

Handling white lead is not necessarily dangerous, because the poison
does not pass through the skin. The danger of getting it on the hands
is that it may be carried into the mouth.

Lead is a poison that usually enters the body little by httle and
gradually accumulates until the system is full of it, when it produces
the symptoms of lead-poisoning. This explains why a man may work
with lead paint for months or years without feeling any effects, and
then suddenly become violently sick.

The warning symptoms of lead-poisoning are indigestion, foul breath,
constipation, paleness, loss of appetite, muscular pains. Alcoholic drinks
of all kinds make a man much more susceptible to lead-poisoning.

What shall a painter do to protect himself against lead-poisoning ?

Do not breathe lead dust. If you are sand papering or rubbing drv
lead paint or putty, which is the most dangerous part of a painter’s
work, wear overalls, a cap and some form of respirator over your nose
and mouth.

Do not eat lead dust. Wash hands, nails, arms and face thoroughly
before eating lunch. Do not eat in a room where there is lead dust.
Do not chew tobacco while at work, for you will get lead into your
mouth from your fingers, mustache and lips.

Do not carry lead dust home with you. Leave your working clothes
and cap in the factory. Wash face, hair, hands, nails and arms thor-
oughly before quitting work.

Remember that the paint or dust you get on your hands, face and
arms will not poison you by going through the skin but by being carried
into your mouth.

168
Do not drink alcohol.
Do not work before eating a sufficient breakfast.

Consult a doctor as soon as you feel any symptoms of sickness.

Commercial or Mechanical Artists.

The majority of the white water-colors used by artists contain white
lead and are poisonous.

Handling white lead is not necessarily dangerous, because the poison
does not pass through the skin. The danger of getting it on the hands
is that it may be carried into the mouth.

Lead is a poison that usually enters the body little by little, and
gradually accumulates until the system is full of it, when it produces the
symptoms of lead-poisoning. This explains why a man may work with
white lead for weeks or months without feeling any effects, and then
suddenly become violently sick.

The warning symptoms of lead-poisoning are indigestion, foul breath,
constipation, paleness, loss of appetite, muscular pains. Alcoholic drinks
of all kinds make a man much more susceptible to lead-poisoning.

To guard against lead-poisoning it is essential that an artist keep
from swallowing white lead paint or breathing in white lead dust. It
is very dangerous to put the brush into the mouth and most of the lead
poisoning among artists comes from this habit. The use of the air brush
is less dangerous, but whenever this is used in such a way as to fill the
air with spray, a handkerchief should be tied over the mouth and nose
of the person so using it.

It is essential that the hands and face should be carefully washed
before meals, especial attention being paid to the nails.

StroraGe BATTERIES.

Himployers.

The danger to men engaged in making storage batteries comes from
the handling of the oxides of lead or from breathing the dust of the
exides or the fumes from the melting pot. Red lead and litharge are
often considered harmless, but this is a great mistake. Although not
as dangerous as white lead they are decidedly poisonous and many severe
cases of lead-poisoning have been reported from storage battery works.

The mixing and grinding of the oxides, the pasting, and the casting
of grids should all be done in separate rooms. All of these rooms should
have floors of some smooth, hard material which should be kept as clean
as possible. No accumulation of dust should be allowed anywhere.
There should be no dry sweeping. All floors should be cleaned once a
day. The kettle should be properly protected by a hood with an exhaust.
Dross should be thrown into a proper receptacle, not on the floor.

169
Nobody should be allowed in the mixing room except the men en-
gaged in mixing and grinding. This room should be kept as clean as
possible. It is well to have the floor sprinkled with water frequently.
It is advisable to have the paste for the plates made in this room and
distributed ready-made to the pasters. Where this is not done, and the
pasters are required to make their own paste, special precautions should
be used. The work of mixing powder and fluids should be carried on
in such a way as to effectually protect the men against dust. In either
case the paster’s table should be of hard, smooth material, cleaned thor-
oughly once a day. The room should be abundantly ventilated. Care
should be taken not to let paste fall on the floor.

Removal of superfluous paste should be done before the plate is dry,
not after, as this causes dust.

The room in which the lead burning is done should be abundantly
ventilated.

If old battery plates are recharged or remelted, they should be sprin-
kled with water before being handled and should be stored under cover,
as they give rise to a dangerous amount of dust.

The men handling old battery plates, pasting, drying and mixing,
should wear overalls, caps and boots, which should be left in the factory.
If the work in any part is productive of dust, the men engaged in that
work should wear some form of respirator.

Adequate washing facilities should be provided, hot and cold water,
one spigot to every six men, towels, nail-brushes and soap. The pasters
and mixers should have separate towels. The men should be given time
to wash thoroughly before lunch and before quitting work and should
be obliged to do so. A lunch room should be provided and the workmen
forbidden to keep or eat food in any other room.

Medical inspection should be made of all the men engaged in mixing,
pasting, drying and handling old plates, at least once a month, and any
man found especially susceptible to lead-poisoning should be discharged
or put, to safer work. ‘The same rule should apply to a man returning to
work after an attack of lead-poisoning.

No boy under eighteen years of age, and no woman, should be em-
ployed in casting, mixing, pasting, assembling or handling old plates.

StToRAGE BATTERIES.
Workmen.

The grid of a storage battery plate is made of lead and the paste is
made of lead salts.

Handling lead is not necessarily dangerous, because the poison does
not pass through the skin. The danger of getting it on the hands is
that it may be carried into the mouth.

170
 

Lead is a poison that usually enters the body little by little, and
gradually accumulates until the system is full of it, when it produces
the symptoms of lead-peisoning. This explains why a man may work in
lead for weeks or months without feeling any effects, and then suddenly
become violently sick.

The warning symptoms of lead-poisoning are indigestion, foul breath,
constipation, paleness, loss of appetite, muscular pains. Alcoholic drinks
of all kinds make a man much more susceptible to lead-poisoning.

Working without a proper breakfast in the morning makes a man
more susceptible to lead-poisoning. Drinking milk is a good aid against
lead-poisoning.

What shall a maker of storage battery plates do to guard against
lead-poisoning ?

If at the melting pot, use your ladle with care so as not to stir up
fumes. These fumes can be seen and are always dangerous. Do not
throw dross skimmings on the floor. Do not let lead dust accumulate
anywhere in the room. If you must remelt old plates, always sprinkle
them well with water before handling them, for the dust from them is
very bad.

If in the grinding and mixing room, wear some form of respirator
over nose and mouth. Be careful not to raise any unnecessary dust.

If at the pasting table, be very careful not to raise dust while making

pes paste. Keep your hands as clean as possible. If dust is unavoidable,

wear a respirator over nose and mouth.

Do not shake or scrape the plates after they are dry. Excess of paste
should be removed while the plates are moist. Handle the dry plates
carefully, for the dust is dangerous.

Lead does not poison a man through the skin, but only by getting
into the nose and mouth.

Always wash carefully before eating. Do not eat in a room where
there is lead dust. Do not chew tobacco while at work, for you will
get lead into your mouth from your fingers, mustache and lips.

Do not carry lead dust home with you. Leave your working clothes
and cap in the factory. Wash face, hair, hands, nails and arms thor-
oughly before quitting work. If you have been in the dusty parts of
the factory, take a bath before going home.

Do not drink alcohol.
Do not work before eating a sufficient breakfast.
Consult a doctor as soon as you feel any symptoms of sickness.

Working without a proper breakfast in the morning makes a man
more susceptible to lead-poisoning. Drinking milk is a good aid against
lead-poisoning.

171
V. APPENDIX

Provisions of Protective Laws in States of the Union
and in European Legislation.’

(Not proposed for action of Legislature, but for information. )

PART I.

GENERAL REGULATIONS RELATING To Heatre anp SArety.2

(1) HEALTH.

Section 1. (1) The following provisions shall apply to every fac-
tory,® * mercantile* establishment* and mill* or workshop‘ as hereinafter
defined, except as hereinafter excepted :*

(a) It must be kept clean.¢

(b) It must be kept free, so far as possible,” from effluvia arising

from any sewer, drain, water closet, earth closet, privy, urinal,
or other nuisance.®
(c) It must be ventilated so as to render harmless, as far as prac-
ticable, all the gases, fumes, vapors, dust, or other impurities
generated in the course of any manufacturing process or
handicraft carried on therein, that may be injurious to health.*
(d) It must not be so overcrowded while work is carried® on therein
as to be dangerous or injurious to the health of the persons
employed therein.® ®

*The method and the form pursued in offering these ‘‘suggestions’’ follow
the British ‘‘ Factory and Workshop Act, 1901.’’ The language of the Act is
often embodied verbatim; in some portions only partially followed, and in other
parts mingled with that from other sources or adapted to the requirements of the
ease by Mr. Albert J. Norton, of the Chicago Bar, who drafted the suggestions
and annotated the text. The citations of the Act are made from ‘‘Butterworth’s

yr Twentieth Century Statutes [Annotated], Being the General Acts Passed in the
Years 1900-1909, Excluding Acts in Force Only in Scotland,’’ ete, ‘‘Issued
Under the General Editorship of H. H. King, Esq., B. A., LL.B., of the Inner
|. Temple, Barister-at-Law,’’ Vol. II, London, Butterworth & Co., 1910.
: ’ The title of the Act is as follows: ‘‘ Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, 1 Edw.
7, @ 22.
"An Act to Consolidate with Amendments the Factory and Workshop Acts.’’
[17th August, 1901.] a ten
bd * Ibid, 109, See. 1, Subsection (1) of Part I. The Commission’s authority is
E.. ficiently broad to include the subject ‘‘Safety’’ covered by the English Act, and no
“ further reference is made to it in the draft.

°Tbid, 109, Sec. 1, Subsection (1) of Part I. :

*Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, C. 48, p. 1102, Act to Provide for the Health,

Safety and Comfort of Employes, etc., slightly changed.

° Norton—slightly changing wording of Eng. Act.
" °2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., 109, 110, Fact and Wkshp. Act, 1901, Part I,
i ec. 1, Subsec. (1) (a) (b) verbatim. ;
‘ : The a ie ene. added at suggestion of Chief State Factory

Inspector Edgar I’. Davies. : :

‘Idea of this paragraph good but impracticable as worded because the
| Manufacturing processes carried on in many of the establishments of the classes
, tamed are ‘‘necessarily overcrowded to a point of danger.’’ Ibid.

173

 

 
(2) All inside rooms of a factory, mercantile establishment, mill,
or workshop, and all ceilings or tops of such rooms, whether walls, ceil-
ings or tops are plastered or not, and all passages and staircases of such
factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop, shall be limewashed
at least once in every twelve months, or as much oftener as in the
opinion of the state administrative authority, created according to the
provisions of this act, and hereinafter designated for convenience, as
will be conducive to the’health and
cleanliness, or either, of the persons working therein; or shall be painted
or varnished or otherwise sufficiently cleansed to secure the results sought
in this section; such limewashing, painting, or varnishing or other
cleansing process shall, however, be subject to special exceptions made in
pursuance of this section.®, *°

(3) <A factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop: in
which there is a violation of the provisions of this section shall be
deemed not to be kept in conformity with this act.™

(4) If, in the opinion of any deputy medical factory inspector,
appointed as hereinafter provided, and hereinafter for convenience called
“medical inspector,” the limewashing, cleansing, or purifying of any
factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop, or any part thereof,
required in this section, it is necessary for the health of the persons
employed therein, he or she shall give notice to the person or persons
owning, operating, or managing any such factory, mercantile establish-
ment, mill, or workshop, or any part thereof, to be limewashed, or other-
wise cleansed, to limewash or otherwise cleanse or purify the same, as
the case may be.”

(5) If the person or persons so notified fails, or fail, to comply
with such notice within the time specified, to be not less than...... days
from the date of service thereof, he or they shall be liable to a fine not
exceeding $...... for every day that he continues, or they continue, to
make default; and if, on reporting the results of his or her investigation
to the state administrative authority, the latter so directs, such medical
‘inspector or any other proper officer under the law, may cause such
factory, mercantile~establishment, mill, or workshop to be limewashed

* The language of this sub-section is mainly that of the English Act, 2 Butt.,
Twent. Cent. Stats., 110, Pt. I, Sub-see. (3). The period named in the English
Act is 14 months. If the walls, etc., are painted or varnished at least once within 7
years, they need not be limewashed, but must be washed with soap at least once
within 14 months.

* This sub-section seems to be a copy of the English provisions, and was seri-
ously objected to by the manufacturers of the state, when a clause to this effect
was included in ‘‘my original bill No. 500 and was eliminated by the Industrial
Commission.’’ (©. 8. F. Insp. Edgar T. Davies.

“2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., F. W. Act, 1901, Pt. I, (5).

“2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., pp. 110, 111, F. and W. Act, 1901, Pt. I,
Sec. 2, (3). The idea of the English Act is here used, but the language is con-
siderably changed and adapted to the ideas and form proposed in these sugges-
tions. The English Act provides that the District Council, on certificate of a
medical officer of health, shall give the notice provided for in the text. The
District Council in the English Act is av. administrative body of the ‘¢district,’’
a subordinate division of a county, having large powers in sanitary matters.—
Albert J. Norton.

174
or otherwise cleansed, or purified, and may recover before any magis-
trate or court of competent jurisdiction all expenses and the costs of
the proceedings instituted for that purpose from the person or persons
in default.1*

Section 2. (1) A factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or work-
shop, for the purposes of this act and of the laws relating to public
health, shall be deemed to be so overcrowded as to be dangerous or injuri-
ous to the health of the persons employed therein, if the number of cubic
feet of space in any room therein bears to the number of persons employed
therein at one time in the room a proportion less than 500, or, during
any period of overtime, 500 cubic feet of space.to each person;1#
Provided, that in case lights are used that do not consume oxygen 250
cubic feet of space shall be deemed proper proportion."

(2) A notice shall be affixed in every factory, mercantile establish-
ment, mill, or workshop, which shall specify the number of persons that
may be employed in each room thereof by virtue of this section.1®

Section 3. (1) In case it appears to any inspector, not a medical
inspector, that any act, neglect, or default, in relation to any drain,
watercloset, earthcloset, privy, urinal, nuisance, or any other matter in
a factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop, is punishable or
remediable under a law or laws relating to the public health, but not
under this act, that inspector shall refer the matter to the medical
inspector within whose district the premises complained of are situated,
and if that medical inspector is of the opinion that there is a violation of
such law or laws, that inspector or that medical inspector shall give
notice in writing of the act, neglect, or default, to the local board of
health, or other proper authority in the district in which the premises
complained of are situated, which local board of health or other proper
authority shall make such inquiry into the subject matter of the notice,
and shall take such action thereon as seems to that local board of health
or other competent authority to be proper to enforce the law, and to
inform that inspector or that medical inspector, as the case may be, of
the proceedings taken in consequence of the notice.’’

"2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., p. 111, F. and W. Act, 1901, Pt. I, Sec. 2, (4).
This is substantially the language of the English Act. C. 8. F. Inspector Davies
suggests that it should specify the person or persons in default and the ‘‘ other
proper officers,’’ etc., whether the police department, ete., of a city, or the health
or food department of the state, etc.

“The language of the English Act, 2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., p. 111, Pt. I,
Sec. 8, (1) of F. and W. Act, 1901, except that in that Act the figures are 250
and 500, respectively. From his experience, C. 8. F. Inspect. Davies believes that
this provision is impracticable, because of varying cubic measurements and a
too heavy percentage of carbon dioxide (CO*) in some eases.

“This is the language used in the Illinois Act of 1909, found as the last
clause of the first sentence of Sec. 99, C. 48 Hurd, Rev. Stats. Ill., on p. 1104.

% The language of the English Act verbatim, Sub-sec. (4), p. 112, 2 Butt., etc.

The main idea taken from the English Act, 2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats.,
p. 112, Seo. 5 (1), but much modified, to conform to the theory of these sugges-
tions.—Albert J. Norton. General criticism of C. S. F. I. Davies that there is
likely to be a conflict of authority and considerable confusion among officers that
may, under the present laws, enforce such provisions as are contained in this
sub-section.

175
(2) In case notice of an act, neglect, or default is given by an
inspector or medical inspector under this section to a local board of
health, or other proper authority, and proceedings are not taken within
one month to punish or remedy the act, neglect, or default, the inspector
may take like proceedings to punish or remedy the same, that the local
board of health or other proper authority might have taken; and shall
be entitled to recover from that local board of health or other proper
authority all such expenses and costs in and about the proceedings that
the inspector incurs and that are not recovered from any other person
or persons and haye not been incurred in any unsuccessful proceedings.**

Section 4. (1) In every factory, mercantile establishment, mill,
or workshop, in which one person or more persons is or are employed,
adequate measures must be taken to secure and to maintain a reasonable
temperature in each room in which any person is employed, but the
measures so taken must not unnecessarily or materially interfere with
the purity of the air of any room in which any person is thus employed.*®

(2) <A factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop in
which there is any violation of this section, or of any order under this
section, shall be deemed not to be kept in conformity with this act.

Section 5. (1) In every room or apartment of any factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill, or workshop, where one or more persons are
employed, at least 500 cubic feet of air space shall be provided for each
person employed therein, and fresh air, to the amount specified in this
act, shall be supplied in such a manner as not to create injurious
drafts, nor cause the temperature of any such room or apartment to
fall materially below the average temperature maintained: Provided,
where lights are used which do not consume oxygen, 250 cubic feet of
air space shall be deemed sufficient. All rooms or apartments of any
factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop, having at least
2,000 cubic feet of air space for each person employed in each room or
apartment, and having outside windows and doors whose area is at least
one-eighth of the total floor area, shall not be required to have artificial
means of ventilation; but all such rooms or apartments shall be prop-
erly aired before beginning work for the day and during meal hours.
All such rooms, or apartments, having less than 2,000 cubic feet of air
space, but more than 500 cubic feet of air space, for each person employed
therein, and which have outside windows and doors whose area is at
least one-eighth of the floor area, shall be provided with artificial means
of ventilation which shall be in operation when the outside temperature
requires the windows to be closed, and which shall supply during each
working hour at least 1,500 cubic feet of fresh air for each person
employed therein, All such rooms or apartments having less than 500
cubic feet of air space for each person employed therein, all rooms or
apartments having no outside doors or windows, and all rooms or apart-
ments having less than 3,000 cubic feet of air space for each person

 

* This is the latter part of Sub-see. (1) of Sec. 5 of the English Act modi-
fied in conformity with the theory of these suggestions.

* Language of English Act, 2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., 113, F. and W. Act,
1901, Pt. I, See. 6, (1). Theory of this provision good. Should add a standard for
carbon dioxide, which requires a graded standard.—C. S. F. I. Davies.

176
employed therein, and in which the outside window and door area is
less than one-eighth of the floor area, shall be provided with artificial
means of ventilation, which shall supply during each working hour
throughout a year, at least 1,600 cubic feet of fresh air for each person
employed therein: Provided, that the provisions of the preceding por-
tions of this sub-section shall not apply to storage rooms or vaults;
and, provided further, that the preceding portions of this sub-section
shall not apply to those rooms or apartments in which manufacturing
processes are carried on which from their peculiar nature would be
materially interfered with by the provisions of this sub-section. No
part of the fresh air supply required by this sub-section shall be taken
from any cellar or basement.

The following terms of this sub-section shall be interpreted to mean:
The air space available for each person is the total interior volume of a
room expressed in cubic feet, without any deductions for machinery
contained therein, divided by the average number of persons employed
therein.

Outside windows and doors are those connecting directly with the
outside air; the window and door area is the total area of the windows
and doors of all outside openings; and the floor area is the total floor
area of each room.”°

(2) A factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or workshop in which
there is a violation of the provisions of this section shall be deemed not
to be kept in conformity with this act, and shall be deemed to be a nuis-
ance and liable to be dealt with as under the laws relating to public health.

Section 6. (1) In every factory, mercantile establishment, mill, or
workshop, in which any process is carried on that makes the floors wet
the floors shall be constructed and maintained with due regard to the
health of the employees, and gratings or dry standing rooms shall be
provided, if practicable, at points where employees are regularly stationed,
and adequate means for draining and preventing seepage or leakage, if
- any, to the floors below, shall be provided.?*

(2) In every factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, all
decomposed, fetid or putrescent matter, and all refuse, waste and sweep-
ings thereof, shall be removed and disposed of at least once each day,
and in such manner as not to cause a nuisance; and all cleaning shall
be done as far as possible, outside of working hours; but if done during
working hours, it shall be done in such a manner as to avoid the unneces-
sary raising of dust or of noxious odors.”

® This section is Sec. 99, C. 48, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, p. 1104, Act of
1909, to Provide for Health, etc., of Employes. C. 8. F. I Davies suggests that
the state administrative authority be empowered to enforce various sections of
different existing statutes in relation to the subject-matter in hand.

%Tast sentence of Act, 1909, To Provide for Health, etc., of Employes,
Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, C. 48, Sec. 101, on p. 1105. __

2 First sentence of Sec. 101, referred to in the preceding note.

177
(3) Every factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, in
which there is a violation of the provisions of this section, shall be deemed
not to be kept in conformity with Act and a nuisance liable to be dealt
with under the laws relating to public health.

Section 7. Every factory, mercantile establishment, mill or work-
shop, shall be provided with a sufficient number of waterclosets, earth-
closets, or privies, within reasonable access of the persons employed
therein, and such waterclosets, earthclosets or privies shall be supplied in
the proportion of at least one (1) to every thirty (30) male persons,
and one (1) to every twenty-five (25) female persons ; and whenever both
male and female persons are employed, said waterclosets and privies
shall be provided separate and apart for the use of each sex and plainly
marked by which sex they are to be used, and no person or persons shall
be allowed to use closets or privies assigned to the opposite sex, but such
waterclosets or privies shall be constructed in an approved manner and
properly enclosed, and at all times kept in clean and sanitary condition.
The closets or privies, where practicable, shall be located so that they
shall have direct ventilation with the outside air; where it is imprac-
ticable to locate the closets or privies so as to have direct ventilation
with the outside air, they shall be placed in an enclosure; and every
such closet or privy shall be properly and effectively disinfected and
separately ventilated, and shall be properly lighted by artificial light,
except when the influx of natural light makes artificial light
unnecessary.”*

Provided, that nothing in this section shall be construed to prevent
any city, town or village, by appropriate ordinance or regulation, from
prohibiting the construction, use or maintenance in such city, town or
village, of any kind of earthclosets, or privies, which may be considered
a nuisance or detrimental to the public health.”*

Section 8. (1) In all factories, mercantile establishments, mills,
or workshops, adequate washing facilities shall be provided for the
employes where necessary, and in such case in all factories, mills and
workshops not less than one spigot, basin or receptacle shall be provided
for each thirty (30) employes; and in mercantile establishments, not
less than one spigot, basin or receptacle shall be provided for each fifty
(50) employes. Where the labor performed by the employes is of such a
character as to make customary or necessary a change of clothing by
the employes, there shall be provided sanitary and suitable dressing room
or rooms, and both such dressing rooms and washing facilities shall be
separately maintained for each sex.?*

Sond. Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, p. 1105, Sec. 108, Health and Safety Act of

*Tbid., p. 1106, Sec. 109. C. 8S. F. I. Davies suggests that the present law be
changed to the effect that dressing rooms shall be maintained for employes and
their clothing changed before appearing on the street, where the character of the
work is such that it is advisable for health and comfort of the employes not to
wear the same clothes on the street and in their homes that they wear at work. He
further suggests compulsory maintenance by employers of bath rooms with tubs
and shower baths, say, for example, for puddlers, molders, in rolling mills, mines
and in some manufacturing places.

178
Provided, That nothing in this Act shall be construed as abrogating
or repealing any provision of section 5 of an Act entitled “An Act to
Provide for the Licensing of Plumbers and to Supervise and Inspect
Plumbing,” approved June 10, 1897, and enforced July 1, 1897, or the
provisions of any legal ordinance or regulation of any city, town or
village requiring approved and sufficient methods of sanitation, light,
heat, drainage or ventilation of an equal or superior standard to that
required in this Act.*®

(2) It shall be the duty of every person, firm or corporation to
which the provisions of this Act may apply, to carry out the same, and
make all changes and additions necessary therefor, and in every way to
comply with the provisions of this Act, and it shall be the duty of the
owner of the building in which is located any such factory, mercantile
‘establishment, mill or workshop, to permit any alteration or addition
i? a building as may be necessary to comply with the provisions of this

ct.

(3) Whenever, by the provisions of this Act, it is made the duty of
any person, firm or corporation within this State, to make or install any
alterations, additions or changes, the same shall be made and installed in
conformity with the provisions of this Act, and completed within a
reasonable time after time of notification by the State administrative
authority.?®

(4) The provisions of this Act relating to sanitation and ventilation
shall not be held to apply to such rooms or apartments of any factory,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, which are being operated
under the supervision of the federal government by virtue of an Act
of Congress entitled “An Act Making Appropriations for the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1906,” or any
amendment thereof; nor shall any other of the provisions of this Act
so apply respecting matters and conditions over which the federal govern-
ment now exercises jurisdiction.®”

Section 9. (1) The State administrative authority shall determine
what shall be deemed a compliance with the provisions of sections 8
and 9 of this Act as to what is a sufficient number of waterclosets, earth-
closets or privies, their proper proportion and sanitary condition, and as
to what are adequate washing facilities.*

(2) Every factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop in
which there is a violation of any of the provisions of sections 7 and 8
of this Act shall be deemed not to be in conformity with the provisions
of this Act.

* This is a part of Sec. 109 referred to in the preceding note.

* This is See. 110 of Act, 1909, Hurd’s Rev. Stats, Ii., 1909, p. 1106, C. 48,
as to Health, ete., of Employes. C. S. F. I. Davies thinks that present law can be
improved by providing that the lessee or the owner should make the. changes and
that the lessee might recover from the lessor or owner such proportion of money
expended as would be his proper share for such changes as would be permanent
improvements.

ma This fa Sec. 116 of the 1909 Act, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Il, p. 1108,

* This is the language of the annotator.

179

 
PART II.
EMPLOYMENT.

Women, Young Persons, AND CHILDREN.
Prohibition Against Employing Children in Certain Occupations.

Section 10.2° No child, as defined in this act, shall be employed or
permitted to work at any gainful occupation, to whomever gainful, as
follows:

(1) In any theatre, concert hall, or place of amusement where’
intoxicating liquors are sold, or given away; or

(2) In any capacity whatever in the manufacture of goods for
immoral purposes, or in any occupation in which the morals of a child
may thereby become depraved or in which life or limb is endangered
or health impaired; or

(3) In preparing any composition in which dangerous or poisonous
acids or other poisonous substances are used; nor in the manufacture of
paints, colors or white lead ;*° or

(4) In any factory, mercantile establishment, mill, workshop, store,
hotel, office, laundry, manufacturing establishment, bowling alley, passen-
ger or freight elevator, telegraph office, or other similar place, or as a
messenger or driver of or for any of the before named establishments
or working places; or in any other occupations that are dangerous to the
life or limb of such child.

* The English Act has been followed in this section as to form. See 2 Butt.,
Twent. Cent. Stats., p. 123, F. and W. Act, 1901, Pt. II, (i) See. 23.

The sub-sections of this section are taken from the Act to regulate the Em-
ployment of Children, etce., of 1897, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, p. 1085, C. 48,
Sec. 33; and from the Act with a similar title, of 1903, Ibid., p. 1079, Sec. 20;
and p. 1082, Sec. 20j. Only portions of these sections have been used and they
have been rewritten to conform to the general theory of the suggestions.—Albert
J. Norton.

The comments of Chief State Factory Inspector Edgar T. Davies on the
provisions of this section are very interesting and valuable. In his opinion, a child
of a certain age may properly appear in some concert halls or places of amusement,
but should not appear in a theatre; in some cases, however, a young child might
appear in a theatre; he would not permit a girl under the age of 18 years to be
employed or to take part in a chorus, a theatrical production or an amusement
enterprise, in the character of a ‘‘broiler.’’

Mr. Davies thinks that the proposed section, as well as the present law, would
prohibit choir boys, church entertainments, etc., but would permit very young
children to appear in theatres, etc., without pay, and not violate the law. It
would seem from what Mr. Davies says that there is an old law in existence that
can be applied without being in conflict with the present child labor law. This
law, no doubt, ought to be repealed.

_ "Mr. Davies would include in this sub-section all the prohibitions that appear
in See. 20j, Hurd, p. 1082, and would add other prohibitions.

180
(w) Prohibition Against Employing Young Persons Under the Age

of Stateen Years in Certain Occupations, Ete.

Section 11. (1) No young person under the age of sixteen
years, as defined in this Act, shall be employed or permitted to work at
any gainful occupation to whomever gainful named in sub-sections one,
two and three of the preceding section ; nor in any other occupations that
are dangerous to the life or limb of such young person.

(2)°? No young person under sixteen years of age shall be em-
ployed or permitted to work in any factory, mercantile establishment,
mill, workshop, store, hotel, office, laundry, manufacturing establish-
ment, theatre, concert hall, or place of amusement, bowling alley,
passenger or freight elevator, telegraph office or similar place, or as a
messenger or driver of or for any of the above named establishments or
working places, unless there are produced and placed on file the agesand
school certificate now required by law and the certificate®* of fitness®* for
employment** required under this Act. a

(3) No female young person under the age of sixteen years shall
be employed in any occupation that compels her to remain standing
constantly.

(wi) Hours and Holidays.

Section 12. No woman as defined in this act, and no young person
as defined in this act, shall be employed in any factory, mercantile es-
tablishment, mill or workshop, and no child, as defined in this act, shall
be employed in any occupation, except during the period of employment
hereinafter mentioned. The provisions of Part II of this act in an es-
pecial manner have as their aim the public health and welfare, together
with the health, safety and comfort of the classes of persons that are the
objects of its provisions.

Section 13.24 (1) No woman and no young person shall be em-
ployed in any mechanical establishment or factory or in any laundry
more than ten hours of the twenty-four hours in any one day; and

2) No young person shall be employed in any mercantile estab-
lishment, mill or workshop more than ten hours in any cne day; and

“Inspector Davies suggests that this sub-section as drawn might, perhaps,
permit children of any age to appear upon the stage of any theatre if no liquor
is sold in the establishment. ; ;

2The language of this sub-section is an adaptation of that of a portion of
the child labor law of 1903, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., p. 1079, Secs. 20a, 20b, 20¢,
with the addition of two occupations not named in the statute. ;

8 The ‘certificate of fitness for employment’? here introduced is taken from
the English Act. As to what it is see 2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., Fact. and
Work. Act, pp. 142, 148, 1901, Pt. II, sub-head (iii) ‘‘ Fitness for Employment,
sub-sections (1)-(8). . . atin teas

* The general form, and the style of language used in this section is similar
to that of the English Act. The substance of the provisions embodies the ideas
of the drafter of these suggestions.

181
(3) No young person under the age of sixteen years shall be per-
mitted to work at any gainful occupation more than eight hours in any
one day nor more than forty-eight hours in any one week.*°

(4) No child shall be permitted to work more than eight hours in
any one day nor more than forty-eight hours in any one week.*°

Section 14.°* With respect to the employment of women and young
persons more than sixteen years old in factories, mercantile establish-
ments, mills and workshops, the following regulations shall be observed :

(1) The period of employment, except on Saturday, may begin
at six o’clock in the forenoon and end at four o’clock in the afternoon,
or begin at seven o’clock in the forenoon and end at five o’clock in the
afternoon, or begin at eight o’clock in the forenoon and end at six o’clock
in the afternoon.

In drafting any law on the subject-matter of this section, the decision of
the Supreme Court of Illinois in the case of Ritchie v. The People, 155 Ill., 98, and
of Ritchie § Co. v. Wayman, 244 Ill, 509, must be kept carefully in mind. The
decision in the former case was rendered in 1895 and in the latter case in April,
1910. The court cites numerous authorities in each of these cases.

Inspector Davies doubts whether public opinion is sufficiently advanced to
indorse a prohibition against a young man’s working more than 10 hours a day,
that is, a ‘‘young man eighteen, nineteen or twenty years of age.’’ It is to be
noted that according to the definition of a ‘‘young person’’ in Part VI, the
maximum age is 18 years.—Albert J. Norton.

Inspector Davies points out the fact, as he asserts, that employers and their
women employes protest against a ten hour restriction, the strongest protest coming
from the women employes. Some consider it reasonable, he says, ‘‘that the Ten
Hour Law for women be so worded as to permit of exceptions for a few days in
the week, or a few weeks, in some instances 2 month, when women employes should
be permitted to work twelve (12) hours a day; for instance, in laundries, follow-
ing a holiday, or when a holiday follows a Sunday, that the two days next en-
suing the women be allowed to work twelve hours a day; in the canning factories,
where the seeds are contracted for before the seeds are planted, they having to
take the entire crop over when the crop has reached the ripening stage, and in
canning corn, tomatoes and goods of every description under great pressure for
time because the goods are perishable and help is hard to obtain and a good
portion in the rush season are the wives and daughters of employes in the earlier
season, women should be allowed to work longer hours.’’ Mr. Davies also refers
to the candy trade as one of ‘‘many lines of endeavor’’ not included in his sum-
mary above quoted.

The English Factory and Workshop Act of 1901 has many provisions in Part
II, making exceptions as to the period of employment, holidays, half-holidays and
overtime, along the lines suggested by Mr. Davies.. The Secretary of State, under
that Act, can make exceptions as to these matters by means of ‘‘ Special Orders.’’
—Albert J. Norton.

* Taken from the child labor law of 1903, Hurd’s Rev. Stats., Ill., p. 1079,
C. 48, See. 20, and p. 1082, Sec. 203.

* The ideas and language of this section are mainly taken from the English
Act, 2 Butt., p. 123, 124, Pt. II, subhead (i), Sees. 23, 24. The ordinary period
of employment under the Fact. and Work. Act of 1901 is 12 hours a day, and
ample provision as to the length of time allowed for meals are inserted in that
Act. The times when the period of employment may begin and end and the period
allowed for meals in this draft are somewhat different in some cases from those in
the English Act and are made by way of suggestion merely.

182
' (2) ‘The period of employment on Saturday may begin at six o’clock
in the forenoon and end at twelve o’clock noon, or begin at seven o’clock
in the forenoon and end at one o’clock in the afternoon, or begin at-eight
o’clock in the forenoon and end at two o’clock in the afternoon.

(3) No woman or young person shall be employed continuously,
that is to say, without an interval of at least half an hour’s duration, for
more than four and one-half hours without an interval of at least half
an hour for a meal.

Section 15.57 (1) No young person under the age of sixteen years
and no child shall be employed continuously, that is to say, without an
interval of at least half an hour’s duration, for more than four hours
without an interval of-at least half an hour for a meal; and

Section 16.3 There shall be allowed women, young persons and
young persons under the age of sixteen years, for meals in every factory,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop during such period of em-
ployment, as follows:

(a) On every day except Saturday, not less than one hour and a
half in factories, mechanical establishments and laundries, and not less
than one hour in mercantile establishments, mills or workshops, of
which one hour at least, either at the same time or at different times,
shall be before three o’clock in the afternoon in factories, mechanical
establishments and laundries; and three-quarters of au hour at least,
either at the same time or at different times, shall be before three
o’clock in the afternoon in mercantile establishments, mills or work-
shops; and

(b) On Saturday not less than three-quarters of an hour in fac-
tories and laundries; and not less than half an hour in mercantile
establishments, mills or workshops; and

(c) The proprietor, manager or other competent authority of any
factory, laundry, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, may ar-
range the time or times for meals as to the said employecs as he sees fit;
provided, however, that such arrangements as to such time or times for
meals shall not conflict -in any manner with any of the provisions of
this Act; and

(d)®° A woman, young person, or young person under the age of
sixteen years shall not, during any part of the time or times allowed
for meals in a factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, be
employed therein nor be allowed to remain in a room therein, in which
a manufacturing process or handicraft is then being carried on,** but
this provision shall not apply to those employees belonging to the classes
herein named, whose presence during meal hours may be necessary for

7 2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats. p. 124, Fact. and Work. Act, 1901, Pt. II, (i)

sub-sec. (6) of Sec. 24. :
masts times for meals, see 2 Butt., p. 128, Sec. 33 of the English Act, 1901.

language and ideas mainly followed. .
“> English Act, 2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., p. 132, Pt. TI, s. h. (i), sub-see.

(2) of Sec. 40.
183
the proper conduct of the business in a factory, mercantile establish-
ment, mill or workshop ;*° nor shall it apply to iron mills or paper mills
or glass works, except in any part in which the materials are mixed and,
in case of glass works in which flint glass is made, any part in which
the work of grinding, cutting or polishing is carried on, or to letter
press printing works.*+

Section 17. A woman, young person, or young person under the
age of sixteen years shall not, except as is in this Act specially excepted,
be employed on a Sunday, in a factory, mechanical establishment, mer-
cantile establishment, mill or workshop.*?

Section 18. (1) Subject to any special exceptions made by or
pursuant to this Act, the owner, proprietor, manager or other compe-
tent authority thereof, shall allow in each year, to every woman, young
person, and young person under sixteen years of age employed in the
factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, of which he is
such owner, proprietor, manager or other competent authority thereof,
the following holidays:

(a)** As whole holidays the first day of January, commonly called
New Year’s Day, the 12th day of February, the 22d day of February,
the 30th day of May, the 4th day of July, the first Monday in Sep-
tember, or Labor Day, the 12th day of October, commonly called Colum-
bus Day, the 25th day of December, or Christmas Day, and any day
appointed or recommended by the Governor of this State or by the
President of the United States, as a day of fast or thanksgiving. When
any holiday falls on a Sunday, it shall be allowed to the employee of
any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, on the next
preceding Saturday or the next following Monday, as the owner, pro-
prietor, manager or other competent authority thereof shall determine;
and

(b)** As half holidays, all Saturdays, except when anyone of the
before named whole holidays falls on a Saturday, which shall in such
case be a whole holiday, from the hour of twelve o’clock noon or of one
o’clock, or of two o’clock in the afternoon, according as the period of
employment on Saturday ends in any factory, mercantile establishment,
mill or workshop at twelve o’clock noon, or at one o’clock, or at two
o’clock in the afternoon, as provided in sub-section forty-five of section
thirty of this Act. The term “half holidays” includes the period from
twelve o’clock noon, or one o’clock, or two o’clock in the afternoon, as
the case may be, according to the time when the period of employment
oF as herein provided, until midnight of each Saturday that is not a

oliday.

“Act for Health, ete. of Employees, 1909, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Lil., 1909,
p. 1103, ¢. 48, Sec. 96, the proviso in the last sentence of that section.

“ English Act, as cited in the last note but one preceding, sub-section (1).

a - <a from the English Act, 2 Butt., p. 129, sub-sec. (1) of See: 35,
. IT, (4).

“The list of Holidays here given is taken from the Act on Negotiable
Instruments, 1874, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, p. 1532, ¢. 98, Sec. 17, as Amended
by Act. of 1909.

“The English Act somewhat changed. See Butt., p. 130, Pt. (ii), See. 36.

184
Section 19.4° In case the customs or exigencies of the trade or
business carried on in any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or
workshop, either generally or in any particular locality, require another
day in the week to be substituted for Saturday as regards the hours at
which the period of employment for women, young persons, and young
persons under the age of sixteen years are required by this Act to end
on Saturday, such other day may be substituted for Seturday; and in
that case this Act shall apply in that factory, mercantile establishment,
mill or workshop, in like manner as if the substituted day were Satur-
day, and Saturday an ordinary work day.

(wi) Night Work.

Section 20. (1)** A woman or a young person may be employed
during the night in any factory, mechanical establishment, laundry,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, but only in accordance with
the following conditions:

(a) The period of employment must not exceed ten consecutive
hours and must begin and end as follows: Such period may begin at
six o’clock in the evening and end at four o’clock on the following
morning ; or begin at seven o’clock in the evening and end at five o’clock
on the following morning; or begin at eight o’clock in the evening and
end at six o’clock on the following morning; as the owner, proprietor,
manager or other competent authority of such factory, laundry, mer-
cantile establishment, mill or workshop shall determine; and

(b) The provisions of Part II of this Act, as to allowance for
times of meals, shall be observed, with the necessary modifications as
to the hour at which the meal times are fixed; and

(c) A woman or young person employed during any part of the
night must not be employed during any part of the twelve hours pre-
ceding or succeeding the period of employment, except that in the case
of a woman she may agree, in writing as hereinbefore provided, for a
longer period of employment than said ten hours; and

(d)#7 Such woman or such young person must not be employed
more than five nights in any week throughout the year; provided, how-
ever, that this condition shall not prevent the employment of male
young persons in three shifts of not more than eight hours each, if
there is an interval of two unemployed shifts between each two shifts

of employment; and

(e) In case of blast furnaces, iron mills, letter press printing works,
and paper mills, no male young person must be employed during the
night, or any part thereof, in any process other than a process incidental
to the business of the factory or place of work.

‘#%Tdea from the English Act, but much changed—Albert J. Norton.

“The general idea of this sub-section including (a), (b), (¢), is taken from
the English Act, but not any provisions specifically. : ew

“The provisions of the English Act are followed in the main in (d), (e),
sub-section (2) and sub-section (3) of Sec. 54, Pt. II., sub-section (1), (a), (b),
(ec), (d) and (e) p. 138, and sub-section (3), p. 139, of 2 Butt., Twent. Cent.
Stats.

185
(2) The provisions of this Act, as to period of employment on
Saturday and as to allowance of whole and of half holidays to women
and young persons, shall not apply to a male young person employed
in day and night turns in pursuance of this exception.

(3) This exception applies to the following factories:

(a) Blast furnaces,

(b) Iron mills,

(c) Letter press printing works, and
(d) Paper mills.

Section 21.48 In a factory or other place in which the printing of
newspapers is carried on, a male young person may be employed at
night not more than two nights in a week as if he were no longer a
young person, but must not, pursuant to this Act, be employed more
than ten hours in any consecutive period of twenty-four hours.

Section 22.49 (1) The owner, proprietor, manager or other com-
petent authority of the factory, mercantile establishment. mill or work-
shop in which females are employed, shall provide a sufficient number
of suitable seats for the use of such female employees, and shall permit
such female employees to use such seats at all times when their use will
not necessarily interfere with the proper discharge of the duties of such
employees, and where practicable, such seats shall be made a permanent
fixture and shall be so constructed or adjusted that when not in use
they will not obstruct such female employees while engaged in their
duties. Each female employee must be permitted to use a seat for a
sufficient length of time or a sufficient number of times in each period
of employment to prevent injury to her health, so far as the use of a
seat as herein provided will contribute to that end.

(2)°° Chairs, stools or other suitable seats shall be maintained in
mercantile establishments for the use of the female employees therein,
in accordance with the terms of the preceding sub-section, and their
use shall be allowed to such employees in accordance with the terms of
that sub-section; if the duties of the female employees for whom the
seats are furnished are principally to be performed in front of the
counter, table, desk or fixture, such seats shall be placed in front thereof;
if such duties are principally to be performed behind such counter, table,
desk or fixture, such seats shall be placed behind the same.

Section 23.°* In every factory, mercantile establishment, mill or
workshop a printed notice, or printed notices, showing the following
particulars shall be kept posted up in conspicuous places therein, and

7 Butts., Twent. Cent. Stats., p. 139, Fact. and Work. Act, 1901, Pt. II (ii),
ec. 56.

* Health, etc., Act of 1909, Hurd’s Rev. Stats., Ill., 1909, p. 1104, c. 48, Sec.
97, nearly verbatim.

"” Rev. Stats, N. Y., 1901, Art. XI, Labor, Sec. 170; as to seats for female
employees in a factory, hotel or restaurant see ibid., Art. I, Labor, p. 2053.

’ This notice might perhaps contain an abstract of the important provisions
of this part of the Act—Albert J. Norton.

186
where they can easily be read by the employees thereof, namely, a notice
or notices of:

I. The period of employment in a factory, mercantile establish-
ment, mill or workshop, including that of Saturday; and

II. The hour when such period of employment begins and the hour
when it ends on all work days, including the hours on Sat-
urday; and

III. The length of time allowed to the employees for meals and the
time or times fixed for meals in that factory, mercantile
establishment, mill or workshop during the period of em-
ployment; and

IV. A list of the whole holidays named in this part of the Act, and
notice of the half holidays on Saturdays or any day substi-
tuted for Saturday; and

V. The period of employment in case of night work; and

VI. The hour when the period of employment begins and when it
ends; and

VII. The length of time allowed to any employee for meals and
the time or times fixed for meals during the period of em-
ployment; and

VIII. The number of nights in a week that such employees shall
be allowed to work.

Section 24. A factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop
in which there is a violation of any of the provisions contained in any
of the preceding sections in this part of the Act, shall be deemed not to
be kept in conformity with this Act.

(IV) Fitness for Employment.

Section 25.52 No owner, proprietor, manager or other competent
authority of any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop shall
knowingly employ a female or allow a female to be employed therein
within four weeks after she has given birth to a child.

Section 26.5% (1) No young person under the age of sixteen years,
as defined in this Act, shall be employed or permitted to work in any
factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, store, office, laundry,
bowling alley, theatre, concert hall, or place of amusement, passenger
or freight elevator, telegraph office or similar place, or as a messenger
or driver of or for any of the before named establishments or working
places for more than seven days, or, if the certifying physician, provided
for in this Act, for the district in which such establishment or working
place is situated, resides more than three miles from such establishment

@ Butts, Twent. Cent. Stats, p. 142, Fact. and Work. Act, 1901, Part IT, (iii),
Sec. 61. Language of the English Act, adapted to conditions here.

® Partly from the English Act and partly from the child labor law of 1903.
For the former see Sec. 63, sub-section (1), p. 142, as in the preceding note; and
for the latter see Hurd’s Rev. Stats. IUl., 1909, p. 1079, Sec. 2.

187
a

or working place, twelve days; unless either within or at once upon the
termination of the one or of the other of the periods just named, as the
case may be, the owner, proprietor, manager or other competent authority
of such establishment or working place has obtained a certificate, in the
prescribed form, of the fitness of the young person under the age of
sixteen years for employment in that establishment or working place.

(2) When a young person under the age of sixteen years becomes
a young person as defined in this Act, a fresh certificate of fitness must
be obtained.

Section 27.54 With respect to a certificate of fitness for employment
the following provisions shall have effect :—

(1) The certificate shall be granted by the certifying physician for
the district.

(2) The certificate must not be granted except upon personal exami-
nation of the person therein named. :

(3) The certifying physician shall not examine a young person
under the age of sixteen years elsewhere than at the establishment or
working place where the said young person is about to be employed,
unless the number of young persons under the age of sixteen years
employed in that establishment or working place is less than five, or
unless for some proper special reason gllowed in writing by an inspector
or by a medical inspector.

(4) The certificate shall be to the effect that the certifying physi-
cian is satisfied by the production of a certificate of birth or of any other
certificate now provided by law, showing among other things the birth
of the said young person in question, or by any other sufficient evidence,
that the person named in the certificate 1s of the age therein certified,
and has been personally examined by him and is not incapacitated by
disease or bodily infirmity for working daily during the time allowed by
law in the establishment or working place named in the certificate.

(5) The certificate may be qualified by conditions as to the work
on or at which a young person under the age of sixteen years is fit to he
employed, and, if so qualified, the owner, proprietor, manager or other
competent authority of the establishment or working place in which it is
proposed to employ the person named in the certificate, shall not employ
that young person otherwise than in accordance with the conditions
therein; provided, however, that the said conditions must not in any
manner conflict either with the letter or the spirit of this Act or of any
of its provisions.

(6) <A certifying physician shall have the same powers that an
inspector, or a medical inspector has, under this Act, or under any law
now existing for the purpose of examining any process in which a young
person under the age of sixteen years presented to him for the grant of a
certificate is proposed to be employed.

™ Sub-sections (1)—(7) of this section are copies of the English Act, except
as modified to adapt them to conditions here. See pp. 142, 148, 2 Butt., as before,
See. 64, sub-sections (1)-(7).

188
(7) All establishments or working places named in sections forty-
one and in this section belonging to the same owner or proprietor or
under the control of the same manager or other competent authority
thereof, or any of them, and in the district of the certifying physician,
may be named in the certificate, if the physician is of the opinion that
he can truthfully give the certificate of fitness for employment therein.

(8)°° In case the certificate is to the effect that the certifying physi-
cian has been satisfied regarding the age of a young person under the age
of sixteen by evidence other than the production of the certificate of birth
or of any other certificate showing the birth of the said young person,
as provided in sub-section four of this section, an inspector or a medical
inspector may, by notice in writing to the person or authority employing
such young person, annul the certifying physician’s certificate, if he or
she has reasonable cause to believe that the real age of the young person
under the age of sixteen years named in the certificate is less than that
named therein.

(9)®° In case a certifying physician refuses to grant a certificate of
fitness for employment for any person examined by such physician, he
or she shall, when required, state in writing and sign the reasons for
such refusal.

Section 28.57 In case an inspector or a’ medical inspector is of the
opinion that a young person under the age of sixteen years is by reason
of disease or bodily infirmity incapacitated for working daily for the
time allowed by law in the establishment or working place, coming under
one class or more than one of the classes named in sections twenty-six and
twenty-seven, in which such young person under the age of sixteen years
is employed, he or she may serve written notice. thereof on the owner,
proprietor, manager or other competent authority of such establishment,
or establishments, or working place or working places, requiring that the
employment of such young person under the age of sixteen years shall be
discontinued from the period named therein, such period to be not less

‘than one nor more than seven days after the service of the notice, and the

employment of such young person under the age of sixteen years shall
be so discontinued, notwithstanding the fact that a certificate of fitness
for employment has previously been obtained, unless the certifying physi-
cian for the district shall, after the service of the notice, personally
examine the young person in question and shall certify that such young
person under the age of sixteen is not so incapacitated.

Section 29.58 It shall be the duty of every owner, proprietor, man-
ager or other competent authority of every factory, mercantile establish-
ment, mill or workshop, store, hotel, office, laundry, bowling alley, theatre,
concert hall or other place of amusement, passenger or freight elevator,

% Made up of provisions from the English Act and from the child labor law
of 1903. See Bee. 67 , pp. 144, 145, of 2 Butt., as before; and Hurd’s Rev. Stats.
Ill., 1909, p. 1079, ¢. 48, Sec. 20¢. 2

This is Sec. 64, sub-section (10), p. 144, 2 Butt., as before cited.

This is Sec. 67, p. 144, as in the preceding note, of the English Act.

8% Child Labor law of 1903, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., p. 1079, . 48, Sec. 20c.

189
telegraph office or similar place, that employs young persons under the
age of sixteen years therein or as messengers or drivers of or for such
establishment or working place, to keep a register in such factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill, workshop, store, hotel, office, laundry, bowling
alley, theatre, concert hall or place of amusement, passenger or freight
elevator, telegraph office or similar place in which such young persons
under the age of. sixteen years are employed or permitted to work, in
which register shall be recorded the name, age and place of residence
of every such young person under the age of sixteen years employed
or permitted to work therein, or as messenger or driver of or for such
establishment or working place; and it shall be unlawful for any owner,
proprietor, manager or other competent authority of any factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill, workshop, store, hotel, office, laundry, bowling
alley, theatre, concert hall or place of amusement, passenger or freight
elevator, telegraph office or similar place, to employ or permit to be
employed therein, or as messenger or driver of or for any such establish-
ment or working place, any young person under the age of sixteen years,
unless there is first procured and placed on file in such factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill, workshop, store, hotel, office, laundry, bowling
alley, theatre, concert hall or place of amusement, passenger or freight
elevator, telegraph office or similar place, an age and school certificate
as is now provided for by law.

Section 30.°° Every owner, proprietor, manager or other competent
authority of any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop,
store, hotel, office, laundry, bowling alley, theatre, concert hall or place
of amusement, passenger or freight elevator, telegraph office or similar
place, that employs or permits to be employed or to work therein five or
more young persons under the age of sixteen years, shall post and keep
posted in a conspicuous place in every room thereof in which such young
person under the age of sixteen years is employed or permitted to work,
a list containing the name, age, and place of residence of every young
person under the age of sixteen years employed or permitted to work in
such room.

Section 31.° The presence of any young person under the age of
sixteen years in any establishment named in the next preceding section,
except in cases in which such young person is evidently there for another
purpose, shall be prima facte evidence of his or her employment therein.

Section 32. A factory, mercantile establishment, mill, workshop,
store, hotel, office, laundry, bowling alley, theatre, concert hall or place
of amusement, passenger or freight elevator, telegraph office or similar
place, in which there is a violation of any of the provisions contained
in any of the preceding sections numbered twenty-six, twenty-seven,
twenty-eight, twenty-nine, thirty, thirty-one and thirty-two contained in
he es of the Act, shall be deemed not to be kept in conformity with

is Act.

° Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, p. 1079, ¢. 48, Sec. 20c.
*° Hurd’s Rev. Stats, Ill., 1909, p. 1082, c. 48, Sec. 20k.

190
PART ITI.

DANGEROUS AND UNHEALTHFUL CONDITIONS.
(1) Special Provisions.

Section 33.°° (1) Every medical practitioner attending on or called
in to visit a patient that he believes to be suffering from lead, phos-
phorous, arsenical or mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, poisonous fumes
or vapors, gassing or other similar disease contracted in any factory,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial institution, or
other establishment or working place, or from what is known as the
“caisson-disease” contracted in tunnelling or other employment in which
caisson work is performed, shall, unless the notice required by this sub-
section has previously been sent, send to the Department of........ at its
main office or at such other office or place as the Department shall desig-
nate for the purpose, a notice stating the name and full postal address
of the patient and the disease from which, in the opinion of the medical
practitioner, the patient is suffering, together with all the attending
circumstances of the case; and such medical practitioner shall be paid
such a fee or compensation for his services in that respect as shall here-
after be provided by law, such fee or compensation to be paid as part
of the expenses incurred by the Department in the execution of this Act.

(2) The provision of subsection (1) of this section as to reporting
the cases named therein and as to notice and other requirements, shall
apply to every hospital, medical college, or other institution having such
patient or suspecting that it has such a patient, and to every owner,
proprietor, manager or other competent authority of any factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial institution, or other
establishment or working place, and to every contractor and every sub-
contractor engaged in tunnelling or other kinds of work in which caisson
work is carried on.

(3)° Written notice of every case of lead, phosphorous, arsenical, or
mercurial poisoning, of anthrax, of every case resulting from poisonous
fumes or vapors, of gassing, or other similar disease contracted in any
factory or other place named in subsection (1) of this section, or of the
caisson disease contracted as aforesaid, shall forthwith be sent to the
medical inspector and to the certifying physician for the district in which
the factory or other place mentioned in subsection (1) of this section is

located.

(4)* If any medical practitioner, employer, contractor or sub-
contractor, hospital, medical college, or other institution named in sub-
sections (1) and (2) of this section, when required by this section to
send notice, fails forthwith to send the same, he or it shall be liable to a

fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars.

® Part III here corresponds to Part IV and Part V of the English Factory

d Workshop Act of 1901.
oe Bee 2 Butt. Twent. Cent. Stats, p. 147, Factory and Workshop Act. 1901,

Part IV., (i) Special Provisions, Sec. 73 (1). :
We netons similar to those of English Act, sub-sections (3), (2), of See. 73,

p. 148, 2 Butt., etc.
191
Section 34.°° (1) In every factory, mercantile establishment, mill
or workshop, commercial institution, or other establishment or working
place, or any part thereof, in which any kinds of lead, arsenic, phos-
phorous, irritating and poisonous acids, irritating and poisonous cyanides,
or any other irritating and poisonous substance is used, and in which
metallic fumes or vapors, carbon monoxide fumes or vapors, lead fumes
or vapors, cyanide fumes or vapors, and shellac fumes or vapors, or any
other poisonous fumes or vapors are generated from substances used
therein or any part thereof, suitable washing conveniences must be pro-
vided for the use of employees in any department thereof where such
substances are used and such fumes or vapors are generated; and suffi-
cient time must be allowed such employees for washing and for changing
clothing when necessary.

(2)®" No employee shall take or be allowed to take food into any
room or apartment in any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or
workshop, commercial institution, or other establishment or working
place where lead, arsenic, or other poisonous substances, or injurious
or noxious fumes, dust or gases under harmful conditions are present,
as the result of the business conducted by such factory, mercantile estab-
lishment, mill or workshop, commercial institution, or other establishment
or working place, and notice to this effect shall be posted in each room
or apartment. The employees shall not remain in any such room or
apartment during the time allowed for meals, and suitable provisions
shall be made and maintained by the employer, when practicable, to
enable the employees to take their meals elsewhere in such establishment:
Provided, however, that this section shall not apply to those employees
whose presence during noon hour is necessary for the proper conduct of .
the business.

Section 35.% (1) In all iron, lead, zinc, brass, copper, and other
foundries in which ores are smelted to produce iron, lead, zinc, brass or
copper, no open-top furnace nor single-top furnace shall be constructed
after this Act takes effect; and in all blast furnaces constructed after
this Act takes effect, no open-top furnace and single-top furnace, or
either, shall be constructed and used.

(2) In all those blast furnaces belonging to the foundries named
in subsection (1) of this section in which open-top furnaces and bell-top
furnaces, or those of either kind alone, are at present in use, when it
becomes necessary or is desired to construct new furnaces after this Act
takes effect, such new furnaces must be provided with automatic top-
chargers, and after such automatic top-chargers have been thus provided,

no manual loading-in or charging at the top of such furnaces shall be
permitted.

“ Act to Provide for Health, etc., of Employes, 1909, Hurd’s Rev. Stats, IU,
1909, p. 1103, Sec. 91.

“The provisions of this section were prepared from suggestions made b
Mathew Karasek, M. D., Chicago, Il. oo y

192
Section 36.° (1) The following provisions relating to the health
of the employees in iron, lead, zinc, brass, copper and other similar
foundries are to be strictly observed by employers :—

(a) Suitable hoods, stack and apron around the furnace area must
be provided for each furnace; and the furnace room must be
separate from the remainder of the foundry. Ceiling venti-
lators effective in inclement weather must be provided. These
precautions must be taken for the purpose of disposing of all
metallic, carbon monoxide, and other noxious and poisonous
fumes or vapors. No anemic or sickly person shall be em-
ployed in any part of a foundry where such noxious and
poisonous vapors are generated.

(b) In all such foundries and those parts thereof in which lead
fumes are generated or lead is found in dust, alloys, and other
similar substances, all scrap metal shall be sprinkled before
it is handled or assorted. The employer must, without cost
to the employees or any of them, provide respirators and
gloves for all employees affected by such dust. The certifying
physician of the district in which such foundry is situated
shall once every month examine the employees of such a
factory for the purpose of ascertaining whether any of them
show symptoms of lead poisoning. No woman and no young
person shall be employed in any part of such foundries in
which the fumes and the poisonous substances, and the im-
purities mentioned in this section are generated or found.
No young person under the age of sixteen years and no child
shall be employed in any such foundry. No anemic or sickly
person shall be employed in any such foundry.

(c) Fumes or vapors arising from castings dipped into acids must
be disposed of by means of suitable hoods and a suction fan
or other proper device for carrying off said fumes or vapors.

(d) In the case of hot potash solutions, fumes or vapors arising
therefrom must be disposed of by means of

(e) a low-hung hood or hoods with connection with stack and sus-
pended over vats. This provision shall apply to cyanide
solutions used in such foundry. -

(£) No worker in such foundry shall be required to “do” in one day
a greater number of standard flasks or other like articles
than he can do without injury to his health.

(g) Suitable facilities for washing shall be furnished in every such
foundry, and workers therein shall be allowed ten minutes
to wash before meal time. Shower baths shall be furnished
to furnace men, smelters, and other similar workers.

The provisions of this section and of the following section were drafted
from a report made by Emory R. Hayhurst, M. D., Chicago, IIl., to the Commission.
‘The provisions of this and the three sections immediately following, especially
the prohibitions therein against employing women, young persons, and young per-
sons under the age of sixteen in the places named, have the approval of Mr. 8. M.
Hartzmann, Chicago, who is familiar with the subjects dealt with in those sections.

193
(h) Suitable and sanitary provisions shall be made for toilet rooms
separate from work rooms in every such foundry.

(i) In every such foundry an even temperature in the winter season
of at least fifty degrees Fahrenheit shall be maintained.

(j) There must be kept posted in every room where workers are
employed in-any brass foundry instructions as to how to treat
“brass founders ague.”

(k) In every foundry named in this section one hour shall be allowed
the employees for the noon meal, and in those foundries
where night work is carried on, one hour at a suitable time
during the night.

Section 37. (1) In every factory or other working place mentioned
in subsection (1) of section 36, when it is necessary for the health
and protection of the employees thereof or of any of them that rubber
gloves, goggles and other means of protection, or of any of them, should
be used, such articles for the protection of the employees therein, or of
apy of them, shall be furnished the employees or any of them by their
employers, as may be necessary, without cost to the employees.

Section 38. (1) Any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or
workshop, commercial institution, or other establishment, foundry, or
working place in which there is a violation of the provisions or any of
them of sections 49, 50, 51 and 52, shall be deemed not to be kept in
conformity with this Act, and the owner, proprietor, manager, or other
competent authority thereof shall be fined in a sum not exceeding
twenty-five dollars for a first offence and a sum not exceeding twenty-five
dollars for every subsequent offence.

Section 89.7° (1) No woman, young person, or young person under
the age of sixteen years shall be employed in the part of a factory,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial institution, or
other establishment or working place in which is carried on :—

(a) The business of silvering mirrors by the mercurial process; or

(b) The process of making white lead or other kind of poisonous
lead, or other process in which poisonous substances are
used; or

(c) In the part of a factory in which the process of melting or
annealing glass is carried on; or

(d) In a factory or other establishment or working place in which is

carried on the making or finishing of brick or tiles, not being
ornamental; or

(e) In the part of a factory or other establishment or working place
in which is carried on any dry grinding in the metal trades; or

* The English Act, 2 Butt., etc., p. 149, Pt. IV, Sec. 77, embodied in (a), (b),
(ce), (d), (e), (g), (bh), and suggestions from Dr. Hayhurst’s report in (f). !

194
 

(£) In the case of brass works, in any part in which the materials
are mixed; and in brass and other foundries, in those parts
thereof where poisonous substances are used or noxious or
poisonous fumes or vapors are generated; or

(g) In the case of glass works where flint glass is made, in any part
in which the work of grinding, cutting, or polishing is car-
ried on; or

(h) In the case of earthenware works, in any part known or used

as dippers house, dippers drying room, or china scouring
room ; and

(i) No woman or female young person employed in any factory,
laundry, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, com-
mercial institution, or other establishment, or working place,
shall be permitted to work at a machine or other mechanical
device that requires her to stand constantly during the period
of employment on her feet and to operate such machine or
device with one foot.

(2) Any violation of the provisions of this section in any factory,
laundry, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial insti-
tution, or other establishment or working place, or any part thereof, shall
cause the same to be deemed not to be kept in conformity with this Act;
and for every violation thereof, the owner, proprietor, manager or other
competent authority thereof shall be liable to a fine not exceeding twenty-
five dollars for each offence.

(3) Notice of the prohibitions in this section shall be affixed in
every factory, mill or workshop, commercial institution or other working
place to which it applies.

(%) Bakeries.

Section 40.7 (1) It shall not be lawful to let or, suffer to be occu-
‘ pied or to occupy any room or place as a bakery, unless the following
regulations are complied with :—

(a) No water closet, earth closet, privy, urinal, or ashpit shall be
within or communicate directly with any part of a bakery
where baking is done, flour and other articles stored, or
where bakery goods are kept for sale.

(b) Every cistern or other similar means for supplying water to any
bakery must be separate and apart from any cistern or any
other means for supplying water to a water closet, earth closet,

privy, or urinal.

(c) A drain or drains or a pipe or pipes for carrying off foecal matter
or sewage must not have an opening within any part or room
of a bakery where baking is done, flour and other articles

stored, or where bakery goods are kept for sale.

“This section is copied from the English Act, 2 Butt., p. 156, Part V, (iii),
Sec. 97.
195
(2) If any person lets or suffers to be occupied or occupies any
room or place as a bakery in violation of this section he shall be liable
to a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars; and to a further fine not
exceeding five dollars for every day during which any room or place is so
occupied after a conviction under this section.

Section 41.77 (1) The owner of the building and premises, or either
on or in which any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop,
commercial institution, or other establishment or working place is sit-
uated, as well as the proprietor, manager or other competent. authority
thereof, shall be liable for the observance and fined for the non-
observance of the provisions of this Act, of the following character :—

(a) Cleanliness, freedom from effluvia, overcrowding and ventilation’
of factories, mercantile establishments, mills or workshops,
commercial institutions, or other working places, provided for
in section one of this Act, including so far as they relate to
any engine house, passage, or staircase, or to any room that is
let to more than one tenant, the provisions as to lime wash-
ing and washing of the interior of the factory, mercantile
establishment, mill or workshop, commercial institution, or
other working place; and

(b) The notices to be affixed in a factory, mercantile establishment,
mill or workshop, commercial institution, or other working
place, with respect to the period of employment, times for
meals, and system of employment for women, young persons,
and young persons under the age of sixteen years; and

(c) The prevention of the inhalation of dust, gas, fumes or vapors
or other impurities, so far as those provisions require the use
of pipes or other contrivances for working the fans or other
means for that purpose.

PART IV.
ADMINISTRATION,

(1)" State Department of .........

Section 42. In order the better to carry out the purposes of this Act,
the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, within

 

 

"See 2 Butt., p. 152, Pt. IV (ii), Sees. 85, 86, for the provisions of this
section, but considerably modified.

, In Part IIL might well be inserted provisions regulating employment in laun-
dries, ice-cream and butterine factories, and in many other trades. As to laundries,
the Factory and Workshop Act of 1907, amending that of 1901, found in 2 Butt.,
Twent. Cent. Stats., pp. 209-213, could be consulted with advantage,

“The State administrative authority might be constituted as a department,
board, commission, ete., as should seem desirable to the legislative body creating it.
Sections 42, 43, 44, 45 and 46 follow quite closely Section 4 (A), (B), (5),
(F), 1, 2, and Section 5 (A), (B) of an Act to revise the laws relating to chari-
ties, ete., 1909, found in Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., pp. 259-264, ¢. 23, sections 5 and 6.

196
thirty days after this Act shall take effect, shall appoint five persons, to
be called and known as the Department of ..............cccceeceeces ‘
and hereinafter called Department. One member shall be Chief of
the Department, one member shall be a woman, one member shall
be an employer of labor, one member shall be a manual laborer, and
one member shall be a duly licensed physician, in good and regular
standing, who shall be a specialist in Industrial Hygiene. Not more
than three persons so appointed shall belong to the same political party.
The members shall be appointed: One for one year; one for two years;
one for three years; one for four years; and one for five years, from the
first day of July, 1911, and until their respective successors are appointed
and qualify. On the first day of July, 1912, and at the end of each year
thereafter, the Governor shall, in like manner, appoint one person as the
successor of the person whose term shall expire in that year, to serve as
such member of the Department of Labor, for five years, and until his
or her successor is appointed and qualifies. Each member before enter-
ing upon the duties of his or her office shall take the oath prescribed by
the Constitution of this State for State officers, which oath shall be filed
in the office of the Secretary of State. The Governor shall have the
power to remove any member of the Department, and the power to
appoint and to remove the Assistant Chief of the Department, and the
Attorney for the Department, hereinafter provided for, for incompe-
tency, neglect of duty or malfeasance in office. In case of a vacancy in
the Department, the vacancy shall be filled by appointment by the
Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. When the
Senate is not in session, the Governor may make appointments to fill
vacancies, but all appointments when the Senate is in session shall be
subject to confirmation by the Senate at its next session before becoming
permanent.

Section 48. The Governor shall at the time he appoints the members
of the Department, and from time to time thereafter, designate a mem-
ber, who shall be called Chief of the Department. The Chief of the
Department shall devote his whole time to the duties of his office, and
shall receive such compensation therefor as shall hereafter be provided
by law. The other members of the Department shall serve without com-
pensation, except that they shall be paid per diem expenses during the
time of their actual attendance upon meetings of the Department. Three
members of the Department shall constitute a quorum.

Section 44. The Secretary of State shall provide the Department
with suitably furnished offices in the Capitol building at Spring-
Labor with suitably furnished offices in the Capitol building at Spring-
field. The Department shall have an official seal. Every process, order,
or other paper issued or executed by the Department, may be attested,
by direction of the Department, under its seal, by its Secretary, and
when so executed shall be deemed to be duly executed by the Department.

Section 45. (1) The Department herein provided for shall:

(a) Be a body corporate under and by the name of the State Depart-
Ment OF wide segs Gales eee ewes Rawcnseas , and, in addi-
tion to the powers expressly conferred upon it, shall have all

197
such authority as may be necessary to the complete exercise
thereof; and

(b) Exercise executive and administrative supervision over all State
and local authorities whose functions have to do with the
matters of health, safety and comfort of workers, especially
as related to the public health and welfare; and

(c) Exercise general, executive and administrative supervision over
factory inspection and the inspection of mines, and shall
secure the execution of all laws now in force or hereafter
enacted, relating to the inspection of factories, mercantile
establishments, mills or workshops, commercial institutions,
and other working places as each is defined in this Act, and
of mines.

(2) Until the Department enters upon its work as herein provided,
on the first day of July, 1911, the Illinois Department of Factory Inspec-
tion and the Chief State Factory Inspector and his assistants and all the
officers and agents and employees of that Department shall have the
powers and perform the duties devolving upon them under the existing
laws as therein provided.

(3) The Chief of the Department shall by virtue of his office he
Chief State Factory Inspector; and after the Department enters upon
its duties as aforesaid, wherever the words “Chief State Factory Inspec-
tor” occur in this Act, they shall be construed to mean the Chief of the
State Department.

Section 46. The Governor shall at the time that he appoints the
Chief of the Department, and from time to time thereafter, appoint an
Assistant Chief of the Department, who shall also act as and perform
the duties of Secretary of the Department; and the Governor shall at
the same time and from time to time thereafter also appoint an Attorney
for the Department.

Section 47. (1) The Chief of the Department shall have the power
to appoint and to remove ............... Deputy Factory Inspectors,
hereinafter called Deputy Inspectors, and ................ Deputy
Medical Factory Inspectors, hereinafter called Medical Inspectors. Of
The: sss seta ne sates deputy inspectors, .............005 shall be
women, and of the .......... >... medical inspectors, ..............
shall be women; and

(2) All deputy inspectors herein provided for shall be appointed
and removed under and subject to the provisions of “An Act to regulate
the Civil Service of the State of Illinois,’ approved May 11, 1905, and
in force July 9, 1905, as amended.™* The Assistant Chief of the Depart-
ment, the Attorney, the deputy inspectors. and the medical inspectors
shall receive such compensation for their services as shall hereafter be
provided by law.

oe of Charities Act, 1909, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909, ¢. 23, See. 12,
p. 266.

19?
ee

(3)"> The Chief of the Department shall as soon as convenient
after he enters upon the duties of his office divide the State into Inspec-
tion Districts, due regard being had to the number of factories, work-
shops and other business establishments named in this Act and the
amount of work to be performed in each district. He shall assign to
each district a deputy inspector, who shall have charge of the inspection
in the district to which he is assigned, under the supervision of the
Department ; and shall assign to one district or to a group of districts,
as he may deem best, a medical inspector. The Chief of the Department
may at any time, when in his opinion the good of the service requires,
change a deputy inspector or a medical inspector from one district to
another, or reassign the districts of the State among the several deputy
inspectors. He may at any time, when the conditions are changed or in
his opinion the service requires, redivide the State into Inspection Dis-
tricts, changing the territory embraced within the several districts as
may seem to him advisable; but all of his acts in these respects shall be
subject to the approval of the Department.

(4) The Chief of the Department shall also have the power to
employ such other officers, agents and servants as he may deem necessary
for the efficient conduct of the business of the Department, and shall
assign to them their duties and fix their salaries.

Section 48. The Attorney for the Department shall be the
legal adviser of and shall represent the Department in all matters of a
legal nature pertaining to the business of the Department, and shall
perform all of the other duties of the office incident thereto. He shall
when required by the Department prosecute any violations of law that
it is the duty of the deputy inspectors and the medical ‘inspectors to
enforce. He shall under the direction of the Chief and subject to the
approval of the Department prepare all forms, notices, and other papers
of a legal nature.

(ii) Inspection.

Section 49.72 (1) The Chief of the Department, the Assist-
ant Deputy Chief, the deputy inspectors and the medical inspectors shall
have the power to perform and shall perform any or all of the following
acts :—

(a) To enter and inspect at all reasonable hours by day all of the
factories, mercantile establishments, commercial institutions,
mills or workshops and every part thereof in which wares,
goods, merchandise, or other articles are. manufactured,
stored, purchased or sold at wholesale or retail, and all other
establishments or working places mentioned in this Act:
Provided, that whenever any secret process is used in any
of the establishments or working places covered in the pro-
visions of this Act, the owner, proprietor, manager, or other

 

 Sub-section (3) follows closely portions of See. 77, c. 48, p. 1097, Factory

Inspection Act, 1907, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., 1909. :
Pn Sub-section (1) (a) consists of portions of the Factory Inspection Act of

1907, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Il., p. 1097, Sec. 77, and of Act of 1909 for the Health
of Employees, Ibid., p. 1107, See. 113.
, 199
competent authority thereof shall, whenever required by the
Chief or the Assistant Chief of the Department, file with the
Department an affidavit that such owner, proprietor, manager,
or other competent authority has in all respects complied
with the provisions of this Act. Such affidavit shall be
accepted in place of the inspection of any room or apartment
in which such secret process is carried on. The Chief, Assist-
ant Deputy Chief, the deputy inspectors and the medical
inspectors, shall have the same power to enter and inspect
at all reasonable hours by night all or any of the establish-
ments or places herein named in which night work is carried
on that they have to enter and inspect them by day; and

(b)"” To take with him or her in any case a constable or police officer

(c) To

(d) To

(e) To

(f) To

into any establishments or working place named in (a) of
sub-section (1) of this section in which he or she has reason-
able cause to apprehend any serious obstruction to the execu-
tion of his or her duty; and

require the production of registers, certificates, notices and
documents that are to be kept pursuant to this Act, and to
inspect, examine and copy the same; and :

make such examination and inquiry as may be necessary to
ascertain whether the enactments in force relating to the
public health and the other matters provided for in this Act
are complied with, so far as respects the factory, mercantile
establishment or commercial institution and the persons
employed therein; and

enter any school in any factory, mercantile establishment,
mill or workship or other establishment or working place in
which he or she has reasonable cause to believe children are
employed, and are, for the time, being educated ; and

examine, either alone or in the presence of any other person,
with respect to matters under this Act, every person that he
finds in a factory, mercantile establishment, or commercial
institution, mill or workshop, or other working place, or such
school aforesaid, or that he or she has reasonable cause to
believe to be or to have been within the preceding two months,
employed therein, and to require every such person to be
examined and to sign a declaration of the truth of the matters
as to which of such persons are thus examined; and

(g) To exercise such other powers as may be necessary to carry this

Act into effect.

(2) The owner, proprietor, manager or other competent authority

of any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial
institution or other working place mentioned in this Act, shall furnish

*

™ Sub-divisions (b), (¢), (d), (e), (£), (g) of sub-section (1) and sub-section
(2) are substantially copied from the English Factory and Workshop Act, 1901,
2 Butt., Twent. Cent. Stats., pp. 171, 172, See. 119, sub-section (1) (b), (c), (4),
(e), (£), (g) and sub-section (2) of Part VIII (i).

200
such means required by any inspector or medical inspector as may be
necessary for any entry, inspection, examination, inquiry or other exer-
cise of his or her powers and duties under this Act, in relation ‘to any
factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial institu-
tion or other establishment or working place mentioned in this Act.

_ (3)" If any person wilfully delays any inspector or medical
inspector in the exercise of any power or duty under this section, or fails
to comply with the requisition of any inspector or medical inspector pur-
suant to this section, or to produce any certificate or document required
to be produced pursuant to this Act, or conceals or attempts to conceai,
or prevents or attempts to prevent a woman, young person or child from
appearing before or being examined by an inspector or a medical
inspector, that person is to be deemed to obstruct an inspector or medical
inspector in the execution of his or her duties under this Act:

Provided: that no one shall be required under this section to answer
any aoe or to give any evidence tending to incriminate himself or

erself.

(4)78 In case an inspector or a medical inspector is obstructed in
the execution of his or her duties under this Act, the person obstructing
him or her shall be liable to a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars; and
in case of any subsequent conviction for a similar offense, under this
section, within two years from the last conviction for such offense, a fine
of not less than twenty-five dollars shall be imposed for each offense.

Section 50.7 An inspector or medical inspector, if so authorized in
writing under the hand of the Chief of the Department, may, although
he or she is not an attorney-at-law, prosecute, conduct or defend before a
Justice of the Peace or other court of competent jurisdiction, an infor-
mation, complaint, or other proceedings, arising under this Act or in the
discharge of his or her duty as an inspector or medical inspector.

Section 51.8° Every inspector and every medical inspector shall be
furnished with the prescribed certificate of his or her appointment, and
on applying for admission to a factory, mercantile establishment, mill
or workshop, commercial institution or other working place mentioned
in this Act, shall, if so required, produce said certificate to the owner,
proprietor, manager, or other competent authority thereof.

(iii) Certifying Physicians.

Section 52.8 (1) Subject to such regulations as may be madé by
the Department, the Chief of the Department may appoint for each of
the inspection districts provided for in this Act such a number of duly
licensed physicians, to be Certifying Physicians, for the purposes of this
Act, as he may deem necessary for its proper execution, and may revoke
such appointment.
(2) A physician, owner, proprietor, or manager of a factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill or workshop, commercial institution or other

7 See last citation, p. 172, sub-sections (3) and (4).

% Tbid., Sec. 120.

© Tbid., Sec. 121. :

" Tbid., p. 178, (ii), Sec. 122, sub-sections (1), (8), (5) and (6).

201
establishment or working place mentioned in this Act, or other person,
directly or indirectly interested therein or any process or business carried
on therein, or in a patent connected therewith, shall not be a certifying
physician for that factory, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop,
commercial institution or other establishment or working place meritioned
in this Act.

(3) Every certifying physician, if so directed by the Chief of the
Department, shall make any special inquiry and re-examine any young
person under the age of sixteen years, or any child, pursuant to this Act.

(4) Every certifying physician shall in each year, at a prescribed
time or times, as directed by the Department of Labor, and in the form
prescribed, make a report to the Department as to the persons inspected
and the results of the inspection.

Section 53. Such fees or compensation shall be paid certifying physi-
cians as shall hereafter be provided by law.

(iv) Notices and Registers.

Section 54.82 (1) Every owner, proprietor, manager or other com-
petent authority in charge of any factory, mercantile establishment,
mill or work shop, commercial institution, establishment or other work-
ing place mentioned in this Act, shall serve on each inspector and each
medical inspector for the inspection district in which such factory, mer-
cantile establishment, mill or work shop, commercial institution or other
establishment or working place is situated, a written notice, the name
thereof, the place where it is situated, the nature of the work, and the
nature and the amount of the moving power therein, and also the name
of the person, firm or corporation under which the business of such
factory, mercantile establishment, mill or work shop,’ commercial insti-
tution or other establishment or working place, is carried on; and shall
state the address to which mail and other communications are to be
addressed. Every such notice, when received by an inspector or medical
inspector, shall forthwith be forwarded by him to the Department.

(2)*? In case of a violation of this section, the person guilty of the
violation shall be fined not to exceed twenty-five dollars for each offense.

Section 55.°° The owner, proprietor, manager or other competent
authority of every factory, mercantile establishment, mill or work shop,
commercial institution or other establishment or working place men-
tioned in this Act, shall, on such day as the Department shall direct
in each year, send to the Department a correct return specifying, with
respect to such period, the number of persons in the factory, mercantile
establishment, mill or wofk shop, commercial institution or other estab-
lishment or working place, such particulars as to the age, sex and occu-
pation of the persons employed therein, and as to such other matters as
the Department may direct; and in default of complying with this
provision shall be liable to a fine not to exceed fifty dollars.

 

 

* Thid., p. 175, V, sub-seetions (1), (2), of Sec. 127.
® Tbid., p. 176, sub-section (1) of Sec. 130.

202
(v) Enforcement of This Act.

Section 56.°* (1) It shall be the duty of the Chief and of the
Assistant Chief of the Department and of the inspectors and medical
inspectors under the direction and supervision of the Chief of the De-
partment, to enforce the provisions of this Act, and to prosecute all
violations thereof before any magistrate or before any court of competent
jurisdiction in this State.

(2)®* It shall be the duty of the State’s Attorney of the proper
county, upon request of the Chief or the Assistant Chief of the Depart-
ment, or of any inspector or medical inspector thereof, to prose-
cute any violation of law that it is made the duty of the Chief and the
Assistant Chief of the Department and the inspectors and medical
inspectors to enforce.

(vi) Reports.

Section 57.8 (1) The Department shall report in writing to the
Governor, on the fifteenth day of December annually, the result of its
inspections and investigations, together with such other information and
recommendations as it shall deem necessary, and such further particulars
as the Governor may require; and

(2) The inspectors and medical inspectors shall make a special
investigation into the conditions of labor, or into any alleged abuses in
connection therewith, as related to the subject matter of this Act, when-
ever the Governor shall direct, and shall report the result thereof’ to
the Department, which shall thereupon make report of the same to
the Governor; and

(3) The inspectors and medical inspectors, or any of them, shall
make investigations and perform such other acts in such manner and
at such times as the Department shall direct, and shall report
the results of such investigations and of their acts in relation thereto to
the Department.

PART V.

LEGAL PROCEEDINGS.

Section 58.8° (1) If a factory, mercantile establishment, mill or
workshop, laundry, foundry, bakery, commercial institution, or other
establishment or working place mentioned in this Act, is not kept in
conformity therewith, the owner, proprietor, manager, or other com-
petent authority thereof, and in the cases mentioned in (a), (b), (c) of
section 41, Part III of this Act, the owner of the building and premises
or either of them on or in which any factory, mechanical establishment,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, laundry, foundry, bakery,

“Factory Inspection Act, 1907, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., p. 1098, See. 77,

portions only of said section. Pech
®Tbid., portions of the section last cited. z.
° Token fran English Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, 2 Butt., p. 177,
Part IX, sub-sections (1) and (2) of See. 135, and adapted to conditions here.

203
commercial institution, or other establishment or working place, is situ-
ated, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars, and in
case of a second or subsequent offense not less than twenty-five dollars

for each offense. -

(2) Any Justice of the Peace or court of competent jurisdiction
that has under the law jurisdiction of the person or persons and subject
matter of this section may, in the cases provided for in subsection (1)
of this section, in addition to or instead of imposing a fine, order such
means to be adopted by the person fined and any other person or persons,
or any one or any of them, as the court may determine, that are under
legal obligation to comply with the provisions of this Act with respect
to the subject matter of the offense, within the period named in the
order, for the purpose of bringing the factory, mercantile establishment,
mill or workshop, laundry, foundry, bakery, commercial institution, or
other establishment or working place named in said subsection, into con-
formity with this-Act, the Court may on application enlarge the time
so named; but if, after the expiration of the time originally named and
enlarged by a subsequent order, the order is not complied with, the per-
son convicted and any other person or persons, or any one or any of
them, named in said order shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five
dollars for every day in which non-compliance continues.

Section 59.87 (1) In case of an offense in which the owner, pro-
prietor, manager, or other competent authority of any factory, mechan-
ical establishment, mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, laundry,
foundry, bakery, commercial institution, or other establishment or work-
ing place, or for which the owner of the building or buildings and prem-
ises, or either of them, of such establishment or working place aforesaid,
is liable under this Act to a fine, has in fact been. committed by an agent,
servant, employee or other person, that agent, servant, employe or other
person shall be liable to a fine as if he were the owner, proprietor, man-
ager, or other competent authority thereof, or of the owner of the build-
ing or buildings and premises, or either of them, as aforesaid.

Section 60.8% (1) In case the owner, proprietor, manager, or other
competent authority of any factory, mercantile establishment, mill or
workshop, laundry, foundry, bakery, commercial institution, or other
establishment or working place, or owner of the building or buildings
and premises, or either of them, on or in which any of the before named
establishments or working places are situated, is charged with an offense
against this Act, he shall be entitled, upon complaint duly made by him,
to have any other person or persons that he charges as the actual offender
or offenders brought before the court at the time appointed for the hear-
ing of the charge; and if, after the commission of the offense has been
proved, the said owner, proprietor, manager, or other competent author-
ity, or the owner of the building or buildings and premises, or either of
them aforesaid as the case may be, originally charged with such offense,
proves to the satisfaction of the court:

*Tbid., p. 179, See. 140.
* Ibid., p. 180, Sec. 141, sub-section (1) (a), (b) and sub-section (2).

204
(a) That he has used due diligence to enforce the execution of this
Act; and

(b) That the said other person or persons had committed the offense
in question without his knowledge, consent or connivance,
that other person or those other persons shall be convicted of
the offense, and the owner, proprietor, manager, or other

: competent authority aforesaid, or the owner of the building
or buildings and premises, or either of them, as the case may
‘be, as aforesaid, shall be exempt from any fine. The person
so convicted shall, in the discretion of the court, also be
liable to pay any costs incidental to the proceeding.

PART VI.

SUPPLEMENTARY,

(t) Applications and Definitions.

Section 61.°° (1) Subject to the provisions of this section, the fol-
lowing words and expressions have in this act the meanings assigned fo
them, that is to say:

(a) Bakery. The word “bakery” in this Act shall include all build-
ings, rooms, or places in which bread, biscuits, pies, crackers,
cakes, and other articles usually manufactured therein, and
confectionery, are made or manufactured; and all buildings,
rooms, or places in which said articles are kept for sale.

(b) Child. A person is a “child,” in the meaning of this Act, until
he or she has completed his or her fourteenth year.

(c) Commercial Institution. “Commercial Institution,” in the mean-
ing of this Act, is any place or premises where articles are
bought and sold or either, stored or kept for use, not a “mer-
cantile establishment” as defined in this Act.

(d) Factory. “Factory,” in the meaning of this Act, is any place
or premises wherein or whereon electricity, steam, water or
other mechanical power is used to move or work any ma-
chinery employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing,
or any process incident to the manufacturing of any article
or part of any article; or the altering, repairing, ornamenting
or the adapting for sale of any article.

(e) Foundry. “Foundry,” in the meaning of this Act, is any
building, works or premises on or in which the act, process
or art of casting metals is carried on.

The method of the English Act of defining terms is followed in this
section. 2 Butt., Zwent. Cent. Stats, Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, p.

183 ff (i), Sec. 149 ff.
205
(f) Gassing. “Gassing,” in the meaning of this Act, is the inhaling
of deleterious gases, especially those affecting plumbers,
tailors, conduit men, coal miners and workers at blast fur-
naces and in illuminating gas works and other similar occu-
pations.

(g) Manager. “Manager,” in the meaning of this Act, is any per-
son in charge or control of or directing the business affairs
of any factory or other business establishment or part thereof.

(h) Mercantile Establishment. The term “mercantile establish-
ment,” in the meaning of this Act, includes all concerns or
places where goods, wares, or merchandise are purchased or
sold, either at wholesale or retail.

(i) Mill or Workshop. The term “mill or workshop,” in the mean-
ing of this Act, includes any premises, room or apartment
not being a factory as above defined, wherein any labor is
exercised by way of trade or for the purpose of gain in or
incidental to any process of making, altering, preparing,
cleaning, repairing, ornamenting, finishing or adapting for
sale any article or part of any article, and to which or over
which building, premises, room or apartment, the employer
of the person employed or working therein has the right of
access or control; but said term does not apply to a private
house or private room in which manual or other labor is per-
formed by a family dwelling therein, or by any of them for
the exclusive use of the members of such family.

(j) Other Establishment or Working Place. “Other establishment
or working place,” in the meaning of this Act, is any place
or premises in or on which any occupations contemplated in
this Act are carried on, not included in the terms: factory,
mercantile establishment, mill or workshop, and any place
or premises not named in this Act and any other place or
premises when not specifically named in certain provisions
in this Act, but named in certain other provisions thereof,
to which any or all of the aforesaid places or premises the
provisions of this Act can be applied.

(k) Owner. “Owner,” in the meaning of this Act, is any person
that carries on any business or occupation in any factory,
establishment or working place under this Act, and who has
the legal or rightful title thereto. A person may at the same
time be “owner” as just defined and also “owner” of a build-
ing, buildings and premises or either, as the latter expression
is used in this Act.

(1): Proprietor. “Proprietor,’ in the meaning of this Act, is a per-
son who has the legal right or exclusive title to the business
carried on in any factory or other establishment or working
place under this Act.

(m) Young Person under the Age of Sixteen Years. A “young
person under the age of sixteen years,” in the meaning of

206
this Act, is a person that has ceased to be a “child,” as de-
fined in this Act, and has not completed his or her sixteenth
year.

(n) Young Person. A “young person,” in the meaning of this Act,
is a person that has ceased to be a young person under the
age of sixteen years, as defined in this Act, and has not
completed his or her eighteenth year.

(0) Woman. A “woman,” in the meaning of this Act, is a female
that has ceased to be a “young person,” as defined in this Act.

(2)°° A place or premises as used in this Act shall not be excluded
from the definition of a factory, mercantile establishment, mill or work-
shop, commercial institution, foundry, laundry, bakery, or other estab-
lishment or working place coming within the provisions of this Act, by
reason only of the fact that the place or the premises is or are in the
open air.

(3)** For the purposes of this Act an apprentice shall be deemed
to work for hire or wages.

Section 62.°? For the purpose of disseminating a general knowledge
of the provisions of this Act among employees, the Department of Labor
shall have prepared a notice covering the salient features of this Act,
which may be in the following form:

NOTICE TO OWNERS AND EMPLOYEES OF MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS,
FACTORIES, MILLS AND WORKSHOPS.

This notice must be posted in a conspicuous place, in every office and
room of this establishment. The object of this notice is to promote the
health, comfort and safety of employees, and requires their attention
and co-operation.

(a) The premises must be kept in a clean and sanitary condition.

(b) Ample and separate toilet facilities for each sex shall be pro-
vided, and toilet rooms must be kept clean, well ventilated
and well lighted.

(c) Food must not be taken into any room where white lead, arsenic
or other poisonous substances or gases are present under
harmful conditions.

(d) Poisonous and. noxious fumes or gases, and dust injurious to
health, arising from any process, shall be removed as far as

practicable.

The notice shall be printed on card board of suitable character, and
the type used shall be such as to make it easily legible. In addition to
English, this notice shall be printed in such other languages as may

* English Act, 2 Butt., Sec. 149, p. 184, sub-section (5).

" Tbid., p. 185, Sec. 152, sub-section (1). __ . :
119, only hase portions used that could be applied to the provisions of this draft.
o: Taken from the Health, ete., Act, 1909, Hurd’s Rev. Stats. Ill., p. 1108, Sec.

207
*

be necessary to make it intelligible to employees. Copies shall be sup-
plied by the State Department of........ on application, and must be
posted in a conspicuous place in every office and work room of every
establishment covered by the provisions of this Act.

Section 63. This Act may be cited as: THE PUBLIC HEALTH OCCU-
PATIONS ACT.°?

Section 64. All Acts or parts of Acts inconsistent with this Act are
hereby repealed.

Section 65. This Act shall come into operation on the first day of
July, of the year One Thousand Nine Hundred and Eleven.

Protective Legislation in the United States.

ATR-SPACE,

In those states having provisions relating to the subject of air-space
the number of cubic feet for each person is usually 250 cubic feet from
the hour of 6 a. m. to 6 p. m., and 400 cubic feet from the hour of 6 p. m.
to6a.m. The following states have such provisions:

Indiana: Ann. Stats. of 1894—Revis. 1901, Sec. 70870; and see
22nd Annal. Rept. of U. 8. Commissioner of Labor, 1907, Labor
Laws of the U. S., Govt. Print. Office, Washington, D. C. 1908,
C. II, p. 400.

Maryland: Code of 1903, Art. 27, Sec. 238.

Michigan: Acts of 1901, Act No. 118, Sec. 17, as amended by Act
No. 169, Acts 1907.

New Jersey: Acts of 1904, C. 64, Sec. 19.

Pennsylvania: Brightly’s Dig. 1893-1903, p. 825, Sec. 2; Acts 1905,
Act. No. 226, Sec. 13.

Wisconsin: Ann. Stats. 1898, Supplt., 1906, Sec. 1636-71, par. 4.

"Or any other title appropriate to the subject-matter of any Act framed
with the objects in view set forth in this draft, which is intended to be sug-
gestive of provisions that might be inserted ina Bill rather than as presenting
such a Bill for legislative action——Albert J. Norton.

The English Act, which has served largely as a model for the foregoing draft,
has appended to it several ‘‘Schedules,’’ with provisions relating to arbitrators,
overtime, in certain kinds of business—readings of thermometers, ete., and a
table of Acts and parts of Acts repealed. Such schedules contain many useful
regulations that, if introduced into the body of the Act, would somewhat break
up its continuity.

208
States having additional regulations:

Arizona: Laundries must afford 600 cubic feet of air to each worker
inaroom. See Legisl. Review No. 1, Am. Assn. for Labor Legis-
lation—Review of L. Legisl. of 1909, by Irene Osgood, Asst. Secy.
Am. Assn. for Labor Legisl. New York, 1910, p. 21.

New York: From 6 a. m. to 6 p. m., 250 cubic feet, and from 6 p.
m. to 6 a. m., 400 cubic feet, unless the factory inspector grants
a permit for less than 400 c. feet to each person. Rev. Stats. of
1901, 3rd ed., Sec. 85, under inspection of factories and work-
shops, p. 2102. ~
Sec. 100 (as amend. by C. 129, Acts of 1906), applying to tene-
ment house, or any part thereof, used as a factory for workers in
cloths, etc., ice cream, confectionery, nuts, etc., requires 500 cubic
feet of air-space for each person, and the whole number of per-
sons in a room is not to exceed 1 person to each 1,000 cubic feet
of air-space.

‘CLEANLINESS.

The majority of those states having provisions of law covering this
subject require that factories, etc., shall be kept as clean as the nature
of the business will permit.

The states with laws relating to the subject are given below:

Connecticut: Genl. Stats. of 1902, Sec. 4527 and 4529, relating to
“sweat-shops.” _
Genl. Stats. of 1902, Sec. 4516, relating to factories and buildings
in which machinery is used.

Iowa: Code of 1897, Supplt. of 1902, Sec. 499a.
Kentucky: Acts of 1906, C. 52, Sec. 7.
Maryland: Carroll County; Code 1903, Art. 27, Sec. 234.

Massachusetts: Rev. Laws of 1902, Sec. 41, as amend. by C. 503,
Acts of 1907.

Oregon: Acts of 1907, C. 158, Sec. 2.
Pennsylvania: Acts of 1905, Act No. 226, Sec. 18.

Tennessee: C. 401, Acts of 1899, C. 67, Acts of 1901, Supplt. p.
470, Sec. 3.

Washington: Acts of 1905, C. 84, Sec. 2.

Wisconsin: Ann. Stats. of 1898, Supplt. 1906, Acts of 1907, Sec.
1636-34.

States Having Additional Regulations :

Missouri: Provides for limewashing or painting, at least once in
every 12 months in all factories and workshops in which “dusty

209
work” is carried on where women and children are employed.
Rev. Stats. 1899, Sec. 6438.

New Jersey: Acts of 1904, C. 64, Sec. 24. Similar to law of
Missouri.

New York: Rev. Stats. of 1901, 3rd ed. p. 2106, Sec. 84.

The limewashing or painting is to be done whenever the factory
inspector thinks it conducive to the health and cleanliness of the person
working in a factory, etc.

SANITATION.

The general tenor of the provisions in the laws of those states that
have taken legislative action on the subject of sanitation in factories, etc.,
is to the effect that the premises shall be kept in a clean and sanitary
condition. Some of the states also provide that there shall be hot and
cold water for the use of employees.

Some states add to the foregoing particulars provisions that there
shall be toilets for men and women with separate approaches, and also
that they shall be screened and kept free from obscene writing and
marking.

Here follows a list of states with laws on this subject:

Connecticut: Genl. Stats. 1902, Sec. 4519—Factories. Genl. Stats.
1902, Sec. 4527, Sec. 4529; Sec. 2569 as amended by C. 13, Acts
of 1905—Sweatshops. Acts of 1905, C. 140, Sec. 1—Foundries.

Delaware: Acts of 1897, C. 452, Sec. 1, as amended by C. 452, Acts
of 1897.

Indiana: Ann. 1894, Revis. 1901, Sec. 7087j, under factories and
workshops—Inspection, etc.

Iowa: Code of 1897, Supplt. 1902, Sec. 4999a.
Kentucky: Acts of 1906, C. 53, Sec. 5.
Louisiana: Act 34 of Acts of 1906, Sec. 4.

Maine: Rev. Stats. of 1903, C. 18, Sec. 44, as amended by Acts of
1907, O. 77,

Maryland: Code of 1903, Act. 27, Sec. 234.

Massachusetts: Revis. Laws, 1902, C. 106, Sec. 4Y—Factories. Acts
of 1906, C. 250, Sec. 1—Foundries.

Michigan: Acts of 1901, Act. 113, Sec. 10, as amended by Act 169
of Acts of 1907.

Minnesota: Revis. Laws of 1905, Sec. 1818.

Missouri: Rev. Stats. 1899, Sec. 10100. Rev. Stats. 1899, Sec.
6441.

New Jersey: Acts 1904, C. 64, Sec. 23.
210
New York: Rev. Stats. 1901, Sec. 168. Rev. Stats. 1901, Sec. 88,
as amended by C. 485, Acts of 1907.

Pennsylvania: Brightly’s Dig. 1893-1903, p. 865, Sec. 21. Acts of
1905, Act No. 226, Sec. 13. Acts of 1905, Act. No. 226, Sec. 8.

Washington: Acts of 1905, C. 84, Sec. 82.
Wisconsin: Ann. 1898, Supplt. 1906, Acts of 1907, Sec. 1636-34.

States Having Additional and Exceptional Regulations:

District of Columbia: Acts of Congress, 1898, C. 8, Sec. 9. Owner
of a building in which any trade or business is carried on must
provide suitable privy accommodations for employes of each sex.
Unlawful for owner or agent or such building to put any person
In possession thereof or of any part thereof unless provided with
such accommodations.

Kentucky: Acts of 1906, C. 53, Sec. 5. Dressing rooms to be pro-
vided in factories, etc., for women and girls, where required by
the Labor Inspector.

Ohio: Bates’ Ann. Stats. 3d Ed. Sec. 4364-69. 'The owner of a
factory, etc., must provide suitable toilet rooms for women em-
ployees in the manner specified. Has regulations as to such toilets
in towns or villages that do not have a system of water works,
unless building is provided with a dry closet system.

SEATS FOR WOMEN.

The usual provisions on the subject of seats for women in mercantile
establishments, etc., are that the employer shall furnish female employes
with a sufficient and suitable number of seats and shall permit the use
of them when such employees are not necessarily engaged in the active
duties for which they are employed. In some cases the minimum number
of seats to be furnished is specified.

The laws of some states include hotels, restaurants and warehouses
in the list of establishments in which seats are to be provided.

The states having provisions of the character just indicated are

~ named below:

Alabama: Code of 1897, Sec. 5512. Code of 1907, Sec. 6857.

California: Codes and Stats. of 1885, Supplt. of 1889, Sec. 5, as
amended by C. 12, Acts of 1903.

Colorado: Mill’s Ann. of 1891, Sec. 3604.
Connecticut: Genl. Stats. of 1902, Sec. 4703.

District of Columbia: Acts of Congress, 1894 and 1895, C. 192.
Sec. 1.

Florida: Genl. Stats. 1906, Sec. 3235.

Georgia: Vol. 3, Penal Code, Div., Sec. 127.
211
Towa: Code of 1897, Supplt. 1902, Sec. 4999.

Kansas: Genl. Stats. of 1901, Sec. 3842.

Kentucky: Acts of 1906, C. 52, Sec. 6.

Louisiana: Acts of 1906, Act 34, Sec. 3.

Maryland: Code of 1903, Act 27, Sec. 14%a, as amended.
Massachusetts: Comp. Laws of 189%, Sec. 5373.
Minnesota: Rev. Laws of 1905, Sec. 1802.

Missouri: Rev. Stats. of 1899, Sec. 6443.

Nebraska: Comp. Stats. of 1881, 10th Edit. 1901, Sec. 6942c.
New Hampshire: Acts of 1895, C. 16, Sec. 1.

New Jersey: Genl. Stats. 1895, Vol. 2, p. 1675; Sec. 217.

New York: Rev. Stats. of 1901, p. 2053, Art. I, Labor. Sec. 1%,
Ibid, 170, Art XI, Labor.

Ohio: Bate’s Ann. Stats., 3d Edit., Sec. 4364-69.

VENTILATION.

The ordinary provisions on the subject of ventilation range from a
few words in the language of the statutes of some states to a specifica-
tion of considerable length in that of other states as to the methods and
devices to be used in order to secure proper protection in this respect.
The principal points are named in the following paragraph.

The premises must be kept well ventilated or sufficiently ventilated.
The longer provisions may be conveniently stated in the following
terms: In factories, etc., in which a work or process is carried on by
which dust, filaments or injurious gases are generated or produced, that
are likely to be inhaled by the employees therein, the proprietor of the
factory must provide an exhaust fan or blower and pipes, and hoods
extending therefrom to each wheel or other apparatus used to grind,
polish or buff metals; such fan or blower and pipes and hoods are to be
properly adjusted and of sufficient power. and dimensions to prevent
the dust and filaments, arising in the manner specified, from escaping
into the rooms of such factory where the employed work, and the ven-
tilation must be of such a character that the air does not become ex-
hausted and that the injurious gases, fumes or vapors generated are
rendered harmless.

The laws of those states having provisions of the kind mentioned are
cited below:

California: Codes and Stats. 1885, Supplt. of 1889, Sec. 4, as
amended by ©. 176, Acts of 1901; ibid., Sec. 2.

Connecticut: Genl. Stats., Sec. 4521.

Indiana: Ann. 1894, Revis. 190, Sec. 7087.
212
Iowa: Code 1897, Supplt. 1902, Sec. 4999e.
Maryland: Acts of 1894, C. 202, Sec. 1.
Carroll County: Code of 1903, Art. 27, Sec. 234.

Massachusetts: Acts of 1903, C. 475, Sec. 4; ibid., 1, 2, 3; Revis.
Laws of 1902, C. 106, Sec. 51.

Michigan: Acts of 1899, Act No. 202, Secs. 1, 2, 3, 4; Acts of
1901, Act No. 113, Sec. 9; Acts of 1907, Act No. 152, Sec. 3.

Minnesota: Revis. Laws of 1905, Sec. 1814.

oe Rev. Stats. of 1899, Sec. 6444; ibid., 10101, 10102; ibid.,

New Jersey: Acts of 1904, C. 64, Secs. 14, 15, 16, 17, 20.

New York: Rev. Stats. of 1901, Sec. 81 ; ibid., Sec. 86 as amended
by C 490, Acts of 1901.

Ohio: Bates’ Ann. Stats. 3d Ed. 4364-86, 4364-87, 4364-88,
4364-89.

Oregon: Acts of 1907, C. 158, Sec. 2.
Pennsylvania: Brightly’s Dig. 1893-1908, Sec. 11, Sec. 14.
Washington: Acts of 1905, C. 84, Sec. 2.

Wisconsin: Ann. Stats. 1898, Supplt. 1906, Secs. 1636-33, 1636-39,
1366-41, 1636-42, 1636-61.

ADDITIONAL AND EXCEPTIONAL REGULATIONS.

Arizona: The provision applies to laundries. Every room must
have at least two outside windows arranged so as to give a cross
current of air.—Legis. Rev. No. 1, Am. Assn. for Labor Legisl.
Rev. of L. Legisl. of 1910, etc., p. 21.

Massachusetts: The law applies to factories, etc. The water used
for humidifying shall be pure. Dept. Com. & Labor Bulletin
of the Bureau of Labor, No. 81, Mch. 1909, p. 46, Acts of 1908,
C. 325, Sec. 1.

New York: “The 1907 law regulating underground work pro-
vided for a proper head and trap doors; but the law of 1909 adds
that work in compressed air as in tunnels and caissons must be
carried on under the following conditions :

Intervals in open Rate of compres-

Air Pressure Hours Employed. air between — sion on workmen
Lbs. to the sq.inch work periods. imoutgoing locks.
Normal to 28 Ibs. 8 % hour. 3 Ibs. every two

minutes.
28 Ibs. to 36 lbs. 6, in two 3 hr. periods. 1? 86 BE
36 Ibs. to 42 Ibs.  4,intwo2hr. periods 2 ‘° 1 Ib. per min.
42 Ibs. to 46 Ibs. 3,in two 90 min.p’r’ds. 3 2 .
46 Ibs. to 50 Ibs. 2, in two 1 hr. periods. 4 ¢
50 Ibs. ++ Only in emergencies.

213
“One or more qualified medical officers must examine employes, be-
fore they begin work, after an absence of three successive days, and
again after three months’ employment. New employees may work only
half time on the first day, after which they must be re-examined.

“Any one addicted to the excessive use of intoxicants is refused
employment. The medical officer must keep a complete record of all
examinations, and must see that properly equipped dressing-rooms and
a medical lock are maintained. Minimum penalty, $250 or one year’s
imprisonment, or both. The law goes into effect Jan. 1, 1910. (C.
291.)”

See Legisl. Rev. No. 1, etc., cited above under Arizona, pp. 22, 23.

For all labor legislation in this Country, see:

Twenty-second Annual Report of the U. 8. Commission of Labor,
1907, Labor Laws of the United States, and the later Bulletins of U. S.
Bureau of Labor.

ForEIGN LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE REGULATIONS.

Note by the Secretary.

Translations have been made by the Secretary and his assistants
of relevant laws and regulations of the principal European countries, and
these have been consulted in the preparation of this Report. But they
could not be published in proper form at present, and mere extracts
would give a misleading idea of their scope and contents, therefore
all this material is omitted.

214
PHOSPHORUS

For information on one of the most serious occupational diseases we
reprint some extracts from a paper published by the Bureau of Labor:
“Phosphorus Poisoning in the Match Industry in the United States, by
John B. Andrews, Ph. D.” Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 86,
January, 1910.

INTRODUCTION.

Those who have followed the results of studies of the conditions sur-
rounding industrial employments with reference to the effect upon the
health of the employees are impressed by the possibilities of a scientific
movement to improve working conditions and reduce occupational dan-
gers. The manufacture of matches in the United States beyond any
other industry presents an opportunity to improve conditions and easily
to make a most dangerous industry entirely harmless. Peculiar to this
industry is a disease, which, without great expense, without a long strug-
gle against poverty, indifference, ignorance, and neglect, may be abso-
lutely eliminated by the prohibition of the use of white phosphorus. This
disease, known to the medical and dental professions as phosphorus
necrosis, continually threatens those who work in match factories where
poisonous phosphorus is used. The phosphorus most frequently attacks
the jaw bones, and sometimes necessitates the removal of an entire jaw
by surgical operation. A harmless substitute for the poison that is com-
mercially practicable is readily available. Why, then, do our manufac-
turers not use this substitute? Many would gladly do so, but it costs
just a little more to make the nonpoisonous matches. Competition is so
keen that a single manufacturer can not place himself at a natural dis-
advantage with his rivals in business.

In the leading countries of Europe the governments have come to the
aid of both workers and manufacturers by requiring all manufacturers
to discontinue the use of the poison. In these countries the manufac-
turers are all on an equal footing in competition and the danger of phos-
phorus poisoning is entirely eliminated (p. 32).

PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE AND PHospHoRuS POISONING.

Although complicated by modern methods and machines, the funda-
mental -processes in the manufacture of matches may be described in a
few words. The wooden match splint is prepared; the phosphorus com-
position for the head of the match is mixed; one end of the splint is
dipped into this paste; the “green” match is allowed to dry; and finally

it is boxed and wrapped.

The processes which are especially dangerous in this industry are all
those which bring the employee within range of the poisonous phos-
phorus. In the mixing, dipping, drying, and packing rooms the danger
from breathing the phosphorus fumes and from contact with the phos-
phorus is always present, although it may be much diminished by thor-
ough ventilation and by the rigid enforcement of preventive measures.
Also particles of phosphorus become attached to the hands and later are
transferred to the mouth by the employees.

215
Poisoning from phosphorus has many evil effects. Some are local,
others general. The general effect most frequently noted in cases of
chronic poisoning is anemia. The daily breathing of the air laden with
phosphorus fumes and continual contact with the particles of phosphorus
result in a gradual lowering of vitality, which in turn invites other forms
of disease. This is one of the most prevalent and most serious results
of phosphorus poisoning. But such general effects are much more diffi-
cult of actual determination, and consequently the local effects, which
are most conspicuous, receive the greater attention.

Phosphorus necrosis, the peculiar local form of the disease, is caused
by the absorption of phosphorus through the teeth or gums. The gen-
erally accepted theory is that minute particles of the poison enter, usually,
through the cavities of decayed teeth, setting up an inflammation which,
if not quickly arrested, extends along the jaw killing the teeth and bones.
The gums become swollen and purple, the teeth loosen and drop out, and
the jaw bones slowly decompose and pass away in the form of nauseating
pus, which sometimes breaks through the neck in the form of an abscess
or, if not almost continually washed out, oozes into the mouth where it
mixes with the saliva and is swallowed.

Treatment is largely preventive, but when the disease is once estab-
lished a serious surgical operation is often the only means of arresting
the process of decay. In many instances of poisoning it is necessary to
remove an entire jaw, and in several cases both jaws have been removed
at a single operation. A number of cases of necrosis have resulted in
death.

It is the awfulness of this disease and the ease with which it can be
prevented that has led many countries, where the effects of the disease
and the means for its prevention have been studied, to do away with the
disease forever.

Two kinds of phosphorus are used in the manufacture of matches.
One is the red or amorphous variety contained in the friction surface of
safety-match boxes. This, when pure, is entirely harmless. It is made
by baking in a closed vessel the poisonous or white (yellow) phosphorus,
and is consequently more expensive. The poisonous phosphorus is made
from bones, and when sold for commercial purposes is usually in the
form of sticks in appearance not unlike lemon candy. A very small
amount of this poison is sufficient to cause death.

Broadly speaking, three kinds of matches are manufactured. One is
the “safety” match, which must be struck on a prepared surface on the
box. This match contains no phosphorus and is harmless. The igniting
composition is painted on the box and contains red phosphorus which,
when pure, is nonpoisonous. Although used almost exclusively in one
or two countries of Europe, their manufacture in this country is still
very limited, and requires no more than passing comment.

The second kind of match can be struck on any ordinary rough sur-
face, and is called the “strike-anywhere” phosphorus match. This is the
familiar parlor match. As made in America, the paste for the head of
this ordinary match contains poisonous phosphorus, which is the cause
of the peculiar occupational disease, phosphorus necrosis, among workers

216
in match factories. The use of this poisonous element is now prohibited
in the leading civilized countries of the world, but no special action has
yet been taken for the protection of working people in this country.*

The third variety of match also possesses the desirable quality of
striking anywhere, and is at the same time nonpoisonous. This is the
strike-anywhere match, now manufactured and used in those countries
where public sentiment has been sufficiently aroused to prohibit the use
of the white phosphorus in match making. In France, where the sub-
stitute for white phosphorus was discovered and where it was first used,
the match business has been a government monopoly for more than twenty
years, and as such threw upon the government the burden of bearing the
human loss resulting from the peculiar hazards of the industry. French
government officials noticed that the profit they had hoped to receive
from this business was rapidly drawn away in the form of compensation
for sickness and death from phosphorus poisoning. Experts were set to
work to find a substitute for the poisonous element, and they found it in
the sesquisulphide of phosphorus. For twelve years, in France, this
substance has been successfully employed, and its use has been extended
to several other countries, which have absolutely prohibited the manu-
facture, importation, and sale of matches made from white phosphorus.
(Pp. 39-42.)

DESCRIPTION OF FACTORY AT

This factory was established seven years ago. Square-end parlor
matches are made. The mixing of the chemicals used in making com-
position of heads for matches is done in a small detached building. The
dipping, drying, and the packing and wrapping are done in separate
rooms.

 

, ILLINOIS.

The dipping room has five machines, which operate automatically.
They consist, essentially, of a series of wheels over which a continuous
belt travels. This belt is made of about 800 plates joined together. Hach
plate has 600 perforations—that is, twelve rows of 50 each. At one point

in its transit each plate passes in front of a hopper, into which the trays

of splints are emptied. An automatic punch strikes the splints, forcing
them into the ‘holes in the plate. This punch operates at the rate of
from 225 to 250 times per minute. As the belt moves, each plate, with
its load of splints, passes over a vat of molten paraffine, into which the
splints are dropped to a depth of about one-quarter of an inch.

A little beyond the paraffine vat is the composition pot. This contains
the material which forms the striking head of the match. The paraffined
splints are coated at one end with this composition by means of slowly
revolving rollers, which bring up an even amount of composition. For
the ordinary parlor match one dipping is sufficient. For the so-called

1At the time of this investigation only one State—Ohio—had any specific
provision restricting the employment of children in match factories. More recently
several other States—New York, Pennsylvania and Oklahoma—have endeavored to
prevent employers from using children of tender years in match manufacture, but
the administration of these provisions offers no adequate protection for older
workers. In one State visited the chief factory inspector or his chief clerk were
unaware of the existence of two match factories in their State, although the fac-

tories were not new.
217
double-tipped matches there is a second composition pot, with a different
kind of material, into which the tip of the match is dipped.

After dipping, the matches traverse a distance of about 250 feet
before they again return to their starting point. Just before reaching the
splint hopper the matches are automatically punched out of the plates,
falling on a moving belt, which carries them to the packers. The packers
are all women, who place the matches in paper boxes holding from 120 to
1,000 each. One machine is fitted with an automatic packing device.
The boxes are fed into the machine and come out filled, the packing in
this case requiring only the putting on of the cover. After the matches
have been packed, the boxes are wrapped in packages of one dozen and
placed in wooden cases.

The ventilation is by the windows and doors only. On first entering
the room the agent’s eyes were considerably irritated and kept smarting
for some time. It was observed that the eyes of the employees in the
dipping room appeared to be sore and irritated.

Fumes are noticeable in all of the working rooms. In the dipping
and drying room, fumes from the composition and from the burnt or
burning matches were strong. So hazy is the air at times from smoke
from the burning matches that one can scarcely see objects 10 feet off.
There are no appliances for removing the fumes.

Washing accommodations are poor and facilities are insufficient. The
only provision for washing is a faucet in the yard.

Before employing any person in any of the rooms where they are liable
to be affected by the chemicals used, the company requires an examina-
tion of the individual’s teeth by its dentist. No one is employed unless
the dentist certifies the teeth to be in good condition. While the company
pays for the examination, the employee must pay for any necessary dental
work. There are also quarterly examinations of the employees’ teeth by
the dentist. If it is found that anyone’s teeth are in need of treatment,
such person is not permitted to return to work until afer having had the
defects attended to.

The agent observed that the lunch boxes were kept in the workrooms
and that practically all of the employees ate their lunches in the factory.

The manager stated that in the seven years since this plant was estab-
lished one serious case of necrosis had developed. The individual in
question was an experienced employee who had worked in the mixing
room for a number of years (p. 139).

British Waite PuospHorus Marcues Prouisrrion Act, 1908.

_ Chapter 42. An act to prohibit the manufacture, sale, and importa-
tion of matches made with white phosphorus, and for other purposes in
connection therewith. (December 21, 1908.)

1. (a) It shall not be lawful for any person to use white phos-
phorus in the manufacture of matches, and any factory in which white
phosphorus is so used shall be deemed to be a factory not kept in con-
formity with the Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, and that act shall
apply accordingly.

218
(b) The occupier of any factory in which the manufacture of
matches is carried on shall allow an inspector under the Factory and
Workshop Act, 1901, at any time to take for analysis sufficient samples
of any material in use or mixed for use, and, if he refuses to do so, shall
Ns ae of obstructing the inspector in the execution of bis duties under

at act:

Provided, that the occupier may, at the time when the sample is
taken, and on providing the necessary appliances, require the inspector
to divide the sample so taken into two parts and to mark, seal and
deliver to him one part.

2. It shall not be lawful for any person to sell or to offer or expose
for sale or to have in his possession for the purposes of sale any matches
made with white phosphorus, and, if any person contravenes the provi-
sions of this section, he may, on complaint to a court of summary juris-
diction, be ordered to forfeit any such matches in his possession, and any
matches so forfeited shall be destroyed or otherwise dealt with as the
court may think fit, but this provision shall not come into operation as
respects any retail dealer until the Ist day of January, 1911.

3. It shall not be lawful to import into the United Kingdom matches
made with white phosphorus, and matches so made shall be included
amongst the goods enumerated and described in the table of prohibitions
and restrictions contained in section forty-two of the Customs Consoli-

“dation Act, 1876.

4. (a) Any person who is manufacturing or proposing to manu-
facture matches by way of trade may present a petition to the Board of
Trade, praying for the grant of a compulsory license to use any process
patented at the passing of this act for the manufacture of matches with-
out white phosphorus, other than matches intended to strike only on a
surface specially prepared for the purpose.

(b) The Board of Trade, after considering any representations that
may be made by the patentee, as defined by the Patents and Designs Act,
1907, and any person claiming an interest in the patent as exclusive
licensee or otherwise, and, after consultation with the secretary of state,
may order the patentee to grant a license to the petitioner on such terms
as the board may think just. The provisions of the Board of Trade
Arbitrations, etc., Act., 1874, shall apply to proceedings under this sec-
tion as if this act were a special act within the meaning of that act.

c) An order of the board directing the grant of a license under
this section shall, without prejudice to any other method of enforcement,
operate as if it were embodied in a deed granting a license and made
between the petitioner and the patentee and such other persons claiming
an interest in the patent as aforesaid.

5. (a) This act may be cited as the White Phosphorus Matches
Prohibition Act, 1908, and shall, except as otherwise expressly provided,
come into operation on the 1st day of January, 1910.

(b) For the purposes of this act the expression “white phosphorus”
means the substance usually known as white or yellow phosphorus”

(p. 145).
219
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