ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY AL CORNELL UNIVERSITY iii The University of the State of New York New York State Museum Joun M. Crarxe, Director Memoir 12 BIRDS OF NEW YORK BY ELON HOWARD EATON Part 2 GENERAL CHAPTERS; LAND BIRDS PAGE Introductory note a 8 Bird ecology - - PAGE Private preserves - - 59 Description of genera and species - 61 The economic value of birds 46 | Addendum: New York bird history The status of our bird laws 51 since 1910 - - 542 Special measures for increasing bird life 52 | Explanations of plates - - 545 Bird refuges - - - 58 | Index - - - - - - 673 ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK IQI4 1917 1926 1915 1922 1918 1921 1923 1924 1925 1919 1920 “1916 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of the University With years when terms expire St Cuate MeKeuwav M.A. LL.D. D.C.L,. L.H.D. Chancellor - Puny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Vece Chancellor ALBERT VANDER Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. 2 Cuester S. Lorp M.A. LL.D. - 7 Wiciiam Notrincuam M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. « Francis M. CarpenTER AsraM I. Erxus LL.B. D.C.L. S ADELBERT Moot 5 Cuarues B. ALExANDER M.A. LL.B. LL.D. Litt. D. Joun Moore - - Anprew J. Suipman M.A. LL. B. LL. Waurer Guest Kewuoce B.A. 7 - President of the University and Commissioner of Education jouw H.. Finney M.A. LD, Assistant Commissioners Brooklyn Palmyra Albany New York Syracuse Mount Kisco New York Buffalo Tuxedo Elmira New York Ogdensburg Avueustus S. Downine M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. For Higher Education Cuarves F,. Wueevock B.S. LL.D. For Secondary Education Tuomas E. Finecan M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. For Elementary Education Director of State Library James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. Director of Science and State Museum Joun M. Crarkxe Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. Chiefs of Divisions Administration, Grorce M. Wirey M.A. Attendance, James D. SuLLivan Educational Extension, WiLL1am R. Watson B.S. Examinations, Hartan H. Horner B.A. History, James A. Houpen B.A. Inspections, Frank H. Woop M.A. Law, Frank B, Gitpert B.A. Library School, Frank K. Wa ter M.A. M.L.S. Public Records, Tuomas C. QuINN School Libraries, SHERMAN Wituiams Pd.D. Statistics, Hiram C. Case Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. Agsrams Ph.B. Vocational Schools, ArrHur D. Dean B.Sc. INTRODUCTORY NOTE The first volume of this work was communicated for publication in 1908 and was distributed to the people of this State and to the general scientific public in 1910. It was the expectation that volume 1 would be immediately followed by another volume which would afford descriptive accounts, with necessary illustrations, of the land birds of New York, but this purpose has been obstructed by the regrettable illness of the author. Students of the birds interested in this work will, therefore, understand the reason for the apparent long delay in the completion of this under- taking. With the presentation of this volume 2, the entire field, as originally planned for the work, is covered, and there are excellent reasons for feeling that the unavoidable delay has, in some regards, increased the real value of the present book, as it has afforded opportunity for the preparation of chapters of a more general import, particularly bearing upon the relations of the bird life of the State to human concerns. JoHN M. CLARKE Director The University of the State of New York New York State Museum Joun M. Crarxe, Director Memoir 12 BIRDS OF NEW YORK BY ELON HOWARD EATON PART 2 BIRD ECOLOGY It is evident that any comprehensive scheme for the protection of bird life, the increase of valuable species or the introduction of new ones, must proceed on sound principles of bird ecology, or the relationship of birds to their environment, and their ability to adapt themselves to new conditions as they arise. It is not our purpose in this short chapter to discuss the reaction to environment which resulted in the development of the bird’s wing and feathers or its numberless other structures which fit the various species of birds for life in their chosen spheres, but rather to consider those general principles of ecology which show the relationship of our different species of birds, first, to their natural environment as it existed in primeval times, and second, to the changed environment which obtains throughout the greater portion of the State at the present day. It is so often thought to be merely a question of the protection of birds from boys, gunners, cats and hawks which is necessary to insure their proper abundance that a consideration of the subject of ecology seems 5 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM absolutely necessary at the present time in order to explain the probable reasons why some birds are abundant in various sections of the State and others are fast disappearing; and to suggest reasonable means of encouraging desirable birds to increase in our domains. FUNDAMENTAL Factors OF ENVIRONMENT Climatic. Of the natural factors which influence the bird life of any part of the world, those due to the climate are undoubtedly of foremost importance. Among these is light, the effect of which may be illustrated by reference to owls, goatsuckers and woodcocks, which feed mostly by night or in the twilight, and in the daytime must hide away in hollows or dark portions of the forest. To a less extent the influence of this factor is observed in those forest species such as many thrushes and wood warb- lers whose eyes are noticeably larger than those of their relatives which live in more open surroundings, and unquestionably the intensity of light affects their nervous equilibrium to such an extent that it even determines their presence or absence in a given locality, apart from all other factors. Temperature has usually been considered the most important climatic factor and is the principal one taken into account by the United States Biological Survey in mapping the distribution of animals in America. As illustrations of this factor, it is frequently evident when surveying a ravine in central New York or when approaching the outskirts of the Adirondacks, that such species as the Junco, Canada warbler and Hermit thrush will frequently be present or absent according as the average temperature varies 2 or 3 degrees during the six hottest weeks of summer. Of very great importance is the humidity, which is largely dependent upon temperature and, with it, regulates the distribution of many species. As direct examples of this factor, the author has become convinced that such birds as the Wood thrush and the Hooded warbler are usually found in a denser cover than some of their allies merely because the percentage of humidity is higher in the coverts where they are found than in other localities which, by the casual observer, might be considered equally con- BIRDS OF NEW YORK 7 genial to them, and because of the humidity, the rate of evaporation from their bodies is proportionately reduced. In the hard wood tract described on page 27, it was noticeable that as the lower thickets disappeared by growth of the taller poles, the amount of humidity within ten feet of the ground was perceptibly lower, so that it undoubtedly was not only the lack of favorable nesting sites, but the slight change in humidity acting with it, which caused the Hooded warbler and the Wood thrush to disappear. Conversely, on many bushy hillsides, if the atmosphere is comparatively dry, the Field sparrows, chewinks and thrashers will be in evidence. In damper thickets yellowthroats and Yellow-billed cuckoos will appear, undoubtedly attracted not primarily by the edaphic condition but by the humidity of the bush stratum which lies just above the ground. Another climatic factor of great import is rainfall, which affects the forest growth; but apart from its influence upon vegetation and thus upon bird life, it is also a direct factor when flooding marshes and destroying the nests with eggs and young, or when beating down nests directly from their support, and sometimes even destroying the full-grown birds them- selves,! and by the destruction of migrating birds, often observed, while crossing the sea or large lakes. When the rain is dense enough birds frequently lose their bearing and fly headlong into the water without realizing the direction they are taking. Ice and snow are also factors worthy of consideration as they frequently cover the food of many species during the winter season. In this way Quail are frequently winterkilled, and in the early spring meadowlarks and Savannah sparrows in western New York may often be observed in severe straits during the days of late March and early April. Many species during an extensive ice storm or snow storm are in danger of starvation. In the winter of 1895, as elsewhere noted, the Bluebird was nearly exterminated by continued ice storms in its winter home and its numbers were again decimated by the severe winter of Ig11-12. During a severe 1Great numbers of sparrows killed in Providence by cold rain and sleet (Bumpus, Wood’s Hole Biological Lectures 1898, p. 24). 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM snowstorm millions of longspurs were destroyed in Minnesota (see page 56, volume 1). Winds are also a climatic factor of effective influence not only in determining the humidity and the rainfall of a region, but also because of their influence upon migrating birds. Asan example note the destruction of warblers, beaten into the sea by severe head winds while crossing the Gulf of Mexico, mentioned by Frazar (Henshaw, Nutt. Orn. Club Bul. 6, 189). Every bird student may also recall numerous instances of nests and young birds blown down and destroyed by high winds. Other climatic factors, such as hail and electricity, might also be mentioned, and the illustrations given might be multiplied indefinitely, but we trust that those cited will serve to show that these various factors act directly upon the physiological nature of the bird and thus serve to control its abundance, or even its very presence in a given locality. Physiographic factors. The wrinkling and sculpturing of the earth’s surface into great or small land masses, mountains, ravines, valleys, flood plains, marshes, streams, lakes, sounds and seas, thereby determining the slope of the land and the influence of the sun’s rays upon it, all have great influence upon the avifauna of a region. It is evident that they control many of the climatic factors, especially the latitude and altitude determin- ing the temperature and the humidity, and the latter is controlled also by the nearness to the sea and the presence of streams or underground water on the slopes of ravines and hillsides. The various statements made in the chapter on distribution in volume I, illustrate the influence of mountains or altitude upon the various zones of bird life within the State. The effect of ravines is well displayed in central and western New York where many Canadian species are often found on the south side of ravines which are not exposed so directly to the sun’s rays, whereas on the north margin of the same ravine Alleghanian and Carolinian species usually predominate. The influence of streams and bodies of water is clearly illustrated by their effect on the presence of such species as kingfishers, herons, ducks and shore birds. Marshes are BIRDS OF NEW YORK 9 indispensable to the presence of rails, bitterns and numerous species ‘which belong to their community. Rocky cliffs determine the nesting site of Duck hawks and murres. Thus it might be shown that the physi- ography of every locality attracts its own characteristic bird life. Soil factors. The character of the soil, whether it is wet or dry, must not be neglected while making a study of bird ecology; and the material of its composition, whether rock, gravel, sand, clay, loam, marl, muck or peaty ooze; also its richness in mineral ingredients such as lime, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates etc. These edaphic conditions influence bird life mainly through their control of vegetation and so affect the breeding and feeding habitats of numerous species. Some are more directly affected, such as the Bank swallows, woodcocks, and snipes which can not breed or find their food supply except in proper soil. Biotic factors. Under this heading must be considered first, plants as furnishing nesting sites, food and shelter, and also as controlling the light, heat, humidity, and through the heat and humidity the rate of evaporation which is of great importance in determining the presence of various species of animals in a given habitat. The effect of vegetation upon the nesting site is illustrated in the case of all arboreal species which decline directly in proportion to the deforestation of a region, and of the thicket community which is very quickly affected by pasturing or the clearing of hillsides and swamps. [Illustrating the important effect upon various species by certain kinds of vegetation, I noticed that in 1880 the Purple finch appeared as a common breeding species in the village of Spring- ville at the same time with the growth of numerous spruce and cedar trees which were planted by residents in their dooryards. When these became of a height from ten to twenty feet they were invariably utilized by the finch as breeding sites. Everyone has noticed the influence of the American elm upon the abundance of the Baltimore oriole, which, although it breeds also in various other kinds of trees, succeeds much more often in rearing its young when it chooses the drooping branches of an elm. In driving across the country in springtime everyone must have noticed that colonies Io NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Bronzed grackles are almost always found about dooryards and road- sides where groups of spruces or pine trees are growing. Thus, if carefully studied, a large percentage of our native birds will be found to choose a preferred site for nesting. Plants as affecting the food directly are of most importance, of course, in the case of frugivorous and granivorous species such as the Grouse, Bobwhite and Sparrow which will not be abundant in any district unless their favorite food can be found. Striking examples of the influence of food are frequently noticed; a crop of mountain ash berries attracts flocks of Cedar birds and Pine grosbeaks. Large beds of vallisneria in the central lakes, of recent years have attracted flocks of redheads and canvasbacks, sometimes hundreds and thousands, during the early winter. The Ruffed grouse is frequently observed traveling long distances in the winter to feed on the buds of birch and apple trees. Unless its coverts contain a suffi- cient admixture of such species upon which it can feed in winter it will rapidly disappear. A crop of cones in spruce or pine trees frequently attracts flocks of crossbills in winter or early spring, and a field of lettuce or dandelions will bring large numbers of goldfinches to feed on the seeds. Plants are also of great importance as shelter for birds apart from their use as nesting sites, and apart from furnishing food. They afford a refuge from enemies as well as from storms and the heat of the sun. Everyone has seen sparrows and other birds scurrying to the shrubbery when disturbed in the open field or when pursued by hawks or cats. When grouse are frightened they seek either the dense thicket or trees as a refuge, the former when pursued by hawks and the latter when pursued by dogs or foxes. During the migration season one must look for transient birds on the leeward side of the woods during wind storms. Here they are often found feeding at leisure, while on the windy side few or none are observed. Once while seeking refuge beneath a dense maple from an approaching thunder shower, I observed a small company of goldfinches come diving into the tree and arrange themselves so that BIRDS OF NEW YORK II each was protected as by an umbrella under the overhanging leaves near the top of the twig selected for its perch. Everyone has noticed how rapidly the birds disappear during a severe storm, each seeking its proper refuge and almost without exception this refuge is some kind of vegetation. The importance of a shelter from the heat of the sun is illustrated by the actions of mother robins and other birds when the sun shines directly upon their nestlings. Then they stand on the edge of the nest and shade the birds with their outstretched wings. In a similar way the older birds themselves are affected by the extreme heat of midday. As everyone knows, the time to go birding is in the morning or in. the afternoon. During the middle of the day the birds are quiet and a greater portion of them are hidden away in the shadows of the trees and shrubs. During the hottest days of midsummer one may often notice our common birds standing with drooping wings and open mouths within the shade of the foliage seeking to avoid the overheating due to the direct rays of the sun. Under biotic factors must also be classed the various animals which affect the bird as a part of its environment, either food, allies or enemies. As food it is evident that all carnivorous, piscivorous and insectivorous species will necessarily be present or absent according as their favorite food may be found. One may not seek for Belted kingfishers in the midst of a plain, nor for insectivorous birds over the middle of the lake or sea. During the winter of 1901 meadow mice were very abundant in the fields of western New York, and the Rough-legged hawk, their principal enemy, appeared in abundance. The withdrawing of water from the Erie canal left large numbers of small fish stranded in the wide waters of eastern Rochester, and immediately great numbers of Herring and Ring-billed gulls appeared and remained there until the fish were devoured. During the migration seasons of 1911 and I912 the author noticed an unusual number of warblers of eleven species frequenting a group of beech trees on a tree-covered campus in Geneva, and on investigation discovered that this group of trees was infested with an innumerable swarm of plant lice upon which the birds were feeding. Other groups of trees which I2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM looked equally attractive to the casual observer had no warblers among their branches. These illustrations easily indicate the relationship between food and the abundance of a species, but it must be borne in mind that similar relationships are all the while at work governing the abundance of birds when the exact cause is not manifest to the observer. As allies, some animals affect slightly the abundance of species. Undoubtedly the Kingbird assists the Yellow warbler and other birds in escaping from the depredations of hawks and crows when nesting in the same orchard, and the various little associations observed, such as the Downy woodpecker, Nuthatch, Chicadee, Creeper and Kinglet coterie, have a real-cause for their existence other than the desire for mutual companionship. The most evident cause of the disappearance of birds, to the casual observer, is the enemy factor. Under the head of enemies must be classed all beasts and birds of prey, rivals and parasites. To illustrate theinfluence of these factors, it is often observed by bird students that a single pair of Sharp-shinned hawks will destroy nearly every song bird in the wood where they are nesting, and a cat which has discovered a brood of bob- whites will return to their range and follow the birds until every chick has been destroyed. In the same way the cat destroys the broods of numerous birds which nest in the garden and dooryard, and the parasitic Cowbird which lays her egg in the nest of a small warbler or sparrow thereby destroys the entire brood of the other bird. To illustrate the influence of rivalry, we might mention the effect of the English sparrow upon the martins and bluebirds. By continually occupying their nesting sites it is gradually forcing these birds more and more from our dooryards, and, unless the martins and bluebirds are assisted, they will finally be driven from the immediate vicinity of our homes. I have also observed that the Wren frequently picks holes in the Bluebird’s eggs, and thus destroys one of her rivals in the race for food. The problem of food rivalry is rather complex, but unquestionably is very often of a determining influence in governing the abundance of various species. Parasites must BIRDS OF NEW YORK 13 also be regarded as enemies of the birds, especially the bird-lice which frequently destroy whole broods of phoebes and swallows, and seriously impair the vitality of others. Internal parasites are also a source of great harm. During one afternoon in the’summer of 1900, the author picked up forty terns on the Weepecket islands which had died from the effect of flat-worms growing within the intestine. Thus various kinds of parasites frequently sap the vitality of birds or destroy them altogether. The various factors enumerated work together to make up the bird’s environment. By a combination of favorable factors, as opposed to the unfavorable ones in any given locality, the balance may be turned to the bird’s advantage, so that it may increase like the English sparrow in America. If the natural influences which are unfriendly to the presence of a bird overbalance the favorable factors, it is useless to expect the species to increase. The factors which naturally produce a favorable environment for it must be induced artificially if the species is to be encouraged. A thorough study of the ecologic status of the birds which societies or individuals wish to encourage in a given locality, should be made when any action is taken either to introduce or to encourage the species and by , varying those factors which are of the greatest importance to produce a favorable environment they may finally be successfully encouraged. Brrp HABITATS For ecological purposes, birds are properly classified according to the nesting habitats which they occupy, but for various reasons these do not always agree with the places chosen for the birds’ other life activities, and it is necessary, for purposes of general discussion, to recognize also the feeding habitat. This is different from the breeding habitat of all truly aerial and aquatic species, of which we have a goodly number. All our diving birds, gulls and waterfowl must necessarily make their nests on shore and are usually classified according to the habitat which they utilize for that purpose; but in many of the species, especially the diving ducks, grebes and loons, the food is almost entirely pursued and taken 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in the water. In the aerial feeding habitat we notice such species as the Nighthawk, Whippoorwill, swifts and swallows; and, to a certain degree, - the flycatchers, waxwings, the Red-headed woodpecker, warblers, kinglets and even many species of sparrows. Of our land birds, likewise, many that are arboreal in nesting habits are eminently terrestrial in their feeding, such as the crows, grackles, robins, and, to a certain extent, many species which normally feed in trees or shrubbery, as they frequently alight upon the ground to capture their prey; and others like the Bluebird and Red- headed woodpecker which frequently take their food from the ground although watching for it from more elevated stations. Many species like the herons are arboreal in nesting habits but seek their food in the marshes and streams and lake shores. Some species of ducks that feed in the open water or in the marsh make their nests in hollow trees. Thus the feeding habitat must be recognized in considering the landscape which should be most advantageous to a species, as well as the breeding habitat which is necessary for its increase. Likewise, the refuge habitat is of importance in this connection, for many birds will not appear even in migration time unless their proper refuge is at hand to protect them both from their enemies and from the * wind or rain or sunshine. Everyone has noticed that many species of waterfowl which feed in the shallows or marshes make their refuge habitat on the wide waters of lakes and bays, or even the ocean, and that birds like the Blackbird, Robin and Swallow, that feed in the open field and scatter widely during the nesting season, unite to seek a safe refuge for roosting purposes, often congregating in immense numbers to pass the night or to combine against their enemies. The importance of the refuge habitat is more noticeable in the case of granivorous species than others, for they necessarily seek their food largely in the fields, and yet most of them do not roost or nest in the field, and, if disturbed while feeding, will quickly seek the friendly shelter of shrubbery or dense foliage. This is particularly noticeable in the case of sparrows and juncos during the migrating season. Scores of them may be feeding in the open field, but BIRDS OF NEW YORK 15 if any one approaches, or' if a dog runs toward them, they immediately rise and follow each other in succession to the shelter of the thickets. These shelter or refuge habitats are of particular importance in the case of game birds, as all sportsmen know, for it is in the best cover that they search for the Grouse, Pheasant and Bobwhite. The various nesting habitats are enumerated in connection with the bird communities which inhabit them. NESTING SITES OF NEW YORK BIRDS For ecological purposes it is necessary to determine the nesting habitat and exact nesting site of birds in order to classify them properly. In recording the nesting site, we might arrange our birds according to the strata or layers or stories which they occupy, as follows: Subterranean stratum. In this are included the Kingfisher, Bank swallow, Rough-winged swallow and occasionally the English sparrow when usurping the nesting holes of Bank swallows. Ground stratum. Here are found all the birds which place their nests directly upon the ground, such as the Loon, Herring gull (on rocks), Mallard, Black duck, Blue-winged teal, Woodcock, Bertramian sandpiper, Killdeer, Piping plover (sand or pebbles), Bobwhite, Ruffed grouse, Pheasant, Mourning dove (occasionally), Duck hawk (on rocky ledges), Nighthawk, Whippoorwill, Prairie horned lark, Bobolink, Cowbird (in Song sparrow’s nest, etc.), Meadowlark, Vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, Grasshopper sparrow, Song sparrow (usually), Field sparrow (usually), Junco, Towhee (usually), Black and white warbler, Canada warbler, Worm- eating warbler, Nashville warbler, Blue-winged warbler (occasionally), Ovenbird, Kentucky warbler, Brown thrasher (frequently), Wilson thrush, and Hermit thrush. Here also might be included those species which nest on the oozy ground or grass or moss of marshes, such as the Pied-billed grebe, Black tern, American bittern, King rail, Sora rail, Virginia rail, Florida gallinule, Coot, Wilson snipe, Marsh hawk and Short-eared owl. Also those species whose nests are usually placed in mossy banks or moss- 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM covered logs and in the roots of trees, like the Yellow-bellied fly-catcher, White-throated sparrow, Junco, Water thrush and Louisiana water thrush. Herb stratum. Here are included those species whose nests are usually placed in tussocks of grass or flags or among tangles of ferns and weeds. Many species which nest habitually upon the ground or in thickets are frequently found nesting in this stratum, but its most characteristic representatives are the Least bittern, Red-winged blackbird, Sharp-tailed sparrow, Seaside sparrow, Swamp sparrow, Song sparrow, Blue-winged warbler, Golden-winged warbler, Mourning warbler, Maryland yellow- throat, Short-billed marsh wren and Long-billed marsh wren. Thicket stratum. In this are included all birds which usually nest in bushes or in small saplings, usually in tangles dn the borders of woods and in the undergrowth of the forest. The nests are usually placed from one to eight feet above the ground. The characteristic representatives of this story are the Yellow-billed cuckoo, Black-billed cuckoo, Alder flycatcher, Cowbird, Rusty blackbird, American goldfinch (often in trees), Field sparrow (frequently on the ground), Song sparrow (later broods), Cardinal, Indigo bird, Migrant shrike (often in low trees), White-eyed vireo, Yellow warbler (frequently in trees), Chestnut-sided warbler, Prairie warbler, Black-throated blue warbler, Myrtle warbler and Blackpoll warbler (in low spruces), Maryland yellowthroat (occasionally on the ground), Yellow-breasted chat, Hooded warbler, Redstart (occasionally), Catbird, Brown thrasher (sometimes on ground), Olive-backed thrush. I was surprised to note how few species had been entered under this stratum, because it seemed to me it would include by far the most of all the strata enumerated, but this impression is undoubtedly due to the fact that the layer is so frequently invaded by both terrestrial and by arboreal species which belong more characteristically in the lower tree stratum. Lower tree stratum. Iti this are included those birds that do not require so dense a covert for the nesting site as the thicket stratum, but prefer a moisture habitat in which the rate of evaporation is lower than in the tree-top story which follows. They are characteristically the BIRDS OF NEW YORK 17 birds of the shaded or lower branches of forests and groves, placing their nests from 5 to 35 feet above the ground. Here we might include the Green heron, Mourning dove, Sharp-shinned hawk, Ruby-throated humming bird, Kingbird, Wood pewee, Green-crested flycatcher, Least flycatcher, Bluejay, Orchard oriole, Purple finch, Goldfinch, Chipping sparrow, Rose- breasted grosbeak, Scarlet tanager, Cedar waxwing, Red-eyed vireo, Blue-headed vireo, Parula warbler, Magnolia warbler, Black-throated green warbler, Redstart, Golden-crowned kinglet, Wood thrush, Robin. Higher tree stratum or tree-top story. Many species included in the former story frequently invade the higher portions of the trees, especially trees which have not reached their maximum height in the forest; but as building more characteristically in this layer we might mention the Great blue heron, Black-crowned night heron, Cooper hawk, Goshawk, Red-tailed hawk, Red-shouldered hawk, Broad-winged hawk, Bald eagle, Fish hawk, Long-eared owl, Barred owl (occasionally), Great horned owl (frequently), Olive-sided flycatcher, Raven, Crow, Fish crow, Baltimore oriole, Purple grackle, Bronzed grackle, Crossbill, Siskin, Warbling vireo, Yellow-throated vireo, Cerulean warbler, Blackburnian warbler, Pine warbler. Birds nesting in hollow trees. These species might have been included in the last two strata enumerated, but as it.is of more importance to recognize them as birds nesting in hollows or woodpecker holes, they are placed under this separate heading. In it are included the American merganser, Hooded merganser, Wood duck, Golden eye, Duck hawk (very rarely), Sparrow hawk, Long-eared owl (occasionally), Barred owl (usually), Saw-whet owl, Screech owl, Great horned owl (frequently), Chimney swift (rarely at the present day), Crested flycatcher, Bronzed grackle (occasionally), Song sparrow (rarely), Purple martin (occasionally), Tree swallow, Prothonotary warbler (built once in this State), Carolina wren, House wren, Brown creeper (behind loose bark), White-breasted nuthatch, Red-breasted nuthatch, Tufted titmouse, Chickadee, Robin (rarely), Starling, English sparrow. 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Birds that excavate their nesting holes in trees. Here belong all our nine species of woodpeckers, Chickadee (usually), White-breasted nut- hatch and Red-breasted nuthatch (partially excavate their holes). Birds that nest in boxes. Under this heading we place those species that are known to avail themselves of bird boxes: Wood duck (occasion- ally), Screech owl, Crested flycatcher (occasionally), Purple martin, Tree swallow, Carolina wren, House wren, Chickadee (occasionally), Robin (in boxes with large openings), Bluebird, Starling, English sparrow. All species which nest in hollows, included under the previous heading, might be induced by judicious treatment to nest in properly prepared boxes or hollowed limbs. Birds that nest on structures erected by man. These species, like the last, have shown some adaptation to civilized surroundings and furnish clues to methods which might be employed to increase their numbers. Under this heading we include the Mourning dove (rarely on fence posts and fence rails), Fish hawk (on wheels or platforms erected on poles), Barn owl (in belfries and outbuildings), Screech owl (in openings in gable ends etc.), Downy woodpecker, Red-headed woodpecker and Flicker (in posts and poles), Nighthawk (on flat roofs), Chimney swift (in unused chimneys and gable ends), Kingbird (rarely on posts), Crested flycatcher (sometimes in hollow poles), Phoebe (on beams and under eaves and bridges), Cowbird (in nests of Phoebe, Robin, Chippy etc.), Chipping sparrow (in vines on porches and sides of houses), Purple martin (under eaves etc.), Cliff swallow (under eaves of barns), Barn swallow (on beams and rafters of sheds and barns), Tree swallow (in holes of posts and tele- graph poles), Rough-winged swallow (in abutments of bridges), House wren (in posts, crannies of buildings, etc.), Chickadee (in hollow fence posts), Robin (on beams, brackets, porch posts, fence posts, window sills, etc.), Bluebird (in crannies of eaves occasionally), Starling (in eaves and crannies), English sparrow (in every available hollow, nook and cranny). BIRDS OF NEW YORK 19 BirD COMMUNITIES After long continued consideration and sorting of the species of birds that nest within the limits of New York State, the author is convinced that the following communities might be recognized, although the obvious difficulty of confining many species of birds to one of them is no more than can be expected. Communities of the seashore and lake shore. Here we might place all those species whose nesting site is confined to the immediate vicinity of larger bodies of water. In this State there seems to be no sharp dis- tinction between lake shore and seashore communities, so this difference is not recognized. Even the Roseate tern and the Least tern undoubtedly nested at one time on the shores of the Great Lakes and the Common tern at the present time nests on the Canada-New York border among the Thousand Islands. Those species which breed on the sandy or gravelly beach are the Common tern, Roseate tern, Least tern and Piping plover. The species which nest on rocks or waste near the shore are the Loon and Herring gull. Here might also be included those that nest on trees in the immediate vicinity of the seashore such as the Osprey, Bald eagle, Golden eye, and also the Fish crow, which has not been found far from the sea or the brackish waters of the Hudson. Community of the salt marsh.