GLELEEE

Sieg
GLE,

Sigs

CDE Dds
SIG oo

oy

Mee
Cot?
ass:

SLE,
SLL
GEE

SAEED,
S ees

ree

ik

eee

eS
oe

fA

ie
CE

ee

LIS

SES
As

one

in
io

ve tee

ce
Ss

1 BES oe
Ge
oe

ie

mee
ee

0345
Ree cas
BSA PaTIT RHR ge i
RU RONCHI a hoes tees
Riemer ean
Bsssaigsec a emeaiaieiaecson CHI eR eS
BUN cnaceetete iMate nae ;
BRiucantimeet ean eS Sasa
gaecnee) aes a Saleen sargies
DRS NN pasate a
BSS ctss ah a Si ees
basesoearaianici teenies
3 Ne qs oy eat

eX)

tikes

paved
seca

Seiaieteteves
Maelo 4s
easoti
Rasatauiee tts

Cte trey
aes
30

WETS

“ana esd

Pata tee Seo
ean
Serene S

Seles ties cite tee

eeeievietieerees:

%

best

setae
Cees

Pee

Ci ten
aati
Porm rainl
Sancti
is seayeseretes
state Stata itt ere
Nes anareneicw We Ta eictatetstaten
SSO ea eats
eee Ss scate Satara tees
Beas aa aati eds
setae

ce
Se
sn eeyele
Helasac rt atadaec He
Poee haut cho cade
gt ieeeae ed aene teria
Rte eee 4 ee

en Setaictteties
Miele dletienors te
hehe cetee ees

Ree
Noh Kis, etree)
Meee S fateter tte es
See asterin Coateiate Wisiiaseniet rai
mie eSt4 pines RR eN ci

S
Cite a
ean tales
Beene
eh aan ae
ecient ails

SeSteeeet
Biamastits
Ba iahe dee TAGs
ea eteeyy
aati

*
roe mn

Meidianat rth itis
Sete gg
. Se Si seichccsti
ili sels

 

 
 

 

Cornell University

 

Library

OF THE

Hew Work State College of Agriculture

Hy. eS76, YY THB

 

8101

 
‘ornell Universit

text-book of agricultural zoology,

as taken,
A TEXT-BOOK

OF

AGRICULTURAL ZOOLOGY
A TEXT-BOOK

OF

AGRICULTURAL ZOOLOGY

BY

FRED. V. THEOBALD, M.A. (Canvas.), FES.

Professor of Agricultural Zoology, London University; Vice-Principal and Zoologist of the
§.-E. Agricultural College; Grand Medallist and Hon. Member of the Société
Nationale d’Acclimatation de France; Hon. Member Société de Pathologie
Exotique, Paris, the Association of Economic Entomologists of
America, the Royal Horticultural Society; Fellow of
the Society of Tropical Medicine ; Imperial
Ottoman Order of the Osmanieh, &c.

SECOND AND REVISED EDITION

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
1913
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Srxce this volume was published in 1899 considerable advance
has been made in the subject of Economic Zoology. Conse-
quently many alterations have had to be made in this second
edition, and a considerable amount of new matter has had to
be incorporated.

The general scope of the work for teaching purposes has not
been altered, as it seems to have met with general approval
both at home and in the Colonies.

FRED. V. THEOBALD.

Wve Court, WYE,
March 1913.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

THE subject treated in the following chapters, Agricultural
Zoology, has perhaps been more neglected in England than
any other branch of science applied to agriculture: even the
name itself is hardly at present understood. It is true, indeed,
that the labours of Curtis, and in later years of Miss Ormerod,
have developed one branch of economic zoology—namely, the
part played by insects in causing disease amongst animals and
plants; it is true also that some of our veterinary surgeons
have done excellent work on the other parasitic diseases of
animals ; but there remains a vast portion of the subject that
has neither gained the attention of English scientific men
nor been summarised in an English text-book. Agricultural
Zoology treats of the life-histories, the habits, the peculiarities
of all the animals which affect for good or for evil our stock
and crops, whether on the farm or in the garden, and the
structure and development of domestic animals. Parasitism
plays an important part in this subject, especially in the
protozoa and worms; but the economic effects of parasites are
not confined to protozoa and worms—the parasitic insects and
mites equally take their annual and preventable toll of our
flocks and herds. Nor, again, is parasitism always an injuri-
ous phenomenon : its beneficial effects are equally marked and
equally under control, given only the requisite knowledge. In
Vili PREFACE.

either case, the necessary thing is an acquaintance with the
complex structure and the life-history of both the higher
animals we meet upon the farm, which may serve as host,
and also of the smaller organisms met along with them, whether
injurious or beneficial, parasitic or leading an independent ex-
istence. With an injurious insect, for example, there is some
period when it is open to attack: our observation should
enable us to discover this period, and our science to suggest an
appropriate weapon. In the same way our domestic animals
are weak at certain points and at certain times: only an
intimate knowledge of their organisation and their habits will
enable us to apply the corresponding safeguards.

In the following text-book the writer has endeavoured to
summarise the habits, characters, and development of the
animals that may be met with in farm and garden. Groups *
possessing little or no economic importance have been but
briefly referred to, such as the Ccelenterates, Sponges, and
Echinoderms. On the other hand, the structure of one do-
mestic animal, the horse, has been treated at some length.

It is hoped that the book may he of service to the farmer;
but it is primarily written for the rapidly increasing class of
students in our Agricultural Colleges, &c. In their hands
lies the future of scientific agriculture, in the development of
which economic zoology must play not perhaps the least part.

My thanks must here be expressed to Sir George Brown,
K.C.B., for kindly revising the chapter on the Anatomy of
the Horse, and for other help generally; to Dr Hans Gadow
for the great trouble he has taken in examining the proof-
sheets of chapters xiv. and xv., and for his valuable advice in
other matters. The chapters on Mites and Insects have been
read over by Mr (now Sir) Charles Whitehead; and to him
1 tender my grateful thanks, not only for his help in examin-
ing the proofs, but also for allowing me the use of some of
his excellent figures from the publications of the Board of
Agriculture. In connection with the latter, I must here
PREFACE. 1x

acknowledge the courteous permission of the Controller of
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office to use the electros, several
of which were supplied gratuitously. To Dr George Fleming,
C.B., I am indebted most of all: thanks to his generosity,
many of the excellent electros of worms, mites, &c., from his
translation of Neumann’s ‘ Parasitic Diseases of Animals,’ have
been lent me for this book, and others he has allowed me to
reproduce ; but it is especially for the trouble he has taken in
revising the chapters on Worms, Embryology, and the parts
concerning domestic animals, that I owe him so many thanks.
His publishers, Messrs Baillitre, Tindall, & Cox, also readily
gave their consent to the free use of his figures, and I cannot
let this opportunity pass without expressing my thanks for
their great courtesy in this matter. Professor Nicholson has
very kindly contributed a number of figures from his well-
known ‘Manual of Zoology,’ which greatly add to the value
of the work. I must also acknowledge Miss Ormerod’s kind-
ness in allowing me the use of fig. 118, and for other advice
always so readily given. I must also express my thanks to Sir
William Flower, K.C.B., the Trustees of the British Museum,
Professor Ritsema Bos, Professor A. D. Hall, and Professor
Adam Sedgwick, for either allowing their figures or those of
institutions they represent to be reproduced, or for lending
the blocks. Mr H. Cousins has kindly revised the part of
Appendix II. dealing with insecticides.

Not only in England but also from abroad, especially from
America, have I received much courteous and valuable aid,
and to one and all I tender my many thanks.

FRED. V. THEOBALD.
Wve, December 1898.

Note.—The figures so kindly lent, and those purchased from other

oe are here gratefully adknowledaed, with sufficient clearness, I
trust, for every one’s satisfaction :—

From His Majesty’s Stationery Office, by permission of the Con-
x PREFACE,

troller, figs. 32, 46, 50, 60, 74, 76, 77, 90, 92, 100, 106, 108, 109,
111, 124, 134, 138, 140, 141, 143, 145, 152, 153, 156, and 157—some
purchased and some lent with Sir Charles Whitehead’s permission.
From Dr Fleming’s translation of Nenmann’s ‘ Parasitic Diseases of
Domestic Animals,’ figs. 5, 7, 15, 17, 18, 24, 345, 36, 37, 57, 58, 160,
and 164 have been kindly lent by translator and publishers. Figs.
1, 8, 47, 62, 63, 79, 107, 161, 167, 171, 172, 177, 178, 179, 198, 199,
200, 201, 202, 205, 219, 222, 241, 251, 256, are from Dr Nicholson’s
‘Manual of Zoology’; figs. 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 31, 34, 59, 71, 91, 92,
96, 97, 98, 99, 110, 112, 113, 144, 150, 158, 159 are original drawings
by the author, the blocks being lent by the S.-E. Agricultural
College, from the College Journal. From Messrs Churchill the
following figures fron Chauveau’s ‘Comparative Anatomy of
Domesticated Animals’ have been purchased—viz., figs. 181, 182,
183, 184, 188, 189, 191, 193, 194, 196, 208, 214, 236, 238, 239, 242,
243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 249, and 250. Fig. 159 has been reproduced
from the same work, with the publishers’ permission.

From Curtis’s ‘Farm Insects’ the following have been purchased,
figs. 68, 69, 70, 81, 84, 95, 104, 105, 125, 128, 133, 142, 149, and 163.
Fig. 186 is reproduced from one of Sir William Flower’s drawings in
his ‘Osteology of the Mammalia.’ The figures of Eelworms, figs. 21
and 29, are reproduced with the permission of Professor Ritsema
Bos ; and tig. 118 is a reproduction from Miss Ormerod’s ‘ Manual of
Injurious Insects.’ The Department of Agriculture, U.S.A., kindly
allowed me to reproduce Dr Howard’s figures of the Pear Midge and
San José Scale, figs. 121 and 155 (part). Figs. 170, 253, 255 are
from the British Museum Ciuides. From Foster and Balfour's
‘Embryology,’ figs. 229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237 are reproduced,
with the permission of Professor Adam Sedgwick.

Fig. 61 is reproduced from several figures in Neumann’s ‘ Parasitic
Diseases of Domestic Animals,’ and also part of fig. 3.

Figs. 151 and 168 are from ‘Insect Life’ (original), with the
permission of Messrs Methuen & Co.

Figs. 82, 102, 103 from the writer’s ‘Insect and other Allied Pests
of Orchard, Bush, and Hothouse Fruits.’

To all who have helped me in this work, by lending their blocks,
or allowing their figures to be reproduced, or by lending specimens,
I offer my thanks.

BAT
CHAP,

- THE CELL AND SIMFLE ANIMAL TISSUES. THE CLASSI-

Il.

Il.

Iv.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

CON TEN Ts.

PART Tf.

FICATION OF ANIMALS
PROTOZOA, OR SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS
SPONGES, CHRLENTERATES, AND ECHINODERMS

WORMS. PLATYHELMINTHES OR FLAT-WORMS

. WORMS — Continued. NEMATHELMINTHES OR ROUND-

WORMS
WORMS— Continued. CHETOPODA AND HIRUDINEA
ARTHROPODA OR JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS. (CRUSTACBA,

MYRIAPODA, AND ARACHNOIDEA)

HEXAPODA. (COLEOPTERA, HYMENOPTERA, LEPIDOPTERA,

DIPTERA, THYSANOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, ORTHOPTERA,

NEUROPTERA, APTERA) .

MOLLUSCA

PAGE

16
32
36

97

138
291
AGL

XII.

XIII.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

II.

CONTENTS.

PART II.

. CHORDATA. (TUNICATES OR SEA-SQUIRTS AND AMPHI-

OXUS=ACRANIA)

CHORDATA—Continued, THE CHARACTERS OF CRANIOTE
OR VERTEBRATE ANIMALS

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRANIOTA, A. THE ICHTHYOP-

SIDA. (FISH AND AMPHIBIA)

. B, SAUROPSIDA, (I. REPTILES)

. B. SAUROPSIDA—Continued. (II. AVES) . :

BRITISH BIRDS

EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK (THE EGC: OF THE FOWL)
MAMMALIA (DEVELOPMENT AND FETAL MEMBRANES)
MAMMALIA—Continued. CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS.

BRITISH MAMMALS (DOMESTIC AND WILD)

APPENDICES.

- THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF VERMICEOUS

PESTS

THE PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PENTS

INDEX

307

311
315

460

o0d

510

a
i)
o
ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG,
1. Blood Corpuscles of Vertebrata
2. Amaba f . F ‘
3. Mastigophora and Foraminifera (Zuglena, Cercomonas, Polytoma,
Textularia, and Globigerina)
4. a, A Trypanosome, and B, A Spirochete .
5. Coccidium oviforme of Rabbit’s Liver
6. Piroplasme . :
7. Ciliate Protozoan (Bulantidwm colt)
8. The Common Starfish (UVraster rubens)
9. Liver-fluke (Distomum hepaticum)
10. Life-history of Distomum hepaticum
11. Diagram showing Life-history of Liver-fluke
12. Scolex of Tenia soliwm and Proglottis of Tapeworm
18. Two forms of Cysts of Cestodes (Cysticcreus and Canurus)
14. Sturdy in Sheep (Cenurus cerebralis and Tenia cenurus)
15. Fragment of Measly Pork
16. Lenia echinococcus

18.
19.
20.
21.

22.

. Diagram showing formation of Proligerous and Secondary Ves-

icles in Echinococcus
Tenia serrata
Tenia serrata ‘ #
Embryo and Ova of Sclerostomum rubrum
Anguillulide (Eelworms) ‘
The Lung Worm (Strongylus filaria)

PAGE

5
19

59
60
61
65
67
68
Xiv ILLUSTRATIONS.

~T
any

23. Armed Palisade-worm of Horse (Sclerostomum armatum)
24. Vermiceous Aneurism of Great Mesenteric Artery

“I
wo

25. Selerostomum tetracanthum

26. Small Red Sclerostome (S. rubrum) from Horse .
27. Gape Worm (Syngamus trachealis)

28. Trichinella spiralis

ee
On~ S wee

29. Eelworms (Anguillulide)

30, Ear Cockles in Corn (Lylenchus scandens) $0
31, Wheat attacked by Tylenchus scandens 81
32. The Stem Eelworm (Tylenchus devustatrix. Kiihn) 82
33. The Beet Eelworm (Heterodera schachtii) 83
34. Ascaride . 2 ‘ 86
35. Oxyures of Horse (Curvula) 87
36. Oxyures of Horse (Mastigodes) 88
37. The Horse-Leech (Hwmopis sanguisugu) . 95
38. Structure of an Arthropod (Periplancta americana) 100
39. Head and Lower Lip of Cockroach < : 101
40. Structure of Insect Leg . ‘ ‘ 104
41. Digestive Organs of the Cockroach ‘ ~ 206
42. Trachea and side-view of part of Abdomen : 106
43. Nervous System é ‘ . 108
14. Wood-lice (Armudillidinm vulgaris, Porcellio scaber, and antenna

of Oniscus, &c.) 109
45. Millepedes (Blanjulus pulchellus and Julus Londinensis) 5
46. Millepedes (1, Blanjulus pulchellus ; 2, Polydesmus complanatus) ;

Centipede (3, Geophilus subterraneus) i 113
47. House Spider (Z'egenaria civilis) . : : 115
48. Orb-weaving Spider, &c. . : F ‘ : 117
49. Harvest Bug (Z'rombidium holosericeum) . : 119
50. Harvest Bug (Leptus autumnalis) . ‘i 120
51. Red Spider (Tetranychus telarius) 5 ~ 12k
52. Red Hen Mite (Dermanyssus avium) and Egg # 22
53. Head ofa Tick . ‘ 2 a 123.
54, External parts of a Tick A a ‘ 5 > Ws
55, Female Tick laying Eggs . “ 125
56. Female Sheep-scab Mite . : 3 129
57. Red Mange ‘ ‘ se eal

5S. Demodectic Scabies (section of skin) ; * 132
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.

74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82,
83.
84,
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92,
93.
94.
95,

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Beetle Mite (Oribata orbicularis) .

Black Currant Mite

Linguatulidie

A Hexapod (Tipula Saieeca

Mouth parts of Insects

Larvee of Insects .

Pupe of Insects

Pupa of Tipula oleracea

Alimentary Canal of Larva (Pipula ee

Lady-birds (Coccinellide )

The Turnip Flea Beetle .

Mustard Beetle (Phedon betulc) .

The Asparagus Beetle

Apple: blossom Weevil (Anthonomus pomorum)

Apple Blossoms damaged by Apple Weevil
pomorum)

Pea Weevil (Sitones lineatus)

Red-legged Weevil (Otiorhynchus tenebricosus)

The Raspberry Weevil (Otiorhynchus picipes)

Bean Beetle (Bruchus rufimanus)

Striped Click-beetle (A griotes lincatus)

Rose Beetle (Cetonia aurata)

Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris)

Beet Carrion-beetle (Silpha opaca)

Raspberry Beetle (Byturus tomentosus)

Ground-beetle (Carabus violaceus)

Corn Ground-beetle (Zabrus gibbus)

Pupa of a Sawfly .

Honey- bees

Mouth and Sting of Bee, anaeruel

Cynipide . :

Saw of a Female Sawfly .

Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus ribesiz)

Slug-worm of Pear (Eriocampa limacina)

Pear Sawfly (Zriocumpa limacina), and Cocoon

Leaf of Cherry eaten by Slug-worms

Larva of the Large White (Pieris brassicw)

Green-veined White (Pieris napt)

(Anthonomus

XV

133

136

143

180
185
186
187
189
189
190
193
194
xvl

96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102,
103.
104,
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
Aa Is.
112.
113.
114,
115.
116.
Ly
118,
119.
120.
121.
122,
123.
124,
125.
126.
127.
128.
129,
130.
131.
132.
133,

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Currant Clearwing (4geria tipwiformis)

Larva and Pupa of Currant Clearwing (.#ycria tipuliformés)
Black Currant Stems damaged by Larvee of Currant Clearwing

Garden Swift-moth (Hepialus lupulinus)

The Ghost Moth (/fepialus humul?)

Cordyceps entomorhi-a (a fungus on Hepialus larve)
Egg-band of Lackey Moth

Female and Male Lackey Moths

Heart-and-Dart Moth (Agrotis exclamationis)
Silvery Y-Moth (Plusia gamma)

Winter Moths

Life-history of Currant or Magpie Moth Riu theses eA

Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella)
Diamond-back Moth (Plutella maculipennis)
Cherry-tree Case-bearer (Colcophora anatipencllw)
Raspberry Shoot-borer (Lampronia rubiella)
The Pear-leaf Blister Moth

Pear Leaf blistered by Cemiostoma satin
Haltere of Fly

A Mosquito (Theobaldia oe and Head of Mosquito
Plumed Gnat (Chironomus plumosus)

Larva and Pupa of a Cectdomyia

Anchor Processes

Wing of Cecidomyia

Wing of Diplosis

The Pear Midge

Bibionidee

A Sandfly (Simulium eenin

Crane-fly (Tipula oleracea)

Winter Gnats (T'richocera)

Head and Proboscis of Tabanus autumnalis
Ox Gad-fly (Tabanus bovinus)

Hover-flies (Syrphide)

Ox-warble (ypoderma bovis)

Ox-bot

Horse-bot Fly (Gastrophilus —

Larva of Horse-bot Fly .

Root-eating Flies : i

196
197
197
198
199
200
201
201
204
205
206
208
210
212
214
215
216
216
217
217
218
220
221

bp
nN
—

lo

De

oO

Www Nw ts Ny
lw to te to te
mF o

bo
oO

238
134.
135.
136.
137.
188.
139.
140,
141.
142.
143.
144,
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171,

ILLUSTRATIONS,

Onion Fly (Phorbia cepetorum) .

The Cabbage-root Fly

Card disc to prevent Egg-laying of ee Fly
Wheat-bulb Fly.

Mangold Fly (Pegomyia bete)

Ova of Mangold Fly and Adult .

Gout Fly (Chlorops teniopus)

The Frit Fly (Oscinis frit)

Carrot Fly (Psila rose) .

Celery Fly (Acidia heraclet)

House Fly (Musca domestica)

Head of Stomoxys

Sheep-tick (J/clophaqus waived.

Larva and Pupa of Hen-flea (Pulex avium)

The Hen Flea (Trichopsylla gallinw)

Thrips 3

Hop damaged by a aa eas -heteroptera
Cherry Aphis (AZy-us cerast)

Woolly Aphis ;

Plum Aphis (Aphis prunt)

Female San José Scale i

Male San José and Mussel Scale

The Brown Currant Scale (Lecanium persice vy. ribis) .
Apple-sucker (Psylla malt)

A Snow Fly (Aleyrodes) . z ‘
Needle-nosed Hop-bug (Calocoris fulvomaculatus)
Louse of the Ox (Hematopinus eurysternus)
Migratory Locust (#dipoda migratoria)

Female and Male common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis)
Mole Cricket (@ryllotalpa vulgaris)

Trichodectes spheerocephalus of Sheep
Mallophaga or Bird-lice .

Lace-wing Fly i

Dragon-flies (schna grandis) .

Silver Fish (Lepisma saccharina)

Edible Snail (Helix pomatia)

Two Transverse Series of Teeth from Radula of ree
Shells of Lamellibranchs : .

Xvil

239
241
241
242

243
246
247
249
250
252

261

269
270

Now wn 2
SIoSt ST OST OT
O st or oo Ww

280
282
283
285
285
286
288
289
292
294
294
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS.

172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
Lei.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186,

187.
188.
189.
190.
191.

192.

193.
194,
195.
196.
197,
198.
199.
200.
201.
202,
203.
204.
205.
206.

Common Calamary (Loligo vulgaris)

Water-snails (Limncide)

Grey Field-slug (Agriolimax agrestis)

Testacella (7. haliotidea)

Garden Snail (Helix aspersc)

Structure of a Tunicate .

Development of a Tunicate

The Lancelet (A mphioxus lanceolatus)

Diagrammatic Sections of an Invertebrate and adalat

Skeleton of Horse

Lumbar Vertebra

Axis

Atlas

Skull of the ee

Diagram of the Relations of ig Principal — of the Shen
malian Skull

Fore and Hind Leg of Horse

Pelvic Arch ‘i

General View of the Intestines of the Howe

Diagram of Alimentary Canal :

Theoretical, Longitudinal, and Median Section of re
Cavity, to show Peritoneum

Median Longitudinal Section of Head and oe Part of Neck
of Horse

Uro-Genital Apparatus of Male, with daisies,

Generative Organs of the Mare .

Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood

Brain of Horse (dorsal view)

Brain of Horse (ventral view)

The Perch (Perea fluriatilis)

Diagram of the Circulation in Fishes

Development of the Frog

Male Crested Newt (7'riton cristatus)

Diagram of the Circulation in Reptiles .

Pleurodont and Acrodont Dentition

Head of Reptiles

Blind-worm (Anguis fragilis)

Feather of Bird .

295
298
300
301
302
308
309
309
311
316
317

334

347

364
207.
208.
209.
210.
21k:
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
207
218.
219.
220.
221.
222:
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
28. Head of Shrike

29, Ovum and Structure of a Fowl’s Egg
230.
231.
232.

99

233.
234.
235.
236.
237.

238.
239.
240.
241.
242.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Wing of Bird

Skeleton of Fowl

Skull of Fowl

Pectoral Arch of Fowl

Sternum of Fowl

Pelvis of Fowl] (lateral view)

Alimentary Canal of Fowl

Ovary of Bird :

Split-Swimming Foot of Grebe (Pediicenw: furiatilis)
Foot of Raptorial Bird

Head of White-tailed Eagle (Haliaétus albicilla)
Skull of Duck i ‘
Head of Grey Lag Goose and Foot of Donvestte Goose .
Skull of Duck

Foot of Gallinaceous Bird

Scolopacidee

Skull of a Gull

Skull of Owl

Scansorial Foot, as seen in Wancinalkens and oe
Foot of Passerine Bird (Wagtail)

Skull of Raven .

Section through part of Blastoderm (first day of edhe

Transverse Section of Blastoderm, incubated for eighteen hours

Transverse Section through Posterior Part of the Head of an
Embryo Chick of Thirty Hours

Head of Embryo Chick of the Fourth Day

Ovur of Rabbit ‘

Diagram of Fcetal Membranes of a Mammal

Vertical Section of Injected Placenta of a Mare

Diagrammatic Section of Pregnant Human Uterus with con-
tained Foetus

Foetus of Sheep .

Diagram of Parts of Foetal Horse

Feet of Ungulata ‘ s

Skeleton of Foot in various forms of Equide

Section of Horse’s Incisor Tooth

X1x

367
368
369
370
371

373
375
378
381
384
385
387
390

402
403
409
412
413
415
427
432
435
437

440
443
451
453

456
457
458
463
466
467
ILLUSTRATIONS.

. Transverse Section of Horse’s Upper Molar
. Teeth of Pig

245,
. Stomach of Ruminant

. Skull of Ram

. Skeleton of Sheep

. Median Section of Ox’s Head
. Skeleton of Cow

. Feet of Carnivora

2, Teeth of Dog, and Jaws

. Bones of Toe of Cat

Skeleton of Pig .

Head of Rodent.

. Skull and Shoulder Girdle of Mole
3. Skull of Hedgehog (Lrinaceus europeus)
. Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus)

468

474
478
479
480
481

488
490
491
498
500
50]
PARD I.

ACHORDATA (INVERTEBRATA)
CHAPTER IL

THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES. THE
CLASSILICATION OF ANIMALS.

Tue foundation of all living bodies is a structure called a cell.
The cell is more or less the unit of life, and may even of itself
constitute a definite organism. Most organisms are nevertheless
built up of numbers of these cell units, numbers reaching into
incalculable figures.

In animals the cells lose their original form, whereas in plants
their true symmetry is more or less retained. All the parts,
then, of the animal (and plant) are composed of cells collected
and joined together in masses, forming the various groups or
tissues that constitute the bodies of animals.

All animals originate from either a single cell (asexual repro-
duction) or the unition of two cells (sexual reproduction).

Tue CELL-STRUCTURE.

The essential part of a cell is the protoplasm. This proto-
plasm is a clear gelatinous substance which is found in all cells,
both animal and vegetal. It has been described by Huxley as
the “physical basis of life.” Generally protoplasm is partially
enclosed by means of a constricting membrane, the cell-wall.
The protoplasm of each cell is connected with that of the
surrounding cells by minute strands passing through pores in
the cell-walls. ‘
4 THE CELL AND SIMPLE ANIMAL TISSUES.

This living matter may also be observed in a naked or free
state (Amebu).

This all-important living substance is endowed with the
powers of contractility and movement, and is subject to such
external influences as light, heat, and electricity. Movement
takes place by the protrusion of any part of its surface, the
protruded parts being known as ‘ pseudopodia,” the rest of the
protoplasm flowing in a wave-like manner after these processes.

Inside the protoplasm of a cell is a body called the nucleus.
The nucleus is composed of a more liquid part, the ‘‘ nuclear
fluid,” and a more solid part, the ‘nuclear protoplasm.” The
nucleus varies in form: sometimes it is round, at others oval,
or again it may be elongated and twisted. :

Both protoplasm and nucleus are surrounded, as a rule, by a
definite layer, which more or less retains the contractile proto-
plasm. ‘The essential part of the cell is the protoplasm, which
has the power of independent movement, of metabolism, and
of reproduction. All organisms that we shall deal with, except-
ing the simple Protozoa, will be seen to be made up of numbers
of these cells, which become united in various ways, and so
form the animal tissues. We know that a cell always origin-
ates from a pre-existing cell. The formation of one cell from
another takes place chiefly by a process known as karyokinesis
or ‘‘cell-division.”

When a cell has received its full share of nourishment—that
is, when it has reached maturity—its protoplasm commences to
separate into two equal halves. This division is preceded by a
corresponding separation of the nucleus, and then the whole cell
splits into two cells. During this process of cell-division certain
definite changes take place in the nucleus. This body at first
is spindle-shaped ; its contents are drawn out into longitudinal
strie, when the centre of these strim becomes thickened and
forms an equatorial zone or “nuclear plate.” This “ plate” then
divides, and each half travels to the poles of the spindle, which
assumes a dumb-bell shape, then elongates, and the two nuclear
FREE CELLS AND EPITHELIUM. 5

masses, the remains of the equatorial plate, become surrounded
by a clear fluid. These form the two nuclei at the poles of
the spindle. As soon as this has taken, place the whole proto-
plasm constricts in the middle, and the cell divides into two.

There are two other ways in which cells reproduce—namely,
by “budding” and by “endogenous cell-formation.” ‘“ Bud-
ding” is when one of the produced cells is smaller than the
parent cell. In “endogenous cell-formation” we get the proto-
plasm and nucleus of the parent cell, splitting up internally
into a number of small bodies, known as “spores.” These are
seen only in the lowest forms of life.

The separation of groups of various cells leads to the forma-
tion of the different tissues. Of tissues we make out two
chief kinds—namely, vegetative tissues and animal-life tissues.
The former carry out the nourishment and maintenance of the
body; the latter are those tissues which are characteristic of
animals, and whose functions are for movement and sensation.

Of vegetative cell-tissues there are two divisions—(1) epi-
thelial and free cells, and (2) connective tissues. The tissues
of “animal-life” are (3) muscular tissue, and (4) nervous tissue.

1. Free Cells and Epithelium.

(a) Free or wandering cells are those that are found floating
in some fluid medium. The corpuscles of the blood and lymph

v

a, Of man; }, of goose; ¢, of crocodile ; d, of frog; e, of skate. (Nicholson.)

   

Fic. 1.—BLoop CorruscLes OF VERTEBRATA.

are excellent examples of free cells. In the invertebrate blood,
which is normally colourless, will be found numbers of pale
amoeboid bodies. In vertebrate blood these amceboid corpuscles
are augmented with red blood corpuscles (fig. 1), round cell-
discs which contain the colouring matter of blood—namely,
6 EPITHELIAL TISSUES.

hemoglobin—a substance which plays such an important part in
respiration. Besides blood and lymph corpuscles we find other
isolated cells in the body, the ova and spermatozoa, which
become detached as single cells from the epithelial walls of the
male and female organs, the testes and ovaries. The form,
especially of the spermatozoa, varies greatly : in most cases the
spermatozoa have a long thread-like tail attached to the nucleated
cell.

(b) Epithelial tisswes consist of groups of cells, which in
simple layers line the exterior and interior of the body surface.
The internal lining is known as ‘‘endothelium.” There are
four chief types of epithelium, each distinguished by the form
of the cells—namely, (1) cylindrical, (2) ciliated, (3) pavement,
and (4) glandular epithelium.

The lower cells of these cell-masses retain their natural form ;
but the upper ones may become hardened. Thick stratified
layers of such cells occasionally become fused, and produce
horns, nails, claws, hoofs, &c. Sometimes the outer walls of
the epithelial cells are thickened, forming a “cuticle.” These
cuticular membranes are perforated by small pores and also by
larger passages: in these cuticular pores are placed the hairs
and feathers. The cuticular secretions may form a hard shell
or case for the organism, an exoskeleton, as seen in the
Crustacea and Hexapoda.

Glandular epithelium is that epithelium in which some cells
secrete not a solid but a liquid substance. In the most rudi-
mentary cases the gland is formed by a single epithelial cell,
the secretion passing out by either a special opening or through
the superficial membrane. Several of these cells may arrange
themselves around a central space and pour their secretion into
it; the gland then forms a blind invaginated sac opening to the
exterior or interior by the neck of the whole glandular mass,
From this simple gland a compound gland is built up by re-
peated regular or irregular outgrowths. The terminal portion
of each gland is converted into a duct in most glands, for the
CONNECTIVE TISSUES. 7

earrying away of the fluid secreted. Some glands, however, are
ductless or blind (spleen, &c.)

2. Connective Tissues are those which connect and surround
other tissues, and act as supporting and skeletal structures.
The presence of intercellular substance distinguishes this group.
This intercellular matter is secreted by the whole of the cells
which it surrounds, and is very variable both in consistency
and in structure. One variety is known as fibrillar-connective
tissue, in which elongated cells are embedded in a solid inter-
cellular substance broken up into bundles of fibres. In liga-
ments and tendons the fibres have a wavy outline, and are
parallel in arrangement. When the fibrille are treated with
acids, they swell up, and a second form, which resists these
reagents, appears. These threads are elastic fibres, and may
predominate so as to form elastic tissue, which branches and
forms a network, sometimes of great strength, such as the lega-
mentum nuche of the neck—the ligament by which the head
of quadrupeds is held up in a horizontal posture: at other times
they spread out, forming the so-called “ fenestrated membranes ”
of Henle in the arteries. The two most important skeletal
tissues are cartilage and bone.

Cartilage is a true connective tissue, and may be distinguished
by its spherical cells and gristly intercellular substance in which
the cells are embedded. We can recognise three distinct kinds
of this cartilage—hyaline, fibrous, and elastic. The cells of
cartilage are placed in clear round spaces. Its varieties will
be pointed out when we come to more special parts. Suffice to
say here that it is found in both of the great divisions of the
animal kingdom, and may even constitute the entire skeleton of
some of the fish (Elasmobranchit).

Osseous tissue, or bone, is hard and possesses a high degree of
rigidity, through the intercellular substance being hardened by
the deposition of carbonate and phosphate of lime, these salts
constituting about two-thirds of the weight of bone. The cells
(the bone-corpuscles) occupy spaces in this intercellular matter.
5 MUSCULAR TISSUE.

Numerous canals (Haversian canals) run through the bone, con-
taining blood- vessels and nerves. The calcareous matter is
arranged in concentric rings round these canals, which begin
in that highly vascular periosteal layer that circumscribes the
whole bone and open into long spaces, the marrow canals, in the
axes of the long bones. In all cases bony tissue is preceded by
cither cartilage or other connective tissue.

The two animal-lfe tissues are muscle and nerve. These can
be detected in all animals save the very lowest forms, which are
apparently nothing but undifferentiated protoplasm.

3. Muscular Tissue is contractile: the power of contraction
is due, as has already been pointed out, to the protoplasm itself.
By differentiation of the protoplasm of certain cells and groups
of cells the power of contractility is brought to a higher state of
efficiency, and a tissue, the so-called muscular tissue, is formed
solely for movement. Muscle-cells during movement contract
and expand. In some of the lower animals we find cells in
which only part of the cell is differentiated into a muscle fibre.
A stage further, and we find the whole cell becoming elongated
and converted into a definite muscle fibril.

Of muscle there are two kinds, the striated and the
unstriated,

The wnstriate? muscle is composed of flat, elongate, spindle-
shaped bodies, which contract slowly and remain in a con-
tracted state for some time. They seldom are more than g4>
of an inch in length. They form muscles over which the
animal has no control, and are thus called involuntary muscles.
This variety is prevalent in the lower animals, but is also found
in all high forms of life. Each such muscle-cell has a distinct
nucleus.

Striated or voluntary niuscle consists of multinucleated masses
called primitive bundles. It is composed of long cylindrical
fibres, about ;}9 of an inch in diameter in mammalian muscle,
Most or all of the cell protoplasm is converted into a cross-
striped substance, due to alternate double and single refractive
NERVOUS TISSUE. 9

powers. This striped or voluntary muscle is under the con-
trol of the animal will, and can contract with great energy.
Almost the entire protoplasmic contents of the cells are con-
cerned in the production of this voluntary muscular tissue. The
cells become elongated into long fibres, the primitive bundles ;
and the nucleus divides and forms numbers of nuclei, each
fibre being surrounded by a membrane, the so-called ‘“sarco-
lemma.” The sarcolemma is an elastic sheath. The primitive
buudles also arise by the fusion of several cells. Muscular
tissue, then, is cell-tissue modified for a certain definite object
—namely, movement. There is certain striated muscular tissue
called cardiac muscle, which forms the walls of the heart, and
which is involuntary in action. Cardiac muscle is cubical in
form, and has a little side projection from each area.

4. Nervous Tissue is found generally with muscular tissue.
It forms the seat of will and sensation, and is the means by
which stimuli are carried to the muscles to cause their move-
ment. The nervous tissue is supposed to have originated from
the ectodermal sense-cells found in the skin, and that, still re-
maining united to the same, they have grown inwards, and have
thus only in a secondary way become united to the muscle-cell,
which is préma jfacte contractile. In nervous tissue there are
two distinct elements—namely, nerve-cells and nerve-filaments—
which have separate structural differences.

Nerve-cells are found in the brain, in the spinal cord, in
the so-called ganglia of the lower animals, &c. ; they are really
central areas for the nervous stimuli. Each nerve-cell or gan-
glion cell possesses a very distinct nucleus and nucleolus, and
one, two, or more processes, when they are known as uni-,
bi-, or multipolar ganglion cells. One root is always that of a
nerve-filament.

Nerve-fibres are of two kinds: one variety carries impulses
—sensations—from the central organ (cells) to the peripheral
organs,—these are called motor or secretory fibres; the other
carries impulses from the periphery to the central organs, and
10 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

are known as sensory fibres. In most cases the sensory nerves
are united at their peripheral end with the so-called ‘end-
organs” in the skin, &c., these end-organs being derived from
the modified epithelial cells.

Such are some of the modifications that are assumed by cells
in the animal kingdom,

The lowest animals, we shall see, possess neither tissues nor
organs composed of cells, and yet each organism, although only
a single cell, is complete in itself and reproduces a similar
species.

Tue DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

Living bodies are divided into two groups called “king-
doms,” the one the Animal Kingdom, the other the Vegetable
Kingdom. Although there are apparently great differences be-
tween the two, yet when we come to examine the lowest animal
forms and compare them with the lowest vegetal forms we
shall observe so great a similarity that it is impossible to say to
which kingdom they belong. In fact, there is no hard-and-fast
line to be drawn between these two organic groups. Such
lowly creatures as Plasmodium and Volvoxr are treated by
botanists as plants, whilst the zoologist includes them in the
Protozoa! It may be said, speaking generally, that animals
are capable of free movement and that plants are fixed; but
when we examine some of the simplest forms of life this
distinction will be found untenable. Animals are endowed with
sensation, plants are not, as a rule; but such plants as Drosera,
Venus’s fly-trap, &c., surely have this phenomenon developed.
Animals have their organs internal, their absorbent surface
inside ; plants have external organs, and the absorbent surface
also external. Yet the Tapeworms (Cesfoda) obtain their
nourishment by osmosis through the skin.

When we compare the tissues of an animal with the tissues
of a plant, then we observe greater differences. The cells

1 ©A System of Medicine,’ vol. ii. Pt. ii., article by E. A. Minehin—
“ Protozoa,” p. 17. 1907.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. I1

of the animal are altered in form, whilst those of the plant
retain more or less their original appearance. The cell-wall,
too, of the animal is nitrogenous, that of the plant is non-
nitrogenous. But all this only applies to the higher plants and
animals: it cannot apply to those unicellular forms, where, as we
see in Ameeba, there is no cell-wall at all. It is often thought
that we can tell a plant by its green colouring matter,
chlorophyll, but not all plants have this chromatic substance
in their tissues ; whilst, on the other hand, some animals—such
as Hydra, Bonellia (one of the Worms), and some sea-anemones
(Actinvzoa)—owe their green colour to the presence of this sub-
stance. Cellulose is the substance that forms the cell-wall of
plants, and is characteristic of the vegetable kingdom ; but we
also find it in the “tests” or cases of those curious marine
animals, the sea-squirts or Ascidians. In the higher animals a
substance known as cholesterin is found: this was at one time
considered a purely animal component, but we now know that
it is also found in at least one family of plants, the Leyuminosw
or Pea and Bean family. Generally speaking, animals are nitro-
genous, plants carbonaceous ; but, as in the prior instances, this
also will not invariably apply. There are no definite distinc-
tions, then, between the animals and plants in regard to their
chemical constituents. Perhaps the greatest differences are to
be found in the metabolism of organisms. We cannot feed an
animal on purely inorganic food, whilst, on the other hand, we
can so feed a plant. Both must have salts and water; but
whilst plants can be nourished with the addition of carbon
dioxide and nitrates of ammonia, an animal must have nitrogen-
ous and carbonaceous matter in some organic form and not in a
mineral form. An animal absorbs oxygen and gives out CO, ;
a plant exhales oxygen which is derived from the absorbed COg.

Thus we see that there are differences between the plant and
the animal, but that many of them do not invariably hold good.
There are forms of life which we may fairly say bridge over
the great hiatus that separates the horse from the grass upon
which it feeds.
12 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.

Tus CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.

‘The old method of classifying animals was to divide them
into two sub-kingdoms, known as the Invertebrata and the
Vertebrata,—the absence or presence, respectively, of an in-
ternal skeleton being the character upon which this division
was based.

Inwertebrates are those animals which have no internal skel-
eton; but, of greater importance still, they possess no structure
known as the notochord. The notochord is a primitive axial
skeletal rod, found on the dorsal surface. In all invertebrate
animals the nervous system is ventral—that is, it is always
present on the lower surface of the animal; whilst, on the
other hand, the hemal or blood system is dorsal, the ali-
mentary canal or gut being situated between. Invertebrates
may possess a skeleton, but it is always external (exoskeleton).

Vertebrates, on the other hand, always possess a notochord,
and nearly always an internal skeleton, composed of an axial rod,
the vertebral column, besides the cranium, and an appendicular
skeleton—the limbs. The vertebral column—the backbone—
and the cranium enclose the central nervous system, which is
always dorsal, whilst the nervous system in invertebrates is
ventral. The hemal system— the heart—is placed ventrally,—
that is, in the reverse position to that in which it is found in
the former group.

Just as there are intermediate forms between the animals and
plants, so are there connecting links between these two primary
groups of animals. A small fish, known as the lancelet
(Amphiowus lanceolatus), found in the sands of the Mediter-
ranean, has no proper internal skeleton at all, yet it has a noto-
chord and dorsal nervous system. The groups of Ased//ans, or
sea-squirts, are in their young stages distinctly vertebrates ; for
the young so-called Appendicularia larva has a dorsal nervous
system and an axial rod, but the adult Tunicate, as it is also
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 13

called, is distinctly an invertebrate animal with no notochord
and a ventral nervous system.

How, then, can we distinguish these from true vertebrates ?
At no time do they possess a brain or cranium as we see in the
higher animals. They are called, therefore, Acranda, to dis-
tinguish them from all the other vertebrates, which are known
as the Craniota. This was the most generally adopted primary
grouping of animals, into Invertebrata and Vertebrata; but for
many reasons a more recent classification has many advantages
over it. This latter is based primarily on the cell-structure
of the animal. By it the whole animal kingdom is divided
into two primary groups, known as the Protozoa and Metazoa.

The Protozoa are those animals of extremely simple organisa-
tion, and whose bodies are composed of a single cell.

The Metazow constitute a group that includes the majority of
animals. These are built up, not of one cell or a few cells,
but of countless numbers of cells, which form the complicated
animal tissues—muscular, nervous, connective, &c. This divi-
sion will be found to contain both invertebrates and vertebrates.

The Protozoa form the first group of animals, the lowest
organisms, single-celled creatures, which are, nevertheless, im-
portant to us, as many of them produce diseases, such as liver-
rot in rabbits, malarial fever, sleeping sickness, redwater in
cattle, psorospermosis of the skin, &c., in man and his domestic
animals.

The multicellular animals, or Metazoa, are divided into the
following groups, called classes :—

1. Coelenterata, or Jellyfish, Polyps, Sea-anemones, Corals, &c.

2. Echinodermata, or Starfish, Sea-urchins, and the nearly

extinct Sea-lilies.

3. Vermes, or Worms.

Mollusca, or Shells.

5, Arthropoda, or the Jointed-limbed animals, as Insects,
Spiders, Scorpions, and Crabs, &c.

The above are all Invertebrate Metazoa. The Sponqidw, or

eS
14 THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.

Sponges, may belong to this division ; but whether they are to
be looked upon as colonies of Protozoa, or Metazoa, there is
some diversity of opinion. They seem to present most affinities
to the Metazoa, and should doubtless be included in the Inver-
tebrate division of that group.

6. The sixth class of Metazoa include the Aseidians, Tunt-
cates or Sea-squirts, the Amphioxus or Lancelet, and the worm-
like Balanoglossus. These form the connecting group between
the Invertebrate and Vertebrate Metazoa.

The Vertebrate Metazoa are contained in five classes,
namely—

7. Pisces, or Fish.
8, Reptilia, or Snakes, Crocodiles, and Lizards.
9. Amphibia, or Toads, Frogs, and Salamanders.

10. Aves, or Birds.

11. Manmalha, or Quadrupeds and Man.

The above eleven classes of Metazoa may be grouped in two
divisions, according to the absence or presence of a notochord.
Those without a notochord are called Achordata, those with
a notochord Chordata. The latter, again, are divided into
Acrania and Craniota.

The Acrania include, besides the Tunicates, the worm-like
creature called Balanoglossus and the quaint little fish-like
Amphioxus. These always have at some period of their life
a dorsal nervous system and a notochordal rod which extends
nearly the whole length of the body; but the nervous system,
which develops as an open canal (another character common to
vertebrate animals), never expands anteriorly into a brain. In
fact, in general appearance Tunicates and Balanoglossus are in-
vertebrates, while Amphioxus forms another stage higher, con-
necting the lower animals with the Fish. Amphioxus has been
described by Couch and others as a fish, The Cranzota, on the
other hand, have the anterior end of the nervous cord enlarged
into a brain placed in a cartilaginous or bony box, the cranium,
and are supplied with an internal skeleton.

The groups of animals, then, may be tabulated as follows :—
PROTOZOA

ACHORDATA
= Invertebrata

METAZOA

CHORDATA
= Vertebrata.

 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS.

15

Sarcodina.
Mastigophora.
| Sporozoa.

Infusoria.

Spongidr.
Hydrozoa,

Colenterata a { Actinozoa,
Ctenophora,
Echinuridee.

Echinodermata . { asteride
Holothuridie.

 

 

Trematoda.
Platyhelminthes {+ Cestoda.
Nemertini.
Nemathelminthes eer ann ala:
Cheetopoda.
Hirudiuca.
Peripatus.
. Tulide.
Myriapoda . { Scolopendridx
Malacostraca.
Crustacea.) Entomostraca.
Scorpionide.
Arachnoidea . { Araneide.
| Acarina.
Arthropoda Coleoptera.
Hymenoptera.
Lepidoptera.
Diptera.
Insecta °
7 \{ Hemiptera.
(Hexapoda) Neuroptera.
Orthoptera.
Thysanoptera.
. Aptera.
Lamellibranchiata.
Mollusea Gasteropoda.
Mollusec (Proper) Pteropoda.
7 Cephalopoda,
Molluscoidea { ee
Hemichordata (Balanoglossus).
ACRANIA -\ Urochordata (Ascidians).
Cephalochordata (Amphioxus).
Marsipobranchii.
Elasmobranchii.
Pisces .4 Ganoidei.
Ichthyopsida Pee
Ophiomorpha.
Amphibia 4 Anoura.
\ Urodela.
Chelona:
a Ophidia.
. : Reptilia . Tncertitiat
auropsida . Crocodilia.
Ratite.
CRANIOTA . Aves “4 Gavinatee
Ornithodelphia= Monotremata.
Didelphia =Marsupialia.
Edentata.
Sirenia.
Cetacea.
A Ungulata.
Mammatia. . .
‘ Proboscidea.
Monodelphia . Garnivora.
Rodentia.
Insectivora.
Cheiroptera.

Primates.
16

CHAPTER IL.

PROTOZOA, OR SINGLE-CELLED ANIMALS.

TuE Protozoa are the simplest forms of animal life: they are all
of small size, of extremely simple constitution, and invariably
unicellular. They are animals that have remained as simple
cells, to all intents and purposes like the cell described in
chap. i. Each cell is physiologically and morphologically
complete in itself. Some forms of protozoa are simple drops
of sarcode—protoplasm ; others have not only a definite cell-
wall, but possess the power of secreting calcareous and siliceous
shells. These shell-bearing species, or Foraminifera (fig. 3, iv.
and y.), are present in myriads in the waters of the ocean, their
“tests” or shells falling to the floor of the sea as the animals
dic. Many of these tests are dissolved before they reach the
bottom, if the depth of water be very great; yet millions of
others arrive safely upon the bed of the sea, and there by slow
degrees they form a layer of a white or creamy colour. Of such
formation is the globigerine ooze on the floor of the Atlantic
and also the radiolarian ooze,—protozoa of the genera Globigerina
(fig. 3, v.) and Radiolaria taking the chief part in the formation
of these two oozes respectively. Of ancient rocks we know
that some of the Chalk has been formed in a similar way, by
the slow accumulation on the sea-bed of these and other falling
tests. Not only do we find that the Chalk in many instances is
built up of these minute organisms, but also that their tiny shells
SARCODINA. 17

represent genera existing at the present day. What countless
myriads of these microscopic organisms must be present in the
chalk rocks of our North and South Downs alone, when we
consider that thousands go to the square inch.

The Protozoa are divided into four classes: (1) the Sarcodina,
(2) Mastigophora, (3) Sporozoa, (4) Infusoria.

Sarcodina are protozoa in which the protoplasm is naked and
which have no permanent organs of locomotion, but temporary
processes called pseudopodia.

Mastigophora are more or less of definite form, and have one
or more permanent organs for locomotion or food capture in the
form of flagella in the adult.

Sporozoa are internal parasitic protozoa which have no organs
of locomotion or for the capture or digestion of food. They
reproduce only by some means of sporulation.

Infusoria are provided with cilia for locomotary purposes.

CLASS I. SARCODINA.

Although Ameeha is specially referred to here it is only in its
resting stage that the typical body form is realised, as Sarcodina
are typically simple spherical bodies, such as the Radiolaria and
Heliozoa, which float freely on the surface of water and have
pseudopodia radiating from them in all directions. But in the
Mycetozoa—semi-terrestrial protozoal masses which live on rotten
tree-trunks, fungi, &c.—the protoplasm forms large creeping
masses called plasmodia,—the latter including the well-known
parasitic disease of Cruciferous plants, “‘ Finger-and-Toe,” pro-
duced by Plasmodiophora brassiccee of Woronin.

These Sarcodina are divided into five sub-classes, the Amcebea
(fig. 2), the Foraminifera (fig. 3), the Mycetozoa, the Radiolaria,
and the Heliozoa.

We need only refer to the first here.

B
18 AM(EBAA,

Sup-Crass AMCEBZAA.

They may again be divided into the Lobosa nuda and the
Reticulosa. The former include the Amcebee (fig. 2).

Ameba is a simple unprotected mass of protoplasm or sar-
code, which may be found in damp earth and in water. In
appearance it resembles a small speck of white, transparent,
structureless jelly. If this speck is observed under strong
magnifying power, it will be seen to move by throwing out
little finger-shaped processes, the pseudopodia (Psu). This
simple organism is apparently composed of two layers, a
granular layer inside and a clear transparent layer on the
outside: the former is known as the endosare and the latter
as the ectosarc. These two layers must not be mistaken for
two distinct membranes, for they are continuous, only certain
granules collect towards the interior. When the pseudo-
podia (Psu) are thrown out we shall see, if we watch care-
fully, that the granules flow up the centre of the process as it
elongates. Three other bodies are to be noticed in this minute
creature : first, a small dark oval spot, with a clear border and
permanent in shape, situated in the endosarc; this is the nucleus
(), and it will be found to stain dark-red with picro-carmine.
The nuclear substance or chromatin here is a single mass, but it
may be divided into portions, yet it can always be distinguished
from the body protoplasm or cytoplasm. here will also be
seen contracting and expanding a clear space in the ectoplasm ;
this is the so-called ‘“ pulsating vacuole” (rv), of which there are
two in some forms of Protozoa (Parainreium). The pulsating
vacuole is said to be an excretory organ, for uric acid and
water have been extracted from these minute cavities. These
vacuoles may be looked upon as both respiratory and excretory.
Lastly, there are present a number of so-called “food vacuoles ”
(Fv), spaces surrounding the particles of food ingested by the
amecba, This proteus-animalcule is neither provided with
AMCBAA. 19

mouth nor anus. The food can be taken in and expelled at
any part of the body. This process can easily be watched if
particles of indigo are placed in the water surrounding an
amoeba: a speck of indigo will be found to be drawn to the
protozoan by the pseudopodium, and then it can be watched
gradually sinking into the protoplasm until it reaches the
endosarc, where it remains whilst the substance (if an organism)
is digested, the waste part being expelled through any part of
the animal. The food consists of organisms still smaller than
the amcebe are themselves. The granules in the endoplasm
are regarded as stages in the upward or downward metabolism

 

Fic. 2.—AMaBa (greatly magnified).
i, Large specimen, showing structure. ii. A smaller specimen in process of division.
iii, Later stage of ii. a and », nucleus; b and cv, contractile vacuoles; Fv, food
vacuoles ; Psu, pseudopodia, (All greatly enlarged.)

of the material of the body. Amoeba reproduces by the
primitive method of “fission” or division. The nucleus of
the amceba divides into two (fig. 2, ii. and iil, a), and one of
these nuclei, surrounded by part of the original protoplasm,
breaks off and floats away; thus one amceba\becomes two.
20 FINGER-AND-TOE, OR CLUBBING.

This division may go on until one amcba has given rise to
hundreds. But by degrees each amoeba becomes smaller and
smaller, and they would eventually die out. To counteract
this, what is known as “rejuvenescence” takes place. Rejuv-
enescence is the union or conjugation of two amcebe, whose
protoplasm unites together, together with the nuclei, forming
one larger individual, which is again in a fit state to undergo
once more rapid division. This conjugation is really a kind
of primitive sexual reproduction, although there is, as far as
we can see, no difference between the conjugating individuals.
At least four species of amcebe are parasitic in man, and are
spoken of as Extameha, two of these are of no special account,
but the ALmeha col’ (Lésch), and the Amuha histolytiva (Schau-
(linn), are. The latter is the cause of tropical dysentery, and is
found in man’s intestines, and even the liver and kidneys.
None are so far known to attack animals or plants.

RETICULOSA.

The Reticulosa are naked amoeboid forms with slender, fila-
mentous, net-like pseudopodia.

The well-known parasite of Finger-and-Toe or Clubbing
belongs here.

Fincer-anp-Tor, orn CLUBBING.
(Plasmodiophoru brassie, Woronin.)

This disease occurs in cruciferous plants, both wild and
cultivated. It frequently causes great loss in turnips and
cabbage. The roots of the attacked plants and rootlets will be
found to be swollen and spindle-shaped and smooth, others as
large gnarled masses. The attack commences in the young
plants, from minute flagellule released from the countless
spores in the soil entering the cells of the roots, where they
MASTIGOPHORA. DE

become amesbul, and are found, often several together, in the
parenchyma cells feeding on the sap. The plant-cells mul-
tiply and become abnormally swollen, and many hypertophry.
Shortly the ameebule in each cell fuse together and become a
plasmodium. Later the nuclei of the plasmodium break up
into chromidia, part being destroyed, part reconcentrated to
form generative nuclei. These divide by karyokinesis, and
then the protoplasm collects around the nuclei to form small
uninuclear bodies called gametes, which fuse in pairs. These
zygotes then become surrounded by a tough wall to form round
spores, which pass into the soil on the decay of the plant, and
later give rise to the minute flagellule from which the attack
originates.

The plasmodium seen in the cells is a yellowish stringy slime,
which may wholly or only partially fill the cell. By October
this plasmodium has broken up into spores which closely pack
the swollen cells.

Prevention and Treatment.—It is very important after an
attack to have as far as possible all cabbage stumps and all
diseased material burnt.

Land subject to this disease should be heavily limed, the
lime being in as finely divided state as possible. As it only
attacks cruciferous plants, ceasing to grow them on the land
for two or three years will check it materially.

CLASS IL MASTIGOPHORA.

These have one or more permanent organs serving for loco-
motion or for capture of food in the form of flagella in the
adult stage. They are divided into four sub-classes: 1. Flagel-
lata; 2. Dinoflagellata; 3. Cystoflagellata; and 4. Silico-
flagellata.

The family Trypanosomatide are the most important, and
they belong to a division of the Flagellata known as Mona-
didea, small protozoa of simple structure with one or more
22 MASTIGOPHORA.

flagella. These parasites are the cause of Sleeping Sickness
in man, of Nagana or Tsetse disease in stock, of Surra in
horses, the Mal de caderas and the Dourine of horses. Trypa-
nosomes (fig. 4) are specially characterised by possessing an un-
dulating membrane. They are more or less spindle-shaped, and
along one side runs the undulating membrane. Near one end
of the cell is found the micronucleus or centrosome. The
flagellum arises from this body and runs along the free edge
of the membrane to the other end of the cell, and continues
on as a free flagellum, but it may end with the termination
of the undulating membrane. The true nucleus or macro-

 

Fic. 3.—MastTIGOPHORA AND FoRAMINIFERA.

i. Buglena. ii, Cercomonas intestinalis, iii. Polytoma, free and encysted.
iv. Textularia. v. Globigerina. (Greatly enlarged.)

nucleus is placed near the middle of the body. In the genus
Trypanoplasma (Lav. et Mesn.), the centrosome is large, and
there are two flagella, one at each end of the body.

With but few exceptions Trypanosoma and Trypanoplasma
are blood parasites, and occur free in the blood plasma, never
within blood corpuscles. All the latter are blood parasites, but
some of the 7'rypanosomes may be found in lymph and other
serous fluids. Large numbers of these protozoa occur in the
blood of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, &ec., but most are not
MASTIGOPHORA. 23

harmful to their hosts. Some, however, are markedly patho-
genetic, including the following :—

Trypanosoma brucei (Plimmer and Bradford), producing
Nagana in horses and cattle in Africa;

TL. equiperdum (Doplein), the cause of “Dourine” in horses ;

T. evansi (Steel), the “Surra” of horses and cattle ;

T. equinum (Voges), the agents of “ Mal de caderas” in horses
in 8S. America ;

L. gambiense (Dutton), the parasite of Sleeping Sickness and
Gambia Fever in man in Africa; and

L. cruz (Cruz), which produces “Basilero” in man in 8.
America,

L. brucei occurs as a natural parasite in wild game, such as

 

Fic. 4.—a, A Trypanosome. xv, A Spirochete. (Greatly enlarged.)

buffaloes, antelope, &c., in Africa, and does no harm to them ;
in 8. America 7. equinum is a natural parasite of the Capybara,
but directly they get to horses and cattle their evil effects are
felt. Trypanosomes have a secondary host, which is an inverte-
brate, which acts as an intermediary between the vertebrate
hosts, with one exception—namely, 7. equiperdum—which is
said to be transmitted by means of coitus.

The intermediate host. of these parasites of terrestrial verte-
brates are blood-sucking insects, Tsetse-flies (Glossina), in Africa,
and a Bug (Conorhinus megistus) is known to be the secondary
host of Basilero. The secondary hosts of the parasites of aquatic
vertebrates are leeches.

Reproduction is sexual and asexual, the sexually differentiated
24 SPOROZOA.

forms— 7.., male and female—may, however, multiply by fission.
The three types become fully differentiated only in the inverte-
brate host. ‘lhe males are of more slender form than the females,
and have a longer free flagellum. Parthenogenesis occurs in the
females. The sexual forms conjugate: this may take place in
the blood of the vertebrate, but it is abortive. True maturation
takes place in the gut of the invertebrate host.

Spirochutw.—These are closely related to the former, but they
resemble very minute slender threads, wavy or spirally twisted
in form, and have a narrow undulating membrane, but no
flagella (fig. 4, B). There are several important parasites in
this group: one, 8. obermeteri (Cohn), produces human relaps-
ing fever in Africa, and is carried by Ticks; another, 8. gallin-
aru (Marchoux and Simond), produces spirillosis in fowls in
S. America. European relapsing fever is apparently carried by
the Bed Bug (Ctmer), Fowl Spirochetes especially by Ticks
of the genus Aryas.

CLASS IIL SPOROZOA.

Another very important group of protozoa parasitic in both
vertebrate and invertebrate animals is the class of Sporozoa
(fig. 5). These protozoa are capable of producing serious
pathological disturbances, often leading to death.

There are three orders in this class.

The order Greyarinoidea are only parasitic in invertebrate
animals, and need no further notice.

Another order of Sporozoa are called Coceidiidw, which trans-
form themselves into egg-shaped zoosperms by the formation of
a capsule and the production of several large spores from their
vranular contents.

The third order are the Hremosporidea.

Discase-producing Sporozou.—Four well-known maladies are
produced in birds, animals, and man by these low forms of life
—namely, coceddivsis, or “liver-rot,” in the rabbit ; psurvsper-
THE COCCIDIIDEA. 25

mosis of the skin in many animals, and especially birds—the
so-called “canker” of pigeons; pdroplasmos?’s in cattle, dogs,
&e., such as Redwater and East Coast fever in cattle; and
malignant Jaundice in dogs; and the Malarial fever of man.

THE COCCIDIIDEA.

These are parasitic in the epithelial cells, and always with
distinct alternation of generations—namely, endogenous non-
sexual schizogony and exogenous sexual sporogony. ‘The epi-
thelium most usually attacked is that of the gut and the liver.

Coccidiosts is a common complaint affecting the liver of the

 

Fic. 5.—Coccipium ovirorMeé or Rapert’s Liver. After Balbiani.

a, b, ¢, Young Coccidia in epithelium of liver; «, e, f, encysted adult Coccidia ;
q-l, development of sporoblasts ; m, mature sporoblast, showing the two falciform
bodies ; 2, the two spores separate ; 0, a falciform spore—y, its nucleus. (From Par.
Dis. Ani., Neumann.)

rabbit, and is produced by the species known as Coceddium
oviforme (fig. 5). This sporozoan is ovoid when adult, and
enclosed in a double-contoured shell from 30 to 50m long and
from 20m to 28 broad. These extremely minute bodies become
26 THE COCCIDIIDEA.

encysted, when we observe that their protoplasmic contents
separate away from the cell-wall and form a central round or
oval mass (/). Both adult and encysted stages may be freely
detected in the liver, in the white and yellow patches which are
characteristic of the disease. Now if we collect numbers of
these encysted forms and place them on damp sand in a warm
temperature, we shall soon observe by microscopic examination
that the central protoplasmic ball splits into two and then four
(g and h). This is a kind of segmentation or division, the
round bodies being known as “‘sporoblasts.” These sporoblasts
elongate, expand at each end, and are seen to be surrounded
by a thin membrane, within which is also seen a granular lump.
Each of these “sporoblasts” really contains two spores, the
falciform spores (0), described in a typical sporozoon—in fact,
the so-called sporoblast is a pseudo-navicella. Each falciform
body gives rise to a little flagelloid creature. This form migrates
from cell to cell of the animal’s liver, encysting and producing
more spores, and so rapidly increasing the area of the disease.
It is supposed that these sporiferous cysts are carried with
dust, &¢., and hence get taken into the mouth with food,
eventually reaching the liver. The sporocyst ruptures through
the action of the pancreatic juice, the gastric juice having no
effect upon them, and the sporoblasts appear; these latter
burst and discharge the spores or falciform bodies, which
become active, and are said to ascend by the ductus chole-
dochus to the epithelium of the liver and bile-duct. Here the
germs, having entered some of the hepatic cells, cause these cells
to rupture, and they may even destroy the walls of the bile-duct
itself. They finally encyst, pass out into the intestine, freed by
the breaking up of the tissues in which they are embedded, and
so out to ground by the anus of the diseased animal.

Their presence causes the liver to swell. They are detected
by the creamy cystic areas, varying in size from a millet-seed to
that of a pea. They are often so abundant that the cells of the
liver atrophy, and cheesy-like masses appear not only in the
PIROPLASMOSIS. 27

liver substance but in the bile. These prurigerous masses on
microscopic examination are found to contain numbers of coc-
cidia. It may possibly be taken for tuberculosis unless carefully
examined. The walls of the intestine may be invaded as well
as the liver.

HMospPorRIDIA.

These protozoa have an alternation of generations correspond-
ing with an alternation of hosts: the non-sexual stage is passed
in the blood of a vertebrate, the sexual sporogonous stage in
the gut of an invertebrate. They are all parasites of the blood
of animals and man, and have risen into great prominence from
the fact that they are the cause of malarial fevers in man and
the devastating cattle diseases, such as East Coast fever, red-
water or Texas fever, and the fatal malignant jaundice of canines.

The malarial fevers are carried by several species of mos-
quitoes belonging to the Anopheline, the cattle and canine
fevers by Ticks.

Only two genera of Hemosporidia need be mentioned here—
namely, Plasmodiwm, which contains the malarial species, and
Piroplasma, which contains the animal fever parasites.

PIROPLASMOSIS.

This latter genus contains several species parasitic in the
blood of mammals (fig. 6). These species are so closely related
that they can scarcely be distinguished from one another, save
for the fact that they occur in different hosts. The diseases
these blood parasites produce are spoken of as piroplasmoses.
In acute form the chief symptom is hemoglobinuria, caused
by the destruction of the red blood corpuscles.

Redwater.—This is one of the best-known diseases caused by
Piroplasme. It is also spoken of as Texas or Southern fever in
America. This is caused by the parasite Piroplasma bigemina
(Smith and Kilborne). The species producing European Red-
water is the same. The parasites occur during one period as
28 PIROPLASMOSIS.

pear-shaped bodies in the blood corpuscles, 13 to 1:5 yw in
length, and in this species two occur in each corpuscle. They
may appear as rod-shaped bodies. Free forms also occur in the
blood and sometimes a flagellate form. They increase in the
blood corpuscles by binary fission. Animals with these para-
sites may be immune, but their blood injected into other
animals will cause the disease. Relapses also take place. The
intermediate hosts of this disease are the Ticks (Ixodes ricinus)
and (Lhiporephalus (Boophilus) annulatus). The malignant
jaundice in dogs is caused by Piroplasma canis, the East Coast

A. B. c. D
(PF) “=D J
E F é.

Fic. 6.—PIROPLASME.
A ton, Piroplasma bigemina. Ring forms a B; pear-shaped forms ¢ and p. E and «&
9 1 § 4 > ,

Piroplusme canis in blood corpuscles. F, Parasite free in blood. (Greatly enlarged.)
fever by P. parvum, another is found in the horse, P. equi—
all these have intermediate Tick hosts (vide Ticks). For in-
formation concerning other forms, such as P. parvum (Theiler),
the parasite of East Coast or Rhodesian fever, the P. canis,
causing malignant jaundice in dogs, and P. equi in horses, the
student is referred to Professor Minchin’s recent work on
Protezoa.1

1 An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa. By E. A. Minchin,
M.A. 1912.
INFUSORIA. 29

Mauaria.

The malarial fevers, our old Fen ague, are produced by
species of Plasmodium (Marchiafara and Celli) ; other species
also occur in mammals and birds. In all cases the agents of
transmission are mosquitoes or Culicide ; in the human malaria
only Anopheline Culicide can carry the parasites. There are
three species (1) of Tertian fever (P. vivam), (2) the quartan
parasite (P. malari), and (3) the pernicious or tropical species
(P. immaculatum). One marked character of these is that they
produce a black substance called Melanin. The parasites are
injected into man’s blood by the Anopheline mosquito, and
then enter the red corpuscles, feed, grow, break up into spores,
and destroy the corpuscles; the spores enter other blood cor-
puscles, and so the fever is set up. The Anopheline, whilst
taking man’s blood, injects the parasites with the saliva, and
the insect at the same time obtains other forms from the blood,
and a male and female stage is formed in the insect. The male
throws off portions which conjugate with or fertilise the female
parasite, which then wanders into the walls of the stomach and
later, on the outer wall, grows to a great size and eventually
breaks up into a large number of elongated spores, which enter
the salivary glands of the mosquito. In man, therefore, we get
asexual spore-formation (schizogony), in the mosquito sexual
generation ending in sporogony.

CLASS IV. INFUSORIA.

The Infusoria are Protozoa which are provided with cilia for
locomotory purposes. They have also a vegetative macro-
nucleus and a generative micronucleus.

At one time the Flagellata were included in this class.

There are two sub-classes—(1) Ciléata and (2) Suetoria.

In the first the cilia occur during the whole active life of the
30 INFUSORIA.

adult, but are not found when they are encysted. In the
second, cilia are only present during the larval stage, their
place being taken by suckers and tentacles. None of the latter
are parasites on metazoa. The Ciliata are the most complex of
the Protozoa, and several occur as parasites in metazoa. In
form they are typically ovoid, one pole being directed forwards
in swimming, whilst in creeping species the body is flattened ;
others, as the Bell Animalcule (Vorticella), are fixed by a stalk.
They are of definite form, the body being enclosed by a cuticle.
In this cuticle is an opening, the cystotome or mouth, and there
may be a definite anus or rytopyge.
The mouth is merely a pore passing
through the ectoplasm.

Ciliata reproduce by fission or
budding (gemmation), and also when
encysted by sporulation.

Parasitic forms encyst when out
of their host, and then can remain
dormant until taken up by another
host.

Those that are parasitic occur
in the digestive tract and other
internal cavities, but never as tissue

Fic, Tie as Beg cece parasites. There are four orders—

is Avantnaniae a eaRUe ce (1) Holotricha, in which the cilia
contractile vacuoles; p, peristome are of even length and spread all
(Stein). From Par. Dis. Ani.,
Neumann.) over the body; (2) the Hetero-
tricha, in which a special adoral
zone of larger cilia is always present; (3) Hypotricha, which
are creeping forms and flattened (not parasitic); and (4) Per?-
tricha, which are fixed forms like Vorticella, without locomotar
cilia,

Balantidum coli (fig. 7) is one of the Heterotricha. It is
found in the rectum, &, of pigs and man. These white
ciliata are found as free-swimming bodies in the rectal matter.

 
INFUSORIA. 31

They pass out on the dung and encyst. When food becomes
soiled by excrement they are taken into the alimentary canal.
Another species, B. minwtwim, has also been recorded in man.

Enough has been said of this group of simple animals, the
most rudimentary forms of animal life that exist, to show that
they are of some considerable importance, not only to the
farmer and poultryman but to man in general, and that a
knowledge of their habits and life-histories is not only of
interest but of very great economic value to us.
CHAPTER III.
SPONGES, CQRLENTERATES, AND ECHINODERMS.

Sponcip.£ on PorIFERa.

A SPONGE is a compound structure of true animal nature. It
is composed of contractile tissue, which is supported by a skele-
ton of hard spicules or fibres. In past ages sponges were thought
to be plants, but their true animal nature has long since been
demonstrated. The simplest form of sponge is represented by
a fixed cylindrical tube, with an exhalant opening, called the
osculum, at the free end. The contractile wall of the cylinder is
supported by rayed spicules, which may be calcareous or siliceous
and of very variable form : it is perforated by small pores, known
as inhalant pores, which lead into ciliated internal chambers.
In these ciliated chambers are found cells lining the cavities
peculiar to the Sponge. Such cells are called “collar cells,”
each being provided with a long cilium and a distinct nucleus
in the lower part of the cell. The reproduction of sponges
is much more advanced than in the Protozoa. True ova are
found in the layer of tissue known as the mesoderm, or middle
layer. These ova go through a process of cell-division known
as seymentation, a process henceforth to be observed in all the
following groups of animals. The single cell, the ovum, at first
divides into two, but, unlike the protozoan, it does not separate :
then by further division four cells are produced, then eight, then
sixteen, then thirty-two! Eventually there is formed a free-
CCELENTERATES. 33

swimming body, a larva, which is composed of a number of
cells ciliated on the exterior. This larva is called an amphi-
blastula, which, after leading a free aquatic life, eventually
settles down, and, fixing on to a stone on the floor of the
sea, becomes gradually metamorphosed into a sponge. Most
sponges are marine; a few, however, are fresh-water — one
common form, Spongilla fluviatilis, being often abundant in
our streams.

CQ@LENTERATES,

Ceelenterates include the Jellyfish, Sea-anemones, and Corals,
These marine animals have regular consistent tissues. The cells
of which they are built up have lost their original form, and
have become sorted out into different groups, each with their
special functions, the various groups forming the tissues of
which the animals are built up. In the outer layer of cells (the
skin or epithelium) there are found in all Ccelenterates, more or
less highly developed, certain cells that are known as “ thread-
cells ”—cells that are modified as weapons of offence and defence,
being endowed with stinging propensities. Each of these cells,
or “cnidoblasts,” is provided with an internal barbed thread.
When the cell is touched, this thread, like a flagellum of one
of the Protozoa, is darted out and enters the skin of the prey
or enemy, carrying with it a certain amount of poison, which
produces the curious stinging and even paralysing sensation we
experience when a jellyfish settles upon us when we are swim-
ming in the sea, The amceboid cell-unit here loses its individ-
uality. Amongst these Ccelenterates we find two chief types,
the so-called Medusa or Jellyfish and the Polyp. These two
totally different animals are one and the same, the medusa being
a sexual form of the asexual polyp. There is thus produced
a most remarkable phenomenon, known as the alternation of
generations—that is, the alternation of a sexual and an asexual

form of the same creature.
Cc
34 ECHINODERMATA.

The class Coelenterata contains the Corals (Acténozoa), Dead-
men’s Fingers (Octactinia), Sea-anemones (Hexactinia), the
polypoid and medusoid Hydrozoa, and the Ctenophoru. A
polyp is a simple tubular body fixed at the posterior end and
pierced by an oral opening at the free end, the mouth being
surrounded by a circle or several circles of tentacles. Polyps
may reproduce by male and female cells —spermatozoa and
ova—or by budding. All colonial forms are produced by the
latter process. A medusa or jellyfish is free-swimming, and
consists of a flattened or arched gelatinous disc, that we so
often see floating on the top of the sea. From underneath
this disc there hangs down a stalk, the manubrium, at the
free end of which opens the mouth. Tentacles may be de-
veloped around the mouth and edge of the disc. Here in the
medusa we find that the distinctly defined mouth leads into a
canal that runs up the stalk and enters a cavity in the disc, the
stomach, from which canals run out to the edge of the disc,
where they form a circular canal surrounding it.

A medusa may be compared to a flattened polyp. In the
hydroid polyp stock reproduction takes place by budding, so
that the individual colony increases ; but every now and then a
modified bud forms—a medusoid bud—in the place of a polyp.
This bud breaks off and floats away as a medusa, which becomes
sexually mature, producing ova: these ova hatch into free-
swimming larve that settle upon some rock or stone, when each
larva turns to a polyp which creates a colony by repeated
gemmation. Thus we get an alternation of a fixed asexual and
a free sexual generation.

Ecuinoperms.

Starfish, Sea-urchins, and Sea-cucumbers are united into one
class known as the Evhénodermata. All these animals are
marine. They are characterised by their radial symmetry.
They have generally a hard calcareous exoskeleton, which may
ECHINODERMATA. 35

bear calcareous spines. Within the tests are placed the fully
developed alimentary canal, and the water-vascular and repro-
ductive organs. The starfish, &¢., reproduce sexually. ‘The

 

Fic. 8.—Take Common Starrisu (Uraster rubens) From Nicholson.

ova produced give rise to curious larval forms, quite unlike the
adult,

The group must be summarily dismissed here, as they are of no
importance to the agriculturist, except in the case of the starfish
(fig. 8), which are sometimes employed as manure, the so-called
“ five-finger”” manure, in neighbourhoods near the coast.
36

CHAPTER IV.
WORMS.
PLATYHELMINTHES OR FLat-Worms.

Worms are most variable in form, habits, and structure. They
are of great interest, owing to their often complex life-histories.
To man and his animals they are often deadly enemies, giving
rise to such serious and often fatal diseases as Filariasis,
Trichinosts, Miner’s Disease, Strongylosis, and Twniosis. Nearly
every animal harbours one or more vermiceous guests. Some
seem to occasion little or no inconvenience to their host, whilst
others, if not fatal, are most annoying. Some live as parasites
in the blood (Hematozon), others in the alimentary canal
(Tapeworms), others in the liver (Flukes), and even in the eye
(Filaria ocults). There are also worms, such as the earth-
worms, that are of the greatest service to man, helping to
fertilise the soil. Worms may be found in a great variety of
places. Large numbers are marine ; others live in fresh water ;
yet others upon land, in damp earth, moss, and in excreta. It is,
however, those that lead a parasitic existence, living in some
other animal or plant, that we shall have to consider most fully.

Worms are bilateral animals with unsegmented or segmented
bodies. They never possess any jointed lateral appendages,
such as we shall see in the group (Anthropoda) that includes
the insects and spiders. A dermal muscular system is de-
veloped, and there are present paired excretory tubes or canals.
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF WORMS, 37

The bodies of worms are typically elongated, cylindrical, and
soft, adapted to live in damp media. We can always dis-
tinguish a dorsal or upper and a ventral or lower surface.
Some worms are flat, and are known as Platyhelminthes ; others
are round, and are called Nemathelminthes: these round worms
are never segmented. <A third group are round or nearly so,
and are more or less segmented ; these are known as Chietopoda
and Hirudinea.

In the more highly developed worms the two anterior seg-
ments unite to form a head. The skin is very variable, and
covers a strong muscular layer or coat. The cuticle, or outer
layer of the skin, may become very thick, and then forms
a kind of exoskeleton. The layers under the skin, the true
cutis, contain circular and longitudinal muscle-fibres : these pro-
duce a thick layer, and enable the worms to move with great
power by their muscular contractions. The internal organisa-
tion of this class of invertebrates is also very variable. In such
worms as are parasitic and live on the juices of other animals,
the alimentary or digestive canal may be absent (Cestodes).
Nutrition then takes place much as in plants—namely, by the
process of endosmosis , the nutritive fluids are absorbed through
the skin. When an alimentary canal is present we find that
the mouth is always ventral, and that there may (Nematoda) or
may not (Trematoda) be a posterior exit, the anus. The mouth
generally gives rise to a muscular pharynx, which opens into
a well-developed stomach, followed by an intestine of very
variable length and structure, a short rectum uniting the latter
with the anus.

In the worms we find a well-developed nervous system.
In the most simple form seen in these invertebrates there is
only a single or paired mass of nerve-cells, the so-called ganglia,
over the gullet or oesophagus. These ganglia are called the
“brain,” and from them proceed nerve-fibres, some going an-
teriorly to the sense organs, others posteriorly to the skin, &c.
In Chetopods, arising from the ventral or sub-cesophageal
38 WORMS.

ganglion, are two nerve-strands: these in each segment of the
worm swell out into two ganglia, which are united by connect-
ing nervous matter called commissures. This chain of ganglia
and the nerves attached form the ventral nerve-cord.

Kyes, auditory organs, and tactile organs are sometimes united
to the nervous system, forming primitive sense organs.

A vascular system is present in some groups, such as the
Chirtopoda, Nemertinea, and Hirudinea. The blood is gener-
ally yellow or green, sometimes quite clear, and occasionally
red, It is red in the earth-worm, in which the vascular or
blood system is best studied. It consists of dorsal and ventral
blood-vessels united by lateral vessels, and it is also provided
with paired swollen trunks called “ pulsating” or “blood
hearts.” Worms respire through the whole body surface,
except in some marine Chwtopoda, which have specially modi-
fied branched gills found at the base of the limbs. Fvrretury
organs are also present, consisting of paired canals called
‘“nephridia,” which may open by a single pore (.Vematod).
In the segmented worms, like the earth-worm, these nephridia
are paired in each segment. The nephridia, which are the
equivalent of the kidneys in the higher animals, open into the
interior or body cavity of the worm by a ciliated funnel, and to
the exterior by a small pore on each side of the segment.

Both sexual and asexual reproduction take place in worms—
asexually, by fission and gemmation, amongst the lower forms.
In many cases both male and female organs are found in the
same individual, when it is known as an hermaphrodite. This
we can readily observe in the earth-worm. Many others (most
of the Nematoda) have the sexes in separate individuals, the
male being, as a rule, much smaller than the female. Both
direct and indirect development take place. Many species pass
through a metamorphosis, the egy giving rise to a larval form,
which by a series of changes assumes the adult condition. In
the parasitic species two hosts are often requisite for develop-
ment, and in these parasitic forms the embryonic stage is some-
CLASSIFICATION OF WORMS. 39

times capable of asexual reproduction, when the metamorphosis
assumes a complicated alternation of asexual and sexual genera-
tions. The Trematodes or Liver-flukes, and the Cestodes or
Tapeworms, have this phenomenon in their life-cycle.

The worms are divided into several classes. The four most
important here are :—

(i) Platyhelminthes. (ii) Nemathelminthes.
(ili) Cheetopoda. (iv) Hirucinea.

(i) The Platyhelminthes are Flat-worms with elongated
bodies and cerebral ganglia; they are provided with suckers
and hooks. Most are hermaphrodites. They are grouped in
five orders :—

(a) Turbellaria (Planarians, &c.) These are of no agricul-
tural importance.

(b) Trematoda (Flukes). Parasitic, and produce various
diseases in animals.

(c) Cestoda (Tapeworms). Purely parasitic, in man, animals,
and birds, often with complicated life-history.

(d) Nemertinea. Parasitic only in Mollusca and Crustacea.

(e) Mesozoa.

(ii) The Nemathelminthes are Round-worms, with tubular,
cylindrical, or filiform bodies. The anterior or head region is
either armed with hooks or papille, and there may be hooks on
the posterior end of the male. Sexes separated. There are three
sub-classes :—

(a) Nematoda (Thread-worms). Many of these round thread-
worms are most injurious to animals, birds, and
man, living as parasites in various parts of the
body.

(b) Acanthocephala, a small group of Nemathelminthes found
parasitic in man and some animals.

(c) Nematophora, which are partially parasitic in insects.

(iii) The Chetopoda are segmented worms with a so-called
“brain,” an cesophageal nerve-ring and a ventral nerve-cord,
and a closed vascular or blood system. They form the highest
40 TREMATODA.

group of worms, and are, as a rule, free living; some are par-
tially parasitic. There are three sub-classes :—

(a) Polychute, Marine worms only.

(b) Oligochetw. Earth-worms, &e.

(c¢) Myzostomaria.

(iv) Hirudinea (Leeches). These are partially parasitic ;
they have no parapodia, and are armed with a ventral
terminal sucker for attachment, and also with an oral
sucker. They are hermaphrodites, like the Earth-
worms.

The worms for us to consider—that is, those having a bearing
on agriculture and horticulture—are the Trematodes or Liver-
flukes, the Cestodes or Tapeworms and cysts, the Nematoda or
Thread and Whip worms, and the allied Acanthocephalw, the
Oligochwt. or Karth-worms, and the ecto-parasitie Hirudinea or
Leeches.

PLATYHELMINTHES OR FLAT-worms.

The Flat-worms are mostly parasitic, such as the Flukes and
Tapeworms. They may or may not be segmented, and are
usually hermaphrodites. Their bodies are flattened dorso-ven-
trally ; in very few is an anus present. Two hosts are generally
necessary to complete their life-cycle, and the sexual form may
attain a great size. Both sexual and asexual reproduction take
place, the development often being accompanied by a compli-
cated alternation of generations. The parasitic species are all
provided with suckers, and most of them with hooks for attach-
ment to their host. They are mostly oviparous.

The Trematoda or Flukes.

The Flukes or Trematodes are parasitic worms with unseg-
mented, usually leaf-shaped, flat bodies, resembling somewhat
a “Flat-fish” in form. They possess a mouth surrounded hy
an oral sucker, and also a ventral sucker, but no anus. Most
TREMATODA. 41

Trematode worms go through a kind of alternation of yenera-
tions, and live in two distinct hosts during their changes.

We can distinguish two groups of Flukes—(1) the Distomata,
which have two suckers and no hooks, and present an alter-
nation of sexual and asexual generations,—the asexual phase
always taking place in some mollusc. (2) The Polystomata,!
which have two small lateral anterior suckers and one or two
posterior suckers. Hooks, usually two in number, are also
present. There is no alternation of generations, they live out-
side or upon their host (ecto-parasites) instead of internally
(endo-parasitica or entozoa), as is the case in the Distomata.

Structure of a Trematode.— A typical fluke, such as the
Sheep-fluke (Distomum hepaticum),” has a bifurcated alimentary
canal with simple or ramifying branches, and terminates in a
cul de sac, there is thus no anus. The excretory apparatus
consists of a network of fine tubes which converge into canals ;
these become gradually larger, and end in one or several longi-
tudinal vessels, which finally culminate in a dilated pulsating
vesicle that opens to the outside by a pore, the caudal foramen.
The Distomum are hermaphrodites. The male organs are two
tubular testes, that unite into a “cirrus” or penis, which is
surrounded by a sheath. The female organs consist of an ovary
and oviducts. Attached to the ovary are two glands known as
the “albuminous glands,” which secrete a granular fluid. There
is also a shell-gland, uterus, and vagina, which open by the
vulva close to the male organ. The ova of the fluke are found
in the uterus, where they undergo the first stage of develop-
ment—namely segmentation. Another important species, Bil-
harzia heematobia, has a male and female form. A nervous
system is developed, consisting of two sub-cesophageal ganglia
united by a transverse commissure, and a single sub-cesophageal
ganglion joined to the others by two lateral commissures, and a
few nerve-filaments.

1 These are now spoken of as (i) Digenea, and (ii) Monogenea.
2 This is often called Fasciola hepatica.
42 THE LIVER-FLUKE.

Trematodes are found in the intestine, biliary canals, bladder,
respiratory apparatus, and in the sub-orbital sinus of birds. One
of the most important is the Liver-fluke (Distomum hepaticum),
which produces the “liver-rot” in sheep or the so-called dsto-
m«tosis. Another species, also found in the liver region of the
sheep, is D. lanceolatum, a smaller and more pointed species.

The Liver-fluke (D. hepaticum) (fig. 9).—The body of this
destructive fluke is leaf-like, flattened, and of an irregular pale-
brown colour. It is about an inch in length and half an inch
across at the widest part; it is oval and lanceolate in shape,
broader and rounder in front, where it suddenly contracts to
form a kind of neck. The cuticle is studded with numerous
small prickles, directed backwards, which one can easily feel on
pulling the worm through the fingers from tail to head. The
oral sucker is terminal, small, and round ;
the ventral sucker is towards the anterior
end, large and round, with a triangular
depression. The intestine can be seen
through the integument as two dark
forked branches. The ova, which may
often be seen in the uterus, are ovoid
bodies of a dark-brown colour.

Lambs are especially affected. The

 

Fic. 9. — LIVER - FLUKE a - re
(Distumum heputicum). game species is found in goats, cattle,
o, Oral sucker; gp, geni- ig. 1
tions Tae male camels, the horse, pig, rabbit, and man.
ph, pharynx ; «alimentary They live chiefly in the biliary ducts of

canal.
the liver. Damp wet seasons and damp

ground favour the spread of distomatosis. Fields liable to be
flooded along the course of rivers are often certain to cause sheep
to be infested with Fluke, the cysts being spread over the grass
when the floods are out, and afterwards taken in by the lambs.

Life-history.—The life-history of this species has been deter-
mined by Leuckart and Thomas. The ova pass out from the
bile-ducts through the intestine to the ground in the excreta.
Fach ovum is provided with a lid, which breaks off, and the
THE LIVER-FLUKE, 43

embryo is released. Incubation takes place in the summer, and
occupies from three to six weeks. The embryo is covered with
fine hairs—cilia—and is known as the cilated embryo (fig. 10, a).
It is lanceolate in form, broadened in front, and provided with
a curious boring apparatus at the anterior end. It is necessary
that this embryo should meet with its first host within twenty-
four to thirty hours after it has hatched. Should it not do so it
dies. Its first host is one of the water-snails (Lémmnceus) that we
see in such abundance along the sides of streams, runnels, and

 

Fic. 10.—LIFe-yistory oF DisToMUM HEPATICUM.

A, Ciliated embryo. B, Sporocyst. c, Redia. pb, Cercaria.

e, Pigment spots; ph, pharynx; phi), blind-gut; c, cercarie; m, germinal cells;
em, young redia; rf, lateral ‘‘fins”; a(i), anterior sucker of cercaria; a(ii), ventral
sucker ; a, esophagus: dt, blind-gut. (After Leuckart and Thomas.)

dykes. If the embryo comes in contact with one of the Limnzi,
it bores its way into its body by means of the anterior process,
and then enters the respiratory cavity. The host in this country
is Limnceus truncatulus (fig. 173, a); in S. America it is L. viator ;
in the Sandwich Islands, L. peregra. On arriving at the respira-
tory cavity of this snail the embryo encysts, and becomes con-
verted into a body known as the sporocyst (fig. 10, B).
+4 THE LIVER-FLUKE.

The sporocyst is an oval body with neither mouth nor anus.
Its contents split up into a number of bodies, usually varying
from six to eight. These structures, found inside the sporocyst,
have been formed asexually by internal gemmation, and are
known as Rediw (em). Each redia (c) is about j';th of an inch
in length. Later the sporocyst bursts and the rediz are released,
passing out of the rupture one by one. The rediz (c) still
remain in the snail, where they move about in the mantle cavity.
They, unlike the sporocyst, are provided with an alimentary
canal and mouth (ph). Again asexual reproduction comes into
play, for each redia gives rise by budding (internal) to a number
of tailed creatures, known as Cercaricee (r). About fifteen to
twenty cercarie are produced from each redia. These little
tadpole-like organisms pass out of an unpaired orifice near the
neck of the redia and swim out of the snail, leading a free life
in the water for a short time. These free forms (p) resemble
the adult fluke, only they are much smaller, and are provided
with a long tail. Eventually the cercaria anchors itself on to
a blade of grass or some water-weed, draws in its tail, and
becomes converted into a round cyst. Here this agamous cyst
will remain until some sheep comes along and devours it with
the grass. On being transferred to the stomach of the sheep
or lamb the case of the cyst is dissolved, and the young or
immature fluke is released. It then passes into the duo-
denum, finally entering the liver, where it grows and produces
countless numbers of eggs.

The diagram (fig. 11) shows perhaps more clearly the life-
history of this all-important pest.

This parasite occurs over all Europe, Northern Asia, North
Africa and Abyssinia, the Canaries, the Faroes, and also in
Australia, the Sandwich Islands, and 8. America.

The symptoms of the disease caused by this worm may be
noticed in four periods. The first is the period of immigration,
when the embryos invade the liver: little or no change is then
noticeable in the host. The second is a period of anemia: this
THE LIVER-FLUKE. 45

usually commences thirteen weeks after infection, and during
the months of November and December. Rapid fattening of

DEVELOPMENT. WHERE FOUND.
OVUM (i) (N EXCRETA & GROUND,
IN WATER 8 MANTLE
CILIATED LARVA
@ CAVITY OF LIMNALUS.

SPOROCYST (1)

di

 

s-—™,
r~®

 

=OVA (2250000 To #000000)
Fic. 11.—D1aqRam sHowING Lirg-HIsTORY OF LIVER-FLUKE.
the diseased sheep, fever, and quickening of breath are com-

mon symptoms at this stage. Death may now result from
apoplexy. ‘he third period is marked by a rapid loss of flesh,
46 LUNG-FLUKES.

which usually manifests itself about January. Diarrhea and
jaundice occur now, and either death ensues or there is a spon-
taneous recovery. The last period is that of the emigration,
when the flukes are all mature and all the ova have been passed
out, the sheep then recovering.

Generally, according to Neumann, flukes remain in their host
from nine to fifteen months.

Effects on the liver.—When invaded the liver becomes thick
and soft, and the surface is rough instead of smooth. Inflam-
mation sets in, and a dark serous fluid is found in the abdomen.
The biliary canals become thickened and much enlarged. The
liver eventually becomes soft and friable. Flukes are of course
to be found in the diseased organs in numbers, the writer
having taken as many as seventy from one lamb’s liver and
bile-duct.

Liver-rot occurs worst in certain years. In Britain in 1816,
1817, 1830, 1853, and 1854 it was particularly bad, all wet
years. In 1830 England lost one and a half million sheep
from this pest, representing four millions of money. In
1879-80 three million died. In 1862 Ireland lost 60 per
cent of the sheep, and in 1882 millions died in Buenos Ayres.
Recently the disease has been on the decline in Britain. This
Fluke oceurs in many other animals, and man.

Lung-flukes.—Sometimes flukes are found in the lungs of
sheep and oxen. These lung-flukes (D. yulmonale) are con-
tained in cysts, usually in the posterior lobe of the lung. The
cysts are ovoid in form, about the size of a walnut, and whitish-
grey in colour. Externally they are covered with a fibrous
capsule. Each cyst contains a fluid in which the fluke is
found. Found in dogs, cats, and man in China, Japan, and
Formosa.

Another large Fluke, D. magnum, is found in deer, and
decimated the herds in the deer parks at Mandria, in Italy.
It seems to have been imported into America, and is now
almost as bad in the western plains as D. hepaticum.
CESTODA OR TAPEWORMS. 47

Bilharzia hwmutobia.—This trematode lives in the veins of
the bladder in man, especially in abundance on the east coast
and inland parts of Africa from Egypt to the Cape and around
Lake Nyassa and the Zambesi river, Gold Coast, Mecca, &e.
In Egypt, 30 per cent of the population suffer from Hematuria,
the disease caused by this worm. It is found in couples, chiefly
in the veins of the bladder, pelvic region, and large intestine.
The expelled urine is mixed with blood and eggs of the worm.
The female is filiform, about 20 mm. long, and is found in a
canal along the male, which is white, and from 12-14 mm.
long.

Another species, B. crassa, infests cattle in Egypt, Sicily,
and India, but does not produce hematuria.

The Polystomata are external parasites, and develop without
any alternation of generations such as we have just seen in the
liver-fluke of the sheep. Some species live in the bladder of
frogs (Polystomum interrimum), others live on the gills of fish
(P. lanceolatwm).

Cestoda or Tapeworms.

The Tapeworms are a group of flat-worms which are entirely
parasitic in habits. They are segmented, but not in the same
sense as we understand the segmentation of the true Oligocheta.
There is neither a mouth nor an alimentary canal, as the nutri-
ment is taken in by the process of endosmosis, absorption being
effected through the skin of the whole body-surface. These
cestode worms undergo a curious alternation of generations.
The two stages in the cestode life-cycle have often been
described under two different names. The two stages are—
(1) the adult worm, which is always found living in the
intestines of man and various animals and birds, &c.; and
(2) the ‘cystic stage,” which is usually found in a totally
different host, and in some of the organs or connective tissues
of the body, mo¢ in the intestines. The diseases produced by
48 TAPEWORMS.

tapeworms are known as /rniosis, and in some cases the disease
ends fatally not only in animals but also in man. A well-
known instance of this vermiceous group is the disease called
“measles in pork,” which is produced by the cystic stage of a
tapeworm (7vnia solium) that invades man. The worm is con-
tracted by eating infested pork insufficiently cooked. Another
is the measles in “beef” produced by the cystic stage of the
human tapeworm Tenia sayinata (Goeze), the beef tapeworm.

Tapeworms are found in all parts of the world, and are
usually most destructive where insanitary conditions exist. <A
typical tapeworm (fig. 14, c) consists of a permanent head,
known as the scolex (figs. 14, s, and 12. a), and a long segmented
body, each segment being known as a proglottis (B). Between
the scolex and the body there comes a constricted area, the neck
(fig. 14, 2). This is the growing area of the worm, the area from
which fresh segments are constantly being budded off. The pro-
glottides increase in size towards the tail end. Each proglottis
is practically a perfect animal in itself, as each has a separate set
of sexual organs. When the segments are ripe—that is, sexually
mature and full of ova—they fall off: sometimes they disunite
separately, at others in groups of from four or more, and pass
out to the exterior in the animal’s excrement.

The head or scolex (figs. 12, 4, and 14, s).—This so-called head
has no mouth; there are usually two or four suckers (s) npon
it, enabling it to become attached with the additional aid of
two rows of hooks (h) to the mucous membrane of the host’s
intestines. Hooks may be absent. (Unarmed tapeworms, as
Moniezia vepanse of sheep.) In some species the scolex is
drawn out in front into a kind of snout, the roste//wm, and
then hooks are present surrounding its apex.

We find four chief modifications of scolices: (i) In the
Tuniv, in which there are four suckers and two sets of hooks
on the rostellum ; (ii) Bothrivrephalus, in which there are two
suckers; (iii) Acanthobothrium, which are provided with a
complicated set of suckers and beset with numerous hooks ; and
TAPEWORMS. 49

(iv) Tetrarhynchus, which has four protrusible probosces, also
beset with recurved hooks.

The neck (fig. 14, ).—Here note the first traces of seementa-
tion. At first faint transverse stripes are seen, not extending
right across the neck ; farther down they pass from side to side,
and small segments are thus marked off, becoming larger and
more distinct the farther we get from the scolex. The neck
is narrow and constricted.

The proglottides or segments as they become ripe pass out of
the host and lead a free life for a short time: they are the

 

 

 

 

 

Fic, 12.—ScoLex or Teyta SOLIUM AND PRoGLoTTIS OF TAPEWORM.

A, Seolex of Twnia soliwm, seen trom front. 8, Proglottis of Tapeworm.
s, Suckers; h, circle of hooks; Ne, nerve-cord; IV», water-vascular system; Ov,
ovary ; 7’, testes; Vd, vas deferens; Vg, vagina; Ut, uterus; V, vulva; FP, penis,

reproductive parts, whilst the scolex and neck are the vegeta-
tive parts, of the cestode. Yet each segment is practically an
individual animal. The internal structure, like the external, is
simple ; no alimentary canal will be seen at all; each segment,
which may be oblong or square, broad or narrow, according to
the species, is nearly solid throughout. Beneath the outer
layer or cuticle is a matrix of small cells, in which glandular
cells are seen to be dotted about; beneath this is a thin layer
of longitudinal muscle, then a parenchymatous mass of connec-
tive tissue in which small bundles of longitudinal muscle-fibres
are scattered, then a layer of circular muscles, and finally in
D
50 DEVELOPMENT OF CESTODES.

the centre of the segment the organs are embedded in a solid
connective tissue. In the first sezments we find dotted about
calcareous bodies, that are calcified connective tissue-cells. Each
segment has its own generative apparatus, both male and
female organs being found in each proglottis. The male
organs consist of a number of pear-shaped bodies, the testes
(fig. 12, 7); each of these small round male glands has a fine
duct running from it. These vasa efferentia, as they are called,
unite into a common duct, the vas deferens (Vd), which is
spirally coiled at the end; this portion lying in a muscular
pouch, the “cirrus pouch,” it can be protruded as the penis
or cirrus (P). The female organs are more complicated: they
consist of two ovaries (Ov), yolk-gland, uterus (Ut), shell-gland,
receptaculum, and vagina (Vy), situated as shown in fig. 12.
The vagina generally opens into the same cavity as the cirrus,
but may be separated from it some distance.

The Tapeworms are also provided with an excretory system
(fiz. 12, Wv), which extends as four tubes united transversely in
each segment, and finally all uniting and opening by one vesicle
at the last segment. The nervous system is very primitive,
consisting of two cephalic ganglia in the scolex united by a
commissure, and two long lateral trunks (Nr) running down
each side of the proglottides. We thus see that although each
segment is sexually distinct and independent, and that the
segments can live a free life for a time, yet they are all united
into one animal by the nervous and excretory systems.

Development of Cextodes.—The male organs reach maturity
before the female: as soon as they are ripe, copulation takes
place, and the receptacle of the female becomes filled with
sperm, and then the female organs mature.

The ova when fertilised pass into the uterus, which becomes
very distended, and the rest of the proglottis becomes absorbed,
—in fact the whole segment is filled with eggs. In the uterus
the eges in the last segment are said to become free embryos;

DD»
but this the writer has failed to detect in the many species of
DEVELOPMENT OF CESTODES, 51

Tapeworm examined. The eggs are round or oval and small.
The shell of the egg may be composed of several thin membranes
or of a thick and strong capsule. The curious six- or four-
hooked embryo (fig. 14, B) may be seen in the most highly
developed ova. In one genus of Tapeworms, known as Both-
riocephalus, of which a species is found in the human being in
Switzerland and elsewhere, the development takes place partly
in the water, the embryo leaving the ovum as an oval ciliated
larva. As a rule, we find that a complete metamorphosis exists,
which is often connected with a very complicated “alternation of
generations.” The subsequent stages live in different localities,
finding the necessary conditions in different animals or “hosts,”
between which they migrate either actively or passively.

The ripe proglottides break off from the worm and are passed
out of the host in its excreta, where they remain on dunghills,
on the grass, and in water. The proglottides burst by
cadaveric decay, and the countless number of contained ova
are disseminated over the surface of the earth and in the
water; here they remain until they are taken into the body
of some herbivorous, omnivorous, or, more rarely, carnivorous
animal.

When in the stomach the gastric juice dissolves the capsule
of the ovum, and the round embryo is set free with its six, or
rarely four, hooks. These hooked embryos bore their way into
the gastric and intestinal vessels, when they enter the vascular
system and are carried along passively by the flow of blood, and
then pass by way of the capillaries to the lungs, liver, muscles,
brain, &c., of the animal that has had the misfortune to ingest
the ova. The embryos then take up their abode in some organ
or connective tissue of their host, lose the hooks, and become
converted into cysts, hydatids, or “ water-bags,” which grow into
large vesicles with liquid contents. These vesicles become in
time what are called Bladder-worms, by the formation of one or
more hollow buds which are developed from the walls of the
cyst, and which project into its interior. The armature of the
52 DEVELOPMENT OF CESTODES.

future scolex is developed at the bottom of these invaginations.
By a process of evagination we see that the true scolex and neck
are found attached to the bladder or vesicle.

Varieties of cysts—When only one invagination is formed,
the cyst is known as a Cystirercus (fig. 13, 4); when several
are produced, as a Caenurus (B); and when the cyst itself pro-
duces other cysts, and each of these secondary cysts gives rise
to smaller invaginations (scolices), the structure is called an
Erhinocoveus (fig. 17). These structures, so formed, “may live
in an animal for a very considerable time; but unless they are

 

Fie. 13.—Two rorMs oF CESTODE CysTs.

A, A Cysticercus (after Neumann). B, A Canurus.
s, scolices ; f, cavity of cyst.

taken into the body of some other animal, they must eventually
die. Should a carnivorous or insectivorous animal, or such an
omnivorous one as the pig, or even man, devour in the meat
that they eat any of these cystic forms, the action of the gastric
juice, again acting upon the cestode, dissolves the walls of
the “bladder,” and releases the rudimentary scolex or scolices
formed in it. These heads of future tapeworms then pass into
some portion of the intestine, and by means of the hooks with
which they are provided, and augmented by the suckers, they
anchor on to the lining mucous membrane of the small and
large intestines. As soon as the embryo has taken up its abode
on the mucous membrane the scolex commences to bud off
DEVELOPMENT OF CESTODES. 53

segments, formed by an asexual budding in the longitudinal
axis, and resulting in the formation of a mature sexual cestode
or tapeworm, which may in some species reach as much as thirty
feet in length. At one time tapeworms were considered colonial
animals, each proglottis being a distinct individual; but since
it is the scolex which grows, we must consider that the whole
is an individual, and that the individuality of the proglottis is
subordinate to it,—and, moreover, we find one excretory and
one nervous system common to the whole.

The typical development is then a true metamorphosis: it is
only when many scolices are produced from the one embryo
asexually that the development is a case of the remarkable
“alternation of generations.” The simplest development is
found in the genus Bothriocephalus, where it is more or less
direct, the embryo becoming immediately a scolex. In some
other forms we find that in the Cysticercus stage the vesicle or
bladder becomes small and is nearly lost; no segments are
formed, the Cysticereus becomes converted into the Cysticercoid
form, in which that portion of the scolex bearing the hooks is
separate from that part with the suckers.

Positions in which Tapeworms und their Cysts
and Ova are found.

1. Cysts are found in the liver, lungs, muscles, brain, spinal
cord, kidneys, eyes, thoracic cavity, body cavity generally, and
in the hepatic ducts.

2. Tapeworms are found only in the small and large intestines
and stomach.

3. The ova are met with on the ground, on grass, on dung-
hills, and in water.

The cyst stage is, as a rule, found in herbivorous animals, but
also in man, fish, and in various species of insects. The dog,
for instance, has one of its tapeworms living in the cystic stage
in the louse (Zrichodectes).
54 VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS.

Various Forms of Tapeworms of Economic Importance.

Multiceps multiceps, Hall.
= Cunurus cerebralis = Twnia camurus
(which causes the Sturdy, Gid, or Staggers in Sheep).

In dogs, especially in sheep-dogs, we commonly find a tape-
worm known as Tinta camurus (fig. 14, c). This worm,
which may algo exist in other animals, such as the fox, lives
in the intestines. There is no proof yet, however, that the fox

 

Fic. 14.— yrurRDY IN SHEEr
Ahultiveps multiceps and Tinia ca nurus).
A, Ovum. B, Embryo. c, Sexual worm (Tirnia cn nwrus) : P; Prozlottides ; x, neck;

s, suckers. D, Multiceps multiceps: ce, cerebral hemispheres; cb, cerebellum : m,
medulla. ©, Hook from c.

does harbour this worm. It can be distinguished by having a
circle of hooks around its head, which is slightly drawn out into
a rostellum, and by its four suckers. In length it varies from
twelve to sixteen inches when adult, and is constituted of about
two hundred distinct segments. The pale proglottides full of
eggs are passed out on to the ground in the sheep-dog's excre-
ment, and there remaining for a short period, they burst, re-
VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS. DD

leasing thousands of ova (a). These are taken off the grass by
the lambs, or even two-year-old sheep; sometimes even whole
seginents may be devoured. Cattle, goats, antclopes, chamois,
gazelles, and the horse are also sometimes affected. The
embryos become released in the stomach of the sheep or other
animal. The six-hooked larvee then commence to bore their
way through the walls of the ovine intestine, and finally
enter the blood, by which they are carried to various parts
of the body. Should any of these embryos reach the brain
or spinal cord, as very often happens, further development
takes place ; otherwise they apparently die a premature death.
After the larva has reached the cranium, it commences to
burrow about until it finds a suitable resting-place for further
growth. A brain examined fresh, when it has been invaded by
one or more of these larve, shows red sanguineous streaks on
its surface, very like the innumerable fine blood-vessels which
ramify over it,—-these tracts have been formed by the mov-
ing embryo worms. On taking up its fixed abode, the larva
then grows into the Bladder-worm, the so-called hydatid, or
“‘water-bag” of the shepherds, which gradually swells until it
reaches the size of a walnut, or even larger. The writer has
twice taken these cysts from lambs nearly as large as an egg,
the hosts, needless to say, having died. Often several cysts are
found in the brain, both on its dorsal and ventral moieties.
Each of the cysts, which were formerly known as Cwnurus
cerebralis (now as Multiceps multiceps), develops from three
hundred to four hundred scolices by asexual budding. These
can easily be seen in the “hydatid” as minute white specks.
The affected sheep gradually lose their power of equilibrium,
turn round and round, and fall down. In the early stages of
infestation the lambs shake their heads and hold them on one
side; but as the “bladder” grows the symptoms become more
marked. These cysts are also found in the spinal cord. Spon-
taneous recovery may take place, but large numbers of sheep
are annually lost by this parasite; and yet we do little or
6 VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS.

nothing to prevent it, when prevention lies casily in our
power.

Should a human being eat the diseased brain, cyst and all, no
further development would take place, but he does not do so.
What generally happens? The dead animal or head of the
“pothery” or “sturdy” sheep is invariably thrown into the
nearest wood or spinney or given to the shepherd’s dog. What
is the result? The cyst, being only capable of development in
one of the Canidr, produces numbers of the tapeworm, Twnia
canurus, in the dog’s intestines, and so the disease is propa-
gated ; whilst if the diseased heads were destroyed or given to
fowls, in which the scolices, I find, never develop, all that per-
sistent loss would be saved. The cysts are often found in the
lumbar region of the spinal cord, where they may reach a great
size, and produce the so-called “ lumbar-gid ”—the hindquarters
becoming paralysed. ‘The only treatment is trephining, but it
is seldom done, and it is far better to kill the parasitised
animal,

Tenia solium = Cysticercus cellulosw
(the Human Tapeworm and Measles in pigs).

Tonia solium is a tapeworm found in man, in some parts of
Europe in great abundance, but comparatively rarely now in
England. It is creamy white in colour, and reaches from six
to ten feet in length, often being composed of as many as eight
hundred segments: the scolex is provided with a large circle of
hooks. The ripe segments become pinched off several together
and are passed out, when they may find their way on to some
dung-heap. If a pig happens to come across them they are
speedily eaten, and hundreds of the contained ova are dehisced
into the stomach, and give rise to the typical six-hooked cestode
embryos. These enter the vascular system in swarms and take
up their abode in the muscles, or rather in the connective tissue
between them. Sometimes they even reach the brain and spinal
cord, and may also be found in adipose or fat tissue. These
VARIOUS FORMS OF 'TAPEWORMS. 57

embryos form small watery cysts about the size of peas, especi-
ally in the loins, and give rise to the disease in pigs known as
“measles.” From ten to twenty thousand cysts (fig. 15, ¢) have
been counted in one pig. Should this “measly pork,” which is
condemned in the markets, be eaten by man, each one of those
cysts will become converted into the obnoxious human pest,

\\ | cM i
BA

eee

\ : 4
V0
Nee

 

Fic. 15.—FRAGMENT OF MEASLY Pork.
¢, ¢, Cysticerci; v, alveolus, from which a bladder-worm has been taken. Railliet.

(From Par. Dis. Ani., Neumann.)

Tenia solium. The cystic stage is also said to be found in
man in his eyes, brain, and muscles. The disease is still
persistent in some Continental districts and in Iveland; but,
owing to our more sanitary ways of living, its effects are being
less felt than formerly. It is a disease that has been observed
for a very long period, being well known, although not under-
stood, by the ancients.
58 VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS.

Eehinococrus.—A third type of cyst known as Echinococcus
often assumes a great size. The sexual tapeworm that produces
this cyst is Tenia ech/nococcus (Sieb.), fig. 16. This worm is
found in the dog, and is very prevalent. It is minute in size,
seldom exceeding one-fourth of an inch in length, and is composed
of never more than three elongated segments. The last segment,
which is much: the largest, contains numbers of ova when
mature. The head is provided with a double row of hooks.

The colour is creamy-white, and they may be

found in great numbers in the fluid contents

of the dog’s intestines, and are often seen

ys sticking round the anus. These worms are

derived from the cysts known as Echinococcus

veterinorum, found in herbivorous animals and

man, but especially in the Ruminants. The

worms reach maturity in about a month after

the entry of the cysts into the stomach of the

dog. The cyst Hchinococcus veterinorum (Sieb.)

is the same as £. polymorphus of Diesing.

They are to be met with in man, monkeys,

cats, dogs, rabbits, sheep, oxen, goats, horses,

deer, and many other animals; but ruminants

eevee and pigs are the greatest sufferers. Man in

weninococcus. certain districts, especially in Iceland and in

a, Hook from same. Mecklenburg, has often suffered seriously from
(Greatly enlarged.) ‘

this so-called Hydatid plague. Although

Echinococcus is met with in all parts of the body, it is the

liver that is chiefly invaded: occasionally much pathologic

disturbance is also caused by them in the lungs and in the

kidneys.

 

The ova of Twnia echinoroccus are passed out with the ripe
proglottis from the dog’s bowels and get into the water. On
entering the herbivorous or omnivorous host the ova hatch,
and the embryos make their way v/é the portal system to
the liver. They there produce small white cysts, which
VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS. 59

contain a vesicle. Development proceeds very slowly. By
the end of five months, Leuckart has shown that they attain
the size of a walnut. They now consist of a whitish-yellow
vesicle with thick walls composed of two layers (fig. 17)
—the outer one thick, and called the hydatid membrane
(ct); the inner one thin (m), and known as the germinal
membrane. Internally this ‘mother - vesicle” contains a

 

Fic. 17.—D1IaAvRAM SHOWING FORMATION OF PROLIGEROUS AND SECONDARY
VESICLES IN EcurInococcus. Railliet.

ct, Hydatid membrane; m, germinal vesicle ; vp, proligerous vesicles ; vf, daughter-
vesicle commencing to form ; vf’, daughter-vesicle passing externally ; vf’, daughter-
vesicle passing internally; vfi, internal daughter-vesicle ; ufc, external daughter-
vesicle; vpfi, internal grand-daughter-vesicle ; vpfe, external grand-daughter-vesicle.
(From Par. Dis. Ani., Neumann.)

colourless neutral fluid. In some cases the “ mother-vesicle”
remains in this state, no scolices being produced, when it
is called an “acephalocyst.” Should further development
take place, as is usually the case, a number of buds, close
together, arise from the germinal layer (vp). These buds
become hollow, and from their internal walls scolices appear.
As many as thirty scolices may be formed in each of these
60 VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS.

proliqgcrous vesicles, and they may break away and float in the
fluid contents of the cyst.

Secondly, there are formed in the hydatid membrane (ct)
cavities (vf), which gradually become larger and pass either in-
ternally (uf”) or externally (v/’) ; these are secondary or duughter-
vesicles. As a rule, we do not find internal and external
daughter-vesicles in the same hydatid. These secondary or
daughter-vesicles may produce proligerous vesicles, and thus
scolices, internally (w/e). Some do not produce scolices but
other vesicles, grand-daughter-vesicles (vpfi and rpfe). These

On

   

 

 

 

Fic, 18.—T.eNtA SERRATA (nat size). (From Par, Dis. Ani., Neumann.)

grand-daughter-vesicles may again form internal proligerous
vesicles, and thus scolices ; or they may remain as acephalocysts,
just as the primary proligerous vesicle does occasionally.

It will thus be seen that one ovum of Tven/a erhinococcus may
produce hundreds of scolices, future tapeworms, should a dog
devour the organs suffering from this echinococcosis.

Lastly, there is a form of Echinococcus known as a multi-
lovular form, in which the vesicles remain very small, whereas
in the others they may assume an immense size. These vesicles
remain attached together, and may produce a huge mass eight
or nine inches across, united together by connective tissue.
VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS. 61

These are called colloid cancers, but Virchow showed some time
ago their true formation.

The secondary internal vesicular formation is chiefly found in
man, the pig, and the horse, where huge hydatids are produced.
Secondary external vesicles are more general in ruminants, but
they also occur in the pig and in man. This disease is found
wherever dogs exist. One-sixth of the population in Iceland
have suffered from this plague? It is also abundant in
Australia,” India, and elsewhere. It is by no means uncommon
in Great Britain.

Other Tapeworms.

Numerous other tapeworms exist in domestic animals and
man. At least fourteen are found in the dog and ten in man.
Tenia serrata (fig. 18) is often very common. Its cystic stage

 

Fic, 19.—T#NIA SERRATA.

a, Young Cysticercus; b, same dividing; d, mature Cysticercus pisiformis ; ec, seolex
and hooks of 7. serrata ; g, h, j, various segments ; f, scolex in Cysticercus.

(fig. 19, @), known as Cysticercus pisiformis, is found in the

peritoneal cavity of rabbits and hares. Dogs obtain this worm

1 Dobell, Report on Iceland. (1879.)
2 Thomas, Hydatid Disease in Australia. Adelaide (1884).
62 VARIOUS FORMS OF TAPEWORMS.

by eating the viscera of those animals. Sheep have also several
parasitic within them, which produce scouring and emaciation.
Moniezia expansa is often troublesome in sheep, both in Eng-
land and America; it also occurs in cattle. The life cycle is
not known.

“Measles” in beef is also due to a cyst called Cystécercus
bovis, which occurs in the skeletal muscles, heart, lymph glands,
and even between the convolutions of the brain and the lungs
and liver. The sexual stage is the tapeworm Tivnia saginata,
the unarmed tapeworm found in man. It is almost cosmo-
politan, being very prevalent in Africa and Asia. It frequently
reaches 7 metres long.

Teniosis is also sometimes a very troublesome complaint in
fowls, but so far has received little notice in this country.

The third order of Platyhelminthes does not concern us: they
are called Nemertini, most of which are free-living worms, a few
being parasitic in the mantle cavities of various mollusca.
63

CHAPTER V.
WwoRMS—Continued.
NEMATHELMINTHES OR Rounp-WorMs.

Tue Round-worms have a tubular and filiform body. The
cuticle, or outer layer of skin, is ringed but never segmented.
The sexes are separate, the male worm being usually quite dis-
tinct from the female. The alimentary canal may be absent
or rudimentary, but is generally present and well developed.
There are no special organs of respiration or circulation.
Amongst these round-worms innumerable parasitic forms are
found in man and the domestic animals, as well as in fish and
insects. Many fatal diseases are produced by them, such as
trichinosis in man and pigs, gapes in poultry, husk or hoose in
lambs, &c. The horse is very subject to a number of species.
These worms taper to a point at each extremity.! We shall
frequently observe special organs for attachment on both the
anterior and posterior regions, such as hooks, teeth, and even
suckers, which are used by the worms not only for holding on
to their host, but also for purposes of copulation. The integu-
ment of these round-worms has a thick cuticular layer, and also
a large muscular layer within, by means of which the body is
enabled to wriggle, undulate, and knot itself into fantastic
forms. Although vascular and respiratory systems are seem-

1 Except in the Strongylide, where the posterior end of the male
culminates in a cup-shaped bursa.
64 NEMATODE WORMS.

ingly wanting, yet a nervous system exists. Here also we shall
observe sense-organs in the form of simple eyes in those forms
that are free-living, but not in the parasitic species. In some,
such as the Acanthocephala, the mouth and alimentary canal is
entirely absent, whilst in the Nematu:/es a true digestive system
is developed. Many of the Nemathelminthes develop without
any metamorphosis. Where larval forms occur the larve are
often found in different hosts, and in any case in different parts
of the same host.

Nematoda.

The round-worms which we have especially to consider in
this work are the Nematodes or Thread-worms, which include
various parasites in animals and birds, as well as in man, and
also parasites that attack plants.

The body of Nematodes is thin and thread-like, hence their
popular name ‘“Thread-worms.” The mouth leads into an
cesophagus which has thick muscular walls and often a chitinous
lining, and is frequently dilated behind into a muscular bulb,
the pharynx. The intestine following the pharynx opens by a
posterior pore, the anus, on the ventral surface. In a transverse
section of a nematode the muscle is seen to be divided into four
areas, broken at the sides by the two lateral lines in which run
the excretory canals, and above and below by a dorsal and
ventral line. Nematodes are always of separate sexes, never
hermaphrodite as in the Flat-worms, except in one or two
notable exceptions, in which first male cells—spermatozoa—and
then female cells—ova—are formed in the same individual.
Male nematodes are always smaller than the females, and have
the posterior end of the body curved; moreover, they are
usually provided with a pair of recurved hooks for attachment
to the female (fig. 21, d). Nematodes increase by true sexual
reproduction,

Sexual reproduction consists of the union of a male cell
which is known as a sperm cell or spermatozoon with the female
NEMATODE WORMS. 65

or germ cell, the result of the fertilisation—that is, the entry of
the male element into the female—is the production of a fertile
ovum. The female cell is sedentary, the male is active, the
latter being usually armed with a whip-like tail resembling
in some respects a flagellate protozoan, but the whip pushes the
flagellata, whilst it pulls the spermatozoa. The male cell enters
the female cell and then loses its flagellum. On the entry
of the spermatozoon into the germ cell, the former travels
through the latter until it unites, or rather its nucleus unites,
with the nucleus of the female cell, or, as it is more correctly
called, the female pronucleus. One spermatozoon alone enters :
the entrance takes place through an aperture in the germ cell
called the micropyle. At the same time a prominence appears
on the ovum, called the ‘‘polar prominence,” which gradually
grows out and splits off into two round bodies, the “ polar
bodies,” which pass away and are lost. The result is that a
fertile ovum is produced, capable of developing into an in-
dividual similar to the male and female parent form, and yet
sufficiently plastic to undergo slight variations which may
become permanent characters, and so eventually mould a new
species. An asexual egg passes out only one “polar body,” a
true ovum two.

Development of Nematodes.—Nematodes chiefly lay eggs (fig.
20). Living young are produced by a few species, when they
are called viviparous, to
distinguish them from
the egg-laying or ovipar-
ous species. The ova
possess a shell, but in
the Trichine this is lost

whilst in the mother

worm Fertilisation Fic. 20.—Empryo anp Ova or ScLeRosTOMUM
‘ RUBRUM. (Greatly enlarzed.)

 

takes place by the en-

trance of a spermatozoon into the female cell while it is still

without the shell membrane. The ovum on being fertilised
E
66 NEMATODE WORMS.

then commences to go through the process of segmentation,
which is the result of the rapid division of the nucleus and the
formation of a number of cells in the ovum. The cell division
is equally distributed throughout the egg—that is, the segmen-
tation of the ovum is equal. Eventually from this segmented
ovum two cell layers are formed: these two layers become
invaginated or pressed in at one end, and there is thus formed
an embryo known as the gastrula. From the two cell layers of
this gastrula are developed the body-wall and alimentary canal.
The young may encyst in an intermediate host, and in the cyst
stage are transferred to the permanent host: for instance,
Spiroptera obtusa in the mouse is derived from cysts of this
species in the meal-worm—the larva of a beetle which lives in
flour, biscuits, and meal, and there eats the ova passed out by the
mouse. <A large number of these round worms develop direct.

Lastly, we may have changes taking place in the same animal,
the worms migrating from the intestines to the parenchymatous
tissues, as we shall observe happens in the case of Trichina
spiralis in pigs.

There is one very important group of Nematodes to the farmer,
which develop and live in damp earth and plants. These cast
their skin whilst in the damp earth and are converted into
what are known as “ Rhabditis,” forms which have a double
enlargement of the cesophagus and teeth attached to the pharynx.
Some become sexually mature in the earth, and their offspring
again migrate and live as parasites; others undergo several
ecdyses, becoming mature in the permanent host. The em-
bryo gradually elongates and becomes coiled up in the shell
(fig. 21, ¢). The free development may be in the form of a
metamorphosis which happens away from the parent form.

The larve, parasitic in animals and man, live in the paren-
chymatous organs of their host, either free or encysted in con-
nective tissue capsules ; whilst the adults live chietly in the
alimentary canal.

The embryos often have a curious boring tooth in front, or a
NEMATODE WORMS. 67

circle of spines. They moult their skin. frequent ecdyses or
moults precede the adult stage. The simplest form of develop-
ment is where the embryo, enveloped still in its egg-membrane,
is transported, passively, in the food to the host (Oxyuris). In
the Ascaride the embryo, which is provided with a boring
tooth, may pass sometimes into an intermediate host, by which
it is transported with its host in food and water into the second
host, where it will become sexually mature.

The food of Nematodes which are parasitic consists of the

 

 

 

 

Fic. 21.—ANQUILLULID& (Eelworms).
a, Mature ? with oral spine; band c, ova; d, extremity of g ; ¢, anterior of adult.

(Enlarged, after Ritsema Bos.)

organic juices of the body. They nearly all seem to lead a free
life during some period of their existence. Those that are
parasitic in plants, causing such diseases as clover-sickness, ear-
cockles or purples in corn, &ec., are called eelworms. Many of
these eelworms, however, only live in decaying parts of plants,
where they dod no harm: these are termed saphrophytes. Yet
others produce fermentations, such as the Vinegar- and Paste-
Eelworms.

In all cases both egg and cyst of these Nematodes have the
power to resist extreme heat and cold, unless it be that the
former is kept up for some time.
68 STRONGYLIDA! OR PALISADE-WORMS.

troups of Nematodes.—The groups or families of Nematodes
of importance to the agriculturist are—
(i) The Strongylid or Palisade-worms.
(ii) The Trichotrachelid or Whip-worms.
(iii) The Aseraridie or Round-worms.
(iv) Filarid or Thread-worms ; and
(v) The Anguillulide or Eelworms.
The first four groups live as parasites upon animals, the last
group lives upon plants.

STRONGYLIDZ OR PALISADE-WORMS.

These worms produce many complaints in animals. They
are elongated and spindle-shaped, the
anus being placed near the tip of the
body, and, as in all Nematodes, the
anus and male opening are one and
the same. In these Palisade - worms
this male opening is surrounded by a
curious cup-shaped bursa, which is
kept expanded like an umbrella by
stiff ribs (fig. 22, ©). The female has
a pointed posterior (fig. 22, D).

Lung Worms of the Sheep.

One of the most important and de-
structive Palisade-worms is the Lung-
worm of the lamb (Stronqylus silarta),
a white worm which causes the disease

ia Tee Tome Gee SH ee oe hese,” he
(Strounylus filiuria). male worm is about an inch and a half

os es ay eognm; to two inches in length, the female
ee eee anus; in- quite three inches. The embryos of
these worms are found in damp earth,

and enter the lambs during May, June, and July. Strongylosis

XQ

ee

 

 
STRONGYLIDA OR PALISADE-WORMS. 69

of the air-passages is generally observed from March to October.
They get into the throat and enter the trachea; here they
burrow into the mucous membrane and form lumps, which they
quit at the end of the winter. The female then gives rise to
numbers of living young, hundreds of which may be found in
the mucous membrane of the lamb’s throat. The young develop
partly in water or damp earth before they become sexually
mature. Sir George Brown says that in common with other
Strongyles they are swallowed by earthworms, and again ejected
after having gone through certain changes. Only some of the
hosts of embryos ejected can go through earthworms, however.
He then suggests that some may become parasitic in plants
before they take up their abode in the warm-blooded host.
Filavia gives rise to vermiceous bronchitis.

We find at least three other worms in the lungs of sheep—
namely, Pseuwdtalis ovis-pulmonalis, a small coiled worm forming
tuberculous-like growths over and in the lung in which they
live; and Strongylus rufescens and S. paradoxus, free in the
lung cavities, &c. Whether there is any connection between
S. rufescens and P. ovis-pulmonalis is not known: from what
I have observed I consider them quite distinct. S. rufescens
produces a kind of pneumonia. Two varieties of this disease
may be noticed—viz., (1) a lobular pneumonia produced by
adult worms in the bronchi, and (2) a diffuse pneumonia caused
by ova and embryos in the parenchyma of the lung. P. ovis-
pulmonalis produced a nodular pneumonia. S. paradoxus is of
exceptional occurrence.

Stomach Worms of Sheep and Cattle.

Several species of Strongylide often occur in enormous
numbers in the stomach of sheep and cattle and cause parasitic
gastritis. One of the commonest is the Heemonchus contortus of
sheep, which also infests cattle and goats. Lambs are specially
infected. This worm occurs in the abomasum or fourth stomach.
70 STRONGYLIDZ OR PALISADE-WORMS

It is widely spread over Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and
America. In colour they are white to creamy white ; a few may
be tinged with pink. Adult females reach from 20 to 30 mm.
in length, the males from 10 to 20mm. They are cylindrical,
bluntly attenuated towards the head end, pointed at the tail
end in the female; at the head end are two backwardly pro-
jecting papilla. The male has a trilobed bursa and no spicule.
In the female the ovaries, &., are spirally wound around the
intestine, giving the worm a very marked appearance.

Eggs and young are passed out on to the ground in the feces.
Whether development is direct or not has at present not been
demonstrated. The other abundant species are Ostertagia
ostertagi, found in the fourth stomach of cattle in Europe,
United States, and New Zealand. O. circumeincta, found in
the fourth stomach and intestine of sheep and goats in Europe,
America, and Australia.

The genus Trichostrongylus is represented by 7. extenuitus,
causing verminous gastro-enteritis in cattle and sheep, also found
in the fourth stomach. The life-cycle of these nematodes, which
often occur in countless numbers, is not known.

The Armed Strongyles of the Horse.

Another large Palisade-worm, known as the Armed Palisade-
worm (Srlerostomum armatum) (fig. 23), is found in the lower
parts of the horse’s gut, chiefly in the cecum and colon. It is
taken in by the horse in polluted drinking-water as a very min-
ute immature worm. ‘This embryo bores into the blood-vessels,
enters the large posterior arteries, especially one known as the
“anterior mesenteric artery,” where it produces a swelling in
the wall of the artery (fig. 24). This growth checks the cir-
culation, and may lead to vascular disturbances of some im-
portance. Whilst in this abode the worm is immature; but
just before maturity is reached the worm escapes, makes its way
through the gut wall, matures, and copulates. The ova are
STRONGYLIDA OR PALISADE-WORMS. 71

carried out in the dung. The embryos are seen to develop in
damp mud and in water, and are thus taken by the horse.
The female is often as big again as the line representing the
natural size in the figure. Another form, the Giant Palisade-
worm (8. gigas), is a red worm nearly a foot in length in the
female, and lives in the pelvis of the kidney in both horse

    
 
     
 

  

  
 
       

ear
aatrt

ce rr
wee

: SS

CS a :

Fic. 23.—ARMED PALISADE-woRM OF Horse (Sclerostomwm armatum), Female.
a, Male bursa, (Line nat. size.)

and man. Sometimes severe epizootics of these Palisade-worms
break out.

Sclerostomum tetracanthum (fig. 25) and S. rubrum (fig. 26)
are usually the most injurious Strongyles in the horse. The
former is a pinkish- or brownish-white worm, varying from
8 mm. to 16 mm. in length, the male being smaller than the
female, and provided with a bursa excised on the ventral sur-
face, the female having a pointed tail. On each side of the
body, a little in front of the end of the cesophagus, is a long,
lateral, spine-like body. 8S. rubrwm is very similar, but is
always red in colour and smaller in size, and has no lateral
spines. These two Sclerostomes have a similar life-history.
72 STRONGYLID.E OR PALISADE-WORMS.

They do not enter the blood as does S. arnvatum. The eggs
are introduced in water, and probably forage, and give rise to
embryos which encyst direct in the walls of the caecum and

 

Fig. 24.—VERMICEOUS ANEURISM OF GREAT MESENTERIC ARTERY (} nat. size).
Raillict. (From Neumann.)

a, Aorta; ¢, Caliac ; h, hepatic ; s, splenic ; m, trunk of great mesenteric ; ta, anterior
fasciculus with anewisn ; cg, left colic; ef, first artery of floating colon ; fg, arteries
of small intestine; ¢, righl fasciculus with aneurism ; ed, right colic ; rg, renal; ct,
inferior cecal ; cs, superior civcal arteries.
colon, where they form tumourous patches similar to 8. ar
matun. Here lying in the cysts the white coiled worms
(fig. 20) produce inflammation, colies, and serious anemia.
When mature they make their exit, and live for some time
STRONGYLIDA OR PALISADE-WORMS. 73

free in the intestinal contents, where they breed, the ova
coming away in the horse’s excreta. The red species is by

 

Fic. 25,—SCLEROSTOMUM TETRACANTHUM,
Male (six times nat. size), and enlarged anterior extremity.

far the most abundant. They are mainly observed in young
horses. From investigations during the last few years, it

 

 

Fic. 26.—SmaL_ Rep SCLERUSTOME (3. rubrum) FROM Horse (female).

seems that these pests are much on the increase. Fortunately
they can be soon checked by the administration of Thymol
as a nematocide.*

1 Journal of the 8.-E. Agric. Coll., part ve ee Epizooty produced by
species of Sclerostomum in Aral Horses,” by F. V. T.
74 THE GAPE WORM.

Tue Gare Worm (Synyamus trachealis),

Poultry, especially if constantly kept on the same land, often
suffer considerable loss from the ravages of a red worm called
the ““Gape Worm” or “Forked Worm.” This nematode lives
in the air-passages of fowls, chicks, pheasants, and certain wild
birds. On opening the trachea and bronchi of a bird showing
symptoms of this disease, we find often as many as twenty red
forked worms surrounded by a frothy saliva. The small arm
of the fork is the male, which remains almost permanently
attached to the female. The former is about one-fifth of an
inch long, the latter about four-fifths. They are coughed up by

 

Fei. 27.—Gare Worn (Syngamus truchealis).

g and 9 in copuli.

the fowls when they are mature—that is, when full of ova. The
eggs escape from the body by its cadaveric decay and lie about
upon the ground and in the water, from whence other birds
gain the disease. They hatch into small white embryos.
Development is direct, no intermediate host being necessary,
as has been frequently demonstrated. Their presence can soon
be detected by the curious yawning and “gaping” of the host
and constant straining forward of the neck. Frequent removal
of birds, especially chicks, is the best preventive ; whilst fumi-
gation and injection of fluids into the trachea, as mentioned in
Appendix IL, can be employed as remedies.
TRICHOTRACHELIDA: OR WHIP-WORMS. 75

TRICHOTRACHELIDA® OR WHIP-WORMS.

The Whip-worms are known by having a long, thin, neck-like
anterior portion to the body. A small mouth is present at the
tip of this long thin region; it is not provided, as in many
worms, with lip-like papille. They are all small slender worms,
with an anus or (in the male) a cloacal opening at the hind end
of the body. There is no bursa, as in the Palisade-worms, and
one spiculum alone is present.

The two most noteworthy genera are Trichocephalus and
Trichinella (fig. 28).

Trichocephalus is a small worm, with the anterior part of the
body much attenuated and whip-like, the posterior part being
thick and cylindrical ; this latter contains the generative organs,
which are coiled in the male. The eggs are curious citron-
shaped, hard-shelled bodies, and undergo their development in
water. It is found that the Trichocephalide require no inter-
mediate host, so that they can be taken direct in drinking
water or unclean food.

They do not live free in the eut, but have the whip-like
anterior extremity buried in the mucous membrane of the
intestine. These worms are found in man, the pig, and the
sheep, and cause serious intestinal disturbances. The young
worms are hair-like, and resemble very much the trichine
found in pork.

Another curious form is known as Trichosomwm, in which
the male is very degenerate and lives in the uterus of the
female, as many as three or four males being found in one
female.

This “degeneration” is a very common phenomenon in
parasitic life. Any part of an animal that is not used we find
degenerates, and may become lost entirely unless nature utilises
it for some other purpose. The second pair of wings in the
true flies (Diptera) have apparently degenerated, but they are
76 TRICHINOSIS.

still represented by the so-called “balancers,’—small knob-like
processes that are not used now as organs of flight, but as
specially modified organs of sense, organs of equilibrium. Very
many parasites having no use for limbs, we find are devoid of
them (parasitic Isopod Crustacea). One pair of the gill-arches
seen in fish, in the higher animals have nearly gone; but they
have been saved from total extinction by being converted into
structures for a different object—namely, for forming the bony
chain in the auditory capsule. Use and disuse increase and
decrease respectively the size and development of any part of
the animal frame. Perhaps the greatest degeneration is in some
of the worms, where the male, as mentioned above, is reduced
simply to a festis, which lives permanently in the female’s body.

The Trichina of Pork (T. spiralis).—This small worm pro-
duces the often fatal malady Trichinosis. The adult sexual
worm is found in the intestine of man, the pig, the rat, and in
practically all other carnivorous animals. The adult worm is
only about one-twelfth of an inch in length. The sexes, as in
all Nematodes, are quite distinct, aud a true copulation takes
place. The result of this union is that a very large number
of fertile ova are laid by the female, each female laying, it is
said, at least a thousand eggs at one time. The females may
live for five or six weeks. We find on examining these worms
that to every male there are at least twelve females: we can
thus realise the hosts of ova that are laid. Not unusually the
female Trichinella spiralis produces living young.

The ova soon hatch in the alimentary canal of the host, and
the larve derived from them commence to lay eggs about six or
seven days after their entry. Often by the second day after
ingestion the larve commence to mature; by the fourth day
they become mature. The young worms when they come from
the ova are extremely minute cylindrical bodies, only ;1jth
of an inch in length. They soon commence to bore their way
through the walls of the intestine and enter the sarcolemma
of the muscles, penetrating into the primitive bundles, the sub-
       
   

TRICHINOSIS. at

stance of which degenerates, whilst a rapid increase of the nuclei
may be seen to take place. Sometimes the larve are carried
along in the blood. At first the young lie straight in the muscles,
but in about two weeks they form a kind of citron-shaped capsule
in which they coil themselves up (fig. 28, a). This capsule is
derived from the degenerating connective tissue of the muscle
fibre. Gradually the capsule becomes thickened by the deposi-

\

ot

   

   
 

MMM oa
TT CL
Hy COATT TU
pee TT A

ay

     

Fic. 28.—TRICHINELLA SPIRALIS,
A, Piece of diseased pork (much enlarged) : en, cyst; ¢.c, capsule ; w, encysted worm.

B, Larva. c, Male. pb, Digestive and sexual organs of ¢ (after Colin) : oe, esophagus ;
mi, mid-gut; r, rectum ; T, testis ; rd, vas deferens ; ¢, cloaca.

tion of calcareous matter. One can feel the gritty-like bodies
when one cuts a piece of meat full of trichinw with a knife.
The young asexual muscle spirales can remain in this position
any length of time. But if the diseased flesh is eaten by a car-
nivorous animal, the gastric juice dissolves the cyst, and the freed
worm becomes sexually mature in the intestines in a few days,
the sexual organs (fig. 28, p, 7’ and vd) having been partly formed
whilst in the muscle. Man, by eating this diseased pork, con-
78 EELWORMS,

tracts this dangerous complaint, the worms from the cysts breed-
ing in his intestines and migrating to his muscles. The danger
is when the young worms pass through the intestinal walls into
the muscle: they, by so doing, produce violent inflammation,
which may be fatal, and intense pains result, similar to those
occasioned by rheumatism.

The way Trichinosis is said to be partly spread is by the
agency of rats. ats are known to suffer severely from 7.
spiralis. Pigs greedily devour any dead rats they can get
hold of, and thus take the disease. How many rats have we
seen given to the pigs in farmyards and elsewhere! It is a
common practice, and one by which the life-cycle is partly
kept going.

Migrations may take place in the rat itself: rats, by eating
other dead ones, also keep the worms on the increase, tending
of course to the chances of pigs taking the disease, and thus
conveying the germs to man. The number of ova produced
by one worm is said to be between 10,000 and 15,000.

Er_worms orn ANGUILLULID-E.

Eelworms are free-living Nematodes of small size. Some live
in or on plants as parasites, and cause various diseases and
abnormal growths in plant tissues. Others live in decaying
matter as saprophytes ; many may often be found in decaying
roots. Fermentations are also produced by some Anguillulide,
such as by the Vinegar- and Paste-worms. By far the greater
number live free in damp earth and in water.

Eelworms are very minute worms, with very thin skins, and
lay only a few comparatively large eggs, which undergo rapid
development. Parasitic and saprophytic forms can be told by
the presence of a curious mouth-spine. This structure, found
in the mouth cavity, is very sharp and pointed in front, and
can be worked backwards and forwards, so as to penetrate the
cell-walls of plants. In all cases an eelworm devoid of a spine
EELWORMS. 79

is not a plant parasite.
The most important genera
living in plant-tissues are
Tylenchus, Aphelenchus,
and -Heterodera. The
former genus also lives in
the earth and in rootage
of plants. The genera
Dorylaimus and Aphelen-
chus also live under similar
conditions. Tylenchus and
FHHeterodera produce. the
worst diseases.

These undergo part of
their life-cycle in the
earth and part in their
plant host.

The three most typical
forms are—(1) the Wheat
Eelworm (Tylenchus scan-
dens); (2) the Stem Eel-
worm (7. devastatriz); and
(3) the Beet Eelworm
(Heterodera schachtii).

    
 

   
  

   

TY?

     
    
 
 
  

———

 
   

ae

OL

a

uA
tl)

ihe

     

 

TRL AP ICASY,

--OZn.

The Wheat Eelworm (T.
scandens = T. tritict of
Bastian).

Length about — one-
twelfth of an inch in
the male and one-tenth
to one-fifth in the female.
These minute white or Fia. 29.—EELWorms (Anguillulide).

l t i. Tylenchus devastatriz, from clover roots ; ii.
almost transparent worms yum} iii. anterior extremity; iv. posterior ex-

are the cause of a disease, Sea male, (After Ritsema Bos.) Greatly

 
80 EELWORMS.

especially in wheat, known as “purples,” “ ear-cockles,” or
“ peppercorns.”

We may often notice in several parts of an ear of wheat
that there are in place of the grains dark purplish - brown
galls, having a striking resemblance to a seed of the “corn-
cockle plant” (fig. 30, 4). On cutting open one of these “ galls ”
the interior is seen to be full of a mass of a whitish-yellow colour,
which contains thousands of eelworm larve, varying from th
to gyth of an inch long (fig. 30, c). When these galls are re-
sown with the wheat-seed, the apparently dried-up worms (£)
come to life, and the eelworm larve enter the soil. On the
sound seeds germinating, the larve make their way to the nearest
rootlets of the seedling plants,
and then bore between the
leaf-sheath and the haulm, or
in the terminal bud. As the
plant grows they ascend, and
quickly get into the ear and
swell out the ovary (the

future grain), whose walls

Oa a ee Gow Tulenhs become first dark-green and

a, galled grain; ¢, larve in cut gram; then purplish-brown. From

E, larvie. (Greatly enlarged.) - L

sixteen to twenty are found in

the lowest flower of the ear, ten to twelve in the next, and from

four to five in the topmost blossoms. As soon as they enter the

flower the worms become sexually mature, and then lay from six

hundred to sixteen hundred ova, which give rise to the larve we
find in the ear-cockle later on in the year.

 

The Stem Eelworm (Tylenchus devastatriz).

This small eelworm especially attacks oats, where it produces
the disease spoken of as “Tulip Root.” It also attacks wheat,
oats, onions, hops, and many flowers, and is one of the causes
of ‘clover sickness.” Beans and peas also suffer. It works
EELWORMS. 81

differently in the different plants it feeds upon. The mature
worm (fig. 32, 1) is y'sth inch long, eel-like in form, and pointed
at each end; by means of its piercing mouth-spine it enters the
roots and underground stem, making its way up into the tissue.

 

Fic. 31.—Warar arrackep By Tylenchus seanilens, AND
GALLED KERNELS.
It is sometimes spoken of as the Stem Eelworm. In oats the
parasites cause the stems to become short, swollen, and con-
torted, and the edges of the leaves are often twisted, giving a
tulip-like appearance. Hundreds of acres of oats are frequently
F
82 EELWORMS,

destroyed in this way every year. In wheat it may cause the
same appearance. Peas and beans are infested in the stems,
which decay. Onions also become swollen and contorted. The
female produces oval eggs, which occur, together with larve and
adults, in the plant tissue. The larve on hatching are about
one-seventh the size of the adults. As they grow they moult
their skin. As the plants decay they pass into the soil, where

 

Fia, 32.—Tue Stem ErLtworm (Tylenchus devustutrix, Ktihn).

1. Eelworm. 2. Young form just emerged from egg. 3. Eelworm and egg in
plant tissues. (1 much magnified, 2 and 8 more highly magnified.)

they can remain a long time, even when dried up for some
months: moisture resuscitates them. They are also carried in
the straw in manure. Spring-sown corn is attacked mostly ;
autumn-sown seldom suffers. Thus, where this disease is bad,
spring-sown corn should be given up. Deep ploughing with a
skim-coulter should follow an attack, and such plants as barley
grown afterwards. ‘Top-dressings will also sometimes save an
attacked crop if given in time.
EELWORMS, 83

The Beet Eelworm (Heterodera schachtit),

For some time the beet crop on the Continent has been
seriously interfered with by a peculiar rotting disease, which
has been shown to be due entirely to the working of an eel-
worm, Heterodera schachtii. The female (fig. 33, a) is found

 

Fic. 33.—Tur Breer EeLworm (Heterodera schachtii).

A, female; B, larva; c, rootlet with galls (d). (All greatly enlarged.)

fixed to the root and rootlets of the beet, and, unlike most
Anguillulide, it is citron-shaped, and seldom longer than 35th
of an inch: she nevertheless contains as many as three or four
hundred ova. The ova when laid are found in groups, being
united by a kind of gelatinous sac. The majority of eggs
develop inside the female, this process, as a rule, causing her
speedy death.
84 KNOT-ROOT DISEASE 1N CUCUMBERS,

The larvae when liberated seek out a root of the beet and
bore into it, and here they live, causing the disease. When
they have entered the root they produce great swellings—
“galls,” in fact—over their abode (fig. 33, c, @). The larva (fig.
33, B) that has thus entered the plant sheds its skin, and instead
of being elongated it becomes thicker in shape, ceases to move,
and lies with the bulbous patch formed over it. At this time
the sexes commence to appear distinct. If the thick motionless
larva is to become a male it ceases to feed, shrinks within its
old skin, and develops a thin new one, very like the puparium
stage of some insects. The newly-formed male worm inside
its old skin is more elongate—in fact, it resembles the typical
form of an eelworm. When mature this male bores its way out
of the root and commences its search for a female. Should the
larva become a female, the development is much simplified.
The female develops by a simple distension of the body and
the formation of the female sexual organs. There is no pro-
cess of reformation as we observe in the male. When the
female is fully formed, the lump on the root ruptures and
releases the worm; but she, on the other hand, does not re-
linquish her hold of the plant, to which she remains permanently
attached.

The development from the ege to the adult takes about
five weeks. As many as six or even seven generations occur
in the year. This same worm attacks hops, producing the
disease called “ Nettle-head”; it is also found in wheat.

Knot-root Disease in Cucumbers, &c.

“ Knot-root ” is a disease which affects cucumbers, tomatoes,
marrows, &e, It is caused by the eelworm Heterodera radicicola,
which produces swollen areas and knots of various sizes on the
fine and thick roots. The eelworms swarm in these galls, and
when the latter decay pass into the soil, which becomes infested
with them, ready to attack any fresh plants. This pest has
ASCARID AND FILARIDA‘, 85

become so bad in tomato-houses, &e., that the soil has frequently
to be removed. The soil may also be burnt, and then will
remain free for a long time.

AscaRIDa AND Friuaripa.

The Ascartdie or Round-worms, and the Milaridw or Slender
Thread-worms, are found in animals and man in various positions,
but especially in the intestine. They are often present in very
large numbers, yet seldom cause any serious constitutional dis-
turbance. They are not only found in man, the horse, pig, dog,
and cat, but also in many cold-blooded animals.

The Ascaride are characterised by the following features :
Body fairly stout. Mouth triangular, and furnished with three
lips with papille (fig. 34, F). One is directed towards the
dorsal surface, the other two meet together in the ventral line.
The male has the end of the body curved, and armed with
two spicule or sickle-shaped hooks (c).

The Filaride, on the other hand, may be identified by the
following: Body elongated, longer than the Ascarids. Thread-
shaped. Six oral papille often present; sometimes there is
a horny oral capsule. There may be two spicule which are
unequal or only one, also four pre-anal pairs of papille and
an unpaired papilla occasionally.

The Ascaride all live in the gut of various animals, especially
in the small intestine. The Filaride take up their abode in the
connective tissues.

The most typical Ascarid worm is the large round worm
found in the horse, called Ascaris megalocephala. It is one of
the largest species of the genus Ascar?s. It is yellowish-white in
colour, slightly ridged, and about ten inches long in the 2 and
six in the male. This worm is common in all Equide, but
only affects seriously young animals. They produce colics and
digestive disturbances, and sometimes so obstruct the intestine
as to cause death. The ova are nearly globular bodies, and are
86 ASCARIDA AND FILARID.E

seemingly introduced into the horse in drinking water. A. swdlla
(fig. 34) is often found in the pig. The male is from four to
six inches long, the female often as much as eight. It is found
in the small intestine, and may produce serious colics.

Another Ascaris, A.
lumbricoides, is found
in the human being,

A common and often
troublesome worm in
horses is the ‘ Maw-
worm”: this is one of
4 the Oxyures, which may
Beret i : be told by the posterior

i end of the cesophagus
being enlarged into a
spherical bulb with a
masticatory apparatus.
The female is quite
unlike the male, hay-
ing her body long, thin,
and pointed towards
one end, whilst the
other is much enlarged
and cylindrical. The
male is cylindrical, and
has no long tail-like
process and only one
Fro, 34.—Ascarip.x, spiculum. The common

    

     
           
 

<a

      

aad

peaer ts

A, Male Ascaris swilla, u, female lscwris (after Maw-worm is found in
Dove; Bandy, oral papiveka "45 the large intestine of
the horse and other

Equide : it is known as Oxyur’s curcula (fig, 35), and may often
be seen hanging from the horse’s anus. We have known these
worms cause very serious emaciation in horses, but they are easily

cleared out by the use of santonin powder. This vermnifuge
ASCARID AND FILARIDAL 87

expels many females full of eggs, and immature forms. A long-
tailed dimorphic form called Mastigodes (fiz. 36) has been
described by Nitzsch. Males are comparatiucly rare. These
worms, I have observed, are passed usually in the morning,
generally numbers together, the excreta of the host being full
of their ova. Very closely related is the obnoxious little human
worm, O. vermicularis.

The Filaride are filiform worms, all of which are found in
connective tissue or blood
and never in the intestine.
A common form in the
horse is Filaria papillosa,
a white worm about six
inches long found in the
peritoneal cavity. Thou-
sands have been taken out
of the thoracic cavity of
the horse at one time.
They sometimes even pene-
trate the scrotum. The
life-history of this worm,
like many others, is quite
unknown. Another species,

 

Fic. 35.—OxyYuRES OF Horse.

known as F. immitis, is :
found in the heart and ene (=Curvula).  Rail-
pulmonary artery of the

dog. Neither, however, occasions sufficient loss to call for
further remarks.

Filaria also are parasitic in man, causing Elephantiasis or
Filariasis. These small blood and lymph parasites are carried
by mosquitoes (Culicide), as is also the /. ¢mmitis of the dog.

Thymol administered as stated in Appendix I. is certain to
free the intestines of Ascarid parasites. For Filaride it is a
matter of prevention.
88 SUMMARY,

Summary oF PLArYHELMINTHES AND NEMATHELMINTHES.

Amongst these two divisions of worms we have gone into we
must note several import-
ant points. First, their
parasitic habits, and the
often fatal results of this
parasitism ; secondly, the
almost universal rule (ex-
cept in some Nematodes)
of having two distinct
hosts during their life-
cycle ; thirdly, the extra-
ordinary reproduction,
often asexual, and the
occasional alternation of
generations; fourthly,
their great vitality, not
only in the egg, but also
in the larval form; and
last, but not least, the
great part water plays in
their natural history and
distribution. In nearly
all the worst forms of
worms producing animal
diseases, the worm passes
some part of its life con-
nected with water or in
water animals; for in-
stanees take the Flukes,
Palisade - worms, — Gape-
worms, Ascarids, Filarias,
Fia. 86,—Oxy ures or Horse. and even

 

some Cestodes,
Fomales with long tails (= Mustigades), (Prom 4 :
Neumann.) Thus by paying some at-
SUMMARY. 89

tention to what we know of their life-histories, and especially
that part of their history in which water plays some part, we
may check the deadly results that often happen.

We must also note how one animal becomes infected passively
from devouring another. If we know the various hosts we can
often stop the attacks by paying attention to these points, as in
the “sturdy” of sheep and the “trichinosis” of the pig, by the
prevention of canines getting the diseased brains and pigs the
infested rats respectively. Dogs kept free from lice (Z'richo-
dectes) will have none of those bothering and nauseous little
tapeworms to contend with; whilst if we could only lessen the
water-snails (Limneus truncatulus), ov keep our sheep away from
them, we should be exempt from the “liver-rot” in our ovine
stock.

In regard to ourselves, it is just as important that meat should
be cooked well, so as to destroy the “ measly cysts” and trichina
germs in pork, as well as tend to lessen the chances of contracting
that widespread malady tuberculosis, and that mosquito larvee
should be killed to prevent ‘“ Filariasis.”
90

CHAPTER VI.
WwormMs—Continued.
CumrorpopaA AND HrrubInea.

Or the segmented worms two groups are of interest to the
agriculturist—namely, (i) the Earthworms (Lumbririd@) and
Aster-worms (Hach ytrwide), and (ii) the Leeches (Mirudinile) :
the first are beneficial to the soil; the second are injurious ; the
last harmful to horses.

Segmented worms have a brain, a circum-esophageal nerve-
ring, a ventral nerve-cord, and a definite vascular system.
Generally they are round, but some—such as the Leeches—are
flattened ventrally. In form most are cylindrical, with a thick
muscular skin. ‘The body is made up of a number of successive
segments, constricted off externally. Those segments following
the head are similar externally and internally. The tail seg-
ments differ, and give origin during the growth of the worm
to new segments anteriorly. The internal divisions are called
dissepiments, and may correspond to the external seementation,
or may equal three, four, or five of the external rings.

These worms are found in all manner of places. The (/heeto-
yoda are marine and terrestrial. The marine species live in the
sand, on rocks, shells, ec. The terrestrial live in damp earth,
and others live in fresh water. They all require damp media to
flourish in. Very few are parasitic ; those that are so are mainly
parasites of plant roots.
EARTHWORMS. 91

Most of these worms are oviparous ; a few produce living
young ; the majority are hermaphrodites, the testes being paired.
The development is often direct ; the eggs are laid in patches or
cocoons, and give origin direct to young worms.

A larval form is, however, found in some marine species
(Cheetopoda) known as Lovén’s Larva, whose growth resembles
in many respects the growth of a scolex into a Tapeworm.

Segmented worms move by two different processes: (i) by
simple or grouped sete or bristles placed in the cutis, Earth-
worms, &c. (Oligochceta), and (ii) by terminal suckers (Hiru-
dinea).

Reproduction may be asexual, by fission and by gemmation
in the long axis (Chetopoda). Asa rule, it is sexual, when the
worms may be hermaphrodites (Oligocheta, Hirudinea) or of
separate sexes (Marine Chetopoda). The food very largely
consists of animal matter; at other times, as in the Earth-
worms, of decaying vegetation.

Earthworms (Lumbrici).

The Earthworms belong to the Chetopod group Oligochwtw,
which are characterised by being terrestrial, having no parapodia,
but setz as organs of locomotion ; no oral armature, cirri, ten-
tacles, or branchie. They are hermaphrodites, and develop
direct.

The Oligocheta: are again divided into (a) the Terricolw, or
true earthworms, with nephridia in the genital segments; and
(b) the Limicolw, or water-worms, which have no nephridia in
the genital segments (Nadde).

Life-history of the Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris).—The
eggs of the earthworm are laid in heaps or capsules in the
ground. In one or two weeks these white transparent eggs give
rise direct to young Lumbrici, which are at first soft, but as they
grow they obtain a compact skin armed with sete in simple pits
and have red blood. Eyes are never present, yet worms are very
92 EARTHWORMS,

susceptible to light. Each capsule is filled by several ova, plus
the sperm from the male receptacle. As a rule, only one ovum,
or a very few at least, develop; the others die and shrivel up,
unless eaten, as they often are, by the embryo that hatches out.
This embryo eats not only the others, but it takes up all the
common mass of albumen. It then bursts its way out of the
capsule as a perfect worm, minus its sexual organs. Earthworms
grow by fresh segments being added posteriorly. The mature
female organs are two ovaries in the thirteenth segment and two
oviducts in the same, commencing in two ciliated funnels and
opening to the exterior in the fourteenth segment. On the
ninth and tenth segments are two pairs of sperm-reservoirs,
the receptacula seminis, which open between the ninth and
tenth and tenth and eleventh segments. These are full of
sperm during copulation.

The male organs consist of two pairs of testes in the tenth
and eleventh segments, opening by an aperture on the fifteenth.
In the anterior half of the worm, over these sexual organs, is
formed in the breeding season a swollen band called the ¢/zted/us.
Earthworms, although hermaphrodites, copulate: this act takes
place at night on the surface of the earth in June and July
to the greatest extent. The worms apply themselves ventrally
to one another, and lie in opposite directions, so that the open-
ing of the receptaculum seminalis of one worm is opposite the
clitellus of the other. During copulation the sperm flows back
along a longitudinal groove to the receptaculum of the other
worm. The ova produced as the result of the fertilisation
undergo unequal segmentation.

Earthworms live most of their time underground, burrowing
to a great depth, often down to the subsoil: by so doing they
let in moisture and air, and loosen the subsoil to a considerable
extent, thereby doing much good. They draw down iuto their
burrows numerous leaves and other vegetation, which they
devour in large quantities: they feed upon these leaves during
the daytime, and draw them down at night. We may often
HIRUDINEA OR LEECHES. 93,

see them partly protruding from the opening of their burrows.
Large quantities of earth are also eaten by these useful annelids,
which they pass out of their tunnels on to the surface as the
“casts” or worm-casts we see so abundantly on our lawns, &c.,
at certain times. By so doing these annelids are constantly
bringing fresh soil to the surface, sometimes from a considerable
depth, and thus do immense good. To the workings of earth-
worms the soil called humus is partly due, by the repeated out-
pouring of their casts and the intermixed leaves that they are
constantly drawing down, and which soon become decayed.
Humus is a dark rich soil which covers the surface of the land.
According to Darwin, every year as much as ten tons of soil
are passed through their bodies and brought to the surface by
them per acre. Worms prepare the soil for seedlings of all
kinds by exposing the mould to the air, and by sifting out the
large stones. Bones and débris are buried under their castings,
and, decaying, mix with the dead leaves, &c., that they draw
beneath the soil, thus augmenting its fertility.

AsTER AND Piant Roor Worms (Lnchytreide).

Some of these worms are plant parasites—the so-called
Enchytreeidcee—which live in the soil and attack the roots of
plants. They are small worms, usually white in colour, and
can be told by the sete being arranged in rayed groups, not
singly as in Lumbricus.

Hirudinea (Leeches).

The last group of worms to examine are the Leeches.
Leeches are provided with a ventral sucker for attachment to
their host. They are all hermaphrodites, and parasitic during
some time of their life, but are chiefly ecto-parasites. The
body of the leech is ringed, but the outside annulations do not
correspond to the internal divisions. There may be two suckers,
94 HIRUDINEA OR LEECHES,

one round the mouth, the other ventral. The oral aperture is
composed of three slit-like openings, in each of which is a
serrated jaw.

Life-history of Leeches.—The ova are fertilised in the worm.
Prior to depositing their ova the worms anchor themselves upon
a stone or plant, or in the case of the medical leech leave the
water and burrow into damp earth and mud. At this time the
genital rings get much enlarged by the swelling of the genital
glands, and the cells in the skin, of a glandular nature. When
the time to oviposit comes the leech tightens its hold of the
plant or object on which it is fixed; it then moves about with
much violence and covers the front of its body, especially the
genital rings, with a viscid mass, which hardens and produces a
fine membrane. When this membrane is complete the leech
passes out a number of ova and an albuminoid mass, and at
once withdraws its body from the barrel-shaped capsule, which
is left behind as a kind of cocoon full of eggs, each loose end
closing up and forming a safe shelter for the ova, of which there
are only a few in each cocoon. From these ova young leeches
appear, of the same form and appearance as the adult, but not
sexually mature. Most leeches live in water or in damp earth.
They move by a series of loops with the help of their suckers,
and also by swimming. Many are parasites on the gills and
skin of aquatic animals, such as fish and crayfish; others are
only occasionally parasitic on the skin of warm-blooded animals.
When young they live upon snails, insects, frogs, &c., but when
mature they seem to require the blood of the warm-blooded
animals for nourishment.

Tar Horse-Lence (Hemopis sanguisuge).

The horse-leech has an elongated body contracted in front,
widest in the middle, and with a sucker at each extremity. It
is composed of from 95 to 100 rings. They copulate much as
described in the case of the earthworms. There is also a girdle
HIRUDINEA OR LEECHES, 95

or sexual band produced. ‘The ova are laid about forty days
after fecundation. When ovipositing, this leech, like the
Medical Leech (H. meddcinal’s), burrows into damp ground
and lays about fifteen ova in the funnel-shaped case secreted by
the girdle. This case is left by the worm, and hardens and
forms a brown spongy cocoon. Each leech may form two of
these cocoons. The ova take from twenty to thirty days to
incubate. The young leeches are filiform, and remain near the
case for some days, using it as a kind of shelter.

This species attacks horses as they come to drink, each
individual withdrawing as much as one and a half drachm

 

Fic, 37.—Tur Horse-Leeca (Hemopis sanguisuga). Railliet. Natural size,
and young leech. (From Neumann, Par. Dis. Ani.)

of blood from the wound they make with their mouth. Often
one may see blood flowing from the wound after the leech
has fallen off its victim, gorged with food. There is some fluid
in the pharynx which prevents the blood from coagulating in
the leech. This feast will last the worm for a year. Leeches
are long-lived animals, not maturing until four or five years
old, and live for as much as twenty years. They inhabit
ponds, ditches, and springs, and flourish on the bottom mud.
The young seem to be very partial to running water. This
horse-leech is met with over most of Europe and in North
Africa, and is extremely troublesome to horses in Syria. It
does not live on the skin, but enters the mouth, nose, &c., of
horses as they are drinking, and seizes hold of the mucous mem-
96 HIRUDINEA OR LEECHES.

brane, which it lacerates. They have been found in the mouth,
pharynx, nasal fosse, larynx, and vagina. So much blood is
sometimes withdrawn that the animals are killed.

The Medical Leech (4. medicinalis) used to be applied very
plentifully for bleeding, but now is seldom employed in this
country for that purpose. It is still bred in large numbers in
ponds in France, where it is fed by putting old horses into the
ponds, upon which they ravenously feed and soon kill.

Land-leeches also occur in some regions, especially Ceylon.
Tennent, in his account of the island, tells us that he has seen
blood flowing over the edge of Europeans’ shoes from their
innumerable bites. In England leeches are seldom troublesome
to any great extent.
97

CHAPTER VII.
ARTHROPODA OR JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS.

Morz is known of this group of animals than of those we have
been dealing with in the last three chapters. This is due to
their more pleasing and interesting, if too often injurious, habits.
One seldom meets with a collector of the innumerable worms,
whilst, on the other hand, the jointed-limbed animals have hosts
of devotees in all parts of the world, especially those sections of
them—such as the brilliant and elegant Butterflies and Moths
and Beetles—which make a considerable show when captured
and placed in a cabinet. Yet there are several of the Arthro-
pod groups which meet with little attention, and these particular
groups, although inconspicuous, are of the greatest interest and
importance to the agriculturist and horticulturist.

Arthropods are invertebrate animals which are bilaterally
symmetrical, and which have their bodies divided up into a
number of rings, called segments or somites, some or all of these
segments bearing ventrally one or more pairs of jointed append-
ages. The Arthropoda have an external skeleton formed by
the skin becoming hardened from the deposit of a substance
known as chitin. All this class of invertebrates are provided
with a distinct alimentary canal, nervous system, and reproduc-
tive organs. Respiration takes place in a variety of ways: the
whole body surface may be respiratory (Acarina), true pulmonary
sacs may be present (Araneida), or a specially modified system of

G
98 ARTHROPODA.

respiratory tubes known as Trachew may be elaborated (Hexa-
poda, &e.); whilst the Crustacea or Crabs, Lobsters, Wood-lice,
&e., are provided with branchiz or gills. Development may or
may not be direct. Spiders (Aranci/a) are very similar to the
adult when first hatched. Hexapoda and many Crustacea
deyelop by means of a metamorphosis or transformation : the
young insect on hatching from the egg is totally unlike the
adult or imago, and is known as the /arva. The larval stage
may give rise to a second condition, the pupa or chrysalis, in
some insects. The changes from the larva to the imago or adult
take place partly by a series of moults or ecdyses—the old skin
of the insect rupturing and then releasing the larva, which has
prior to its moult formed a new and soft skin, capable of dis-
tension, beneath. This enables the internal organs to swell out,
and thus growth takes place. During this ecdysis the entire
exoskeleton is cast, even the chitinous covering of the eyes and
feelers. Growth also takes place between these ‘ moultings,”
for there is a soft space between each segment or somite which
enables the entire abdominal region to stretch. There are in
some insects, however, more complicated changes than those
mentioned here. A complete remodelling of the larval body
takes place in the pupal state, whereby the larva is metamor-
phosed into the imago by a process called Histolysix. Sense-
organs are well developed in most arthropods: organs of vision
are represented by two kinds of eyes,—simple eyes or ocelli,
and compound or facetted eyes, complex ocular structures
peculiar to the jointed-limbed animals. The senses of hearing,
taste, and smell are also strongly developed, the antenne or
feelers being probably the most important structures in connec-
tion with hearing and smell, although the palpi probably have
some such function. In conjunction with these we find a highly
developed brain, at least for invertebrate animals, and a central
nervous system consisting of a ventral nerve-cord and a pair of
ganglia in each segment. Considerable variations take place in
the latter: numbers of ganglia may amalgamate, as seen in some
ARTHROPODA. 99

flies (Diptera), or may remain separate, as in many Orthoptera
(Cockroaches).

There is great variation in form and in habits of these various
jointed-limbed animals, which can be enumerated as each group
is taken. That they are of much economic importance to the
farmer, gardener, and stock-keeper is needless to state. Insects
and mites are accountable for endless loss to the farmer, fruit-
grower, and gardener. Mites (Acarina) not only devastate our
fruit and hops, but are the cause of such wasting diseases as
“scab,” mange, and various other acariasic diseases in stock ;
whilst even the aquatic Crustacea have amongst their vast con-
course of species some, such as the Wood-louse and Crayfish,
which have a terrestrial life and have become injurious to
mankind. We must not be led away, nevertheless, with the
idea that all Arthropods are our enemies, and so ruthlessly
destroy them: many are of infinite help to us as agents for
keeping down and destroying those that do us harm, whilst
such insignificant creatures as the Coccide produce not only
cochineal but also sealing-wax, shell-lac, and other products.
The Silkworm and the Bee alone make up for the many
deficiencies of insect life.

The Arthropods are divided into four sections, namely—

1. Crustacea (Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, &c.)
2. Araneida (Spiders, Mites, Scorpions, &c.)
3. Myriapoda (Centipedes, &c.)

4, Hexapoda (Insects).

The Crustacea and the Hexapoda have the Arthropod char-
acters most clearly defined, and we will take one of the latter
group to point out the peculiarities and general structure of the
Jointed-limbed Invertebrates.

For this purpose we cannot choose a better example than the
Cockroach (Periplaneta americana), which can be easily ob-
tained, as our type. This species, although not so universal
as the common Cockroach, the so-called Black-Beetle of our
kitchens (Blatta orientalis), offers better scope for dissection,
100 ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD.

being much larger. It may be obtained in numbers from any
of our docks, and is often present in such hordes on board ship
as to be a great nuisance.

THE CocKROACH.

The whole insect will be observed at first sight to be covered
with a chitinous exoskeleton, which is thick and hard, dark

a.

       

aesuves ie

Co cncnneeenf WIR, ieee Ee oe <= Mel

pret eee »
{\ Va

\
Fic. 38.—SrructureE OF AN ARTHROPOD (Periplancte americana).
H, head; Th, thorax; Al, abdomen; Map, maxillary palps; Lp, labial palps; 3/,
maxille ; Ant, antennw; EH, eyes; Ep, epicranium; f, fenestra; P, prothorax; ¥,
mesothorax ; Me, metathorax; Cr, cerci; S, styles; Mw and Mew, meso- and meta-

thoracic wings; Pl, M.l, and Me.l, legs; Fe, femur; Vi, tibia; Tr, tarsus; 1-10,
abdominal segments.

brown in colour, but paler and softer between the somites.
The body of the cockroach is divided up into a number of
rings or segments, which are movable upon one another except
ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD. 101

those of the head, which are firmly fused together. This
segmentation of the exoskeleton is seen, internally, in the
muscular and nervous systems.

On examining the cockroach (fig. 38), which belongs to an
order of Hexapoda known as the Orthoptera, we shall at once
notice that the whole body is divided into three parts—the
head (#), the thorax or chest region (7h), and the abdomen
(Ab). The head is loosely connected with the thorax by a

 

Fic. 39.—a, Heap, anp B, Lower Lip or CockRoacu.

narrow isthmus of tissue, the neck. The head is broad, and
the mouth, which bears biting jaws, is on the lower portion.
The jaws will easily be seen to work sideways or transversely,
and not vertically as ours do. Situated on the head are two
large, black, reniform elevations, the eyes (£), one on each
side. These are the compound eyes, each being composed of
a number of hexagonal facets. Situated at the inner side of
the bases of the feelers or antenne are two small white patches,
the so-called fenestree (fig. 38, f, and fig. 39 a, F). The antenne
or jointed feelers spring from the base of the eyes in a de-
pression on their anterior edge. The dorsal and posterior
surface of the head is called the epicranium (Ep). Below the
102 ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD.

epicranium comes the c/ypeus (fig. 39 a, ¢), a broad plate,
which is followed by a smaller plate united to the front of
the clypeus, called the /uhrum or “upper lip” (L). The plate
on each side below and behind the eyes is called the yena or
cheek (G). Ocelli are absent in this type, otherwise they would
be situated on the epicranium. The thorar is composed of
three segments, united by sutures. Each segment is known
respectively as the pro-, meso-, and metathorax (fig. 38, 7h).
Each ring is composed of an upper plate, the notum or tergum,
and a lower plate, the sternum, so that in the thorax we have
pronotum, meso-, and metanotum above, and the pro-, meso-,
and metasterna below. The spaces between the nota- and
sterna are covered by chitinous plates, called the pleure. The
pronotum, the upper portion, is prolonged over the neck. The
mesonotum, which is smaller than the pronotum, bears a pair
of leathery wings. These wing-covers are movably united to
the tergum or mesonotum. The metanotum also bears a pair
of thinner wings, the true organs of flight. If we are examining
Blatta orientalis we shall not observe these in the female, nor
the second pair of wings.

The aldomen (Ab) is flattened dorso-ventrally. It is com-
posed of ten distinct somites, the hinder ones being invisible,
as they are pushed into the anterior ones. The upper parts of
the segments are called terya (fig. 42, 7). Of the ten, only
eight can normally be seen, the eighth and ninth being hidden
under the seventh. Situated at the side of the posterior ventral
anus are a pair of small plates called the pod/cal plates. It is
said that these represent an eleventh segment. They can easily
be observed by raising the tenth tergum. On the tenth tergum
are a pair of jointed processes called cere? (fig. 38, Ce). In the
male a pair of styles are also borne on the ninth sternum (8).
The sfervna are the ventral plates, the equivalents of the terga.
The seventh in the female bears a process passing backwards,
forming part of the large genital pouch.

alppendages of the head.—On the head are placed the antenne
ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD. 103

and the mouth. The latter opens behind the labrum and. be-
tween the jaws. The two antenne arise from two oval mem-
branous patches below the eyes and just in front of them. The
mouth is of that type known as the biting mouth. It consists
of a pair of stout jaws, toothed on the inner margins, the
mandibles (fig. 39 a, Jf). These jaws are present in all biting
arthropods. The first mawdlle follow the mandibles behind.
Each maxilla consists of three chief or primary parts—(i) the
protopodite ; (ii) endopodite ; (iii) exopodite. The first will be
seen to consist of two joints, the cardo or proximal joint and
the stipes or distal joint. The second, or endopodite, has also
two parts, the inner portion or /acinéa being blade-like, the
outer or galea soft. The exopodite, usually called the mazzi-
lary palp (Mp), is a five-jointed process, carried on the outer
side of the distal end of the stipes.

The second mamille (fig. 39 B) are very like the first, but
small, and are fused together, forming a plate in the middle
line, the Zabium or lower lip. The structure of this lower lip
is easily seen in this insect. The two basal parts of the proto-
podites are fused in the middle line, forming a two-jointed plate,
the larger one being called the submentum (Sub), the smaller
and distal one the mentum (Me). The latter bears endo- and
cxopodites. The endopodites together are known as the lingua
(Lz). The exopodites are three-jointed palps (Lp).

Thoracte appendages.—On the thorax are three pairs of legs
attached to the sterna, and two pairs of wings united or articu-
lating with the meso- and metanota.

Each leg is made up of five divisions as follows: the coxa
(fig. 40, a), a stout, proximal, leaf-like segment, uniting the leg
to the body ; then follows a small segment called the trochanter
(2), which unites at its distal end with the femur (c), which in
turn is followed by a slender straight segment armed with
spines, the tébia (d). The last division, the tarsus or foot (9),
is constituted of six segments in this type (Cockroach), the last
tarsal bearing a pair of claws or wngues (h). The number of
104 ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD.

tarsals vary in different groups of Arthropods. The first tarsal
is sometimes spoken of as the metatarsal (f).

Abdominal appendages are seldom found in Hexapods: when
present, they are never in the form of locomotory organs as they
are in Crustacea and Myriapoda. In our type we see only the
anal cerci before mentioned. The anus is situated beneath the
tenth abdominal tergum and between the podical plates.

The spiracles (fig. 42, Sy), or breathing pores, are at the sides

go:
Qa i ‘
— Po a
it~" 4 , :
4
ee
t 4

------- 0

   

Fic, 40.—Strucrure or [ssect Lec.

u, Coxa ; b, trochanter; c, femur; d, tibia; e, tibial spur; f, metatarsus ;
g, tarsus ; h, ungues.

(Six foot segments occur in the Cockroach.)

of the thorax and abdomen; they are twenty in number. On
the thorax one pair will be seen between the pro- and meso-
thorax, another between the meso- and metathorax, and others
on each side of the first eight abdominal segments. They are
in the form of slit-like oval openings, with branched processes
running across them.

Internal Anatomy of the Cockroach,

By dissecting the cockroach under water we can gather a fair
knowledge of the general anatomy of an arthropod with con-
siderable ease. On removing the chitinous covering of the
thorax and abdomen very carefully, there will be exposed a
straight chambered tube running along the middle line of the
thorax and abdomen. This is the so-called insect heart. Lateral
ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD. 105

slit-like openings along the sides of this organ are called the ost,
through which the blood returns to the heart, to be pumped out
afresh to the body through the opening in front by a rhythmical
contraction of the walls of the tube. There are no blood-vessels
as in higher animals; the blood is
poured into the body cavity, and
there bathes the organs and comes
in contact with the respiratory tubes.

An opaque-white mass of fat, the
Jat-body, surrounds, or nearly so, the
abdomen.

The digestive organs can be easily
unravelled, so that each part is dis-
tinctly visible. The alimentary tube
is short, and convoluted in the hinder
parts. The first portion is lodged
in the head, and is called the buecal
cavity, into which open two glands,
one on each side, the salivary glands
(Sg), by a single salivary duct (Sd)
in a median aperture. Then follows
a narrow gullet or @sophagus (Oes), Fra, 41.—Dicestive ORGANS oF
which gives rise to a sack which is ey
situated in the thorax and part of auce ae caanee
the abdomen, the crop (P). The fee ee ? Sie, Malpighian

tubes; Li, large intestine; Si,

crop is thin-walled; but the next mesenteron; x, rectum; M, anal
gland; Cb.g, cerebral ganglia; S.g,

division, the gizeard (G) or stomach, Suh csophageal ganglion; 1c.
has hard muscular walls and con- om Pe RNG Ae. S,
tains six large teeth. These ali-

mentary parts are known as the stomatodwum, being formed
by an anterior invagination in the embryo. The stomato-
deum has a chitinous lining continuous with the chitinous
cuticle of the head. Following the gizzard will be observed a
short thin tube, which forms a connection between the original

anterior and posterior invaginations of the embryo. It is called

 
106 ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD.

the mesenteron (Si). The hinder parts of the canal are com-
posed of the small and large intestines and rectum. The proxi-
mal end of the short small intestine or ileum is marked by the
attachment of a number of fine glandular tubes known as
Malpighian tubules (fc), which are probably excretory organs.
The colon or large intestine (L¢) is wide and long, and termi-
nates in a short dilated terminal part, the rectum (2). At the
anterior end of the mesenteron will be seen seven convoluted

 

Fic, 42.—i, Tracnea, AND ii, SIDE-VIEW OF PART OF ABDOMEN, showing spiracle (Sp).

T, Tergum; S, sternum; a, spiral fibre; b, inner coat; c, outer coat.

club-shaped diverticula called hepatic ewca (H). (Five only are
represented in fig. 41.)

The Respiratory System consists of a series of tubes containing
air, This can be easily demonstrated by plunging the opened
cockroach under water, when the tubes will be shown as silvery
threads, due to the air contained in them. These air-tubes or
trarhew (fig. 42, 1) commence at the spiracles and run to all
parts of ,the body. When minutely examined the trachee
will be seen to be cireumscribed by a dark spiral band (a).
Respiration takes place by these tubes, carrying the air to all
ANATOMY OF AN ARTHROPOD. 107

parts of the body and its organs, hence blood-vessels are not
so necessary as when one definite area only is for respiratory
functions, as in the lungs of a vertebrate animal. In the former
case the air goes as it were to the blood; in the latter the blood
goes to the air. LExspiration takes place by the muscles of the
body contracting and so compressing the tracheal tubes ; inspira-
tion by the elastic recoil of the walls of the tubes.

The Reproductive System consists in the male of testes, vasa
deferentia, vesiculie seminales, and ejaculatory duct. Unlike the
worm, a single pair of testes only exist, embedded in the fat
below the fifth and sixth segments of the abdomen. They can
only be seen in a young cockroach. The tubes leading from
the testes to the vesicule seminales are the vasa deferentia, one
on each side. The vesicule form two tufts of white glands
which hold the spermatozoa, and which open into the anterior
part of the ejaculatory duct. The female organs consist of
ovaries, which are two sets of long tubular organs in the hind
end of the abdomen. Each ovary is composed of eight tubules,
uniting to form a single oviduct on each side. In each tubule
the ova may be seen in different stages of growth. The oviducts
unite before opening to the exterior into a single tube. There
is also a body called the spermatheca, which opens by a median
aperture on the ninth sternum, consisting of two small unequal
ceca. Close behind the opening of the spermatheca are two
other apertures, those of the collatertal glands, much branched
and convoluted tubular organs. Externally will be seen six
strong processes definitely arranged on the ventral surface
between the vulva and anus, used as aids to deposit the ova
(=female genitalia). The male has a number of hooks and
plates forming an external copulatory organ, the equivalent of
the female processes, but asymmetrically disposed.

The Nervous System (fig. 43), which can be exposed by re-
moving the fat-body and organs, consists of a supra-awsophageul
(a) and a sub-wsophageal ganglion (c) united by commissures,
forming an cesophageal “nerve-collar” (b) around the gullet in
108 CHARACTERS OF ARTHROPODS.

the head. Running down the ventral surface of the thorax
and abdomen is the ventral nerve-cord, which is double. This
chain is swollen out into a pair of ganglia united by commis-
sures in each of the three thoracic segments (fig. 43, d, 3-5),
and a pair in the first six abdominal segments. There is also a
visceral nervous system (fig. 41, Ve).

be
1
'
!
1

'

|

a
‘
1
'
'
1
!
t
|
J

 
 

     
 

Fic. 483.—Nervous System.

nu, Supra-cesophageal ganglion ; }, nerve-collar ; c, sub-esopbagral ganglion ;
d, 3-5, thoracic sanglia ; i.-vii., abdominal ganglia.

CHARACTERS OF THE FOUR GROUPS OF ARTHROPODS.

The following are the distinctive features of the four divisions
of the jointed-limbed animals :-—

1. Crustacea—This is the group that includes the Lobsters, Crabs, Shrimps,
Prawns, Crayfish, Wood-lice, &c. They are nearly all water-breathing
Arthropods, respiring by means of branchive or gills. There are always
two pairs of antennie and compound or facetted eyes. On the abdomen
are organs of locomotion.

2. Arachnoidea—These are the Spiders, Red Spiders, Scab Mites, and
Scorpions. Respiration is various: some respire by lungs, others by
trachem, yet others by the whole body surface. The head and thorax
are always united into one piece, the cephalothorax, and in some
(Mites) the abdomen is also united to the cephalothorax. Antenne
are never present. There are always four pairs of legs (except in
Eriophyide), which are never carried by the abdomen. Eyes never
compound, ocelli only present.
CRUSTACEA. 109

8. Myriapoda—Centipedes and Millipedes. Head quite separate from the
body, but no distinction between thorax and abdomen visible. One
pair of antennix. Abdomen composed of many segments. Legs very
numerous, always more than eight pairs. Tracheal respiration.

4. Hexapoda—Head, thorax, and abdomen distinct. One pair of antennie.
Eyes both simple and compound. Legs always six in number. No
appendages of locomotion on the abdomen. Two pairs of wings
generally present. Respiration tracheal.

CRUSTACEA.

The Crustacea are chiefly aquatic arthropods. Some few
species live in damp earth and in damp general surroundings
(Wood-lice and Crawfish). The Wood-lice belong to the order
Isopoda. they may be told by the equal and symmetrical feet
or legs, whilst in the others, such as the Crab and Lobster, the
claws are asymmetrical. There are three species injurious to
horticulturists in Europe, all of which
belong to the family Oniscidwe. The
Oniscide belong to the second tribe of
Isopoda, called the Euisopoda, which
have the body made up of seven free
thoracic segments and the same number
of paired appendages. The abdominal
feet are so modified as to form branchial
lamella. The Oniscids or Wood-lice
(fig. 44) are land Isopods, with the Bg p ase NOOR EtGes
endopodites of the abdominal feet ie eee
formed into branchiz, the exopodites P2,tmtepua of puiscus; B an-
into protective lateral plates on the
outside. Peculiar modifications may be seen on the two front
abdominal feet, which are provided with special sacs to contain
air. The three common species are Ondseus asellus of Linneus,
Porcellio scaber of Latreille, and Armadiliidium vulgaris of
Linneus (fig. 44, a). They are popularly called Monkey-peas or
Slaters in Britain, the Cow-bugs of America; perhaps the term
Wood-louse is that most usually employed.

 
110 CRAYFISH AS CROP DESTROYERS.

Oniscus asellus is omnivorous, eating animal and vegetable
refuse. The Onisci thus act as scavengers; but they also eat
fruit, seedlings, and mushrooms, which they seriously damage,
especially the soft fruits, as peaches, nectarines, and melons.
Greenhouse and hothouse plants suffer severely from their
ravages, as also do strawberry plants, the wood-lice eating away
at the roots and around the crowns. They conceal themselves
in damp dark places, under stones and suchlike, and in crevices
in walls. Rotten woodwork is very often filled with them.
The eggs, which are numerous, are carried in a pouch in the
thorax, the young wood-lice remaining close to the parent for
some time. This grey species cannot roll itself up, as we find
is commonly done by many of the other species, whilst it can
also be told by the antenne being eight-jointed (fig. 44, p),
instead of seven as in Porvellio and Armailillidium (8). Arma-
dillidium vulgaris (A) is larger, smoother, and of a uniform
slaty-blue, and always rolls up into a ball at the least stimulus
(c). Porcellio scaber (8), with the seven-jointed antenna, is
brown and much varied in colour, and with a rough shell and
two longish anal spines. There are many species in this genus,
but the above are the commonest. All the Wood-lice can be
easily trapped by placing pieces of potato or scooped-out apples
about. Pots filled with moss and horse-dung invariably attract
large numbers, when they can be seen in the day-time and
killed. The only poisons I can find to kill them are mercury
bicyanide and Voss’s phospho-nicotyl.

Crawyish as Crop Destroyers.

In some restricted localities in the south of the United
States a crawfish or crayfish does considerable damage. In
the Houston clay lands of Mississippi and Alabama certain
areas are so infested by these crustacea that it is almost im-
possible to raise any crop with profit. The soil they infest is
very wet, even in dry seasons several fect of water remain in
MYRIAPODA. AT

the tunnels. They attack cotton and corn, and do most damage
to the young plants. Large fields of cotton have been eaten in
a single night. They tear away the tender cotyledons and carry
them to their burrows, and also tear off the leaves. In badly
infested land from 8000 to 12,000 holes may be found to the
acre. The females produce from 50 to 400 eggs, according to
age. The ova develop in a month, and the young remain with
the parent for one or two weeks. They are solitary in habits.
A few drops of carbon bisulphide put in each hole was found
to kill them in a few hours.

Chloride of lime at the rate of one ounce (of the strength
of one pound to three gallons of water) put in each hole also
kills them. They should also be killed by mechanical means.
Ground and mixed with meal they form an excellent egg-pro-
ducing food for chickens. (Vide Year-book of the Department
of Agriculture, U.S.A., 1911, pp. 321-324. A. K. Fisher.)

Mynriapopa.

The myriapods are divided into two groups—namely, Centi-
pedes or Chalopoda and Millepedes or Chilognatha, The former
have the mouth provided with foot-jaws, and have one pair
of jointed feet on each segment. The latter have imperforate
mandibles, adapted for ordinary biting and chewing. The first
three segments have one pair of feet on each, the remainder two
pairs. The feet will be seen to be terminated in a single claw.
Eyes may or may not be present: when present they are in the
form of clusters of ocelli. The jaws of the Millepedes are like
those of the cockroach; but in the Centipedes the jaws are
formed out of the forelegs, each with a hollow tube perforating
the jaw, which is connected with a poison-gland on each side at
the base.

The Centipedes are carnivorous in habit, and thus friends to
the agriculturist, whilst the Millepedes or vegetable feeders are
noxious. The latter are known as False-wireworm.
112 MYRIAPODA.

Young Myriapoda are composed of a few segments only,
and with six legs on the anterior segments; they grow by
the addition of new segments posteriorly, and cast their skin a
number of times until they become sexually mature. The chief
families in the Chilognatha are the Glomerila, Blanjulide,
Polydesmidur, and Luli or “snake millepedes.”  Glomeris
resembles in appearance and habits the wood-louse. The most
destructive are those of the genera Blanjulus, [ulus, aud Poly-
desmus,  Blanjulus yrlrhellus (fig. 45, 4) is one of the most
harmful species, and is extremely common. It is nearly half
an inch in length, slender, about the thickness of a fair-sized
pin; it is pale pinkish-yellow in colour, with a double row of
bright crimson or purple spots
on it. It is found in roots,
and especially amongst the
scales of lilies, which it causes
to decay, as well as in most
other plants. The young have
only a few segments and three
a, Blanjulus pulchellus , B, Iulus Londin- Pals os legs, eine eee

* “ensig; ©, antenna of I. terrestris. the second, third, and fifth seg-

ments. After repeated moult-
ing they reach maturity, when they are composed of about fifty
segments. Like Iulide they live upon decaying vegetation
and sound plant tissue, and are also said to feed on slugs,
snails, worms, and insects. This latter, however, I cannot
verify by experience. T'wo other species are common-—namely,
the large black Juus terrestris (Linn.), with a pointed tail, and
the very similar Zu/us Londinensis (fig. 45, B), which has a
round tail. Both feed upon the rootage of various plants.

Tulus breed in May, June, and July. The female forms a
nest in the earth for her eggs, usually some distance below the
surface : the nest is a hollow sphere, smooth inside, rough out-
side, and a small opening is left at the top. The size varies
from that of a filbert to cob-nut. The eggs, to the numbor of

ony

 

Pre. 45.— MILLEPEDEs.
MYRIAPODA. 113

about a hundred, are laid through the hole; they are small
and covered with a gummy fluid. Then the hole is closed up,
and in twelve days the ova hatch.

The genus Polydesmus forms a link between the two groups
of Myriapods. The species are flat and compressed, instead of
being rounded as in Iulus. The nest is the same and the young
develop as in Iulus, but the legs are on the second, fourth, and
fifth segments in the young specimens. Polydesmus complanatus
(fig. 46, 2), a pale purplish-white or rosy-tinted species, nearly
an inch in length when mature, has similar habits to lulus,

 

Fic. 46.—MiLunpeves (1, Llenjulus pulchellus ; 2, Polydesmus complanutus),
CENTIPEDE (3, Geophilus subterrancus). All slightly enlarged.

feeding especially upon onions, and often causing their decay.
I have received notice of much damage caused by them in
greenhouses.

The Chilopoda or Centipedes (fig. 46, 3) are all beneficial.
They are represented by four families in England (Lithobiide,
Scolopendride, Notophilide, and Geophilidw), all being more
or less abundant. One of the commonest British species is Geo-
philus longicornis of Leach, which is a long, yellowish, thread-
like creature, often two inches in length. It moves rapidly,
with a curious, sinuous, snake-like movement. The male spins

i
114 ARACHNOIDEA.

a web and deposits in the middle a single spermatophore, and
the female comes to the web to be fertilised. The eggs are laid
in a little cell in the earth, and are looked after by the female,
who is said never to leave them for the two weeks they are
incubating, coiling herself round them in the cell. This species
may often be turned up in the earth whilst digging in a
garden, when by its great activity it soon will bury itself again.
Their food is composed of other ground-insects, snails, slugs,
and small worms. Some species are luminous.

Lithobius breeds later than Iulus, going on until August.
The female rolls the viscid eggs on the soil and so coats
them with earth. The male, if he sees the ova, at once devours
them.

AracHnomnEa (Spiders, Scorpions, and Mites).

The three chief groups of the Arachnoidea are the Spiders,
Scorpions, and Mites. The first and last only are of any agri-
cultural importance. Another small division known as the
Pentastomide must also claim a few passing words, as they
sometimes cause ill effects and loss in farm stock, living as
parasites in the sinus of the bones and air-sacs of animals and
birds. The distinguishing feature of the Arachnoidea is the
presence of four pairs of legs, which are nearly always found in
the adult. There is no true metamorphosis; but growth takes
place by a series of ecdyses, the young resembling the adult in
general form. The ova develop rapidly. The three divisions
are characterised as follows :—

1. Avaneida or Spiders (fig. 47, 4) have the head and thorax
united into one piece, the cephalothorax (c), the abdomen (a) being
distinct. Eyes are represented by clusters of ocelli (fig. 47, 8, 7).

i, Scorpiontd have the anterior palpi elongated like legs,
and provided with nippers like the claws of a crab. The ab-
domen may have the last six segments elongated and formed
into a spurious tail.
ARANEIDA OR SPIDERS. 115

iii. Acarina or Mites (fig. 49) are characterised by having the
head, thorax, and abdomen all fused into one piece, and the legs
either eight or four in number,

 

Fia, 47.—House Sprper.

A, Male of House Spider (T'egenaria civilis) enlarged : c, cephalothorax ; p maxillary
palpi; a, abdomen. p, front of head: f, ocelli; , mandibles. c, under side of head:
m, true jaws; 7, lower lip. Db, diagram of one of the air chambers. (After Blackwall,
from Nicholson.)

Araneida or Spiders.

The Spiders may be considered of economic importance, as
they are all more or less of a beneficial nature. The food of
spiders consists almost entirely of insects, and thus they do a
considerable amount of good in keeping down an access of insect
life which may be noxious to us. Some spiders hunt for their
prey ; others, and those perhaps best known to us, have the habit
116 ARANEIDA OR SPIDERS.

of spinning webs, in which their prey is trapped. Spiders have
either two, six, or eight eyes or ocelli (fig. 47, B, f), which vary
in position and size, and which supply important characters of
systematic value. The jaws with which the spider seizes its
prey are inserted immediately under the anterior margin of the
cephalothorax, and have, as a rule, on the extremity of their
inner surface a groove, with sharp teeth at the sides, into which
fits the fang when in a state of repose (B, , and oc, m). The
fang or last joint of the so-called “falsis” is perforated by a
minute hole at the tip, through which a colourless poisonous
liquid exudes, secreted by the poison-glands within.

Perhaps the most important structural feature to notice in
the spider is the presence of the so-called ‘“‘spinnerets.” These
structures are placed at the end of the body, and consist of two,
three, or four pairs of appendages. The spinnerets vary in
form: some are cylindrical, others round, and some conical.
The tip and under-side of these structures are perforated with
minute holes. Through these minute apertures the liquid sub-
stance that will harden and form the silk of the web is passed.
Thus it will be seen that numbers of minute threads of this
glue-like liquid are passed out, and these unite into one firm yet
elastic line of extreme fineness, but nevertheless of sufficient
strength to bear a heavy-bodied spider. This line is also covered
with little drops of a clear liquid (fig. 48, c), so that the spider’s
web consists of two substances—one forming the solid elastic
thread, the other forming the little globules. There is a popular
idea that the spider can withdraw its web into its body again:
this is not correct. When once hardened, the web always
remains so. In the spider’s web, the viscid globular glue on the
web is distributed only over certain areas: passages are left, so
that the spider can walk along the web without coming in
contact with the sticky substance. This substance is for catch-
ing and retaining the insects that fly into the web. In some
spiders this webbing is formed for taking aérial flights. The so-
called “ gossamer” web is formed by strands of fine silk blowing
ARANEIDA OR SPIDERS. 117

about and adhering together, thus forming the white flaky
masses. Some spiders may be found on these threads as they
are being wafted about—the spider having, as it were, taken
advantage of this mode of transit.

There are two chief divisions of spiders—the first having four
spinnerets and four air-sacs, the second two air-sacs and six
spinnerets. ‘he former are known as Mygalédv, or crab-spiders,
such as the large Tarantula, or Bird-spiders, of the tropics. One
large species is found in Britain—namely, Atypus Sulzer?. This
carnivorous araneid excavates a subterranean gallery in damp
places, in which the female, amongst the lining of white silk the

 

Fic. 48.—ORB-WEAVING SPIDER, Evrc.
a, Epeira diademata ; », Drassus Blackwallii ; o, thread of Epeira web.

tube is padded with, deposits her eggs, in a cocoon of pale silk
attached to its end. A portion of this tube generally hangs
outside the subterranean part, so as to protect it. Trap-door
spiders belong here. The second division includes all the other
spiders, those with which we are best acquainted, such as the
Epetride, or Orb-weavers, &e. (fig. 48, a). The Drass/de (B)
may often be noticed,—narrow-bodied spiders which live in
tubular silken cells, open at each end. These cocoon-like
masses we find under the bark of trees, and amongst moss
and leaves: from these shelters the spider darts out to hunt
its prey. For an account of these and other spiders the reader
118 ACARINA OR MITES.

is referred to Murray’s excellent ‘Economic Entomology,’ which
deals with spiders, mites, amd other Arachnoidea.

Avarina or Mttes.

The mites are of great importance, as many of them are para-
sitic, not only upon animals and man, but upon plants. The
Acarina are mainly very minute animals, many being no more
than gyoth of an inch in length; and yet it is these minute
forms that cause the most serious pathologic disturbances in
animals (Scab, Mange, Itch, &c.) and the most serious plant
diseases (Big Bud, Red Spider, &c.). In all mites, and the
similarly grouped ticks, the head, thorax, and abdomen are
united more or less into one solid body. The internal parasitic
forms are generally white or pale-creamy colour. They are pro-
vided with a biting and piercing mouth. Amongst the more
important diseases produced by them are sheep-scab, mange, and
itch. They also affect poultry, causing feather-eating, scaly-leg,
and in plants various “galled” appearances only too common
on some of our fruit-trees. Some are predacious, and so bene-
ficial. There are also species that live in the water. These
latter we need not refer to again. Most mites, like spiders,
have four pairs of legs when mature, the young having only
three pairs. The more or less fused head, thorax, and abdomen
soon separate them from the spiders. The so-called red-spider of
the hop, Tetranychus malve, and the red-spiders of fruit, the
Bryobia ribis, &e., can thus be readily seen to be acari and not
araneida. Nearly all acari produce ova: some few are, however,
parthenogenetic, and produce living young. The following are
the groups of some importance to the farmer, fruit grower, and
gardener :—

(i) Trombidite, the so-called Spinning Mites or Red-spiders.
These are found on the leaves of plants, and constitute the
group Tetranychi (fig. 51), which can be told by their small
size and usually semi-transparent bodies, sometimes however
ACARINA OR MITES. 119

tinged with red. Closely related to these are the Harvest
Bugs (fig. 49), which are generally of a brilliant colour, and
may be found under stones, earth,
&c., and sometimes, in some of their
stages, as very noxious human and
animal parasites.

(ii) The Bdellidee or Snouted Mites
can be told by the long snout and
similar brilliant colouring of the
body. Some are parasites on insects.

(iii) The Gamaside (fig. 52), some
of which are also parasitic on animals

 

: : : Fic. 49.—Harvesr Boo (Trom-
and birds, have usually some modi- bidium oa.

fication of the second pair of legs to —_Aauit of the Harvest Bug.

ah als . (x 10 times.)
distinguish them.

(iv) The Lxodidw (fig. 54) or Ticks can always be told by
their leathery skin and by having a shield on the back behind
the head.

(v) The Oribatide have a hard, chitinous, more or less
shiny skin, and are known as Beetle Mites. These are often
very beneficial (fig. 59).

(vi) The Acaridw, colourless and nearly transparent.

(vii) The Sarcoptide (fig. 56) are the parasitic forms that
produce scab, scaly leg, &c., and have a more or less transverse
wrinkled skin and long suckers on some of the feet.

(vill) The Phytoptide (fig. 60) or Gall Mites, living in plants,
are all minute and transversely wrinkled. They have only four
legs, the two hind pairs being reduced to simple bristles. The
mites live in the buds and leaves of plants, and produce galls
and blisters.

Family Trombidide.—The Red-spider of the hop, Tetrany-
chus malve, may be taken to exemplify this family. They are
extremely variable in colour, some being green, others rusty-red,
others almost white and transparent ; often dark specks are seen
upon them, and in not a few instances brown individuals may
120 ACARINA OR MITES.

be met with. This varied coloration is due to both age and
food. These mites are so minute that they can scarcely be seen
on the leaves without a lens. ‘his and some others of the
genus (7. telurius) spin webs of fine silk on the under-sides of
the leaves. The legs, which are provided with bristles, take a
prominent part in the weaving of this web, guiding the micro-

 

Fic. 50.—HaArvest Buc (Lrptus autumnalis), the larva of T. holosericeum (magnitied
100 diameters). Railliet. (From Neumann.)

scopic silken thread as it issues from the conical papilla near the
anus of the mite. In and under this webbing the mites live
and breed. The females lay their rather large globular eggs in
this web. Sometimes the ova are colourless, at others they have
a golden hue. Incubation takes place in from six to eight days,
the young or larval mite being colourless, and has only six legs.
After repeated ecdyses, the normal number of legs is attained.
All these stages may be found in a single web at one time. The
ACARINA OR MITES. 121

females hibernate during the winter months, seeking shelter in
such places as the cracks in hop-poles, under dead leaves, in
soil, in all crevices and shelters where they are protected from
frost and snow. These, and all mites, flourish best in hot and
dry weather. They damage the plant in a twofold manner,—
first by sucking out the sap, and secondly by blocking up the
stomata of the plant by their webbing and excreta. The
mouth consists of a pair of biting jaws and:a sucking-tube be-

 

Fic, 51.—Rep Spiper (Tetranychus malwe).
A, Egus on leaf; 8, larva; c, foot of mite; p, adult.

tween. The tissue is first bitten, and then the sucking-tuhbe is
thrust into the hole and the sap extracted. No mites, we must
remember, have any external breathing-pores, but respire by
the whole body-surface. All washes used for destroying them
should contain sulphur or paraffin, as they are the most powerful
acaricides. Liver of sulphur is found to be the best form of
sulphur to use for these pests. The Red Spider of the vine
(T. telartus) works in a similar way. It is best kept down by
repeated sprayings of cold water.

The genus Bryobia, which belongs to the Trombidide, has
several species destructive to fruit-trees. These fruit pests can
be told from Tetranychus by having the first pair of legs long,
whereas in Tetranychus they are all the same length. They
spin no webbing. Mature Bryobia are about 34, of an inch
122 ACARINA OR MITES.

long. They hibernate as adults and eggs, but egg-laying
usually takes place in March and April. They produce a
marked, marbled, and rusty appearance on the foliage. They
are best destroyed by winter spraying with caustic soda wash
and spring spraying with paraffin jelly. Several others occur
in a similar way attacking fruit and flowers. In this family is
also placed the Harvest Bug (Leptus autumnals), figs. 49 and 50.
This larval mite is the young stage of Trombidium holosericeum
(fig. 49). 7. holosericeum is a scarlet mite with a squarish
body covered with hairs and papille, about the twelfth of an
inch in length. This mite, which is found crawling about
upon the ground, deposits eggs in July. These ova hatch
into minute, six-legged, orange-coloured larve, the so-called
Harvest Bug, which lives as a parasite in the skin of man
and many animals, and produces violent itching. When full
grown the Harvest Bug is only +4 mm. long. Many species
occur in different parts of the world.

Family Gamaside.—In this family the mandibles are pro-
vided with very small nippers. They are found on the ground
and as partial parasites. The legs are
seven-jointed, the second pair being
often larger than the rest. There are
two claws to the tarsi. The colour is
generally light brown, or white; some
are reddish, owing to the blood drawn
from their host. The most important
form is the Red Hen Mite (Dermanyssus

Fic. 52.—Rep Hen Mire q@rtum), which infests fowls and almost
ee ae andl egg 2 as ; 7 :
greatly enlarged), all birds (fig. 52). This mite, described

by Redi, may be found in all unclean
hen-roosts and pigeon-houses. It is provided with a sharp
piercing mouth. It is « small mite, flattened, with bristly
abdomen and stoutish hairy legs. In colour this gamasid varies
from pale yellow to dark red. The larvae, which hatch rapidly
from the eggs, are white and six-legged. Like many partial

 
ACARINA OR MITES. 123

parasites, the hen mite is nocturnal, hiding away in crevices
of the walls, &c., during the day-time. Sometimes they even
attack the nasal cavities of the birds, and also other animals
to which they may become transmitted.1

Family Ixodide.—The members of this family are popularly
called Ticks. Ixodide are large Acari with a tough leathery
skin, the front of the body covered with a hard protecting
shield. All the ticks are blood-suckers, living some part of
their life upon other animals, especially warm-blooded verte-

 

 

 

 

 

Fic. 53.—Hzap or a Tick.
a, Hypostome ; pz, chelicerz; c, palpus; p, front leg showing Haller’s organ.

brates and birds. At or near the front end is a very formidable
beak or capitulum (fig. 53), composed of cheliceree, and (B) a
sharp piercing rostrum or hypostome with recurved barbs at the
tip (A). When a tick is fixed on an animal it is impossible to
pull it off: the body comes away from the head, which is held
firmly fixed by the barbs in the host’s skin. On the ventral
surface are four pairs of legs in the adult, each leg consisting
of six segments, the tarsus ending in a pair of claws, carried

1 The Parasitic Diseases of Poultry, p. 52. F. V. Theobald. 1897.
124 ACARINA OR MITES.

on a slender stalk, and in some with a membranous pulvillus
between. On the anterior tarsi (fig, 54, 7) is a narrow pit lined
with sensory hairs (Haller’s organ), probably olfactory (f). The
sexual opening (/) in both sexes is on the ventral surface not far
from the capitulum ; the anus (#4) is farther back. Ticks have
spiracles (2), which lie behind and above the bases of the third
or fourth pair of legs. The male tick is smaller than the female,
and its body does not swell much. The hind part of the female’s

 

Fis. 54. —E\TERNAL PARTS OF A Tick. (After Wheeler.)

a, Hypostome; 6, palpus; ¢, chelicere ; d, capitulum ; ¢, rostrum; f, Haller’s organ;
g, scutellum ; h, spiracle ; i, peritreme ; ;, genital opening; k, anus; J, anal groove;
m, genital groove; n, cephalothorax ; 0, fringe or marginal indentations; }», coxa;
y, trochanter; 7, femur; s, tibia ; ¢, tarsus.

body is capable of very considerable distension, although tough.
Ticks are found amongst grass, shrubs, and especially on sandy
soil, When young they are quite small creatures, but very
active. They are then six-legged, and are known as Seed or
Grass Ticks. They crawl about over the grass and vegetation,
and eventually get fixed on to some passing mammal or bird,
from which they instantly commence to suck blood. During
this temporary parasitism the body swells, owing to the quantity
of blood taken in. When the larval tick has completed its
ACARINA OR MITES. 125

meal it falls from the host to the ground again, and may remain
for some time without any food. It moults or casts its skin
whilst on the ground, and becomes a nymph with eight legs,
but is not sexually mature. This nymph then gets on to
another host and feeds, then it falls to the ground again and
moults for a second time. The adult stage is then reached, and
the adult males and females wait until they can again crawl on
to another host. The female then becomes much swollen out,
being gorged with blood, so much so that the head and legs can
scarcely be seen from above. The male
only swells to a small extent. When the
female is fully gorged and fertilised she
falls to the ground and lays her eggs in
long masses (fig. 55). The act of copula-
tion is peculiar, the male inserting the
proboscis into the vulva of the female
and so injects the spermatophores.

Thus some Ticks require three hosts
to complete their development (Rhipice-
phalus appendiculatus) ; others, however,
only require one host (R. decoloratus),
the larva and nymph not falling to the
ground but moulting on the host.

Others require two hosts (R. everts?),
which remains on the host for the first PY {SNP me Uys
two stages.

Some Ticks may live a long time even without food. The
writer has kept one, Orndthodorus moubata, for over a year.
Normally the true Ixodide are not long-lived, but under ab-
normal conditions they may be. Wheeler kept [xodis ricinus
alive for two years, and a female which had no head and could
not have taken any food. The importance of Ixodide is not
only on account of their blood-sucking habits, which cause
severe irritation to animals and birds and man, but especially
because of the part they play in the spread of such diseases as

 
126 ACARINA OR MITES,

redwater or Texas fever and East Coast fever in cattle, of
malignant jaundice in dogs, of heartwater in sheep, and human
tick fever, We.

The Ixodide are divided into two sub-families :—

(i) Leodine, which have the rostrum terminal in all stages.
(ii) Aryantinv, in which it is inferior in the adult and
sub-terminal in the larva and nymph.

The Lrodinw are the so-called Hard Ticks, the dorsum of the
body being protected by a shield or scutum, and the posterior
part of the body may be cut into festoons, especially in the
males. The scutum is small in the females, large in the males.
They are all fixed parasites, and when the female has laid her
one batch of eggs she dies. It is these Zzodine which carry
the animal diseases such as redwater, carried by Rhipocephalus
(Boophilus) unnulatus, and which attacks only one host. In
this case the larvae, coming from ova laid by the tick that has
fed on a beast with redwater, is pathogenic, and so gives the
disease to its host carried on from the parent. But in the case
of the carrier of the piroplasme of malignant jaundice—a tick
called Hemaphysall’s—the parasites are not ready for the dog
until the ticks have become mature—that is, larve and nymphe
coming from the ova of a female that has fed on a jaundiced
dog cannot give the disease, but the adult can.

The Argantine are the Soft Ticks, and these have no dorsal
shield, and the head is not visible from above, but les in a
shallow groove (camervstone). The adults do not attach them-
selves permanently to their host, but only go to feed, and then
crawl away. They attack birds and mammals and man. Instead
of dying when eggs are laid as the female Ixodine does, they live
and grow for years, and the female produces many batches of exes.

One well-known species is the Fowl Tick (Argas persicue),
which spreads the fatal disease “ spirillosis.” Another, once
found in Canterbury Cathedral, A. reflexus, especially attacks
pigeons, its bite often proving fatal. Here also comes Ornitho-
dorus moubata, the carrier of African tick or relapsing fever.
ACARINA OR MITES. 127

These ticks hide away in crevices, in buildings, in sand, &c.,
and come out to feed when necessary.

Ticks may be destroyed on sheep by dipping, and also, as is
now done in Africa, by spraying the cattle driven through
narrow runs. Burning of the grass on tick-infested land also
does some good.

The following are pathogenic species :—

Ornithodorus moubata—On man, birds, &c. (human tick
fever, &c.).

Amblyomma hebrceeum—On sheep and goats (heartwater).

Hemaphsyllis leachii—On dogs (malignant jaundice).

Rhipocephalus decoloratus — Cattle, &c. (redwater in
Africa).

Rhipocephalus australis—Cattle (redwater in Australia).

Rhipocephalus annulatus—Cattle (redwater in America).

Rhipocephalus sitmus and Rhipocephalus appendiculatus—
On cattle, &c. (East Coast fever in Africa).

Ixodes ricinus—On cattle, &c. (redwater in Europe).

Family Sarcoptide.—These minute mites live as parasites in
and upon animals and man. The body is round or oval; in
front is a conical rostrum. The sexes are told by the differ-
ences in the legs and general shape of the body and by the size,
the male being always much smaller than the female. They
occasion diseases that are spoken of as Scabies or Psoric diseases.
The Sarcoptide are the smallest of all mites, varying from ‘1 mm.
to 1 mm. (54; inch) in length. No eyes are present, and respira-
tion is cutaneous. The Psoric Sarcoptide attack the epidermis
of animals, and the punctures they produce, with the addition
of a poisonous saliva, give rise to thick crusts over their point of
attack. The Sarcoptide are oviparous and ovoviviparous. The
eggs are slightly ovoid, and the contained embryo is easily seen
in an ovum in an advanced stage. The eggs incubate in a few
days. In some cases the author has observed the ova to hatch
in two days in the species producing Sheep Scab; more usually
seven to ten days is the period.
128 ACARINA OR MITES.

The metamorphosis is as follows :—

The Larval or first stage is a small acarus with only three pairs
of legs and no genital organs, and with two long anal bristles.
The larva moults two or three times. Then follows the second
or Nymph stage. The Nymph has a fourth pair of legs, which
ave, however, small. As yet no sexual organs are to be found.
We observe two sizes of nymphs; the small ones will be males,
the large females, Casting their skin, both males and females
are produced, and then copulation takes place. They are then
known as pubescent males and females. The male soon dies ;
but the female undergoes another moult, and becomes the
ovigerous female, with a sub-thoracic vulva, and then deposits
about fifteen large ova. Gerlach states that one female, having
given rise to six generations, is accountable for 1,500,000
individuals in about ninety days.

The Sarcoptes have a rounded body. The posterior legs are
very small, and nearly or quite concealed beneath the body.
The ambulacral sucker is in the form of a simple long pedicle.
The females deposit their eggs at the bottom of the furrows they
excavate in the sub-epidermic tunnels. Psoroptes have a more
oval body, all the legs are visible, and the ambulatory suckers
are borne on large three-jointed pedicles. The psoroptes do not
make sub-epidermic galleries, but live in societies amongst the
crusts they cause on the skin. Symbiotes are oval, and have all
the legs visible outside the body margin, with the claws borne
on a broad, short, and simple pedicle. These live like psoroptes
in colonies under the scabs, and cause more localised patches
than the others.

Each domestic animal has a variety common to it; but it is
said that the itch of man can be taken by the dog and other
animals, a point which cannot be accepted as proven. The
sarcoptic mange of the horse, however, can be easily transmitted
to the ox. Regarding the transmission from one animal to
another and man, there is much diversity of opinion.
ACARINA OR MITES. 129

Sheep-scab.

The Scab or Soab of sheep is of three types, produced by the
three genera of Sarcoptide. The commonest form of scab is
that produced by Psoroptes communis v. ovis. It is sometimes
called Demodectic Scabies. The acarus (fig. 56) can just be
seen with the naked eye, and may readily be found under
one of the scabs in all stages. The female Psoropt of the
sheep has a large round
body with four pairs of
short legs, the third and
fourth pairs being of nearly
equal size; but the third is
devoid of the curious sucker
on the feet. The male has
the fourth pair of legs very
short, the third pair being
long, and armed with the
sucker. The ova laid by
the female are comparatively
large ovoid bodies, which
are deposited at the edges
of the scab. I have kept
the ova for two months, at
a temperature of 30° Fahr.,
without their incubating ;
but when the temperature
was raised to 67° Fahr. they soon hatched out. In the summer
five to eight days is, however, the period of the ege-stage. The
larva is much narrower than the adult, and has only six legs,
the fourth pair not being developed until later in life. In
fourteen days the larva casts its skin for the first time, and then
ten days later another moult takes place. By the thirty-eighth
to the fortieth day of its existence a third moult brings it

I

 

Fic. 56.—FEMALE SHEEP-SCAB MITE.
(Greatly enlarged.)
130 ACARINA OR MITES.

nearly to maturity. When about two months old the acarus
commences to lay. Some authorities say they mature much
sooner. The larve become eight-legged when the nymph stage
is assumed. They remain attached to the leg-bristles of the
ovigerous female for some little time after birth. The adult
mites live for three or four weeks. Psoroptes may be found
amongst the wool and under the scabs, but never tunnel in the
true skin. One can watch a young mite burrow into the outer
skin or cutis: in about ten days a small nodule will arise over
the point of entry; from this vesicle a yellowish exudate
appears, which hardens over the skin, forms a scab, beneath
which the mites breed, being especially prevalent at the edges
of the psora. The scabs usually commence to be noticeable
about the sixteenth day after entry. This psoroptic mite, the
true scab acarus, is found chiefly affecting the woolly regions of
the sheep; it is seldom found on the head or legs, or on the
abdomen beneath or breast region. The disease seems to die
out spontaneously, especially after dipping and shearing. The
acari often become detached on the wool the sheep rub off, when
trying to relieve the pruritus set up by them. Other shéep
rubbing against the wattles, pens, hedges, &c., where this
diseased wool is, will soon contract the malady, and so the
disease is spread from one flock to another.

The Strcapt known as S. scabied v. ovis produces the head-
scab. This mite attacks those regions devoid of wool, or at
least where it is scanty. It is particularly plentiful around the
eyes, ears, nostrils, and lips. Youatt speaks of it as “ black
muzzle.” It may spread to the belly and legs, especially the
hocks and pasterns. The mite is round and white, with
numerous spines of two sizes on the dorsal surface, and with
two pairs of anal bristles. Legs short; the two first pairs have
the curious suckers before referred to in the male, the fourth
par also having them; the third pair in the male, and third
and fourth in the female, are armed with a long spine.
This head-scah is very like the itch-mite in man —in fact
13]

ACARINA OR MITES,

Cuuvumeyr wor) “Selquos d1depoulep paouvspe yar Sop ¥
‘SONY Gay —")¢ org

 

li

1
t

i
it

all
132 ACARINA OR MITES.

     
    
  

be
Naan
ae Tne
I eo 2

!
Ae

   
   
    

2 7A sb
ves.
at | a ta sd
ae Wan 0
AlN Bi
Wi a mT ad

     

 

Ky

Mh
ITN
Ha

 

Fic. 58.—Demopectic Scapies. Section of
skin, magnified forty diameters. (Laulanié.)

e, Epidermis; f, hair follicle; P, hairs; bv’,
bulbs of hairs; @ to aiv, dilations due to Demo-
dex accumulations, @; sb, sebacious glands;
sb’, gland with Demodex; sd, sudoriparous
glands. (From Neumann.)

this form may possibly
be transmitted to man
and other animals. The
female Sarcopt lays her
eggs in tunnels zm the skin,
not under the scab as in
Psoroptes. Then small
papules appear on the
skin, which on _ being
tubbed pass out a clear
exudate, hardening and
forming a crust or scab
of a dirty-grey colour.
The skin becomes hard
and deeply folded, and
blood may be seen oozing
out in the cracks.

The third form, Syi-
hiotes communis Vv. ovts, is
not of common occurrence.
The Symbiotes live in col-
onies, but do not excavate
any sub-epidermic galleries.
They are oval, not rounded,
and the legs are longer and
more easily seen. The legs
are chiefly attacked by this
form of mite, similar to the
attack in the horse, pro-
ducing red patches on the
skin and very thin scabs.
It is of little importance in
Britain.

Varieties of Sarcoptes,
Psoroptes, and Symbiotes
are also found on_ the
horse, pig, ox, goat. dog,
ACARINA OR MITES. 133

and cat, producing various forms of “mange.” Sarcoptes (8.
mutans) also produce the “scaly leg” of fowls.

Another form of Scabies is produced by some mites known
as Demodicidw, These acari live in the hair follicles and
sebaceous glands, and produce the so-called red mange in dogs
(fig. 57). The same species, Demodex folliculorum, is found on
man and varieties on other animals. In dogs (v. canis) this
follicular mange appears as red patches around the eyes, and
spreads over the body. It commences as red spots, which
gradually become purulent. In the matter from these pustules
will be found the mites (fig. 58), and also in the hair follicles.

 

Fic, 59.--BEETLE Mite (Oribata orbicularis).

A, Adult; B, immature form following the six-legged larval stage; cv, pseudo-stig-
matic organ ; Ai, ungues (claws) of adult; Bi, ungues of B.

Family Oribatide or Beetle Mites are so called on account
of their hard covering of integument. Many of them are shiny
objects which cluster together upon the trunks of trees, especially
fruit-trees. They have a pair of very curious processes situated
on the progaster; these two bodies are called pseudo-stigmata
(c, fig. 59). One of the most abundant forms is Oribata
orbicularis (fig. 59), which varies in colour from deep shiny
black to brickdust-red. This mite may be found in large
clusters on the bark of plum, damson, and other trees, where
it feeds off the spores of lichens, fungi, and the ova of other
134 ACARINA OR MITES.

mites. The adult has tridactyle (ai) claws; the larva and
nymph unidactyle claws (Bi). The larva, like most mites, is at
first six-legged, but assumes four pairs before the sexual adult
stage. Miss Ormerod mentions another very abundant species
in her Report for 1897—namely, Oribata lapidaria, which has
a similar life-history. These mites must not be confused with
the mites that are parasitic upon beetles and the Bdellidw or
Snout Mites that we find on other insects.

Family Eriophyide! or Gall Mites are minute mites which
live in the buds (Lrophyes ribis, avellanee, and taxi) and in the
leaves of plants (Z. pyr’). The former produce large swollen
buds which never produce fruit; the latter gall-like patches
on the leaves. Only two pairs of legs are noticeable in these
minute acari, but the two posterior pairs may possibly be
represented by four bristles. The skin of the Eriophyide is
always more or less wrinkled or striated, and may or may not
have a few scattered hairs. These acari stop the growth of the
plant by destroying the buds, sometimes, as in the Currant Gall
Mite (Z. ribis), eventually killing the bush; at others, as seen
in the Yew Mite (£. taaz), they produce stunted and deformed
trees.

The Currant Gall Mite (Z. v7bis) (fig. 60) is especially preva-
lent on the Black Currant, where its presence may be detected
in spring by the large swollen green buds which do not generally
burst into leaf or blossom: in winter these large buds may still
be seen, and many are brown in colour and dead. On examin-
ing the live buds in the winter we find all the acari safely
housed: here they live and breed. In the spring and summer
they come out and move over the bushes, taking up their
position in new buds, which they speedily deform. The ova
are laid in the buds, and soon hatch into mites very similar to
the adults. In form the Currant Gall Mite is elongated and
dirty-white in colour. This serious pest, which has spread at a
tremendous rate over Britain, has now appreciably been checked.

1 Formerly called Phytoptide.
ACARINA OR MITES. 135

Some varieties, such as Balwins and Black Naples, are especially
prone to it; others, as Boskoop Giant, seem to resist it. Hand-
picking will keep the disease in check. It also attacks red
and white currants.

The Pear Leaf Blister Mite (Z. pyrt) is found in winter
sheltering under the bud scales. As the buds open the mites
crawl out and enter the leaves through the stomata on the
under sides.) They then live and breed in the leaves, and

r Pa |

 

Fic, 60.—1, BLack Currant Mire (rnuch magnified) erecting itself upon its terminal
suckers (after E. J. Lewis). 2, Twic or Buack Currant in which an uninjured bud
has opened. Two lower buds are hindered by presence of mites, while the lowest buds
are swollen by them.

produce pale or sometimes red (on young leaves) areas or galls,
which later turn black. They even attack the young fruitlets
and ruin them. As the leaves harden off they crawl back to
the buds. This Leaf Gall Mite is also found in America and
South Africa and Australia. It may be kept in check by
winter spraying with lime and sulphur, and spring spraying
with paraffin jelly.
136 ACARINA OR MITES.

Linguatulide.—There are two quaint genera of Arachnida
classed in the above family—namely, Pentastoma and Lingua-
tula. These curious worm-like Arthropods are parasitic, living
in the head and air-spaces of animals: they are more or less
elongated and vermiform in shape when adult, and have a
distinct annulated body. The mouth in the imago has no jaws,
but is surrounded by two pairs of hook-like legs. Like Acarina
they respire cutaneously. ‘The one figured (fig. 61, E), Lingua-

 

Fie. 61.— Lincuateuip.£.

a, Ovum, B, Larva, «, Pupal stage: a, anus; b, mouth. pv, Linguatula denticula-
tum, , L. teniodes. (After Railliet and Leuckart.)

tula twniodes, is the commonest form, and may often be found
in domestic animals. At one time it was considered a tape-
worm, and unless carefully examined it certainly resembles some
of those worms. This acarus is dirty-white in colour, about
three-fourths to one inch in length in the male, somewhat larger
in the female. The female is often brown when full of ova.
These arachnida live in the nasal cavities, especially in the dog,
and there the female lays her eggs, which are sneezed out by
ACARINA OR MITES. 137

the dog along with mucus. The ova are eaten by sheep, oxen,
rabbits, and other herbivora, when the embryos (B) are released
in the intestines. By means of the median rod and curved
hooks this minute embryo bores through the intestines and gets
to the liver, lungs, and mesenteric glands, where encystment
takes place. It here soon becomes converted into a simple
rolled up pupa (c), with no legs, hooks, or bristles. By a
repeated series of moults a second larval form is reached (p),
and which is said to last for seven months, by which time it
has grown to the length of one-third of an inch. In this stage
it was taken to be a distinct species called L. denticulatum.
Numerous spiny rows are present on the skin. They fall from
the organs they are in, to the body cavity and pleural spaces,
and the majority die. Some, however, encyst themselves in
fresh parts of their host, and even enter the air-tubes, and are
so passed out of the host; or they may possibly enter the nasal
cavities of the herbivora they live in, during their early life.
More generally they reach maturity in the nasal cavities of the
carnivora which happen to eat the flesh of infected herbivor-
ous animals. In this last host they become sexual adults (2),
with a smooth ringed skin, and are vermiform in shape. The
males wander about the pharynx, larynx, and nasal cavities,
and fertilise the stagnant females, which take up their abode
between the turbinated bones and other nasal spaces. One
female, according to Leuckart, may produce 500,000 eggs.
They sometimes occasion loss, but are not very prevalent in
Britain. Dogs should not be given the fresh viscera of sheep,
oxen, &c., and then there would be no chance of any such
disease appearing in a serious form.
138

CHAPTER VIII.
HEXAPODA (INSECTS).
Tue Insects proper, more correctly termed Hexapoda on ac-

count of the number of their legs, have received a large
share of attention economically. Certainly this is justifiable,

 

Fic. 62,—A Hexapop (Tipula oleracea). Note the six legs on ventral part
of thorax. (Nicholson.)
for the damage they often occasion is very severe, not only
to crops, but also to stock and man.
Insects are characterised hy possessing three pairs of jointed
INSECTS OR HEXAPODA. 139

legs, attached to the thoracic region on its ventral surface. This
feature will at once separate them from all other Arthropods.
Respiration is tracheal, the openings or spiracles being slit-like
apertures along the sides of the abdomen, in addition to two
pairs on the thorax. The typical mouth of an insect is de-
scribed in chapter vii. This is a biting mouth, a type of
oral structure we find in many injurious insects. Others are
provided with a piercing mouth, and live upon plant sap and
animal blood, often causing serious loss to the farmer and stock-
breeder, as well as spreading such human diseases as malaria,

 

Fic. 63.—Movutu Parts or INsEcTs.

A, Biting mouth parts; 8, sucking, and c, piercing mouths: J, upper lip; m, man-
dibles ; mz, maxillee ; mp, maxillary palpi; la, lower lip; lp, labial palpi; an, antennw.
(Nicholson.)
yellow fever, filariasis, and basilero. The third form of mouth,
the sucking mouth, usually prevents those insects possessing
it from doing any damage; but there are some moths whose
proboscis is so hardened that they damage fruit in South Africa.
Those groups with this latter type of oral structure aid more
or less in the fertilisation of plants. It will be chiefly, then,
amongst the biting and piercing mouthed insects that the injuri-
ous species will be found.. But we must bear in mind that many
suctorial mouthed insects have mandibulate larve, which can
do as much damage as the true mandibulate groups. Many
140 INSECTS OR HEXAPODA.

insects are distinctly beneficial by destroying other noxious
insects (Chalcidide, Coccinellide), and a few are of no incon-
siderable commercial value (silkworms, cochineal, honey-hee,
lac insects).

Insects commence their life in most cases as eggs or ova
produced by a female. Some have the power of bringing forth
living young (viviparous), as we shall see takes place in the
Plant Lice (Aphidide, &c.) In insects the ovum gives rise
to a larva: this state is the period during which the insect
grows. Larve of insects are known also as maggots, grubs,
caterpillars, and false-caterpillars. Cuterpillar is a term applied

 

Fic, 64.—Larv& oF LNSECTS.

A, Geometer larva; v, Sawty larva; cv, typical Lepidopterous larva; », larva of
Plusia.

to coloured, often hairy larve, provided with six true legs and
generally with four pairs of prolegs or sucker feet, in addition
to the anal proleg (fig. 64, c). The number of these mid
prolegs is sometimes reduced to two or four (Geometride and
Plusiade), (a and p). These fleshy prolegs enable the cater-
pillars to hold on to the vegetation they are feeding upon.
False-caterpillars are the larve of the Sawflies (Tenthredinide) ;
they have more than four pairs of central sucker feet—usually
the legs number twenty-two in all (B). Afayyots are legless,
fleshy larvee of the Diptera or Two-winged Flies; often dirty-
white in colour, and tapering to a point in front, blunt at the
tail end. Some have a distinct head (Tipulid larvae), others
INSECTS OR HEXAPODA. 141

are headless (Onion Fly maggot). Grub is the term generally
given to the larve of some beetles (Weevils) and Hymenoptera
(such as Wasp grubs). In the larval stage the insect often
feeds with great voracity. Several ecdyses take place, the skin
splitting after stretching to a certain limit; the larva ceases to
feed during this period of moulting. Frequently after each
moult, of which there are four or more, the larva presents a
different coloration. The internal anatomy of the larva of
insects that undergo a complete metamorphosis is different to
that of the adult. Fig. 67 shows the digestive tract of the
larva of one of the Daddy Long-legs (T¢pula), which will be

    
    
     
 

  

on,

  

ny

ii

rs

 

|
e-5
hee

 

Fic. 65.—Pur® or INSECTS.

a, Puparia of Dipteron; 8, pupa of moth; ¢, chrysalis of butterfly.

seen to be of quite a different type to that given in fig. 41.
There are considerable differences in the digestive tract of
insects. We shall observe much variation in the length of
larval life when studying this group: some larve live only a
few days ; others, as the Wireworm, as much as three or four
years. Eventually the ‘full-feed” state is reached, and the
larva ceases to feed; it is then ready to assume the next stage
—namely, the pupa, chrysalis, or nymph. Prior to entering
this condition the larva either enters the ground and forms a
cell in the earth, or spins a silken cocoon, or attaches itself by
silk to some object (fig. 65, c), or finds some shelter in which
to pupate. Typically the pupal stage is a period of rest, no
142 INSECTS OR HEXAPODA.

food being taken. The pupal skin shows the general outline
of the insect—legs, antenne, wings, &c., being clearly defined
(fig. 65, B). Chrysalis is the term generally used in Butterflies,
which are pale-coloured and more or less angular (c). In Flies,
and some Hymenoptera, the pupa is found in the old larval skin,
which hardens and forms a brown case, called the puparium
—the “flax-seed” stage of the Hessian Fly (a, i). In some
diptera the pup are spiny (fig. 66). During this pupal period
the majority of the larval organs are broken
down into a soft granular mass, which he-
comes remodelled into the adult. This pro-
cess is called hisfolysis. The pupal stage,
again, is very variable in length, but not to
such an extent as in the larva. There are
often two or more broods, or generations, of
insects during the year; in some the summer
pupal state only lasts a week or so, whilst
the winter pupal state lasts some months.

 

Fri. 66. —- Pura or 2nsects pass the winter in all four stages,

isloniy cele) many as ova (Vapourer Moth), others as

pupe (Hawk Moths), whilst some hibernate
in the larval (Currant Moth) and adult (Tortoise-shell Butter-
fly and Queen Wasps) conditions.

Injuries are caused by insects both to plants and animals.
The damage is done in a variety of ways, such as by eating the
leafage, by tunnelling into the stems and leafage, boring into
fruit and seeds, and boring into the stems, even into the hardest
wood. Loth growing and stored grain and seed are attacked,
also provisions, household goods, and furniture. Animals are
attacked by insects sucking their blood, and others have para-
sitic habits, as exemplified by the Gad-flies and Warble-flies
respectively.

The senses of insects are of much interest to us, and well
worthy of our study. Sir John Lubbock’s work on the ‘Senses
of Insects,’ which treats this subject most fully, shows that
it is one of some importance economically, as well as of deep
INSECTS OR HEXAPODA. 143

interest. That insects have the sense of smell well developed
we know for certain. Whether the palpi or the antenna, or
both, are connected with this sense is not quite clear; most
probably the antenne are chiefly functional in this respect.
The sense of vision is acute, as any one knows who has tried
to catch an insect settled on some flower; whilst we cannot
doubt that taste is as surely present, when we consider the
partiality certain insects have for certain foods.

To return once more to the changes through which an insect
goes—the so-called metamorphosis. Insects which pass through

 

Fic, 67.—ALIMENTARY CanaL or Larva (Tipula paludosa).

a, Mouth; b, gullet; c, proventriculus ; e, cwca; d, stomach; f, hepatic tubes;
g, small intestine ; 7 and A, large intestine ; j, rectum ; /, anus ; J, anal gland.

the stages enumerated on p. 141, in which the larva is quite
unlike the adult, and where there is a distinct quiescent pupa,
in which the larva is transformed into the imago, are said to
undergo a complete metamorphosis. There are many insects
which have no quiescent pupal state, and where the larva is
very similar to the adult. The whole life-cycle from the egg
onwards is one of activity except when the insect is moulting.
The pupal stage is simply distinguished by the small swollen
wing-buds seen at the sides of the thorax. These insects are
said to have an incomplete or gradual metamorphosis.

Insects are classified partly by the structure of the mouth,
partly by the structure of the wings, and also by their meta-
144 INSECTS OR HEXAPODA.

morphosis. Those with biting mouth are called Mandibulata ;

those with sucking and piercing mouths, Haustellata. Man-

dibulata include the Beetles, Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, Ants,

Bees, and Wasps. The Butterflies and Moths, Flies, Bugs,

and Plant Lice are Haustellata. This arrangement is not at

all satisfactory, as we get insects in each with a complete and

incomplete metamorphosis. All insects may now be grouped

in nine orders, as follows :—

Coleoptera, or Beetles,

Hymenoptera, or Ants, Bees, Wasps, Sawflies, &c.

Lepidoptera, or Butterflies and Moths.

Diptera, or True Flies,

Thysanoptera, or Thrips.

Hemiptera, or Bugs and Plant Lice.

Orthoptera, or Cockroaches and Grasshoppers.

Neuroptera, or Lace-wing and Caddis Flies.

. Aptera, or Thysanura and Collembola (= Spring-tails, &c.)
The first four orders undergo a complete, the next four an

incomplete, metamorphosis. These orders may be distinguished

by the following characters :—

SOMA wr

Complete metamorphosis :—
Coleoptera—Two pairs of wings, first pair horny (elytra). Mandibulate.
Hymenoptera—Two pairs of wings, all of similar texture, first with a
dark stigma along the costa. Mandibulate and haustellate.
Lepidoptera—Two pairs of wings covered more or less with scales.
Haustellate.
Diptera —One pair of wings only (the first pair). Haustellate.

Incomplete or gradual metamorphosis :-—

Thysanoptera—Four narrow fringed wings. Weak suctorial mouth.

Hemiptera—Two pairs of wings, either (i) all transparent, or (ii) the first
pair half leathery at the base and transparent at tip (Aemielytra).
Haustellate.

Orthoptera—First pair of wings leathery, with many longitudinal veins :
second pair fan-shaped. Mandibulate.

Neuroptera—-Two pairs of lace-like wings. Mandibulate.

Scarcely any metamorphosis :—
Aptera—No wings at all. Mandibulate or slightly haustellate.
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 145

The above classification is the one now generally adopted,
and is followed in the excellent section on Insects by Dr Sharp
in ‘The Cambridge Natural History.’ !

COLEOPTERA,
or BEETLES.

The Coleoptera or Beetles are characterised by possessing four
wings. The front pair are horny, and are called elytra; they
close over and protect the second pair, which are folded up.
The elytra meet in a straight line (suture) down the middle of
the abdomen. The larvee of Coleoptera are of two main types
—one typically represented by the wireworm (fig. 78), in which
the first three segments have each a pair of jointed legs; the
other by the maggot-like grubs of the weevils (fig. 72), which
are footless, and usually more or less curved. The body is com-
posed of thirteen segments, including the head. Many, such
as the Cicindelidw, have peculiar organs for catching their prey.
The pup are always inactive. The larve feed upon animal life
(carnivorous) or vegetable life, and may even be parasitic, as in
the Stylopide found on bees: many also feed upon decaying
matter, acting as scavengers (Necrophagi or Burying Beetles).
The pupee are sometimes enclosed in a cocoon, the parts of the
insect being always distinctly recognisable.

In structure the beetles have the following peculiarities: The
mouth consists of an upper lip or labrum, two mandibles, which
are hard and horny, two maxille with palps, and a movable
lower lip or labium, with two jointed labial palpi. The antenne
are very variable in form and the number of segments. The
pro-, meso-, and metathorax are all well developed; but when
the elytra are closed, only the prothorax is seen, and a small
part of the mesothorax called the seutellwm, which fits between

1 Camb. Nat. Hist., vol. v. (Peripatus, Myriapoda, and Insecta), p. 172.
K
146 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

the elytra at their base. The tarsus may have five, four, or
three segments, but never more than five; the last one ends in
two ungues or claws.

The number of tarsal segments has been made a basis for
classification, but such an arrangement is not natural. This
classification is as follows :—

1. Psewdutrimera. —Tarsi composed of four segments, of
which one is very minute, giving the appearance of
three-jointed tarsi (Cocvinellide).

2. Pseudotetramera.—One segment of the five segments of
the tarsi very minute and concealed, giving the appear-
ance of having four segments (Curculionide and
Chrysomelidw).

3. Heteromera.—Tarsi of the two anterior pairs of legs
with five seements, of the posterior four (Canthari:lie
and Tenebrionide).

4.—Pentamera.—tTarsi of five segments (Yylophaga, Eluter-
ide, Lamelicornia, Carabidwe, Cieindelide, &e.)

Lapy-Birps8 (COcvINELLID.).

The Coccinellide or Lady-hird Beetles are nearly all bene-
ficial. Their food consists very largely of plant-lice or Aphidia,
and the injurious scale-insects or Coccide. Both larval and
adult lady-birds have the same diet. There are a great number
of species, most being black and red or black and yellow in
colour. These useful beetles hibernate during the winter months
in the adult state, seeking shelter under the bark of trees, in
outhouses, or amongst fallen timber, and very often invading
houses in such numbers in the autumn as to completely cover
the ceilings : this is particularly noticeable to any one living near
hop-gardens, where numbers of Coccinellide always congregate
to feed off the hop-lice.

Perhaps the commonest species are the 2-spotted lady-bird
(Coccinella (Adalin) hi-punctuta) (fig. 68, 7), the 10-spotted
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 147

species (C. decem-punctata), and the 7-spotted species (C. septem-
punctata) (fig. 68, 9), which may be found all over England.
The eyed lady-bird (C. ocellata), one of our largest species, may
also be often seen in hop-gardens, and feeding off the larch and
other coniferous plant-lice. This species can be told from the
other large ones by the eight black spots on the elytra being sur-
rounded with a yellowish band. The genus Scymnus, another
group of Coccinellide, also do much good by devouring scales.
A minute black lady-bird (Scymnus minimus) has been recorded
by Miss Ormerod as feeding on plant-lice and red-spiders as

 

Fic. 68.—Lapy-Birps (Coccinellide).

1, Ova on leaf; 2, egg magnified ; 3, larva (‘‘nigger”); 4, natural size; 5, 6, pupie ;
7, Adalia bi-punctata; 8, variety of A. bi-punctata; 9, Coccinella septem-punctata.
(Curtis.) :

well. These useful beetles lay their creamy-white eggs (1) in
the spring upon a variety of plants. They are deposited in
groups closely applied together, and hatch out into the larvee
in from ten to fifteen days. The larve, called “niggers”
(3 and 4), are smoky black or grey, with yellow or orange and
white markings on their bodies. They are extremely active,
and pursue the plant-lice with considerable agility. The
“nigger” has six jointed legs in front, and the surface of the
body is more or less rongh, and slightly hairy. When mature
these beneficial creatures attach themselves by their tail with
silk to the under-side of a leaf, and then change into the short,
plump, black and creamy-white pupa (5 and 6): in the early
148 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

summer the pupa hatches out in about two weeks into the
mature lady-bird, which soon commences to carry on the good
work of clearing off the fly, started during its larval career.

The importance of these insectivorous allies cannot be over-
estimated. The destructive scale, Icerya purchast, which all
but annihilated the orange-groves of California, has been
checked, and almost destroyed, by the importation into America
of the lady-bird (Vedalia cardinalis) which feeds upon that
scale in Australia. Some lady-birds of the genus E,lachna do
much harm by eating leafage of plants in Africa, America, &c.
These destructive lady-birds can be told by having pubescent
wing cases.

The Pseudotetramera contain the following important in-
jurious species :—

Tue Turnip FLea-BeeTLe (PHYLLOTRETA NEMORUM).

The Turnip Fleas or Fly, as they are popularly called, belong
to the family Halticide. These Flea-beetles are small insects
with enlarged posterior femora, and feed upon a great variety of
plants. Several species may be found on root-crops, especially
turnips, namely P. nemorum, P. crucifere, and Plectroscelis
concinna. The latter is generally termed the Hop Flea, on
account of the harm it does to the hopbine. The Turnip Flea
(P. nemorum) is a small beetle, about one-twelfth of an inch in
length ; its wing-covers or elytra are shiny black, each having a
clear yellow stripe running down the middle and bending round
at the end. They are called Flea-beetles because they have
the same saltatorial habits as those nimble degenerate flies from
which they take their name. The adult insects hibernate, and
on the first warm days of spring come forth to get ready for
their ravages upon the turnips and other cultivated Cruciferae
when they come above-ground. The winter hibernators at. first
feed upon charlock and other cruciferous weeds, such as
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 149

Shepherd’s purse and Jack-by-the-hedge ; but as soon as the
turnips show above-ground, away they fly and nip off the two
cotyledons just below their junction, thus completely destroying
the young plant. Should the weather be warm and dry, the
damage they do is tremendous, often necessitating two or more
sowings of seed before a plant can be obtained. They are very
susceptible to damp and cold, and then become sluggish,—a
feature usually noticed early in the morning after a heavy
dew. When the turnips get into rough leaf the damage they

 

Fic. 69,—1, Tor Turnip Fira Beerte, much magnilied ; 2, nat. length and wing
expanse ; 3, nat. size; 4, 5, egg, nat. size and mag. ; 6, 7, mine, and cuticle eaten away
by larva; 8, 9, larva, nat. size and mag. ; 10, 11, pupa, nat. size and mag.

do is not so great; but even then they are destructive, eating
away at the tissues until the leaves are almost skeletons.
The female lays her eggs upon the turnip leaf, on the rough
under-surface, often choosing a place near the ribs to deposit
them. In from four to six days the ova hatch into minute
larvee with large brown heads and biting jaws, six small jointed
legs in front, and a number of hairs over the body. The
larve at once burrow into the middle of the turnip leaf, and
there tunnel about in the parenchyma for six or seven days,
when they attain their fully fed state, being about one-sixth of
an inch long. On reaching maturity they leave the leaf and
150 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

fall to the ground, where they pupate just under the soil. The
pupa is a pale-coloured body, with the parts of the future flea-
beetle marked out upon it. In this position they remain ten
days, when the mature beetle appears. There are a great
number of broods during the year, the last or winter brood
hibernating in all manner of places,—beneath stones, amongst
the rough grass of the headlands, in the hedgerows, and wher-
ever else they can get shelter. Cabbage, thousand-headed kale,
broccoli—in fact, all cultivated and wild Cruciferee—are alike
attacked.

Prevention and Remedies.—There are some hundreds of ways
recorded of preventing and destroying this pest, but for all
practical purposes they can be reduced to some half a dozen
methods. Needless to say, the state of the land and the
weather affect this pest very much. If plants can be got
into the rough leaf there is little fear of any great loss;
good cultivation therefore helps to keep down the damage.
Where we are subject to the fly, steeping the seed in kerosene
or paraffin is very often successful, especially if germination
is rapid! The smell remains on the seed when it is pushed
up above-ground and wards off the fly: a great number of
farmers find this plan very beneficial. When we see the fly
commencing to destroy we can also keep them off to some
extent by broadcasting over the young plants, early vn the
morning when the dew is on the leaf, soot, lime, and road-dust
mixed in equal quantities. This compound sticks to the young
leaves and drives the fly off for some time; a dressing of super-
phosphate at the same time would push the growth on, and so
get the plant out of the young and vulnerable stage. Those
who have a ‘strawsoniser” cannot do better than run the
machine over the young plants directly they are up, spraying
them with pure paraftin at the rate of 1} to 2 gallons to the
acre. Tho destruction of all winter shelter should also be paid
attention to.

1 Turpentine has also heen used with excellent results.
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 151

Tue Hop-rnga (PLECTROSCELIS VONCINNA).

Very often in the early part of the year the hop-shoots are
much eaten away by this flea-beetle, which also goes to the
turnips. The hop-flea does most damage in warm days when
the nights have been cold, checking the growth of bine It
also eats the leaves in the same way as the turnip-flea, and
occasionally even attacks the cones themselves, when the
damage of course is irreparable. The larve are found in the
hop-leaf and the pupe in the hills, the life-history being similar
to P. nemorum. Great numbers of P. concinna hibernate in
broken pieces of bine, in the bine-stumps left in the ground,
and, like the turnip-flea, in hedgerows and other shelter. P.
concinna is a brassy-coloured flea-beetle. Spraying the young
bine with paraffin emulsion keeps the flea-beetles off for a time,
whilst a good dressing of soot and lime over the hills in the
early morning before the beetles are about will keep the pest in
check, but the best plan is to jar the beetles off on to tarred
boards and to keep poultry in the hop gardens.

An allied beetle, Psy/l/udes attenuatus, sometimes quite ruins
hops in an advanced state in Kent by riddling the cones and
leaves, when the former are beginning to ripen.

THE CABBAGE-FLEA (PHYLLOTRETA CRUCIVFERZ).

mainly attacks cabbages, sprouts, kale, and savoys, but it also
joins with the turnip-flea in attacking turnips and swedes. It
is deep shiny blue in colour, and when attacking cabbages feeds
on the upper epidermis and soft tissues beneath, leaving the
lower epidermis intact, thus giving the plants a marked pale
blotchy appearance. It has been found that this and other
allied flea-beetles which attack cabbage may be controlled to
some extent by spraying with arsenate of lead. Several species
appear to work in a similar mannet.
152 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

Mustarb-BEETLE (PHEDON BETULB).

The Mustard-beetle or Black-jack often destroys turnip, rape,
and mustard to an alarming extent, especially in the Fen dis-
tricts, where it attacks both white and brown mustard. It is
where mustard is grown for seed that it makes its effects chiefly
felt. The Mustard-beetle belongs to the family Chrysomelide,
which contains many injurious species. In length the Black-
jack is about 1} to 2 lines long, oval in form, and deep-blue to
dark-green in colour, with black legs and antenne. The females
come out in the spring, having hibernated during the winter

 

Fre. 70.—MUSTARD-BEETLE (Pheedon betulw). |

J, Attacked lvat; 2, ova; 3, 4, 5, larve, nat. size, and magnified; 5 and 7, imago,
nat. size, and magnified. (Curtis.)

under grasses and in the dead hollow stems of plants, and at
once lay their eggs on the leaves of Crucifere, where the
larvee feed off the leaves for a few days and then pupate in
the soil beneath, then in two weeks a new brood appears. The
larve are dusky-yellow in colour and spotted, with six legs and
a caudal foot, and are about 2 to } of an inch long: there is a
set of tubercles along each side, from which the larve can pro-
trude yellow glands.

Prevention and Remedies, —Destruction of the stems of
mustard, &c., by deep ploughing, so as to bury the beetles that
hibernate in the stalks. Keeping clean the sides of all water-
ways, where numbers of the beetles hibernate in the hollow
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 153

reeds, &c. It is advisable to stop growing mustard for a couple
of years where the beetle is present ; this will be found to lessen
their numbers rapidly, and also cabbage-crops must be given up
for the year. Various dressings on the young plants to destroy
the first brood are advantageously applied as for turnip-flea.
These beetles migrate in a body, and thus can be stopped going
from field to field by cutting a small trench across their line of
march and filling it with tar. Although they are winged, they
seem to use their wings little when doing the damage. A beetle,
Saprinus virescens, one of the Histeride, feeds off the larve of
the Mustard-beetle, and mimics that insect in appearance so
closely that only a practised eye can separate them.

Two other beetles attack mustard—namely, the Blossom-beetle
(Meligethes ceneus), much smaller than Phewdlon betule, which
eats the flowers, and the turnip-weevil (Ceutorhynchus assimilis),
a grey long-snouted species which lays its eggs in the mustard
and turnip seed-pods.

ASPARAGUS-BEETLE (CRIOCERIS ASPARAGI).

The Asparagus-beetle is well known in gardens in the South
of England, and often does a great deal of harm to asparagus-
shoots and also to the seed-heads. It is a dark bluish-green
beetle, with a rusty-red thorax, yellow patches on the elytra and
red edges to them. In length C. asparag? is about } of an inch.
It belongs to the group of beetles called Eupoda, and therefore is
in the same group as the Chrysomelide. The insects hibernate
under rubbish or loose bark, and come out from the middle to
end of April or May, soon laying their large, elongate-oval, dark-
brown eggs on the fronds in rows of three or four: in from four
to ten days these hatch into dirty olive-green-coloured larve,
with six black legs and a pair of foot-like tubercles on each
segment, and an anal pair by which they hold firmly to the
plant. Like many Chrysomelide, they can exude out of the
mouth a drop of black fluid on being touched. In two weeks
154 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

they are full fed and fall to the ground, where they form a cell
and pupate. The yellow pupa gives rise to the beetle in from
five (Chittenden) to ten days (Miss Ormerod says from two
to three weeks), and the beetle lays
her eggs on the feathery fronds of
the asparagus in rows, sticking

them on by their ends.
Prevention and Remedies.—
Neither chickens nor ducks eat
i asparagus, and thus can be turned
R a on the beds that are infested, and
Ps f will then soon clear off these pests.
“An excellent practice among prom-
Pui. TL_THE Aspanaousneerie, ment growers [in America] is to cut
Enlarged 3 times. down all plants, including seedlings
and volunteer growth, in early
spring, so as to force the parent beetles to deposit their eggs
upon new shoots, which are then cut every few days before the
eggs have time to hatch for the first new brood.”—(Chittenden. )
Fresh air-slaked lime dusted over the plants early in the morn-
ing soon kills the larve, but by far the best plan is to spray

the fronds with arsenate of lead paste.

The Curculionide, or Rhynchophora, the family of Weevils,
are destructive to crops, fruit, seed, and stored goods. The
weevils are a very extensive group of beetles, in which the
head is more or less prolonged into a snout or rostrum upon
which the elbowed antenne are placed. There are two chief
sub-faimilies, the Caurculionidw and the Bruchidw—the former
having elbowed antenna, the latter straight. Weevils are all
vegetable-feeders. The larve are footless grubs, which are
creamy - white, curved, and wrinkled, and generally sparsely
covered with pale hairs. The head is provided with a biting
mouth, and is brown in colour. We find them living in galls,
seeds, buds, blossoms, fruit, and on the roots of plants. The
following are very injurious species :—
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 155

THe APPLE-BLOssoM WerxvIL (ANTHONOMUS POMORUM).

This weevil is a serious apple pest in the midland, southern,
and south-eastern counties, but occurs in many other parts.
The adult beetle, which is reddish-grey, with a V-shaped pale
mark on the elytra and with a longish curved proboscis, is
about one-fourth of an inch in length. They hibernate in the
adult condition under the bark of apple and other trees, &c.,

 

Fic. 72. —APPLE-BLOssoM WEEVIL (Anthonomus pomorum).

i, Larva; ii, adult; iii, pupa.

coming out in the spring about the time the blossom-buds are
commencing to expand. ‘The female then bores a hole into
the expanding bud by means of her rostrum, which has a pair
of sharp biting mandibles at the tip, and then deposits an egg
or eggs in the hole she has formed. The maggots hatched from
the ova remain feeding in the blossoms, which do not open
(fig. 73, ii), and which soon become brown and withered, and
readily shake off and fall to the ground, so called “Capped”
blossom. Pupation takes place in the dead blossom, the weevil
eating its way out when mature. Usually the blossoms do not
156 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

fall until after the weevils have escaped: a small round hole
shows the place of exit of each beetle (fig. 73, i). ‘The female
takes some time to lay her eggs, each one requiring about three-
quarters of an hour to
oviposit in a single bud.
As they can only live in
an unopened blossom, the
attack must necessarily be
of short duration. The
worst mischief is wrought
when we have cold nights

 

Fia. 73.—APPLE BLOSSOMS DAMAGED BY APPLE
Wrevit (Anthonomus pomorum). and bad weather, thus re-

tarding the opening of the
buds and giving a longer period for oviposition. The whole

life-cycle is complete in about five weeks. There is only
one brood in the year. The adult beetles coming from the
diseased blossoms feed upon the apple leafage until the time
arrives to hibernate. The males are endowed with considerable
powers of flight, but one seldom finds the females on the wing.
The majority crawl up the trees to lay their eggs.

Prevention and Remedies.—The same rules for prevention of
this fruit pest apply to all alike—namely, the destruction of
winter shelter by keeping the tree trunks clean and free from
rough bark. Trees which are seen to be badly infested, where
possible, should be well shaken, and the dead blossoms collected
and burnt before the beetles have escaped. The adults may
also be jarred off the trees on to cloths and destroyed.

Pea and Bean WeeEvIts (SITONES LINEATUS AND 8. CRINITUS).

That sparrows do an immense amount of harm is only too
well known, but they are not accountable for the damage done
to young peas and beans that is usually attributed to them.
When the edges of the leaves of our peas and beans are eaten
out in notches, it is generally said to be due to this cosmopolitan
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES, 157

bird; but if we carefully and quietly watch a row showing
these symptoms, we will observe, sitting on the edge of the
leaf, a clay-coloured beetle: this insect is one of the Pea and
Bean Weevils, either Svtones lineatus or S. crinitus. These
beetles are about one-fourth of an inch in length, the former
having three dark longitudinal strips on the thorax, the latter
somewhat larger and clay-coloured all over. Like the other
weevil described, they hibernate as adults; but they are also
found in the larval state in winter. The hibernators come
out on the wing the first warm days in spring, and feed off
clover, lucern, and trifolium, as well as

peas and beans. It is especially the last
two that they damage by eating away the
leaves, taking large notches out of them. A

These sitones are most timid: directly they
hear a sound, or feel the least movement,
they fall to the ground on their backs, and
remain as if dead. Feigning death is a
common habit amongst weevils. The larve
live in summer at the roots of peas and
beans, and often do some damage to them. ee ee re
They mature before the end of summer, (sitones Vineatus), nat.
the adults from them laying their eggs upon (Wrhitenead.) eee
the roots of clover, where the white, foot-
less, curved grubs remain feeding throughout the winter, and
very frequently kill the clover. The adults which hibernate
pass the winter in all manner of places. They have been
noticed in numbers in barley stubble: I have seen them in
great quantities in corn-stacks, and in a variety of other places,
Field peas often suffer very severely, as well as garden produce.
Prevention and Remedies. — The destruction of all winter
shelter is essential. When field peas are attacked, a light
rolling does much good, followed by a dressing of soot: the
soot annoys them, and when lying on their backs on the ground,
a light roller destroys a great number, besides breaking down

 
158 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

the ground, and so doing away with the shelter they get in
inclement weather from the rough clods of earth. The larve
on the roots of peas can easily be killed in gardens by watering
with soluble phrenyl. In gardens it is a good plan to spread
fine earth along the rows of peas.

OriorHyNcHUS WEEVILS.

Amongst other destructive Weevils we may mention the
Raspberry or the Clay-coloured Weevil (Otiorhynchus picipes),
the Strawberry or Vine Weevil (0. sulcatus), and the Plum or
Red-Legged Weevils (0. tenebricosus and fusctpes). The genus
Otiorhynchus is characterised by possessing
no wings; the elytra are soldered together
over the abdomen. They are mostly large
beetles, with a distinct short rostrum and
elbowed antenne. Both adults and larve
are very destructive to fruit, &c.; the
former devour the leaves and blossom,
and later feed off the roots. All the
species mentioned here are night-feeders,
hiding away during the daytime beneath

Fic, 75.—Rep-teccev clods of earth, boards, under the leaves
WEEVIL (Otiorhynchus c
lenebricosus). Twice nat. of plants, or in crevices of walls. They
er fall to the ground from the fruit - trees
and bushes at the least shock or sight of a light, and can thus
be easily caught by holding tarred boards beneath the trees
and then jarring them. In this way the Raspberry Weevil
(O. picipes) has been successfully cleared out in many of the
fruit-cardens in Cornwall and elsewhere, a similar plan being
equally successful for catching the other species. The larve
are of typical weevil form, and live on the roots of straw-
berries, currants, and other fruit, and on ferns and_ pot
plants, during the winter months, often doing much damage.

Other destructive weevils are the Nut Weevil (Balanrnus

 
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 159

nucus), a large weevil with extremely long rostrum, which
causes the maggot in cob and filbert nuts; the Turnip-Gall
Weevil (Ceutorhynchus sulvirollis), producing the large galls we
find on turnips, containing a white larva in the winter; the

 

Fic. 76.—Toe Raspperry WEEVIL (Otiorhynchus picipes).

1, la, Larva; 2, 2a, pupa; 3, 3a, weevil; natural size, and magnified.

Clover Weevil (Apion apricans), a small bluish weevil with red
legs and a very long snout; the Pine Weevil (Hylolius abietis),
which devours the shoots of the pines and other conifers; and
the Corn and Rice Weevils (Calandra granaria and C. ory),
which deposit their eggs in stored wheat, harley, oats, and rice.

PuLse-SEED WEEVILS (BRUCHIDZ).

The Bruchide belong to the second group of weevils, which
have a short rostrum and straight antenne. They are mostly
brownish-red beetles with broad bodies and small in size, seldom
more than one-sixth of an inch in length. Bruchus rufimanus
is one of the commonest. The female deposits her eggs in the
developing bean-pod. The larva lives inside the bean and there
pupates, remaining inside the seed throughout the winter. In-
fested seed can always be told by a small round depression on
one side. On breaking through the thin skin that covers it,
160 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

the larva or pupa will be found in a cavity inside the seed.
The beetle hatches some days before it makes its exit, which it
does through the round depression just referred to. A distinct
hole is then seen in the seed, from which the beetle has escaped.
Such infested seed germinates,
but does not produce a healthy
plant. Often the seed is sown
before the Bruchi have hatched,
and thus they will be in a good
position to continue their attack
upon the crop again. Infested
seed should never be purchased ;
but if it is, it should be sub-
jected to either of the following
: methods of treatment—namely,
‘Fic. 77.—BraN BEETLE (Bruchus fumigation by bisulphide of
rufimanus). Z : =

1, Infested bean ; 2 and 3, beetle, nat. cathe et soaking in carbolic
. size, and magnified. (Whitehead.) water. The infested seeds may

be placed in a closed box and a
saucer of the carbon bisulphide placed on them and left for a
few hours: the fumes pass down and penetrate the seeds,
killing not only larve, but pupe and adults also. Many kinds
of Bruchide attack pulse of all kinds.

 

The Pentamera form the largest division of beetles, and
include a great number of destructive species. The most
important family of them economically is that of the

CLICK-BEETLES (ELATERID).

The Elaters are commonly called Click-beetles or Skip-jacks,
on account of their peculiar skipping movements, and the curious
sharp clicking noise they produce. They are the parents of the
dreaded Wireworm, by far the most obnoxious farm and garden
pest. The elaters have an elongated body. There is a spine
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 161

upon the venter of the prothorax, which fits into a correspond-
ing pit on the mesothorax. When the beetle falls on its back,
it is unable to regain its normal position with its short legs,
but the spine apparatus enables it to do so. The beetle, to
regain its feet, arches the head and prothorax and abdomen, so
that the spine is brought out of the mesothoracic pit; suddenly
relaxing its muscles, the body flies back, and the spine coming
violently in contact with the mesothorax, jerks the insect into
the air, and at the same time produces the clicking noise, the
beetle sooner or later falling down on its ventral surface. The
hind angles of the prothorax are often produced into spines.

 

Fic, 78.—StTRIPED CLICK-BEETLE (Agriotes lincatus).

a, Wireworm ; b, pupa; c¢, imago.

There are several species of elaters that are very destructive in
their wireworm or larval state in Britain. The commonest is
Agriotes lineatus or the Striped Click-beetle (fig. 78, ¢), an
insect about half an inch long, with pale stripes down the
reddish-brown elytra. Athdus hemorrhoidalis is also some-
times very abundant, and smaller than the former.
The life-history of the Click-beetles is as follows. The adult
beetles appear from April to October,! but the majority are
noticed in June: they may be found settled low down upon
grass during the day, but towards evening on the tops of
herbage, or may be taken in abundance by sweeping a net
over clover. They lay their eggs close upon the ground, for

1 Now and then these beetles may be found in the winter.
L
162 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

preference, wherever there is plenty of shelter, such as at the
base of clover, grass, and weeds. The eggs soon give rise to
young wireworm, which are at first white, but which gradually
become shiny yellowish, yellowish-brown, or even brown in
colour. Wireworm have an extremely tough skin, and are
provided with a very powerful mouth ; the first three segments
have each a pair of jointed legs, and there is also a fleshy
swelling beneath the anal segment; in addition there are a
few hairs scattered over the surface. When full grown a
wireworm may reach the length of about an inch to over
an inch, depending upon the species. They take at least
three years to mature, and in many instances four or even
five, especially if food is scarce. They live almost entirely
underground, upon the roots of plants. During winter they
cease feeding if the weather is severe; but if the winter is
open they may feed all the time. When full-grown they
burrow deep into the earth and pupate, this change apparently
taking place in the autumn; in the following spring or early
summer the adult beetle escapes from the ground.

Nearly all plants are devoured by wireworm, with the ex-
ception of mustard, which they will not touch. Flax is also
said to be exempt from their attack. They feed very ravenously,
and destroy far more than they can devour, hence the great
damage caused by them. Permanent pasture and clover ley
contain the greatest number of these pests, as they can there
work without being molested. Serious attacks of this larva
usually follow the breaking-up of pasture and clover leys, unless
the land is to some extent freed of these vermin first.

Prevention and Reimedies.—When land is going to be broken
up, it is well to feed it down with sheep, and then feed them
artificially on it. By so doing all the available herbage is
cleared off, the land is trodden down firm, preventing the
wireworm from moving and made objectionable by the sheep's
excrement. This process places the pests under unfavourable
conditions. On breaking the land up a dressing of gas-lime is

 
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 163

beneficial, if applied in a proper manner. Vaporite also tends
to check them. Mustard is never touched by these larve, and
thus may be advantageously employed as a green manure. It
should be let grow to about a foot high, and then either
ploughed in direct or partly fed off by sheep, and then turned
in: excellent results follow this method. As wireworm move
about in the soil from plant to plant, frequent and heavy
rollings with a Cambridge ring-roller cannot fail to give relief :
in attacks upon wheat and barley this is the best method,
followed by a good dressing of artificial manure to force on
growth and repair the damage. ‘The destruction of all weed
growths, particularly couch - grass, is highly necessary; wire-
worm are most destructive on badly farmed and unclean land.
I know of no manures, unless it be seaweed, deleterious to
them. Mustard dross has been said to have good results in
driving them away, but experiments in the laboratory and on
the farm do not bear out this statement. In garden cultivation
the use of bisulphide of carbon and trapping with carrots and
pieces of mangolds may be resorted to with good effects. An
excellent plan is to drill the artificial manures with the seed ;
this keeps the wireworm off for some time and allows the
plants to grow away. The value of the rook and other birds
is considered in a later chapter.

Tue LAMELLICORNIA OR COCKCHAFERS.

The Rose (fig. 79) and Stag Beetles also belong here. The
Cockchafers are called Melolonthide, and have a peculiar form
of antenna. The common Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris),
fig. 80, a large beetle about an inch long, with brown elytra,
having five ridges running down them, and pointed abdomen
with black and white alternately down the sides, is often very
destructive in both adult and larval stages. The antenne have
seven curious leaf-like lamelle in the male (£) and six (F) in
the female. The larve (c) are large, white, soft grubs, often
164 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

over two inches in length, the end of the body swollen into

 

Fie. 79.—Rosk Brett
(Cetonia aurata), and lar-
va. (Nicholson.)

a large sac, with a large, brown, horny
head, and six almost useless legs in front.
They live for two years, feeding on the
roots of plants and young trees, and pupate
deep in the earth in a well-formed cell in
the third summer. The chafers hatch
out some time before they come above
ground. Other allied injurious species
are the Garden chafer (Phyllopertha horti-
cola) and the Small or Summer chafer
(Rhizotroyus solstitialis).

Prevention and Remedies, — These de-
structive beetles often may be collected
in great numbers by shaking them off the
trees over tarred cloths, and then burning
them or giving them to pigs, which greedily

devour them. Where land is infested with cockchafer grubs,

  

 

Ee

Fia, 80,—-Cockonarer (Melolontha vulgaris).
A, Imago; B, pupa; c, larva; D, tail of 9; Ff, antenna of 33 F, antenna of 9. (a, 8,

and c slightly reduced.)

a good plan of clearing them out is to tum pigs into the
ficld when it is being ploughed: these animals grub about
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 165

for the white larve and devour them wholesale. Dressings
of vaporite soon kill them. The encouragement of birds such
as rooks and starlings is advisable.

The Necrophaga (or Clavicornia) are mostly “scavengers,”
feeding on decaying animal and vegetable refuse. One family,
the Dermestidw, are very destructive: they are small grey or
brown beetles, that do much damage to manufactured animal
matters in their larval condition. A small dark-brown beetle
with fawn-coloured bases to the elytra and three dark spots,
known as the Bacon Beetle (Dermestes lardarius), does much
mischief in its curious larval state. The larva is dark-brown,
and covered with tufts of hair, which are placed regularly on
the margins of each segment. They feed upon furs, hides,
hams, and bacon,

The curious Sexton or Burying Beetles (Necrophorus) belong
to the family Silphidee, which also contains the injurious Beet
Carrion-beetle (Silpha opaca). Some of the commoner Necro-
phori may be found everywhere, pretty beetles with red and
black elytra. They bury any dead bird or small mammal
they find, as deep as they can in the soil, and there deposit
their eggs. The larve feed off the decaying body, and thus
rid the air of impure gases.

Tue Beer CarRION-BEETLES (SILPHA OPACA AND
S. aTrava).

These beetles have become a regular mangold pest. Origin-
ally they were scavengers, feeding on dead carcasses of birds
and mammals as they lay on the ground; but the larve now
feed upon the leaves of the mangold, and have done so since
at least 1844, when Curtis reports an attack of these beetles,
since which time numerous attacks have been reported. There
are two species that do the harm—S. opaca and S. atrata ; the
former is very destructive to sugar-beets in France. S. opaca
166 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

is nearly half an inch long, flattish in shape, dark-brown in
colour, and when fresh, covered with a reddish-brown down,
which rubs off, when the elytra appear black; each elytron
has three sharp ridges running along it, and between the
second and third ridges is a dark spot; the edges of the
wing-shields are turned up, the tip of abdomen tawny-red.
S. atrata is also common: it is a black and shiny species
without the ridges on the wing-cases. We find the beetles
under dead animals and birds in the spring, and in the winter
amongst moss and under stones and wood. The female lays

ay
: ai

VA
\S

       

  

Fiu. 81,—Brrr CARRION-BEETLE (Silpha opaca).

land 2, Larvie, natural size; 8 and 4, different stages of larva, enlarged ; 5, female;
6, male. (Curtis.)
her eggs on manure, decaying leaves, and on the ground; in
two weeks the larve appear, and feed off the wurzel for about
three weeks, when they pass into the soil and form a cell in
which they pupate; the adult beetles come out in about
eighteen days. ‘There are two broods in the year. The larve
are two-fifths of an inch long, and have six feet and two
anal spines, and the sides of the segments pointed; in colour
brownish-black except the sides, which are yellowish-grey.

Prevention and Remedies.— As the beetles breed in manure,
it should be ploughed in at once on wurzel land where the pest
occurs. The beetles may be trapped by placing a freshly flayed
sheepskin on the ground here and there.
COLEOPTERA Oh BEETLES, 167

Tue Raspperry Beeriey (ByTuRUS TOMENTOSUS).

Of all Raspberry pests the so-called Raspberry Bug, the
Byturus tomentosus, is the most noxious. The beetle (fig. 82) is
about one-sixth of an inch long, brown in colour, with a dense
golden-brown pubescence. It belongs to the Nééidulilw, the
same family that contains the Mustard Blossom Beetle. We
notice these beetles at their work in May upon the canes, eating
the flower-buds at their base. The females deposit their eggs

6

 

 

 

 

 

Fic. 82.—THE RasPBERRY BEETLE (Byturus tomentosus).

singly in the fruit-buds, and from these come the larve at
about the time the fruit is formed, which at once commence
feeding upon it and thus spoil it entirely or reduce it in size.
This grub, which we often eat in the fruit, is yellowish, with
brown marks in the middle of each segment, and about one-
third of an inch in length; at the tail end are two curved
projecting points. It mainly lives in the receptacle of the
fruit. When mature it falls to the ground or gets into the
168 COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES.

holes in the canes and poles, and there pupates and remains
all the winter.

Prevention and Remedies.—Autumn application of vaporite
round the canes and the destruction of prunings is about all
we can do to prevent a recurrence of this attack. Where we
see numbers in the plantations, in May, we can clear them off
by jarring over tarred boards or, better, by shaking into tins of
paraffin. It also attacks the Loganberry and Blackberry.

GROUND-BEETLES OR CARABIDS.

The Ground-heetles or Carabide are a very extensive family.
These beetles belong to a division called Geodephaga, and may
be identified by their hard convex elytra, long thin legs and
antenne, and their extremely active habits. The majority are
carnivorous, and do good by devouring noxious insects, molluscs,
and animal matter. The mouth is armed with large scissor-
shaped mandibles, with which they cause great havoc amongst
insect life. Some have wings, others have none. The larve
of Carabide are elongated and flat,
slightly fleshy, with a hard chitinous
head and first segment: three pairs of
legs on the first three segments, and
two horn-like appendages on the

 

Fic, 83. — GROUND - BEETLE
Carabus violaceus) Re- dorsum of the tail segment, some-

duced 4. :
times an elongated process below:

like the adult, the larve have powerful scissor-like jaws.
These larve are carnivorous, and have a similar diet to the
adult. The two most commonly met with are the Garden
Ground-beetle (Carahus violaceus) (fig. 83) and C. nemoralis.
The former is a large purple beetle, often seen actively running
about fields and gardens ; the latter is golden-bronze in colour.
Both are predaceous, and so are the majority of this family ;
but some have developed injurious vegetarian habits, attacking
corn and strawberries to a disastrous extent.
COLEOPTERA OR BEETLES. 169

The Corn Ground-beetle (Zalius gibbus) (fig. 84) injures the
roots of corn in its larval state; the adult destroys the barley
in the ear, and lives during the day in tunnels in the ground.
They are black-coloured beetles, about an inch in length, with
broad heads and strong biting jaws. Another species, Steropus
madidus, somewhat smaller, devours mangel-wurzel, attacking
the young roots, often gnawing them off at the level of the
ground. This beetle is also carnivorous. The same species and
two others—Harpalus ruficornis and Calathus cisteloides—have

 

Fic. 84.—Corn GROUND-BEETLE (Zabrus gibbus).

1, Adult; 2, 3, larva, nat. size, and magnified; 4, entrance to larval burrow; 5,
pupa. (Curtis.)
in recent years been working among strawberries. . ruficornis,
the most abundant, is about two-thirds of an inch long, black,
with a large thorax, the elytra protecting two wings. The
other two noticed have no wiugs. They not only strip the ripe
and ripening fruit but attack the leaves and shoots. All we
can do in regard to such an attack is to trap the beetles by
sinking jam-pots or small pudding-basins in the soil, partly
filled with sugar-water and decaying meat. The beetles fall in
and are thus caught.

RovE-BEETLES OR STAPHYLINIDA.

These beetles can be told by the short truncate elytra, which
leave the abdomen exposed. They somewhat resemble earwigs
170 HYMENOPTERA.

in appearance, frequently lifting up the hind end of their body.
The larve are like those of the Ground- beetles, but have a
relatively larger head. Some live upon dung and decomposing
animal matter, others upon insects. The Devil’s Coach-horse
(Ocypus olens) may be taken as a type.

SHot-BoRER BEETLES (XYLEBORUS DISPAR AND X. SAXESENI).

These beetles belong to the family Sclytilv. Both species
attack and burrow into the wood of fruit-trees, forming long
tunnels. The commoner species is Xyleborus dispar. They are
short broad beetles, shiny black in colour, with pitchy red
elytra, and covered with a yellowish pubescence: the females
are from } to % of an inch long; the males, which are rare,
about 4; to zy of an inch. The beetles bore their way right
into the wood of young trees as well as old ones, and in these
tunnels the white larvee are found in May and June, feeding
upon some fungoid growth (Ambrosia) that lines the tunnels.
The grubs pupate in the same place, and the beetles occur in
September placed like a row of shot in the holes, and there
they remain all the winter. .Y. savesen? can be told from
X. dispar by the thorax and elytra being more oblong in the
male and narrower in the female. The males of both have
their wings atrophied. Various other related forms of the genus
Scolytus attack the bark of forest and fruit trees.

Prevention and Remedies.—All infested trees should be cut
down and burnt in such attacks, so as to stop the pests from
spreading. Remedies are practically useless.

HYMENOPTERA,
or Ants, Bres, Wasps, Sawrires, GALL-FLIFS,

IcHNEUMONS, ETC.

The Hymenoptera include the Ants, Bees, Wasps, Saw‘lies,
Ichneumon Flies, Chalcid Flies, Sirices, and Gall-flies. Of
HYMENOPTERA. 171

these the Sawflies and the Sirices are very destructive ; Ants
and Wasps are sometimes noxious ; whilst the Ichneumon-flies
and Chalcid-flies are parasites, hundreds of species living upon
other members of the insect world and so doing much good.
The Hymenoptera have both biting and sucking mouth-parts,
a completely fused prothorax, and four membranous wings with
few nervures and a dark stigma on the costa. Metamorphosis
is complete. The head is provided with two large, compound
eyes, and three ocelli on the vertex. The upper lip and
mandibles are short, the mandibles being used for biting as in
beetles. Maxillee may be elongated, and long in those that
suck up the nectar of flowers. The lower lip may form a long
tube with the maxille, which is bent round in repose. In bees
the tongue can be so elongated as to assume the form of a pro-
boscis : in this case the lobes of the jaws become elongated, and
form a sheath for the tongue. On the base of the fore-wings
are found two sceale-like bodies, the tegule. In Wood Wasps
(Uroceride) and Sawflies (Tenthredinide) the pronotum is not
united with the mesonotum. The wings are sometimes united
together when expanded by a row of hooks. Wings may be
absent (Mutzlla), and in some of the workers, amongst the
social Hymenoptera. The abdomen of the female may end in
a sting, a saw, or ovipositor. The larve are
of two types; generally they are apodal. The
apodal forms pass their life as parasites in the
body of other insects or in plants, producing
“galls,” or in cells in the nests of the social
and gregarious Hymenoptera. The sawfly larvee
or “ False-caterpillars ” somewhat resemble those
of the Lepidoptera, but there are six to eight
pairs of abdominal legs, and they live free on "8% FUPA oF
leaves or in galls. The larve of the Wood
Wasps (Strices) live inside the wood of trees, and have only
rudimentary legs. The grubs of social Hymenoptera are fed
by the workers; they have a small, brown, retractile head,

 
172 HYMENOPTERA.

with short mandibles and pointed maxilla and labium. Some
Aculeate Hymenoptera place in the larval cell, when the egg
is laid, a half-paralysed insect, upon which the grub feeds when
hatched. Many spin a silken cocoon, in which they pupate.
Some undergo a curious stage which precedes the pupa, called
the psewlopupa. The pupe are usually pale and soft, with the
legs of the future insect, &c., detached from the body (fig. 85).

The Hymenoptera are divided into two sub-orders—

(i) Hymen. Petioliventres. Including the Aculeata and
Ichneumons. Abdomen connected to thorax by
slender joint.

(ii) Hymen.  Sessiliventres, Sawflies and Wood Wasps.
Abdomen broad at the base.

Ants, Wasps, and Bees (Hymenoptera Petioliventres).

The Petiolate Hymenoptera include the Furim/cidie or Ants,
Fossoria or Digging-wasps, Vespid or true Wasps, and the
Apidwe or Bees, and Ichneumon and other parasitic Hymen-
optera. The Ants, Wasps, and Bees live in colonies, the
Fossorta are solitary.

They are divided into three series—Aculeuta, Parasitica, and
Tubulifera. the first have a sting, and the second an ovipositor,
the third have only three, four, or five visible abdominal
segments.

The Aculeate Hymenoptera are classified as follows: Hetero-
gyna or Ants, with the petiole of the abdomen having one or
more scales, sexes consisting of ¢, 9, 9. Foxsores, with
simple petiole, g¢ and 2 only. Wings not folded longitudin-
ally. Dipfoptera or Wasps and Sand-wasps, with the wings
folded longitudinally. Anthophila, hairs of body more or less
plumose or branched.
HYMENOPTERA. 173

Ants (HeTerocyna).

The Formicide or Ants are provided with strong mandibles
for biting, the maxille and labium normal. All ants are social,
living in colonies composed of workers, males, and females.
The workers are always apterous ; they are undeveloped females,
and are often peculiarly modified for different purposes: some
act as soldiers, others as labourers, and yet others as “ nurses”
for the brood. The males and females have wings. The abdo-
men, which is provided with a powerful poisonous sting, is
united to the thorax by a one-jointed stalk in the genus Formica,
by a two-jointed stalk in M/yrmzca. Those with the two-jointed
abdominal-thoracic stalk are provided with a sting and are poison-
ous; but the genus Formica has no sting, yet is nevertheless
poisonous. The latter bite, and then squirt the formic poison
into the wound. During the greater part of the year a colony
vf ants consists only of workers, larve, and pupe; but in
summer winged males and females appear, which we see flying
about on warm days. ‘They pair in the air. When fertilised
they fall to the ground; the wings are then torn off, and
the female is borne along by the workers to deposit her eggs in
the nest of the colony. Ant grubs are very feeble creatures :
they are fed with specially prepared food by the workers, and
when mature pupate in the same cells. The pups of the sting-
less ants (Fornica) are in a cocoon; those of the stinging
Myrmica are naked. These cocoons are usually called “ ants’
eggs,” and form a valuable food for pheasants and other birds
as well as goldfish. The dwellings of ants consist of passages
and holes in wood and earth, and also of heaps of earth, pine-
needles, and pieces of wood thrown up into hill-like areas. A
large number of species are found in Britain, some more or less
injurious. The food consists of both animal and vegetable sub-
stances. As destroyers of small caterpillars they are certainly
beneficial, but they also do much damage. Some form their
nests in meadows and cornfields, and render mowing a difficult
174 HYMENOPTERA.

operation. The nests they form, however, can be easily cut
down, and the contents killed ; whilst the earth spread over the
grass will do much good. They may make pasture-land look
unsightly, but they do as much good as harm. One peculiar
habit is the curious way in which they keep colonies of Aphides,
so as to draw the sweet honey-dew out of them ; they even
stimulate this secretion by stroking the backs of the plant-lice,
and then take up the sweet drops as they issue from their
cornicles.

One of our largest ants is the Red Wood Ant (Formica rufa),
which forms dome-shaped nests in woods, especially pine-woods.
Fruit, notably peaches, are seriously affected by these little
pests.

Remedies for Ants.—Ants’ nests are best destroyed by mak-
ing a hole in the middle of the nest, pouring in about an
ounce of bisulphide of carbon, and then closing up the hole
with a piece of clay.

Wasps (VESsPID.&).

The true Wasps are social insects like the Ants—males,
females or queens, and workers being found in each colony.
At the end of the year the colonies die off; only the fertilised
queens live through the winter, hibernating in the thatch of
houses, “e., during the cold months of the year. The queen
appears in the spring and commences to make the nest. At first
only a few cells are made, in each of which she deposits a single
egg: from these workers alone are developed. The queen feeds
the first brood of maggots, giving them small caterpillars, &c.,
chewed up into pulp. As soon as the first lot of workers are
produced, the queen gives herself up entirely to egg-depositing,
the workers doing all the duties of the nest. In autumn males
and females come from the brood, the former fertilising the
females, which hibernate during winter. The Wasps’ nests
are variable in form, some being ground nests (Vespa vulgaris),
HYMENOPTERA. 175

others swinging aérial nests (Vespa sylvestiis),—they consist of
a series of layers of cells, one deep. These layers or plat-
forms are connected by vertical pillars one above another. The
comb and cells are made of a papery substance ; so also is the
envelope enshrouding the layers of cells. This substance is
made by the wasps chewing up decayed wood, the scrapings of
the bark of trees, and the green slimy matter off water, mixed
into a pulp with saliva: this dries into a greyish or tawny kind
of paper. The opening is in the under side. The food consists
chiefly of insects in the early part of the year, but later they
attack fruit, and even rob bees of their sugary stores.

The commonest English Wasps are Vespa vulgaris, the Com-
mon Wasp; Vespa sylvestris, the Wood Wasp ; Vespa rufa, the
Tawny Wasp, common in sandy districts; and Vespa crabro,
the hornet. ight species are found altogether. The sting is
in the form of a double-edged saw, with poison-bags at its base.
Unlike the hive-bee, the wasp can sting any number of times.

Solitary Wasps are known as Sand Wasps or Odyneri ; the
fifteen British species are all more or less beneficial. They
are smaller than those of the genus Vespa, and never live in
colonies. They form burrows in sandy banks, with curved and
tubular entrances, composed of pieces of mud. Like the wasps,
they are all of some shade of yellow and black in colour. They
provision their nests with small larve and weevils in a paralysed
condition.

Remedies for Wasps.—The ground nests of V. vulgaris,
V. rufa, &c., are best destroyed by burning sulphur in them of
a night and blocking the nest up with clay; then digging them
out next day, and burning the whole brood. Cyanide of
potassium is often employed, but with no better results than
sulphur, unless the nest is dug out afterwards in the same way.
The hanging nests of V. sylvestris are more troublesome: by
far the best plan is to shoot them down, late in the evening.
Needless to say, all the spring queens should be killed
whenever one can do so.
176 THE HONEY-BEE.

Bugs (ANTHOPHILA).

The last division of the Aculeate Hymenoptera are the An-
thophila or Bees, including the genera Halictux, Andrena, Bom-
bus, and Apis. These have an elongated mouth, the maxill and
lower lip forming the so-called ‘‘tongue” of the bee. The fore
wings are never folded together longitudinally when at rest.
Most are colonial in habits, and in some there is a distinct caste
of workers, as in the hive-bee. The nests are made up of cells,
and are very variable. The genus .im/renu make their nests in
sandy banks generally, some of wood, others of sand; and
the .Atpidee of wax. In the colonial forms only one queen in-
habits each nest. Some cells are set aside for the brood, others
for storing up pollen and honey. The genus .Vomada or the
Cuckoo-bees are non-colonial, and live as parasites in other bee-
nests. The Andrenas have no worker form; for they also are
non-colonial, but nevertheless gresarious.

Bombi, ov Humble-bees, large, heavy, hairy species, are use-
ful as fertilisers of plants: without their aid red clover cannot
seed. In New Zealand red and other clovers were imported,
and sown as a forage crop; but they never seeded until Bombi
were also imported. The long tongue is the active agent in
this cross-fertilisation.

The Honey-lee and its Relations,

Our Honey-bee is scientifically called aAyts mellifica. Tt be
longs to the last venus of Aculeate Hymenoptera, namely, Apis,
the species of which are characterised by the absence of tibial
spurs on the posterior legs, and by the presence of three cubical
cells, All the members of this genus are permanently social.
There are several well-known species of -\pis, as well as a great
number of local varieties of 4, mellificu, which has ion ve
tributed over the earth by man. Our common honey-bee (A.

mellifiva) is ati , Afi é
fiea) is a native of Europe, Afriea, and Western Asia.
THE HONEY-BEE. 177

The German or Black bee and the Italian or Ligurian are the
best known. The former is greyish-black in colour, and covered
with tawny hairs. ‘The queen and drones are darker, however,
than the workers. The legs and ventral surface of the abdo-
men in the queen are brown, and of the drone greyish-brown.
The Ligur/an or Ttalian variety (fig. 86, 4) comes from Northern
Italy ; it is also found in Naples. It is somewhat larger than
the true A. medlifica, from which it can be told at once by the
bright tawny yellow rings at the base of the abdomen, three in
number in all pure-bred stock. The ventral surface of the
abdomen is also golden yellow except towards the tip, which is
black. The tongue is much longer than in the Black hee and

 

Fic. 86.—HONEY-BEES,

A, Apis mellifica v. Ligurie ; B, A. mellifica; c, A. dorsata.

more hairy. The Ligurian queen and drone vary, some being
quite dark ; but the workers always show, when pure, the three
golden yellow bands on the abdomen. Besides these two there
are numerous other races of A. mellifica, such as the Carnio-
lan, said to be a very docile race; the Hzmalayan, a blackish-
brown variety with tawny hairs at the base of the abdomen,
but smaller than ours; and the Maltese, very similar to ours, but
also smaller. Two well-known types are the Syrian and Cyprian.
The former is banded with yellow and black, and much resembles
the Ligurian, but has more yellow on the venter: this race is
most prolific, and easily handled. The Cyprian may be told by
the bright leather-coloured lunule which tips the thorax posteri-
M
178 THE HONEY-BEE.

orly, and the venter is yellow to the tip: like the Syrian, it is
most prolific, but savage. The Egyptian bee (A. fasciata) is
considered by some as a distinct species, but is probably only a
variety of A. meflifica: it is considerably smaller than the
Italian. The pretty little Indian Bee (A. indica) was also at
one time considered distinct from our hive-bee; but although
very different in appearance, it is only a variety. It is exten-
sively cultivated in India, and has tremendous hives, containing
as many as 80,000 individuals: it is a small bee, with much
golden yellow on the body. Various other races exist.

The Giant Honey-bee of India (A. ‘/orsata) (fig. 86, c) is much
larger than any of the varieties of A. mellisica, the worker being
quite as large as a Ligurian queen. ‘The wings of A. dorsata
are dusky black ; the base of the abdomen is dull orange-yellow,
and two pale yellow bands run across the remainder of the
blackish-brown abdomen ; while the dark thorax is clothed with
tawny hairs posteriorly. The drones are said to be dark-brown
marked with yellow (these I have not seen); and the queen is
leather-coloured. The comb of A. dorsata is often six feet long
and four feet wide; it hangs from branches of trees, ledges
of rock, and in crevices of rocks. The comb is similar to that
of our honey-bee, but the layers are placed closer together.
Tt is extremely abundant in the jungles of India. A distinct
variety, A. zonata, with large broad abdomen, dusky black
except at the base, and with a thick tawny pubescence on the
thorax, is also recorded from India and the East Indies. Apis
Hore (Fab.) is quite distinct; it is a small delicate bee, with
much tawny yellow at the base of the abdomen, the tip being
dusky brown with two pale bands in the middle. Mr Sladen
sent me a beautiful variety, andreniform/s (Smith), which is
deep brownish-black, with two pale silvery bands in the middle
of the abdomen. The stings of A. jlome and A. indica are
very small.

In Mauritius and at It¢union is a doubtful species, A. wni-
color, which produces green honey. There are several others
THE HONEY-BEE. 179

with doubtful specific characters, with which we cannot deal
here, enough having been said in relation to the species of
Apide.

All the members of the genus dealt with above live in per-
manent colonies. There are three individual forms—the perfect
female or queen, the imperfect female or worker (wrongly called
a neuter), and the male or drone. The queen’s sole function is
to lay eggs; her ovaries” are very large, and nearly fill the
abdomen. The female is longer than either drone or worker ;
her mouth organs are not so fully formed as in the worker: the
tongue, labial palps, and maxille are much shorter, and the
curious pollen-baskets on the hind-legs are absent. The queen
sting is curved like that of a Humble bee, and has fewer barbs
than that of the worker. The drones or male bees are found in
the summer. The presence or absence of drones depends on
the condition of the colony. The drone of A. mellifica is much
shorter than the queen, and more robust. When flying, the
drone produces a loud buzzing noise. The eyes meet above
(holoptic), whereas in the queen and worker they are separate.
No sting is developed, nor pollen-basket. Drones hatch from
unfecundated eggs, but queens and workers from fecundated
ones. Workers often lay eggs, which invariably turn to
drones (parthenogenesis). The workers are abortive females,
and vary from 15,000 to 45,000 in each colony; whilst A.
indica, as mentioned before, may number 80,000 in one colony,
when fully stocked. The maxille (fig. 87, mx) and labium are
much elongated, the latter deeply grooved and joined to the
head by two rods (cardinales), ca. The sides of the maxille
(laciniz) (/ac) are stiff, and form a tube connected with the
oral orifice; the labium is long, and united to the maxille by
the submentum and two rods. From the mentum proceeds the
lingua or tongue (i), labial palps (7), and paraglosse. The
tongue is hairy, and consists of a ringed sheath, slit beneath.
Within the tongue is a rod which extends beyond its tip, also
cleft ventrally. When not in use, these mouth-parts are bent
180 TIE HONEY-BEE.

under the head. The jaws or mandibles (7) are strong, and are
used for cutting comb and kneading up the wax. Another
structure of interest in the worker is the “ pollen-basket” on
the hind-legs, in which the pollen is amalgamated, then collected

SS

Gh

Y

 

Fic. 87.—(i) Mourn anp (ii) Stina or BEF, DISSRCTED.
>

ce, Clypeus; J, labrum; e, epipharynx ; m, mandibles; Ca, cardinales ; lo, lore ; mz,
maxille ; Sti, stipes; luc, lacinia; ma.p, maxillary palps; men. mentum, /i, lingua ;
Ip, labial palps; P.g, poison gland; P.s, poison sac; s, lancet; A, base of stylets; d,
curved root of sting ; /ig, angular piece; L, end of lever.

by the bee’s mouth, and transferred to the four anterior legs, to
be taken to the hive. This structure is a deep cavity on the
outside of the posterior tibia and first tarsal joint, with a rim of
hairs. Workers all possess a sting, which is straight. The
poison ejected with the sting is an acid fluid secreted by two
coiled glands (P.y), and is stored up in a small sac (P.s). This
THE HONEY-BEE. 181

poison-bag is connected with the sting by a tube. The piercing
organ consists of three needle-like points: one is larger than
the others, and this large style (s) has a reservoir at its base
where poison is stored up. ‘The two smaller lancets are hollow,
and are barbed with eight to ten barbs, which hold and cause
the sting to be pulled out when the bee tries to withdraw it.
In the act of stinging the awl first pierces, then the lancets.

The ova that give rise to workers hatch in three days into
white footless grubs, which are fed by workers, and mature in
eight days. The food of the grubs that are to become workers
consists of a scanty supply of a white fluid composed of pollen
and honey. The cell in which the grub lives is then capped
over with pollen and wax. The larva, when mature, spins
itself a cocoon of white silk of extreme thinness. Three days
after the insect has been capped in, it pupates. In another
week the bee emerges. ‘The freshly emerged bees do not leave
the nest for two days or so, and are easily told by their paler
colour. As a rule, a worker lives from eight to ten months,
when hatched in the autumn, but when hatched in the spring
it seldom survives more than three months. Worker-bees do
all the work of the hive, secrete wax, build the comb, feed the
brood, and ventilate the hive. The older bees chiefly collect
the honey, pollen, and the so-called propolis. The hives are
ventilated and the temperature reduced by the violent vibration
of the bees’ wings, whilst extra heat is generated by forced
respiration.

The queen-bee comes from an egg placed in a specially pre-
pared cell, usually situated on the edge of the comb, and
composed of wax and pollen. A queen-bee may be formed
from an egg or from a worker larva when quite young, the
larva being surrounded by a “queen cell.” The larva destined
to become a queen is fed on a plenteous, rich, nitrogenous diet,
‘“‘queen jelly,” with which the cell is completely filled. The
queen larva is longer and larger than the worker, and feeds for
five days, then forming her open cocoon, in which after three
182 THE HONEY-BEE.

days she pupates, and at the end of sixteen or seventeen days
emerges as the “queen.” A few days later the queen flies out
of the hive, and whilst on the wing is impregnated by the
drone. She then returns to the hive to commence egg-laying.
As many as 3000 eggs are laid per day: these will turn into
workers or queens; but should the queen not be pregnant, the
ova turn into drones only, and similarly at the end of queen
life. The female A. mellifica, unlike the worker, may live for
three years: some queens have been said to retain their vitality
for as long as five years.

The drone grubs feed for six or seven days, and then are
“capped” in their cells, the covering being very convex, a
feature by which we can always tell drone cells; the wax is
impure, and thus the cell is darker than the others. In
twenty-five days the drone emerges. These males are killed
off by the workers, and even the drone brood is destroyed by
them when they are not required. Their sole function is to
impregnate the queen, which act entails their death, the
copulatory organs being left in her vulva.

Swarming takes place when a hive or colony becomes over-
stocked or disturbed by mice and other causes. This swarming
is most erratic. The bees cling together upon some tree or
fence, and then, accompanied by the queen, fly off to their
new home, apparently previously sought out, for they are said
to fly direct to their new abode, and there soon commence a
fresh colony. The three substances formed by bees are honey,
wax, and propolis. The first is made from the neetar of flowers.
The nectar is taken into the crop or honey-stomach and altered
into honey, which the bee regurgitates into the already formed
honey-cell, this cell being eventually capped. Honey is stored
for the use of the mature bees, and, when mixed with pollen,
to form food for the brood. Wax is formed as a secretion in
scale-like plates beneath the bee’s abdomen in four pairs of
so-called “ wax-sacs,” and is seemingly formed from nitrogenous
food. When ripe, the wax-scales are removed by the bee’s
HYMENOPTERA (ICHNEUMONS, ETC.) 183

claws, and taken by the mouth and mixed with saliva to form
a plastic substance from which the cells are moulded. Propolis
is the product of resinous substances off buds of trees, &c.,
collected by the bees to use as cement, and to fill in crevices
between the irregular cells in the comb, and for the attachment
of the latter.

The other group of this division, the Mossores, are the
Digging-wasps. Cerceris arenaria and Pompilius plumbeus are
two common types. The former is black and yellow, the latter
red and black. They are lively solitary insects which hunt for
their prey. The females often dig a hole in the ground in
which to lay an egg; in this is also placed a grub, to serve as
food for the newly hatched larva. The buried grub is not dead,
but paralysed by the sting of the Digging-wasp (Pompilius).
All being insectivorous, we may look upon them as beneficial
to us.

Ichneumons, Gall-flies, &c. (Hymenoptera parasitica
or terebrantia).

The chief familics are—

(i) The Chaleididw, whose larvee are parasitic in various
insect larvee and ova, and even in other parasites ;

(ii) The Braconidw, which attack caterpillars and beetle-
larve ;

(iii) The Ichnewmonid, which attack all larvee ;

(iv) Proctotrupide—Larve parasitic in eggs and bodies of
other Arthropods; and

(v) Cynipide—Parasitic in plants, &e.

The ova laid by the various insectivorous insects hatch into
little grubs, which gradually devour their host, but not until
they and their host have nearly reached maturity, when they
pupate either within or external to their prey. Some, however,
oviposit in insect eggs. The little yellow cocoons we often see
184 HYMENOPTERA (GALL-WASPS).

in abundance around the larve of the Large Cabhage-white
(Pieris brassiew) in the autumn are the cocoons of one of the
Braconidae, Microquster glomeratus, which aids so much in
destroying these noxious larve on our cabbages. Vide also
fig. 95, 5.

These insects vary much in size: some are microscopic, while
others are quite large. All, however, are equally beneficial, and
worthy of our protection.

The Hessian-fly is largely parasitised by these insects ; so are
Aphides. We can nearly always find some dead plant-lice on
every tree—pearly looking bodies, often with a minute round
hole, showing where the parasite has escaped.

GALL-WASPS OR CYNIPIDE.

Gall-wasps produce a great variety of deformities upon trees
and plants. There are many interesting features in these
insects, and their life-histories are often very complex. They
are mostly small, with apodal grub-like larve (fig. 88, p). They
are subject to great numbers of parasites, and have other harm-
less guests (inquilines) called Synergi living in their galls.
The thorax is humped and the abdomen short. The females,
which have the ovipositor curved upwards from the ventral
surface, deposit their eggs in plants and trees. The eggs are
sometimes placed on long stalks or peduncles, usually in groups
or clusters (B), but sometimes singly. Those here figured are
of Biorhiza terminalis laid in the terminal buds of the oak.
The larve, which are curved, white, footless grubs, pupate in
the galls, some developing in a few days (catkin galls), others
taking a long time to mature (woody galls), The “galls” were
at one time said to be formed by an irritating venom ejected
into the wound. This is not the case. The galls are produced
by the irritation set up by the larve. We find, as a rule, two
forms, a sexual form and an agamic form, The galls of each
differ. Those whose galls appear in the autumn are always
asexual. We thus get an alternation of an asexual autumn
HYMENOPTERA (GALL-WASPS). 185

generation and a sexual spring generation. Parthenogenetic
reproduction then takes place in these Cynipide. Some are
parasitic on Diptera and others on Aphides. Oak apples are

 

Fic. 88. —CyniPip&.

A, Galls of Cynips kollari: c, maggot; a, hole of escape of fly ; b, gall attacked by
tits. pv, Larva. £, Pupa. r, Imago. 3, Ova of Biorhiza terminalis. (Lhe ova are
from preparations sent me by Mr Hammond.)
formed by Cynips kollari (a) and Biorhiza terminalis. The
Bedeguar or mossy galls on the rose are formed by Rhodites
rose.’ The majority of Cynipide are found on the oak, a few
on the rose and other plants. The ink galls of commerce are
formed by Cynipide. Tits, especially the Blue and Great
Tits, peck the grubs out of these galls in great numbers.
(Fig. 88, a, 0.)

1 According to the late Mr Ashmead, the farmers at Harrogate gather

these galls to make an infusion for the cure of diarrhcea in cows (Miiller,
Zool. 8. 8., p. 1206).
186 HYMENOPTERA (SAWFLIES).

The Sawflies and Wood-wasps (Hymenoptera
sessiliventres).

Sawflies and Wood-wasps are phytophagous, with sessile ab-
domen, the larvee resembling caterpillars in the former group.

(1) The Sawflies or Tvnthiedinidw have a sessile abdomen,
with short saw-like borer (fig. 89) of a complex structure, which
is only exerted during egg-laying. The mandibles are well
formed, but the rest of the mouth is weak. The sawflies lay
their eggs by cutting a slit in the epidermis of the leaf; in

 

 

 

 

 

Fic, 89.—Saw or a FemMace Sawr ty (greatly enlarged).

this a single ovum is deposited, and the slit may be closed by
a gummy excretion. The larvae are called ‘“ False-caterpillars,”
and feed voraciously on leaves and even fruit. Some form
galls on willows, &e. ‘They have twenty-two or more legs, and
can thus be told from the Lepidopterous larva. Often when
young the larve are gregarious, but separate as they grow older.
They all, or nearly all, spin cocoons, which may generally be
found in the ground beneath where the larve have been
feeding. The cocoons are often covered externally with small
particles of earth. They remain in this position all the winter
HYMENOPTERA (SAWFLIES). 187

—some as larve, which pupate in the spring, others as pupe.
There may be two or more broods in the year. Some species,
such as the Slug-worm (£riocampa limacina), are cosmopolitan,
doubtless having been distributed in the pupal stage in the
earth at the roots of nursery stock. The following are three
typical injurious species :—

The Currant and Gooseberry Sawfly (Nematus ribesit).

Fruit-growers are constantly troubled with the “ false-cater-
pillars” of this species on their gooseberry-bushes, and some-
times on the currants. The larve can be told by the number
of sucker-feet and the curious positions they assume, often
with the tail turned up over their back. They are bluish-green
in colour, spotted with black, and
marked at the sides with turquoise-
blue and yellow ; the first segment
and the last but one are yellow.
When full grown they reach half
an inch in length, and become
pale green, except behind the
head and near the tail, which
retains the yellow colour. The
Sawfly appears in April, and may
be seen settling on the goose-

berry leaves. It has four slightly Fic. 90.—Gooszpprry SAWFLY
(Nemetus ribesii).

 

iridescent wings, an orange ab- :
domen, and black and yellow 3 ae tee, quate
thorax: they vary from half

an inch to rather nore than an inch across the wings. The
female, which is larger than the male, cuts a number of little
slits in the leaf, along the edge, and in each she deposits a
single ovum. ‘The eggs hatch out in about a week, sooner if
the weather is favourable ; the young larve feed close together
for some time. We can tell their presence in this early stage
188 HYMENOPTERA (SAWFLIES).

by noticing the leaves here and there being riddled with small
round shot-holes, in each of which is a young sawfly larva. As
they grow they disperse over the bush, reaching maturity in
from four to five weeks. When full grown they are three-
quarters of an inch long. They then leave the bushes and
burrow an inch or two under the soil beneath, where they
pupate ; some even pupate on the shoots. Very often these
pup hatch out from two to three weeks later, giving rise to
a second brood: this second brood often attacks the fruit as
well as the leaves. A third brood also may occur. When
mature, like the first generation, they bury themselves in the
ground, and remain there all the winter.

Prevention and Remedies.—The removal of the soil to the
depth of a couple of inches in winter and burning it, replacing
in spring, will have the desired effect of checking their increase
where it can be done, as in gardens.

Where gardens are subject to this attack, much loss of time
and money would be saved by a thorough examination, by boys,
of the bushes in the late spring, so as to collect and destroy
the young larve before they have spread over the whole bush.
White hellebore is the most certain insecticide to use, mixed
as recorded hereafter; but the best remedy is spraying with
tobacco wash or arsenate of lead. Even soft-soap and quassia
kill them.

The Pear an? Cherry Sawply (Eriocampa Uimacina).

Considerable annoyance is often caused by the larve of this
species upon Cherry and Pear. The larve (fig. 91) are called
Slug-worms and Snegs, on account of their slimy slug-like
appearance. They feed on the upper surface of the leaves,
eating only the upper epidermis, and leaving the lower intact
(fig. 93). When very numerous the leaves turn brown, die,
and fall off in the summer, and a fresh lot of foliage takes its
place, thus weakening the trees. The adult Sawfly (fig. 92) is
HYMENOPTERA (SAWFLIES). 189

a small glossy black insect, about one-fourth of an inch in
length ; the wings are iridescent, with the middle area smoky

 

Fre. 91.—SLuG-worM oF Pear (Lriocampa limacina).

black, and are about three-quarters of an inch from tip to tip.
The parent fly comes out of the ground beneath the trees in the
spring, generally in May. In most cases a single egg only is
placed on the under-side of each

leaf, its position being easily told
by the small pale spot that appears
over it. The ovum hatches in two
weeks, and the larva escapes to
the top of the leaf. At first it is
pale and free from slime ; but soon
a slimy exudate comes out of its
skin and gives it its typical slug-
like appearance. Its form is
peculiar, being much swollen up
at the head-end: it has twenty
legs. In four weeks the slug- ff
worm has reached maturity, when av ‘

it attains the length of half an |

inch. At the last moult (the ae ie eis eects
fifth) it loses its slimy character, ~~ timacina), and cocoon,
and becomes dry and dirty-yellow

in colour. It then falls to the ground, where it forms a cell
and pupates. In the summer broods, of which there are three
in England, the pupal life lasts about fourteen days. It seems

 
190 HYMENOPTERA (SAWFLIES).

that they do not all undergo these stages at the same time,
some remaining in the ground much longer than others.
Numbers of larve are often found on one leaf of different
sizes, the eggs having been deposited at various times.
Prevention and Remedies. — Similar preventives apply here

 

Fic. 93.—SLucworms (Larviv of Eriocampa limacine) upon a leaf.

as in the Gooseberry Sawfly. Lime will soon kill the larvee if
it is applied twice in succession, as they have the power, like
slugs, of passing out a coat of slime and leaving it and the
lime behind. They are best destroyed by the arsenical washes
mentioned in Appendix II. Arsenate of lead was found very
successful in 1897 at the 8S. E. Agricultural College Fruit-
Gardens,

The Corn Sawfly (Cephus pygnieus).

The Corn Sawfly belongs to a different section (Cephin«) to
either of those already mentioned. The body of this corn pest
is flattened from side to side, keel-shaped. It has long been
known as a corn pest, but it is never very serious in this
country, as it is sometimes on the Continent. All kinds of
straw crops are attacked, but CL pyymeus seems to show a
decided preference for wheat. The adults appear in June and
HYMENOPTERA (SAWFLIES). 191

July; they have a black-and-yellow-banded body, brighter in
the male than in the female; the former sex is rather more
than one-third of an inch long, the latter slightly smaller; wing
expanse just over half an inch. The female cuts, by means
of her saw-like ovipositor, a slit just beneath the developing
ear of corn, and there places a single egg, closing the hole up
as others do in this group. In two weeks, or a little less,
there comes from the ovum a small white larva, which at
once commences to devour the inner parts of the straw: as
the larva grows it works downwards, until about harvest-time
it has reached the bottom of the straw, having eaten its way
through the successive nodes. When mature it reaches half
an inch in length; it is white, and, unlike other Sawfly larve,
it is nearly apodal: a few small lumps below are all that
remain of the typical sucker-feet. When the bottom of the
straw is reached the larva turns round, and then cuts the straw
off an inch or two above the ground as clean as if cut with a
sharp penknife. The winter is passed in the stubble, where the
larva spins a cocoon of pale loose silk, pupating in the cocoon
in the very early spring. Some live in wild grasses at the
headlands, hedges, and woods, so that we have constant fresh
infestations coming.

Prevention.—If the stubble is simply ploughed in after an
attack of corn sawfly, unless very deeply, a large number of
the insects will hatch out and escape from the ground. It is
advisable where this pest has been very bad to scarify the fields
and harrow the stubble together and burn it: by so doing all
the larve in the “gratten” are destroyed, and thus subsequent
harm prevented.

Many other Sawflies are often injurious, including the Apple-
Sawfly (Hoplocampa testucdinea), which eats the young apples,
and the Pine Sawfly (Lophyrus pint), which is sometimes most
injurious in pine-forests, and the Large Larch Sawfly (Vematus
erichsont).
192 LEPIDOPTERA,

Woop Wasps (Siricide or Uroveridw).

The second group are the Wood Wasps or Siricidw. The
Sirex-flies have a long freely projecting ovipositor, by means of
which the female places her ova in the wood of coniferous trees.
Two species are destructive to conifers in England, namely, the
Giant Sirex (Strex giyas) and the Steel Blue (iS. jwvencus).
Both are large insects, the former species often being an inch
and a quarter long in the female, with four tawny wings and
black and yellow body; S. juvencus is somewhat smaller, and
beautiful steel-blue in colour. The ova laid under the bark of
the trees hatch into white, nearly footless, larvee, which eat their
way into the very heart of the wood, forming long tunnels
which are partly blocked up as they progress with their “ frass.”
They seem to live in this position some nine months, and
pupate somewhere near the bark, so that in the summer when
the Sirex is mature it can easily eat its way to the open. The
adults have extremely hard and strong biting mouths, und leave
behind a large round hole in the trunk that we very often
notice on pine-trees. Numbers of larvie usually inhabit each
tree, so that it is soon killed. It is always advisable to cut
down and burn any tree showing symptoms of their attack in
the winter when the borers are at home.

LEPIDOPTERA,
or Burrerevizs axpv Morns.

The Lepidoptera or scaly-winged insects are the Butterflies
and Moths. The former are known as Diurni or Rhopulocera,
and have always club-shaped antenne (fig. 95, 1), and the wings
are always held vertically over the back when in repose. They
are day-fliers. The moths or Helerovera have either thread-
shaped, feathery, or pectinate antennx; the wings are usually
folded over the back ingrepose.
LEPIDOPTERA (BUTTERFLIES). 193

Lepidoptera are haustellate, the mouth being prolonged into
a long sucking proboscis or antlia. The scales are the colouring
part of the wing: they easily rub off, when the membranes of
the wing are seen to be transparent.

All Lepidoptera have a complete metamorphosis. The ova

are often beautifully sculptured. The larve or caterpillars have
six true legs and usually four pairs of prolegs, with the addition
of an anal pair at the
hind end, The larve
are mostly vegetarians,
and are provided with
strong biting mandibles. ee SP Oeeegae NEE
They moult four times.
The length of life is very variable: some only live ten days,
others two or three years (Goat Moth—Cossus), The pupa
may be naked, girdled by a band of silk, or enclosed in a
cocoon of silk or a cell of earth. The adults are nearly
always winged, except in some female moths (Winter Moths),
and are usually short-lived. Some imagines hibernate (Tortoise-
shell Butterfly), and these have a longer period of existence.
Large numbers of moth larve are injurious, but only a few
Rhopalocera,

 

Burrerriigs (RHopALocERA) (Fig. 95).

Amongst the seventy British Butterflies only three (Pieri
or Whites) can be considered of any economic importance,
although others, such as the Comma (Vanessa C.—album) and
the Peacock (V. io), may attack hops, and the Large Tortoise-
shell (V. polychlorus), cherries. The clubbed antenne always
identify a butterfly. The larve, too, are often spiny (Vanessidw).
The pupa or chrysalis (4) is angulated, and generally pale in
colour. No cocoon is formed, the chrysalids either hanging
with the head downwards and attached by a lump of silk at
the tail, or suspended head upwards, when they are girdled

N
194 LEPIDOPTERA (BUTTERFLIES).

by a small band of silk as well as a caudal attachment. In
England all Butterflies are day-fliers.

The Larye White (Pieris brassicc).

We may take the Large or Cabbage White (Pierds brassice)
as a type. The fore-wings of this species are creamy-white,
with a broad black patch at the tip in the male; in the female
there are also two black spots in the middle of the wings. The
under-side of the front wings of both male and female is white,
with two black spots; the posterior pale yellow with a fine
dusting of black. The eggs are laid on the under-surface of
cruciferous plants, yellow in colour, and are arranged in clusters
of twenty and thirty. The larve (fig. 94) are greenish at first,
becoming bluish-green above, yellowish below, with a yellow

 

Fia. 95.—GREEN-VEINED Walt (Pieris napi).

1, Imago; 2, ovum; 3, larva; 4, chrysalis; 5, Ichneumon Fly (Hemiteles melan-
arius); 6, natural size. (Curtis.)

line along the back and at each side, spotted with black and
covered with pale hairs. They live especially upon the outer
leaves of cabbages. The chrysalis is pale greenish-grey spotted
with black, attached by the tail and by a silken cord around
the body to some fence, wall, or outhouse. There are two
broods, one in the early summer and another in the autumn.
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 195

Prevention and Remedies. —Some good may be done in
gardens by hanging rock brimstone over the cabbage-beds, but
it cannot be said to be an infallible preventive. Where we
have large breadths of cabbage, hand-picking about two weeks
after we have observed the advent of the Whites is best. The
larvee are then in compact groups, and can soon be cleared off
by women and boys.

The Small White (P. rapw) and the Green-veined White
(P. nap) (fig. 95) also feed upon cabbages and other Cruci-
feree ; sometimes the Clouded Yellow (Colias edusa) may do a
little harm to clover. The Whites are subject to a number of
hymenopterous parasites, one of which is shown in fig. 95, 5.

Morus (HetTprocera).

Moths are far more abundant in species and in numbers than
Butterflies. They do much harm to fruit, corn, root and
garden crops, and also to stored grain, &c. Generally their
bodies are heavier than the Butterflies, but some (Geometers)
almost resemble in form Rhopalocera. The antenne are, how-
ever, never clubbed; they are either feathery, thread-like, or
pectinated. The larve are often hairy, never spiny, as in
butterflies, at other times quite smooth; some have wart-like
projections on them. The pupe# may or may not be naked.
Some are surrounded by a thick case of silk forming a cocoon,
as we see in the silk-worms. Others are found in a cell of
earth (Agrotis). There are three types of larve, one seen in
most groups, such as the Hawk-moths, Noctuz, &c., in which
the larvee have six true legs in front and four pairs of fleshy
prolegs behind, with an anal pair posteriorly. The second type
is seen in the Geometers or Loopers, in which only one pair of
prolegs exist in the middle of the body. The third is seen in
the Plusiade or Y-Moths (fig. 64, D). The five more important
divisions of Heterocera are—

The Sphingina, Bombycina, Noctuina, Geometrina, and Micro-
196 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

lepidoptera. The last three contain the majority of the injurious
species.

The Sphingina are the Hawk-moths (Sphingite). They are
provided with a long proboscis and usually pointed abdomen.
The antenne taper to a point at the end. The larve of the
Hawks have a curious horn on the last segment, and live upon
the leaves of various plants. The Eyed-hawk (Smerinthus
ocellatus) may be taken as an example, and is sometimes
harmful to apples.

The larvee of the Clearwings (2yertide) are all creamy-
white in colour, and live by burrowing into the stems of
shrubs and trees.

The Currant Clearwing (digeria tipuliformis).

This pretty little moth (fig. 96) is often very injurious in
black-currant plantations. The Clearwings (igeriidw) take
their name from the fact that the major
area of their wings is transparent. This
species is a little more than two-thirds of
an inch in expanse of wing; the body and
thorax are purplish black with yellow bands.

Fic. 96.—Curranr Lhese clearwings have a black fringe to the
en Eger wings, a black bar across the fore-wings, and

the ends with black veins and with a yellowish
sheen. The currant clearwing appears in the latter part of May,
but chiefly in June. The female lays her eggs where a small
twig breaks off, and also on the buds, the larve making their
way into the centre of the shoots. The caterpillars, which are
creamy-white, tunnel both up and down the stems during the
winter, and by April are full-grown (three-quarters to nearly
an inch long). They then pupate in a cocoon of loose silk in
the tunnel. The brown spiny pupa pushes its way out of a
hole (fig. 98, a) previously formed by the larva up to the rind
of the stem, when the moth bursts its way out. All kinds

 
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 197

 

Fic. 97.—Larva anp Pura or Currant CLearwine (.Lgeria tupuliformis).

b, Enlarged head ; ¢ and d, anal extreinity of larva.

 

Fic. 98.—Biack CURRANT STEMS DAMAGED BY LARV& or CURRANT CLEARWING.
198 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

of currants are attacked, but especially the black varieties.
The moths appear on the wing chiefly during the early hours
of the morning, when they may be seen hovering over the
currant-bushes.

Remedies.—One can easily detect a hole in the bud, which is
about the eighth to the sixth of an inch across, where the larva
has entered. By pruning the infested shoots back until no
signs of a tunnel are left, and by burning the prunings, this
somewhat local pest would soon be cleared out of an infested
garden or plantation.

The Garden Swift-moth (Hepialus lupulinus), &e.

The family Hepialide or Swift-moths includes two injurious
species—namely, the Garden Swift (H. lupulinus) (fig. 99) and

 

Fia. 99.—GarRpew Swirt-mMoTy (Hepialus lupulinus), pupa and larva.

u, Enlarged segment of larva.

the Ghost-moth (ZZ. humul?) (fig. 100). The former is very
destructive in its larval stage to garden produce, and the
latter to grass and hops. The larve of the Hepialide
live underground upon the roots of plants, but sometimes
they burrow into the root itself and up into the crown
of the plant. They are dirty-white in colour, and have
large brown heads and scattered bristle-like hairs over the
body. The garden swift-moth lays her eggs during the
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 199

latter part of May and in June, whilst in flight, amongst vege-
tation. The larve feed upon the rootage just beneath the soil,
and continue all the winter. In the spring they pupate in the
same place: the pups are chestnut brown, with circles of spines
around them. The larvee are often quite green, although the
skin is white, the food showing through. ‘They are very active
underground, preferring loose soil to work in; when put on
the soil or in the hand they wriggle violently backwards when

 

Fic. 100.—THe Guost-mota (Hepialus humuli).
la, Male; 1b, female; 2, larva; 3, pupa.

touched. Strawberries, lettuce, and mint seem their favourite
diet. The moth is about an inch in expanse of wing and
brown in colour, with white markings as shown in fig. 99,
and flies with great rapidity at dusk over the tops of the
grass and other plants.

Remedies.—Dry dressings of soot, lime, kainit, or vaporite in
the winter drive them away or kill them, whilst prong-hoeing
disturbs them and exposes some to the attack of birds.

The Ghost-moth (H. humult) is a large, pure, satiny-white
200 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

moth, in the male sex, about two inches across the wings, which
are dusky beneath, the body and thorax yellow: the female
is larger, and dull yellow with orange on the fore-wings, hind
ones brown. ‘The larve are long white grubs with distinct
brown head, found during the winter in hop-stocks and devour-
ing the roots of grass, where they are extremely difficult to
destroy.

The Hepialidw suffer from a fungoid disease caused by

 

Fie, 101.—Corpycrrs ENTOMORHIZA (1 fungus on Hepialus larvw).

a, Fruit; b, mycelium,

Cordyceps entomorhiza, which grows out of the caterpillar, after
having invaded it internally and killed it (fig. 101).

Bombycina.—The “bombyces” are mostly clumsy, heavy-
bodied moths, with a very hairy covering to their abdomen and
thorax. The antenne in the male are pectinated. The wings
are broad and tectiform when at rest. The females are generally
larger than the males ; some are wingless, as in the Vapourer
Moth (Orgyta antigua). The larvie are usually very hairy, and
many spin a light cocoon in which they pupate. The pupe
are never found underground. ‘The larvie of some species are
gregarious, spiuning large tents of silk under which they live
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 201

(Lackey Moth) ; others—the Psychide—form cases of foreign
objects in which to live. There are several very injurious
species in this division, but it also includes the valuable
groups of Silk-worms (Satwrnede and Bombycidw). The family
Liparide contains the destructive Gypsy Moth (Liparis dispar),
whose larve have been such a scourge in Massachusetts and
other parts of the United States, into which country it was
introduced from Europe.

The Lackey Moth (Bombyx (Clisstocampa) neustria).

The Lackey Moth (fig. 103), one of the family Bombycide, is
often injurious to a serious extent in our orchards. The female

 

 

Fic.102.—Eac-panp or LackEy Fic. 103.—FrEMALE AND MALE

Morn. (Twice nat. size.) Lackey Morus.
moth is about an inch and a quarter in expanse of wing, and
brownish-red in colour, with a pale stripe on each wing: some-
times the stripe is darker than the ground-colour of the wing.
202 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

The male is more of a yellowish-brown colour, and smaller than
the female. The adults appear in July and August, and the
female lays her eggs in bands (fig. 102) tightly fixed round the
smaller twigs and stems of the apple and other fruit-trees: these
tibbon-like egg-bands remain on the trees all the winter, often
becoming loose, so that the whole band can be turned round like
a ring. The larve hatch in April and May, and live for some
time under a tent of silk in large companies. As they grow they
spread out over the tree. When mature they reach nearly two
inches in length, and are bluish-grey in colour, striped longi-
tudinally with orange-red, and between the two lowest bands a
broad blue stripe on each side with little black specks, these
brilliant lines being separated by black and black spotted with
blue; a pure white line runs down the back, with a narrow
dark line on each side. The head is bluish, with two black
spots and two on the segment next the head ; body with tawny
hairs. They spin a loose cocoon of white or pale yellow silk
amongst the leaves, from which the moth emerges in July and
August, The tent of silk sometimes reaches a foot in length.

Remedies.—Wash with arsenate of lead. In France they
cut the tents down with long-handled shears and burn them ;
or they can soon be destroyed, like wasp-nests, by blowing them
down with a blank cartridge. The eggs are too hard to be
affected by any winter wash, but the bands should be pruned
off and destroyed in winter.

The Notodontide, another family, contains the well-known
Puss Moth (Cerura vinula), which lives upon Willows and
Osiers, sometimes causing them much loss of leafage. The
large hairy moth is greyish-white, with black wavy markings,
three inches in expanse of wing in the female, smaller in the
male. The curious larve are provided with two protrusible red
tails, which can be extended some distance and waved about to
frighten off the Ichneumon flies that prey upon them.

Noctuina.—The Noctuz are all, or nearly all, nocturnal in
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 203

habits. They are mostly dull-coloured insects, with thread-like
antennz in the female, pectinate in the male. The abdomen
is broad, but slightly tapering to a point at the hind end in the
female, expanded in the male. The legs have strong tibial
spurs. The front wings are generally narrow, and usually
darker than the under-wings. The posterior pair are often
coloured, as we see in the Red and Yellow Under-wings. The
moths have a long trunk and projecting palpi. There is a great
superficial resemblance between many of the species. The
larve are but slightly hairy, and are provided with sixteen legs.
If the Plusiade are included in this group, the number of legs
must not be taken as a characteristic, as they are reduced to
fourteen, and some forms have only twelve. The pupe
(fig. 104, 4) of Noctuz are generally found underground. Some
are naked, others surrounded by a case of earth in the soil:
they are brown in colour, and devoid of body spines. Many

of the larve, especially of the genus Agrotis, are called Surface
Larve.

Surface Larue (Noctue).

One is constantly finding dull-coloured caterpillars in the soil,
especially in the autumn, winter, and spring. These sluggish
larve (fig. 104, 2) can at once be identified as moth larve
by the number of their legs. They are of a variety of species:
the majority, however, belong to the two moths called the
Turnip Moth (Agrotis segetum) and the Heart-and-Dart Moth
(A. exclamationis), while not a few are the caterpillars of the
Yellow Underwing (Zriphena pronuba). All these are noc-
turnal feeders, living just under the soil during the day and
coming out at night to feed. They sometimes, like worms,
pull a number of leaves into the soil to devour during the day.
Almost all plants are attacked by them, and the damage they
cause is often considerable. Both stem and leafage is eaten,
especially of young plants, alike in garden and field. The
204 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

damage is often attributed to other animals, as they are not
seen during the day. Celery in some places is attacked by
them; the culprits have been thought to be rabbits. The two
commonest moths named above have thick hairy bodies, and
measure over an inch and a half across the wings—the upper
ones in A. exclamationis being brown with dark-brown marks on
them, the lower pale-brown. A. segetum is paler in colour.
Remedies.—Wheat-fields are often ravaged by these pests,
and all we can then do is to apply nitrate of soda. Hand-

 

Fic. 104.—Heart-anp-Dart Moru (Agrotis rxclamationis).

1, Imago; 2, surface larva; 3 and 4, chrysalis in earthen case. (Curtis.)

picking in the day-time by turning over the soil around plants
that look to be flagging is worth the trouble, even in large
cabbage-fields, where they often are very destructive. After
the crop has been taken, it is a good plan to turn a number of
fowls on the land, as they devour these larve greedily ; but for
wholesale purposes there is nothing like a dressing of vaporite.
These so-called ‘Cut-worms” may also be destroyed by placing
here and there small heaps of clover or lucern soaked in
arsenate of lead, or even bran treated in the same manner.

The Plastude or Y-Moths include one destructive species—
namely, the Silvery Y (Plusia yamma) (fig. 105), which now
and then damages turnips and clover. The larve have only
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 205

two pairs of prolegs in the middle of the body; they are green
in colour, with a white streak down the back and a yellow one
on each side. The Plusiade spin a light silken cocoon (3).

Geometrina. — The Geometers are characterised by the
peculiar mode of progress in their larvee, which have only
ten or twelve legs; the prolegs are never all developed.
Very few have twelve legs, fewer still are provided with
fourteen. They crawl in a series of “loops,” arching the
body as they move. When stationary they are attached by
the anal prolegs, generally with the body straight out. They

 

Fic. 105.—Sinvery Y-Mora (Plusia gamma).

1, Ova; 2, larva; 3, pupa; 4, imago. (Curtis.)

often assume the colour and appearance of the stems and
leaves they are found upon: this protective coloration is so
marked in some species as to render them almost indistinguish-
able. Doubtless this mimicry is to protect them from their
enemies, birds and the parasitic Ichneumon flies. The moths
have slender bodies and large delicate wings, often beautifully
coloured. The pupe are found both under and above ground,
and may or may not be enclosed in a cocoon. Most Geometers
are crepuscular, but some fly during the day. They are
mostly light bodied, and sit with their wings extended in
repose, a few with the wings erect like butterflies. Some are
206 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

extremely injurious to fruit-trees, of which the following are
the most important.

The Winter Moth (Cheimatobia brumata).

This and the closely related Mottled Umber Moth (Hybernia
defoliaria) are often a serious trouble to fruit-growers. The
larve devour the buds, leafage, blossom, and fruit of the trees.
An orchard attacked by these pests presents a scorched appear-
ance, the leafage in some cases being completely stripped, as
bare as in winter. The female Winter Moth is nearly wingless,
and, to lay her eggs, ascends the trunk of the tree on hatching

 

Fia. 106.—1, WixTER Mora (Cheimatobia brumata). 2, MoTrLED UMBER MotTn
AND CATERPILLAR (Hybernia defoliaria).

Male moth, winged; female moth, wingless. (All natural size.)

from the pupa in the ground or amongst the grass beneath
the trees. The male is winged, about an inch and a quarter
in expanse, brownish-grey with wavy brown lines across the
front pair. They fly about at dusk, sometimes carrying the
female in copuld to the boughs to deposit her ova. They are
called “Winter Moths” because they appear during the cold
months of the year, from October to January. The green
looper-larve hatch from the ova in the spring about the time
the buds are ready to burst. They pupate in and on the
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 207

ground when mature, which is about June. The larve are at
first dark grey ; as they grow they change to green, with pale
stripes along their body. They spin the leaves and blossom
together. When mature they measure an inch in length.
Lowering themselves down by a cord of silk, or falling, they
then form a cocoon which is covered outside with earth, and
hatch out in the late autumn and winter.

The moths lay their eggs close to the buds: they are small
green bodies at first, changing to red before they hatch, and are
clearly visible to the naked eye. Other allied species with
wingless females and doing similar damage are the March
Moth (Anisopteryx cescularia) and the Mottled Umber Moth
(Hybernia defoliaria). The March Moth appears in the early
spring, and lays her eggs in bands round the twigs. The female
is quite wingless, so is the female Mottled Umber.

Prevention and Remedies. — Bands of grease- proof paper,
smeared with grease, put round the trees in October: and kept
on until March, is a method generally employed for catching
the wingless females. A few nevertheless may escape this
trap, so that washing is sometimes necessary. A special pre-
paration called Tanglefoot is best to use, as it lasts sticky for
nine months, and can be put on the bark direct, except on
Peach trees. Arsenate of lead is the best wash for Winter
Moths.

Magpie Moth (Abraxas grossulariata).

Another Geometer is represented by the Magpie Moth
(Abraxas grossulariata), whose black and white ‘“loopers”
devour currant, nut, apricot, and other leaves. Unlike the
Winter Moths, the Abraxas larva spins a very slight case of
silk, in which the “looper” is transformed into a black-and
yellow-banded pupa upon the currant-bushes, &c., and neighbour-
ing walls and fences, always above-ground. The moths have a
wing expanse of two inches; they are creamy white, spotted
208 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

and banded with black and yellow ; we may see them in almost
any garden in July and August, flying lazily about over the
currant-bushes at dusk. The
eggs, which are oblong yellow-
ish bodies, are laid upon the
leaves. The young larve are
almost black, and go on feed-
ing until the foliage gets too
dry, when they repair to their
winter quarters, in the crevices
of walls, amongst the dead
leaves that collect at the forks
of the bushes, and other places :
they are at this time about a
quarter of an inch long, and
dark in colour. As soon as
the currants show leaf in the
spring, they come forth and
commence to feed again, and
Fic. 107.—Live-wistory oF CURRANT OR Bas meeiee any clei sash
Magpiz Morn (Abrazas grossulariata). harm. Eventually, about the
middle of June they reach an
inch and a quarter in length, and are black and white, with
orange markings at the sides,—the pupal stage lasting until
July and August.
Remedies.—Destruction of winter shelter and early spraying
with arsenate of lead will keep this pest well in hand.

 

Microlepidoptera.

The Microlepidoptera are all small moths, many very minute.
The antenne are thread-shaped. There are two chief sections :
(i) Tortricina; (ii) Tineina. There are several important families,
containing some species of economic importance, especially the
Tortricid, Carpocapsidir, Platellidw, and Tineide, The Pyr-
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 209

alidew are also included in this group; they have long and
narrow wings, short palpi, and long-pointed abdomen, reaching
far beyond the wings. Their larve are shiny, and often have
a few scattered hairs over the body. Some pupate in cocoons,
others like butterfly larve. One species, the Garden Pebble-
Moth (Pionea forficalis), is sometimes injurious to garden pro-
duce, otherwise they are of little economic importance. The
Crambide form another family popularly called “grass moths” ;
they have long wings and long palpi, the front wings narrow,
the hind ones ample and broad. In the true Crambide the
wings fold up in a tubular form when at rest. One family,
the Galeriz/e or Bee-Moths, are injurious to bee-keepers, for
their larve live in the comb and weaken the stock. Improve-
ments in apiculture have, however, done away with the loss
from this pest.

The Tortricide and Carpocapside are most important.
These insects have a narrow body, not extending beyond the
hind- wings. Fore- wings short and broad, truncate at the
extremity, hind-wings also broad. The larve live very often
in rolled-up leaves; others live in seeds and fruit, and in the
flower-heads of plants. Most of the larve are pale in colour,
delicate in texture, and slightly hairy, with a large brown head.

The Codliny Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella).

The members of the genus Carpocapsa live inside seeds and
fruits in the larval stage. The Codling Moth is one of the
Carpocapside, is half an inch across the wings; the fore-wings
are grey, with dark wavy lines, and a metallic patch at each
corner; the hind-wings are slaty grey. They appear in the
orchards soon after the blossom has fallen from the apple-
trees, when the female deposits her eggs on the side of the
young fruit. The minute Codling maggot enters the apple
at the calyx, and then commences to burrow into the fruit,

0
210 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

where it matures, causing so-called ‘ maggotty ” apples and
“early windfalls.” ‘They first burrow to the centre and then
to the outside, where they form a large hole through which
the “frass” is passed out. The maggot devours the core.

When mature, the larva is a little more than half an inch
long, pale pinkish white
with scattered hairs over
it, and the usual number
of legs. On reaching the
full-grown stage the mag-
vot leaves the apple: if
the fruit remains still on
the tree it lowers itself
down by a thread of silk
to the ground, or crawls
down ; often the apple has
fallen by the time the larva
is full fed. The majority
reascend the tree and spin
cocoons of dirty-white silk
beneath the bark, in which
Fig. 108.—Copiine Morn (Carpocapsa they turn to chestnut- brown
pomonell),
pupe. Some larve remain
as such in the cocoon until
the spring, others pupate in the autumn. In America there
may be three or more broods, but in Britain it is usually
single brooded. All kinds of apples are attacked, no variety
being immune as far as is known. This pest is found all
over the world. It has been distributed in fruit. In many
cases it is accountable for the loss of quite half of the crop,
especially in badly kept orchards. Pears are also attacked.
Prevention and Remedies.—This pest is one of the easiest to
prevent and destroy if taken in time. It is surprising how
many larvee can be trapped by tying a band of cloth round the
tree trunks close to the ground: the ascending caterpillars here

 

1, Larva; 2, pupa; 3, imago; 4, diseased fruit.
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 211

find shelter and pupate; the bands can be taken off in the
winter and burnt with the cocoons in their folds. Many, how-
ever, change on the ground, especially if rough grass grows
beneath the trees; this should all be destroyed in the winter.
Fowls and pigs turned into the orchards in late summer do
much good in lessening their numbers. Spraying with arsenate
of lead directly the blossom has fallen kills the larve as they
enter the apple, for their first bite is arsenic that has lodged
in the calyx. Needless to say, cleaning off rough bark and
destroying it in winter is beneficial, for by so doing many
cocoons are destroyed.

Another noxious Tortrix is the Pea Moth (Grapholitha
pisana), whose larvee inhabit pea-pods, living partly in the peas
and so spoiling their market value: this small slaty-grey moth
is not half an inch across the wings. The female lays her eggs
in the quite young pea-pod before it is properly formed.

A great number of Tortrix larve feed on apple, pear, and
plum, spinning the leaves and blossom together.

The commonest species found are Tortrix ribeana, T. heparana,
and Penthina pruniana. Several others also occur in great
numbers amongst fruit foliage.

Tineine are small moths, having long narrow wings with
long fringes of hairs (fig. 110, p). Some are very small. At
least one-third of our British moths belong to this group. The
larvee vary in regard to the number of their legs; sixteen is the
usual number, but in the genera Gracilaria, Lithocolletis, &c.,
there are only fourteen, whilst in Neptecula there are eighteen ;
in Antispila the larve are quite apodal. The larve vary as
much in habits as in structure: some are miners, forming fine
tunnels in leaves; some roll up leaves; the Coleophoride live
in peculiar cases almost like snail-shells (fig. 110, a); clothes
form a shelter for one group, and numberless others live in a
variety of ways. Amongst the injurious species we must at
least mention the well-known
212 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

Diamond-hach Moth (Plutella macul/pennis).

In 1891 the east coast of Great Britain was ravaged by
countless numbers of this moth, whose larve feed on turnip,
cabbage, and most other cruciferous plants, devouring the
leaves down to the midrib, It was estimated that in a single
year this little pest, which is well known over most parts of
England, caused £20,000 worth of damage to root-crops alone.
Before that year and since it has done harm in many districts.
The moth, which is a native, has long narrow wings, the fore
pair being reddish- or slaty-brown, with a pale yellowish-white
border posteriorly ; the
hind - wings are grey,
with long fringes of
hair, a feature seen in
| all Tineine. When
My the wings are folded
the pale edges of the
front ones come close
together, and form dia-
mond - shaped areas,
hence its popular

Fic. 109,—Dramowp-nack Motu (Plidella name. The moths (fig.
maculipennts). 109) appear ae Tae

and July, and lay

their eggs on the under-side of the leaves. The larve are at first
grey, then green in colour, about half an inch long when full-
grown: they feed ravenously on the under-side of the leaf.
When frightened by any shock they drop off, hanging by a
silken cord, which they use to regain the leaf when the
supposed danger has passed. In from four to five weeks the
larvee are mature, and then spin a network-like tube of loose
yellowish silk on the leaf, blocking up one end with their cast
skin and covering the other with a few threads. Inside a
black_and greyish-white pupa will be found. As pupe they

 

Moth, larva, and cocoon (nat. size, and magnified).
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS). 213

remain from two to three weeks. There are two broods in the
year in most places—the winter being passed in the pupal stage
on dead leaves, &e.

Remedies.—This is an extremely difficult pest to cope with,
as it feeds on the under-surface of the foliage. But their habit
of falling off the leaf when disturbed puts them to some extent
under our control. An ingenious plan used by a Yorkshire
farmer was to attach boughs to the nozzles of the “straw-
soniser” in front, so that the silken cords of the larve are
broken, and they then fall to the ground and are reached by
the insecticide used. Paraffin emulsion is as good as any to
spray with. Where no “strawsoniser” can be got, taking the
“scuffler” through the roots with supple birch or broom twigs
attached will knock the larve off; a little plough following
after will kill the pests as they lie on the ground. It was
noticed in 1891 that the caterpillars all suddenly disappeared
after a heavy rainstorm. Most larve of moths are unable to
stand a heavy downpour. Luckily a number of Ichneumons
prey on this pest, and help to keep its numbers down.

The Cherry-tree Case-bearer (Coleophora anatipencila).

The Coleophoricde are all very small Tineine, with greyish
pointed wings fringed with long hair. Their larve live in
variously formed cases, by which they may very easily be
identified. (C. anatipenella appears in July and August, and
lays her.ova upon the leaf of the cherry- and apple-trees, The
young larvee soon commence to form a case, which in this species
is pistol-shaped, dark-brown with a white border ‘around the
opening (fig. 110, a). In form it is something like a snail-shell:
The larvee live inside these cases on the léaves, and éat away
the ‘tissue in the same way as the pear ‘slug-worm. They grow
slowly, and remain on the stem and boughs of the: cherry-trees
all the winter. The case is so like the colour of the bark that
they are then very difficult to detect. The larvee pupate in
214 LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS).

these cases, and then remain closely attached to the leaves or
the twigs. They move slowly, the larva putting its head

 

Fic. 110.—Cierry-Trer CasE-bearer (Coleaphora anotipenctlu).

a, Larva in case; B, larva free; c, pupa; D, adult.

and three front segments and six legs well out when crawling
about.

Remedies.—Arsenical washes soon kill them; no contact
washes have any effect, as they are protected by their so-called
“houses.”

The Raspberry Shoot-borer (Lampronia rubiella).

Raspberry shoots are often attacked by the larvee of one of
the Tineine. This moth comes out the end of May and in
June, and lays its eggs in the flowers; from these hatch the
larvee, which feed in the core of the berries, which they leave
before ripe and fall or crawl to the ground. They then find
shelter and spin a flat white cocoon 74; inch in diameter. These
cocoons are generally under the rough rind of the canes, or in
cracks and crevices, stones, &c. In the spring they come forth
and bore into the shoots, where they pupate in May. The shoots
LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS), 215

thus die, especially the young ones, and wither up. The larva
is red, with a black head, with the second segment brown
above, about 4 inch long. The moth is
about } of an inch in wing expanse; the
fore-wings are shiny brown with yellow dots,
two being large spots on the inner margin
and four smaller ones along the costa.
Prevention.—After a bad attack of L.
rubella it is advisable to cut back the
canes and burn them, and let them make
a fresh growth next year. Applications
round the stocks in the early spring, of

 

soot and lime or paraffin and sand, are said Gece oe
to do some good: poles with the rind jmeysi?%™ Image and
on should always be avoided, as they

harbour the larvee in the winter. As many larve ascend the

canes in spring, smearing grease over them in March has been

found useful.

Another species, Incurvaria capitella, or the Currant-borer,
works on currant shoots and also on the fruit. The moth is dark
brown with a purplish tinge, with a pale yellow band near the
inner margin of the wing and two yellow spots on the fore-
wings. The eggs are laid in May, in the young fruit in which
the larve live until the fruit is destroyed. They then pass out
and form a cocoon on the wood and in crevices, and remain
there until the following spring, when they enter the shoots.
The larva is greenish, with a red patch on the 9th segment and
black 2nd segment.

The Pear-leaf Blister Moth (Cemiostoma scitella. Zeller).

Amongst the Tineine are many which tunnel into foliage
when larve: some form long galleries, as the Rose-leaf Miner
(Nepticula anomallella) ; others round blisters, as seen in the
Pear-leaf Blister Moth (fig. 112). This moth appears in
216 LEPIDOPLERA (MOTHS).

May or even the eut of April, and then again in late June
and July into August.
The moth has leaden-
grey wings with a
brownish-grey streak
running from the costa
obliquely across the
wing; two white
streaks also run from
the costa, nearer the
Hie. he ee any Pinson Bie Gi, “egpamntedl yp
coppery band, which

runs half across the wing; beneath there is a black spot with
a violet pupil, and the fringe has four radiating dark lines;
hind wings leaden-grey, length
} inch, eggs laid under the

 

leaves, and the larve enter
the tissue and form the brown
circular blisters ; they are |
inch long with four pairs
of curious lateral processes.
When mature they crawl out
and spin a cocoon in crevices
in the bark and even in the
soil. The cocoons are of
white silk. It remains as a
pupa all the winter. Apple
is also attacked, and Haw-
thorn.
Attacked leaves should be
hand-picked,
Pig. 113.--Prax Lar wi tsreRED ny A number of Tineine attack
Cemiostome seitella,
stored corn, especially in mills,
such as the Corn Moth (7inea yrancila) and the Mediterranean
Flour Moth (Aphestia hithniclla), but they are of little concern
to the farmer, fruit-grower, and gardener.

 
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES, 217

DIPTERA,

or True Fires.

The Diptera form the last order of insects with a complete
metamorphosis. They can easily be identified by the presence
of a single pair of wings—the posterior
or second pair being reduced to two
club-shaped processes called “ balancers,”
“halteres,” or ‘‘poisers” (fig. 114). ‘The
two anterior wings are flat membranous Fic. tess Aan Ors
expansions, never completely covered with ,
scales, although they are present in mosquitoes (Culicidw) (fig.
115) and a few gall-flies (Cecidomyidw). Hairs are often present
on the wings, both upon and around them. Some Diptera, such

 

 

Fic. 115.

A Mosquito (Lheobaldia annulata), 3. Heap or A Mosquiro (Piercing
(Enlarged twice.) mouth).

A, Hypopharynx ; L/, lower lip; Ul,
upperlip; Md, mandible; Ma, maxilla ;

Lp, palpi.
as the fleas (Pulicide), fig. 148, and the Sheep-ticks (Melophaga),
fig. 146, are entirely apterous. In regard to the mouth parts of
Diptera there is also much variation : some have sucking mouths
218 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

(Bombylius), others piercing mouths (Lubanus or the Gad-fly),
fig. 126 ; in the Warble-flies (Gestritv) the mouth is rudiment-
ary, the adults taking no nourishment. There is never a sting ;
flies wound by piercing with the mouth, but not, as is often
supposed, by stinging. The labium of the mouth (fig. 115, £/)
is greatly elongated, and forms a kind of gutter for the reception
of the lancet-shaped maxilla and mandibles. The proboscis,
made up of the labium, &c., ends in a fleshy swollen tongue,
and is closed above hy the labrum. There are no true labial
palpi, but the processes at the tip of the labium called /ahelhe
are thought to represent them. The head is large, and united
to the thorax by a very short neck. The thorax is large and
compact, the prothorax closely united to the mesothorax, and
forming a thin collar or two lobes. The eggs of flies are
usually oval or  spindle-
shaped bodies, of a white
or black colour, sometimes
laid singly, at others in
groups. The larve are
mostly white footless mag-
gots; no true legs are ever
present. Thirteen segments
is the usual number present,
: but in some fourteen may
: : be found (fig. 117, a). The

Fic, 116.—PLumep Gnat (Chirononus
plumosus). head may be horny and
complete, or may be re-
duced to a simple pair of hooks, the mandibles (fig. 132, p);
the body may be naked (fig. 117, a) or bristly (fig. 133, 7).
Most are terrestrial, but some have aquatic larve—Culicideu
(Mosquitoes), Chironomide (Midges) (fig. 116), and Eristalider
(Rat-tailed Flies), The genera Volurella, Tarhina, and Conops
are parasitic in their larval stage on other insects; the genera
Hypoderma, Gastrophitus, estrus, Lueilia, and Sarcophagus,
Xe, on vertebrates. When mature, dipterous larve may or

 
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 219

may not cast off the larval skin. The naked pupve (fig. 117)
are very varied, often armed with spines and bristles (fig.
124, 5). Those that retain the larval skin as a case form
so-called “‘puparia,” the true pupa being found in the brown
case, formed of the maggot’s old skin much hardened (fig.
65, A, i. and ii.)

Diptera are divided into two large sections, the Orthorrhapha
and the Cyclorrhapha. The first have their larve with a dis-
tinct chitinous head, and their pupe escape from the larval skin
by a T-shaped rent; the second have no chitinous head, and
the pupa or imago escapes from the larval skin by a circular
opening.

There are two divisions in the Orthorrhapha—the Nema-
tocera and the Brachycera,—the former with thread-like many-
jointed antenne, the latter with antenne composed of two or
three large basal joints with a multiarticulate bristle (fig. 145, a).
Lastly, there are the Puptpara, which produce their young in a
fully matured state as puparia.

There are many flies extremely harmful to the agriculturist
and gardener. Some carry diseases from man to man and
animal to animal (Mosquitoes and Malaria, Tsetse Flies and
Sleeping Sickness).

Cecidomyide, or Gall-Gnats.

This family contains only small flies, some of which are
distinctly harmful, such as the Hessian Fly (Cecidomyta de-
structor), the Wheat Midge (Diplosis tritic’), and the Pear
Midge (Diplosis pyrivora). The Cecids have very few veins in
their wings, hairy antenne, and often hairy wings. The larve
are sometimes white, at others red in hue, and composed of —
fourteen segments. They always have on the under surface,
close to the anterior extremity, a curious process called the
Breast Bone or Anchor Process (fig. 118). Many larve form
galls, in which they live, and may or may not pupate there.
220 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

The larvee mostly change in their old skin, which hardens and

forms a case or puparium.

Tue Hesstan Fry (Crcipomyra DESTRUCTOR).

In 1886 there was a great scare in Britain concerning this
pest, which was thought to have been introduced from America.
It was not, however, but is an undoubted native species. ‘The
damage caused by this midge is very severe on the American

 

Fig. 117.—a, Larva, AND B, Pova or a Cecidomyia (greatly enlarged).

continent; but here it only now and then makes itself suff-
ciently noxious to call for special attention. The adult fly is a
small hairy creature, brownish in colour, with pinkish markings
on the abdomen in the female, much darker in the male. It
belongs to the genus Creidemyia, which can be told by the
venation of the wings shown in figure 119. The small reddish-
white cylindrical eggs are laid by the female in rows on the
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 221

leaf of the young wheat-plants in May; the small white
maggots crawl down the leaf, and bury themselves in the
leaf-sheath, generally taking up their
position above the second node froin
the ground. Here these little white
larve feed upon the sap of the plant,
and turn to the curious “ flax - seed”
stage, in which the larva remains in its
old skin, which has hardened to form F!- 18—Axcnor Procnsses.
the puparium, and which resembles a ay is WP We ee,
flax-seed in appearance. The larve are "°°"?

at times pale green, at others tinted with red. In these flax-
seeds the larva turns to a minute pale-brown pupa. These flax-
seeds may remain as such all the winter, or they may give
rise to a second brood of flies. This second brood hatches
out in September, long before our wheat is up, and thus have
to lay their eggs on other plants, such as couch and timothy
grass, pupating there in

the spring, and then oe ay
give rise to the May tk eae a
brood. The presence of
this pest in a field is

very marked. The straw,
as soon as the ear be-
gins to develop, bends over above the second node, and
looks as if weather-beaten, the grain being small, if not
spoilt. In America the second brood lays its eggs on the
young winter wheat, the larve living in the crown of
the plant just beneath the ground, and causing the leaves to
present an unhealthy dark and broad appearance, the central
leaf usually disappearing. It is this method of attack that is
the most severe, whole strips of wheat being entirely killed by
it; but for obvious reasons we cannot suffer from this form of
attack on our side of the Atlantic. The Hessian fly is most
prevalent in the eastern counties of England, but may be found

 

Fic. 119.—Wina oF CecIpoMYIA.
222 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

all over the south, west, and in Yorkshire, &c. A second brood
is the exception here, the insect passing the winter in the flax-
seed stage, which remains very often, if the corn is not cut
close, in the “gratten.” Numbers may also be seen in the
cavings and screenings from the threshing-machine. Wheat,
barley, and rye, as well as the wild grasses mentioned, are
attacked, but never oats.

Prevention and Remedies,—In those areas where C. destructor
is very abundant it is well to use the stouter-strawed varieties
of corn, and to burn the stubble after an attack by firing the
borders of the fields. All infested screening should be destroyed,
and light grain, which may often contain the flax-seeds as well,
given to stock. The Hessian fly is subject to a number of
Hymenopterous enemies. In 1888 Mr Enock bred from 1694
flax-seeds 58 more parasites than flies.

Tue Wueat Mince (DipLosis tRITICI).

The Wheat Midge is very prevalent in England, and causes
persistent loss in corn-growing districts. It is about the same
size as the Hessian fly,

but more delicate in

structure, and yellow or

orange in colour, except

the eyes which are black.

It belongs to another

Fia. 120.—Wina oF Dirrosis. genus, Diplosis, whose
characteristic wing ven-

ation is given in fig. 120. The female fly has quite a long
ovipositor, and may often be seen in the fields in clouds, flying
about low down amongst the stalks close to the ground in the
daytime, when disturbed, but at sunset they come up to the
ears to deposit their eggs in the florets of the wheat. The
larvee are yellowish-red in colour, and feed off the developing
grains, thus spoiling them. Numbers of larve are found in
each ear, and cause a disease generally spoken of as “red gum”
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES, 223

or “red maggot” by farmers, The larve mature by the time
the corn is ripening, and many go down to the ground to
pupate, the puparia being orange-coloured bodies. Others
which are not full fed get harvested, and we find them often
quite abundant in the screenings. From these puparia next
June the wheat midges hatch out, and continue their noxious
habits. It is strange, when collecting these flies in the field,
how few males one ever sees. But, on the other hand, where
heaps of machine rubbish are left about, there in June, often
hovering in clouds above the heaps, males and females may be
seen in copuld in equal numbers. This pest is not confined to
Great Britain, but is equally abundant in America. From
personal observation I find the female lays about ten to twenty
eggs in each ear at dusk.

Prevention.—These flies are very delicate creatures, and can-
not escape through the soil unless close to the surface, where we
usually find the red puparia. Therefore, deeply ploughing in
the stubble in the following way cannot fail to do good—
namely, by having a skim-coulter attached to the plough in
such a way that it will take off an inch or so of the surface
and turn it into the preceding furrow, thus burying larvee
and puparia to such a depth that they cannot escape when
mature. Another important thing to do is to destroy all
infested rubbish from the machines, for over those rubbish-
heaps, as already said, breeding largely takes place. In America
the plan of not reaping too close and burning the stubble
must also do good. JD. tritici also feeds on timothy grass and
meadow cock’s-foot.

Tue Pzar Mince (DirLosis PYRIvORa).

During recent years attention has been repeatedly drawn to
the loss amongst pears caused by Cecid larvee. The fly which
gives rise to these was described as Cecidomyta nigra by
Meigen, but has been redescribed and named by Professor
Riley Diplosis pyrivora. It is destructive in America as well
224 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

as in Europe. Diseased pears become distorted about the time
they are slightly larger than the size of a hazel-nut, presenting a
well-marked appearance by which they can be always detected.
The fly (fig. 121) is a minute midge about the size of the wheat
midge, but blackish-grey in colour. The female lays her eggs in
the unopened blossoms, just when the petals commence to show
themselves. Sometimes I have observed them oviposit in the
opened blossoms. The white larvee feed off the upper parts of
the young fruit first, and by degrees turn the inside black and
hollow it out: as many as sixty larve may frequently be found

 

Fie. 121.—Tue Pear Mipar.

i, Pear stunted and malformed by the larve within it; 2, section of pear with
larva:; 3, larva, much magnified; 4, female fly, much magnified. Lines show
natural length of fly and larva. (From U.S.A. Dept. Agriculture.)

in one fruitlet. The pears are thus completely destroyed. The
maggots rarely pupate inside the dead pear, which turns black
and shrivels up; generally they escape into the ground. The
fly is about one-twelfth of an inch long and greyish-black in
colour, with pale-brown antennz, and abdomen covered with
pale hairs. Wings hairy, and halteres yellow, with white
knobs. The eggs hatch in four to six days. The maggots
are creamy-white, about one-seventh of an inch long, and
commence to reach maturity about the first week in June.
They may, I find, stay in the dead pear for some time; but
eventually they get into the ground, where they form little cells
to pupate in. All varieties of pears suffer to some extent.
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 225

Prevention and Remedies.—As far as possible, all infested
fruitlets should be destroyed, but this is not always feasible.
At present the most successful preventive seems to be kainit
spread under the trees after infestation, at the rate of half a
ton to the acre (Professor J. B. Smith). If the kainit is used
at the time the larve are falling to the ground, 5 ewt. to the
acre is sufficient. Removal of the soil for some two inches
deep and burning it in the winter would do much good where
possible, but it is a troublesome and risky plan, not to be
advised except in very local attacks.

Tus Crucirer Mince (C. prassicm).

Another member of the same family is often injurious to
turnip and cabbage seed. The larve of this midge live in the
seeds of turnip, rape, and cabbage, in the pods. As many as
sixty may often be found in one pod, which they cause to turn
prematurely yellow and to burst. The fly has a black head and
thorax, pinkish abdomen banded with dark-brown, and black
legs which are silvery beneath. The female has a long white
ovipositor, and lays her eggs in the young pods. We find the
larve in May and June: they are white, often with a greenish-
yellow stripe down the middle. They reach one-twelfth of an
inch in length when mature, and fall to the ground out of the
split pod and there pupate, coming forth as the second brood of
flies in a few days hence. I have found it has three broods at
times. Little can be done to prevent its damage, which is often
severe,

Numerous other Cecids make their effects felt, but space for-
bids our even mentioning them here.

The Bibionide form a family of dark flies with broad bodies,
short legs, and the tibia armed with thick spines. They
frequent damp meadows, and some of the genus Bilio appear in
great numbers. One species, the Fever Fly (Dilophus febrilis),

P
226 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

sometimes occurs in hop-cones in swarms. The larve of the
Bibionide (fig. 122, b) are cylindrical or fusciform maggots which

 

Fic, 122.—Brbioniv.£,
a, Adult Bibio mirei; B, larva and pupa of B. promone,

live in earth, decaying stems of plants, and on the roots of
plants. They are mostly saprophytic, but some (Bibio hortu-
lanus, &c.) are injurious in their larval stage to hop roots and
those of many garden plants.

Closely related to
these are the Simulide
or Sand-flies (fig. 123),
which swarm in damp
places. The females
attack man, birds, and
animals, drawing out
the blood, and cause
great irritation. The
larve live in running

 

Fia, 123.—A Sanp-r_y (Simulium reptans).
a, Ungues and pulvilli of Simulium ; B, of Dilophus. water. Poultry is at-
tacked by them = in

South Africa and also in America, where they are also known
as Turkey gnats.

Another important family in the Nematocera are the

Tipulide or Crane-flies,

popularly called the Daddy-long-legs. Tipulide can at once be
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES, 227

told by their long slender legs, which so readily fall off. The
larvee are called “ Leather-jackets,” and are root-feeders ; some
also live in decaying wood, and others in water. The pupe are
armed with bristles, and are always naked.

Tue Common ORANE-FLY (TIPULA OLERACEA).

The female Crane-fly is brownish-grey, with a silvery hue, the
wings having testaceous veins. The female is provided with a

 

Fic. 124.—CRANE-FLY (Tipula oleracea).

land 2, Male and female; 3, ova; 4, larva; 5, pupa.

sharp conical ovipositor, the end of the male is blunt. The
female, by means of this tube, lays black spindle-shaped eggs
228 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

in the soil and on the grass near some plants—the greater the
shelter the more they frequent it, hence we find these pests
always most frequent in permanent pastures. They prefer
damp spots to oviposit—in fact, most Tipulide frequent damp
and swampy places, some larve living in water, even in brine
pools. The black ova of the crane-fly soon hatch out into the
larve, The adults appear twice a-year, one brood in the spring
and early summer, the second in the autumn. The larve of
the second brood live through the winter, and pupate in the
summer. The majority hatch out in the autumn. The grubs
are called “ Leather-jackets” (fig. 124, 4), on account of their
tough skin, which is brown and wrinkled. They have a blunt
anal extremity, which has a few finger-like processes on it.
The roots of practically all plants are attacked by them, and
are so eaten away as to kill the plant. The pupe are brown
(fig. 124, 5), and provided with circles of spines; the head has
two curved horns (palp cases). We find them in the ground,
forcing their way up when ready to emerge by means of the
spines, until half the pupal case projects out of the earth, when
the shell splits and the fly emerges, soon to deposit fresh ova.
Other species, as the Spotted Crane-tly (Pachyrhina maculusa,
Tipula puludosa, T. lateralis), also cause loss.

Prevention an? Remedics.—Gas-lime is very injurious to these
grubs, and may be well employed on land when it is infested
with ‘“ Leather-jackets.” It is especially valuable put upon
mould and leaf-heaps, where crane-flies lay their eggs abun-
dantly, as a preventive of oviposition. The drainage of damp
land often checks their presence. Brush-harrowing grass land
when we see the flies about is advantageous, as it disturbs and
crushes the eggs laid by the female. It is said that the larve
come out on to the surface at night, and that rolling with a
Cambridge ring-roller then does much good by crushing them.
Vaporite I have found fatal to them. Birds are the great
natural check of this pest, those that are beneficial being
mentioned in another chapter.

 
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES, 229)

WINTER-GNATS (TRIcHocERA IIEMALIS AND T. REGELATIONIS).

These delicate little Tipulide (fig. 125) are found dancing in
the air in clouds in the winter months whenever the weather is
warm. They are brownish-grey, with four brown stripes on the
thorax, 7’. heemalis having spotless wings, while 7. regelutionis
has a dark spot on each wing at the cross veins. The larve
live in rotting turnips; they are cylindrical, and taper to a

 

Fic, 125,—Winter Gnats (L'richocera).

1, 2, Larva of T. hiemalis; 3, 4, pupa; 5, 6, imagines; 7, nat. size.

point at the head end, about half an inch long, and dirty
greyish-yellow in colour. They need no further comment,
except that they may be generally looked upon as useful
insects, helping the speedy decay of roots, &c., in the soil.
Now and again, however, they have been known to attack
sound plant tissue.

Amongst the Brachycera are some of great importance: only
one group can be mentioned here, namely, the

Gad-flies or Tabanide.

Gad-flies are large flies with a flattened body and large broad
head closely united to the thorax (fig. 127, c). They are all
230 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

provided with a sharp piercing mouth (fig. 126, 8), with which
they suck the blood of man, horses, and cattle. The females

 

Fic. 126.—a, HEAD, AND B, PRoposcis OF TABANUS AUTUMNALIS.
(After Delafond.)

a, Antenna; p, maxillary palp; t, proboscis; s, mandibles and maxilliw; ls, epi-
pharynx ; la, hypopharynx ; li, labium.

are especially bloodthirsty ; the males feed off the nectar of
flowers. The larve (fig. 127, p) live in the ground, and are

 

Fig. 127.—Ox Gap-riy (Tabanns bovinus).

«, Imago; p, larva; BE, pupa.

carnivorous in habits. They are also known under the names of
Horse-flies, Breeze-flies, Seruts, and Brimps. There are several
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 231

species very common in Britain, notably Humatopoda plavialts,
Chrysops cecutiens, Tabanus bovinus, and T. autumnalis, The
first named is about half an inch long, whitish-grey, covered
with pale dull hairs in the female, dark-grey in the male, wings
mottled grey. The last two are especially troublesome in the
New Forest, where they often tease horses severely. 7’. bovinus
is frequently called the Ox Gad-fly ; and some specimens reach
more than an inch in length. In colour the male is dark-brown
on the thorax, with five pale stripes, and pale yellowish hair ;
abdomen reddish-brown, with a black central line and tip, and
with a pale spot in the middle of the posterior borders of the
first to the fifth segments; the under-side of the abdomen
orange colour. Eyes green. Wings yellowish-brown, veins
yellowish in places. Legs dark-brown, except tibia, which are
yellowish-red. The female has a curious coppery sheen over
the green eyes, and the abdomen is flatter than in the male.
An allied species, called 7. sudeticus, is often mistaken for T.
bovinus, but can at once be told by the eyes being brown, with
a coppery sheen. 7’. autwmnalis is also common: it is much
smaller than the above, not much larger than five-sixths of an
inch in length ; its general appearance is grey, the thorax having
five grey stripes; the greyish-brown abdomen has three rows of
paler grey spots, the central one somewhat triangular.

Chrysops cwcutiens, or the Blinding Storm-fly, is about half
an inch long; body with black and yellow markings. Eyes
golden green, with brilliant purple spots and lines; wings
black, with pale spaces in the male; transparent, banded with
black in the female. It is a most vicious biter. As far as is
known, they all feed in their larval state in the ground, and
amongst wet decaying vegetation, in sand and soil generally.
The larve are long, cylindrical grubs, yellowish-white in colour,
with darker transverse bands ; they are somewhat enlarged in
the middle, and change to naked pupe (fig. 127, =) in the soil.
The adults come forth much in the same way as the crane-fly :
these immobile pups can be told by the six spines on the
232 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

last segment (in Tabanus bovinus). The Tabanide are chiefly
abundant in well-wooded places, especially where water is near.
The warmer the day the more ravenous and bloodthirsty the
females become—at least that is my experience in Norway and
Switzerland, where animals suffer much more from them than
they do even in the New Forest. Tabanide can produce a loud
buzzing noise, and frighten stock, just as do the Warble-flies,
but the noise made by Tabanide is much sharper than the
dull hum of the Céstride. In tropical countries they are great
pests.

A plan to keep these pests off horses that I have seen
employed in the Bernese Oberland is to dress the horses over
with paraffin-oil and soap, rubbed with a sponge, and also with
walnut juice. Miss Ormerod mentions soluble phrenyl as
useful in one of her reports, but at present no substance is
known that has any great effect in this direction.

Other flies belonging to the section Cyclorrhapha are divided
into the Proboscidea and Eprouboscidea. The Proboscidea con-
tain the majority of flies, the following being some important
economic groups :—

Hover-fiies, or Syrphide.

The Syrphide are all moderate-sized flies, often brilliantly
coloured, generally with banded bodies, yellow or white and
black or brown being the predominating colours. They hover
in the air like a hawk, suddenly darting off and again remain-
ing hovering at a fresh spot. We only see them in the bright
sunlight, and may notice them flying and hovering over plants,
upon the nectar of which the adults feed. At other times we
see them busy over colonies of Aphides, for here they deposit
their eggs, their curious, almost repulsive-looking larve (fig.
128, 2 and 5) feeding upon plant-lice, which they devour with
great rapidity. The larvie are yellow, green, or red in colour,
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 233

with a narrow anterior extremity, and are leech-like in move-
ment. They pupate on the leaves where they have been feeding
in sac-shaped cases or puparia (fig. 128, 3 and 6). The typical
genus is Syrphus, of which there are a great number of species.
Most have broadish flat abdomens, often almost transparent,
with yellow and black bands, and extremely delicate pale-
coloured legs. S. rébesit and S. balteatus, and the black and

 

Fic. 128. -HovER-FLIES (Syrphidw).

1, Syrphus balteatus ; 2, larva devouring aphis; 3, pupa; 4, Catabomba pyrastri ; 5,
larva; 6, pupa; 7, Syrphus ribesit.
white Catabomba pyrastri, are perhaps our commonest species
living on plant-lice. Some also feed on Scale insects (Coccida).

Other genera are parasitic (Volucella), living in the nests of
Humble-bees (V7. bombylans) and Wasps (V. zonaria), and
mimic the colour and appearance of the insects they live
amongst.

Warble-flies, or Cistride.

This family of flies is most obnoxious to our domestic and
wild mammals, upon which they live as parasites during their
larval period, Some also live upon man. The larve are called
“bots,” and live under the skin, in the head, and in the
stomach and intestines of animals. The most injurious species
are the Ox-warbles (Hypoderma bovis and H. lineata), the
234 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

Sheep Nasal-fly (Gstrus ovis), and the Horse-bots (Gastrophilus
equi, G. nasalis, &c.), which we will deal with in the above-
mentioned order.

Ox-WaRBLEs oR Bot-riy (HYPODERMA BOVIS AND H. LINEATA).

These two species, which are very similar in appearance, at
one time caused serious loss amongst beasts: the annual amount,
according to Miss Ormerod, was something like £7,000,000.
But, thanks to her great energies, this
serious malady has been checked, although
it still does a great amount of harm. The
Ox-Warble fly (fig. 129) is like a small
: hairy humble- bee in appearance, gaily
Me Uppode eu coloured with thick hair of yellow, black,

and red bands on the abdomen, and with

yellow and black marks on the thorax. The head of these
CEstride is large, but the mouth is very rudimentary, The
Warble-fly itself cannot bite like the Gad-fly; it pursues the
cattle to lay its eggs. The Ox-Warble fly ap-
pears in the summer from June to August and
September, delighting in hot still days, when
we can hear its low dull ‘‘ burr” in the air.
It is quite a mistake to fancy the Warble-flies
make no noise. I have frequently heard the
low hum produced by CGstrus ovis, and taken
the insect on the wing. The ox-pest lays its
eggs on the hair of the legs and flanks, and it
is these eggs that hatch into the so-called
en a “Ox-bots” (fig. 130). At first the young
larve are white and thread-like. They

are sometimes also red when examined in this condition.
For some little time they show no signs of their presence
externally, but a few months later a small swelling appears
over the “bot.” After the larva has moulted a second time

 

 
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 235

it becomes banded with prickles, which cause irritation and
inflammation of the immediate surrounding parts, and thus
the swelling or “warble” is produced. We notice these out-
ward signs of attack coming about January. The inflammation
set up by the bot produces matter, which eventually causes the
warble to burst at the top, a small round orifice appearing.
The “bot” lies beneath this, in a cell formed in the hypodermal
tissues, and when full grown squeezes its way out and falls to
the ground, where, wriggling under some tuft of grass or stone,
it pupates in its old larval skin. JZ. lineata is much like A.
bovis, but somewhat smaller.

The small maggots on hatching enter the skin and wander
about until they eventually reach the back or flank. At one
time they were supposed to be licked up by the cattle and enter
vid the mouth, but Carpenter has recently shown that muzzled
calves become parasitised.

Prevention and Treatment.—Smearing the back and loins of
beasts with some greasy substance, such as cart-grease and
paraffin, was recommended. As the flies lay their eggs on the
legs it is not surprising that this did little good. Smearing the
legs and flanks, however, is likely to be beneficial. As Warble-
flies are very susceptible to changes of temperature, and will
not enter shade or pass over water, giving the cattle shelter
either of trees or rough hovels in the meadows, or turning them
where they can run to water for protection, is advisable.
Remedial measures consist of destroying or extracting the larva
from the warble. Mercurial’ ointment is one remedy; a small
piece rubbed into the warble when it has just opened will soon
destroy the grub, and allow the wound to heal up. Not only
does the ointment kill the larva by blocking up the air-pores or
spiracles, but it destroys the grub in the cell; but it should not
be used in great quantities. Cart-grease and M‘Dougall’s smear
have similar effects, but are not nearly so certain in results.
There is nothing like the old plan of squeezing out the maggot
and killing it at once, before the warble has become too old.
236 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

Toe Saep Nasat-Fiy (CEstrus ovis).

Sheep are often seen shaking their heads and stamping on the
grouud; at other times running about with their noses close to
the grass. These are symptoms that Géstrus ovis is about, ready
to deposit its eggs or young. ‘The fly appears in the summer;
it is a dull-coloured insect, which we often see in sheep districts
at rest at dusk, and in cold weather on the sheep-pens and
hovels near the sheep. The female may deposit living young
or ova on the sheep’s nose, and the maggots crawl up the
mucous membrane and some enter the sinus of the head. The
majority live in the nasal passages, and when mature are
thrown out on to the grass during one of the violent fits of
sneezing that they often occasion by the irritation of the
mucous membrane. The puparia are found, like those of the
ox-bot, beneath some shelter on the ground. Many of the
bots in the sinus cannot escape, and thus die. On one occa-
sion the author extracted from the cerebral hemisphere a larva
of the fly, it probably having entered through the cribriform
plate of the ethmoid bone; in another case one was found in
the trachea. Sheep when suffering from this pest shake their
heads and wander restlessly about, and present some of the
symptoms of Sturdy. The disease for this reason is called
False-Gid ; it can be told from true Gid (Cwnurus cerebralis)
by the copious mucous discharge from the nostrils, and the
absence of that rotatory movement seen in sheep suffering from
Sturdy.

Prevention and Treatment consist in warding off the fly
attack by either placing some substance on the sheep’s nose
every now and then, such as strong smelling oils, removing
them for a year from pastures that are known to be con-
taminated with the puparia, and placing salt in tarred boxes,
so that the sheep get the creosote on their noses whilst
licking the salt.
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 237

Tue Horss-Bor (GAsTROPHILUS EQUI).

The Horse-bot Fly (fig. 131) is brownish-grey in colour, has
mottled brown wings, and appears much about the same time
as those just mentioned. The
eggs (a) are quite large objects,
laid on the hair of the horse
at the knees and shoulders, It
seems that at the same time
as the female lays her eggs she
places some irritating poison on
the skin, which causes the horse pyc, 131.—Horsn-nor FLy (Gastro-
to lick the spot. The warm philus equi) (slightly enlarged).

‘ a, Ova, enlarged.

breath hatches the larva, which

attaches itself to the tongue and crawls down the animal’s
throat, taking up its position in the left or cardiac portion
of the stomach (the white half). The
bots congregate here, and hold on to
the mucous membrane by their two-
hooked mandibles until mature. They
are pinkish-white barrel-shaped larve,
with circles of spines (fig. 132, a). We
see them sometimes sticking round the
horse’s anus. From six to nine months
are passed in the horse’s stomach;
when maturity is reached they pass out

vid the intestines to the exterior in the = pie. 192,—Larva or
HorskE-Bot Fry.

 

 

feces, pupating in a puparium case on the

ground, like H. bovis and CE. ovis. ioe Pe of
Prevention and Treatment. — Well - 2021 2nd of bots p, hooked

groomed horses seldom suffer from this

pest, because the eggs are detached by the “curry-comb.” Farm-

horses in districts where G. equ is abundant should have shelter

from the sun during the hot part of the day; and those in use

should have their knees and shoulders dressed with salt-and-
238 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

water and some deodorant, to deter the fly from ovipositing.
Salt is said to be good, but how it works is unaccountable.
Tartar emetic in two-drachm doses every day for ten days is
said to clear the “bots” out of the stomach. Other species,
such as G. nasalis and G. hemorrhoidalis, live in a similar way.

Several other “ bot-flies” occur in Britain (Hypoderma diana
and Cephenomyia rufibarbis, both on deer). Man is attacked
by Hypoderma linearis and H. bovis in Europe and America
(so-called Creeping Disease), and by the Dermatobia cyaniventris,
or the Torcel Fly, in 8S. America, and others.

Root-eating Flies (Anthomyide).

The Anthomyidz include a great number of flies which are
all more or less dull in colour, and covered with many bristles
and hairs. Their larvee are white footless grubs, which taper to

 

Fia. 183,—Root-Eatina Fires.

1, Larva of Phorbia brassice ; 2and 8, puparium of P. brassiew ; 4. and 5, A, radicum ;
6 and 7, larve of Homalomyia; 8 and 9, Homalomyia sp. (?)
a point towards the head end, and are blunt at the posterior
end. Several are very injurious to crops. No full description
of the adults will be given here, as they are all much alike:
only specialists are able to identify them with any certainty.
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 239

The larve live in the roots of plants and set up decay. The
most important are the following: the Onion Fly (Phorbia
cepetorum) ; the Cabbage-root Flies (P, brassicr, A. radicum, and
A, florals) ; and the Wheat-bulb Fly (Hylemyia coarctata).

Tue Onton Fy (PHORBIA CEPETORUM).

One of the most serious difficulties the onion-grower has to
contend with is the Onion Fly, whose larvae cause the maggot
in onions and their speedy decay. The onion fly is an ashy-
grey fly with black bristles and hairs, and with three black
stripes on the thorax; the abdomen has a row of large black
spots along it; the face is silvery-white, and the antenne are
black; the female has a yellow face, and is generally more

 

Fic. 134.—Onton Fry (Phorbia cepetorum).

aand b, Larva, nat. size, and magnified ; ¢ and d, puparia; e, imago.

ochreous in colour. The onion fly appears in April and May,
and has several broods during the year. The female lays her
ova near the young onions, and later on in the year on the
onion itself. The young maggots at once eat the young onion
below ground, and later feed inside until they are quite
hollowed out. Some plants are killed rapidly, but large onions
remain some time in a diseased state. When young onions are
attacked the maggots pass rapidly along the row. When an
older onion is destroyed, if the maggots are not mature they
240 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

leave it and also pass to the next onion through the ground.
Pupation takes place in the ground, and in the decaying onions,
—the pupa is in a chestnut-brown puparium case, as in all the
Proboscidea. At the end of the year the larve of the last
brood all pupate, and pass the winter as puparia in the ground,
some few being harvested with the onions. We frequently
turn up the chestnut-brown puparia in the winter, when digging
the beds over. The presence of onion fly can at once be told
by the leaves becoming flabby and turning yellow. When we
try to pull up the onion the leaves come off in the hands, the
plant being rotten. This rot is set up primarily by the onion
maggot, secondarily by fungi, bacteria, and damp attacking
the weakened bulb.

Prevention and Remedies.—Applications of soot over the
young plants to ward off attack. Pulling up diseased plants
and destroying them with the enclosed larve. Watering
around the young onions with paraffin emulsion. Early sowing
of seed, so as to get the plant well up before the fly comes.
Lightly earthing up the rows, so as to prevent the fly from
depositing her eggs: the larve cannot crawl far when young,
and thus die from want of food. Sprinkle common washing-
soda along the sides of the young plants, or hoe in vaporite.

CapBaGE-ROOT Fries (PHORBIA BRassic.4, ce.)

Cabbages and turnips are often attacked by the larve of the
above,—small white grubs, cylindrical in form, tapering to a
point towards the head end like the onion maggot. These grubs
may produce swellings or galls on the roots of cabbage, and tunnel
in the lower parts of the stalk ; these galled parts decay in wet
weather, and not only stop the plants from growing but often kill
them outright. They go on appearing all the year, there being
a number of successive broods. When the larva is full grown
it leaves the plant and turns to a brown puparium in the earth,
speckled with dark-brown. We find maggots in the very early
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES, 241

spring as well as puparia. The Cabbage Fly (P. brassie) is
ashy-grey, and hatches
from the puparium in
about three weeks: the
male has a black stripe
down the abdomen and
three on the thorax.
The fly galls on tur
nips must not be con-
fused with those of
the Turnip-Gall Weevil
(Ceutorhynchus suleicol- Fic. 135.—Tur Cappacr-roor Fiy (Phorbia
lis). The Radish Fly Drassiete)
(A, floralts) has a spiny maggot; A. radicum (fig. 133, 4), a
yellowish grub with two black points at the end of the tail.
Prevention and Treatment.—Little can be done when the
grubs are once installed
ina plant. Where cab-
bages are grown year
after year on the same
land, the soil is sure to
become contaminated
unless cleaned annual-
ly ; for this gas-lime, or,
better, vaporite, is re-
commended. Dibbling
in the plants with a
little soot and lime is

a cood deterrent s and Fic. 1836.—CARD DISC TO PREVENT Eq@a-LayING
2 2 OF CABBAGE FLy.

 

 

broadcasting the same

over young plants not only keeps off these flies but slugs as
well. All the diseased cabbage stalks and roots ought to be
burnt, instead of being put up in heaps to rot, when many of
the grubs will escape and pupate. Card discs are sometimes
used, as shown in fig. 136, to prevent egg-laying.

Q
242 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

Waear-putp Fry (HyLemyia COARCTATA).

The Wheat-bulb Fly is chiefly harmful in the Fen districts
to wheat, but occurs in many other parts. It is said to be
most destructive on land fallowed in the previous summer, and
where the crop has been so thin as to expose the land (Ormerod).
The Wheat-bulb Fly lays her eggs in the young wheat, the larva
‘living in the centre of the plant. The grub is white in colour,
and can be told by the curious pro-
cesses at the tail end. These larve
are found in April destroying the
young plant: they lie lengthways
up the plant, and reach from one-
fourth to one-third of an inch in
length. The puparia are found in

a saa ee May, from which the fly comes out

, ae : in July. The imago is very like the
Onion Fly: the thorax is grey, with pale sides and with stripes
above ; abdomen ashy-grey with an indistinct dorsal stripe ; legs
black with pale tibiz ; abdomen hairy. The female is entirely
ashy-grey, posterior and middle femora and tibie pale. The
attack often follows on fallow land, and it has been noticed to
occur after the land has been dressed with pond mud. Probably
couch-grass harbours this fly. Where it is prevalent, as in
some Fen districts, the seed should be sown thickly, and the
attacked crop given a good dressing of artificial manure.

 

Tur Mancoiy Fry (PE@oMYLA BET).

Amongst the pests common to Mangolds and Beets this
fly is perhaps the most important. The fly is an ashy-grey
with black bristles, very similar to the Onion Fly in general
appearance. It occurs as early as May, when it deposits
elongate white eggs (fig. 139, a) on the under-surface of
the mangold leaves, even on the cotyledons: these ova are
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 243

usually placed in groups of two, three, or four, close to-
gether, each egg being sculptured hexagonally. In a week
or ten days they hatch into small white maggots, which

 

Fic. 188.—MANnGoLp Fiy (Pegomyia betrr).

1 and 2, Male, nat. size, and mag.; 3 and 4, female, nat. size, and mag. ; 5 and 6,
larva, nat. size, and mag. ; 7 and 8, puparium, nat. size, and mag.

burrow into the soft mesophyll layers of the leaf: there these
footless grubs live for four weeks, forming first a small pale-
green patch, which gradually grows into a white and then
brown blister. When held up to the light the maggots can

 

B

 

Fia. 1389.—a, Ova or Manaoup FLy (Pegomyia bet), and p, adult.

be seen within. On reaching maturity they mostly fall out
to the ground, where, as in all this group of flies, the skin of
the larva hardens and forms a brown puparium, as soon as the
larva has pushed its way an inch or two under the soil. In
244 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES,

the summer the fly comes forth in about two weeks. There are
many generations in the year: the last all turn to puparia, and
remain as such in the soil and in the decaying leaves all the
winter. The attack is sometimes very serious, especially when
the ova are laid on very young plants after they have got into
rough leaf. If-the brood comes when only the cotyledons
show, then the maggots die, as the seed-leaves shrivel up.
Sugar Beet is also attacked.

Prevention and Remedies.—There are three points worth
mentioning: first, the destruction of winter puparia by the
usual methods of deep ploughing; secondly, the application
of some stimulating manures to the attacked crop, especially
nitrate of soda; and thirdly, spraying, where a ‘“ strawsoniser”
can be used, with paraffin emulsion. There being many gen-
erations, we should try and kill the first.

Famity CHLOROPIDA.
Tue Gout Fiy (CHLOROPS T.ENIOPUS).

In poor land barley may often be seen stunted and swollen,
and unable to burst its way out of the ear. This peculiar
appearance is called “Gout,” and frequently causes a serious
deficit in the crop. This swollen diseased state of the plant is
produced by a small fly belonging to the Chloropidw, called the
Ribbon-footed Corn Fly or Gout Fly (Chlvrops teniopus). It
is a small fly about one-eighth of an inch long, thickly built ;
the thorax is yellow, and has three dark blackish-green stripes
on it; the abdomen is greenish-brown with dark bands across.
The female lays her eges separately, one larva sufficing to pro-
duce this gouty appearance. She deposits them on the barley
plant just when the ear is still in the sheathing leaves, either
within the leaves or so that the young larve can speedily enter.
The larvee first devour some of the developing grain on one side,
and then commence to tunnel down the stem to the first node,
245

DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

“Aap pasvasip ‘Gf “But pur ‘ezis -yea ‘abr snug
‘op puv pf Seu pure ‘azis yuu ‘oSvuy ‘yg pur g ¢ Sv pur ‘azis ‘yeu ‘umpsednd ‘ng puv gs sbuU pure ‘azis ‘yeu ‘BAdery ‘wT pue T

“(sndoqun) sdosojyg) ATA LAOH— ‘OFT “O81

 
246 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

forming a small black passage in which the grub turns to a
yellowish-brown puparium. From this there appears a second
brood of flies, which deposit their ova on various wild grasses,
and pass the winter in them. That is the reason why we
always find this gout attack most marked round the borders
of the fields and along the grassy headlands, and any rough
gvassy ditch running across the land. Sometimes the plant is
sufficiently strong to come out of its sheathing leaves, and then
we can detect its presence by some of the grains having gone,
and by the black tunnel extending from the ear down to the
first node.

An Ichneumon (Celinius niger) attacks the Gout Fly larva
(fig. 140, 4 and 4a), also a small Pteromalus described by Curtis
as P, nieans.

Prevention and Remedics.—Early sowing is one of the best
preventives, and the application of stimulating dressings to the
crop so as to carry it along. Mowing down the rough grasses
round the headlands, &c., in the winter and burning them will
kill numbers, for they are found breeding in such places in the
winter and also hibernating as adults there.

Famity OSCINIDA.
Tue Frit Fry (Oscrnis Frit).

Oats are often seriously injured past recovery by a small
larva in the centre of the plant. The disease is spoken of
as “Botley” or “ Potley” Oats. This is the larva of a small
black fly, the Frit Fly, which belongs to the family Oscznide.
We notice this pest by the young crop withering away in
June. Generally speaking, the Frit Fly damage can be re-
paired if taken in time. Barley is attacked on the Continent
as well as oats, but in Britain only the latter suffers. We can
early detect its presence by the central leaves here and there
turning brown or reddish-yellow, and on examination a small
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 247

maggot will be found in the shoot. The Frit Fly is a small,
black, shiny dipteron about one-eighth of an inch in length.
The eggs are laid by the females of the first brood upon the
young oats, and the maggots coming from these live in the

 

Fic. 141.—Tue Frit Fry (Oseinis frit).
u, Adult; b, larva; c, pupariun (all enlarged); 7, young infested plant.

heart of the young plant. The larve are cylindrical white
grubs, one-eighth of an inch long when mature, and have a pair
of branched spiracles projecting on each side near the head,
and two other tuberculate spiracles on the tail. ‘They pupate
in the outer dying leaves, as small reddish-brown bodies, from
248 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

which the flies come from the end of June to the end of July.
The second brood after hatching out sometimes attacks the
corn, laying its vyvs in the ear. One instance of this attack
in barley has come to my notice in Britain. The later hatched
ones live as larve in wild grasses, and having matured are ready
to attack the oats in the spring. This disease is often found
combined with an attack of Tulip Root (Tylenchus), p. 80.

Prevention and Remedies.—In some cases where the whole
crop is badly attacked it is advisable to plough it up. Should
this be done, it is important to plough in as deeply as possible,
so as to effectually bury the insects, which speedily hatch out.
Tf on the first signs of attack we use stimulating manures, we
can still get a good crop, the healthy plants tillering out over
the space left hy the dying ones.

Famity PSILIDZ.
Tue Carrot Fry (Psta ros#).

Every one who takes an interest in the garden knows the
disease called “rust” in carrots. Rust is due to the larve of
one of the flies belonging to the family Psélide. The Carrot
Ely (Psila rose) (fig. 142, 7 and 8) is a small fly less than half
an inch in expanse of wing, of a shiny metallic green colour,
with a large yellow head, black eyes, and yellow legs; the
wings are iridescent, and the veins yellow. The flies appear
about the time the young carrots are up, and lay their eggs
close down upon the plants; the young larve coming from
them are long pale yellowish maggots pointed at the head end.
They are white when quite young, and at once eat their way
into the carrot, where they tunnel about at first under the rind,
then internally, and cause rusty patches to appear over their
abode. The tip of the carrot is often first attacked. On
pulling up a carrot showing outward signs of this attack, one
may find several of these larve half out of the carrot (fig. 142,
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES, 249

3 and 4); but they do not come right out until they are ready
to pupate, when they leave the tunnels and metamorphose in
the ground. The brown sausage-shaped puparia (5 and 6) are
long and cylindrical and somewhat wrinkled; from the pupa
inside the fly hatches in about three weeks. There are several
generations in the year —at least three according to my observa-
tions. The grubs may be found at all times, from May until
the carrots are lifted. When “rusted” the carrot leaves turn
prematurely yellow and red, and thus clearly indicate the
presence of P. ros. These flies are undoubtedly attracted to
the young carrots by their smell, as we find in Onion Fly,

 

Fic. 142.—Carror Fry (Psila rose).

land 2, Larva, nat. size, and may. ; 4, rusty carrot; 3, enclosed larva; 5 and 6, pu-
parium, nat. size, and mag. ; 7 and 8, imago, nat. size, and mag.

Turnip Flea, &c. It is especially after thinning that the carrots
get blighted, and this for two reasons—first, we bruise the
plants in thinning them, and thus release the smell; and
secondly, by loosening the earth around we expose the carrots
more readily to the fly. We should remember in all these pests
that the eggs must be laid on or very near the plant, as the
young larvee cannot travel far.

Prevention and Remedies.—When thinning is necessary, we
should broadcast over the plants sand or ash in which a small
quantity of paraffin has been mixed, about a pint to a bushel
of sand. This destroys the smell, fills in the crevices, and

 
250 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

stops oviposition. If possible, it is advisable to sow the seed
sufficiently thinly, so as not to necessitate thinning until late in
the season. Purifying the beds in winter with gas-lime or
vaporite is also valuable as a preventive of future attack.

Famity TRYPETIDA.

Tae Cerery Fry (AcIDIA HERACLED).

The blistered leaves we see so often on celery and parsnips
are caused by a small fly which belongs to the family Try-

 

Fic, 143.—CRuERY Fy (leidia heraclei),

1, Imago; 2, larva, mag. ; 3, pupa, nat. size; 4, leaf mined by larvie.

petida'—flies which have mottled or ornamented wings. On
examining a blister, we find, within, one or more white larve
feeding on the soft mesophyll layer between the upper and
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 251

lower epidermis, thus clearing out the green mass of the leaf
- and leaving behind a pale blistered patch. The grubs are the
larvee of the so-called Celery Fly, which is a small pale-brown
fly, with wings mottled with dark brown, and with green eyes.
It lays its eggs on the celery leaf, and the young larvee at once
burrow into the interior. They are found hovering over the
celery plants as early as April, but the majority come out in
June. The pale blisters become brown, and inside these
diseased spots the white larva may turn to a yellowish
puparium. There are several generations in the year. Some
puparia are found in the earth, especially during the winter
months. The larvie go on working in mild winters as long
as the celery is in the ground. They must not be confused
with the Celery-stem Maggot, Piophila apii, although the A.
heraclei larva has been found in the celery stalks.

Prevention and Remedies.—As we find the puparia in the
leaves and in the ground, we must try to get rid of them
in both places, and so effectually stop their increase. The
leaves should be burnt and the beds dressed with gas-lime
in the winter, as after all attacks of garden pests. Spraying
the young celery plants with tobacco wash, every now and
then in the summer, keeps off the fly. The old plan of
pinching the leaves that are blighted cannot be advised, as
the leaves get ruptured and the sap pours out, and thus more
damage is done than by the larva.

Young celery before being set out should be kept in bright
weather covered with muslin, so as to stop the flies from
laying their eggs.

Famity MUSCIDZA.

Tue Hovuse-rLy (Musca pomEsTica).

Although the House-fly is not an agricultural pest, yet it is
sufficiently obnoxious to allow a few lines to be devoted to it.
The House-fly (JZ. domestica) belongs to the family Muscide,
252 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

a family that contains the Blue-bottle Flies (Calliphora) and
Green-bottle Flies (Lucilia), as well as the dreaded ‘I'setse-flies -
of Africa (Glossinw).

This household pest is found in all parts of the world near
habitations. The adult house-fly is ashy-grey, More or less
ochreous at the sides in the male, ashy-grey in the female ;
head black between the dull-reddish eyes, which are surrounded

 

Fic. l44.—Tue Hovse Fry (Musea domestica).

v, Mandible of larva b; c, anterior spiracles of larva; d, eggs; ¢, puparium;
J, spiracular remnants.

by a shiny white circle, and the face is the same colour; the
grey thorax has four black lines upon it, and the legs are rather
slender and black. The life-history of this species may briefly
be summed up as follows: The flies lay their eggs in putrid
and decaying substances, human faves, spent hops, e., but
especially in horse-manure ; they deposit their eggs in batches,
each fly producing from one hundred to one hundred and fifty
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 253

ova; each female laying as many as six batches during her life.
The ova hatch in from eight to twenty-four hours. The larve are
dirty-white footless grubs, which cast their skin twice, and then
in a week they become full fed and stop feeding. When mature
they are about half an inch long. The skin then hardens into
a brown puparium case. ‘This stage, still in the dung-heaps,
&c., may last three days only, depending on the weather.
Larve, pup, and flies may be found all the year round. The
house-fly lives by sucking up its food. They annoy us and

 

Fic. 145.—Herap or Stomoxys. (Delafond.)
a, Antennw ; p, maxillary palp; t, proboscis. (From Par. Dis. Ani., Fleming.)

our animals to feed off the sweat. Numerous other species
of Muscide are called house-flies, the technical differences
of which we cannot enter into. The house-fly is destroyed
wholesale by a fungus, Empusa musca, the spores of which
germinate in the body, and the mycelia grow out, killing the
fly and fixing it, as we so often see, to the window-panes.
The importance of the house-fly is because it carries the germs
of enteric fever and suchlike.

Another noxious fly sometimes found in houses, stables,
254 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

cowsheds, and pigstyes is called the Biting Fly (Stomoxys
calcitrans), which sucks the blood out of animals, and even
attacks man: it is one of the true Muscide. It is provided
with a sharp piercing proboscis (fig. 145) with which it pene-
trates the skin of its victim.

Ticks, Forest Flies, &c. (Eproboscidea).

The Eproboscidea are the Sheep-ticks, Forest or Horse Flies,
and Bird Flies. They are generally called Pupipara, and
present many peculiarities, which can only briefly be referred
to here. Some resemble spiders in appearance, but the number
of their legs soon identifies them. They are all parasitic in
habits, living upon warm-blooded animals. Some are quite
apterous, as the sheep-tick and bee-louse. They are chiefly
remarkable in that the female produces her young singly, not
as an ovum but as a nearly mature larva or puparium.

THE SHEEP-KED (MELOPHAGUS OVINUS).

Amongst the parasites which are so numerous and destructive
to sheep we find one of these Pupipara, the well-known Sheep
Spider Fly, “Ked,” or Sheep Tick (fig. 146), which, although
never producing fatal results, yet causes much annoyance to the
ewes, and more still to the lambs. We find this pest living
amongst the wool, getting close to the skin when we try to
catch it. In shape a sheep-ked is flat, with a squarish head,
square thorax, and a flat bag-shaped abdomen. There are no
wings or halteres, and the whole insect, especially the abdomen
and legs, is very bristly. The colour is brown, greyish-brown
on the abdomen. The feet have a pair of strong hooked claws,
each with an accessory side claw and a feathered bristle. The
sheep-ked lays her puparia amongst the fleece. The true ova
hatch in the body of the female and develop there, until the
puparium state is assumed, when each puparium is passed out
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 255

as a bright, shiny, chestnut-brown body, oval in form, with
truncate ends. When the female deposits a puparium she fixes
it to the wool by a gluey sub-
stance, so that it cannot fall off.
Taschenberg says each female
may produce eight such puparia ;
the author has found that seldom
more than four are so produced.
The spider-like fly comes from
these shiny, glass-like puparia in
from three to four weeks. They
get on to the sheep éither from
one sheep coming in contact with
another or from the ground, where
they may hatch out from the Fic. 146, —SaREP-TICK (Melophagus
fallen puparia. They get to the oar

sucking lambs from the ewes,

and often annoy them immensely. The winter is passed in the
puparium stage.

Remedies.—This and all sheep external parasites are readily
amenable to treatment. Dipping soon destroys all these para-
sites, but as a rule two dippings are necessary, the second about
a month after the first, so as to kill off those hatched from the
puparia.

 

 

a, Antenna.

Tue Forest or Horse Fry (Hippoposca EQUINA).

The Forest Fly is only of local importance, as it is seldom
sufficiently abundant to be obnoxious except in the New Forest,
where it is a terrible pest to horses and cattle, and in parts
of North Wales, especially in the Snowdon area, where I
have seen it in great abundance, notably in the Pen-y-Gwryd
and near Quellyn Lake. It was well known to many of the
local drivers.1 The fly is the fourth of an inch long and

1 Miss Ormerod also records it from Breconshire.
256 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

flattish in form, with a hard leathery skin, deep brown in
colour with paler mottlings; the head is dull yellowish except
on the face, where it has a dark stripe; the thorax has a pale
spot on the scutellum, and yellowish-grey markings along the
sides and posterior part ; the abdomen is bristly, brown above,
paler brown to grey below; the two wings are opaque, longer
than the abdomen, and have thick brown veins along the costal
region ; the legs are long and bristly, tawny yellow in colour,
and banded with brown. The foot is remarkable, and consists
of a pair of large claws, with an appendage on each, outside ;
there is also a long bristle-like thread coming out beneath the
claws, and a curious flap-like process between. These flies
use their wings but weakly, only flying on the horse and from
part to part of the same animal. They cling to the hairs and
run about, pulling the hair, and cause much irritation by so
doing as well as by blood-sucking. Like all Pupipara, the
Forest Fly deposits round puparia, which are notched at one
end. ‘There is but one larva in the female, which lives there
until the puparial skin is formed, when the puparium is laid,
the larva inside soon turning to a pupa. In four weeks the fly
emerges from this case. Animals soon get used to their presence,
but a strange horse will become most restive when they settle
upon it, especially when (as often happens) the belly is attacked.
Little can be done to keep them off, except sponging the horse
over with a paraffin sponge.

Two other species are sometimes troublesome—namely, the
Fowl-fly (Ornithomyia avicularia) and the Bee-louse (Braula
cwea) ; the former a winged species that attacks birds, the latter
a wingless reddish-brown insect parasitic on the hive-bee.

Several others (H. maculata, H. rujipes, &c.) attack animals
in warm climates.

Aphaniptera or Fleas (Pulicide).

Several species of fleas are found in Great Britain, all partial
parasites, living upon man, animals, and birds. Fleas are
DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES. 257

apterous Diptera which are perhaps more nearly related to the
Fungus Gnats (Mycetophilide) than to any other Diptera.
Pulicide have a sucking and piercing mouth by which they
draw out the blood of their hosts. The body of the flea is
flattened from side to side, and the legs are well developed to
enable them to perform their hopping movements. Some have
compound eyes (Trichopsylla gallinw and Pulex trritans), others
have none (Hystrichopsylla talpe, the Mole Flea), The eggs or
“nits” are laid in dust and dirt, and the larve are pearly-white
fourteen-segmented grubs, with a large brown head, and pupate
where they live, as small brown chrysalids. Some feed on
scurf, hairs, feathers, and other epidermal productions. Many
of the species can he easily identified by the number of spines
in the curious comb-like structure on the prothorax.

THe Hen-rtea (TRICHOPSYLLA GALLINE).

The Hen-flea is often very troublesome in fowl-roosts. It is
a species common to several birds, and is dark-brown in colour.
We find them most abun-
dantly in dirty fowl-nests,
especially where the houses
are damp and badly ven-
tilated and lighted. Hen-
fleas live in the nests, where
in the corners and crevices

the nits are deposited ; the Fic. 147.—Larva AND Pupa oF HEN-FLEA
(Trichopsylla gallince).

 

 

larve and pupe are found
amongst the straw, feathers, and dung in the nests. The fleas
feed off the birds at night, sucking their blood, and produce
great irritation. These insects are very injurious to setting hens,
and often cause them to neglect their eggs. The small white
maggots have a curious little process, the “ post-frontelle,” on
their head, on coming from the egg, by which they force their
R
258 DIPTERA OR TRUE FLIES.

way out of the egg-shell: there are a few scattered hairs over
the larva, which lives about three weeks.

Prevention and Remedies.—It is very important to keep
fowls’ nests clean ; then fleas cannot breed there, and can be
easily kept down. By using wood-wool instead of straw we
shall seldom be bothered by them in our fowl-roosts. Persian

 

Fic. 148.—Tnr Hen Fura (Trichopsylla gallinw) (greatly magnified).

insect-powder is a good insecticide to keep them off setting birds,
just dusted over the boxes before the eggs are put in and the
hens commence to set. In fact, keeping the hen-houses clean
will stop this insect from doing any harm.

The Dog-flea (Ctenucephalus canis), also the Cat-flea (C. felis),
should be kept off the animals if possible. Carbolic soap baths
are perhaps the best remedy. No other species are very noxi-
ous in these islands except the Human Flea (P. trritans), but
one must remember that the Rat Fleas (Ceratophyllus fasciatus,
Ctenopsylla musculi, Xenopsylla cheopis, &e.) carry plague.

THYSANOPTERA.
Turirs, oR Biack Fry.

The Thripide, or Black Fly, sometimes called Thunder-fly,
form a distinct order of insects, characterised by having four
THYSANOPTERA OR THRIPS. 259

thin, narrow, fringed wings and an imperfect suctorial mouth.
The metamorphosis is slight. Several of them are injurious to
crops and fruit, and are equally obnoxious in greenhouses.
Thripide are minute dark insects in their adult state, and feed
by suction, although the mandibles are represented by a pair of
needle-like processes. One species, Thrips cerealium (fig. 149,
1 and 2), is often harmful to corn. The larva and pupa are
similar in shape to the adult, but are smaller and differ in
colour: the larva is deep yellow, with two dusky spots on the
thorax ; the pupa is pale yellow, with white legs, antenne, and

 

Fig. 149.—THRIPS.

1, Female Thrips cerealium with wings closed ; 4, with wings expanded ; 2, 3, 5, 7,
nat. size; 6, larva of T. minutissima; 8, T. minutissima. (Curtis.)

wing-cases, The eyes and ocelli are reddish. The adult is deep
black and winged in the female, apterous in the male. The
legs are paler, and the two-jointed tarsi terminate in a little
gland, hence they are sometimes called ‘“ Bladder-feet.” The
Corn Thrips is about # of a line long. This pest feeds off the
haulm, between the sheathing leaves, and off the developing
grain, and is especially noticeable in the furrow of the wheat
seed. They cause the grain to shrivel up, and often produce a
white sickly appearance, similar to a disease caused by them in
grass in Canada. Another species, 7. ovhraceus, is frequently
most harmful to melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, &c., under glass.
260 HEMIPTERA.

The potato is attacked by 7’. minutissdina (fig. 149, 6 and 8),
but it seldom does much harm: the yellow larva has black eyes
in this species, the pupe are also of the same colour; the adult
is pale-brown, with almost white wings, and is only 4 of a line
in length. The Thrips hibernate at the roots of grass and
amongst rubbish, and come forth in spring, when they com-
mence to lay their eggs. Numbers of generations are produced
in the year. The eggs are very small white bodies, cylindrical,
and rounded at one end, and usually laid in. slits cut in the
plant tissue. Several species of Thrips damage plums, apples,
and pears; the chief is Euthirips pyri.

Prevention and Remedies.—After an attack of Corn Thrips
the stubble should be-burnt, and the grass at the headlands and
hedgerows cleared and burnt in the late autumn. In green-
houses frequent syringing with clean water will keep this pest
in hand, but tobacco and soap wash is the best remedy. In
bad attacks greenhouse plants are best dipped in a mixture
of the latter. Fumigation with tobacco is another excellent
remedy in glass-houses. In fruit plantations it can be controlled
by spraying with the same wash.

HEMIPTERA.
Bues, Puant-nicz, Scare Insects, Ete.

The Hemiptera are the Bugs, Plant-lice, Scale Insects,
Cicadas, and Lice (Pedicul’), &e. The characteristics of the
Hemiptera are chietly found in the mouth and the wings. The
mouth parts of all the Hemiptera are adapted for piercing and
sucking. The mouth is formed of a jointed rostrum made up
of an elongated Jabium, which forms a jointed sheath for the
lancet-shaped mandibles and maxilla. It is by means of this
piercing suctorial mouth that the Bugs and Plant-lice puncture
the rind of plants and then proceed to suck out the sap, often
leaving behind a distinct scar where the proboscis has entered
HEMIPTERA. 261

(fig. 150, a). The majority live on vegetable juices, but some
suck the blood of both vertebrate and invertebrate animals and
man, and even carry disease. Four wings are present as a rule ;
but these may be reduced to two, as in the male Scale insects,
or none, as in some bugs, plant-lice, and female Scale insects.
There are two distinct types of wing—one in which the basal
half of the fore-wing is
leathery, the other half
transparent, known as a
hemielytron , in the second
it is all clear and mem-
branous. The former type
is found in the section of
Hemiptera called Heterop-
tera (fig. 159), the latter
in the Homoptera (fig.
151). At one time these
two sections were con-
sidered two distinct orders
of insects. They are now
united together under the
order Hemiptera.

The Hemiptera undergo

 

an incomplete metamor- Fig. 150.—Hop pamMacep By HEMIPTERA-
phosis, there being little ETE ON TE

difference between the ai) By Culstorl Sduomacnltas: @) by nih
larva, pupa, and imago in

many genera. The pupe are always active except in the Scale
insects and Snow-flies. The larva, which also resembles to a
certain extent the adult, moults its skin several times, and
then, if it is destined to become a winged form, it develops
rudiments of wings as small bud-like lateral outgrowths on
each side of the thorax, the pupal stage, which after a time
casts its skin and becomes the adult (vide fig. 159). The
ova of the Hemiptera are often beautifully sculptured bodies.
262 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

Many of this order are extremely injurious, such as the Aphides
or Plant-lice, many of the “Bugs” (Heteroptera) and Scale
insects (Corrid«), Snow-flies (Aleyrodide) and Leaf-hoppers
(Lyphlocylidw), Many of the Capsie (Land Bugs) also attack
fruit. There are generally considered to be three groups of
Hemiptera, as follows :—
1. Homoptera (fig. 151), wings always clear and membranous
when present, and the rostrum attached to frontal
region of head = Aphididie, Coccidw, Psyllidw, &c.
2. Heteroptera (fig. 159), wings half leathery at the base,
membranous at the tips, and the rostrum springs from
beneath the heal=the Bugs (Reduviide, Lygeidu,
Capside, Cimicide, &c.)
3. Anoplura, which are all devoid of wings and _ parasitic
= Pediculide or Lice.

The Homoptera contain the most injurious species of this
order. ‘They are exemplified by the Plant-lice (Aphidide),
the Scale insects (Curr/dw), the Snow-flies (Aleyrodide), and
the Suckers (Psyllidv.)

Prant-Lick (APHIDIDS).

Plant-lice are amongst the worst enemies the farmer, fruit-
grower, and gardener have to contend with. ‘They live entirely
upon the sap of plants, which they draw from the leaves,
blossom, stem, and roots. The structure of an Aphis is simple.
The body is usually plump, and has usually two tubes called
“honey-tubes” or ‘“cornicles” on the back towards the tail.
Out of these is passed a gummy liquid, the “honey dew,”
which falls upon the leaves of the infested plants and blocks
up their stomata. Aphides have a mealy or waxy substance
on the skin which repels water. Winged and wingless females
occur, the males being also often winged. Parthenogenetic
reproduction takes place ; both oviparous and viviparous females
PLANT-LICE. 263

occur. The wingless forms are generally asexual, and so are
the summer winged females. Winged males and oviparous
females also occur. Ova are usually laid only in the autumn
by the oviparous female after fertilisation by the male. The
tarsi are of two segments, and the wings contain very few
veins, by which the Dolphins, as they are called in Kent, are
partly classified. The reproductive powers of these insects are
enormous as well as peculiar. The wingless female, starting in

 

Fic. 151.—CHEerry ApHIs (Myzus cerasi).

u, Winged 9; b, apterous 9.

the spring, produces with great rapidity living young without
the agency of a male ; these asexually produced young or lice
soon grow sufficiently to start reproducing again, and so on
for eight or nine generations. As a rule, a plant becomes
smothered by these wingless forms; and in the summer some
send out little bud-like growths from the thorax, rudimentary
wings, a pupal stage, and from these active pups come forth
winged females, which fly off to other plants. These winged
females are also viviparous, and produce again asexually living
264 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

young, and so on until the autumn, when a third kind of
female appears, the oviparous female, and also a male. After
the male has fertilised the female aphis, she deposits a few
eggs upon the plants, which remain over the winter. These
eggs mostly hatch out in the spring. But some Dolphins also
hibernate as queen or mother females, and commence to repro-
duce at once on the return of warm weather. There is often
not much difference between the young (larve), or lice, as they
are called, and the viviparous female; but larva, pupa, and
adult may generally be distinguished by variations in structure
and colour. Some Aphides produce galls (Schizoneura ulmi,
Pemphiyus sptrothece, Cherimes abietis, &c.) ; others live under-
ground (8. laniyera and Phyllurera devastatriz) ; others live in
ants’ nests. The life-cycle of Aphides is often very complex.
Most have two or more host plants between which they migrate.
The Hop Aphis, for instance, winters in the damson and flies to
the hop for the summer; the Elm Leaf Aphis (Schizoneura
ulm2) flies to the roots of Ribes; the Mealy Plum Aphis
(Hyalopterus pruni) to rushes and water grasses.

The three chief groups are the Aphidinw, which have the
third vein of the front wings twice forked ; the Schizoneurine,
which have this vein once forked; and the Chermisinw, which
have this vein absent.

The Bean and Poppy Aphis, Black Fly, or Collier
(Aphis rumicis).

A common bean infestation is that caused by one of the
plant-lice, known as the “Collier.” This aphis appears first
when the beans come into blossom, and especially blights
broad-beans. These Colliers collect on the heads, where they
breed rapidly, cover the plants with a black sticky mass, and,
if they spread down low, quite spoil the crop. These plant-lice
are black in the wingless female state. The winged females
are sometimes rusty-brown, with green honey-tubes, but more
PLANT-LICE. 265

usually they are quite black; the male is black and winged ;
the young dark-grey to black; and the pupe slaty-grey, with
black wing-cases and white spots and patches on the black
abdomen. They are also found on mangolds, poppies, hops,
chamomile, euonymus, docks, &¢., from which they have taken
various specific names, having been supposed to be distinct
species. This aphis winters on docks and euonymus, then flies
to the beans and poppies, and later to mangolds and other
plants.

The attack of this “louse” can easily be checked, if taken
in time, by picking off the infested tops of beans and putting
them carefully into a pail of lime, so as to kill them before
they spread low down. Many plant-lice, like the above, have
several food-plants.

The Hop Louse (Phorodon humult).

The Hop Aphis (Phorodon humul?) first makes its appearance
on the hops as a winged viviparous female, the so-called “fly.”
This takes place from the middle of May on into June. The
“fly” settle on the top growths, and at once commence to
produce living young, small pallid larve, spoken of as “lice”
or “nits.” These grow into the wingless viviparous females,
which continue to produce living young for several generations.
Now and again a winged brood has been known to appear in
summer on the hops, and these fly to other hops and produce
similar lice, but this is rare. In September the Hop Aphis all
become winged, and these fly to the damsons, sloes, and some
plums, where a sexual generation of males and females is pro-
duced, the ovigerous females laying eggs in the axils of the
buds. These hatch out in spring and feed on the foliage of the
prunes, and late in May produce a winged viviparous brood,
which fly off to the hops. Green apterous viviparous lice have
been found on hops (Ormerod) previous to the advent of “ fly,”
but the part they play has not been found out. They have
266 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

little or nothing to do with the usual aphis blight. The Hop
Aphis is easily controlled by spraying or washing with soft-soap
and quassia or, better still, tobacco wash.

Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera).

The Woolly Aphis is a widespread species affecting fruit-trees.
Its presence can easily be detected by the quantity of white
cottony wool produced by the larvee and apterous females. We

 

Pia, 152.

1, Winged female, Woolly Aphis, magnified ; and line showing natural size. 2, Wing-
less viviparous female, magnified. 3, Apple twig, covered by woolly aphides.
often, especially in west-country orchards, see this white excretion
hanging from the trees in great festoons. The trees suffer severely.
Apple-trees are those that suffer most, but pear-trees and hawthorn
PLANT-LICE. 267

may also be attacked. These plant-lice cause cankered growths
to appear on the boughs; the new wood is their favourite seat
of war, where they can easily plunge their beaks into the soft
rind. This wound, at first boil-like, usually ends by splitting ;
deep cracks and crevices are formed, in which the insects seek
shelter. Growth is checked; the crop does not mature, and
often the trees fail under the attack. If we examine this
white wool, we shall see that it proceeds from the backs of
the lice and females, as tine threads of wax. Amongst this
excretion we observe the orange-coloured lice, which get blown
from tree to tree with the wool by the wind, and even from
orchard to orchard. The adult females are slaty-grey to plum
colour, and have no cornicles ; these adults secrete a little wool,
but are also well protected by mealy powder and little globules
of an oily nature. Jn July and August there may appear
winged females, and in autumn an oviparous female and male
sometimes occur. Very few eggs are laid, however; each
oviparous female only laying a single black ovum on the apple-
tree, so as to secure the continuity of the species. The majority
pass the winter as mother-females in crevices in the bark and
at the bottom of the cracks they have produced, more or less
protected by their wool from the cold. This species also
attacks the roots of the apple-tree. There is a ground form
of S. lanigera, like the ground form of the vine phylloxera.
The aerial form passes down to the roots in late autumn, and
the subterranean form crawls up again in spring. Thus as long
as we have the root form present we shall never eradicate this
pest on our apple-trees.

Prevention and Remedies.— We notice this disease chiefly
rampant in neglected orchards, where the trees are cramped
together, and the trunks and boughs covered with moss and
lichens. Keeping the trees properly thinned, with plenty of
room for air, and clean, will prevent much damage from this
pest. All rough bark should be cleared off, mosses and lichen
destroyed by the caustic washes mentioned in the Appendix.
268 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

The aphis on the trees may be killed by spraying weth force
with paraffin emulsion, or better still, tobacco wash. The
ground form may be kept from ascending by banding with
Tanglefoot. In Australia and South Africa apples are only
grafted on Northern Spy or Majetin stock; the roots of these
are immune.

 

Fic, 153.—PLum Apuis (Aphis pruni).

1, Viviparous female ; 2, ovigerous female. (Whitehead.)

Numerous other plant-lice attack crops and fruit, among
which we may mention the Corn Aphis (Mavcrosiphum
granaria) ; the Cabbage Louse (Aphis brassie), which crinkles
up the cabbage leaves, forming a mealy mass of lice; the
Plum Louse (A. prun?) (fig. 153), curling up the leaves of
the plum; the Cherry Louse (J/y:us ceras’) (fig. 151), which
collect on the shoots of cherries, forming black groups and
discolouring the fruit with their excrement; the Currant
Aphides (hopuadosiphum lactucw), &e. All ean be destroyed
by the same washes, and need no further comment here.
(Vile Aypendix IL.)
SCALE INSECTS. 269

ScaLe Insects (Coccrps).

These Hemiptera are peculiar in many respects. The females
are mostly apterous apodal degenerate creatures, devoid of
antenne, and often lie hidden under a scale-like mass, formed
by the excretions of the insect and the cast skins of the larva
(exuvie). They have a very long thread-like beak, which is
thrust into the bark, leaf, or fruit of the plant, most females
being fixed during the whole of their life, after the larval
stage is passed. The males (fig. 155, i) are winged, having one
pair only, the second pair being hook-
like processes. The male scale (vi) is
quite different from the female scale (v)
in form. Some Coccids, such as_ the
Mealy Bugs and Soft Scales, form no
scale, and are active in the former, but
become sedentary in the latter, but are
then covered with a quantity of mealy
powder and wool or a hardened skin.

 

Ei 5 Fic, 154,—FEMALE San Jost
During winter some of our outdoor scales “"yusre (Atter Howard.)

are in the ege state (Mussel Scale) ; the

ova are minute dust-like bodies found under the scale ; others
pass the winter as immature forms (Lecanium, &c.) In warmer
and tropical climates scales breed all the year round, and so they
lo in hothouses in this country. The young scale-insects are
active six-legeed larve (iv), which wander about for a time
and then settle down and may form a small scale, gradually
increasing in size. If this larva is going to become a female,
as it moults it loses its legs, antenne, &., and usually de-
generates into a sedentary apodal creature. But if the larva
is going to become a male, it enters a propupal stage, a new
set. of legs, &c., being formed, and wings appear as bud-like
outgrowths. They are very numerous and destructive in warm
climates, where fruit-trees are encrusted with them. Perhaps
the most destructive is the San José scale (Aspiideotus per-
270 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

niciosus) (fig. 155, i, ii, iii), which attacks all fruit-trees and
numbers of other deciduate trees and various plants. One
female has been shown to account for 3,216,080,400 young
in the year under favourable conditions (Lintner). Numbers
of species are injurious in our hothouses, such as the Greedy»
scale (A. camellic) and the Oleander-scale (A. nerd2), and the
two Mealy Bugs (Dactylopius e/tri and D. longispinus), bat out

 

Fic. 15§.—Saw José anp Mussen Scar.

i, Male San José scale; ii, larva of same; iii, female scale; iv, larva of mussel seale ;
vy, female mussel seale ; vi, male mussel scale. (i, ii, iii after Marlatt and Howard.)
of doors only two or three ever do much harm. The most
prevalent is the Mussel-scale (Ayfilaxpis pomorum) on apple
and pear, the Brown-scale (Leuweantun persiew), the Oyster
Shell Back Louse (Aspdiotus ustreeformis), and the Woolly
Currant-scale (Pulrin‘a vitis), the second on gooseberry and
currants, the third on plums, the last on currants, vines,
Pyracanthus, &e.

The Mussel-seale (Mutilaspis pomorum).

This scale insect was at one time placed in the genus
Mytilaspis, all of which are elongated scales, more or less
SCALE INSECTS. 271

mussel-like in form. It is now, however, placed in the genus
Lepidosaphes, and under the specific name ulm. The mussel-
scale is brown, from 4!, to } of an inch long, and of nearly
uniform width, except in the front, where it tapers to a point.
Sometimes the scales are straight, at others curved. The eggs
are creamy-white, and may number between eighty and ninety,
being scattered about under the scale: we find them in the
winter. There is only one brood: the young six-legged larve
(fig. 155, iv) appear in June, and soon settle down to form
fresh scales. The male scales (vi) are much smaller than the
female (v). It is a widespread insect, occurring in America, in
Australia, and in S. Africa.

This, like all scale insects, is spread from tree to tree and
orchard to orchard by the wind, and on the feet of birds and
the back of insects. It has been noticed that some scale-larvee
prefer the back of dark-coloured beetles. Young apple-trees
suffer severely from this pest in Britain, and should be
thoroughly cleaned before being planted.

Prevention and Remedies.—Scale insects are often difficult to
destroy. Fumigation of young stock with hydrocyanie acid
gas and the application of caustic washes in winter are most
successful remedies. Paraffin emulsion spraying is beneficial
for some of the soft scales and when the hard scales are young
in summer.

The Brown Currant and Gooseberry Scale (Lecanium persice,
v. ribis, Fitch).

This is one of the soft scales, the female’s dried body re-
maining over the egg mass and forming a false scale. It occurs
on the twigs of many other trees and bushes besides currants
and gooseberries. The dead skin or adult skin with the ova
beneath is an oval brown body, convex and notched behind,
about 4 inch long. The eggs occur under this brown covering
as a yellowish dust with wool, and hatch in autumn into small
272 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

oval, flattish, pale or red-brown larve, which wander about
and attach themselves to the bark during the winter and remain
dormant; some grow before to some extent. In spring they
move to the young wood and leaves and gradually grow into

 

Fic. 156.—Tur Brown Currant SvaLr (Lecanium persica, v. ribis).

Larva magnified about 50 diameters. Under-side of young female magnified about
m, Mouth-parts 15 diameters. c, Channels leading to respir-
atory tubes (stigmata); m, mouth-parts.
the mature brown females. The male has not been found
in Britain.
Treatment consists of winter spraying with caustic alkali
wash, and spring spraying with paraffin jelly.

Faminy PSYLLIDA.
APPLE-SUCKER (PS8YLLA MALI).

A great deal of damage is done to the buds and blossom of
apples by a small yellowish-green fly called the apple-sucker.
The Psyllide are Hemiptera related to the Aphides, with 8- to
THE APPLE-SUCKER. 273

10-jointed antenne, which end in two short slender bristles.
Unlike plant-lice, they have three ocelli, and their legs are
formed for leaping in the adults. They live upon the sap, and
discharge a fluid in the form of small globules, which are
attached by a thread to the tail end of the Psylla. The larve
are often protected by a cottony secretion as well.

The species infesting the apple is found early in the year

 

Fic. 157.—APPLE-SUCKER (Psylla mali).

land la, Pupa, nat. size, and nag. ; 2 and 2a, imago, nat. size, and mag. (Whitehead.)

in the folds of the buds, and there in their immature form they
suck the sap and prevent the leaves and blossom from develop-
ing. The larve are flattish creatures which we find in the
buds, having crawled thither after their exit from the egg.
They also block up the buds with their honey dew. They are
dark brown and greenish in colour, with red eyes. A true
pupal stage is assumed, bud-like wings appearing, until by the
8
274 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA,

end of a month after their escape from the egg, wings are fully
formed. The pups are green. The winged Psylla has four
transparent wings, and is usually seen about the second week in
June, the female being brighter than the male. In size they
vary from } to 4, of aninch. We may find adults as late as
October, but the majority are mature by September, when they
pair and deposit their eggs separately upon the bases of the
buds and on the youngest apple-shoots amongst the soft hairs.
These eggs can easily be seen in the winter, as they are pale
in colour. They go on iaying until November.

Prevention and Remedies.—This very injurious apple enemy
may easily be controlled. Ifa plantation is very badly infested
it should be sprayed in late February with lime and salt wash,
and again as soon as the trusses are well open with tobacco
wash.

Another species, Psylla pyrivora, is now and then found on
pears in Britain, and is often destructive in America.

Famity ALEYRODIDZ.
Tue Snow-rLty (ALEYRODES BRASSIC£).

These are also Hemiptera. They are small, moth-like, snowy
white, four-winged insects, with a single vein only on the front
wings, and their body covered with a fine white mealy powder.
The pupa, unlike other Hemiptera, is inactive. The commonest
species is the Cabbage Snow-fly (A. brasszer), found at all times of
the year on cabbages, beneath the leaves, where they suck out the
sap with their beaks, forming brown and yellow patches on them.
The eggs are laid singly or in a patch on the under side of a
leaf and hatch out in a few days. The young are covered with
a transparent glassy white scale which becomes opaque white
with two yellow spots. Beneath this scale they turn to a
brown pupa in from eight to twenty days, and from four to ten
days after the perfect insect appears. The pupal stage is pale
THE SNOW-ELY. 275

yellowish with +e? eyes. The body of the adult is really red
and the thorax yellow, but they are covered with a white mealy
powder all over. They may breed all the year. Soft-soap

 

Fic. 158.—A Snow-ry (Aleyrodes).

A, Adult Snow-fly ; B, egg; c, wings of adult; p, immature Snow-fly under scale.

washes are the best to kill them. Nicotine has no effect on the
young. All outside leaves and stalks of cabbage should be
destroyed.

Tomatoes and plants under glass are often attacked by
another species (Ad. vaparivrum), and may be checked by
fumigation.
Lo
=I
a

HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

Famity TETTIGONIDZ.
Tue Hop Frog-rry (EvacaNTAUs INTERRUPTUS).

“Jumpers,” as these insects are called in the hop-gardens,
sometimes do much harm to the hops. When badly attacked
the leaves turn yellow and die off. These jumping bugs are
provided with four ample wings when adult, and are gaily
coloured with brown, yellow, and sometimes red. The larva
and pupa are green and yellow. In all stages this insect is
very variable in colour. Their exuvie are often found sticking
on to the hop-leaves. Just as in Calocoris (p. 278), they suck
out the sap of the leaf and bine, especially in hot dry weather.
It is especially upon badly tilled land and stony and light soils
that “Jumpers” are troublesome. The damage manifests itself
in June by the yellowness of the leaves, their curled appear-
ance, and the stopping of the leading shoots revolving. The
abolition of poles has materially checked this pest. Jarring is
one remedy we can employ when adults are present, but tobacco
wash can safely be used on hops, and this kills the larve and
nymphe.

Bugs (Heteroptera).

The second sub-order of Hemiptera are the Bugs. They are
united together by the fact that the first pair of wings have
their bases leathery, the outer portion being membranous (hemi-
elytra). Many of these insects are injurious to plants, and
some to man, but some are carnivorous (Nemocoris), and are
thus beneficial. The Heteroptera have an incomplete meta-
morphosis like the Homoptera, the larvee being apterous, the
pup having little bud-like wings. They have a long, sharp,
jointed rostrum by which they puncture plant-tissues and draw
out the sap. Often a distinct scar is left behind where their
heak has been inserted, or the tissue may split. The Common
Bed-bug (Cimee lectularius) belongs to this group, introduced
BUGS. Qt

originally into England in 1503, but not until after the fire

 

Fic. 159.—NEEDLE-NosED Hop-Bua (Calocoris fulvomaculatus).
i, Larva, early stage; ii, larva, late stage; iii, pupal stage; iv, adult.

of London in 1666 did it become troublesome. It was brought
over in foreign timber on the rebuilding of the city. This bug
278 HEMIPTERA-HOMOPTERA.

infests animals, it is said, as well as man, and breeds in dust
and dirt. Although a number of species of Heteroptera are
more or less harmful, only two need be mentioned here—
namely, the Needle-nosed Hop-bug (Calocoris fulvomaculatus)
and the Capsid Bugs attacking fruit (Orthotylus marginalis,
&e.).

Tus Nugpis-nosep Hor-pue (CALocorIs FULVOMACULATUS).

This bug attacks the hop in all three of its stages, but especi-
ally in the larval and adult phase of life. C. fulvomaculatus
is a bug about one-third of an inch in length and tawny-grey
in colour; the young are reddish-brown to chocolate and yellow
and green (fig. 159). ‘They lay their eggs in the hop-bine, and
hatch out about May. Currants are also attacked by them.
They are extremely active, dodging round the poles and bine
with great dexterity, and fall readily to the ground when the
bine is shaken. They suck the sap from the bine generally
at the top, and cause such loss of sap that the upward growth
ceases, and numerous low laterals are sent out. When they
become winged about July they seem to leave the hops, but
many deposit their ova upon wild hops. They hibernate in
the larval stage.

Prevention and Remedies.—Early washing when the bugs are
in the wingless state and jarring over tarred boards held on
each side beneath the bine, together with the destruction of
bine after a bad attack, will considerably check their increase.
We never see this or Frog-fly attack in gardens where string
and wires have superseded poles. The more soap and tobacco
in washes for these hardy bugs the better; any wash is useless
for the winged adults.

Lice (Anoplura).

The Lice are generally called Pelveulidir, These noxious
creatures are now considered degenerate Hemiptera. They all
LICE. 279

possess suctorial mouths and are apterous. The Pediculide
are parasitic on human beings
and mammals, upon whom
they may breed with great
rapidity (partly by partheno-
genesis), under favourable cir-
cumstances. The young louse
is nearly perfect when first
born —in fact these insects
retain more or less their larval
form throughout life. The
three well-known species on
human beings are the Head
Louse (Phthirius capitis), the
Clothes Louse (P. vestiment),
and the Body Louse (P. in-
guinalés), The species found
on our domestic animals all
belong to the genus Hemato-

 

3 Fic. 160.—Louse or THE Ox (H«mato-
pinus. They are never found pinus ewrysternus), female. (Fleming.)

Greatly enlarged.

on the sheep or cat. The
mouth is formed into a kind of sucking proboscis, which is
plunged into the skin of the host.

ORDER ORTHOPTERA.

The Orthoptera are Earwigs, Cockroaches, Grasshoppers,
Crickets, Locusts, Praying Mantis Flies, and Walking-stick
Insects. They are characterised by having the anterior wings
leathery in texture and narrower than the posterior ones, which
are fan-shaped and large. The mouth of the Orthoptera is
formed for biting. Many are provided with a curious ‘“ musical
apparatus” (grasshoppers, &c.) ‘There is usually a pair of long
multiarticulate antenne, and two large compound eyes as well
as ocelli, on the head. The prothorax is freely movable. The
280 ORTHOPTERA.

metamorphosis may be very incomplete: in the most advanced
we only get a semblance of larval and pupal stages, and some

   

_—-

Fic. 161.—Miaratory Locust (.Fdipoda migrutoria). (CNicholson.)

never pass the larval condition. Orthoptera have been divided
into Cwrsor‘a or Runners, as the Cockroaches; Giressorda or
Walkers, the Walking-stick Insects, &c.; and Saltatorta or
Jumpers, the Grasshoppers and Locusts.1

Earwics (Forricunip&).

Amongst the Cursoria are the Earwigs (Forjiculide), some of
which are undoubtedly noxious insects. Earwigs are amongst
our insect foes in the garden, and they have been too prevalent
in the field, attacking crops of turnips, mangolds, cabbage, and
hops. Early in the year the female comes from her winter
quarters and lays her eggs in a hole in the ground and under
stones. About twenty to thirty yellowish ova are laid together,
and the female looks after the ova until they are incubated. I
have found the eggs to hatch out in two weeks, but it is stated
that they may take a month to incubate. The female looks
after the young for some little time like a hen after her chicks.

1 Dr Sharp treats this order in two series—namely, Cursoria, including
the Earwigs, Cockroaches, Mantis Flies, and Stick Insects ; and Saltatoria,

including the Locusts, Crickets, and Grasshoppers. The Earwigs are looked
upon by some as a distinct order called Dermaptera or Euplexaptera.
EARWIGS (FORFICULID). 281

The young are at first white, but become brown in a week, and
have no signs of wings, but by degrees after several moults the
wings appear. The common earwig (Porficula auricularia) be-
comes mature in July and August. Earwigs are mostly dark
chestnut-brown or yellowish in colour, with dark eyes. The
upper wings are very small, but the under pair are large, fan-
shaped, membranous expansions, folded up in a most remark-
able way beneath the small scale-like upper ones. ‘This species
seldom uses its wings, although I have taken them on the
wing! The small Earwigs (Labea minor), on the other hand,
fly about in the sunshine. Forjicula auricularza feeds only of
a night, and hides away beneath the earth and stones during
the daytime and under the bark of trees, &c. They strip the
blossoms of plants, and have now and again done much damage
to hops.

Prevention and Remedies.—Trapping is the best way to get
rid of these pests. Heaps of straw put about in the hop-
gardens and fields, and burnt in the daytime, will get rid of
hundreds. Pieces of sacking laid about on the ground will be
found to entice great numbers. In Germany old baskets are
put up on sticks full of some rubbish to attract the earwigs,
and then destroyed. During an attack on the South-Eastern
Agricultural College hops in 1896, soot placed round the
hills was found most efficacious, driving the pests away and
enabling the hops to recover from their damage. Catching
over tarred boards of a night is also an excellent way in hop
infestation.

CockroacHEs (BLATTIDs).

Several so-called ‘“ Black-beetles” are found in England,
and are often destructive. The three commonest species are
the Common Black Beetle (Blatta ortentalzs), which is dark

1 Ento. Mo. Mag., p. 61, 1896.
282 ORTHOPTERA.

chestnut - brown ; Periplaneta americana, or the American
Cockroach, a much larger species, often an inch and three-
quarters long, with a yellowish thorax with chestnut-brown
markings, chestnut-brown wings, and the antenne very long.
The third species is called the German Cockroach (P. yer-
manica), and is a small yellowish-brown species, with two dark-
brown stripes on the thorax. Another species, P. austral-
ax’, is also found doing some harm in conservatories. The
Black species (B. orientalis) is only winged in the male, the
others in both sexes. The eggs are laid in packets, and some-
times, as in P. yermanica, are carried about by the female.

 

Fic. 162.—FreEMALE AND Mate common Cockroacdu (Bla/tu orientalis). (Nicholson.)

The young are all pale-coloured, and occasionally almost white
when they have just changed their skin.

Prevention ant Remedies—Persian insect - powder, spread
about where these pests are, is a good remedy; but trapping
keeps them well in hand, whilst a hedgehog will speedily clear
them out from the basements of houses. Voss’s phospho-nicoty]
is also an excellent remedy.

It is not necessary to refer to the Locusts, Grasshoppers, and
other Orthoptera, as they are seldom destructive in England.
NEUROPTERA. 283

The Mole Cricket (G@ryllotalpa vulyaris) (fig. 163) is sometimes
an unpleasant insect in gardens and greenhouses, burrowing in

 

Fic. 163.—MoLe Cricker (Gryllotalpa vulguris), 4.

1, Ova; 2and 8, young crickets. (Curtis.)

the soil, but is nowhere very plentiful, except in the Channel
Islands.

NEUROPTERA.

In this order are grouped many diverse forms. Some
insects now included were at one time classified as distinct
orders, but without sufficient grounds, and hence are now in-
corporated in this one group. As a rule, Neuroptera may be
said to have four wings of the same texture, with numerous
veins and cross- veins, giving them a peculiar lace-like or
reticulate appearance. If we include here the Ant-lions, &c.,
complete as well as incomplete metamorphosis is found. Many
are aquatic in the larval stage. The Neuroptera include the
284 NEUROPTERA.

Dragon-flies, May-flies, Lace-wings, Scorpion-flies, Ant-lions,
Stone-flies, Termites, &c. The Bird-lice, Mallophaga, wingless
parasites, also belong to this order.

The Neuroptera are grouped in five divisions and eleven
families, as follows :—

1. Trichoptera.—No mandibles in adults. The wings de-
velop internally, becoming evident when the pupal form is
attained. Larve and pupe aquatic. Family Phryyaneiite
(Caddis-flies).

2. Neuroptera planipenna. — Adults always mandibulate.
Some are aquatic, others terrestrial during the early stages.
Development as in Trichoptera. Families Panorpid (Scorpion-
flies), Sialide (Snake- and Alder-flies), Hvmerobiidw (Lace-
wings and Ant-lions).

3. Neuroptera amphibiotica.—Wings develop prominently
outside the body. Aquatic larve and pupe. Families Odonata
(Dragon-flies), Perlidw (Stone-flies), and Lyphemeridw (May-
flies).

4. Pseudo-neuroptera.— Wings develop as above. No defi-
nite pupa. Entirely terrestrial. Families Zeridtidw (White
Ants), Psoeide (Book-lice), and Hmbiide,

5. Mallophaga.—W ingless and parasitic.

Birp-LicE (MALLOPHAG.).

Birds are subject to a number of lice: these lice are called
Mallophaga, and are included in the order Neuroptera. They
are all apterous, and provided with a biting mouth, taking their
nourishment from the epidermal products of the skin. The
ova are laid on the host; the larve are like the adult, only
paler in colour—in fact, metamorphosis is very slight, the
young gradually getting darker in colour as they grow older.
There is one genus (Trichorlectes) (fig. 164) found on mammals,
such as the Horse, Ox, and Sheep Louse, &e., and some-
times these cause severe pruritus. This genus, as seen in
BIRD-LICE (MALLOPHAGA). 285

the dog, may serve as a host for one of
infests the dog. The Bird-lice are often
very injurious to poultry : four genera are
common on fowls and chicks, namely,
Goniodes, Goniocotes, Menopon, and Lipe-
urus. These lice live upon the birds
permanently, — Goniodes and Goniocotes
on the neck, under the wings, and on
the rump. Menopon is more active, and
wanders over the whole body: this is the
louse that crawls on to a person plucking
fowls, but soon dies. Lipeurus lives be-
tween the barbs of the wing - feathers.
These lice eat away at the base of the
feathers, the skin, c., and cause severe

the Tapeworms that

 

Fia. 164.—TRrichopreTES
SPH/EROCEPHALUS (9) oF
Sweep, mag. 20 diameters.
(Fleming. )

irritation. They stunt the growth of young chicks to a serious
extent, and prevent the birds taking nourishment and rest.

 

Fic. 165.—MALLOPHAGA OR BIRD-LICE.

1, Lipewrus variabilis. 2, Menopon pallidum.
(All greatly enlarged.)

8, Goniocotes hologaster.

One can usually detect the presence of lice on birds by the
barbs of the feathers, especially those of the saddle-hackle, be-
286 NEUROPTERA.

coming notched and jagged. The antenne of the Bird-lice are
composed of four or five joints; those that we get on the mam-
malia (Trichodectes) have three-jointed antenne. These must
not be confounded with the piercing-mouthed lice (Hwmatopinus).

Prevention and Treatment.—All fowls should have “ dust-
baths,” so that they can rid themselves of these pests. Road
dust and lime or gypsum and a little paraffin make as good a
mixture as any. All brood-hens should be dressed around the
rump and under the wings with mercurial ointment before being
set, and young chicks should be similarly dressed up the neck
to kill the tick-like species (G. Hynsford7’) which stunts their
growth so seriously.

Lace-wine Fires (Hemerosip2).

Lace-wing flies are of much service to us as a natural enemy
of plant-lice. They are beautiful Neuroptera, with clear lace-
like wings, bright shiny golden
eyes, and green or yellowish-

co green bodies. Some have the
s power of giving forth a very
offensive smell when touched.
The eggs of the “Golden Eye”
are peculiar structures, laid on
long stalks (fig. 166, c) in
groups upon the leaves of
plants and trees. The larve
Fra. 166.—Lace-wisa Phy, (A) are provided with a power-

mie oe @nlareed); 8, ful sickle-shaped pair of jaws,
by means of which they

ravenously devour the Dolphins ; and having sucked out their
life-juices, they throw the empty skins over their back to form
a protection against the prying eyes of birds. Beneath this
curious Periclean covering the larva pupates. The larve are
often called Aphis Lions. A number of different species exist.

      

SELERGRNON Mire:
Oe

S

  
CADDIS-FLIES (PHRYGANEIDA). 287

CADDIS-FLIES (PHRYGANEIDZ).

Caddis-flies, Water-moths, or Zvichoptera, are Neuroptera
that are aquatic during their larval life. The adults resemble
moths in appearance; but the wings are not scaly, and are
turned down at the sides of the body when at rest. They are
more or less covered with hairs, and the cross-veins are much
fewer than in most Neuroptera; legs and antenne are long,
and their mouth-parts are but poorly developed. The eggs
are laid in gelatinous masses upon water-plants. The larve,
which are often extremely injurious to water-cress, live in curi-
ous cases made up of stones, shells, pieces of wood, &c. The
Caddis-worms are long cylindrical larvae with scaly heads and
strong jaws ; the three segments near the head are leathery, and
each bears a pair of legs. The front part of the larva alone
sticks out of the case when moving, the other nine segments
being enclosed in the curious larval covering. The tail has two
hooks by which the insect anchors itself to a stone or plant
in the water. Some species reach nearly an inch in length.
The pupal stage is passed in the case, the pupa emerging a short
time previous to the advent of the adult, and crawling up to the
surface of the water, ready to escape. There are a great number
of species; but the most abundant in the water-cress beds is
Limnephilus flavicornis, which has a wing-expanse of one and
a quarter inch.

Prevention and Remedies consist in draining off the beds and
clearing out all the plants, leaving the beds to dry for some
weeks previous to winter planting. Birds, especially sparrows,
clear the insects off, and do much good. When present in
numbers, a good plan is to fill the beds full of water and move
the tops of the plants about with poles and rakes to shake the
worms off: they then float to the top, and are run off with the
excess of water.
288 NEUROPTERA.

Dracon-Fiies (Oponata).

The Dragon-flies are all carnivorous, feeding off butterflies
and moths and other insects when adult, and upon various

 

om

D
Fic. 167.—DRAGON-FLIES.
A, A Dragon-fly (.Eschna grandis), partly dissected; B, larva; c, pupa; o, head of

Libellulu depressu. h, Head; ? to ¢’, thoracic segments; a, abdomen; an, antenne ;
e, ¢, eyes; m, jaws; f, upper lip. (Nicholson.)

water insects when in the larval stage. They are often called
Sketer Hawks, because they devour the aquatic mosquito larve.
The adults have large eyes, these often occupying the greater
APTERA, 289

part of the head. They are provided with very powerful
mouths, Their wings are usually transparent, and have a
number of mesh-like veins. The legs have a series of spines
upon them. Dragon-flies are most useful as insect destroyers.
Each individual seems to have a hunting-ground of its own,
either over a piece of water, along some lane, or in some glade
in a wood. There are some (Lilellulédw) which are beautiful
fragile insects (Calepteryx). The eggs are laid in the water or
on aquatic plants. The young (fig. 167, B) possess no traces
of wings. They commence to show after the third or fourth
moult (c, w). The nymph (c) has a much shorter body than
the adult, and, previous to hatching, crawls up the stem of
some water-plant, when the shell splits, and the perfect Dragon-
fly emerges.

APTERA.

Lastly, we have the wingless primitive insects, the Collembola
and Thysanura, now united into one order,
the Aptera. Many are popularly called
“Spring - tails.” There are never any
wings or rudiments of such, but always
three pairs of legs, and long or moder-
ately long antenne. They practically
remain in the larval stage throughout life.
The Thysanura have ten segments in the
abdomen ; the Collembola have six or less
segments, and the first one is always
provided ventrally with a curious tube,
which is absent in the Thysanura. The
Collembola have the power of leaping or
skipping into the air: some have a long,
forked, ventral process towards the anus, Fie. 1¢8.—Stuver Fisn

, ‘ a (Lepisma saccharina).
which is used as a leaping apparatus.

Collembola are often injurious to seedling plauts (Achorutes

T

 
290 APTERA,

armatus, &c.), to mushrooms (A. rufescens), to fruit bushes
(Sminthurus luteus, &c.); and a few Thysanura are more or
less noxious, as the Silver Fish (Lepisma saccharina) (fig.
168), a curious silvery form found in books and in houses

generally.
291

CHAPTER IX.

MOLLUSCA,

Tue Mollusca form a large class of animals, to which belong
Snails, Slugs, Oysters, Cockles, Mussels, Octopi, and Sepias, as
well as many extinct forms, such as Ammonites.

Mollusca are generally provided with a shell formed by part
of the animal known as the mantle: this shell is nearly always
external, but in some few it is buried under the skin (Slugs).
All mollusca are unsegmented animals, and bilaterally sym-
metrical in the young or embryo stage. The bilateral sym-
metry soon goes in the adult, and they are often much contorted,
especially those that lie in a spiral shell. The skin of Mollusca
has peculiar characteristics: one particular part—the so-called
“mantle” that lines the shell—has the power of secreting cal-
careous salts which go to make up the shell. This mantle forms
a cavity in the mollusc, the so-called “mantle cavity” or re-
spiratory sac.” Some molluscs (Snails, &c.) have a pulmonary
sac, and live upon land, breathing air; others (Mussels, Oysters,
&c.) have gills or branchiz, which are bathed with the water
in which they live. Most Mollusca are aquatic—the majority
marine, a few fresh-water ; and some are amphibious ; and there
are numerous terrestrial species, but the land genera are few. In-
ternally Mollusca are provided with a distinct heart and alimen-
tary canal, the former consisting of two auricles and one ventricle,
the ventricle traversing the two auricles ; both are surrounded by
a membrane, the pericardium. From each end of the ventricle
292 MOLLUSCA.

a tube runs off to the anterior and posterior end of the body.
The blood is colourless or pale yellow or pale green, and consists
of amceboid corpuscles only. The nutritive substances derived
from the food in the digestive tube pass through the walls of the
tube and mix with the blood in the neighbouring vessels. There
are no lymphatics as in vertebrate animals. A large muscular
area used for locomotion is found in most groups, called the
“foot” (fig. 169, 7). This structure is much modified according

 

Fic. 169.—EpIBLE Snax (Helix pomatia).

T, tentacles; E, eyes; a, small tentacles; f, foot. (Brit. Mus. Guide.)

to its function: in some it is used for boring, in others for
crawling, and yet others use it for leaping. There are two chief
types of shells formed by these invertebrates—Bivalve (fig. 171)
and Univalve (fig. 173) shells: the former consist of two valves
united by an area called the hinge-line; the other may be a
simple tube, a spirally coiled tube, or a conical flattened disc.

Reproduction in Mollusca is sexual: both the sexual organs
may be in the same individual or in separate individuals. The
former (hermaphrodites), nevertheless, reproduce by cross-tertil-
isation. The majority of land Mollusca develop direct ; but m
many aquatic species there is a larval form.

In Unio or the Fresh-water Mussel the ovaries and testes—the
female and male genital glands—are found in the foot. They
are in separate individuals (dicecious). They are large in winter
and spring, as the breeding season is then on. The male cells,
spermatozoa, are discharged into the water with a milky fluid, and
MOLLUSCA. 293

chance being swept into a female Unio. There is no external
sexual distinction between a male and female mollusc. The
genital glands are branched structures, consisting of a gland on
each side of the middle line of the body. The tubes of these
glands are lined by a layer of specially modified cells, epithelial
cells, which develop into either ova or spermatozoa as the case
may be. The tailed spermatozoa fertilise the ova in the mantle
cavity of the female. One female Unio may produce as many
as 3,000,000 ova in a season. The ova collect between the gill
lamelle, where they undergo development, and here appear the
young larval Unios, which are known as Glochidium larve.
They eventually leave the parent and become attached to fish
and other objects, upon which they finish their development,
when they relinquish their hold and sink to the bottom of the
water, where the Glochidium becomes the adult Unio. Ex-
cretory organs are present, as the organs of Bojanus, acting as
kidneys in function, and connected with the pericardium as
well as the exterior.

Mollusca have a distinct nervous system, typically composed
of three pairs of ganglia connected by commissures, each pair
forming a kind of nerve-centre. Some Mollusca have eyes, as
seen in Pectens and Helix (fig. 169, £), whilst auditory organs
are also found (otoliths).

The Mollusca are divided into four groups—namely :

1. Lamellibranchiata.
2. Gasteropoda.
3. Cephalopoda.
4. Pteropoda.
These are divided into two sections—
A. Acephala (headless molluscs) = Lamellibranchiata (Mussels,
&c.), or bivalves.

B. Encephala (headed molluscs), or univalves and multi-
valves.

The Encephala are provided with a curious masticatory
apparatus called the “odontophore”: one part is a ribbon-
294 MOLLUSCA.

like mass of tecth (fig. 170) which can be drawn in and
out, called the radula, and which is used by snails and slugs
in devouring the vegetation. The only
group with which we need deal here is that
of the Gasteropoda, as they alone are of
any agricultural importance. The others,
however, may be briefly referred to, as com-
pleting the series of the animal kingdom.
Lamellibranchiata. — These are all bi-
Fic. 170.—Two trans. Valve headless Mollusca, whose mantle con-

VERS E ae 1 wTH : : : .
Tea pantty or Lin. sists of two distinct flaps, each of which

(Brit. me Guide" secretes one of the valves. They respire

by gills placed in the cavity formed by the
two halves of this mantle. The cavity so formed communicates
(in one division) by a siphon with the exterior (Siphonata).
Bivalve shells with the line marked on the inside of the shell
—the pallial line, indented (fig. 171, c)—can at once be dis-

 

 

Fig. 171.—SHELLS OF LaMELLIBRANCHS.

1, Cyclas, with two muscle sears (bb) and entire pallial line (a); 2, Tapes, with in-
mea line (¢); 8, Perna, with one muscle scar and complete pallial line (a).
tinguished as siphonate forms. Those that have no pallial
sinus are asiphonate forms (fig. 171, 3). The foot is generally
a large, wedge-shaped, muscular body. Most are marine, but
some—such as Unio and Anodonta, Fresh-water Mussels—live
in our rivers and ponds. To this class Oysters (Ostrea), Mussels
(Mytilus), &c., belong.
MOLLUSCA. 295

Cephalopoda.—The Cephalopoda are the Cuttlefish, Nautilus,
Squid, &c. In these we find a distinct head, and the mouth is

 

Fig, 172.—Common CaLaMary.

A, A Cephalopod (Loligo vulgaris) ; a, ordinary tentacle; t, long tentacle. 3, internal
shell. c, side view of one of the suckers. , front view of head ; a, bases of arms; ¢,
tentacles ; m, mouth; f, funnel. (Nicholson.)
surrounded by a circle of arms which bear numbers of suckers.
The arms are divisions of the foot. These molluscs, many of

which have an internal shell (Sepia, Loligo), are carnivorous
296 MOLLUSCA.

marine animals (fig. 172). Some have a curious organ called an
“ink-bag,” which contains a brown fluid, “sepia”: this fluid
the mollusc ejects when pursuing its prey so as to confuse it, and
likewise to hide itself when being pursued by its enemies. The
Nautilus has a complete external shell, quite unlike the “ cuttle-
bones” given to birds, the internal shell of Sepia. The sexes
are separate, and some remarkable ways of reproduction exist
(hectocotylisation), but such subjects are outside our province,
Many fossil forms are found, as the Ammonites and Belemnites
of the Lias, Gault, and Chalk, &c.

The Pteropoda are a small class of free-swimming pelagic
Mollusca provided with two wing-like appendages and with
glassy shells. They are carnivorous, feeding mainly upon crus-
tacea, and they in their turn form part of the food of whales.

Gasteropoda.—Gasteropods include the majority of univalve
Mollusca. They are found in the sea, in fresh-water, and on
land. The foot is in the form of a broad, flat, ventral mass, or
may be in the shape of a curious fin-like organ. Gasteropods
have never a bivalve shell—the shell is either univalve or multi-
valve. The simplest type of shell is seen in the limpet. They
are often coiled or “ whorled” (fig. 173); each division of the
spire or whorl may be in contact or widely separate ; the mouth
is either round or oval, slit-like in a few genera (Cyprea), and
bordered by the rounded “lips.” A column or pillar runs up
the centre of the spiral shells, forming the columella. The
body of a Gasteropod is divided into head, foot, and visceral sac;
the last is enclosed in the mantle, which is never divided into
two lobes as im bivalves. Most Gasteropods have an unsym-
metrical body, coiled spirally, the respiratory organs of the left
side being atrophied. The flattened foot may secrete a horny or
calcareous plate, the operculum, which serves to close the orifice
of the shell when required. The head is distinct, with two ten-
tacles, and two eyes often placed upon long stalks. A proboscis
LIMNIDA (WATER-SNAILS). 297

is sometimes present, having at its base the ear-sacs containing
the “ear-stones” or otoliths. The “radula” is always well
developed : this ribbon-like mass of teeth is composed of chitin
(fig. 170). Some families breathe air (Pulmonata) ; the majority
are aquatic, chiefly marine. In those that live in water we find
three types of respiration—(i) Where there are no special res-
piratory organs, the blood simply being bathed by the water in
the mantle cavity ; (ii) another type is seen in the “nudibranch
gasteropods,” which have gills on their back; and (iii) those
which have gills in the mantle cavity (Halcot’s or Kar-shells,
&c.) The sexes are for the most part distinct (diccious) ; but
Snails (Helicide) and Slugs (Limacide), &c., are hermaphrodite.
The young when first developed have always an embryonic
shell. Many marine species develop by a metamorphosis,—the
larva being “nautiloid” in form, with a ciliated expansion
called the “ velum.” Terrestrial forms have no meta-
morphosis, but develop direct. A young snail is much like a
fully developed snail, save for its smaller size and more trans-
parent shell.

The Gasteropods that we are interested in all belong to the
group Pulmonata, in which a shell is generally present and
respiration is aérial, the deflected mantle forming a pulmonary
chamber.

Mollusca injurious to our crops belong to the two families
known as Helicidw (Snails) and Limacide: (Slugs), both ter-
restrial in habits. A third family of economic importance are
the Limnceidee or Water-snails.

LiMn z1Dm®, oR WATER-SNAILS.

These aquatic or semi-aquatic molluscs are the hosts of the
liver-flukes in various parts of the world. ‘They are found at
all elevations, on mountain-sides as well as in damp fenny
countries. Water-snails are hermaphrodites, and frequent shal-
low and still waters and damp meadows ; many may often be
298 MOLLUSCA.

found together, and they are most prolific. One may find
them at all times of the year. The shells are elongated and
conically oval, the spire being produced, while the snail’s
body is twisted up in the spire of the shell. They have a
prominent head and an oblong foot, notched in front and
rounded behind. The shells are extremely variable, one
species (Limneus pereyer) having at least fourteen varieties.
In this country the two species important to us are L. trun-
rafulus and L. pereger. Both are hosts of the all-important
liver-fluke (Déstomum hepaticum) which causes the “ liver-rot”
in sheep.

L. truncatulus (fig. 173, 4) is a pale ashy-grey turreted shell
with five or six whorls, the last whorl being large and expanded,
and occupying about three-fifths of the
shell; the spire tapers to a very fine
point. It is found nearly all over
Britain and Europe, Afghanistan, Mo-
rocco, Algeria, the Canary Islands, &c.
This snail lays its ova or spawn upon
mud around ponds, ditches, and

 

Fig. 173.—WatTbr-sxaits
emoney streams. Each snail lays about 1500

i. jereger, twice vat size” OV, in batches of 30 to 100. They

are deposited in strips of some gelatin-
ous substance. Incubation takes place in about two weeks.
This is the chief host of the liver-fluke.

L. pereyer (fig. 173, B), the other fresh-water snail, is almost
transparent yellowish - brown, and spirally striate, with five
whorls. This species often wanders far from water, and may be
found crawling up willow-trees and in damp meadows. They
are carnivorous in habits. Although the embryos of the liver-
fluke are found in this species, it seems it cannot complete its
changes in it. Were there no Limneide there would be no
liver-rot in our flocks; but it is extremely difficult to destroy
these molluscs. There is no doubt that the suggestion made by
Miss Ormerod of clearing out shallow pools of weeds, and re-
SLUGS AND SNAILS, 299

moving the broad growth of weeds and mud from the entrance
of pools where sheep may water, would do much good where
practicable. The destruction of the snails by putting gas-lime
or lime and strong salt over the mud when cleared out of the
dykes and ditches would greatly lessen the evil.

In N. America LZ. humilis, and in 8, America L. riator,
probably serve as hosts for the liver-fluke.

Stues (Limactp®) anp Swams (Hunicrip.2),

Slugs and Snails are often a great pest to the farmer and
gardener. Now and then a plague of one or the other may
ruin our field-crops. These possess a head which bears ten-
tacles, and also a pair of eyes which may be on long stalks.
The foot is flat, and the rasping tongue or “radula” is well
developed. Both Snails and Slugs are hermaphrodites. The
eggs are laid in batches in the ground and under stones and
rubbish.

The slugs have only a rudimentary shell or an indefinitely
formed one under the mantle. Slugs mostly frequent damp
places, and bury themselves during the daytime in the earth.
The eggs are laid singly, but in groups, in the ground, and are
very numerous. The chief genera are known as Arion, Limaz,
and Agriolimax. Arion can be told by having the slime-gland
in the posterior extremity, and the respiratory orifice in front
of the shield-like shell. The Arions feed at night upon the
tenderest and choicest plants, but they will devour anything
at times. The Limaces are especially fond of indoor life. All
slugs excrete a thick slime, and this can be exuded at least
twice in rapid succession, a character which we may well
remember when we are trying to destroy them.

The most destructive slugs are Agriolimax agrestis, L. mact-
mus, Arton ater, and A. hortensis.

The Grey Field-slug (A. agrestis) (fig. 174) is by far the most
injurious land mollusc. It may be found in most gardens and
300 MOLLUSCA.

fields in Britain. Like all slugs, its life is dependent on moisture.
In dry weather it gets under stones, &c., and comes out only at
night to feed. The body is spindle-shaped and ashy-grey in
hue, with a reddish or yellowish tinge, sometimes mottled; the
foot has pale sides, and the shield is large. The oval shell is very
thin, and marked with indistinct lines of growth with a broad
membranous margin. It exudes great quantities of slime, and is
most prolific. Seven or eight separate batches of fifty ova each

 

Fia. 174.—Grey Frievp-suve (Agriolimasx agrestis). Slightly enlarged.

are laid during the breeding season, which is from May to
November. The little ova are laid in heaps of six to fifteen
in the ground and under moss, especially during August,
September, and October. They take three weeks to develop ;
the adults live many years. In the winter they may be found
under stones and rubbish in a semi-torpid state. All kinds of
plants are more or less attacked by them. It is chiefly in damp
weather that slugs are destructive.

Another species is the Black-striped Slug (ZL. maximus), which
sometimes reaches seven inches in length. Although not very
prolific, it does much harm. The ova are deposited in heaps,
joined together with a gummy slime, during the autumn. These
slugs vary much in colour: some are black, others yellowish,
spotted with black and white; the foot is always edged with
white, and the slime is always iridescent when dry, white when
fresh.

The common Black Slug (Arion ater) is about four inches
long. It varies from black to red, yellow, dark-green, or brown,
and is covered with prominent tubercles, much contracted in
front and pointed behind ; the foot has a yellowish border, and
SLUGS AND SNAILS. 301

the slime is also yellowish. The shell consists of a number of
small separate calcareous grains. This species is a scavenger as
well as being injurious.

Another curious group of Slugs
belong to the genus Testacella.
These molluses (fig. 175), of which
there are three species in England
(T. haliotidea, T. scutulum, and T.
mauget), feed almost entirely on
earthworms, slugs, snails, mille-
pedes, &c. The Testacelle are the
only true predaceous or carnivorous
land mollusca. They hunt earth-
worms in their burrows, and de-
vour huge lobworms much larger Sik atueaaee oan
than themselves. The mouth is 4, restacctia haliotidea: v, head;
furnished with long curved teeth ®zadula: w, worm; 1, teeth from
(rt), so as to hold the victim. They
live for four or five years. The eggs are laid separately in April,
and resemble hen’s eggs in shape, and covered by creamy white
calcareous shells. From six to twenty ova are laid by 7. halio-
tidea. According to Collinge, they hatch in from fourteen to
seventeen days.

 

Syaits (Hgticrpz).

The Snails, like Slugs, are nocturnal and crepuscular, seldom
crawling about in the daytime, unless after heavy rains. The
latter habit has given rise to a popular idea that snails come in
rain-clouds. When the breeding season is on, the male organs
are supplemented by one or more curious crystalline darts, which
they thrust out at one another: these curious structures, found
in special sacs called “ dart-sacs,” are peculiar to the genus Heliz.
The eggs are laid in batches in slanting galleries underground
formed by the “‘mother” snail: they are white, round, semi-
transparent bodies.
302 MOLLUSCA.

The following snails have been brought to the author’s notice
as being very injurious: The Garden Snail (Helix aspersa), the
Wood Snail (H. nemoralis), the Strawberry Snail (Zygromyia
rufescens), IT. virgata, and H. eaperata, which migrate from the
Downs to the fields in numbers at certain times.

The Garden Snail (/7. aspersa), fig. 176, is one of the common-
est and most easily obtainable. This large species needs no
description, as it is well
known in every garden.
The ova are laid in heaps
of sixty to seventy in the
earth; they are white, shin-
ing, globular bodies, which
hatch out in fifteen days if
kept in the damp. The
young are almost colourless,

Mea a the shell being thin and
transparent. Drought and
cold are erroneously considered harmful to snails. At the ap-
proach of winter they collect together, and exude a slimy matter
which hardens and closes the aperture of the shell. This cov-
ering or lid is called the epiphragm, and must not be mistaken
for a permanent operculum. The common snail may be found
hibernating together in crevices in walls, in old trees, and under
rubbish, united together by the agglutinated slime.

HH, nenoralis, or the Wood Snail, is abundant in hedgerows
and upland pastures, especially clover, where it often does much
damage. Hygromyia rujescens, the Strawberry Snail, often does
much damage to strawberries.

In destroying slugs, we must bear in mind the fact that they
exude a thick slime which retains any poisonous substance we
may put over them, and which they can cast off. They cannot,
however, repeat the violent excretion of the repellent substance
more than twice, so that three dressings at short intervals are

 
SLUGS AND SNAILS. 303

necessary before we can reach the slug’s skin to destroy it with
such substances as soot, salt, and lime. Unless this is done,
time and money are simply wasted. I have seen slugs sitting
quietly on lime, surrounded by their slime, and in no ways
affected. Again, we must note they only come out at dusk, or
after rain, or in damp weather; evening and early morning are
then the times to attack them, and more especially so in dry
weather. The various soil fumigants, such as vaporite, fumite,
and apterite, readily destroy slugs. Hydro-oxide of calcium in
a one to two per cent solution in water is also an excellent
remedy.

Both Snails and Slugs have many natural enemies, such as
ducks, fowls, rooks, starlings, blackbirds, and thrushes. The
last two are of great assistance in keeping down an excess of
Helices. Moles, shrews, and toads also eat them.

Those who wish to pursue this subject further are referred
to the two following papers: ‘“Injurious Mollusca,” ‘The
Zoologist,’ p. 201, June 1895; and “Injurious and Beneficial
Slugs and Snails,” ‘Journal of the Board of Agriculture,’ vol.
xi. pp. 594-602 and pp. 650-658. 1905.
PART ILI.

CHORDATA (VERTEBRATA)
CHAPTER X,

CHORDATA,

TUNICATES OR SEA-SQUIRTS AND AMPHIOXUS = AORANIA.

Tue Mollusca form the last true invertebrate group. Between
the invertebrates with their ventral nervous system and dorsal
hemal system and the true vertebrates with their dorsal nervous
system and ventral hamal system and skeleton there are con-
necting-links—namely, the group of Ascidians, Tunicates, or Sea-
squirts; a worm-like creature known as Balanoglossus ; and a
stage further, connecting these with the true definite vertebrate
animals, the little Lancelet, Amphiorus lanceolatum, a fish-
like creature found in the sands of the Mediterranean and in
Japan. These are called, collectively with the true Vertebrata,
by some zoologists Chordata. The Chordata are divided
into two sections—viz., (1) Acrania and (2) Craniota. The
curious types we refer to here belong to the former section.
Amphioxus is undoubtedly a vertebrate animal; although it pos-
sesses no vertebre, no true internal skeleton, yet, as we shall
see, it has a dorsal nervous system, and that structure peculiar
to chordate or vertebrate animals—namely, the notochord, which
becomes less and less recognisable the higher we proceed in
the vertebrate scale, until it is only represented as mere pads
between the vertebree in the Mammalia.
308 ACRANTA.

Tuntcates (figs. 177, 178) or Sea-squirts are flask- or bottle-
shaped gelatinops-looking masses found attached to rocks, &c., in
the sea. That they constitute an important group we can readily
understand when a monograph of the forms found by the
Challenger expedition reaches cight hundred odd quarto pages.
Such subjects are outside our province, as they are purely
marine animals, It is sufficient for our purpose to point out

 

Fic. 177.—Srructure oF a TUNICATE.

A, Diagram of the structure of a simple Tunicate: ¢, test; t’, second muscular tunic ;
s, branchial sac ; b, branchial aperture ; a, atrial opening; ¢, atrium; 0, opening of
gullet ; g, stomach ; an, anus; n, nerve-ganglion. B, Botryllus smaragdus—portion of
a colony: co, common atrial pore ; br, branchial aperture of one of the zodids. c, a
simple Ascidian (Molgula). (Nicholson.)

that these Sea-squirts, which in their adult form are undoubtedly
invertebrate in type, are in their larval or early stages distinctly
vertebrate. The so-called Appendicularia larva (fig. 178, a) has
a distinct dorsal skeletal rod, the notochord (q), in its tail, which
entirely disappears in the adult,—the dorsal nervous system
becoming ventral by a curious and complicated series of
changes,
ACRANIA (AMPHLOXUS). 309

  
 
    

     

Oa
ore

yn oe 5
Se rt
cine
oo)
pe
aa s
Wey
B

    
   
  
  
   
  
  
   

Fe:
es
ee
‘Sessiereo
| eee

   

    
    
  
  
 

 

    
    
  
 
  
 
   

  
    
    
  

    
    
  

 
 

  

 

   
 
   
 

  
    
 

 

     
   
  

    
 

‘ 2) it
Sead Sele
SOE RL Hy Sele
So Res i Spee
COTES me PS BehS
CNS | See
NN SEE
) Shae
(ee
eye
Diefaye

=) —

SEE

F > (olay S

REE -p

D> INE

> (ele

Se

BS Grice 9

See

WD (ely

mete

Sey CS

DAS
aS ‘

aw

Ee S

a

Fic. 178. —DEVELOPMENT OF a TUNICATE.

A, Larva of Botryllus, greatly enlarged: a, processes for attachment; b, primitive
cells from which digestive organs develop; d, eye-spot; e, entrance to branchial sac ;
J, external test; g, large cells forming central axis. B, Portion of tail, enlarged: h,
central axis. c, Another larva. vp, Diagrammatic cross-section of the tail: p, p, fins;
h, central axis; g, cellular, and f, external sheath. (Nicholson.)

In Amphioxus (fig. 179) we have a permanent dorsal nervous
system and notochord, this latter being an elastic cartilaginous

 

3 A a p 7

Fic, 179, Tae Lancetet (Amphioxus lanceolatus).

o, Mouth ; ». pharynx; g, stomach ; h, liver; 4, intestine; a, anus; », notochord ;
J, fin-rays ; p, abdominal pore. (Nicholson.)
310 CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDATA.

rod between the nervous system and the gut. Couch places
this little creature amongst the British Fish.

Another form to be mentioned here is the worm-like Balano-
ylossus, which Bateson has shown to have a dorsal axial rod
(notochord) and a dorsal hollow nervous system, besides a series
of gill-slits, like a fish.

The whole of those animals that possess a dorsal nervous
system and a notochord during some period of their existence
are best known, then, as Chordata.

The Chordata can again be divided into two sections—namely,
the Acrania and the Craniota. The former contains those lowly
intermediate forms which Mr Bateson classifies as follows :—

1. Hemichordata (Balanoglossus).

2. Urochordata (Ascidians).

3. Cephalochordata (Amphioxus).
Whilst Fish, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia may be
placed in a fourth division—

4. Vertebrata.

Thus for the old term Vertebrata we now substitute Chordata,
and use the term Vertebrata only for those Chordata with a
cranium and a distinct skeleton, either cartilaginous or osseous,
so that the Chordata tabulate as follows :—

1. Hemichordata.

Acrunia (no brain) 2. Urochordata.
8. Cephalochordata.
Pisces.
CuHorDats
oe Amphibia.
Craniota (brain present) 4, Vertebrata < Reptilia.
Aves.

Mammalia.
311

CHAPTER XI.

CHORDATA—Continued.
Tue CHARACTERS OF CRANIOTA OR VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

THE remaining divisions of the Chordata—namely, the Fish
(Pisces), Frogs, &c. (Amphibia), Snakes, &c (Reptilia), Birds

 

Fic. 180.—DiacramMatic SecTions oF AN INVERTEBRATE AND VERTEBRATE.

p, Dorsum; v, venter; H, hemal or blood system; Be, body cavity ; Bw, body wall;
G, gut; Ne, nerve chord ; Ne, neural canal; N, notochord ; /’, pericardium,
(Aves), and Quadrupeds (Mammalia)—are known as Craniota
or true Vertebrate animals. Although these two great sub-
kingdoms, the Invertebrata or Achordata and the Chordata or
312 CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Vertebrata, are united together by such forms as the Tunicates,
yet each have their own distinctive characters.

On taking a transverse section of a vertebrate animal and
comparing it with the same of an invertebrate (fig. 180), we
shall note the following important differences. The section of
the invertebrate consists of a single tube in which lie the dorsal
hemal system (#7), the ventral nervous system (Vc), and the
central gut (G). On comparing the vertebrate section, we
observe that there are two distinct tubes, in one of which, the
dorsal, is shut off the chief nervous system (Ve); in the other
lie the gut and the ventral hemal system—part of this latter,
the heart, being further shut off by the membrane surrounding
it, the pericardium (P).

Vertebrates (Craniota) may be said, generally speaking, to be
characterised by having a dorsal nervous system which is en-
closed in a canal composed of a number of bony or cartilaginous
rings, the vertebre, placed in a longitudinal row. In all verte-
brates the structure called the notochord (NV) is present in the
embryo, and more or less so in the adult. This structure,
which is developed in the floor of the neural canal, is a gela-
tinous, cartilaginous, axial rod, tapering at each end, and
forming a support to the cerebro-spinal canal. The noto-
chord, which is persistent in Amphioxus, is replaced in true
vertebrata by the vertebral column. This column is composed
of a series of cartilaginous or ossified segments, the vertebre,
between which the primitive notochord becomes squeezed
out, it remaining as only small pads between the vertebre,
or as diamond-shaped masses, as we see in Fish. The limbs
of vertebrates are never more than four in number, and are
always turned away from the neural or dorsal surface; they
are united to the body by distinct articulations. They are
often absent in the lower vertebrates (Snakes); in Fish they
are represented by the paired pectoral and pelvic fins (fig.
198, » and 2).

Although a vascular system occurs in the Invertebrates, it
CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 313

is of a very primitive type compared to the blood-system of the
Vertebrata. In all Craniota there is a contractile heart, which
never consists of less than two distinct chambers (fig. 199), with
valvular openings; more generally the heart is composed of
four distinct divisions (fig. 195). In the lowest vertebrates
this heart only pumps the blood to the respiratory organs to be
purified, but in the higher forms there are two distinct vascular
systems—one by which the blood is pumped to the lungs and
then back to the heart, called the “pulmonary circulation” ;
the other by which the blood that has been to the respiratory
organs is sent to the various parts of the body, the so-called
“systemic circulation.” Again, in this sub-kingdom there is
always present a modification of the venous system known
as the hepato-portal system, by which some of the blood sent
to the intestinal portion of the alimentary canal is taken by a
tube called the vena porta back to the liver, and not direct to
the heart.

In connection with the venous system is also found in all
Craniota a set of vessels along the walls of the gut, which take
up the products of the intestinal digestion and pour them into
the great vein, or vena cava. This system of vessels is known
as the lacteal system. The substance contained in this system
is chyle, and the main duct opening into the vena cava is
designated the thoracic duct (fig. 195, Td). There are also
certain embryonic characters common to the vertebrates. In all
embryos we find two structures present—namely, the “ primitive
groove” and the ‘visceral arches.” The primitive groove
makes its appearance in the ovum early in development ; it is
found as a long depression in the germinal area of the egg,
with raised lip-like sides; and at the bottom of this canal the
notochord is seen. These early stages of development will be
treated more fully in the Embryology of the Fowl, where we
shall observe that at no time does the nervous system surround
the gut anteriorly as in the lower animals, and that it com-
mences as an open tube
314 CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

The next most important embryonic structures are the so-
called “visceral arches.” These are a series of transverse ridges
developed at the sides of the embryo just posterior to the
head. Slit-like openings become formed in them, the “visceral
clefts,” by which a free communication is set up between the
external media and the inner part of the digestive tube
anteriorly. These clefts are found in all Craniota ; but they are
only persistent in Fish and some Amphibia, in which filaments
are formed on the inner parts of the clefts, the branchie or gills.
Although not seen in the higher adult forms, they are neverthe-
less always present in the embryo.

In connection with the development there are also to be
noticed two embryonic membranes—namely, the Amnion and
Allantois (fig. 235).

Before we can study the groups of the Craniota, it is certainly
necessary that we should know something of the typical verte-
brate structure. For studying the structure we will take the
Horse as our type, as by so doing we shall be able to compare
more easily the peculiarities of the various farm animals.
315

CHAPTER XII.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE,

In the structure of a craniote animal there are two main
divisions to be studied—namely, the skeletal structure and the
general internal organisation. Every craniote animal has an
internal skeleton. In the lowest forms, the fish, this skeleton
may be soft and composed only of gristle-like cartilage ; or it
may be completely ossified or bony, as in the horse. Bony or
osseous tissue is partly preceded by cartilaginous tissue: the
bones of young animals are quite soft as compared with the
bones of the adults, because the calcareous salts which form the
bone are not yet fully deposited. Bones are also formed by
calcareous deposits in membranes.

SKELETON oF THE Horss.

The skeleton of the horse (fig. 181) will be seen, in common
with that of all the Craniota, to be easily divisible into two
parts—the axial part or spinal column and the cranium, and
the so-called appendicular portion, composed of the limbs and
their arches. The limb-arches unite the limbs to the central or
axial skeleton, and with these arches the limbs articulate.

The trunk or vertebral column is composed of a num-
ber of bony rings—the vertebre. These bony vertebre are
placed in a longitudinal direction. There are five divisions
of these bones, which are known as cervical, dorsal, lum-
bar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebre. The cervical are found
THE HORSE,

Or

SKELETON

316

 

‘307 aus puT ‘sqyt UY} JO sired BT 0JON

CneaannyQ) “asHOoY 1 NOLATANQ—'TSL “PLL

 

——<— See ey
fees y = SF See en
\ / \ i

AM A y ay

> ae AG

 
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 317

in the neck ; the dorsal carry the ribs; the lumbar are found in
the region of the Joins ; the sacral are united into one bony mass
called the “sacrum,” which supports to some extent the hind
limbs and the pelvic arch; the coccygeal form the tail-region.
A typical vertebra (fig. 182) consists of a solid lower portion, the
centrum (1 and 2), and an upper bony arch, the neural arrh (4),
in which lies the spinal cord. At the point where the two
halves of the neural arch meet there springs a bony spine more
or less developed, the dorsal or neural spine (fig. 182, 3). On
each side of the neural arch a process juts out, the zygapophysis

 

Fic. 182.—LumBar Vertesra (Front view.)

1, Centrum ; 2, its facet; 8, dorsal spine; 4, spinal foramen ; 5, anterior articulat-
ing process ; 6, transverse process ; 7, posterior articulating process (Chauveau.)
(5 and 7). From the sides of the vertebre there also project a
lateral process on each side, called the transverse process (6).

Theoretically there is another arch below the centrum, the
so-called hemal arch, which protects the blood-system. But
this can only be recognised in some animals, unless we take
the ribs as partly forming the arch. It is best seen in the
caudal vertebra of some fish. The vertebrae unite together partly
by their centra and partly by the zygapophyses. When a
vertebra has both faces of the centrum scooped out it is called
an amphicalous vertebra; when one end (the anterior) is pro-
jecting and the posterior concave, it is termed opisthocelous ;
when concave in front and convex behind, procelous.

In the horse the cervical vertebree are seven in number.
318 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.

This is the general number in all mammals; even the long
neck of the giraffe has only the same number as the short
neck of the pig.1 The
cervical vertebre are
cubical in form, the first
two being modified. The
first is known as the
atlas (fig. 184), which is
simply a bony ring with
which the skull articu-
lates in front; there is
Fia. 183.—Ax1s. (Lateral view.) no centrum to this ver-

 

1, Superior spinons process; 2, odontoid pro- tebra. The second ver-
cess ; 3, intervertebral foramen ; 4, body; 5, in- % és
ferior spinous process; 6, 7, inferior and superior tebra is called the azis
articulating processes, (Chanveau.) ee

(fig. 183): this is more
like a typical cervical; but in front it has a projecting blunt
process coming from the centrum, the so-called odontold pro-
cess (2), by which the axis can always be identified. The
thoracic vertebre number eight-
een, to which articulate the ribs.
The thoracic vertebre have large
flat and broad neural spines, the
spines heing longest in the an-
terior vertebree in the region of
the horse’s “ withers,” and direc-
ted backwards. The lumbar ver-
tebree are six in number; they

a are small and stout, with very

1, Articular cavities for condyles of i
occipital bone ; 2, articular facet; 3, ver- broad wing-like lateral processes.
tebral foramen; 4, cervical foramen ; 5, vi
transverse process ; 6, inferior spinous The sacral vertebra, of which
process; 7, superior arch, (Chauveau.) :

there are five in the horse (ex-
cept in Arabs, which have six), are united in the adult into
one bony piece, the sacrum, which supports the pelvic arch.

 

Fia. 184.—Atras. (Inferior surface.)

1 Some Edentate mammals, such as the Three-toed Sloths, have a vary-
ing number of cervicals, some genera six, whilst others have nine.
THE SKULL. 319

The caudal vertebree number sixteen to eighteen; they are
reduced to little bony cylinders. No closed neural canal runs
down them after the third or fourth vertebra.

The skull or craniwm (fig. 185), which articulates with the
axis by two bony projections, the two occipital condyles
(OC), is divided into two regions, the cranial and facial.
The former is a bony box which contains the brain. The

   

TT >
LL
Soo ee
SEE ESI r
oot
‘ MT SM MF
Fic. 185.—SKuLL oF tHE Horse.
oc, Occipital condyle ; ST, styloid process; OT, occipital tuberosity; P, parietal
bone; AH, auditory region ; Z, zygomatic process of temporal bone; F’, frontal bone ;
O, orbit ; L, lachryinal bone; M, malar; N, nasal bone; SM, supra-maxillary; OF,
infraorbital foramen; PM, premaxillary; IT, incisor teeth; MT, molar teeth; LM
inferior maxillary ; CP, coronoid process.
facial part constitutes the largest area of the skull. The
skull, which is an elongated pyramidal box in the horse, is
built up of a great number of bones (fig. 185). Only a few
of the more important can be mentioned here; for further
details the reader must consult various works on osteology
and veterinary anatomy.

The cranium is surrounded by flat bones at the back: these
320 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.

bones are known as occipital bones (fig. 186, So, Ex.O, Bo), of
which there are several; these are perforated by a large round
hole, the foramen magnum, out of which passes the portion of
the brain, the medulla oblongata, connecting the former with the
spinal column. Beneath this opening are the two swellings, the
occipital condyles. The top of the cranium is composed of four
flat thin bones: the ones joining the occipitals are the parietal

 

 

 

Fra. 186,—D1AGRAM OF THE RELATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL BONES OF
THE MAMMALIAN SKULL.

Me, Mesethmoid; Ps, presphenoid; Bo, basioccipital ; Bs, basisphenoid ; Os, orbito-
sphenoid; Fr, frontal; £z.0, exoccipital; SO, supraoccipital; Na, nasal; Turb, tur-
binals; Per, periotic; 1, position of exit of olfactory nerve; 2, optic nerve ; 3, motor
oculi nerve; 4, trochlear nerve; 5, 7, 8, three divisions of 5th nerve; 6, abducens
oculi; 9, facial; 10, auditory; 11, glosso-pharyngeal; 12, pneumogastric; 13, spinal
accessory ; 14, hypoglossal; Sq, squamosal; Z'y, tympanic; Vo, vomer; P.Mzx, pre-
maxilla; Mz, maxilla; Pl, palatine; Pt, pterygoid; Ju, malar; La, lachrymal; ™,
mandible; Mk.C, Meckel’s cartilage ; iv, anterior hyoid arch; v, posterior hyoid arch.
(After Flower.)

bones (P (fig. 185) and Pa (fig. 186)), and those in front of the
parietals are the frontals (F and Fr); these extend behind the
eye-regions. The sides of the skull are partly shut in by the
temporal bones with the zygomatic processes (Z and Sy).

The sphenoid bones (As, Os, Ps, and Bs) shut in the side
of the cranium partly, and lie between the occipitals, frontals,
palatine (Pl), vomer (Vo), pterygoid (Pt), ethmoid, and temporals.
ANTERIOR ARCH AND LIMB, 321

The central part of the facial area is formed hy two nasal
bones (NV and Na), flat bones of an elongated triangular form
extending down the nasal cavities. Placed on each side of
these central ones are the supra-maxillary bones (S.1/), which
carry teeth. In front come the two other tooth-bearing bones,
the premawillaries (P.Mv and PA). In the nasal tubes are two
spongy structures, the turbinated bones (Turb) ; and between the
facial and cranial portion comes the ethmoid, which is perforated
in one part, forming the erihriform plate, situated at the end
of the nasal fossee. The floor of the facial area (or the roof of
the mouth) is built up of vomers (Vo), premaxillaries, maxillary,
and palatine (Pl) bones.

The lower jaw is composed of two rand, united in the middle
line in front by a symphysis, each half bearing teeth (J2Z). The
lower jaw articulates with the skull at its posterior end.

The vhs, of which there are eighteen, rarely nineteen, pairs,
form a kind of box in which are lodged some of the organs of
the body, which they protect, especially the respiratory organs
and heart. Each rib articulates with two vertebre. The end of
the rib nearest the vertebre has two heads—one the capitulum,
the other the tuberculwm. The front ribs are flattest, and as
they pass back they become more and more arched. A rib
consists of two portions—the true bony rib, which unites with
the vertebra, and a cartilaginous portion, the costal cartilage,
which unites the rib with the sternum or breast-bone. The first
eight pairs of ribs unite with the sternum separately by their
costal cartilages. The other ten pairs have their costal cartilages
united, and meet all together with the “breast-bone.” The
former are the true ribs, the latter the false ribs. The breast-
bone or sternum, with which the ribs unite, is a narrow keel-
shaped bone, partly composed of cartilage.

The anterior arch and limb are closely united by a distinct
articulation forming a ball-and-socket joint. Nevertheless the
fore-limb of the horse is not able to completely rotate, as is the
case with the human arm. The anterior or pectoral arch is

x
322 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.

typically composed of six bones—two scapule, two coracoids,
and two clavicles. In the horse this so-called shoulder girdle
is very simple; the coracoids are reduced to mere fragments,
small processes attached to the shoulder-blades or scapule,
and known as the coracoid processes. No clavicles or collar-
bones are found at all, ‘The arch is really reduced to a pair
of large scapule. ‘The
scapula is shallow,
broadened above and
contracted below, where
we find a depression,
the glenoid cavity, in
which fits the head of
the arm-bone or hum-
erus. At the top of
each scapula is a car-
tilaginous prolongation
rounded at its summit,
and down the outer
face of the scapula
runs a bony ridge: this
ridge is much thick-
ened and turned back-
wards above the middle.
By noticing this point,
Fig. 187.—a, Forr, AND B, Hinp Lea or Horse. we can easily tella right
R, Radius; K, knee (carpus); Ca, cannon-bone 5
spin ta, fer goat Le The fore. fond (Oi
1, tibia; As, astragalus ; C, caleaneus ; Cu, cuboid. Oo

187, a) of the horse
consists of the following parts: the humerus, the radius (R) and
ulna, the carpus (K) (or knee of the horse), the mefacarpus or
cannon-bone (Ca), and the phalange-bones, consisting of three
divisions. Normally in animals there are five metacarpals and
five phalanges or digits, such as we see in man; but in the
horse these latter are reduced to one. The fore-limb, which is

 
FORE-LIMB OF HORSE. 323

only capable of a backward and forward movement, is articu-
lated by the head of the humerus with the pectoral arch at the
glenoid cavity. The humerus of the horse can be easily felt,
although it is hidden beneath the muscles and skin in the
“shoulder.” This humerus is a short stout bone with two large
swellings, the trochanters, the head is smooth and convex, and
the distal end marked by two grooves. The head and glenoid
cavity form a ball-and-socket joint; the distal end and the
radius and ulna articulation form a hinge-joint, capable only of
a swinging motion.

The forearm consists of two bones, the radius and ulna. In
man these two bones are quite distinct, but in the horse they
are united (#). The radius forms the chief bone articulating
with the distal end of the humerus and at its own distal end
with the knee-bones (XK). The ulna is fused with the radius,
and terminates in a slightly swollen extremity about half-way
down the radius ; at its proximal end it rises above the radius
over the end of the back of the humerus, forming the olecranon
process.

The radius articulates with the carpus or “knee” of the
horse. The knee (A) is composed of seven cubical bones, with
flat articulating surfaces arranged in two rows, forming three
distinct joints, one between the radius and first row, another
between the two rows of carpal bones, and a third between the
carpus and metacarpals. The bones of the two rows are the
unciform, magnum, and trapezoid, forming the lower row; the
cunetform, lunar, and scaphoid, forming the upper row; and a
separate bone, the pisciform (Trap), behind. Sometimes there
is a fourth bone in the lower row, the ¢rapezium.1 Each bone
has a delicate serous membrane surrounding it, the synovial
membrane, which secretes a lubricating fluid of a yellowish
greasy nature called synovium. This lubricating agent is not
an off but an albuminous substance.

1 The trapezium is a pea-like bone at the back of the knee, « vestigial
remains which I have never been able to find.—(G. T. B.)
324 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.

The unciform, magnum, and trapezoid articulate with the
metacarpal bones. Normally these are five in number, as seen
in man; but in the horse only one entire digit remains, the third ;
portions of the second and fourth are found as the so-called
“ splint-bones ” (fig. 187, 8). The metacarpal bone of the horse
is the cannon-bone (Ca), and the two rudimentary ones the
splint-bones, one on each side of the cannon-bone, uniting with
it about halfway down. The remaining bones of the fore-limb
constitute the horse’s foot. The foot is composed of three
bones: the one uniting with the cannon-bone is called the
pastern (Pas), which is the largest; this is followed by the
coronet-bone (Cor); the last, or coffin-bone (Cof), being hidden
in the hoof. These form the true digit, the equivalent of our
third finger. There are also present two detached bones, or
sesamoid bones. One of these sesamoid bones is present at the
back of the joint formed by the cannon and pastern (Ses) ; the
other, the navicular bone, is found behind the junction of the
coronet and coffin bones inside the hoof. Various bony deposits
occur abnormally in this region, such as “side-bone” and “ ring-
bone.” <“‘Side-bone” is a calcareous deposit on the sides of the
coffin-bone. “ Ring-bone” is a similar deposit on the coronet.

The posterior arch and limb are homologous to the anterior.
The posterior arch (fig. 188) is called the pelvic arch or hip-
girdle, and is made up of two large hony masses united in their
middle line, the ossa innominata. Each os innominatum is
formed by three bones known as the ¢//wm (1), dschium (12), and
pubes (9), the six forming a kind of bony ring, the pelvis, which
is much larger in the female than the male. The i/iwm is a
triangular bone projecting forwards, and forms the so-called
haunch-bone. There are two noticeable parts in it, the anterior
spine and the posterior spine, the latter pointing upwards, the
former forwards. The izschiwm passes backwards towards the
tail. The pubes are the two flat bones which unite beneath
at a point of union called the pubic symphysis. The pubes
are perforated by the two large obturator foramina (10). The
POSTERIOR ARCII. 325

three bones of each os innominatum unite at one point towards

the posterior part of the pelvis, forming a concavity called the

acetabulum (5). The ischium on each side lies against the

sacrum, to which they are attached by muscle. Into the

acetabulum or cotyloid cavity fits the head of the thigh-bone

or femur, forming a ball-and-socket joint similar to the one
&

 

Fic, 188.—PELvic ArcH, (Seen from below.)

1, lliae surface ; 2, auricular facet; 3, crest of ilium; 4, angle of haunch; 5, cotyloid
cavity ; 6, bottom of ditto; 7, one of the imprints for the insertion of the rectus femor-
alis; 8, ileo-pectineal line; 9, channel on the external face of pubes; 10, obturator
foramen ; 11, sciatic spine ; 12, ischiatic arch. (Chauveau.)
at the junction of the forelimb and arch. The femur is a
thick solid bone with a large smooth head, at the side of which
is developed a large roughened projection called the trochanter
major. About one-third of the way down the bone is a swell-
ing or tuberosity found only, fully developed, in Solipeds (Horses,
&c.)—namely, the third trochanter—to which are attached vari-
326 SKELETON OF THE HORSE.

ous powerful muscles for the movement of the limb. The chief
motor muscle of the hind-leg is united to the trochanter major.
Following and uniting with the femur are the two bones, the tibia
(fig. 187, B, 7’) and jibula, which are quite detached in certain
animals. In the horse the tibia is well developed, being a stout
strong bone, whilst the fibula is much reduced in size and
anchyloses with the tibia. The joint formed by the junction of
these two bones with the femur is known as the sti#lejocnt. In
front of this joint is a floating bone, the patella or knee-cap,
which is attached by three bands of ligament to the tibia.

The tarsus or ankle forms the horse’s hock, like the carpus
or knee, this is made up of several small bones. There are
six tarsal bones in all, known as the arternal and internal
cunetforis, cuboil (Cu), navicular, astragalus (Ax), and cal
caneus (UC).

The astragalus is in front of the hock, at the top uniting with
the tibia. The calcaneus is behind the astragalus, and projects
upwards behind the tibia, forming the point of the hock ; it also
has an articulating surface with the tibia. Below the calcaneus
is the cuboid. Beneath the astragalus comes the navicular,
scaphoid, or large cuneiform ; the lower row consisting of the
internal and external cuneiforms, the latter being chiefly at the
back of the hock. The metatarsal or cannon-bone (Cw) is very
similar to that of the forelimb. The foot is also similar in
structure, but the ultimate toe-bone is called the pedal bone
(fig. 187, B, Cof*); and at the junction of the cannon-bone with
the large pastern are two floating bones behind (8, Ses), which
are covered by a horny growth, the ergot, upon which is attached
the tuft of hair called the fetlork.

This completes the skeleton, whose function is for the attach-
ment of the muscles and for the protection of the various soft
inner parts of the body.

1 The navicular is also called the scaphoid or centrale. The latter term

is best, as there is a scaphoid in the carpus, and the true navicular is a de-
tached sesamvid bone in the foot, the seat of the navicular disease.
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE. 327

InternAL ANATOMY.

The skin, or outer covering of the muscles, skeleton, and
organs, also represents the organ of “touch ”—certain areas,
such as the lips and limbs, being especially adapted to this
sense. The skin is composed of two layers—the outer the
epidermis, the inner the dermis. The epidermis is the thin
layer covering the face of the derma, and is formed of flat cells,
which are continually being deposited and worn off by friction.
The derma forms the chief thickness of the membrane, its inner
face adhering closely to the subjacent parts by the panniculus
adzposus, a cellulo-adipose substance. The external face is per-
forated by openings for the hairs and exits of the sudoriporous
and sebaceous glands. The nerves end in the upper part of this
layer in little papilla-like projections.

The skin of the horse having been removed, there is
found underneath a thick coating—thin, however, in places—
of a red, more or less striped appearance, which can easily be
divided up into different detached areas. These are the muscles,
the so-called flesh which is attached to the bones, forming not
only a covering for the more delicate internal parts, but also a
very complicated mechanical apparatus for the movement of the
animal, &c. The individual groups of muscles on examination
will be seen to be composed of a number of bundles of fibres, each
of which is endowed with the power of contraction. During
this contraction a muscle becomes shorter and stouter: on the
contraction ceasing the muscle regains its normal length by
an elastic recoil, muscle being also elastic in nature. Many
muscles terminate in tendons, these latter, and the muscles
themselves, are attached at each end to a bone. For such a
purpose are the roughened ends of the femur and the side
swelling of the third trochanter formed. When the muscle con-
tracts, one end to which the muscle or tendon is attached must
give way and be pulled towards the other, and thus the move-
HORSE.

Or

INTERNAL ANATOMY

‘srmad jo ynouesty Arosuodsns ‘z Saypezsoud “&
sso olpuutseds ‘sy $ BOLL yeumsul [eu yut

       

 

 

 
   
      

 

: suaiazap SBA JO JUAUOB Vp tayo “ SsaTwunas aspMosoa fa ft Loppry VW ST
ib ie nae : uopoo-osour ‘dS dadoud Araquasour ‘os uM yDAL s 2 vady JO LUpOd adLeL JO YL I yjanoy 7 tf atuxey ore
-wFanypdeyp ‘y fuopoo aBauz yo qtud parryy ‘/ $ aanx Ayal G fuopoo asiwp Jo 4 nxoy eusays-rulos Bi oy asapy jo ped

 
 

qsay (f } WopOd eStey Jo UBLIO ‘a wMdaD tp tuo FuTpououa UMUOpUUp WPA ‘OUL} SYyovmwys Jo oes ysis ‘y tsnderdusgy ‘a

(MeaanvyD) Copls WSC wos Uaog) "ASUOT] FHL JO SANLLSALN] AHL 10 MATA TVAENI— SL OL

 
  
   

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 329

ments of the body are brought about. Into the grouping of
these muscles we have not space to enter here.

In a transverse section of the horse two cavities will be seen
—the dorsal tube with the spine, and the large ventral ab-
dominal cavity. In a longitudinal section three cavities will he
exposed—the long neural tube, and the body divided also into
two by a membranous partition, the diaphragm (fig. 190, D2),
the front division being the thorax, the posterior the abdomen.

The diyestive tube or alimentary canal (figs. 189 and 190) may
be said to commence at the back of the mouth in a large space,

   

    
 

 
   

<p
WN
SS

   
 

    

   

—
SY

   

  

Sor
SH

Fic. 190.—D1aGRaM or ALIMENTARY CANAL.

Sp, Soft palate; P, pharynx; G, glottis; OF, esophagus ;
SL, salivary-glands; 1’, trachea; Lu, lungs; H, heart; Pi,
pleura; Pt, pericardium ; Di, diaphragm ; St, stomach; Py,
pylorus; L, liver; Bd, bile-duct; Pa, pancreas; Pd, pan-
creatic duct; Re, rectum; A,anus; D, duodenum; Je, jeju-
num; Ji, ileum; CAE, cwcum; Coi aud Coii, colon.

the pharynx (P), which is situated behind that part of the roof
of the mouth known as the soft palate (Sp). From the pharynx
a small opening leads into the gullet or esophagus (OF and a),
which passes through the neck in close relation to the windpipe
or trachea (7), and enters the thorax in its upper moiety, runs
through it, and perforates the diaphragm dorsally. The stomach
(Sé and 6) receives the cesophagus at its inner margin or
greater curvature towards one end. ‘The stomach of the horse
is a simple sac clongated transversely, and lies across the ab-
330 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

dominal cavity. The cesophagus enters towards that end of the
gastric cavity known as the cardium, the other end being called
the pylorus. On opening the stomach we can distinguish a right
and a left half. The right half or pyloric half is lined by a red
mucous membrane, the left by a white mucous membrane, which
is partly continuous with the lining epithelium of the cesophagus,
which it receives. The right half only has, in its mucous
membrane, true digestive glands or gastric glands ; the left is in
reality part of the esophagus much dilated. From the pyloric
end (Py), at which we may notice a constriction, arises the
commencement of the small intestine. The small intestine is
divided into three parts—the dwodenum (D), which leaves the
pylorus, the jejunum (Je), and the ileum (Z/). The small intes-
tine is a long thin-walled tube much folded and convoluted,
and lies especially on the horse’s left flank. It is 24 yards long
in the horse and about 1} inch in diameter. The jejunum
is situated chiefly in the left flank, and constitutes the main
part of the small intestine. The large intestine is much shorter
than the small, but of greater capacity. It is divided into two
portions—the cecum and colon. The cecum, into which opens
the ileum, is marked off from the small intestine by the so-called
ileo-ceecal valve. It is a large elongated sac ending blindly at
one extremity (CAZ). The cecum is largely developed in the
horse and all other herbivorous animals, containing as much
as 6 to 7 gallons of fluid. It is constricted and provided with
longitudinal bands of muscle, which on being cut cause the
constrictions to disappear.

Close to where the ileum enters the caecum is another opening,
from which springs the colon. The colon is divisible into two
regions—the large colon (Cv') and the floating colon (Col),
This portion of the canal is also constricted at its commence-
ment, the constrictions being much more closely united. The
colon forms a loop surrounding the cecum, and towards the end
it gives rise to a straight thin-walled tube, the rectum (2),
which opens to the exterior by the anus. The colon is about
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 331

20 feet long, the large colon holding as much as eighteen
gallons of fluid.

In connection with the digestive tube are several glands
whose products aid the digestion of the food. These glands are
as follows: salivary-glands (SL), opening into the mouth; the
liver (L), opening into the duodenum; and the pancreas (Pa),
opening into the intestine close to the liver-duct. These three
glands are spoken of as true glands. There are others—such
as the thyroid, thymus, and spleen—which have no opening
at all; these are the so-called ductless glands. ‘The salivary
glands, of which there are several, are situated in the sides
of the mouth and under the tongue ; they are branched glands
which pour out, by means of their ducts, saliva into the mouth
to amalgamate with the food. The liver is the largest gland in
the body: it consists of several large red lobes closely applied
to the diaphragm and wrapping round part of the stomach.
There can be recognised a right and a left lobe, a middle
lobe, and the lobe of Spigelii. By separating these lobes of
the liver of a cow or sheep you will observe buried in their
midst an elongated, green, thin-walled sac, the gall -bladder.
This structure is absent in the horse. Close to it can be traced
a tube, the ductus choledochus or bile-duct (Bd), which passes
from the liver and runs to the duodenum, into which it opens,
—the opening being provided with two flap-like valves, forming
the ampulla of Vater. Down this duct the bile runs so as to
reach the food. The valves are to stop the flow of food up the
bile-duct. In the horse the bile is always flowing into the intes-
tine; in other animals it chiefly flows during digestion—mean-
while it is stored up in the gall-bladder. In the horse the secre-
tion is more rapid during digestion, in spite of its constant flow.

The pancreas (Pa) or “sweetbread” is a pale pink-coloured
gland much lobulated, and lies in a membrane in close relation
to the stomach and small intestine. From it there runs off a
tube, the pancreatic duct (Pd), which opens into the duodenum
close to the ampulla of Vater.
332 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

The thyroid is a gland which is found close to and
behind the larynx, beside the two first rings of the trachea.
This gland consists of two oval lobes of a reddish - brown
colour, united by the so-called “isthmus.” It is more im-
portant in the young and fetus than in the adult, and is
especially developed in Ruminants and Carnivora. What its
functions are we do not definitely know: some say it is
to destroy the mucin in the body, others that it is a
gland connected with the brain. The former is apparently
correct.

The thymus is another ductless gland found in the foetus
only, resembling the thyroid, white and lobulated in form, and
partly situated in and partly out of the chest.

Closely connected with the sub-lumbar region and the great
curvature of the stomach is a large vascular ductless gland, the
spleen. The spleen in the horse is falciform in shape, violet-
blue to red in colour, soft and elastic in texture. This gland is
really a floating gland, but is lightly attached by the great
omental peritoneum and by a suspensory ligament. It is an
organ that varies much in size, even in the same animal, often
becoming abnormally large. In the horse it weighs 32 ounces.
It is well supplied with blood-vessels, and is almost. solid.
Curious pale patches are found in the pulp that constitutes
the majority of the organ, called Malpiyhian corpuscles, de-
veloped in the course of the small splenic arteries. It is partly
employed in manufacturing red blood-corpuseles and in de-
stroying the same. Some physiologists look upon it as a
swelling or pouch of the portal vein.

The peritoneum (fig. 191).—The organs and parts of the ali-
mentary canal are partly supported by a thin membrane, which
may be double owing to folding, called the peritoneum. This
serous membrane lines the walls of the abdominal cavity, and
from thence passes to and around the visceral parts. There are
then two kinds of peritoneum — the parietal (Pp), which is
applied to the body wall, and the visceral (Pr), which supports
RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 333

the internal structures. The chief parts of this visceral peri-
toneum are the great omentum ((’e), the hepato-gastric liga-
ment (L), the mesentery (Af), and the meso-colic mesentery.
The omentum is the large fold that connects the stomach with
the small intestine (3), and is often laden with fat; the hepato-

 

Fic. 191.—THEoreticaL, LonciruprnaL, AND MEDIAN SECTION OF ABDOMINAL
Cavity, '0 SHOW PERITONEUM.

1, Liver; 2, stomach; 8, small intestine; 4, origin of floating colon; 5, rectum; 6,
vagina and uterus; 7, bladder; 9, posterior aorta; 10, diaphragm ; 11, post vena cava ;
12, inferior abdominal wall; Pp, Pp, parietal peritoneum ; Pv, Pv, visceral peritoneum ;
L, hepato-gastric ligament; M, mesentery; (Ge, great omentum, (Chauveau.)
gastric ligament joins the liver to the stomach; the mesen-
tery supports the colon, and may also contain adipose tissue.
Rectum (5), vagina (6), and the bladder (7) are also surrounded
by it.

Situated in the thoracic cavity we shall note two important
struetures—namely, the lungs and heart (fig. 190, Zw and #).
The respiratory organs are absolutely necessary for the main-
tenance of life, for life requires not only the absorption and
assimilation of nutritive matters, but also oxygen from the air
to enter into the circulation of these matters. In animals with
red blood this element in mixing with the nutritive fluid com-
mences by expelling CO,, and communicates to that fluid its
bright red colour. This produces the combustion that partly
334 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

forms animal heat. It also exercises on the organs a stimulat-
ing action, without which the animal tissues cannot manifest
their true properties. The organs that carry out this act of
respiration in mammalia are the lings. They take in oxygen
from the surrounding air and pass out in return CO,. These
organs of respiration, so essential to animal life, are closely
shut in, in the thoracie cavity, and are connected with the air
by, first, a cartilaginous tube (fig. 192, 77) arising in the back
of the pharynx, and, secondly, by the two nasal cavities. These
latter open into the back of the mouth by two openings, the
so-called posterior nares, and to the air by the nostrils.

The whole organs of respiration may be divided into four
sections—(1) the nasal cavities; (2) the larynx; (3) trachea
and bronchi; (4) the lungs.

In the horse we shall notice very large nostrils: owing to the

 

Te G eC

Fig. 192.—Mepran Loncitupinat Section oF HEAD AND UprerR PART OF
Neck or Horse. (After Chauveau.)

A, Nasal septum; 7, tongue, with hard palate above; Sp, soft palate; Fs, frontal
bone and sinus; Pr, posterior nares; Ep, epiglottis; C, cerebrum; Cb, cerebellum ;
S, orcipital bone ; L, larynx; Tr, trachea; G, esophagus; Sp.C, spinal chord; Cvi and
Cvii, atlas and axis.

structure and size of the soft palate (fig. 192, Sp) at the back of
the mouth, the horse can only breathe through the nasal cavities,
RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 335

hence their size. We, however, with a smaller soft palate, can
breathe through our mouth. The nasal fosse are lined by a
sensitive mucous membrane, part of which is olfactory in
function. Closely connected with the nasal cavities are a
number of winding spaces excavated in the substance of the
boncs of the head, on the limits of the cranium and face, and
around the ethmoidal masses which they envelop. These
cavities form the so-called sinus (#’s), which increases the area of
the skull for the attachment of muscles and for lightening its
weight. In the ox the frontal sinus is prolonged into those
bony cores that support the horns. Opening from the back
of the throat is a slit-like aperture, the glottds, partly protected
by a flap-like portion, the epiglott’s (Hp). On each side of the
opening are placed internally the two vocal cords. These two
elastic bands project within the larynx (L), and between them
include the space forming the glottis.

The larynx is the organ of voice, and it also admits air
during respiration. It is practically a cartilaginous box
flattened on each side. Entering into its composition are
five pieces of cartilage, numerous muscles, nerves, blood-vessels,
and a lining of mucous membrane. This organ dilates and
contracts. When paralysis sets in, causing very rapid move-
ments, it produces the so-called “roaring” in horses.

The trachea (Tv) is a flexible tube arising from the base of
the larynx, and is supported by a series of incomplete C-shaped
cartilaginous rings. It passes between the two first ribs and
enters the chest, arriving above the left auricle to the right
of the big blood-vessel, the posterior aorta, where it bifurcates,
forming the two Uronchi. Each bronchial tube divides up
in the lungs, sending out an innumerable number of small
branches, resembling a tree embedded in the substance of the
lung.

The thorax or chest, in which the lungs and heart are
situated, forms a cavity shut in by the ribs, backbone, dia-
phragm, and sternum. The thorax is lined by two serous mem-
336 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF TIORSE.

branes, called the plew@. Part of these membranes surround
the walls of the thorax, part the lungs themselves. There is
one pleura on each side. Although the two pleural sacs are
apparently distinct, they are no doubt connected by a minute
opening in the mediastinum.

The Jungs are spongy in texture and are two in number,
each lying in a separate serous sac. The right lung is larger
than the left—the heart being lodged in an excavation between
the two. The lungs are very vascular. Blood is sent to them
by the pulmonary artery, which carries impure blood to the
lungs from the heart: here this impure blood is oxygenated,
and sent back to the heart by the pulmonary veins. These are
functional vessels: there are also nutrient vessels, the lym-
phatics, which not only lie around the outer portions of the
lungs, but also penetrate the internal lobules.

The organs of excretion, or the wrinary organs, consist of two
kidneys, ureters, a bladder, and urethral canal.

The kidneys eliminate the nitrogenous waste from the blood
along with water resulting from the exercise of the vital
functions. The kidneys are two in number, and are situated in
the sub-lumbar region of the body, lying against the great psoas
muscles. They are enclosed more or less completely in an
envelope of cellular fat. Support is also given to the kidneys
by the pressure of the organs in the abdominal cavity, and
again by the peritoneum, which underlies the urinary organs.
The right kidney (fig. 193, B) is in front of the left, lying
beneath the two last ribs, the left just beyond the last pair.
They also vary in shape and size, the right one being heart-
shaped, and weighing about twenty-seven ounces; the left one
(4) is kidney-bean-shaped, and about two ounces less. On one
side is a deep notch called the hi/us. The outside of the kidney
is smooth and red in the horse ; very different is the kidney of
the ox, which is lobulated. rom the hilus arises the ureter or
tube which conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder.
The ureter (a and 0), which originates in the so-called pelvis
GENITAL ORGANS. 337

of the kidney, is a thin-walled tube about as thick as a goose-
quill.

The bladder (D) is a membranous sac in which the urine is
stored up. The pelvic cavity retains this reservoir, which may
extend into the abdominal cavity. The ureters open into the
lower portion of the bladder, which becomes constricted pos-
teriorly into a kind of neck. In front the sac is rounded, and
here may be seen a scar, the spot to which a foetal structure, the
urachus, was attached. This urinary sac is united to the
pelvis, to the rectum, and to the vesicule seminales in the
horse, and in the mare to the uterus and vagina. From the
neck of the bladder arises the wrethra (K and L), which carries
away the urine to the exterior. The urethra is also the duct for
the genital products in the male, and more or less so in the
female. There is thus a connection between the urinary and
reproductive organs. They are often spoken of unitedly as the
uro-genital organs.

The genital organs (fig. 193) in the male consist of two
glands, the testicles (#) and the epididymis (¢), vas deferens
(F), vesicule seminales (H), ejaculatory ducts, urethral canal,
prostate (I) and Cowper’s glands (J), the corpus cavernosum
(M), and the penis (.V). The testicles are abdominal in the
feetus, but later descend into a sac, the scrotum, lying at the
bottom of this sac and supported by the spermatic cord. These
glands, which produce the male cells or spermatozoa, are oval
bodies, made up of a large number of lobules, each lobule
being composed of two or three long tubes, seminiferous tubes,
often over a yard in length. Closely applied to this testis is
the elongated epididymis, which is made up of from twelve
to twenty tubes, united into one twisted tube, from which
springs the straight vas deferens, a canal as thick as a goose-
quill in the horse. Situated just above the bladder are two
oval glandular pouches (#1), in which spermatozoa are stored,
and which also add a fluid to the semen. The ejaculatory duct
is short, and succeeds the narrow canal of the vesicula after the

Y
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

338

  

ue
JO [ey

Covaansyg)
uw §

j

 

 

   

uqloy |
uaut Oy odasog ‘p foquysord ‘7 SsTpRuruas @
@ Ssixpypido jo pray ‘o ¢soporyseg “7 “a Steppria ‘T

 
 
 

‘SUIMaLUy HLM ATYTC

alquzsoad-oolsoa ‘g fqynq Jo Atop.e [VUIOJUT ‘f { YyOuvIG OTOISOA 841 ‘9
‘T rsturad Jo pear ‘ar {sz0o.r yt fw “we tstuod Jo Apoq snouseavo ‘py!

 

Mose Yol FF ![BuBs yuelajep jo
‘sarusdvo jvuei-vidns ‘9 ‘9 ¢ Blojorn “q “y

JO SOLVUVdd AV LINGAD-O8 OT “OI

 

      

§ kioyI peorrqum ‘Gg {kroz oyyomuods ‘g f souepie

  
 

¢jwuws [uryyamn Jo uoppI0d
Ala fyeurs quosajap “7 £074TP
Aouppy, Wate fg $ Aouppy WoL ‘F

 

   
 

Drs. :
SKY

<
Ww

Wy
Creme»
GENITAL ORGANS. 339

latter opens into the vas deferens. The wrethra has erectile
walls, and begins at the bladder and ends at the tip of the
penis, the erectile tissue commencing towards its end portion.
The single prostate gland (Z) lies across the neck of the bladder.
Cowper's glands (J) are two in number: they secrete a fluid
which is poured into the urethral canal just before the ejection
of the semen. The corpus cavernosum is the erectile body which
passes up the penis from its base to its tip and supports the
urethra. There is considerable variation in the sexual organs of
animals, into which we cannot enter.

The female organs (fig. 194), as seen in the mare, consist of
two secretory organs, the ovaries (3), oval bodies lying just
behind the kidneys in the abdomen. The ovaries lie free and
detached in the body cavity. Closely applied to them are the
oviducts, which expand near the ovaries into funnel-shaped
bodies. The oviducts are very small tubes lodged in broad
ligaments (4), about as thick as a straw. They open into a
large sac, the uterus (1 and 2), the space in which the embryo
develops. This membranous sac lies in the sub-lumbar cavity
of the abdomen, and consists of the body and two so-called
“‘cornua” or horns of the uterus. The cornua pass amongst the
intestines, the uterus being supported by the broad ligaments,
the rectum (13), and posteriorly by the vagina (16). The inner
walls of this cavity are lined by mucous membrane; outside there
is a serous layer, and between a thick muscular layer. From the
uterus proceeds the vagina, a thin tube which terminates in the
vulva or external orifice. Inside this orifice is found a solid
body from two to three inches long in the mare, the clztorvs,
which protrudes into the vulvular cavity, and which is erectile.
The ova are dehisced at certain periods, the periods of menstru-
ation, “heat,” or “rutting.”
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

340

wnouozitad Jo ploy ABpModto “PT fs umyoo.t
TOMopUY “g {| VOLBBA ‘) | LIg}M XLAdao ‘9

‘ey fdoqyarn

auvyd 1

Cueaaneyg)

-pursea Jo qq ‘gt § Aoupry “ET Sumyoor AurpunosmMs

BL fdapprta ‘IT ‘snue Jo teyout ds ‘oT !ovIp royieysod ‘4 !BA[NA JO LOP1}8u09
quowedty punod AIBPUIUTIPUL *G Squaurediy prow ‘F ‘kavav ‘eg fenusoo ‘% ¢snseqn jo Lpog 5

HL &0 SNVDUO TALLVUANGY)— "F6L “Old

 
THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF BLOOD. 341

Tue Heart and CrrRcuLATION oF THE Buoop.

The circulatory apparatus consists of a central muscular heart
and three sets of vessels.

Two fluids are found in connection with the circulatory ap-
paratus—viz., blood and lymph. Blood is of two kinds, arterial
and venous. The former is pure and red, the latter impure
and dark. Lymph consists of a white to pale yellow fluid,
and contains lymph-corpuscles. Intimately connected with
this lymph is chyle. Chyle is a fluid that comes from
the walls of the alimentary canal; it is lymph charged
with nutritive matter. Lymph is blood minus the red blood-
corpuscles. Chyle is lymph plus fat, &c. We can detect
three sets of vessels, as follows: (i) extend from the heart
to all parts of the body, and which contain red blood=
arteries ; (ii) pass from all parts of the body to the heart,
and which contain dark blood =veins; (iii) pass from the
majority of organs and walls of intestines to one of the veins
=lymphatic. vessels.

The heart is a muscular box, by means of which the
blood is circulated or pumped throughout the whole system.
The muscle composing the heart is peculiar in structure ;
it is known as cardiac muscle, and is cubical in form and
striated, and of course involuntary in action. The heart
lies in a sac closely applied to its walls, the pericardium,
and is bathed by a fluid, the pericardial fluid. There are
four distinct chambers ; the two upper are the auricles (fig. 195,
LA and RA), the two lower the ventricles (V). The auricles
receive the convergent tubes, the veins; the ventricles give
origin to the divergent vessels, the arteries. The right and
left sides of the heart are quite separate, but the two cavities
of each half are in connection, the openings being guarded by
valves. The opening from the right auricle into the right
ventricle, the “auriculo-ventricular” opening, is closed by the
tricuspid valves, which consist of three fibro-muscular flaps; the
342 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

opening between the left auricle and ventricle by the mitral
valve, which has two flaps only. The auricular portion can be
told from the ventricular by an external constriction. From

 

Fic, 195,—DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLoop.

LA and RA, Lefc and right auricles; J’, ventricles; L, lungs; Li, liver; J, intes-
tines; A.ve, anterior or superior vena cava; P.vc, posterior or inferior vena cava; 4.0,
aortic arch; A.ao, P.ao, anterior and posterior aorta; Ha, hepatic artery; Hv, hepatic
vein; ’v, portal vein; Pu.A, pulmonary artery; Pu.V, pulmonary veins; Pc, posterior
capillaries; 7d, thoracic duct.

these chambers arise the blood-vessels. In the right auricle
(RA) we find three tubes—(i) the superior rena cara (Arr);

,

(ii) the fnferior vena cava (P.ve); (iii) numerous small veins
THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF BLOOD. 343

from walls of the heart. In the right ventricle we find a vessel,
the pulmonary artery (Pu.A); in the left auricle the pulmonary
veins (Pu.J"); and in the left ventricle the opening of the great
aorta (A.ao and A.a).

Let us now trace the course of the blood during circulation.
The right auricle receives the venous blood from the head, neck,
and anterior extremities by the superior vena cava; it also
receives venous blood from the lower parts of the body by the
inferior vena cava. The right auricle then, holding venous
blood, contracts, and by so doing expels the blood through the
tricuspid valves into the right ventricle. The right ventricle
then empties itself by contracting, the blood being forced
through the semi-lunar valves into the pulmonary artery, which
carries the venous blood to the lungs; here the artery splits up
into a number of minute tubes, the rapillaries, composed of
single-celled walls, thus bringing the red blood-corpuscles in
close contact with the air. Another set of capillaries also arise
in the lungs; these unite after collecting the blood, and form
several pulmonary veins, which carry the blood back to the left
auricle. During the passage of the blood through the lungs the
venous blood gives up its CO, which passes through into the
pulmonary alveoli, and so out by the respiratory tubes ; at the
same time it takes up the oxygen in the inspired air. The
venous blood of the pulmonary artery thus becomes converted
into arterial blood, carried back by the pulmonary veins to the
left auricle. The left auricle when full contracts and drives the
arterial blood through the opening and mitral valves into the
left ventricle. From the ventricle the arterial blood is pumped
into the aorta, which sends one branch to the anterior regions
and one to the posterior, carrying the pure blood to the organs
and system generally. In the organs, &c., these two large
arteries with their minor divisions break up into capillaries, the
blood being collected again by other capillaries which unite with
the superior and inferior vene cave, and so back to the right
auricle, from which we started, the course of the circulation
344 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

in this way completing its circuit. We thus see that there
are two systems—one the “pulmonary system,” the other the
“systemic” circulation. There is also another system called
the “portal” system, which consists of a vein, the portal vein
(Pr), which runs from the walls of the intestine (I) to the
liver (7). This latter organ is supplied by an artery, the
hepatic artery, and a vein, the hepatic vein, besides the portal
system. The kidneys have a renal artery and vein coming from
the aorta and going to the vena cava.

Lastly, opening into the inferior vena cava near the heart is
seen another vessel, the thoracic duct (Td); this arises in the
walls of the intestines in the so-called lacteal system, and pours
the nutritive fluid derived from the food into the blood-system.

The blood during its passage through the organs oozes
through the extremely thin capillary walls. The cells of the
organ obtain the nutritive elements from this, and leave behind
a watery fluid called lymph. This lymph does not return
directly back into the blood, but is drawn away from the organs
ly a series of tubes which originate as minute blind canals.
These lymph-spaces unite into the so-called lymphatic ducts or
veins, which, like the blood-veins, are furnished with valves to
stop the backward flow of the fluid to the lymph-spaces.
Eventually the lymph empties itself into the venous blood-
system, and so into the right auricle of the heart. The lacteals
and thoracic duct are part of this lymphatie system, but
specially modified for the conveyance of the chyle to the blood.
This lymphatic system is almost as important as the vascular
system, for the blood is partly dependent upon it.

The serres of blood are five in number, as follows :-—

1. From material absorbed by the lacteals in the primary
digestion of food (chyle).

2. From soluble matters—such as water, sugar, and peptones
—absorbed by the blood-vessels, and sent first through the liver.

3. From matter formed by certain blood-glands, such as the
spleen, Xe.
NERVOUS SYSTEM, 345

4. From materials derived from the tissues—products of
decomposition, and solution of portions of these tissues due to
their vital activity (lymph).

5. From a small amount of matter that may be absorbed by
the skin.

The blood gives up its waste nitrogenous material in the
kidneys ; water is also lost by its progress through the same
organs, as well as various salts. The skin also yields water and
salts derived from the vascular fluid. The CO, and aqueous
vapour are passed out in the pulmonary sacs, whilst the oxygen
is absorbed by the blood in the same area. Blood also loses
material during its passage through the organs, &c., for their
constructive purposes. This waste is counteracted by the five
methods named above, from which the blood is built up and its
losses repaired.

The nervous system is divided into two distinct portions—
the most important being the “ central” nervous system, the
spinal cord and brain. The other is the “sympathetic” nervous
system. The organs of the body are under the control of the
nervous system. Muscle and nerve are intimately connected ;
each muscular act is preceded by a nervous act: sometimes
these acts are voluntary, at others involuntary. The move-
ments of the muscles of the limbs, &c., are voluntary acts ; the
muscular movements of the heart and intestines are involuntary,
and yet both are caused by nervous mechanism.

The brain and spinal cord form the central nervous or
cerebro-spinal axis. The brain is deposited in the cavity of
the skull, the cranium, the spinal cord is protected by the
bony vertebra, and lies in the neural canal. The cerebro-spinal
axis is surrounded by three membranes—the dwra-mater, the
arachnoid, and the pia-mater. The dura-mater forms the ex-
ternal layer next the bone of the skull; the arachnoid is a
serous layer; whilst the pia-mater closely invests the brain and
nervous axis, forming a nutrient membrane. The brain varies
much in weight in different animals: in the horse its normal
346 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF JIORSE.

 

Fic. 196.—Brain or Horse (dorsal view), } nat. size.

B, Medulla oblongata; Cl, middle lobe of cerebellum; €2, lateral lobes of cerebel-
lun; O, olfactory lobes; 1, great longitudinal fissure of cerebrum; 2-14, fissures and
convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres. (Chauveau.)
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 347

weight is about twenty-two ounces, in the sheep about five
ounces. It is ovoid in shape. Viewed on its superior surface
(fig. 196), we shall see the following areas, starting from behind,
where it joins the spinal cord: The medulla or isthmus (B), a
kind of white peduncle running into the brain, the prolongation
as it were of the spinal cord: following this is a grey trilobed

 

Fic. 197.—Brain or Horse (ventral view).
Ol, Olfactory lobes; (1 and C2, cerebrum; Cb, cerebellun; M, medulla; Op.C, optic
chiasma; Pt, pituitary gland; Ce, crura cerebri; P, pons Varolii; 1-10, roots of cranial
nerves.

mass, the cerebellum (CU), and in front of the cerebellum are seen
two other lobes separated by a deep fissure from the cerebellum
and from one another (1); these two lobes are the cerebral lobes,
the whole forming the cerebrum (2-14). The cerebral hemi-
spheres are more or less convoluted. On examining the under-
surface of the brain (fig. 197) it will be seen that the peduncle
348 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

runs through the base of the cerebellum and enters the cerebral
hemispheres close behind two thick white cords, the optic nerves
(Op.C), Further portions of the isthmus and other parts of
the brain are named in the figure (fig. 197).

Both from the brain and spinal cord nerves are given off to
the various parts of the body. Those coming from the brain
are called cranial nerves, those from the spinal cord xj/nal
nerves ; hoth groups are always paired. There are twelve pairs
of ‘cranials,” as follows :—

1st pair Olfactory nerves (tig. 164, 1).

2nd Optic nerves (2).

Brd ou Oculo-motor nerves (3).

4th Trochlear nerves (+).

5th on ‘Trigeminal nerves (5).

6th external oculo-motor nerves (6).

Tth on Facial nerves (7).

8th 1 Auditory nerves (8).

9th on (slosso-pharyngeal nerves (9).
10th Vagus or pneumogastric nerves (10).
11th ou Accessory nerves (10).
12th ILypoglossal nerves.

The olfactory constitute the olfactory lobes in the brain ;
they pass to the nose and form the sense of smell (fig. 197, O/).
They arise from two roots at the brain. Impressions of odours
are received by them and are transmitted to the brain. The
optics are, of course, the nerves of sight: they cross one another
and form the optic chiasma (fig. 197, Op.C). The third and
fourth pairs are for the movements of the eyes. The trigeminal
are a very large pair, have many branches, and are connected
with the sympathetic system. They arise hy two roots, one
sensory, While the other contains motor fibres, there being a
ganglion on the sensory root. The sixth arises by five to eight
roots from the medulla, and also supplies the cye-muscles. The
facial nerves are motor in origin, but receive sensory fibres ;
they excite the contraction of the muscles of the face in general
NERVOUS SYSTEM. 349

and some of the salivary glands; they are vaso-motory and
excito-secretory in function. The auditory are the nerves of
hearing ; they spring from the medulla by two roots. The
ninth pair go to the tongue and take part in the sense of taste.
The vagus is the most important; it has both sensory and motor
roots, and supplies the stomach and respiratory organs. The
eleventh arises with the vagus and supplies the intercostal
muscles. The last, the hypoglossals, again, supply the tongue,
acting on the lingual muscles.

The spinal nerves. The spinal nerves leave the vertebral
canal by the intervertebral foramina and proceed to the various
organs. There are forty-two or forty-three pairs, as follows:
eight cervical pairs, seventeen dorsal pairs, six lumbar, and five
sacral ; the coccygeal vary from six to seven pairs. The spinal
nerves differ from the cranial in that they all resemble one an-
other at their origin. There are always two roots, one being
motor, the other sensory, in function. The two roots unite into
a thick trunk in passing through the foramina of the vertebra,
and then divide again into two branches, the superior branch
going to the spinal muscles and integuments covering them, the
inferior branch passing to the lateral and lower parts of the
trunk or to the limbs. All send from their inferior branch one
or more nerves to form the great sympathetic system. On the
face of the sensory root is found a ganglion. The superior
branches of the cervicals go to the oblique muscles of the
head, the cervical muscles, and here they anastomose, forming
a kind of network, the cervical plexus. The inferior branches
cover the anterior lateral parts of the neck and muscles of the
breast, and form another plexus, the superficfal cervical plerus.
The last two mix with those of the dorsal region, and form
the brachial plexus. The dorsal nerves send their superior
branches to the muscles and skin of the dorsal lumbar region,
their inferior branches to the pleure and intercostal muscles,
The lumbar send the superior branches to the spinal muscles
and the integument of the loins and croup; the inferior
350 INTERNAL ANATOMY OF HORSE.

branches to the muscles of the abdomen and muscles of the
flank, to the testes and “‘stifle-joint”; and the last two form a
plexus. The sacral send their superior branches to the muscles
at the side of the sacrum, and their inferior branches to the
pelvic cavity, and to the anus and penis. The coccygeal
supply the tail.

The sympathetic nervous system consists of a number of gan-
glia which are detached from the central nervous system but
connected with it by nerve-fibres. This nervous system con-
sists of a chain of ganglia on each side of the spinal cord.
This system controls the vascular system, and thus affects
animal heat: it is also connected with involuntary muscular
action,
351

CHAPTER XIII.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRANIOTA,
A. THE ICHTHYOPSIDA.

Tue Craniota are divided into five great classes—the Pisces,
Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammulia. There are two
ways of classifying these five sections. One was formulated
by the late Professor Owen, who divided them into two
primary sections, the Hematocrya and the Hematotherma, the
distinctive features being taken from the blood. The Heemato-
erya, or the Fish, Amphibia, and Reptilia, have an imperfect
circulatory system, there never being four distinct chambers to
the heart. These are called Cold -blooded Animals. The
Huematotherma are the Aves and Mammalia, in which we
always find four distinct chambers to the heart and a complete
pulmonary and systemic circulation. Circulation is rapid. These
are the Warm-blooded Animals. This division is an unnatural
one; for we find placed in the two separate groups the Birds
and Reptilia, which to a certain extent interlace when we ex-
amine the fossil species in the rocks, and which even in existing
forms present some analogous structural features.

Huxley divided the Craniota into three sections, as
follows :—

A. Ichthyopsida = Fish and Amphibia.—These have always
gills or branchiz at sume period of their life, and their blood-
corpuscles are nucleated. The embryo has never that fcetal
membrane called the amnion, and the allantois when present
is only rudimentary. Diaphragm absent.
352 ICHTHYOPSIDA.

B. Sauropsida = Birds and Reptiles.—There are never found
branchie in either of these classes, and the embryo is provided
with both an amnion and allantoic membrane. The red blood-
corpuscles are nucleated, and the skull always articulates with
the vertebral column by a single occipital condyle, whilst the
lower jaw has always a bone between it and the skull called the
quadyate bone. Diaphragm never complete.

C. Mammalia = Mammals.—These have always two condyles
on the skull for articulating with the vertebral column. The
lower jaw, which is composed of two bones only, articulates, as
we saw in the skeleton of the horse, direct with the skull,
the quadrate bone not being present in its normal position. In
mammals it has become attached to the auditory apparatus.
Lastly, there are always developed in the female special ventral
glands—the mammary glands—for the nourishment of the young.
Diaphragm forming a complete septum.

A. ICHTHYOPSIDA,

I. Pisces or Fisu.

Fish are aquatic vertebrate animals which breathe entirely by

 

Fra. 198,—Tur Peren (Perea fieeviatilis), a Teleostean.

p, Vaired pectoral fins; vr, paired pelvic fins; @ aud ad’, dorsal fins; cv, caudal fin;
a, anal fin; oe, operculum ; 7, lateral line. (Nicholson.)

means of gills (except in a few curious specially modified species,
such as the Climbing Perch, Anadas). The gills are covered by a
FISH. 353

bony plate, the operculum (fig. 198, 0). The limbs when present
are represented by fins ; and the heart, except in one group, the
Dipnoi, consists of two chambers only, a single auricle and a ven-
tricle. The blood runs back from the body into the auricle (a),
and from thence through the ventricle
it is sent to the gills (b) to be purified.
From the gills it runs on as arterial
blood to the various parts of the body.
The blood is only pumped to the gills ;
thus the heart is a purely respiratory
one. A skeleton is always present,
either bony or cartilaginous. Jn the
lowest fishes—Sharks, Rays, &e.—it
is cartilaginous; in the more highly
developed fish—Teleoste’—it is bony.
The sexes are always distinct, ova or
spawn being deposited by the females.
The young fish or “fry” are like the
parent ; but a few, such as the Lam-
preys, have a kind of metamorphic
development. The embryonic fish has
no amnion, and the allantois, which is
represented by the urinary bladder, is
always rudimentary. Most fish are ,, sgh neaee Gane eax.
covered by scales, which are formed CULATION IN FisEs,

a, Auricle; v, ventricle; m,
bulbus arteriosus ; , branchial

artery; 0, vessels in gills; c,
aorta. (Nicholson.)

 

by the dermal or under layer of the
skin. The vertebre are always bi-
concave or amphiccelous, the concay-
ities being filled in with notochordal matter. In the cartilag-
inous fishes, such as the sharks, we can see the vertebree being
drawn into the skull to take part in its formation. As, with
one or two exceptions, fishes are aquatic creatures, and as they
are of no importance agriculturally (except as manure!), we may
thus summarily dismiss them.

1 Fish are often used as manure in hop-gardens, &c., in littoral regions

when there has been a large glut on the market.
Zz
354 ICHTHYOPSIDA.

Il. Awpurpra (Frogs, Toals, and Nevts).

Amphibia include the Frogs, Toads, Water-Newts, &c.
These must claim our attention for a while, as all three are of
much service to us as a means of keeping in check many noxious
insects, not to mention slugs, snails, and other so-called vermin.

Amphibia resemble fishes in that they always have gills during
some part of their life; but, as a rule, these gills are not
persistent. On the other hand, Amphibia have generally lungs
in the adult form, and their limbs are never in the form of fins
as in the Pisces; even the median fin-like structure seen in
Salamanders and Newts (fig. 201) is not a true fin, for there are
no fin-rays such as we find in fish. The limbs, in fact, approxi-
mate in structure to those of the higher vertebrates, whilst the
skull always articulates by two occipital condyles with the spinal
column. The heart also differs from the heart of fish, for it
consists of three chambers— namely, two auricles and one
ventricle.! On dissecting a frog, which can be taken as the best
type, one will at once observe that the rectum, ureters, and the
ducts of the reproductive organs open into one common chamber,
the so-called cloaca.

Lastly, the Amphibia develop by a metamorphosis, some-
times very marked, at others obscure, but always present.
The larve are provided with gills, which usually disappear,
giving place to lungs, in the adults. Some Amphibia do retain
the gills persistently, such as the remarkable Axolotl (Siredon
pisciforme) of the Mexican lakes, which may attain the adult
stage whilst still retaining its gills. In captivity, as the author
has found in two cases, the Axolotl may lose its branchie and
become terrestrial under forced circumstances ; whilst other ova
of a similar brood kept at the Brighton Aquarium remained with
persistent gills.

The two chief groups of Amphibia are the Urodela and Anoura.

1 The Dipnoid fish have a small second auricle. These so-called “ Mud-
fish” of Africa and 8. America are transitional between Fish and Amphibia.
AMPHIBIA. 355

The Urodela are the Tailed Amphibia, the larval tail being
retained throughout life: they have a smooth naked skin
and a compressed or cylindrical tail, and their vertebre are
both amphiccelous and opisthocclous. To this division belong
the Tritons or Water Salamanders or Newts, and the true
Land Salamanders, The Anoura are the Frogs and Toads,
or the Tailless Amphibia, which are destitute of gills in the
adult state, and always devoid of a tail; both structures, how-
ever, are present in the larva. Anoura have always two pairs
of limbs, proccelous dorsal vertebra with large transverse pro-
cesses, serving the functions of ribs, which are absent. The
radius and ulna and the tibia and fibula are anchylosed together.
The posterior limbs, which are the larger, have usually the feet
webbed and adapted for swimming. The heart of the Amphib-
ian is a stage higher than that of fishes. Although it is com-
posed of three chambers, two auricles and one ventricle, in the
adult, the larval heart is the same as in fishes. The blood in the
adult is received from the lungs in the left auricle and from the
body in the right auricle, both emptying into the single ven-
tricle, which therefore contains mixed arterial and venous blood,
and this mixed blood is pumped to both the lungs and system.
The larva has only a two-chambered heart, the blood being
driven to the gills, through them, and on to the system ; but as
the gills begin to give place to lungs, little branches pass off
from the branchial vessels, which unite as the lungs increase
and carry part of the blood to the pulmonary sacs. Event-
ually the gill supply may cease, the entire blood going to the
lungs, when we get a third chamber formed in the heart in the
form of another auricle. Other Amphibia have both branchial
and pulmonary supplies permanent. The blood-supply then
being mixed, oxygenation is comparatively slow, and thus little
heat is generated, the Amphibia, like fishes, being cold-blooded
vertebrates.

The development of an amphibian is best seen in the frog.
The spawn, which is deposited in masses in the water, is sur-
856 ICHTHYOPSIDA

rounded by gelatinous discs, the black ovum (fig. 200, 1) being
seen as a small round body in the middle. The young (3) when
hatched and free from the gelatinous envelope attach themselves
by two suckers to the jelly of the spawn. The young Tadpoles
are very like “tailed amphibia,” and in their earliest stage have

 

Fra. 200,—DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG.

Land 2, Ova; 3-5, tadpoles; 6, period when first pair of legs form (posterior pair) ;
7. both pairs of legs present (Urodela stage); 8, tail disappearing; 9, adult frog.
(Nicholson.)
both internal and external gills (4). The tail is long, thin, and
fish-like, but there are no fin-rays. The external gills soon dis-
appear. The upper and lower jaws become hardened, and form
a kind of beak. By degrees small bud-like outgrowths appear
between the body and tail, which grow out into the hind-limbs
(6), which are always the first to appear in the Frogs and Toads.
AMPHIBIA. 357

The front limbs are formed later as buds in the branchial
cavities. The next stage of the tadpole is just like a tailed
amphibian: the tadpole tail still exists with the four limbs, as
we see in the newt (7). During this metamorphosis more and
more of the blood-supply is passed to the pulmonary saes as the
larva develops, and when the adult stage is reached, and the
creature becomes purely aérial and terrestrial, all sign of the
branchial circulation has become obliterated by a gradual process
of elimination. The tail eventually disappears (8, 9).

The adult Anoura are all fond of damp situations. Their
skin is moist. The adults always feed upon insects, slugs,
worms, &c. Anoura or Tailless Amphibia have a soft skin,
with rarely any trace of exoskeleton. ‘The two chief groups
are the Bufonidw or Toads and the Ranide or Frogs. The
Toads have no teeth in their jaws, and always a tongue.
The hind-limbs are not so very abnormally developed, the toes
being only imperfectly webbed; the toes of the forefeet are
always free, and the skin is rough and granulated. The two
English species are the Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) and the
Natterjack (B. calamita). The latter, which is a large toad, is
somewhat local. Bufo vulgaris is a most beneficial animal:
when kept in greenhouses it does an enormous amount of good,
clearing off slugs, snails, and other vermin of a night.

The Toad catches its prey only when it is moving. The
tongue is then thrown forward, and picks up the fly on its tip
and returns it to the throat. Toads live to a great age. The de-
velopment is much like that of the Frog, but the eges are laid
in two long strings, the ova being surrounded by a gelatinous
substance and placed alternately. Sometimes these strings of
eggs reach four feet in length. They hatch out later than
Frogs, the larve not maturing until August or September.

The Natterjack can be told by having a pale line down the
back. Unlike the Common Toad, it is quite active and often go
in pairs. It is found in dry places, only going to the water to
breed. In places where it occurs it is often common. At one
358 ICHTHYOPSIDA.

time the Natterjack was common in many localities around
London. It can at once be told by its olive tint, darkened
on the flanks with a marked pale yellow stripe running down
the back, the under parts yellow, with black spots, and there
are dark bands on the legs. The warts on the dorsum are
reddish-brown.

In the Ranide or Frogs the upper jaw carries teeth. The
hind-legs are enormously developed and adapted for leaping, the
toes always webbed ; the toes of the fore-limbs are free. The
Common Frog (Rana temporariu), which is our common species,
is found over nearly the whole of Europe, North Asia, North
Africa, and North America. The adults hibernate in all manner

 

Fic. 201.—Mate Crestep Newt (Triton eristatus), (Nicholson.)

of moist situations—especially in mud, in dykes, and pools—
until the spring, when they come forth and soon commence to
breed and to deposit the gelatinous spawn in large masses in the
water. The development and growth of the tadpole have been
previously described.

The Frog often wanders far from water, but they must have
a certain amount of damp to flourish. They are most beneficial
in gardens, feeding off all kinds of vermin, and should be
encouraged with the Toad.

Amongst the Urorela we have in Britain two well-known
species, the Great Crested Newt (Vrifon cristatus) and the
Common Newt or “Eft” (Lissotiilon teeniutus). The Water-
Salamanders or Tritons have a compressed fish-like tail, and
AMPHIBIA. 359

breathe only by lungs. The tongue is small and free, and the
mouth is provided with two rows of teeth. There will be
observed, if we examine a crested newt, to be four toes only to
each foot in front and five on each foot behind. All water-
newts produce oviparously, and the males can be distinguished
by having a large dorsal crest on the back and tail. This crest
appears during the breeding season, and partly goes as soon as it
is over. Newts develop very similarly to frogs; but they retain
their larval tail, and the fore-limbs always appear before the
hind-limbs. The eggs are laid singly on water-plants, often
surrounded by the leaf. Like toads and frogs they live upon
many noxious creatures.

Two other species of Newts are recorded as British—namely,
the Palmate Newt! (Lophinus pulmatus, Dum. and Bibr.), and
Gray’s Banded Newt (Ommatotriton vittutus, Gray), according
to Cooke. The former is recorded from Edinburgh and the
Pentland Hills. The latter was found near London.

1 * Zoologist,’ May 3, 1848. J. Wooley.
2 “Our Reptiles and Batrachians.’ M. C. Cooke. P. 168. 1903.
360

CHAPTER NIV.
B. SAUROPSIDA.
]. Reprries.

THe Sauropsida are the Reptiles and Birds,—the Reptilia and
Aves. Although there seems much difference between a snake
and a fowl, yet we can even in such extremes find some points
of resemblance. Much greater is this affinity to be seen when
we examine extinct forms of life ; for amongst these ancient
remains of the past life of the globe are found many transi-
tional forms between the snake and the bird. These two groups
are united together because the resemblances between them are
greater and more fundamental than those between either of
these groups and the Mammals on the one hand and the
Amphibia on the other. Sauropsida, like Mammals, never
breathe by means of gills at any period of their life. They
always have, as we shall see in the Embryology of the Fowl], a
distinct amnion and allantois in the embryo—two foetal mem-
branes also found in the Mammalia; the red blood-corpuscles
are also always nucleated. In the skeleton we see many
characters common to both Birds and Reptiles, especially the
presence of the guadrte hone and the single occipital condyle in
the skull.

Rerrinta (Snakes, Lizards, Se.)

The Snakes are of little or no importance to us, as they are not
in any way directly connected with agriculture in this country,
and are nowhere in such abundance as to be a serious nuisance
REPTILIA. 361

to man. Nevertheless, as one British species, the Adder (Vipera
verus), is poisonous, it is as well that we should refer very briefly
to them. Lizards, however, are decidedly beneficial, for they feed
upon noxious insects, &c. Reptiles are all provided with a bony
skeleton, and may or may not possess legs. The heart is com-
posed of. four chambers; but the tivo
ventricles are not completely separate,
except in the Crocodiles. The heart
(fig. 202) functionally only consists of
three chambers, although we have an
advance towards the typical completely
four-chambered organ. The circulation
in Reptiles is as follows: the impure
blood is returned from the body by the
large veins () and emptied into the right
auricle (a); from the auricle it passes
on to the ventricle (rv). The pure arte-
rial blood from the lungs enters into
the left auricle (a’) and then into the
ventricle. Thus the ventricle with its
incomplete septum contains mixed blood
much as in the frog, this mixed blocd
being sent by the ventricle to the lungs
by the pulmonary artery (y) and to the
body by the aorta (0). We thus get py. 992,—pracram or tH
a stage higher than in the Amphibia. C'cvzaton 1N Repmices.

Reptiles, then, like Amphibia, are cold- ie eee urea
blooded animals of sluggish habits. They oe (Michelson) BUEN
reproduce like Birds, oviparonsly, the

eggs being often laid in strings; the shells may be hard, but
are sometimes soft. All the Crocodilia and most Tortoises
lay eges with a shell just as thick and hard as that of birds.
Reptile eggs are incubated by the heat of the sum or by the
warmth generated by decaying vegetation in which they are
often laid. A few cases of an ovoviviparous nature occur,—for

 
362 SAUROPSIDA.

instance, the Common English Adder, which may retain the ova
in the uterus until they are incubated.

Many Reptilia are provided with numerous teeth, some being
connected with poisonous glands
at their base (fig. 204, bp). The
poison-fangs have a tube run-
ning up them, through which
the poison is ejected when the
snake bites. Teeth of reptiles,
except in the Crocodiles (fig.
203, i and ii), are not lodged
in sockets, as we see is the case
HE HOS BERR abee Ave: MeROPE to the: Aaimmaliay Bub ate ame

i, Pleurodont dentition (in crocodiles, Planted in one long groove near

&c.); ji, acrodont dentition (note teeth :
anchylosed to the bone). (Brit. Mus. the edge of the Jaw.

Guide. ess gee

: There are four existing
groups of Reptiles —uamely, the Chelonia, or Tortoises and
Turtles ; the Laverfitia, or Lizards; the Ophidia, or Snakes ;

 

 

 

Fie. 204.—1E vp or REpti.eEs.

A, Tfead of wdder ; B, of grass-snake ; (, side view of .£: Py poison fangs: 7. tongne.
J), poison-bay anc fang. :
and the Crocoditia, or Crocodiles and Alligators. Numerous
extinct forms are found in the Mesozoic or Secondary rocks,
a period of the earth which was characterised by the abundant
and extravagant forms of reptilian life. The British Reptilia are
REPTILIA. 363

not numerous: they include three species of snakes, namely,
the Adder (Vipera berus), the Grass-snake (Tropidonotus nutri),
and the Smooth Snake (Coronella levis)—and some Lizards
(Lacertilia), namely, the Blind-worm (Anguds fragilis), the
Common Lizard (Lacerta vivipara), the Sand Lizard (L. uyilis),
and the Green Lizard (L. viridis).

The Adder (Vipera berus) can be easily told from the Grass-
snake. It has a broad head, and varies in colour from greenish-
grey to deep chestnut-brown, with a dark band of lozenge-shaped
patches down the dorsal side of the body. Sometimes entire
black specimens may be found on the North Downs. In length
the adder may attain as much as thirty-two inches. The two
poison-fangs are well developed (fig. 204, c): through them, by
a small canal in each, the poison is poured into the wound they
cause, which never seems to bleed. Very few instances of the
adder bite have proved fatal, nevertheless the poison causes
much pain and violent inflammation and swelling in the
poisoned region, which may last for some considerable time.
Adders are particularly fond of hillsides and heathy tracts,
especially where the sun strikes with much warmth. They
look after their young for a little while. Often the young are
produced alive. The food of adders consists chiefly of frogs
and mice. Strong ammonia rubbed into the wound is one of
the best remedies for the bite.

The Grass or Ringed Snake (Zropilonotus natrix) (fig. 204, B)
is longer than the adder: they have been seen over three feet
in length. It is bluish in colour, with black and creamy-white
marks on the ventral surface, and with a yellow and black
band across the neck. The eggs are laid in strings in sandy and
dry places, and incubate by the heat of the sun; they are also
often buried in leaves, which hastens their development.

The Brown or Smooth Snake (Coronella lvix) is from about
one and a half to two feet long, brown in colour, with dark-
brown patches on the back and with a dark-brown head. They
are not very common, and feed chiefly on Lacertilia.

The Blind-worm or Slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) (tig. 205),
364 SAUROPSIDA.

although snake-like, is a true lizard (Lacertdlia), but devoid of
limbs. Why it is called the Blind-worm is unaccountable, for
it has well-developed eyes. The habits of this snake-like Lizard
are very interesting. They appear from their winter quarters
long before the Snakes and Amphibia. In the winter they bury
themselves in galleries in the earth beneath heaps of leaves and

     
 

cay
rl Aiea
Ce
ee REE
ee eas

 
   
   
  

Fic. 205.—Biixp-worm (Anguis fragilis}—atter Bell. (Nicholson.)

in banks. The chief food consists of slugs and worms, which
they take in a very leisurely manner. The young are very
pretty — shining creamy yellow above, black below ; a black
line also running down the back which expands over the head.
They vary from nine to twelve or more at a birth. When
frightened they can readily cast off their tail, which seems to
retain vitality some time after severance from the body. The
Sand Lizard’s tail breaks off similarly.

The true Lizards call for no special comment. Teaders are
referred to ‘Our Reptiles and Batrachians,’ by M. C. Cooke.
1893,
365

CHAPTER XyV.

B. SAUROPSIDA— Continued.

II.—Aves (Brrps).

Brrps are oviparous warm-blooded vertebrates, with a complete
double circulation, and are covered with feathers. Their body
temperature is about 104° F. The feathers are analogous to
the hairs in mammals: they are dermal outgrowths, formed in
sacs from small papilla of dermal origin. A typical feather
(fig. 206) consists of the following parts: (1) The “calamus”
or “quill” (C), by which it is inserted in the dermal papilla ;
part of the quill is hollow, the basal part being spongy in-
ternally. (2) The “rachis” (2), which forms the shaft, and
which is simply the continuation of the quill: on one side the
shaft is grooved, internally it is filled with a soft pithy sub-
stance. On each side of the shaft is a so-called “web,” the
two webs forming (3) the “vexillum” or “vane” (V). The
vexillum is built up of a number of “barbs” (B), the barbs being
united by small hook-like “barbules,” which attach the barbs
together towards the distal part of the feather, but not towards
their base. At the junction of the rachis and quill is found
a small accessory feather, the “aftershaft” or “hyporachis” ;
this may be large or simply reduced to a tuft of “down,” in
which the barbs are disconnected. The feathers vary in
structure in different parts of the body. Those of the tail
and wings are called “quill-feathers.” The longest quill-
366 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).

feathers are in the wing attached to the bones of the hand .
these are known as “primary feathers” (fig. 207, A 1-10).
Another series arise from the ulna, the seronJary feathers (B).

 

Fic. 206.—FraTHER oF Birp,

C, calamus; R, rachis; 1, vexillum; B, barbs.

There is a small thumb in the bones of the wing; this is
also provided with feathers, and is called the “bastard wing”
(BW). The bases of these large wing-feathers are covered by
smaller feathers, the “wing-coverts.” The tail-feathers vary in
THE SKELETON ANI) ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 367

number: they are usually from ten to twelve, but as many as
twenty-four are found in some birds. The caudal feathers are
called “ rectrices,” and have no aftershaft; their bases are
covered by “ tail-coverts.”
of “down”; these plumule have no hooks to the barbules,

The body feathers cover the mass

 

Fig. 207.— Wine or Brrp.

H, humerus; 2, U, radius and ulna; M.C, metacarpals; T, thumb; 7.2, two-jointed
finger; B.1, bastard wing; 41-10, primary feathers; B, secondaries.
so the barbs are quite free. Another form is found in the
so-called “ filoplumes,” which consist of simply a slender shaft
with a few barbs at the tip. If we move the feathers of a fowl
on one side, we shall observe that they are attached to the skin
in definite areas only; the bare intervening spaces are called
“apteria,” the feather-tracts “ pteryle.”

Tue SKELETON AND Anatomy oF Birps.

The skelcton of the bird (fig. 208) is remarkable for two
things—extreme compactness and lightness. The former is
due to the excess of phosphate of lime in the bones, the latter
to the presence of hollow spaces in many of the bones. These
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  

Fic. 208.—SKELETON oF FowL.

A-B, cervical vertebre ; 1, spinous process of third
vertebra ; 2, inferior ridge on same ; 3, styloid process ;
4, vertebral foramen ; B-C, dorsal vertebra ; 6, spinous
process of first; 7, crest formed by union of other
spinous processes; D-F, coccygeal vertebre; F, G,
head ; 8, interorbital septum ; 9, interorbital foramen ;
10, premaxillary bone; 10’, anterior nares; 11, man-
dible ; 12, quadrate ; 13, maxilla; 14, keel of sternum
(41); 15, episternum ; 16, posterior Jateral process ; 17,
oblique lateral process ; 18, membrane closing internal
notch; 19, membrane of external notch; J, ribs; 20,
posterior process; J, ribs; K, seapula; L, coracoid ;
MM, furcula ; m, m, its branches ; N, humerus; 0, ulna ;
o, radius; P, P’, carpus; Q, Q’, metacarpus; L, first
phalanx of wing digits ; 7, second ditto; R’, thumb; Ss,
ilium ; 4’, ischium ; 8S”, pubes ; 21, sciatic foramen ; 22,
foramen obturatum; 7’, femur; U, patella; V, tibia ;
X, fibula; ¥, metatarsus ; y, intertarsus or heel-joint ;
23, hypotarsus; 24, process supporting the spur; 2,
digits (Chauveau,)

    
THE SKELETON AND ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 369

cavities are more or less connected with the air, and the bones
are spoken of as ‘* pneumatic ” bones.

The vertebra of the neck (fig. 208, A—B) allow the bird con-
siderable powers of movement in that region; they vary from
eight to as many as twenty-three. The dorsal vary from six to
ten (BC), the first four being anchylosed together (7), so as to

give support to the powerful forelimbs or wings. We cannot

 

Fic. 209.--SKuL". or Fow..

PM, Premaxillary; M, maxilla; P, palatine; N, nasal; L, lachrymal; JOS, inter-
orbital septuin; OF, interorbital foramen; ZP, zygomatic process of frontal; ZP2,
same of squamosal; OC, occipital condyle; 7'C, tympanic recess; 0, foramen ovale ;
ATC, anterior tympanic recess ; FN, forainen of fifth nerve ; Q, quadrate; QJ, quadrato
jugal; Pt, pterygoid; SA, supra-angular ; D, dentary; A/F, mandibular foramen.
distinguish any lumbars. The bones between the dorsal and the
caudal are all united, forming the sacrum much as in mammals ;
but to this sacrum the ilia (S) are joined completely: thus the
spine in this region and the pelvis (fig. 212) are incapable of
movement. The tail vertebrae (D-H) also vary in number,
usually eight to ten, and are movable. The last joint of the
tail is long and slender, and forms the curious “ ploughshare ”

2A
370 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).

bone, which is made up of about half-a-dozen caudal vertebre
fused into one piece, and constituting the support for the
tail-quills and oil-glands. These latter contain the fluid that
the birds preen their feathers with.

The skull (fig. 209) articulates with the vertebral column by a
single condyle only, The beak (fig. 208, 10 and 11), so charac-
teristic of the Birds, consists of an inferior and superior mandible,
and never in existing species carries teeth. The upper bill (10)

 

Fia. 210.—Pectrorat Arca OF Fowt.

g.c, Glenoid cavity; Sc, scapula; Co, coracoid; Hp.C, hypocleidium; jf, furcula
(clavicles).
consists of greatly elongated intermaxillary bones and small
superior maxillary bones on each side. The lower jaw (11)
articulates with the skull by the quadrate bone (12), and not
direct as in mammals. The thorax is surrounded laterally by
the ribs (I and J), which vary from six to ten pairs: each rib
carries a peculiar process called (20) the ‘“uncinate” process,
THE SKELETON AND ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 371

except the first and last pair. There is a large breast-bone or
sternum (14). In flying birds this sternum has a deep sternal
ridge or keel, to which are attached the powerful muscles which
move the wings. The pectoral arch (fig. 210) consists of a
pair of scapulz (Sv), clavicles (7), and coracoid bones (Co). The

 

Fic, 211.—StTernum or Fowt (front view),

a, Keel; 6, manubrium; c, oblique lateral process; d, anterior lateral process; e,
posterior lateral process ; /, internal notch ; g, external notch.
scapula is an elongated simple bone; the coracoids are distinct
and very strong, and articulate with the upper angle of the
sternum ; the clavicles form the V-shaped bone popularly called
the “ merry-thought.”
372 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).

The bones of the fore-limb or wing of the bird are adapted to
its peculiar atrial life, and form one of the chief characteristics
of the bird’s skeleton. This anterior limb consists of a single
short and strong humerus (fig. 208, .V), an ulna and a radius (O
and 0) (the former being much the larger bone), two carpal
bones (P and P’), the metacarpus (Q and Q’), which consists of
three bones united together, but free in the middle; at the
proximal end of the larger metacarpal is attached the “ thumb-
bone” (’), which carries the hastard wing. The hind-limb is
much as in all animals; but the chief bone is the tibia (V),
the fibula (X) being very rudimentary. The following joint,
the metatarsus (VY), is characteristic of birds. Four digits are

 

Fic 212.—PE.vis oF Fowt (lateral view).
Il, Nlium; Js, ischium; P, pubes; A, acetabulum,

normally present (x), three pointing forwards and one behind.
There is great variation in the disposition of birds’ digits.

The Digestive System.—As already said, the bill of birds
never contains teeth: it is variable in appearance, and is used
for eating the prey and food generally, for prehension, and in
some as an organ of touch. The base of the upper bill is
often surrounded by a circle of skin devoid of feathers, the
“cere.” The tongue is mostly hard and horny, and is supported
by the hyoid bone. The digestive tract consists of a long
cullet or oesophagus (fig. 213, Oe), which has a sac-like dilata-
tion in front of the “ merry-thought,” the crop (C). This crop
is seen in carnivorous and graminivorous birds. Here the food
INTERNAL ANATOMY OF BIRDS. 373

is retained prior to the gastric digestion. The cesophagus is
followed by the proventriculus, which is the true stomach in
which gastric digestion takes place. This first stomach cor-
responds with the cardiac end of the mammal’s stomach. The
pyloric end is represented by the “gizzard” (G@), a large ex-
tremely muscular cavity situated
below the liver. There are two
distinct types of this grinding
stomach: in raptorial birds it
consists of a simple membran-
ous sac, but in graminivorous
birds, which eat hard and not
easily digested food, the gizzard
consists of a thick muscular
cavity which is lined by a hard
epithelium. By the muscular
action of the walls of the gizzard
the food is ground up against
the horny walls. In all birds
we find in this second stomach
small stones, cinders, and grit.
These aid in the trituration of
the food. They are essential to
the health of the bird, hence
poultry are given “ grit” to eat.

 

Fig. 213.— ALIMENTARY CANAL OF Aaa -
Fowt, This grit should be natural, not

Oe, Cisuphagus; C, crop; S, proven- sharp needle-like pieces of flint,
triculus; G, gizzard ; D, duodenum ; Si,
small intestine; Cae, ceca; J, junction such as some poultry merchants
of ceca; R, rectum; CL, cloaca; A, ,
anus; ZL, liver; Gb, gall bladder; 0, advertise, which only damage

right lobe of liver; P, pancreas.

the walls of the gizzard and do
not grind the food. Many inflammatory diseases of the gizzard
I have traced to this reprehensible practice. The intestine con-
sists of two parts, the small and large intestine, and ends in the
cavity called the cloaca (CL). The large intestine commences
where the two long blind tubes originate, the ‘cecal tubes”
374 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).

(Cae), which are generally present in birds. The cloaca is the
cavity which receives the rectum, ureters, and sexual ducts,
there being no distinct sexual openings in the class Aves.
Salivary glands open into the mouth, the liver (Z), and pancreas
(P) into the small intestine near the gizzard.

Respiratory oryans in birds not only consist of lungs, but also
of ‘‘air-sacs” and spaces in the bones. The lungs differ from
those of mammals by not being freely suspended in the pleural
cavity: they are two in number, spongy, and bright red in
colour. The air-sacs are prolongations of the lining membrane
of the bronchi, which spring from the bronchial tubes just be-
fore they enter the lung. ‘These air-receptacles penetrate the
thorax and abdominal cavity. They become filled with air prior
to the bird taking flight, and thus reduce its specific gravity,
at the same time bringing air in direct contact with the blood
in other parts of the body besides the lungs. The air-sacs are
continued in adult birds into the bones. In young birds the
pneumatic bones do not exist to the same extent.

The herrt in birds consists of four chambers, two auricles
and two ventricles. The heart essentially agrees with that of
mammals, as does the general circulation of the blood, so no
further reference need be made to this subject.

There is no urinary bladder in birds: the kidneys are two in
number and elongated; their ducts open into the cloaca. In
regard to the reproductive organs, the chief characteristic in
birds is that there is only one functional ovary (fig. 214) and
Fallopian tube in the female; this single ovary is that of the
left side. I have sometimes in the fowl found the right ovary
more or less developed. The oviduct is a long tortuous tube in
which the ovum receives first the “ white ” or albuminous cover-
ing of the yolk. Towards the end of the egg-tube dilatations
appear: in these the eggs receive the shell, which consists of
carbonate of lime. A deficiency of this in the bird's system
results in so-called ‘soft eggs.” The ege is then passed into
the cloaca, and so out of the vent. The eggs of birds are hatched
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 375

by incubation. The young are provided with a curious cal-
careous knob on the upper mandible, by means of which they
erack a hole in the egg-shell when ready to escape. Some can
feed as soon as they have escaped from the ege-shell—precocious
young ; others have to be fed by the parents—nestlings.

Birds are found in all climates, and may be residents,
migrants, or gipsy-migrants.

In cold and temperate climates many birds do not remain all

 

Fic. 214.—Ovary or Brrp.

a, ¢, c, Ova in various stages of development; b, streak without vessels indicating
the point where the vesicle is about to rupture to allow ova to escape; d, ruptured
vesicle; e, very small ovum showing cicatricula, (Chauveau.)

the year; these are called “migrants.” Migrants pass at the
approach of winter to a warmer climate, and return again to
nest in the spring. Prior to migrating the birds usually collect
in flocks. These migrations generally take place about the same
date every year. Most migrants are insectivorous, and even if
the temperature were warm enough for them, they could not
subsist upon our scanty winter fauna.

There are other birds which move from place to place in an
376 SAUROPSIDA (BIRDS).

erratic manner, the so-called “ gipsy-migrants,” which leave one
district for another owing to scarcity of food, but have no fixed
place of migration. This form of movement we see in Tits
(Pariidiv) and Woodpeckers (Piririe),

Those birds, such as the blackbird and thrush, which are
with us throughout winter and summer, are called ‘ residents.”

Fossil birds present many peculiarities. Some (Odontornithes)
have tecth; others of older date have distinct lizard -like
characters, such as the feather-tailed Archeopteryz.
377

CHAPTER XVI.
BRITISH BIRDS.

Most birds are of some economic importance to the farmer and
gardener. Many are extremely useful in keeping down an
excess of insect life and other vermin more or less destructive to
our crops. There are also some birds which are obnoxious by
destroying the buds of fruit-trees, by eating grain, and by their
depredations amongst poultry and game-birds.. The most im-
portant species only will be mentioned here, space forbidding
a more detailed description.

The old classification of Birds into Natatores, Grallatores,
Rasores, Scansores, Passeres, and Raptores is not followed here,
as by it birds of a totally different structure are grouped
together for instance, the Ducks and Geese, formerly united
with the Gulls, are quite distinct in structure, and cannot be
reasonably grouped with them. There is no doubt but that the
so-called Passerine birds are the most highly developed, while
Grebes and Divers are some of the lowest. We therefore com-
mence with the latter, as we are here tracing life from the most
simple forms, the Protozoa, to the most highly developed
animals, the Mammalia. The groups are taken in the order
given by Dr Hans Gadow.!

1 A Classification of Vertebrata, Recent and Extinct. Gadow. 1898.
378 BRITISH BIRDS.

1. Colymbiformes.
GREBES AND Divers.

The Grebes and Divers call for little comment here: they are
included in the two families Poddeetpedidu: and Colymbide
respectively. Of these we need only deal with the first
mentioned.

The Grebes (Podictpedide) are characterised by their short
wings, with the first three primary feathers nearly equal and the
longest in the wing, by the absence of any tail, by the elongated
conical form of the bill, and by the structure of the foot, which
is known as a “split-swimming foot” (fig. 215). This form

 

Fic. 215.—Sriit-Swimaine Foor of GReBeE (Podiceys fluviatilis).

of foot as seen in the Grebes has three toes in front and one
behind, the three front toes much flattened, united toeether at
the base, and edged with lobate webbing ; the hind toe is also
flattened, while the claws are large and flat. The best-known
British specics is—

The Dabehich or Little Grebe (Podiceps ghiviatilis).—The
little grebe is widely distributed over England, and may be scen
CICONIIFORMES. 379

all the year round along streams and rivers, upon lakes and
pools, especially revelling in those of a reedy nature. In
colour the dabchick in summer is dark-brown above and greyish-
white below ; cheeks, throat, and sides of the neck tawny ; bill
dusky-brown, greenish-yellow at the gape; legs and toes dull
greenish-brown. In winter the plumage is paler, and the chin
is white instead of black. In length the little grebe varies from
nine to ten inches. They form their nest as a floating structure
attached to water-plants ; it is usually composed of reeds, and
is often of a large size. Nesting is said to last from April
to August, Six white eggs are generally laid, and are covered
up by the bird when the nest is left. The young grebes are
quite light in colour, and, like all members of this family, are
carried about by the parents on their back, sitting close between
the bases of the wings. All the grebes seem to have a habit of
swallowing feathers and of ejecting them again with other un-
digested products, like the owls. The food consists of small
fish, insects, and various small aquatic animals, as well as
vegetation.

4, Ciconiiformes.
Herons, Birrerns, &c. (ARDEZ).

These birds have all long legs and long strong-pointed bills.
The three chief groups are the Herons (Ardea) and the Bitterns
(Botaurus), forming the family Ardeide, and the Storks
(Ciconia), forming the family Ciconiide.

The Herons (Ardea) have long straight bills in the form of a
long compressed cone. The legs long and slender, and naked
above the tarsal joint ; three toes in front, the outer one joined
to the middle one by a membrane, one toe directed backwards ;
claws long and very sharp. They have on their breasts and
flanks tufts of decomposed powdery feathers for powdering
the plumage. Our best-known example is the Common Heron
380 BRITISH BIRDS.

(Ardea cinerea), which nests in companics, “ heron-shaws,” upon
the tops of trees, on old walls amongst ivy, &c. They may
commence to build their large nests in January if the weather is
mild; but February is the general time for them to repair to
their nesting-places, which they frequent year after year. The
nests are large flat structures, formed of crossed sticks and lined
with grasses, &e. They lay three or four bluish-green egys
about two and a half inches long, which hatch out in twenty-
eight to twenty-nine days. Young herons are nestlings, and
remain with the old ones about the heron-shaws until August.
In Richmond Park they continue all the year round in their
nesting-weod. The adult male heron is three feet long, and
has a decp blue crest, the upper parts being slaty-grey, the
under parts dull greyish-white ; sides of the head and neck white,
bluish-brown streaks run down the neck. The female is not so
bright in colour as the male. The bill is yellow. Herons feed
on a vreat variety of food, and do some good by destroying
water-rats and field-mice ; they also cat quantities of insects,
molluscs, and frogs. Fish also are yreedily devoured by them,
especially coarse fish, more especially eels. They fly with their
legs stretched straight out behind, and move their wings very
slowly, and so can easily be recognised when flying. Several
other species oceur in England occasionally.

The Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) was a resident bird, but is
now very rare, chiefly occurring as a winter visitor. The Storks
(Crconia) are most useful as locust destroyers,

5. Falconiformes.

Vuutures, Hawks, Eacues, Bezzarps, &e, (AccrprrREs)

There are two families of the Accipitres in Great Britain
—namely, the Valturtde and Fuleontde. The first - named
the Vultures, are so extremely rare (only a few slewonlens
having been recorded) that they call for no further monmmsi,
FALCONIFORMES. 381

The Faleonide include all our Diurnal Birds of Prey—the
Hawks, Falcons, Buzzards, Kites, Harriers, and Fagles. They
have a hooked beak furnished with a sharp projection on each
side ; the cere is always devoid of feathers, with the rounded
nostrils placed laterally upon it. The feet are raptorial—that
is, are armed with long, sharp, curved talons (fig. 216). Unlike
the Vultures, they have
fourteen cervical verte-
bre. All the Accipitres
have the oil-gland tuft-
ed. They eject the un-
digested parts of the
food from ten to twenty
hours after ingestion as

 

small rounded or elon-
gated pellets. Vision Fic. 216.—Foor or RApToriat Brrp.

is extremely keen, and

most are endowed with very strong powers of flight. The female
is always larger than the male. Many of these Raptores are de-
cidedly beneficial, whilst others are just as harmful; the indis-
criminate slaughter of them has been attended with disastrous
results, by the undue increase of many of their kinds of prey.
The most important economic species are the following :—

Belonging to the genus Falco, which have short bills curved
from the base, with a strong, projecting, cutting tooth on the
edge of each upper mandible; with long pointed wings, and
long, curved, sharp claws, are first—

The Kestrel or Wind-hover (Falco tinnunculus),—This is one
of our most abundant and useful birds of prey. It is generally
present over Great Britain, occurring in greater numbers in
winter than summer, due to immigrants from the Continent.
The adult male kestrel has a bluish-grey head, neck, and tail ;
the tail has a broad black band towards the end, and is tipped
with white; the back is pale reddish-brown towards the head,
greyish-blue near the tail, with small dark spots in the male; the
382 BRITISH BIRDS.

female has the hack rufous and with more black bars, and there
are also several narrower bands of dark-brown on the tail; the
legs and cere are yellow. The male varies from twelve to
fourteen inches, the female usually one or two inches longer,
The kestrel nests in a variety of places: very often the nests of
rooks and wood-pigeons are taken possession of by them ; others
lay their egys in hollow trees, in holes, in quarries, and cliffs.
From four to six egys are laid, very variable in appearance,
some being creamy-white with a few reddish-brown spots,
others almost entirely reddish-brown. The kestrel is often
looked upon by gamekeepers and others as a destructive bird,
and ruthlessly destroyed. Instead of doing harm the wind-
hover does a great deal of good, for its food consists mainly
of field-mice, voles, and insects, especially grasshoppers, locusts.
and beetles. Very seldom are birds touched by F. tinnunculus.
It should therefore be strenuously protected.

The Merlin (Falun) and the Hobby (F. xubhuteo) are both
similarly destroyed, yet they do little harm, if any. The former
feeds on small birds, such as larks, pipits, and thrushes; the
latter is chiefly an insect-feeder, cockchafers and dragon-flies
being its choicest food, although, like the merlin, small birds,
especially swallows and martins, may be taken by it.

The Peregrine Muleon (EF. peregrinus).—This is one of the
finest falcons, and the one most sought after for ‘‘ hawking.”
The adult peregrine reaches nineteen inches in length in
the female, some three or four inches smaller in the male.
The head and checks ave black, the back being slaty-grey with
black bars; the under parts rufous, barred with black, and the
cere and legs yellow. This faleon lays its eggs in nests of
the crow, raven, Xv., on cliff edges and in hollows seraped out
in similar places, as well as on high buildings and monuments.
The eggs are laid in April, and vary from two to four in
number, nearly two inches lone, and often brick-red in colour,
many beimg only freckled with the red. The young falcons
are always driven away hy the parent towards the end of
FALCONIFORMES. 383

the summer, one pair keeping off fresh arrivals for some
distance round their “eyrie.” Peregrines are undoubtedly
injurious to game. Their chief food consists of grouse, par-
tridges, ducks, pigeons, kestrels, and various other birds, and
perhaps where this falcon is abundant there is some excuse
for destroying it.

The Sparrow-hawk (Aceipiter nisus).—The  sparrow-hawk
belongs to another genus, Acctpiter. This genus is characterised
by the bill bending from the base, and by the cutting margin
of the upper mandible having a distinct festoon; the wings
are short and the legs long and slender, the claws being curved
and very sharp, the middle toe long and slender. The sparrow-
hawk is a very common bird throughout Great Britain in wooded
districts. The male is slaty-blue above, buff below, barred with
tawny-brown ; the tail is brown with three to five dark bars ;
the cere is greenish-yellow, and the legs yellow. The female
has a greyish breast barred with brown, and is much larger than
the male, being some fifteen inches long. The sparrow-hawk
builds a nest of her own, although she sometimes uses as a
foundation the remains of a crow or rook nest. As many as six
eggs may be laid in May at intervals of two days. The sparrow-
hawk, unlike the kestrel, is a great nuisance, for its chief food
is game and young poultry, amongst which it is especially de-
structive when it has a brood of young. The meal is eaten on
the ground, the sparrow-hawk requiring both feet to secure its
prey. They hunt along hedgerows and wood-sides, and devour
also large numbers of small birds.

The White-tailed Eagle (Haliactus albicilla).—Of the two
eagles found in Great Britain the white-tailed or sea-eagle is
that most often met with. It is this species that is recorded
as the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysactus) every now and then in
the southern counties. The two species are readily distinguish-
able by the structure of the legs and feet. The sea-eagle has
the leg above the foot devoid of feathers, and the toes with a
single row of scales all the way down ; the golden eagle has the
384 BRITISH BIRDS.

leg feathered down to the toes, and the upper part of the toes
not scaly but reticulate, three scales only leing present towards
the tip. A female white-tailed eagle will reach thirty-four to
thirty-six inches in length. They breed in Scotland in April,
but not now in England. It is this species only that we find
in the South. The food consists of carrion—birds, animals, and

 

Fic. 217.—Hrap or Wuire-ralLep Eacir (Haliactus albicilla).

fish, The golden cagle takes lambs, and even fawns, whilst
hares and zrouse form its staple food. They no doubt at one
time in the North were destructive to sheep; but they are now
far too scarce to do any harm, although the golden eagle is if
anything on the increase in Scotland, owing to its being now
more or less preserved by landowners.

The two British Buzzards (Buteo vulgaris and B. lagopus) are
great destroyers of mice and voles, frogs and snakes. They are
sometimes said to destroy partridges and grouse, but this is very
rarely the case.

Amongst the Harriers (Circus), the Marsh-harrier is said to
destroy poultry ; but if it does, it is only to a limited extent, for
their chief food consists of small mammals, small birds, frogs, and
snakes—in fact, the above form the usual diet of all the Cirei.

It will thus be seen that, with the exception of the sparrow-
hawk and peregrine, the Accipitres are not destructive to any
great extent ; but, on the other hand, many are decidedly bene-
ANSERIFORMES. 385

ficial as destroyers of the hosts of voles, mice, and other small
mammals, which often increase with alarming rapidity where
these rapacious birds have heen persistently persecuted. Poultry
suffer from the sparrow-hawk, and sometimes the merlin and
hobby ; but the few chicks the two latter take are soon made
up for by the good done by their destroying vermin.

6. Anseriformes.
Ducks, GuEsE, anp Swans (ANSERES).

The Ducks, Geese, and Swans are included in the family
Anatidw, which contains as
many as seventeen genera in
Great Britain. The Anseres
are characterised by the beak
(fig. 218) being more or less
flattened and covered with a
fine tactile skin ; the edges of
the bill are furnished with a
series of lamellae (Z), form-
ing a kind of fringe, which
acts as a strainer to the mud
in which they seek their food.
The bill is most sensitive, be-
ing abundantly supplied with
branches from the fifth cranial
nerve. The legs are provided
with a three-toed swimmer, the
fourth toe pointing backwards,
and is free (fig. 219, B). The
body of the Anseres is heavy,
and densely covered with down
beneath the contour feathers,
yet these birds are capable of great powers of flight. The males

2B

 

Fic. 218,—Sxvuit or Duck.
386 BRITISH BIRDS.

especially have a peculiar harsh note, which is perhaps accounted
for by the large and peculiar enlarged end of the trachea. They
are mostly found in shallow fresh waters, where they hunt about
in the mud, but are also partly marine in habits. The young are
always precocious. Wild Ducks, Geese, and Swans are strictly
monogamous. We need here only consider the true Ducks,
Geese, and Swans.

Amongst the Geese we find the following important genera :—

1. Anser, in which the bill is nearly as long as the head;
elevated and covered with skin at the base, the under mandible
always being smaller than the upper. The nostrils are placed
about the middle of the beak, and are pierced anteriorly, lateral
in position (fig. 219, a). Legs under the middle of the body.

2, Bernicla, in which the bill is much shorter than the head,
edges nearly parallel, the lamelle being unseen.

(GEESE (ANSER AND Bernice).

Geese are often plentiful in Great Britain. They appear in
flocks especially during the winter, when they have migrated
southwards, .\t least eight species have been recorded in our
islands. Of these the Grey Lag Goose (Anser ferus), the Bean
Goose (A, segetui), and the Brent Goose (Bernicla brenta) are
the most frequently seen inland, where they sometimes do slight
damage to various crops. The geese fly in two forms, either in
a V-shape or in a long wavy or slanting line. They especially
move on the wing at dusk and are gregarious. Most of the year
is spent in high latitudes.

The Grey Lag Goose (A. ferus).—At one time this goose was
very abundant in England, now it is much seareer; yet I have
seen flocks in the castern fen districts carrying destruction along
with them. The bill is flesh-colour, with a white nail; the
upper plumage ashy-brown, the feathers here and there bordered
with dusky-white ; the under-plumage is ashy-erey barred with
brown on the sides and beneath, pure white behind. The
ANSERIFORMES, 387

rump and wing-coverts are bluish-grey. The legs are dull pink.
Length often nearly three feet. These geese arrive in the
autumn, and at once repair to the fields and marshes, where,
moving about in flocks, they trample down the young corn,
attack the turnips, and often do endless damage. The “grey lag”
is found all over Europe, in Northern Africa, and to the east as

 

Fig. 219.—a, Heap or Grey Lac Goose; 8, Foor or Domestic Goose.
(Nicholson.)

far as Persia. There seems little doubt but that this species has
given rise to some of our domestic geese. It is uncommon
in the south of England and on the west coast. The “grey lag”
still breeds in Scotland, but in decreasing numbers. In the
latter place they incubate in April, when the ganders leave the
geese and collect together on pieces of water.

The Bean Goose (A. segetum) is another common species.
The wings when folded are much longer than the body; the
base of the orange bill is black and so is the nail; the upper
plumage is ashy-grey, the under parts dusky and pure white,
and the legs orange. This goose also appears in large flocks. It
388 BRITISH BIRDS,

may be seen from October to April, especially during the period
of its migration. Like the former, it feeds on grass, roots, corn,
and other vegetation, pulling up and trampling down far more
than is devoured. The bean goose is, as its name implies,
especially fond of pulse; newly sown beans in spring often
suffer from its ravages. It breeds nowhere in England. In
Cornwall it is often very abundant, and perhaps in most dis-
tricts except the east coast it is one of the commonest geese.

The Pink-footed Goose (A. brachyrhynchus) is also very
abundant in parts of England during the winter months,
especially in the eastern counties, but in the south we seldom
see it. It is smaller than the bean goose. Like the bean goose,
it has a black nail and very similar beak ; but the white mark-
ings of the tail are much broader, and the wing-shoulder is
bluish-grey in colour,

The White-fronted Goose (A. albifrons) is also abundant in
severe weather in the south and south-east of England. It is
smaller than the grey lag, but, like it, has a white nail at the
tip of the bill. The base of the mandibles and forehead are
white ; the back is brownish-grey; breast and belly white,
with broad bands of black. ill, legs, and toes orange. The
female is paler, and has much less black on the breast. It is
found in Syria, Egypt, &c., and with the grey lag has shared in
the origin of our domestic varieties.

The Brent Goose (Bernicla brenta) is the most abundant of
all British geese. It is found about the south and south-east
coasts all the winter, but seldom comes inland, feeding on the
mud-flats upon crustacea, weeds, &e.

Domestic Geese and thetr Origin.—The various varieties of
Geese are no doubt descended from the widely distributed grey
lag, which once bred in abundance in our country. The grey
lag has been known to cross readily with tame geese in prefer-
ence to any others. The white varieties are easily accounted
for by variation under domestication, and judicious selection and
breeding. The grey lag is very widely distributed, being found
ANSERIFORMES. 389

in abundance in India. The white-fronted goose may also have
been in some way connected with our present stock ; but that
the grey lag is the chief originator of the Toulouse, Embden, and
other geese there is very little doubt. Geese under domestica-
tion commence to lay in February and March, and may deposit
as many as eighteen eggs, but that is above their average. The
young goslings appear about the twenty-ninth to thirtieth day
after incubation commences. Although wild geese sometimes
do harm in this country, they cannot be said to be of much im-
portance to the agriculturist ; but domestic geese are thus im-
portant, not only on account of their value, but for the good
they can do in exterminating grubs and vermin in the soil in
orchards, &c.

Swans (Cya@nus).

Swans have a long slender neck, with sixteen cervical
vertebre. The bill is higher than wide at the base and
depressed at the tip, and both mandibles are furnished with
serrated lamelle along their sides. The male and female
cygnus are alike in plumage. The commonest swan in England
is the Mute Swan (C. oluv’), which is said to have been intro-
duced from Cyprus by Richard I. It is now found abund-
antly not only semi-domesticated but wild. The Swans pair
for life, and breed on islands, amongst reeds, &c., in May.
The nests are large structures built of reeds and rushes. Four
egos are laid by young females, who commence to breed in
their second year as a rule; older females may lay as many as
ten eggs, of a dull greenish-white colour, nearly four inches
long. The period of incubation is between thirty-six and forty
days, the young “cygnets” being looked after by the parents
for some time, generally until next breeding season. The
cygnets are sooty-grey, with a dull grey-coloured bill. The food
of Swans consists of water-plants, aquatic insects, and grain.
390 BRITISH BIRDS.

Ducss (Anatina).

The Ducks, of which there are a great number of genera, are
sometimes provided with a very narrow membranous lobe to the
fourth toe. The legs are short, and placed behind the middle
of the body ; the bill is about the same width all along, or may
be broadened at the tip. The
nostrils are small and near the
base in the true Ducks (Anas),
and large in the Sheldrakes
(Ladorna). The period of in-
cubation in ducks is about a
month, always longer than in
the fowl.

Here are included the Com-
mon Sheldrake (Tadorna Bel-
loniz), one of our largest and
handsomest ducks; the Teal
(Anas rrecea); the Widgeon
(A. penelope); the Wild Duck
(A. boxehus), &e. The last
only needs claim our atten-

tion.
The Wild Duck (Anas
boschas). — The mallard or

wild duck is found generally
throughout Great Britain, and
Fis, iii breeds wherever there are

Bpt, Basi-pterygoid ; L, lamelle of bill. Swamps and water. The
term “mallard” is properly

applied to the “drake” only, “wild duck” to both sexes. The
winter plumage of the drake is, as every one must have noticed,
very different from the duck. This winter plumage is seen
from October to May; but in the summer, when both sexes
moult, the drake assumes the plumage of the duck. The young

 
GALLIFORMES. 391

ducklings also appear in the same garb in both sexes. One
notices a similar change in many domestic ducks, especially
Rouens and others that assimilate to the wild ducks or their
ancestral plumage. Anas busrhas is found all over the Northern
Hemisphere. In England it remains throughout the year; but
in winter its numbers increase, owing to large enforcements
coming from the North as the cold approaches. The nests are
built in all manner of places—on the ground, amongst reeds,
grass, and on the top of trees. The young can feed at once,
but are unable to fly until nine or ten weeks old. The ducklings
feed upon tadpoles, water-insects, and small grubs. The old
birds feed upon a variety of substances—water-plants, land-
plants, oats, and grain generally, fish and fish-spawn. It is
said that they sometimes do some harm in corn-fields, but the
damage must be comparatively slight. In very cold weather
they are found along the coast. The wild duck commences to
lay about March in the south of England, later as we proceed
northwards. The nest is on the ground generally, and is made
of grass lined with down ; in it are laid twelve greenish-grey
eggs. The mallard is monogamous in its wild state, but under
domestication our varieties which have sprung from it are
polygamous.

The origin of our domestic breeds is no doubt correctly traced
back to the Anas boschas. Darwin says that, ‘with respect to
the origin of the domestic duck, I have considered the case well,
and am convinced that all breeds, including the black Labrador
and penguin ducks, are the descendants of the common wild
duck.” The Rouen duck very nearly resembles the wild species,
only it is larger in form, and I have found that with “ in-and-in
breeding” they soon become almost identical with the wild
species.

8. Galliformes.

The Rasorgs (Gattinz) or “Scrarcainc Brrps” are often
spoken of as gallinaceous birds. ‘They are of considerable in-
392 BRITISH BIRDS.

terest to us, as they contain most of our domesticated birds, such
as the Fowls, Turkeys, Guinea-fowls, and Pea-hens. Our game-
birds also belong to the Rasores—the Partridges, Pheasant,
Grouse, and Blackcock. These have all a convex-vaulted upper
beak, with the nostrils pierced in a membrane close to the base
of the beak, and covered by a cartilaginous scale. The legs
are strong in the most typical forms, and always with feathers
down to the tibio-metatarsal joint. The four toes, of which
three are directed forward and one behind, are all armed with
thick claws for scratching (fig.
221). The males differ, as a
rule, very much in plumage
from the females, a distinction
recognisable in most genera;
they also have a “spur” on
the metatarsus. The food of
the scratching birds consists
of grain, seeds, and insects, &e.
They are provided with a strong
muscular gizzard for grinding
the hard food. Most Rasores
build on the ground, the female
or hen bird generally only tak-
ing part in the incubation.
The young are precocious, and
can feed almost as soon as they
have escaped from the egg-shell. With the exception of the
partridges and grouse the flight is very weak,—even the two
mentioned cannot fly for any length of time. There is usually
a fleshy comb or crest of feathers, and often naked and bril-
iantly coloured patches, on the small head. We never find, as
in the Doves, a “cere” at the base of the bill.

The two families of the Calline are the Phasianid«w and
Tetraonide.

 

Fic. 221.—Foor or GALLINAcEous Birp.
GALLIFORMES. 393

The Tetraontde include the Grouse, Blackcock, and Caper-
caillie (Yetrao), and the Partridges (Perdix and Caccabis).

The Phasianddce or Pheasant group include the Quail, Coturnéx
communis ; the Fowls, Gadlinw.; the Turkeys and Guinea-fowls,
Meleagrine ; and the Pea-fowls, Pavoninw.

The two partridges are the Common or Grey Partridge (Perdix
cinerea) and the Red-leqged or Frenchman (Caccabis rufa).

The grey partridge is widely distributed over Great Britain,
but is especially abundant in the eastern counties. It was said
to be decreasing there, owing to the increase of the red-legged
partridge ; but this can scarcely be the case, for the two flourish
side by side, and do not interfere with one another. In Ireland
it is also said to be decreasing. They are subject to much vari-
ation in colour, according to the soil. Breeding takes place in
February, and in April the hen lays from 12 to 30 or more eggs,
which hatch out in three weeks.

The French Partridge (C. rufa) was introduced into England
in 1770; from that date it has spread, and is now firmly planted
in the eastern counties and some parts of the Midlands, &c.
In the west it has taken no hold—in fact it thrives best on
poor, bare, and dry lands. The red legs, rudimentary spurs,
and running habits soon distinguish it from our native species.
The eggs, too, are very different: those of cinerea are olive-
brown, those of rufa are yellowish-white, blotched with rusty-
brown.

The two species live, feed, and breed apart, and have no
influence upon one another. The food of the grey partridge
consists of insects, snails, weed-seeds, and grain ; the red-legged
partridge feeds especially on dry fallows and waste - land.
Although some grain is destroyed by both, yet they may be
said to do more good than harm, for countless insects and
weed-seeds are eaten at the same time.

The Red Grouse (Zetrao scoticus) is indigenous only to the
British Jsles, It is generally distributed over the Scottish moors.
394 BRITISH BIRDS,

In England it is found from Yorkshire and Derbyshire down
the Pennine Range as far as the Trent; it is also found in
Staffordshire, Shropshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and on many
of the Welsh moors, especially in Merionethshire. It was in-
troduced on Dartmoor and the Surrey heaths, but soon died
out. They pair early in spring, making a rough nest near a
tuft of heather. Young and old feed on the tips of the ling
heather, and on bilberries, &c. This bird is much subject to
diseases of various kinds.

The Blackcock (7. tefri.c) is found on Exmoor and in South
Devon, Somerset, Dorset, Wilts, &c. Farther north and in
Scotland it is abundant. Blackcocks are polygamous, but
separate from the females, the “Grey-hens,” for a short time
in the autumn.

The Caperecaillie (7. wrogallus) or Wood Grouse became ex-
tinct in England and Wales, and also in Scotland, towards the
end of last century. It has been reintroduced into Scotland,
and has spread from the pine to oak and other woods, being
especially abundant in Perthshire.

The Pheasant (P. colchicus) is a native of Asia, probably
having been imported by the Greeks into Europe from the
banks of the Colchian Phasis, the modern Rion, which enters
the Black Sea: certain authorities say it was introduced from
some of the Asiatic islands. It is also abundant in the Caucasus,
the Sea of Aral, and the Caspian Sea, and is said to occur in
its wild state in Central Europe. From what we can gather,
it was well known to the Athenians soon after 1200 n.c. From
Greece it was transported to Rome. It was not until after the
Crusades that it became familiar in England. But there is
evidence that the pheasant was naturalised in the south of
England before the Norman invasion. At the end of the last
century the Chinese Ringed-neck Pheasant (P. torquatus) was
introduced: this has bred with the original species to such an
extent that we seldom get a pure-bred P. colrhicus now, there
being nearly always a trace of the white ring. The crow of the
DOMESTIC GALLINA. 395

male may be heard in March when they are fighting for the
hens. From 10 to 15 eggs are laid, generally in a slight nest on
the ground. When flying their pace is rapid for a gallinaceous
bird; but they seldom cover great distances. The average
weight of a cock is from 3 to 32 1b, and a hen from 2 to 24 Ib.
The pheasant as a game bird is most valuable, but to the farmer
it is very destructive at times. Nevertheless, it does much
good at others. The young feed on insects and small grain,
but especially upon ants and ant-cocoons ; but when adult they
devour quantities of grain, peas, beans, turnip, red clover, and
young wheat. They love, above all, buckwheat. Enormous
numbers of wireworm and other insects are destroyed by the
pheasant.

Domesticated Gallinw.

Amongst domestic Galline we must mention the fowl, of
which we have now so many varieties, the Turkeys, the Guinea-
fowl, and the Peacock. The first two of these domestic birds
have been so altered under domestication that at least in one,
the fowl, the origin is lost in obscurity, and even in the Turkey
and Guinea-fowl some diversity of opinion exists as to the
parent stock. Much light has been thrown upon this subject
by Darwin in his renowned work on ‘The Variation of Animals
and Plants under Domestication.’

The Fowls belong to the genus Gallus, the Turkeys to the
genus Meleagris, the Guinea-fowls to the genus Numida, and
the Peacock to the genus Pavo.

The probable oriyin of the Domestic Fowls.— Where the
original stock came from we cannot say with any degree of
certainty. Remains of domestic fowls are found in the early
“ cave-fauna” of France, pointing, it would seem, to a European
origin ; but we find no traces in Europe of any wild Galli. The
most eminent authorities have come to the conclusion that all
our domestic varieties are descended from one species, the
Jungle Fowl (Gallus bankiva or G. feriugineus), sometimes
396 BRITISH BIRDS.

called the Red Jungle Fowl, which is a native of continental
India. When such a mastermind as Darwin’s comes to this
conclusion, the evidence must be satisfactory."

There are four known wild Galli—viz., the Jungle Fowl
of continental India (G. bankiva), the Jungle Fowl of South
India (G. Nonneratii), the Jungle Fowl of Ceylon (. Stanleyi),
and the Forked-tail Jungle Fowl of Java ( furcatus),

The . bankiva or Gt. ferrugineus is found all over India
where thick jungle exists, and extends into the Madras Presi-
dency, where it meets Sonnerat’s jungle fowl, and is said to
interbreed with it; it also extends into Burma, Malayana, and
to Timor. This bird is subject to considerable variation in
different localities. Our black-breasted red game resemble it
in most points save in that the tail of G. bunkiva is carried
horizontally whilst the game tail is carried erect. The chicks of
G. Lankiva are hatched in twenty days, and eggs are laid from
January to July. There is not the least doubt but that the
Burmese and Arakan breeds are descended from (. bankiva,
having acquired by selection yellow legs and greater size.

The nearest ally to G. bunkiva is G. Stanley, the Ceylon
Jungle Fowl, which chiefly differs in that it has a yellow comb
edged with red and a reddish breast. This species never lives
in captivity for any length of time, a feature we may well note
in connection with the origin of our domestic birds.

The Sonnerat Jungle Fowl (G. Sonnerati/) is found in the
south of India, and is distinguished by the flattened shafts
of the hackle-feathers of the cock, which resemble spots of
creamy sealing-wax. The crow is very peculiar, quite unlike
that of the domestic cock or red jungle fowl, and the eggs are
described as being of a pinky-cream colour. This species is not
nearly so easily domesticated as G. lankira, with which, how-
ever, it interbreeds both wild and in confinement.

} The wild fowls of Fiji ave descendants of the domestic poultry taken
there by the early voyagers. These fowls now resemble the Red Jungle
Fow] in appearance : they have reverted, that is, to the ancestral type.
DOMESTIC GALLIN AE. 397

The last species is the Fork-tailed Fowl or Javan Jungle Fowl
(G@. furvatus), which inhabits Java and some of the islands in
the Malay Archipelago. The neck is metallic green, the saddle
hackles orange with a brown centre, and the two central tail-
feathers curved out in a forked manner; the comb is greenish-
red or yellow, and quite clean at the edge, no serrations being
seen. Numerous crosses with domestic fowls have been pro-
duced, and it is said that two other supposed species, G.
Tenmichii and G. wneus, have arisen in this way.

There is little doubt but that G. bankzva has given rise to the
various domestic breeds, and may possibly have been helped to
some extent by G. Sonneratii, these breeds having originated
by artificial selection and breeding. The longer animals and birds
are under domestication the more they seem subject to variation.
By judicious selection it is quite possible through a long series
of ages to have formed from a single type such diverse forms as
the Bantam on the one hand and the Dorking on the other, or
the tailless fowl of Holland and the long-tailed fowl of Japan.

The Turkey (Meleagris).—The ancestry of the turkey is
less complex, but still is a matter of uncertainty. There are
three wild turkeys—one common to Canada and the States,
the so-called American turkey, MZ. americana ; another is found
in Mexico, df. mexicana; and a third in Guatemala and
Central America generally, MW. ocellata.

There is some doubt as to M. americana and M. mexirana being
distinct species, some authorities considering them varieties:
there is little difference except in colour, the Mexican species
having white tail-coverts and tips to the tail-feathers. If they
are distinct, there is little doubt but that our domestic turkeys
are derived from AM, mexicana, for both have the white in the
tail, which is absent in the American turkey.

The Honduras or Ocellated Turkey (J. ocel/ata) is found in
Guatemala and Yucatan. It certainly has no connection with
our domestic forms, although hybrids of it have been known to
breed in domestication.
398 BRITISH BIRDS.

The domestic turkey lays from fifteen to twenty eggs—gen-
erally sixteen is the number. They breed in the wild state
on the prairies surrounding the large American forests, the
hens leaving the “ gobblers” during incubation. The latter are
most pugnacious to any young they come across. We notice
similar habits in our domestic breeds.

The Guinea - fowl (Numidu).— All wild guinea-fowls are
found in Africa or Madagascar. The following wild forms are
known :—

Numida meleagris, the West African Guinea-fowl, found on
the coast of Gambia. WN. pfiloryncha, the Abyssinian Guinea-
fowl, found in Eastern Africa. NV. mitrata, the mitred Guinea-
fowl of South Africa. M. tarate, in Madagascar, probably
only a local race. All the above have a bony casque.

NV. cristatus, the Crested Guinea-fowl of West Africa. V.
Purherantit, in Zanzibar, probably only an Eastern form of
cristatus, N, plumifera, the Plumed Guinea-fowl of West
Africa. All the last three have a plume of feathers in place
of a casque. And, lastly, there is the quaint NV. rwturi‘ne or
Vulture Guinea-fowl, found in Eastern .\frica.

Our domestic species is said by some to be descended from
the West African species, N. meleagr’s, which extends from
Gambia through Ashantee to Gaboon, and is also found in the
Cape de Verd Islands. More probably it is from the Abyssinian
guinea-fowl that ours have come, as it was a bird well known
to the Romans, and they had constant intercourse with its
native haunts wid Egypt.

The guinea-fowls take from twenty-six to twenty-eight days
to incubate. They are extremely shy, although long under
domestication, and are of the greatest service to fruit-growers,
if kept in orchards, where they devour large numbers of grubs
and larvee that fall to and are on the ground. The males are
spurless. Naturally the guinea-fowl is monogamous, yet we
often find one cock amongst several hens. White varieties
are frequently seen,
GRUIFORMES. 399

The Pea-fowl (Pavo cristatus).—The pea-fowl is a native of
India and Ceylon. Only three species seem to be known—our
common domestic one, the Javan species (P. muticus), and a
black-winged species (P. niyipennis). These birds have a crest
of feathers on the head, and the male has some of the back-
feathers and the upper tail-coverts of considerable length and
ocellated. The pea-fowl was well known to the ancients from
the time of Solomon. It is looked upon with veneration by
the Hindoos, and in many States is not allowed to be shot.
They live to ten and twelve and even more years old, and look
after their young through the winter. Incubation lasts twenty-
eight days. It is said that they were introduced into Europe
by Alexander the Great. There is little or no difference be-
tween our tame ones and the wild birds of India at the present
day, with the exception that white varieties are found under
domestication.

9. Gruiformes.
Rais anv Coors (Ratt).

The Rails or Crakes, Moorhen, and Coots are included in the
family Rallide. They are strong-legged, active-running birds,
some being aquatic in habits. The best-known example is the
Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus).

The Jfoorhen or Water-hen is a resident bird with us, but
partial migrations take place in very severe winters from north
to south. The upper plumage is dark olive-brown ; head, neck,
and belly slaty-grey, with white streaks towards the legs; the
under tail-coverts are white; base of bill red, rest yellow; legs
yellowish-green with a red band around them above the tarsal
joint. The female moorhen is larger than the male, and often
brighter in colour. The young differ chiefly in having a
greenish beak and legs and a white throat. The nest is built
in a variety of places—amongst reeds and water-plants as a
rule; but they are sometimes found on trees some height from
400 BRITISH BIRDS.

the ground: boughs overhanging the water are also favourite
resorts. The material mainly consists of dried sedge and reeds.
Sometimes the nests reach a foot or more in height when the
level of the water has risen, the birds adding to the nest to
stop it being flooded. As many as ten eggs may be laid, but
seven or eight is the usual number. They commence to build
early in March, and, as a rule, have two broods in the year, but
even three are not unusual. It is said that the young of the
first brood help the parents to prepare the second nest. Their
food consists of water-insects, slugs, snails, and various land
insects ; but at times they will attack seed-corn, and where very
abundant may now and then cause slight loss.

The Coot (Fulica atra) has a lohate foot, and is sooty-black in
colour, rather greyish above, with pink beak and a large white
bare patch on the head. The nests are huge floating structures,
often large enough to support a man.

The Rails, of which the Landrail or Corncrake (Crer pratensis)
is the best known type, are all noted for their running powers.
The corncrake appears in England in April in the south, later
as we proceed north. Pasture lands, especially when put up for
hay, are their favourite resorts; but numbers also go to corn-
fields, where they feed off insects and weed-seeds. The nest is
placed in long grass and in standing corn, and is frequently
found in the former during mowing. Like all the crakes, this
bird will feign death when captured. It runs with great
rapidity amongst the grass, and thus we hear its harsh note, as
it seems, all over the field.

10. Charadriiformes.
PLover, Syire, Sanvprpers, &e. (Larco1).

Of the four families of the Limicole—the (Wienemidw or
Stone Curlews, the GVareolide or Pratincoles, the Charadriidu:
or Plovers, and the Scolopacide or Snipe, Woodcock, Stints,
Sandpipers, Redshanks, &c.—the last two only need be referred
CHARADRIIFORMES. 401

to, These birds were at one time united with others to form
the order of “ Waders” ((rallatores).

The Charudréidw or Plovers have the bill compressed at the
tip and seldom longer than the head. The toes are short and
the hind one (hallux) absent or very small. The plovers can
both run and fly fast. Their food consists mainly of animal
substance, such as worms, snails, slugs, and insects, which they
hunt for in meadows and marshes and on mudflats. The
young are precocious. The eggs are laid, with little nesting
substance, on the ground. Some are partially migratory, such
as the Dotterel (Hudromias morinellus) and the Golden Plover
(C. pluvialis), The commonest species is the Lapwing ( Vanedlus
eristatus).

The Lapwing is also called the Peewit or Green Plover. It
is generally distributed throughout Great Britain, and is, as a
rule, resident ; but migrations take place from the north to the
south in very cold winters. Numbers also arrive from the
Continent in the autumn. The lapwing is partial to marshy
lands and moorlands, and may also be seen feeding in numbers
on mud-flats. The curious curved crest of feathers on the head
at once identifies it. Head, crest, and breast are glossy black ;
throat, neck, and abdomen white; the back dark-green and
metallic ; tail black and white; legs and feet orange-red ; bill
dull reddish-brown. The female does not differ much from the
male, but the young birds have the dorsal feathers edged with
buff and the crest shorter. The nest is formed in a depression
in the ground, especially in pasture and fallow lands; a few
pieces of grass and stalks are added during incubation. The
eggs are laid from the end of March to June, the majority in
April. Four or five are laid in each nest; they are olive-green
with dark-brown blotches, but may have a grey or even blue
ground-colour. The female when disturbed runs rapidly away
from her nest, the male at the same time rising and twirling
about in the air, uttering its shrill note to allure the enemy

from the nest and young. Like most birds in this group, the
2c
402 BRITISH BIRDS.

eges are laid crosswise. In winter the peewits collect together
in flocks and sometimes fly great distances in lines. Migration
in this country is chiefly after food. The eggs are much sought
after for the table in spite of the Wild Birds Protection Act,
and yet this is one of our most useful birds. Their food consists
of wireworms and all manner of larvee and insects, also worms.
The large flocks—for they are gregarious even in the breeding
season—must tend largely to the destruction of many noxious

farm pests.
The Seoloparidu include the Woodcock and various Snipe, the

 

Fra, 222,—ScoLopacrp.®.

a, Leg and foot of Curlew ; 8, Head of Snipe; «, Beak of Avocet. (Nicholson.)

Raff, Sandpipers, and Curlews, &e. They are all provided with
long bills, which may be straight or curved; the three forward
toes may be partially webbed as in the Avocet (Recurrirostra
avocelta), or lobed as in the Phalaropes (Phularupus), or united
at their base by webbing as in the Curlew (Vuwenius arquata),
but many are free. The legs are usually long and slender and
adapted to wading (fig. 222). The basal webbing of the foot
is not shown in the fivure.
CHARADRIIFORMES., 403

GULLS AND Trerws (Gavi).

The Gulls and Terns are united into one family, the Larilw,
They have long wings and either knife-like or hooked bills.
The three front toes are always webbed, and the fourth is often
very small. The true gulls (Larus) are the only ones we need
refer to. In this genus the fourth toe is placed high up on the
metatarsus; the three front toes are
entirely palmate. The bill has a sharp
cutting edge, hooked at the tip of the
upper mandible. The tail is square
at the end. Gulls are normally fish-
eaters, feeding upon surface- fish and
dead fish along the coast; garbage of
any kind is also devoured by them.
Very often, however, several of the
Laridie pass many miles inland and
live upon various insects, especially
such destructive larvee as wireworm,
leather - jackets, and cockchafer grubs.
They may often be found, preceding
and during stormy weather, sixty and
seventy miles inland, following the
plough as readily as the rook, and
devouring with avidity the grubs py... 999 -sxorn or a Guth
turned up during its progress across (¥*™s) Schizognathous type.
the fields. These birds usually appear andes ee
inland, as on the coast, in flocks. Most [ppuatines Me asia: Pt
species breed on the coast, but some,
such as the Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), breed
inland on the banks of lakes and rivers and in marshes. The
young are nestlings. The Herring Gull (LZ. argentatus), as well
as the Common Gull (Z. canus), must also be included amongst
those whose services are beneficial to us. Small mammals, such

 
404 BRITISH BIRDS.

as mice, voles, and shrews, also form part of their bill of fare
when driven by stress of weather inland.

The Blach-headed Gull (L. ridibundus).—This gull is very
different in plumage in summer and winter. In summer the
head and neck of both male and female are dark-brown; in
winter this coloration has quite gone, those parts being pure
white. In spring the brown colour again appears. This change
is not due to a fresh moult, but to an actual change of colour in
the existing feathers. The legs and bill are bright red. The
young birds have quite a different plumage, being much darker,
the dark-brown feathers being mottled at their edges with
yellow, and the feet yellow, not red. This gull breeds inland on
marshes and flats as well as along the coast, and it is especially
during the breeding season that they destroy so many noxious
insects. The nest is made by trampling down a number of
reeds, grass, and sedges; in this concavity during April and
May three dusky-olive eggs spotted with black are laid.

The Herring Gull (L. argentatus).—This gull is one of our
largest species, often reaching two feet in length. The head
and neck are white, often in summer with brown streaks; the
wings and the back are pale bluish-grey, the primary feathers
being black and grey with black shafts and white tips, and the
secondary feathers also edged with white. The bill is yellow
and the fect light pink. The herring gull builds its nest on
steep cliffs and rocks, in which are deposited three olive-brown
eges spotted with dark brown, This gull is one of the com-
monest that we see following the plough in the south of
England, and seems especially fond of the large soft chafer
larvee,

The only other gull seen abundantly in our fields is—

The Common Gull (L. canus).—The common gull justly
deserves its name, for it may be found all round our seaboard
and often abundantly inland. It is not so hig as the herring
cull, seldom attaining a greater length than eighteen inches.
The head and neck are white with dusky spots, ventral surface
COLUMBIFORMES, 405

and tail white, the back bluish-grey, the two first primaries
black with a large white space near the extremity, the tip
quite black. The bill is dusky-green at the base, yellow at the
tip, and the feet greenish-grey. The young have the bill
almost black with a yellow base, and dusky-yellow feet. It
breeds chiefly on rocky coast-lines, but may resort to marshes
to rest. This species commingles with the herring gulls, rooks,
and peewits in the ploughed fields, and does much good by
devouring numerous larvee.

These three gulls should be well protected, as they are
decidedly friends of the farmer.

11. Columbiformes.
Doves anp Piczons (CoLumBa).

The Columb are endowed with strong wings and great
powers of flight. The feet are slender and adapted for perch-
ing. They are all monogamous, and pair for life or some time.
The beak is weak, with a cere at the base and thin scales over
the nostrils. The young are quite helpless for days after they
are hatched—nestlings. They are fed by the parent first with
a cheesy substance excreted by the glands of the crop, then by
soft food from the crop itself. The nests are formed in trees
and on rocky places, sometimes in holes in decaying trunks:
they are flat structures composed of loosely united twigs upon
which the longish, shiny white eggs (two in number) are laid.
There are four species found in England—the Wood-pigeon
(Columba palumbus), the Stock-dove (C. wnas), the Rock-dove
(C. livia), and the Turtle-dove (Lurtur communis).

All vigeons have long and powerful wings, and can fly im-
mense distances. The sense of sight is extraordinarily keen.
Most species feed on the ground, but do not scratch about like
fowls (Gallinw), nor do they usually dust themselves in so-called
“ dust-baths ’’—they prefer water in which to clean themselves.
406 BRITISH BIRDS.

They differ again from fowls in drinking: the fowl takes short
draughts, holding up its head between each sip ; the pigeon
takes one long bibition, its beak immersed in the water the
whole time. Pigeons feed exclusively on vegetable food. In
the genus Culunha the base of the upper mandible is covered
with a soft skin in which the nostrils are pierced, and the
twelve tail-feathers are nearly even. In Turtur there are two
tumid soft substances at the base of the upper mandible
covering the nostrils.

The Woodl-piyeon (CL paliunbus) does much damage. It is
also known as the ring-dove and the queest. Its recent in-
crease 1s due partly to the killing off of all the large birds of
prey and to the increase of coverts. It is most abundant on
our eastern coasts, where large numbers arrive from the Con-
tinent. They commence to breed in April; a second nest is
formed in June, and a third even in October. The nests are
placed in all manner of places—on high trees, in ivy, and on
low bushes. Incubation lasts eighteen days, and the young are
blind until the ninth day. The male sits all day, the female of
a night. ‘They unite in large flocks after the breeding season
is over, In spring and summer they are seen in pairs: at this
time they feed on the young leaves of peas, beans, and corn ;
and turnips when young are also greedily devoured. Often
whole fields of peas are spoilt by them. In winter they go to
the woods in flocks and feed on beech-nuts, acorns, &c. ; even
then they do not neglect foraging expeditions to the fields,
where cabbage and rape sutfer from their incursions. It is not
so much those wood-pigeons that breed with us that do the
damage, as the large flocks that come from abroad in the winter
and leave us again in the spring. These foreigners can be told
from our natives by their smaller size. We must not forget,
however, that they eat numbers of weed-seeds, and so do some
little good in return for the harm they occasion, but they are
far too abundant.
COLUMBIFORMES. 407

The Turtle-dove (T. communis) visits us only in spring, and
remains until the end of September. They come from South
Europe, Palestine, and elsewhere in Asia. This beautiful dove
extends into our midland counties, but seldom farther north
then Sheffield. Many a time have I watched them returning
from the wheat-fields and flying off to some belt of trees, where
they nest. They have not been eating the corn, but the seeds
of the numerous weeds on the ground, especially the seeds of
the corn-spurrey (Spergula arvensis) and the docks (Lume.r) :
they are thus benefiting the farmer. At times they may do
slight harm: for instance, vetch-seeds are greedily eaten, so
also is buckwheat ; but their chief food consists of weed-seeds,
as has been many times tested by examining their crops. The
nest is a slight structure, generally on the lower branches of
trees and in high bushes. The eggs are laid in May and June
and even July, incubation lasting about sixteen days, both cock
and hen taking part in it. The tail-feathers are broadly edged
with white, which renders them very conspicuous when flying.
The male has the head, rump, and flanks bluish-grey, with a
patch of black-and-white feathers on each side of the neck ;
throat and breast pale wine-red.

The Roch-dove (C. livia) is of much interest, as it is the
original form of our numerous domestic pigeons, a fact clearly
demonstrated by Darwin. They breed in a few parts of the
rocky shores of the coast of Great Britain, and are found in
most parts of Europe. Like all our domestic pigeons, they
seldom will settle on trees. Even in the high state of domes-
tication of our fancy birds the love of rocky places still exists,
for they always fly to ledges of houses, churches, &c., when
free, and there, like their early progenitors, form their nest.
Rock-doves are very scarce in England, breeding only in a few
coast localities, notably Flamborough Head and in Devonshire.
Numbers of the following species also breed on the south coast
of Devonshire, and may be mistaken for C. livia. The white
408 BRITISH BIRDS.

rump, the white under wing-coverts, and the two very distinct
bars of black across the wings, easily distinguish it. In many
respects it resembles the common blue-rock.

The Sfoch-dove (C. wnas) nests in the stocks of trees and
even in rabbit-burrows. It may be found abundantly in well-
timbered districts in the middle, west, and south of England,
and nests about March, but also right through to October. It
can be told from the Wood-pigeon by the absence of the
white-and-black neck-mark, and by the under-side being bluish-
grey ; there is also an imperfect black bar on the wing, and
the under wing-coverts are grey.

12. Cuculiformes.
Cuckoos anp Parrots (Cucvtipm «xp Psirract).

The Cueul/formes are the Cuckoos and Parrots. The former
alone are represented in these islands, and by a single species
only, the Cuckoo (Curulus canorus). This bird comes to us
about the beginning of April, when it soon proclaims its pres-
ence by its well-known note. It is found throughout Great
Britain. The female cuckoo lays her egg on the ground, and
then by means of her bill she carries it to some nest to be
incubated. For this purpose she specially chooses the nest of
a reed-warbler, meadow-pipit, wagtail, or hedge-sparrow. The
young cuckoo grows rapidly, and soon turns out the proper
occupants of the nest, by means of a cavity on its hack, which
then grows up, commencing to disappear about the end of the
second week after birth. The food consists mainly of insects,
the foster-mother being kept busily at work, as the young
cuckoo is ravenous. Hairy caterpillars of the laekey-moth,
tiger-moth, c., are especially acceptable to the young bird.
It is a widely distributed bird, beme found in India and
Africa and many other parts.
CORACIIFORMES. 409

13. Coraciiformes.
(i) Owns (Srricgs).

The Owls or Strigide are nocturnal birds of prey, with very
soft plumage, and with raptorial feet in which the fourth toe
is reversible. The eyes are directed forwards, and are large
in size. The beak, which is short, is furnished with a number
of bristles at its base, and the nostrils are pierced in the cere.
The head is large, owing to the cranial bones being hollow,
and the eyes are surrounded
by a disc or veil of feathers.
The ear is also surrounded by
feathers and protected by a
fold of skin. The undigested
food, as in the Falconide, is
passed out in pellets from the
mouth.  Striges have a wide
gullet, but rather small stomach.
There are nine genera recorded
in Great Britain, The four
common British species are the
Barn-Owl (Strix flanmea), the
Long-eared Owl (Asvo otus), the
Short-eared Owl (Asio ace/pi-
trinus), and the Tawny Owl ™
(Syrntum aluco).

The Barn-Owl (S. flummea) is common in most districts of
England, Ireland, and Wales, but less so in Scotland. This
useful bird takes up its abode in sheds and out-buildings, in
church-towers and hollow trees, where it remains concealed
during the daytime. The back of the male is pale orange,
variegated with grey and white; beneath the plumage is white,
and so are the discs, which are edged with orange ; the bill is
white, and the legs are clothed in soft white feathers. Some

 

G. 224.—SkKULL or Ow. (Schizognath-
ous, with Desmognathous tendency).
410 BRITISH BIRDS.

specimens are much darker in plumage than others, a few
quite dark forms existing. The owl makes no nest, but just
lays her dull white eggs in pairs in April and May, and even
later. It hunts for its food at dusk, flying almost noiselessly
along the hedgerows. Its food consists of mice, rats, shrews,
bats, and various large insects. No harm whatever is done by
the barn-owls, and yet gamekeepers and many farmers persist
in killing them although they are their friends, and, having
slaughtered as many as they can, marvel at the increase of
rats and mice !

The Vawny Owl (S. aluco), which in some places ‘is quite as
common as the barn-owl, has the back shaded with ashy-grey
mottled with brown, the tail barred with brown and tipped
with white; the lower plumage is yellowish-white streaked
and mottled with pale and dark-brown; dases grey with a
dark-brown border; legs and feet have hairy feathers all the
way down to the claws. The female is more red-brown in
colour. They lay their eggs in hollow trees and rooks’ nests,
as well as in similar places to the barn-owl. If anything the
tawny-owl is more useful than the preceding species—voles,
rats, mice, and all kinds of vermin being taken by it. It is
especially abundant in woody districts, and is sometimes called
the Wood-owl.

Both Short- and Long-eared Owls (Asio accipitrinus and
A. otus) are common in this country, the former especially in
open, moorland tracts, but often over turnip- and stubble-fields.
Numbers come from the Continent in the autumn. It seldom
breeds here. Unlike most owls, the ‘‘short-ear” will take its
prey in the daytime. Mice, rats, birds, and reptiles, also
insects, are taken by it, and it is said fish also. It may often
be put up in the autumn when shooting, and flies off with
great rapidity. The Long-eared Owl is chiefly found in fir
plantations. There it hunts for its prey durive the night, and
clears off much vermin. Although fairly common all the year,
it is much more so in autumn, owing to migrations from the
Continent. It breeds in old birds’ nests and squirrel-drevs.
CORACIIFORMES. 411

All the owls may be said to be decidedly useful birds, and
the practice, still largely in vogue, of shooting them down
should be prohibited by all landowners and farmers.

(ii) Macrocuires,
Swirrs (CYPsELID ®),

The Swifts have all four toes directed forwards, and provided
with long and strong claws. The bill is short and wide, the
gape extending very far back, beyond the eyes. The nostrils
are longitudinal, the borders being edged with small feathers.
The wings are very long and pointed, and the tail forked in
the genus Cypselus. Swifts were formerly classed with the
Swallows, but are now shown to be related more closely to
the Nightjars, still more closely to the Humming-Birds.

Cypselus apus, the Common Swift, is an abundant summer
visitor, appearing annually about the end of April, and leaving
about the end of August. The colour is blackish-brown, more
or less shiny, with a pale-grey or white area under the throat.
They make their scanty nests in holes in thatch, in church
towers, crevices in cliffs and quarries, &c., in which they deposit
two white eggs in June. The Swifts are very useful birds, as
they devour numbers of insects, especially moths.

Nicursars (CAaPRIMULGID#).

The only representative in England is the Goatsucker or
Fern-Owl (Caprimulqus europwus), a migrant which arrives in
England about the middle of May. They have an extremely
wide gape, the edges of the mouth being furnished with a row
of bristles. Insects, such as cockchafers and moths, form the
greater part of their food, which they catch whilst flying about
at dusk and during the night. The nightjar lays its eggs upon
the ground in open places amongst fern and gorse and in wood
clearings.
412 BRITISH BIRDS.

(iii) Coracie.

KINGFISHERS (ALCEDINID.E).

 

One species only occurs here—namely, Alcedo ispidu, which
is a resident bird, generally distributed over Great Britain. It
delights in lakes, ponds, rivers, and even the sea-coast, darting
about in straight lines, and suddenly plunging from its perch
into the water to secure some unwary fish, upon which it lives.
Dragon-flies and beetles are also eaten. The beautiful azure-
blue back and dark-blue tail and chestnut breast and belly
make it a conspicuous object. The nest is made in a hole in
the banks of pieces of water and rivers. The eggs are laid on a
layer of fish-bones.

Three other groups are represented in this section, by the
Roller (Coracius garrulus), Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), and
Hoopoe (Upupa epops), but they are only casual visitors.

(iv) Pret.
WoopPECKERS AND WryNecks (Pict).

The Picide have the hallux and fourth toe turned back, the
second and third forwards (fig. 225).

Three Woodpeckers occur in Great Britain,—the Great Green
Woodpecker (Geeinus cviri-
dis), the Great Spotted
Woodpecker (Picus major),
and the Lesser Spotted (P.
minor). The Woodpeckers
hammer out holes in trees
in which they form their

 

Fic, 225.—ScansoriaL Foor, As SEEN IN a
Wooppackens AND PARROTS. nests. The green wood-

pecker cuts out a neat cir-
cular hole, by choice in a soft-wooded tree—this tunnel running
in as far as the hard central wood, and then turning downwards
at right angles, where a large chamber is formed, in which the
PASSERES, 413

five to seven eggs are laid on a bed of wood-chips. There is a
new nesting-hole formed every year. Sound as well as decayed
trees are attacked ; but the good the green woodpecker does in
destroying injurious insects makes up for the harm it does to a
few trees. They feed almost exclusively on insects, especially
the larve of wood-boring beetles, which we see them hunting
for up the tree-trunks. The stiff feathers of the tail help them
in their progress up the trunk. Ants and other ground-insects
are also eaten by G. viridis, it being no unusual thing to see
them hunting on the ground. This handsome woodpecker has
green upper plumage, greyish-green under plumage, and bright
crimson crown and nape.

The Great Spotted Woodpecker (Pirus major) and the Lesser
Spotted (P. minor) also live in a similar way, and feed off wood-
destroying insects.

The Wryneck (Yuna torquilla) is allied to the Woodpeckers,
and makes its nest in a hole formed in a tree like the other
Woodpeckers. Its food consists mainly of insects, which it
licks off by means of its long extensile tongue covered with a
glutinous saliva.

14. Passeres or Passeriformes.

The last remaining group includes the majority of our birds.
They have fourteen or fifteen cervical vertebrae, and the second,
third, and fourth toes
are always turned for-
ward. The brain is
more fully developed
than in other birds, and
the organ of voice is
most highly organised.
The chief families are
the Larks (Alaudi), the Rooks, &e. (Corvidw), the Starlings
(Sturnide), the Finches (Fringillide), the Wagtails (Mota-

 

Fic, 226.—Foor or PasseRINE Birp (Wagtail).
414 BRITISH BIRDS.

cillidw), the Flycatchers (Muscicapidw), the Tits (Paridr), the
Swallows (Hirundinid), the Turdid or Warblers (Sylviine),
and the Thrushes (Twrdine).

All these Passerifurmes or Perching Birds have thin legs, and
the males are usually more brilliantly coloured than the females.
The young are nestlings, and are quite blind when hatched,
being fed by the parents. Both cock and hen take a share of
incubation. Their food and habits, as we shall see, are both
very varied.

TRUE OSCINES (OR SINGING - BIRDS).
Tue ALAUDIDZ OR LARKS.

The Larks have their bill in the form of an elongated cone,
the upper mandible slightly curved, with no notch; the oval
nostrils at the base of the bill partly covered with feathers, and
the head-crest capable of being erected. The hind-claw is also
extremely long and nearly straight. The commonest English
species are the Skylark (Alauda arvensis) and the Woodlark
(A. arborea). The Larks mainly feed upon grain, but also
take insects for their young. They frequent open fields, where
they form their nests on the ground. During very cold
weather, when they unite in flocks, they sometimes commit
great havoc in gardens, eating the leaves of winter vegetables.
They are augmented by vast arrivals from the north, and from
the Continent in autumn. Larks dust themselves to get rid
of the numerous lice parasites, a habit common to many
Passeres.

Crows, Rooks, &e. (CoRvip2).

The Jackdaw (Corvus monetula), the Carrion Crow (C. corone)s
the Hooded Crow (C@. rornix), the Raven (C. corar), the Rook
(C. frugilegus), the Magpie (Pica cawlata), and the Jay (Gar-
rulus ylandarius), are members of the Corvide, The jackdaw,
PASSERES (CORVID.E). 415

crow, rook, raven, and hooded crow belong to the genus Corvus,
which is characterised by the following: beak hard, stout,
straight at base, and sharp at edges; the wings long; nostrils
hidden by stitf feathers.

The Magpie belongs to the genus Pica, in which the beak is
slightly notched at the tip of the
upper mandible, and the wings
are short and rounded. The jay
belongs to the genus Garrulus, in
which the beak is shorter than
the head.

The Carrion Crow (C. corone)
is black like the rook ; the beak
is strong and bent at the end; it
has black feathers at the base,
there being no white as seen in
the rook. C. corone breeds in
trees, usually at a great height.
The young, which are hatched out
very early—usually whilst other
birds are laying—are most vora-
cious. It is especially at this
time that the crow does so much
damage. They rob the nests of
game-birds both of their eggs
and young ; poultry, leverets, and Fic. 227.—Skuvt or Raven, reduced
lambs have even been known to eee

7 Ma.p, Maxillo-palatine; Vo, vomer ;
be attacked, whilst they are said #1, palatine; Pt, pterygoid ; 2, quad-
to have killed ewes detached from
the flock. With this food they feed the young, often carrying
the bones and débris away some distance, so that their nests
should not be detected. They apparently pair for life. The
crow flies either singly or in pairs, never in large flocks as
we see the rooks in England, although it is said to do so
abroad. The only good one can see that they do is to

 
416 BRITISH BIRDS.

destroy carrion on the sea-shore and on land, and to keep
in check the voles and field-mice, which they devour in
numbers. They must, however, be recorded amongst our
harmful species. Yet it is doubtful if it is wise to persecute
them too far, for then we get rabbits and small mammals
increasing to excess.

The Rook (C. frugilequs) is, on the other hand, very bene-
ficial. The rook can at once be told by the white mark at the
base of the bill. Moreover, the rook is gregarious, flying about
and nesting in large companies. The main food of the rook
consists of insect grubs, especially wireworm, leather-jackets,
and cockchafer larve. Wherever we see rooks collected in the
fields, there we have a sure sign of insect infestation. Never-
theless they are often ruthlessly destroyed, for it is said they
do so much damage. What damage do the rooks do? They
pull up roots and leave them dying on the ground, they eat
grain, and they carry off large numbers of walnuts. Certainly
in the last two instances they are harmful, but not to any great
extent. The plants they pull up are not pulled up out of pure
mischief, but to get at the wireworm biting at the roots ; this
they devour: they thus destroy one turnip and one wireworm.
How many turnips and other plants would the wireworm
destroy in its three or even five years of life? Some hundreds
of thousands, and thus by killing the pest the rook must be
saving all those future doomed plants that come in the wire-
worm’s way. It is said that there are too many rooks, and thus
their number must be kept down. This cannot be correct.
If rooks are injurious, then kill them off entirely. It costs no
more to scare 1000 rooks than 10. If 10 do good, then 1000
do so much more. Moreover, grain can be well preserved by
mixing the seed with tar. If rooks and the like are killed we
should have but little corn, for man cannot control, as yet, soil-
grubs in the field.

The Jachdaw (C. monedula), which is much smaller than the
rook and told by the grey colour of the back of the head and
PASSERES (STARLINGS). 417

nape of the neck, is often found in company with it. They
accompany rooks to their feeding-grounds, and nest if they can
somewhere near rookeries and the haunts of men. The most
favourite nesting- places are hollow trees, cliffs, and church
towers. Jackdaws feed upon insects, grubs, fruit, and all
manner of strange objects, which they delight to obtain and
destroy. On the whole, they too may be considered useful
birds to the farmer.

The Magpie (Pica caudata) and the Jay (Garrulus glandarius)
are both harmful to some extent, eating not only insects but
the eggs of many of our insect-feeding birds, ducklings, chicks,
and game, grain, cherries, as well as wild fruits. Voles make
up the bill of fare. The magpie is found in open country; the
jay, with its harsh screaming note, in woodland tracts, where it
falls a ready victim to the gamekeeper’s gun, and it certainly is
a pest in fruit and garden land.

STaRLINGS (STURNID#).

The genus Sturnus has a bill as long as the head, the edges
of the upper mandible extending over those of the lower
mandible.

The Starling (S. vulyaris) needs no description. The young,
however, might escape our notice, for they are very different in
plumage to the adult. The young starling is uniform ashy-grey
without any spots, and has even been described as a distinct
species by older writers. Starlings, especially after the breeding
season, unite in large flocks, which fly at early morn to their
feeding-grounds, and may often be seen accompanying the rooks
and jackdaws. The nests are formed in holes in trees, walls,
dovecots, chimneys, &c., in which are found five to seven pale
greenish-blue eggs. The whole family of young and parents
unite with others to form the flocks, and these break up again
in the spring for nesting. During their foraging expeditions
they feed on all manner of insect grubs, which form their chief

2D
418 BRITISH BIRDS.

food. Ticks on sheep are greedily devoured by them. On the
other hand, they cause much harm in orchards, cherries being
particularly damaged by them, as well as other soft fruit. On
the whole, they do much more good than harm. Amongst the
insects they are partial to are grasshoppers, wireworm, larve of
moths, weevils, and plant-lice ; slugs and worms are also eaten.

Fincnes anp Buntines (FRINGILLID»).

The Finches and Buntings form the family Fringillide of
the Passeres, the former being included in the sub-family
Fringillinw, the latter in the sub-family Emberizine.

The Finches are remarkable for their short, thick, and power-
ful beak, the upper and lower mandibles being about the same
size, so that the beak when closed forms a short thick cone.
All the Finches are small, great numbers of species being found.
The food consists largely of seeds, grain, and fruits; but some
are large insect-eaters, and all’ more or less feed their young on
insect life.

The Buntings have both mandibles incurved at the edges,
the upper one being slightly smaller and with a hard bony
knob.

The following are the more important British Friéngiline -
the Bullfinch (Pyrrhula), Linnets (Acanth’s), Chattineh (Frin-
gilla), Sparrows (Passer), the Goldfinch (Carduclis), and the
Greenfineh and Hawfinch (Ligurénus and Corcothraustes).

The genus Pyrrhula, which contains our common bullfinch,
is characterised by the hard short bill, which bulges at the
sides, the upper mandible being longer than the lower and thus
overhanging its point.

The Bidliinch (Pyrrhula europea) is one of the most de-
structive birds. Handsome as it is, we cannot say a word
against its destruction, for the damage caused by Pyrrhula
europea in orchards and gardens is often tremendous. In
the spring they commence to attack the blossom-buds of the
PASSERES (FINCHES). 419

fruit-trees—-cherries, gooseberries, plums, and apple being par-
ticularly chosen. The ground beneath the trees is often found
covered with the scales of the blossom-buds, showing the havoc
they have wrought. We have frequently examined the buds
of fruit-trees being attacked by these birds, but have never
been able to find any sign of insect or mite within, so they do
not pick them off for the same reason as the tits. They nest in
thick copses and hedges, forming the nest of fine twigs and dry
grasses, and lining it with fine fibrous rootlets, in which they
lay five light greenish-blue eggs, streaked and speckled with
reddish-brown and purple.

The female alone takes part in the incubation. The young
are fed partly on insects and their larve, and seeds softened, it
is said, by the female. Various seeds also form the food of the
adult, such as those of the chickweed, thistle, plantain, and
groundsel. It is needless to give a description of the bird, as
it is so well known; but the young may be pointed out as
differing from the adults by having no black on the head.

The Linnet (Acanthis cannabina). —The Linnet is widely
distributed in England and Wales. In Scotland it is replaced
by the Mountain Twite (4. flar/rostris). In colour the linnet
is very variable: the head in the male is mottled brown, red
in the centre; back chestnut-brown, dull brown towards the
tail, which is black, the outer tail-feathers bordered with white ;
primary wing-feathers black, bordered with white and tipped
with ashy-grey; breast-feathers reddish-brown, edged with
yellowish-red ; abdomen dull-white, flanks reddish-yellow ; bill
horn colour, legs brown. In summer the beak is bluish-brown in
colour and the feathers of the crown greyish-brown, tipped with
crimson, the back being bright chestnut-brown. The linnet
nests on commons and heaths, especially in gorse and juniper
bushes and low hedges, about the middle of April. Four to six
eggs are laid in the wood-lined nest, of a bluish-white colour,
speckled and streaked with reddish-brown and purplish-grey.
There may be two broods in the year. In autumn they unite
420 BRITISH BIRDS.

es:

into large flocks, and may be seen flying with a curious dipping
motion over the stubble, which they work for their food.
Mustard, rape, charlock, and other oily seeds are preferred by
them, also thistle and dandelion seeds, whilst insects are now
and then eaten: amongst other seeds we may mention flax,
hemp, docks, and corn occasionally. The residents are aug-
mented in autumn by large numbers that come from the Con-
tinent to the east coast, and by others that migrate southwards.
In spring these flocks break up and they pair off. They do
much good on the stubbles by destroying various weed-seeds.

Other British species are the Mealy Redpoll. (A. Iénaria),
the Lesser Redpole (A. rufexrens), the smallest British finch,
and the Twite (A. farirostr/s) with its longish tail, common in
the north. This latter is sometimes very harmful to young
cabbage and other crucifers in the north of Scotland. The
mealy redpoll is almost confined to the north, but flocks some-
times appear as far south as the Channel.

The Chaffinch (Fringilla ecclels),—This is one of our most
beautiful finches, yet a veritable scourge to the gardener and
even farmer. In the male the crown of the head and nape of
the neck are French-grey, the rump green, the back chestnut
and green, the breast reddish-pink, turning to white on the
abdomen ; the black wings have two pure white bands, and the
tail is black in colour, except the two grey middle feathers,
and a broad white band on the outer two. The female is ashy-
brown and olive-green, the lower parts being paler and the
bands less distinct than in the male. The chaflinch builds
a beautiful compact nest of moss and lichen, often on lichen-
covered trees, so much resembling the tree in appearance as to be
distinguished with difficulty. Two broods are often produced in
the year. In the winter they unite in flocks, the males and
females separately, the males being most abundant in northern
counties at this time of year, the females apparently going
southwards. They feed upon all kinds of seeds, especially
those of an oily nature. As soon as the garden seeds are in
PASSERES (FINCHKS). 421

—such as cabbage, turnip, beetroot, mustard and cress, and
radishes—they soon go if the chaffinch finds them out. They
also clear off the young shoots of plants and flowers, and
even destroy germinating grain. On the other hand, they eat
numbers of weed-seeds on the stubbles, especially the per-
nicious charlock, and feed their young on insects of various
kinds, such as plant-lice, as well as devouring some them-
selves. On the whole, the chaffinch does as much good as
harm, if we could only keep it away from our seeds — an
almost impossible task.

The Sparrows (Passer),— There are two British sparrows,
the House-Sparrow (P. domesticus) and the Tree-Sparrow (P.
montanus). These two can be distinguished by the ear-region
of the house-sparrow being bright grey, whilst that of the tree-
sparrow is deep black; the former has also a reddish streak
behind the eye, and the wings with one dusky white bar; the
tree-sparrow has a black streak behind the eye and two white
bands on the wings, and a white ring nearly round the throat ;
the head is a bright chestnut colour. The tree-sparrow is not
abundant like P. domesticus ; it is usually found in company
with the latter. They are both very destructive at times. Corn,
both in the seed and when in crop, is materially damaged by
them, and there can be no doubt but that they are the cause of
much loss in that respect to the farmer; but corn is not to be
obtained all the year round, though they take it whenever
possible in the farmyard, often eating as much as the poultry.
At other times sparrows do some little good, for they devour
many insect pests which we could never get at. The writer
at one time condemned these birds before some farmers and
gardeners in Surrey, when he was promptly brought to order by
more than one, who pointed out their great benefit in destroying
insects. Certainly they can be seen clearing off the “ colliers ”
on beans, the green Dolphin on peas, and the “ blight” on corn,
and they feed ravenously on small larvee on fruit-trees, such as
the young Winter Moth and Tortrices. Water-cress growers
422 BRITISH BIRDS.

say their chief remedy for the ‘‘caddis-worms” is to let the
beds run dry, when the sparrows soon clear them off. Put to
this the fact that they devour large quantities of weed-seeds,
and then we may not think so ill of this cosmopolitan bird.
We know not what might happen if we eradicated them—an
almost impossible act to perform, as they are immensely prolific,
having often three broods in the year. They are, however, far
too abundant, and should be thinned out to some considerable
extent. The young, like all finches, are fed entirely on insect
food, and thus it is advisable not to destroy the nests, but to
kill off the birds later in the year. Another great fault is
that of waging war against the beneficial martins.

The Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans), although not nearly so
common as formerly, is still met with all over Britain. Like
all finches, the young are fed on insects; the adults live upon
the seeds of thistles, knapweed, groundsel, and docks. Numbers
come to these islands to breed in April, and leave again about
October, migrating across the Channel.

The Siskin (Chrysomitris spinus) breeds in the central and
north-eastern portions of Scotland, although a few nests are
found every year in England. The young are fed mainly on
plant-lice, while the adults devour great numbers of weed-seeds.

The Greenfinch (Lijurinus chloris) is often very destructive to
seeds ; but the young are fed upon caterpillars, and as they are
very ravenous, there is no doubt but that the greenfinch does
some good. ‘The larve of the winter moth are taken in
numbers by them, yet as a seed-destroyer in the garden this
bird is most noxious. Its nest is built in hedges, in shrubs,
in ivy, &c.,—a loose structure built of fibrous roots, moss, and
grasses, with a lining of finer material and feathers. The first
nest is built in April, and a second brood usually follows.
Flocks of greenfinches may be seen on the stubbles in the
autumn, where they not only feed off weed-seeds but also
attack newly-sown wheat.
PASSERES (HIRUNDINIDA:). 423

Buntings (Hinbertzine),

Of the eleven species of Buntings found in Great Britain,
the Yellow-hammer (Hmberiza citrinella), the Reed-bunting
(E. scheniculus), and the Corn-bunting (£. méliaria) are the
commonest.

The Yellow-hanumer (£. citvinella) has its head, neck, breast,
and lower parts generally yellow streaked with dusky-brown,
the upper surface being reddish-brown. The female is not so
yellow as the male. They may be found in all parts of Great
Britain, building their slight nest of grasses and moss on or near
the ground, in April and May. Both male and female help in
incubation. Young and adults feed off insects in the summer,
but in autumn fruits and seeds take the place of insects, and in
winter corn as well. They unite in flocks in the winter, and
may be seen in the fields busily engaged hunting for the weed-
seeds, which they eat in large numbers. Such generally is the
food of the Emberizine.

Finches, with the exception of the bullfinch, sparrow, and
greenfinch, may be said to be more or less useful birds, on account
of the numerous insects and weed-seeds that they destroy.

SwaLtows anp Martins (HiRuNDINID2).

These useful migrants have all long and pointed wings with
nine primary feathers. The three species—the Swallow, House-
martin, and Sand-martin—are placed in three separate genera.
They have all a wide gape, with few hairs on the mouth; the
feet are short, with three toes directed forwards, one behind.
The tail is more or less forked.

The Swallow (Hirundo rustica) belongs to the genus Hirundo,
in which the tail is strongly forked and consists of twelve
feathers, the outermost ones being elongated to form the two
tails; the legs and feet are bare. The swallow is only a
summer visitor, arriving about the middle of April, and leaving
again in the autumn. The nests, of clay and mud lined with
424 BRITISH BIRDS.

fine grasses and feathers, are chiefly placed in sheds and chim-
neys and ledges of rock. They feed, both in young and adult
stages, upon various inscvts taken on the wing, especially crane-
flies (Zipulr), moths, gnats, and beetles. Swallows unite in
large flocks prior to migrating in the autumn. Two and even
three broods are produced during their stay ; sometimes the last
brood does not develop in time to undertake the long migration.
Whether these backward birds stay all the winter seems a
disputed point. They may now and then be seen at Hastings
in November, and twice I have observed them in December
flying about on a warm day.

The House-martin (Chelidon urbica) has a forked tail, but it
is not long like the swallow, and the legs are feathered above.
This martin generally arrives a little later than the swallow, and
leaves in October and November. A few have been seen in
December. ‘The nest, of mud, is placed under the eaves of
houses, walls, and rocks; the nest is cup-shaped, with a hole at
the top or side. They, like the swallow, feed entirely on
insects. Sparrows wage war against them, and often drive
numbers away from their nests.

The Sand?-martin (Cotile riparin) often makes its appearance
at the end of March, and commences to leave at the end of
August and in September. The genus Cotile has a tuft of
feathers only on the leg, just above the hallux. It nests in
sandbanks, railway-cuttings, and sand-quarry faces, making a
slanting tunnel with a large chamber at the end. On the
floor of this chamber are placed a few pieces of fine grass and
feathers, where the bird lays from four to six pure-white eggs.
Sand-martins breed in colonies, and are often attacked by
sparrows, which they occasionally defeat when large colonies
are invaded. Like the two preceding species, insects form the
sole food.

Waeratts and Pirits (Moractuiip.s).

‘The Motacillide contain two genera, the Wagtails (Motucillu)
and the Pipits (An/hus), The bill is nearly straight, slightly
PASSERES (MOTACILLID 4S). 425

notched at the tip, the mandibles nearly equal in length,
and their edges slightly compressed inwards. In the Wag-
tails, the tail, which consists of twelve feathers, is long and
the feathers nearly equal; in the Pipits the tail is only moder-
ately long and slightly forked. The tarsus in the Wagtails
is longer than the middle toe, but in the Pipits it is the same
length. The Wagtails are partially migratory in habits. Five
distinct species are now recognised in Great Britain. Of these
the Pied Wagtail (M. lugubris) and the Yellow Wagtail
(ML. rait) are the most abundant; the other three are the Blue-
headed Wagtail (IZ. flava), the Grey Wagtail (Jl. melanope),
and the White Wagtail (IZ. alla).

The Pred Wagtail (A. lwgubris) is a common bird throughout
Britain. They move southwards in the autumn, large flocks
leaving for the Continent in September and October. They
return in March—the males, asa rule, first. The “dishwasher,”
as the pied wagtail is often called, frequents the banks of
streams and ponds, where it runs about jerking its tail up and
down, and feeding upon all manner of insects. They may often
be seen following the plough, picking up with great dexterity
the insects turned up in the soil. Some remain in the south all
the year round. ‘The nest is made in April, generally in a hole
in a bank or the hollow of a tree or wall, and is composed of
dry grass and dead leaves, lined with wool, hair, and feathers.
From four to six greyish-white eggs speckled with brown are
laid in it, and very often we find the cuckoo’s egg in the nest.
The plumage is variegated with black and white; back, chin,
throat, and neck black, except a small part of the neck which
is white; in winter the back is ashy-grey and the throat is
white.

The White Wagtail (MU. alba) is the Continental form of the
above species, from which it may be told in the summer by its
back being pearl-grey and the flanks grey instead of black. Its
food and habits are identical with the above, but it is not so
common.

The Grey Wagtail (Jf. melunope) can be told by its yellow
426 BRITISH BIRDS.

tints. The head and back are grey, but the neck and breast
are yellow, and the throat is black. We find this species in the
south in winter; but in summer it goes north, to make room, as
it were, for the other wagtails that migrate from the Continent.
It is chiefly found by rapid streams and rivers in mountainous
and hilly country in the north, only coming south in winter and
during migration. It builds its nest in banks by the sides of
streams and feeds upon aquatic insects.

The Blue-healel Wagtail (Al. flava) is the Continental
form of the grey wagtail, from which it can be told by the
absence of the black on the throat. It is especially found
in the south, south-west, and east of England. It seems to
prefer flies, which it takes quite close to animals which attract
them.

The Yellow Wagtail (MZ. raid) is one of our regular summer
visitors, and is generally common. In colour this bird is yellow
and olive; the head, nape, and back are pale olive; chin and
lower parts yellow; a yellow streak is also present over the
eyes. The neighbourhood of ponds, canals, and ditches seems
its favourite locality ; but they may also be seen near cattle,
catching the flies attracted to them. All these birds are
insect-feeders, and thus should be encouraged and their nests
preserved.

The Pipits (Anthus) are insectivorous, but weed-seeds are
also eaten by them.

Tue Surikes (LANuD2).

The Shrikes or Butcher Birds have a rather short compressed
bill; the upper mandible hooked at the point, and with a
prominent tooth. The base of the bill is beset with bristly
feathers directed forward. Four species are found in Britain ;
the Red-backed Shrike (Lan/us colluiio) is the most abundant.
This bird arrives in the early part of May, and leaves us again
in August. The nest, which is large, is placed in a thorn
hedge as a rule, some five or six feet from the ground. The
PASSERES (PARID). 427

food consists of lizards, mice, beetles, bees, and other insects.
The food, especially the insects, are impaled on thorns around
the nest, hence their com-
mon name “Butcher Bird.”
Three others are found in
the summer, namely, the
Great and Lesser Grey
Shrikes (L. excubditor and
minor), and the Woodchat
(ZL.  pomeranus). The Fic. 228,—-HEaD oF SARIKE.
Butcher Bird is looked upon The Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio).
2 (Slightly enlarged.)
as one of the farmer’s friends;
but if one examines the larder of these birds one finds as
many beneficial and useful insects as injurious ones impaled
upon the thorns.

 

Tue Tits (Pari).

This useful family of birds are often accredited with de-
stroying fruit-buds. If we examine the buds being attacked
by them, we shall find that they contain either some mite or
maggot, and thus they are doing us inestimable good. They
are all mainly insectivorous. The commonest species are
the Great Tit (Parus major) and the Blue Tit (P. ceruleus).
Both these birds peck the base of pears, and so do harm;
but they may be kept from this in plantations by growing
sunflowers, so that they seed the time the pears are ripening.

The Great Tit is more abundant in the south than the north.
It is extremely vicious, and its strong beak makes it a formid-
able enemy. It is said that it attacks other small birds, and
cracks their skull open to feed upon the brain. The chief food
consists of insects of various kinds, especially small larve and
pupe. Like all the Paride, the great tit is an expert climber,
hunting for grubs as it progresses up and round the tree-trunk
and boughs. They make their nests in all manner of queer
places, the nest being lined with fur, hair, and feathers, and
contains as many as eight or nine small white eggs spotted
428 BRITISH BIRDS.

and blotched with pale red. The head and throat are black,
back olive-green, breast and abdomen yellow, a black line
running down the breast; cheeks pure white.

The Blue Tit (P. rwruleus), sometimes called the Tomtit,
is another useful bird. It builds its nest in holes in walls,
trees, &c. The young are fed with small larve and plant-lice.
The old birds hunt the orchards and clear off endless hiber-
nating insects, such as codling moth larve, American blight,
aphis, and red-spider eggs. Sometimes they damage buds, but
it is nearly always for the enclosed mite. Most fruit-growers
now encourage it for the good it does.

The other British species also feed on a similar diet, varied
with nuts and seeds. Large numbers of blue tits seem to
come from the Continent in autumn and help to clear our
orchards of insect pests.

WarBLERS (SYLVIIN).

The Warblers, such as the Whitethroat (Sylvia cinerea),
the Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus rufus), and many others, mainly
migrants, are insectivorous in habits. Some feed upon fruits
as well as insects; the Blackcap (Syleva atricapitia), for in-
stance, often does much harm to red-currants and raspberries,
whilst abroad it attacks figs and oranges. The Garden Warbler
(S. hortensis) also does some harm, feeding off peas and fruit ;
but its young are brought up on caterpillars, especially those
of the noxious Pieride or Whites. Similar remarks apply to
all the species, of which there are some twenty recorded in
Great Britain. The young warblers differ but slightly from
the adults in coloration. The Whitethroats do endless good
in clearing off pea aphis, spruce chermes, Xe.

Turvsues, Buacksirps, &e. (Terpry.r).

The last sub-family of the Turdide contains the Thrushes
and Blackbirds (wus), the Wheatears (Sucicola), the Robin
(Lrithacus), and the Nightingale (Daulias), ke. The young of
PASSERES (TURDIN#). 429

the Turdine differ from the adults in plumage, always having
the upper parts more or less spotted. The Turdine live upon
insects, molluscs, seeds, and fruit.

The Blackbird (Lurdus merula) need not be described, as
it is too well known, It is a resident over the greater part
of Britain. It is no unusual thing to get white and piebald
specimens of the blackbird. The food is very varied: they
destroy many insects, and are especially useful as snail and
slug devourers; but they commit sad havoc with the fruit,
notably gooseberries, in the summer, especially in dry weather ;
they peck the best apples and pears and ruin them, and
as they have of recent years much increased they should be
shot in fruit districts. The hen is dusky-brown with a spotted
breast, whilst the beak is brown with yellow edges; the cock
is deep black with a yellow bill. The curious habit it has
of raising its tail whenever it perches will always enable the
observer to detect it. It nests very early, in bushes, trees,
and hedges: the nest is lined with fine grasses, in which are
laid five greenish-blue eggs streaked and spotted with reddish-
brown.

The Thrush (T. musicus) also feeds upon much the same
food. This beautiful song-bird, the “throstle” of the north
country, is found all over the islands. They often migrate
in large numbers, this movement taking place at night. The
nest, which may be made in February, is lined by a smooth
coating of dung and mud, and in it are laid four or five blue
eggs spotted with black or dark-brown. The food, although
similar to the blackbird, is more varied. They do an immense
amount of good in the garden by crushing and eating the snails,
and by devouring hordes of slugs, wood-lice, insect-grubs, &c.
The snails ave smashed, as a rule, against a stone or tree and
soon eaten; heaps of broken snail-shells may often be found
lying about, the remains of a “throstle’s” meal. They, how-
ever, do some harm to fruit, always taking the choicest kinds ;
but in“ordinary numbers they cannot be otherwise than looked
upon as gardeners’ friends.
430 BRITISH BIRDS.

The Fieldfare (1. pilaris) and the Redwing (7. iliacus) are
regular winter visitors, feeding upon insect-grubs and worms in
the fields and woods, unless the ground is covered with snow,
when berries are eaten.

The Missel-Thrush (T. viscivorus) is another permanent species,
the largest of the genus. It breeds in our islands, and its
numbers, like so many of our birds, are greatly augmented in
winter by migrants. The “storm-cock,” as it is sometimes
called, makes its nest in the fork of a bough of a tree as
early as February. In habits the missel-thrush is very vicious,
often attacking other birds and carrying off the nestlings. The
food consists of various wild berries, worms, snails, slugs, and
insects.

The Nightinyale (Deulias luseinia) is found in the southern,
eastern, and midland counties of England. In the west it
becomes rare, and is almost unknown in Devon and Cornwall.
In Wales it is very rare, whilst it is quite unknown in West-
moreland, Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham, Scotland,
and Ireland. This noted singing bird comes to us about the
middle of April; but I have notes of its appearance in Sussex
and Kent as early as April 3. It leaves us again in the
autumn, either singly or in small flocks. Insects form the
chief food; but fruit, berries, and worms are also devoured.
The old birds migrate later in the year than the young.

The Turdinz are mostly beneficial, although at times they
rob us of our fruit, and, in the case of the blackbird, need
keeping in check; but the vermin that they kill would do
far more damage than they do. These birds have the most
highly developed voice, and their general structure places them
at the apex of bird organisation, the lrain especially being well
formed.
431

CHAPTER XVIL

EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.
THe Eca or THE Fowt.

Ir is necessary that we should have a complete knowledge of
the structure and formation of the hen’s egg before we can
consider the stages that take place within it during the devel-
opment of the chick. To examine an egg we should be careful
first to obtain a fresh one, and then compare it with one that
has been kept some time. A fertile and an unfertile ovum
should likewise be compared.

The external envelope is the shell (fig. 229, Sh), which is
composed of two layers. The shell is impregnated with calcic
salts; it is more or less porous, to allow the free interchange of
gases, which are necessary for the respiration of the contained
embryo during the process of incubation. The shell may
become coloured with pigment, both layers of it sometimes con-
taining colouring matter. Lining the shell are two thin skins,
the shell-membranes (Sh.77), the outermost layer being much
the thicker of the two. In a fresh egg these two shell-mem-
branes are closely approximated together, but can easily be
separated at the broad end of the egg. Every day the egg is
kept the farther these two membranes separate at the broad
end of the shell, forming in eggs that have been kept some
time a cavity called the air-chamber (Ac). This air-chamber
gradually increases in size as the white of the egg becomes
432 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

smaller by the evaporation of its water. Beneath the inner
shell-membrane is the white or albumen (11’) of the egg. This
white is a mixture of proteids, fats, extractives, and saline
matters. In this layer again we can distinguish between a
fresh and a stale egg: in a stale eg the outer albumen is
always more or less soft and watery, whereas in a fresh egg
it is quite firm. This white contains no less than 86 per cent
of water. The yolk lies within the white, and is enclosed in

 

Fia 229.—Ovum anp STRUCTURE OF A Fow.s Eae

n, Nucleus; nu, nucleolus; Sk shell; Sh.m,
shell membranes; Ac, air chamber; IV, white (al-
bumen); ¥, yolk; Yy, yellow yolk; Jy. i, white
yolk of flask; I’y. ii, other layers of white yolk;
Ch, chalaza. (Modified after Allen Thomson.)

 

a thin membrane called the v/feine membrane, which is partly
elastic in nature, and easily seen puckered up when we break
the yolk of an egg.

The yolk (¥) itself is of two kinds, yellow and white, it,
however, mainly appears yellow in colour, except at one place
where a small round pale area exists, about the sixth of an
inch across, the so-called (astoderm. The yellow yolk is sw-
rounded externally by a thin layer of white yolk which passes
under the blastoderm, where it extends into the middle of the
ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE EGC, 433

egg, forming a flask-shaped central white mass of yolk (IVy. i).
It is this part that remains soft in a hard-boiled egg. Between
the outer thin layer of white yolk and the central flask-shaped
mass are several other thin concentric layers of a pale hue
(Wy. ii), so that the yolk of an egg really consists of alternate
thin white and thick yellow strata. Between the yolk and the
shell-membranes at each pole of the egg is a twisted cord—the
chalaza (Ch). These two chalaze do not quite touch the
nembranes, but spread out to a slight extent over the vitelline
membrane. ‘They act as buffers which help to keep the yolk
in its place.

The blastodern. varies according as to whether the egg is
unfecundated or fertile. In an unfecundated egg this “spot”
is whitish in colour and more or less uniform all over; there
may be very irregular clear spaces in it. In a fertile egg we
shall see an opaque rim called the area opaca; internal to this
a clear space, the area pellucida. In the middle of the latter
area is a central white body, formed by the upper neck of the
flask-shaped central white showing through. This blastoderm
is composed of two layers; the upper consists of a single row
of cells, the lower of a larger number more irregularly disposed.

Tur OrriciIn aND Formation oF THE Ecc.

As previously pointed out, the left ovary only is found
normally in birds, situated on the left side of the backbone and
against the dorsal wall. The appearance of the ovary varies a
great deal with age. All we need consider here is the active
adult state in which it is found when the hen is laying. At
this period the ovary consists of a number of various-sized
vascular capsules, in each of which is a primitive ovum (fig.
214), The smallest or youngest ova are simple cells. Each
ovum contains a nucleus (fig 229, 2), otherwise the ‘“ germinal
vesicle”; in this latter is the nucleolus (nw) or germinal
spot The most recently formed ova are naked cells, and

25
434 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

about 1 mm. in size. A little later each ovum is enclosed in
two membranes—the inner a radiately striated membrane called
the zona radiata, the outer one lying between the zona and the
epithelial Jayer surrounding the ovum, the vitelline membrane.
The zona disappears, and leaves the ovum surrounded by the
vitelline membrane alone. The largest of the capsules then
contains a roundish yellow yolk-like body enclosed in a thin
membrane—the ovarian ovum. Upon this body will he observed
a small disc, the yerminal disc, which consists of a globular
body, the germinal ves/cle, embedded in a mass of protoplasm.
This yolk mass is then the true ovum, and this alone. When
quite ripe it is dehisced from the orary and passed into the
funnel-like head of the oviduct. The reader must again he
referred back to p. 339, where the structure of the oviduct is
pointed out. It is in this oviduct that the white, shell, \c., of
the egg is formed, by secretions from its glandular walls. In
the second part of the tube, the oviduct proper, the albumen is
deposited, and then the chalazz and the albuminous layers com-
pleted. At the lowest end of this second division the shell-
membrane is produced. It is said that the egg remains in the
oviduct proper about three hours. The shell is formed by the
walls of the third portion of the oviduct, the uterine portion.
From the glandular walls of this uterine tube there is poured
out a thick white covering to the egg, in which the inorganic
matter is deposited. It takes normally from fifteen to twenty
hours to traverse this part of the egg-tube. On leaving it the
egg is rapidly passed out of the cloaca by the muscular contrac-
tions of the uterus, te. Thus by knowing the structure and
function of the various parts of the oviduct, we ean tell what
portion is diseased when we find parts of the egg ill-formed,
such as absence of white or a thin shell.

The ege is fertilised in the first part of the oviduct, where
the spermatozoa may be found freely moving about in the
fluid contents of that cavity. After the cge is fertilised,
and the various phenomena direetly following impregnation
THE BLASTODERM. 435

have taken place, the germinal area of the egg commences to
undergo the process known as segmentation. The bird’s egg
commences to segment soon after the egeshell is formed. The
germinal area, which is a single cell in the ovarian ovum, at
first divides into two by means of a furrow running across the
gerininal disc; this is shortly followed by another furrow at
right angles to it, but not quite symmetrically. Then each
of these quadrants becomes cut up by radiating furrows, and
each is cut across again in the centre by a cross-furrow, so that
the central cells are smaller than the outer ones. This cell-
division goes on rapidly, always with greater rapidity towards
the centre of the disc. Eventually the whole disc becomes
more or less equally divided into a number of small cells, not
only from above downwards, but horizontally also. The disc

 

Vig 230.—SkcTION THROUGH PART OF BLASTODERM (first day of incubation).
Ep, Epiblast ; Hy, hypoblast.

now becomes the Jlastoderm, in which we can distinguish two
layers. The cells of the upper layer are closely applied, small,
columnar, and with distinct nuclei, and form a definite mem-
brane. The lower masses are composed of larger cells some-
what rounded and irregularly disposed. This stage may be seen
on taking a section of the disc in an egg soon after it is laid.
From this two-layered blastoderm the bird is built up during
the twenty odd days of incubation. Only the area pellucida
takes place in the formation of the embryo; the area opaca
gives rise to various appendages of the embryo, which all
eventually disappear. The blastoderm, as mentioned above,
consists of two layers: the upper layer becomes the epcblast
(fig. 230, Ep), and the lower the hypohlast (Hy). Between
these two a third is formed, the mesodlast. These three ger-
436 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

minal layers are present in all animals. From the epiblast
arises the epidermis, the central nervous system, and sense-
organs; the mesoblast gives rise to the vascular, muscular,
skeletal, and connective tissues, excretory organs, and the
generative glands. The lowest layer forms the lining of the
alimentary canal (except near the mouth and anus, which
are lined by epiblast) and the glands attached to the alimentary
canal.

The blastoderm gradually grows round the yolk, and forms a
sac round it by the seventh day of incubation. The area opaca
is the part that covers the yolk, not the area pellucida. Whilst
this extension of the blastoderm is going on, the embryo chick
becomes formed by a folding-off of the central part of the area
pellucida. At first there appears a semilunar groove, which, as
it were, tucks in a small part of the blastoderm in the form of a
crescent—the head-fold. Some time after the formation of the
head-fold there appears a similar, but smaller, fold at the opposite
end of the disc—the tazl-fold—which travels forwards whilst
the head-fold passes backwards. Between these two folds two
lateral folds appear; these sink inwards, whilst the head-fold
passes backward and the tail-fold forwards, tending to join in
the middle line, and thus give rise to a small sac above, con-
nected by a continually narrowing neck with a larger sac below.
The upper is the “embryonic sac,” the lower the yolk-sac;
as the former grows the latter disappears. The yolk-sac is
gradually absorbed for nourishment by the embryo chick being
formed in the sac above. Within one or two days of hatching
we shall see this yolk-sac disappear into the chick. The em-
bryo thus folded off from the yolk-sac gradually thickens, and
throws out various processes, swellings, \c., to form the legs,
wings, and other parts by unequal growth. Internally more
complicated changes go on. On the upper surface is seen a
streak, the primitive streak, in which appears a depression,
the primitive groove. In front of the primitive groove there
is formed a thickening of the epiblast, the medullary plate, the
GROWTH OF THE BLASTODERM. 437

sides of which, the medullary folds (m'), grow up and meet,
forming a tube, the neural tube, the future cerebro-spinal canal
(fig. 232, Hb). Below this, during the first day, appears pre-
viously a rod of cells, the future notochord (V9).

The blastoderm early in development becomes thickened by
the growth of the mesoblast (Mes). The mesoblast on each
side then cleaves into two layers. The upper part of the
mesoblast unites with the epiblast to form an outer layer, the
lower with the hypoblast to form a lower and inner layer.
These two layers, known respectively as the upper, outer, or
somatopleure, and the lower, inner, or splanchnopleure, grow
down and meet to form two tubes. The inner tube, lined

 

Fic, 231.—Traxsverse Secrion or BLasTopERM, incubated for eighteen
hours. (After Poster and Balfour.)

Ep, Epiblast; Mes, mesoblast ; Hy, hypoblast; mad, medullary groove; m/f, medul-
Jury fold; Not, notochord,
by hypoblast, is the alimentary canal, wnich in time becomes
perforated at each end by two infoldings of the epiblast, form-
ing the mouth and anus. The outer tube forms the tube of
the body, the space between these two tubes being the body
cavity. The embryonic sac is connected with the yolk-sac by a
gradually narrowing hollow stalk. This stalk, like the embryonic
sac, is double, there being a somatic and a splanchnic tube: the
splanchnic tube connects the alimentary canal with the cavity
of the yolk-sac ; the somatic stalk connects the body walls of
the embryo with the somatopleure of the yolk-sac. Very soon
in development the splanchnic canal becomes obliterated, and
thus shuts off the yolk from entering the alimentary tube. The
438 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

yolk then finds its way into the body of the chick by means of
absorption through the small blood-vessels. When the period
of incubation is nearly complete the yolk-sac, which has gradu-
ally dwindled away, owing to the absorption of its contents, is
withdrawn with its splanchnic membrane into the abdomen of
the chick, and the walls of the abdomen close over it, leaving
the somatic layer to shrivel up and disappear.

Another embryonic membrane of great import arising with
the two layers referred to above is the amnion (ride fig. 235),
The amnion is a membrane which arises from the somatopleure
by a series of folds, and which envelops the embryo completely.
Beneath these folds, which constitute the amnion, lies the em-
bryo in a cavity filled with liquid—the amniotic cavity (AC).
Each fold is composed of two layers, and when they meet above
the embryo, the inner limbs go to form an inner layer and the
outer a similar outer sac. The inner sac is the amnion proper,
and contains the amniotic fluid. The outer sac les cluse tu the
vitelline membrane of the yolk, while its peripheral borders
extend, as the somatopleuric layer mentioned before, over the
yolk-sac. This outer sac is the false amnion or serous men-
brane, and must not be confounded with the true amnion.

Lastly, we find an embryonic investment formed as a diver-
ticulum from the alimentary canal. This foetal membrane is
the allantois (al), forming a projecting sac in the pleuro-
peritoneal cavity, which grows up between the true and false
amniotic sacs. The allantois then becomes full of blood-
vessels, and overlies the developmg embryo, assuming a
respiratory function.

Such, briefly, are the general structures of the embryo and
its membranes at an early period of development. We shall
now trace some of the more important changes and growths
that appear from day to day during the incubation of the
egs.

Changes during the first day.—During the first day of incuba-
tion the third or mesoblastic layer appears (Wes, fig. 231). This
CHANGES DURING FIRST DAY. 439

mesoblast originates as two masses from the hypoblast, and the
notochord referred to below arises in a similar way and at the
same time. Lefore the end of the twelfth hour a streak appears
at one end of the area pellucida, the primitive streak, which is
due to the thickening of the middle portion of the blastoderm by
rapid cell-division of the epiblast. About this time the germinal
area alters in appearance, the area pellucida becoming oval, and
then about the fifteenth hour pear-shaped, and the primitive
streak becomes the primitive groove by a lateral fold arising
on each side. Between the seventeenth and twentieth hours
there appears an axial opaque line below the primitive streak ;
this is the notochord (Not), which is composed of a number of
concentrated cells. There then appears a groove in front of the
primitive streak, the medullary groove (md), in a thickened epi-
blastic plate, which gives rise to the central nervous system ;
this is plainly seen about the twentieth hour. At the same time
there will be noticed a fold in front of the head-fold that is com-
mencing to appear; this is the amnion. From now to the end
of the first day development proceeds rapidly. The head is
definitely commencing to form. In front the medullary folds
unite in the region of the future brain, forming a canal, the
neural canal. The mesoblast on each side of the notochord
beneath the medullary folds becomes cut up into a number of
cubical plates; these are called mesoblast/c somites, from which
the voluntary muscles of the trunk and vertebra are formed.
The embryo now grows rapidly, and the primitive streak grows
backwards. Similarly changes have taken place in the area
opaca during the first twenty-four hours. The area vpacu has
spread out over the yolk and reaches the size of a sixpence, and
that portion of it nearest the area pellucida can be told by its
mottled appearance ; this will become the vascular area of the
embryo.

Changes during the second day.—During the second day the
embryo presents very marked changes. The head end becomes
prominent. The medullary folds in the cephalic region are
440 EMBLYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

quite closed. In front the neural tube has become swollen,
forming the first cerebral resicle, and from each side of this
vesicle, by the rapid proliferation of the epiblastic cells, two
processes grow out—the opti: res/eles, A second and third
vesicle then appear behind the first, and behind the third
vesicle two pits, the auditory pits, the future organs of hear-
ing. During the first half of the second day the heart (Ht)
appears in the head-fold, its origin being connected with that
cleavage of the mesoblast already referred to. It is formed in the
pleuro-peritoneal space shown in fig. 232, and situated just beneath
the developing fore-gut (a/). At first the heart is flask-shaped,

 

Mic, 232 —TRANSVERSE NECTION THROUGH PosTERIOR Parr or THE HEAD OF
AN Empryo Cuick or Turrty Hovrs.

ifb, Hind-brain; Cr, vagus nerve; Ep, epiblast; not, notochord ; mes, mesoblast ;
al, throat ; Ji, heart; Hy, hypoblast. (After Foster and Balfour.)
with a swelling at its anterior end and another behind, the future
auricles, The heart is formed entirely from mesoblast, on the
ventral side of the throat, by a curious process of hollowing out
of the splanchnic mesoblast: some of the original central cells
become blood - corpuscles, Concomitant with the appearance
of the heart is the vascular system, which consists of a number
of tubes hollowed out in the mesoblast. Blood-corpuscles are
rapidly formed in masses in the vascular area, called blood-ixhinds,
By degrees the heart becomes S-shaped, the right-hand curve of
CHANGES DURING THIRD DAY. 441

the S being venous and the left-hand curve arterial. The venous
bend has two bulges, the future auricles, the ventricles appear-
ing at the other bend. The first true circulation of the blood
takes place during the close of the second day. The heart at
this stage gives rise to fwu avrte ; these later unite into one
trunk behind the head, and towards the tail this trunk gives
rise to two vitelline arteries, which run to and are lost in the
vascular area. Here two veins arise from the capillary net-
work, the vitelline veins, which run back to the heart. In this
stage we may find two, or even three, pairs of aortic arches.
The whole embryo is raised up from the blastoderm, and the
head end becomes bent. In the region of the middle somites
there appears a small mass of cells seen in a transverse section ;
this is a ridge, the primitive excretory or Wolfian duct, which
becomes hollow, and connected with the embryonic excretory
organs, the Wolffian bodies.

Changes during the thi? day,—One of the most noticeable
things in an egg on the third day of incubation is the dis-
appearance of much of the white, which has been absorbed
directly by the blood-vessels and indirectly by the diminishing
yolk. The vascular area has much increased, and not only now
supplies the embryo with food from the yolk, but by virtue
of its external position (lying against the shell) it takes part in
the respiration of the embryo. The amnion forms a complete
investing membrane, and the whole embryo comes to lie on its
left. side. The head region also becomes much bent under,
forming the cranial flexure, the second brain vesicle now being
in front, the first bent below. On examining a section through
the brain region we shall see that there appears a process on each
side of the summit of the brain: these lateral processes are the
origin of the cranial nerves (fig. 232, Cr), They are formed
as paired outgrowths, which afterwards shift their attachment
to the floor of the brain. Similarly the spinal nerves now arise
and become divided into three parts—a root, a ganglion, and
the distal nerve. At this period the eyes are formed by the
449 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

optic vesicles becoming folded in, in front, producing a cup-
shaped depression, and the optic stalk becomes small and con-
verted into the optic nerve. From this cup-shaped vesicle the
various parts of the eye arise. The epiblast over the vesicles
becomes thickened and folded into thei; the mouth of the
vesicle is closed, and the whole part pushed in breaks off
and forms the lens. The mesoblast round the optic vesicles
vives rise to the choroid and sclerotic, whilst in front the meso-
blast grows over the lens and forms the cornea, the epiblast
over it simply forming the epithelial covering. The organs of
hearing and smell also arise as epiblastic invaginations, the
former showing on the second day, the latter only on the third.

In the neck region appear those curious structures found in
all vertebrates, the résevral clefts. The visceral clefts are fissures
that pass through the walls of the throat to the pharynx.
There are four on each side, and they are formed by a pushing
out of the internal hypoblast and a pushing in of the external
epiblast until a perforation is made. On the anterior border of
cach cleft is wu thick fold, the asceral fol’ (fig. 233, F 1 to F 3),
the fourth cleft having two folds. These visceral clefts are rem-
nants of pre-existing gill-slits. The first pair of folds only remain
in a modified form, taking part in the formation of the mouth
and mandibles, They each send off a branch during the third
day to the anterior edge ; these two branches nearly meet, but
are separated by a median process. Between the main folds a
space appears; this becomes the mouth (.1/). The second and
third arches partly remain as the hyoid bones, the last two
becoming quite obliterated. The first visceral cleft persists,
being connected with the auditory organ, becoming the Eus-
tachian tube and tympanic cavity.

The three parts of the alimentary canal on the third day unite.
From the cesophagus the lungs arise as bud-like outgrowths.
Liver and pancreas also make their appearance by a similar
process, both the latter arising between the fifty-fifth and
sixtieth hours of incubation—the liver as two diverticula from
CHANGES DURING FOURTIE DAY. 443

the duodenum, and the pancreas as one solid outgrowth slightly
behind the liver, From the somites now arise the muscle-
plates, and the Wolffian bodies or primitive kidneys become
fully developed.

Changes during the fourth duy.——A still further diminution of
white is seen; the embryo, which has very much grown, hes
close to the shell-membrane. More than half the yolk is now

     

      

COS
Ses

Fic, 238.—Hrap or EMpryo Cuick or THE Fourtsa Day.

CH, Cerebral hemispheres ; FB, vesicle of the third ventricle ; OP, eyeball; nf, naso-
frontal process; M, cavity of mouth; Sj/, superior maxillary process of F. 1, the first
visceral fold; F. 2 and 8, second and third visceral folds; N, nasal pits; e, neck be-
tween third and fourth visceral folds cut across; al, alimentary canal; V, jugular
veins; AO, dorsal aorta; nc, neural canal; ch, notochord. (After Foster and Balfour.)
invested by the germinal membrane, and the blood-area is about
an inch in diameter. The amnion obscures the view of the
chick, which lies beneath it. Both cranial flexure and tail-fold
have much increased, and thus the embryo appears spirally coiled.
On each side of the chick is now seen a long ridge—the Wolffian
ridge; on this there appear two anterior and two posterior bud-

like outgrowths, the limbs. The anterior buds or wings arise near
444 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK.

the heart, the legs near the tail, The eyeballs (fig. 233, OP)
project to a large extent, and the primitive skull begins to form
in the mesoblast surrounding the brain. The true vertebra
arise from the old somites by a fresh segmentation, which does
not follow that of the old segmentation of the muscle-plates.
Each vertebra is formed of parts of two somites. The vertebral
column now becomes supported by cartilage, and the notochord
vacuolated and eventually squeezed out by subsequent ossifica-
tion. Between the vightieth and hundredth hours the permanent
kidneys appear. ‘The tube of the kidney appears first as a
diverticulum from the Wolffian duct. The kidney arises from
a mass of mesoblastic cells closely applied to the Wolffian hody,
but this mass soon breaks off from the former. From the
ureters there eventually grow out a number of tubules which
become continuous with the cells of the metanephros and become
the true kidney tubules. The kidneys are complete by the
seventh day. Lastly, during the fourth day the generative
organs develop; but at this time it is impossible to tell the sex,
for the first-formed cells, the primitive cells, are the same in both
male and female. The duct of the ovary, of which only one,
the right, as a rule, remains, is formed from the Miillerian duct,
that of the testes from the Wolffian ducts. The allantois now
receives two branches from the dorsal aorta; these umbilival
arteries become very important towards the close of this day.
The first aortic arch, which runs in the first visceral fold,
degenerates, and a new one appears as the fourth arch. The
second pair also nearly disappear, and then a fifth pair come as
the fifth arch. We thus still get three pairs of aortic arches,
but placed farther back. Part of each remains to form the in-
ternal and external carotids, The hepatic circulation also be-
comes complete, and the mesenteric veins of the alimentary
canal appear, and the septum of the ventricles now shuts off the
right and left half of that chamber.

Changes during the fifth day—The whole yolk is now
enclose in the blastoderm and about two-thirds covered by the
CHANGES DURING SIXTH AND SEVENTH DAYS. 445

vascular area. The allantois forms a large vascular patch on
the right side, and the embryo is so curved that head and
tail nearly meet. The limbs have greatly increased and become
bent to form the elbow and knee, and the parts to become bone
are invaded by cartilage. Cartilaginous bars also arise in the body
walls, the ribs: some of the ventral parts of the ribs unite and
form a cartilaginous sternum. ‘The bones of the skull also
arise, and cartilaginous rods in the visceral arches. The face
undergoes great alterations, including the closing in of the nasal
passages by nasal processes. Great changes also appear in the
heart: the ventricles become pointed, and the auricular septum
begins to show, the cavity of the auricles separating from the
ventricles. The ventricles do not completely divide until after
the thirteenth day of incubation. It is not until this day that
the cells of the chick become properly differentiated, and from
now they rapidly vary in each part, forming the various definite
tissues that build up the body.

Changes during the sirth and seventh days.—On these days
the embryo becomes distinctly marked with avian features.
On opening the egg we shall note that the body is not so flexed,
and also that the neck of the bird is more prominent. Still we
may observe the heart hanging out of the body; but it com-
mences to become enclosed by the thoracic walls, supported by
the developing cartilaginous ribs. The cerebral hemispheres
are quite large. By the seventh day we can see no traces of
the visceral clefts, and the mouth and face assume avian char-
acters. The amniotic cavity is quite large on the sixth day,
being filled with liquor amnii, and gradually increases ; and on
the seventh day this amnion moves in a rhythmical manner :
by this pulsating movement the embryo is rocked to and fro in
the egg.

From the eighth day onwards.—During the eighth, ninth, and
tenth days of incubation rapid growth takes place. The allan-
tois is spread out as a sac over most of the yolk and serves as
the chief organ of respiration, and the yolk-sac rapidly decreases
446 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CHICK,

in size. About the eleventh day one can tell to what group the
embryo belongs, generic characters being often plainly marked.
Feathers begin to appear as papillz on the ninth day along the
back and rump. ‘These feathers remain in sacs until the nine-
teenth and twentieth days, but their colour shines through the
sac. <A chalky knob appears on the nose on the ninth day,
and by the twelfth this has become converted into a soft beak.
The cartilaginous skeleton is fully formed by the thirteenth
day, so are most of the important muscles; and on the twelfth
day many areas of ossification may be seen in the limbs, ribs,
head, &c.

The loops of the intestines become confined in the abdomen on
the eleventh day. The body still is connected by the narrow
somatic umbilicus, the allantoic stalk, and suspensory cord of
the yolk-sac with the accessory appendages. The whole embryo
is now surrounded by the allantois, which is closely applied to
the serous membrane against the shel]. About the sixteenth day
all the white has gone, and the mesoblast is cleaved right round
the yolk. On the nineteenth day the yolk-sac is withdrawn
through the somatic stalk into the abdominal cavity. The
embryo is now surrounded by the vascular allantois, the serous
membrane, and the amnion. The amnion is continuous at the
umbilicus with the walls of the embryo, whilst the serous mem-
brane is entirely separated from it. The allantois is continuous
with the cloaca, by means of its stalk passing through the
umbilicus.

On the fourteenth day the chick lies with its beak touching
the serous membrane and shell membrane, where they form
the inner wall of the air-chamber. On the twentieth day the
chick pushes its beak into this chamber and breathes air, At
this time the pulmonary circulation comes into play, and the flow
up the umbilical vessel ceases. The allantois shrivels up, the
umbilicus closes completely, and the chick pecks its way out of
the shell, leaving behind the allantois, amnion, and serous
mem)rane,
HATCHING OF THE CHICK, 447

This incubation normally lasts twenty-one days, hut it is not
at all unusual for it to be prolonged to twenty-five days. The
writer has had fowls hatch off even at thirty days, when the
eggs given the hen had been laid some time previously. This
is especially noticeable in Indian game. It seems that the
longer the egg has been laid the longer the period of incu-
bation, within certain limits,
448

CHAPTER XVIII.

MAMMALIA.

Tur Mammals are all warm-blooded animals, have their skin
more or less covered with hair at some period of their life,
and produce their young alive (except Monctremes). The
young are always nourished for some time after birth by a
specially prepared fluid—milk—which is secreted by the md/k-
glands oy mamme. These glands vary in number in different
mammals, and are situated on the thorax or abdomen, or on
both regions at the same time. The embryo mammal is always
enveloped in an amnion and allantois (fig. 235, «im, al). The
latter may disappear, or it may remain, partly forming the
placentu, a vascular structure that connects the feetus with the
parent. Contrary to what we saw in birds, the skull of a
mamial (vide Anatomy of the Horse) articulates with the
vertebral column by two condyles, attached to the occipital
bone. Other features in the mammalian skeleton by which we
can isolate them from the Sauropsida are, first, that the lower
jaw articulates with the skull by the squamosal bone direct,
and is never united to the quadrate bone. Secondly, the lower
jaw consists of two halves or rami, and each ramus of a single
bone only, not several as in Birds and Reptiles. A complete
separation exists between the thoracic cavity and the abdomen,
the dividing membrane or diaphragm being in the form of a
thin musculo-tendinous partition. The heart consists of four
chambers, the right and left sides being separate. The red
DEVELOPMENT OF MAMMALIA. 449

blood-corpuseles are non-nucleated; one aorta alone exists—
namely, the left—which turns over the left bronchus, not the
right as in the bird. Lastly, the Mammalia never have those
curious respiratory prolongations, the air-sacs, so characteristic
of the Class Aves. Although there are marked differences
between the sauropsids and mammals, yet we have intermediate
and connecting links in the peculiar Monotremes of Australasia.

We need not refer further to the anatomical features of the
Mammalia: the reader is referred to the chapter on the Anatomy
of the Horse for fuller details, whilst the peculiarities of each
group will be pointed out as we proceed.

DevELoPpMENT or A Mamma anpd THE FataL MEMBRANES.

Mammals, unlike birds, possess two ovaries, as described in
chapter xii. In the early stages there is much resemblance
between the ova of a bird and a mammal. There are many
very important differences, however, later. The Bird’s egg is
large and full of yolk; the Mammal’s is small, and has a scanty
supply of yolk. The embryo bird can live and grow on the
food stored in the egg, but the foetal mammal has to depend on
maternal food derived from the parent’s blood by means of the
structure called the placenta, and later from the milk. There
are two periods of mammalian development: (i) uterine de-
velopment, (ii) post-uterine development. The first is the
more important. Mammals produce viviparously, birds ovip-
arously. The primitive ova are budded off from the epithe-
lium covering the ovary. In the solid part of the gland—the
stroma—are vesicles of all sizes, the Graafian follicles. Each
follicle has a wall of its own, and contains one ovum (rarely
two). The epithelium of the follicle forms two layers, an
external one, the membrana granulosa, and another mass pro-
jecting into the vesicle and surrounding the ovum — the
discus proligerus; the cavity of the Graafian follicle is full of
liquid. As these follicles become ripe they project from the

2F
450 MAMMALIA.

ovary, burst, and release the contained ovum and a quantity
of the liquid which surrounds it.

The ovum is a spheroidal cell about ~}5 to sto of an inch
in diameter, and is surrounded by two membranes—the outer,
the zona radiata, and an inner thin membrane. Within this
thin membrane, shown to exist by E. v. Beneden, is the vitellus
or yolk, filled with fatty and albuminous granules. In this
vitellus is the germinal vesicle (nucleus), with one or two
nucleoli. The ova burst from the ovary, when the latter is
clasped by the funnel-shaped end of the oviduct. They then
pass down the tube, being fertilised in its upper extremity by
the entering of a single spermatozoon, and soon commence
to undergo the process of segmentation. Segmentation is
complete, the whole ovum being affected. This is spoken of
as complete or hulvblastic segmentation. The bird’s egg only
undergoes partial or mervblastic segmentation, owing to the
quantity of yolk in the ovum. Segmentation lasts seventy-
two hours in the rabbit, according to Balfour—this stage
varying in different animals to a considerable extent. When
complete the ovum consists of an outer layer of cubical cells
surrounding an inner layer of granular polygonal cells, except
at one spot where the inner granular cells are exposed, the so-
called Mlastopore (fig. 234, Bl). When segmented the ovum
passes into the uterus and becomes attached to it. Here the
blastopore closes up. The vesicle then produced is formed
by a cleavage between the outer and inner layers, which
gradually increases until the inner granular mass is only to be
seen at the point of the now closed blastopore (Hy 2). During”
this change the ovum enlarges rapidly, so that there is formed
an extensive cavity in it, the inner granular mass now only
forming a small patch against the outer layer at one spot.
This cavity is the blustodermic resirle (Biv). Surrounding it
is the zuna radiata and an albuminous layer (Alb.E). As
the vesicle grows the inner mass of cells spreads out and forms
an irregular layer beneath, except at its original position, in
DEVELOPMENT OF MAMMALIA. 451

which it remains thick. This thick mass of granular cells we
call the embryonic or germinal area. During the following
few days changes take place in the inner layer. About. five
days after impregnation the cells of the embryonic area divide
into two layers, the lower composed of flattened cells, and forms
the hypoblast. During the subsequent day a middle layer

 

Fie, 234.—Ovum or Raper.

1, Optical section of a rabbit’s ovum at a stage closely following segmentation: Bl,
plastopore; Hy, inner layer; Ep, outer layer, 2, Rabbit's ovum between 70-90 hours
after impregnation: Bl.v, cavity of blastodermic vesicle (yolk-sac); Ep, outer layer ;
Hy, inner layer; Alb.£, albuminous envelope. (After E van Beneden.)

arises and fuses with the epiblast to produce the true epiblastic
layer. These two layers form a circular embryonic patch on
the ovum, which on the seventh day becomes oval. There ap-
pears at the lower part of this spot a primitive streak as in
the fowl. The area then becomes pyriform, and the primitive
streak is marked by a groove. The epiblastie cells which form
the streak also give rise to part of the mesoblast.

Very similarly to what we saw in the development of the
chick the medullary groove arises in front of the primitive
streak. The medullary plate between the two medullary folds
is composed of one row of epiblastic cells, only, at first. The
mesoblast arises from a double origin—(1) from the epiblast
and (2) from the hypoblast. The notochord arises as a
452 MAMMALIA.

thickened axial portion of hypoblast. The area in which
these three layers arise is the embryonic area, and here alone
the fwtus is formed. The other part uf the egg forms the
umbilical vesivle (fig. 235, UV), which folds off from the embryo
and may be likened to the yolk-sac of the fowl’s egg. But in
this sac we do not find yolk but a fluid that readily coagu-
lates. The umbilical vesicle becomes surrounded by hypoblast,
just as the yolk-sac of the bird became encircled by it.

About eight days after impregnation there may be seen a
splitting of the lateral mesoblast into a vertebral and peripheral
zone, and in the former two somites appear. At the ninth day
a clear ring is seen around the embryo, and outside this an area
rasculosa. The medullary plate swells into a cephalic enlarge-
ment. On each side of the head is to be seen a long tube.
These two tubes are the commencement of part of the heart.
Later the trunk of the embryo grows faster than the head,
and the head becomes folded off, and a little later the tail-
fold appears. The medullary groove remains open for some
time, and forms the fore-brain, mid-brain, hind-brain, and optic
vesicles by a series of enlargements. At the close of the ninth
day the medullary groove becomes closed and the head is quite
free, the two halves of the heart coming together and form-
ing a median single tube. The somites also increase to about
twelve. During these changes the amnion (fig, 235, anv) has
nearly encircled the foetus, and the allantois (a/) has commenced
to grow as in birds. Later development consists of the well-
marked cranial flexure and the presence of three visceral arches.
The first forms the posterior border of the mouth, and sends
forward a process on each side which forms the anterior margin
of the mouth. Although there are only three arches, there
are nevertheless four visceral clefts. The whole embryo be-
comes very much bent, the limbs appearing as buds in the
same way as in the chick.

The fetal membranes 11 mammals differ much from those of
birds, except in the early stages. Mammalian foeti are closely
DEVELOPMENT OF MAMMALIA. 453

attached to the parent by means of a membrane called the
placenta, which more or less closely unites the foetus to the
walls of the uterus in which it develops (fig. 237). The
placenta is formed by the allantois, the walis of the uterus,
and the false amnion. The embryo mammal becomes folded
off in a sac, the embryonic sac, just as does the chick, from the
yolk-sac, called in the Mammalia the umbilical vesicle (UV).
The amnion grows wp on each side and unites ahove the
embryo. The inner
fold or true amnion
then separates from
the outer or false
amnion. Prior to the
separation of the two
limbs of the amnion,
the epiblast of the
umbilical vesicle and
the false amnion form
a lining to the zona
radiata. This mem-

brane is the so-called

Ly» Fic, 285.—Diacrima ov Fara MEMBRANES
membrane OF a Mamma. (After Turner.)

(s2), and it fuses with ax, Zona with villi; sz, sub-zonal membrane; £, epi-
oni vida fs blast of embryo; am, amnion; AC, animiotic cavity ;
the zona radiata (x). M, mesoblast of embryo; H, *hypoblast of embryo :
a |. UV, umbilical vesicle; al, allantois; ALC, allantoic

The ovum is attached cavity. (From Foster and Balfour.) : ‘

 

sub - zonal

to the uterine wall by

villi or processes which stick into folds of the epithelium of the
uterus (fig. 236). So close is this connection that it is impos-
sible to remove the embryo without tearing the uterine walls.
The allantois a little later grows out of the hind-gut as a
vesicle and forms a flat sac, which projects into the space be-
tween the amnion and the sub-zonal membrane. This allantois
and the sub-zonal membrane fuse and form the chorion (fig.
236, ch), which more or less surrounds the ovum. Where the
chorion does not surround the ovum, and where the yolk-sac
454 MAMMALIA.

and sub-zonal membrane unite, a false chorion is formed. Thus
where the placenta is formed is the true chorion, the other part
the false chorion.

From the outer surface of this chorion, which is highly vaseu-
lar, villi grow out which fit into the crypts or pits in the uterus
(cr). These villi may become much branched. Not only are
the villi highly vascular, but the uterine pits are likewise. Here

 

Fio, 236.—VrERTICAL SECTION OF INJECTED PLACENTA OF A MARE.

ch, Choriou ; er, uterine crypts; g, uterine glands; V, blood-vessels; E, epithelium.
(Turner. )
there takes place that interchange of blood by diffusion between
the parent and foetus.

The yolk or umbilical sac Tecomes smaller (fig. 237, wr),
and may atrophy before the close of uterime existence. The
allantoic stalk gives rise to two structures, the urinary bladder
and a cord, the wchus, which connects the bladder with the
umbilicus. These membranes are shed at birth, and sometimes
VARIETIES OF PLACENTA). 455

with them the uterine mucous membrane comes away with the
placenta. We thus get two forms of placenta, the non-eciduale
and the dectduate. The non-deciduate placenta comes away
from the uterine mucous membrane separately, whilst in the
deciduate form both are so closely interlocked that they come
away as the “ afterbirth ” together.

Varieties of Plarentw.

We can distinguish five kinds of placentee—viz., the dis-
coida], the meta-discoidal, the zonary, the cotyledonary, and
the diffuse placenta. The discoidal is found in the Rodents,
Bats, and Insectivora; the meta-discoidal in Man and Apes ;
the zonary in Carnivora, Elephants, and the Hyrax ; the cotyle-
donary in the Ruminants ; the diffuse in the Horse, Pig, &e.

1. The discotdal placenta.—The amnion is small and sur-
rounds the embryo. The yolk-sac is attached to the embryo hy
a very long stalk, and is closely applied to the greater part
of the sub-zonal membrane, forming the false chorion. The
allantois forms a moderate-sized sac, which below is applied to
the sub-zonal membrane, and there forms the true chorion or
placentu. From this placental area pass vascular villi into
the uterine pits. This discoidal placenta is deciduate. A great
space exists between the embryo and the false chorion, which
is filled with fluid.

2. The meta-discoidal placenta (fig. 237).—Here a complete
chorion is formed, the allantois entirely surrounding the inner
wall of the sub-zonal membrane. The embryo is encircled by
the amnion, which swells out almost to the placenta, only being
separate from it by a gelatinous layer. The yolk-sac is
very small. As the blastodermic vesicle grows it becomes
related to three parts of the uterus. These three parts are
thrown out at birth and are called decidua. One part of the
uterus is reflected over the vesicle=the decidua reflera (f) ,
that part of the uterus around which the reflexa is attached is
456 MAMMALIA,

known as the ectdua scrotina (b), and that part of the uterine
wall not related directly to the vesicle, the /ecidua vera (¢).
The chorion is directly attached to the decidua reftera and
serotina, The vascular connection between the reflexa and the
chorion atrophies, whilst that between the serotina and the

  

ay
Hye
i Yj

    

Wie, 237. —D1AGRAMMATIC SECTION OF PREGNANT HuMAN UTERUS WITH
CONTAINED Fartus.

d, Allantoic stalk > we, umbilical vesicle; @m, amnion; ch, chorion; >, decidua sero-
dina; c, decidua vera; f, decidua reflexa; /7, Fallopian tube; g, cervix uteri; «, foetal
villi of placenta; e, embryo. (From Huxley, after Longet.)
chorion increases, the villi hecoming much branched and form-
ing the chorion frondosum, This latter structure and the decidua
serotina form the true placenta. This placenta is discoidal, but
it is ventral, whereas the placenta of the rabbit is dorsal. At
birth the placenta and the fused decidua rera and reflera are
all shed, and the ruptured blood-vessels of the uterine wall
closed by its rapid contraction,

3. The zonary placentu.—Here the placenta is in the form of
a broad band. The yolk-sae never fuses with the chorion. At
first the allantois fuses with the sub-zonal membrane, at one
PLACENTA. 457

part only forming a discoidal patch; but this grows ont all
round, and invades the whole of the sub-zonal membrane
except at the poles. There is thus formed a broad placental
band, where the villi closely unite with the uterine pits
specially formed.

4, Cotyledonary plurenta (fig. 238).—This is characterised by

As
A a

\\ Any

 

Fic. 238.—Farus or SHEEP.

AL, Allantois, seen beneath chorion; Am, amnion; P, P, placente on chorion; C,
umbilical cord ; al, al, extremities of allantoidean cornua. (Chauveau.)

the villi of the placenta being found in round scattered areas,
the coty/eduns, which fit into corresponding thick areas studded
with pits in the uterus.

5. In the diffuse placenta (fig. 239) the allantois (al) com-
pletely surrounds the embryo (/), and the whole chorion (Ch)
MAMMALIA,

458

7 Sie Cnvaanvyg) *proquurry Jo LpLAvo 4) Ssngay Gy {plvo [LOTIGMN Jo Sfossod 44 | aL TSod TRON Jo SaTeMar fof $WOTUUIe
jo Aqtavo ‘gq {uotuY ‘py fsuypoumn ‘oO fsluzuYTB yo Jody [VUIepUT “YP ssteyunppe jo AAV] [VLoXo YP tS uolwyo %,) YO + ByMavV][q OR Sa

 

*AOI4R}SAB JO aTPPNU spAVAMOY “ASUOFT IVLD] AO SLUVG JU WVAOVICL —'6HG “VL

5 a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ANON,

on

weiss

0

NS
PERIODS OF GESTATION. 459

has villi studded over it except at the poles, where small areas
are devoid of them.

All mammals except the Monotremes and Marsupials have a
placenta in one of these five forms.

The length of gestation in farm animals has been divided by
Gurlt into seven periods. The last period and the dimensions
of the embryo are given in the table below :—

 

DimEnsions oF Fastus

 

SPECIES. SEVENTH (LAST) PERIOD. (at birth).

Mare From 35th to 48th week About 454 inches.

Cow "1 38rd to 40th on " 824 "

Sheep " 19th to 21st " | " 192 "

Sow un 15th to17th From 93 to 104 inches.

Bitch 9th week ; ‘ | un 64to 82 ou

The weight of the foetus of the mare at birth varies according
to breed. The lowest, in the Corsican mare, is 35 Ib.; in a
Suffolk-Boulonnaise mare, Chauveau mentions 135 lb. The
weight of a calf at birth is about 2°31 parts of the cow, a
lamb 10 to 11 Ib, a pig 5 Ib, and a chick 1) ounce.
+60

CHAPTER XIX.
MAMMA LI A—Continued.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS.
BRITISH MAMMALS (DOMESTIC AND WILD).

MamMALIA are divided into three sub-classes — namely, the
Ornithodelphia, the Didelphia, and the Muonodelphia'—which
are characterised by the following features :—

A, The Ornithodelphia have the two uterine enlargements
of the oviducts separate, forming two uteri, each of which opens
direct into a cloacal chamber like a bird, and not into a single
vagina. This cloaca also receives the rectum and ureters.
Chorion absent. Here are placed the Monofremata, to which
belong the Echidna and Duck-Bill (Ornithorhyuchus).

B. The Didelphia, characterised by the uterine enlargements

1 Huxley, in the ‘Proceedings’ of the Zool. Soc. for 1880, p. 649, pro-
posed the following names for these three groups: (1) Prototheria, (2)
Metatheria, (3) Eutheria. Dr Gadow, in his classification of the Verte-
brata, follows Huxley’s three divisions, and groups the Mammals in the
following order :—

Sub-class 1. Prototheria (Monotremata, Xc. |
Sub-class 2. Metatheria (Marsupials).
Sub-class 3. Eutheria.

Order 1, Edentata. Order 2, Trogontia (including the “Rodentia).
Order 38, Cetacea. Order 4, Sirenia. Order 5, Ungulata (including
Hyracoidea and Proboscidea). Order 6, Carnivora. Order 7, Insectivora.
Order 8, Chiroptera. Order 9, Primates.
ORNITHODELPHIA. 461

of the oviducts opening into two separate vagine, which have
distinct apertures in the urogenital canal, the rectum being
separated. Chorion ahsent. Coracoids reduced, not reaching
the sternum. Males without cloaca. To this group belong the
Marsupialia or Pouch-Bearers.

C. The Monodelphia, which have the two uterine enlarge-
ments of the oviducts united to form one uterine cavity, with
its two cornua, and by the single vagina, which is completely
separate from the rectum. Chorion and placenta present.
Coracoids reduced to a process only. This division contains all
the remaining mammals, which include the following :—

(i) Edentata or Sloths.

(ii) Sirenia or Manatees.

(iii) Cetacea or Whales.

(iv) Ungulata or Hoofed Animals.

(v) Hyracotdea or Conies.

(vi) Proboscidea or Elephants. \ =a
(vii) Carnivora or Beasts of Prey.
(vill) Rodentia or Rodents.

(ix) Chiroptera or Bats.

(x) Insectivora or Moles, Shrews, &c.

(xi) Quadrumana or Monkeys.
(xii) Bimana or Man.

Seven of these orders only are met with in the British Isles.
The other five need little consideration.

\ = Primates.

A. ORNITHODELPHIA
= PROTOTHERIA.

MONOTREMATA.

These are the lowest animals, and approach the Sauropsida
nearer than other Mammalia. The two most noted forms are
the Duck-Bill (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus) and the poreupine-
like Echidnas. These animals all have a regular cloaca ; there
462 MAMMALIA.

are no teeth in Echidna, whilst the duck-bill has four horny
pads in their place. The pectoral arch is like that of Saurop-
sids—namely, the coracoid bones reach the sternum, and an
interclavicle is present. The pelvis is furnished with special
tendinous ossifications, forming the peculiar “ marsupial bones,”
although the female carries no pouch as in the marsupial animal.
The Monotremes come from Australia, Tasmania, and New
Guinea. The females have no nipples to the mamme, and lay
eggs covered by a flexible shell, These are the only oviparous
mammals.

B. DIDELPHIA
= METATHERIA.

MARSUPIALIA or POUCH-BEARERS.

No marsupial animals exist in Europe. Their present
geographical distribution is very limited: the majority are
found in Australia and the adjacent islands, where the entire
indigenous fauna is marsupial. A few species (Opossums) are
found in America and others in the Indian Archipelago (Mac-
ropus, Cuscus, &c.) The “ Pouch-Bearers” have distinct teeth
placed in sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is nearly
always inflected. A ‘marsupial bone” is always present
attached to the edge of the pelvis: its function in the female
is to act as a support for the pouch and to aid the action of the
mamme. In the males, which have no pouch, it may he in
some way connected with the testes. The “ marsupium” or
“pouch” is always present in the female, and has the nipples of
the mamme inside it: in this pouch the young, which are born
in an immature state, are carried for some time by the mother.
The long mamme force their way into the young marsupial’s
mouth without its aid; as soon as they can suck naturally, they
leave the pouch and return to it for nourishment whenever they
require it, A peculiarity in the male is that the testes, which
are in a scrotum, are situated in front of the penis and not
MONODELPHIA. 463

behind asin most mammalia. In this group are the Kangaroos
(Macropodide), Wombats (Phascolomys), Phalangers (Phalan-
yistide), Opossums (Dedelphidiw), and the carnivorous Tasmania
Devil (Dasyurus), &c.

Fossil species are found in the Stonesfield slate of Oxfordshire,
and previously in the Triassic rocks.

C. MONODELPIIA
= EUTHERIA.

UNGULATA or HOOFED ANIMALS.

The Ungulata or Hoofed Animals include several of our

 

Tia, 240 —Fert or UnauLata.
a, Artiodactyle foot (Pig). B, Perissodactyle foot (Horse).

domestic animals, such as the horse, ass, mule, pig, goat, sheep,
and oxen. It is one of the largest and most important orders of
464 MAMMALIA.

Mammalia. Ungulates have all four limbs touching the ground
by the last toe-joint only, and that joint is enshrouded in a case
or hoof of horn (except Hyracoidea). The hoof is an expanded
nail. In no ungulate do we find more than four toes to each
limb. Clavicles are absent. There are always two sets of teeth,
milk-teeth and permanent teeth ; the molars have always broad
crowns (fig. 243), adapted for chewing and grinding vegetation,
upon which all the Ungulata live. The Ungulata are divided
into two sections :—
1. Perissodactyl.—Toes always odd in number on hind feet,
either one or three (fig. 240, B). Stomach simple.
Fibula articulates with astragalus.
2. Artiodactyla.—Toes always even in number, being two or
four to each foot (A). Stomach complex. Fibula
articulates with astragalus and calcaneum.

Section 1. Perissodactyla.

This section includes the horses, tapirs, and rhinoceros, in
which the stomach is simple, and a large cecum is present as
seen in the horse. ‘The hind-feet are odd-toed in all perisso-
dactyla, and the fore-feet in many. The third toe always forms
the functional axis. The dorso-lumbar vertebre are never less
than twenty-two in number, and the femur has always a third
trochanter. If horns are present, they never have bony cores
as in cattle.

We need refer to one family only, the Equipx, So.ip-
uNGULA, or Sonrpeps. The Equide are the horses, asses, and
zebras. The features of these can be taken from the descrip-
tion of the horse already given. All our domestic varieties are
considered one species, Aquus vaballus. At Solutré are immense
bone-beds with horse remains: the descendants of these are
probably the Ardennes horses, one of the long-headed races
which seem very similar to the fossil ones of Solutré. From
these also are descended the semi-wild horses in the delta of
EQUIDA, 465

the Rhone and in Alsace. The two great races of horses are
the Oriental and the Occidental. In the Oriental or Arabian
we get the skull covering the brain strongly developed, and the
facial part smaller; the enamel of the molars of the upper jaws
have few folds, and the limbs are fine. The Occidental Horse
has a much larger development of the facial part of the skull ;
the skull is long and narrow, the rims of the eye-cavities stand
somewhat forward, and the enamel folds of the crescents of the
upper molars are complicated. The bones are also thicker and
more massive, but less hard, than the Oriental. These two
main races of Equus caballus, the Arab and the cart-horse,
have undoubtedly descended from a common stock, yet now
represent two quite distinct races. Wild horses were once
abundant in Europe and Asia, as their remains in the Diluvium
testify, and from these our Hguus caballus has descended. In
America, although we have plenty of equine remains, the genus
Equus never advanced in a wild state so near our present horse
as did the diluvial horses of Europe and Asia.

The Ass (£. asinus) was domesticated before the horse.
Unlike the horse, there are no warts or chestnuts on the hind-
legs, and there is always a conspicuous line along the back,
whilst the tail is long, with a tutt of long hair at the extremity.
The ass is a native of North Africa, and probably descended
from either the Onager (Z. onager) or Kiang (E. hemionus). It is
also said by some to be descended from £. tentopus of 8.-E. Asia.

Fossil horses exist in the Eocene rocks of America, known
as Kohippos, in which the fore-feet have four toes and the
remnant of a fifth, and the hind-feet three. The Eohippos was
about the size of a dog. A division higher in the Eocene,
another genus, Orohippos, makes its appearance. In the Miocene
rocks we get another form, the Méohippos, which has three toes
on each foot, all touching the ground. In the Pliocene of
Europe we find a fossil horse called Hipparion in which three
toes exist on each foot, but the middle one alone touches the
ground. Towards the end of the Pliocene period we get the

26
466 MAMMALIA.

Protohippos in America, whose foot resembles that of Hip-
purion —the existing genus Equus not appearing until Post-
Pliocene times.

 

Fic. 241.—SKELETON OF Foot IN VARIOUS FORMS OF Eyt Ib.t.

adi ie Oe ee es US aaa eons aad
(Nicholson, utter Marsh.)

There seem to be two distinct lines of descent, one in America
and one in Europe. In America the stages are Eohippos,
Orohippos, Mesohippos, Miohippos, Protohippos, Plohippos,
and Equus. In Europe, Hyracotherium, Paleotherium, Anchi-
therium, Hipparion, and Equus.!

1 The living and extinct horses are tabulated as follows by Dr Gadow :—

Equide. Lower molars quadrituberculate, or with two transverse

ridges curved into two half-moons. Toes, 4, 3, or 4. Since Eocene.
Hyracotherium Toes, 4 Lower Eocene, England.
Be

Eohippos Lower Eocene, Wyoming.

Paleotherium Eocene to Miocene, Europe and U.S.A.
Mesohippos Jae + Lower Miocene, Dakota.

Anchitherium Upper Miocene of Europe= Miohippos, U.S.A.
Hipparion - Toes, 3. Upper Miocene of Europe, Asia, and U.S.A.
Protohippos . Toes, 3. Pliocene, U.S.A.

Plichippos - Toes, +. Pliocene, U.S.A.

Hippidion - Toes, }. Pleistocene, S. America,

Equus. - Toes, }. Since Miocene in India ; since Pliocene in

Europe. During Pleistocene cosmopolitan,
excluding Australian region.
(‘Classification of Vertebrata,’ p. 47.)
AGE OF THE HORSE LY ITS TEETH. 467

In America the horse died out, but the line continued in Europe
and Asia to the present day. )

Thus we have every gradation from a four-toed horse to the
existing one-toed animal.

The Age of the Horse tuld by its Teeth.—The teeth of the
horse vary with age, so that we can tell approximately their
age by an examination of the mouth. The incisors of the
upper jaw appear sooner than those
of the lower jaw. The front milk-
incisors come through the gum
about a week after birth, the middle
milk -incisors at the age of five
weeks. At nine months the comer
milk - incisors are apparent. The
permanent incisors appear as fol-
lows: the front when the horse is
two and a half, the middle when
three and a half, the corner ones
when four and a half years old.
The milk-incisors are distinguished — pyg, 242. —Sxcrtow oF LiorsE’s
by being shorter and whiter and ‘808 Toot#. (Chauveau.)

 

with a narrower neck than the per- te eghie edu paces
manent ones; they also become Jetowisn; it forms on the table the
gradually shorter, which is not the Ponies hier Wea Ike ee
case with the permanent incisors. sents twp rings, an outer and the

The number of hack tecth ab uamel,snd is Moke! tn the bol
birth, or soon after, is twelve,
three on each side of each jaw ; these are in the position of the
three first molars. ‘The permanent molars appear as follows:
the 1st and 2nd at about two and a half years ; the 3rd at three
and a half years; the 4th at from ten to twelve months;
the 5th at two years, and the 6th at four years. The true
molars—that is, the fourth, fifth, and sixth double teeth—
have no milk-teeth in their place.

The date of appearance of the canines—the tushes—in the

male is variable.
468 MAMMALIA.

The normal number of teeth in a horse with a so-called “ full
3--3 1-1 3-38 388
Se fe ae ee

—the canines being absent in the mare.

Wolf-teeth are single-fanged teeth, sometimes present in
front of the back teeth, in the upper jaw generally. Both
“tushes” and wolf-teeth are per-
manent, but the latter are often soon
shed.

The following may be taken as in-
dications of the age from birth to
thirty years old :—

1. At birth.—The front milk-incisors

can be plainly seen under the
Fic. 243,— TRANSVERSE SEc- pun

TION OF Horsk's UPPER 2. At one month.—The front milk-
Morar. (Chauveau.)

mouth” is forty —namely, 7

 

incisors ar ug
A, External cement; B, ex- eros e thro gh the gums,

ternal enainel; c, dentine; D, the upper and lower ones meet-
internal enamel; £, internal ‘ . F
crusta pvtrosa. ing, the middle ones just show.

The structure of the molars
resembles that of incisors, but 3. At Jive months,
is more complicated. The in-

 

The middle and

ternal cavity is much  diver- lower incisors meet and the
ticulated and enveloped by .
dentine. The enamel is placed corner ones just show.

over it, and doubled in as in 7 eu
the indisen ‘There is seen on 4 A yearling.—The corner incisors

the worn table an external 7
covering of enamel and two are through but do not yet

circles of central enamel sur-
rounding the two areas of in- meet.

tts in the dey veins on the DY - ie SR a enamel
eo dnendnne pangs rs of both jaws
now forms a complete ring.
6. At two and a half years. —Front milk-teeth fall out in
upper jaw and become replaced by permanent ones.
7. A three-year-old.—The four permanent incisors are nearly
level (front incisors).
8. At four years. — Middle milk-incisors are out and per-
manent ones come. Tushes begin to show.
9. At five years.—Permanent incisors all level. The central
10.

Li.

13.

14.

16

ARTIODACTYLA. 469

enamel of the front and middle incisors show complete
rings. Tushes quite out of gum.

At sir years.—Inner edge of corner incisors worn flat,
central enamel in complete ring. Tables of front
incisors oval. The cement of the front incisors has
nearly gone.

At seven years.—The posterior edge of the lower corner
incisor is well in advance of that of upper jaw, giving
the upper incisor a hook-like projection.

. At eight years.— Lower incisors with oblique direction.

A yellow transverse line—the dental star—is well
marked in the front incisors.

At ten years.—Tables of front and middle lower incisors
become rounded and the central enamel triangular.
The front incisors also have become longer and nar-
rower, and more or less triangular in shape. This
becomes more and more advanced with age.

At thirteen yeurs.—Central enamel] has nearly gone from
lower incisors.

. At twenty-one years.—The middle and corner incisors

converge inwards.

At thirty years.—The incisors are in nearly a straight
line, and the tables are broadest from the front to
the back.

Section 2. Artiodactyla.

Toes even in number, either two or four. The functional
axis passes between the third and fourth toes. Dorso-lumbar
vertebrae nineteen, and there is no third trochanter to the

femur.

The horns when present are always supported on

bony cores or projections from the frontal bones of the skull
(fig. 247, 3). The stomach is (with the exception of one group)
more or less complex, there being several divisions, some of
which are probably dilatations of the cesophagus ; the cecum is
470 MAMMALIA.

very small and simple in form, The families for our considera-
tion are the Nie or Pigs, and the Ruminant families Cari-
rarnia or Boridi (Oxen), Ocihe (Sheep and Croats), and the
Cerride (Deer).

NON-RUMINANTS (=BUNODONTA).

The non-ruminating Artiodactyla are often called Pachy-
dermata on account of the thick bristly skin, and have four
toes in the Hippopotamus touching the ground; in the Pigs two
are rudimentary. The molars are tuberculate.

The Suipm or Pias have two functional toes, the other two
not touching the ground—the so-called ‘“ dew-claws ” of the pig.
Now and then the first digit is present, arising from the tra-
pezium, but such cases are very rare. Canine teeth are large in
the males, forming the “tusks” of the boars. The teeth (fig.
244) vary in number in each species of pig. In the domestic
pig the dental formula is—

3—3 1—1 38—3 4—4

a | j Pgs = 44.

a
The stomach of the pig is simple like that of the horse, but less
curved on itself; the cardia has a small conical dilatation, like a
cowl turned backwards. The capacity is from 1} to 2 gallons.
The blunt snout is provided with a peculiar bone called the
“scooping-bone.” ‘The pig’s intestine resembles that of the
ox; it is 72 feet long. The mesentery that suspends the small
intestine contains an elongated mass of lymphatic glands, the
so-called mesenteric glan?. The cecum is sacculated as in the
horse, with three longitudinal musele hands. The penis is
twisted spirally when flaccid. The testicles are round, and the
scrotum narrow and but little detached. At the prepuce is a
special pouch which secretes an unctuous fluid, which even
taints the flesh, The mamme are usually ten in number, In
the brain there are few cerebral convolutions. There are four
SUID.E OR PIGS, 471

teen pairs of ribs in the pig ; the carpus consists of cight bones,
the trapezium being fully developed ; there are also seven hones
in the tarsus.

Most of our domestic swine have probably descended from

 

Fic, 244.—Tretu or Pic.

1, Upper teeth, table surface ; 2, lower teeth ; 3, lateral view of jaws. (Chauvean.)

the Wild Boar (Sus serofi). The wild boar at one time in
habited this country, but has long since been extinct. It is
MAMMALIA.

472

 
RUMINANTS, 1473

black to rusty-brown in colour when adult, and where it appears
on the Continent seems to revel in damp thickly vegetated areas,
hiding during the day and coming out at night to feed. The
food consists of roots of various kinds, corn, potatoes, acorns
and other nuts, and insects, worms, &c., in the soil, and even
voles. The wild boar when fully mature often attains the
length of seven feet from the snout to the tip of the tail. The
young are white marked with dark-brown.

The habits of the domestic pigs are much the same as S
serufa. especially to be pointed out is the great benefit to be
derived from keeping them in orchards, where they do inestim-
able good in devouring noxious insects.

RUMINANTS (=SELENODONTA),.

The Ruminants have two toes on each foot, each toe having
a separate hoof: there may also be two supplementary hoofs
at the back of the foot. If one examines the skeleton of the
ox, it will be observed that the two metacarpal and metatarsal
bones have joined to form the “cannon-bone.” The tubercles of
the molars are transformed into longitudinally placed half-moons.

The Ruminant Stomach.—The stomach (fig. 246) is peculiarly
constituted, consisting of four divisions—namely, (1) the rwmen
or paunch ; (2) the ret‘cwlum or honeycomb stomach ; (3) the
manyplies, psalterium, or omasuin; and (4) the abomasum or
rennet stomach. The paunch is where large quantities of
partly masticated vegetable food is stored. This is brought
back to the mouth, where it is mixed with saliva, chewed
up by the grinding teeth, and reduced to a fine pulp, the so-
called ‘“‘chewing of the cud.” This food then passes down the
gullet, and moves along a “gutter” called the “cesophageal
groove” into the omasum. The paunch equals nine-tenths
of the entire abdomen and lies in the left flank, the other three
divisions forming a chain along the front of its left side. In
the rumen the food is moistened. The retzcudum is internally
474 MAMMALIA.

divided into a number of polygonal spaces on its walls ; it is
small in capacity, and acts especially as « reservoir for liquids.
‘The omasum receives the “cud.” This division las its walls
thrown up into a number of deep folds longitudinally disposed,
and placed so close together that they resemble the leaves of a
book: we can recognise three series of them of different sizes,
The food, after being crushed between the leaves, is passed
through this into the fourth division, the abomasum or true
digestive stomach. Tiere the food is subjected to the action

 

Fie, 246.—SromacH oF RUMINANT.

Kt, Rumen; G, esophagus; Or.G, wsophageal groove; Re, reticulum; 0, omasum ;
-th, abomasiun ; J), duodenum; (, constriction,
of the gastric juice, and undergoes the chief digestion. It is
called the rennet stomach Iecause of a substance formed hy the
secretion of the peptic cells going by that name, the rennet used
in cheesemaking and in “junkets” being obtained from the
salted stomachs of calves, One must look upon the first three
chambers of the ruminant stomach as being dilatations of the
esophagus only, .As much as sixty vallons of liquid can be
stored in the stomach of an ox! The intestinal canal is very
long. The small intestine in the ox is twice the length of that
vf the horse, but is smaller in diameter (=49 yards). The
CERVID& (DEER). 475

cecum has no bulges or longitudinal bands. ‘The large in-
testine is longer than in the horse (33 to 39 feet), and holds
from six to seven gallons.

Ruminant Dentition.— Another character of Ruminants is the
dentition. There are no incisor teeth in the upper jaw, their
place being taken by a horny pad on the gums of that jaw
against which the lower incisors cut; neither are there any
upper canines. [chind, there are six teeth, three premolars and
three molars. The lower jaw has six incisors and two canines,
which are small; next follows a long edentulous space, and
then three premolars and three molars on each side. The
typical Ruminant dental formula is as follows :—

9-0 0-0. 3—3 3—3

og a ge ge g ee
Some deer (Cervidw) and camels have canines above, and other
slight differences.

The ruminant’s lungs differ from the horse’s in that the left
lobe is divided into two and the right into four. Ox, sheep,
and goat are characterised by the distinctness of the lobules.

=82,

Famity Crervipz (Deer).

The Cervidi or deer are noted for their “antlers,” which,
except in the reindeer, are present in the males only. The
antlers are branched horns, and are solid structures, not hollow
as the horns of cattle. They are carried on bony cores on the
frontal line. The antlers are cast annually, and reproduced
every year at or after the breeding or “rutting” season. At
first the antlers are simple, cylindrical, unbranched structures
covered with a hairy sensitive skin, the “velvet”; but later
the vessels to this skin dry up, and the skin splits, peels off, and
is rubbed off by the deer against the trees and fences. The
horns in the second year have a side branch (tyne); in the
third year there are three points, then known as the “sorel” ,
the four-year-old, in some deer, has four points, the so-called
476 MAMMALIA,

“staggard” ; whilst a five-year-old or “stag” has five or more
tynes. A strong-smelling waxy secretion is formed beneath
each eye from a sebaceous gland.

Three species of Deer are found in Britain — namely, the
Red-Deer (Cervus elaphus), the Roebuck (C. eapreolus), and the
Fallow-Deer (C. duma).

The Red- Deer (C. elaphus) is undoubtedly a native of
Britain, and is still found wild on Exmoor and the Quan-
tocks in the south, and in Scotland. The antlers are rough,
and normally consist of two front branches, the “‘brow-”
and the “bez-tyne,” a middle branch called the “tres,” and
a “crown.” In colour the red-deer varies from brown to
reddish-brown, becoming brighter in summer, with a creamy
patch on the tail. A stag weighs from 180 to 280 lb. The
calves are spotted with white in their first coat, which is cast
in October and November. They breed in autumn, and par-
turition takes place in May and June. Two calves may be
produced. The horns, which often reach a great size in the
“stag,” are shed in February or March. It is strange
how few of these cast horns are found: those that one does
come across are usually single antlers. Stays no doubt eat
the antlers after being shed; and others may, as Mr Jeffreys
thinks, be covered up by the stag with leaves and brambles.
Red-deer are often very destructive, destroying agricultural pro-
duce, not only by eating it, but far more by trampling it down.
Farmers round Exmoor would sooner suffer this loss than destroy
such sporting animals. They also bark young trees and eat the
tender shoots in forests to an injurious extent. Around Exmoor
one often sees fields of wheat spoilt by them, potatoes taken from
the ground, and cabbages quite stripped. The stag only eats the
top of the turnips and throws the root over his shoulder, whilst
the hinds eat the turnips down to the ground. The excellent
sport they afford quite makes up for the local harm they
may do.

The Roebuck (C. caprevlus), once very abundant in England,
OVIDA AND BOVIDA, 477

is now chiefly confined to the wilder regions of Scotland. It is
found in Cumberland, Dorsetshire, and Essex, and may be seen in
a few parks. It has a long winter coat of a dull brown colour:
in summer the coat is reddish-brown, with a white patch on
the rump. The legs are long and slender and the antlers small,
—never any “brow-tynes,” and as a rule only three terminal
branches present. They are shed in December and January.
An adult roe weighs about 45 Ib. The fawns are spotted with
white, and are born in April and May. As a rule, each roe
gives birth to twins. The roebuck breed about August. They
pass the day in open spaces in the woods, coming into the fields to
feed, especially upon standing corn and clover. Much damage
may be done, where they are, abundant, if they get into corn-
fields. Grass and shoots of oak and spruce form the chief food.

The Fallow-Deer (Cervus duima) is not a native of England.
It stands about three feet high. The antlers are dilated towards
their extremities, They live in herds.

Cavicornia (Ovip& ayp Bovip2).

The other Ruminants interesting to us are the Caricornia,
which include the Sheep, Oxen, and Goats. In the Cavicornia
there are never any incisors or canines on the upper jaw, the
hardened gum taking their place. The dental formula is as
follows :—

0-0 0-0 38—3 3—3

bp eee

3—3 1—1

Both male and female may have horns, or the male alone may be
horned. The Cavicornia have these structures very differently
formed to the antlers of the Cervide. They are persistent,
and not shed as in deer; moreover, they consist of a bony core
at the base, which is covered by a hollow case of horn. The
feet of the Cavicornia are always cloven. Here belong the

 

1 Dr Bischoff has shown that the fertilised ovum remains dormant for
four and a half months before development proceeds.
478 MAMMALIA.

Antelopes as well as Oxen and Sheep. The former have annu-
lated or twisted horns.

Oxide (Sheep and Goats),—These animals have short legs
and heavy bodies. The Goats (Capi) have horns in both

 

 

 

 

Fic, 247.—SKULL or Ram.

I, Occipital bone; 2, parietal; 3, core of- right frontal bone; 4, left covered by its
horn; 5, supra-orbital foramen; 5’, channel descending from it; 6, lachrymai bone ;
7, malar bone; 8, nasal bone; 9, supermaxillary; 10, premaxillary; 1v’, its internal
process ; 11, incisive opening. (Chauveau.)
sexes, and a tuft or beard of long hair on the throat. The
domestic Goat (Cavra hircus) is descended from the wild goat
of Persia and the Caucasus, the Cupra cegagrus, which lives
herds in mountainous districts.

Sheep (Ovis) never have a beard, and the horns are spirally
479

/

ETC.)

OVID.N (SHEEP,

“WeXO UL SE SqIt JO sted WaaqAantL

Cneeansy9)

“Mva.log LaFUVL PUB ‘XO UL URYy LeSUOT s[eofara a70N,

“ATGHY MO NOLBTENQG— "gpg “OI

 
480

 

Fia. 249.—Mep1an Section or Ox's Heap.

1, Condyloid foramen; 2, internal auditory
hiatus; 38, anterior foramen laccrum; 4, pos-
terior ditto; 5, intra-cranial orifice of parieto-
temporal bone ; 6, bony plate separating frontal
sinus; 7, lamina isolating sphenoidal sinus ;
8, lamina isolating the palatine part of the
maxillary sinus; 9, oval foramen; 10, optic
fossa; 11, vomer; 12, pterygoid; 13, large
opening leading into maxillary sinus, closed by
pituitary membrane when fresh ; 14, maxillary
turbinated Lone; 15, ethmoidal turbinated
bone; 16 great ethmoid cell. (Chauveau.)

MAMMALIA.

twisted. The carpus con-
sists of six bones in the
sheep and ox,—four in
the first row, two in the
second, the magnum and
trapezoid being fused to-
gether. Internally the
sheep is much like the ox,
but
no prostate gland, and the
penis is remarkable for the
two lateral folds disposed
like wings at the base of
the glans.

in the ram there is

Horned vari-
eties of sheep may have
the in both sexes
(blackfaced sheep) or only
in the male (merino sheep).
All sheep are natives of the
Old World, but from what

species our various domestic

horns

hreeds have originated we
do not know. Probably
some of the horned vari-
eties with short tails have
sprung from the ‘‘ mouftlon ”
of Sardinia and Corsica.
Owen — (Bovide). — The
oxen never have spirally
They are
provided with an immense
all chew the
cud. The skeleton of the ox
(fig. 250) differs from that of

twisted horns.

rumen, and
48]

BOVID.E, (OXEN).

 

  

 

‘Tedavnrqaut payy Arequeurpus pur
‘Somod, [R}WOAE JO JuaunToparap qraas ‘sauog ATeqTTI

Luo yRaaq Jo anuasye ‘erndvos proaq ‘sa0} Oa\y

(nveanryg) “Mog go NosaTaug—ogz “OL

 

“(sued ET) sqt peorq et} OJON

20
482 MAMMALIA.

the horse in that the ribs are broader, longer, and flatter, and
there are thirteen on each side; the sternum is flat and not keel-
shaped ; the scapula is broader at the top, and the premaxillary
bones do not carry teeth. The frontal bones of the skull are
enormously developed (fig. 249). The upper part of the frontal
bone forms the pole. The pole is thick, owing to the sinus in
the frontal bones, and bears laterally the conical bony cores that
support the horns. The ox, sheep, and goat have a third tur-
binated bone in the nasal cavities. In the foot of the ox and
sheep the cannon-bone is composed of the fused third and fourth
metacarpals and metatarsals; each digit is free, and carries a
hoof. A rudimentary third metacarpal is seen in the ox. The
ulna, as in the sheep, extends the whole length of the radius.
The kidney of the ox is lobulated. The sexual organs of the
Bull have certaini peculiarities: there are no Cowper’s glands,
the penis is long and thin, and lies in an S-shaped curve when
retracted. Most of the wild species are capable of domestica-
tion. The parent stock of our various breeds of cattle is not
known for certain. Some suppose that the beautiful white
Chillingham cattle, once wild over England, and now only pre-
served in one or two places, are descendants of the wild cattle
of Europe, the Urus or mountain bull (Bos priémigenius), which
existed in numbers in a wild state in Gaul at the time of
Ceesar’s invasion. The three most important races of oxen
which have been traced back to Bo prtimiqenius are—
(i) The Brachyceros race (Appenzell cattle).
(ii) Primigenius race (Holland cattle).
(iii) Frontosus race (Bern cattle).

Another wild Bovis in Europe was the so-called British Short-
horn (Bos longifrons), now extinct. Very probably most of our
smaller short-horned varieties are descended from this wild
species. Another wild species in Britain was the .\wroch (Bos
bison), a large species, which still exists in a wild state in the
Caucasian forests.
CARNIVORA OR BEASTS OF PREY. 483

CARNIVORA or BEASTS OF PREY.

Carnivora, which include all the Beasts of Prey and the
Seals and Walruses (Pinnipedia), have always two sets of
teeth, covered by enamel. Teeth are of four kinds—incisors,
canines, premolars, and molars. The incisors are generally
= , the canines = and are always large and well de-
veloped, pointed and sharp; the premolars and molars have
sharp cutting edges. Some molars and premolars, however, have
crowns adapted for bruising. As a general rule, the shorter the
jaw the fewer the molar and premolar teeth, and the more car-
nivorous the habits of the animal. The jaws can only move in
a vertical direction. The temporal muscles are strongly de-
veloped, so that the head is rather broad. All carnivora have
sharp claws, more or less curved, generally five, rarely four
toes, a short intestine, and abdominal teats. The fcetus is
enclosed in a deciduate and zonary placental membrane. The
two sections of Carnivora are as follows :—

1. Pinnipedia=Seals. Fore and hind limbs short, and in

the form of swimming-paddles.

2. Fissipedia= Dogs, Cats, Tigers, &e.}

Fissipedia.

In this section we find the Weasels (A/uste/ide), the Dogs
and Foxes (Canidw), and the Felid or Cats.

MusteLipz orn WEASELS.

The body elongated and slender ; legs short; toes five, armed
with sharp curved claws. The skull is long and flat, with a

1 Another classification of the Carnivora is as follows :—

(1) Greodonta. Scaphoid and lunar of carpus separate. Extinct.

(2) Fissipedia. Scaphoid fused with lunar. Toes separate =Urside,
Mustelide, Canide, Felide, Viverride, &c.

(3) Pinnipedia. Limbs as paddles. Toes webbed.
484 MAMMALIA.

tuberculate molar on each side of the upper and lower jaws..
All the Mustelidie have curious anal glands which emit a strong-.
smelling odour; these are greatly developed sebaceous glands.
Some animals, such as the skunk, have the power of ejecting-

 

Fia 251.—Frrr of CARNIVORA,

A, Plantigrade foot (Bear); B, Pinnigrade foot (Seal); v, Digitigrade foot (Lion).
(Nicholson, )

the secretion, which is most foul-smelling, some distance over
their enemy.

The Mustelide are of considerable economic importance, as
many of them are most injurious. We may here mention the
Polecat (Putorius fotidus), the Stoat (P. erminea), the Weasel
(P. vulgaris) the Marten (Murtes sylvutica), and the Otter
(Lutra vulgaris), as being generally abundant in Britain,
and also the Ferret (P. fro), which is said hy some to be a
native of Africa, but which may have been derived from the
polecat.

The Weasel (P. vulgaris) is a small elongate animal about
eight inches long with a tail about two inches long. It is brown
above and with a white belly. The body is very slender and
almost snake-like, the legs very short, and the head somewhat
larger than the diameter of the trunk. It has a similar fur
MUSTELID/E 485

winter and summer. The weasel is extremely active in habits,
and may be seen often with its family hunting along river-hanks
and dykes, going in and out of the water-voles’ burrows. Their
food consists of voles, rats, mice, lizards, snakes, frogs, and eggs.
It is said that the weasel carries the egg it has taken under its
chin. They do an immense amount of good in destroying voles,
both in winter and summer. On the other hand, they some-
times take fowls’ eggs and do other damage in poultry-houses
of a night, whilst not a few game eggs are destroyed, and even
young birds. Weasels often migrate in numbers from place to
place, especially to where field-voles are in abundance. They
breed in spring, sometimes having two litters. On the whole,
they do more good than harm.

The Marten (Martes sylvaticu).—Only one marten is found
in Britain ; it is of a rich dark-brown colour above and reddish-
grey fur beneath, with a yellow or orange breast-spot, and a
beautiful bushy tail. It was never very common in Britain,
and is now very rare. Its skin always was, as it is now, of
considerable value. Occasionally we hear of specimens being
taken in various parts of the country.

The Stoat or Ermine (P. erminea) is found in fields and
hedgerows near woods and in rabbit-warrens. It is about
twelve inches long with a tail four inches in length, and has
a slender body. In summer it is yellowish-brown with white
belly, the tail tipped with black; in winter the fur becomes
white except the tip of the tail, which remains jet-black. In
Britain they seldom become beautifully pure white as they do
in colder regions. Stoats hunt at night, feeding upon rats,
mice, rabbits, and birds, and they sometimes commit havoc in
poultry-yards. Like the weasel, however, they do good as well
as harm.

The Polecat (P. fetidus) or Foumart is much larger than the
stoat, dark shining brown with yellow wool, and short tail com-
pared with other Mustelide. Unfortunately this animal, owing
to its unnecessary persecution, has become now very rare ; still
486 MAMMALIA,

there are some places, notably in Wales, where we may still
often see it in the winter. In those admirable articles on
British Mammals in the ‘Zoologist’ (1891), Mr Harting tells
us that twenty years ago it was comparatively common in most
of the big woods in the home counties and within a very few
miles of London. It lives in rabbit-warrens, hollow trees, c.,
in the open country, and feeds upon field- and water-voles,
rabbits, and birds. Eels form one of its favourite dishes. In
winter the polecats come nearer habitations, taking up their
quarters in wood-stacks, &c., from whence they come out
and suck the eggs in fowl-houses, and even attack the birds
themselves. The polecat’s work in a hen-house can always
be told by the eggs being sucked without being broken.
From four to six young are born in May and June; the young
are blind, and cannot see for a month. Gestation lasts six
weeks. There is no doubt but that the polecat is the ancestor
of the ferret: one cannot distinguish between the two on ex-
amining the skeleton. Instead of ruthlessly destroying the
polecat, gamekeepers would do far more good by crossing them
with the ferret, for no better workers than this cross can be
found.

The Otter (Lutra vulgaris) is still widely distributed. A full-
grown dog-otter may reach thirty-four inches in length, with
about eighteen to twenty inches of tail. Its fur is smooth, dark
shining brown. The body is more or less flattened, as also is
the pointed tail. The short legs end in partially webbed feet,
and the ears are covered with flaps of skin. Its whole structure
is adapted to a semi-aquatic life. Otters inhabit the banks of
rivers and lakes, where they feed upon fish, water-rats, frogs,
insects, and even water-birds. They are not nearly so destruc-
tive to fine fish as is generally supposed, for they in preference
take eels, roach, bream, and even jack.

The Badger (Meles tawus) is still fairly common in Britain,
although not often seen on account of its strict nocturnal
habits. In length some badgers reach over three feet, and
MUSTELID A. 487

weigh as much as thirty pounds. The head is white, with
a broad black stripe on each side widening out towards the
ears. The eyes are small, and the snout tapers somewhat to
a point. The very loose skin is clothed with short fur and
long greyish-brown hairs; throat, under parts, inside of leg,
and feet black. The tail is short and bushy, yellowish-brown
in colour, and about six inches long. The badger lives in huge
burrows in the earth, with several openings, often twenty-
five or thirty yards apart; these dwellings are made in the
thickest woods some way from man’s habitations. They some-
times use fox’s “earths” for their burrows, and live in
harmony with “Reynard.” They often stay in their burrows
for days at a time in winter, but do not actually hibernate.
There are usually two large chambers in the burrows, the
chamber in which the litter is found being lined with dry
grass and leaves. The badger is not, as is generally supposed,
a solitary animal, but where it is not disturbed it is social.
Charles St John counted seven together at one time on the
shores of Loch Ness! The badger closes the entrance to its
earth in winter when the weather is cold, but soon comes out
when the temperature gets warmer. The young are usually
four in number, being blind at birth and for nine days or so
after. The diet of the badger is very varied; they take both
animal and vegetable food. Roots of various kinds, nuts,
leaves, grass, fungi, snails, slugs, worms, insects and their
larvee, frogs, snakes, birds’ eggs and young ground-birds, mice,
small rabbits, and even hedgehogs, are devoured by them. They
certainly do some damage to game, but in nowise interfere with
foxes, as is sometimes supposed. On the other hand, they
do good by destroying many vermin, and therefore should
not be destroyed, as has been too often the case in the past.
They are particularly fond of wasp-grubs, and destroy great
numbers of nests during the summer, a habit which alone
should atone for the slight loss they may occasion in game and

1 « Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands.’
488 MAMMALIA.

rabbits. The period of gestation seems to be very variable,
some gving as long as fifteen months, others only nine
months: they evidently have the power of suspending gesta-
tion. The lower jaw is remarkable for being closely united to
the upper jaw, by the glenoid cavity of the latter bending
round the condyle of the former.

Canipx (Does, Foxus, Exc.)

The Canide have pointed heads, smooth tongue, and non-
retractile claws. The front feet have five toes, the hind only
four. Two or three of the molars on each side are tuberculated.
The only two species to be considered are the Fox (Canis vulpes)
and the Dog (C. familiaris). The Dogs and Wolves have round
or oblique pupils to the eyes; the Foxes have the pupil
slit-like.

 

Fic. 252.—Treera or Doa, anp Jaws.

I, Incisors ; C, canines ; S, symphysis; Pmz, premaxillary bone.

The Fox (Canis vulpes) is too well known to need description.
It partly lives underground, not only in an “earth” formed by
itself, but in those formed by other animals, such as the rabbit
and badger. In cold clay soils the fox will lie above ground
under old roots of trees, in hollow trees, amongst scrub and
gorse, and under the shelter of some ledge of rock along a cliff,
FELIDA OR CATS. 489

Mountain and moorland foxes lie out curled up in the heather
and make no earth. The fox breeds in winter, the period of
gestation lasting two months. They litter at the end of March
and in April. Only one litter is produced in the year; from
three to six cubs are generally brought forth. Like puppies,
the cubs are blind for from nine to ten days; they mature in
a year and a half, and may live for fourteen years. Foxes are
supposed to do much damage by destroying game, poultry,
hares, &c.; at the same time we must remember that they
destroy numbers of voles, rabbits, and many of the larger
noxious insect-grubs. The fox does quite as much good as
harm, if not more, and thus should be preserved, even if
we do not choose to consider its great sporting value. We
may suffer severely, of course, if one foolishly leaves fowls
without protection.

With regard to the dog, we do not know its origin. All
existing wild dogs, such as the Australian Dingo (C. dingo) and
the wild New Zealand dog, are sometimes supposed to be
varieties of the so-called Canis familiaris. The dog, then, is
only known in its domesticated state. There is some probability
that the Wolf (C. lupus) may have been the ancestor of some
of our breeds.

FELIDE oR Cats.

The cat family all have short jaws and very strong masti-
catory muscles, hence the head is short and rounded. The
molar and premolar teeth are fewer in number than in any
other Carnivora; they are all cutting teeth except the last
molar of the upper jaw, which is tuberculate. The upper
carnassial has three cutting lobes, the lower only two. The
dental formula for the Cat family is the following :—

ae =: es ee
Pes a
ao pad ga el

The tongue is roughened owing to a number of backwardly
490 MAMMALIA,

projecting horny papille. he fore-feet have five, the hind
four toes, armed with claws, which are retractile. When not
in use these claws (fig. 253, 4) are drawn back by means of
ligaments (a and 6) into sheaths (s), so as not to be unneces-
sarily worn down. All the Felide are extremely active, and
have a very flexible backbone. They are mainly nocturnal

 

Fic, 253.—BoneEs or Tor or Cat—a, with retracted, », with vxtended claw.

a, Tendon of extensor muscle; b, retractor ligament; mc, metacarpal ; ph (1, 2, and
3), Ist to 3rd phalanges; s, bony sheath into which claw fits. (From Brit. Mus.
Cat.)

in habits, catching their prey by springing upon it; many of
the lighter-built Felide climb well.

One wild species occurs in Britain, but only in the north,
especially Scotland, and the writer has seen it on Cader Idris in
Wales—namely, the Wild Cat (Felix ratus). The domestic cat
is descended from the Nubian Cat (F. municulata), a native of
the Sudan and Nubia.

RODENTIA or GNAWERS.!

The order Rodentia contains the Mice, Rats, Squirrels, Rab-
bits, and Hares. These are sometimes called ‘Glires.” The
1 The Rodentia are also placed in the order T'rogontia of Haeckel; the

two other sub-orders are the Z'%llodontia and T'ypotheria, formed for cer-
tain Tertiary specics.
RODENTIA OR GNAWELS. 491

Rodents are characterised by having two long curved incisor
teeth in each jaw (fig. 254, 7); the crowns of these are continually
being worn down, whilst growth as rapidly takes place at their
roots. These teeth are employed in gnawing, and are more
readily worn down behind than in front, so that they always
present a sharp edge. This is due to the front having a plate
of very hard enamel, whilst the back is composed of soft dentine.
The lower jaw has never more than two incisors, the upper may
have four. Canines are never present; the molars and pre-
molars are seldom more than four in number on each side of
the jaw. The molars have flat crowns, the enamelled surfaces

 

Fic. 254.—Hgeap or Ropent. THE Hare (Lepus europaus).

i, incisors ; pm, premolars ; m, molars.

being in transverse ridges running across the teeth. The hind-
feet arc longer than the fore-feet, thus giving them the curious
springing gait; the feet have usually five toes furnished with
claws, but they may be reduced to four on each foot. The
eyes are large and directed laterally. The brain has no convo-
lutions, being nearly smooth. Many rodents have curious
lateral “‘ cheek-pouches” in which food can be stored for some
little time ; when this food is required, the animal presses the
pouches with its fore-feet. Most rodents are small animals, and
feed upon vegetation. They are endowed with great repro-
ductive faculties. The foetus is enclosed in a deciduate dis-
492 MAMMALIA.

coidal placenta. In the male the testes are temporarily placed
in the scrotum, at other times they lie in the abdomen.

The chief families are the Muridw (Rats and Mice), the
Arvicolide (Voles), the Leporide (Hares and Rabbits), the
Cavide (Guinea-pigs), the Casturidw (Beavers), and the Myo.-
ide (Dormice). All we need consider are the Mice, Rats, Voles,
and Rabbits.

Murips, or Rats anp Mick.

In this family the tail is long as a rule, and the body is
long and narrowish. Hind-legs longer than the fore-legs.
Head pointed. The back molars possess a tuberculate crown,
entirely covered with enamel. External ears clearly seen. The
genus J/us (Rats and Mice) have long, scaly, ringed tails.

Three species of Rats are found in Britain—namely, the
Black Rat (Mus rattus), the Brown Rat (AW. decumanus), and the
Trish Rat (A. hibernicus) ; this last species, told by the diamond-
shape patch of white in front, is only found in Ireland and the
Outer Hebrides. The Black Rat only is indigenous to Europe
(unless AZ. hibernicus is really a distinct indigenous species) ; it
is smaller than the common brown rat, which came over to
Europe in the eighteenth century. It was imported into
Britain in shipping, and is now spread all over the world. It
may also have entered Europe from Asia by migrating into
Russia. In any case, it has increased with alarming rapidity,
and has quite driven out the indigenous black rat. The black
rat is smaller and much darker than Jf. deewmanus, which has
a dusky-grey belly and a longer tail. Here and there specimens
are still seen, the writer having trapped it in Lundy Island.

The Rats live upon all manner of substances, and are noxious
in many ways,—a great nuisance indoors, a veritable pest in
poultry-yards and amongst corn, whilst they also distribute
the trichinosis amongst pigs, a disease which rats are very
subject to, and still more, through their fleas, plague.

A fourth species, Mus alexandrinus, is sometimes found in
RODENTIA (MICE). 493

dockyards, &c., having come over in ships from Egypt, but I
am not aware that it is established in Britain.

Three species of Mice are common in Britain—namely, the
Common Mouse (MV. musculus), the Wood-Mouse (AL. syleaticus),
and the Harvest-Mouse (MW. messorius).

The Long-tailed Field-Mouse or Wood-Mouse (M. syleaticus).
—This is the largest of our mice belonging to the genus J/us.
It can be told from the Common Mouse (Af, musculus) by its
warmer-coloured fur, by the greater size of the ears and length
of the hind-legs, by the large, very prominent eyes, and by the
elongated tail: it is between three and four inches in length, the
tail being another three and a half inches long. d/. sylvatirus
is yellowish-brown with a greyish tinge, and white beneath with
a patch of fawn between the fore-legs; the feet and fore-legs are
pure white up to the carpus; the posterior feet and legs also
white below, a white streak running up to the under surface of
the body. The long flexible tail is dusky-brown above, white
below. This mouse is a great pest to both farmer and gardener.
It eats corn, and works along the rows of peas in the garden,
whilst nuts, roots, clover, and carrots all fall to its bill of fare.
These mice store up immense quantities of food for the winter,
but do not hibernate. Wood Mice have been trapped in
the hardest weather, when they come out to feed upon the
bark of small trees. This species was one of the two that
caused so much harm to the trees in the Forest of Dean in
1813. It may also take young birds, and I have found the
remains of numerous Coleoptera in their stomachs, especially
Carabide. Their burrows are found in banks, old walls, hedges
around gardens and fields, and at harvest-time in the fields.
They commence to breed in March, and have four litters, the
number of young varying from six to nine. The young are
said by Gilbert White and Barrington to stick most tenaciously
to the teats of the mother when they are frightened.

The Harvest-Mouse (M. messorius = minutus).—This mouse
is bright sandy-yellow, brightest in colour towards the tail,
494 MAMMALIA,

and white beneath; the sides of the head are orange. The
colour, however, varies a good deal, but is always brightest in the
female sex. The feet are long and delicate, and covered with
fine yellowish hairs in front and white at the sides. Tail
scantily clothed with hair. Length, as a rule, two and a half
inches; tail two inches. The period of gestation is said to
be three weeks; the young vary from five to eight. This
species builds a beautiful nest lined with fine hair and grass,
said to be split up by the animal’s teeth. The nests are often
no larger than an orange, and sometimes quite round. This
breeding-nest is much like that of a bird. A winter nest is
also formed, where they pass the cold months of the year, in
stacks, &c. The favourite localities are amongst reeds, long
grass, and low shrubs, where the nest is often placed some way
off the ground. It is no unusual thing for M. messorius to take
the nest of a warbler and build its own in and over it. They
may sometimes be found in wheat- and barley-fields, but never
in any great number. These mice feed on corn and various
seeds, also flies and other insects, and they are known to eat the
buds of gooseberries and currants. Hazel-buds are also eaten.

The Common Mouse (AM. musculus) need not be referred to,
being well known. It is chiefly this species that we find so
abundantly in corn-fields, and not M. messorvus, as is generally
supposed.

ARVICOLIDE OR VOLES.

These can be told from the true Rats and Mice by the more
solid body, thick head, and blunt snout, by the absence of ex-
ternal ears, which are covered in fur, and by scales being
found wanting on the tail, which may be partly hairy.

There are three common species—namely, the Water-Vole
(Arvicola amphibius), the Bank-Vole (A. glareolus), and the
Ficld-Vole (A. agrestix). None of these are found in Ireland.

The Field-Vole (A. agrestis), sometimes called the short-tailed
field-mouse, is a small vole with dark-brownish back and grey
RODENTIA (VOLES). 495

belly. This vole lives in colonies, preferring low-lying pastures,
where it burrows into the ground. This species is most prolific,
having often four litters in the year, each consisting of eight
to ten young. Field Voles are frequently most destructive in
pasture-land, also destroying the bark of trees.

The Water-Vole or Water-Rat (A. amphibia) lives along the
banks of streams and in damp meadows, tunnelling branched
passages into the soil. It is blackish-brown on the back, with
a greyish-brown belly, and is often very destructive to grass-
land and corn and “clamped” roots. This vole takes the eggs
of poultry, and damages the banks of rivers, canals, and dykes
often to an alarming extent.

The Bank Vole (A. glareola), a brownish-red species with
pure white breast, belly, and feet, occurs chiefly in forest tracks.
Unlike the field-vole, the tail is very long, there being twenty-
three caudal vertebra ; and the ears are also longer than those
of the field-vole, coming above the fur. It is from three and a
half to four inches long, the tail being an inch and three-quarters.
A. glareolus may be found in sheltered hedge-banks and ivy-clad
tree-stumps, and amongst the exposed roots of trees in banks.

Plagues of Voles—TIn 1891 there was a great plague of field-
voles (A. agrestts) in South Scotland. In Roxburgh and Dum-
fries alone over 90,000 acres were more or less affected. They
first increased in 1890, overran the boggy and rough land,
and then spread everywhere,’ damaging grass, heather, and
trees, and carrying ruin before them. What had preceded this
plague? Constant war with trap and gun upon the game-
keepers’ so-called “vermin.” The Scottish farmers had to
suffer for the ignorance of the gamekeepers, who had killed off
the natural enemies of the voles—namely, the hawks, owls,
crows, weasels, polecats, &c.

A still more serious outbreak of voles (A. arvalzs) occurred in
Thessaly in 1892, which threatened to destroy the whole corn
crop of the district ; but, thanks to Professor Loeftler, the voles
seem to have been exterminated by inoculation on a large scale
Missing Page
Missing Page
498 MAMMALIA.

there is not more than two inches of humus over the chalk,
and where moles are abundant. The nest is placed under a
heap of earth, and consists of a large round space lined with vege-
table matter ; this central space is surrounded by other smaller
chambers and passages. From the nest there runs a tunnel to
the place where the insects, such as wireworm, abound ; the
walls of this tunnel are firm and compressed. The chains of
mole-hills and the subterranean passages having fallen in are
certain indications of the mole’s feeding-ground : its passage to
this area is marked by a depression in the soil. There are two

 

Pia. 255.~a, SKULL, AND B, SHOULDER GIRDLE oF MoLF.

¢, Carpus; cf, clavicle; f, falciform bone; h, humerus ; me, metacarpus ; ph, phal-
anges; 7, radius; «, ulna; sc, scapula; st, sternum; i, inci:ors ; ¢, canines ; a, atlas;
at, axis; vi, third cervical. (After Thomas.) (Brit. Mus. Cat.)
separate chambers for living and breeding in. The latter is
often lined with fur. The depth of the tunnels varies with the
season, according as to whether the wireworms and earthworms
are near the surface or deep down. The mole hunts winter
and summer, and does inestimable good by devouring noxious
grubs, Some authorities say they store up earthworms in deep
firm-walled depressions for winter food and food for the young,
The young moles are born in June and July ; the number of
each litter varies from five to seven. Not only do they hunt
underground, but they may often be found tracking the earth-
INSECTIVORA (SHREW-MICE AND HEDGEHOGS). 499

worm above ground. In Ireland Talpa europea is unknown,
nor is it seen in the Western Islands of Scotland. They may
be a nuisance in grass-land and corn-fields at harvest-time, but
should then be trapped alive and put where they can do much
good, as long as they are not allowed to increase unduly. But
is it certain that they do any harm? Surely by tunnelling
the earth they help surface drainage; surely the mould they
bring up, spread upon the land, would act as a beneficial top-
dressing ; and what of the countless hordes of wireworm and
leather-jackets they destroy ?

THe Soricipz# or SHrew-Micr

are all small mouse-like animals with soft fur, well-developed
eyes, and external ears, and with a more or less pointed snout.
Shrews live in subterranean passages, where they devour noxious
grubs. They do not, it seems, make their own passages, but
live in those formed by voles. All the Shrews have a peculiar
smell, coming from two sebaceous glands near the anus.

Three species are found in plenty in Britain—the Common
Shrew (Sorea vulgaris), the Little Shrew (8. pyynueus), and
the Water-Shrew (S. fodiens). The last mentioned is quite
black, and although beneficial on land, is said to be most
harmful to fish-breeding, living upon the small fry.

Tue ERINACEIDE on HepGEHocs

are represented by one species in Europe—namely, E. ewropeeus
—that lives upon grass-snakes, adders, frogs, snails, and various
grubs, voles, poultry and game eggs, and sometimes vegetation.
They hunt only of a night, rolling up into a ball when
attacked, and are thus protected by the prickly spines on the
upper surface of the body. The Hedgehog passes the winter
in a semi-dormant state, but sometimes comes out at that time
500 MAMMALIA,

of year. From three to four young are born in May: they are
pinky white, with white quills, and both eyes and cars are

 

Fic. 256.—SKULL or HEDGEHOG (Erinaceus europaeus). (Nicholson.)

closed. They are produced and kept in a nest of moss, covered
with leaves. In many respects the hedgehog is injurious, but
it also does good in destroying vermin.

CHIROPTERA or BATS.

The Bats, which are insectivorous mammals, are characterised
by the peculiarly modified forearms, adapted to form the
wings. The digits of the fore-limb are enormously elongated,
except the pollex. These fingers are united by a thin mem-
brane called the “patagium”’ (fig. 257, P), which is also ex-
tended between the fore and hind limbs and united to the sides
of the body. This expanded membrane is used for flight. The
pollex and first finger of the forelimb may have a claw, but the
others are destitute of them. The hind-digits have each a long
nail. Bats have teeth of three kinds, and in all the canines are
well developed. The molars in the insectivorous bats are always
sharp pointed ; in the foreign fruit-eating bats they are tuber-
culate. The bones are never hollow as in birds. Two mamme
are placed upon the chest. The body-is covered with hair, and
CHIROPTERA OR BATS. 501

(j nat. size.)

Fic. 257,—Lone-EaRED Bat (Plecotus awritus).
P, Patagium; H, humerus; R, radius; P, pollex; Di—Div, phalanges; F, femur; Ti, tibia; T, tail.

 
502 MAMMALIA.

the ears may be large and sensitive. The tail (7) is sometimes
included in the patagium, which stretches between the hind-
limbs. Bats are either nocturnal or crepuscular, and therefore
the eyes are small, the sense of touch being correspondingly
developed. They pass the day hanging up in hollow trees,
amongst masonry, in caves and the crevices of rocks. Only
insectivorous bats (Insectivora) occur in Europe ; the Fruyivora
occur in Australia, Java, Asia, &c.

We have at least seventeen species in England, the commonest
being the Pipistrelle (Véspertilio pipistrellu), the Long-eared
Bat (Plecotus auritus) (fig. 225), the Large Noctule (V. noc-
tult), and two Horseshoe Bats (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinuin
and hippusiderus), which have a curious leaf-like structure
attached to the nose, of a sensory nature. These bats feed
chiefly on moths, and thus prevent large numbers of cater-
pillars from attacking our crops.

The other orders of Mammalia are not of any special im-
portance to us, and thus need not be referred to in this text-
book.

The Animal Kingdom culminates in the order Primates,
which includes the Quadrumanu or Monkeys and Lemurs, and
the Bimanc or Authropoid Apes and Man.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX IL

THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES.

ALTHOUGH we have said in chapter v. that some worms (Anguil-
lulide) occasion considerable harm to certain crops, yet it is
amongst our stock that their ravages are mostly felt, especially
in sheep, cattle, and horses. As the loss that many worms are
accountable for often reaches very serious dimensions, a few general
notes on the prevention and treatment of these parasitic diseases
may not be out of place here, after having dealt with their economic
history in preceding chapters. The three most important groups of
the parasitic worms are the Tapeworms, Round- or Thread-worms,
and Flukes. Tapeworms often cause severe diseases in animals
and man (so called Teeniosis). When we know the life-history of
a species it is usually easy to prevent the increase, if the trouble
is taken to do so; but where we are ignorant of the various stages
and habitats of the pests, remedies only lie in our power. As
pointed out in chapter iv., most tapeworms have two distinct hosts
—one in which the adult sexual tapeworm lives in the intestines,
another in which the asexual cyst or bladder-worm takes up its
abode. The cysts are usually found in carnivorous and omnivorous
animals, in the various organs and internal membranes. Each cyst
may give rise to one or hundreds of adult worms, in another animal,
on being eaten. By the destruction of these cystic parts the tape-
worm stage is prevented, and the teniosis is stopped from spread-
ing. For instance, if all the heads of “ pothery” or “sturdy ” sheep
are destroyed (and sometimes in lumbar-gid the spinal cord) with
the ccenuri in them, so many hundreds of Tenia cenurus, one of the
dog tapeworms, are destroyed. Again, if the diseased pork called
“measly pork” is not eaten insufficiently cooked by human beings,
the dreaded human tapeworm, 7’. solzwm, is prevented, and the same
with “measly” beef.
506 PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES.

The destruction of all parts containing the cysts or water-bags
should be carefully carried out, instead of throwing the same to
dogs, or being used cven as human food.

The ova and embryos that form the hydatid stages or cysts are
obtained in a great number of cases from polluted drinking-water.
The eggs passed out with the sexual tapeworm, and thus out of the
host, are often left upon the ground, and get carried by rain to
runnels, ditches, dykes, and rivers. Yet many are taken off the
ground direct by herbivorous animals. Sometimes whole proglottides
voided out in the dung are eaten, and then the animal is invaded,
if it be the proper host, with hundreds of small cysts, as seen in
Cysticercus cellulose in pigs. We must bear in mind that we cannot
get rid of these cysts when once they have taken up their rendezvous
in the organs, except in the isolated case of Multiples multiplex,
which may sometimes, if a single cyst only exists, be extracted from
the sheep’s brain by trephining. It is therefore very essential to
prevent the ova of cestodes from entering an animal. To do this
we must endeavour to keep our stock free from these worms (and
other parasites). When they are noticed by such symptoms as
thinness, capricious appetite, irritation in the lumbar regions, and
the presence of proglottides in the excreta, the patient should be
shut up, well dosed, and all excrement, with the expelled proglot-
tides and scolices, burnt. We must bear in mind that as long as the
scolex remains the cestode can continue to grow, thus necessitating
the certain expulsion of this budding area.

In regard to tenicides, great numbers of substances have been
experimented with, and many are more or less successful. Before
dosing, the patient should be given no solid food for at least twelve
hours previously, but a small quantity of soft food only. A mild
dose of castor-oil should also be given beforehand. The most certain
drugs are areca-nut, male fern, calomel, pomegranate bark, and
sulphuret of calcium. Perhaps the best is a mixture of areca-nut
and male shield-fern powders in the proportion of 2 grains of areca-
nut to every pound-weight of the dog, with 15 minims (drops) of
male shield-fern extract. This tenifuge should be given in sweet
milk, and is best followed next morning with a mild dose of castor-
oil. Asa rule, two doses of the powders are necessary. thereal
extracts of male shield-fern in 2-grain to 6-grain doses also brings
away the worms. Similar drugs may be used for poultry in vary-
ing doses. But for sheep, kamala in 10-grain doses has met
with most success. In poultry I have obtained excellent results
PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. 507

with the extract of male fern, about 10 drops administered in
salad-oil,

Nematode or round-worms are little affected by the above, at
least the majority of species. The round-worms may or may not
have two distinct hosts. Such groups as the Trichine live in two
different animals or in different parts of the same animal. The
asexual forms live in the connective-tissue organs, and in the blood-
vessels, &c. ; the sexual forms in the intestines, the air-passages,
and a few beneath the skin. The majority of Nematodes pass their
eggs out in the host’s dung, the worms coming away when their full
complement of eggs are laid. These ova lie about upon the ground,
get carried into the water, and are thus taken up again with food
and drink. Some undergo a slight development outside the host
upon the damp ground and vegetation ; and possibly some few may
live in a secondary host, such as earthworms, snails, insects, &c.
Some are carried by biting flies (Filariz and Mosquitoes).

The well-known disease, trichinosis in pigs, rats, and men, is
distributed chiefly by rats, and through them it is given to pigs,
and from the latter to man. Here again the knowledge of the life-
history helps us, for by stopping the common practice of giving
dead rats to the pigs, we shall tend to check a disease which in
human beings may be attended with fatal results. The destruction
of rats is most necessary.

Some pastures are known to be impregnated with certain
diseases, such, for instance, as lung-worm or husk, and the worms
producing parasitic gastritis. When this is known to be the case,
it is well to keep the animal subject to the disease off the land for
some time, feeding it down in the meanwhile with other stock
that are not invaded by the particular kind of parasite we wish
to destroy. In the red intestinal worms, the armed sclerostomes,
in horses, we can employ this way of clearing the paddocks by
grazing sheep on them for some time: these animals, feeding close
and making the land obnoxious by their excreta, destroy the
majority of the eggs passed out in the horses’ dung, and are not
themselves invaded by the equine parasites. A large number of
round-worms live in the intestines of all animals, and as the ova
are passed out in the dung, it is very essential in an outbreak of
these nematodes to see that the diseased animals, such as horses,
are boxed and all the excrement burnt, whilst the meadows should
be kept free from the hosts, and if the disease is not an ovine one,
dressed with salt and fed down by sheep. Diseases, such as husk,
508 PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES.

are spread by the embryos being brought up in the mucus from
the air-passages ; these germs are scattered about upon the ground,
and thus sow the seeds of disease for numbers of other lambs and
sheep. When that spasmodic cough so characteristic of “ hoose” is
heard, it is surely advisable to remove the animal, and so prevent it
from contaminating the ground.

Similar remarks apply to gapes in poultry. The ground becomes
fouled with the ova released from the bodies of the coughed-up
syngami, to such an extent that it is not possible to go on success-
fully breeding birds on the same land for any length of time. Runs
and breeding-places should be dressed with gas-lime, so as to
destroy the ova and embryos, and chicks ought to be kept far
from the stock-birds. Unfortunately wild birds suffer from gapes,
so that we shall constantly get fresh infestations, but we can
prevent epidemics.

Speaking generally, we can prevent nematode diseases hy isolating
the sufferers, burning their excrement, and removing to fresh land,
thus allowing the old land to have a rest, or by substituting other
kinds of stock until the land becomes once more clean. It is very
doubtful if any dressings can be applied to grass-land, as nothing
will touch the ova or larve that will not burn the grass as well.
Lastly, attention to the water-supply should not fail to be given
during and after an epizootic attack on the farm. For destroying
round intestinal worms, such as the ascarides and oxyures, the drug
called santonine may be successfully used. It should be preceded
by a purgative and absence of food for some six to twelve hours.
For horses santonine is used at the rate of 20-grain to 30-grain
doses, one dose given in the morning, another of a night, followed
by a purgative next morning. By far the most certain nematocide
is thymol, given in 15-grain doses to horses morning and night,
followed by a dose of castor-oil. Thymol can be dissolved in alcohol,
and should be administered in warm sweet milk. In cases of armed
sclerostome attack the drug is especially valuable, as it not only
clears out the free red-worms (NS. egudnwm and 8. tetracanthum) but
also destroys those encysted in the mucous membrane. Generally
the two doses suffice, but it is best to follow with the same treat-
ment next day. Dogs can only stand from 2 to 3 grains of thymol,
and fowls, I find, only 1 to 2 grains, which soon removes the white
thread-worms (/Heterakis).

Those vermiceous pests that attack the air-tubes, such as the
gape-worm in fowls and some of the lung-worms of sheep and calves,
PREVENTION OF VERMICEOUS DISEASES. 509

can be destroyed by tracheal injections of camphor and creosote ;
but as skilled labour has to be employed, and then only one of the
three worms in the lamb is affected, the method is scarcely to be
advised, in sheep. Fumigations with sulphur, &c., are equally un-
satisfactory. All we can do is to keep the stock well fed, isolate
the affected ones, and avoid foul pastures. In gapes, however,
allowing a drop of camphorated or eucalyptus oil to run down
the trachea is always satisfactory, and perhaps is the best way to
treat birds when only a few are attacked ; but when large numbers
have gapes the use of the fumigating-box is advisable. Blowing
into the box, with bellows, finely ground camphor and chalk causes
the worms to relax their hold and the birds to cough, and so the
nematodes are expectorated.

Flukes or trematodes are impossible to destroy, as far as our
present knowledge goes, when once fairly housed in the bile-ducts
and liver. Land along the edges of rivers and streams may be said
to be generally liable to be infested with trematode germs, which,
as pointed out previously, live in the water-snails (Limneus trun-
catulus) during part of their early life. Certain meadows in which
these molluscs abound are sure to aflect the flock ; such land
should thus be fed to beasts which, although sometimes subject,
to trematodes, are not seriously affected. Attention should be
paid to the molluscan hosts, hordes of which may be destroyed,
when cleaning out the ditches and dykes, by casting lime over the
mud brought out, when not only the primary host but the embryo
flukes are killed. In all parasitic vermiceous diseases the strength
of the host must be well maintained by good and rich feeding, so
that the invaded animal can withstand the extra drain on its
system. This and proper sanitary measures, the application of a
few well-known vermifuges, and the destruction of diseased parts
instead of giving them to dogs and other animals, are the main
points in preventing the too persistent losses from vermiceous
diseases.

In the case of infected food, which seldom now passes out of the
markets in this country, thorough cooking destroys the cysts and
germs of various diseases, the chances of infection being very slight.
Water plays a prominent part in the distribution of these com-
plaints, and where possible the purest spring-water only should be
employed, for stock as well as for man, especially during and after
an outbreak.
510

APPENDIX II.

THE PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.

To be able to cope with the numerous insect attacks which our
fruit, vegetable, and other crops and stock suffer from, it is essen-
tial that we know certain entomological facts, and something of
the life-histories and habits of those insects we wish to destroy.
A knowledge of some of the simplest elements of entomology will
enable us to understand the why and the wherefore of applying
certain remedies in certain ways and at particular times. (V7de
chapter vii.)

Certain insects are tnjurious in one stage only, others in two stages,
and those with an tncomplete life-history during their whole life-cycle,
from the hatching of the egg onwards.—In the majority of groups
it is the larva that does most harm, as in the wireworms or larvee
of the click beetles (Alters), the leather-jackets or larvw of the
daddy-long-legs (7Tipulidw), the surface-larve or caterpillars of the
dart-moths (Noctuce), and the root-eating maggots, the larvie of true
flies (Diptera). There are, nevertheless, many exceptions to this
general rule: for instance, both larva and adult of the cockchafers
(Melolonthide) do damage ; the larva as well as the imago of the
flea-beetles (Halticid), the pea weevils (Nitones), the raspberry
weevil (Otiorhynchus), and asparagus beetle (Créoceris) also cause
considerable loss in our fields and gardens. In the case of flea-
beetles and others the adults do most harm, the damage caused by
the larve being of secondary importance. Those insects, such as
plant-lice, which have an incomplete metamorphosis are destructive
in all their stages. With the exception of this last group, the larra,
pupa, and adult have generally different habitats. In some insects we
can best get at the larva to destroy it, in very few the pupa, whilst
many we can attack whilst in the adult phase. The egg masses
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 511

of a few may be destroyed in winter. Thus the importance of
knowing the life-histories of our insect and other pests.

Nearly every known plunt ts attacked by some cnsect.—Very often
each species of insect has a particular food-plant: the onion fly
only attacks the onion, the rust or carrot fly the carrot and parsnip,
the American blight the apple and hawthorn (seldom the pear).
More generally any member of the same family of plants is attacked
by one species of insect ; for example, the turnip flea infests all
Cruciferze alike. Some of our worst pests are general feeders, such
as the wireworm and leather-jacket, which will feed off the roots
of nearly all plants. Where we get one species feeding only off one
particular plant or family of plants, we can do much to prevent their
damage by judicious rotation in the garden and in field cultivation.

Three of the most important structural features to be considered in
regard to insect eradication and prevention of their attacks are the
structure of the mouth, the breathing apparatus, and the organs of
sense.—There are three distinct types of mouth found in insects :
the first is modified for beting, the second for piercing, the third for
sucking. Insects provided with a biting mouth devour plant-tissue
wholesale, both leaf, stem, and rootage being subject to their on-
slaughts. Prercing-mouthed insects have their mouth-parts drawn
out into needle-shaped lancets enclosed in a tube formed by the
upper and lower lips. These insects feed by plunging the proboscis
into the leaf and drawing out the sap. Sucking-mouthed insects have
a long, soft, coiled proboscis, and can do no harm. Lepidoptera
have sucking mouths, but some few in Africa, &c., have the pro-
boscis so hardened they attack fruit. This structure of the insect
mouth is a point too often neglected by people anxious to destroy
insects. Poisons such as arsenical washes are useless for piercing-
mouthed insects such as plant-lice and bugs ; on the other hand,
poisons that will hold to the leaf will be taken in by leaf- and
blossom-eating larvee, and so destroy them. The plant-louse would
plunge its beak through the poison before it used, and so escape its
ill effects ; to poison plant-lice we should have to poison the sap.
How, then, can we destroy such pests? On examining any insect
we shall observe (as pointed out in chapter vii.) at the sides of the
body a number of oval or slit-like apertures: these are breathing-
pores or spiracles. Insects do not breathe through their mouth, but
through these respiratory openings. Varnish these over, and the
insect will be asphyxiated. Plant-lice, &c., can be killed, then,
by using some spray that will block up these breathing - pores :
512 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.

soft-soap answers this purpose ; other substances, such as quassia,
put in the wash, are of value, but are not es-cutial for killing most
aphides. Soft-soap also adheres to the aphides’ skin, and is useful
besides in fixing corrosives and poisons on the insect and foliage.
The more soft-soup used, within certain linits, therefore, the better.
Certain substances, as paraffin, corrode the skin of aphides. Mites,
on the other hand, breathe cutaneously, and not through spiracles ;
nicotine or soap washes have less eftect on them.

On the head of an insect we hare observed, besides the mouth, two
kinds of eyes, simple and compound, and in front of the tro large
compound eyes a pair of jointed horn-like processes, the “ feelers” or
untenne.—What are these feelers for? They are sense organs:
whether they serve for one or two or more sensory functions we
do not know. (ne sense is certainly developed in them—namely,
“smell.” The sense of smell may also be seated in the jointed
palpi attached to the two lower pairs of jaws. Insects have the
sense of smell very acutely developed: they are attracted to their
food-plant by its odour, both for feeding purposes and for ovi-
position. Plant three heds of carrots in your garden some distance
apart : sow one thinly, so that you have no necessity to thin them
out ; sow the other two in the ordinary way, and thin out one of
these, damaging the plants by bruising as you do so, and leave the
soil loose around the plants left in the ground: thin out the third
bed in the same manner, but sprinkle over it, as you go along, sand
soaked in paraffin, so that the sand falls down and covers in the
spaces around the young carrots. You will find the middle plot
infested with “rust,” the flies having been attracted by the smell
from the bruised carrots ; the dressed plot and plot one will be
practically clean, owing to the paraffin destroying the smell of the
plant in the one case, and no smell being released in the other.
The use of these deodorants is very important as a preventive of
insect ravages, both for dressing the seed and young plants.

Thus from studying the structure of an insect we see that we can
fight them in three different ways—by poisoning, by asphyxiating,
and by destroying the natural smell of the plant.
action of certain substances must also be noted.

The two means of checking tnsect ravages «re by Prevention and
Remedies,—By prevention the appearance of any pest is forestalled,
by either making the surroundings unfit for them to live in, by
the winter destruction of the insects, by trapping, or by the use of
deodorants upon seeds and seedlings. In regard to the enter de-

The corrosive
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 513

struction, which is one of the most important features in prevention,
let us see where insects generally take up their winter quarters.
After an attack of onion maggot, rust, celery fly, cabbage maggots,
and wurzel fly, &c. (all of which are the larvee of Diptera), we shall
find in the ground during the winter numberless small, oval, brown
bodies known as “ puparia,” each of which contains a pupa derived
from one of the maggots. We must not forget, however, that some
of the larvee have not matured by the time the crop was lifted, and
thus some are harvested with the crop, as we find in maggoty
onions and rusty carrots; or they may remain in the leaves, as in
the case of celery-fly, or in the rotting stalks and roots, as in cabbage
maggots. Now, if these are left in and on the ground and not
destroyed, fresh generations appear next year, and should a similar
crop be grown on or near the same land it stands a considerable
risk of further attack. Again, in sazw/ly larve attack on fruit-trees,
at the end of the year the larve fall to the ground, bury themselves
a few inches beneath the bushes and trees, and forming a case of
silk and earth, likewise later pupate. They often remain as larvee
in the cocoon until the spring, and then pupate. A very large
number of moths also are found in the pupal stage in the earth
in the winter time. At this time of year one and all should be
destroyed. Two methods seem to recommend themselves—one,
turning over the land so as to expose the pup to the attack of
birds, which greedily devour them ; another, by deep trenching the
land so as to bury the insects. After a bad attack of currant saw-
fly, we may remove the soil from beneath the currant and gooseberry
bushes in winter and burn it in gardens.

It must be remembered that frost has little or no injurious effect
upon insects in the egg or pupal state, or even upon most maggots.—
I have known chrysalids frozen as brittle as glass, and yet their
vitality was unimpaired. Frost, if anything, is beneficial to insect
life, for the hard state of the ground protects the creatures from the
attack of birds. Many insects hibernate in the adult state,—such
as the turnip-flea, thrips, apple-blossom weevil, earwigs, &c.,—taking
refuge in hedgerows, grassy headlands, rubbish-heaps, under dead
bark, and so forth. Hedges bordering fields and gardens, and all
grassy patches, should be well cleaned in the winter, the material
burnt, and all rubbish cleared off and similarly destroyed. The dead
leaves that collect in currant-bushes harbour the young larve of the
currant moth (Abrawas grossulariata), and should therefore be
cleaned out. All prunings of fruit-trees should be burnt, and not

2k
514 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.

left about in heaps as we often see them, for numberless ova of
psylla, aphis, lackey moth, and winter moth may be upon them ; a
cursory examination with a lens will soon show their presence.
Clean farming is the essential of insect prevention, and this especi-
ally applies to fruit. Examine in winter an old apple-tree covered
with rough bark, moss, and lichens, and we may find numberless
larvee of the codling moth, American - blight insects, earwigs,
weevils, &c., sheltering beneath. Cleaning the bark in winter will
do away with many destructive creatures. Some insect enemies are
found beneath the fruit-trees in the ground in winter, but some de-
structive species come into activity during the cold months of the
year—namely, the winter moths. These moths appear from October
to April, and lay their eggs upon the twigs and buds. The females
are wingless in some (March moth), nearly so in others (Winter
moth), and ascend the tree-trunks to deposit their eggs: the males,
however, 1nay carry a few up to the tree in copuld. Those crawling
up the trunk are easily captured by grease-banding. This method
has now been in vogue for some time. Banding of another sort is
useful in gardens and orchards —namely, for codling moth larve.
The best plan for this pest is to tie round the trunk about a foot
from the ground a wisp of hay or sacking in May: here the larvee
find a shelter in which to pupate, and can then be taken off with
the sacking or wisp in the winter and burnt.

Another insect which may be trapped is the click beetle, the
parent of the wireworm. This is done by placing small masses of
green stuff, lucerne or sainfoin, under a board in gardens from April
to July, when numbers of click beetles will be found sheltering be-
neath during the daytime, and may then be destroyed with the
ova they have laid below the lucerne. JLeather-jackets may also be
caught by placing large lumps of rotting turf upon the ground
where they are abundant.

Considerable damage is often done to fruit, peas, Kc., in gardens
by a group of beetles called Weevils (Curculiontde). These beetles
can always be told by their having a snout and elbowed antenne
(vide p. 154). They are destructive both in the imago and larval
stages, the adults devouring leafage and the larve rootage of
plants. Weevils are always extremely sensitive, and fall to the
ground at the least shock, when they curl their legs in and feign
death. The larve are always curved, white, wrinkled, footless
grubs, and generally feed close to the surface during the winter
months. Many weevils (Otiorhynchus) have no wings. This genus
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 515

contains such noxious species as the raspberry weevils (0. picipes
and 0. sulcatus) and the plum weevils (0. fuscipes and 0. tene-
bricosus). They all hide away during daylight, coming out at night
to feed. We can best catch these depredators by “jarring” the
trees over tarred sacks or boards at nights, when the weevils fall off
and are caught in the tar beneath. Jarring may generally be em-
ployed for this group of beetles. Arsenical spraying is also said to
kill them. Some other weevils (Bruchide) attack seeds, living in
the larval state in them, such as the pea weevil (Bruchus ist). All
infested seed should either be steeped in carbolic water or fumigated
with bisulphide of carbon for some hours, when all signs of insect
life will be destroyed.

Such are some of the many ways by which we can prevent insect
attack. Cleanliness and the judicious rotation of crops will to a
large extent keep them in check; whilst, where we can, such animals
as pigs, fowls, guinea-fowls, &c., may be employed on infested land
after a bad attack, especially in orchards, where they will be seen
greedily devouring all manner of grubs that come in their way.

Substances used for the destruction of insects, or znsecticides, are
now employed with great success.—Jnsectifuges are mixtures used
for keeping insects off a crop — preventive washes or powders.
Insecticides may be liquid or dry; the liquid washes are always
preferable to the dry powders. To destroy insects by washes or
spray fluids we must carry one thing in our mind—namely, How do
the insects to be killed devour their food ? are they provided with a
biting or a sucking mouth ?

There are'six chief types of washes now in use—namely, (1) Arsenz-
cal washes ; (2) Tobacco washes ; (3) Paraffin emulsions ; (4) Sulphur
lime washes; (5) Soft-soap and Quassia washes ; (6) Caustic or winter
washes.

1. Arsenical washes are three in number—viz., Paris green, London
purple, and Arsenate of lead. These poisonous washes are only of
use for leaf-eating larvee and beetles. As to the respective merits
of each, arsenate of lead stands first, as it has a lesser tendency to
burn the leafage, a feature which has too often attended the use of
Paris green. Arsenate of lead is mixed in the following manner :
dissolve 2 ounces of arsenate of soda (commercial) in a little water,
then dissolve 74 ounces of acetate of lead also in water. Add the
arsenate of soda to 10 gallons of water, and then after stirring well
add the dissolved acetate of lead and mix the whole well together.
It may also be obtained as a paste (Swift’s, Berger’s, Voss’, &c.)
516 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS.

Spray in early morning and late in the afternoon, unless on dull days.
Never spray when the blossom is out, as it kills the bees. ever leave
the wash about, as it is poisonous. Three sprayings should be always
employed—one just before the buds begin to burst, the second just be-
fore the blossom opens, and the third directly the blossom has fallen.
By so doing several insect attacks are dealt with, such as Winter
moth, Tortrix, and Codling moth.

2. Tobacco washes.—Tobacco is one of the most potent insecticides.
It may either be used in the form of a wash or mixed with camphor
and used as a fumigant under glass. In many cases rag or paper
steeped in tobacco-juice is used for burning in glass-houses to kill
aphis, thrips, &c. It is best used as nicotine, but this is too ex-
pensive to use on a large scale. Nicotine wash is made as
follows :—

Nicotine (90-98 per eu : : 1 02.
Soft-soap . ; : : 2 02.
Water. : 10 gallons.

Plain tobacco-leaf waste may also be used, or home-grown tobacco,
as follows :—

Tobacco waste. 5‘ % ‘ 2-3 lb.
Soft-soap . ‘ . ‘ 3 $-1 lb.
Water. i 10 gallons.

Infuse the tobacco a in an in press ; then add a pinch of
soda, and add the whole to the dissolved soap and water. At
present the only way tobacco wash can be used commercially is
to buy it from insecticide makers.

3. Paraffin washes.—Paraffin-oil or kerosene forms an excellent
insecticide and insectifuge, especially if it is used with soft-soap in
the form of an emulsion, by which the paraffin is evenly distributed
in the water. This wash is useful for celery fly, marguerite fly,
scale insects, plant-lice, &. Paraffin emulsion may be prepared by
mixing equal proportions of boiling soft-soap solution and paraffin
together, and thoroughly churning them until a thick creamy emul-
sion is formed. This emulsion can be kept and mixed with sixteen
to thirty times its bulk of warm water when required for use. An-
other method is to dissolve 1 quart of soft-soap in 2 quarts of
boiling soft water. Remove from the fire, and while still boiling
hot add one pint of paraffin oil, and immediately churn the mixture
with a small hand syringe for five minutes. For use dilute with
ten times its volume of water (Cousins). By far the best mixture is
paraffin jelly, made as follows: Paraffin, 5 gallons ; soft-soap, 8 Ib. ;
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 517

water, 10 gallons. Boil together in a closed copper, and when boil-
ing add a few pints of cold water. When all is dissolved, pour into
a barrel or pails ; it then solidifies to a jelly. Use 10 Ib. of jelly to

O gallons of water. Paraffin jelly is an excellent remedy for red-
spider on fruit, for scale, aphis, and leaf hoppers.

4, Lime-sulphur washes.—The two following formule are the best
for clearing trees in winter, for pear-leaf blister mite and some
coccidee (Aspidotus). They do not kill insect eggs, as some say,
nor are lime-sulphur washes at summer strength of much value as
insecticides. For winter use only.

(1) Lime-sulphur-soda wash—

Lime . : ; : 3 lb.
Sulphur ; ‘ : 3 lb.
Caustic soda : : 1 Ib,
Soft-soap i : ‘ 1 Ib.
Water . 10 gallons.

Make the flowers of sulphur a a paste sah water, and then thin
and pour over the lime ; let this boil for a quarter of an hour, then
stir and add the canta: soda ; let this boil for some time, and then
add the dissolved soap and full complement of water.

(2) Lime-sulphur-soda-salt wash—

Quicklime ‘ - a ‘i 3-6 lb.
Sulphur ‘ és . ‘ 3 Ib.
Salt. ‘ : ‘ : 3 lb.
Caustic soda . F * ‘ 1 lb.
Water . ‘ 10 gallons.

Mix soda and lime together, ain lake with some hot water in
which the sulphur has been incorporated, and then bring up to
the full 10 gallons. This is self-boiling.

(3) Lime-salt wash.— This is useful for cleaning fruit-trees of
moss, lichen, &c., and at the same time undoubtedly checks the
hatching of apple sucker and plum aphis eggs. Moreover, both
ingredients, as they get washed off, pass to the soil, and there do
much good. It is made by slaking 14 cwt. of the best white lime,
and adding this, strained through a coarse sieve, to 100 gallons of
water in which 15 lb. of salt has been dissolved. Use in March or
late February, putting on as thickly as possible.

5. Soft-soap and Quassia wash forms a very useful cleansing wash
for aphides. It is made of 1 1b. of soft-soap, 1 lb. of boiled quassia-
chips to 10 gallons of water. The quassia should be boiled separ-
ately for two hours, with just sufficient water to keep it liquid.
518 PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION Of INSECT PESTS.

The soft-soap should be also boiled, and then added to the strained
extract of quassia ; after both have been well mixed, they may be
added to the 10 gallons of warm water.

6. Caustic washes are used with great success in the winter as
agents for ridding the bark of trees of their vegetal incumbrances.
The best wash is made by mixing 24 lb. of caustic soda with 10
gallons of water. It must not be used until the sap is well down
the tree. Trees washed with this soon present a clean healthy
appearance, and can be told at once.

Fumigation.—This treatment is used for nursery-stock and plants
under glass. For this purpose (1) Hydrocyanic acid gas is used,
also (2) Tobacco, and (3) Pyrethrum. The first is most useful for
nursery-stock and dormant plants—it kills all life.

For every 100 cubic feet of space use 3 ounce of potassium cyanide,
and for each ounce of the cyanide use one liquid ounce of sulphuric
acid, mixed with 4 ounces of water. The cyanide is dropped by
special apparatus into the acid and water, and at once the deadly
fumes arise. Plants are best treated in a dull light, dry tem-
perature, and at about 60° F., and should be exposed to the fumes
for at least an hour. The fumigating chamber or houses must not
be entered until all the gas has escaped, and this should be allowed
to do so from above. If sodium cyanide is used, then a $ ounce
is required. One must remember that this gas is a deadly poison,
and so it must be employed with extreme caution.

Soil Fumigation.—In killing insects under ground, bisulphide of
carbon is employed. It is injected into the soil by means of the
Vermorel Injector at the rate of 4 ounces to the square yard, as
many small injections as possible. Being heavier than air, it sinks
into the soil, and is fatal to insect life that it reaches. It is also
used for fumigating grain, &c., and must then be placed at the top
of the grain. Remember it and its gas are poisonons and highly
inflammable—no light, cigar, or live electric wire must go near it.
Various patent soil fumigants, such as vaporite, fumite, and apterite,
are used with success for most ground pests, as leather - jackets,
chafer larvee, surface larvee, and ants.

The effect of artificial manures on vrsect pests is often most marked.
Nitrate of soda and kainit are frequently of much service in destrov-
ing surface grubs, whilst on the other hand superphosphates have less
effect. Bone-meal and guanos encourage many insect pests. Soot
forms an excellent deterrent to many leaf-eating beetles and onion
fly ; dusting over the seed leaves and broadcasting over beds of
PREVENTION AND DESTRUCTION OF INSECT PESTS. 519

pickling onions is nearly always followed by cessation of attack
in such insects as onion fly, especially if it is broadcasted when
there is dew on the leaves : at the same time it stimulates the plant
to growth, and makes good the damage caused by the insects.

Infestation is often carried to gardens in dung und leaf-mould:
these should be examined, and if found to be very foul, should be
nixed with gas-lime if possible, and not used until the lime has
done its work, and so purified the manure. I have seen many
gardens infested in this way. Mould-heaps and peat-heaps should
always have a dressing of lime on the top to keep off the daddy-long-
legs, click beetles, &c., that will lay their eggs there if they get the
chance. Lastly, every farmer and gardener should protect as far as
he can the numerous insects that are beneficiai, and the birds and
animals that help to keep down our only too rapidly increasing
insect pests.

The enemies of insects include such groups of insects as lady-birds,
lace-wing flies, hover flies, ichneumon flies, tachina flies, sand-wasps,
carabidee or ground beetles, &c., described in previous chapters.

Besides insects, frogs, toads, and shrew-mice do much good in
gardens, where they can be usefully employed ; and numerous birds
are of the greatest benefit in checking insect depredations, notably
the family of Tits or Paridw, and many of the migratory birds.
Even the thrush does good by destroying heaps of grubs, snails,
and slugs, and so makes up for the loss it sometimes occasions
amongst the fruit ; and the rook and starling kill the wireworm in
the fields which as yet we cannot do, and the plover takes no toll
and does infinite good.
INDEX.

Generic and specific names are in Italics.

Abdomen, of insect, 102; of horse,
329

Abdominal appendages of insect, 104

Abomasum, 473
Abraxas grossulariata, 207
Acanthis cannabina, 419

nu flavirostris, 419
Acanthobothrium, 48
Acanthocephala, 64
Acaride, 119
Acarina, 97, 99, 115, 118
Accipiter nisus, 383
Achorutes armatus, 290

" rufescens, 290
Acidia heraclei, 250
Acordata, 15
Acrania, 15
Actinozoa, 15, 34
Aculeata (hymenoptera), 172
Adder, the, 363
Aidicnemide, 400
ABgeriide, 196
Agriolimax agrestis, 299
Agriotes lineatus, 161
Agrotis exclamationis, 203

un segetum, 203
Air-sacs in birds, 374
Alauda arborea, 414

n_ arvensis, 414
Alaudide, 414
Alcedo ispida, 412
Aleyrodide, 274

Alimentary canal, of insect, 105; of

horse, 329 ; of bird, 372
Allantois, the, 428
Alternation of generations, 39, 53

Amblyomma hebreeum, 127
American Blight, 266
Ammonites, 296
Amnion, the, 438
" the false, 438
Amaba, 18
" colt, 20
u histolytica, 20
Amebea, 18
Amphibia, 354
" development of, 355
Amphiblastula (larva), 33
Amphioxus lanceolatus, 307, 309
Anas boschas, 390
wu erecca, 390
penelope, 390
Anatide, 390
Anchitherium, the, 466
Andrena, 176
Anguillulide, 78
Anguis fragilis, 363
Amsopteryx cescularia, 207
Anopheline, 29
Anoplura, 278
Anoura, 354, 355
Anser albifrons, 388
n brachyrhynchus, 388
u brenta, 388
u ferus, 386
un segetum, 387
Anseriformes, 385
Antenne, 101 ; use of, 143
Anthomyia floralis, 239
" radicum, 239
Anthomyide, 288
Anthonomus pomorum, 155
INDEX. 521

Anthophila, 176
Anthus, 424, 426
Antispila, 211
Antlers, of deer, 475
Ant- lions, 283
Ants, 1733 remedies for, 174
Aorta, 343
Aphaniptera, 256
Aphelenchus, 79
Aphidide, 262
Aphis brassicw, 268
nu prunt, 268
u Tumicts, 264
Apide, 176
Apion apricans, 159
Apis dorsata, 178
un fasciuta, 178
un flor, 178
n tndica, 178
un mellifica, 176
zonata, 178
Appendages “of head (insect), 102
Appendicularia (larva), 308
Appenzell cattle, 482
Apple-blossom Weevil, 155
n Sawfly, 191
n -Sucker, 272
Aptera, 289
Aquila chrysaétus, 383
Arachnoid, the, 345
Arachnoidea, 108, 114
Araneida, 97, 98, 99, 114, 115
Arch, pectoral, of horse, 321; of bird,
371; of mole, 498
Arch, pelvic, of horse, 324; of bird,
372

Archeopteryx, 376
Ardea cinerea, 380
Ardez, 379
Area opaca, 436
n pellucida, 436
u vasculosa, 452
Areca nut, use of, 506
‘Argantine, 126
Argas, 24
n persicus, 126
un - reflexus, 126
Arion ater, 300
1 hortensis, 299
Armadillidium vulgaris, 109
Arsenate of lead, 515
Arsenical washes, 515
Arteries, 341
Arthropoda, 97, 109; groups of, 99,
108 ; characters of groups of, 108
Artificial maaures, effect of, on insects,

518
Artiodactyla, 469

Arvicola agrestis, 494

nu amphibia, 495

" arvalis, 495

" glareolit, 495
Arvicolide, 494
Ascaride, 85
Ascaris lumbricoides, 86

un megalocephala, 85

" sualla, 86
Ascidians, 307, 308
Asio accipitrinus, 410

un otus, 410
Asparagus beetle, 153
Aspidiotus camellia, 270
W nertt, 270
" ostreeeformis, 270
perniciosus, 270
Ass, the domestic, 465
Aster Worms, 93
Athius hamorrhoidalis, 161
Atlas, of horse, 318
Alypus Sulzeri, 117
Auditory pits, development of, 440
Auroch, the, 482
Aves, 365 ; temperature of, 7b. ; skele-
ton and anatomy of, 367; British,

Avocet, the, 402
Axis, of horse, 318
Axolotl, the, 354

Bacon beetle, 165
Badger, the, "486
Balaninus nucus, 158
Balanoglossus, 310
Balantidum coli, 30
" minutum, 31

Bank Vole, 495
Barn-Owl, the, 409
“e Basilero, 938
Bats, 500
Bdellide, 119
Bean Aphis, 264
Bean-seed Weevils, 159
Bean Weevils, 156
Beasts of prey, 483
Bed-bug, 24, 276

Bedeguar, 185
Bee-louse, 256

it moth, 209
Bees, 176 ; mouth and sting of honey-,

180

Beet-carrion beetles, 165
n eelworm, 83

Beetles, 145

Belemnites, 296

Bell Animalcule, 30

Bern cattle, 482
522

Bernicla brenta, 388

Bibio hortulanus, 226

Bibionide, 225

Bilharzia crassa, 47

" hamatobia, 47

Bimana, 461

Biorhizs terminalis, 184

Bird-lice, 284

Birds, 865; skeleton of, 367; ana-
tomy of, 367 ; British, 377

Bisulphide of carbon, 518

Bitterns, 379, 380

Black Bee, 177

Blackbird, the, 329

Blackcap, the, 428

Blackcock, the, 393

Black-fly, 264

Black Jack, 152

Black Rat, 492

Bladder, of horse, 337

Bladder-worms, 51

Blanjulide, 112

Blanjulus pulchellus, 112

Blastoderm, the, 482, 435

Blastodermic vesicle, the, 450

Blastopore, the, 450

Blatta americana, 282
nu germanica, 282
orientalis, 99, 281

Blattida, 281

Blinding Storm Fly, 231

Blind-worm, 363

Blood, corpuscles of, 5 ; circulation of,
341; sources of, 344

Blue-bottle Flies, 252

Bombi, 1

Bombycina, 200

Bones, formation of, 8; of horse’s
skull, 319; of limbs, 322; pneu-
matic, 369; of bird’s skull, 370;

of wing, 372; of ox’s skull, 482; of

bat’s wing, 500
Book-lice, 284
Boophilus annulatus, 126
Bos bison, 482
un longifrons, 482
1 primigenius, 482
Botaurus stellaris, 380
Bothriocephalus, 53
Bovide, 480
Brachial plexus, 349
Braconide, 183
Brain, of arthropods, 98; of horse,
345 ; of pig, 470
Braula coca, 256
Breathing-pores of insect, 106
Breeze-flies, 230
“ Brimps,” 280

INDEX.

British Shorthorn, 482
Bronchi, of horse, 334
Brown Rat, 492
Bruchide, 154, 159
Bruchus rufimanus, 159
Bryolia, 121
n— rtbis, 118

Budding, reproduction by, 44
Bufa calamita, 357

un eulgaris, 357
Bugs, 276
Bullfinch, the, 418
Bunodonta, 470
Buntings, 423
Burying-beetles, 144, 165
Buteo lagopus, 384

un vulgaris, 384
Butterflies, 192
Buzzards, British, 384
Byturus tomentosus, 167

Cabbage Flea, 151
n -root flies, 240
Caccabis rufa, 393
Caddis-flies, 287
Cecum, of horse, 330; of pig, 470; of
ox, 475
Calandra granaria, 159
" oryze, 159
Calathus cysteloides, 169
Calepterya, 289
Calliphora, 252
Calocoris fulvomaculatus, 278
Calomel, use of, 506
Canide, 488
Canis dingo, 489
un familiaris, 488
un lupus, 489
vulpes, 488
“Canker” in pigeons, 25
Cantharidu’, 146
Capercaillie, the, 394
Capra cegagrus, 478
uu hireus, 478
Caprimulgus europwus, 411
Capside, 278
Carabide, 146, 168
Carabus nemoralis, 168
" violaceus, 168
Carbon disulphide, 518
Cardiac muscle, 9
Carduelis elegans, 422
Carnivora, 483
Carpocapsa pomonella, 209
Carpocapside, 209
Carpus, of horse, 322; of ox, 482
Carrot-fly, 248
Cartilage, 7
INDEX.

Catabomba pyrastri, 233

Caterpillar, 140

Cats, 489

Cattle, 402; Chillingham, 2. ; origin
of domestic, 482; races of, id.

Caustic washes, 518

Cavicornia, 477

Cecidomyia brussicu', 225

" destructor, 220

Cecidomyida, 219

Celery-fly, 250

Cell, structure of the, 3; division of
the, 4

Centipedes, 113

eernaou cds, 293, 295; fossil forms,

Cephenomyia rufibarbis, 238
Cephus pygmeus, 190
Ceratophyllus fasciatus, 258
Cerceris arenaria, 183
Cercomonas intestinalis, 22
Cerebellum, 347
Cerebrum, 347
Cervical plexus, 349
Cervide, 475
Cervus capreolus, 476
u dama, 476
u_ elaphus, 476
Cestoda, 39, 47 ; development of, 50
Cetacea, 461
Ceutorhynchus sulcicollis, 159
" assimilis, 153
Chetopoda, 90
Chaffinch, the, 420
Chaleididw, 183
Chalcid Flies, 183
Charadriiformes, 400
Cheimatobia brumata, 206
Chelidon urbica, 424
Chelonia, 362
Chermes, 264
Cherry-louse, 268
un Sawfly, 188
1 -tree Casebearer, 213
Chiffchaff, the, 42
Chilognatha, 111
Chilopoda, 111
Chiroptera, 500
Chlorophyll, 11
Chloropide, 244
Chlorops teeniopus, 244
Chordata, 15
Chorion, the, 453; false, 455; frond-
osum, 456
Chrysomelide, 146, 152
Chrysomitris spinus, 422
sops cecutiens, 231
Chyle, 341

523

Cicadas, 260
Cicindelide, 145, 146
Ciconia, 379, 380
Ciconiiformes, 379
Ciliata, 29
Comex, 24
un lectularius, 24, 276
Cimicide, 262
Circus, 304
Classification, of animals, 12; of
chordata, 310; of craniota, 351
Clavicornia, 165
Clay-coloured Weevil, 158
Clearwing Moths, 196
Click-beetles, 160
Cloaca, 373
Clouded Yellow, 195
Clover-sickness, 80
u Weevil, 159
“Clubbing,” 20
Coccidee, 269
Coccidiidea, 24
Coccidiosis, 25
Coceidium oviforme, 25
Coccinellidee, 146
Coccinella bi-punctata, 146
" decem-punctata, 147
" ocellata, 147
" septem-punctata, 147
Cockchafers, 163
Cockroach, anatomy of, 100; internal
structure of, 104
Cockroaches, 99
Codling Moth, 209
Ceelenterata, 32, 33
Celinius niger, 246
Cenurus, 54
" cerebralis, 54
Coleophora anatipenella, 213
Coleophoride, 213
Coleoptera, 145
Colias edusa, 195
Collembola, 289
Colon, of insect, 106; of mammal,
330

Columba wnas, 408

" livia, 407

n  palumbus, 406
Columbiformes, 405
Colymbiformes, 378
Comma Buttertly, 193
Common Lizard, 363

" Newt, 358

" Shrew, 499

" Wasp, 174
Complete metamorphosis, 143
Connective tissue, 7
Conorhinus megistus, 23
524

Coot, the, 400
Coracia, 412
Coraciiformes, 409
Cordyceps entomorhiza, 200
Corn Aphis, 268
n -bunting, the, 423
Corncrake, the, 400
Corn Ground-beetle, 169
1» Moth, 216
n Sawfly, 190
1 Weevil, 159
Coronella luvis, 363
Corvidee, 414
Corvus corax, 414
n cornia, 414
n corone, 415
u frugilegus, 416
u monedula, 416
Cotile riparia, 424
Cotyledonary placenta, 457
Crabs, 99
Crambide, 209
Crane-flies, 226
Cranial-nerves, 348
Craniota, 15
Cranium, of horse, 345
Crawtish, 110
Crayfish, 99
Creeping Disease, 238
Creodonta, 483
Crea pratensis, 400
Crioceris asparagt, 153
Crop, of insect, 105; of birds, 372
Crow, the, 415
Crucifer Midge, 225
Crustacea, 99
Ctenocephalus canis, 258
" felis, 258
Clenopsylla museuli, 258
Cuckoo, the, 408
Cuculiformes, 408
Cuculus canorus, 408
Culicids, 29
Curculionide, 146, 154
Curlew, the, 402
Currant Aphis, 268
u -borer, 196
Clearwing Moth, 196
u Gall-mite, 134
n Moth, 207
uw Sawfly, 187
Cuttlefish, 295
Cyanide of potassium, 518
Cygnus olor, 389
Cynipide, 183, 184
Cynips kollart, 185
Cyprian Bee, 177
Cypselus apus, 411

INDEX.

Cysticercus, 2
" bovis, 62
" cellulose, 56
pisciformis, 61
Cy ystojlagellata, 21
Cysts, 52
Cytopyge, 30
Cytostome, 30

Dabchick, the, 378
nee citri, 270
longispinus, 270
Buhay -long-legs, 227
Dart Moth, 203
Daulias lucinia, 430
Decidua reflexa, 456
" serotina, 456
" vera, 456
Deciduate placenta, 455
Deer, 475; Red, 476; Roebuck, 476;
Fallow, 477
Demodecide, 133
Demodex folliculorum, 133
Dermanyssus avium, 122
Dermaptera, 280
Dermatobia cyaniventris, 235
Dermestes lardarius, 165
Dermestidee, 165
Dermis, the, 327
Devil’s Coach-horse Beetle, 170
Dew-claws, of pig, 470
Diamond-back Moth, 212
Diaphragm, the, 329
Didelphia, 460, 462
Diffuse placenta, 457
Digenea, 41
Digestive organs, of insect, 105; of
horse, 329; of bird, 372
Digging Wasps, 183
Dilophus febrilis, 225
Dinoflagellata, 21
Diploptera, 172
Diplosis pyrivora, 223
" tritic’, 222
Diptera, 144
Discoidal placenta, 455
Distomata, 41
Distomum hepaticum, 42
" lanceolatum, 42
" magnum, 46
" pulmonale, 16
Diurni, 192
Divers, 378
Dog, the domestic, 488; Australian,
489; New Zealand, 489
Dogs, 488
oe fowls, probable origin of,
INDEX, 525

Dotterel, the, 401

Dourine, 22, 23

Dragon-flies, 288

Drassidw, 117

Duck-bill, the, 460

Ducks, 385, 390; wild species, 390;
origin of domestic, 391

Dura-mater, 345

Eagle, golden, 383; white-tailed, 383

Ear-cockles, 80

Earthworms, 90; life-history of, 91

Earwigs, 280

East Coast fever, 25

Echidna, the, 460

Echinococcus, 58

Echinococcus polymorphus, 58

" veterinorum, 58

Echinodermata, 32

Edentata, 461

Ee]lworms, 78

Egg, of frog, 356; of amphibia, 356 ;
of reptilia, 861; of fowl, 431; origin
and formation of, 433; fertilisation
of, 434; segmentation of, 435; of
mammal, 449

Elastic tissue, 7

Elateride, 146, 160

Emberizine, 418

Embryology of chick, 431; changes
during first day, 438 ; during second
day, 439; during third day, 441;
during fourth day, 443 ; during fifth
day, 444; during sixth and seventh
days, 445; from eighth day onwards,
445; of mammals, 450

Embryonic sac, 436

Enchytreide, 93

Endogenous cell-formation, 5

Entameba, 20

Eohippos, 466

Epeiride, 117

Ephemeride, 284

Ephestia kithniella, 216

Epiglottis, 335

Epilachna, 148

Epithelium, 6

Eproboscidea, 254

Equide, 464 ; living and extinct tabu-
lated, 466

Equus asinus, 465
n  caballus, 465
u hemionus, 465
u onager, 465
1 te@niopus, 465

Ergot, the, of horse, 326

Erinaceide, 499

Erinaceus europeus, 499

Eriocampa limacina, 188
Kriophyide, 134
Friophyes pyrt, 185

W ribis, 134
Euacanthus interruptus, 276
Eudromias morinellus, 401
uplexaptera, 280
Eutheria, 460
Euthrips pyri, 260
Eyes, of insects, 101; of mollusca, 293 ;

development of, in birds, 440, 441

Falconide, 380
Falconiformes, 380
Faico wsalon, 382
uw peregrinus, 382
u subbuteo, 382
un tinnunculus, 381
False-caterpillars, 140, 186
«chorion, 455
Fasciola hepatica, 41
Feathers, of bird, 365; development
of, 446
Feelers, of insect, 101 ; use of, 143
Felidae, 489
Felis catus, 490
un maniculata, 490
Ferret, the, 484
Fetlock, of horse, 326
Fever Fly, 225
Fieldfare, the, 430
Field-Vole, 494
Filaria immitis, 87
u ocudis, 36
un papillosa, 87
Filaridee, 87
Finches, 418
Finger-and-toe, 18, 20
Fish, 352; respiration of, 353
Fissipedia, 483
Flagellata, 21
Flat-worms, 39, 40
‘¢ Plax-seed” stage of Hessian Fly,
221
Flea, of hen, 257 ; of dog, 258
Flea-beetles, 148
Fleas, 256
n and plague, 258
Flukes, 40
Foetal membranes of mammals, 449
Foot, of horse, 324, 463, 466; of pig,
463 ; of ox, 482
Foraminifera, 16
Fore-limb of horse, 322
Forest-flies, 254
Forficula auricularia, 280
Formica, 178
" rufa, 174
526

Formicide, 173

Fossoria, 172, 183

Fowl, skeleton of, 367; anatomy of,
372; origin of domestic, 395; Red
Jungle, 396; Ceylon, 376; Fork-
tailed, 2. ; Sonnerat's, tb. ; egg of,
431

Fowl-fly, 256

Fowl Spirochetes, 24

Foxes, 488

Free cells, 5

Fresh-water mussel, 294

Fringillide, 418

Frit-fly, 246

Frogs, 354

Frost, effect of, on insects, 513

Fulica atra, 400

Fumigation, for husk, 509 ; for gapes,
74, 509; for inSects, 518

Gad-flies, 229
Galeriide, 209
Gall-flies, 184
n -gnats, 219
Galliformes, 391
Gallinze, 391; domesticated, 395
Gallinula chloropus, 399
Gambia fever, 23
Gamaside, 119, 122
Gape-worm, 74
Gapes in poultry, 74
Garden Chafer, 164
un Snail, 302
u  Swift-moth, 198
Garrulus glandarius, 417
Gasteropoda, 296
Gastrophilus equt, 237
" hemorrhoidalis, 238
nasalis, 238
- Gecinus viridis, 412
Geese, 386 ; Grey- lag, 886; Bean-, 387;

Brent, 388 ; domestic, 7b. ; origin
of domestic, 7d. ; Pink-footed, 20. ;
White-fronted, 7d.
Genital organs, of horse, 337; of
mare, 339; of bird, 374
Geometrina, 205
Geophilide, 113
Geophilus longicornis, 113
" subterraneus, 113
Germinal disc, 434
" vesicle, 434
Ghost-moth, 199
Giant Honey-bee of India, 178
Giant Sirex, 192
Gid, in sheep, 54
of birds,

Gizzard, of insects, 105;
373

INDEX.

Globigerina, 16
Glochidium larva, 293
Glomeridw, 112
Glomeris, 112
Glossina, 23

Glottis, the, 335

Goat Moth, 193
Goat-sucker, the, 411
Goats, 478; domestic, 478
Golden Plover, the, 401
Goldfinch, the, 422
Goniocotes, 285
Goniodes, 285
Gooseberry Sawfly, 187

Gout-fly, 244

Gracilaria, 211
Grapholitha pisana, 211
Grass Moths, 209
" Snake, 363
Gray’s Banded Newt, 359
Grease-banding, 207
Great Crested Newt, 358
Grebes, 378
Greenfinch, the, 422
Green Bottle Flies, 252
«Lizard, 363
Gregarinoidea, 24
Grey Field-slug, 299
Ground Beetles, 168
Grouse, 393
Grub, 141
Gruiformes, 399
Gryllotalpa vulgaris, 283
Guinea-fowl, 398 ; the domestic, 398 ;
probable origin of, ab,
Gulls, 403
Gypsy Moth, 201

Hoemaphysallis, 127

Humosporidia, 24, 27

Muematopoda pluvialis, 231

Tumonchus contortus, 69

Hemopis sanguisuga, 9+

Haliactus albicilla, 383

Halictus, 176

Haliotis, 297

Halticide, 148

Hare, the, 496

Harpalus ruficornis, 169

Harriers, 384

Harvest Bug, 122

Haustellata, 144

Hawks, 380

Hawk Moths, 196

Heart, of insect, 104; of horse, 341; of
fish, 353; of” reptile, 361; “of bird,
37 4; development of, 440

Heart-and-Dart Moth, 303
INDEX.

Hedgehogs, 499
Helicide, 297, 299, 301
Helix aspersa, 302
w caperata, 302
un nemoralis, 302
n virgata, 302
Heliozoa, 17
Hemerobiide, 286
Hemiptera, 144
" -heteroptera, 261, 276
" -homoptera, 261, 262
Hepato-portal system, 344
Hepialus humuli, 199
" lupulinus, 198
Heron, the, 380
Hessian Fly, the, 220
Heterakis, 508
Heterocera, 192
Heterodera, 79
" radicicola, 84
" schachtti, 83
Heterogyna, 173
Heterotricha, 30
Hexactinia, 34
Hexapoda, 138
Hipparion, the, 466
Hippidion, the, 466
Hippobosca equina, 255
" maculata, 256
" rufipes, 256
Hirudinea, 93 Apes,
Hirundo rustica, 423
Histolysis, 142
Hobby, the, 382
Hock, of horse, 326
Holland cattle, 482
Holoblastic segmentation, 450
Holotricha, 30
Honey-bee, 176
Hoofed animals, 461-463

Hoose, 68
Hop Aphis, 265
uw Flea, 151

1 Frog-fly, 276

Hoplocampa testudinea, 191

Hornet, 175

Horns, of artiodactyla, 469; of ante-
lopes, 478; of sheep, 478; of oxen,
1b.

Horse, skeleton of, 315; foot of, 324 ;
internal anatomy of, 327 ; domestic
varieties of, 464 ; extinct species of,
465; descent of, 466; the age of,
told by teeth, 467

Horse-bot, 237
wu -fly, 230
Leech, 94
n -Shoe Bat, 502

OU
wo
~T

House-fly, 251
Hover-flies, 282
Humble-bees, 176
Humus and earthworms, 93
Husk, 68
Hyalopterus pruni, 264
Aybernia defoliaria, 207
Hydatid plague, 58
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 518
Hydrozoa, 34
Aygromyia rufescens, 302
HAylemyia coarctata, 242
Hylobius abietis, 159
Hymenoptera, 170
Hymenoptera aculeata, 172

" parasitica, 172

" tubulifera, 172

" petioliventres, 172

" sessiliventres, 172, 186
Hypoblast, 435
Hypoderma bovis, 234

" diana, 238
" lineata, 284

Hypotricha, 30
Hyracoidea, 461
Hyracotherium, the, 466
Hystrichopsylla talpe:, 257

Icerya purchasi, 148

Ichneumon flies, 183

Ichneumonide, 183

Ichthyopsida, 852

Incomplete metamorphosis, 143

Incurvaria capitella, 215

Infusoria, 17, 29

Insect pests, prevention and destruc-
tion of, 510

Insecticides, 515

Insectivora, 497

Insects, 138; enemies of, 519

Intestines, of horse, 330; of birds,
873; of pig, 470

Trish rat, the, 492

Isopoda, 109

Tulide, 112

Iulus Londinensis, 112
u_ terrestris, 112

Teodes ricinus, 127

Ixodide, 123

Ixodine, 126

Jackdaw, the, 414, 416

Jarring, for insects, 515

Jay, the, 417

Jelly-fish, 33

Jointed-limbed animals, 97

Jungle Fowl, Red, 895; Sonnerat’s,
396; of Ceylon, 7b,; Javan, 397
528

Kamala, use of, 506
Kangaroos, 463
Karyokinesis, 4
Ked, the, 254
Kerosene oil, 516
Kestrel, the, 381
Kiang, the, 465
Kidneys, of horse, 336; of bird, 374;
of ox, 482
Kingfisher, the, 412
Knee, of horse, 323
Knot Root Disease, 84

Labia minor, 281
Lacerta agilis, 363
un -vtridis, 363
nu _ vivipara, 363
Lacertilia, 362
Lace-wing flies, 286
Lackey Moth, 201
Lacteal system, 344
Lady-birds, 146
Lamellibranchiata, 293, 294
Lamellicornia, 146, 163
Lampronia rubiella, 214
Landrail, the, 400
Laniide, 426
Lanius collurio, 426
nu excubitor, 427
u minor, 427
" pomeranus, 427
Lapwing, the, 401
Large intestine, of horse, 330 ; of pig,
470; of ox, 474
Large Larch Sawfly, 191
Large Tortoisehell Butterfly, 193
Lark, the, 414
Larus argentatus, 403
n  canus, 403
nu ridibundus, 403
Larynx, the, of horse, 334
Leaf Hoppers, 262
Leather-jackets, 228
Lecanium persicae v. ribis, 271
Leeches, 9. ; life-history of, 94 ; medi-
cal, 95; Horse, id.
Lepidoptera, 144, 192
Lepisma saccharina, 290
Leporide, 493, 496
Leptus autumnalis, 122
Lepus caniculus, 496
n  timidus, 496
Libellulide, 289
Lice, 278, 284
Ligurian Bee, 177
Limacide, 299
Limax agrestis, 299
un maximus, 300

INDEX.

Limbs, growth of, in chick, 443
Lime-salt wash, 517
4 -sulphur wash, 517
Limneide, 297
Limnous, 43, 298
" humilis, 299
" pereger, 43, 298
" trunculatus, 43, 298
" viator, 43, 299
Limnephilus jlavicornis, 287
Linguatulide, 136
Linnet, the, 419
Liparis dispar, 201
Lipeurus, 285
Lassotriton teniatus, 358
Lithobiide, 113
Lithobius, 114
Lithocolletis, 211
Little Shrew, 499
Liver, of horse, 331; development of,
in fowl, 442
Liver-fluke, 43; life-history of, 7. ;
effects of, on liver, 46
Liver-rot, in rabbits, 25; in sheep,
42

Lizards, 362
Lobosa nuda, 18
Loligo, 295
London Purple, 515
Long-eared Bat, 502
" " Ow], 409
Looper-larve, 140
Lophinus palmatus, 359
Lophyrus pini, 191
Lucilia, 252
Lumbricus terrestris, 91
Lung-finkes, 46
un -worms, of sheep, 68
Lungs, of horse, 333; development
of, 442; of ruminants, 475
Lutra vulgaris, 486
Lygeide, 262
Lymph, 341

Macrochires, 411

Maggots, 140

Magpie, the, 417

Moth, 207

Malaria, cause of, 25, 29

Ma] de Caderas, 22, 238

Male shield-fern, use of, 506

Malignant jaundice, 25

Mallophaga, 284

Mammalia, 448, 460; development
of, 449 ; foetal membranes of, 452 ;
British species of, 460; classifica-
tion of, 460

Mammary glands, 352; of pig, 470
INDEX,

Mandibulata, 144
Mange, 133
Mangold Fly, 242
Manyplies, 473
March Moth, 207
Marsupialia, 462
Marten, the, 484
Martes sylvatica, 484
Martin, the, 424
Mastigophora, 17, 21
Maw-worn, 86
May-flies, 284
Mealy Bugs, 270
Mealy Plum Aphis, 264
Measles, in pork, 56
Medical leech, 95
Mediterranean Flour Moth, 216
Medulla oblongata, 347
Medullary groove, 489
Medusa, 83
Meleagris americana, 397
" mexicana, 397
" ocellata, 397
Meles taxus, 486
Meligethes ceneus, 153
Melolontha vulgaris, 163
Melolonthide, 163
Melophagus, 254
" ovinus, 254
Membrana granulosa, 449
Menopon, 285
Menstruation, 339
Merlin, the, 382
Meroblastic segmentation, 450
Mesenteric gland of pig, 470
Mesentery, 333
Mesoblast, 485
Mesobluastic somites, 439
Mesohippos, the, 466
Meta-discoidal placenta, 455
Metamorphosis of insects, 143
Metatheria, 460
Metazoa, 13
Mice, 492, 493
Microgaster glomeratus, 184
Micro-lepidoptera, 208
Millepedes, 111
Miners’ disease, 36
Miohippos, the, 466
Missel Thrush, the, 430
Mites, 118
Mole, the, 497
nu -ericket, 283
Mollusca, 291; reproduction in,
ae 5 groups of, 293; injurious,

Monadidea, 21
Moniexia expansa, 62

529

“ Monkey-peas,” 109
Monodelphia, 461
Monogenea, 41
Monotremata, 461
Moorhen, the, 399
Mosquitoes, 217
Moss, on fruit-trees, 514
Motucilla alba, 425
" flava, 426
" lugubris, 425
" melanope, 425
" rat, 426
Moths, 192
Mottled Umber Moth, 207
Mountain Bull, 482
" Twite, 419
Mouse, Long-tailed Field, 493; Har-
vest, 493; common, 494
Mouth, of insects, 139
Mus Alexandrinus, 492
u decumanus, 492
u hebernicus, 492
un messorius, 493
un musculus, 494
nu rattus, 492
n sylvaticus, 493
Musca domestica, 251
Muscidee, 251
Muscular tissue, 8
Mussel-scales, 270
Mustard Beetle, the, 152
Mustard Blossom Beetle, 153
Mustelide, 483
Mutilla, 171
Mygalide, 117
Myriapeda, 111
Mycetozoa, 17
Myrmica, 173
Mytilaspis pomorum, 270
Myzostomaria, 40
Myzus cerasi, 268

Nagana, 22

Nautilus, the, 295

Necrophaga, 165

Necrophagi, 145

Needle-nosed Hop-bug, 278

Nemathelminthes, 63

Nematoda, 64; development of, 65;
groups of, 68

Nematophora, 39

Nematus erichsoni, 191

" ribesit, 187

Nemertinea, 39

Nepticula, 211

Nerve cord, of worms, 37 ; of insects,
108 ; of horse, 345

Nerves, cranial, 848; spinal, 349

2L
530

Nervous system, of insect, 108; of
mollusca, 293; of horse, 348 ; sym-
pathetic, 350

Nervous tissue, 9

Nettle-head, in hops, 84

Neural canal, 439

Neuroptera, 144

Newt, the Common, 358 ; Great-Crest-
ed, 358

Nicotine, 516

“Nigger,” the, 147

Nightingale, the, 430

Nightjar, the, 411

Nitidulidir, 167

Noctuz, 203

Noctule, the, 502

Nomad, 176

Non-deciduate placenta, 455

Non-ruminants, 470

Notochord, 307, 308, 309, 437

Notodontide, 202

Nubian Cat, 491

Numida, 398; wild forms of, 398

Nut Weevil, 158

Oak-apples, 184
Occidental horses, race of, 465
Octactinia, 34
Ocypus olens, 170
Odonata, 288
Odontoid process, 318
Odontophore of mollusc, 293
Odontornithes, 376
Odynerus, 175
CEstridx, 233
Gstrus ovis, 236
Oligocheta, 91
Omasum, the, 473
Ommatotriton vittatus, 359
Onager, the, 465
Onion Fly, 239
Oniscidiv, 109
Oniscus asellus, 109
Cpgecalians of mollusc, 296; of fish,

35:
Ophidia, 362
Opossums, 462
Optic vesicles, formation of, 440
Orgyia antiqua, 200
Oribata orbicularis, 183

u  lapidaria, 134

Oribatide, 133
Oriental horses, race of, 465
Ornithodelphia, 461
Ornithodorus moubata, 127
Ornithomya avicularia, 256
Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, 461
Orohippos, the, 466

INDEX.

Orthoptera, 144
Orthutylus marginclis, 278
Oscinider, 246
Oscinus frit, 246
Ostertagia ostertagi, 70
Osseous tissue, 7
Otiorhynchus fuscipes, 158

" picipes, 158

" sulcatus, 158
Otiorhynchus Weevils, 158
Otter, the, 486
Ova, of bird, 874; of mammal, 449
Ovaries, of insects, 1'7; of mare,

339
Ovidee, 478
Ovis, 478
Owls, 409; Barn, 409; Tawny, 410;
Long- and Short-eared, 410
Oxen, 450
Oxyures, 86
Oxyuris curvula, 86
" mestigodes, 87
0 vermicularis, ST

Oyster-shell Bark Louse, 270

Pachyrina maculosa, 228
Paleotherium, the, 466
Palmate Newt, 358
Palisade-worms, 68
Pancreas, of horse, 331 ; development
of, in fowl, 442
Panniculus adiposus, 327
Panorpide, 284
Paraffin emulsion, 516
wu jelly, 516
Paramercium, 18
Parasitic gastritis, 69
Paride, 427
Paris green, 515
Se the common, 393; French,
Parus ceruleus, 427
un major, 427
Passer domesticus, 421
n montanus, 421
Passeriformes, 413
Patagium, of Bat, 500
Pavo cristatus, 399
un muticus, 399
un nigripennis, 399
Peacock Butterfly, 193
Fees, the Indian, 399; the Javan,
Pea-moth, the, 211
Pea Weevil, 156
Pear-leaf Blister Mite, 135
Pear Midge, 223
nu Sawfly, 188

   
INDEX.

— arch, of horse, 321; of bird,

Pediculida, 278
Pegomyia betwe, 242
Pelvic arch, of horse, 324; of bird, 372
Penis, of horse, 337; of pig, 470; of
ram, 480; of bull, 482
Pentastomide, 136
Penthina pruniana, 211
Perching-birds, 414
Perdix cinerea, 393
Peregrine Falcon, 382
Pericardium, 341
Periplaneta americana, 99, 282
Perissodactyla, 464
Peritoneum, 332
Peritricha, 30
Perlide, 284
Phiedon betule, 152
Phalangers, 463
Phalaropes, 402
Phasianide, 393
Phasianus colchicus, 394
" torquatus, 894
Pheasant, the, 394
Phorbia cepetorum, 239
ow brassicce, 240
Phorodon humuli, 265
Phryganeide, 284, 287
Phthirius capitis, 279
" inguinalis, 279
" vestimenti, 279
Phyllopertha horticola, 164
Phyllotreta nemorum, 148
Phytoptide, 134
Phytoptus avellance, 134
" pyri, 185
" ribis, 134
" taxt, 134
Pia-mater, 345
Pica caudate, 417
Pici, 412
Picus major, 412
. ou minor, 412
Pieridae, 193
Pieris brassice, 194
un napt, 195
un rape, 195
Pigeons, 405 ; origin of domestic, 407
Pigs, 470
Pine Sawfly, 191
un Weevil, 159
Pinnigrade foot, 484
Pinnipedia, 483
Piophila apti, 251
Pipistrelle, the, 502
Pipits, the, 424
Piroplasma bigemina, 27

531

Piroplasma canis, 28
" equt, 28
" parvum, 28
Piroplasme, 27
Piroplasmosis, 25-27
Pisces, 352
Placenta, 453; varieties of, 455;
discoidal, 455; meta-discoidal, 455 ;
zonary, 456; cotyledonary, 457 ;
diffuse, 457
Plantigrade foot, 484
Plant-lice, 262
Plasmodia, 17
Plasmodiophora brassicw, 17, 20
Plasmodium, 27, 29
" immaculatum, 29
u malarice, 29
" vivax, 29
Platyhelminthes, 40
Plecotus auritus, 502
Plectroscelis concinna, 148, 151
Pliohippos, the, 466
Ploughshare bone, 369
Plovers, 401
Plum Aphis, 268
uu Weevils, 158
Plusia gamma, 204
Plusiadee, 204
Plutella maculipennis, 212
Pneumatic bones of bird, 369
Podiceps fluviatilis, 378
Polecat, the, 485
Polycheta, 40
Polydesmide, 112
Polydesmus complanatus, 113
Polyps, 33
Polystomata, 47
Polystomum interrimum, 47
Pomegranate bark, use of, 506
Pompilius plumbeus, 183
Porcellio scaber, 109
Porifera, 32
ae arch, of horse, 324; of bird,
382
Pratincoles, 400
Primates, 461
Primitive groove, 313, 436
" streak, 436, 439, 451
Proboscidea (diptera), 232 ;
mals), 461 %
Proctotrupide, 183
Propolis, 182
Protohippos, the, 466
Protoplasm, 3
Prototheria, 460
Protozoa, 16
Pseudalis ovis-pulmonalis, 69
Pseudotetramera, 146, 148

(mam-
552 INDEX.

Pseudotrimera, 146 Reproductive system, of insects,
Psila rose, 248 107
Psilide, 248 " organs, of mammals,
Psocide, 284 - 337 ; of birds, 374
Psoroptes, 128 Reptilia, 360
" communis vy. ovis, 129 Respiratory organs, of insects, 106 ; of
Psorospermosis, 24 horse, 333; of Ichthyopsida, 352 ;
Psychide, 201 of bird, 374
Psylla mali, 272 Reticulosa, 20
wu pyrivora, 274 Reticulum, the, 473
Psylliodes attenwatus, 151 Rhinolophus fers uin-equinum, 502
Pteropoda, 295 " hipposideros, 502
Pulex irritans, 258 Rhipocephalus annulatus, 28
Pulicidee, 217, 256 Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 164
Pulmonary artery, 343 Rhodites rose. 185
" veins, 343 Rhopalocera, 192
Pulmonata, 297 Rhopalasiphum lactucw, 268
Pulse Seed Weevils, 159 Rhynchopora, 154
Pulvinia vitis, 270 Ribs, of horse, 321; of pig, 471: of
Puparia, 142 oxen, 482
Pupipara, 254 Rice Weevil, 159
Putorius erminea, 484, 485 Ring-bone, 324 ‘
un feetidus, 484, 485 Rock Dove, the, 407
" furo, 484 Rodentia, 490
" vulgaris, 484 Rook, the, 416
Pyralide, 208 Root-eating maggots, 238
Pyrrhula europea, 418 Root-knot disease, 84
Rose Beetle, 163
Quadrate bone, 370 Round-worms, 63
Quadrumana, 461 Rove-beetles, 169
Quail, the, 363 Rumen, the, 473
Quassia, use of, 517 Ruminants, 473; stomach of, 473;
Queest, the, 406 dentition of, 475

Rust in carrots, 248
Rabbit, the, 496

Radiolaria, 16 Salivary glands, of insects, 105; of
Radula, the, 294 mammal, 331
Rails, the, 399 San José Scale, 269
Rallide, 399 Sand-flies, 226
Rana temporaria, 358 wu Lizard, 363
Ranide, 358 n martin, the, 424
Rasores, 391 Sand Wasps, 175
Raspberry-beetle, 167 Santonine, 86
ef shoot-borer, 214 Suprinus virescens, 153
r Weevil, 158 Sarcodina, 17

Rats, 492 Sarcoptes, 130
Rat Fleas, 258 " scabiel v. ovis, 130
Red Grouse, the, 393 Sauropsida, 365

nu Hen Mite, 122 Sawflies, 186

Mange, 133 Sawfly larvae, 186

u Spider, 119 Surtcola, 428

1 Wood Ant, 174 Seah, 129
Red-léged Weevil, 158 Scale insects, 269
Reduviidee, 262 Sealy-leg, in fowls, 133
Redwater, 25, 27 Schizoneura lunigera, 266
Redwing, the, 430 " ulmi, 264
Reed-bunting, the, 423 Sclerostomum armatum (equinum), 70

Relapsing Fever, 126 " rubrum, 71
INDEX.

Sclerostomum tetracanthum, 71
Scolopacide, 402
Scolopendride, 113
Scolytidee, 170
Scooping-bone, of pig, 470
Scorpion-flies, 284
Scorpions, 108
Scratching-hirds, 391
Scymnus minimus, 147
Sea Anemones, 33
nw -squirts, 307
Seals, 483
Segmentation of egg, 435
Segmented worms, 90
Selenodonta, 473
Sense organs, of worms, 38 ; of arthro-
pods, 101
Sepia, 295
Sexton Beetle, 165
Sexual organs, of horse, 337 ; of ram,
480; of bull, 482
Sheep, 478
n fluke, 42
un  nasal-bot, 236
n scab, 129
1 spider tly, 254
«  bheks, 127
Sheldrakes, 390 ‘
Short-eared Owl, the, 410
Shot-borer Beetles, 170
Shrews, 499
Shrikes, 426
Sialidas, 284
Side-bone, 324
Silicoflagellata, 21
Silpha atrata, 166
1 opaca, 165
Silver-fish, the, 290
Simulide, 226
Sirenia, 461
Siricide, 192
Sirex gigas, 192
u juvencus, 192
Siskin, the, 422
Sitones crinitus, 156
1 lineatus, 156
Skeleton, of horse, 315; of bird, 367 ;
of pig, 472; of oxen, 481; of sbeep,
479

‘
“Sketer” Hawks, 288
Skip-jacks, 160
Skull, of horse, 319; of bird, 369; of
ram, 478; of ox, 480
“Slaters,” 109
Sleeping sickness, 23
Slug-worm, of pear, 188
Slugs, 299, 302
Small Chafer, 164

533

Small intestine, of horse, 330; of pig,
470; of ox, 474
Sminthurus luteus, 290
Smooth Snake, 363
Snails, 801 ; natural enemies of, 303
Snake-flies, 284
Snakes, 360
Snipe, the, 400
Snow-flies, 274
Soft-soap, 516
Solidungulata, 464
Soil fumigation, 518
Solitary Wasps, 175
Solutre, fossil horses of, 464
Sorex fodiens, 499
nu pygmaeus, 499
un vulgaris, 499
Southern fever, 27
Sparrow-hawk, the, 383
Sparrows, 424
Sphingidee, 196
Spider-fly, 254
Spiders, 115
Spinal cord, 345
Spiracles, 106
Spirillosis, 24
Spirochate, 24
Spirochuta gallinarum, 24
" obermeiert, 24
Spleen, of horse, 331
Split swimming foot, of bird, 378
Spongide, 32
Spongilla fluviatilis, 33
Sporozoa, 17, 24
Stag-beetle, 163
Staphylinide, 169
“« Staggers,” 64
Starfish, 34
Starling, the, 417
Steel Blue, 192
Stem Eelworm, 80
ee of horse, 321; of bird,
1
Stifle-joint, 326
Stoat, the, 485
Stock-dove, the, 408
Stomach, of horse, 330; of bird, 373 ;
of pig, 470; of ruminant, 474
Stomach Worms, 69
Stomouys, 254
Stone Curlews, 400
u -flies, 284
Strawberry Snail, 302
Strawberry Weevil, 158
Strigide, 409
Striped Click-beetle, 161
Strix flammea, 409
Strongyles, of horse, 70
534

Strongyles, of sheep and cattle, 69
Strongylide, 68
Storks, 379
a Sturdy,” 54
Sturnide, 417
Stylopide, 145
Sub-zonal membrane, 453, 455
Suctoria, 29
Suide, 473
Sulphur washes, 517
Summer Chafer, 164
Surface larva:, 203
“ Surra,” 22
Sus scrofa, 471
Swallows, 423
Swans, 385, 389
Swifts, 411
Sylvie atricapilla, 428

nn evnerea, 428

u hortensis, 428
Syinbiotes, 128

" communis v. ovis, 132

Sympathetic nervous system, 350
Synergi, 184
Syngamus trachealis, 74
Syrian Bee, 177
Syrnium aluco, 410
Syrphidz, 232
Syrphus balteatus, 232

" ribesit, 932

Tabanide, 229
Tabanus autumnalis, 231
" bovinus, 231
" sudeticus, 231
Tadorna Belloni,
Tenia cenurus, 54
 echinococcus, 58
n expansa, 62
n — Saginata, 62
n serrata, 61
solium, 56
Trenicides, 506
Teeniosis, 48
Talpa europea, 497
Talpide, 497
Tapeworms, 47; development of, 50;
human, 56, 58, 62
Tarsus, of horse; 326
Tasmanian Devil, the, 463
Tawny Owl, the, 110
Tawny Wasp, 175
Teal, the, 390
Teeth, of horse, 468; of dog, 488;
of pigs, 470; of ruminants, 475 ; of
carnivora, 483 ; of cats, 489
Tenebrionide, 146

INDEX.

Tenthredinide, 186
Testacella, 301
" hatiotidea, 301
Testes, of insect, 107; of mammal,
337

Tetrao scoticus, 393
u_ tetrix, 394
nu urogallus, 394
Tetraonide, 393
Tetranychus malver, 119
" telarius, 121
Tetrarhynchus, 49
Texas fever, 27
Thoracic duct, 344
Thorax, of insect,
329
Thread-worms, 64
Thrips, 258
Thrips cerealium, 259
n  minutissima, 260
ir ochraceus, 259
Thrush, the, 429
Thymol, use of, 73
Thymus gland, of horse, 331
Thyroid, of horse, 331
Thysanoptera, 258
Thysanura, 289
Ticks, 28
Tinea granella, 216
Tineine, 211
Tipula lateralis, zee
" oleracea, 2 oo]
u _paludosa, 228
Tipulidae, 226
Tits, 427
Toad, the Common, 357 ; the N
jack, 357
Toads, 354
Tobacco wash, 516
Torcel Fly, 238
Tortricide, 209
Tortrix heparana, 211
" larvae, 309
uo pruniana, 211
" ribeand, 211
Trachea, of insect, 106 ; of horse, 384
Tracheal injections, 509
Trematoda, 40
Trichinella spiralis, 76
Trichinosis, 7
Trichocephalidw, 75
Trichocera hiemalis, 239
" regelationis, 239
Trichodectes, 284
Trichopsylla gallinw, 257
Trichosomum, 75
Trichostronqulus extenuatus, 70

101; of horse;

Natter-
INDEX.

Trichotrachelide, 75
Triton cristatus, 358
Trogontia, 460
Trombidide, 118
Trombidium holosericeum, 122
Tropidonotus nutrix, 363.
Trypanoplasma, 22
Trypanosoma, 22
" brucet, 23
" cruzi, 23
" equinum, 23
" ELvansi, 23
" gambiense, 23
Trypanosomatidcé, 21
Trypanosomes, 22
Trypetid@, 250
Tsetse disease, 22
Tsetse Flies, 23
Tulip-root in oats, 80
Tunicates, 307
Turbellaria, 39
Turdus iliacus, 330
un merula, 329
u  - musicus, 329
nu _ ptlaris, 330
nu -vesctvorus, 330
Turkeys, 397
Turnip Flea, 148
Gall Weevil, 159
Seed Weevil, 153
Turtle-dove, the, 407
Tylenchus, 79
" devastatriz, 80
scandens, 79
Typhlocybidee, 262

Umbilical vesicle, the, 453

Oncinate process of rib, 370

Ungulata, 4

Unio, 292; development of, 293

Urachus, the, 454

Ureters, 336

Urethral canal, 336

Urinary organs, of horse, 336

Uroceride, 192

Urodela, 354

Uro- genital organs, of horse, 336; of
mare, 339

Urus, the, 482

Uterus, of mare, 339

Vanellus cristatus, 401
Vanessa C. album, 193

1 10,

‘ polychloros, 193
Vanesside, 193
Vaporite, 518

on
w
or

Vapourer Moth, 200
Vascular system, of mammal, 341; of
a opean, 3538 5 of sauropsida,
Vedalia cardinalis, 148
Vena cava, superior and inferior, 342
nu porta, 844
Vermiceous diseases, prevention and
treatment of, 505
Vertebra, of horse, 315; of bird, 369
Vertebral column, the, 315
Vespa crabro, 175
uw ufa, 175
un sylvestris, 175
uw vulgaris, 174
Vespertilio noctula, 502
" prpistrella, 502
Vipera berus, 3638
Vine Weevil, 158
Visceral arches, 313, 452
a clefts, 442, 452
nn folds, 442
Vocal cords of horse, 335
Voles, 494 ; plagues of, 495
Volucella bombylans, 233
" zonaria, 233
Vorticella, 30
Vulturide, 380

Wandering cells, 5

Warble-flies, 233; of ox, 234; of
Bees 236 ; of horse, 237 ; of deer,

Warblers, the, 428

Washes, 515

wesee 174; Sand, 175 ; remedies for,

Water-rat, 495
" Shrew, 499
nu -snails, 997
Wax, 182
baa 483 ; the common species of,

Weevils, 154
Wheat Eelworm, 79
Midge, 22,
Wheat- palb. fly, 242
Wheatears, the, 428
Whip-worms, 75
Whitethroat, the, 428
Wild Boar, 471
" Cat, 490

Windhover, the, 381
Wing, of bird, 365; of bat, 500
Winter-gnats, 229

" Moth, 206
Wireworms, 160
/

536

Wolf, the, 489
Wolffian duct, 444
Wombats, 463
Woodcock, the, 402
Wood-louse, 109
Woodpeckers, 412
Wood-pigeon, the, 406

nu -snail, 302

uw -wasps, 175, 186, 192
Woolly Aphis, 266
Worms, 36; classes of, 39
Wryneck, the, 412

Nyleborus dispar, 170

INDEX.

Xyleborus saxeseni, 170
Xenopsulla cheopis, 28
Xylophaga, 146

Yellow Underwing, 203
Yellow-hammer, the, 423
Y-Moths, 204

Yolk sac, 436

Yuna torquilla, 412

Zubrus gibbus, 169

Zona radiata, 434, 450

Zonary placenta, 456

Zygomatic process, of horse, 320

A SLew.

THE END.

PRINTED RY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND sons,
WM. BLACKWOOD & SONS?
EDUCATIONAL WORKS

CONTENTS.

PAGE PAGE
ENGLISH . j . 8 | PAL@oNTOLOGY , : e a
History . ‘ i . 10 | PaystcaL GroararHy . » 28
LaTIN AND GREER ‘i 10 | PsyoHotoey and Loaic » we
Mopgern Lanavaces. . 17 | Forsstry F F . 28
MaTHEMATICS  . i . 20 | Euementary Serms . 24
GEOGRAPHY . i . 21 | Wrrriva anp Copy Books , ee
CHEMISTRY AND POPULAR Science 22 | UNIVERSITY CALENDARS . 32
GEOLOGY q . a Be

45 GEORGE STREET 37 PareRNosTeR Row

EDINBURGH Lonpoy, EC.
EDUCATIONAL WORKS.

*," The Publishers will be glad to consider applications
from Teachers for Specimen Copies.

ENGLISH.

A History of English Criticism.

By Grores Sarntspury, M.A. (Oxon.), Hon. LL.D. (Aberd.), Professor
of Rhetoric and English Literature in the University of Edinburgh. Demy
8vo, 7s. 6d. net.

WORKS BY J. LOGIE ROBERTSON, M.A.

A History of English Literature.

For Secondary Schools. By J. Loaiz Roprrtson, M.A., First English
Master, Edinburgh Ladies’ College, With an Introduction by Professcr
Masson, Edinburgh University. Sixth Edition, revised, 2s. ; and in 3 pats,
Is. 4d. each.

Daily Chronicle.—‘‘ The exposition is fresh and independent, and high above
the level of the ordinary work of this elass....... The book should prove a
great boon not only to secondary schools and colleges but also to private
students.”

Outlines of English Literature.
For Young Scholars, with Illustrative Specimens. By the SamE AUTHOR.
Third Edition, revised. 1s. 6d.
Spectator.—‘‘To sketch English literature from Beowulf down to Lord

Macaulay in a hundred and fifty pages without falling into the style of a
catalogue, is an achievement of which Mr Robertson may well be provd.”

English Verse for Janior Classes.
By the Same AvuTHoR. In Two Parts. 1s. 6d. nct each.

Part 1[,—Chaucer to Coleridge.
Part II.—Nineteenth-Century Poets,

School Guardian,—‘‘Of the high literary quality of this selection there
can be no question. There is nothing here that is not classical in the
strictest sense of the word.”
4° William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

English Prose for Junior and Senior Classes.

By the Sama AvuTHOoR. In Two Parts. 2s. 6d. each.
Part I.—Malory to Johnson, | Part I,—Nineteenth Century.

Educational Times.—‘‘ We do not remember to have seen a better prose
collection on the same scale, and the book should be very useful to teachers who
like to work on the lines of genuine literature.”

Mr R. Blair, Education Officer.—''I have to inform you that the Committee
of the London County Council concerned have decided to add the book entitled
‘English Exercises for Junior and Senior Classes’ (J. L. Robertson, 1s.) to the
Council’s supplementary list of books for evening schools.”

English Exercises for Junior and Senior Classes.
By the Samg AuTHoR. ls,

Schoolmaster.—‘‘ These exercises have the high recommendation of being
the gradual growth of a course of practical work in an English class-room
The manual cannot fail to be of service even to experienced teachers,”

Headmaster, Council Central Secondary School.—‘‘ As an English teacher
and lecturer of long experience, I may say unreservedly that I am delighted with
the book. I shall certainly use it in my classes, The suggestions under each
extract are extremely good, and will be valuable to teachers and students alike.”

High School Headmaster.—‘‘ The exercises are admirably drawn up, and are
most suitable for classes preparing for Leaving Certificate or University examina-
tions, I have great pleasure in adopting the book as a class-book, and intend to
use it systematically throughout the session.” :

English Drama.
By the Same AvuTHoR. 2s. 6d,

Spectator. — ‘‘This capital selection.......Not only is it a text-book with
excellent notes, but a neat and handy collection of English dramatic
masterpieces.”

The Select Chaucer.

Edited and Elucidated by the Samg AvuTHOR. Crown 8vo, 3s. ; s
Parts—Part I., 2s.; Part II., 1s, 6d. , 3 and in Two

Athenaum.—‘‘ A very successful attempt to enlarge the range of Chaucer
reading in schools, We wish we could believe that the book will have the
circulation it deserves.”

Paraphrasing, Analysis, and Correction of Sentences.
By D. M. J. Jamgs, M.A., Gordon Schools, Huntly. 1s.
Also in Two Parts :—
Passages for Paraphrasing.‘& Verse and Prose. 6d,

Exercises in Analysis, Parsing, and Correction of
Sentences. 6d.

Athensum.—'‘ The pieces are well calculated to improve the grammar and

avs of tbe rising generation in an age which is not{distinguished for lucidity or
ogic.” :
Educational Works. 5

 

Part I., Chaucer to Burns, cloth, Is. net.
Part II., Wordsworth to Newbolt, cloth, Is. net.
In One Volume complete, cloth, '2s. net.
Prize Edition, 5s.

The
School Anthology

of English Verse.

A Selection of English Verse
from Chaucer to the Present Day.

EDITED BY
J. H. LOBBAN, M.A.,

Lecturer in English Literature, Birkbeck College, London;
Editor of ‘The Granta Shakespeare,’ &c.

Athen»sum.—‘ We have here such poetry as rings morally sound and exalts
the soundest instincts and feelings of human nature.”

Guardian.—‘‘ The work is worthy of nothing less than absolutely unqualifie
approval, and we cordially wish it the hearty welcome it deserves.”

Journal of Education.—“‘ One of the best small anthologies we have seen for
sometime. The selection is made with great good taste and care.”

 

Blackwood’s Shilling Grammar and Composition.

Based on the ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, With a Chapter on Worp-BUILD-
ing and DERIVATION, and containing numerous Exercises. 1s.

Schoolmaster.—‘‘A very valuable book. It is constructive as well as

analytic, and well-planned exercises have been framed to teach the young
student how to use the elements of his mother-tongue.”

A Working Handbook of the Analysis of Sentences.

With Nores oN PARSING, PaRAPHRASING, FIGURES OF SPEEOH, AND
Prosopy. New Edition, Revised. 1s, 6d.

Schoolmaster.—‘‘ The book deserves unstinted praise for the care with which
the matter has been arranged, the depth of thought brought to bear upon
the discussion of the subject....... One of the best and soundest productions on
analysis of sentences we have met with yet.”
6 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

STORMONTRH’S
ENGLISH DICTIONARIES,

PRONOUNCING, ETYMOLOGICAL, AND EXPLANATORY.

 

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE EDITION.

New Edition. Crown 8vo, 1080 pp. 5s. net.

BLACKWOOD’S

SEVENPENNY
DICTIONARY

‘* At such a price nothing better could be asked: good clear
print, concise yet ample explanations, and accurate ety-
mology. Just such a handy volume as schools need. Has
evidently been prepared with great care. It justifies its
record for reliability.”,—The School Guardiaa.

STORMONTH’S
HANDY SCHOOL DICTIONARY

PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY

Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged by
WILLIAM BAYNE

7d. net
Educational Works. q

 

The George Eliot Reader.

By EvizaBeTH Leg, Author of ‘A Schoo! History of English Literature,’
&o, With an Introduction and Portrait. 2s.

Academy.—‘' A fascinating little volume.”

English Words and Sentences.

Boox J. For tHe Junior Division. 6d.
Boox II, For THE INTERMEDIATE DIVISION. 8d.

Practical Teacher.—‘‘These books contain numerous well-graduated exer-
cises in English, and should be popular with teachers of the subject.”

Story of the World Readers. See p. 57.
Blackwood’s Literature Readers. See p. 56.

Specimens of Middle Scots.
Wits Historical INTRODUCTION AND GLOSSARIAL NotEs. By G. GREGORY
Situ, M.A., Professor of English Literature, University of Belfast. Crown
8vo, 7s. 6d. net.

English Prose Composition.
By James Curriz, LL.D. Fifty-seventh Thousand. 1s, 6d.

Short Stories for Composition.

First Serizs, WIth SPECIMENS OF LETTERS, AND SUBJECTS FOR LETTERS
AND Essays. Seventh Impression. 112 pages. 1s.

Short Stories for Composition.

Srconp Serres. Wits Lessons on VocabuLary. Third Edition, 112
pages. Is.

Educational News.—‘‘These stories are fresh, short, and pithy. They
possess a novelty that will arrest attention, and a kernel that will tax to
some measure the thinking faculty.”

Short Stories, Fables, and Pupil-Teacher Exercises for
Composition.
Wits INSTRUCTIONS IN THE ART OF LETTER aND Essay WRITING, PaRa-
PHRASING, FIGURES OF SPEECH, &. Is. 3d.
BLACKWOODS’ SCHOOL SHAKESPEARE.

Edited by R. Brimigy Jonnson. Each Play complete, with Introduction,
Notes, and Glossary. In crown 8vo volumes. Cloth, 1s. 6d. ; paper covers,

1s. each.

The Merchant of Venice. As You Like It.
Richard II. Henry V.
Julius Ceesar. Macbeth.

The Tempest. Twelfth Night.

Other Volumes in preparation,
8 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

BLACKWOODS’ ENGLISH CLASSICS.
With Portraits. In Fcap. 8vo volumes, cloth.

General Editor—J. H. LOBBAN, M.A.,

Editor of ‘The School Anthology’; Lecturer in English Literature, Birkbeck College,
London; Editor of ‘The Granta Shakespeare,’ &c.

Journal of Education.—“This Series has, we believe, already
won the favourable notice of teachers. It certainly deserves to do
so. Its volumes are edited with scholarly care and sound literary
judgment. They are strongly and neatly bound, and extremely well
printed.”

Saturday Review.—‘‘ The print is good, and the introductions
both short and to the point, while the notes strike a happy medium
between misplaced erudition and trivial scrappiness.”

School Board Chronicie.—‘ There are no more thorough and
helpful annotated editions than those of the series of Blackwoods’
English Classics.”

Cowper—The Task, and Minor Poems.
By ExizaBeta Leg, Author of ‘A School History of English Literature.’
2s. 6d.
Guardian.—'‘‘ Miss Elizabeth Lee scores a distinct success. Her introduction
is to the point and none too long; her notes are apt and adequate.”

Scott—Lady of the Lake.
By W. E. W. Couurs, M.A. Is. 6d.

Saturday Review.—‘‘Like some other members of this series of ‘ English
Classics’ we have noticed recently, this volume is 4 good piece of work.”

Johnson—Lives of Milton and Addison.
By Professor J. WicHt DurfF, D.Litt., Durham College of Scienee, New-
castle-upon-Tyne. 2s, 6d.
Educational News.—‘‘ A scholarly edition. The introduction contains things
as good as are to be found in Macaulay’s essay or Leslie Stephen’s monograph.”

Milton—Paradise Lost, Books I.-IV.
By J. Loaiz Ropertson, M.A., First English Master, Edinburgh Ladies’
College, 2s. 6d,
Saturday Review.—‘‘ An excellent edition.”

Macaulay—Life of Johnson.
By D. NicHot SmirH, M.A., Goldsmith’s Reader in English, University of
Oxford. 1s. 6d,

Journal of Education.—‘‘ Mr Smith’s criticism is sound, simple, and clear.
Annotated with care and good sense, the edition is decidedly satisfactory.”

Carlyle—Essay on Burns.
By J. Downin, M.A., U.F.C. Training College, Aberdeen. 2s, 6d.

Guardian.—‘‘ A a to acceptable addition to our stock of school classics,
We congratulate Mr Downie on having found a field worthy of his labours
and on having accomplished his task with faithfulness and skill.”
Educational Works. 9

 

BLACKWOODS’ ENGLISH CLASSICS—continued.

Goldsmith—Traveller, Deserted Village, & other Poems.
By J. H. Loppan, M.A., Lecturer in English Literature, Birkbeck College,
London. 1s. 6d.

Literature.—‘‘If Goldsmith touched nothing that he did not adorn, Mr

Lobban and his publishers have adorned Goldsmith.”

Pope—Essay on Criticism, Rape of the Lock, and
other Poems.
By Gzorez Sovran, M.A., Litt.D., Lecturer in English Language and
Literature, University College, Dundee. 2s. 6d.
Guardian.—“ The selection is made with taste, and the commentary is sound,
adequate, and not overburdened with superfluous information.”

Hazlitt—Essays on Poetry.
By D. NicHou Smrrx, M.A:, Goldsmith’s Reader in English, University of
Oxford, 2s, 6d.
Athensum.—' The introduction is a capital piece of work.”

Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Keats.
By A. D. Inngs, M.A., Editor of ‘Julius Cesar,’ &c., &c. 28. 6d.
Academy.—"‘ For Mr Innes’s volume we have nothing but praise,”

Scott—Marmion.
By ALEXANDER Macxre, M.A., Examiner in English, University of
Aberdeen ; Editor of ‘Warren Hastings,’ &c. 1s. 6d.
Guardian,—‘‘ The volume is worthy to take its place with the best of its kind.”

Lamb—Select Essays.
By Aangs Wiz80N, Editor of Browning’s ‘Strafford,’ &c.; late Senior English
Mistress, East Putney High School. 2s. 6d.
Athenwum.—‘' Miss Wilson’s edition is well equipped.”

Milton—Samson Agonistes.
By E, H. Buagenzy, M.A., Headmaster, King’s School, Ely. 2s. 6d.
School World.—‘‘ Everything testifies to excellent scholarship and editorial
Care... The notes are a joy to the critic.”

Byron—Selections.
By Professor J. Wieut Durr, D.Litt., Armstrong College, in the University
of Durham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 3s, 6d.

Academy and Literature.—‘‘ Nothing has been done perfunctorily ; Professor
Duff is himself interested in Byron, and passes on to his reader, in consequence,
some of the emotion he himself has felt.”

Mr G. K. Chesterton in ‘The Daily News.’—‘‘ Mr Wight Duff has made an
exceedingly good selection from the poems of Byron, and added to them a clear
and capable introductory study.” :

Professor R. Wiilker in ‘Englische Studien.’—‘‘ Wight Duffs Byron wird
sicherlich dazu beitragen des Dichters Werke in England mehr zu verbreiten,
als dies bisher geschehen ist. Aber auch in Deutschland ist das Buch allen
Freunden Byron’s warm zu empfehlen.”
10 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

HISTORY.

A Short History of Scotland.
By ANDREW Lane. Crown 8vo, 5s, net.

LATIN AND GREEK.

Higher Latin Prose.

With an Introduction by H. W. AupgEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada
College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh ;
late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar.

2a, 6d.
*.* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net.

Educational Times.—‘‘ Those who are in need of a short practical guide on
the subject will find Mr Auden’s little work well worth a trial....... The passages
chosen are well suited for translation.”

School Guardian.—‘‘This is an excellent Latin prose manual. The hints
on composition are first-rate, and should be of considerable use to the student
of style who has mastered the ordinary rules of prose writing. ..... Altogether,
this is a very valuable little book.”

Lower Latin Prose.

By ee P. Wison, M.A., Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh.
2s, 6d,

*,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net.

Journal of Education.—‘' A well-arranged and helpful manual, The whole
beok is well printed and elear. We can unreservedly recommend the work.”

Higher Latin Unseens.

For the Use of Higher Forms and University Students. Se] i -
troductory Hints on Translation, by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Pasir Unie
cous a porenie formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes Co ege, Edin-
pore ae a “a a olar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell University
Educational News.—‘‘The hints on translation gi

hows: : given by Mr Auden are th

most useful and judicious we have se ere Uae
trated with skilful point and aptness, eee maaanel balk anit they are illus-

Latin Unseens.

Selected, with Introducti i
School, Glasgow. 2a. Om BY W. LOBpAN, M.A., Classical miosten, Eee

Athensum.—“‘ More interesting in substance th i
‘ an such thi: =
Journal of Education.—‘' Will be welcomed by all ce ees
seeghgol Guardian. —“' The introductory hints en translation shi ld b
5 they are most valuable, and well put.” is ee
Educational Works. I

 

Now issued at 1s. 6d. net to meet the requirements of the
Education Department for a Latin Translation Book suited to
pupils in the early stage of the subject. In its more expensive
form the volume has been extensively used by the greater Public
Schools, and is in its Thirteenth Edition. A specimen copy will
be sent gratis to any teacher wishing to examine the book with
a view to introduction.

THIRTEENTH EDITION.

ADITUS FACILIORES.
AN EASY LATIN CONSTRUING BOOK,

WITH VOCABULARY.
BY

A. W. POTTS, M.A., LL.D.,
Late Head-Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, and sometime
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ;
AND THE

Rev. ©. DARNELL, M.A.,
Late Head-Master of Cargilfield Preparatory School, Edinburgh,
and Scholar of Pembroke and Downing
Colleges, Cambridge.

 

Contents.

PART I.—Stories and Fables—The Wolf on his Dvath-Bed—Alex-
ander and the Pirate—Zeno’s Teaching—Ten Helpers—The Swallow
and the Auts—Discontent—Pleasures of Country Life—The Wolf and
the Lamb—Simplicity of Farm Life in Ancient Italy—The Conceited
Jackdaw—The Ant and the Grasshopper—The Hares contemplate
Suicide—The Clever Parrot—Simple Living—The Human Hand—The
Bear—Value of Rivers—Love of the Country—Juno and the Peacock—
The Camel—The Swallow and the Birds—The Boy and the Echo—The
Stag and the Fountain—The Cat’s Device—The Human Figure—The
Silly Orow—Abraham’s Death-Bed—The Frogs ask for a King—The
Gods select severally a Favourite Tree—Hear the Other Side.

PART IIl.—Historical Extracts—Tue Story oF THE Fast: Histori-
cal Introduction—The Story of the Fabii. Tux Conquest or Vzir:
Historical Introduction—The Conquest of Veii. TH SACRIFICE OF
Decrvus: Historical Introduction—The Sacrifice of Decius.

PART IIl.—The First Roman Invasion of Britain—Introduction
to Extracts from Cesar’s Commentaries—The First Roman Invasion of
Britain.

PART IV.—The Life of Alexander the Great —Historical Intro-
duction—Life and Campaigns of Alexander the Great.

APPENDIX. VooaBULARY.
Pwo Maps to Illustrate the First Roman Invasion of Britain and the
Campaigns of Alexander the Great,
12 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

First Latin Sentences and Prose.
By K. P. Wuson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Fettes College. With Vocabulary, 2s. 6d. Also
issued in Two Parts, 1s. 6d. each.

Saturday Review.—‘‘This is just the right sort of help the beginner wants.
Sbet It is certainly a book to be recommended for preparatory schools or the
lower classes of a public school.”

Educational Review.—‘‘ Form masters in search of a new composition book
will welcome this publication.”

A First Latin Reader.

With Notes, Exercises, and Vocabulary. By K. P. Wrison, M.A., Fettes
College. Crown 8vo, ls, 6d.

Tales of Ancient Thessaly.

An Elementary Latin Reading-Book, with Notes and Voeabulary. By
J. W. E. Peanor, M.A., Headmaster of Merton Court Preparatory School,
Sidcup ; late Assistant-Master, University College School, London. With
a Preface by J. L. Paton, M.A., late Fellow of St John’s College,
Cambridge; Headmaster of the Grammar School, Manchester. 1s.

Guardian.—‘‘A striking and attractive volume, Altogether, we have here
quite a noteworthy little venture, to which we wish all success.”

Latin Verse Unseens.

By G. MippLeton, M.A., Classical Master, Aberdeen Grammar School,
late Scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ; Joint-Author of ‘ Student’s
Companion to Latin Authors,’ 1s. 6d.

Schoolmaster.—‘‘ They form excellent practice in ‘unseen’ work, in a great
variety of style and subject. For purposes of general study and as practice for
examinations the book is a thoroughly useful one.”

Latin Historical Unseens.
For Army Classes, By L. C. Vacauan WinkeEs, M.A. 28.
Army and Navy Gazette.—‘' Will be found very useful by candidates for
entrance to Sandhurst, Woolwich, and the Militia.”

Stonyhurst Latin Grammar.
By Rev. JoHN GmRaRD. Second Edition. Pp.199. 3s.

Aditus Faciliores Greci.

An Easy Greek Construing Book, with Complete Vocabulary. By the lat
A. W. Pots, M.A., LL.D., and the Rev. C. DaRNRLL M.A. Fitth
Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s.

Camenarum Flosculos in Usum Fettesianorum decerptos

Notis quibusdam illustraverunt A. Gut. Ports, M.A., LL.D, ;
Gut. A. Hmanp, M.A., LL.D. New Impression. Crown 8vo, 85, 6d, ,
Educational Works. 13

 

Greek Accidence.

For Use in Preparatory and Public Schools, By T. C, WEATHERH@AD,
M.A,, Headmaster, Choir School, King’s College, Cambridge; formerly of
Trinity College, Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar. 1s. 6d.
Literature.—'‘' Not the least of its merits is the clearness of the type, both
Greek and English.”
Pilot.—‘‘ The most useful book for beginners we have seen.”

The Messenian Wars.

An Elementary Greck Reader. With Exercises and Full Voeabulary. By
H. W. Aupgn, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada College, Toronto ; formerly
Assistant-Master, Fettes College, Edinburgh ; late Scholar of Christ’s College,
Cambridge, and Bell University Scholar, 1s, 6d.
Saturday Review.—‘‘ A far more spirited narrative than the Anabasis, We
warmly commend the book.”

Higher Greek Prose.

With an Introduction by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada
College, Toronto, 2s. 6d. *,* Key (for Teachers only), 58. net.
Guardian.—‘‘ The selection of passages for translation into Greek is certainly
well made.”
Journal of Education.—‘'A manual of well-graduated exercises in Greek
Prose Composition, ranging from short sentences to continuous pieces.”

Lower Greek Prose.
By K. P. Witson, M.A., Assistant-Master in Fettes College, Edinburgh.
Qs, 6d. *,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s, net.
School Guardian.—‘‘ A well-arranged book, designed to meet the needs of
middle forms in schools.”

Higher Greek Unseens.

For the Use of Higher Forms and University Students. Selected, with
Introductory Hints on Translation, by H. W. AupEN, M.A., Principal,
Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master, Fettes College,
Edinburgh. 2s. 6d.
Educational Times.—'‘It contains a good selection quite difficult enough
for the highest forms of public schools.”
Schoolmaster.—‘‘ The introductory remarks on style and translation form
eminently profitable preliminary reading for the earnest and diligent worker in
the golden mine of classical scholarship.”

Greek Unseens.

Bring ONE HUNDRED PassaGES FOR TRANSLATION aT SIGHT IN JUNIOR
CuassEs, Selected and arranged. With Introduction by W. Lospan, M.A.,
Classical Master, The High School, Glasgow. 2s.

This little book is designed for the use of those preparing for the Leaving Cer-
tificate, Scotch Preliminary, London Matriculation, and similar examinations in
Greek. The extracts are aa from over a score of different authors, and regard
has been had in the selection to literary or historical interest, and in the arrange.
ment te progressive difficulty.
14 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

Greek Verse Unseens.

By T. R. Muts, M.A., Lecturer in Classics, University College, Dundee,
formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford; Joint-Author of ‘Student’s
Companion to Latin Authors,’ 1s. 6d,

School Guardian.—‘‘ A capital selection made with much diseretion....... It
is a great merit that the selections are intelligible apart from their context.”

University Correspondent.—‘‘This careful and judicious seleetion should
be found very useful in the higher forms of schools and in preparing for less
advanced University examinations for Honours,”

Greek Test Papers.
By JaMEs Mor, Litt.D., LL.D., late co-Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School.
2s. 6d,

*," A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net.

University Correspondent.—‘‘This useful book....... The papers are based
on the long experience of a practical teacher, and should prove extremely help-
ful and suggestive to all teachers of Greek.”

Greek Prose Phrase Book.

Based on Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, and Plato. Arranged accord-
ing to subjects, with Indexes. By H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Editor of
‘Meissner’s Latin Phrase Book.’ Interleaved, 3s. 6d. :

Spectator.—‘' A good piece of work, and likely to be useful.”
Athensum.—‘‘ A useful little volume, helpful to boys who are learning to
write Greek prose.”

Journal of Education.—‘‘ Of great service to schoolboys and schoolmasters
alike. The idea of interleaving is especially commendable.”

Aristophanes—Pax.

Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by H. SHARPLEY, M.A.,, late Seholar
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1 vol. 12s. 6d. net,

A Short History of the Ancient Greeks from the
Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest.

By P. Gunes, Litt.D., LL.D., Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
With Maps and Ilustrations. [in preparation,

Outlines of Greek History.
By the Same AUTHOR. In 1 vol,’ (In preparation,

A Manual of Classical Geography.

By Joun L. Myrrgs, M.A., Fellow of Magdalene College; Professor of
Ancient History, Oxford. [Zn preparation,
Educational Works. 15

BLACK WOODS’
ILLUSTRATED

CLASSICAL TEXTS.

GENERAL Epitor—H. W. AUDEN, M.A.

Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master at
Fettes College; late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Bell Uni-
versity Scholar,

Literature.—‘‘The best we have seen of the new type of school-
book.”

Academy.—‘If the price of this series is considered, we know
not where to look for its equal.”

Public School Magazine.—‘ The plates and maps seem to have
been prepared regardless of cost. We wonder how it can all be done
at the price.”

BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS.

Czsar—Gallic War, Books I.-III.
By J. M. Harpwion, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rugby; late Scholar of
St John’s College, Cambridge. With or without Vocabulary. ls. 6d,
Czesar— Gallic War, Books IV., V.

By Rev. St J. B. Wynne WILLson, M.A., Headmaster, Haileybury College ;
late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge. With or without Vocabulary,
1s. 6d. Vocabulary separately, 3d.

Czsar—Gallic War, Books VIL, Vil.
By C. A. A. Du Powret, M.A., Assistant-Master at Harrow. With or with-
out Vocabulary. 1s. 6d.

Virgil— Georgic I.

By J. Saragaunt, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Scholar
of University College, Oxford, 1s. 6d,

‘Virgil—Georgic IV.

By J. Sanczaunt, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Scholar of
University College, Oxford. 1s. 6d.”
16 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.
BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS—continued.

Virgil—AEneid, Books V., VI.
By Rev. St J. B, Wynne Wi1son, M.A., Headmaster, Haileybury
College. 1s. 6d.

Ovid— Metamorphoses (Selections).
By J. H. Vinog, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge,
Assistant-Master at Bradfield. 1s. 6d,

Ovid—Elegiac Extracts.
By R. B. BurnaBy, M.A. Oxon.; Classical Master, Trinity College,
Glenalmond. 1s. 6d.

Arrian—Anabasis, Books I., II.

By H. W. AvprN, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge ;
Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto ; formerly Assistant- Master
at Fettes College, 2s. 6d.

Homer—Odyssey, Book VI.
By E. E. Sees, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of St John’s College,
Cambridge. 1s. 6d,

Homer—Odyssey, Book VII.

By E. E. Sixes, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College,
Cambridge, [In preparation.

Demosthenes—Olynthiacs, 1- 3s

By H. SHarpey, M.A., late Scholar of Corpus College, Oxford ; Assistant-
Master at Hereford School. 1s, 6d.

Horace—Odes, Books I., II.

By J. SaRGEaunt, M.A., late Scholar of University College, Oxford ;
Assistant-Master at Westminster. 1s. 6d,

Horace—Odes, Books III., IV.
By J. SaRGEAUNT, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster. 1s, 6d.

Cicero—In Catilinam, I.-IV.

By H. W. AvpEN, M.A., late Scholar of Christ’s College, Cambridge ;
Principal of Upper Canada College, Toronto; formerly Assistant-Master
at Fettes College. 1s. 6d.

Cicero—De Senectute and De Amicitia.
By J. Tl. Vincs, M.A., Assistant-Master at Bradfield.
(In preparation,
Cicero—Pro Lege Manilia and Pro Archia.

By K. P. Witson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Fettes College. 2s. 6d.
Educational Works. 17
BLACKWOODS’ CLASSICAL TEXTS—continued.

Cicero—Select Letters.
By Rev. T. Nickiin, M.A., Assistant-Master at Rossall. 2s. 6d.

Cicero—Pro Caecina.
By Rev, J. M. Lupron, M.A. Cantab., Assistant-Master at Marlborough
College, [/1 preparation.
Tacitus—Agricola.
By H. F. Mornanp Simpson, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College,
Cambridge; Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School. [In preparation.
Xenophon—Anabasis, Books I., II.
By A. Jacagr, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Gamsldee 5 Head-
master, Queen Elizabeth’s Grammar School, Mansfield, 1s. 6d.
Sallust—Jugurtha.
By I. F. Smepuiey, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Fellow of
Pembroke College, Cambridge. 1s. 6d.
Euripides—Hercules Furens.
By HE. H. Buaxgnzy, M.A., Headmaster, King’s School, Ely. 2s. 6d.

Livy—Book XXVIII.

By G. Mrippueron, M.A., Classical Master in Aberdeen Grammar School ;
and A. Sourer, D.Litt., Regius Professor of Humanity in the University of
Aberdeen. 1s, 6d.

Livy—Book IX.

By J. A. Nickrin, B.A., late Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Liverpenl College. [In preparation,

Nepos—Select Lives.

By Rev. E. J. W. Houauton, D.D., Headmaster of Rossall School.
[In the press,

MODERN LANGUAGES.
FRENCH.

Historical Reader of Early French.
Containing Passages Illustrative of the Growth of the French Language
from the Earliest Times to the end of the 15th Century. By HERBERT A,
Strone, LL.D., Officier de l’Instruction Publique, Professor of Latin,
University College, Liverpool; and L. D. Barnett, M.A., Litt.D. 3s,
Guardian.—‘‘ A most valuable companion to the modern nandbeoks on his-
torical French grammar.”
B
18 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

The Tutorial Handbook of French Composition.

By ALFRED Menrcigr, L.-és-L., Lecturer on French Language and Literature
in the University of St Andrews. 3s. 6d.

Educational Times.—‘'A very useful book, which admirably accomplishes
its object of helping students preparing for examinations....... It is on rather
novel lines, which commend themselves at once to any one who has had to teach
the subject.”

French Historical Unseens.
For Army Classes. By N. EB. Toke, B.A. 28, 6d.

Journal of Education.—‘‘ A distinctly good book....... May be unreservedly
commended.”

A First Book of ‘‘ Free Composition’? in French.

By J. EpMonD Mansron, B.-és-L., Senior Modern Language Master, George
Watson’s College, Edinburgh. 1s.

School World.—‘‘ We recommend it warmly to all teachers of French, and
trust that it will have a wide circulation.”

French Test Papers for Civil Service and University

Students.

Edited by Emme B. Le FRangois, French Tutor, Redcliff House, Win-
chester House, St Ives, &c., Clifton, Bristol. 2s.

Weekly Register.—‘‘ Deserves as much praise as can be heaped on it.......
Thoroughly good work throughout.”

All French Verbs in Twelve Hours (except Defective
Verbs).
By ALFRED J. WyatTT, M.A. 1s.

Weekly Register.—‘‘ Altogether unique among French grammatical helps,
with a system, with a coup d’czil, with avoidance of repetition, with a premium
on intellectual study, which constitute a new departure.”

The Children’s Guide to the French Language.

By Annig G. FERRIER, Teacher of French in the Ladies’ College, Queen
Street, Edinburgh. 1s,

Schoolmaster.— ‘The method is good, and the book will be found helpful
by those who have to teach French to small children.”

GERMAN.

A History of German Literature.

By Joun G. Roperrson, Ph.D., Professor of German in the Uni i
of London, 10s, 6d. net. ; CD AE a eae

Times.—‘‘1n such an enterprise even a tolerable approach to success is some-
thing of an achievement, and in regard to German literature Mr Robertson
appears to have made a nearer approach than any other English writer.”
Outlines of the History of German Literature.

For the Use of Schools, By the Same AUTHOR. Crown 8vo, 8s, 6d. net.
Educational Works. 19

 

DR LUBOVIUS’ GERMAN SERIES.

A Practical German Grammar, Reader and Writer.

By Louis Lusovrus, Ph.D., German Master, Hillhead High School, Glas-
gow; Lecturer on German, U.F.C. Training College; Examiner for Degrees
in Arts, University ef Glasgow.

Part I.—Hlementary. 28.
Part II, 3s.
Lower German.

Reading, Supplementary Grammar with Exercises, and Material for Com-
position. With Notes and Vocabulary, and Ten Songs in Sol-Fa Notation.
By Louis Lusovivs, Ph.D. 2s. 6d.

Athenzum.—‘‘ The volume is well designed.”

Preparatory Schools Review.—‘' A capital reading-book for middle forms,”

Progressive German Composition.
With copious Notes and Idioms, and First InrRopDUCTION TO GERMAN
PumoLogy. By Lovis Lusovivs, Ph.D, 3s. 6d.
Also in Two Parts :—
Progressive German Composition. 2s. 6d.
*,* A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net,

First Introduction to German Philology. 1s. 6d.
Journal of Education.—‘'The passages for translation are well selected,
and the notes to the passages, as well as the grammatical introduction, give
real assistance....... The part of the book dealing with German philology deserves
great praise.”

A Compendious German Reader.

Consisting of Historical Extracts, Specimens of German Literature, Lives
of German Authors, an Outline of German History (1640-1890), Biographical and
Historical Notes. Especially adapted for the use of Army Classes. By G. B.
Brak, M.A. 23s. 6d.

Guardian.—‘‘ This method of compilation is certainly an improvement on the
hotch-potch of miscellaneous passages to be found in many of the older books.”

Spartanerjunglinge. A Story of Life in a Cadet College.
By Paul von Szozerpatski. Edited, with Vocabulary and Notes, by J. M.
Morrison, M.A., Master in Modern Languages, Aberdeen Grammar
School. 2s.

Scotsman.—‘ An admirable reader for teaching German on the new method,
and is sure to prove popular both with students and with teachers.”

A German Reader for Technical Schools.
By EwaLp F. SEcKLER, Senior Language Master at the Birmingham Muni-
cipal Day School; German Lecturer, Birmingham Evening School ; French
Lecturer, Stourbridge Technical School. 2s.
20 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

SPANISH.

A Spanish Grammar.
With Copious Exercises in Translation and Composition; Easy reading
Lessons and Extracts from Spanish Authors; a List of Idioms; a Glossary
of Commercial Terms (English-Spanish); and a copious General Vocabulary
(Spanish-English), By W1nLiaM A, Krssen, Teacher of Spanish, Hillhead
High School, Glasgow. 3s. 6d.

Investors’ Review.—‘‘To the student who wishes to master the Spanish
language for commercial or literary purposes this admirable little book will
prove invaluable,” ' :

Commerce.—‘‘ Contains practically all that is necessary for the aequirement
of a working knowledge of the language.”

MATHEMATICS.
Arithmetic.

With numerous Examples, Revision Tests, and Examination Papers. By

A. VerroH Loruian, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Mathematical and Science
Lecturer, E.C, Training College, Glasgow. With Answers. 3s. 6d.

Guardian.—'‘ A work of first-rate importance....... We should find it hard

to suggest any improvement....... We venture to predict that when the book

becomes known, it will command a very wide circulation in our public schools
aud elsewhere.”

Practical Arithmetical Exercises.

For SENIOR PUPILS IN SonooLs. Containing upwards of 8000 Examples,
consisting in great part of Problems, and 750 Extracts from Examination
Papers. Second Edition, Revised. 364 pages, 3s. With Answers, 3s. 6d.
James WELTON, Esq., Lecturer on Education, and Master of Method,
Yorkshire College.—‘‘ Your ‘ Practical Arithmetic’ seems to me the most complete
collection of exercises in existence. Both idea and exeeution are excellent.”

Elementary Algebra.

The Complete Book, 288 pp., cloth, 28. With Answers, 2s. 6d. Answers
sold separately, price 9d. Pt. I., 64 pp., 6d. Pt. IL, 64 pp, 6d. Pt.
III, 70 pp., 6d. Pt. IV., 96 pp., 9d. Answers to Pts. I., IL, III., each
2d. Answers to Pt. IV., 3d.

Educational News.—‘‘ A short and compact introduction to”algebra....... The
exercises are remarkably good, and the arrangement of the subject-matter is on
the soundest principles. The work is, on the whole, to be commended as being
at once inexpensive and scholarly.”

Handbook of Mental Arithmetic.

With 7200 Examples and Answers. 264 pp. 2s, 6d. Also in Six Parts,
limp cloth, price 6d. each,

Teachers’ Monthly.—'‘ The examples are mainly concrete, as they should
be, are of all varieties, and, what is most important, of the right amount of
difficulty.’

Educational News,—‘‘ This is, as a matter of fact, at once a handbook and a
handy book. It is an absolute storehouse of exercises in mental computations,
rer There are most valuable practical hints to teachers.”
Educational Works. 21

 

Modern Geometry of the Point, Straight Line, and
Circle.
An Elementary Treatise. By J. A. THrp, D.Sc., Headmaster of Spier’s
School, Beith. 3s.

_ Schoolmaster, — ‘‘ Hach branch of this wide subject is treated with brevity,
it is true, and yet with amazing completeness considering the size of the volume.
So earnest and reliable an effort deserves success.”
Journal of Education, — “An exceedingly useful text-book, full enough
for nearly every educational purpose, and yet not repellent by overloading.”
Educational News.—‘‘ A book which will easily take rank among the best of
its kind, The subject is treated with complete thoroughness and honesty.”

Mensuration.

128 pp., cloth, 1s. Also in Two Parts. Pt. I., Parallelograms and Tri-
angles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids.
64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Answers may be had separately, price 2d.
each Part.

Educational Times.—‘‘ The explanations are always clear and to the point,
while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is offered
to the students who make use of the book,”

Higher Arithmetic.

For Ex-Standard and Continuation Classes. 128 pp. Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d.
With Answers, cloth, 11d, Answers may be had separately, price 3d.

GEOGRAPHY.

Fifty-Fitth Thousand,

Elements of Modern Geography.

By the Rev. ALEXANDER Mackay, LL.D., F.R,G.8. Revised to the
present time. Pp. 300. 3s.

Schoolmaster.—‘' For senior pupils or pupil-teachers the book contains all
that is desirable....... It is well got up, and bears the mark of much care in the
authorship and editing.”

One Hundred and Ninety-Sixth Thousand.

Outlines of Modern Geography.
By the SaME AUTHOR. Revised to the present time. Pp. 128. Is.
These ‘ Outlines’—in many respects an epitome of the ‘ Elements’—are care-
fully prepared to meet the wants of beginners, The arrangement is the same
as in the Author’s larger works.

One Hundred and Fifth Thousand.

First Steps in Geography.
By the SaME AuTHoR. 18me, pp. 56. Sewed 4d. ; in cloth, 6d,
22 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

A Manual of Classical Geography.

By Joan L. Myrxs, M.A., Professor of Ancient History, Oxford. ;
[In preparation.

CHEMISTRY AND POPULAR
SCIENCE.

Forty Elementary Lessons in Chemistry.
By W. L. Sarcawt, M.A., Headmaster, Oakham School. Illustrated.
1s, 6d.
Glasgow Herald.—‘‘ Remarkably well arranged for teaching purposes, and
shows the compiler to have a real grip of sound educational principles. The book
is clearly written and aptly illustrated.”

Inorganic Tables, with Notes and Equations.

By H. M. Trmpany, B.Sc., Science Master, Borough Technical School,
Shrewsbury. Crown 8vo, ls.

Things of Everyday.
A Popular Science Reader on Some Common Things. With Ilus-
trations, 2s,
Guardian.—‘‘ Will be found useful by teachers in elementary and continuation
schools who have to conduct classes in the ‘science of common things,’...... Well

# ,

and strongly bound, and illustrated by beautifully clear diagrams,’

GEOLOGY.

An Intermediate Text-Book of Geology.

By Professor CHaRLES LaPworTH, LUL.D., University, Birmingham.
Founded on Dr Pagu’s ‘Introductory Text-Book of Geology.’ With Ilus-
trations. 5s.

Educational News.—'‘ The work is lucid and attractive, and will take high
rank among the best text-books on the subject.”

Publishers’ Circular.—‘‘The arrangement of the new book is in every way
excellent, and it need hardly be said that it is thoroughly up to date in all
details.......Simplicity and clearness in the book areas pronounced as its accuracy,
and students and teachers alike will find it of lasting benefit to them.”

Education. — ‘‘The name of the Author is a guarantee that the subject is
effectively treated, and the information and views up to date.”

PALAEONTOLOGY.

A Manual of Paleontology.

For the Use of Students. With a General Introduction on the Principles of
Palzontology. By Professor H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, Aberdeen, and
RioHarp LypgkKEr, B.A., F.G.S. &c, Third Edition. Entirely rewritten
and greatly enlarged. 2 vols, 8vo, with 1419 Engravings. 638s,
Educational Works. 23

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Fifteenth Edition, Revised.

Introductory Text-Book of Physical Geography.
With Sketch-Maps and Illustrations, By Davip Paas, LL.U., &c., Pro-
fessor of Geology in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Revised
by Professor CHARLES LapworTH, 2s. 6d,

, Athensum.—‘‘ The divisions of the subject are so clearly defined, the explana-
tions are so lucid, the relations of one portion of the subject to another are so
satisfactorily shown, and, above all, the bearings of the allied sciences to Physical
Geography are brought out with so much precision, that every reader wil] feel
that difficulties have been removed and the path of study smoothed before him.”

PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC.

An Introductory Text-Book of Logic.
With Numerous Examples and Exercises, By SypNry HERBERT MELLONE,
M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.); Examiner in Philosophy in the University of
Edinburgh. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Scotsman, —‘‘This is a well-studied academic text-book, in which the
traditional doctrine that has been handed down from Aristotle to the univer-
sity professors of to-day is expounded with clearness, and upon an instruetive
system which leads up naturally to the deeper and different speculations involved
in modern logice....... The book, in fine, is an excellent working text-book of its
subject, likely to prove useful both to students and to teachers.

Elements of Psychology.
By Sypnzy Hzersert Mztxoneg, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.), and MARGARET
Drummond, M.A. (Edin.) Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s,
Scotsman.—‘‘Thoroughness is a feature of the work, and, treating psychology
as a living science, it will be found fresh, suggestive, and up-to-date.”
Education. — ‘‘The authors of this volume have made satisfactory use of
accredited authorities; in addition, they have pursued original investigations
and conducted experiments, with the result that great freshness of treatment
marks their contribution to the teaching of psychology ”

A Short History of Logic.
By Ropert Apamson, LL.D., Late Professor of Logic in the University of
Glasgow. Edited by W. R. Sorzey, Litt.D., LL.D., Fellow of the British
Academy, Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Cambridge. Crown
8vo, 5s net,
“There is no other History of Logic—short or long—in English, and no similar
short work in any other language.”

FORESTRY.

The Elements of British Forestry.
A Handbook for Forest Apprentices and Students of Forestry. By JoHN
Nisset, D.Ci., Professor of Forestry at the West of Scotland Agricultural]
College, Author of ‘The Forester.’ Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. net.

Forest Entomology.
By A. T. GitLtanpErRs, Wood Manager to His Grace the Duke of Northumber-
land, K.G. Second Edition, Revised. With 351 Illustrations, Demy 8vo,
15s. net.

 
24 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

ELEMENTARY SERIES.
BLACKWOODS’
LITERATURE READERS.

Edited by JOHN ADAMS, M.A., LL.D.,

Professor of Education in the University of London.

 

BOOK I. . : : = é Pp. 228. Price 1s.

BOOK II. . : i , 3 Pp, 275. Price 1s. 4d.

BOOKIIL. . : ; ‘ : Pp. 303, Price 1s. 6d.

BOOK IY. . , = Pp. 381. Price 1s, 6d.
NOTE.

This new Series would seek to do for Literature what has
already been done by many series of School Readers for
History, Geography, and Scierice, Many teachers feel that
their pupils should be introduced as soon as possible to the
works of the great writers, and that reading may be learnt
from these works at least as well _as from compilations
specially written for the young. Because of recent changes
in Inspection, the present is a speciaily Suitable time for
the Introduction of such a series into Elementary Schools.
in the Preparatory Departments of Secondary Schoois the
need for such a series is clamant.

It is to be noted that the books are not manuals of
English literature, but merely Readers, the matter of which
is drawn entirely from authors of recognised standing. All
the usual aids given in Readers are supplied; but illustra-
tions, as affording no help in dealing with Literature, are
excluded from the series. —

 

“The volumes, which are capitally printed, consist of selected
readings of increasing difficulty, to which notes and exercises are
added at the end. The selected pieces are admirably chosen, especially
in the later books, which will form a beginning for a really sound
and wide appreciation of the stores of good English verse and
prose.”—Athenzum.

_ “The selected readings...... are interesting, and possessed of real
literary value. The books are well bound, the paper is excellent,
and the unusual boldness and clear spacing of the type go far to
compensate for the entire absence of pictorial illustrations.”’—Guardian.

“A very excellent gradus to the more accessible heights of the
English Parnassus......The appendices on spelling, word-building,
one ee are the work of a skilful, practical teacher.”—Pall

a azette.

“If we had the making of the English Educational Code for
Elementary Schools, we should insert a regulation that all boys and
girls should spend two whole years on these four books, and on
nothing else.’’—Bradford Observer.

“The books are graded with remarkable skill.”’—Glasgow Herald,
Educational Works.

25

 

“ Absolutely the best set of all the history readers that have hitherto

been published.”—The Guardian.

THE STORY OF THE WORLD.

FOR THE CHILDREN OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
By M. B.

(In Five Books.)
SYNGE.

With Coloured Frontispieces and numerous Illustrations by
B. M. Synge, A.R.E., and Maps.

 

BOOK I.

ON THE SHORES OF THE GREAT SEA. 1s. 4d.

Colonial Edition, 1s. 6d.

THz Home of Abraham—Into Africa—
Joseph in Egypt—The Children of Israel—
The First Merchant Fleet—Hiram, King of
Tyre—King Solomon’s Fleet—The Story of
Carthage—The Story of the Argonauts—The
Siege of Troy—The Adventures of Ulysses—
The Dawn of History—The Fall of Tyre—
The Rise of Carthage—Hanno’s Adventures
—tThe Battle of Marathon—King Ahasuerus
—How Leonidas kept the Pass—Some

BOOK II. THE DISCOVERY

Tus Roman World—The Tragedy of Nero—
The Great Fire in Rome—The Destruction
of Pompeii—Marcus Aurelius—Christians to
the Lions—A New Rome—The Armies of
the North—King Arthur and his Knights—
How the Northmen conquered England—
The First Crusade—Frederick Barbarossa—
The Third Crusade—The Days of Chivalry
—Queen of the Adriatic—The Story of

 

Marco Polo— Dante's Great Poem—The

BOOK Ill. THE AWAKENING OF EUROPE.

Greek Colonies—Athens—The Death of
Socrates—The Story of Romulus and Remus
—HowHoratius kept the Bridge—Coriolanus
—Alexander the Great—King of Macedonia
— The Conquest of India — Alexander’s
City—The Roman Fleet—-The Adventures of
Hannibal—The End of Carthage — The
Triumph of Rome—Julius Czsar—The
Flight of Pompey—The Death of Cesar.

OF NEW WORLDS. 1s. 6d.

Maid of Orleans—Prince Henry, the Sailor—
The Invention of Printing—Vasco da Gama’s
Great Voyage —Golden Goa — Christopher
Columbus—The Last of the Moors—Dis-
covery of the New World—Columbus in
Chains—Discovery of the Pacific—Magel-
lan's Straits—Montezuma—Siege and Fall of
Mexico — Conquest of Peru—A Great
Awakening.

1s. 6d.

Colonial Edition, 1s. 9d.

Srory of the Netherlands—The Story of
Martin Luther—The Massacre of St Bar-
tholomew—The Siege of Leyden—William
the Silent — Drake’s Voyage round the
World—The Great Armada—Virginia—Story
of the Revenge—Sir Walter Raleigh—The
‘Fairy Queen’—First Voyage of the East
India Company—Henry Hudson—Captain
Jobn Smith—The Founding of Quebec—
The Pilgrim Fathers—Thirty Years of War
—The Duteh at Sea—Van Riebeek’s Oolony

—Oliver Cromwell—Two Famous Admirals
—De Ruyter—The Founder of Pennsyl-
vania—The ‘Pilgrim’s Progress '’—William’

Invitation—The Struggle in Ireland—The
Siege of Vienna by the Turks—The Story of
the Huguenots—The Battle of Blenheim—
How Peter the Great learned Shipbuilding
~—Charles XII. of Sweden—The Boyhood of
Frederick the Great—Anson’s Voyage round
the World—Maria Therera—The Story of
Scotland.
26

William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

THE STORY OF THE WORLD—continued.

BOOK IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR SEA POWER. 1s. 9d.

Tue Story of the Great Mogul—Robert
Clive—The Black Hole of Calcutta—The
Struggle for North America—George Wash-
ington—How Pitt saved England—The Fall
of Quebec—‘‘ The Great Lord Hawke”—
The Declaration of Independence—Capiain
Cook's Story—James Bruce and the Nile—
The Trial of Warren Hastings — Maria
Antoinette-—-The Fall of the Bastile—
Napoleon Bonaparte—Horatio Nelson—The
Adventures of Mungo Park—The Travels of
Baron Humboldt—The Battle of the Nile—

Copenhagen — Napoleon — Trafalgar — The
Death of Nelson—The Rise of Wellington—
The First Australian Colony—Story of the
Slave Trade—The Defence of Saragoza—Sir
John Moore at Corunna—The Victory of
Talavera—The Peasant Hero of the Tyrol—
The ‘‘Shannon” and the ‘‘ Chesapeake ""—
Napoleon’s Retreat from Moscow—Welling-
ton’s Victories in Spain—The Fall of the
Empire—Story of the Steam Engine—Water-
loo—The Exile of St Helena.

BOOK V. GROWTH OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 22.

How Spain lost South America—The Greek
War — Victoria, Queen of England— The
Great Boer Trek—The Story of Natal—The
Story of Canada—The Winning of the West
—A Great Arctic Expedition—Discoveries in
Australia—The Last King of France--Louis
Kossuth and Hungary—The Crimean War—
The Indian Mutiny—King of United Italy
—Civil War in America—The Mexican Re-
volution—Founding the German Empire—
The Franco-German War—The Dream of
Cecil Rhodes—The Dutch Republics in

South Africa—Livingstone’s discoveries in
Central Africa—China’s Long Sleep—Japan,
Britain’s Ally—Russia—The Annexation of
Burma—The Story of Afghanistan —The
Empire of India— Gordon, the Hero of
Khartum—The Redemption of Egypt—The
Story of British West Africa—The Story of
Uganda — The Founding of Rhodesia —
British South Africa—The Dominion of
Canada — Australia— The New Nation—
Freedom for Cuba—Reign of Queen Victoria

 

—Welding the Empire—Citizenship.

Also in 2 volumes, at 3s. 6d. each net, suitable as prize books.

Uniform with this Series.

THE WORLD’S CHILDHOOD.

With oumerous Illustrations by Brinsley Le Fanu.

STORIES OF THE FAIRIES.

10d,

CONTENTS

Lit-tle Red Ri-ding Hood.
The Three Bears.

‘The Snow-Child.

Tom Thumb.

The Ug-ly Duck-ling.

Puss in Boots.

The Lit-tle Girl and the Cats.
Jack and the Bean-Stalk.
Gol-dy.

Cin-der-el-la—Part I.

Il. STORIES OF THE GREE

SSL SHIR CS ES

ra

11. Cin-der-el-la—Part II.

12. The Lost Bell.

18, Jack the Gi-ant Kill-er,

14, Star-bright and Bird-ie.

15. Beau-ty and the Beast.

16. Peach-Dar-ling.

17. In Search of a Night’s Rest.
18. Dick Whit-ting-ton and his Cat.
19. The Sleep-ing Sate

K GODS AND HBROBS. tod.

CONTENTS,

1, A-bout the Gods.
2. The Names of the Gods.
8. Turn-ed in-to Stone.
4, The Shin-ing Char-i-ot.
5. The Laur-el Tree.
6. A Horse with Wings.
7. The Oy-press Tree.
8. The Fruits of the Earth.
9. Ou-pid’s Gold-en Ar-rows.
10. Pan's Pipe.
11. A Long Sleep.
12, The Re-ward of Kind-ness.

13. At-a-lan-ta's Race.

14. The Stor-y of Al-ces-tis,

15. The Snow-White Bull.

16. The Spi-der and his Web.

17. I-o—the White Cow.

18, The Three Gold-en Ap-ples.

19. The Ol-ive Tree.

20. A Boy Her-o of Old.

21, The Thread of Ar-i-ad-ne.

22, The Boy who tried to Fly,

28, The Gold-en oe
Teacher's Appendix.

 
Educational Works. 27

 

“If history can be given a form likely to make it palatable to young folks, “F”
has succeded. in doing so in these ‘Stories of the English’ It is ne eaucceention to
say that the book represents not only a masterpiece in literature for children,
but a work of no slight value for the national good.”—Scotsman.

STORIES OF THE ENGLISH
FOR SCHOOLS.

By F.
FOR JUNIOR SOHOLARS.

Vov. L—FROM THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ARMADA. —1s. 6d.

CONTENTS.—The coming of the White Horse—The coming of the Cross—The Fight
with the Raven—Alfred the Great—Hdward the Confessor—William the Conquerer—The
Kings of the Golden Broom—Richard Lion-Heart—King John and Magna Charta—Earl
Simon the Righteous—Edward the Englishman—Bannockburn and Berkeley—The Lions
and the Lilies—A King dethroned—Prince Hal—King Harry—The Wars of the Roses—
Henry VIII. and the Revolt from Rome—Edward VI. and Mary—Hlizabeth, the Great
Queen : (1) English Adventurers and the Cruise of the Pelican ; (2) Mary, Queen of Scots;
(3) Papist Plots and the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew ; (4) The Armada,

ILLUSTRATIONS.—Dover Castle—The Pharos, Dover—Norsemen—Homes of our
Ancestors—Chfteau Gaillard—Tomb of a Crusader (Gervase Alard), Winchelsea Church—
Carnarvon Castle—Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey—Knights of the Fourteenth
Century—Edward the Third—The Battle of Cressy—Tomb of Edward the Third, West-
minster Abbey—Tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury Cathedral—Richard II. on his
voyage to Ireland—Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey—Henry V, with Military
Attendants—Henry V. addressing his Army—Joan of Arc—The Crowning of Henry VII.
on Bosworth Field—Henry VIII.—Wolsey—Sir Thomas More taking leave of his Daughter
—Calais during the Sixteenth Century—Queen Elizabeth—The Armada—Drake—Mary,
Queen of Scots—Drake playing Bowls with his Captains—Sir Walter Raleigh.

FOR SENIOR SCHOLARS.

Vor. I.—THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER AND GREATER ENGLAND.—1s. 6d.

CONTENTS.—The First of the Stuarts—The Struggle for Power—The Puritan Tyranny
—The Second Struggle for Power: Charles II.—The Revolution—The Fight with France:
The Dutch King—Queen Anne and Marlborough—Greater England—The Story of Anson—
The Story of Wolfe—The Story of Captain Cook—The Story of Clive—The War of American
Independence—The great French War—The Story of Nelson—The Story of the Great Duke
—The End of the Stories. :

ILLUSTRATIONS.—James I.—Bacon—Charles I.—A Cavalier—Oliver Cromwell—The
Great Fire of London—The Seven Bishops going to the Tower—Landing of William of
Orange in England—Marlborough—Gibraltar—Chatham—Fight between the Centurion and
the Manila Ship—General Wolfe—The Death of Captain Cook — Washington — Pitt—
Napoleon Bonaparte—Nelson—H.M.S. Victory, Portsmouth Harbour—Duke of Wellington
—Napoleon on board the Bellerophon.

*Neill, Author of ‘Songs of the Glen of Antrim,’ writing to Mr Blackwood,
anita atiog of the ‘English’ was written for my little daughter Susan. The
child is quite fascinated by it, but equally so are all the grown-up friends to whom
T have shown it. I lent it once to a sailor uncle, and he sat up to all hours of that
night with it, and afterwards told me that he could hardly believe that such an
account of Nelson’s great battles had been written by a@ woman, because it was
technically accurate. And a soldier friend and critic used almost, the same words
about the account of Marlborough’s campaigns. F. is the most patient and faithful
student of history that I know. She has such a strong literary sence that she amply
could not write anything except in a literary form, and combined with it she h
that rare thing, a judicial mind. This, I think, gives her work a quite peculiar

value.”
28 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

Standard Readers.

Revised Edition, With Supplementary Pages, consisting of ‘‘Spelling
Lists,” ‘‘ Word-Building,” ‘‘ Prefixes and Suffixes,” &c. Profusely Llus-
trated with Superior Engravings,

BOOK I. 40 Lessons ‘ a ’ # 8d.
BOOK II. 40 Lessons Z ‘ . i 9d.
BOOK IIT. 60 Lessons 3 ‘ p « Ag. 0d,
BOOK IV. 60 Lessons - ‘ é » 1s, 3d.
BOOK V, 60 Lessons ‘i : a . 1s. 4d,
BOOK VI. 60 Lessons ‘ ¥ ‘ . Is. 6d.

Schoolmaster.—'‘ We strongly recommend these books.......Children will be
sure to like them; the matter is extremely suitable and interesting, the print
very distinct, and the paper a pleasure to feel.”

Infant Series.

FIRST PICTURE PRIMER. 5 Sewed, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
SECOND PICTURE PRIMER, ‘ Sewed, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
PICTURE READING SHEETS,

1st SERIES. | 2ND SERIES,

Each containing 16 sheets, unmounted, 8s. 6d. Mounted on 8 boards,
with cloth border, price 14s,; varnished, 3s. 6d. per set extra.

Or the 16 sheets laid on linen, varnished, and mounted on a roller,
17s. 6d.

THE INFANT PICTURE READER. With numerous Illustrations.
Cloth, limp, 6d,

Edueational News.—‘‘ Teachers will find these Primers a useful introduction
to the art of reading. We consider them well adapted to their purpose.”

Geographical Readers.
With numerous Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations.
GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. (For Stand.I.) 96pp. 94d.

BOOK I. (ForStand. II.) 96 pp. . Fi 9a.
BOOK II. (For Stand. III.) 156 pp. ‘ » Is, 0d.
BOOK III, (For Stand, IV.) 192 pp. ; » Is. 8d.
BOOK IV. (For Stand. V.) 256 pp. < . Is. 6d.
BOOK V. (For Stand. VI.) 256 pp. . » Is. 6d.

BOOK VI. (For Stand. VII.) 256 pp. 7 - 1s, 9d.

Schoolmaster. — “This is a really excellent series of Geographical Readers.
The volumes have, in common, the attractiveness which good paper, clear type,
effective woodcuts, and durable binding can present ; whilst their contents, both
as to quality and quantity, are so graded as to he admirably adapted to the
several stages of the pupil’s progress,”
Educational Works. 29

 

Historical Readers.
With numerous Portraits, Maps, and other Illustrations,

SHORT STORIES FROM ENGLISH
HISTORY : . . é . 160 pp. 1s. Od.
FIRST HISTORICAL READER , . 160 pp. Is. Od.
SECOND HISTORICAL READER. ‘ . 224 pp. ls. 4d.
THIRD HISTORICAL READER . ‘ 256 pp. Is. 6d.
Schoolmaster.—'‘ These new Historical Readers have been carefully compiled.
The facts are well selected; the story is well told in language most likely to
impress itself in the memory of young children; and the poetical pieces are

fitting accompaniments to the prose.”

School Board Chronicle.—‘‘ The treatment is unconventional, but always
in good taste. The volumes will meet with much favour generally as lively,
useful, high-toned Historical Readers.”

Standard Authors.
Adapted for Schools.

HAWTHORNE’S TANGLEWOOD TALES, With Notes and [llustra-
tions. 160 pp. 1s, 2d.

Aytoun’s Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers.
With Introduction, Notes, and Life of the Author, for Junior Classes.

EDINBURGH AFTER FLODDEN . 382 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d.
THE EXECUTION OF MONTROSE . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d.
THE BURIAL-MARCH OF DUNDEE 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 34d.
THE ISLAND OF THE SCOTS . . 32 pages, 2d.; cloth, 34d.
Teachers’ Aid,—‘‘Capital annotated editions....... Beautifully clear and
painstaking; we commend them heartily to our brother and sister teachers.”

Educational News.—‘‘ Useful issues of well-known poems....... The notes
are exceedingly appropriate, and leave nothing in doubt. For class purposes
we can specially recommend these little books.”

School Recitation Books.

BOOK I. 382 pages ' . . é 2d.
BOOK II. 32pages . ‘i . » 2d.
BOOK III. 48 pages. rs ; . 8d.
BOOK IV. 48 pages : : : 3 3d.
BOOK V. 64 pages ‘ . fs », 4d.
BOOK VI. 64pages . j . ‘i 4d,

Schoolmistress.—'‘ These six books are a valuable contribution to school
literature. The poems for each standard are judiciously chosen, the explanatory
notes and questions at the end of every lesson are very suitable.”
30 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

Grammar and Analysis.

BOOK II. 24 pages . . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
BOOK III. 24 pages . . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
BOOK IV. 48pages . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d,
BOOK V. 64pages . . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d.
BOOK VI. 64pages . . Paper, 8d.; eloth, 4d.

BOOK VII. 64 pages . . Paper, 8d.; cloth, 4d.

Schoolmaster.—‘‘'This is a series of good practical books whose merits ought
to ensure for them a wide sale. Among their leading merits are simplicity in
definitions, judicious recapitulation, and abundance of well-selected exercises
for practice.”

Teachers’ Aid.—'' For thoroughness, method, style, and high-class work,
commend us to these little text-books....... A practical hand has impressed
every line with individuality....... We are determined to use them in our own
department.”

Arithmetical Exercises.

BOOK I. ‘ e . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 23d.
BOOK IL ’ ‘ . Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
BOOK III. : ¢ . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK IV. , . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK V. . . . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
BOOK VIL . . . Paper, 2d.; eloth, 3d.

BOOK VII. . . . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d,
HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua-
tion Classes, 128 pp. . . Paper, 6d.; eloth, 8d.

*,* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct
to Teachers only.

Schoolmaster.—'' We can speak in terms of high praise respecting this series
of Arithmetical Exercises. They have been carefully constructed. They are
well graduated, and contain a large and varied collection of examples....... We
can recommend the series to our readers.”

Schoolmistress.—‘' Large quantity, excellent quality, great variety, and good
arrangement are the characteristics of this set of Arithmetieal Exercises.”

Elementary Grammar and Composition.

Based on the ANALYSIS OF SENTENOIS. With a Chapter on WORD-BUILDING
and DERIVATION, and containing numerous Exercises. New Edition. 1s.

Schoolmaster.—‘‘ A very valuable book. It is constructive as well as analytic,
and well-planned exercises have been framed to teach the young student how to
use the elements of his mother-tongue....... A junior text-book that is calculated
to yield most satisfactory results.”

Educational Times.—‘‘'The plan ought to work well....... A decided advance
from the old-fashioned practice of teaching.”
Educational Works. 31

 

Grammar and Analysis.
Scotch Code,
STANDARD II. 24 pages. Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
STANDARD III. 32 pages, Paper, 14d. ; cloth, 24d.
STANDARD IV. 56 pages. Paper, 24d. ; cloth, 34d.
STANDARD V. 56 pages. Paper, 24d. ; cloth, 34d.
STANDARD VI. 64 pages. Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d.

Teachers’ Aid.—‘‘ These are thoughtfully written and very practically con-
ceived little helps....... They are most exhaustive, and brimming with examples.”

New Arithmetical Exercises.
Scotch Code,

STANDARD I. 82pages . Paper, ldd.; cloth, 24d.
STANDARD II. 32 pages . Paper, 14d.; cloth, 24d.
STANDARD III. 56 pages . Paper, 2d.; cloth, 3d.
STANDARD IV. 64pages . Paper, 3d.; cloth, 4d.
STANDARD V. 80 pages . Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d.
STANDARD VI. 80 pages . Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d.
HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua-
tion Classes 128 pages . Paper, 6d.; cloth, 8d.

*,* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct
to Teachers only.

Educational News.—'‘The gradation of the exercises is perfect, and the
examples, which are very numerous, are of every conceivable variety. There is
ample choice for the teacher under every head. We recommend the series as
excellent School Arithmetics.”

Merit Certificate Arithmetic.
96 pp. Paper cover, 6d, cloth, 8d.

Mensuration.

128 pp., cloth, 1s. Also in Two Parts, Pt. IL, Parallelograms and
Triangles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. Il, Circles and Solids,
64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Answers may he had separately, price
2d. each Part.

Educational Times.—‘‘ The explanations are always clear and to the point,
while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is
offered to the students who make use of the book.”

A First Book on Physical Geography.
For Use in Schools. 64 pp. 4d.

Journal of Education.—‘ This is a capital little book, describing shortly
and clearly the geographical phenomena of nature,”
32 William Blackwood & Sons’ List.

 

Manual Instruction—Woodwork. DxsicNspD TO MEET THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINUTE OF THE SCIENCE AND Art DEPARTMENT
on Manuva Instruction. By GEORGE ST JOHN, Undenominational
School, Handsworth, Birmingham. With 100 Illustrations. 1s,

Blackwoods’ Simplex Civil Service Copy Books.
By Joun T. Pgaror, B.A., Leith Academy. Price 2d. each.

CONTENTS OF THE SERIES.

No. 1. Elements, Short Letters, Words,
« 2, Long Letters, Easy Words.
u 3, Capitals, Half-line Words.
«u 4, Text, Double Ruling, Sentences.
« 5, Half-Text, Sentences, Figures.
n 6, Small Hand, Double Ruling.
u 7. Intermediate, Transcription, &c.
« 8. Small Hand, Single Ruling.

The Headlines are graduated, up-to-date, and attractwe.

Blackwoods’ Universal Writing Books.

Have been designed to accompany the above series, and teachers will find it
advantageous to use them as Dictation Copies, because by them the learner
is kept continually writing at the correct slope, &c. Nol. is adapted for
Lowzr Ciasses, No. 2 for HiaHER Ciasses. Price 2d. each.

Practical Teacher.—‘‘ Our readers would do well to write for a specimen of
this book, and of the blank exercise-books ruled on the same principle, They
are worth careful attention.”

School World.—‘‘ Those teachers who are anxious to train their pupils to
write in the style associated with Civil Service Competitions should find the
copy-books designed by Mr Pearce very useful. The writing is certainly simple ;
it may, in fact, be reduced to four elements, in which the pupil is rigorously
ees in the earlier books before proceeding in later numbers to continuous
writing.”

Co of our readers in search of new books should see

ese.

Journal of Education.—‘' Aids the eye and guides the hand, and thus
checkmates any bias towards error in the slope.”

UNIVERSITY CALENDARS.

St Andrews University Calendar.
Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, 2s, 6d. net,

St Andrews University L.L.A. Calendar.
Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, 1s,

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, BDINBURGH aND LONDON.
12/4.
seers

See

Katee’
A,
ei?

pe

 

see
PPP POPP
ESP EIS
Se Pe oe ee
SPS
ate
cee
ate
rs
ic
Saar
eS

Cees

BS

Ae
Mee nee
rs
Ceasers
Pay
rete,
PP
5
eth
ero ead
FP PAT.
eee
*
es
ee

See
ce

a
oe

Oe
ye

TI

oy
es
pe

2

i
;
9
seat

Ceres

a

sas
yyy <a
pete

‘3

sehr

Pega
y 3,3

ae

ae

z

Loa

Mt
Sm,

Seta

ears}

bares cae »,
SRST TENE SO
SOD SER ELIS
oo br) “ 9 PSP) a Ait
met
a

,
Pye
SS,

a

i

Pio eae

o
6,
Sats

Cah
SRN RE
MEO ree
cS

phn
Depr eas

beatae
rege
NaN
Dre saeesscceesenes
ah a Pe)

a

4

ahs

o

ranean
sepa

"s

ae

 

os
es
Sees
Side ee
secant

o

PASM ett tte
Ada eee hy
Ieee
SE
és

a
7,

3
ey

semen
scichchete
SRS