Cornell Aniversity Library BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henry W. Saae 1891 AUKIEY HV &Ps RETURN TO ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY ITHACA, N. Y. DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTEDINU.S.Ay Cornell University Library | SB 221.W26S wi iC | $ work for r ii | 03 300 80 mann 0 SUGAR BEET SEED A Work for FARMERS, SEEDSMEN and CHEMISTS, Containing Histor- ical, Botanical and Theoretical Data, Combined with Practical Directions for the Production of Superior Sugar Beet Seed. By LEWIS.S. WARE, M. E., Editor of “The Sugar Beet,” Author of “The Sugar Beet,” “Various Sources of Sugar, “Production, Requirements and Selection of Sugar Beet Seed;’ Member of the American Philosophical Society, Fellow of L’Ecole Centrale des Arts, Agriculture et Manufactures, Association des Chimistes Paris, ete. ‘ Profusely Illustrated ORANGE JUDD COMPANY Chicago New York Springfield So 2.2 wees A\v4 5 (Copyright, 1898 ] ORANGE JUDD COMPANY [All rights reserved ] PUBLISHER'S NOTE. This book has long been in preparation, and the manu- ecript was in the publisher’s hands for some months before it was printed. The work embodies not only the results of 20 years’ studies and experience with the subject, but in its preparation the author has visited nearly every beet-seed farm and similar institution in the world. The illustrations are mostly from wood engravings originally made for this work. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CRIA PID Di casccesiiar dosti che aie stan suprarseyadea voile ysoo topegt DES Pages 1 to 6 Historical Considerations and Origin of European Vari- eties of Beets—Concluding Remarks. CHAPTER. TI, wsssaiccecas er ..Pages 7 to 25 Botanical Ponsideragions. Feenenkine Susan -Beet Seed— Historical Facts Relating to the Fertilization of Plants— Description of the Flower—Fertilization—Examination of Beet Seed—Enlarged Microscopical Section of the Entire Seed—Maturity—Physiological Functions of the Embryo and Albumen. CHAPTER Fs wcsaxysa ‘ ..Pages 26 to 43 Requirements of Siena Beet Seed —Brelinnivacy Remarks —Advantage of One Variety of Beets—Advantage of Early Selection—Annual Beets. CHAPTER IV. .. -Pages 44 to 52 Races, Types and. Varieties. ot ‘Sugar. Beets—Preliminary Remarks—Technical Considerations. CHAPTER Vi. wis sieves ards ..-Pages 52 to 121 Selection of Beets with a View to. Seed Production. Part I.— Preliminary Observations. Legras’s Physical Selection of Mothers, with Discussion as to Advantage of Small Beets—Exterior Signs as Indication of Quality. Selection by Appearance of Leaves. Part II. Chemical Selection—History of Chemical Selec- tion—Ist. Density of the Entire Root; 2d, Density of a Piece of Beet; 3d, Density of the Juice of the Beet; 4th, Estimation of the Juice by Chem- ical Methods; 5th, Estimation of the Sugar Beet by Means of a Polariscope. (a), Alcohol Method; (b), Hot Water Method; (c), Cold Water Methods, Pellet and Lamot Rasp; (c) 2, Keil and Dolle Rasp with Subsequent Weighing of Pulps; 38, Without Weighing with Special Samples as Adopted by M. lLegras; 4, Sach’s Direct Method—General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for Selection of Mothers by Cold-Water Method—German Beet-Seed-Selecting Laboratory—Polariscope for Mother Selection. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS. ¥ CHAPTER VI. ....... : .. Pages 122 to 152 Agricultural Soils fox: Beet ‘Seed Production—Vertitizers for Elite Seed and Mothers—Sowing of Seed for Mothers —Preparing the Soil, Planting of Mothers and Care Dur- ing Development—Relation Between Soils and Fertili- zers—Harvesting—Silos for Mothers—Chemical Changes During Second Year’s Growth. CHAPTER VIL. c. scien es Seisees ..Pages 153 to 169 Selection and Sampling ‘Seed Prelimninaiee Remarks— Influence of the Size of Seed on the Quality of the Root— Actual Weight of Beet Seed—Selection of Seed. CHAPTER VIII. ........ ed ae ..Pages 170 to 183 Germination Pest Praim mary Renarks—cermninatand. Methods and Mistakes. CHAPTER IX. ....... ..Pages 184 to 207 Sowing of Secd—Pueparine “Bead “Before Sowing—Beet seed Sowing—Germination in Soil. SARTRE UX anes vsdvattanscee nes sear iionhare eck Pages 208 to 220 Special Methods of Production of Superior Seed—From Leaves, Buds, Small Beets. CHAPTER, Biv seer cexs ‘ ..Pages 221 to 236 Home-Grown Best- the beet have not necessarily the same composition; hence, for accurate results it is very desirable to turn the beet over and take two or three samples from it, until the weight is above 16.20 grams, for French polariscopes; if only the large diameter—the beet having always a depression on one side—is sampled, the result obtained will be in excess. Practical experiments show that with the large diameter the average sugar per cent. is 13.43, while with the small diameter the per cent. is 13.23. The amount of pulp obtained in the case of the large diameter is nearly double that of the smaller section. While a rasp of this kind would not be suitable for the selection of beets which are to be subsequently used for seed production, it is des- tined to render excellent services 1n experimental work, where it is desired to determine the value of various experimental patches of families, having cer- tain characteristics, before commencing the final selec- tion of the root proper. It must be noted, however, that if the fractional vertical slices for seed production become popular, the rasp would possibly find some application in beet-selecting laboratories. The Poliakowsky method, if it had been more thoroughly studied, would have led to the water proc- ess that Pellet subsequently discovered. An impor- tant essential for success by this method is, that the pulps be excessively fine and cream-like. It is not desirable to weigh more than 26.048 grams for the Ger- man polariscope, for a volumd of 201.35 c. c., or 25.87 grams for a volume of 200 c. c. The pulp is washed in a special flask of 200 c. c. capacity; 5 to 7 c. c. sub- acetate at 30 degrees Bé are added, then a few drops of ether. Considerable agitation of the flask and con tents is necessary to avoid frothing. The 200 c. c. are completed with water; filtration and polarization as usual. It is recommended before polarizing that CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. OL a few drops of acetic acid be added. By using a tube of 400 m. m. in length the saccharine percentage is obtained at one reading. This cold-water process gives most excellent results, excepting during very cold weather; then it is found desirable to slightly heat the water. (c)2. Special Rasp (Keil and Dolle) with Subsequent Weighing of Pulps. It is interesting to examine in some detail the cold-water method for selection, as combined with the Keil and Dolle rasp. The general arrangement for laboratories is shown in Fig. 36. The motion of the rasp is given either by hand in turning a wheel, or by a gas on other engine, under which circumstances the upper arrangement of pulleys is not changed, as by suitable belting the desired velocity is reached direct from the motor on the floor, replacing the hand appli- ance; the rasp proper is very simple in its appearance; it may be single or double and has well-arranged brakes and pulleys, allowing almost instantaneous stoppage. The fly-wheel on the shaft regulates the movement. The point of thea rasp is a cone with teeth very like those used on wood files. In this point there are three openings, Q (see detail of point, Fig. 34) into which the cream-like pulp enters. In the original type of these machines it was necessary to unscrew the cylinder on which the conical rasp is fastened; the cylinder had to be emptied and then thoroughly washed before taking a sample from another beet. Under these circumstances it was not possible to make more than 1000 analyses per diem. Movable cylinders inside the rasp for a time were used, these being replaced by others during washing. This change in the method increased, in a measure, the working capacity of the apparatus, but did not entirely meet the requirements for rapid analysis. At last a 92 SUGAR BEET SEED. very simple method, which is most practical and does away with the movable cylinder, washing, etc., was mtroduced. It consists in having a rod FR fastened to the rasping point; at end of the rod is a circular disk D of the same diameter as the cone of revolving shaft. When the cone is unscrewed it carries with it the rod and disk, the pulp cylinder falling into a special cap- sule, care being taken to leave behind the portion of pulp near the disk, as it is the remains of a previous operation and has been pushed back by the new pulp from the last beet from which a sample is taken. Expe- rience shows that only four-fifths of the contents of cylinder should be allowed to fall into the capsule; by this means 3000 analyses may be made in twenty- four hours. Certain practical precautionary measures are essential. One must be careful to bring the mother JOCe FIG. 34. Detail of rasp point. FIG. 35. Wide neck flask. in contact with the revolving rasp very slowly; fur- thermore, when the penetration through the beet is nearly complete, the revolution of the rasp should be lessened, otherwise there would be danger of bruising the beet on the other side. Suitable brakes must be used so as to stop the apparatus at once, as soon as the belt is thrown on the loose pulley. When the mothers are arranged on a table near at hand, the sampling can commence. The rasp is put in motion by moving the lever commanding the belting; as soon as completed, that is, as soon as the sample is taken, the reverse movement is given to the lever so as to stop the general motion, while a special brake with spring attachment stops the rasp instantly. If there are two rasps on the same shaft, they must revolve CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 93 in the same direction, otherwise there would result considerable complication. Pellet makes some important observations respect- ing the use of the Keil rasp. It should penetrate the beet one-fourth of its length without neck. When the cutting portions of the rasp are sharp and in good condition, the pulp obtained is sufficiently fine to give accurate results by the cold-water process of analysis, but if the pointed rasp works badly the conditions are changed. If the velocity of the rasp is too slow, or if the motion is reversed, the pulp obtained is not suffi- ciently fine for the purpose intended. It is important to note that the hole made in the beet by the Keil and Dolle rasp is 14 m. m. in diameter, that it in no way destrovs the keeping qualities of the mother root; also that at least 300 perforations may be made per hour, or 3000 a day; this cannot be reached at first and requires considerable experience. To make sure of conditions, a comparative test by cold and hot water should be made. Place beside the rasp the tray hold- ing ten capsules, or small receptacles for the reception of the pulp. Each of them has’a number and the mix- ing is done in them, or in a larger receiver. Weighing the Pulp. It is then emptied into a nickel capsule of a known weight. It is desirable to have several on hand, so as to avoid errors. The pulp, after being thoroughly mixed, is weighed in capsules. One-quarter of the normal weight required for the polariscope is sufficient for the test; at least 1000 of such weighings can be done in ten hours on ordinary scales, and for special seed laboratories five or more scales are in active use. Filling of Flasks with Pulp. The flasks used have a capacity of 50 c. c. (Fig. 35), with a very large opening. The pulp is washed 94 SUGAR BEET SEED. into them with 25 to 30 c. c. of water, from a reservoir three to five feet above the table; its capacity depends upon the requirements. The water is mixed with 30 to 40 c. c. of sub-acetate of lead, 28 to 30 Bé.* fA), per liter capacity, and is well stirred. A tube, either of glass or rubber, connects the reservoir within easy reach of the table, on which are the empty flasks waiting to be filled. A special funnel is placed in the flask. The funnel has an upper opening of 6c. m., and is 7 c. m. in length, its smaller dimensions being considerably less than the neck of the flask; it is held in position bv suitable wire attachments. The capacity of the funnel being at least 100 c. c., there need then be no danger from splashing when being filled with the entire contents of capsule; under these circumstances the air from the flasks escapes without difficulty during filling. A very important precaution is to thoroughly moisten the pulp in the capsule before washing it into the funnel over the flask. Great care should be taken to have the flasks filled, exactly to: the 50 c. c. mark of the flask; if necessary, by reason of excessive frothing, bet- ter add a few drops of acetic acid, so as to make sure that the desired volume is obtained, or allow for excess im subsequent calculations. The flask, with pulp and water, is thoroughly shaken. The filtering can be conducted on a very large scale, the arrangement of the apparatus varying with circumstances.t The glass funnels should be of a suitable size. The clear filtrate is collected in a conical-shaped tumbler; to it are added 2 few drops of acetic acid; when it is filled, it is taken on a tray with twenty others to the table of the polari- *A satisfactory formula for the preparation of lead acetate is as follows—325 to 350 grams neutral acetate of Jead, 100 grams powdered litharge, to which is added 900 grams water. It is necessary to boil for one-half honr to completely dissolve the litharge, add water until the volume is one liter. Another formula given by a well-known chemist is—350 grams neutral lead acetate, 55 ¢.c. ammonia, 800 grams water; dissolve the acetate in water and then add the ammonia; the specific gravity should be 25 degrees Bé, tSee deseription of M. Legras’s laboratory. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 95 scope. Great care is needed to have each numbered, the number in question corresponding to that of the beet from which the juice was obtained. Practical Working by the Keil and Dolle Rasping Method. The general plan (Fig. 36) gives an excellent idea of a well-organized laboratory, working by the Keil FIG. 36. Pian ot ee Breeding laboratory. and Dolle rasping method. The beets are brought to Table B, where they are weighed. Those roots within 96 SUGAR BEET SEED. the prescribed limit of weight are taken to Table A, consisting of a series of shelvings about six feet in height. On each shelf there are compartments for twenty beets; each has a number, to which is also appended the number of the shelf. The rasping is done by the two double rasps at Table C. The motor for the rasps is shown at D. There are four small scales, E, on which the cream-like pulp is weighed;: the flasks are filled on the other side of the same table, {, f, {; the necessary distilled water and subacetate of lead are obtained from reservoirs suspended from the ceiling. The filtering tables are shown at F; the funnels are all held in a fixed frame, while the glasses receiving the filtrate are on tables with wheels, which may run on tracks, tttt; these each hold twenty glasses, ten on each side. When the filtering is com- plete, they in turn are run over to R, which con- sists of two rooms with polariscopes, having a common light, p. It is interesting to note, that as soon as the sample is taken from the beet at Table C, it is returned to its respective compartment at Table A. Consider- able system is essential for satisfactory working. The 50 c. c. flasks, when filled, are carried in wire baskets, in series of ten, to the filtering tables. As the variations of sugar percentage need be only between the limits of 14 to 16 per cent. of sugar, no very great accuracy is required for weighing pulp or filling flasks; it can, consequently, be done with considerable rapidity. After the analyses tables have left the chem- ists’ hands,.the beets which are not kept are taken from the compartment of A. For 5000 analvses per diem, 28 persons are needed; this includes the overseer and the boy to keep the laboratory clean. (c) 3. Analysis with a Special Sampler, Without Weighing, as Adopted by M. Legras. This method depends upon the use of the Hantiot machine, and also upon a sampler worked CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 97 nig FIG. 37. VERTICAL SAMPLER. 98 SUGAR BEET SEED. by steam. The doing away with the tedious details of weighing expedites matters. And the rapid analyses of beets, before siloing for the win- ter, demands that the daily analyses reach a maxi- mum. After the physical selection on the field, the roots are gradually brought to the laboratory and each placed in a special compartment. The Laon laboratory is divided into two parts, parallel to each other, there being less confusion with this arrangement. There are two series of shelving, each with 300 compartments, 15 rows vertically, and 20 horizontally; the sizes of these, taken as a whole, are: Length, ten feet; width, nine inches; height, six feet; distance between com- partments, five inches vertically, and six inches horizontally. For each series there are two Hanriot appliances, and one vertical sampler worked by steam, which is sufficient for the entire laboratory. The arrangement of the sampler is shown in Fig. 37. It is capable of giving 70 vertical strokes per minute, but this would be entirely too rapid for the laboratory work, not more than 15 to 20 strokes per minute being necessary. Great precaution is required in order to give the beet the proper slant during sampling. It should be so arranged, as previously explained, that the perforations be made at one-fourth the length of the beet, without the neck. It is desirable to keep a rub- ber band beneath the beet on the table during sam- pling. This precaution obviates mutilating the beet by the passage of theknife. The cut sampleremains in place and is removed by hand. The cylinder obtained from the beet has a diameter of about 12 m. m. (4 inch), and a length which varies from 60 to 80 m. m. (2 I-3 to 3+ inches). The cylinders are placed in special frames, as shown in the engraving, these frames having 20 divisions each. There are five of these frames in con- stant use for each series of the laboratory; as 100 beets CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 99 are being examined at a time, it is better to have at least seven for each series of 100 beets. For each series of the laboratory in turn, the small cylinders obtained are placed in regular order, one alongside of the other, and cut at equal length by a parallel blade- slicer of special construction, capable of cutting 1200 per hour. The samples are then replaced in their respective numbered compartments of the frame. It is an aston- ishing fact that these small cylinders have nearly the same weight, and the error committed is so slight that its influence upon the whole series of experiments need not be considered. The exact weight for the demands of these analyses should be 6.512 grams or 26.048~4 grams.* With the view of determining what their exact weight is, 100 were weighed in five series of 20; the average for each series was 6.506 grams, 6.512 grams, 6.503 grams, 6.527 grams, 6.518 grams, or a variation of 0.01 to 0.02 grams; an approx- imation quite sufficient for all practical purposes. It is interesting to note that several preliminary weighings are necessary; the slicing blade is adjusted accordingly, and, when once arranged, can be relied upon. The Hanriot machine (Fig. 38) in which these small cylinders are placed and reduced to a fine pulp, consists of a conical box, H, made of hard bronze, with lateral tube, the appliance itself being mounted on a tripod, which may be screwed upon a table, z, 2’ and 2.” Inside the bronze box are a series of grooves, made in the direction of the generatrix of the cone. Against this surface revolves, at a velocity of 2200 to 2500 revolutions per minute, a solid cone, which has a series of teeth all at an angle of 45 degrees to the axis of rev- olution, thus facilitating the exit of the pulverized beet, and also of the water during washing. The cylinder *This weight varies with the polariscope used. For the French apparatus it would 16.29>4=4.07 grams. 100 SUGAR BEET SEED. from the sampler is placed in the apparatus through a lateral orifice. As soon as the solid cone revolves, it is, by a well-combined lever, P, worked by hand, forced against the outer cone, the lower part of which is a funnel-shaped hopper, H, connecting with the flask, F, having the same number and serial divisions as the sample being crushed. In connection with the inte- rior of the machine is a rubber appliance, R, its capac- ity being 80 c. c., filled with water; by pressing it the water is forced between the inner and outer cones and empties itself into the flask, F, of 105 c.c. capacity. It is of interest to notice that on top of the rubber appli- Fic. 38. Hanriot crusher for beet sample. ance, R, there is a projection, E, which may be con- nected with a reservoir of water. There are special frames or baskets to hold twenty flasks, each compartment of which is numbered. The flasks are carried to a table where 1.5 c. c. of subacetate of lead are added, the quantity being accurately obtained by the use of a special hand measure. The flasks are then filled with water up to the 100 c. c. mark, a few drops of ether on the surface removing the froth that generally exists. The flasks must be thoroughly agitated prior to filtration, which opera- CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS 101 TOO A (Section AB) End View. TTT, ee oon § YY | ep Uf Side View. Fic 39. FILTERING TABLE. 102 SUGAR BEET SEED. tion takes place on a special table. The filtering-room in the Legras laboratory is most important and well combined, the benches for the double series of shelving, arranged back to back, as shown in the engraving (Fig. 39). Each double series holds too filtering tunnels and 100 conical glasses holding the filtrate; consequently, there are 200 filtrations going on at the same time. Experience shows that rather more than this number are necessary, and it is better to have 240 working, or 120 on each side of the table, so as to be able to reach 800 analyses per diem. Not less than 320 flasks and 320 glasses are needed; this makes allowance for breakage. Some of these are used to receive the filtrate, and others wait their turn on the chemist’s table. The filtering paper used is a kind which has been mechan- ically folded in advance. Strange as it may seem, practical experience has shown that the glasses do not need washing, and the error committed by having them cleaned for each analysis would be greater than if left untouched for the whole series of operations for which they are used. This fact may be explained by the reason that there is a very slight difference in the composition of the juices being filtered, and which follow one another in regular order. Classification. ‘All observations made in regard to the sugar per- centage are noted on special sheets of five double col- umns of twenty polarizations each, or 100 per sheet: CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 103 WiGAT 1898 iiecicucidevinwioncemase wsisrstsie sielaigarsiatitnabiste Ataates Serial No. 822. Polar- Polar- Polar- Polar- Polar- Date. |No.| ization ||No.| ization ||No./ization.||No.| ization.|No.| ization. 61 ‘ vaaeilee “ase oe The arrangement is shown herewith: First double column, with number of observation and polarization; the second, ete., series follow: as each sheet contains 100 observations for 10,000 polarizations per diem, 100 sheets would be required; these are separate and complete. From these tables is combined another, giving a synopsis for the 100 analyses made, and the number of mothers having a special polarization, and the num- ber rejected: Series | Aggregate Synopsis. of the lof Previous Total. Day. Days. No. of roots rejected................ No. of mothers testing 13 per cent.. No. of mothers testing 14 per cert.. No. of mothers testing 15 per cent.. No. of mothers testing, etc.......... No. of mothers testing, etc. Total sacccncincneauennaianacowerins 700 — | 30,600 — | 30,700 If 10,000 polarizations are made, 100 sheets like this are necessary. One sheet being continuous of the other, the final sheet would give the exact condition of the day’s work. : It must not be forgotten that the Legras mother- selecting laboratory is the most important in France, if not in the world. With proper assistants, 10,000 analyses may be made in twenty-four hours. By the present arrangement, however, 34 personsareemployed: To carry beets, 2; sampling, 2; filling trays with sam- 104 SUGAR BEET SEED. ples, 1; working sampler, 1; Hanriot appliance, with assistants, 6; acetate of lead, ether, etc., manipulations, 2; juice measurers, 2; juice filtration, 4; carrying glass jars, etc., 2; for the two polariscope observations, 6; for classification of results, 2; arranging beets and general cleaning, etc., 4. M. Legras says that under the con- dition of the Laon environment with the laboratory at the sugar factory, he can make an analysis of mothers for three-fifths of a cent, which, however, does not include cost of plant, etc., but is for labor and chem- icals only. One fact is certain, that the cost of the cold- water method of analysis is just one-half the cost of the Fihling or other oxide of copper modes. The jaboratory where all these observations are made is 43x20 feet, a special space 9xg feet being needed for sample trays and for the three-horse-power engine which works the sampler. These are very crowded quarters, and would have to be very considerably increased for 15,000 analyses per diem, as contem- plated. To accomplish such extraordinary results in so limited a time demands almost a military system of working, since the goings and comings of so many hands would mean great confusion and failure unless all were well disciplined. (c) 4. Sachs’ Direct Method. During the writer’s visit to Brussels he was shown in the Sachs laboratory a very much simplified cold- water digestion mode for rapid beet analysis, arranged by Sachs. It does away with flasks and many manip- ulations which in reality demand far greater care and precautions than was at first thought necessary. The production of a very fine pulp with the Keil and Dolle rasp introduced considerable volume of air into the pulp, which is most difficult to get rid of, even withalco- hol or ether. The errors may vary from 0.3 to I per cent. of sugar, an item of considerable importance to + CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 105 farmers when beets are purchased by the manufactur- ers on the basis of a sliding scale depending upon sugar percentage. By this new method the beet sample must be a very fine pulp, obtained as usual with’ the rasp just mentioned; 26.048 grams aré weighed in a capsule of a known weight, 5 c. c. of sub-acetate of lead and 172. c. of water are then added, giving a total of 177 c. c.* The capsule is covered and is then thoroughly agitated; polarization follows after having added a few drops of acetic acid. The complete apparatus, shown in engraving (Fig. 40), consists of a reservoir, L, of distilled, or rain water, connected. by a rubber pipe with pinch cock, V, to the tube, C, of the pipette (see Fig. 41). The flask, M, contains subacetate of lead in communication with pipette, B, by means of a rubber pipe, on which is the pinch cock, V. When the pipette is too full, the over- flow can run through 4 into flask, S.on the lower level. The flask, O, contains acetic acid, which is used to clean the pipette, which latter is held in a vertical posi- tion by a suitable support. T is the capsule in which the rasped pulp is weighed, and into which the con- tents of the pipette are emptied. This arrangement can be made to suit the special demands of any labor- atory. One precaution is very important, viz., that the flask, M, be not higher than six inches above B, so that the flow be not too rapid, and so that the 5 c. c. mark may be under mathematical observation. The water reservoir should be at least three feet higher than the pipette, so as to allow for its rapid filling. The pipette is filled in the following manner: One- fourth of a turn of K opens communication with M; *Experiments show that beets contain 4.75 per cent. marc, or for 26.048 grams, 1.240f mare and 24.81 grams of juice. If juice has an ay- erage density of 1.07, there will be 23.18 c. c. or 23 c. c.,making allow- ance for the lead deposits. If 177 ¢. c. water is added, this makes up exactly 200¢. ¢. and no allowance need be made for froth. 106 SUGAR BEET SEED. when the subacetate reaches J, the cock is turned another one-fourth of a revolution, which allows the water from L to enter the apparatus. As soon as the water commences to run over at H, K is again turned, Fia. 40. Complete apparatus. and by completing the revolution the contents of the pipette fall into T, containing the pulp. This is covered with a rubber disk and is held in position between the hands; after a few minutes, shaking and filtration fol- CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 107 low. By smearing a little vaseline over the surface of the rubber, one obtains a perfect joint; furthermore, it prevents adherence of the liquid to its surface. It is desirable to leave the capsule with its contents in Fia. 41. Detail of pipette. repose for a few minutes, to make sure that the diffu- sion is complete. inci The method may be still further simplified by doing away with flask J/, and having the subacetate 108 SUGAR BEET SEED. solution in reservoir L. This mixture is prepared by adding to 1000 c. c. of water, 29 c. c. of subacetate at 30° Bé., followed by careful agitation; under these cir- cumstances the cock, K, is turned a half-revolution for each filling of the pipette. One of the objections to this mixing in advance is that as considerable volume must be prepared, and if not done under the direct care of the chemist, there would be no certainty as to results, while by the mode described in the foregoing, the pro- portions would be accurate for each experiment; hence, the desirability of having a separate subacetate flask. We take pleasure in calling attention to the fact that this apparatus is also constructed for the Laurent polariscope, in which case the pipette has a capacity of 171.4 c. c., and double the normal weight (16.29 grams), or 32.58 grams is weighed in the capsule. The simplicity of the analysis places it within reach of the rural population, who, without any special tech- nical education, could soon learn to use the polariscope and estimate for themselves just what percentage of sugar their beets contain. General Remarks on Laboratory Requisites for the Selection of Mothers by the Cold-Water Method. A general idea of a selecting laboratory was shown in a plan on page 95. The arrangement, however, varies very much with the facilities one has at his dis- posal; however, there are certain essentials from which no great departure must ever be made. Under all circumstances, there should be plenty of room around a central table containing 100 samples of juice being filtered. The going and coming being very considerable, the distribution of light is important, not only during the day, but at night. For it frequently happens in laboratories visited by the writer, that the capacity is doubled by working night and day, under which circumstances, it is possible, CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 109 with an installation for 5000 analyses per diem, to work 10,000, but with different chemists and general help. It is always desirable to have several rooms, and these of a size to permit doubling, if necessary, the work to be done during twelve hours. It is best to have the polariscopic examination in a separate place from where the filtering or sampling is done; not so much on account of being obliged to use an artificial light, as to be away from the noise, which always has a distracting effect upon the observer, who, after an interval of time, becomes more or less fatigued. An ample supply of water in all cases is necessary in order to keep the laboratory thoroughly clean. As stated in previous pages, it is desirable to make the first selection of beets upon the fields, depending entirely upon exte- rior characteristics. It is, however, important to make another selection as soon as the silo is opened, for cer- tain roots always undergo alterations during their keeping. Then, again, other roots are thrown out, owing to their size, shape, etc. This final sorting reduces by nearly one-half the beets which had been selected for analysis after harvesting. The beets remaining are carried by hand or cart, depending upon the country, to the reception-room, which should be very spacious, as frequently 1000 beets are spread out, covering considerable area. It is important to have the reception-room divided into several rooms, thus keeping very superior beets entirely separate. It is not necessary to have on hand the whole num- ber of beets for one day’s analyses; if for a laboratory suited for 4000 analyses per diem, about 800 beets only need be waiting their turn. This requires eight series of shelving and compartments of 100 roots. These may be arranged in sub-divisions, A, B, C and D, each of which is sub-divided in two series. ats St Sovisayh 2. Bicke BOG ss vincecta snosrama wenbevusaSecaee 100 Division afi SOriSS Ch 2s Byrds OyiGeq oemecaaaesavdcaoe sits aianesads mwas 100 bev gca IStSETIOSs. 1; 2::354) 56a sy derienaw norinnsee en acnigsarsn xo aoted 100 Division B {ba BERLESe An Dad A OAGHe cies some ioncuaadnd ae ahocenerea cries cee 100 110 SUGAR BEET SEED. The reception-room during a day’s working in the present case is filled and emptied five times. Each beet of any division or series has a number, which it retains during the entire manipulation of the sample in the laboratory. Before being taken to the sample- room, it is weighed on an ordinary spring scale, no great accuracy being necessary; it is then placed in the pigeonhole, waiting its turn, as not more than, one-fifth of the roots are retained during the early periods of selection; for one day there would remain but 800 individual beets of the 4000 analyses made. It is important, after the sample is taken from the root, to fill up the hole made with clay or wood charcoal. The mothers are thus in a measure protected against rot, etc., even after several months in the silos. After the chemical selection has been completed, the beets are placed in special silos until the planting season. The help needed for 2500 to 3000 analyses per diem with one polariscope having a continuous tube attachment, using the Keil and Dolle rasp, accord- ing to Pellet, is as follows: To classify beets... .......... vey Rasping..... To work the rasp... se 2 ee eure ASP a atanetbies eye ad snd aay : To carry capsules to scales.. wee Weighing... wate 4 Flask filters.... at Filtration... }Gaugers........ a A To look after filters .. dines pues ae ee PUM Sistait con ee Two women should be kept constantly at work, washing cap- eules, giving’ a lotal Ofc .ccsics cisitemses sg dsinee ty us seaew semen pees ia teen 21 If it is intended to analyze ‘4000 to 5000 beets per diem, an extra rasp would be needed. There would be required about seven or eight additional hands: Rasping, 1; weighing, 2; filtering, 3; to accom- plish nearly double the work. These analyses may be made for about one cent per beet examined. By the Hanriot method, the weighing being done away with, CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 111 the help needed is considerably reduced. For 4000 to 5000 analyses: To operate the sampler...... To serve the sampler..... Cutting samples.. Hanriot Machine. {To operate the apparatus nso uoyeho (ace ftw nctaian ae To carry juice in ashe to 0 filtering tables Sampling......... { 1 1 1 io 2 12 2 2 2 2 Filtration........ 4 Cate Se eet Polarization.. ... { foe polaiicaje : bis Including two women to wash capsules, etc., we must estimate at least 20 persons. In the analyses of 10,000 beets per diem, by the Keil rasping method, there are needed 56 persons instead of 20 for 3000. By the Hanriot machine, 30 individuals are necessary to do the work. It would be a great mistake to take any of the figures as being exact to the letter, for experience is a great factor; the climatic influence of the environment is also a question not to be overlooked; and there are great doubts if any mother-selecting laboratories of the United States could at first reduce the number of hands to within the limits given in the foregoing. The persons employed in the Legras laboratory, being in many cases boys and girls under the charge of competent persons, are more numerous than if the training of the individuals had been going on during a period of seasons, which would be difficult to realize; the Jaboratory should not be in full activity more than a few months of the year. ‘Apparatus Necessary for a Laboratory Capable of Analyzing 2500 to 3000 Mothers Per Diem by the Keil Rasp Method One rasp, I motor (gas, petroleum or hand motor), 1 polariscope, 200 numbered capsules, 4 chem- ical balances, 8 nickel capsules, 4 weights (one-fourth normal weight), 4 nickel funnels, 4 water reservoirs, sco flasks of 50 to 55 c. c. capacity, 500 funnels, 500 tumblers, 200 numbers with pinches, 2 continuous 112 SUGAR BEET SEED. tubes of 400 m. m. in length, 3 baskets to hold 20 flasks each, 6 ether dropping flasks, 6 acetic acid dropping flasks; a certain quantity of subacetate of lead, acetic acid, nitric acid, filtering paper, etc, depending upon the size of laboratory. For 10,000 analyses per diem, the above would have to be doubled. M. Pellet recommends that a certain number of flasks of 100 to 110 c. c. and 200 to 205 c. c. capacity be kept on hand, so as to make comparative experiments by the hot and cold methods; a certain number of sand baths are always necessary. By the Hanriot method the apparatus necessary is: 2 Hanriot apparatus, 1 sampler, 1 knife, 4 nickel funnels, 2 water reservoirs, I balance, 2 small nickel capsules (one-fourth normal weight), 500 flasks of 50 to 55 c. c. capacity, 500 funnels, 500 tumblers, 200 numbers with pinching attachments, I polariscope, 2 continuous tubes 400 m. m. in length, 3 baskets for 20 flasks, 6 ether dropping flasks and 6 acetic acid drop- ping flasks. It is interesting to compare these with the prac- tical working of the Legras laboratory mentioned in previous pages. Under all circumstances, a good sup- ply of chemicals, mentioned in foregoing, viz., ether, acetic acid and subacetate of lead, are needed. For 10,000 analyses per diem these appliances must, in nearly every case, be doubled. It is hardly necessary to go into details of the numerous motors that are in use or that have been suggested for laboratory work. The principal point to be kept in mind, is, that 2000 revolutions of the Keil rasp, or the Hanriot apparatus, must be maintained; otherwise, the work accomplished would be very poor in beet selecting; the root would be so mutilated that its keeping would be almost impossible. Most of the glass funnels, flasks and tumblers could be furnished by most any dealer of chemical appliances; it is, however, very essential CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 113 that the flasks should have the capacity mentioned in the description of the cold-water method of analysis. The Hanriot apparatus, as described and _ illus- trated elsewhere in this writing, is a very unique design, and it should be obtained from the maker. The same may be said of the Keil and Dolle rasp and the continuous tube for polariscopes. In Germany, many modifications have been made, but to the writer’s knowledge none have given the satisfaction of the original Pellet combination. German Selecting Laboratory. By way of comparison with the Legras laboratory, just described, one may take the Braune (Biendon, Germany). laboratory, which, up to 1889, worked as we shall describe herewith, but has since introduced the cold-water method. However, there are certain conditions which have not changed. The _ beets are analyzed in February, and by the end of April the work is finished; the physical selection having been carefully done the year previous. The beets at the time of harvesting are selected by the 16 degrees Brix salt-water selection; all beets sinking and weighing at least 500 grams are subsequently polar- ized, as it is supposed that they contain at least 16 per cent. sugar. The work is done by men of long experience. The February laboratory work is better explained by following the engraving herewith (Fig. 42). The rasp used gives a fine pulp. This is submitted to a pressure in the powerful press (1); two-thirds of the resulting juice is used for polarization, the remaining third being used later. Four c. c. juice (2) is poured into a flask of 10 c. c. capacity; then the flask is filled up to the mark with diluted subacetate of lead. Filtration follows; the roo m. m. tubes of the polariscope (3) are filled with the filtrate. All beets polarizing more than 8 1i4 SUGAR BEET SETD. Fic. 42. INTERIOR VIEW OF BRAUNE BEET SELECTING LABORATORY. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 115 14 per cent. sugar are taken to a second laboratory, where other chemists continue the work. The 2c. c. of juice remaining from the sample above referred to (the total volume being 6 c. c.), are thoroughly defe- cated in a Stammer oven (4), heated by steam. The weight of dry substance and the sugar percentage give the purity coefficient. If this purity coefficient is higher than 8s, the beet is perforated for the second time, and with the new sample of pulp obtained, the Soxhlet-Sickel (5) extractor allows one to determine very accurately the sugar percentage. In 1890, instead of obtaining the juice under pres- sure and extracting by alcohol (6), the cold-water proc- ess demanded the use of the Keil rasping method (7, 8 and g). Fifteen grams of pulp are thus obtained; one- half of normal weight are weighed, and the sugar per- centage is determined as previously described. It is admitted that this French method has made the work much simpler, ang the results are more satisfactory. It is not necessary to enter into other details regarding this laboratory, as there are several of the same importance in many beet-seed producing centres of the country. Polariscopes for Mother Selection. The type of polariscope for selection of mothers should not be the same as that used for sugar polari- zations, where the right-hand polarizations reach 100 degrees. As the tubes used in the beet-seed selecting laboratories are 400 m. m. in length, and as only 16.294 grams of pulp are used at a time, it is prefer- able to have the vernier graduated only to 25 degrees, for example, and at the other end starting from 12 degrees. The plan of having a special electrical attachment to the vernier of a polariscope is very simple, and has rendered considerable service. The adjustment in 116 SUGAR BEET SEED. question is arranged for polariscopes with dials; the first stop is not far from the zero point, the other is near the division, 30 degrees; the distance between stops is regulated by suitable screws. When once arranged, they are in electric communication with two bells. As each has a different pitch or sound, it is pos- sible under these circumstances to make several classi- fications; for example, below 15 to 16 per cent., or from 17 to 18 per cent., etc. If the right or left bell rings, the chemist knows that the juice being examined has a certain sugar per- centage, without it being necessary to do any actual reading. However, careful work demands a certain observation. If, when either bell rings, the disks are neutral, or of some tint depending upon polariscope used, it would show that the stop on the vernier corre- sponded exactly to that percentage; if, on the other hand, the black disc is to the right when the left bell rings, it would show that the juice under observation was of a lower percentage than the limit required for the selection; if to the left when the right bell sounds, this would convey that the sugar percentage was higher than the limit for which it was adjusted. Over 1000 observations may be thus made in a very short time and with very little fatigue. In the zero, as compared with an ordinary instru- ment, these differences may frequently be 0.2 to 0.3. It is generally desirable to make several observations on the same juice before commencing regular work. After having polarized, the results are noted; during the interval the assistant fills the funnel, etc. The work has twice the rapidity it had with an ordinary tube. In mother-selecting, it is possible to reach ten a minute. Certain difficulties may arise and many precautions are necessary, among which, mention may be made of the following: The liquid being examined must be very clear and ample light must be used; if the CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 117 tube does not fill rapidly, or the funnel does not empty itself, the difficulty may be overcome by slightly increasing the slant of the tube, by raising the funnel. If the flask is too low, there is danger of siphoning the tube; the funnel is then lowered. Precaution must be taken to have the curved glass tube, at the empty- ing extremity, of a suitable length. When the day’s observations are finished, the tube should be washed with distilled water and kept full until again used; then the washing should be done ‘with acidulated water and a saccharine liquor of about the same strength as the sugar solution to be analyzed. M. Pellet recommends that the washing be done in another room from where the polarizations are to be carried on. The reason being that the difference of temperature of the water used and the room would be sufficient to leave traces along the inner surface of the tube, which might alone be sufficient to influence the results. For washing the tube before using, it is proposed to use the liquid irom the flask, A (Fig 43), which may be considered as an average for the day's observations. This funnel continuous-tube attachment may be applied to any polariscope, but should be made to exactly suit the requirements. The space necessary is about 25 to 30 m. m. greater than would be needed for an ordinary tube. Continuous Polarization. In beet-seed selecting laboratories, the Pellet con- tinuous tube for polariscope has been a most important innovation. By the use of a polariscope and an ordi- nary observation tube, in the hands of an expert, 1000 readings have been made in twelve hours. Several assistants are frequently needed to accomplish these results, since about 50 such tubes are necessary. These have to be carefully filled, screwed together, emptied and washed; frequent accidents occur and the item of 118 SUGAR BEET SEED. expense is considerable. There are two kinds of con- tinuous tubes, viz., with funnel, or with siphon. For each of these models may be used two tubes; one with an interior diameter of 7 to 8 m. m. and containing 13 to 18 c. c. of liquid suitable for beets as they are received at the factory; or the other type, which is much smaller, containing only 6 to 7 c. c. of liquid and having a diameter of 5 m. m., while with the latter the weight of pulp under observation need be only 16.29+4 grams. A few words of explanation respecting the funnel continuous-tube attachment is most important. The general arrangement is shown in engraving (Fig. 43). Fic. 43. Continuous tube for polariscope. The funnel (f) is attached to the slanting tube of the polariscope by a suitable rubber joint; at the other extremity is a slightly curved glass tube. When the tube is placed in position, it should be filled with water slightly alkaline, which removes all traces of grease. Through the tube is then run 200 c. c. of distilled water, containing a few drops of acetic acid; the excess of water runs into flask A, and subsequently into bucket E. Either the tube contains air bubbles, or it does not; if not, it is then ready for active work. Considerable care is needed in adjusting the tube, so that the reading of the polariscope will be zero. There is always danger of leaks, consequently the pressure necessary on the ends may, in a measure, be changed. CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 119 Analysis of Beet Juices in the Legras Laboratory. The polarization is unique, rapid, and most inter- esting, two instruments being in constant use, and in connection with them the Pellet continuous tube* is employed. Jt, however, differs from the one just described, and is known as the siphon method; it is shown in engraving (Fig. 44). The arrangement is most simple, a rubber emptying tube at one end, and at the other a covered glass tube with rubber attach- ment. To the filtrates in glasses are added a few drops of pure acetic acid: the glasses are carried to the sac- charimeters in six baskets of twenty compartments each. The number assigned to the beet at the com- mencement when it entered the laboratory is carefully continued through the entire series of manipulations to which the samples, juices, etc., are submitted. The assistant places the rubber tube in one of these conical glasses, precaution being taken to slightly slant the glass. so as to give a greater depth of penetra- tion to the juice. Cn the emptying tube is a Mohr pinch-cock; this is opened when the chemist is ready to make a new observation and the sugar solution is siphoned into the continuous tube. The assistant changes the glass for another with a fresh sample before it is entirely empty; otherwise, there would be a loss of time, due to the siphoning of all the juice in the circuit. About eight observations may be made per minute. Precautionary measures must be taken to screen the observer's eves from the brilliant light of a lamp placed in front of the instrument; this excellent arrangement is shown in the engraving. Under these *It must never be lost sight of, that the continuous method requires great care for its first working, that is to say, that the tubes with their attachments must be made by a person thoroughly familiar with the requirements. Many mistakes have been made by depending upon some contrivance furnished by a novice; furthermore, the results may vary with the chemist. in charge, who had best make a preliminary ractice on sugar solutions of known strength. The method is most excellent for mother selection, and is recommended by Pellet for all classes of polariscope work. Lt 0 SUGAR BELT SEED. ET CONTAINING Ke ALSO BASI & Dn 2 S Zz a a ° co = = Ee & Ba ° oO n eS a <= Wy o a 44, Fic, a a SN » a = a a a oe ° a i] v x p = = a e q FI 2 & n 3 = = Ss a n a RD a < oe S CHEMICAL SELECTION OF MOTHERS. 121 conditions the fatigue from this constant work is very much lessened; many chemists use a large black obstructor. The reading of the vernier depends upon the light thrown upon it from an upper reflecting mir- ror. It is most desirable that the chemist doing the work be absolutely in the dark, and, as he is under great pressure, he should be relieved every few hours. Whenever the observer is changed the zero point of the instrument should be verified. CHAPTER VI. Soils for Seed Production. There are two questions to be considered which are important in beet-seed production: Ist, Soil that is to receive the so-called “Elite” seed, and that which is intended for the reception of mothers; we might add a third variety, that which is intended for close plant- ing, with a view to growing beets which are to have only a physical selection. From these there would follow the production of seed for the trade. There are certain special conditions for each case, but for the present we must consider them only from a general standpoint. It is desirable to have a rich,deep homogeneous soil; some agronomists go so far as to recommend one that is rich in organic matter, which, from our point of view, is a mistake. When possible, a typical soil should be rather dark in color and of an argillo-sandy texture. The subsoil should as nearly as possible have the same composition as the surface soil, and be possessed of a certain porosity, permitting easy drainage, which allows its working during all kinds of weather. If beets be cultivated on soils too highly manured or fertilized, or even of a gravelly texture, without depth, the shape of the resulting root will, necessarily, be irregular, and consequently, worthless for seed pro- duction, and would be thrown out during physical selection. We have heard it freely argued that when the question of soils for mothers is discussed, that the plant foods play only a very secondary role during seed development, that is, during the second year, so that most any soil answers the purpose for mother-planting. 122 SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 123 This is evidently very misleading, for if such were the case, the leading seed producers would in Germany, France, etc., be found in many sections of the country, when, in reality, they centre around certain districts of Saxony, at Quedlinburg, or in the northern part of France, at Laon, for example. Furthermore, in Sax- ony the principal seed farms are on hills and never on bottom lands; so that it is only in very exceptional cases where ordinary beet lands should be devoted to seed production. Those soils which have yielded beets which were attacked by insects are most objectionable, either for sowing of Elite seed or transplanting selected mothers, etc.; the same attacks or ravages would necessarily continue, thus destroying all -prospects of success. There are many other conditions in question of location of beet farms; for example, it must be miles away from anyone cultivating beets of any kind, or any plant that is likely to give a pollen which might form a hybrid with beets. It should be well protected against the winds. However, in this issue we differ with Knauer, who claims that winds in some cases are desirable, as they carry off the loose seed, leaving spaces for the remaining seed, which results in a stronger grain for those still adhering to the stalk. (There is in some centres a special money system of insurance against such losses through winds, etc). The location should be such as to receive directly the solar rays, meaning a southern exposure. It has been frequently noticed that soils shaded by trees do not permit mothers to grow in a satisfac- tory manner; hence, their inferior yield in seed under such conditions. The soil should not be too damp, as this latter state would make the growth too hardy. Under no circumstances should the location be near a town or village. With a proper soil, the mothers develop without much care when once started. They Ley SUGAR BEET SEED. require land well and deeply worked in the fall, as the successful seed development, the second year, depends largely upon the looseness of the soil which is in close proximity to the roots. Autumn plowing to assure action of the winter ice, snow, etc., should never be neglected. It must not be forgotten that from supe- rior seed on a poor soil, very inferior results are obtained to those given by average seed upon superior soils. Recent experiments show that seed obtained from mothers testing 19.8 per cent. sugar on a poor, gravelly soil as a sub-stratum, yielded beets weighing only 160 grams and testing 14.6 per cent. sugar. Qn the other hand, on a rich, swampy soil the beets weighed 8.76 grams and polarized 13.6. The general characteristics of these two beets were so dif- ferent, no one would have supposed for one instant that they had the same origin, or common parent. Advantage of Uniformity in Composition of Soils. It does not necessarily follow that because the environments are not favorable now, that they cannot be made so by patience and the scientific use of ferti- lizers. No better example could be given of the possi- ble transformation of soils by scientific treatment than at Besny (Aisne), France. The writer has followed, since 1889, these methods as applied on the Legras beet-seed plantation, and the evolution during the past 25 years would hardly have been thought possible, unless actually seen. Before the period when artificial or mineral fertilizers were known it could not have been done. The management of this farm, with a few patches here and there demanding special attention, was once far more difficult and complicated than at present, when the conditions are almost of a complete uniform- ‘ity, the fertilizers having been so combined that one field or another offers about the same fertility and com- “yn SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION, 125 position—and may be considered as a uniform whole. The entire area is only 750 acres, which seems small as compared with a western ranch in the United States, but it is not desirable that this seed growing be con- ducted on too extensive a scale, as the details could not then be thoroughly watched. The advantages of ‘this uniformity in soil composition are manifest when analyzing beets cultivated upon it, as the sugar per- centage of the resulting roots is nearly the same in one spot as in another. A mother when planted, will give seed of a variety that may be said to be standard or typical. If it were possible to introduce upon a large scale what has been accomplished at Besny, it would do away with all discussions between the manufacturer and farmer, as the roots furnished by one grower would be almost exactly the same as those furnished by another. However, this 15 not possible under existing American conditions, where each cultivator has his own views, and, in his own estimation, knows more than science can teach him. The difference in the sugar qualities of beets from the same seed may be 2 or 6 per cent., and the price paid for the roots varies proportionally. The problem M. Legras set out to accomplish was not an easy one; for portions of his land were poor, and, furthermore, covered with weeds, which had to be eradicated before intensive cultivation could be thought of, as fertilizers would only still fur- ther increase or stimulate their growth. Herein was the wisdom of the owner, whose argument was: ‘What money I spend on the one hand I shall reap on the other,” and this has been accomplished, for there was hardly a weed visible between the rows of beets or mothers during the writer’s last visit. The money saved now more than compensates for the first outlay for land cleaning. 126 SUGAR BEET SEED. Fertilizers for Elite Seed and Mothers. When considering fertilizers for Elite seed, great care must be taken when using barnyard manure the fall before sowing,in order that there benounfermented particles of straw, for these might be the cause of con- siderable difficulty, resulting in very irregular beets. At certain French farms visited by the writer, oil cakes of various origins appear to be very popular; these are distributed in the spring, just before sowing, in quan- tities of 1000 pounds to the acre, and should, under all circumstances, be thoroughly pulverized. The use of lime has rendered great service, for it destroys the bad. effects of certain clays, about five tons to the acre being used, on an average. In October there should follow a thorough plowing. It is evident that the plant foods needed for beets to develop are not the same, as regards quantity, as required for mothers with the view to seed formation. It is to be regretted that this question has hitherto been neglected by seed growers. From what has been said in previous pages, the main effort always is to obtain a special fertilizer, suited to each section of the farm, so as to bring the whole up to a uniform standard. This can be accomplished only by strict watching of what has been taken away in potassa, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, etc. The question of fertilizers for beets has been discussed by many writers, but few agronomists have touched upon mothers in seed production during their several months in soil after planting. If the ques- tion of fertilizer has been neglected by seed growers, it it partly because information has been wanting. The decline in the fertility of a soil is always followed by deterioration in the quality of seed obtained; hence, success largely depends upon this plant food issue. The question has been thoroughly examined by M. Legras. SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 127 It is by the analysis of seed and stalk that one can learn exactly what the conditions are: Full Complete Flower. | Maturity. Weipiit of stalk and seed... ..cicscs so 4, -cseesens oie 2.16 Ibs. 2.48 Ths. uae Weight of stalk and seed when analyzed. . 1:87 2.05 “* 7 Composition of 100 lbs. dry matter. Nitrogen 1.551 1.675 Phosphoric |acid . 0.550 0.435 Potassa,...... --] 1.868 1.636 Lime... co 0.820 0.860 Magnesia .»| 0.806 | 0.806 TOL BS pee ceanay aa saute 20 eaN She HaRE A 10.050 9.750 From this analysis it may be noticed that consid- erable transformation occurs between flowering and complete maturity of the seed; nitrogen and lime increase while all other elements decrease. The excess of nitrogen is evidently found in the germs of the seed. The most marked change may be noticed in the potassa. As these elements are extracted from the soil, they must be returned. No account need be taken of the mothers, which, after the stalks and seed have been cut off, may be considered as the corpses of their pre- vious state, they having completed their functions in acting as an intermediary between the soil and the growing stalk, and retain nearly all their original salts, etc., nitrogen alone having diminished. If these are plowed under, they take away nothing; if not, other facts must be considered. [An ordinary crop of 16 tons of beets averaging 11 per cent. sugar will extract (no allowance being made for leaves) per acre about: Potassa 105 Ibs., phosphoric acid 21 Ibs., soda 30 Ibs., lime 16 Ibs., magnesia 6 Ibs., chlorine 27 Ibs., sulphuric acid 9g Ibs., silica 44 lbs., nitrogen 97 lbs., organic sub- stances 1590 lbs., water 29,000 Ibs. ] By the Legras method of cultivation each mother can draw its plant food from about nine square feet. Along the edge of the field must not be counted; con- sequently, it is not desirable to allow for more than 4ooo plants per acre. Such being the case, the seeds and stalks will extract from the soil: Nitrogen, 123 Ibs.; 128 SUGAR BEET SEED. potassa, 120 lbs.; phosphoric acid, 32 Ibs.; lime, 63 lbs.; magnesia, 59 lbs. It would be a great mistake to adhere strictly to these figures, and it is evident that the fertilizer for mothers must be very intensive. The mixtures used on the soil at Besny are the outcome of considerable experience. To retain the general uni- formity in their composition, after the crops of seeds are harvested, there is added per acre 130 to 180 lbs. sodic nitrate (containing 15.5 to 16 per cent, nitrogen), 220 to 180 lbs. potassic chloride (containing 56 to 57 per cent. potassa), 180 to 260 lbs. double sulphate of potassa and magnesia (containing 27 per cent. potassa, 25 per cent. magnesia), 70 to 75 lbs. nitrogenous substances (blood, oil cake, etc.), 540 to 600 Ibs. furnace slag (18 per cent. phosphoric acid), which is several times in excess of what is needed. It is interesting to note that M. Legras insists that 90 Ibs. nitrogen per acre is an excess, the differ- ence between it and what has been or what will be absorbed may be subsequently added. This precau- tion is necessary to make sure that the seed will mature in the regular number of months, excess of nitrogen seeming to retard maturity; the same cannot be said of phosphoric acid, for the plant absorbs what it requires for its complete development, and no more. On the fertilizer question for mothers there is cer- tainly a great difference of opinion; for example, Dippe Brothers give preference to one containing 176 lbs. sodic nitrate, 350 lbs. guano (4 per cent. nitrogen, 13 per cent. phosphoric acid). At Wanzleben and at Grébers (Knauer), they favor green manuring, vetch, peas, etc., which are planted and plowed under, so that the land remains fallow during a considerable period. It is claimed that the weeds contained in the soil are smothered, and there is a very large quantity of nitro- gen absorbed. In combination with the green manur- ing, potassa and phosphates are used in the spring SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 129 before planting. In certain French districts visited by the writer, the fertilizers for mothers which dre most popular are used in the following quantities, calculated to areas of one acre: Barnyard Manuresecisas x2 ase seeds ted ewcece ses 16 tons i SOGIG MICVA LS cevssnrerne os toads ices’ sin dua jansceiaveinia wiatgaainnere 350 Ibs. hee Superphosphate of lime.. ou Tees nine OOr COIZS OL) CANA ca iedie: ics saceresatn Sanenaiaciseensien aaamenerte 432 <* 9 Barnyard MANULe ss cessed s3 sedis catenre aeiein aiecad 20 tons. Sec ae ote ree sulphate......... eee e ee 246 Ibs. 3 Barny ara: Manure vais ac cso esc seas vest ce genus 20 tons. adi deaatr ss (eodie Graton nein ingens O80 15S. Barmy arg. MAaNuyr Cre sic sscscancasemaandak 1e0e Hees 16 tons. Py Sodic nitrate...... -. 850 ths metres a Superphosphate.. «---608 * POCASSIC CHIOTIOS eosin, cise ds Retin se Mopaicien 132 ** Whatever be the system of the fertilization of the soil, it is desirable not to use the plant food in excess, since this would result in a second growth of stalks and a corresponding decrease in the quality of seed. Relations Between Soils and Fertilizers. The formula of a fertilizer should vary with the composition of the soil upon which it is to be used. Without going into extensive arguments respecting soils and fertilizers in general, it will be far more interesting to give an example taken from practice. The beet plantation of 'M. Legras, as previously explained, was made up of small areas having very different textures and compo- sitions, the variation being far greater than a general survey of the land would lead one to believe. The maximum and minimum of the five essential ele- ments requisite for fertility, as determined by chemical analysis of these soils, are here given: Maximum. | Minimum. INGTTO ROI sig os. sosc:asiatie siete sitibiy copra pw ee #8 Sete 0.13 0.08 Phosphoric acid stele 0.25 0.06 POtTASS Biase seas menses sedan anes 0.40 0.22 Lime.... or 13.40 | 0.90 Magnesia ........ 0-0-2 cence ener e eer ee ones 0.51 0.15 There were to contend with: ist, argillo-calcare- ous; 2d, sandy; 3d, very calcareous soils. The fertil- 9 130 SUGAR BEET SEED. izer used had to increase or diminish these elements so as to create uniformity. Consider, for example, the case where there was only 0.06 phosphoric acid as compared with 0.25 per cent. contained in another patch. On the farm at Besny it was found desirable trom the start to use 2500 lbs. of furnace slag per acre, which was well plowed under. The results obtained were up to expectations, showing that science and practice do pull together. To follow, in its intri- cate details how the typical fertilizer was determined in each case by numerous experiments and observations, would carry the reader too far away from the general subject now under discussion. The con- clusions, upon general principles, were that for argillo- calcareous and very calcareous soils, nitrogen and potassa must predominate, while for sandy soils phos- phoric acid plays a most active part. A system of rotation has been adopted; hence, the use of fertilizers, such as blood, waste from woolen factories, etc., may be advantageously applied a year or more previous to mother planting or beet cultivation. On most American farms fertilizers receive but a secondary consideration. Compare this condition with the annual use of 1760 tons of barnyard manure, 220 tons of leaves and necks from a crop of beets, 950 tons defecation scums from beet-sugar factories, 52 tons sodic nitrate, 15 tons sulphate of ammonia, 30 tons fish guano, 60 tons oil cake, 161 tons woolen waste, Jo tons dried blood, 24 tons potassic chloride, 21 tons double phosphate of potassa and magnesia, 108 tons furnace slag, 60 tons phosphate and g tons super- phosphate. All this for 750 acres of land. As regards rotation of crops, no definite method has been adopted at Besny; the beet, however, appears most frequently, and by the scientific use of fertilizers, 250 acres culti- vated in beets average 12 tons to the acre and 16 per cent. sugar. SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 131 Sowing of Seed for Mothers. This question of sowing seed for mothers should in reality be discussed from many points of view, for there are numerous kinds of mothers to be consid- eied. If the question of beet-seed production is taken up from the start, then the seed must be purchased elsewhere; thus the sowing would be of one variety. After mothers are selected and the first crop of seed has been obtained from them, there are many dif- ferent systems of sowing. We refer not only to spac- ing, but to the distance between the lines; the Elite are kept much closer together than those roots which have been analyzed, but vield, say 15 per cent. sugar, and which are to furnish seed for the beets only after the third year. On the other hand, the Elite, on which the seed producer centres his attention, demands spe- cial care, not only in the manner in which the hand sowing is done, but during every stage of the plants’ development; open spaces, etc., are most care- fully avoided. Upon general principles, better results are obtained by hand sowing than is possible through the careful use of a seed drill; the spacing can be made almost mathematical. Those roots that are raised in the general field from purchased seed, or from seed of all kinds that has been produced on the farm, which are separated from the rest, should never be included in the observations for physical or chemical selection. Their conditions of development being different, would lead to poor results as the work pro- gressed in the creation of a special type. The square method of sowing, consequently, has greater advan- tages over beets cultivated in rows, where their spac- ing is. not the same as the distance between rows; the misses then (by square methods) have not the same importance, for the roots are all absorbing from the soil about the same amount of plant food. In France, 132 SUSAR BEET SEED. it is recommenced that the sowing be done as soon as possible. If the tcinperature is lower than 8 degrees C (46. 4° F.), germination is not satisfactory; in the Elite sowing, they constantly use 44 Ibs. to the acre, and keep the lines about eight inches apart. There is a great difference of opinion in regard to the spacing of Elite seed. With the view of keeping down the size of the roots, some growers attempt a distance of four to five inches; then again eight inches in every direction, or eight inches between lines and four inches between beets in the rows. The number of roots is estimated to be 174,000 per acre, but such numbers are in reality never realized. After sowing, the seed is covered by three-fourths inches of earth, followed by rolling. In Germany, there seem to be many advocates of sowing seed for mothers directly after wheat in the rotation. There also are many advo- cates of successive rollings of the ground after sowing; at Grobers, they plant their rows from twelve to four- teen inches apart. Successive and frequent hoeing is everywhere very popular; this, on many European farms, is done by women. The hoes used are about 4} inches wide; later, they frequently use a hand-pushing cultivator, increasing the depth each time the operation is done. The spacing demands some experi- ence, and cannot be conducted by novices, such as. used in ordinary sugar-beet cultivation. When the roots have a certain size, and show certain indications of degeneracy, they are, in some cases, removed from the field, and replaced by others cultivated under the same conditions on special patches. A fact which must never be overlooked, is the great care to be given at every stage, up to the time of harvesting, which is done as under ordinary circum- stances of beet cultivation. SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 183 Preparing Soil, Planting of Mothers, and Care During Their Development. When the cultivation for the reception of mothers is considered, it is generally found that the best results are obtained when these beets follow wheat in the rotation. We shall now take as an excellent practice, _ that which we found at the Besny farm. It must not be forgotten that sugar-beet cultivation for an adjoining factory at Laon has attained a degree of perfection quite equal to that of the separate agricultural question of seed growing. For, if mothers , pe - f lve , 3 re 13 — »% a FIG. 45. Plan of field, showing position of mothers. are not of a high saccharine quality, the resulting seed will not be, and, as by Legras’s method of selection, all roots under 14 per cent. sugar are not used, the average obtained is considerably above fourteen. ' To attempt the creation of a variety of beet that demands great depth of soil, would certainly never have become popular, and would have been a mistake, but to centre all efforts on an average type suitable to a soil not too deep, nor too shallow, fulfilling the requirements of most cases, is what has been sought 134 SUGAR BEET SEED. after, and what has been attained, on the farm visited by the writer. The method of cultivation adopted ts, as before mentioned, to give a thorough plowing during the winter prior to planting, after the fertilizers have béen well plowed under. As regards plowing, it is interesting to note that this should not be done during wet weather, and the upper surface should be thoroughly harrowed, the vegetable strata, so to speak, thus becoming greater every year. The operation of marking the position for each mother is then com- menced. A special cultivator is used, the distance between colters being three feet during first horizontat direction, then, when tracing the vertical lines, 14 feet. This operation is made clear by referring to the diagram (Fig. 45). The lines meet at a, b, c, d and e, a’, b’, c,d’ and e’. Mothers that have been waiting for several months in the silo are brought with great care to be planted (the nearer the silo is, the better the result) at a,c, and e, on line 4 B, and at b’ d’ on line A’ B,’ thus alternating for all other rows. The mothers are con- sequently placed at the angles of a lozenge, cb’ c”d’, the distance c’ c” being three feet, while c’ d’ is 14 feet. The beet can draw its plant food from an area of nine square feet.* The respective position of the beets permits the frequent use of the cultivator in the direc- tion shown by the arrows in the diagram (Fig. 45). The position of the roots is such, that even after'a pro- longed drouth they remain in a flourishing. condition; this is, in part, due to the careful selection of mothers, since, under all circumstances, the roots weigh from one to two pounds each, very small roots not being ' *This distance between beets is a very variable question. On Knauer’s farm he gives Dre lerence to distances of 63 to 78 e. m. (24.6 to 30.4 inches). Squares of two feet are said also to give satisfactory results. The roots are plantedon the angles of suid squares. Fiihling, however, contends that the rectangle, 24 x 34 inches, gives the best results. The marking of the field is done with a harrow in ‘two directions, and at the intersection of lines the mothers are placed. For digging holes to place the mothers a special spade is used. : SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 135 used. Very small roots are never to be relied upon, because they mean a stunted growth, and will yield seeds that would give mothers possessing the same characteristics. We have always insisted upon the fact that, in many cases, there were great advantages in the culti- vation in hills. Herr Marek, in very extended experiments, has shown that beets selected for mothers which have been obtained in hills, are richer in sugar, and transmit their qualities with greater ease than beets obtained by flat cultivation. The planting is done in March, this varying somewhat according to years, but under all circum- stances it should be as early as possible, and the roots used for mothers must be thoroughly matured. During the first stage of the plant development, a hand hoeing between the rows 14 feet apart is very important, as later on the cultivator cannot reach these points; after four or five days, this hoeing is followed by a second hoeing. As soon as the stalks commence to appear, a powertul cultivator, drawn by oxen, is run between the rows as frequently as possible, this operation being discontinued only when the passage is obstructed by the luxuriant vegetation; the stalks should not, in any way, be disturbed after the flower forms. The natural result of this working is to open up the soil, and thus place it in an excellent condition for the mothers to draw all the plant food they require. This planting of mothers is also a very delicate operation. The mothers which have been selected must be free from bruises of any kind; they are carried to the fields in baskets, in gangs; a special spade is used for making the hole to receive each mother. It is generally found desirable to plant the mothers in a slanting direction; in this manner they are better able to resist the action of variable winds. The tip end of the mothers may, when too long, be cut off, but it is, in all SUGAR BEET SEED. 136 ‘ONIINVId JO AWIL NON SHINOW ATNAL WALAV SNOILVOIMI “NYY GNV HLMOUD AMIVH AHL YNIMOHS aHAOWEY ANG AGNV dOL HLIA YAHLOW ‘9F ‘DIG SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 137 cases, desirable not to turn them under. Before press- ing with the foot, it is thought advisable to throw a certain amount of earth near the neck. This earth should cover the necks to a depth of 1, 2} to 3 c. m. (0.39 to 1.18 inches), with the view of protecting the mothers against the frequent late frosts after planting season. Instead of earth around the necks, it is fre- quently customary to mix the earth with pulverized bone. Hilling up, from time to time, is also advisable. This planting of mothers may be done in France for $2.00 an acre. To many it may be a surprise that such a large area, L, M, N, O*, (Fig. 45) of nine square feet, is necessary, but an inspection of the engraving (Fig. 46) shows the ramifications of mothers during their effort to secure from their environment all the essential elements for the development of stalks, flowers, and seed. These lateral radicles run from the root proper a distance of three feet, so that even allowing the enor- mous volume of earth of a surface area of 14 feet, in all directions, the plant food is drawn from the soil far beyond the prescribed limits previously mentioned, and, such being the case, all the roots of the field are apparently in communication one with the other. It is interesting to note a custom which has led to excellent results, which consists of twisting or break- ing off the lateral and central stalks, it being maintained that this custom favors flowering. As these mothers have considerable money value, endless means are frequently resorted to for their protection during seed development; nematode inva- sions might, in some cases, be a serious issue. Hence, the reason why chicory is planted on the outer *The Chinese have for hundreds of years understood the Impor- tance of these small roots for many plants which they cultivate. When planting bi-annuals, small slices are made in the root proper, ¢bus increasing the number of radicles which soon develop. 138 SUGAR BEET SEED. limits of a seed farm; this acts as a trap for the enemy and answers the purpose. At Klein-Wanzleben and in other centres, excellent precautions are taken for pro- tection against climatic conditions, which consist of a wire roof covering over the entire field of Elites. This should be sufficiently high to allow a free passage under; outer wire fences are also used to keep off rabbits, etc. Harvesting —The harvesting of mothers cultt- vated for special laboratory purposes, does not, on general principles, very much differ from the harvest- ing of beets for an ordinary sugar factory. Special harvesters, or plows, may be used for the purpose, the beets collected with great care and placed in baskets; the slightest bruise may have a very important influ- ence. The cost of this harvesting in France is about $13 per acre. The harvesting of seed is a more com- plicated question. It must not be put off too long and should be done during dry weather, for if the seeds and stalks are wet when taken indoors, the ultimate value will be decreased, owing to a decrease in the germinating power. The first sign of maturity is when the fruit com- mences to turn brown, and if, weather permitting, this changes to yellow, the ripening process may even con- tinue later. The determination of percentage of dry substances is an indication of maturity; 60 per cent. is the standard. Knauer says that beet seed are ripe when they have a flour-like taste when bitten into. If the complete maturity is awaited, a considerable number of seed will necessarily be lost, owing to their very slight adherence to their stems; hence, the reason why many recommend that the stalks be harvested green. The cutting of stalks, or stems, on the field is shown in engraving (Fig. 47). An ordinary sickle and not a spade is used; the principal objection to the latter is the excessive shaking of the stalk. It is advisable to. LEOOIR “ANSUG LY GHaS HLL BYMTVLIS 40 DONILLO) HIM SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 139 140 SUGAR BEET SEED. put off as long as possible the cutting of green stalks, as they mature better on the beet proper. The cutting gang is followed by another, who collect the stems, or stalks, on the ground and tie them into bundles. They are stacked vertically upon the field and left to dry. Practical experience shows that this drying is more complete when the bundles face the north, thus taking advantage of northerly winds. When the drying is sufficiently complete, several weeks being often necessary, they are taken to special sheds. The appear- ance of stacks is shown in engraving (Fig. 48). The writer thought it of interest to be on the Legras farm prior to harvesting. The sight of the fields is never to be forgotten, it being very unique, and differing from any other crop known to the farmer; it is unlike wheat, corn, or cereals in general, leaving, as it were, open spaces, through which light penetrates, so that the ground can be seen between many plants or stalks at the same time. The field seems to form a uniform whole, consisting of a mass of green, soft, and velvety substance, the centres at reg- ular intervals being clearly defined. The clusters of seed upon the stalks were like gems distributed in myriads, reflecting the rays of the sun. The stalks appeared to be so loaded with seed that they were bent over toward the ground, those of one mother having joined hands with its neighbor, apparently asking for support. M. Sagnier, in the Journal de l Agriculture, says that during his visit to Besny he counted eighteen to twenty-three stalks per mother. As an example of the amount of seed that roots may yield, five clusters were counted, the average seed being one pound per root. In regard to the mother planting, it is interesting to note that it always follows a crop of beets. Upon general principles, if it is simply desired to produce beet seed by ordinary process, the question of economy in space upon the fields is of sec- 141 TION: Cc ED PRODU .FOR SE SOILS or det § egal ee ass Fic, 48. STACKING BUNDLES OF STALKS WITH SEED AT BESNY. 142 SUGAR BEET SEED. ondary importance, but when each beet is selected with special care, and destined to furnish seed for the trade, all conditions favoring its development during seed formation should be thoroughly examined and attended to. Under these conditions, from 2000 to 2600 Ibs. of well-cleaned beet seed may be obtained per acre. Above 2000 lbs.,the yield is considered very good; below 1600 Ibs., poor. (This vield of 2000 Ibs. costs, in France, under best conditions, 34 cents per lb.* Besides this, some allowance must be made for interest of money during the keeping, and on the capital which remains idle during the several years the selection is being made. By Legras’s method, results are obtained much more rapidly, but the cost of laboratory analyses is greater, etc., hence, the reason why such seed com- mands a high price on the market.) Such yields, through the exceptional care given, have been obtained even in exceedingly dry weather, as the soil, having been so thoroughly worked, remains moist, even during long periods of drouth. The crop that follows the mothers is wheat. It is necessary to remove the corpses of mothers, also the stems; then use the extirpator, followed by the cultivator and harrow. The economy of time and work are important facts to be considered, and the cost of land preparation for mothers should be borne by the crop that follows. It is important to note that if mothers follow beets in the rotation, they will be attacked by some insects, and the seed will subsequently suffer. Jf the insects attack the flower of the beet, no remedy is better than solutions of two degrees Bé. of tobacco juice, spread by a pul- verizer, emulsion of petroleum, benzine, charcoal pow- der, saturated in tobacco juice. * But on most seed-producing farms not more than four cents. In the case of A. J. Legras, the product is frequently all sold in advance and very difficult to procure even in quantities sufficient for experi- mental purposes. ’ SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 143 It is interesting to note that the time when the flowers appear depends upon the country and the total heat the mothers have had at their disposal during their second year’s growth. It may be said, however, that those appearing during the first of August should be pinched off, as they will, in general, yield inferior seed. Fiuhling recommends the harvesting of all matured stalks. The ends of the remaining semi-green stems are also pinched off; this practice tends to hasten maturity. Some agronomists recommend the cutting of stems from the roots and leaving the latter in the ground as a manure; but this practice is a mistake. The mothers, having been separated from the stems, form but a poor fertilizer. Insects are attracted by them, and frequently deposit their eggs therein; and resulting larvae are likely to do much harm to the sub- sequent crop. On some beet farms roots and stems are harvested together; it is advisable to shake them over a linen receptacle, and in this manner the loose seed is separated from the stem. The roots and stems are then hung up to dry, the vegetation continues for some little time, and the non-matured seed is soon entirely ripe. It is generally desirable to do the shelling during very dry, cold weather. The operation required some skill in former times. Archard advised rubbing the stems between the hands, and to subse- quently pass the whole through a sieve, in order to eliminate the dried leaves and other impurities. The operation of shelling, as is now practiced; is carried on by women and children. The stalks with seed are drawn through two jaws with saw-like teeth; the upper jaw is held with the left hand, and a slight pressure is given. It is customary to give the stalks before this oper- ation a preliminary threshing on the floor; a practice about which there is much to be said. The objection 144 SUGAR BEET SEED. to the hand shelling is, that it takes so long, and in countries where labor is high this is evidently a very _objectionable feature. Mechanical shelling is used by some and much condemned by others. The main objection is, the very broken or mutilated condition in which the seeds are left; a thorough fanning is most important. Seed may be partly separated from their stems by the use of an endless oscillating moving apron; this is fed from a hopper. The seeds roll off, while the impurities adhering to the apron are thrown upon the ground at the other end of the machine; a system of sorting may be combined with this. The idea is to have a double slanting apron, the heavy seeds traveling the farthest. The shelling and cleaning may be done at one- half cent per pound. The cleaned seed is now kept in some dry, well-ventilated room, beyond the reach of rats and mice. On many farms it is hung up in bags to the ceiling, and when dried, is kept in bags or bar- rels, as the case may be. When in piles, it should be constantly turned over, so as to bring it as much as possible in contact with the air. Of late years it is found desirable to submit seed to a hot-air drying proc- ess, so that it may, within the least possible interval, have the standard per cent. of moisture. There remain in the way of stalks about 3000 Ibs. to the acre; this residuum is rich in potassa and _ contains, also, phosphoric acid. It may be used as bedding for animals at the farm. On the other hand, the waste from beet seed cleaning may render excellent service in cattle feeding.* In conclusion, we would say that we recommend that all beet-seed producers submit their seed to a germinating test before allowing them to leave their premises. Furthermore, we insist that the purchaser make his test on the same lines as the seed * See Chapter on ‘Old Seed Utilization.” SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 115 _grower, thus avoiding numerous subsequent dis- cussions. Approximate Cost and Yield of Seed in Germany and Austria. Between 135 and 140 days are required for the seed to develop and to be harvested, from the time the mother is planted. The yield in Austria and Ger- many is 2000 to 3500 lbs. of seed per acre. A single beet is known to have given 43,000 individual seeds, but this is an exception. According to Briem, the yield of beet seed in Silesia averages 1832 kilos per hectare (1612 Ibs. per acre); in Bohemia, 1945 kilos (1711 Ibs. per acre). The success depends upon many causes, among which are fertilization, soil, etc. The cost of cultivation is approximately as follows: 1st year, 27,000 mothers—cost of planting 0.6 acres..... $ 36.00 Value of the 1r00ts «0.00 seeeneee onesies sessions 35.00 Harvesting, selecting, siloing, etc............. 125.00 $ 196.00 2d ‘year, SClEChING ..cissmune i435 gieswsiesnsewees oe eeereR ERS 337.00 Planting 24% acres, grandmothers............. 120.00 457.00 3d year, 20 ACTES SCCM... 0... cee cee ccs e ede eces en en ewes sees 800.00 4th year, 200 acres, mothers—general expense......... 10,000.00 Other expenses, chemists, etc., etc.......... 1,977.00 $13,430.00 With no allowance for interest and packing. The yield of seed would be 200x2000 lbs., equal to 400,000 lbs., which means that the cost per pound is about 34 cents, or more correctly, allowing for other expenses, four cents per pound. This supposes, as these calculations show, that we start out with a small area devoted to mothers; the production of these is not considered in the calculation. The sowing of seed the third year is on an area many times that began with, and the fourth year only the seed is obtained. Silos for Mothers. The requisites for the proper construction of silos for mothers, are very much the same as for beets to be 10 146 SUGAR BEET SEED. worked at the factory; there are several essential con- ditions, however, which must not be overlooked. The cost of keeping beets that have been selected for seed- ing purposes is very slight, once the silos are made; but the care in placing them in piles being greater than ordinary conditions, the item of additional labor is not to be overlooked. There are really three silos in con- nection with beet-seed growing. One made up with beets which have undergone the physical selection on the fields, and the others after final physical and chem- ical selection combined. As such beets frequently contain 18 to 19 per cent. of sugar, special care should be given to their keeping and to the silos containing beets which are to furnish seed for the trade. Under ordinary conditions of seed production, the beets which are to be used for this special purpose are simply beets which have been obtained from the seed of selected mothers; in other words, the second generation of those roots which underwent laboratory chemical selection. Silos in this case are made on the level of the ground, in the direction of the beet rows. Spaces of about 90 to 120 feet should be left between each silo. Beets on most beet-seed farms are siloed with their leaves; the piles are 43 feet at the bottom, 24 feet at the top, and about three feet in height, which means that the sides are slanting. The whole is covered with 2$ feet of earth; suitable vertical ventilators are neces- sary, and under no circumstances should these be over- looked. From one acre the beets can be placed in silos of a total length of about 300 feet; the cost of the operation in several European centres is about $10 per acre. We consider that it is certainly a great mistake to let the leaves stay on the beets. The best results are certainly obtained by cutting them off with a knife about an inch above the neck, care being taken not to mutilate the heart. On most German farms visited by the writer, the silos for mothers are much smaller than SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 147 the French types just mentioned. In most cases they have a capacity of only a few tons, the laboratory selec- tion taking place in the spring. These silos are sunk 14 feet in the earth and are four feet wide, the necks slanting upward; about 18 inches of earth are piled on top; the covering should be flat, so that some moisture from rains, etc., may readily penetrate. Knauer claims that if the root be moistened it will keep better in silos; precaution alone being necessary to prevent stagnant water. Dur- ing very dry seasons, the piles of mothers may be watered; the water carries the earth down to surround each beet. When the total covering of silos with 2} feet of earth is finished, during very cold winters, it may be found desirable to still further cover with barn- yard manure. The opening of the silos depends upon the method of selection. Knauer says that selected beets in well conducted silos should be placed one against the other, and not one on top of the other. This covering, upon general principles, would seem to be a bad practice; for the weight of earth has a tendency to crush the beets and thus bring about considerable changes in the entire pile; this is the reason why many advocate straw and a thin covering ‘of earth. Considerable experience is needed to know just when to place the beets in silos. Better select a very dry day; if rainy, the beets siloed in their wet condition would in most cases undergo fermentation. On the other hand, if exposed to the sun too long, the roots wilt and the chemical selection that follows would be very misleading, as the sugar percentage would appear to be higher than the reality. Under all circumstances, loss of sugar percentage occurs during the months the roots are kept; hence the reason why the chemical selection should take place early. Arguments in favor of late selection, showing which roots have keeping qualities, are not as reliable as one would wish. Expe- SUGAR BEET SEED. 148 ‘ACVUL INL WOT TAAS HSINUAT OL ANY HOIHM INV AUMOLVUOAVY DHL NI GuLvw1dy NAG FAVH LVHL SLHAG YOU OTIS V AO NOMWOIAULSNOD ‘6h OIF SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 149 rience has shown that it is not to the seed producer’s advantage to attempt the creation of the very elon- gated varieties. They are difficult to properly arrange in silos and their tip ends are most always broken dur- ing harvesting, and if not then, they would be broken when placed in silos. At the Laon beet-selecting laboratory, the main object in view is to commence analysis as soon as pos- sible and to have the roots well siloed before the very cold weather. Herewith (Fig. 49) is shown how the piles are made, and the necessary care given to their construction. The beets are brought in baskets direct from the laboratory and then piled with necks pointing outward. It is not desirable to make these piles more than three feet high; their section is that of a triangle, and when of the desired height and shape thev are covered with earth, and remain during the several months of cold weather until March or April, when planted. The slow method adopted in most selecting laboratories neces- sitates the opening and closing of the silo made upon the field during the entire winter; this practice, as may be imagined, is followed by many complications and poor results; all of which, by Legras’s method, is avoided, as the analyses commence in January and finish in February, after the sugar campaign has termi- nated. It must never be forgotten that there are certain precautions to be taken in the laboratory in order to assure the keeping of beets in silos, viz., the hole made by the rasp or sampler should be most carefully filled with clay or charcoal, and the roots handled with care, so as to prevent bruises. The slightest mutilation means organic changes during the several months theyremain covered awaiting planting season. Chemical Changes During Second Year’s Growth. ‘Do mothers, after seed is harvested, still retain sugar? This question is frequently asked and many 150 SUGAR EEET SEED. discussions have followed respecting it. The weight of authority appears to be that the sugar has entirely disappeared. If this issue be examined on a rational basis, it will be found that the life of the beet terminates with the seed; the functions being complete, the root soon rots—no.sugar can then be found. However, cases have been cited when one to one-half per cent. appears to remain. A simple experiment to show that the sugar disappears as the stems, etc., continue their development, is to cut off the stems as fast as they appear; it will not require many months before all the sugar will have left the root. M.H. Leplay has given the subject considerable attention, and it is interesting to follow what is said upon the subject and the con- clusions drawn. The beets upon which the observations were made were in an excellent condition, and had been cultivated on a calcareous soil. When harvested, the leaves were twisted off and then remained untouched; the roots were planted in May and examined during various periods of their vegetation. The density of the juice constantly decreased in the root; when the mothers were planted it was 1050.7; June 7, 1042; June 30, 1037; July 17, 1033; August 22, 1021. During the same period there was an increase of the density of juice from the stalks and then in the leaves. Analvses of different parts of the plant just at the period when the leaves were forming, gave the following: Portions Analyzed. : Density of Sugar Weight. Juice. | Per Cent. ROO: jccanotinl seeeneneiua sen 610 gr ams. | 1.020 0.85 Neck hai «-| 210 1.02 0.75 Stems.... 1.090 ikitog. 1.027 srs Leaves .. 0.500 1.034 As mentioned above, when the period of develop- ment advances, the sugar percentage diminishes as soon as the leaves appear, then remains constant. Then comes a time after the seeds are formed that moresugar is formed in the stems and leaves; little remains in SOILS FOR SEED PRODUCTION. 151 the root proper. (Even during the early history of the beet-sugar industry Peligot insisted that sugar dis- appears as soon as seeds are matured.) Respecting seed formation through the intervention of the stems, very little is known. One might conclude from the fact just mentioned that the seed had absorbed the sugar, but such is not the case, it having been proven that most of the sugar passes into small side roots, which always show themselves. Salts and vegetable acids, with a basis of potassa, exist in the juice of different portions of the plant. The quantity contained in the beet, after completing its second year’s growth, is about double what it was after the first year. Lime, salts and soluble vegetable acids, and lime of an insoluble organic combination, are to be found in all portions of the plant. The tissues of the leaves and their stems appear to contain more of the lime combinations the second than during the first year’s vegetation. Green seeds also contain a large amount of lime in an insoluble combination. During this second year, there is, without doubt, an upward movement of potassic and lime salts contained in the soil, and this in passing through the leaves and stems has the seed ultimately in view. During this period, carbonic acid and bicarbonates contained in the soil enter the root by the adhering radicles; the transformations which occur appear to be very like those of the first year. As the mothers can supply only one-tenth of the potassic and lime salts needed for seed formation, the remaining nine-tenths must be drawn from the soil. The potassa has for its principal function the formation of the seed, while lime helps in the forma- tion of tissue. A question we hear constantly asked is, Have not these salts some direct and constant rela- tion or important influence upon the quality of seed obtained, considered from a basis of sugar percentage bey? SUGAR BEET SEED. in the mothers? In the recent writings of Strohmer and Stift, they declare that the mothers during the second year’s growth produce large quantities of new organic substances; the root has not within itself suf- ficient resources; these must be furnished. Phos- phoric acid is utilized in the production of the stems and leaves, and nitrogen for the seed. CHAPTER VII. The Selection and Sampling of Beet Seed. Preliminary Remarks.—It may be an excellent pre- cautionary measure, when intending to purchase beet seed from the dealer or grower, to learn just what the conditions of cultivation have been. The great trouble with most seed dealers is that they attempt too much and the customer suffers. Our advice is to give pref- erence to those producers of beet seed who cultivate nothing else and who make a specialty of selecting, etc.; furthermore, to those who realize the importance of not having patches of fodder beets in the vicinity. It is well not to be misled on this subject; a distance of over a mile between one farm and another may be a reasonable limit. Yet cases are known where the pollen has been carried by the wind or insects, which thus completed the fertilization of the plant, and there follows a hybrid, the existence of which the farmer and manufacturer soon realize. The very best seed must be planted under the best possible conditions, and the care that follows during plant development and sugar elaboration should con- tinue until the beets are delivered as raw material at the factory. The sugar is made on the field and the manufacturer is simply an extractor; hence, the rea- son why we have always recommended that when con- scientious farmers carry out instructions to the letter they should be furnished from the start with the very best procurable seed. The extra cost of same is a mere trifle as compared with the satisfactory money returns for all interested. The fire test for determining the vitality of beet seed appears to offer some advantages. The seeds are 153 154 SUGAR BEET SEED. placed on a red-hot shovel; if they burn slowly, one may conclude that they are old and almost worthless. The operation should be repeated upon several sam- ples taken from the same sack; if the same results are obtained, the bag should be refused. On the other hand, if the seeds jump and produce a cracking sound or noise, they may be considered worthy of undergoing the germinating test. A series of exper- iments of this kind would soon show just what the pro- portion was of new and old seed in the sample. Influence of the Size of the Seed on the Quality of the Beet and Yield Per Acre. For many years past, there has been considerable discussion to determine whether or not the size of the seed has an influence on the resulting roots. Whether, in other words, large seeds yield beets of a higher saccharine percentage than small ones; whether the farmer has any advantage in using one size rather than another. For it must never be forgotten that seed which is known as beet seed, as previously explained, is, in reality, a cluster of several seeds, and the germs from some are extremely varied. Hence, the reason why there is such a variety of opinion upon this subject. The early experiments of Simon Le Grand were apparently very conclusive in favor of small seed—ioo large seeds weighed 3.2 grams, I00 small seeds weighed 0.425 grams. Weight. Sugar | averezeior | pOVEth esi eae ofbca cd anacardiei via aia m grams. v4 Large Seed.... “i 195 ee is. September 16 325 ts 11.8 August 11.... 30 a) 356% Small Heedaad m | 20 September “16 233 es 12.5 Other experiments of the same kind were made by Marek. During the early stages, the results SELELTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 155 appeared to be in favor of large seed, but toward the end of the season, certain changes occurred and no difference could be noticed. The area of experiment was small. Small seed- 571 = Seed. Number of beets obtained. ........ ccc. cece eee Specific Sravity Of [UICC isssiss cies oosessseanws 1.044 1.050 Dry substances .............. wat 10.857 12.285 ROVAPIZACLOM Gs sie sce sj Sbscepteriens siisistsiaw’s beagle mares Nase 7.247 8.732 PULUY COGMGI ON: yisijst:%0'0 Lorcisieoussd wrairivarineies cid. sey 66.74 71,16 These results appear to be in direct contradiction to his early experiments. Walkhoff is decidedly in favor of large seed, as he declares that the resulting beets are more hardy. It seems to us that the strong argument in favor of large seed is, that the young plants, the outcome from them, can better resist the variations of the weather than the small. This is explained in various ways: Hollrung argues that small seeds mature early, owing to their greater facility to germinate. The average yield per acre is evidently greater with large than with small seed, owing, as we have just said, to there being a larger number of sprouts or germs per individual seed used. The pericarp is necessarily very much greater for large than for small seed. From this fact, Knauer concludes that the actual weight of seed proper is very much greater in small than in large seed. This outer covering for large seed represents 75 per cent. of its total weight, while for the small seed only 72 per cent. If the large and small seed be put to a germinating test, the argument appears to be in favor of small seed. With five grams of large seeds may be obtained 283 sprouts, while with the same weight of small seeds 469 sprouts are obtained. Briem has also given this subject more than usual attention and his conclusions are worth recording. He admits that seed may be divided into three classes, large, medium and small. These all gave very great 156 SUGAR BEET SEED. variations in results; a synopsis of the same is as follows: er ee Sugar Per Cent. Aver.fo'] aay; _. {Aver for 5 ink :. Maxi- Mini- Maxi- Mini- Exper- ' Exper- iment, | mun. mun. iment; ™um. mum. Large seed ....} 0.390 0.850 0.120 13.18 16.4 10.3 Medium “ ....} 0.392 1.090 | 0.150 13. | 15.5 10.9 Small ees 0.339 0.810 0.140 12.70 15.6 10.2 So it becomes evident that very little stress can be attached to the question of size of seed. It is far more important to give special attention to the condition of development of the seed proper than to whether they are large or small. Furthermore, it has beén conclu- sively demonstrated that germs, even from the same seed, may give beets of a very different composition and yield. In the experiments in question, the weight varied from 55 to 835 grams, yet they were planted under exactly the same conditions. Briem declares that these variations are due to the physiological condition of the flower, the various por- tions of which have not been fertilized at the same time, or under exactly the same conditions. It is inter- esting to add that during these intervals of time, cli- matic influences have exerted their effects; further- more, the beet itself, during this period, undergoes great variations, which bring about changes in the flowering of what becomes an ultimate seed with several germs. The same variations have been noticed with numerous other plants in the whole botanical realm. Actual Weight of Beet Seed. Notwithstanding that this question has been under discussion for many years, there yet remains much to be done, on account of a great want of uniformity in the methods of investigation. The ballast, or outer covering (pericarp) of the seed varies so much with the size of the seed, and the difficulties in certain cases of SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 157 determining, if observations are being made, on what might be considered a single seed with about five germs, or whether it is composed of two seeds -held together, which, collectively, have five germs. The Nobbe experiments would tend to show that the seed, or germ proper, represents 31 per cent. of the seed, while the ballast, or pericarp, is 68.8 per cent. The data furnished by other agronomists upon this subject differ somewhat from these figures. None are more reliable than those of Knauer, and he declares that, notwithstanding all the precautionary measures taken to determine the weight, the data obtained are certainly not mathematical. In the experiments 200 seeds weighed 6.099 grams, of which the ballast weighed 4.487 grams, or 73.6 per cent., and the seed proper 26.4 per cent. There can be no doubt but that the weight of the germ increases with the weight of the seed. The experiments at Grébers were upon 50 seeds, but to make these results more readily under- stood, we have based our calculations upon 100. Weight of Number of | One Germ Size of Seed. | 100 Seeds. Germs. Weighs. TGAT BG ai 3.dici aid artiaserave Suidaeaion. Nosaeters 4.622 grams, 346 3.3 M.G. BM AW occ cic tataietiadokes vemaiece 3.702 326 30 eh * Small Obs iccss saasaiciasaccanpingrass 3s cinere 2.496 260 27 SIMA OSb: spss cs iacaccgaamy de ae sgipa 1318 176 235 Knauer declares that it is a mistake to suppose for one instant that the large seed is simply a com- bination of two of the smaller seeds; a close examina- tion reveals that such is not the case. For in these large seeds may be found, side by side, much smaller, yet too large to fall through the holes of a 7 m. m. mesh. The same argument applies to the smallest seed of the table. Upon general principles, it may be admitted that one hectoliter of beet seed weighs 27 kilos (about twenty pounds per bushel). There is a great variation in the weight of seeds, considerd as a whole. Dr. Bret- feld has declared that there may be 14 to 103 seeds per 158 SUGAR BEET SEED. gram, which means that their weight may vary from 0.0097 grams to 0.0714 grams. It is to be noted that such variations in weight do not exist with any seed in the whole field of botany. Pagnoul says that the average number of seeds per two grams is 105, which means that the average weight of individual seeds is about 0.018 grams. One bushel of beet seed weighs only sixteen to twenty-one pounds. Without doubt, the varieties of beets and the methods of cultivation have certain influences on the size of the beet seed. The period of duration of flowering must also not be forgotten. Another fact not to be overlooked is, that the size of the seed depends upon the number of germs it con- tains; the average may be considered as five. These vary, being one, two, three, and even ten. Briem declares that he has in his collection a single seed which weighs 0.249 grams. While Pagnoul admits that 105 seeds weigh two grams, Bretfeld, an equally high authority allows only 90. However, the differ- ence is very slight between these two authorities, as by the latter it is admitted that 100 seeds weigh 2.22 grams. With small seeds during certain years it requires 103 to weigh one gram, while, on the other hand, 24, or even 22, of the largest may also weigh one gram. Hence, the reason why, some years ago, there was a thorough understanding that large seed should be those in which forty-five were equivalent in weight to one gram; small seed those where this num- ber is greater. This leads to entirely different results, from the purchaser’s standpoint, to those which would be obtained by the Knauer size of seven m. m. to five m. m. method mentioned in previous pages. This authority declares that the weight of beet seed is largely influenced by its condition, or degree of its maturity. One liter of Imperial Knauer (eleven per cent. moisture) weighs 185.34 grams (seven ounces per quart). SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 159 Numerous authorities have taken upon them- selves to determine the number of sprouts given by one gram. Sempolowski declares that the following is about an average, and may be an excellent basis of classification: Those seeds which give 81 to 112 sprouts, pergram............. Excellent. “ a “ “55 to 80 a ...Good. “ “ “ “40 to 54 +e IN op siden adsta panties Average ae “e ‘« less than 40 should be considered...Bad. This differs from Knauer's early classification, where superior seed were considered to be those where there were only sixty sprouts per gram, and an average quality less than fifty. The germinating power is not the only fact which should be considered. Selection of Seed. The farmer, when purchasing seed in general, has some basis to work upon which is sufficiently accurate for general practical purposes. On the other hand, with beet seed he is at a great disadvantage. That the color, the impurities, odor, etc., are characteristics upon which certain reliance may be placed, no one for an instant doubts, but these are not sufficient to decide in advance the money value of the product being examined; hence, the subject is of more than ordinary interest. The seed formation and its maturity is a most variable factor, even on the same stalk to which the matured seed adheres more or less firmly. Some seeds fall as soon as the stalk is touched, while others adhere with moderate or excessive firmness, and can be separated only by the use of a special instrument, the moderately adhering type representing three- fourths of the total seed obtained. M. Legras has cultivated beets from the latter and does not hesitate to assert that they yield roots 0.60 per cent. richer in sugar than either the loose or tenacious kind; this may be a starting point for still further selection and is cer- tainly well worth looking into. 160° SUGAR BEET SEED. By Chemical Analyses. Laskowsky, a Russian, at Moscow, has tried to demonstrate that the saccharine quality of beets is in direct ratio to the fatty substances of the seed—that large seed contain more fatty substances than small. The mass of testimony of Briem, Strohmer, etc., does not agree with that assertion, and shows that there is no relation between the two. Furthermore, the Man- gold seed is very rich in fatty substance. Zaikiewitsch, another Russian savant, determines the fatty substance, phosphoric acid* and albumen in the seed. The phos- phoric acid was estimated in the entire seed, and the fatty substance and albumen in the seed proper, with- out outer covering. These experiments were upon a great variety of French, German and Russian seed; in these analyses the percentage of albumen varied from fourteen to twenty per cent; fatty substances, eleven to fifteen per cent; phosphoric acid, 0.4 to 0.9 per cent. in beets testing an average of 15.5 per cent. sugar. From such results it was concluded that no constant relation exists between the composition of the seed and the sugar percentage of beets. It is interesting, however, to note that seeds from France and Germany contains less albuminoids and fatty sub- stances than do Russian seeds; on the other hand, the latter are very much poorer in phosphorus. Other interesting discussions have been con- tinued for a period of years to decide if the composi- tion of the seed in general has not an influence on the resulting roots. For if such should be the case, an analysis of seed would settle a very important ques- * As regards the phosphoric acid, M. Pagnoul, in France, came also to the conclusion that there is not the slightest connection between it and the sugar per cent, of the resulting root. SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 161 tion. The experiments of Pellet with large and small seeds of several varieties were as follows: we 5 os 5 ¢4 he 6 che |) was | Ss. | bg Lg Ae a58 Ong Aas Variety of Seed. a2 a8 ues Sea Kee tH | 83 O80 | MES | bia = | baa | Bba | 28" | ae 35 Zo aa a ‘ large.|4.13 gr 10.9 2.66 5.4 15 MANN GUN es sea Fees small |0.54 “| 11.0 3.07 5.3 “ German Varieties, Rose neck, small} ....... 0.77 11.2 2.8 8.2 0 seed, average... Gray neck, large seed, average... os i: ‘ Green neck,large f *"*""" 4.745 ¢ 12.2 2.46 6.5 10 seed, average... Forage Large seed.. 12.5 2.38 7.0 4to 6 Varieties | Small seed.... 11.4 2.55 9.0 af The richer the beet, the greater the per cent.of nitric elements and the smaller the per cent. of ash. In asame variety of seed, the small seed contained more nitrogen than the large. So, apparently, a classification, according to qual- ity, could be made on the basis of nitrogen or ash esti- mation. It is very doubtful, however, if this method can be considered thoroughly reliable. Many yéars ago, Dubrunfaut declared that from his observation superior beet seed gives less ash than the inferior varieties. He maintained that sugar-beet seeds had about four to six per cent. ash,* while in forage beets this ash percentage varied from six to 14 per cent; furthermore, sugar-beet seed appears to contain more phosphoric acid. * Chemical composition of beet-seed ashes, Champion Pellet: Ordinary Seed. Pa Seed. 1. 2. POtASW cede te tpaves dec adtiansdinenin, 3 2 GAGS 21.1 16.4 24.2 Soda..... 8.9 10.4 12.8 LiM Gee cas eigen Scaraaind s Gee ereines es meee 25.4 20.2 17.2 Magnesia 13.5 11.5 10.1 Sulphuric acid..........-.....6. sees eee 4.0 2.8 4.3 COPING is siacs see ccecars on wreng grains aes ratte Ba a0 4.7 4.1 4.1 Phosphoric acid ....--..-. eee renee eee 8.4 9.3 17.4 SilICA 00. eee ee cee cece cece ec en eee mates Tae |) Aagetne 9 AE veces Oxide Of iTON....... eee eee ee eee eens 1.2 26.4 ll Magnesia........-..++ Suan, Gemebwin wareds OT | -yawme- || -wacae 101.3 101.1 101.1 11 162 SUGAR BEET SEED. During our visits to many beet fields in Germany, some experts declared themselves in favor of the selec- tion of seed by density, using for the purpose special saline baths; those sinking would give the best yield as to quality and tonnage. It remains to be proven if this method can be considered reliable, for certain seeds, large or small, under certain conditions of poros- ity of their outer covering, would absorb more or less. water. If the solution changes color to any great extent during the few minutes which the test lasts, that would be a certain indication that the seed in question is old. Color and Odor. The color of the seed is not a question upon which much reliance can be placed, as the condition of the weather at the time of harvesting has a most important influence, and examples may be cited where the seed was very dark in color yet proved of a satisfactory qual- ity. This is explained by the fact that in the seed one of the germs or sprouts may be dead and influence the color of the pericarp. However, there is a certain characteristic shading which is an evidence of quality, determined, however, through considerable experience. The small leaves, so to speak, adhering to the hard portion of the outer covering of the seed are, within a reasonable limit, indications of quality. While at first moisture has very little effect on the germs proper, after a time the amount absorbed brings about certain fermentations, which have a very great influence on the germinating power and the ultimate color. The atmospheric influence is so great at the period of harvesting and maturity, that the color of the seed varies between great limits, from very light to nearly black. It is generally admitted that a slight green or yellow color is a favorable indication of quality. In most of the European experiment stations, very little SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 163 importance is attached to color. On the other hand, the odor of seed is a reliable basis and certain depend- ence may be placed on it; it should be very much like hay. Again, when the smell is rather mouldy, it would indicate that the seed had been kept in a damp place or had not been properly handled after harvesting; the odor from the decomposition of the organic portion of the plant is very offensive. Old seeds have a charac- teristic smell, which permit one, with a little experience, to recognize them at once. Those who make a prac- tice of mixing these seed with their new crop take the precaution of disguising the smell by the use of anise- seed oil, or a weak solution of permanganate of potash. Impurities. Five to ten grams of the seed are carefully weighed and then spread upon a sheet of paper. Each seed is pushed to one side and counted. The weight of the seed used, N grams, and the weight of the clean seed, n grams, are substituted in the fol- lowing formula in calculating the percentage of impurities, I:I=(N—n—N) 100. This estimation of impurities at first seems very simple, but in reality it offers many difficulties, as the results obtained fre- quently do not agree. The shaking of the bottle con- taining the sample demands certain precautions; if always in one direction, the deposit will be found in one spot, while if shaken with cork down, to one side, etc., the impurities are evenly spread through the entire mass of seed. An important question is, Whether the leaves and adhering stems should be separated and counted as impurities or left on and not considered? Many discussions occur relating to this custom, and in one case the imipurities may be found to be four per cent. and in the other only two per cent. However, when that question is settled, it is well to repeat the operation of impurity estimation at least three times and to take an average. A given weight of the seed is well shaken in a 164 SUGAR BEET SEED. sieve, allowing the dust, also mineral and organic par- ticles, to pass through. What remains in the sieve is placed upon white paper or porcelain, and with a small brush those seeds taken as samples are pushed to one side. The impurities remaining are added to those passing through the sieve and this total is weighed; the percentage of impurity to total seed is then calcu- lated. The stems, empty seed, small stones, etc., of which the impurities consist, are seldom more than 3 per cent. of the whole, it being sometimes only 0.7 per cent., while again in efforts at fraud it has been 30 per cent. It is interesting to note that the question of impu- - rities of seed is no longer the subject of discussion it once was—special and well-constructed ventilators removing all the dust and light particles that are always adhering to beet seed after having been dried. The seed dealers who attempt fraudulent methods very seldom resort to the mixing of seed with the impurities which have been previously removed. Moisture. All seeds have a moisture of their own, and there never need be the slightest dread of the seller adding water, as fermentation would follow. The natural moisture varies, according to year, from 12 to 15 per cent.; if more than 15 per cent., the seed gets mouldy and loses its germinating power. The seed grower should always take the precaution not to keep his seed fresh from the field in piles, more especially so if harvested in rainy weather; on the contrary, it should be spread out in a thin layer upon the floor of a well-ventilated building. As before explained in these pages, the absorbing power of large seed being greater than that for small seed, it is evident that under the best of circumstances there is a higher percentage of moisture in large than in. small seed. It must never be forgotten that the SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF ‘SEED. 165 ' moisture percentage is undergoing constant variations with the hygrometric conditions of the ambient atmos- phere.* The moisture of a sample of seed is deter- mined by weighing a given quantity before and after drying at a temperature of 105 degrees C. (221 degrees F.) during a period of 465 hours. If five grams are heated in a platinum capsule, the loss of weight multi- plied by twenty gives the weight of water contained in a hundred grams of seed. This amount it is impor- tant to know, as if in excess of 15 or 18 per cent. it indicates a bad conservation, which is a very objection- able feature. An interesting fact which has recently been brought to light is, that there seems to be some practical relation between the moisture of the seed and its power of ger- mination. These experiments were mainly undertaken by Dr. Bretfeld. It is concluded by him that the ger- minating power increases with a decrease in percent- age of moisture. However, the following data show that the variations are very slight and no great impor- tance need be attached to them. The experiments extended over a period of four years; with 13 per cent moisture there were 159 per cent. of germs (each seed containing several); with 12.5 per cent., 194 per cent. of germs; 13.6 per cent., 133 per cent. of germs; 13 per cent., 153 per cent. of germs. The great variations in moisture of seed depend upon their origin; the age, etc., is made evident by the following series: Per Ceut. Moisture. Large Seed. Medium. Small Seed. Large. Small. Large. Small. Large. Small. Per Cent. | Per Cent. | Per Cent. | Per Cent.| Per Cent. | Per Cent. 16.8 | 20.5 10.3 9.2 13.6 12.4 18.3 18.2 9.5 8.2 13.7 11.3 28.3 29.0 5.1 3.3 14.6 12.6 Lii7 V3 9.8 8.9 13.5 13.1 ANOVA GC osjcc seins ven eamem ceca gees sass 13.8 12.3 From which we conclude, with some degree of cer- *See our remarks on moisture under heading “ General Considera- tions Respecting Germination.” 166 SUGAR BEET SEED. tainty that small seeds, whatever be their classification, contain less moisture than do the large. Hence, if there actually exists some relation between moisture and the sprouting power, small seed should sprout more readily than large seed. We think that the prac- tical tests in germination will show that this is not true. Sampling for Germination. It is most difficult to get what may be called an average sample of beet seed, and those who have not looked into the question would be surprised to learn of the extreme care necessary, and the difficulties to be contended with. It must not be forgotten, as pre- viously mentioned, that what is generally termed beet seed is in reality not a seed, but an aggregation of seeds held under the same shell or husk. An expla- nation from a botanical standpoint is rather compli- cated, but one fact is certain, that there seems to be very little relation between the sprouts and the total number of germs a seed may contain. It is interest- ing to note what agronomists of the European world have done, Messrs. Nobbe, Maercker, Weinzierl and Pagnoul, for Germany, Austria and France. While complete uniformity does not exist in the observations by the many methods in existence, they are interesting and worthy of atrial. It would be impossible, even in a special volume, to pass in review all the various methods of sampling, including laboratory germina- tion, for the complete data would not be procurable. Upon general principles, this sampling should be done in the presence of the purchaser and dealer, or their agent. When purchasing on a large scale, it is important to open several bags, noting whether the appearance of the centre is about the same as the outer border. In France, it is recommended that samples be talcen from each of five bags when the sale is limited SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 167 to ten bags, from ten when twenty bags, and twenty samples when there are fifty bags, etc., for over 500 bags, one in every five. The seeds thus obtained are placed in a flask, well corked, and remain there until needed for analysis in a germinator. If several sam- ples are to be taken from the large sample, the seeds are spread out on a table and divided into as many parts as there are tests to be made. The unique sampling is more accurate, for the more the seeds are manipulated, the greater will be their loss of impurities. The germinating power of the seed varies from year to year; owing to existing frauds, it is most difficult to get an average sample. There is great need of some uniformity of method of purchasing and testing seed. However, when making the first sampling from the sacks of seed, an average should be obtained from the start; it would be a mis- take to select only from the upper surface, as the seed there is the lightest, but samples should be taken from the bottom, middle and top, so that the total seed obtained should weigh at least 10} ounces, or 300 grams. The ultimate selection may be made from this preliminary sample. By the Nobbe method 300 grams are thoroughly mixed and then emptied into a funnel-shaped hopper, the bottom opening of which is sufficiently small to permit very few seeds to pass through at a time. At regular intervals, timed by a watch, samples of seed are taken, which are received in a special spoon. After a given number of spoonfuls are obtained, they are spread over a black surface, from various parts of which are taken twenty or thirty seeds, this operation being repeated about twenty times, until 600 seeds are obtained, which are divided into three lots of 200 each, and are respectively used for the determinations of moisture, impurities and germination. Another method for sampling differs from the ¢ 168 SUGAR BEET SEED. foregoing in many respects after the first selection is made from the sacks. The seed is emptied into special pasteboard boxes covered with black paper. These boxes are 13} inches in length, about ro inches in width, and 14 inches in height. The seed in these boxes must be very evenly spread over the bottom, so that only one layer is obtained. Samples are taken with spoons, so as to obtain a sufficient quantity for subsequent examination. The Maercker method is among the most accurate and interesting (Fig. 50). Top Yrerr Fig. 50. Maercker sampler. FIG. 51. The samples from sacks are emptied into a special dish with a cross-like opening at the bottom; this dish fitting exactly into a second one. The seed should be evenly spread out with the hand, exerting no pressure. The dish is then withdrawn behind, and there remains in the under receptacle a lot of seed, arranged geomet- rically, corresponding to the opening in the bottom of the dish removed; from it are taken the final samples for germination, etc. SELECTION AND SAMPLING OF SEED. 169 In the Bretfeld method of obtaining a sample, the arrangement is very like that we have just described, and is shown herewith (Fig. 51). It consists of a sheet- iron disk, S, which fits inside an earthen receptacle, S’. The seed is placed in S and falls through the opening, O* When S is withdrawn there remains the geomet- | FiG. 52. Divider paper. rical figure shown herewith. The operation should be again repeated with a smaller appliance of same kind. About 200 seeds are selected; these are placed on a sheet of black paper, divided into squares or rec- tangles; as each of these is divided in two, each half will contain 100 seeds. *Some experts recommend that 0 correspond to grams in weight of seed. The Austrian method can hardly be considered as exact as the foregoing. It consists in spreading the sack sample upon a black circle, from which are taken, with the horn spoon, segments of the circle which represent the final samples. CHAPTER VIII. Germination. Preliminary Remarks.—Seeds before being planted are kept in some dry place for periods of time which are very variable; until when placed in a suitable environ- ment, they remain in a semi-dormant condition. Their vitality manifests itself when certain conditions are ful- filled; none are more impottant than heat, moisture, air and light. The germinating power of beet seeds depends upon their age, and some authorities claim that even after ten years’* keeping, a certain number will appear above ground; however, the resulting roots would never reach their normal development. As seeds retain, in the form of albumen, the requisite plant food for the first few days after sprouting, it is self- evident the older the seed, the greater will be the alter- ations in the composition of this stored-up food, and with age the vitality of the plantlet during its first struggle to gain the surface becomes less. Heat. We shall not for the present consider the heat of the soil as affecting germination, but heat as having its influence upon the seed, as is possible to determine by laboratory research. As these investiga- tions are limited, it is important to place special stress upon those made by Knauer. Eleven samples of 100 seeds were placed in a copper receptacle heated by hot air; the temperatures varied from 4o degrees C. to 120 degrees C. The seeds were subsequently cooled, then *One cannot help contrasting the vitality of beet seed with certain varieties of Egyptian, which were several thousand years old. 170 o GERMINATION. 171 placed on moist sand for determining their germinating power. The experiments were again repeated with eleven other samples, to determine the influence of time upon the heating. The conclusions were, that the germinating power of beet seed submitted for three hours to a temperature of 50 to 60 degrees C. was con- siderably increased; the same seeds, at a temperature of 115 to 120 degrees C. lost their power to germinate, and this loss of vitality increased with increase of tem- perature. A moist heat produces also a beneficial effect, for seed, exposed to moist, hot air for six hours, from 40 to 50 degrees C., had its germinating power ..considerably increased. However, changes occur at 70 degrees C., and with an increase of temperature the vitality is completely destroyed. Consequently, it is very important to keep in mind that there are certain limits which should not be surpassed. Hot water is more destructive to the germinating power of beet seed than is hot, dry or moist air. Seed in hot water at a temperature of 60 degrees C. will no longer germinate, and even at 55 degrees C. only three or four out of 100 will give signs of life; as this limit is not reached in the soil, it need not be dreaded. Moisture. The moisture of beet seed is an extremely vari- able question, and while certain limits are fixed when seeds are purchased in the market, the idea is mainly to prevent fraud when the sale is by weight, as it always should be. Furthermore, moist- ened seeds lose their keeping powers; consequently, if that system of fraud were allowed, the purchaser would be the loser. Nobbe allows an average of 13.3 per cent. moisture; Maercker admits that 20.5 per cent. is not uncommon, while, at the other extreme, 4.4 per cent. is considered an average, which limit is sim- ply absurd. —_ ~1 to SUGAR BEET SEED. Knauer made a special study of the question. The experiments were upon seed containing from 11.8 to 12.6 per cent. moisture, when brought to the labor- atory after harvesting. To show that the moisture of the room in which seeds are kept has an influence, the above seed, when kept on the ground floor, soon. had 16.7 per cent. moisture, while after remaining for three days in a room heated to 22° C. (71.6° F.) their mois- ture was only 10.1 per cent. When one considers that the daily variations of the ambient air is verv consider- able, it becomes manifest that certain allowances must be made for the same. Experiments were made upon seeds of four different sizes.* With a relative moisture of the air, which varied from 61 per cent. to 94 per cent., the total increase of moisture for the four seeds was 0.53 per cent., 0.40 per cent., 0.28 per cent. and 0.36 per cent. These observations are of special moment when it is desired to make a commercial examination of beet seed. If the sample is sent by mail it is very impor- _ tant that it should be contained in a hermetically sealed box. The amount of water that the seed absorbs when in water depends upon the temperature and time of emersion. Our own experiments showed that at 4o degrees F. the absorption was 71 per cent., while at 68 degrees F. it ran to 110 per cent.t Knauer’s exper- iments for 144 hours showed that the absorption for the four sizes of seed mentioned in foregoing was 136 per cent., 114 per cent., 149 per cent. and 172 per cent. It-is concluded that seeds of smaller size take up water more rapidly, proportionally, than large seeds; the absorption is the greatest during the first 24 hours and during the first six hours of the test. *In the Knauer seed the classification is as follows: Those remain- ing in the sieve with 7.m. m. mesh, will weigh, for 100 seeds, 4.597 grams, or 109 seeds for 5 grams; those remaining in sieve with 6.m.m. mesh correspond to 143 seeds per 5erams. The third size are those which are retained by 5m. m. mesh and give 194 seeds for grams, and the fourth, 313 seeds per 5 grams, +See Ware, ‘' The Sugar Beet.” GERMINATION. 173 If seeds are freed of their pericarp, the water absorption no longer remains the same, for under such circumstances .the conditions are much changed, and the moisture taken out is very much less, which fact in itself shows the very important role of the outer cover- ing. The differences are still more striking when seeds in their natural condition are compared with those where the pericarp has been partly removed by simple friction between fingers, and finally with those seeds from which the pericarp has been entirely removed. These seeds, after remaining for three days submitted to watery vapor, had increased in weight 23.6 per cent., 15.7 per cent. and II per cent. respectively. The time needed for seed to absorb water is very much greater with the pericarp than without it; in the latter case, the total absorption is completed in seven hours, while in the former, at least twenty-four hours are required, from which fact the véry important function of the outer covering of the seed is manifest, as the embryo can draw from it its moisture during its early stages of development. Light. The principal action of light is after the seed leaves have appeared above ground; this will be discussed under another heading; but as regards the direct action of light, it is not as important as one might suppose. True, with some plants the germina- tion of seed has a certain dependence upon light, but experiments with beet seed show beyond cavil that the differences between the effects of germination in the dark or by a strong light are so slight that they need scarcely be considered. Knauer’s experiments upon 100 seeds in light, after 14 days, gave 268 sprouts, and in complete darkness, 262. The same may be said of various colored lights. The germinating power of beet seed varies very much from year to year. Dr. 174 SUGAR BEET SEED. Bretfeld, in Germany, has compiled some important statistics during 1880-83, which are as follows: 1880, 18 per cent. of-the seed did not germinate; in 1881, 16 per cent.; in 1882, 29 per cent.; in 1883, 21 per cent. Just the time at which seeds have the most of their germs is by no means a settled question. In Kruger’s experiments, he obtained the following: Number of Number of Sprouts Per Diem. Seed in Ger- ‘minator. /3d (4th [5th (6th (7th [8th |9th | 10th | 11th | 12th] 13th] 14th 200 large..... 31} 191] 81 | 28 5 4 4 12 il 8 7 4 200 small..... 5 87) 66 | 45 | 26 q 9 3 4 d, 0 5 Prof. Nobbe later took up the question and started from the number of sprouts after the sixth day, per 100 seeds. The results offer no special interest other than showing what is already known: That the number of germs varies with the size of seed, for,as Knauer points out, while with roo large seeds weighing about 4.67 grams, there were 143 sprouts after six days, and 122 after 14 days, or a total of 265; with 100 small seeds weighing 1.44 grams, there were 127 sprouts in six days and 134 after 14 days. Germinators. Upon general principles, it may be said that the best results are obtained in germinators where the temperature is kept at about 25 degrees C. This is very difficult to regulate, under which circum- stances it is evident that the question of determining the germinating power of beet seed is more laboratory than farm work. However, when the farmer has a well arranged greenhouse, the regulated conditions may be obtained. If only a flower pot, and this be placed in a closet with a few lights constantly burning, the desired temperature will soon be reached, provid- ing, however, that there be sufficient ventilation. There is a great variety of germinators, only a few of which need here be described. An GERMINATION. 175 important fact to keep constantly in mind is, that when comparative germinating tests are made upon seed of the same origin, the difference between the results obtained should never be greater than 15 per cent. after six days, nor more than Io per cent. after two weeks. The accuracy of these observations does not depend alone upon the selection of the final average sample, but also upon the germinator used; the layers of seed, their respective positions, etc., are all factors not to be overlooked. Long practical experience is necessary before satisfactory restilts can be obtained, and, if in the hands of a novice, the purchaser and seller may both be at a disadvantage. For sprouting, various mediums are used, of which may be mentioned: Earth, peat, sawdust, paper, and various kinds of sand. For an earth test it is desirable that the earth be of a very light, sandy texture, one that will not cake on the surface by repeated watering. The advantage of sand is, that it has always about the same composition. Respecting this material, it has been noticed that in comparative germination tests with sand, the number of germs obtained is 15 per cent. higher than in other mediums; hence, the importance of the kind of germinating medium that is used. It is desirable to use fresh sand for each test, or at least to submit it to excessive heat in order to destroy all germs.* The most simple of all germinators consists of a receptacle containing sand saturated with water; as the surface is, to a certain extent, hard, the seeds remain in place when once in position. They should, thowever, be sunk sufficiently in the medium to disap- pear from sight. *¥ There is a great difference of opinion as to whether seed retains jts moisture during two weeks. Bretfeld says it does, while Knauer shows that there is aloss of 2 per cent. In all sand germinators there is always a difficulty in keeping the sand at astandard condition of moisture, say 25 per cent. Knauer recommends that 200 grams—i40 c. m. sand, be placed in the apparatus; after shaking, a perfectly hori- zontal level is obtained; 52c. m, water are then added. 176 SUGAR BEET SEED. It is desirable to sprinkle a little dry sand on the surface before placing the seed in position. In this case, about 100 average seeds are used; the receptacle is covered by a sheet of glass and left for about two weeks. So as to obviate the ordeal of counting,a special hand-roller has been constructed by Breuer. By sim- ply using it as one would a blotter of the same shape, 100 depressions are made in the sand, in 10 rows and 10 in each row. The best practice, however, demands that the seed sprouted be constantly removed and the number of days noted; a match stick or piece of wood is placed where the seeds were taken. After the end of the germination period, it is desirable to examine with a magnifying glass the seeds which do not give signs of life, to ascertain to a certainty if this Fig. 53. Breuer marker. may be attributed to fraud or accident. Some experts recommend that after counting the sprouts of each seed removed, that they be again placed in a second germinator for another period of eight days; other sprouts will then appear. In the earth test, square boxes, about 20 c. m. (8 inches) inside measurement, and Io c. m. (4 inches) in depth, are used; these are filled with earth nearly to the top. On the surface are arranged, parallel to each other, strips of tin I c. m. (0.39 inches) in width, the distance between each being 1c. m. Perpendicular to these are other strips of tin arranged in exactly the same manner, their points of intersection being sol- dered so that they retain their respective positions. In the openings left, 1 square c. m., the seeds are placed GERMINATION. 177 and covered with 1 c. m. of earth, so that the sprout- ing is done in a medium of rc. c. m. ‘The surface is then sprayed with water. The natural advantage of this arrangement is, that the counting of seed offers no dif- ficulty. During the interval of 14 days the seed should be watered three times with an atomizer, it being very important that the soil be not too moist during the test. The use of a porous terra-cotta plaque, with several parallel openings in the bottom to keep the seed in position, may, for some practical purposes, give satis- factory results; the moisture requisite is absorbed by the terra-cotta from the water in which this plaque is placed. Many of the existing germinators are earthen- ware; respecting their use, it is considered important not to use them for a second time, as organic sub- stances collect in the pores of the material, which soon become centres of infection; as a result, the seed, instead of germinating, will simply rot. While by heating the terra-cotta plaque it is possible to destroy all germs, the porosity of the receptacle would soon disappear and it would become worthless for the purpose intended. The Marek germinator consists simply of earthen plates about eight inches in diameter, and one to two inches in depth; they are filled with fine sand combined with 5 per cent. of muddy substance. The surface is moistened, and compressed to one-third of an inch with a special instrument. The surface is divided into regular intervals in two directions, and at the point of intersection the seeds are placed, their number being counted, and then covered with sand falling from a sieve. All sand above the outer border of the plates is removed by running a ruler over its surface; the depth of covering above seed is about one-third of an inch. Great care should be taken to keep moisture within reasonable bounds. The seeds and sprouts 12 178 SUGAR BEET SEED. are counted as usual after the prescribed interval of seven days. In Trance, it is proposed to use porous earthen plates; rich vegetable soil is used as a germinating medium. It appears that earth, such as collects in the trunks of old trees, offers special advantages. The spacing between seed is determined by the use of a wire cloth with 1 c. m. (one-third of an inch) mesh; a seed is placed in the centre. The large seeds are kept sep- arate from the small; these are then covered with 2 to 4 m. m. earth. These dishes are kept in a warm place in the laboratory, and the earth is moist- ened with rain, or distilled water, at regular intervals. sm Fic. 54. Arrangement of seed. 6+6+5+443+41=2 It is recommended not to use too much water, so as to avoid mildew. The Maercker method is also interesting. Ordi- nary porcelain plates are used; these are filled with cal- cined sandy quartz, and about 40 per cent. water is necessary for the preparation of the layer, or 100 c. c. for 500 c. c. of sand. The circular surface is divided into four equal sectors, to facilitate the counting. In each sector two rows of six seeds are arranged, and alongside of them other rows containing five, four, three and one seed respectively, or a total of twenty- five seeds for a sector, meaning 100 seeds per plate (Fig. 54). GERMINATION, 179 The seed must always undergo six hours’ pre- liminary soaking. The plates are covered with a wire gauze, then with a sheet of glass, which prevents evap- oration, the whole being subsequently covered with an . inverted plate. No water is added during the test. It is claimed that this is one of the simplest and best ger- minators, and gives far more reliable results than the blotting-paper method and has not the inconvenience of the latter, in removing the seed with the fingers; furthermore, the moisture remains nearly constant dur- ing the week, which it does not by the paper method. By the paper method the seeds to be germinated aresoaked for six hours in distilled water,then carefully arranged on a sheet of blotting-paper, with the borders turned up. This should be moistened and covered with a double sheet of the same paper, which is also damp- ened. The seeds with their paper environment are placed in a special receptacle and covered by a sheet of glass to prevent evaporation. After the seventh day the sprouts are counted, and all seeds showing signs of life are removed. Those not germinated are placed for a second time between moistened paper, and after another interval of seven days they also are counted; the sprouts of the first and second weeks give the total for 100 or 200 seeds under examination. Notwithstand- ing the unpopularity of this method in Germany, in France it has many advocates; so much so, that at the Paris Agronomic Institute it was customary to make tests upon 700 seeds at a time. These were in seven different germinators containing too seeds each. The seeds were moistened on filter- paper during twelve hours, then placed in ovens for eighteen hours a day at 20 degrees C. and six hours at 28 degrees C. The average was taken for the whole experiment. Another very simple germinator (Fig. 55) consists of a porcelain receiver, in which is placed a porous 180 SUGAR BEET SEED. receptacle, R, to hold seed to be tested. The requisite humidity is supplied by filling W with water. The carbonic acid formed during germination, which, if permitted to remain, would retard the action sought after, is absorbed by caustic potassa placed in cups, P. The cover, C, does not prevent fresh air from entering to supply the requisite oxygen for the development of the germ. The temperature of the seed is determined by a thermometer, T, placed in the centre of the cover, and kept in a vertical position by a cork. After a few days have elapsed, the germination is complete. The Pagnoul germinator consists of a tin box, twenty-six inches long, eight inches high and 54 inches wide, covered with another box of the same kind, twenty-seven inches long, eight inches wide and 1} eS ASSAY > A WAP 4 a rod ry 4 2 2% a Oy ft, 5 TE, SI | Fig 55. inches high. The bottom of the latter has five open- ings three-fourths of an inch in diameter, upon which are soldered tin tubes six inches in length. In these tubes are placed moistened cotton cords, which hang down into the water of the box beneath. In the upper box, over the end of the cotton wicks, about three- fourths of an inch of sand is placed. It is evident that the sand remains constantly moist, owing to the cap- illary attraction of the cotton. A thermometer is placed in the centre tube; the other four are covered by tin frames six inches long, s4 inches wide and 14 inches high. Under each of these the seed to be tested are placed, The frames last mentioned may be covered with a sheet of glass, per- mitting the progress of the germination to be watched. GERMINATION. 181 The advantage of this arrangement is economy of con- struction, and the sand remaining constantly moist, the seeds do not require watering. The only precaution necessary is, that the water in the lower tin compartment never be allowed to entirely evaporate. If the ambient temperature is lower than 50 degrees F., a lamp or candle would keep the water at the desired temperature. When the seeds to be tested are planted, the date, etc., are recorded. After four days the num- ber of seed having germinated is counted. The operation lasts about twelve days, and all seeds not having then given signs of life are considered worth- less. Insects soon attack beet seed if germination is too slow. The Michel germinator consists of a square zinc box about eight inches long and 14 inches high. In this box is placed a plaster slab resting on four short feet; on its upper portion are sixteen parallel ridges, in which are placed the seed to be tested. The cover, also of plaster, with a central hole, is used to protect the slab against light and too rapid evaporation. The slab, owing to its porosity, absorbs sufficient moisture for the germinating test. The Israél germinator has also some advocates; it is a zinc box about three inches in length, eight inches wide and five inches high, and is covered with glass. In this box are several—three to six—ger- minating boxes, on the bottom of which are strips of some woolen material for the absorption of water; these nang over the boxes, absorbing water at one end and dropping it out at the other; by reason of the siphon- age, the seeds are thus kept constantly moist. A fact not to be overlooked is that, notwithstand- ing all the precautionary measures taken to procure an average sample of seed, and submitting it to ger- minating tests in germinators placed side by side, there will be a variation in the number of sprouts after the 182 SUGAR BEET SEED. fifth day of about 15 per cent. and a final variation of 10 per cent. at a maximum. One fact is certain: There is a great need of some un.formity in these germinating tests, and notwith- standing all possible care given to the subject, the cealer is frequently at a great disadvantage. Dippe, of Quedlinburg, calls attention to observations made on his seed in Germany; when tested at Veffingen the result was 132 per cent.; at Brunswick, 178 per cent.; at Halle, 222 per cent. The same variations were noticed in percentage of moisture. We maintain it is urgent that purchasers keep their seed under the most desirable condition for preservation, as to heat and moisture. One of the most recent innovations in the way of germinators is a method of heating for eight hours a day, at a temperature of 28 degrees C. This is supposed to have the same effect as would light upon the germ development. Mistake in Using Number of Seed in Germinating Tests. Beet seeds are not sold according to number, but by weight; hence, the reason why germinating tests should be conducted on this basis. A great objec- tion to conducting these tests upon 100 seeds rather than 100 grams is, that the tendency always would be to select only the largest and best seeds, and the results cbtained would be very misleading, while by weight all seeds, regardless of size, etc., are submitted to the germinating test. It is customary to count the num- ber of germinating sprouts in beet seed; but this leads to erroneous conclusions, for one seed gives several sprouts. What farmers most wish to know is, the chances of a given weight of purchased beet seed appearing above ground after once planted, for if one seed gives many sprouts only one is allowed to remain. Consequently, it is essential to know the number GERMINATION, 183 of plants it is possible to obtain from a given weight of seed, and the number of seeds, simple or complex, that will germinate in 100. One would be led into considerable error if the number of sprouts alone were taken as a basis. For example, in 100 grams of ordi- nary seed there are 5250 separate seeds, and if each of these gave only one sprout the outcome would be 5250 beets, providing all conditions were favorable. M. Pagnoul takes an interesting example from every-day practice, based upon the supposition that a seed dealer has mixed 50 grams of fresh-selected seed of the best quality, with fifty grams of inferior old seed. In fifty grams of good seed there are about 1750 seeds, and if each of these gave three sprouts, we would have 5250 sprouts, or the number that would be acceptable. We may suppose that in fifty grams of old dead seed there are 3500 individual seeds that will not sprout, and yet this total, 5250 sprouts, after germination tests, would be most satisfactory. As only one plantlet is allowed to remain by practical experiment in planting, one would get 1750 beets instead of 5250, as expected. Consequently, if seed-testing stations accept the sprouting as a basis, they encourage fraud by the seed dealer, who will resort to a much-abused practice of mixing old seed with new very much under the condi- tions just described. CHAPTER IX, Preparing the Seed before Sowing Seeds in their normal state fall to the ground after a reasonable time subsequent to maturity. They remain in a sort of dormant state; having outlived the varia- tions of the weather, they give signs of life as soon as the favorable season returns. If we compare these seeds with those gathered and dried, the time needed for their germination in soil would necessarily be greater; the interval allows weeds, insects, etc., to take advantage of the circumstance. Hence, the importance. in most cases, of artificial means to stimulate the growth. As the exterior coating of the seed is frequently hard, some recommend a rolling between boards, which not only separates the seed, but allows the natural moisture of the soil to more thoroughly assist the embryo in its development. Practical experiments show that 100 seeds that have been rubbed on a board by simple hand pressure gave 230 germs, while those planted without having been thus prepared gave only 200 germs. Sub- mitting seed for twelve hours to an air bath of 40 to 50 degrees C. had about the same effect as friction. A certain amount of moisture is necessary, and if this can be given to the seed before sowing it will be that much time gained. If seeds are left for too long a period in water, much harm will follow, as the essentials for development during plant growth would be dissolved. | Furthermore, there is also danger of very great evaporation when sown in dry soils, which soon absorb the moisture from the seed and after first sprouting, during a period of drouth, the embryo per- ishes. Special stress must, however, be given to the 184 PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 185 importance of steeping the seed in water when the sow- ing has, for various reasons, to be done very late in the season, which operation helps to regain lost time. During 1894 to 1897 there appeared only one important method for preparing seed, and this was Jensen's hot-water method. Seeds are steeped during six hours in water at the ordinary temperature; they are then taken out and left for ten to twelve hours, when they are steeped for from five to fifteen seconds in water at 53.5 degrees C. This operation is repeated thirty times in five minutes; the seeds are then rapidly cooled and dried. While the method does increase the germinating power, Dr. Hollrung shows that it offers no advantage over cold water. Further- more, it is demonstrated that after 50 days, seeds pre- pared in hot or cold water, if not done to excess, are in exactly the same condition as they were prior to steeping. On the other hand, it is not desirable to have too rapid growth, and the practical farmers with whom we have discussed the question declare that there is nothing to be gained by seed preparation, as the forced plant is more delicate and is destroyed by any climatic change. However, where steeping is practiced it is desirable to get rid of the excess of liquid absorbed by the seeds which remained in water for several hours; they may be rolled in plaster or ashes. Sowing can take place after a few days: a certain precaution must be taken so as to prevent one seed becoming attached to another, also that the plaster be not used in excess; otherwise, the ultimate germination would be impossi- ble. From the plaster in a dry state it has been sug- gested to use it as a liquid; two pounds of plaster com- bined with two quarts of water for four pounds of seed is said to give excellent results. In practice, about thirty pounds of seed are prepared at a time; they are subse- quently left to dry after being spread on the floor. By turning them over several times during the day, they will not adhere to one another. 186 SUGAR BEET SEED. The plaster method has undergone certain vari- ations. When prepared on a larger scale, about 200 Ibs. of plaster are diluted in twenty-six gallons of water, to which are added 100 Ibs. of Peruvian guano; 250 Ibs. of seed are rapidly combined with the product, pre- caution being taken to thoroughly mix the mass. The seeds are then spread out to dry. It is claimed that the vegetation will be considerably accelerated. There need be no apprehension of the seed being attacked by mice; the outer shell, or covering being well filled, there is no danger of holes, etc., _ Offering shelter to insects, which, under ordinary cir- cumstances, is too frequently the case. The question arises, What were the actions of the sulphuric acid? Practical experiments appear to point out that caustic lime combined with eight times its weight of water will destroy the germinating power of seed. Pagnoul has shown that sulphuric acid diluted in sixteen parts of water has a beneficial effect upon ger- mination. Chloride and superphosphate of lime have also been tried, but it appears that the chlorine took an active part. As Humboldt and others have proven that the germination of steeped beet seed is accelerated by the action of that chemical, the rule appears to hold good, even for old seed; sixteen parts of water and one part of hydrochloric acid slightly decreases the ger- minating power. If the water is only acidulated with the acid, the contrary is the case. Nitric acid, 1-100 solution, prevented three-fourths of all seed planted from germinating. All seeds, even after twenty-four hours in the above solutions, retained their germinat- ing power; furthermore, it is maintained that the sprouts were more hardy than if they had been steeped ° in pure water. It has been proposed to use sulphurous acid and chlorine to hasten germination; great care is necessary in order not to destroy the germs. Hot, moist air is PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 187 used, under which conditions the chlorine appears to oxidize the stlphurous acid, with formation of sul- phuric acid and hydrochloric acid, which, in turn, would attack the vegetable fiber unless great precautions be taken. It has been shown that sodic carbonate and sodic nitrate, or even sodic sulphate, in one-eighth solution, are not desirable stimulants. Boettger has declared that germination is consid- erably hastened by steeping the seed in weak solutions of soda, potassa or ammonia; in fact, two degrees Bé solution of ammonia sulphate resulted in 71 per cent. of seed germinating in a week; possibly the ammonia from barnyard manure has a like effect. On the other hand, ammonia carbonate in one-eighth solution destroys completely the vitality of the seed; with a solu- tion of 11 per cent. chloride of sodium the stimulation was no greater than it was with distilled water. Alum appears to be favorable to germination. Pagnoul experimented with the following substances, all con- sidered separately: Phenic acid, 0.2 per cent.; potas- sic arsenate, I per cent.; zinc sulphate, 2 per cent.; sulphate of copper, 2 per cent.; also with magnesia sul- phate, 5 per cent. in 100 parts water; with the last the best results were obtained, the steeping lasting only five minutes. With 5 per cent. chlorate of ammonia. 77 out of 100 germinate in.......... eee eee eee ee 15 days. 39pergram ‘ RET Guaeechs “in aig eeakatar enh gtocg gsenetayar ce acd ss Saltpeter is highly recommended by some experts, as 85 per cent. of seed germinated in a week. Of the metallic salts which appear to influence germination, white sand, if mixed with tro per cent. ferric-sulphate, will completely destroy the vitality of the seed; even 2 per cent. had an important influence, which disap- pears entirely when only one-fifth per cent. is used. We would say, respecting these chemicals, that, even admitting that certain advantages are to be derived, they are hardly within easy reach of the aver- 188 SUGAR BEET SEED. age farmer. We believe, all facts considered, that if seed be steeped in equal volumes of water and urine for about thirty hours, then piled up on the floor and cov- ered with defecation scums, satisfactory results can be obtained. The addition of a few drops of mineral oil to keep off insects, may have its advantages. The effect of the urine appears to stimulate the growth of the leaves; however, the question is not at present entirely settled. ‘ The preparations existing on the market for the stimulation of germination, quality of roots, etc., are, on the whole, very worthless, but are interesting from a scientific point of view. Many claim that the preparation of seed results in a decrease in the saccha- rine percentage of the resulting roots; with urine the reduction is 0.4; potassic carbonate, 0.25; a mixture of saltpeter and potassic carbonate, 0.5. On the other hand, Russian experiments show that there is an increase of 0.4 per cent. with superphosphate and an increase of 1.20 by the use of sodic nitrate in the preparation. The Dippe prepared seed attracted some attention, but from experiments of Breim it was discovered that the preparation was ammonia sulphate and a phos- phate; the latter used to furnish plant food as soon as the sprouts appeared. The Hodek method was to steep the seeds in warm water 30 to 40 degrees C., and adding 2 per cent. phenic acid; such seed must be soon planted to avoid complications. Experiments with other methods of preparing the seed are most interesting, viz.: Covering them with a weak solution of glue,and putting them into a fertilizer, so that the latter adhered to the outer surface of the grain. There can be no doubt but that this process diminishes the number of germinating seed and retards germination in general. The complete covering of the seed with an artificial fertilizer results in an increased PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 189 development of leaves. It is thought that the elements of which a fertilizer, or liquid in which the seed is steeped, is composed should be of the same nature as the food of the seed itself. Respecting this question, we can pass in review the Ladurean experiments upon five lots of Vilmorin WA LO Mics jecdienuisranmincaun samen -10 liters. AIst..... Ammonia sulphate - 5 kilos. -«..15 hours. Seed.. sap SS J Water. ..-10 liters. 20 sx Sodic nitrate. --. 3 kilos. ....15 hours. SEO cence es ws we 2 Water ..-10 liters. SOL cain na of lime.. . 5kilos. ¢..... 5 hours. Soluble phosphate . ‘ 12 per cent. WiRteD sc ccicdeasesieccasanietnee ....10 liters. 4th . Sulphate of ammonia...... . 5 kilos. Superphosphate of lime... ... 5 kilos. Waller so. iranscescamassecn ---10 liters. 5th .... ABE NitTate:s 64 occccsas ees -.. » 5 kilos. Superphosphate of lime 5, 8 seed. In all cases the beets appeared above ground at about the same time. The resulting beets from these seed were analyzed, and as a result, it was shown that those roots from the fifth parcel, having in the early stages of development soluble phosphoric acid, nitric acid and soda; in other words, the three elements that beets assimilated with the greatest ease were the best for sugar making. It was further noticed that those roots which had soluble phosphoric acid at their dis- posal during their early stages were the best, conse- quently the practice of using this preparation is highly recommended. It is able to furnish nourishment dur- ing the period of transition from seed to root. It is well-known that those fertilizers which have combined in them Peruvian guano and bone superphosphates, with ash rich in potassa, etc., give excellent results. Many advocate the sowing of seed which have been previously sprouted. The preliminary operation for sprouting consists in soaking the seed in warm water for twenty-four hours, then drain and stir the saturated seed three or four times a day; in four days the sprouts will be vis- 190 SUGAR BEET SEED. ible. They are then ready for sowing. If the weather does not permit such preparation, they are in the meantime placed in thin layers on marble slabs in a cool place. The object of this is to retard sprouting. The seed, when sown, appear above ground in about five days, if the temperature is favorable. Evidently under these conditions, the plantlets are sufficiently large to resist the ravages of insects. As regards the sowing of sprouted seed, it may be of interest to call attention to the slight depth, not over one-third of an inch, at which it should be placed in the soil. The farmer should keep before his eyes the following advice, given by the editor of The Sugar Bect: “ Plant your seed early; use your own judgment regarding the possibility of a frost. If the latter has not to be con- tended with, the resulting roots will be much benefited, as they will have had a longer period of growth, thus permitting their complete maturity. If a cold snap should destroy your early crop, sow the second time, immediately; the loss then will be of your seed only. If this precaution be not taken to save the cents, you will lose the dollars.” The dangers to the entire crop from a continued dry spell, subsequent to sowing, are less for prepared seed than for that planted by the customary methods. In one case, the soil during the early growth, say for at least ten days, is sufficiently moist to permit the ascending sprout to appear above ground; while in the other, often intervals of eighteen days will result in a surface crust which the young sprout cannot penetrate. Beet Seed Sowing for Sugar Factories. The time of sowing depends upon the country. Where the seeds are planted in Europe this is done between the middle of April and May, when possible, in March. This period gives the beets plenty of time for their development before harvesting. In California the PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 191 factories work at a different period from anywhere else in the world, hence the time of planting also differs. There, the climate being mild, the period of sowing is not the same as in Nebraska, for example. In California the time of planting is from January to June; while in Nebraska, April 15 to May 20; New York, May. The possibility of early frost should never be lost sight of; when it is contended with, a second sowing should be made without loss of time. We, for many years, were not in favor of the principle, but we have concluded that it is better to lose the seed than to lose the crop for that season. From a technical point of view, Walkhoff’s idea of determining the most desirable time for sowing, by making several observations as to temperature of soil, offers advantages. In France, an average mean of 6 degrees C.* (42.8 degrees F.), at a depth of about three inches, is considered an excellent guide; for the young root would have reached that depth the tenth day after sprouting. The question of preparing the seed prior to sowing has been discussed previously. No question has been more urged during the past twenty years than the importance of not economizing the seed. Notwithstanding this, circular after circular is sent to farmers, by those who should know how to look after their interests better than they do, by recommending ten pounds to the acre, while in Germany, forty pounds is not uncommon; however, we repeat here what we have constantly asserted, that twenty pounds is a safe average. The mechanical spacing between lines leads to far better results than if the so-called thinning-out method be adopted. *What we wish to convey by average mean is the average of obser- vations taken morning, afternoon and evening: Supposing at.... ‘PP g ne 42°F, The average mean for the day is 126_ 3 192 SUGAR BEET SEED. Sowing broadcast has now been generally aban- doned for regular beet cultivation. However, when transplanting is considered, this method offers special advantages. During the early part of the present century, Mathien, Dombosle, Gasparin, and others, advocated this method, as it gives a longer period for the plants’ development, and we have frequently pointed out this advantage. Some experience is required. The transplanting should be done on a cloudy, damp day; if not, the roots must be watered with a weak urine solution. Several days may elapse between the time the young roots are taken from the ground and transplanted; it is important, however, to keep them in earth, with a small quantity of salt, in a vertical posi- tion. A hole is made in the ground, at a position determined by strings, which cross at mathematical intervals. It has been proposed to use a special appliance known as a transplanter. The most simple of all methods is to make a cut in the soil with a spade, and the soil is then closely pressed with the foot,—or in hills made by two plows; precaution must be taken to keep the neck well above the surface. It is generally found desirable to cut off the small, outer leaves, for these generally wilt and perish after the transplanting, under which circum- stances they would interfere with the healthy development of the young root. The enormous yields obtained by Koechlin would tend to show that there may be some very practical advantage, for he obtained sixty tons per acre. In this case, the seed for the same were sown broadcast in January, and transplanted in April. It is claimed, that under these conditions the annual beets are avoided, and that the roots obtained are so hardy that they can resist almost any variation of temperature. It is further maintained that the extra expense of the method is not as great as one might suppose, for the work can be done in January or Feb- PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 193 ruary, when most farming hands have finished at the factory. However, there is much to be said against the method, unless it be in cases of seed production, and then the advantages are very numerous. As during the transplanting, the tip end of the beet is left in the ground, the chances are, as the roots develop in their new environment, they will be forked. Another fact to be considered is, that transplanted beets are very hairy in their nature, which, in the end, means expan- sion without depth, and decreased sugar percentage. What appears, to us,.to be the principal role in this question of transplanting, is the possibility, when growing beets in the regular way, of filling open spaces, and many farmers place one-tenth of their entire field with beets which are to be subsequently used for this special purpose. On the other hand, many claim that this is unnecessary, for during the operation of thinning out, there are always more beets left over than are possible to utilize. This would be a mistake, for the thinning operation should be done rapidly. The hand sowing, at marked places on the field, in which are placed several seed, is not to be recom- mended, on account of expense. It has been shown that machine-sown seed always give better results than hand methods, it being more regular in its work- ing; the depth, etc., being more constant. The seed drills, which work at regular distances, and by clusters, are only in a measure to be recommended. The objection to them is, that if the lines are eighteen inches apart, and spacing of beets in lines ten inches, if one of these clusters is attacked by insects, there remains a space of twenty inches on the line, which would mean very large beets, and small sugar percent- age. Upon general principles, it is very doubtful if the cluster method of sowing is ever to be commended; for the thinning-out that follows necessarily weakens 13 194 SUGAR BEET SEED. 2 the surrounding soil of the plantlet that remains. Far better sow in lines and space mechanically; great care must be taken to keep the roots in very straight lines; a practice difficult to convince our American farmer. We shall later discuss the seed-drill question. Seed may be planted in three positions: Squares, lozenges, and rectangles The engravings (Figs. 56-59) give the reader an idea of the amount of space lost by each method; the space lost is less in Fig. 56 than in the other cases, the circle representing the limit that F1G. 56. FIG. 58. FIG. 59. each beet may draw its plant food from the soil. The square method may be used in certain cases, as for seed production on the Legras farm, but for American growers it would be too expensive; the rectangle method is preferable. Upon general principles, it is better to have not less than sixteen inches. It has long ago been demonstrated that both the farmer and manufacturer have advantages in planting the beets as near together as the nature of the soil will allow. Great distance tends to increase the size of the PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING, 195 beet, and diminish its saccharine quality, while on the other hand, the nearer together the roots are, the more numerous they are, on a given area, and their total weight per acre is not much inferior to that obtained with greater distance. The importance of keeping the roots with the least possible space between one and another was a question insisted upon nearly 100 years ago, and since then each country has taken up the question in turn. In France, the Pellet experiments Distance Between Rows. Weight of Roots. ,; Sugar Per Cent. 20 ¢. m. ( 7.9 inches)........ fe grams (12. : OZ.) 14.2 30 ¢. m. (11.8 inches).........] 460 “ (16.1 0z.). 14.7 60 c. m, (23.6 inches). 1,200 ( 2.6 tbs.) 13.6 On the other hand, Pagnoul arrived at similar results. Distance | Distance Between | Between Rows. Beets. * 50¢.m. poe 1./830 grams. 9.5 |Yield sugar per acre. i. 000 ths 800 10.2 Salts absorbed......... 0.76 % Paik) ea 10. Yield sugar per acre. .4,400 tbs. 0.6 % 490‘ 13.3 Salts absorbed....).... ‘o 33¢e.m. (25 e.m. 12 The most important series of investigations yet made respecting spacing are those of Petermann (Belgium). The experiments were about as follows: Variety of 1st Series. 2d Series. 3d Series Seed, . _ @ : 2 Bak S So =e Sia ee 2. Sm SS => S85 =o Soko =o ONS” = mew Oo BPD oO eaood -3 we Od cm oro} on Mada 4 ages mas mK OS mo HaOS nae 4g w? 4uTs Zr Ecos | &5 | aset| §o | soe] fe saae Pig segs 53 sas 26 Tol A @ RD o @ n? ee es a so + ce Breslau... 37 tons. 10.96 47 tons 11.30 4610s 11.60 a1, $e 10.00 47 11.00 45 10.80 1 30 13.64 32 tt 13.88 32 8s 14.93 with Vilmorin seed showed that at 7.9 inches between rows the beets weighed 12.4 ounces and contained 14.2 per cent. sugar, while at 23.6 inches they weighed 2.6 Ibs. and contained 3.6. From which it may be con- cluded that the best results are at 15.7 x 9.8 inches; less than this is not desirable. Schultz (Germany) claims that the best results are at distances of 14.4 inches between rows and 12 inches spacing of roots in rows. One fact is certain, that if only 13.7 inches are between 196 SUGAR BEET SEED. rows and seven inches between beets, most of the agri- cultural implements now in existence could not be used. Consequently, upon general principles, it is desirable to adapt one’s self to local conditions, arrang- ing so that an average cart can have free circulation between rows. If beets are in any way bruised there is sure to follow a loss of sugar. It is claimed that beets cultivated near together have greater maturing powers than those far apart, and that they are better able to resist the prolonged drouth. It is very essential under such conditions that the soil be worked at a considerable depth. It is self-evident that when fertilizers are used their assimilation by the plant during its development must necessarily be greater at short than at long distances. During the latter condition, the drainage soils carry off a large portion of the plant food, producing material effects upon the root. Realizing the importance of cultivating beets close together, the manufacturer frequently offers prizes,* the value of which varies with the number of. plants obtained to the acre. In theory, it would be possible to calculate the amount of seed required, but the results obtained would be very misleading. Some German experiments show that the coeffi- cient of purity increases by planting near together. The experiments were: 18x16 Inches. | 12x12 Inches Ge PR. Cc. P. No. 89.1 90.4 86.9 90.3 85.4 88.6 86.1 87.2 85.9 88.6 82.9 88.2 The fertilizers were made to vary on each patch; for example, in No. 1 Record there were 12.8 lbs. nitrogen in the form of sodic nitrate, and 51 Ibs. phosphoric acid, *For example : For 30,000 beets to the acre..........eeeeee ee ee $0.25 per ton ~# 40,000 . oe aceite, celled spwconedeiac: fst 040 " 50,000 ae Cet « Uendiangpane eteataatenaiaes, yaar O60 “* 44 PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 197 while No. 6 had 76.8 Ibs. nitrogen and 115 Ibs. phos- phoric acid. An interesting conclusion respecting these results is, that by planting near together the bad effects of sodic nitrate, when used in excess, may in a meas- ure be overcome. The sixteen to eighteen inches between rows and ten-inch spacing in rows appears to be the most favor- ed among Continental beet farmers of Germany, Austria and France. This arrangement allows about nine beets per square yard, or one beet per square foot, corresponding to nineteen to twenty tons to the acre, supposing each beet weighs one pound. When efforts are made to obtain ten to twelve beets upon the same area, the results are not, as a general rule, very satis- factory. The idea of 16x 16 inches, so as to allow a thorough working between rows by use of the culti- vator, would result in large roots, but of a doubtful quality. When it is desired to have only five to six beets per square yard, under almost the conditions just mentioned, the best results appear to be obtained with 15.7 x 16.4 inches. Germination in the Soil. In previous pages we have mentioned the fact that from the time the seeds are placed in the storerooms to dry, etc., until they are planted, they remain in a condition of torpor, froma which they awaken as soon as they are placed in the proper environment for excit- ing a return to their former vitality. The germ and its requisite food are made visible under the microscope. When the three requisites, air, moisture and heat, are furnished, the white point, showing the first signs of life, soon finds its way through the pericarp, The age of seed has a very important influence upon the vital- ity; a few words respecting this question are of interest. Mr. Fred Knauer has made some interesting experiments in this direction. Eight beet seeds of 198 SUGAR BEET SEED. average size, from a factory in Poland, collected in 1846; after an elapse of 37 days, one plant appeared above ground, after five months there were ten. From these experiments, it is concluded that seeds retain their germinating power during a very long period, but they require considerable time to waken from their long torpor; even after two years, this tardy germi- nating tendency is evident. On the other hand, Marek has made a series of very important observations. Number of o ' % Number of FValue of Seed, Ageior: Seed, Soa Dave, Sprouts per Kilo.) Normal is 100. 158 66,700 100 174 63,600 100 150 56,400 100 131 51,685 97.7 146 68,731 100 135 63,800 100 Lt 54,846 97.5 112 47,466 94.9 10L 43,773 75.5 8s 27,200 54.2 5 33,600 61.0 34 15,250 45 From this table we realize how important it is not to use seed over five years old, for after that age their deterioration is rapid, notwithstanding several asser- tions to the contrary mentioned elsewhere. Moisture. Without moisture, germination is impossible, and with an excess there are other difficulties to be dreaded; opinions very much differ as to the advantage or disadvantage of having the moisture on the surface or at some inches below. If the soil is per- fectly dry, the seed remains dormant. On the other hand, if there is a natural moisture, germination will commence, and if there be a sudden change in weather, there are dangers of a complete destruction of the young plant during this embryonic development. These difficulties may, in a measure, be overcome by a preliminary preparation of the seed, in which case the soil with natural moisture gives the best results. Even PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 199 in cases of prolonged drouth, in the several inches of soil through which the ascending sprout has passed, there will be found sufficient moisture for the requirement. Many of these difficulties are overcome by a thorough working of soils intended for beets. The ambient temperature has a great influence on the amount of moisture a soil retains; while the actual tem- perature beneath the surface is lower than in the air, the difference is not as great as might be imagined. However, experiments have been made in this direc- tion and we can conclude that during. twenty-four hours at 73.5 degrees F., the surface will have lost one- fourth of its total moisture; after the second day, the drying process will have extended to a depth of one- tenth of an inch. Consequently, if seed be placed in the ground at a depth of one to two inches, depending upon the texture of the soil, during an unusual dry spell, it would not penetrate to the strata where is lodged the seed during the first ten days after sowing. Briem’s experiments on moisture of soils are important. He used two kinds of seed, one dried in the air and the other steeped in water; his results were as follows: Days Before Appearance Above Ground. Moisture Ob Boil, Normal Seed. Prepared Seed. 22.3 per cent. 0 19. i. 17.1 66 + 15.0 ee 5 1 12.8 ae 4 6 11.8 st 5 4 9.9 ae 5 4 73 ts . 8 4 6.2 ss 15 6 From these experiments it is concluded that if the soil contains 22 per cent. of water, germination is not possible; from 19 to 20 per cent., very slowly; from 7 to 17 per cent. of moisture, the soil appears to be in the. best condition. Below 5 per cent., germination is impossible, unless the seed has been previously pre- 200 SUGAR BEET SEED, pared, which again shows the practical advantage of steeping seed. The experiments of Schultze-Fleeth, as regards the power of absorption of soil,* are as follows: Lose in 4 Days at 100 ths. | Absorb ibs. Water. 65.5° F. % of Water. San Qvisnsnninesa xe tumors 25 88.4 Clay. 40 52. Pure clay...... ‘ 70 31.3 Fine caleareous......... 85 28 We cannot conclude from these data that the time and manner of sowing must depend upon the soil being used and the country where this special cultivation is practiced. If there is danger of abnormal heat during the first few weeks after sowing on sandy soil, the operations should be conducted as rapidly as possible. Herein is one of the important reasons why fall plow- ing is preferable to spring plowing, for the rains just before winter saturate the soil with moisture, and this surface is turned under. The ice and snow form a cov- ering and the moisture is retained until the sowing period comes around, leaving at the same time, air passages, a condition essential for healthy germination. Heat. Which, in other words, means life. Just as the luxuriant vegetation of a tropical clime differs from the northern regions of our planet, so does the change of season affect plants. The sap that had gone into the roots now returns to give the new life to that portion which had remained dormant during several months. The hand of man in this question can help nature. By many authorities it is admitted that 130 degrees C. (266 degrees F.) are needed for seed to germinate in the soil. However, this must not be taken to the let- *The soils of Chino, California, have considerable moisture at a great depth; the roots in that dry climate, in search of the moisture, need to penetrate several strata and are very elongated and rich in sugar, On the other hand, soils near Lehi, Utah, are irrigated during the early stage of the beets’ development, and very satisfac- tory results are thus obtuined. PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 201 ter, for practical experiments show that when the ambient temperature remains at 48 degrees F., about twenty days are needed for seed to appear above ground. While, on the other hand, at 63 degrees F., the rows are distinctly visible in about three days. Consequently, on general principles, it may be admit- ted that the rapidity of germination is in direct ratio to the ambient temperature. It is claimed that in preparing beet seed, it is pos- sible to give a certain number of degrees of heat in advance, and in connection with this matter, there would be a gain in the number of days for sprouting.* For soils in general, the requisite time for germination may be considered inversely proportional to its tem- perature. The cold has an important effect, and an early frost will kill the germs of a large number of seeds planted; hence, the desirability of being very lib- eral with the quantity of seed used. It is admitted that germination ceases at about 3 degrees C., or at a max- imum, 30 degrees C. The heating and cooling of soils during the spring of the year has an important influ- ence not to be overlooked. The warmth during the day and the cooling at night are said to have an accel- erating effect on germination. It must be thoroughly understood that the action of low temperature on beet seed is very slight, providing germination has not com- menced, and is very destructive after the first signs of life have manifested themselves. The best authorities admit that seeds germinate under the best conditions “If seeds, for example, remain two days in aliquid at 22.5°C., the total heat thus given would be 45°C.; the remaining number of de- grees to be furnished then becomes 130° C.—(minus) 45° C,.=85° C. If during draining of seed the ambient temperature is 15° C. the heat left to be fur- nished would be 70°C. If the temperature of the soil is 10° C. and remain constant, then germination would take place 70 10 orseven days. If there had been no preparation, the number of days for germination would have been 130 zg Yo —13 days. The preparing of seed has thus been a gain of six days. 202 SUGAR BEET SEED. ] when the average temperature of the soil remains about 7 degrees C. (37.6 degrees F). Air. When we consider that nearly one-fourth of ‘the total vegetable earth is air, it becomes evident what an important role air plays. Therefore, certain precau- tions must be taken to sufficiently work the soil, so that the air circulation is not too free, as it would soon evap- orate all the moisture, and thus do more harm than good. Evidently, without oxygen, seed cannot ger- minate. During the action of heat and moisture, life cannot exist unless there is oxygen to help the plant; during its feeding process the albumen at the disposal of the germ cannot undergo the requisite transforma- tion. That certain microscopic organisms help this transformation, there is not the slightest doubt. Mois- ture carries these ferments into the centre of the embryo and the action of the diastase completes the first stages of plant development. Experiments have been made with the view to substituting other gases for air, but they led to very secondary results. Light. As soon as the young leaves appear above ground, light has an important part to play. The chlorophyll then brings about the interchange of cer- tain gases, and, furthermore, helps to decompose or to transform those elements of which the vegetable organ- ism is made up. These chlorophyll granules, which consist of green-colored protoplasm, bring about these changes which result in starch formation, which will be subsequently distributed through the root. The chlorophyll, separating the carbon from the car- bonic acid taken from the air, liberates the oxygen absorbed and supplies the carbon to form a carbo- hydrate, such as starch, by combining with the hydro- gen and oxygen of the water of the soil taken up by PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWINK. 203 the rootlet. It must never be overlooked that these transformations cannot occur unless the plant be sup- plied with iron. We all know, also, that with the absence of light the chlorophyll pigment is not formed. It is interesting to follow the plantlet from its very first appearance above ground. Growth of the Planted Seed. The seed of the sugar beet, if placed in the ground under favorable conditions (heat, air and moisture), Fic. 60. FIG. 61. germinates; the outer or harder portion becomes soft- ened, and thus permits the penetrating of the descend- ing root, which shoots in a given direction until it reaches O (see Fig. 60), from which point the ascend- ing root becomes apparent. The latter diverges at an angle of about 15 degrees, while the former continues in its downward course, the growth upward corre- sponding to it. If the depth, H (Fig. 61), at which 204 ° SUGAR BEET SEED. the seed has been planted, be not sufficient, or if the soil be too loose (which is the case when proper rolling has been neglected), there will be a considerable change when O is reached. Instead of the seed, S, remaining underground and the ascending root gradually finding its way upward, as in Fig. 60, the seed will be carried upward and occupy the various positions, one, two, three, four, cs FIG. 62. Diagram shows two germs on the same seed which have sprouted on different days. etc. When gravity does not separate the hard cover- ing from the plantlet, it will still adhere, as shown in G; under these circumstances, the plant generally per- ishes. If we examined even more closely, we could follow the development of the seed leaves. Nos. 1 to 5 (Fig. 61)- show five positions of the growth of the ascending and descending root; the seed leaves remain wrapped around the albumen, so-called, PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING. 205 which furnishes the nutritive matter the plant requires during these first stages of growth. The root absorbs water and the dissolved mineral substances of the soil. This water reaches to the cell of the leaves; in its pas- sage it passes from cell to cell and along some of the FIG, 63. tubes of the vascular tissue. During this upward motion, it meets starch, which is traveling downward. Under the influence of protoplasm, in some way or another, nitrogen is formed, from which, with sulphur and the starch constituents, albuminoids are produced. 206 SUGAR BEET SEED. These are essential for protoplasm development, of which the plant cells are made up. The seed leaves, as shown in Fig. 61, penetrate the surface soil doubled, and have a natural tendency, in consequence thereof, to rotate with some force,—to assume an upright position. This seems to be assisted by the inclined position of the ascending root. The seed leaves then have not yet opened. This takes place in two ways: Either directly. as shown in Fig. 65, or as in Fig. 66, where they are at first convex, and assume their natural position after some days. Interesting experiments to determine the most desirable depth at which to plant beet seed have FIG. 64. FIG. 65, FIG. 66. resulted in some practical facts; among these we may mention, that seeds were planted to a depth of three inches, and uncovered after 200 days. As soon as exposed to the air they gave evidence of full vigor. In most cases, however, when the soil was damp, germi- nation took place at this depth; but these germs being unable to come to the surface, died, never having gone beyond the first stage of their existence. It is evident that if the seed be at too great a depth it cannot reach the upper surface. After an interval — of time, if the resistance to the ascending shoot is over- PREPARING SEED BEFORE SOWING, 207 come, as it has been retarded in its development, it will frequently perish. And yet, when too near the surface it will be exposed to the variations of the weather. Hence, the importance of some approximate idea of just what the most desirable depth for planting should be. No definite rule can be given, as it varies with the climate and soil, and in many cases should be determined by practical experience. Groven’s experi- ments give some idea of the variations in the number of plantlets appearing above ground after a period of days and at various depths. Depth of Plant- |First Plants Made Number After ing. Their Appearance 8 Days. 16 Days. 0.39 inch, 5 days. 19 24 0.78 “ 5y 14 21 1.18 inches. 5A 15 23 157 «© 6, * 15 17 107 38 634, 46 8 18 2.76 * 82, 4 14 3.54 10“ 1 7 He, therefore, concluded that about one-half to one inch was the best depth. On the other hand, Walkhoff took up the subject and concluded that if we admit that the soil has a temperature of 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.), the number of days for seeds to appear above ground at various depths was as follows: For seed at a depth of 6 m.m. (0.24 inch)... ae ‘s “ “ 13m.m. (0.51 ineh). ss ss ae “19m. m. (0.74 inch) m a as “ 26m. m. (1.02 inches)..........- When the surface of the soil is caked for one rea- son or another, the seeds are unable to penetrate it, even when one-tenth inch in thickness. Hence, the importance of keeping the soil in a thoroughly open condition. If the seed is not sufficiently covered it will rot; if too much covered, it does not show itself. Consequently, it is a question of texture of soils; if very light, the sowing should be at a certain depth; if heavy, near the surface. CHAPTER NX. Production of Superior Seed. One of the original methods for improving the quality of selected mothers, consists in furnishing such roots with increased amounts of nutrients required for the amelioration of the seed to be formed. A perfora- tion is made in the root and this is filled with sugar, starch, etc., or any nitric element needful for plant development, with a view to seed production. In the case of sugar beets the cavity may be filled with sand and 50 per cent. pure sugar. [Experiments show that it does not matter how the sugar is supplied; this sub- stance leads to seeds possessing hereditary principles, from which may be grown beets rich in sugar. According to another rather strange method to obtain beets very rich in sugar, the roots are to be grown from selected seed raised in conservatories heated artificially, and in which large quantities of car- bonic acid gas are introduced. At night such green- houses are to be lighted by gas or electricity. The mothers, when selected, are to be planted and tended in the usual manner. We may also mention the Braune steam method. The steam is circulated through pipes that are buried in the ground. Between the rows are other pipes, which distribute carbonic acid. During the night, electric lights are kept burning. With the view to preventing a second growth due to late rains, the beets may be covered by special glass frames, such as are used in patch gardening; these do not prevent a free circulation of air. 208 PRODUCTION OF 8UPERIOR SEED. 209 The results obtained by this method have never been brought to our notice. However, this is a hint ina direction that might possibly lead to some very impor- tant results. In the patented method of circulating carbonic acid through pipes, the gas escapes through special holes; the quantity of gas used increases as the beets become larger. It is essential also to have artificial light during the night; such roots are said to be very superior and may be sent to a mother-selecting laboratory. Production cf Beet Seed: by Use of Very Small Mothers. As we have previously pointed out the general opinion prevailing that very small beets are not desir- able for beet-seed production, it is of interest to con- sider, in some detail, the small-beet method as used in Austria, and which, in many cases, has led to most sat- isfactory results. Beet seed, as it is found on the mar- ket, is either the direct outcome of selected mothers, or is from mothers obtained from the descendants of a selected beet after several generations. The expense and difficulties of seed production by direct methods have led most dealers to use the latter system, which, unless extreme care is used,is open to many objections. The more atavism gains in strength, the further the seed is from the original parent; however, numerous cases may be cited where even after the fourth gen- eration, the results continue to be satisfactory. In Germany, the so-called patch method continues to be used with success, without any special complaint from manufacturers. In the best cases, seeds are sown from selected mothers, and the resulting roots furnish seed for the trade. In Bohemia, some variations have been made from the German method, and the craze for very small mothers has been pushed to an excess, and it frequently happens that the seed furnished is worthless. 14 210 SUGAR BEET SEED. The best results, however, appear to’ be obtained on soils that have been properly prepared. Small roots must be of regular shape. The supposed objection to small beets is, that they mature badly and bring about great irregularity in the crop of seed. But, by having the patches arranged in several categories, large, aver- age and small, it is possible, even with small beets, to obtain a maturity of considerable regularity; those of the large are followed by the middle size, and last of all, the very small mothers. In fact, from Schaaf’s experiment, it is shown that small mothers obtained by close planting of seed from selected beets have the following advantage: They very much increase in size when they are planted in the spring, and they penetrate to a considerable depth in the soil, which is followed by many strong lateral roots before the portions above ground show much sign of hfe. During very windy weather, they remain in posi- tion, and owing to their excessive soil penetration can struggle very considerably against excessive drouth. The roots of mothers which are planted the second year, and which have obtained their full development during their first vear’s growth, will undergo very few comparative changes, while above the surface the vege- tation is excessive. With certain varieties of beets these mothers are forced out of their position by a very slight cause, and in most cases the vibration is constant and continued, leaving a funnel-like space between the root and soil, and as a result their points of contact with the ground are very few in number. Some of the practical experiments with seed from very small roots and from normal beets have led to the following results: Normal Beets 600 to 700 grams are osm) (1.3 to 1.5 tbs). Density (BriX) nc 0c:36 cee nem ranene aways 23.0 23.7 POlMMTI ZAM ON iacaiiscs casita aerisas:s 20.2 20.3 PULYi ics os amaagmicesa yanmar we ae: Goseg 87.0 85.4 PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 211 From which it is difficult to see just in what the advantage consists. Another table of special interest shows that with small roots the weight of seed obtained is greater than with large roots. Large Mothers. Medium. Very Sinall. Grains. Grams, Grams. Weight when planted 2 to 337 14 lo 66 29to 10 Weight afterseed has been harvested..... 972 to 710 417 to 400 690 to 160 Increase of weight during seed forma- HONS 2 ssases od cones 530 to 271 351 to 328 676 to 143 Weight of seed ob- tained per beet..... 375 to 177 470 to 120 475 to 96 Total increase’ of weight of the root, seed, stalk, etc...... 1,425 to 398 1,200 to 351 1,171 to 374 From which it is concluded that small beets weighing 29 grams (one ounce) to Io grams (0.35 ounce), when planted in patches, increased in weight 1171 grams to 374 grams (41 ounces to 13 ounces), and furnished 475 to 96 grams (16.6 ounces to 3.3 ounces) seed per beet. Very small beets, when planted, demand that the soil be well prepared and that a proper fertilizer be used. It is claimed that small beets give fewer small stems and small seed than do large beets. The stalks of these have rapid and excessive development, thus absorbing the plant food in reserve in the neck of the mother. If excessive heat and dry weather follow, the root in the soil has no longer the strength to meet the demand of the stalk, nor can it withdraw the requisite plant. food from the surrounding soil; the stalks are consequently in a condition to yield poor seed. Just the reverse of these conditions is found with the small mothers, which, as before explained, the development of the root and stalks being in harmony with each other, are in a better condition to meet the climatic variations with which we frequently have to contend. 212 SUGAR BEET SEED. Reproduction of Beets and Seed from Buds, Leaves with Skin, and Also from Fractional Slices. The beet has undergone endless changes through generations, and the many existing types and varieties show just what man can accomplish in helping nature in her evolutionary methods, when superior seed pro- duction is aimed at. ist. The essential is to use beets having as nearly as possible the same exterior characteristics and the same physiological tendencies. 2d. To prevent formation of hybrids during flowering. 3d. To give special care to agricultural methods, thus allowing the plant to complete its normal evolution. The usual German and French methods of supe- rior seed production consist in planting the best type of superior beets separately, and the seeds from these form the basis of special patches; constant observations are made during their development. If only a few roots in each patch promising the most favorable results were alone kept, the method of selection would be very costly and the results obtained would be doubt- fu. While this method, under proper care, keeps out all roots showing signs of atavism, it is not desirable, in most cases, to push the selection beyond the third generation. The systematic bud method is not only feasible, but promises considerable success. It is also possible to graft pieces of skin on other beets. It fre- quently happens that necks of beets after harvesting are sliced off and left on the field; these are exposed to the frosts, etc., of the winter and still retain their vital- ity and in the spring will actually take root and yield seed. Beet Seed from Buds. We were among the first to call attention to the new departure in the production of beet seed from PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 213 buds, introduced in 1890 by Professor Novoczek, which had been applied to many other plants, but not to beets. While several years have now elapsed since then, and numerous experiments have been made, the question still remains to be satisfactorily understood. We called attention to the fact that the saccharine quality of beets increases with the number of its con- centric rings; to each of these correspond leaves which are subsequently followed by buds. “It consequently follows that the richer the beet, the more numerous are the buds and the better suited are such roots for the multiplication of their species.” Later, we said, “ It is shown that after the buds have been planted in a suit- able soil, after about two weeks leaves develop; and a hairy growth corresponding to lateral roots soon appears.” To which we may add, that while these roots, as planted by some investigators, have a very different shape from the original mother, they are said to be possessed of exactly the same characteristics. How- ever, it is claimed that there may be obtained seed, which, in time, will yield roots which tend more and more to be the shape of the original parent. On some farms visited by us, the mother, after being selected and found to contain about 16 per cent. sugar, is planted, with its upward leaf development kept under control by suitable horizontal frames; this has a tendency to increase the bud formation, under which circumstances it is possible to obtain 280 buds from a single root. It is not desirable, however, in most cases, to use more than forty of these, which some agrarians recommend should be planted as soon as they appear, while others declare that they should be taken off at night and planted the next day. The pre- caution of not watering the soil for two days must not be overlooked, and great care is necessary to remove all particles of skin adhering to the parent beet, as from these other roots would soon grow. 214 SUGAR BEET SEED. The scar made on the mother by the bud removal should be cauterized with charcoal. It is also urged that when buds have attained sufficient size, which means two months’ growth under glass, the air ven- tilation should be gradual. Transplanting is the next operation, pinching off the larger leaves, also part of their hairy growth. The hole made to receive these bud plants should be sufficiently watered; better select a cloudy day for the transplanting. Recent exper- iments appear to demonstrate beyond cavil that it is possible to plant a series of buds side by side, under exactly the same conditions, and obtain roots very irregular in shape, but yet having a greater resem- blance to each other than is now obtained by most improved methods of physical and chemical selection in ordinary beet-seed production. This production of beets from buds and without seed was patented in Germany and introduced on a very extended scale by Knauer at Grébers. It was claimed that the force of the beet was strengthened, and there was less danger of atavism, and little or no danger of the creation of bastardsorhybrids. Just where the bud was to be taken was, for a certain time, a ques- tion of experimentation; the bud from the neck is found to be the best. Doerstling, a chemist in charge of the Knauer farms, says that at Grdbers there is, first, a physical selection, according to the shape, size, etc., of the beet. These are numbered and put aside in silos until the following spring, when a slight topping is necessary. The temperature of the mothers in silos should not be higher than 15 degrees C. At the end of February and in March, the planting is continued; after four or five days the buds appear. At intervals of ten days the buds are detached; however, the first taken should be two weeks after their appearance. The skin taken off with the bud should be just sufficient to hold the leaves together. Experience shows that it is PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. 215 far better to break than to cut off the bud, and allow it to wilt during the night before planting. A mother beet can furnish buds during several months, but those of July do not appear sufficiently vigorous. These sprouts are placed under glass; those having, after five or six weeks, developed roots are placed in a medium consisting of a mixture of earth, sand and wood charcoal. As soon as they have suffi- cient strength, the transplanting follows; the cultiva- tion during their growth does not differ from that necessary for ordinary sugar beets. During the period of the past four years at Grébers, 1242 mother beets have been used for this operation; out of this number only nine did not give buds; the 1233 remaining gave 56,155 buds, or forty-five from each mother. Not- withstanding the care bestowed upon these plants, - every year a certain number perish before the roots are formed. One may rely on Io per cent. of buds. It has been noticed that beets that come from buds have absolutely the characteristics of their mothers, in shape, leaf formation, color, etc. About 92 per cent. of these beets obtained by, Knauer are rose color, the others slightly yellow. The main fact to be noticed in this method of selec- tion, is the care and time needed to achieve the results looked for. And while it allows one to reproduce beets like a very high standard or Elite, each beet of itself can give birth to a whole family which will retain their superior qualities for a considerable number of years. Hence, the reasons why each beet from which the bud is taken must be considered separately, num- bered, cataloged, tabulated, etc. It is claimed that it is not the richest beet that gives the greatest number of buds, but the heaviest. When considered from a leaf standpoint, it has been noticed that those leaves with long stems, those high or low, those fringed or even with dark green borders, all give good results. 216 SUGAR BEET SEED, On the other hand, those roots with very high or long necks are not desirable. At Grdbers it is concluded that the question is still in its experimental stage, and that at least ten years will be required before practical results from a commercial standpoint can be obtained. Numerous experiments in France, in planting buds, show that roots of the same line are almost identical in shape and in the formation of their leaves, while the roots obtained keep well in a properly con- structed silo during a period of many months. It must never be lost sight of, however, that nitric fertilizers should never be used alone; that under all circum- stances superphosphates should be added. The objec- tion to nitrogen in excess is, that it maintains the vege- tative action for too long a period and retards very considerably the maturity of the beet; under which cir- cumstances, there is danger of a second growth, with a corresponding loss of sugar. In America, in 1891, the Nebraska Experiment Station took up the question of production of beets from buds. “ High-grade beets were selected and buds started in a greenhouse. After rooting, they were removed from the greenhouse and planted in the gar- den.” The beet obtained was not very satisfactory in appearance, nor sufficiently long to yield much sugar. These experiments were continued again later; the roots obtained from buds were planted as mothers; most of them failed to produce seed, certain diseases and insects being contended with. Other experiments from buds were most satisfactory. Grafting Method. It is claimed that by the Wohanka method of selection, by which beet buds are grafted on beets, there need never be the slightest danger of atavism, as all descendants come from a common parent. The advantage of the grafting method is, that PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED. D1 seeds may be obtained in one year instead of two, as by the early bud methods; furthermore, it is maintained that there is a sort of refreshing influence of the beet sap. Two varieties of beets have been created; these are known as, first, rich in sugar (W. Z. R.); second, rich in yield and sugar (W. E. R.). Experiments upon 10,000 beets, during 1896, were to determine just what this Briem grafting meant. Some of the beets were from seed obtained in the ordi- nary way; others were the bud-grafted seed. Those beets from the regular seed gave 53 per cent. as rich in sugar and general characteristics as the parent beet; 15 per cent. of a superior quality, and 32 per cent. of an inferior quality. On the other hand, the grafted beet seeds gave 77 per cent. equal in quality to the parent; 17 per cent.of a superior quality, and only 6 per cent. of an inferior quality. It is remarked that these results are not only superior, but that they are much more rapid. It is evident that great experience and observation are necessary to carry this out; the Wohanka work has now been going on for six years. It is to be noted that the main difference between the new and old method is, that by customary selections, the individual characteristics are the first arrived at, and beyond which there is no control, no way of preventing analyt- ical errors or action of atavism. On the other hand, the bud method is the starting point, after which ata- vism has no influence upon the descendants, as they all come from the same mother and must necessarily have the same characteristics. The advantage of grafting is, that seeds are obtained the same year, while by the bud method, when used alone, the seeds can be obtained only the second year. There is a “renewing of the blood” by grafting. Such is a general outline of what is claimed by this well-known seed producer. Beets from Leaves and Adhering Skin. The efforts to produce beet seed without going through the regular methods has led H. Briem to make 218 SUGAR BEET SEED. a series of experiments, by planting beet leaves with a small piece of adhering skin from the mother beet. The first question to be looked into, is that of planting, as early as possible, very superior seed on a selected and well prepared soil. When the leaves of the result- FIG. 67. FIG. 68. Leaves with adhering skin. Final appearance of root. ing beets have attained three to four inches in length, they are cut off with a very short knife; the separation should be made in such a way that there will be adher- ing a small piece of skin, as shown in Fig. 67. The planting is not done until next day; after a reasonable PRODUCTION OF SUPERIOR SEED, 219 number of weeks (two and a half months), the appear- ance will be as shown in Fig. 69. It is important to note that the leaves used should have a certain stiffness, and be entirely grown and no longer possessing their youthful vigor. While a certain amount of water is necessary, this should not be pushed to excess. During very sunny or hot weather it is FIG. 69. Root formed from leaf with skin aftertwo and a half months. generally found desirable to cover the growing leaf with other leaves. After two and a half months the transplanting should be done to the regular field; after the growing has continued for a few months longer, the appearance of the root is shown in Fig. 68. Though we consider it very doubtful if any special results could possibly be obtained by this method, it is interesting 220 SUGAR BEET SEED. as being or forming an important departure from reg- ular methods. Beets from Sectional Vertical Slices. A new departure has recently been made, which is, that instead of using the bud root for seed, the beet is sliced vertically, and each slice planted separately. These will yield seed, as do so many separate mothers, as many as twenty new seed-forming centres being thus obtained from one beet root. It must not be for- gotten that these slices must undergo considerable special attention in a greenhouse before being planted in the open field. It is important to dress the wound with an antiseptic of some kind, or with wood charcoal powder, or even chloride of mercury may give satis- factory results. This precaution does not appear nec- essary when the vertical sections are limited to four; then the planting should be just as is customary for mothers in seed production, the distance between rows being rather closer. These slices must, in some way, be held up in a vertical position, otherwise the wind would blow them over. CHAPTER NI. Home-Grown Beet Seed. Of late, special sugar journals have recommended that we produce all the beet seed needed for home consumption. In theory it is a capital idea, but in practice most difficult to carry out. No one writer more than this author has urged and maintained the theory that special seed should be grown for special environments. It was, furthermore, argued, that if it were possible to devote special money to the practical working of the suggestion, it would, in time, be found very remunerative; and the complicated mother selec- tion might be worked on a scale which would be to the advantage of all interested. Many instances could be given of special beet seed retaining the names of fac- tories where this local seed cultivation has met with success, and without borrowing instances from Ger- many or France; the Alvarado achievement in this direction is an important example to the point. Just whether the best results that could beobtained have as yet been reached, either in California by private parties, or under Government supervision at experi- ment stations, remains to be proven. Every one who has looked into the subject of beet cultivation, knows that by proper selection excellent seed may be obtained. It would certainly be possible to produce in the United States all the beet seed needed for exist- ing factories. If such a course be followed, it would at present be ruinous to the American beet-sugar industry, unless undertaken by or under control of the factory. Those who discuss the problem have fre- quently only a very limited knowledge of it. A visit 221 222 SUGAR BEET SEED. to a European beet farm would make the question very much clearer in their minds. The scientific selection of mothers demands, as has been shown in previous pages, a very complete laboratory installation, a chemist and several assist- ants. It means this one question and very little else: To use a soil that happens to be within easy reach, and cultivate beets upon it; then to make selections of these beets, with the view to seed production, regardless of fertilizer and numerous other requisites. This would, after'a term of years, end in obtaining a tace of beets very inferior to the mothers representing the original parent. The money outlay for a beet-seed farm under these conditions would be a losing opera- tion, in view of the limited number of factories in the country. Later on, when the industry is more advanced than at present, when at least fifty factories shall exist, some enterprising seed specialist should take the matter in hand; but not until then. It has been argued by some writers, that if the beet-manufacturing countries of Europe should refuse to furnish us with beet seed, our factories must cease working. This would require a joint action on the part of Austria, France, Germany and Russia; and for what purpose? To prevent enterprising Americans making their few pounds of beet sugar, which, up to the present, has absolutely no effect upon the world’s sugar market! Every country of Europe is interested in developing the beet-sugar industry in the United States, with the hope that it may create a demand for their sugar machinery; and no better method can be adopted to attain this end than by sending us all the beet seed we may need for years to come. Hence, there need be no apprehensions on that point. American Experiments in Beet-Seed Production. Of the interesting American experiments in the production of beet seed, mention must be made of those HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 223 at Schuyler, Neb., which station was established with ' the view of improving the quality of beets, etc. The physical selection from roots was obtained from a standard variety of seed; the beets were divided into three classes: st, those of not less than 12 per cent. and not more than 15 per cent.; 2d, those from 15 to 18 per cent., and 3rd, the Elite class, those containing over 18 per cent. As a result of the analysis, 5091 beets were accepted for the production of seed and 1179 were rejected. (Certain changes occurred during siloing with Vilmorin’s Improved, there being apparently an increase of 0.1 in sugar percentage! With Desprez and Klein-Wanzleben, there had been no change.) The roots selected. were put in the ground, which had been properly prepared. Great care was taken to keep the higher grades at a considerable distance from the oth- ers, So as to prevent contamination by the distribution of pollen from one plant to another. The weather being very dry and the temperature high, the seed matured rather earlier than was. expected, the quantity and yield being thus reduced. In 1892, also,-experiments were made; the calcu- lated yield of seed to the acre was 968 Ibs. On the other hand, the yield of 1893 was smaller, it being 863 Ibs. On account of the high quality of the seed, it was sold to the Oxnard Beet Sugar Company at a price far in excess of that paid for the best imported seed. The sum received for the seed was at the rate of $172.60 an acre; this was only for the low grade, the high grade being kept for the experimental work of the future. Owing to the limited area devoted to the experiments, no exact data could possibly be obtained as to its cost of production. Seeds worth $150 an acre can be pro- duced in America. This is the issue upon which the Department of Agriculture places special stress. Dr. Wiley, in a recent Bulletin, No. 52, discussing 20 SUGAR BEET SEED. the experiments we have just referred to, says: “In the experiments conducted at the station at Schuyler during the season of 1893, a comparison of the beets grown from domestic and imported seeds was made. The plants from the native-grown seed seemed to have a higher vitality and to be better suited to the climatic conditions of the locality than those grown from imported seeds. They showed during the growing season a more abundant foliage and a better develop- ment of roots. This higher vitality and quality of the beets grown from domestic seed illustrate in a forcible degree the advisability of the production of our beet seed at home. Even granting that seeds produced in foreign countries have the same high qualities, it must be admitted that their vitality is in danger of being very much diminished during shipment to this country. The moist air of the holds of the ships in which they are transported often produces moldiness and incipient germination, which tend to greatly diminish their value. Not only did the beets produced from the home-grown seed have.a higher percentage of sugar, but they also afforded a higher yield per acre, as determined in the experiments at Schuyler. The mean tonnage per acre from the home-grown seed was 21.1 and from the imported seed 17.9. The mean pounds of sugar produced per acre from the home- grown seed was 5891 and from the imported seed 5185. This shows an increase of about 12 per cent. in the actual quantity of sugar per acre when domestic seed was used. These data should be carefully studied by all those who are interested in the production of the beet sugar in this country.” A fact apparently overlooked is, that scientific experiments have proven that the germinating quality of seed is hastened by change of climate. We refer not so much to the seed itself, but to the seed outcome of mothers from the imported product. So what appar- HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 225 ently is a higher vitality is the natural outcome of an established principle; the rule, in all probability, would work both ways. Several establishments in France change about in growing their seed; for example, Carl- ier regenerates his seed in Masloffka, Russia, and, as a result, he claims that the germinating power is so much increased that the seed sown upon the same soil, and under the same conditions, will appear above ground five days before the indigenous production. That the yield per acre was higher, that the sugar percentage was higher, may also be explained by a longer vegeta- tion and stimulation, produced by the new environ- ment. The Schuyler experiment station was abolished and all remained in statu quo. The Elite roots could not, after the many vears’ interval, be further watched and developed. By a new decision of the Secretary of Agriculture, it is decided to continue the work abandoned five years ago. This means that all must be commenced over again. Whatever progress is made, whatever work is accomplished, there remains ahead the possible sup- pression of the work, by a change of administration. The researches at the Nebraska station, if they had continued, would possibly apply to Dakota, Iowa and Minnesota. On the other hand, the elevated plateaus of the arid regions of Utah, Colorado, Nevada, Montana, New Mexico and Arizona offer condi- tions entirely different, and a second station should exist for those regions. Furthermore, a third station is needed on the southern coast valley of California; a fourth station, to study the climatic and other conditions of northern New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and southern Wis- consin, including Michigan. These stations should not have annual appropriations. but a fixed sum, deter- mined in advance, as this capital would then be beyond the possibility of political intrigues at Washington. 15 226 SUGAR BEET SEED. The only solution would be for those states most inter- ested to come forward and appropriate the required amount. A fact also that must be thoroughly looked into, if one or more of these stations be established, and from them serious work is to be expected, is: That the chemist in charge of each particular station be not a novice, as is often the case, in the special work he has to do. Let him spend a year or more at Halle sur Salle, Germany; then another year at one of the French stations; let him bring over with him one or two prac- tical hands for the physical selection of mothers, men who have been employed in this special work for twenty years or more; otherwise, great injustice will be done to the head chemist at Washington, who is responsible for the whole work. It must be understood that nothing of any great importance in the way of sugar-beet types ean be accomplished under seven or eight years. It took over twenty years to put the standards as now used in Europe on the solid basis they now are. The extended correspondence we have had with numerous experiment stations reveals very little. At Cornell University, many experiments are under way; nothing yet is decided. Iowa Agricultural College has some experiments in the production of beet seed in progress, “ but the investigations are not yetfarenough advanced to enable us to make a report.’ At the fac- tories in Alameda, they declare that they produced seed for many years (in 1893, 10 tons; 1894, 20; and 1895, 15 tons; about half of which they used), but one fact remains, namely: It is far cheaper to purchase the product in Europe than to attempt one’s own selection. At Watsonville, they declare that their experiments are too recent to be worth publishing. The Pecos valley sugar factory argues very much in the same way. From Mr. Oxnard, we learn that they carried on sugar-beet-seed production in Nebraska for a period of HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 295 years; the yield per acre did not prove profitable; they obtained about 15 tons, which cost about twice as much as the same seed could have been imported for. The climate around Grand Island appears to be too windy for beet seed. We have great doubts that the difficulty can be overcome by planting rows of corn between the beet rows, as suggested; for the mothers in growing need all the plant food the soil can furnish, and even at distances of three feet the roots are all in communication, one with the other. To introduce corn would complicate matters, and certainly not for the better. Utah Beet Seed Selection. In reply to our letter, Mr. C. A. Grager, Superin- tendent of the Utah Sugar Company, sends us the fol- lowing satisfactory account of their methods of selec- tion. There are certain original features about the way the work is conducted, which are well worth recording. Here, again, too much importance must not be placed as yet upon the early germinating char- acteristics, for reasons which we explained when reviewing, in the foregoing, the Schuyler, Neb., experiments. “We consider that good seed is the first essential toward the success of a beet-sugar plant. Good seed or poor seed may mean the difference between success and failure. It has not been our effort to produce a cheaper article than the imported, but to grow as good a seed in all respects, and better in some, than the best imported seed; and in this we feel that we have been thoroughly successful. The sugar content and purity of thé beets grown from our own seed have never fallen below that of the beets from our very best imported seed; and in germination, which we consider a very important point, our seed is the quicker by from two to four days, produces a stronger germ, gives from 228 SUGAR BEET SEED. 5 to 6 per cent. more plants, and about fifty more germs per 100 seeds. ‘Our mothers, or seed beets, are carefully selected from special fields of beets, grown for the purpose from the best imported seed. At harvest time, each beet is first carefully inspected by hand with a view to having all of uniform size, symmetrical in form or shape, and free from disease or injury. Of the beets thus exam- ined, only about 5 to 8 per cent. will pass the test and are taken to the laboratories, where a small cylindrical sample is taken from each one and its specific gravity tested; this gives an approximate idea of its sugar con- tent. All those not reaching a certain standard are discarded, or thrown away, while the few chosen ones are very carefully packed away by hand in dry sand. They are kept from heating or freezing during the winter by a system of ventilation, and are taken out of the sand in the spring, apparently as firm, fresh and crisp as when laid away in the fall. “As planting time approaches, in the spring of the year, the piles of mother beets are opened and the actual and definite test of their sugar qualities is made by taking out a second sample diagonally through the centre of the beet and a direct polarization made of it. All beets showing less than 16} per cent. of sugar are rejected; those going above are planted for seed. Out of all that are thus polarized, about 25 per cent. go below the requirement of 164 per cent. sugar; the average of those retained for seed reaching for the past season 18.7 per cent. sugar and 86 purity. “The preparation of the soil for the mother beets is commenced in the fall, when it is plowed very deep; in the spring it is replowed, but shallow this time, and the surface made smooth and firm. The beets are then planted by hand in rows three feet apart and at a distance of three feet from beet to beet in the row, thus allowing cultivation in every direction. The several HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 229 seed branches or stalks from one beet do not all ripen at the same time, consequently cannot all be harvested at once. This necessitates going through the field and cutting by hand all ripe seed stalks, which are care- fully laid away and allowed to ‘season’ in the shade and are afterward threshed. It requires a second and third cutting before all the seed is gathered. After threshing, the seed is passed through a special machine, which removes all bits of dirt, sticks and blighted seeds, leaving only the full plump seed to be sacked for use. “The germination is carefully tested early in the spring, before any seeding is done, by planting in a hothouse several lots of 100 seeds that are taken with- out any selection whatever and represent an average of the whole. A careful watch is kept of the process of germination and a full record made of the date or the appearance of the first plant or plants, the number appearing each succeeding day up to and including the twelfth day from date of planting, and finally, the total number of germs resulting from each 100 seeds. The average germination of Lehi seeds for the past season was 96 per cent. with 218 germs, over two germs or plants for each seed. Such seeds can be safely guar- anteed on going into the hands of beet growers. Any haphazard or unscientific methods in the production of seed would immediately be followed by disastrous results, for high-bred plant life, like ‘high-bred’ animal life, will degenerate very rapidly unless preserved with intelligence and skill.” This last assertion is very true, and the future suc- cess of the Utah beet selection will depend upon these very facts, as previously mentioned. The whole issue may appear very promising for a few years, but when once atavism asserts itself, the first warning that some thing must be done is reached. Sugar-beet-seed selec- tion depends upon many very difficult problems, and 230 SUGAR BEET SEED. some of these are fully explained in previous pages of this writing. We were recommended to write to Mr. Deering- hoff regarding his experience in sugar-beet-seed pro- duction. In reply, we learn that in his district, Union- town, Washington, the soil is too dry, at certain sea- sons, for the satisfactory development of beet seed. The quality of seed obtained was, in a measure, satis- factory, but the yields were far below what they should have been. It is claimed, furthermore, that it is far more difficult to keep the beets over winter than it is in Continental Europe. He has no faith in California as a state that has a great future for superior seed cul- tivation. He declares that in a few years, they would possibly produce annuals; this, from our standpoint, 1s good reasoning. The intention, however, of C. C. Morse & Co., in California, is to give the subject of special seed production their careful attention. They have been urged to take up the question by several of the leading agronomists of the state. The very low price at which foreign seeds may be brought to America is an issue difficult to overcome. The success of Russian seeds in France and Germany, the importance of producing seed in a colder climate, and bringing it finally to a milder one, have been for years most successful. It remains to be proven what the future will be in creating a type of beet in an environ- ment such as California. The experiments of the past, either at Alvarado, or in other centres of the state, are not sufficiently conclusive, owing to their limited dura- tion, to predict as a certainty what the outcome will be. However, we do not hesitate to make the assertion that there will be an enormous tendency to create an- nuals. No district of Europe has given more atten- tion to beet-seed production than Saxony, so we conclude that a general outline of what is done there, as a starting point, is most important as a guide for HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 234 those who have the beet-seed cultivation specialty in view. Saxony Methods for Field Testing of Beet Seed. The main object is to study the different varieties of seeds from local and foreign sources, and to deter- mine the most desirable soil and fertilizer for each case, allowance being made for any climatic influence that might be contended with during the progress of the experiment. It must be understood that such experi- ments are not necessarily conducted at the experiment station; but on various farms at considerable distances from one another. The selection of seed is made by an official, sent to the seed grower’s farm; that the sample may be an average one in each case, it is taken from a volume of seeds weighing 14 tons. The sam- ples are sealed in sacks by the expert and forwarded to the agronomic laboratory, where germinating tests are made, after which they are distributed among farm- ers, who offer their services for such experiments. Under all circumstances, the tiller must have no spe- cial seed of his own, nor in any way be informed of the origin of the seed he is to plant. The area of land devoted in each case to such experiments is about one-half an acre. When the har- vesting season comes, the beets to be tested are marked, counting the hundredth beet from the first row, then the second hundredth, etc. As in the parcel there are about 23,000 individual roots, this gives 230 roots for laboratory observation. These are classified according to size, shape, etc., and then arranged in series; every other one is taken, so that there remain 115 roots leaving the farm, to be shipped in special bags to the agricultural station, where the number is again reduced by one-half. The laboratory experiments give the percentage of sugar in the beet and juice, the dry extract of the juice, purity coefficient and sub- 28 SUGAR BEET SEED. stances other than sugar. The Keil and Dolle rasp is used to obtain an average pulp from the sixty beets. This pulp is collected in a special receptacle and thor- oughly mixed; one-half of it is taken and submitted to a pressure of 300 atmospheres, so as to extract the juice. From one quarter of the half of the remaining pulp 500 to 700 grams are taken, which are used as final samples. The alcohol-digestion method is used to determine the sugar percentage. For this purpose, the alcohol used tests about go to 92 per cent; at least half an hour is needed before it has penetrated the pulp. The polariscope observations follow. A Brix hydrometer gives the solids, and the apparent purity coefficient i: obtained by dividing the sugar percentage by the total solids; the non-sugar is the result of a subtraction of the sugar percentage from the Brix indicator. A series of tables is filled out for germination, the arrangement being as follows: Number of Sprouts per 100 Seeds After Varieties of Seed. Moisture of Soils Number of Seed in One Gram. Nitrogen in 100 Grams of Dry Substance. Number of Sprouts After ys from One Gram Clean Seed, 14 Da i Days. | 14 Days. The general classification of varieties, according to their saccha- rine quality, is done in a table about as follows: e. ~ “5 2, z 7 Sa £ & = == s =0 e¢ = fe Beta =3 = 3 | fig | a2 | 23 | Be | G3 | 3 = zie avez ae is 3S 3 Lal v ter =) > s 2am gin = a =5 2 b =D oy - Ara @ Ay 5 Ka, uw o = = ! ~ < HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 233 When the factory is to determine what variety of seed is best suited for the environment, the method is a little different. Great precautions are necessary, that the experiments be conducted under exactly the same conditions as regards soil, fertilizer, etc. The spacing of roots must be identical in all cases; the soil should have been well plowed the season before; sow- ing of all varieties of seed under observation, and the analyses of the resulting roots must be done on the same day. During the plant development the various patches of beets should be carefully examined, so as to make sure that their appearance above ground is about the same in each case; it is also urgent to keep the soil free from weeds. Each beet must be weighed and analyzed separately, and it is important not to have one sample of each, but an entire row taken from the same exposure from each patch. When undertaking the production of seed, it is not generally realized what a long, tedious affair the method is, and if not conducted on a scientific basis, it will be a money loss to all concerned. After the selec- tions are made there are three principal classifications. The first on the list should be planted to produce seed which would yield beets for selection the following year; the second classification could also be used for the same purpose in an emergency; those remaining could furnish at once a limited amount of seed for gen- eral farmers’ usage, while the main\supply would be obtained a year later from beets which had undergone only an ultimate physical classification. For example, the mothers selected in 1894 would be from seed which had been produced in 1893. The planting of mothers, in Europe, is done the following March, 1895; in Octo- ber of 1895 the seeds from the planted mothers would be harvested; in April, 1896, the seeds are sown, and in October of the same year the resulting roots are har- vested and siloed. In February, 1897, a second selec- 234 SUGAR BEET SEED. tion and classification of mothers, March planting, October harvesting of seed; April, 1898, sowing of seed, and in October, beets are harvested and sent to the factory. So nearly four years elapse before the manufacturer gets the full benefit of his efforts. Under these circumstances, satisfactory results would evi- dently be obtained, but the expense is an important point to be considered. In our pamphlet published some time ago, we made the following calculation: If 20 lbs. of seed are used per acre, there would be needed, on an average, 35 mothers to produce this seed. A factory working 30,000 tons of beets must have under control not less than 3000 acres, and the seed needed would be 60,000 lbs. To obtain this, 105,000 mothers would be required. If the method of selection is that adopted by M. Legras, at first not more than one beet in three could be used, so that the number of analyses would be 315,000. If we admit that each analysis costs one cent, the total cost for this work in the laboratory, without considering wear and tear on plant, would be $3150 per annum. To obtain seed from the 105,000 mothers, at least 30 acres, at 4000 roots per acre, planted at three feet in all directions, would be required, and such beets could not be properly looked after under $60.00 an acre, or $1800. The allowance of one cent for actual cost is entirely too low; it would in reality be double that amount, bringing the cost of such analyses up to $6300, and a total cost of the experi- ments at $12,450, which might be a slight saving on the market price of seed. However, we are convinced that there would be considerable money loss to the manufacturer if conducted on the lines that the actual conditions of science demand. On the other hand, if the question of seed production be gradually developed by factories that have the patience, success would, in time, follow. If the ordinary method of selection be HOME-GROWN BEET SEED. 23 adopted, then the chemical analysis is made only every two years, and seed could be obtained at about eight cents per pound, or less. Any enterprising chemist attempting this work, however, would find, after a few years of enormous expenditure of energy, that there would be certain dis- appointments. Complete laboratories with this idea in view require considerable capital. We must in time create an American variety of beet seed, but has that time yet arrived? If it has, let the work be done by a person who has in view only the specialty of seed production, and not by general seed dealers, who com- bine the question with other branches of their trade.* One who, furthermore, has the technical knowl- edge for the work to be done, which demands a thorough grounding, not only in the principles of botany, but also in the use of the microscope. Much remains to be discovered from a botanical stand- point; and laboratories where botany is a basis of their selection, will, in time, take the lead. As matters now stand, most of the ten or more leading beet-seed pro- ducers of Europe have vegetable organic development and changes under constant notice; so much so, that in connection with their laboratories are works of Dar- win and other leading investigators of plant life and requirements. For creating a special type of beet, a certain number of vears is necessary, as before explained, but the thoroughness of the subject is a lifelong study. From what we have just said, it stands to rea- son that many of the newly created varieties from *Since the above was written, a well organized beet-seed selecting laboratory has come under our notice, where last year there were made 337,389 analyses in forty-one days, or an average of 8227 analyses perdiem. By the use of two polariscopes, the cost for actual labor was $576, appliances, ete., $503, or a total of $1079, to which must be added the interest, wear and tear, etc., of $700 cost of plant. There were 263,567 beets kept for mothers, and the cost of the selection is about one-half cent per beet kept. This means more than half the help are women, at fifteen cents a'day. 236 SUGAR BEET SEED. growers who have been in the business but a few years are not to the advantage of the manufacturer, and sim- ply mislead the public in general. For such beets, when planted, will show great variations, not only in their sugar percentage, but also in size, even upon the same soil, under the same climatic conditions and the same care for their cultivation. Such conditions would not exist with the Vilmorin, Legras, Wanzleben and Knauer, for example. Vilmorin, on the one hand, and Klein-Wanzleben, on the other, have more reasons to complain of the infringement on their prerogative than any other beet- seed creators. They have added originals to their types, which make an important mark of distinction. There are possibly thirty very serious specialists who have taken the beets of these two promoters as a start- ing point in their selection, and have created not only what are excellent varieties, but very HEIR Ht depar- tures from the old routine. CHAPTER XII. Beet Seed Production in France. . A very strange fact relating to the statistical data of such an important question as beet seed in Europe, is that there has been little or nothing published. It is estimated, however, that the consumption of beet seed reaches 35,000 tons, produced in France, Germany, Russia and Austria. There is considerable export of German seed to France, and France sends to Germany, and elsewhere. Russia of late years has brought about some changes in the German export, which once was 3500 tons. In France, there are 200,000 to 230,000 hectares (500,000 to 600,000 acres) devoted to sugar- beet cultivation; there is needed for this at least 6000 tons of beet seed (13,440,000 Ibs.), to produce which demands an area of 2200 hectares (5500 acres), which would represent I per cent. of lands devoted to beets cultivated for the sugar factories. The exports and imports of beet seed to and from France during several years, are as follows: Imported from Germany, _ Years. P Huss, po Exported. rE 1887 1,401 tons. 971 tons. 1888 1, 1685 1,142 * 1889 1, 1523 ee 1,453 1890 15847 “e 1,716 891 2 ? 1892 1,373“ 2,203 *# 1893 2,647 “ 2,631 “ 1894 2,053“ 2,355 § 1895, 2,896 * 1,202 « The French growers were thus protected by a duty aeceas ~of a fraction less than three cents per pound, but this has been found to be too small, and the low duty has since been changed. Before 1884 there were no seeds 237 238 SUGAR BEE SEED. imported, as there was no encouragement to cultivate superior beets. The roots then contained 7 to 9 per cent. sugar, but in 1885-86, the percentage was 9.2 to 11.2 and is now 13.3 to 15. Up to 1884 the French producers had, in a large measure, been neglecting their methods of selection. When it was necessary to resume their position held in the past, whole districts were abandoned, owing to the influence of hybrids that were freely cultivated. The growers have now regained the ground lost in the production of superior seed, but. one fact still remains, the importation continues. The districts near Lille and Valenciennes, as early as 1846 (the fertile plains of Cysoing and Pont a Marcq), were devoted to beets; now about 5000 acres are employed for special sugar-beet-seed production. Old Beet Seed and Wastes Utilization. As the demand for seed some years was not equal io the supply, the European grower had in stock a quantity of seed that he could not dispose of unless it was by mixing, and thus cheat his customers. This would not be of so frequent occurrence if some means could be proposed for the utilization of old seed. The most practical suggestion is to feed it to cattle, which has been done on many farms, and has met with con- siderable success. Pagnoul gives the comparative analyses of hay and beet seed as follows: Hay. Old Beet Seed. ‘Water ois 19.24 12.60 17.56 Amylaceous substances 2 26.95, 21.54 22.04 Nitrogenous es 5.83 9.19 8.53 Non-nitrogenous “ 1.36 2.19 | 1.54. Fatty ee 2.44 5.88 5.10 Extractive es 16.72 11.54 11.83 Raw cellulose............ ents 22.64 28.70 28.30 ASD) so cscccisieisies saiainwnise va dere aciens savanasieis 4.93 8.36 5.10 100.00 100.00 100.00 Phosphori¢ Acid... wien asx aces ccwwers 0.438 0.84 0.64 BEET SEED PRODUCTION IN FRANCE, 239 By the way of comparison, it is interesting to give ee Hae of old beet seed: BUSE Gli, sisjn Be dthamarcorcions an yucvedavidhaen Celluiose.. Albuminoids............s lis... Mineral substances Cortical substances Mr. Petermann, who has also given the question of seed utilization some thought, says that it makes very little difference if the seed be of a superior or inferior grade. Variety. Klein-Wanzeben. ;Yellow Mangolds. WAGERS &. i ncaeeiied crqinnaainns naa ae 5.69 9.70 Fatty substances. ......4 ....... 5.96 5.72 Raw albuminoids. a 10.19 9.86 Carbohydrates .. 30.64 33.58 Cellulose .2.se8+«. ms 38.75 33.12 Mineral substances............. 8.77 8.02 100.00 100.00 Containing pure albuminoids.. 9.95 9.44 potassa.............. 1.65 1,43 ui phospnorie acid.... 0.67 0.72 It must be noted that the fatty substances in hay are only 2.44, and in beet seed they vary between 4.26 and 5.96, or 5.88 in old seed. The same difference exists for nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances. In France, excellent results have been obtained by feeding seven pounds old seed flour combined with 100 to 170 Ibs. beet pulp, and two pounds hay per diem; beeves thus fed increased in weight about go lbs. a month. Very encouraging results have also been obtained by forming with old seed a ration for hogs. It must, however, be noted that certain precau- tionary measures are necessary; the animals must become gradually accustomed to the stuff; hence, the ration should at first be only one-fourth of what it is to be finally. In the same line of argument, the wastes or residuum, after cleaning beet seed, have 240 SUGAR BEET SEED. | an important utilization in cattle feeding. Accord- ing to Besler, the average composition of these wastes Is: Cellulose ASID virccaaaars. oss It is found desirable to form a mixture of this product with other residuum from beet-sugar facto- ries; or, with oat straw, for sheep it has rendered excel- lent service. It is estimated that fodder of this kind is worth seventy-five cents per 100 lbs. Conditions of Beet-Seed Purchase in Different Countries. The revised law of Germany, 1896: (1) One kilo of seed should give, after fourteen days, at least 70,000 sprouts. (2) Of these total 70,000 sprouts, at least 46,000 should be visible in six days. (3) For 100 seeds at least seventy-five should show signs of germination. (4) Fourteen per cent. moisture is considered nor- mal; 14 to 17 per cent. moisture may be delivered, but allowance must be made for the weight of water. (5) Three per cent. may be allowed for foreign substances; seed may be delivered containing 5 per cent. moisture, but allowance must be made for this extra weight. If even one of these five conditions is not complied with, the seed may be refused. If there is a difference in the analyses of interested parties, an average is taken between the results obtained by a new analysis and another made at the laboratories of the Sugar Manu- facturers’ Society. In Austria, some few modifications have been made: BEET SEED PRODUCTION IN FRANCE. OAL (1) The impurities (leaves, stems, stones, etc.) must not be more than 3 per cent. , (2) Moisture not over 18 per cent. (3) One hundred seeds should give in six days I25 sprouts. (4) After twelve days, with gradual heating, 100 seeds should give at least 150 strong and healthy germs. (5) Of 100 seeds, at least eighty should germinate. (6) One kilo of seeds should give 70,000 sprouts. Seeds may be refused if they contain more than 4 per cent. impurities, and more than 17 per cent. moisture; and if 100 seeds, after the two days, contain less than 140 sprouts, or if with normal moisture one kilo of seeds gives less than 68,800 sprouts, and if 100 seeds yield less than 76 seeds which sprouted. Example of Calculations of the Juice of Seed. If we suppose the seeds had been sold for eight- cents per pound and that these seeds contain 4 per cent. impurities, 15 per cent. moisture, and that Ioo seeds gave 140 sprouts, and that one pound gave 31,000 sprouts, and 76 seeds of 100 have sprouted: For impurities.............- eee cece eter e eee tence ene tees 8x96 _o9 wants: 97 For germination.........-....2ccee cess eeee cece eee eee woe = 7.38 cents. Sprouts total ........-.-. ce eeee cece eee ee eee eee ces 7.9X31.000 _ +7 cents. 31.800 Per: 100 SEAS nice vemaiiee cena teeny Pe wesc eeas te tes eanier sag sioes 79X16 _ 738 80 An average ig taken.........- 7.387 77.38 __ 7.48 cents, which is the price at which seeds would be purchased per pound. Bohemia.—The seeds should contain 3 per cent. impurities, and a maximum of I5 per cent. moisture; of 100 seeds, seventy at least should germinate after six days and eighty in less than fourteen days. From 100 16 242 SUGAR BEET SEED. seeds in six days, at least ninety-five germs should be obtained, and in fourteen days not less than 150 germs. Seeds may be refused if surrounded with mildew, or if containing more than 18 per cent. moisture and more than 4 per cent. impurities; if, under germinating test, 100 seeds give less than eighty-eight sprouts in six days and less than 140 sprouts in fourteen days, and if from 100 seeds there are less than sixty-five sprouts in six days and less than seventy-six in fourteen days. Gratification —If seeds contain from 3 to 4 per cent. impurities, the price undergoes some changes; this is also true if the moisture percentage is between 15 and 18. If 100 seeds give eighty-eight to ninety- five germs in six days, the weight of the seeds is reduced 0.33 per cent. for each germ less than ninety- five. If 100 seeds give within fourteen days 140 to 150 sprouts, a deduction of weight of 0.66 per cent. per germ less than 150. Ii there are only sixty-five to seventy seeds in 100 that germinate in six days, 0.5 per cent. is deducted for each seed not germinated below seventy. If there are seventy-six to eighty seeds in 100 that germinate with- in the period of fourteen days, I per cent. of the weight for each seed not germinated below eighty will be deducted. In Bohemia, the testing of seed is generally made by two chemists, or in laboratories of experiment controlling stations. If the analyses show a difference which is not greater than 1 per cent. in the impurities, { per cent. of moisture, six sprouted seeds and twenty germs, the average is taken of the two analyses. Other- wise a third chemist is selected. Those purchasing inform the seller by telegram or registered letter as soon as the seed sent reaches its destination; if the seller does not send his representa- tive within six days, the buyer alone takes upon him- self the question of analysis. Two samples of twenty- BEET SEED PRODUCTION IN FRANCE. 243 five grams are placed in closed flasks for moisture determination; two samples of 500 grams (1.1 lbs.) in small bags for other investigations; a sample of five kilos for agricultural purposes to determine the variety. This experiment is upon an area of ten acres (120 square yards); the soil is determined upon by both interested parties. It is interesting to point out the difference in the contracts of various countries; there is almost complete accord on issues of 3 per cent. impurities. However, in Germany and Belgium, up to 5 per cent. impurities is allowed, while in Austria over 4 per cent. is not admissible. Every country, with the exception of Austria, allows that 17 per cent. moisture is a good average. Upon general principles, the distinction between small and large seed still continues in Bel- gium, while everywhere else it has been done away with. In Bohemia and Germany, the chemist must reside in the country of purchase, while in Belgium, and a part of Austria, it is admitted that the chemist may reside in the country where the seed is produced. Standard—While in previous pages we have dis- cussed what appears to be the important conditions for the purchase of superior seed, it is interesting to add the following tabie, which may be considered as stand- ard from year to year: a | .| Sprouts. Seed. Oo o 7 3 a3 rd Dead. Kind of Seed. B l2S| 0] Per : In 5 /O2] o ae] a [8S] 2 | xino. [2 5|1 Kito,|t Kilo. & 4 s : ° 8.0 |15.0/150 | 70,000 | 20° Superior 1.1 /13.2/234 | 90,550 | 3 | 4,160 | 38,700 Excellent germination but ver, : fom aeae per kilo.......- = 0.7 |12.7;227 | 60,250 6 | 1,600 | 26,550 Inferior, very poor | 2.4 |12.4) 67 | 28,475 | 55 | 23,375 | 42,500 _ Limited germination but many seeds per kilo................ 1.3 '1.36/135 | 74,900 | 18 | 10,000 | 55,000 Varies——European beet-sugar countries have come to certain understandings as to rules and require- 244 SUGAR BEET SEED. ments, among which may be mentioned that the seed should be from the last crop. It is admitted that one pound of seed contains 23,000 to 31,000 sprouts. Dur- ing 1895 the official German and Austrian conditions were very much the same as the French. They were as follows: Vienna. mae ene Impurities, maximum.....-...seeseeeeee rene 3% MOIStUVe: saicecs scexieases oy 15% 12 to 18 i, * 7 days.. -. 125sprouts. 100 seeds must give { 14 days.. -. 150sprouts, 150 sprouts. 100 small seeds must give..........-- aes 130 sprouts. Lifeless or dead seeds, maximum........-. s 20% ; large see 20% Lifeless or dead seeds } 14 days { small seed 30% Sprouts per kilogram (2.2 tbs.)............-5 70,000 50 to 70,000 It is interesting to note that in Vienna, seed is not classed according to size, as in Magdeburg; on the other hand, in Vienna the sprouts are counted after intervals of seven and fourteen days, while in Magde- burg the sprouts are counted after the entire period of the test, which lasts two weeks. It is claimed that the Vienna standards are very favorable for the purchaser, and not for the seller. For example, if we use twenty- two pounds of seed to the acre, there should be 700,000 sprouts. If we suppose that the yield is ten tons and each beet weighs a pound, this would be 22,000 beets; \or 22,000 sprouts, or a very small fraction of the 700,- 000; this gives a satisfactory margin against insects, etc. Calculating Results. Upon general principle, the bulletins of seed laboratory examinations should be very simple and contain: Moisture per cent., impurities per cent., seeds per gram beets. Number of seeds germinating in seven days. ‘© fifteen days ae a“ germs 4“ at te ae “ce oe Number of seeds germinating i in seven days. “ . Per Gram. ad] fift days. “ “ germs 4a “ aeron dave. oe ESS 100 Seeds, a a a fifteen days...........5 BEET SEED PRODUCTION IN FRANCE, 245 M. Vivien at the Desprez laboratory had a very simple way of calculating results. We may take his example and admit that 100 kilos of seed contain: 100 Kilos. 22.29 kilos large seed corresponding to. --1,311,000 seed, 73.67 * small seed «5,262,000 ** 4.04impurities , 100.00 Moisture is found to be 8.75 kilos. Average weight per seed........ | Late ea cae ae 017 grams. a aati that the germination was upon four grams of seed, an average sample 13.11x%4=52 large seed wee -0.89 grams. 52.62X4=211 small us 22.95 a Together ............ 3.84 grams without impurities. Thesé seed: 48 of the large seed germinate. edsiare:plecedinigerminators { 182 of the small seed germinate. Consequently, in 100 seed 92.3 per cent. of large germinate. 86.24 “ small The germination per 100 kilos is...... 22,29 92.3=20,57 kilos large seed. . lon per ino llos is {TeTxseaneea.0o smell The bulletin then becomes 20.57 kilos lar ge seed germinated. 63.53 * small 11.83 “ dead bead 4.04 impurities. 100.00 Remarks.—If the number of seeds had been con- sidered instead of the weight, and if a proportional amount of small and large seed had been taken, then 92.3 X 22.29 + 86.24 X 73.67 + 95.96 = 87.65 per cent. would have apparently germinated: when, in real- ity, this would have been but 84.100 kilos of seed ger- minating in 100 kilos, showing again the importance of estimating by weight and not by number. It is also important to note that certain German authorities claim, with a certain reason, that allowance must be made for the number of seeds as well as the weight. Under these circumstances, it is proposed to multiply the germinating faculty of 100 seeds by the number of seeds contained in the unit weight and divide the result by 100. For example, if 100 seeds gave 125 sprouts and had a purity of 98.5 per cent., the old method would give 125 X 98.5=123.12 per , 246 SUGAR BEET SEED. cent. as the value of the seed. On the other hand, Dr. Sempotowski supposes five grams of seed contain 256 seeds and that five grams were the unity of weight; then 123.12 X 256-=315.18 per cent. as the actual value of the seed. Other calculations appear to show that what would have been in most cases considered acceptable by the old method. is in reality worthless by the new. APPENDIX. Notes Upon and List of European Beet-Seed Growers. The sugar beet, through long cultivation, becom- ing so pliable, so willing to meet the requirements of the environment in which it is placed, has resulted in the creation of hundreds of types and vari- eties. Many manufacturers have taken upon them- selves the production of their own seed; this plan for a period of years was popular, and even now there are thirty-five factories in Germany where the practice is continued. There must be connected with this an out-. side market; for example, these factories just men- tioned have special arrangements with other factories to supply them with the beet seed they may require. In foregoing pages we have shown how much care there is needed in the selection and sub-selection. So many details cling together that its successful realiza- tion, by sugar manufacturers in general, is hardly practicable, as they have too frequently discovered after an interval of possibly five years. What is true regard- ing the manufacturer is equally true in cases of small dealers or growers, who attempt what they can only, in a measure, accomplish. They must have invested con- siderable capital, which yields no interest for a period of years; when first starting, furthermore, sufficient: capital is needed to bridge over partial crop failure, caused by climatic influences, or very low selling price, caused by a frequent overproduction. The laboratory appointments must be up to modern requirements and ° 247 248 SUGAR BEET SEED. standard, $0 as to create new types and varieties char- acteristic of one’s own special work. The variations in market price are made evident by a single example. Jn Germany, in 1893, beet seed suddenly rose in price from 40 M. per 50 kilos (nine cents per pound) to 100 M. or 22 cents per pound. The names given in the lists herewith are those with whom we have corresponded, and, in some cases, personally visited the farms, taking notes on the spot. We trust that the facts given will be of more than usual interest. Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co. This well-known firm needs no introduction. We, nearly twenty years ago, were the first to give general publicity to the type known as Vilmorin’s White Improved sugar beet, which is one of the richest, if not the richest, beets in the market. It is cultivated all over the world and almost everywhere with success, on account of its numerous qualities. We cannot do bet- ter than to give here an extract of Dr. Wiley’s pam- phlet on the sugar beet, published by the United States. Department of Agriculture in February, 1897. “This beet is the result of thirty-five years of methodic and persevering selection based upon the tight principles. In regard to its preservation, it is recognized that it holds its sugar content better than any other variety. In those factories in which the Improved Vilmorin is manufactured in connection with other varieties, it is the custom to reserve this variety for the end of the season and to work up the less reli- able beets at an earlier date. It is also said to resist better than any other variety the unfavorable influence of certain characters of soil and of certain manures. In black soils, rich in organic matter, it gives great industrial results, while most other varieties of beets. become watery or saline in excess. Excessive quanti- APPENDIX. 249 ties of nitrogenous fertilizers, which are carefully excluded from ordinary varieties, can be applied with safety to the Improved Vilmorin, as a great number of experiments has shown that this can be done without serious deterioration in the quality of the sugar and with a considerable increase in weight. From thou- sands of analyses it has been established that the per- ‘centage of sugar that can be obtained with this variety is about sixteen. Its average yield under favorable conditions can be stated to be from 12 to 16 tons per acre.” We may add that late rains, so much to be dreaded in many countries, appear to have far less influence on the Vilmorin Improved than on most beets. On account of the extensive way in which Vilmorin’'s Improved is cultivated, the seed can be purchased at ten cents per pound. Thousands of analyses show that it can be depended upon to furnish 15 per cent. sugar and a yield of 15 tons of beets to the acre. The other varieties put out by this firm, such as French Very Rich, Red Top, Early Red Skin, Gray Top, etc., were very fully described in the author’s work, “The Sugar Beet,” and no further mention of them need be made here. Some of these have precocity, while others are noted for their keeping qualities. M. Vilmorin thinks that beets require a deep loam, or even a clay soil, if not too deep. A clayey subsoil is very desirable if it be covered with at least 15 inches of surface soil. He emphasizes the fact that thorough drainage is imperatively demanded. It should be added, that the special agents for supplying Vilmorin’s sugar-beet seeds to the sugar-beet industry in the United States, are Willett & Gray, g1 Wall street, New York. Klein-Wanzleben Sugar Factory Company. Some years ago, we visited the Wanzleben fac- tory, located at Wanzleben, and realized then the supe- 250 SUGAR BEET SEED. riority of the sugar-beet seed there cultivated. Through long, careful observations and experiments, those in charge of the agricultural experiments of the locality were able to create a variety of beet that is connected by blood to nearly every type in existence, the char- acteristic advantage being the satisfactory yields obtained on any given area, combining also quality and suited to most soils. The early growers of this beet were Rabbetge and Giesecke, who were also proprie- tors of the Wanzleben sugar factory, which had a cap- ital of nearly $700,000. The factory still remains in the hands of Giesecke and a partner, but the seed or agricultural section is now a complete and separate company. A few words respecting the production of Klein- Wanzleben Original are not without interest. It was in reality created in 1860, and the type during these thirty-seven years has been strictly adhered to. How- ever, there are constantly new varieties being created from force of circumstances. The physical selection plays a most important role, entirely independent of the chemical cold-water selection in the laboratory. All beets not possessing the typical characteristic must be thrown out. As mentioned a few lines above, there are new types which promise favorably, and these must be followed up with certain combinations of photo- ‘graphs, to determine if some desirable new departure may not be found necessary. As soon as a degenera- tion or atavism manifests itself, the work in that special direction is at once abandoned. It is interesting to note that in some special cases a variety is obtained, from generation to generation, the amelioration of which shows a strong characteristic tendency. It is to just such a type that the Nlein-Wan- zleben owes its value and existence. To keep up the purity of the blood, so to speak, every few years inter- breeding from the new standard varieties is found necessary. APPENDIX. O51 The Wanzleben Company claim that they are able, through their very multiple selections, variations from the Original, to meet all the requirements of soil, fiscal laws, etc., of countries with which they are in corre- spondence. If such scientific problems could be solved; the progress in that direction is far greater than we ever thought possible. When one considers that the fiscal laws of a country are constantly changing, to meet these conditions at a moment’s notice is very creditable and an extraordinary achievement. It must not be forgotten that ten years is a comparatively short period in which to create a new type. The Wanzleben laboratory can make 7000 analyses per diem, besides which must be added the analyses for high testing beets, these acting as a tally on work previously done. In previous pages we have given several items show- ing, and, at the same time, highly recommending, the methods adopted. The Nlein-Wanzleben Original demands a soil’ that has been previously worked. The best results are obtained on bottom lands, with sandy subsoil; manur- ing the autumn before planting, at time of sowing using sodic nitrate and superphosphate of lime; fre- quent use of the cultivator between rows, and one of the most important of all essentials is to keep beets near together in rows. Do not be in a hurry to har- vest this type of beet. American agents for this firm are Meyer & Raapke, of Omaha, Nebraska. M. Knauer, Grobers, Germany. With a few exceptions, no person in the entire Continental Europe has done more to improve the quality of beets than Knauer; the very name of beet seed and Knauer appear to be linked in some myste- rious way. The firm has gone from father to son. However, the son has introduced many important changes of the most deserving kind. The individual 2b2 SUGAR BEET SEED. cultivation for beets was first introduced into Ger- many, now forty years ago, by Ferdinand Knauer. The existing varieties may be considered now estab- lished on a very firm basis, for certainly time of more than twelve years is a most important factor. The Knauer seeds take three years to produce. Selection is made on the field from forms of types used as stand- ard of comparison; these roots are kept in the soil and not analyzed until February or March the follow- ing vear. It was Knauer who fought the Vilmorin theory respecting individual power of plants. It was he who pointed out in the original selection that the Mangold was one of the parents (this fact, we believe, was never entirely admitted by Vilmorin, but at the same time was never denied). Such being the case, Knauer con- cluded, some years ago, that he would make a new departure, using the Mangold as a basis. The results obtained were far more rapid than at first could have been thought possible; under which circumstances, after ten years, with the so-called refreshing of the blood five times, the new beet was finally placed upon the market. It was soon noticed that this newly created variety had a very high percentage and appar- ently matured early. The difficulties at first in introduc- ing this Mangold sugar beet were very like those M. Vilmorin had to contend with—the shape was not always the same, there was a want of uniformity, yet the texture of the epidermis was better than any of the existing tvpes of beets used (this was considered a great advantage from a manufacturer’s standpoint), the slicers could work them better and diffusion was more satisfactory. From long observation and determination, the form or shape has now been corrected, and it is only in very exceptional cases that any fault is found with the shape. A strange fact relating to this variety of APPENDIX. 255 beet is, that the leaves apparently still retain the Man- gold characteristic. This beet appears at present to be playing an important role. Besides the type just men- tioned, attention must be called to the Electorale and Imperiale. The latter appears to be suited to fertile soils; on the other hand, the Electorale renders great service on soils not so well suited for beets. These seeds have such well-known reputations that they need no introduction in these pages. The Mangold I appar- ently holds its name against all competition. The Knauer Wanzleben, or Improved, is also a very popu- lar variety. At the society of Central Agriculture, of Tabor, Bohemia, in a contest with sixteen other vari- eties, the Mangold gave nineteen tons to the acre; later, in 1895 and\ 1896, the experiments were again resumed and Knauer’s beets showed 16.6 per cent. sugar and 15.3 tons to the acre. The experiments con- ducted under the direction of Dr. Wiley at Washing- ton show 16.3 per cent. sugar and 15.2 tons to the acre. The American agent is H. Cordez of Evans- ville, Indiana, who grew beets in 1897 showing these percentages of sugar: Mangold. | Imperial. Electoral. Sept 24.......... 14.9 | ‘14.9 14.3 OCE 10.60.55 62 eee 16.5 15.9 15.0 J. W. Ustyanowicz, R. F Zmigrodzki & Co., Ikieff, Russia. They have a very complete laboratory for selec- tion. The physical selection receives special atten- tion. The minimum weight for the Klein-Wanzleben type is 500 grams, while beets of the Vilmorin origin weigh 450 grams; beets are arranged in glasses of 500, 600, 700, 800, etc., grams; each of these receives special attention. A special Behl press is used to extract the juices. About 5000 beets are examined 254 SUGAR BEET SEED. daily; these analyses commence in January. There are 300,000 beets that receive the attention of the chemists in the laboratory. The planting of the sec- ond grade selected beets for the production of seed for the trade is done in rows ten inches apart, with spac- ing of four inches in the rows. The annual produc- tion is 600 tons. The characteristic of their Klein- Wanzleben types is abundant growth of light green leaves, slightly fringed on the outer border; the pulp and skin are very white. The Vilmorin type has darker green leaves, very little fringed on edges; the roots are rather long, skin hard, and at times has reddish spots. They claim that the richer the beet the greater the number of leaf rings, and corresponding sugar cells of the root. Hence, the reason why preference is always given in the selection to those roots having many cir- .cles of small leaves. Production of beets from buds has ‘also been given an extended trial. Fifty buds are taken from each mother; these are planted in sand in green- houses—not heated; when large enough they are trans- planted, and their subsequent weight frequently reaches five pounds. About thirty out of the fifty give seed which will yield beets as rich in sugar as the original mother. Grafting has had a fair trial and has met with Success; the root upon which the portion is grafted is called a nurse, for it takes care of the portion attached far better than could the raot from which it was taken. The influence of the nurses is carefully watched and their buds are all removed. The seed from these growers has gained considerable reputation all over Europe. : Florimond Desprez, Capelle, France. At one time, not many years ago, this firm held its own against all comers and promised a greater future than any special seed producer in the country, APPENDIX. 255 having a very excellent laboratory and all that science could offer. Just what the conditions are now, we are not prepared to say. One fact is certain, very supe- rior seed has been created by the Desprez producers, and they were the first to establish a laboratory on a very extended scale. They claim to sell, annually, 100 tons of beet seed obtained directly from selected moth- ers. Their early maturing varieties attracted for a time some attention. They also attempted, with more or less success, to create varieties suitable for every soil and climate. But the conditions of environment in many countries render doubtful if the idea has much practical value. The very rich variety is known as Marque I; its object being to obtain the greatest pos- sible yield of sugar to the acre, soils of an average depth being needed for a continuous period of four years. In a very careful observation, the sugar per- centage was shown to be 16. There are also Marque I bis and Marque II. The former demands a very deep, well worked soil and vields twenty tons to the acre; the latter twenty-five tons to the acre and 15 to 10 per cent. sugar. On a soil of average fertility, maturity is possible in 150 days. Then follow Marques 2 bis, 3, 3 bis, 4 and 4 bis, etc. Besides which there are many varieties intended for beet distilleries. Agents for the United States and Canada, J. F. Hem of Buf- falo, New York. A. Janasz, Dankow (par Mogielnica, Gov. Vars- ovie, Russia). This is a general seed grower, but who, however, has met with success in his sugar-beet-selecting methods. The laboratory is well equipped for the selection. They start from a variety they call Supra- Elite; from it are obtained the Elite. They furnish to the trade annually over 200,000 pounds of beet seed. In competitive tests made with several German and . 26 SUGAR BEET SEED. Austrian varieties, they came out first. The starting point in the Janasz selection is the creation of families having a common parent; on the field it is possible to determine the value of each family as regards yield and sugar percentage from these. In the autumn 60,000 to 100,000 roots are selected; their analyses in the labor- atory are made the following February, they being kept in silos, with necks upward, in one layer, There then follows a second selection from exterior appearance of the roots; there is at least 40 per cent. of the total then thrown out. The Keil rasp is used for sampling. There is a slight modification of the Pellet cold-water method; to a given weight of pulp is added a known volume of water. Filtration and polarization follow in a regular way. It is claimed that most accurate results have been obtained. For mixing water of known volume with weighed pulp, special glasses are used. The classification of the beets for mothers does not end with their analysis, as they have to undergo another severe classification as to weight, shape, etc., followed by other analvses by alco- hol digestion. Not more than 5 to 8 per cent. of all beets examined come under the head of Class I, from which, in two years, are obtained mothers of special selection. About 70 per cent. of the beets examined in the laboratory form the Class IT. The silos for these mothers of Class II consist of several layers of roots separated by a suitable layer of earth, in the middle of which is a layer of straw. These roots are planted at a distance of 60 c. m. (23.4 inches), the soil being constantly worked by cultivator and spade. The seeds and stalks, when harvested, are tied up in bundles and allowed to dry for two weeks on the field; the separation of seed from stalks is done by a steam threshing machine. The Janasz company do a very little advertising and most of the crop finds its way to Russian Poland. The work is known as C. C.-or APPENDIX. 257 A.1., also P.C. or A. I. 2. The latter are larger than the former and give heavier yields. This seed is not sold, but is sown the following spring rather close together, so as to keep down the size, distance between rows 40 c. m. (15.6 inches), and between beets in row, 10 c. m. (3.9 inches). Gustav Jaensch & Co., Aschersleben, Germany. These growers are well known and make a spe- cialty of beet seed. Their varieties are the outcome of the Vilmorin and Klein-Wanzleben. The selection is made with considerable care, being based as usual on the shape, weight and percentage of sugar. From year to year, they claim that their methods undergo slight changes—the outcome of experience. Fougqier D’Herouel, Vaux-sous-Laon, France. This well-known seed producer, who has been before the public for twenty years, has only one variety to which his name is given. The claim is, that great stress is placed upon his methods of selection. The sugar percentage is from 15 to 18 and the yield about fifteen tons to the acre. It is claimed that there is a considerable demand for this seed in Belgium, where it competes under favorable circumstances with the well-known German imported seed. Zadislas Mayzel, Brzozowka, par Stopnica, Poland, Russia. A seed grower of considerable reputation, estab- lished in 1873; many farms are connected with the enterprise. The chemical laboratories connected with the selection are most active many months of the year. The cold-water method of selection is used, with some few modifications, which are considered most impor- tant. Each mother is analyzed twice, and it is only when both analyses show the beet to be very superior 17 258 SUGAR BEET SEED. that the root is kept for seeding purposes. This, com- bined with the genealogical tables of selected beets during a period of years, has allowed the production of the very superior seed as now furnished by this pro- ducer. About 1700 acres are annually devoted to seed growing, the farms being very far apart, one in the southern part of Russia. Climatic conditions in that section are said to be such that the beets resulting from such seed mature very early, and are very rich in sugar. The two types are the Vilmorin Amelioree and Klein- Wanzleben. The first mentioned are known as mark O, very hard skin, short leaves, very fine. The mark I, the second mentioned, has in some respects the advantage of the first, while the skin is hard. It has entirely a different characteristic; the leaves remain adhering to the beet late in August, and even until early September. G. Schreiber & Sohn, Nordhausen, Germany. The main effort of these growers is to create a typical beet of high sugar percentage and satisfactory yield, and which will be possessed of certain staying qualities, which will be affected only to a limited extent by atavism. Schreiber & Son are sugar manu- facturers as well as growers; their laboratories for selection are at Heringen. The grandmothers should, in theory, weigh about one pound (400 to 500 grams) and contain from 17.6 to 18.5 per cent. sugar, but from a practical standpoint it is found that two pounds is a better weight and the sugar percentage limit 15.10 to 17—the final selection being made by the alcohol proc- ess. The number of polarizations has also reached a considerable sum, 46,000 of the Schreiber Original, 49,700 Schreiber Klein-Wanzleben Amelioree and sooo of the Specialité Riche; the total by alcohol method, 28,800. These analyses showed that 22,000 contained more than 17 per cent. sugar of the Original, APPENDIX. 259 known as S. O.; the others are types S. K. W. and S.S. respectively. In a practical way, some very satisfac- tory results have been obtained with the Schreiber seed, with yields of eighteen tons to the acre and 16 per cent. sugar. Four thousand tons worked at the Heringen factory gave nearly 13 per cent. sugar of all grades. D. Blary-Mulliez, Templeuve, France. This producer has many customers among the sugar factories. A case is cited where a lot of ten tons proved most successful, the average sugar percentage was 14.7 and purity coefficient 85.4. For mother selection, preference is given to beets weighing above 650 grams. All beets other than those testing 18 per cent. are thrown out; analyses commence in Novem- ber and finish in March; he claims that during 1897-98 he will make 170,000 analyses. These mothers furnish seed from which beets are obtained that yield seed for the trade. The farms are seven miles from all others where beets are cultivated. He is the only producer in that district. Special stress is put on the fact that much care is given in the selection. American agent, Alfred Musy, 3713 Rhodes avenue, Chicago, III. E. Kommer, Quedlinburg, Germany. This, producer has considerable determination in wishing to create a variety of beet that will give at the same time heavy yields and high sugar percentage. He claims that most of the very rich beets are want- ing in regularity of shape. The beet he has created is said to overcome some of these difficulties. The type Z is a Wanzleben Amelioree Blanche, suited to average soils; type E, same name of seed. These seeds have attained considerable success in the north of France, where in a contest of eighteen different grow- ers the Kommer came out best, with 17 per cent. sugar 260 SUGAR BEET SEED. in the beet, purity coefficient 89.2 and a yield of fifteen tons to the acre. An interesting feature about this grower is, he is willing to have seed returned if germi- nation of product furnished is not up to the desired standard, providing the discovery is made within a reasonable period after sale. Some of these seeds have already been tried by the sugar companies of the United States. H. Hornung & Co. and Schlitte & Co. have grown sugar-beet seed for over sixty years. Their long experience as practical seedsmen, also as impor- tant manufacturers of sugar from beets, enabled them to produce unexcelled grades of seed. Their standard is a beet of great weight and highest sugar contents, assuring the greatest possible acreage yields. The unvaryingly excellent results achieved with their seeds have made them justly famous and sought for in all sugar growing countries. “They developed the famous Klein-Wanzlebener. they improved the French Vilmorin, and created the Non Plus Ultra variety, a cross of the two first named.” The sole American agents for these seeds are H. A. Fischer & Co., of 173 Front street, New York city. August Roélker & Sons, of 52 Dey street, New York city, are among the prominent American houses that import beet seed for both the trade and to sell direct to the consumer. Thev publish a circular giv- ing full particulars and directions for beet culture, as well as prices of beet seed. . European Beet-Seed Growers. GERMANY. Ms Knauer” coed ais cales earcsinacties or aelsts hee ies Grobers Gustav Jaensch & Co. ..........055 .. Aschersleben G. Schreiber & Sohn .... -Nordhausen E. Kommer ..... ..Quedlinburg, ‘Saxony, Germany O. Schlieckmann 1... ..c..secscsescecseuseencee Auleben Carl Schobbert & Co ..................-+-.Quedlinburg A: As BAUMelP 5 pecs dcaios ¥en dass seeeeanee sian Kl. Schierstedt Otto: Licht. spac so eaev aden eons Bate se dioin ds Magdeburg CL ABEATING.. ssiaysre siacer’.sie, siessnasossce site apavees'a teen evesakiee ste Biendorf W. Rimpau ...... i . Lagenstein Martin Grashoff . ‘Quedlinburg a Harz DANAG, SACHS oe cesilscsesedaiera Bad neraaid cee cae Quedlinburg Otto Breastedt .4