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3 1924
THE

FIBROUS PLANTS OF INDIA

FITTED FOR

CORDAGE, CLOTHING, AND PAPER.

WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE

CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION

OF

FLAX, HEMP, AND THEIR SUBSTITUTES.

BY

J. FORBES ROYLE, M.D., F.R.S.,

FORMERLY SUPERINTENDENT OF THE HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY'S BOTANIC
GARDEN AT SAHARUNPORE; PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND
THERAPEUTICS, IN KING’S COLLEGE, LONDON, ETC., ETC.

LONDON:
SMITH, ELDER, AND CO., 65, CORNHILL.

BOMBAY: SMITH, TAYLOR, AND CO.
1855.

Sig
3B
ml

R34

AAG130%8

 

PRINTED BY 4. BF. ANDLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE
PREFACE.

Havine a few years since paid attention to the subject
of Fibres, and anticipating that the troubled state of Europe
would cause a demand for those of India, I resumed the
subject in the autumn of the year 1853.

In the following spring the distinguished senator, of
whom the Indian Medical Service has reason to be proud,
and whose loss the public has now to lament, Joseph
Hume, Esq., M.P., having suggested Indian Fibres as a sub-
ject for inquiry to the Council of the Society of Arts, they did
me the honour to ask whether I could prepare a paper on the
subject. My time was then fully occupied with a general
work on the ‘ Commercial Products of India,’ several sheets
of which were then, as they still are, in type, and the
period for my Course of Lectures at King’s College was
‘approaching. J therefore found it impossible to devote
sufficient time to the elaboration of a suitable paper, but
offered to give a Lecture, which might be reported if
thought desirable. ‘This I did on the 11th of April, and,
with the permission of the Honorable the Court of Directors,
illustrated it with specimens of Fibre, Canvas, and.Cordage,
the property of the East India Company. ‘The Report of
it was published in the ‘ Journal of the Society of Arts,’ on
the 14th of April, 1854.
vi PREFACE.

The Lecture having been reprinted, both in this country
and in the Colonies, elicited much additional information,
some of which came in time to be recorded in its proper
place in the present work. The Lecture was also repub-
lished in the Pamphlet form, because, as was stated, it was
out of print—though this is usually a reason for authors
republishing their own productions. One editor complained
that he had seen it reprinted more than a hundred times,
and that it would never produce as much paper as it had
been printed on. As I myself never sent it, either directly
or indirectly, to any one for the purpose, I was happy to
find that the aspect of the times made the subject appear
sufficiently interesting to induce so many to republish so
imperfect an account.

Having been requested to place the information re-
specting Indian Fibres in some permanent form, I com-
menced the present work at the conclusion, last summer, of
my Lectures at King’s College. It has extended much
beyond the limits which I had prescribed for it, partly
owing to the number of subjects to be treated of, but
especially owing to the variety of points requiring to be
attended to respecting each; in order that the culture of
the plant and the preparation of the fibre—e. g., of Flax—
should be attended to according to the scientific principles
and the improved practice of the present day. The object
being that these should assist colonists and planters in
escaping failure with the culture of Flax, at the same time
that they might apply the information to the culture and
preparation of other fibres.

Respecting Flax, I have been enabled to bring together
much valuable information, in consequence of so much
having been done and written: so it is because much has
been done, though little is known regarding Indian Fibres,
that my limits have. been so much exceeded. This was
PREFACE. vii

necessary, in order that others might be able to make use
of the information which is on record, and future experi-
mentalists advance from points reached by their predecessors,
instead of repeating as new what has long been known.

This copiousness of information is due partly to the
Court of Directors of the East India Company having
directed the culture of Fibres in India at the beginning of
this century, as recorded in Wisset ‘On Hemp, &c.,’ and in
Dr. Roxburgh’s detached papers (v. p. 6); and partly to the
subject having attracted the attention of many writers in
the valuable ‘Trans. and Journ. of the Agri-Horticultural
Society of India.’ The Great Exhibition of 1851 pro-
duced a fine collection of Indian Fibres. Many. of Dr.
Roxburgh’s specimens are still in the India House, my
own collection has afforded others, and the market has
supplied such as are known in commerce.

The greatly increased Importation of Fibres from India
proves the importance of the subject, and indicates, from the
-rapidity of the rise, how much more is still practicable. In
successive editions of M‘Culloch’s ‘Commercial Dictionary,’
we find the following Imports into Great Britain; but,
under the head of Hemp from India, are included the
various Fibres described in this work, with probably no real
Hemp, though this may be imported from thence.

Quantities of Hemp imported into the United Kingdom :

1831. 1847. 1851.

From Russia ‘ ‘ 4 506,803 544,844 672,342
» British Territories in East Indies . 9,472 185,788 590,923

If any effectual impediments had been interposed to the
receipt of Hemp and Flax from the ordinary sources, a
greatly increased supply of Fibres would have been received
from India, and might be so at any time, if adequate notice
were given of the expected demand before the seasons of
cultivation—that is, before June and October. As the
Vill PREFACE.

above increase in the Imports has been chiefly in the lower
qualities of Fibre, it is reasonable to expect that some
demand may arise for those which are superior in point.
of strength and equal fineness, to any which are imported,
and that they will be able to bear the expenses of
freight, &c., at least as well as the others.

While this sheet is passing through the press, a debate
on “the Trade with Russia,” has taken place in the House
of Commons, on the 2lst of February; when it was
stated, that there had been recently a considerable impor-
tation of Hemp from India, but that ruinous losses had
been sustained on the Linseed from India. This must
have been of the ordinary produce of the country, and not
the consequence of extended cultivation, produced by
increased demand. A rise of price probably took place in
the local markets, in expectation of higher prices prevailing
in this country. Bombay Hemp, as observed at p. 288,
usually sells there at from Rs. 5 to Rs. 8 in June; but in
June, 1854, the price was Rs.11 per cwt. But as this rise

in price did not take place, the Linseed had to be sold at.

the ordinary rates; at which, however, Indian Linseed can
compete with others, as is proved by the large and increasing
imports from India. It was also asked, in the same debate,
““Why does not he (the merchant) go to India now for it
(that is, Flax), and the speaker replied, “on account of the
difference of price.” Little Flax is produced in India, for
reasons which have been fully detailed in this work. But
there is no reason to believe that it will be dearer than in
other countries, when grown in suitable localities. In a
letter from the Messrs. Noble, it was well stated, that a
temporary stoppage of the trade “ would give an impetus to
the growers of fibres in the Colonies ;” and that “the pro-
ducers would be able to send it (after they were once fairly
started), at prices that would compete with Russian Hemp,
when at its lowest prices; and it would also be of great
PREFACE, ix

advantage in doing away with the prejudice now existing
on the part of consumers about trying a new article.”

In sending Fibres to the English market, it would greatly
facilitate their employment, if the natives of India would
prepare them in a cleaner state, and have them made up in
the manner to which manufacturers here are accustomed.
Most of the Fibres treated of have been examined by prac-
tical men of skill, who consider them to be well adapted for
many purposes, and have assigned to them such prices as
they seem to be worth. These appear to be sufficient, to pay
for their culture and export.

I have to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. Ord, of
Threadneedle Street, who examined all the Fibres sent to
the Exhibition of 1851; and also to the Messrs. Noble,
who have recently examined the whole collection of Fibres.

It is often said that the only mode of ascertaining the
value of a Fibre, or of any other product, is to see what it will
bring in the open market. This is, no doubt, true of such
things as are known. But if a new product is sent into the
market, few of the regular purchasers will buy it, as they
want that to which their machinery and manufactures are
suited. I am told, that it is only by sending an article
for some years into market, that it attracts notice. When
worked up and found useful, inquiries are subsequently
made for it, and by degrees its properties are deter-
mined, and its real value ascertained; as we may see
on examining the present and former comparative prices of
Jute. The process will be much expedited by employing
brokers who pay special attention to particular classes of
articles, and by giving them all the information possible.
It would also be promoted by the more general establish-
ment of Trade Museums, as these would assist in dispelling
much of the ignorance which prevails respecting many
valuable Natural Products.

Merchants and manufacturers in this country, on the
x PREFACE.

other hand, complain, that having written to India for
particular Fibres, they are unable to obtain them in any
quantity. But they can hardly expect that parties abroad
should keep supplies of little-known articles for such acci-
dental demands. It is very certain that if but moderate
encouragement is given to such articles on their first ap-
pearance in the market, the supply will by degrees become
very greatly increased ; while of the Fibres which are already
cultivated, the supply might at once become considerable,
by sending orders for them before the season of cultivation.
Indeed, it was observed in a recent Bombay paper, that the
merchants there had been astonished at the quantity of
Fibres which had been brought into the Bombay market.

The subject of Fibres has of late attracted considerable
attention in India, as the Governor-General has issued
instructions for the sending to England some of the stronger
Fibres, both from the Northern and the Southern parts of
that Empire. The Madras Government has also given direc-
tions for the investigation of the fibrous materials procurable
in that Presidency. Dr. Clagham, in a letter dated 13th
January 1855, states that Mr. Underwood has succeeded
in separating them at a cheap rate. At Bombay a Com-
pany has been established for the collection of materials for
paper-making, while individuals are paying attention to the
preparation of Fibres. In Sindh and in the Punjab, the
culture of Flax has been taken up and patronised by the
Indian Government and the Court of Directors.

At the conclusion of this volume I have appended some
Observations on Materials for Paper-making, as well as the
Report which I wrote at the requisition of the Lords of the
Committee of the Privy Council for Trade.

Lonpon ; 24¢h February, 1855.
TABLE OF CONTENTS,

India abounds in Fibres; Hemp and Flax plants grown there. Culture of
Fibrous Plants in India at the beginning of this century, p. 6; Results, 8;
Present Exports, 9 ; Difficulty of introducing New Articles into Commerce,
12.

The nature of Fibre, p. 17; Preparation of, and of Cordage, 19; Twisting of
Cordage, 20; Loss of Strength by Twisting, 22; Effects of Tar on
Cordage, 24 ; Injurious effects of, 25.

Arrangement of Fibrous Plants, p. 27.

FIBRE OF ENDOGENOUS PLANTS (generally white).
Preparation of the Fibre of Endogens, 29.

GRASSES, SEDGES, ETC.

Grasses used as Cordage, p. 30; Spartum and Esparto, 31; Moonja, Sara,
Koosha.

Sedges, p. 33. Calcutta Mats. Bhabhur Cordage. Bulrushes, 35.

Screw Pines or Vacoa, p. 35. Nipa, called Nepah Palm.

LILIACEOUS PLANTS.

Pine-apple Tribe, p. 37. Penguin, Curratow, &c. Pine-apple in India, Singa-
pore, and Islands, for weaving, p. 39; Pinacloth. Fibre for Cordage;
strength of, 41.

Pita or Agave, commonly called Aloe, p. 41; Cordage of, in America, in India;

Experiments on, at Toulon, in Bengal, at Madras. True Aloes, 51.

Moorva or Moorga Fibre, p. 51; ancient use of ; cultivated by Dr. Roxburgh ;
compared with Hempen Rope; woven into Cloth; Strength of, as
Rope, 56.

Yucca Fibre, p. 57; New Zealand Flax, 57; Rushes, 60; Seetul Patee Mats
60.

PLANTAIN TRIBE.

The Plantain and Banana Tribe, p. 61; Geographical Distribution of.
Manilla Hemp (Musa textilis), p.64; Cordage and Cloth of.
xu CONTENTS.

Plantain Fibre (Musa paradisiaca), p. 69; Preserved Plantains ; Plantain Meal ;
Chemical Analyses; Cultivation of Plant; Preservation of Fruit, Meal ;
Preparation of Meal and of Fibre; Cost of producing; Plantain Paper
aud Cordage.

PALMS, *

Palms, p. 91; their Distribution and Uses. Canes and Rattans; Palmetto ;
Date tree; Chattah pat; Palmira; Talipat.

Ejoo or Gomuto, and Kittul or Black Vegetable Bristles, p. 99; durability.

Cocoa-nut Palm, p. 102; in Laccadives, Malabar; Uses of; Toddy; Oil;
Fibre or Coir; Cordage and Cables of, at Bengal and Bombay.

Exports of Cocoa-nut Products, p. 119. Other useful Palms, 123.

General Observations on Fibre of Endogens, p. 125.

FIBRE OF EXOGENOUS PLANTS (Brown Fibres).

Exogens, p. 129; Structure of; Fibre of. Objections to Indian Fibres; valu-
able properties of; defective preparation of.

FLAX.

Flax and Linseed, p. 135; Importance of; Imports and Consumption.
The Flax Plant and its Products, p. 142; Composition of Linseed; of Linseed
_ Oil.

Chemical Constituents of Flax Plant and of Flax Soils, p. 146.

Culture of Flax, p. 152; Climate suited to; Directions for Culture, by
Royal Irish Society, 155 ; Observations on Culture of Flax, 159; Profits
of, in Great Britain, 162.

Report on the Culture of Flax in India, p. 163; Experiments in 1840-41,
Effects of Indian Climate and Culture on Flax Plant; Proposed Sites for
New Experiments, 171.

Analysis of former Experiments, p. 172,181; at Shahabad, by Flax Society,
&c. Practical Instructions for Culture of Flax in Bengal, by Mr. Deneef,
Belgian Farmer, 175.

English Reports on Indian-grown Flax, p. 181. Observations on Results
of Experiments, 184. Culture in other parts of India, 186; Saugur and
Nerbudda, Madras, Bombay, Bundlecund, Northern Doab, in Punjab.
Report on First Produce in Punjab, 195. Directions for Culture in
Punjab, 196. Culture in Sindh, 197.

Separation and Preparation of Flax Fibre, p.199; by Royal Flax Society ;
Schenck’s Process; Dr. Hodges on Changes ; Watt’s Process ; Report on.

Composition of Steep-water, &c., p. 208; Buchanan’s Process, Pownall’s.

Chemical Processes for Separating Flax, p. 213.

Mechanical Processes by Hand, with Woodcuts, p.216.

Mechanical Processes for Separating Flax by Machinery, p. 220; Hill and
Bundy’s; Dickson’s Machine; Davy’s; Heckling.

Exports of Linseed from India, p. 227. Imports of Flax, Tow, and Linseed
into Great Britain, 229. Conclusion, 231.
CONTENTS. xiii

RUSSIA MATS.
Lime tree and Russia Mats, p. 233. Indian Substitutes for Russian Bast, 235.

JUTE.

Jute or Jew’s Mallow, p. 240; Culture, Preparation of Fibre. Manufacture of
Gunny and Gunny Bags Exports, 251.

THE SO-CALLED INDIAN HEMPS.
Indian Hemps, or those so-called, p. 251. Ambaree or Hemp-like Hibiscus,
254; Deckanee Hemp
Other Fibre-yielding Species of Hibiscus; Sida, &c, p. 259.
Cotton Cordage and Canvas, p. 264.
Silk Cotton Tree, p. 265; Abroma angusta for Fibre.
Tabulated Results of Dr. Roxburgh’s Experiments on Indian Fibres, pp. 268-9.
Sunn Fibre,’ p. 270; Culture, Preparation, Strength; Culture in Madras
Territories, 279 ; in West of India, 282 ; Conkanee Hemp; Brown Hemp
of Bombay, and of Malabar Coast ; Wuckoo-nar of Travancore.
Comparative Strength of Sunn Cordage, p. 289
Jubbulpore Hemp, a good substitute for Russian Hemp, p. 290.
Dhanchee Fibre, Sesbania aculeata, formerly Aischynomone cannabina, p. 298.
Maljhun, p. 295; Dhak, 297; and other Leguminous Fibre-yielding Plants.
Exports of Sunn and other Hemp-like Products, p. 299.

COROLLIFLORALS.

Dogbanes, p. 302; Oleander, Vinca, Asclepiads, 303; Jetee Fibre, &.
Mudar or Yereum Plant, p. 306; Gutta-Percha-like Sap, Down, and Fibre.

APETALOUS PLANTS.

Nepal Paper Plant (Maphne cannabina), p. 311.

TRUE HEMP (CANNABIS SATIVA).

True Hemp (Cannabis sativa), p. 314; properties and secretions of. Report
on Culture of, in Himalayas, 316. Soil and Climate suited to ordinary
Culture. Reports on Culture in Gurhwal, 321. Culture in Nepal, 323.

Hemp Culture in Plains of India, p.324. Report on Hemp grown in India, by
Mr. Deneef, 325

Quality and Cost of Hemp in Himalayas, p. 327; Report on, by Mr. Deneef,
328; Cost of Himalayan Hemp, 330; Strength of, 331; and of other
Indian Fibres, 332.

Culture and Preparation of Hemp in Europe, p. 333; Peculiar modes, 336 ;
Crop and Profit, 338.

Imports of Hemp and of Hemp-like Fibres from Russia and India, p. 339 ;
Prices, 340.

BREAD-FRUIT AND MULBERRY TRIBE.

Bread-Fruit tribe, p. 840. Paper Mulberry, 341. Paper and Cloth; Mul-

berry; Fig tree; Jack tree, 343
xiv CONTENTS.

NETTLES.

Nettles; their Uses as Fibrous Plants, p. 344.

China-grass, or Chi Ma, p. 345. Medals for Caloee, or Ramee of Malays, 346.
Rheea of Assam, Report on, 349. Identity of Chi Ma, Caloee, Rami,’
and Rheea, 351; Culture of, in Java; fitness for fine purposes, 353 5
Strength of, and of Wild Rheea, for Cordage, 355. Transmission of
Rheea Fibre from Assam, &., to this country, 357.

Cultivation of the Tchou Ma, according to the Chinese, p. 359. Preparation
of Fibre, 361.

Indo-Chinese method of preparing Rheea Fibre, by Major Hannay, p. 363.

Other species of Nettles; Bon Rheea, p. 363; Mesakhee Fibre, 365; Chor
Surat, 366; Horoo Surat, or Neilgherry Nettle, 366; Pooah Fibre, 368.
Other Himalayan Nettles, 370

Great Strength of Rheea and other Fibres for Cordage, p. 372

Concluding Observations, p. 376

APPENDIX.
Import of Flax and Hemp from Russia, and all other countries, from 1801 to
1853, p. 381
Observations on Materials for Paper-making, p. 382
Report on, for Committee of Lords of Privy Council for Trade, p. 387
THE

FIBROUS PLANTS OF INDIA

FITTED FOR

CORDAGE, CLOTHING, AND PAPER.

THE combination of strength with flexibility makes many
natural products so useful-to man, that they attract his
attention even in the earliest states of society. The necessity
of sometimes tying up cattle, tethering a horse, or towing a raft,
would readily lead to the twisting together of strips of skins or
the tough bark of trees, so that length might be obtained,
while strength was not sacrificed. Many of the same sub-
stances were early applied to the arts of platting and of mat-
making; while the felting of wool was discovered at very
remote periods in the northern parts of Asia. All these arts
probably preceded the discovery of that of weaving, when textile
fabrics, whether of wool or of vegetable fibre, came to be sub.
stituted, as clothing for man, for the skins and furs of animals
or the primitive matting of rushes.

It has been very satisfactorily shown by Mr. Yates, in his
‘Textrinum Antiquorum,’ that in ancient times the inhabi-
tants of Europe and of Western Asia were enveloped in skins
and furs, or garments of wool and of goat’s hair, while the
Chinese were probably clothed in silk. Hemp was early
employed for the same purpose by the Scythians. The Egyptian

1
2 CORDAGE AND WEAVING IN INDIA.

priesthood, we know, were allowed to wear only linen ; while
the Indians are described as wearing cloth made of fleeces
from trees, which surpassed those of sheep in beauty and
excellence. That cotton is meant, is evident not only from the
description, but from the Indian name carbasus (from the
Sanscrit kurpasum) being used to describe their dress—as
corpora usque pedes carbaso velant.” But the natives of
India were at still earlier periods acquainted with the arts of
spinning and of weaving, as may be proved by a reference to
their Vedas; while in the Institutes of Menu, written 800
years before the Christian era, we are told, that the sacrificial
thread of a Brahmin must be made of cotton; that of a
Cshatriya, of sana‘ thread only; that of a Vaisya, of woollen
thread.

India is a country of such vast extent, and so diversified in
soil as well as in climate, that we may readily believe it to be
capable of producing almost every kind of natural produce, and
among these every known variety of fibre. If we consider,
moreover, how early India was civilised, how long the greater
number of the useful arts have there been practised, we might
safely infer that the country must long have possessed a
variety of products fitted for the several purposes to which flax
and hemp are elsewhere applied—that is, for platted or for
twisted manufactures ; as well as for the coarser and the finer
textile fabrics, such as the construction of mats, the twisting
of bow-strings, or lines for fishing, or for the making of nets;
ropes for tow-lines, tethers for camels or other beasts of burden,
or for harnessing cattle; yarn for the manufacture of canvas
for sacking, or for sails for their shipping, or for the pro-
duction of their “webs of woven air.”

Cotton, was early, as it still is, employed in India for
many of the purposes to which leather, hemp, and flax, are
alone thought applicable in other countries; as for the
coverings of carriages, the construction of tents, of canvas, and
of cordage. And this, notwithstanding that India possesses,
and its inhabitants are acquainted with, a vast number of
fibre-yielding plants. These are little known to, or but slightly
appreciated in other countries, though they are undoubtedly

' That is, of swnn, probably Crotalaria fibre, q. y,
HEMP AND FLAX GROWN IN INDIA. 3

possessed of very valuable properties. Further, by proceeding
in such inquiries, we shall find that the natives of India, besides
writing on the leaves of palm-trees and the bark of the birch,
as well as engraving their records on rocks or on plates of metal,
have long been acquainted with the manufacture of paper. We
may, therefore, enquire whether cotton is the only material
which they convert into this useful product, or whether there
are not other substances which they themselves employ, and
which we may also apply to the growing (I had almost said in-
satiable) wants of this manufacture, as necessary for our
comfort and commerce, as for the continued and advancing
civilisation of the world.

If we extend our inquiries only to the plants which are
cultivated by the natives of India, many will no doubt be sur-
prised to find among them not only the true Hemp but also
the true Flax plant; and the more so when they learn, that
both are extensively cultivated, not in one, but in almost every
part of the wide-spread territories of the Indian empire. Still
more curious is it, that in few places are these plants valued for
their fibres, which in Europe are almost the sole objects of
attention. But in India, the Hemp plant is esteemed for the
intoxicating properties secreted by its leaves, and the Flax plant
for the oil stored up within its seeds. The stems of both
plants, which in Europe are valued for their fibres, are in
India either thrown away or burnt. It will at once be con-
cluded, as has more than once been the case, that countless
loads of valuable fibre are thus yearly lost, either from the igno-
rance or the carelessness of the cultivators. Without denying
that this may, in some degree at least, be the case, we may
say in this,as in many other things, a little knowledge leads
but to incorrect conclusions.

The Hemp plant being valued for its intoxicating sécretions,
it has been found by the people of India, that these are best
produced when the plants are freely exposed to light and air,
and therefore they place them at distances of nine feet apart
from each other. This exposure to light, heat, and air, in a
rich soil and brilliant climate, is so well suited to the plants,
that they grow to a great size and throw out branches on all
sides; but the fibres, instead of being flexible and strong,
are found to be woody and brittle. And this is only what
4 PECULIARITIES OF CULTURE IN INDIA.

might be expected, for the fibrous product of plants is only
the woody fibre in a younger state, and may be considered as
wood in a separated form, while wood may be described as
consisting chiefly of amalgamated fibres. Exposure to light
and air is well known to be essential to the formation of good
wood, by favouring the proper secretions of the tree and the
thickening of the woody fibres. But this necessarily dimi-
nishes their flexibility, and therefore is not suited to plants
which are grown on account of these fibres. Hence, to obviate
this undue exposure of the plants to light and air, and to
favour their shooting upwards, and to prevent the formation
of lateral branches, the seeds of both the hemp and the flax
plant are sown thick in Europe; and the plants grown closer
as the fibre is required to be finer. But the Flax plant in
India being cultivated for its seed, is, on the contrary, either
sown in lines on the outside of and as an edging to, or broad-
cast and intermixed with, other crops. The seeds are collected
when they are fully ripe, or when the other crops have been
harvested. The effect is, that the plants are checked in their
upward growth, and attain a height of only a foot or of
eighteen inches, have numerous lateral branches, and are
loaded with seed-vessels ; each seed containing a larger propor-
tion of oil than is found in those grown in Europe; but
the fibre is short, brittle, and unfitted for the general purposes
of flax.

It does not appear that the Indian climate is the best
suited to the production of good flax and hemp; for it is one of
comparatively short seasons, of great alternations of dryness
and of moisture, as well as of considerable extremes of tempe-
rature. But the Creator of all has enriched the country with a
variety of plants which do flourish well even within these
extremes. The Indian mode of cultivation is better suited for
the secretion of the resin in one case and of oil in the other,
than for the production of strong and flexible fibre in either
plant. For the production of this, both plants require a com-
paratively slow growth in a moderately moist and temperate
climate. This it would be unreasonable to expect to find,
either in the comparatively arid tracts of north-west India, or
in the moist and warm plains of Bengal. In fact, if it were
not that the autumnal and winter temperature of these districts
MANY VALUABLE FIBRES IN INDIA. 5

approaches the summer temperature of European countries,
flax plants could not be grown at all, so as to yield either oil,
seed, or fibre. But, as it is, we may appropriately consider,
under the respective heads of Flax and of Hemp, whether it may
not be possible, by modifications of culture, or by selection of
suitable sites, to grow both these plants, within the limits of
India, so as to yield useful fibre.

On the other hand, it is now well known that India pos-
sesses, and indeed exports, various fibres which are produced
by several fast-growing plants. Of these fibres, some,
though long and fine in texture, are deficient in strength;
others appear coarse in texture, or are harsh in feel, and yet
not remarkable for tenacity. It has therefore been inferred
by some very intelligent men, that the heat and moisture of
the climates where these grow are favorable to rapid growth,
which of itself is sufficient to account for the want of strength ;
and that therefore we caunot expect to find them suited to the
production of good fibres. But here the conclusion come to
is equally hasty, for no distinction is made between what is
due to the nature of the plant itself, and what to its mode of
cultivation, or to the preparation of its fibre, and what to the
effects of soil and of climate. We do not in this country
expect the willow to have the strength of the oak, nor that a
rope of rushes will have the tenacity of even a cord of hemp.
Yet all may be seen growing in the vicinity of each other.
There is as little reason for expecting that the soft and silky
Jute of India is to have the strength of either flax or of hemp;
and because it does not have it, for inferring, that there cannot
be produced in its vicinity other fibres possessed of greater
strength. But, if we were to judge from the density and
strength of some of the woods produced in the hottest and
moistest, as well as in some of the driest climates, we might
expect to find plants in the same localities which are equally
conspicuous for tenacity of fibre. Instead, however, of infe-
rence, I hope to be able to prove to the satisfaction of even the
most sceptical, that India grows plants in some of its dry and
barren plains, yielding fibres which are as strong and tough as
any produced in other parts of the world; but which are equalled
in such qualities by others growing in some of its moistest and
hottest valleys. Some of these, while possessed of the greatest
6 CULTURE OF FIBROUS PLAN'S IN INDIA

strength, are also divisible to any extent of fineness. Most of
them exist in sufficient quantities, or are so easily cultivated,
as to be of great commercial and manufacturing value. Because
it has been ascertained that they can be brought to the markets
of Europe even from these distant fields, so as to contend in
price, even in ordinary times, with the favoured products of the
nearest countries.

Though India possesses so large a number of fibre-yielding
plants, but few of them are objects of European commerce, or
are known to the manufacturers of cordage or of textile fabrics
in Europe. This is not because no efforts have been made to
make them known; for Dr. Roxburgh, in consequence of
orders from the Court of Directors of the East India Com-
pany, so long since as the beginning of this century, grew many
of the plants in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, separated
their fibres, twisted them into twine, and tried their strength,
as well when plain as when tanned or tarred. He also sent
specimens to the India House, where some of them are still in
existence, and also to the Society of Arts, in whose ‘ Transac-
tious’ for the year 1804 many of them are described. The
Court of Directors, indeed, must have made inquiries for sub-
stitutes for hemp in the latter part of the last century, for, in
some of the publications quoted below,’ references are made to
the Board of Trade Consultations in Bengal of the date of
1792, which relate to the Reports of the Collectors of Districts.
These give much valuable information respecting the culture of

' «A Treatise on Hemp, including a comprehensive account of the best Modes of
Cultivation and Preparation as practised in Europe, Asia, and America; with Obser-
vations on the Sunn Plant of India, which may be introduced as a Substitute for
many of the purposes to which Hemp is now exclusively employed.’ By Robert
Wisset, Esq., F.R. and A.S., London, Clerk to the Committee of Warehouses of the
East India Company. The first edition in 1804, the second in 1808.

‘Observations on the Sunn Hemp of Bengal; with statements of Experiments
made from 1802 to 1806 to ascertain its comparative Strength with Russian Hemp,
and the advantages of encouraging its Culture and Importation.’ London: 1806.

‘Observations of the late Dr. William Roxburgh, Botanical Superintendent of the
Honourable East India Company’s Garden at Calcutta, on the various Specimens of
Fibrous Vegetables, the produce of India, which may prove valuable Substitutes for
Hemp and Flax, on some future day, in Europe.’ Edited by a Friend, and published
at the expense of the East India Company, for the information of the Residents
and the benefit that may arise therefrom throughout the Settlements in Tada,
London: 1815.
AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS CENTURY. 7

Sunn Hemp in India. In a pamphlet, published anonymously
in 1806, ‘ On the Sunn Hemp of Bengal,’ p. 11, as well as in
Macpherson’s ‘ History of European Commerce with India,’
p. 242, we are told that great losses were sustained in the years
1796, 1797, and 1798, by the East India Company, and “ that
their expenditure upon that object exceeded the amount of
the sales by more than £45,000, and that all such imports were
discontinued until the year 1800, when differences again oc-
curred with the Northern Powers of Europe.” But we learn
from a letter of Dr. Roxburgh, dated 24th Dec., 1799, that the
Court of Directors had sent out Mr. Sinclair to establish the
cultivation of hemp; but he having died shortly afterwards,
the experiment was continued by Mr. T. Douglas, and, ac-
cording to Dr. Roxburgh, in a most expensive manner.

The Lords of the Privy Council for Trade and Foreign
Plantations, in a letter dated the 4th of February, 1803,
recommended to the Court of Directors of the East India
Company, to encourage as much as possible the growth of
strong hemp in such parts of their dependencies as might be
best suited to the production of that article. On the 23d of
the same month, the Court replied, that they would take the
needful measures for accomplishing the object of their lord-
ships’ wishes (v. ‘ Product. Resources of India,’ by the author),

Farms were accordingly directed to be established for the
cultivation of hemp and of substitutes for it. Dr. Roxburgh,
Superintendent of the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, was ap-
pointed to the charge of one of them. As above stated, he
cultivated a great variety of the fibrous plants of India, made
experiments with the fibres, and sent specimens of them to
this country. Though Dr. Roxburgh published no separate
work on the subject, he wrote letters and reports, and included
detailed descriptions of the plants in his botanical works. His
separate papers were collected together at his death into a
small volume, entitled, ‘Observations, &c., on the various
specimens of Fibrous Vegetables, the produce of India, which
may prove valuable substitutes for Hemp and Flax on some
future day in India” Dr. Roxburgh’s exertions were acknow-
ledged by the Society of Arts by the award of their gold
medal.

Among the fibrous plants which Dr. Roxburgh submitted to.
8 RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS ON FIBRES IN INDIA

examination, was the Caloee of Sumatra, which he subsequently
named Urtica tenacissima. He was informed by a friend
at Canton, that the grass cloth of China was made from its
fibres. The experiments were continued until 1811; for
Dr. Buchanan, who was appointed to succeed Dr. Roxburgh,
sent in that year three bales of the Caloee fibre of Sumatra to
the India House. These the Court of Directors forwarded
to Messrs. Sharpe, then of Mark Lane, who reported, that a
thread spun of the fibres bore 252 lb., whereas the weight
required to be borne by Russian hemp of the same size in her
Majesty’s Dockyard was only 821b. The Society of Arts, in
the year 1814, awarded a silver medal to Capt. J. Cotton, then
a Director of the East India Company——-who had also paid
great attention to the Sunn—for the introduction of this fibre,
of which the reports were so favorable for strength and for
other qualities. It has since been discovered to be abundant
in Assam, and other parts of India.

Among the fibres subjected to experiment by Dr. Roxburgh,
were the Sunn of Bengal (Crotolaria juncea), the Brown Hemp
of Bombay (Hibiscus cannabinus), and the Jute produced by
different species of Corchorus, which, though weak, has many
valuable properties. Considerable quantities of the different
kinds of Sunn and of Jute were imported by the East India
Company. These were at times discontinued, and again re-
sumed; but now we may consider them as trophies of the last
war, inasmuch as they have become permanent and considerable
articles of export. We may therefore fairly hope, as attention
has, in the present war, been directed towards the Hemp: of
the Himalayas and the Rheea of Assam, that these also may
become permanent sources of benefit to India, because they
possess, in a superior degree, every quality required of fibres.
Before proceeding, we may mention the quantities in which
Jute and Sunn are now exported from India.

Though the accounts are imperfect of the export of these,
at that time small matters, yet we perceive by the accounts of
the Exports of India, given in to the Committee of the House
of Commons for the Affairs of India, in 1831, that in the
official year 1796-97, only 591 maunds of hemp, flax, and
twine were exported from Calcutta to the United Kingdom,
but 2883 maunds to the United States of America,
DURING THE LAST WAR. 9

Of jute, at the same period, 521 maunds to the United
Kingdom, 159 to America, and 1100 maunds to Hamburgh.

Gunny cloth, or sacking, which in Bengal is made of jute,
is exported either in pieces or made up into bags; of these,
besides considerable numbers to Penang, China, and New
South Wales, 34,000 were exported to America in the year
1796. Since which, the quantity has gradually increased,
having been, in 1849-50, 6,545,964, and of jute 83,802
maunds; so that India has contributed something to the suc-
cess of the American cotton trade, as Bengal gunny bags are
everywhere preferred in the Southern States for the packing of
cotton. The following are the exports from the three Presidencies
for the official year 1850-51 ; the maund being equal to 82 lb.:

 

Hemp
Hemp Gunny Gunny 5
(Sunn), Poon) Tute. bags. pieces. Coir. | Canvass

 

Maunds. | Maunds. | Maunds. | Number. | Maunds. | Maunds. | Bolts.
Calcutta . 7635 10,301 | 793,299 |8,759,185| 276,528 2654

Cwt. Cwt. Cwt.
Madras . 2095 1372 _ 58,950 _ 109,288 | 470
Bombay . | 11,793 274 _ 188,540; — 4178 | —

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Besides these, as belonging to fibre plants, we may mention
that, in addition to linseed oil, considerable quantities of
linseed are exported from all three Presidencies, as will pro-
bably also soon be the case from Sindh.

Maunds. Cwt. Cwt.

ee peo Calcutta, 765,497 Madras, 801 Bombay, 45,135.

The true Hemp is nowhere mentioned in these returns, though
the plant is cultivated everywhere on account of its intoxi-
cating properties. But Bombay being unable, from its insular
situation, to produce enough for its own consumption, im-
ported from the Concan 514 cwt. of ganza, or the dried leaves
and flowers of the true hemp. In the above returns, by the word
Hemp is no doubt intended the Sunn fibre of India, under which
name, however, are probably included the fibres both of Croto-
laria and of Hibiscus; while the gunny bags of Madras are
probably made of Crotolaria fibre, as may be those of Bombay.
But the latter also imports a large number of gunny bags
10 EXTENT OF IMPORTS OF HEMP AND FLAX.

from Calcutta, probably for packing some of the cotton produced
in its own provinces.

As calculated to show the great importance of the commerce
in fibrous materials, and also the extent of the interests
involved in their growth and manufacture, as well as interesting
for comparison with the exports from India, we insert here
an account of the quantities of Hemp and of Flax imported
into the United Kingdom for two years, that is, 1801 and
1853. A comparison of these will show the great increase in
the imports of these two articles during the last half-century :

 

FLAX and TOW,
or CODILLA of HEMP and FLAX.

 

Years.
From Russia. |From other Parts.) From all Parts.

 

Cwt. Cwt. Cwt.
1801 188,106 85,613 273,719

1853 1,294,827 607,650 1,902,477

 

HEMP UNDRESSED.

 

180) 682,175 67,171 749,346
1853 806,396 412,374 1,218,770

 

 

 

 

Other fibres which were tried and made known at the above
period, still remain unnoticed in Europe, and seem even to
have been forgotten by the Indian community. This must be
ascribed, on one side to the long peace having rendered manu-
facturers here indifferent to distant sources of supply ; while in
India the changing nature of European society, causes things
familiar to all at one period, to become totally unknown only
a few years afterwards. This effect is further promoted by the
entire neglect of the Natural Sciences, which treat of these
and other products as parts of general education. It would
seem to be thought, that the earth we tread on, the air we
breathe, and the animal and vegetable worlds by which we are
fed and clothed, are not worthy objects of attention nor sources
of valuable information. Not only are they so, but they are
as well calculated as any other studies to train the mind to
habits of correct observation, of careful induction, and of
methodical arrangement. It is sometimes said, that these are
subjects for professional rather than for general education.
NEGLECT OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN EDUCATION. 11

Without admitting the truth of this opinion, we might yet have
the evil rectified, if we found, that though soldiers and civilians
neglected, some of these studies were ptrsued by planters and
colonists, merchants and manufacturers. This is so far from
being the case, that I was induced in another work to observe,
that “the generality of modern experimentalists seem to be
unacquainted with the lahours of their predecessors, many of
them commencing improvement by repeating experiments
which had already been made, and announcing results as new
which had long previously been ascertained.”

We certainly now hear everywhere of the establishment of
Schools where the principles of chemistry, of vegetable and
animal structure, and physiology, are to be tanght on account
of their application to the improvement of gardening and of
farming: while Trade Museums are being established to inform
the manufacturer and merchant of the innumerable, to them
useful substances, which nature everywhere produces, and which
man so frequently neglects. From the general inattention,
moreover, to such subjects, the short Reports and Essays which
have been written on different useful products, are soon for-
gotten, and disappear from circulation. And, though great
books have been pronounced to be great evils, small ones are
like writings on the sand, which the waves of time obliterate,
or remove so out of sight, as to be discovered only by the more
diligent students of nature.

By some it has been said, that if these Indian fibres possess
any useful properties, or can be afforded at reasonable rates,
and there is any demand for them, that they will be sure to
find their way to market. But others inquire, If there are such
things, why don’t they come to us? To this we may reply,
that of the useful properties of many of these products there
can be no doubt, as will be shown in the course of these pages,
They are abundant, or may easily be cultivated, and can be
supplied at rates to contend successfully with similar productions
from other countries. Mr. Henley has lately shown, that fibrous
materials may be supplied in Bengal at about four shillings
a maund,! which is also the price of the true hemp in the
Himalayas. Of the demand we may judge from the endless

' See Plantain, Jute, Sunn, and Hemp, for the prices at which fibres may be
obtained in India.
12 DIFFICULTY OF INTRODUCING

inquiries, when there happens to be, from whatever cause, a
dearth of the usual supplies. We may therefore infer, that as
they are possessed of useful properties, and are purchaseable at
reasonable prices, they ought to participate in the commerce
of Europe in ordinary times. But there are great difficulties
in their doing so at any time, for new articles are not
enquired for, or even looked at, except in the above exceptional
cases. And even in these, great indifference is displayed,
unless you can say that large quantities are at once procurable,
The colonists being seemingly expected to keep warehouses
stored with raw products for the paroxysmal demands of Euro-
pean commerce; as if it were not enough to have within their
reach the inexhaustible storehouse of nature, ready at all times
to answer all legitimate demands. The Ryots of India are
mostly too remote from the centres of commerce, or too
apathetic to do anything different from what they have been
accustomed to, while Europeans do not receive much encourage-
ment in travelling out of the beaten track. For if we enquire into
the history of many of the most important articles of commerce,
we shall find that they were at first either neglected or abused.
Large sums were expended, and much money was lost, before
they came to be established as regular articles of commerce.
The difficulty in making new things known and appreciated
as articles of commerce, arises chiefly from the habitual neglect
of such things when sent for inquiry from abroad, in order to have
their value ascertained at home. For if sent as specimens, I
have seen many reports, in which they are pronounced to be of
“no value,” because they are “unknown in the market.”
The importer is sometimes advised to send the article in larger
quantities to market for a few years, as it will then have a
chance of being looked at and its true value ascertained. The
planter is not often inclined to follow this advice. For if one
more adventurous than his neighbours does send a quantity
sufficient even for manufacturing purposes, it is not usually
brought to the notice of the more inquiring manufacturer. The
article being necessarily consigned by the planter to his agents, is
by them transferred to a broker, by whom it is sold with
other colonial produce, with little or no information respecting
its properties, or the quantities in which, and the prices at
which it could be supplied, if it should be approved of. Indeed,
NEW ARTICLES INTO COMMERCE. 13

I am informed, that the novelty of the appearance, or the
strangeness of the name, is more often the subject of jest, than
the article is one of serious enquiry. At all events, the result
usually is, that the article is sold at a price which does not
pay its expences, and the planter is deterred from sending any
fresh quantities. Further progress is, in that quarter at least,
thus stopped, even at its commencement.

Even without such impediments, the difficulties are consi-
derable in bringing any new article into use in sufficiently
large quantities to be an object of commerce. The natives of
India, who are the universal cultivators or collectors of raw
produce, being unwilling to enter upon practices or speculations
unknown to their forefathers. Any European who, instead of
following the established routes of commerce, endeavours to trace
out a new one for himself, is, I am told, considered an unsafe -
man—certainly with some truth, as long as his labours in a
new field are so little appreciated or requited by the consumers
in Europe. He is, moreover, while the value of a new
article is unknown, subjected to the inconvenience of not
having advances made in India upon what he may have shipped,
as is the case with the ordinary articles of commerce. The mer-
chants in India, or agents as they are usually called, are
unwilling or unable to engage in the export of new articles;
for the Bombay Chamber of Commerce have described how
difficult it is for the merchants resident in the capital to come in
contact with the cultivators in the country, also that they are
but a “small body,” “in most cases the agents of others, whose
orders they must comply with ;” but Mr. Bracken explained that
they are engaged in agency and banking in all its branches, as
agents, and in making advances of money for commercial
purposes.

One great objection which is frequently made against en-
tering into any speculation for the cultivation of any particular
product in India, is the necessity of making some advances of
money before the natives can be induced to undertake any
particular culture or preparation. This is, no doubt, true, but
it is the fashion of the country, which it would be extremely
difficult to alter, and certainly not for a great many years. The
advance can be effected, however, without much trouble and with
little risk, if respectable dulals, or native agents, are employed.
14 ADVANCES OF MONEY FOR RUSSIAN PRODUCE.

But under the operation of this practice have arisen, the great
commercial products of India, such as indigo, silk, opium, &c.
The practice, so far from being exclusively Indian, may be
considered rather as Asiatic, and, indeed, much more general
even than that. For, if we inquire into the history of some
extensive articles of import, we shall find English agents esta-
blished near the places of production, and English capital
continually sent out to vivify the exertions of colonists or of
the natives of the country. Indeed, it can hardly be other-
wise, if we compare the wants of many countries with the
enormous quantities of produce required to satisfy the demands
of even a single large manufacturer: this being often equal to
that of some kingdoms. The Russian trade in hemp and flax
itself seems dependent for its great extension upon English
capital, for I am informed that money is annually sent to
different ports of Russia, agents are thence dispatched into
the country districts; these buy up the quantities which each
cultivator has been able to grow but cannot prepare before
winter; so that the article is not delivered for six months after-
wards. The Earl of Clarendon, in his speech on the Russian war,
in the House of Lords, on the 10th of August, said: “ We must
consider, too, that the trade with Russia is usually conducted with
English capital; that English capital has been indispensable
for their production and for bringing them to market, and
that that has entirely ceased; and that all the industry of the
country has, to a great extent, been paralysed, while the want
of markets has deprived the Russian proprietor of all that he
had to depend on to meet the expenses to which he is subject.”
Indeed, I am happy to say that some of the capital, which
used to be sent to Russia for the purchase of hemp and flax,
has this year been sent to India for the purchase of its peculiar
fibres, and among them, probably, of Indian-grown hemp.
Though the fate of the generality of experimentalists is to
have their efforts unnoticed, and thus to be deterred from
further attempts, there are, I am also glad to state, some, and
among them not the least intelligent and successful of manu-
facturers, who do themselves inquire after new products likely
to be useful in their special businesses, and who, having
obtained, first make a scientific investigation of the properties
of the new substance, and then having subjected it to the
INFORMATION. REQUIRED BY MANUFACTURERS. 15

practical working of their factories, have in a few instances,
which I myself have brought to their notice, given remunerative
orders directly to the planter for his produce.

A manufacturer may justly object to employ a new thing,
with the properties of which he is but partially acquainted; and
which, having investigated, he has no information of the quan-
tities or price at which it can be supplied, supposing that he
found it suitable for his purposes. Because, unless obtainable in
quantity, regularly and at reasonable prices, he is unable, he says,
to do any good with it. Therefore, in sending a new product
to market, it is essential that it should be accompanied with
the necessary statistical information. It is not of this, how-
ever, but of the total neglect of their endeavours, which planters
complain. These, if stimulated by enquiry, would be induced
to collect or to cultivate, to prepare, and to send to the markets
of Europe, a new or little-known article, and to take measures
for keeping up a regular supply for such manufacturers as might
be the first induced toemploy it. Information, therefore, both
of a practical and of a scientific nature, is essential for bringing
new or comparatively little-known articles into use.

But the attempt to diffuse information, and to take advan-
tage of the public attention being directed to this subject, seems
to be objected to by some political economists. For it is said—
“Some persons, amongst the rest Mr. Sharp, seem anxious to
profit by present circumstances, to bring forward the fibrous
productions of India, to the exclusion of those of other countries.
“Their object i is not trade, but to give employment to our fellow-
subjects in our colonies and dependencies, &c.” This at the
same time that others are enquiring — Why are not the resources
of India more largely developed? If the object were only to
give occupation to our fellow-subjects of the East, it would
still be a laudable one, as many have been deprived of their
hereditary occupations as weavers, by the gigantic progress
made by the cotton trade of this country. But who the parties
are who have attempted to give this occupation, without at-
tending to the legitimate demands of trade, does not appear.
Certainly not those who have been adopting very effective
measures for securing, as an article of trade, ample supplies of
fibrous material now produced in enormous quantities in diffe-
rent parts of the world, and allowed everywhere to go to waste,
16 UTILITY OF INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED.

though capable of the most important applications, both here and.
elsewhere. It is also said, that the object in the main seems
to be, “ enriching some few hundreds or thousands of our coun-
trymen, who have estates, or a pecuniary interest in the Hast
and West Indies.” The objections to enriching one party at
the expense of another, was never thought of when thousands
of the weavers of Dacca were ruined, at the same time that
the manufacturers of cotton goods here were enriched. But
this effect was inevitable, as the high state of mechanical inven-
tion in England produced machinery of which the products
could undersell those of the Indian loom, even in the distant
fields where the cotton was grown.

In the present, as in all other instances, the Indian ryot
is quiescent and indifferent. It is the manufacturers and
Chambers of Commerce of this country who enquire, that as
war diminishes the ordinary supplies, why cannot their wants
be supplied from India, as that country grows what they want?
Opportunity has therefore been taken, and we trust wisely
taken, to direct attention to the neglected riches of our Indian
empire, and thus to remove some of the difficulties which impede
the introduction of new things into market. Feeling con-
fident, that as the country possesses many fibres which are of
good quality, and the climate, where both land and labour are
cheap, is favorable to their growth, that some of the success
which eventually attended the efforts made during the last
war, will attend the present attempts. Indeed, we trust to a still
greater extent, as some of the fibres now available are pos-
sessed of the strength of the best of those then tried, but
which, from their rarity, were not procurable in sufficient
quantities for the purposes of commerce. All that is attempted
is to inform the consumer here of what India is capable of sup-
plying, and of enabling the producer there to send it in such a
state to market as to attract the attention of the intelligent
manufacturer. That is, to put information before him in its
most complete form, and accompanied by specimens which can
be handled, either in their raw state, or as converted into
cordage; with accounts of the growth and culture of the
plants, their productiveness, and prices. Thus it may be
hoped, that the distant cultivator of India, himself in so
different a state of society, may be placed on a footing to meet
THE NATURE OF VEGETABLE FIBRE. 17

the demands of the more advanced manufacturers of Europe at
the average prices of ordinary times. In so doing, though not
imitating, we are only pursuing the path which has at last
been taken in this country of forming Trade Museums for the
exhibition of specimens, and the diffusion of information re-
specting the raw products of all parts of the world. We might
go further, and yet have good precedents to adduce—as, for
instance, the yearly grant of £1000 a year to the Royal Flax
Improvement Society, for the culture of flax in Ireland, a
measure which, though unnecessary in England, has certainly
been most useful in that country.

THK NATURE OF VEGETABLE FIBRE.

Before proceeding to take into consideration the different
kinds of fibre, or the plants which yield them, it is desirable
to have some definite ideas respecting the nature of fibre, and
in what kinds or parts of plants we may expect to find it.

Plants are found to be composed of cELts only, or both crits
and VESSELS.

Cells are completely closed vesicles, usually containing fluid,
of which the sides are formed of excessively thin and pellucid
membrane. ‘This is their characteristic when young, but as
they get older their sides become thickened by the deposit in
their interior of more solid material. Though these cells are
destitute of visible pores, they are necessarily permeated by
fluids, which deposit the matters found within their interior ;
and among others of the secondary cell-membranes, which in
certain states possess a fibrous structure. These are by some,
indeed, supposed to be composed of primitive fibres, often
arranged spirally, which are of extreme fineness and trans-
parency, but which in time become thickened like the cells.

Vessels.—Cells may be short and varying in form, or oblong;
sometimes much elongated, as isthe case with Cotton. But at
other times, several cells becoming joined end to end and the
intervening partitions absorbed, form vessels, which, like the
cells, become thickened on their sides, and have formed within
them fibrous matter of different kinds. Neither cells nor
vessels are fitted for yielding useful fibrous material, either for

cordage or for textile fabrics; but, as many contain fibre as a
2
18 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FIBRE.

part of their structure, they may be reduced into pulp for
paper-making.

Woody Tissue or Fibre.—Within the cellular tissue are found
the above-described vessels, and along with them what is called
woody fibre or tissue. This, together with some vascular
bundles, constitutes collectively the chief part of the wood of
plants, and gives support to the whole vegetable fabric. These
woody fibres consist of elongated cells or tubes with tapering
extremities, which overlap each other, and by their union
longitudinally form the fibres which are extracted for economic
purposes. But when so obtained, they are seldom separated
into their ultimate fibres, but, rather united together into
bundles of fibres. These are found in the wood, in the inner
‘ork, and in the leaves of plants.

These woody fibres are extremely slender and transparent,
but tough. Like the membrane of the cells, that of the fibre
is also without pores, but permeable to fluids, and becomes
thickened by the internal deposition of layer within layer, of
matter which surrounds the cavity of the cell. In length these
constituent cells of the fibre do not exceed from one third to
one line. The bast cells of flax and hemp are long, but it is
difficult to measure them exactly, as it is impossible to ascertain
where one cell terminates and another begins. When moist-
ened, “considerable swelling takes place, principally in the
direction of the breadth, and only in a small degree in the
longitudinal direction.”

The original membrane which forms the basis of the fibre-
cell is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. But, as
Mohl has observed, ‘‘ the combination of cell-membrane with
inorganic substances, is a very general condition. In almost
all plants, a skeleton (the ash), corresponding to the form of
the membrane, and composed of the alkalies, earths, and
metallic oxides which kad been deposited in it, remains behind
after the cell has been burnt. The younger an elementary
organ is, the more abundant, in general, the alkalies appear to
be ; the older it is, the more exclusively the earths and metallic
oxides seem to be combined with its substance.” Hence the
best fibres are found in the young bark of plants, or in fleshy
leaves; and therefore, plants when grown for their fibre, are
generally sown and grown close together. This is done in onde:
PREPARATION OF FIBRE AND OF CORDAGE. 19

to favour their shooting upwards, and to prevent their too great
exposure to heat, light, and air, which favour the formation
of the different secretions of the plant and the consequent
hardening of the woody fibre.

PREPARATION OF FIBRE AND OF CORDAGE.

This woody or fibrous tissue, formed as it is by the junction,
end to end, of elongated cells, is, when in its natural state in
the living plant, adherent to the membranous sides of the cel-
lular tissue, and surrounded with mucilaginous, resinous, or
other vegetable secretions. It must, necessarily, be separated
from all these before it can be applied to any economical purpose.

This separation of the fibre from the rest of the vegetable
matter is effected, either by stripping the bark from trees, or
taking fibre-yielding leaves, and pounding them between stones
and subsequently washing; or simply picking the fibres by
hand, and thus separating them from the rest of the vegetable
mass. But it is more usual, and also more expeditious, to
separate the fibres by previous maceration in water. Fermen-
tation then takes place, much of*the vegetable tissue becomes
destroyed, the fibres loosened, and then easily separated
by washing or beating. Various attempts have also been
made to separate the fibres by mechanical means. These, as
well as the other methods suited to different plants, will be
described under their respective heads, but more especially in
the section which treats of Flax, as that plant and its fibre has
had much attention devoted to it.

But fibres, when thus separated for economical purposes,
are rather bundles of fibres than in the separated state of the
ultimate fibre. Sometimes the commercial fibre, or some
portion of it, is in the state, as stripped from the stems, of
narrow flat ribbons, and therefore with sharp edges. Hence
the necessity of passing them between rollers, or of submitting
them to a rough process of combing, called heckling. Thus,
not only impurities are got rid of, but the fibres are divided,
laid parallel, and the short ones separated, constituting codilla
or tow.

The longest of these fibres being usually not more than
from three to four feet in length, are obviously too short for
20 THE TWISTING OF CORDAGE.

conversion into ropes of any length, or for weaving into cloth,
without first undergoing some preparation. The natives of the
great Eastern Archipelago jom the ends of different fibres
together by means of some adhesive substance, and thus form
the “invisible knots” of an old author and obtain a thread,
which, without spinning or twisting, is long enough for
weaving.

If this were practicable with all fibres, they might be joined
together end to end, then laid side by side and formed into
bundles, which might be wrapped round or tied at intervals, and
form a rope in which the strength of each fibre would be re-
tained. Some ropes thus made for the purpose of experiment by
Duhamel, were found to be of great strength but of little
durability. The outer case wore off, and the rope opened at
the bendings, so as to let in water. This being retained,
assisted the decomposition of the rope.

It has been long discovered that we may obtain length by
twisting fibres together, when they press upon each other, so
that any single fibre is unable to overcome _the resistance,
caused by the friction upon it of surrounding fibres. It will then
break more readily than slip out from the mass, By this
means, a certain degree of compactness is also obtained, so that
the infiltration of water is prevented, and the rope preserved
from decomposition. Though a certain degree of twist is essen-
tial, any excess is injurious; for a rope may be so twisted as
to break in the operation. And therefore a rope, brought up to
this point without breaking, would be unable to bear any
further strain, or to support any weight at all, and consequently
be useless, Great precautions are therefore necessary in twist-
ing the fibres, so that they shall retain as much as possible of
their original strength, and be preserved from sustaining any
further injury.

In making a rope, the first operation is to twist a certain
portion of the fibres into a thick thread, which is called a yarn.
These yarns vary in size, from one twelfth to a little above
one ninth of an inch in diameter. These yarns are then warped,
or stretched so that they may bear any strain equally. The
next process is to twist a number of yarns, say from fifteen to
twenty-five, into a strand. The twist of the strand is in an
opposite direction to that of the yarn of which it is composed, in
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF OORDAGE. 21

order that any tendency in the yarns to untwist may be coun-
teracted by an opposite tendency in the strand. Three of these
strands are formed into a rope, and three ropes into a cable.
The term rope is generally confined to those which are above
an inch in circumference; those which are less being called
twine, line, and cord; though some of the latter terms are used
with less strictness, as fishing lines and clothes lines are of very
different diameters. Other kinds are distinguished by the
name of ratline or of lashing; sometimes they are distin-
guished by the weight of a certain quantity—thus, pound line
signifies a line weighing 60 yards to the pound: 160 fathoms
of white or untarred yarn weigh from two and a half to four
pounds,

In a popular work by Mr. Tomlinson, the different operations
of ropemaking are described as follow: 1. Heckling, or hackling,
of which the object is to separate the short fibres or tow, and
to straighten the long ones, in order to enable them to run
freely in spinning. 2. Spinning, or twisting the fibres into
threads or yarns. 8. Tarring the yarns. 4. Twisting the yarns
into strands. 5. Laying, or twisting three strands together, so
as to form what is called a hawser-laid rope. In this process,
which is called the first lay, each strand consists of as many
yarns as are found requisite to give the required thickness to
the rope. 6. Second lay, or shroud hawser-laid rope. This
consists of four strands laid in the same way and under the
same conditions. This rope has a straight loose strand, con-
sisting frequently of only a few yarns, running through its
centre; the object of this core-piece being to render the rope
solid. 7. Third lay, or cable-laid rope. This consists of three
hawser-laid ropes, each formed of three large strands, twisted
or laid together in one gigantic rope or cable.

A very important consideration is the due degree of twisting
which ropes ought to receive in order to retain the utmost
degree of strength. Another is the benefit or injury which is
derived from a large or a small quantity of tar, because this, in-
stead of being a preservative in all situations, as is generally
supposed, is very often injurious, as is fully illustrated by the
following experiments. The abridged account of these we have
taken from Sir D, Brewster’s ‘ Edinburgh Encyclopedia :’
22 LOSS OF STRENGTH BY TWISTING.

It was long ago shown by Dr. Hooke, from several experiments ae ie
strength of cordage in 1669, that the strength of the component parts 0 t 1e
rope was diminished by twisting. This fact, indeed, has been long practi-
cally known to sailors, who are familiar with the superior strength of rope
yarns when made up into a salvage, which is nothing more than a skein
without twisting. Salvages are invariably used for slinging great guns,
rolling tackles, and for every kind of work where great strength and great
pliancy are required.

In the ‘Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences,’ M. Reaumur
has given an account of his experiments on the strength of
ropes compared with that of their parts.

2. The yarn of a skein of white thread bore each, at an average, 93 lb.
Two yarns twisted slack into a cord broke with 16 lb.

 

Hence we have the absolute strength of two yarns . . 19$]b.
Real strength ‘ : . : - 16
Loss of strength by twisting . ; . 33]b.

8. The average strength of some thread was such, that each broke with
8 lb., whereas when three were twisted they bore only 173 1b.

 

Hence we have absolute strength ‘ . ‘ . 24 |b.
Real strength . : ; . 173
Loss of strength by twisting . ‘ . 631b.

4, The average strength of some thread was such, that each broke with
74 lb., whereas when four were twisted they broke with 213 lb.

Hence we have absolute strength F : . 30 1b,
Real strength : be Ts 3 : i . 215
Loss of strength by twisting ‘ . 83lb.

5. The average strength of other four threads was such that each broke
with 9lb., whereas when twisted, they broke with 22 lb.

Hence we have absolute strength . 86 Ib.
Real strength : : - : » 22
Loss of strength by twisting . : . 14]b.

6. A well made and small hempen cord broke in different places with 58, 63,
67, and 72 1b., so that its average strength was ol ea 65 Ib.

The cord ponies # three strands, and another part of it was untwisted,
and its three strands separated. One of them bore 29: 3
a ae 3, another 334, and
Hence the absolute strength of the three strands, wh i
Real strength when twisted : . - eae fe . e

Loss by twisting i . 33 1b.

7, Another part of the same cord, which broke with 72 1b
into its strands, when they bore 26, 28, and 30 pounds :
Hence we have absolute strength : : 841b
Real strength : 3 : ee ae

» Was separated

Loss by twisting : - 121b,
LOSS OF STRENGTH BY TWISTING. 23

Dr. Robison has given an account of a very interesting experiment by
Sir Charles Knowles, upon a piece of white or untarred rope, 3% inches in
circumference. It was cut into many portions, and from each of those por-
tions a fathom was taken off, and carefully opened out. It consisted of 72
yarns, each of which was examined separately, and found to bear 901b. at
an average for the whole. Each piece of rope corresponding to these was
examined separately, and the mean strength of the same pieces was 4552 1b.

Hence we have absolute strength of yarns = - . _. 6480 Ib.
Real strength 3 ; . 4552
Loss of strength by twisting . : . 1928 1b.

As the diminution of strength in the yarns, demonstrated by the preceding
example, obviously arises from their position when twisted, in consequence
of which they do not all bear the load at the same time; and not from any

ermanent weakness produced by the twisting it became reasonable to be-
ieve, that the twist given to ropes should be as moderate as possible.
* * % % *

The degree of twist commonly employed was such that the rope was two
thirds the length of the yarns which composed it. M. Duhamel,’ who made
many valuable experiments on this subject, in the royal dock-yards of
France, caused some rope, to be worked with only ¢hree fourths of the length
of the yarn. This last rope with the inferior degree of twist, bore 5187 lb.,
whereas the other bore only 43211b. He next caused these ropes to be
made with different twists, and obtained the following results :

Weight borne by each.
Degree of twist. One experiment. Another experiment.
a 4098 4250
3 4850 6753
4 6205 7397

So far these experiments were highly satisfactory ; but it still remained to
be seen, whether or not the ropes which had an inferior degree of twist, had
not also an inferior degree of useful solidity, notwithstanding their supe-
riority of strength in carrying weights. ;

In order to determine this point, M. Duhamel had a considerable quantity
of rigging made with yarns, wrought up into only three fourths of their
length, and got them put into actual use on ship-board, during a whole cam-
paign. The report given by the officers of the ship was highly satisfactory.
They proved that the ropes thus manufactured were one fourth lighter than
the common kind; that they were nearly one eighth more slender, so as to
give less hold to the wind; that, from their being more pliant than the
common ones, they run easier through the blocks, and did not run into what
are technically called kinks; that the new cordage required fewer hands to
work it, in the proportion of two to three; and that it was at least one fourth
stronger.

% * * * *

Wherever ropes are not exposed to short bendings, as in the case of
standing rigging, where they can be defended from water by tarring, &c.,
the least twisted cordage may be advantageously employed, and should,
according to M. Duhamel's experiments, be made from strands ; for it is de-
monstrable that in fine stranded cordage, when the twist of the strands is

1 ¢Traité de la Fabrique des Manceuvres pour les Vaisseaux, ou l’Art de la Corderie
perfectionée.’
24 EFFECTS OF TARRING CORDAGE.

exactly equal to the twist in the laying, the strands lie less obliquely to the
axis than in other ropes, and therefore bear a greater load.
# * * * *
In examining the strength of cordage, 3} inches in circumference and
under, M. Duhamel found that the strength increased a little faster than the
number of equal threads, thus:
Ropes of 9 threads bore 1014 instead of 946 Ib.
12 1564 1262
18 2148 1893

According to the experiments of Mr. Huddart, no strength is lost in the
common way when there are only three yarns in the strand. When there
are more than three yarns, the loss is one sixth, and with a hundred yarns it
is about one half. His registered cordage, according tv theory, loses nothing,
but by actual experiment it loses one eighth.

The following rule is given by Dr. Robison for obtaining the strength of
ropes:

‘Multiply the circumference of the rope in inches by itself, and the fifth part
of the product will be the number of tons which the rope will carry.

For example, if the rope is 6 inches in circumference, we have 6 times 6 =
36, the fifth of which is 7} tans.

Tarring Ropes.—There is no branch of the rope manufacture more im-
portant than that which relates to the tarring of the cordage. The fol-
lowing experiments were therefore made by M. Duhamel on the relative
strength of tarred and white or untarred cordage.

August 8th, 1741,

Untarred Rope. Tarred Rope. Difference.
Broke with 4500 pounds. 3400 pounds. 1100
4900 3300 1600
4800 3250 1550
April 25th, 1743.
Broke with 4600 pounds. 3500 pounds. 1100
5000 3400 1600
5000 3100 1900
Sept. 3d, 1746.
Broke with 3800 pounds. 3000 pounds. 800
4000 2700 1300
4200 2800 1400

The ropes with which the preceding experiments were made, were three
French inches in circumference, and were made of the best Riga hemp.

M. Duhamel next examined the relative strength of a parcel of tarred and
untarred cordage, which had been manufactured on the 12th of July, 1746.
It had been laid up in the storehouse, and the following results were obtained
at the dates mentioned.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Difference
« Untarred .
ae. s.| Rope. ae Difference.
1746. April 14th . 2645" | asia" 7333"
1747, May 18th . 11 2762 2155 607
1747, Oct.21st . 6 2710 2050 660
1748. June 19th 9 2575 1752 823
1748, Oct.2d . . 4 2425 1837 588
1749. Sept. 25th . 12 2917 1865 1052

 
INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF TAR ON CORDAGE. 25

From these results M. Duhamel concludes :

1. That untarred cordage in constant service is one third more durable
than the same cordage when tarred.
_ 2. That wntarred cordage retains its strength for 2 much longer time when
it is kept in store.

3. That untarred cordage resists the ordinary injuries of the weather one
fourth longer than when it is tarred.

_ These results of direct experiments have been confirmed by the observa-
tions of seamen; but they have invariably found, that untarred cordage is
weaker than tarred cordage, when it is exposed to be alternately wet and
dry; that tarred cordage is chiefly useful for cables and ground tackle,
which must be constantly soaked in water; and that cordage, superficially
tarred, is always stronger than what is thoroughly tarred, and resists better
the alternate conditions of dryness and wetness.

Several important experiments on the relative strengh of tarred and un-
tarred ropes were made by Mr W. Chapman,} chiefly with the view of deter-
mining the effects of his method of preserving ropes with purified or washed
tar. Three pieces of rope were made on the 10th of August, 1808, of 12
threads in each strand. The first was an untarred rope, the second a rope
made of washed tarred yarn, and the third a common tarred rope. A part
of each of these ropes had their strength tried on the breaking machine ; and
another part was steeped in water for about three months, and then taken to
a foundry stove, which is supposed to have been at about 130° of Fahrenheit.
They remained in the stove about three months. After that they lay at Mr.
Chapman’s ropery till Nov. 3d, 1803, when the following experiments were
made with them:

 

 

 

‘When made. Portion of
a 10th, | Nov. 3d, 1803.Joriginal Strength
802. retained.
Cwt. Cwt. Cwt
White rope . ... . 33-4 1g 5713
Common tarred rope . . 22-2 7°35 33:0 6 3
Washed tarred rope . . 2971 12:35 43°38} 5

 

 

 

 

The tarred ropes were both brittle; but the latter was more so, and they
both cracked on bending."

[Mr. Chapman has also observed that though cordage is injured by
tarring in cold climates, it is much more rapidly so in hot climates. ]

The following experiments were made in 1807, by Mr. Chapman, for the
purpose of showing the injury arising from the retention of that portion of
the essential oil which cannot be dispensed with, and also the injury which
arises from the progressive disengagement of the acid of essential oil.

 

 

Weight with which
Weight with it broke after
shiek it broke exposure

when Moist. to a Stove for

four months.
Cwt. Cwt.
Untarred rope. . . . -{| 45°75 38:97
Rope tarred with cold tar . | © 51:29 26°40
Ditto with boiled tar. 38°94 25:07

 

 

 

1 Author of ‘Treatise on the progressive endeavours to improve the Manufacture
and Duration of Cordage ;’ London, 1808.
26 EFFECTS OF TEAK TAR ON CORDAGE.

The first column shows the strength of the rope when made ; and the se-
cond after having been exposed to the heat of a stove from 85° to 100' Fahr.

The following experiments, also made by Mr. Chapman, confirm those of
Duhamel, respecting the diminution in the strength of cordage produced by
tarring. The ropes were registered on the improved principle, and were
made with the same yarn, and with 17 threads in each strand.

 

 

 

Girt Comparative
in inehles Strength,
Cwt. Cwt.
1806. Oct. 2. White rope . 2°75 Broke with 75 100
» Oct, 24. Tarred rope . 28 a 55 73'3
1807. May 8. Same rope . 2:8 ay 41-4 55:2

 

 

 

The following experiments were made with ropes made of the same yarns,
and of nine in each strand.

 

 

 

 

Girt Comparative
in inches. Strength.
Cwt. Cwt.
White rope . ‘ 17 Broke with 27°5 100
Tar of whale oil . 1:85 5 225 83:7
Tar and tallow . 1:8 3 17°5 63°6
Tar unpurified . 17 7 15:95 57°7

 

 

Whale oil and tallow have therefore an excellent effect, particularly the

former.
* * * *

The following experiments were made by Mr. Chapman on the elasticity
of ropes of different kinds, when strained with Jths of their breaking stress:

 

 

 

 

Original Length
Length. | when Strained.
: ; Inches. Inches.
Registered primary strands . . 24 242 to 25
Registered shroud laid ropes. . 24 26 to 263
Common made shroud laid rope . 24 273 to 28
Registered cable laid rope ‘5 : 24 27 to 27%

 

 

The three kinds of rope last mentioned, stretched on an average 1 inch in
24 with a fifth of their breaking stress, which is from 3 to 2lb. of the whole
stretching of the registered shroud laid ropes, but only from 2ths to ith of
the stretching of the common made shroud ropes, : 7

In May, 1805, Sir Joseph Banks, being anxious to try teak tar for ropes,
ie ae Sore were Pie of the same yarns, one with teak tar, and the
other with common tar. ey were then pla i
Oe de seer placed in the same storehouse, and

Common tarred rope broke with 3848 pounds,

That made with teak tar broke with 5980

we common tarred rope being only about two thirds the strength of the
other.

It is interesting to conclude with a notice of the efficacy of
an Indian product. It will probably be found that the Indian
ARRANGEMENT OF FIBROUS PLANTS. 27

practice of tanning ropes is also efficacious, and has the advan-
tage of not injuring the texture of the fibre, as will be men-
tioned when noticing Dr. Roxburgh’s experiments.

ARRANGEMENT OF FIBROUS PLANTS.

In treating of the different Indian fibres, it is desirable to
adopt some methodical, instead of an accidental arrangement.
For such, as for instance, the alphabetical, would necessarily
be irregular, when the selection of the names must be made
from a variety of languages, according to the places where a
fibre or the plant yielding it is best known. Preference will of
course always be given to any name known in commerce. But
some of the articles to be treated of are unknown in the mar-
kets of Europe, and a few, though common in every part of India,
are yet not known there by any common name. A selection
must, therefore, be made of one of the names, as this is essential
for distinguishing the articles one from another, and to assist
in fixing the attention upon each individually. Thus we shall
avoid calling every new fibre, hemp, when one only can pro-
perly be so named. In the same way, the South Sea Islanders
called every new animal they saw, a pig, because that was the
only one with which they were acquainted.

Without entering into minute details, we shall adopt an
arrangement founded upon the botanical affinities of plants,
not purely because it is scientific, and therefore more satisfac-
tory; but because it will enable us to make a number of com-
parisons with fibres obtained from plants of the same family in
other parts of the world. It will also enable us to draw some
practical deductions from the information we may thus bring
together. Though I have no doubt that some who consider
themselves eminently practical, will sneer at the idea of a
scientific arrangement being productive of such results.

Botanists have for some time arranged all plants into a few
large divisions, from characters derived from their internal
structure: thus, some being composed of cells only, are called
Cellular; others are called Vascular, because, in addition to
cells, they also contain vessels usually accompanied by woody
tissue. The cellular tissue being developed in every direction,
is sometimes called the horizontal system, while the vascular
28 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PLANTS.

growing vertically, is distinguished as the longitudinal system.
It is in this direction that the fibres of which we have to treat
are placed in the plant. The development and arrangement
of these two systems produce three distinct forms of growth
and of internal structure.

Acrogens, or summit growers, so called from the growth of
the stem taking place by the junction of the bases of the leaves
at the top of the stem, as in Tree Ferns. Under this—used as
a general term—cellular plants, such as Mosses, &c., are in-
cluded; but none of them yield fibre, either for cordage or for
textile purposes, though it is possible that some of the ferns
contain fibre enough to form pulp for paper-makers.

Endogens, or inside growers, are so called because the bun-
dles of vessels and fibres proceed from the bases of the leaves
into the cellular centre of the stem, and are thence. pushed
outwards by the new growths, so that the outside of such stems,
as of Palms, is harder than the inside. These plants have no
regular bark which can be stripped off, and their leaves have
the veins running parallel to each other. It is these leaves
which abound in fibre, which may be separated by simple
pressure and washing, as in the Pine-apple, Agave or American
aloe, Plantain, and many others. In Palms, the structure of
the leaves is too dense for the fibres to be separated so easily.

Exogens, or outside growers, are so called from additions to
their stems being made on the outside of the growth of for-
mer years, as seen in the rings of wood on a transverse section
of the trunk of any of the ordinary trees of Europe. There
is also a distinct bark, of which the outer part is composed of
cellular, but the inner contains the woody tissue. From this
the fibres are separated for various economic purposes, usually
by stripping off the bark and then steeping it in water, as with
Flax and Hemp, Jute and Sunn. The leaves of Exogens havea
reticulated or net-like, instead of a parallel venation.

The above characters, taken from the parts of vegetation,
are found to be accompanied by others equally characteristic,
in the parts of fructification. Thus the spores of Acrogens,
in germinating, are unaccompanied by anything like a leaf;
the Endogens have a single seed-leaf, as may be seen in
Wheat and other Cereals, as the Rice ; while Exogens, in sprout-
ing display two of these seed-leaves, as in Peas and Beans.
THE FIBRE OF ENDOGENS. 29

From these peculiarities other names are given to the above
divisions, but which it is needless for our purposes to notice.

PREPARATION OF THE FIBRE OF ENDOGENS. |

Though both the stem and the leaves abound in fibre, it is
from the latter chiefly that this is separated for practical
purposes. The fibres of some plants are not separated from
the rest of the vegetable matter, but the stems and leaves
are simply dried and twisted, as in the case of some Grasses,
Sedges, Rushes, and even the leaves of Palms. The leaves of
others are simply beaten with a stone on a flat board or on
another stone, and afterwards the rest of the vegetable mat-
ter washed away. Occasionally such fleshy leaves have been
passed between rollers, as those of a sugar-mill, and with the
consequent saving of both time and labour, also with a diminu-
tion of cost. Very frequently, however, these leaves are
steeped in water until fermentation takes place, when the labour
of separating the fibre is much diminished. But this often
takes place with great loss of strength as well as of the beautiful
white colour, for which most of these endogenous fibres are
particularly distinguished.

Dr. Hunter, who has paid much attention to the separation
of this class of fibres, has observed that the ordinary modes of
separating the fibres of plants in India, that is, steeping them
in water, are exceedingly faulty. Every day’s steeping of a
vegetable substance in water takes from its strength, and com-
municates a tinge to the fibres which can only be removed by
the subsequent application of some chemical agent, such as
lime, the alkalies or chlorine, which in some cases, no doubt,
diminishes their strength. He observes that in most parts of
India the fermentation which takes place in plants heaped
together or steeped in water proceeds so rapidly, that it is
extremely difficult to prevent the accession of putrefactive
decomposition. This, he says, commences in succulent plants,
when immersed in water, in twenty or twenty-two hours,
during warm weather. The sooner, therefore, that the decom-
posing parts of a plant—that is, the mucilaginous, saccharine,
and other constituents of the sap and pulp—are removed, the
whiter are the fibres, and they retain more of their original
30 THE FIBRES OF GRASSES.

strength. The fibres cleaned within a day or two after the
plant or leaf had been cut, were found to be white, strong, and
silky. On wetting the same repeatedly and exposing them to
the dew, it has been found that their strength is impaired.

Those fibres that were steeped in water for a few days
acquired somewhat of the colour of English tow. Those
steeped for three weeks became quite rotten, brown, and brittle.
Dr. Hunter has further ascertained by experiment that
the partial drying of the leaves or bark of plants in the sun,
as recommended and practised by the natives, does more harm
than good, as it makes the process of cleaning more tedious,
and is apt to tinge the fibres. Such as have been thoroughly
dried in the sun before being cleaned, give brittle and often
brown-coloured fibres, unless there be naturally very little
moisture to be dried up. The only way he found of preparing
fibres by rotting, is that followed by the natives in a few
localities near large rivers, where the leaves of the Agave,
from their outside hardness, are sometimes buried under wet
sand below the level of the water in the river.

Grasses (Gramina).

The grasses so extensively diffused, and in different forms
as pasturage for cattle and corn for man, so essential for the
continued existence of the animal kingdom, are seldom thought
of as materials for cordage. Yet they were probably the first
substances which were converted into rope; for the simple
twisting between the hands of the flexible leaves and pliant
stems of many of the grasses will form a rope, as is daily practised
with bands of hay or those of straw. In the chairs of the
Crystal Palace, we may see the rush-like bottoms are formed of
the twisted straw of rye. Others are employed for thatching,
and some for platting, screen- and mat-making. All purposes
which indicate the presence of fibre of sufficient tenacity to
bear at least a certain degree of strain and of pressure. But
in these plants, as well as in sedges and rushes, the fibre is not
always separated from the rest of the vegetable matter, but the
whole leaf or stem is dried, and used in its entire state. As
the fibre, however, possesses the requisite degree of tenacity,
THE SPARTUM OF THE ANCIENTS. 31

it can be separated in the form of pulp and used for paper-
making, as will be again mentioned in the subsequent pages.

The grasses abound in India; in the plains are numerous
species of genera little known in Europe; with the cultivation
of rice, maize, joar, and many millets in the rainy season ;
and in the cold weather, of wheat, barley, oats, and millet ; while
in the Himalayas the pasture-grasses are many of them the
same as in Europe, and the cereals are cultivated in the spring
and summer, with some rice in the rains, (v. Author’s paper
*On the Corn and Pasture-Grasses of India, in Illustrations of
Himalayan Botany,’ pp. 415—-427; reprinted in ‘ Trans. Agric.
Soc. of India,’ viii, p. 91.)

Though the grasses were probably among the first sub-
stances used for cordage, none of them seem ever to have
been objects of export commerce; partly because they are so
universally diffused, and partly because they are bulky and
deficient in strength. One or two have, however, been suffi-
ciently distinguished to have been noticed by the ancients.
One of these is the Esparto of the Spaniards, supposed to be
the Spartum of the Romans. It is probable, however, that a
very different plant (Spartium junceum) was also sometimes
included under this name, for it was not uncommon for what
we consider very different plants to be included under one
general name, if they were used for the same purposes.
Indeed, it is not unusual, even in the present day, for very
different substances to be included under one general term ;
as is the case, for instance, with the word hemp, of which we
shall have to mention several instances. The Esparto of the
south of Spain, especially of the provinces of Huesca, Murcia,
and Almeria, is Stipa (or Macrochloa) tenacissima, called “mat-
weed’’ by Ray, and supposed to be “‘ the rush of a dry soil” of
Pliny. It grows in tufts, with long leaves, and is still used
by the Spaniards for making sandals, mats, baskets, and ropes ;
and also sacks, nets, and toils, which the shepherds use as
hurdles for their sheep. Some seems to have been exported both
to the South of France and into Italy, for making baskets, sacks,
and ropes, as this was prohibited in 1783 and 1790. It is also
employed for stuffing palliasses; and some paper made of it was
sent to the Exhibition of 1851. Lygeum Spartum is sup-
posed by others to be one kind of Spartum, as it is also called
32 THE FIBROUS GRASSES OF INDIA.

Esparto by theSpaniards. Arundo arenaria isused in the Hebrides
for many of the same purposes as Esparto is by the Spaniards.

In India several of the indigenous grasses are employed for
the same purposes as the above. Thus the Moonja of the
natives (Saccharum Munja) is collected after the rainy
season and kept for use, as it is employed in tying up their
cattle at night and for ropes for their Persian wheels. It is
said also to be one of the grasses employed for making tow-
ropes by the boatmen about Benares. The Shur or Sara of
Bengal (Saccharum Sara), or the Pen reed grass, Mr. Henley
informs me is another species employed by the boatmen about
Allahabad and Mirzapore, and esteemed as a tow-line for its
strength and durability even when exposed to the action of
water. It is said to be beaten into a rude fibre and then
twisted into a rope.

Besides the above, the sacred grass of the Hindoos, the dad or
koosha of the Brahmins (Poa cynosuroides), is also made into
rope in North-West India. Other species of Saccharum are
used for thatching and for screens, and some for making
writing-pens and for arrows. The fibres of the Khuskhus
or Vetiveyr are more remarkable for their agreeable odour
than for their tenacity, while the Bamboo, the most
gigantic of grasses, might be enumerated with timbers rather
than with fibres, though its split stems are often employed for
making mats in India, and the young shoots for paper-making
by the Chinese. Many others of the grasses might be converted
into half-stuff for paper-makers, and have the great advantage
of affording large quantities of a cheap material.

The Nul or Nar of Bengal is described as being employed
for making the mats known by the name of Durma, which
are formed of the stalks split open. Dr. Stocks informs me
that in Sindh the grass called Sur, which perhaps is Arundo
karka, has its culms, sur jo kanee, made into chairs, and its
flower-stalks beaten to form the fibres called moonyah. These
are made into string or twine (moonyah jo naree), and into
ropes (moonyah jo russa).

While this sheet is passing through the press, I have been
informed by Mr. Burns, of the Indus Flotilla, who has been
several years in Sindh, that the boatmen of the Indus
universally employ the Moonj (probably the above Saccharum
SEDGES—-PAPYRUS—BHABHUR. 33

Munja) as a towing rope and for the rigging of their vessels,
in all places above Sukkur. But below.that place Coir rope
is very generally employed, being better able, I believe, to
stand the action of salt water, The Moonja, however, is possessed
of great tenacity, as is evident from two-inch ropes, often fifty
fathoms in length, made of its fibres, being sufficient for
dragging their largest or 1200-maund boats up the Indus, and
consequently against the full force of the stream, even round
projecting points. The rope is also possessed of lightness, so
advantageous for rigging, and is capable, also, of bearing,
without injury, alternate exposure to wet and to subsequent
drying. Both qualities being essential for atow-rope, Mr.
Burns has also informed me that plants growing beyond the
range of the overflowings of the river, or of the influence of
the tides—that is, in the interior of the country, where,
indeed, it grows in vast abundance—are possessed of the
greatest strength. The upper leaves, about a foot or so in
length, are preferred and collected. Having been made up
into bundles, they are kept for use. When required for
twisting into rope, they are first moistened in water: two men
then, sitting opposite to each other, take one of these moist
bundles and beat it alternately with mallets, until the loose
cellular are separated from the fibrous parts. These are then
ready for twisting into the ropes which are so extensively
employed on the Indus, It is evident that a continuation
of the same process, or the employment of the Dhenkee of
India, would afford a very ample supply of half-stuff for paper-
makers, and at a cheap rate.

Sevecxs (Cyperace).

Sedges nearly resemble grasses in appearance, but grow
usually in moist situations, and are distinguished from them
by their angular stems. They are remarkable for so few of
them being useful for any purpose—not even for fodder.
One of them, however, is famous as having yielded the
Papyrus of the Egyptians, employed by them for making paper,
ropes, and even boats ; and of which the plant is so frequently
represented in their sculpture and paintings. An Indian
species of Cyperus (C. teyetum, Roxb. ; called Papyrus Pangoret

3
34 SEDGES—PAPYRUS——BHABHUR.

by Nees von Esenbeck), the Madoorkati of the Bengalees,
which is extremely common about Calcutta and in Bengal,
is very extensively employed for making the elegant, shining
and useful mats for which the capital of India is famous, and
which are frequently imported into Europe. Dr. Roxburgh
states that the culms or stalks of the plant when green are
split into three or four pieces, which in drying, contract so
much as to bring the margins in contact, in which state they
are woven into mats, and thus show a nearly similar surface on
both sides. Specimens of the strips of this sedge were sent
to the Exhibition of 1851, as well as mats made of them.
These strips are tied up in bundles about four inches in
diameter and four feet in length, and seem, besides their
extensive use for mat-making to be well adapted for platting.
The cotton-grass (Eriophorum) of Europe is a conspicuous
ornament of turf-bogs and marshy moors, from having its seeds
clothed at the base with a silky or cotton-like substance.
With this, pillows are sometimes stuffed, and wicks of candles
as well as paper, made. There is a species of the genus very
common in the Himalayas, both in low valleys and at con-
siderable elevations. This, I named Eriophorum cannabinum,
in consequence of my finding it everywhere employed in
making ropes for all ordinary purposes by the mountaineers.
Its name, bhabhur and bhabhuree, has a considerable resem-
blance to that of the papyrus, considering that the 6 and p
are letters so frequently interchanged for each other. All
who have scrambled up the steeps of the Himalayas are sen-
sible of the great support they have received from the tough-
ness of the tufts of the bhabhur. Specimens of the dried
leaves, made up into bundles about three feet in length, were
sent to the Exhibition of 1851, from Beerbhoom. Also twine
made from it: this, though rough, is strong and well fitted
for ordinary purposes.
, Capt. Huddleston, in a paper on the Hemp and other
fibres of Gurhwal, in the Himalayas (‘Trans. Agric. Soc. of
India,’ vili, p. 272), mentions the Bhabhur as holding a conspi-
cuous place, “from its extensive use and most abundant supply
throughout the whole of the hills, affording a most economical
substitute as an article of cordage, in lieu of others of a more
costly and durable nature. All the jhoolas or rope bridges,
BULRUSHES—VACOA OR SCREW PINES. 35

which are erected over the large rivers, where sanghas or
wooden-planked bridges cannot be made, on all the principal
thoroughfares of this district, are constructed of this silky
species of grass, the cables of which are of a considerable
thickness. These rope bridges are a very safe means of com-
munication over the large and rapid rivers intersecting
different parts of the country, both for travellers and men
with loads; and, where the footway and sides are properly
laced with brushwood, afford an easy enough roadway for loaded
sheep—but neither ponies nor cattle can travel over them.
This grass grows abundantly in all the ravines up the sides of
the mountains, and is to be had only for the cutting—but it
is not of a very durable nature, though pretty strong when
fresh made into ropes. It lasts about a twelvemonth only, or
a little more, and the people in charge of the rope bridges are
constantly employed in repairing and annually renewing the
ropes and stays. The ‘chinkas,’ or temporary bridges of a
single cable, upon which traverses a seat in the shape of an
ox-yoke, are also sometimes made of this grass.”

Butrusues (Typhacee).

Bulrushes, so conspicuous in the marshes of Europe, extend
also to similar situations in most parts of India. The leaves
are in some parts of Europe employed in making mats and
winter coverings for plants, as well as for stuffing chairs. I have
already recorded that the leaves of putera and reree (or Typha
elephantina and T. angustifolia) are employed in making mats
in North-West India. Dr. Stocks informs me that in Sindh
the former is called pun, and its leaves employed for making
mats aud baskets. The pollen, like that of Lycopodium, is
inflammable, and used as a substitute for it in Europe. It is
also collected in Sindh, and there called Jooree.

Vacoa or Screw Pines (Pandanacee).

The Screw Pines, having fruit something like that of
pines, and flowers not more developed than those of the Bul-
rush, are remarkable for their gigantic Bromelia-like leaves,
arranged in a spiral manner. Though abounding most in
36 VACOA OR SCREW PINES——NIPAH.

Mauritius and Bourbon, species are also found in the southern
parts of India, as well as in the Straits and Burma. “The
leaves are composed of tough longitudinal fibres, white and
glossy, which enable them to be employed for covering huts,
making matting, as well as for cordage, in the South Sea
Islands; and in Mauritius for making sacks for coffee, sugar,
and grain.” (‘ Himal. Bot.,’ p. 408.) The species which is best
known in India is the Keora or Ketgee, the Kaldera bush of the
Madras Peninsula, called Pandanus odoratissimus by botanists,
on account of the exquisite perfume of its flowers. Dr,
Roxburgh (‘ Fl. Indica,’ iii, p. 741) has, under this plant, men-
tioned the uses to which the species most common in the Mau-
ritius is applied ; which, as well as some of the other species, is
known there by the name Vacoa or Baquois. It appears to he
the Pandanus sativus of Du Petit Thouars, but which Mr. Henley
mentions as P. Vacoa. He having observed the valuable uses
to which the plant was applied in the Mauritius, recommended
its introduction into India; in some of the dry southern parts
of which, it would, no doubt, though slow of growth, be a
valuable acquisition, from the facility with which good sacking
may be manufactured from its leaves. Mr. Henley describes
this most useful Vacoa of the Mauritius to grow to the height
of thirty feet, when permitted to do so; but, in general, the
cropping of the leaves, which commences in the third year,
keeps the plant down to the height of from six to ten feet.
The plant is remarkable for the aerial leafless roots which it
sends down as supports for its stem, and which are of so
fibrous a nature as to be employed for making paint brushes
for common purposes. ‘The leaves are cut every second year,
beginning when the plant is three years old, and each plant
yields enough for two large bags. The preparation must
begin with the leaves immediately they are removed from the
trees, and consists, first, in splitting the leaves into fillets,
which are from three fourths to one inch broad at the base,
but taper to a point, and are from three to four feet in length.
One of them will support the weight of a bag of sugar, or
about 140 1b., without breaking. Mr. Henley states that the
leaves of the other species with which he is acquainted are
comparatively weak. (‘ Jour. Agric. Soc. of India,’ 1848, p. 92.)

The Nipah Palm (NMipa fruticans), which, from the appear-
NIPAH—PINE-APPLE TRIBE. 37

ance of its foliage, is generally supposed to be a Palm, though
stemless, but which, in the nature of its flowers, approaches the
Screw Pines, is a plant of which the leaves are applied to mat-
making and thatching. It is a native of the Indian Archipelago,
which extends northwards to the Mergui River, where it is
found in perfection, but only a few specimens as far north as
Moulmain. It flourishes in brackish water, along with the
Mangrove, and its lower parts are inundated when the tide rises.
It abounds in saccharine sap, which may be evaporated into an
excellent sugar, or fermented into a kind of “ Palm wine.” Its
leaves are those chiefly employed in the Tenasserim provinces
for covering the roofs of houses, and large quantities are sent
northwards from Mergui for this purpose. They are also made
into mats, and no doubt abound in fibre, though this is not
separated for economic purposes.

Tut Pine-arrte Trise (Bromeliacee).

The Pine-apple, or Ananas, is so well known as an object of
the most careful culture in Europe, on account of its pleasantly
sweet and aromatic fruit, that we should not expect to find it
included among cordage plants. But its long and rigid leaves,
which are thorny at the edges and point, abound in a quantity
of fine white fibres, which are, in some countries, woven into
the finest fabrics, netted, or twisted into lines for fishing and
into ropes possessed of considerable strength. These are said
not to be injured by constant immersion in water—a property
which the natives increase by tanning them. Not only the
cultivated Pine-apple, but others of the genus and family, are
possessed of similar properties, as the Penguin, or broad-leaved
wild ananas (Bromelia Penguin), which is common on the rocky
hills in Jamaica and other West India islands. It is employed
in making fences to their fields; and its leaves, after being
steeped in water and beaten with a wooden mallet, yield a
strong fibre, which is twisted into ropes, and manufactured -
by the Spaniards into cloth, of which they make hammocks,
&e. So B. Karatas, or upright-leaved wild ananas, which
includes the Caraguata of Piso, and is common in South
America; and the Curratow or Grawatha (B. sagenaria), pro-
bably the same as the Craute de rede, common on the
38 PINE-APPLE IN INDIA.

coasts near Pernambuco, and other parts of Brazil. So also
B. (now Bilbergia) variegata, or Caroa, which grows in
wild luxuriance for miles, and yields excellent twine for
nets in Brazil; and the so-called New Orleans moss or “long
beard” (Tillandsia usneoides), of which a bale was sent to the
Exhibition of 1851, and proposed as a substitute for hair, for
stuffing chairs, cushions, and mattresses.

The fibre commonly called Curratow, is twisted into thick
rope; one of these is said to have been in use for many years
at the city of Paraiba, for hoisting in merchandise. Large
anchors are said to have been dragged up with this rope, when
those of hemp parted. (v. Koster’s ‘Travels in Brazil,’ ii,
p. 341.)

The cultivated Ananas, or Pine-apple, like the other species
of Bromelia, is a native of the warm parts of the continent,
or of the islands of America, The Spaniards and Portuguese,
when introducing the plants of the Old World into the countries
they discovered, also transferred some of those of America into
the parts of the Old World with which they were connected,
such as the west coast of Africa, the south of India, and the
Phillipine Islands. In all of which, the pine-apple has become
so established and apparently wild, as to be by some considered
even to be indigenous.

The Pine-apple (Ananassa sativa, formerly Bromelia
Ananas), being a native of the moist forests of South America,
from the level of the sea to elevations of about 1800 feet,
requires, for its successful culture as a fruit, a warm and
moist climate; but, like others of the family, the species are
capable of existing in a warm, dry air.

The Pine-apple is said to have been introduced into India
by the Portuguese, in the year 1594, It has, in some parts,
become so naturalised, as to appear indigenous. Capt. Turner,
in his journey to Teshooloomboo, mentions it as very abundant
at the foot of the Himalayas. It flourishes in Assam, and
-forms thickets near Rangoon, producing, also, according to
the accounts of different visitors, very juicy, well-flavoured
fruit. Dr. Wallich, in the year 1836, presented to the Agri-
cultural Society, a bag made on the Khasia Hills, of Pine-apple
fibre, having purchased it for a trifle at Cherapoujee. He men-
tions the enormous quantity of Pines grown on that range, and
PINE-APPLE FIBRE AT SINGAPORE. 39

that the plant appears as if it were quite a natural production.
Dr. Helfer describes the Pine-apple as so abundant in the
Tenasserim provinces, as to be sold in Amherst Town in the
months of June and July at the rate of one rupee for a boat-
load. It chiefly abounds in low grounds, though it is also to
be found in the hills amongst the Kareans. The natives know
it only by the American name, which they transform into
Nannah thi—thi designating fruit. They do not seem to be
acquainted with the beautiful fibre yielded by the leaves.

The Pine-apple is described as growing in great abundance in
the Phillipine Islands, but as producing only a small, rather dry
fruit. But we require some precise information to enable us to
judge whether this is actually the plant escaped from cultiva-
tion. M. Perrotet considers it a distinct species, and has
named it Bromelia Pigna, from the Spanish name Pigna or
Pina, signifying a cone. There, this wild plant is valued on
account of the fine hair-like fibres which are separated from
out of the leaves. Of these fibres, the celebrated pine-apple
cloth of the Phillipines, sometimes called “ batiste d’ananas,”’
and resembling the finest muslin-like fabric, is woven. This
is embroidered by the nuns of the convents in Manilla, with
great skill and taste. Some beautiful specimens of these,
under the name of Pina muslin, were to be seen in the
Exhibition of 1851. This is sometimes called grass-cloth, but
erroneously. With a magnifier the fibres may be seen to be
very numerous and fine, but not twisted at all, as in grass-
cloth or the finest muslins and cambrics. Mr. Bennett, in
his ‘ Wanderings,’ observes that one of the coarser fibres may
be subdivided into threads of such fineness as to be barely
perceptible, and yet sufficiently strong for any purpose.

Mr. Bennett mentions visiting a plantation near Singapore,
made by a Chinaman, for the preparation of the fibres of the
ananas or wild pine-apple, which are exported to China, being
used there “in the manufacture of linens.” The Chinese
said he got 1} rupees the catty, for the fibre. The leaves
recently gathered—and the largest are preferred—are laid upon
a board and the epidermis is removed with a broad knife.
Upon its removal from the upper surface of the leaf, the long
and beautiful fibres were seen lying upon the lower and denser
epidermis, running in a longitudinal direction ; the fasciculi
40 PINE-APPLE FIBRE IN ASSAM AND MADRAS.

of fibres were then readily detached by the hand on being
raised with the broad knife.

The separation of the fibre of the ananas is practised in
other places besides the Phillipine Islands. The Singapore
Committee forwarded specimens (Tali nanas) from Malacca, as
well as some of three different qualities prepared at Singapore,
and a portion as ready for weaving, that is, with the ends
gummed, or joined together by some adhesive substance ; thus
forming the “invisible knots” of an old author. Specimens
were also sent from Java and the island of Celebes.

Dr. Roxburgh does not appear to have paid much attention
to the separation of the ananas fibre; but in the year 1839, a
lady (Miss Davy) sent specimens of a thread prepared from
the wild pine-apple plant of Assam, of various degrees of fine-
ness, observing that the thread must be prepared when the
leaves are green, as nothing can be done with them in a dry
state. Miss Davy subsequently sent specimens of cloth manu-
factured from this thread to the Agricultural Society of Calcutta,
observing that she had had much difficulty in getting it woven,
as the principal manufacturers in Dacca positively refused to
undertake making it into cloth. A weaver in the jungles near
Dacca, afterwards undertook to do so, and wove the cloth
which was sent. Of this, Miss Davy had some embroidered
in silver,—a style of work in which the natives of that
part of the country excel. The specimens of the fibre were
shown by Mr. E. Solly to spinners in this country, but who
did not consider it could be substituted for flax in the manu-
facture of textile fabrics. A patent was, however, taken out
by Mr. Zincke, for the manufacture of thread from this fibre,
because, when bleached, it could be spun in the same way as
flax. The process of bleaching, by destroying the adhesion
between the bundles of fibres, renders it much finer; and
hence enables it to be extended between the rolls in the pro-
cess of spinning. He considers that, from its beautiful silky
lustre, combined with considerable strength, it is well adapted to
form a substitute for linen.

These pine-apple fibres (anasa nara), and the tow or
oakum from them, were also sent from Madras and from Tra-
vancore, showing that the art of separating these fibres is ex-
tensively diffused. Dr. Hunter received some very fine, strong,
PITA OR AGAVE FIBRE. 41

and silky fibres from Porto Novo, prepared by Mr. Lima.
But as the plants are not so abundant as in some other
localities, we cannot therefore expect the fibres to be prepared
so cheaply as elsewhere.

Besides the fibre, some twine and cord made with it was
also sent from Madras and from the eastward.

Two skeins of the Pine-apple fibre were sent by the Court
of Directors to the Society of Arts for a report on their pro-
perties, as long since as January, 1836, but the specimens were
too small for a trial of their tenacity.

Mr. Bennett says, that at Singapore, from the expense at-
tending labour, the pine-apple fibre could not be prepared
under thirty-eight or forty dollars the pecul ; but in Penang, or
other places where labour is cheap, and women and children
could be employed upon it, the expense would hardly exceed
ten dollars per pecul.

In the experiments which I have had made with these
various fibres, a certain quantity of those prepared at Madras
bore 2601b., while a similar quantity from Singapore bore
350 lb. before they broke; but New Zealand flax in the same
proportions bore only 260 lb.

In a report from the Arsenal of Fort William, dated June 3d,
1853, the results are given of some experiments made by Con-
ductor Wilkins on several kinds of rope manufactured by
Messrs. W. H. Harton and Co., of Calcutta; and among these
there is one of Pine-apple fibre, of three inches and a quarter in
circumference. The Government proof is that a rope of this size
should bear a weight of 42 cwt., but it bore no less than 15 cwt.
more, that is, it broke with a weight of 57 cwt. (‘Journ. of
Agric. Soc. of India,’ vol. viii, p. 182); proving incontestably
that Pine-apple possesses strength for cordage, as well as fine-
ness for textile fabrics.

Pira or AGave, commonly called Atoz (Agavee, a tribe of
Amaryllidee).

Hindee—Cantala and Bans-keora. Tamul—Petha-kalabuntha.

The species of Agave, commonly called aloe plants, are natives
of America, which have become so naturalised in many parts as
to appear to be indigenous in Africa, parts of India, and in the
4,2 PITA OR AGAVE FIBRE.

south of Spain. So much is the latter the case, that some
authors take this American plant to be the aloe wood mentioned
in Scripture. But there is not the slightest foundation for
this opinion, nor indeed for the true aloe plants of which the
agaves so frequently assume the name.’ But, as they also yield
some fibre, it is better to retain for them their appropriate
name of Aloe.

The Agave plants, to which the name of American aloes
is so frequently applied, resemble the true aloes in their sword-
shaped leaves with parallel veins, which, however, grow to a
gigantic size—that is, from eight to ten feet in length—in a
cluster from the root, with their margins usually armed with short
thorns, and their points with a hard and sharp thorn. This makes
these plants so useful in the construction of hedges; a use to
which they are applied in the south of Spain and of Italy, as
also in Sicily. These plants come to perfection in about three
years, though they do not flower for eight, and, in some situa-
tions, perhaps not for twenty years, when they throw up a tall
candelabra-like flower stalk. This has, no doubt, given origin
to the fable of their flowering only once in a hundred years.
It is the leaves of these plants which abound in fibres of great
length, and of considerable strength. Being also tough and
durable, they are separated for the purpose of making string
and rope, not only in their native countries, but also in those
into which they have been introduced.

The author, in his ‘Illustrations of Himalayan Botany’ (p.375),
observed, respecting these plants: “The species of agave are
not only ornamental as plants, and useful as hedges, but are
important for their products. The roots, as well as leaves,
contain ligneous fibre (pita thread), useful for various pur-
poses: these are separated by bruising and steeping in water,
and afterwards beating; practices which the natives of India
have adopted, either from instruction or original observation.
The Mexicans also made their paper of the fibres of agave leaves
laid in layers. The expressed juice of the leaves evaporated,
is stated by Long, in his ‘ History of Jamaica,’ to be also useful
as a substitute for soap. But the most important product of

‘ The Aloes wood of Scripture is the Ahila wood of the East, so famed for its
fragrance, yielded by Aguilaria Agallochum, &e. (v. Ahalim by the author in
Kitto’s ‘Cycl. of Biblical Literature,’ i, p. 95.)
USES OF AGAVE IN MEXICO. 43

agave, and especially of 4. americana, the species now. most
common in the South of Europe, is the sap, which exudes upon
the cutting out of the inner leaves, just before the flower scape
is ready to burst forth ; of this a very full account is given by
the illustrious Humboldt, in his ‘Political History of New Spain’
(book iv, c. 9).

The fibres of these Agave leaves are, in Mexico, converted into
twine, cord, or rope; the last used in mines, and on the
western coast, towards Guayaquill, for the rigging of ships.
Humboldt describes a bridge over the River Chambo, in
Quito, 131 feet in.span, of which the main ropes, four inches
in diameter, were made of the fibres of the agave; and upon
these ropes the roadway was placed. In the West Indies, the
negroes are described as making ropes, fishing-nets, and ham-
mocks of agave fibres. The fibre is thus prepared : the longest
and most perfect leaves being cut off, are laid upon a board
and scraped with a square iron bar, which is held in both hands,
until all the juice and pulp are pressed out, the fibres only re-
maining. Stedman says, the fibre is like white silk, and hence
it obtains the name of silk-grass ; though this name seems to
be also applied to the fine fibres of Agave vivipara, and of
A, yuccefolia. But others of these white endogenous fibres are
better entitled to the name, as they are softer and more flexible.
Stedman says, ropes made of this material are stronger than
any in use in England ; but that they are liable to be sooner
damaged by immersion in water. In Portugal the fibre is called
filo de pita, and applied to various purposes. In Spain, also,
the fibre is called Pita, and used for making string and rope,
the plant being abundant in the southern provinces. In Sicily,
the fibre is said, by Dr. Balfour, to be called Zambarone, where
cordage and mats are made of it. Pita fibre is extensively used
in South America for even considerably sized rope.

Pita fibre and rope have been stated to be prepared from
the Agave so common in the south of Spain, though not to
the extent at which the manufactory might easily be carried
on. M. Ramon de la Sagra recommends the introduction
of other kinds from Guatimala and Columbia, which are
known there by the names of “Cabulla” and “ Cocaiza.”
Species of Fourcroya also yield excellent fibre. F. gigantea
is common at St. Helena, and has been introduced into Madras.
4A -CORDAGE OF PITA FIBRE.

Pita fibre was sent to the Exhibition of 1851 from the island
of Madeira, and also from Barbadoes and Demerara. Thread
and paper made from Agave americana were also sent from
Mexico, and fibre is also said to be obtained there from a
species called “ Moogai’”——A. diacantha by botanists.

The name Pita seems to be also applied to similar fibres ob-
tained from species of Bromelia and of Yucca, as well as of Agave,
according to Dr. Hamilton, of Plymouth; and it is probable that
it is so, for these are all very similar to each other, Dr. Hamil-
ton further states, that the weight of Pita fibre being one sixth
less than that of hemp, the difference would be very considerable
for the entire rigging of a ship and produce a sensible reduc-
tion in the top weight, and thus increase the stability of the
hull. He considers it also more durable than hemp, and that
it bears the alternate action of humidity and of dryness with
little injury; hence it is preferred for cables, standing rigging of
vessels, nets for fishing, &c. The difference in hygrometric action
is also in favour of the pita. In afew months’ trial in H.M.S,
Portland, a log-line, 3800 feet long, of Pita, contracted sixteen
feet two tenths, whilst a similar one made of hemp contracted
twenty-one feet six tenths; the contraction, moreover, of the
Pita ceased on the third day, while that of the hempen cord
continued the whole time. The two lines have been deposited in
the stores of the dockyard at Plymouth.

At Amboyna, says Labillardiere, the natives produce threads
from the bastard Aloe, called Agave vivipara : the master of the
house went and cut a leaf off this plant, and, resting it on his
thigh, in order to scrape it with his large knife, he took off its
pulp, and obtained from it a fascicle of threads as long as the
leaf, and as strong as those of our best hemp.

The Agave grows well on the north coast of Africa, and its
fibre has been paid much attention to by the French since
their occupation of Algeria. There, it is stated, when fodder
is scarce, cattle will eat the younger leaves when cut into
transverse slices. A cloak and paper made of this fibre were
sent to the Exhibition of 1851; and ropes have been made of
the fibres—of these the strength is very considerable.

The Agave or Pita fibre being so extensively employed in
different parts of the world, there is no doubt that it would
be a valuable culture for many parts of India. It was pro-
AGAVE INTRODUCED INTO INDIA. 45

bably introduced into India by the Portuguese, and is now
common in both the northern and southern parts of India.
The species which I found most common in the north-west of
India was Agave vivipara. This seems to be the same as
the Agave americana of Roxburgh (‘ Herb. Amb.,’ v, 94). I
observed that on rich soils, the plant invariably produced bulbs,
but no seeds ; while on a poor stony soil and dry climate, like
that of Delhi, seeds alone are produced. This species must be
closely allied to the A. Cantala of Dr. Roxburgh, which is, no
doubt, a naturalised plant. These species or varieties flourish
in dry parts of the country, where few fibre-yielding plants
succeed so well, such asin the Deccan and in Mysore. Far in
the north-west, the outer hedge of the Saharunpore Botanic
Garden was formed of the Agave, and the fibres were com-
monly used for all garden purposes. Dr. Buchanan, at the
beginning of the century, found the villagers in Mysore em-
ploying it for making strong hedges, and separating the fibres
for cordage; and Mr. Webb, who was employed with Dr.
Anderson in cultivating the Nopal for the Cochineal insect,
had a plantation of the Agave, near Madras. Of this the
fibres were made into rope, and reported upon at the arsenal of
Fort St. George, as long since as the year 1798.

Mr. William Webb having made a plantation of the Agave
plant, in the year 1798 manufactured ropes from its fibres,
which he considered superior in strength to that made in
Europe. He also stated that he believed rope without tar is
preferable for all military purposes. He submitted a coil of
this rope to the Military Board of Fort St. George, with a
suggestion that he should be allowed to supply it in lieu of
rope made in Europe. Capt. P. Malcolm, of H.M.S.
Suffolk, writing from Cochin, reported upon it, “as strong, if
not more so, than Coir, and as having the advantage in plia-
bility.” A Committee of the Military Board were “of
opinion, that its appearance promises well, and that from a
trial that has been made of it, it is at least equal when new
to the best Europe rope of the same size in point of strength.
Sixteen of the battering guns having been mounted with it
before it gave way, while Europe rope of a larger kind failed
after it had been employed in mounting only four guns.”
But it was observed that the yarns were made too large, and
46 AGAVE CULTIVATED IN MADRAS TERRITORIES.

that diminishing their size would augment their strength.
With respect to its durability, the Committee had no expe-
rience, but reported, that part of a coil which Mr. Webb stated
‘had been fixed to the anchor of his boat at Ennore, and kept
constantly under water for six months, appears to have under-
gone no other alteration than Europe rope would have done in
the same situation.”

In another report made by the Commissary of Stores, Fort
St. George, dated 27th July, 1801, on a coil of Aloe rope manu-
factured at Seringapatam, it is stated that “ the coil of Aloe rope
was, on its being received at the Arsenal, the 10th of June,
immersed in a tub of water for twenty-four hours, and then
exposed to the open air in the yard; since which date, a few
showers of rain have fallen, after each of which the coil was
turned ; and upon being examined and tried the 27th instant,
it was found to be quite rotten.” From this it was inferred
that Aloe rope will not stand wet; and it was stated that this
was also the result of similar rope supplied to H.M.’s squadron
then in India. (‘Madras Artillery Records’ for 1839.)

Though nothing is so objectionable in a rope for naval pur-
poses as inability to bear exposure to wet, the above experiments
are inconclusive, because we are without any information
respecting the species of Agave which was cultivated, and also
respecting the soil and climate where it was grown, as well as
the time which the fibre was macerated before it was separated.
All which influence not only the strength of fibre, but its
capability of bearing moisture. The result of the experience
in India is, moreover, contrary to that of South America.

The employment of the fibres of this plant seems very
general, as it has since become widely distributed through the
Madras Presidency. Thus, it is so employed at Masulipatam
and at Bellary. At Cuddapah, the natives make ropes of it
thirty cubitsin length. The plant is abundant about Madura,
whence fibre and cordage were sent. The fibres are prepared
by pressing the leaves between two horns and then washing
the pulp away. The ropes are described as being manufactured
in great abundance, and at a trifling expense; and that they
are much used for lashing bales of calico. The fibres are also
separated on the Malabar coast, and specimens were sent from
the prisoners in the jail. But the most varied assortment of
AGAVE GROWN IN BENGAL PROVINCES. AT

specimens was sent from Madras, prepared at the instigation of
Dr. Hunter in his School of Arts, and by the prisoners in the
jails at Madras. Of these, the Agave was in the state both of
fibre and of oakum; also made into string, cord, and rope,
and dyed orange, red, maroon, and green, showing how well
this fibre takes these colours. Also, some good paper, made
with this fibre, mixed with that of gunny bags. In Madras,
this plant is called petha kalabuntha. The usual way of pre-
paring these fibres is to steep them in water for three days,
and then to clear away the herbaceous parts. But the best
way of steeping is that practised by the natives in some
places; that is, of sinking the leaves in wet sand. But the
fibres may also be separated by first beating, and then scraping
away the rest of the vegetable tissue. The beating is required
on account of the hardness of these agave leaves. Pressing
them through grooved cylinders, would, no doubt, be efficacious
and. also expeditious.

The Agave is also common in the Bengal Presidency, where
it is called cantala; and also bans keora, or “ Bamboo Pan-
danus.” Though, probably most valuable in the upper pro-
vinces, yet, in December, 1839, Mr. Bond, master-attendant at
Balasore, sent to the Agricultural Society of Calcutta, a piece
of cloth manufactured by him from a species of the Aloe plant,
of which he sent a leaf; and stated that the cloth had been
woven without the thread having been spun. I have already
mentioned that the fibre was constantly employed for garden
purposes at Saharunpore.

Mr. Tonnochy, B.C.S., succeeded in spreading the culture
in the Boolundshuhur district, by exposing, in his office, some
of the dressed fibre, and also a couple of sattranjees or car-
pets made of them, together with heaps of seed. These all
disappeared. Mr. Tonnochy encouraged the culture as a hedge-
plant, because it was not only valuable on its own account,
but also, because enclosing the fields so much enhances the
value of land. The long, flowering stem was, moreover, found
useful as a ridge-pole for cottages.

In the year 1852, Sir R. C. Hamilton, resident at Indore,
forwarded some specimens of the fibre of the Agave Cantala
which grows freely in Malwa, and to which attention had been
directed during the temporary want of “ Bakkul,” the fibrous
48 EXPERIMENTS ON PITA FIBRE IN BENGAL.

bark of the roots of certain trees, which is used in that part
of India as a cheap substitute for string and cord. Dr.
Tranter found he could pull out single fibres, measuring from
twenty to thirty inches in length; but he separated a larger
quantity by macerating the leaves in water for a week and
then beating them with a stick. Capt. A. Thompson, of
Messrs. T.’s rope-manufactory at Calcutta, having tested
the fibres, found the strength quite equal to the best Russian
hemp. He also states, in June, 1852, that a considerable
quantity of fibre, exactly similar, had lately been imported from
the Malabar coast, and that he had some made into rope, which
very much resembled Manilla rope: but time was required to
test its durability. It was then worth about four rupees per
bazar maund in the Calcutta market.

Though this Pita or Agave fibre is so much employed in
different parts of the world, its great merits seem to be,
generally, but little known. We have seen that in South
America, ropes made with it are considered both strong and
durable. The ropes made at Algiers have been found to possess
great strength; and the log-lines in H.M. ship Portland to
be both durable and not shrinking after the third day. In
lightness and colour they resemble ropes of Manilla hemp,
though they are not usually so strong. But in a “ comparative
trial made at Paris, between ropes made of hemp and of the
aloe from Algiers, the latter was found to bear 2000 kilogrames,
while the former, of equal size, bore only 400.” So, in some
comparative trials made at the French dock yard at Toulon,
on ropes made from these fibres and from hemp, the following
results were obtained, both being immersed in the sea for six
months, and exposed to the atmosphere for the same time.

 

 

 

 

 

‘| Weight Weight || Difference in
PITA. supported. HEMP. eusparied . || favour of Pita,
: Pounds. 3 ; Pounds. Pounds.
Plungedin sea. .] 3810 | Plungedinsea. .| 2538 1272
Exposed toair . .| 3724 | Exposedtoair. .| 3022 702

 

 

 

 

 

In the year 1841 some rope was made under the direction
of Mr. Hornby at the Alhpore Jail rope-walk, of Aloe, or rather
Agave fibre, obtained from plants which had been grown by
EXPERIMENTS ON PITA FIBRE IN MADRAS. 49

the convalescent insane, near Calcutta. Mr. Hornby tested
this rope against others made of Country Hemp (that is Sunn),
Jute, and Coir, and he found the Agave rope exceed the
others in strength, as appears from the following statement
sent by him to the Agricultural Society of India:

CALCULATION OF THE POWERS OF ALOE FIBRE ROPE, COUNTRY HEMP, JUTE, AND
COIR ROPE, TRIED AT THE ALLIPORE JAIL ROPE-WALK.

Aloe Fibre Rope, 1 fathom long, and 3 inches in circumference, ee
broke in a weight of . . F ‘ . ‘ . » 25193
Coir do. do. do . » 2175
Country Hemp- do. do. do. . « 22693
Jute do. do. do . . 24564

In some experiments which I had made, I found a bundle
of the fibres bore 2701b., when a similar bundle of Russian
hemp bore only 160 lb. Dr. Wight had some cord prepared
with the Agave fibre in Coimbatore, and found it bore 362 |b. ;
when similar rope, made from Crotolaria juncea broke with
407 lb. The following are the results of —

EXPERIMENTS MADE IN ARSENAL AT FORT ST. GEORGE, JULY 30TH, 1850, on
ROPES MADE IN JAIL AT MADRAS, IN 1850.!

 

 

 

 

8 | B34 leg

8 ‘ eo | as Weight of one fathom of

Bel. 2 a SES ZS | anita | English each,

q 2 to ei ge S uo | Rope. Hempen|

5 @ | break.| 23 | 984 Rope. . '

a ),4 228) 52 Pita. | Manilla, Europe.

In. | Fms.| Ib. Ib. Ib lb. Ib 02. 02. oz
Rope . | 13 2 | 2218 | 1994 | 2016 | — _ 194) — _
Ditto . | 1§ 2/1154) — — | 1490; 1184 81g | 93 13
Line . | 03 1 863; — —_ _ _— 04; — _—
Cord .| Of; 1 393; 343) 3718; — —_ 03) — _

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

These experiments prove incontestibly, that the Pita fibre is
possessed of very useful properties ; and we have seen that the
Agave plant has become naturalised in many widely separated
parts of the Indian territories. Its characteristics have been dwelt
upon in detail, because it seems calculated to prove extremely
useful in India. First, because it grows in dry climates and poor
soils, such as may be met with both in the Deccan and in Mysore.
It will, in such situations, form a very effective hedge—
useful, not only in keeping off from the crops the innumerable

! For similar experiments on rope, &c., made from Plantain fibres, ». p. 78, &c.

4,
50 SUGGESTED TRIALS OF PITA FIBRE.

herds of deer, &c., but also in assisting in saving the soil, a
road or a railway, from being covered with the sand blown
from the desert. The leaves would form a continual source of
employment for the people, in separating an abundant supply
of material for cordage. This will, at all events, be sufficiently
good for all agricultural purposes, for the harnessing of cattle,
the baling of produce, and for the rigging of vessels employed
in river navigation. The fibre is also sufficiently good to form
an exportable article of considerable value, especially as the
prejudice against white cordage will by degrees be removed,
and the tow will be invaluable for the manufacture of paper.
It is desirable that some comparative experiments should be
made on the age at which the leaves should be collected, and
on how long they should be steeped. Also, whether this process
is necessary at all; that is, whether the fibre may not be
separated by mechanical means. The climate best suited to
the growth of the strongest fibre should be ascertained, as well
as what are the differences of quality between the fibre of
different species of Agave. Also, the susceptibility of different
kinds to the effects of moisture, either with or without super-
ficial tarring. In the preparation of the cordage submitted to
trial, care should be taken that the fibres are so prepared as to
cut each other as little as possible when twisted ; and also that
the cordage is made by a regular rope-maker. Under the head
of Plantain and of Moorva (v. p. 58) fibre, we shall consider the
quantity of fibre producible from a certain number of such
plants, and also the price at which it may probably be produced.

Littaceous Piants.

Liliaceous plants, from their generally ornamental nature,
have attracted attention from the earliest ages to the present
time, and Our Saviour selected the flower of one of these
(Lilium chalcedonicum) as a type of the beautiful productions
of nature. The plants are usually herbaceous, though some
few are shrubby, and even arboreous; most are distinguished
by their narrow parallel-veined leaves: of these, some are soft,
herbaceous, and succulent ; others hard and perennial. Of the
latter many abound in fibre, which may be, and is, extracted
for useful purposes ; as Aloe, Sanseviera, Phormium, &c.
TRUE ALOES FIBRE. 51

True Axors (Aloe vulgaris, Barbadensis, &c.)

The true genus Aloe, or the plants which yield the medi-
cinal drug of that name, abound at the Cape of Good Hope,
on the west coast of Africa, and on that of Arabia, with one or
two species in India, They might be supposed to yield much
fibre from the frequency with which we find the name applied
to some of those met with in commerce; but these we have
seen are the produce of a species of Agave, commonly
called American Aloe (v. p. 41, &c). The leaves of the true
Aloes are, in all the countries where the species are indigenous,
as well as in the West Indies, where one or two of them have
been long introduced, cut up and boiled down to yield the ex-
tract called Aloes. In some cases the yellow juice is allowed
to exude from the cut leaf to form what is called Socotrine
Aloes; but nowhere is the fibre which these leaves undoubtedly
contain turned to useful account. It is probable, however, that
it might, even when the leaves are cut into small pieces, be
separated at little expense, for the use of the paper-maker.

That the fibre, as well as the tow, of the true Aloes is of a
good and useful quality, is satisfactorily proved by the speci-
mens of both sent from Madras by Dr. Hunter, as those of the
kala-buntha, or of the species which is there called Aloe per-
foliata, and which is, probably, the same plant with red flowers
which I named Aloe indica, and found in dry situations in
North-West India. The fibre is white in colour, fine in quality,
with sufficient tenacity for textile fabrics, and readily takes
colours, as shown by the orange, red, and crimson-coloured
specimens sent by Dr. Hunter. The fibres are about two feet
in length, and have considerable strength. A bundle of the
fibres bore 160 Ib., when a similar one of Petersburgh hemp
broke with the same weight.

Moorva Fisrz, Maroon of Madras (Sanseviera zeylanica).

Bowstring Hemp. Sans.—Mirva. Beng.—Moorga and Moorgavee. Tamool—Maril.

Sanseviera is a genus of Liliaceous plants, of which individuals
are very abundant on the coast of Guinea and of other parts of
52 ANCIENT USE OF MOORVA OR MAROOL FIBRE.

Africa; also around Ceylon, and all along the Bay of Bengal,
extending thence to Java and to the coasts of China.

The leaves are succulent, and abound in fibre remarkable
for fineness and tenacity. Dr. Roxburgh proposed that the
fibres wight be called Bowstring hemp in England, because the
natives of the Circars make their best bowstrings of them.

Sanseviera zeylanica is the best-known species, and has been
so called as being common on the Ceylon coast. From it has
been distinguished S. Rorburghiana, common on the coasts of
the Bay of Bengal, apparently on insufficient grounds. It is
figured by Dr. Roxburgh himself under its former name in his
‘Coromandel Plants,’ ii, tab. 184. SS. lanuginosa is pro-
bably a distinct species, the katu-kapel of Rheede (‘ Hort. Mal.,’
vol. xi, tab. 42), which grows on the sands of the Malabar
coast. All are closely allied to each other, and to the African
S. guineensis. Of this the fibres have been occasionally intro-
duced into the markets of Europe, and by some thought supe-
rior to New Zealand Flax. They have been called African
Bowstring Hemp. (The author’s ‘ Himal. Bot.,’ p. 391.)

The Indian species of Sanseviera was first described by Sir
William Jones, in the ‘Asiatic Researches,’ vol. iv, p. 271,
under its ancient Sanscrit name of Moorva, and he says, that—
“ From the leaves of this plant the ancient Hindoos extracted a
very tough elastic thread called Maurvi, of which they made
bowstrings ; and which, for that reason, was ordained by Menu
to form the sacrificial zone of the military class.” Dr. Rox-
burgh describes the plant as common on the jungly salt soils
along the coasts, growing under the bushes, and easily propa-
gated on almost every soil, from the slips which issue in great
abundance from the roots, requiring little or no care, and not
requiring to be renewed often, if at all, as the plant is peren-
nial, The leaves, when thus cultivated, are from three to four
feet long. The fibre, which extends their whole length, is se-
parated from the pulpy part of the leaves. The natives place
them on a smooth board; then press one end of the leaf
down with one of their great toes, and with a thin bit of hard
stick held between the two hands, they scrape the leaf from
them, and very quickly remove every part of the pulp. This
can also be removed by steeping the leaves in water till the
pulpy parts rot, &c.
MOORVA CULTIVATED BY DR. ROXBURGH. 53

Dr. Buchanan found apparently the same plant, but which he
calls Aletris nervosa, employed for making cordage near Ban-
galore. Before the leaves are beaten to separate the fibres,
they are steeped in water fifteen (others say five) days, in
order to rot the useless parts; but with Dr. Roxburgh the
fibres became discoloured by this process.

Dr. Roxburgh sent drawings of the plant and specimens of
the fibre (v. ‘Obs.,’ p. 18) as early as the year 1790 to the
Court of Directors, and again in 1800 by Mr. Bebb; after
he had cultivated a begah (i. e., third of an acre of ground)
with this plant. As full-grown leaves of three to three and
a half feet long yielded about one pound of the clean fibre
for every forty pounds of the fresh leaves, Dr. Roxburgh con-
cluded that this plant might be cultivated with advantage. By
another calculation he found that one acre would yield 1613
pounds of clean fibre at a gathering, two of which may be
reckoned on yearly, in a good soil and a favorable season,
after the plants are of a proper age. He also ascertained that
aline four feet long, made of moorva fibre, bore a weight of
120 1b., when a cord of the same size, made of Russian
hemp, bore only 105. The former, moreover, after 116 days’
maceration, bore a weight of 30 lb., when the latter was
completely rotten.

Dr. Roxburgh further observes: “Should it ever become
an object of culture, a less expensive and more expeditious
method of clearing the fibres from the pulpy parts of the leaves,
than that of the natives above mentioned, must be contrived.”
This seems to have been since done. For the Rev. J. Garrow, as
quoted by Mr. Murray, states that, in the year 1831, during his
residence in Cuttack, in the province of Orissa, he first by mere
accident discovered that the leaf of the Aloe angustifolia’ of Lin-
nus, contained a quantity of long white fibres. Perceiving that
this material possessed great strength, clearness, and tenacity, he
caused some quantities of the leaf to be beaten out with mallets,
and the fibres to be withdrawn, and in this way collected about
three hundredweight of fine grass, the fibres severally running
about three feet long. On taking this to Calcutta, Mr. Tapley,
chief officer of the Thalia East Indiaman, then lying off that

' It is not easy to ascertain what plant is meant, but it is probably only a variety
of Agave, as uo species of Aloe is known to be indigenous on that coast.
54 MOORVA COMPARED WITH HEMPEN ROPE.

port, had some of it manufactured into ropes. Ona fair trial
of a three-stranded rope of this material with a similar one of
Russian hemp, in raising two and a half hundredweight of
spelter from the hold, the grass faithfully brought it up on three
successive occasions; whereas, in applying the hempen rope,
twice out of three times it gave way, and in the third trial lost
one strand. Both Mr. Tapley and Capt. Biden, the comman-
der, highly approved of the article, as did many commanders
of ships of other nations then frequenting the port of Calcutta,

* On the writer’s return to Cuttack he laid waste the whole
of the aloe plant he could discover, without respect to species;
and to save time and labour, passed the leaves through a
pressing mill similar to that used for expressing the juice from
the sugar-cane. He then caused them to be laid in heaps
under water for some days, till the fleshy portion of the leaf
was decomposed, by which means the fibres were more easily
collected ; they were then hackled and baled. In the course
of a short time afterwards he discovered a short species of
aloe, growing wildly and profusely in all the moist woods of
the neighbourhood, which the natives called Moorgubbee. On
experiment, this plant produced a most beautiful fibre, as soft
and as fine as human hair, but possessing, notwithstanding,
extraordinary strength and tenacity. He derived a great
quantity of flax from this plant, which, when portioned off in
hanks, bore a strict resemblance to raw silk; indeed, side by
side, the difference could not be distinguished. It was this
article that first induced the writer to turn his attention to
the manufacture of cloth. He engaged two native ‘ Tantees,’
or weavers, to construct a narrow loom for this purpose. They
at first found some difficulty in the undertaking, but in the
course of four or five days they produced as fine a piece of
cloth as was ever beheld: one portion of it the writer pre-
sented to Sir Charles (afterwards Lord) Metcalf.”

The fibres of the Sanseviera may, from their fineness, com-
bined with tenacity, be applied to a variety of purposes. Dr.
Roxburgh at one time supposed, though erroneously, that they
were identical with China grass, They are usually about two
feet in length, but may easily be obtained longer, if plants
are cultivated. The fibres are firm, hair-like, and silky, and
resemble those of the pine-apple most closely. The tow is ex-
MOORVA FIBRE WOVEN INTO CLOTH. 55

cellent for paper-making. The natives of Bengal twist the fibres
into a fine thread, upon which they string ornaments to be
hung round the neck; those of the coast employ them for
making bowstrings ; and the Rajpoot thread is sometimes made
of its fibres. They readily take dyes, as was some years ago
shown by Miss Davy, and specimens dyed red, orange, maroon,
and green, were sent to the Exhibition by Dr. Hunter. Miss
Davy, moreover, had some cloth woven with the fibres, after
some difficulty, but the fibre was still too wiry, from imperfect
preparation. The weaver, moreover, having neglected to
separate the coarse from the fine fibres, gave the cloth an
uneven and irregular appearance. But if the necessary care
was taken with this, as with all other fibres, there seems no
reason to doubt that it might be applied to the fabrication of
fine cloths, in the same way as pine-apple fibre. The fibre has
been proposed for the packing of steam-engines, and its tow
used to be, and perhaps still is, converted into very good paper
at Trichinopoly.

As the Moorva fibre is employed by the natives for their
bowstrings, there can be no doubt of its possessing sufficient
strength for rope-making. In some recent experiments, this
fibre, in its untwisted state, bore 280 lb., when Agave fibre
broke with 270 lb. Dr. Wight found some string made of
the latter, broke with 362 lb., while the Sanseviera broke
with 3161b., so that these two may be considered as nearly
equal to each other in strength.

Attention was called to the fibre of Moorgavie by Mr. A.
Bond, Master-Attendant at Balasore, who sent to the Marine
Board of Calcutta some of the fibres preparéd from the leaves
of plants growing in the jungly salt soils along the coast from
Kedgeree southward, informing the Board that he had found
the fibre useful on board the Hon. Company’s schooner Orissa,
as it answered excellently for running gear.

On the receipt of the samples, the Board having desired the
Master-Attendant at Calcutta to submit them to trial, the latter
reported that it was “not equal in strength to the Europe
or Manilla hemp, but that it seemed to take hot tar as
well as the latter, and would answer generally for the same
purposes as those to which the Europe and Manilla cordage is
applied.” The following were the results obtained :
56 MOORVA FIBRE TWISTED INTO CORDAGE.

Europe hemp, made of sewing twine (untarred) . . broke at 212 Ib.
Harris’s patent colonial bolt rope (tarred)! . . ‘ » 204 ,,
Manilla hemp (untarred) .  - - +t » 188 ,,
Europe bolt rope (tarred) . 7 3 2 7 s ” 168 ,,
Balasore fibre (untarred), at Calcutta . . . 7 7 137 ,,
Ditto, spun by Capt. Bond (thumb line). : : ” 135$,,
Europe rope (tarred) : ‘ z : zi . i 88 ,,

In a further report, Capt. Bond stated, that forty maunds
of the fresh plant produced one maund of fibre. The expenses
of the experiment were high, as the plant had to be brought to
him from some distance (four miles) to the place where it was
dressed, and the best methods of separating the fibre had not
been followed. The natives being averse to a work which
their forefathers had never-taken in hand. The plants having
been steeped for eight days, were beaten out on a stone or
plank, and then taken to another tank of water to be washed,
and then dried and combed. All these processes necessarily
increased the expenses. Mr. Bond further ascertained that the
steeping spoiled the colour cf the fibre, at the same time that
it diminished its strength. With some fresh specimens of the
fibre he also sent two pieces of cloth, which had been woven
from threads spun by fishermen, which were irregular in
thickness, and so, consequently, was also the cloth.

From the abundance of this plant in many situations, from
the ease with which it may be cultivated, and the facility with
which the fibre may be separated and cleaned, there is no
doubt that it could be produced as cheaply as any of the other
fibres ; and it has been shown that it is capable of being used
for a variety of purposes, as for textile fabrics, and for string
and cordage, as well as for paper-making. It is abundantly
diffused, especially along the coasts, and its fibre was sent to
the Exhibition from Assam and Cuttack, as well as from
Madras, Coimbatore, and the Malabar coast.

Besides the foregoing, many other Liliaceous plants might
be adduced, as yielding useful kinds of fibre, and in quantities
sufficient to repay the trouble of their extraction. But they

' Probably made of New Zealand Flax, v. p. 58.

 
NEW ZEALAND FLAX. 57

are not indigenous or sufficiently abundant in India, though
the fibres of some have been separated, and sent as specimens.
As, for instance, of-—

Yucca, on Apam’s Nerpie Fisre.

Adam’s Needle, or Yucca gloriosa, &c., like others, seems
sometimes to be called an Aloe. The species of Yucca are
natives of the southern provinces of the United States, and
being there exposed to extremes, are capable of living in the
open air, both in Europe and India. They are conspicuous
for their noble show of lily-like white flowers, as well as for
their long sword-shaped leaves, terminated by a thorny point.
They, no doubt, all abound in fibre, as some of a fine
quality and strong in nature, has been sent from Madras, sepa-

“rated from the leaves of the Yucca angustifolia. Other species
flourish as far north as in the Botanic Garden at Saharunpore.
The fibres also take colour, as in the specimens sent from Madras,
dyed red, orange, purple, and green. Fibre has also been separa-
ted from other species of Yucca, as Y. aloifolia and Y. filamentosa,
These are amongst those which have received the name of silk-
grass. Those sent from India are from two to four feet in
length, and are rather wiry, or resemble those of the Agave
more than they do the fibres of Bromelias.

New Zratanp Frax (Phormium tenax).

New Zealand Flax, or Phormium tenax, belonging to this
family of plants, may here be noticed, though it is not
so well suited as many others, to the general nature of Indian
climates, but it will enable us to make some useful com-
parisons. It was discovered by the celebrated Cook in New
Zealand—as he says “the country produced a grass plant, like
flags, of the nature of hemp or flax, but superior in quality to
either ; of this the natives make clothing, lines, nets, &c.” It
grows both on the north and the south coast. It was intro-
duced in the year 1798 into the south of Ireland, and has been
found to flourish on the west coast of Scotland, though Euro-
pean winters are occasionally too severe for it. The native
name of the plant is koradi or korere, while the fibre is called
58 NEW ZEALAND FLAX

muka. The leaves of the plant are perennial, hard, sword-
shaped, from five to seven feet in length, with a flower-stalk
rising four or five feet above them, and bearing a profusion
of yellow flowers, followed by triangular seed-vessels, filled with
flat and thin black shining seeds. According to Salisbury,
three-year old plants yield on an average, thirty-six leaves,
beside offsets from the roots. Six leaves produced one ounce
weight of dry fibres, after being scutched and cleaned; and he
calculated that an acre cropped with these plants, three feet
apart (but they could not be placed so near without inter-
fering with each other), will yield more than sixteen ewt.
“ The leaves are cut when full-grown, macerated in water for
a few days, and then passed under a weighted roller.” The
natives of New Zealand cut the leaves when full-grown, and
separate the fibres while yet green. Mr. G. Bennett states
that a lateral incision is made with a large shell on each side
of the leaf, merely to cut through the epidermis, which is first
removed, and then, what he calls the internal epidermis, pro-
bably a part of the cellular tissue, “ which agglutinates the
fibres, and, if not removed, deteriorates the flax.” The prin-
cipal operation is scraping with the shell, and then separating
the fibres with the thumb-nails, and then employing combs for
a more minute separation. The fibres are subsequently dried
in the sun, and are perfectly white; some stout and strong,
others fine and silky. It is said that “the plant may be
shorn of its leaves in the morning, and before the sun has set
be ready for weaving into cloth.” The same thing may, no
doubt, be done with others of these naturally white endoge-
nous fibres. Considerable quantities were at one time im-
ported, and a factory was established by Capt. Harris for
their manufacture, but the supply seems to have been irregular,
and now to have fallen off rather than increased.

Mr. J. Wood, in the year 1844, in a communication to the
Agricultural Society of India, called attention to the New
Zealand Hemp, as a plant which was very hardy and would
thrive in any soil or climate, but that it preferred swampy
lands. He stated that it was often met with in New Zealand,
thriving three or four feet under sea-water, (but itis also found
at some distance from the sea-shore). He therefore thought
the locality of the Soonderbunds, extending from near Calcutta
PREPARED BY MECHANICAL MEANS. ‘59

to the sea, to be well adapted for this plant ; and which would
be profitable in a country where labour was so cheap. But
it seems to have been forgotten, in this, as well as in a paper
in the first volume of the ‘Transactions of the Society,’ that a
plant which flourishes so far south as New Zealand, and suc-
ceeds well both in Scotland and in Ireland, is not likely to do
well in so tropical a situation as that of the Soonderbunds.

An interesting set of specimens of New Zealand Flax, show-
ing the native method of preparing the fibre and of dyeing it
black, were sent to the Exhibition of 1851, by Taohui, a New
Zealand chief; and another, a very valuable and suggestive set
of specimens of the fibre and its tow, by Mr. HE. W. Trent
(v. “Tllust. Col.,’ xli, p. 197), which he described as having been
separated entirely by machinery invented by himself. IEf this
fibre can be so prepared, then it is evident that others of the
same nature may be successfully treated in a similar manner.

These fibres are applicable to a variety of purposes, either of a
textile nature or for cordage, and will, like the other white fibres
we have mentioned, take colour. ‘The strength of the fibres is
considerable, for in some experiments by De Candolle, in which,
however, that of Agave is understated, there is no doubt that
the New Zealand Flax, which bore 23°7, was stronger than
either Flax or Hemp, which bore respectively 112 and 162. It
has also the advantage of being lighter, but has the disadvan-
tage of many of the white fibres of breaking at a knot. Mr.
J. Murray, in his pamphlet on this plant, printed on paper
made from its leaves, states that the ship Atalanta, which plied
between Southampton and the Channel Islands, was completely
equipped with cordage and rigging made of Phormium tenax.
He further continues—

“JT have seen specimens of ropes, twine, yarn, lines, sail-
cloth, sacking, bedtick, &c., made of Phormium tenax ; also
fine fabrics of various kinds, affording demonstrable evidence
that its fibre is susceptible of being woven into tissues of the
most delicate description, or manufactured into materials of
the strongest and coarsest kind. The sails, cables, and run-
ning rigging of the beautiful model of the frigate presented by
his late Majesty William the Fourth to the King of Prussia,
were entirely formed of Phormium tenax. Capt. Harris’s
yacht, a perfect gem in naval architecture, was supplied with
60 RUSHES—ARROW-ROOT TRIBE.

a mainsail composed of three different varieties of New Zealand
flax, and the cordage made of Musa teztilis,’ that is, of
Manilla hemp, of which we have immediately to treat.

RusHes (Juncacee).

Rushes have so long been employed for some of the same
purposes as other fibres that we can hardly omit noticing them,
as they are found in moist places on the mountains of India.
But the author may quote what he has formerly said:

“The Juncacee, or true rushes, are insipid and inodorous;
several are employed for mechanical purposes only, as the com-
mon rush, for making mats, baskets, and the bottoms of chairs,
while the pith is employed for the wicks of rushlights. Juncus
effusus, which is the common European species, is, according to
Thunberg, cultivated in Japan for making floor-mats. J. glaucus
a European species found in the Himalayas, and closely allied
to J. effusus, might be employed for all the purposes of the
common rush.” (‘I}lust. Himal. Bot.,’ p. 401.)

Arrow-root Tribe (Marantacee).

These plants are celebrated for several of the species storing
up large quantities of fecula in their tubers or root-stocks, and
which is separated and known by the name of Arrow-root pow-
der. They are little known for their herbaceous parts containing
any useful quantity of fibre. But one of the South American ge-
nera has been named Calathea, in consequence of its leaves being
employed in basket-making. So in India, the stems of Moocta
patee of the Bengalees, Maranta (Phrynium, Roxb.) dichotoma
of botanists,» which are straight and tapering, about as
thick as a man’s thumb, and from three to five or six feet
high, of a beautiful highly polished green colour, are said to
be employed in making some of the mats for which Calcutta
is famous. Mr. Colebrooke says: “ Mats made of the split stems
of this plant being smooth and particularly cool and refreshing,
are termed in Hindoo sital-pati, which signifies a cool mat,
whence the plant itself is said to bear the name. Suspecting,
however, this to be a misappropriation of the term, I have
THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. 61

- inquired of natives of the eastern parts of Bengal, who assure
me that the plant is named mucta-pata or patti-pata, and the
mat only is called ‘sital-pati””’ The split stems, as prepared
for making mats, are about four feet in length, one twentieth
of an inch in breadth, thin as paper, greyish coloured, compact
and shining almost like cane on the outside; finely striated
on the inside, and apparently made up by the agglutination
of very fine fibres. They seem admirably adapted for platting
of all kinds.

The plants of this family, however, deserve attention, rather
on account of what may be, than for anything that has yet
been done with them ; for the Marantas yielding arrow-root,
and the Cannas which yield “Tous les mois,” have, with
perennial root-stocks, only annual stems and leaves. Many of
these, no doubt, contain a sufficient quantity of fibre to be
usefully extracted for the paper-maker.

The same may be said of the innumerable plants of Ginger,
Turmeric, Cardamom, and others of the nearly allied family of
Zingiberacee, which are similarly cultivated entirely for their
roots and seeds, and the herbaceous plants thrown away. These
from their nature cannot but abound in useful fibre, applicable
to the same purpose—that is, of the paper-maker.

Tae Piantain anp Banana Trips (Musacee).

The name of this family of plants, derived from Musa, is,
as the author has already observed, so classically sounding,
that we are apt to forget its probably oriental origin. For
being natives of tropical countries, though often extending
beyond such limits, and having the name of mauz or moz
applied to one of the species by old Arabic writers, there is
very little doubt of this being the source of the name Musa.
This is now applied to the genus which produces the fruits com-
monly known as Plantains and Bananas; as also the fibre so well
known under the name of Manilla Hemp. The Plantain was
undoubtedly known by description both to the Greeks and
Romans, for Theophrastus, among the plants of India, describes
one as having fruit which serves as food for the wise men of

1 «Tllustrations of Himalayan Botany,’ p. 354.
62 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MUSA.

India; and which was remarkable both for its sweetness and
for its size, as one would suffice for four men—referring
most probably to a bunch of plantains. Pliny, evidently
describing the same plant, informs us that its name was Pala.
Garcias, in comparatively modern times, describing the plan-
tain, states that its name on the Malabar coast was Palan.

The plants of Musa are conspicuous for their size among
herbaceous plants. They are devoid of true stems, but form
a spurious stem, often of considerable thickness, from the leaves,
as they rise from the root-stock, being sheathing at their base,
encircling each other, and enveloping, layer within layer, the
slender flower and fruit-stalk. This, rising through the centre,
projects and hangs down from the top of the sheathing part of
the leaves. These, at this point, expand into broad, and at the
same time long laminz or blades, in which numerous parallel
veins proceed at right angles from the thick midrib to the mar-
gin of each leaf. As these veins do not anastomose and form a
network as in ordinary leaves, the leaves are apt, when blown
about by the wind, to be divided into innumerable narrow
shreds, which are still attached to the midrib. This appear-
ance, no doubt, suggested and justifies the leaves being said
to be like ostrich feathers. Every part, both of the sheathing
and the exposed parts of these leaves, abounds in fibre.

The species of Musa are found in hot and tropical parts of
the world, as in the Phillipine Isles, where Musa tertilis is
indigenous, as well as in those of the Indian Archipelago,
where the edible species are common. From thence they
extend northwards as far as Japan; while in China are found
Musa coccinea and Cavendishii; also along the Malayan
Peninsula to Chittagong—WM. glauca being indigenous in the
former, and M. ornata in the latter locality. In the valleys
of the south of the Peninsula of India and of the Dindygul
Mountains, M. superba is found. The common edible varieties
of M. paradisiaca flourish even in the poorest soils, and also
near brackish water. They are extensively cultivated at stations
in the interior. On the Malabar coast, the Plantain is every-
where at home. The fruit of those at Bassein is especially
well-flavoured, and the plant is particularly abundant in the
district of Broach.

If from the west we return to the east of India, we find the
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MUSA. 63

Plantain and Banana most extensively cultivated. The Plantain,
according to Dr. Helfer, is to be found in the highest perfection.
in Tenasserim, especially in province Amherst. More than
twenty varieties are known, of which several are peculiar to the
country, and the greatest part of them are superior to any to
be got in Bengal. They thrive well everywhere without the
slightest care. No Burmah or Karean house is to be found
without a plantation of Plantains. As the latter leave their
abodes, at least every three years, in order to migrate to fresh
localities, they are, of course, obliged to leave their Plantain
gardens behind them, and therefore these may be found grow-
ing luxuriantly in many uninhabited places, until they become
choked up by the growth of the more vigorous jungle trees.

With the Plantain, as with other long-cultivated plants,
many distinct varieties are recognised and named; but which
it is extremely difficult to arrange in suitable order. But
the natives of Bengal generally prefer the large and coarse-
fruited kinds, called Plantain; while the smaller and more
delicately tasted fruit, known as the Banana, is alone esteemed
by Europeans. These are cultivated in the most northern, as
well as in the southern parts of India; while along the jungly
base of the Himalayas there is a suitable climate as far as 30°
of north latitude, for plants of this genus growing in a wild
state. That growing in Nepal has been called M. nepalensis.
A similiar species may be seen growing below the Mussoore
range, as well as near Nahn. The fruit, however, in all these
situations, consists of little else than the hard dry seeds.’ In
Kemaon and Gurhwal it is cultivated at as great an elevation as
4000 and 5000 feet above the sea, and has been seen as far north
as the Chumba range at an equal elevation. Major Munro
has seen the wild Plantain at 7000 feet above the sea, in the
Khondah slopes of the Neilgherries, Though many of the
above have been mentioned as distinct species, it is probable
that some, at least, are only varieties.

“Baron Humboldt has suggested, that several species of
Musa may possibly be confounded under the names of Plantain

1 A similar variety of Musa sapientum, having seeds surrounded with a gummy
substance, instead of fruit-like pulp, was found by Dr. Finlayson, on Pulo Ubi, near
the southern extremity of Cambodia. In Batavia also, there is stated to be a variety
full of seeds, which is called Pisang batu, or Pisang bidju—that is, Seed Plantain.
64 MANILLA HEMP.

and Banana, and that some of these may be indigenous to
America; but as stated by Mr. Brown, nothing has been
advanced to prevent all the cultivated varieties being derived
from one species, Musa sapientum (also called M. paradisiaca),
of which the original is the wild Musa, described by Dr.
Roxburgh as grown from seed received from Chittagong.
Mr. Brown further adds, that it is not even asserted that the
types of any of those supposed species of American Banana,
growing without cultivation and producing perfect seed, have
anywhere been found.”’ (‘ Illust. of Himal. Bot.,’ p..355.)

If the Plantain and Banana are therefore natives of Asia,
which have been introduced, probably, by the Spaniards into
America, no plants can more strikingly display the benefits
derivable to one country from introducing the useful plants of
another which is similar in climate. For Plantains and
Bananas are now extensively cultivated in various parts of
South America, and at an elevation of 3000 feet in the Caraccas.
They are abundant in the West India Islands, as well as at
considerable elevations in Mexico. To the negroes in the
West Indies, the Plantain is invaluable, and like bread to the
European, is with them denominated the staff of life. In
Guiana, Demerara, Jamaica, Trinidad, and other principal
colonies, many thousand acres are planted with the Plantain.

But, before proceeding to treat of the Plantain and Banana,
it is desirable to notice the species which yields Manilla Hemp,
showing how valuable some of these plants are, on account of
their fibres.

Manitta Heme (Musa textilis).

Among the various substitutes for hemp, few have hitherto
attracted more attention than Manilla Hemp, and this from
the elegance of its appearance, combined with the power of
bearing great strains, as well as from being very durable, lighter,
and also cheaper than Russian hemp. It has of late years been
much employed for cordage of various kinds, especially where
considerable strain is required, as in ropes for raising goods
into warehouses or out of mines. Some yachts, as well as
many American vessels, have the whole of their rigging com-
posed of Manilla Hemp, and this cordage, when worn out, can
CORDAGE AND CLOTH OF MANILLA HEMP. 65

be converted into an excellent quality of paper. Though the
plant yielding this fibre is not indigenous in India, nor ex-
tensively cultivated, it is yet extremely interesting, not only
because it may easily be cultivated there, but because there
are other species of the same genus which may be turned to
the same useful account.

The plant which yields Manilla Hemp is called Abaca’ by the
natives of the Philippine Islands, who are said to apply the
same name to its fibre. The plant is sometimes called a tree,
but it is, in fact, only a large herbaceous plant, which belongs
to the same genus, and is, in fact, a kind of plantain or
banana, which is named Musa textilis by botanists. It was
first called Musa sylvestris by Rumphius in his ‘ Herbarium
Amboinense.’ It was thought to be a variety of M. troglo-
ditarum by Blanco, but called Musa textilis by Don Luis Nee,
ina memoir which has been translated into English, and pub-
lished in the ‘Annals of Botany,’ vol. i; where there may also be
seen another memoir, which was sent in French to Sir Joseph
Banks. These have been republished in the ‘Trans. of the
Agric. Soc. of India,’ vol. viii, p. 87, together with a transla-
tion by Mr. Piddington, of Calcutta, of a notice by Father
Blanco, in his ‘Flora de las Filipinas” In addition to these we
have a notice in the first volume of the Trans. of the above
Society, 1828, by Mr. Piddington himself, one of the gentlemen
who escaped the massacre of the English at Amboyna.

From these authors we learn that the Abaca is abundant in
the volcanic region of the Philippine Islands, from Luzon, in
the northern province of Camarines especially, to Mindanao; also
in the neighbouring islands, even as far south as the Molucca
Islands, that is,in Gilolo. Hence this species may be stated to
extend from the Equator to nearly 20° of north latitude. It
may, therefore, very probably be easily cultivated in other coun-

1 The natives distinguish several varieties of the Abaca:

1. Abaca brava (the wild Abaca), called Agotat by the Bicoles.

2, Mountain Abaca, the fibres of which only serve for making ropes, that are
ealled Agotég and Amoquid in the Bicol language.

3. The Sagig of the Bisayas.

4. The Laquis of the Bisayas, by whom the fibres of the original Abaca are called
Lamét. Rumphius states that the Malay name is Pissang utan; that it is called in
Amboyna, Kula abbal ; in Ternate, Fana; and in Mindanao, Coffo, as also the cloth
made from it. He distinguishes the Mindanao kind from that of Aealeaye

0
66 MANILLA HEMP INTRODUCED INTO INDIA.

tries, where there is some similarity of soil, and warmth with
moisture of climate ; as in India in the province of Travancore,
and on the Malabar coast, also in that of Arracan, in Chittagong.
Assam, in parts of Bengal, and in the northern Circars. This
was one of the plants subjected to experiment by Dr. Roxburgh,
in the beginning of the century. His specimens are still in
the East India House. Mr. Leycester, one of the founders of
the Agricultural Society of India, called the attention of its
members to its fibres as early as the year 1822, when he pre-
sented the fibres of three species of Musa. These were Musa
sapientum, M. ornata, and the present species, M. textilis,
That of the latter he describes as having been formed from a
coat stripped off about sunrise on that day, and having been
brought into the house about ten o’clock, had received no
further bleaching from the sun or in any other way; and that he
had had some of it made into a neat cord, which was in no way
inferior to English whipcord. He concludes his letter by con-
gratulating the members on the fibre of their common over-
grown plantains being sufficient for all the purposes of twine
required in their gardens. Some time after this was written
we find it stated in the ‘ Proceedings of the Agricultural Com-
mittee of the Society,’ Ist October, 1836, that “a row of the
Musa plant, from which the China grass cloth is made, is
in a flourishing condition.” But, on 12th August, 1840, the
Committee notice the favorable appearance of some plants of
the Manilla hemp-tree (the Abaca or Musa textilis).

Musa textilis is the Abaca of the natives of the Philippine
Islands. It is found both in a wild and cultivated state, but
the natural groves are considered as property. The fruit is
green and hard, and of a disagreeable taste. Several villages
formerly furnished yearly 1500 arobas each of the fibre, and
others exported nearly as much cordage. With the produce of
this plant, the natives of these villages pay their tribute, parish
dues, purchase the necessaries of life, and clothe themselves.

The Abaca is cut when about one year and a half old, just
before its flowering or fructification is likely to appear, as after-
wards the fibres are said to be weaker. If cut earlier, the fibres
are said to be shorter and finer. It is cut near its roots, and the
leaves cut off just below their expansion. It is then slit open lon-
gitudinally, and the central peduncle separated from the sheath-
CORDAGE AND CLOTH OF MANILLA HEMP. 67

ing layers of fibres, which are in fact the petioles of the leaves.
Of these layers the outer are harder and stronger, and form
the kind of fibre called dandala, which is employed in the
fabrication of cordage. The inner layers consist of finer fibres,
and yield what is called dupis, and used for weaving the nipis
and other more delicate fabrics; while the intermediate layers
are converted into what is called éupoz,! of which are made web-
cloths and gauzes, four yards long, of different degrees of fine-
ness. These are universally used as clothing. Some being so
fine, that a garment may be enclosed in the hollow of the hand.
Mr. Bennett says, at Manilla there is an extensive manufacture
of muslin and sinamaya or grass-cloth; as if, like in the notice
at Calcutta, the Abaca was supposed to yield China grass.

The stem-like mass consists of cellular tissue and fibres, with
much thickish, watery fluid, which requires to be pressed out.

The fibrous coats, when stripped off, are left for a day in the
shade to dry, and are then divided lengthwise into strips, three
inches wide. Blanco says the petioles are stripped off one by
one, and an incision is made across inside with a knife, to take
off the bark which covers them. They are then scraped with
an instrument made of bamboo, until only the fibres remain.
Sometimes they require much pressing while being scraped.
Blanco says the strips are placed beneath the cutting edge of
a knife fixed in a long bamboo, which acts as a spring; and
the Abaca being placed beneath the knife, is drawn through
strongly by one end. This must act as a scraper, but much of
the Abaca is said to be spoiled. When sufficiently scraped, the
bundle of fibres may be shaken into separate threads; some-
times they are washed, and then dried and picked—the finest
being separated by the women with great dexterity. Those for
cordage require no further preparation. Those for fine weaving
are rendered soft and pliable by beating them with a wooden
mallet, after having been made up into a bundle. They are then
fastened to each other by “almost invisible knots’””—but rather,
have their ends gummed together, as in the case of the Pine-
apple fibre —then wound into balls, and afterwards committed
to the loom.

! Besides Pina fibre, already mentioned at p. 39, fibres of “Jussi” and striped

Jussi dresses were sent from Manilla to the Exhibition of 1851, and “ Bijuco” fibre
is mentioned. The- plants yielding these fibres are not known.
68 PREPARATION OF MANILLA HEMP.

Don Luis Nee describes the Abaca as being dressed like
flax on a kind of heckle—a sort of saw which operates like the
heckle (Blanco). Mr. Piddington describes it as a bamboo
scraper, into the slit of which the Abaca is introduced, and
which being dragged downwards, acts as a scraper on both
sides. The stuffs, when woven, are soaked in warm water
(lime-water, Blanco) for twenty-four hours, after which they
are soaked in cold water, then put into rice-water, and, lastly,
washed as before—by which means they acquire lustre, softness,
and a white colour. Some are also dyed, and take different
colours (as blue and red). Others are embroidered.

Few are imported into Europe, but seem often to be con-
founded with grass-cloth.

These details have been given in order that the proper treat-
ment may be followed if the plant is cultivated in India; or
some of them may be applied to the other kinds of Musa cul-
tivated in India-—the fibres of some of which may have a por-
tion of the properties of the Manilla Hemp as cordage. Mr.
Piddington had no doubt that when the Manilla Hemp was
better known, it would be more appreciated, especially if pro-
perly manufactured: the great defect of Manilla-made rope
being its stiffness in rainy weather, arising from the coarseness
of the yarns—not more than three being used to a strand,
which should have nine or twelve. This, Mr. Piddington had
ascertained in a vessel commanded by himself, in which both
kinds were used; and the latter (made by himself) was at all
times as pliant as hemp. It bears tarring well, and he had
known it used for lower rigging with success.

In a subsequent volume of the ‘ Transactions,’ in the year
1840, Mr. Stewart Mackenzie, then Governor of Ceylon, for-
warded to the Agricultural Society of India, a specimen of
Manilla rope, with a note from Mr. Higgs, Master-Attendant
at Trincomalee. In this the latter observes, “ that shortly after
the arrival of the Melville in this country, in 1832, Sir John
Gore procured rather a large supply of the different sizes (of
Manilla rope) for the squadron, from seven inches to one inch,
In that ship we made extensive use of it, reeving it on one
side of the ship against Europe rope on the opposite side, and
it is from a close observation of its merits, that I have formed
the opinion of its being very superior to Europe rope in this
PRODUCTIVENESS OF THI: PLANTAIN. 69

country, particularly if this has been long in store here.” Mr.
Higgs regrets that the Manilla rope is not better laid; and
observes that Capt. Neish, one of the oldest captains in the
China trade, was in the habit of bringing the large rope from
Manilla, and laying it up afresh at Bombay, and tarring the
yarns ; when it became excellent rope for shrouds. The price
of Europe rope at the Naval Yard at Trincomalee, was then
£2 7s. 3d. per ewt., while the price of the Manilla rope
(without freight) was £1 12s., and it was one fifth lighter than
Europe rope. The price at which Manilla Hemp was sold in
England will be mentioned at the end of the following article.

Prantain Fisre (Musa paradisiaca).

The Plantain and Banana, though probably only varieties
of one species, are yet sufficiently distinguished by the size
and flavour of their. fruit, to be considered familiarly as
distinct. They are, from their luxuriant-growing and large
overhanging leaves, considered among the most characteristic
forms of tropical vegetation. They are also among the most
valuable of plants, inasmuch as in some countries they supply
the place of bread, and form the chief nutriment of the people.
But not only does the Plantain supply the place of bread and
serve as fruit, but also im a preserved state as dessert. The
farinaceous parts may, moreover, be separated in the form of
flour, and are probably as nutritious as rice. The shoots or
tops of the young plants, both in the East and the West, are
occasionally given as fodder to sheep and cattle, and are
described by some as a delicate edible. The leaves, in a
dried state, are used for thatching and bedding. Both the
stem and leaves abound in fibre, useful for textile or cordage
purposes, while the tow which is separated in preparing the
fibres, forms an excellent material for the finest or the toughest
kinds of paper. The illustrious Humboldt has long since re-
marked, that the. Banana is for the torrid zone what the
Cerealia are for Europe and Western Asia, or rice for Bengal
and China, forming a valuable cultivation wherever the mean
temperature of the year is about 75°, He has also calculated
that the same extent of ground, when planted with the
Banana, will support a far greater number of people than
70 PRESERVED PLANTAINS AND MEAL IN INDIA.

when planted with wheat. As this is a point of great eco-
nomical interest, it has been a subject of subsequent investiga-
tion. The productiveness has been found to differ with the
mean temperature of the place. Boussingault has given the
following as the produce, per imperial acre, of the raw fruit in
three places, according to Humboldt’s (1), Gondot’s (2), and
his own observations (38) :

Produce, Or of dry food,
Temperature. per imperial acre. per acre.

(1) In warm regions . . 813 Fah. 72 tons. 193 tons.
(2) At Cauca. . . 783 4, 59 16 ~=C«(,
(3) At Hague. ‘ - 722 Oy 25 63

Professor Johnston is the authority for the last column,
or that of dry food per acre, as he had, from his analysis,
obtained 27 per cent. of nutritive matter from the Banana.
He justly observes, that all these quantities are very large,
and show how easily life may be supported in tropical countries,
And further, that as potatoes contain about one fourth their
weight of dry nutritive matter, it would require a crop of
twenty-seven tons of potatoes per imperial acre, to yield the
smallest of the quantities above mentioned as the yield of an
acre of Plantains; while only twenty to twenty-four tons of
potatoes are obtained in favorable seasons and localities.

Though it is not probable that the Plantain is cultivated in
India with the care to enable the largest possible quantity of
produce to be obtained, yet there is no doubt that the pro-
duce is large and the culture most simple. It would be an
interesting subject of experiment for the Agricultural Societies
of India, to ascertain which are the most productive varieties ;
whether the modes of cultivation adopted in that country have
attained the highest limits of productiveness; and also to
determine the best methods for preserving the fruit in different
places ; and also, when superabundant, whether its meal might
not be preserved for periods of scarcity, or for the season of
the year when the fresh fruit is not procurable. In South
America the fruit is not only used as an article of diet in its
fresh state, but, when dried, forms an article of internal trade,
besides having its flour separated, and cooked or made into
biscuits. It is also preserved in the Society Islands.

The preservation of the fruit and the preparation of the
meal has already been introduced into India. Some Plantain
PRESERVED PLANTAINS FROM MEXICO. 71

meal was sent to the Exhibition of 1851, from Madras, as
well as baked Plantains from Jessore, by the Rev. J. Parry.
These, after some years, are still in good preservation and
well tasted. The late Dr. Stocks' informed the author that
the Plantains at Bassein, where the cultivation is most exten-
sive, are delicious in flavour, and that there the people had
acquired the art of preserving them. But this was practised
many years ago in Central India, and in Ceylon in 1840.

The late Sir John Robison, Secretary of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, wrote to the author some years since: “‘ Among
the products of India which, I think, might be easily brought
into general sale in this country, are some of the fruits, which,
if cut in slices and dried in the sun, would become susceptible
of transport, as those of the Levant and the South of France.
Above all, the Banana, of which the varieties, which are rich
in saccharine matter, make an admirable preserve, on being
skinned and split longitudinally and dried in the sun, by
which process they immediately acquire a consistence like
Turkey figs, and become capable of being packed and pre-
served in the same way.” He concludes by stating: “I was
in the habit of having large quantities preserved every year in
this way at Hyderabad, and of using them as an article of
dessert at table.”

In treating of the cultivation of species of Musa or Plan-
tain in India for fibre, it is desirable to advert to the
cultivation of the edible species, or the numerous varieties in-
cluded under the names of Banana and of Plantain, and sug-
gesting them as above as subjects of experiment to members
of the Agricultural Societies in India, to ascertain whether the
modes of cultivation adopted in India have attained the highest
limits of productiveness ; and also whether the fruit might not
be preserved in different forms. The author has already observed
that a remarkable instance of the great length of time for which
these Plantains may be preserved in an eatable state, occurred
at the Exhibition of 1851. These were some preserved Plan-
tains, “ Platano pasado,” which had been brought home by

1 While this sheet is going to press, the author has heard, with deep regret, of the
loss which Science and the East India Service have sustained, in the death of this
accomplished naturalist, who was as remarkable for the variety of his attainments, as
for his zeal for botanical science and its application to practical purposes.
72 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF

Lieut.-Col. Colquhoun, R.A., from the province of Jatisco
(Guadalagara), Mexico, in the year 1835, and which since
then had remained neglected in a baggage warehouse.
The specimen exhibited was the remainder of a package of
75 lb. weight, made up, as customary, in the leaves and fibre
of the plant, after having been subjected to considerable
pressure. The state of preservation, after sixteen years, was
favorably reported on by Dr. Lindley, and no signs of decom-
position are yet perceptible in the specimens given to the
author by Colonel, now Sir W. Reid; the sugar of the fruit
having been sufficient to preserve them. They are prepared in
considerable quantities in the hot region (tierra caliente) of
the wéstern coast of Mexico, for consumption in the elevated
districts of the interior. The Silver Medal of the Society of
Arts was awarded for the first samples brought to England.
See the ‘ Transactions,’ vol. 1, p. 48, for the method of prepa-
ration, reprinted in ‘Trans. Agric. Soc. of India,’ viii, p. 60.

Before, however, proceeding to detail the methods of pre-
servation of the fruit, or the preparation of the meal, it is
desirable to notice the relative values of these as compared
with other kinds of fruit. This we are enabled to do from an
excellent Report ‘ On the composition and nutritive value of
Plantain Meal, by Professor Johnston, published in the
‘Journal of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot-
land,’ in 1848, and to which attention has already been called
by Professor Key, of Madras. By this we shall see that, in
extending the culture of the Plantain, on account of its fibre,
there is no probability of this ever becoming so extensive as
for its fruit to become valueless.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF PLANTAIN FRUIT AND MEAL.

Extracts from a Report upon the ‘Properties of the Plantain Meal. —This
meal is of a slightly brownish colour, and has an agreeable odour, which
becomes more perceptible when warm water is poured upon it, and it has a
considerable resemblance to that of Orris root.

When mixed with cold water, it forms a feebly tenacious dough, more
adhesive than that of oatmeal, but much less so than that of wheaten flour.
When baked on a plate, this dough forms a cake which is agreeable to the
sense of smell, and is by no means unpleasant to the taste.

By washing with water this dough leaves no residue of insoluble tenacious
gluten, as that of wheaten flour does. When filtered from the starch, the
wash water gives no cloudiness when rendered slightly sour by Acetic Acid,
when boiled yields a little coagulated albumen. hether this is the case in
PLANTAIN FRUIT AND MEAL. 73

the fresh fruit, or only in the dried meal prepared from it, I have had no
opportunity of determining.

The addition of Alcohol to the same watery solution renders it more or
less distinctly gelatinous, as it does similar solutions obtained from other
fruits, and from the turnip, parsnip, &c. This shows the presence of pectin,
or pectic acid, the substance which in fruits, in the turnip, and in many other
bulbous roots, takes the place of the starch found in grain, and in the tubers
of the potato.

When boiling water is poured over the meal, it is changed into a trans-
parent jelly, having an agreeable taste and smell. If it be boiled with water,
its forms a thick gelatinous mass, very much like boiled sago in colour, but
possessing a peculiar pleasant odour.

Composition of the Plantain Meal.—By a careful analysis, the composition
of the plantain meal was found to be nearly as follows :

a. The water.—Mr. Law states that 59 parts of the fruit yielded only
80°85 of eatable parts, which, on drying in the air, were reduced to 12°32
parts. The fruit, therefore, consisted in 100 parts of—

 

Per cent.
Husks, &c. ‘ z a 47°71
Water evaporated by the sun . : . . 20°88
Meal dried in the sun. . » 8141

100-00

The meal thus dried in the open air, when dried again in the laboratory
at 212° Fahr., lost 14-07 per cent. of water in addition ; or one hundred parts
ofthe recent fruit contain 27 of dry nutritive matter.

b. The albumen, §c.—By combustion the proportion of nitrogen in this
meal, in its ordinary state, was found by Dr. Teonibers, in two experiments,
to be 0°88 and 0:97 respectively, equal as a mean to 5°82 per cent. of protein
compounds. These, as we have already seen, are most probably in the state

.of soluble albumen taken up by cold water, and of coagulated albumen
attached to, or mixed with, the starch, cellular fibre, &c. In the perfectly
dry meal the proportion is 6°75 per cent.

e. The ash—When burned in the air, the proportion of ash left behind
amounts to 2°33 per cent., or in the dried meal to 2°71 per cent.

The entire composition of the plantain meal is represented in the following
table:

Dried in the air. Dried at 212° Fah.
14:07

 

 

Water . :
Starch : 7 F » 67:42 78°43
Gum and Pectin . A - 4:47 5:21
Cellular fibre » $ - 4:84 5°62
i Sugar : : . . 2:03 2°40
Oil : . j . 0-41 0-48
Albumen (soluble) . j - 12) 141
Albumen (coagulated gluten, &c.) » 3:23 3:74
Ash . . . . - 2°32 271
100-00 100-00

On comparing the above composition with that of other kinds of food com-
monly eaten by man, we find the plantain fruit to approach most. nearly in
composition and nutritive value to the potato, and the plantain meal to
those of rice. Thus, the fruit of the plantain gives 27 per cent., and the raw
potato 25 per cent. of dry matter.
74 ANALYSIS OF PLANTAIN FRUIT AND MEAL.

Again, the dry mealy matter of the plantain, of the potato, and of rice
consists respectively of—

Rice. Potato. Plantain.
Starch ‘ ‘ . 869 65:0 78:4
Sugar, Gum, &c. 3 i . O5 15:0 76
Fat. ‘ j . O8 10 05
Cellular fibre ‘ . . 34 8:0 56
Protein compounds . 75 8-0 5:2
Ash : ‘ 0-9 30 27

100°0 100-0 100-0

or, comparing only the Starch, Sugar, &c., and the protein compounds, on
which the nutritive quality ot’ these different vegetable productions princi-
pally depends, we have the following numbers:

Rice. Potato, Plantain.
Starch, Sugar, &c. ‘ » 87:4 79:0 86:0
Protein compounds . : » 75 8-0 5:2

These numbers show that it approaches, as I have said, nearest in its com-

position to rice, containing nearly as much starch, but a sensibly smaller

roportion of the protein compounds, on which the sustenance of the muscles
is supposed chiefly to depend.

In regard to its value as a food for man in our northern climates, there is
no reason to believe that it is unfit to sustain life and health; and as to
warmer or tropical climates, this conclusion is of more weight.

The only chemical writer who has previously made personal observations
upon this point (M. Boussingault) says: “I have not sufficient data to
determine the nutritive value of the banana, but I have reason to believe
that it is superior to that of potato. I have given as rations to men
employed at hard labour about 3 kilogrammes (6 lb.) of half-ripe bananas,
and 60 grammes (2 ounces) of salt meat.” Of these green bananas he else-
where states that 38 per cent. consisted of husk, and that the internal
eatable part lost 56 per cent. of water by drying in the sun. The 66
pounds, therefore, were composed of—

 

Husk ‘ : é ‘* « 26 Ib.
Water . . j : « 2S i
Heart dried in the sun . . ns o ED: sg

6°6 lb.

so that less than two pounds a day of this dried banana fruit, which we may

suppose to be equal in quality and composition to the sun-dried plantain

meal, above described, with two ounces of salt meat per day, were found

sufficient to maintain men, not slaves, at moderately hard labour. This was

equal to 123 1b. dried eatable banana, and 1 pound of salt meat (query fish)

per week.
* * * * *

The composition of the ash of the Plantain also bears a close resemblance
to that of the potato. Both contain much alkaline matter, potash and soda
salts, and in both there is nearly the same per centage of phosphoric acid and
magnesia. In so far, therefore, as the supply of those mineral ingredients is
concerned, by which the body is supported as necessarily as by the organic
food, there is no reason to doubt that the banana, equally with the potato,
is fitted to sustain the strength of the animal body. It must not be denied
CULTIVATION OF THE PLANTAIN. 75

that our present knowledge indicates the advantage of a mixture of food, as
the most conducive to health and strength, but experience shows that, how-
ever desirable, this is not absolutely necessary. The oat alone in Scotland
raises and supports strong men; rye alone does so in the north of Europe;
and the potato alone does so in Ireland. This result of experience in the
case of the potato justifies us, were there no experience on the subject in
tropical countries, in believing that the banana, which resembles it, will do
the same. Whatever other reasons may lead us to recommend a mixture of
other food with it, especially where hard labour, perhaps not a natural con-
dition of things, is required of him, we ought not to base this recommenda-
tion upon any belief that the banana, when eaten alone, will not fully supply
all the ordinary wants of the living animal.

Cultivation.—The Plantain has thus been proved to be
valuable on account of its fruit, both in its unripe and ripe
state, the latter both when fresh and when preserved, and for
yielding nutritious meal. The plant is also to be esteemed
on account of the fibre with which every part of it abounds.
Though both the Plantain and the Banana are to be found
near the huts of the poor and in the gardens of the rich, the
most profitable mode of culture has, probably, in few places
been as yet ascertained. In the first place, of the great varieties
to be found in cultivation, it would be necessary to select those
which abound most in the products we chiefly require.

The small Banana is most esteemed as a fruit by Europeans,
but the large-fruited and, in comparison with the other, coarse-
tasted Plantain is preferred by the natives of India, as is the
long yellow Plantain in Jamaica. Both of the latter abound in
fibre, and are therefore to be preferred when both this and the
fruit are objects of desire.

The culture of the Plantain is, upon the whole, very simple,
as it will succeed in almost any soil where the climate is warm
and moist. The vicinity of water, for cleansing and washing
the fibre, will, of course, be an essential. Professor Key, of
Madras, has stated that in India the Plantain will flourish in
the poorest soil and near brackish water, and that its culture
might be extended with very little trouble and expense. A
sucker being planted, rapidly attains maturity; some varieties
in eight months, others within the year. Each producing a
bunch of fruit which may weigh from twenty-five to forty, and
even ninety pounds; and each throwing out from its roots and
around its stem, from six and seven to eight and ten fresh
suckers. These will each form a distinct plant, producing its
own bunch of fruit; all requiring to be cut down annually, in
76 PRESERVATION OF PLANTAIN FRUIT.

order to make room for the fresh suckers which spring up.
This may go on for fifteen or twenty years, though some think
that it is better to renew the plantation entirely or partially at
shorter periods. A chief consideration is the distance at which
the original plants should be placed, in order to give room for
the secondary suckers, as well as to allow of free ventilation.
Some place them at distances of six feet, but it is better to
have them ten feet apart, either around the boundaries of fields
or of gardens, or in rows as a separate plantation. In the
latter case, it is recommended that there should be space
enough between the rows to allow of the culture of other crops,
In some parts of India, the Plantain is employed as a nurse,
or to afford shade, to the Betel Vine (itself one of the most
valuable of crops), or to young Areca-nut and to Cocoa-nut
Palms. By cutting away some of the suckers as they arise at
different periods, and allowing others to remain, a supply of
fruit, and also of stems for fibre, may be obtained for a great
part of the year.

In Demerara and Guiana, the Plantains have been injured
by some disease, which has impaired their fruitfulness, and,
consequently, the profits of their culture. It has been recom-
mended to plant them at sufficient distances (as eighteen feet)
to allow of free ventilation, accompanied with good tillage in
the intervals and the cultivation of annual crops of Maize,
Yams, Sugar-cane, or Eddoes. (Arum.) According to the dis-
tances, there may be from 300 to upwards of 400 plants in an
acre, each producing, say, on an average, seven suckers ; making
in all from 2100 to 3200 plants in an acre.

Preservation of the Fruit.—The fruit of the Plantain, when
ripe, containing a sufficient proportion of nutritive matter, may
well serve as a portion of the food of the natives of warm
countries. But it is probably as much employed by them
before being perfectly ripe, as it is sometimes stewed, and at
other times fried; and, by the natives of India, dressed in
various ways to eat with rice. In the West Indies, the fresh
Plantain, when boiled whole, forms a mass of considerable
toughness, and which, when beaten in a mortar, constitutes the
foo-foo of the negroes. (Simmonds.) When nearly or perfectly
ripe, it is pleasantly, or even lusciously sweet, and it is in the
former state that it is preserved.
PREPARATION OF PLANTAIN MEAL. 77

Col. Colquhoun describes the mode of preparation as very
simple: “The fruit is gathered when fully ripe, and is lajd on
light cane frames, exposed to the sun. When it begins to
shrivel, the outer skin is stripped off. (This is stated to be a
very essential part of the process, as without it the fruit acquires
an unpleasant flavour.) After this, the drying is completed.
During this process it becomes covered with a white, mealy
efflorescence of sugar, as the fig does under similar circum-
stances. For convenience of transport it is pressed into masses
of about 75 lb. each, and is wrapped in plantain leaves. The
masses are twenty-four inches long by fourteen wide, and four
inches thick. The samples presented to the Society of Arts
were about two years old, sufficiently moist, of a consistence
and flavour between the date and the fig, very sweet, and
without any acidity. It is evident that this process of preser-
vation will be found to be of considerable value in other parts
of the world, and especially in situations where it is culti-
vated in larger quantities than the fruit can be consumed.
The drying in the sun would be sufficient in dry climates, but
baking in ovens seems to be necessary in moist climates, such
as Dacca and Jessore. The process seems to be sufficiently
well understood in several parts of India. When the fruit is
of a good kind, no addition of sugar can be necessary. This
subject seemed so worthy of a fair trial in the British West
Indies to the Society of Arts, that they offered, in the year
1834, a premium for its encouragement. It seems no less im-.
portant for the East Indies, especially if any planters should be
induced to cultivate the Plantain in large quantities, on account
of its fibre, or for the preparation of half-stuff for paper-makers.

Plantain Meal.—Mr. Simmonds describes this meal as pre-
pared by stripping off the husk of the fruit, slicing the core, and
drying it in the sun. When thoroughly dry it is powdered
and sifted. It is known among the creoles of the West Indies
under the name of Conguin tay. It has a fragrant odour,
which it acquires when drying, and which somewhat resembles
that of fresh hay or tea. The flavour of the meal is, moreover,
said to depend a good deal on the rapidity with which the
slices are dried. Hence, the operation is only fitted for dry
weather, unless where a kiln or stove is had recourse to.
Above all, the Plantain must not be allowed to approach too
78 PREPARATION OF PLANTAIN FIBRE.

closely to yellowness or ripeness, otherwise it becomes im-
possible to dry it. The colour of the meal is, moreover, injured,
when steel knives are used in husking or slicing; but nickel
blades or Bamboo slicers would not injure the colour, Ona
large scale, some single machine might be adapted to the
husking and slicing processes, and the mode tried by which arrow-
root is obtained, by scraping and suspension in cold water.

It is calculated that the fresh core will yield forty per cent.
of dry meal, and that 51b. may be obtained from an average
bunch of 25 lb. weight ; and an acre of Plantain walk of average
quality, producing even during the year 450 such bunches, would
yield upwards of a ton of meal, the value of which must of
course vary in different countries according to the price of
other articles of food. In the West Indies it is largely em-
ployed as the food of infants, children, and convalescents. In
point of nutritious value, we have seen that the fruit approaches
the potato, and the meal to that of rice. There can be no doubt,
therefore, of the value of this meal, and of the benefit of
preparing it, wherever the fruit is preserved in larger quanti-
ties than it can be consumed.

Preparation of the Fibre-——The Plantain has been stated to
abound in fibre—indeed, almost every part of the plant may be
said to be available for this product. It is related, that from
the upper part of these spurious stems, spiral vessels may be
pulled out in handfuls, and are used as tinder in the West
Tndies. De Candolle has described them as consisting, in Musa,
of seven distinct fibres lying parallel, formed into bands; and
La Chesnaye of upwards of twenty, arranged ina spiral manner.
M. Mohl describes the secondary cell-membrane as divided into
as many as twenty parallel spiral fibres. But these are not
the fibres which are separated for economic purposes, nor are
they situated on the same side of the vegetable structure.
For instance, if we take any separate layer of the Plantain
stem—that is, a part of the sheathing footstalk of a leaf—we
may observe on its outer side a layer of strong longitudinal
fibres, which form a kind of framework or ribs for the support
of the structure, which is cellular on its inside. It is on this
side that spiral vessels are placed, and next the pith in exoge-
nous plants. They are abundant in the peduncle, or core, as
it is often called, of the Musa.
PREPARATION OF PLANTAIN FIBRE. 79

As in the Manilla, so in the common Plantain, the fibre is
found to be coarse and strong in the outer layers of the sheath-
ing footstalks, fine and silky in the interior, and of a middling
quality in the intermediate layers. This fibre is separated by
the natives of Dacca, for instance, and is used hy them for
making the string of the bow with which cotton is teazed
(bowed). Much of it is well adapted for cordage. Mr.
Leycester (v. supra), when calling attention to the fibre of the
Musa textilis grown in Calcutta, directed attention to the fibres
of M. sapientum and of M. ornata, as fitted to answer as string
for all gardening purposes. Mr. Crawford is of opinion that
the common Plantain most probably afforded the Indian
Islanders the principal material for-their clothing, in the same
way that the indigenous species does in the Philippine Islands.
The art of making cloth from these fibres seems also to have
been known in Madagascar. There is no doubt that the large
cultivated Plantain of India contains a considerable quantity
of strong fibre, in the same way that the common yellow
Plantain does in Jamaica. But it seems well worthy of inquiry,
whether the wild, and at present useless Plantains, growing
along the foot of the Himalayas and on the Neilgherries, may
not yield a stronger fibre than any of the cultivated kinds.

The fibre may be easily separated from any part, by simply
scraping it ona stone or flat board, with a piece of hard wood ;
iron, though frequently used, no doubt injures the colour.
In the following directions given by Dr. Hunter (‘ Art Journal,’
Madras, i, pp. 108 and 876) the essentials are attended to, and
the fibre is separated in an uninjured state, but the process is
probably not the most economical.

To prepare the fibres of the Plantain, he rejects the outer,
withered layer of leaves, aud then strips off the different layers,
and proceeds to clean them in the shade, if possible soon after
the plant has been cut down. Lay a leaf-stalk on a long flat
board, with the inner surface uppermost, scrape the pulp off
with a blunt piece of hoop-iron fixed in a groove in a long piece
of wood. When the inner side, which has the thickest layer
of pulp, has been cleaned, turn over the leaf and scrape the
back of it. When a good bundle of fibres has been thus par-
tially cleaned, it ought to be washed briskly in a large quantity
of water, so as to get rid, as quickly as possible, of all the
80 PREPARATION OF PLANTAIN FIBRE.

pulpy matter which may still adhere to the fibres. It may be
readily separated by boiling the fibres in an alkaline ley or in
alkaline soaps, but not in the Indian soaps made with quick-
lime, as these are too corrosive. When the fibres have been
thoroughly washed, they should be spread out in thin layers
or hung up in the wind to dry. If exposed to the sun when
in a damp state, a brownish-yellow tinge is communicated,
which cannot be easily removed by bleaching. Exposure
during the night to the dew bleaches them, but it is at the
expense of part of their strength.

If we attend only to what is essential in the above pro-
cess, we find that all that is required is scraping or pressure to
separate the cellular and watery from the fibrous parts. This
is followed by careful washing, and sometimes by boiling in an
alkaline ley, but the latter part of the process does not appear
to be essentially necessary.

In the West Indies, according to the complete account of
a practical correspondent in Jamaica, as given in Simmonds’
‘Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom,’ the fibre
is separated, either by crushing under rollers in a mill, or by
fermentation. If by the latter process, there is considerable
saving in carriage, as the stems, when cut down, are heaped
together near where they have grown, and are shaded from
the sun by laying the leaves over them. A drainage of the
sap takes place, which is described as having a tanning property,
and as discolouring the pieces which lie at the bottom. But
several weeks elapse before decomposition is complete, when
the fibres can be easily separated from the rest of the vegetable
mass. There is little doubt, that besides discoloration, there
must be some weakening of the fibre by this process, as we
know takes place in India when the stems are steeped in water
until some decomposition takes place.

It is usual not to cut the stems until fruit has been pro-
duced; “for two reasons—first, that the fruit be not lost,
and secondly, that the tree will not have arrived at its full
growth and ordinary size, and the fibres will be too tender.”
This is the reverse of the practice in the Philippines, where the
stem is cut before the fruit appears, in order to ensure a better
quality of fibre. It would be an interesting experiment for
those favorably situated, to ascertain the mode by which the
PREPARATION OF THE FIBRE IN WEST INDIES. 81

best kind of fibre is produced, and what would be the loss of
profit, supposing that the fruit is sacrificed for the sake of the
fibre. ,

The stem is described as being cut off about six inches above
the ground, and being tender, it may, on being bent down, be
cut asunder with a single stroke of a hatchet or cutlass. It
is then divided, longitudinally, into four parts, the centre
taken out and left to serve as manure, and the pieces conveyed at
once to the mill to be crushed. It is said that “one man
can cut down 800 trees, and split them in a day.” A very
convenient size for the rollers of the mill, will be found to be
about three feet in length and one foot in diameter. In the
process of crushing, care should be taken to separate the
tender from the harder layers of fibre. This may be attained
by having the rollers of the mill placed horizontally ; and if
the pieces of Plantain are passed lengthways through the mill
the pressure will be uniform, and the fibre uninjured. “In
this manner, pass the different sorts of layers separately, and
the produce will be about four pounds of fibre from each tree.
The stalks of the branches of the Plantain (no doubt the mid-
rib of the leaf is meant) give the best fibre, and a large quan-
tity as compared with the body of the tree; 100]b. of the
stalk will give 15 lb. nett of fibre. In general, if a tree will
give 4b. nett of fibre, the stalks will give 1 lb. out of the 4 lb.
The stalks ought also to be crushed separately, because they
are harder than the exterior layers of the tree. About 3000
trees may be passed through the mill in a day. Whilst the
experiments were in progress, it was ascertained that, with
a single horse, 100 Plantain trees, on an average, were
crushed in twenty minutes—giving five minutes’ rest for the
horse.”

The quantity of produce from each plant, is the point of
greatest discrepancy between the West Indian practice and Dr.
Hunter’s experiments, as he mentions only a few ounces of
fibre as procurable from each plant, But as he rejected the
outer parts, and did not include the midrib of the leaves, the
discrepancy may be partly accounted for. The combings or
tow, separated from the fibres during their preparation, are
also of value as a substitute for horse-hair, for stuffing mat-
tresses, &c.; and also the peduncle or core, if pounded into

6
82 WASHING FIBRE IN ALKALINE LEY.

half-stuff for paper-makers. Some of the cellular tissue con-
taining much fibrous matter, might, probably, be converted
to the same purposes.

In addition to the above processes of crushing and washing,
the West Indian account also gives the details of the process
of boiling the fibre with carbonate of soda and quick-lime, in
order, it is said, to get rid of the remaining vegetable matter,
and to bleach the fibre. The different qualities of which, having
been crushed separately, are of course to be kept so, and boiled
separately. The proportions given in the above account are
for making three tons of fibre per day. For this, four large
(800-gallon) boilers are required, and about 3601b. of soda
would be consumed, with a proportionate quantity of lime; or
the soda, that is, its carbonate, may be first deprived of its car-
bonic acid. This may be done by preparing, in a small
separate boiler, the quantity of liquid necessary for a day’s con-
sumption, which may be done in about an hour, by taking, by
weight, ten parts of soda, six parts of quick-lime, and not less
than seventy parts of water. The operation of boiling in the
soda ley is said to be important in separating the gluten and
colouring matter from the fibres, and also to facilitate their
bleaching. The lightest coloured fibres do not require more
than six hours to bleach, whilst the darkest will probably take
from twelve to eighteen hours. It is advisable to place over
each boiler the means of lifting the mass of fibre when boiled,
and suffering it to drain into the boiler before it is carried
away to be washed. The machinery necessary for cleansing
and washing may be of various descriptions—as that used by
paper-makers in England, or by coffee-planters and arrow-root
growers in the West Indies. The fibre may be dried, by being
hung over lines made of the same material. These, when dry,
may be pressed and packed.

For carrying on the culture of the Plantain on an extensive
scale, in the West Indies, it is stated that the materials will
cost £2000, buildings £500, purchase of land £1500, working
capital £1000=£5000. The estimated expense in cultivating
one quarree or 5; English acres, in Plantains, will be £380, as
the work can be easily performed by one labourer in 300 days,
at 2s. sterling per day.. A quarree will produce 18 tons of
mill-fibre, the cost of the preparation of which is as follows:
“COST OF PRODUCING PLANTAIN FIBRE. 83

For workmen’s wages, soda, lime, and fuel, at £3 per ton . £54
Freight to Europe, at £4 per ton A : » 72
Manager ‘ 3 . - . . 30
Duty, insurance, office fees, &c., at £1 per ton . . 18

£174

Thus making the total expense of producing 18 tons of fibre
£174, or £9 13s. 4d. per ton.

By another statement, derived from different data, but some-
what similar sources, it has been calculated that Plantain
fibre, in a coarse state, might be laid down in England, at
£10 6s.8d. But some expense would be incurred in cleansing
the fibre for finer purposes. In another account, also taken from
West Indian information, it is stated that the cost of well-
cleaned fibre would amount to £7 1s.3d., to which, of course,
freight would have to be added ; while half-stuff for paper-makers
might, at the same time, be produced from the-refuse at about
half that sum.

As Plantain fibre has not yet, as far as we have heard, been
systematically prepared as an article of commerce, these cal-
culations of cost are somewhat conjectural. But they are
interesting, as showing, from the experiments which had been
made, that large quantities of a valuable product may be
obtained at a comparatively cheap rate; and this, from what is
now a complete refuse—that is, the stem and leaves ; while the
expenses of culture are paid for by the fruit. And the more so,
as the data are West Indian, where the prices of material and
the wages of labour are much higher than in India.

Specimens of Plantain fibre, and a barrel of it for experimental
purposes, were sent by two Exhibitors from Demerara, also
some from Porto Rico (v. ‘ Illust. Cat., p. 982); and it was
stated that the fibre might be obtained in very large quantities
from the Plantain cultivation of the former colony. It is cal-
culated that upwards of 600 1b. weight of fibre might be pro-
‘duced annually from each acre of Plantains, after reaping the
fruit crops. It is further stated, that “at present, the stems
of the Plantain trees, when cut down; are allowed to rot on
the ground. If a remunerative price could be realised for this
fibre, a new branch of industry would be opened up to the
colonists,”

From India, unfortunately, we have no statements showing
84 PRODUCTS OF PLANTAIN FROM INDIA.

the rates at which Plantain fibre, tow, and pulp, might be ob-
tained as articles of commerce. Dr. Hunter, of Madras, has
done much in showing the various purposes to which this
valuable product might be applied ; as he sent to the Exhibition
of 1851 both the fibre and the tow in a well-cleaned state.
The former about four feet in length, and also dyed of several
colours, as well as twisted into fine cord and into rope. Some
Plantain rope was, moreover, sent in a tarred state. A portion of
the tow was sent in a state fit for packing and stuffing, and
some converted into paper ; of the latter, some was almost as
thin as silver paper, and some of it seemingly as tough and
tenacious as parchment, well fitted for packing paper, as appa-
rently little affected by water. But in this country, some ex-
cellent letter paper has been made from the Plantain fibre.
Besides the above, Plantain meal was sent by Professor Key
from Madras, and preserved Plantains from Jessore. But dried
Plantains seem already established as an article of commerce at
Bombay, as we observe them among the exports for the year
1850-51, from thence to Cutch and Guzerat, to the extent
of 267 cwt., valued at 1456 rupees. So that the various appli-
cations of which Plantain fruit and fibre are susceptible have
been already made in India. It remains only to produce them
as cheaply as the other products of the country.

Dr. Hunter, in his experiments, found that the fibre cost
about three annas, or about sixpence, a pound—which is pro-
hibitive as an article of export; but he states that if regular
supplies of the fibre were required, the price might be reduced
to two annas. He also mentions that, at Madras, the rate at
which the stems were at first supplied was ten annas for one
hundred trees; but this was raised to four rupees for the same
number, when he began to make use of them. This is a suffi-
cient proof that they are not very abundant there. But “in
the vicinity of some of the Zillah (that is, of District) Jails, the
Plantain is cultivated very extensively, but no use is made of
the stems, which are allowed to rot on the surface of the
ground.” This is also the case in most parts of India.

On the opposite coast of Arracan, the Plantain is abundant.
What seem to be the layers forming the stem of such a plant,
and about seven feet in length, are sold there in a dried state,
and called Pa-tha-you Shaw; some of it even twisted into a
PROBABLE COST OF FIBRE IN INDIA. 85

bast-rope, is sold for the same sum, that is, for one rupee the
maund, or for about three shillings per cwt.

As the above Shaw or dast of an unknown plant is sold at so
cheap a rate, as well as the other basts sent from Arracan to
the Exhibition of 1851, even after some preparation, there is
no reason why Plantain fibre might not be sent cheaply
into market. I have no doubt that it would very soon
command a price equal to its real value, as a material for paper-
making, for cordage, or for textile fabrics. The fibre might be
collected in situations where the plant is already cultivated, in
gardens, or where it grows wild, and its stems not turned to
any account. Or it might be cultivated in fields on its own
account, either with or without other crops, such as Pan or
Piper Betle, or Ginger, Turmeric, &c. The fruit in its fresh
state, near towns, or in a preserved state, or converted into
meal, ought to pay all the expenses of, and afford some profit
on the culture. The stems and leaves would thus be obtained
at a minimum of cost—that is, simply of carriage.

Indeed, if the crushing mill were not of too cumbrous
a nature, it might be brought into the vicinity of the field, in
the same way that the natives of India construct a sugar-mill
and boiler in the immediate vicinity of where the Date tree is
grown or the Sugar-cane cultivated. A mill, consisting of the
rollers of a sugar-mill or an enlarged churka, with an Archi-
medean screw, or with cog-wheels, or with bands, to which mo-
tion is given by bullocks, as practised in various parts of India,
would probably be sufficiently effective, and certainly economical.
The separation of the different qualities of fibre, with the wash-
ing, combing or heckling, and drying, might at first all be per-
formed by hand, where labour is.so cheap. If all the fibrous
matter, or the combings or tow only, should be required for
conversion into half-stuff for paper-makers, nothing is more
effective, and at the same time so economical, as the Dhenkee
of India. To this attention has been recently called by Mr.
Henley (‘Journ. of Soc. of Arts,’ vol. ii, p. 486), and which,
as he describes, “resembles in principle our European tilt-
hammer.” ‘Its cost would be—erected in place—engineers,
foundations, and all charges included— three shillings ; and this
charge supposes the more than usually heavy machine employed
86 PROBABLE COST OF FIBRE IN ENGLAND.

for paper-making!” ‘The total wages for the preparation of
20 to 30 lb.” of suitable material, “would amount to sevenpence-
halfpenny.” Mr. Henley adds, that “in the event of employing
such fibres as the Plantain leaf-stalk, a small pair of hard wood
grooved rollers, such as they employ for squeezing sugar-cane,
would be very useful. Their cost is two shillings.”

Having, in my Lecture before the Society of Arts, recom-
mended the Plantain as likely to yield an abundant supply
of material for paper-making, Mr. Henley observes: “ From
extensive cultivation of the Banana or Plantain, which
surrounds almost every house, it is probable this material
would form one of the first objects of attention by paper-
material collectors ; but from its coarse, stringy nature, it would
be cheaper in the state of fibre than as half-stuff. This plant
offers great advantages for our views generally, for it is truly
in the position of refuse, inasmuch as it has already paid the
charges of its cultivation by its products in fruit. The interior
of the plant, or true flower-stem, is eaten as a vegetable by the
natives; the lower part being perfectly mild, whilst the upper
extremity, near the bunch of fruit, pours out, on cutting it
across, a limpid fluid, which is very acrid and deleterious, and
is a true substantive olive dye on cotton cloth, as indelible as
marking ink, for which it may be substituted.” With regard
to the price at which such materials could be obtained, Mr.
Henley says: “I am of opinion that contracts could be made,
according to the ordinary usages of the country, at the rate of
from one rupee eight annas, or three shillings, to two rupees
eight annas, or five shillings, per maund of 82 Ib., deliverable
at any central depét within a radius of twenty miles. These
prices are equal to from about £4 4s. to £7 a ton; and that,
of these, the lowest-priced material could be’ landed in London,
paying all charges, for £13 4s., and the more expensive, which
would include articles equal to linen rags, at £16 5s.”

Having already noticed the facility with which the species
of Plantain may be cultivated in suitable climates, we may
mention that we have lately tasted some excellent fruit of Musa
Cavendishii, grown in a Fernery on Putney Heath. We have
chiefly to warn cultivators against planting the Plantain too
close together ; for though this may produce fineness of fibre,
PLANTAIN PAPER AND CORDAGE. 87

it will also diminish strength, and want of free ventilation may
produce disease. For separating the fibre, it may be a question
whether smooth or grooved cylinders will be best for so fleshy
and moist a substance, but it is very necessary to remember
that the pulp or the fibre must be thoroughly dried, in order
that it may not undergo decomposition when in transit in the
hold of a ship.

Of the value of the Plantain fibre for paper-making, there
can, I conceive, be no doubt. Some paper, though unbleached,
but excellent as far as substance and tenacity are concerned,
was sent from India by Dr. Hunter, in 1851. In the year
1846, Mr. May showed the author some beautiful specimens of
note and letter paper made from Plantain fibre. He was at
that time anxious to establish a manufactory for Plantain paper
in Calcutta, but subsequently went to one of the British colonies
in South America; and we have also noticed (p. 89) the fact
of a gentleman having shown specimens of paper made from
Plantain fibre in Demerara. Mr. Routledge subsequently made
some excellent paper, both of a tough and of a fine quality,
from the fibres of species of Musa—sheets of which he has
presented to the author, who has lately seen specimens of
similar paper in the hands of Mr. Sharp. Besides which, ex-
cellent paper has for some time been made from the refuse of
or from worn-out Manilla rope. All which facts prove that an
excellent material for paper-making may be had in inexhausti-
ble supplies, whenever those chiefly interested choose to take
the necessary measures for securing such a supply.

We may now therefore notice the other uses to which
Plantain fibre can be applied.

Lieut.-Col. Whinyates, Principal Commissary of Ordnance,
in a letter to the Secretary to the Military Board at Madras,
states that the Plantain oakum or tow sent by Dr. Hunter is
“undoubtedly of a very superior description, and admirably
adapted for packing. From the soft, elastic character of the
fibre, he also conceives that it would be a desirable substitute
for coir in stuffing hospital beddings, &. But he fears that
the supply is too limited, and the cost all too high, being
at that time (October 29th, 1850) about three annas the
pound.”
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PRICES FOR PLANTAIN PRODUCTS. 89

With respect to the strength of Plantain fibre, I may state,
that in some experiments which I have had made on Plantain
fibre, some from Madras bore a weight of 190 lb., but the
specimen from Singapore bore not less than 390 lb., while a
salvage of Petersburgh Hemp, of the same length and weight,
broke with 160 lb. A twelve-thread rope of Plantain fibre
made in India broke with 864 lb., when a similar rope made
of Pine-apple fibre broke with 924 1b. Even from these ex-
periments, it is evident that Plantain fibre possesses sufficient
tenacity to be applicable to many, at least, of the ordinary
purposes of cordage, as is very clearly shown by the experiments
detailed in the annexed tabular statement. But it is probable
that the plants grown in a moister climate than that of Madras
will possess a greater degree of strength. The outer fibres
may also be converted into a useful kind of coarse canvass,
as has been done by Dr. Hunter; and the more delicate inner
fibres most probably into finer fabrics, as is the case with those
of the Abaca or Musa textilis; when equal care has been taken
in the preparation and separation of the fibres, and there is
some experience in weaving them.

Having seen the rate at which such materials may be im-
ported, both from the East and the West Indies, it is desirable
to have some idea of the prices which are likely to be realised
for Plantain fibre or pulp, when introduced into the markets
of Europe. Manilla Hemp, which has long been in demand
both in America and in Europe, had a nett average price, for:
the ten years previous to 1852, of £32 per ton. In part of
the years 1844 and 1845, it sank as low as £22 to £25 3 and the
consumption increased so much, that the price rose, in 1852, to
£44 and £50 for the average kinds; but, independently of what
was used for cordage and coarse purposes, there was a con-
siderable consumption of the fine, white qualities, for which
horse-hair had originally been used. In the recent rise which
took place (April, 1854), Manilla Hemp was quoted at from
70s. to 76s. per cwt. Though common Plantain fibre is not
possessed of the strength of Manilla Hemp, yet it is fitted for
many of the ordinary purposes of cordage and canvass, and
some of the fine kinds for textile fabrics of fine quality and
lustre. In the communication from Demerara, already quoted,
it is stated that “in 1846, a gentleman (probably Mr. May)
90 PRICES FOR PLANTAIN PRODUCTS.

visited this colony, and exhibited several specimens of cloth of
a beautiful silky texture, and specimens of paper of superior
quality, manufactured from the fibre of Plantains grown in the
Jardin des Plantes.” There is no doubt that some of the more
delicate fibres of the interior might be used for such purposes ;
and for these, a high price would, no doubt, be realised ; and
for the coarser, outer fibres, which are fit for cordage, at least
£30, some say £35, a ton; while some of the superior tow
would be a good substitute for horse-hair, for stuffing beds, &c. ;
and the different qualities of half-stuff producible from the
combings, &c., of different parts of the plant, would produce
half-stuff, at least equal in value to the rags which sell in
ordinary times from 16s. to 20s. a cwt. But when its qualities
are better known, it probably would sell at still higher rates, as
there would be no labour in sorting, and no loss of material in
cleaning. Mr. Betts was induced, in India, to attempt the
preparation of the fibre, from seeing a remark in the ‘ London
Price Current,’ of Dec., 1839, that considerable supplies of a
new sort of Hemp from the stalk of the Plantain tree had
realised from 6d. to 8d. per lb.; and the Society of Arts were
induced, as long since as the year 1762, from the apparent
importance of the subject, to offer a premium for the pro-
duction of this fibre (v. ‘Jury Report,’ p. 102).

Therefore, even with the least sanguine expectations, and on
the most moderate computations, there is every prospect of
a certainty of demand, accompanied by remunerative prices.
With this in view, we may conclude our observations on
this subject, which may appear to occupy too much space,
and to have been treated of too much in detail. But if
properly considered, it cannot but appear of vast importance
to the natives of tropical countries, and to planters and
colonists abroad, to utilise so valuable and abundant a pro-
duct, which is now allowed to run to waste, and of which, if
they increase the cultivation, they will at once attain the two-
fold object of multiplying the supply of food for the body,
at the same time that they are increasing materials for diffusing
information for the mind.
PALMS—THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND USES. 91

Tue Paums (Palmacee).

The Palms, so conspicuous in tropical countries for their
lofty pillar-like stems, surmounted by apparently inaccessible
fruit or gigantic foliage, are no less remarkable for the many
useful purposes they are calculated to fulfil, The fruit of
some is edible, of others abounding in oil, the sap of a few
forms a pleasant beverage, and may by evaporation yield sugar
or be fermented into a spirit. The stems of some species are
gorged with farinaceous matter, which may be separated as a
starch-like powder or granulated into sago. The broad leaves,
from their great size and hard surface, are useful for thatching
the cottages of the poor, or for making umbrellas for the rich.
The narrow-leaved kinds are plaited into mats and baskets, or
smoothed so as to be fit for writing on; while the leaves of
several, when in a young and tender state, are eaten, both raw
and in a cooked state, and are hence called Cabbage Palms.
Some abound in strong unyielding fibre, while others form
wood which is applicable to all the purposes of timber. Hence,
several are valuable articles of culture in the countries where
they are indigenous, or where the soil and climate are suitable
for: their growth—as, for instance, the Date Palm in Arabia
and Africa, the Oil Palm in the West of Africa, the Cocoa-nut
in India and its Islands, together with the Betle-nut, Palmyra,
and Talipat Palms ; while the Sago, the Ejoo, and the Betle-nut
Palms flourish in the moist warm climates of the Malayan
Peninsula and of the Indian Archipelago.

The Palms abound chiefly in the tropical parts of South
America, as well as of the Old World; but a few species ex-
tend to rather high latitudes, as an Areca to lat. 35° S. in New
Zealand, and a Sabal (Chamzrops, Auct.) to lat. 40° N. in
North America ; while the Dwarf Palm, a native of the North of
Africa, is now at home in the South of Europe. There even the
Date Palm is grown in a few sheltered situations ; though it is
in the hot and dry soil of Arabia and Africa that it attains the
greatest perfection, and furnishes a principal part of the diet of
its inhabitants, as well as an article of commerce. Phenix
sylvestris, a variety or species of the same genus, is common
in most parts of India. A Chamerops is found in Nepal,
92 SAGO AND OTHER PALMS—CALAMUS.

and one on the Khasya Hills, at elevations of from 5000 to
8000 feet ; while C. Ritchiana is found in the Khybur Pass, and
probably all along the mountainous range from Affghanistan
to Sindh. But it is in far southern latitudes and in a different
climate that the Cocoa- and the Betle-nut Palms are objects of
extensive culture ; as well as the Sago Palms, of which the Ejoo
or Gomuto of the Malays is one (the Arenga saccharifera of
botanists), abounding in sap, which can be used as palm wine or
converted into sugar; yielding at all times strong and durable
fibre. The older trees when cut down yield sago, as do Sagus
Rumphii and S. levis, especially abundant in and near Sumatra.
The latter is remarkable among Palms for throwing up young
plants around it in the same manner as the Plantain. Both
kinds of Sago tree are strongly recommended for cultivation—
the Arenga on low coasts near the sea, but the species of
Sagus even on the edges of the marshes which abound in such
situations.

It is no doubt to some one of these Sago trees that Sir John
Maundeville alludes, when he says: “In that land grow trees
that bear meal, of which men make bread, white and of good
savour; and it seemeth as it were of wheat, but it is not quite
of such savour. And there are other trees that bear good and
sweet honey; and others that bear poison.—And if you like to
hear how the meal comes out of the trees, men hew the trees
with an hatchet, all about the foot, till the bark be separated
in many parts; and then comes out a thick: liquor, which they
receive in vessels, and dry it in the sun, and then carry it to a
mill to grind, and it becomes fair and white meal; and the
honey and the wine, and the poison, are drawn out of other
trees in the same manner, and put in vessels to keep.” (‘The
Book of Sir J. Maundeville,’ chap. xviii.) But we have only to
notice such Palms as are useful for their fibres.

The species of Caramus, or those yielding the different kinds
of Cane, have little of the appearance of Palms, as they are
usually remarkable for their weak and trailing stems, which
often extend to a great length, and ascend the loftiest trees.
It is these long stems, which, when divested of their sheathing
leaves, form the canes of commerce—some so much admired
as sticks; others for their flexibility, conjoined with tenacity,
USEFUL SPECIES OF CANE. 93

These, when their smooth and shining dense outsides are
separated in strips, are universally employed for caning the
bottoms of chairs, of couches, and for other articles. Some are
occasionally twisted into ropes, in the localities where they are
indigenous ; but they are more generally employed as sticks, and
for mat-making and cane-work, as their great strength allows
of such narrow strips being employed, as to allow of large
spaces being left, and thus enables strength to be combined
with lightness and free ventilation.

The species of Calamus abound in the Islands of the Indian
Archipelago, as well as in the Malayan Peninsula.. A few
species are found within the Madras territories, but in India
they chiefly abound in the forests of the districts of Chittagong,
Silhet, and Assam, whence they extend along the foot of the
Himalayas as far north as the Deyra Doon, where a species is
found which the late Mr. Griffith has named C. Royleanus,
and applied the name of C. Roxburghii to the plant which Dr.
Roxburgh called C. Rotang, common in Bengal and on the
Coromandel Coast. Both are called. det, and used for all the
ordinary purposes of cane; as are C. ¢enuis of Assam, gracilis,
extensus, and others. C. Scipionum of Loureiro, Mr. Griffith
considered to be the species which yields the well-known
Malacca Cane, but the plant does not appear about Malacca.
He was, however, informed that the canes are imported from
Siak, on the opposite coast of Sumatra.

The extensive uses to which Canes are applied, both in their
entire and split state, are well known. ‘They are abundant in
all the moist tropical parts of the East, both on the continent
and in islands. In Java, the cane is cut into fine slips, which
are platted into excellent mats, or made into strong, and, at the
same time, neat baskets. In Japan, all sorts of basket-work
are made of split cane, and even cabinets with drawers. Cane
is also platted or twisted into cordage, and slender fibres are
made to answer the ordinary purposes of twine. It is stated
that in China, as also in “Java and Sumatra, and indeed
throughout the Eastern islands, vessels are furnished with
cables formed of cane twisted or platted. This sort of cable
was very extensively manufactured at Malacca.” The species
employed for this purpose is probably the Calamus rudentum
of Loureiro, which ,this author describes as being twisted into
94 CABLES MADE OF RATTANS.

ropes in these Eastern regions, and employed, among other
things, for dragging great weights, and for binding untamed
elephants. So Dampier says: “ Here we made two new cables
of rattans, each of them four inches about. Our captain bought
the rattans, and hired a Chinese to work them, who was very
expert in making such wooden cables. These cables I found
serviceable enough after, in mooring the vessel with either of
them; for when I carried out the anchor, the cable being
thrown out after me, swam like cork in the sea, so that I could
see when it was tight ; which we cannot so well discern in our
hemp cables, whose weight sinks them down—nor can we
carry them out but by placing two or three boats at some dis-
tance asunder, to buoy up the cable, while the long boat rows
out the anchor.” The tow-ropes mentioned by Marco Polo as
used by the Chinese for tracking their vessels on their nume-
rous rivers and canals, seem also to have been made of cane—
and not of bamboo, as sometimes stated—as they were split
in their whole length of about thirty feet, and then twisted
together into strong ropes some hundred feet in length.

Mr. G. Bennett says, in his ‘ Wanderings,’ ii, p. 121, that
he “ remarked some Chinese one morning near Macao, engaged
in making some very durable ropes from rattan. The rattans
were split longitudinally, soaked, and attached to a wheel,
which one person was keeping in motion, whilst another was
binding the split rattans together, adding others to the length
from a quantity he carried around his waist, until the required
length of the rope was completed.”

Though apparently insignificant, Canes yet form a considera-
ble article of commerce, inasmuch as in some years between
four and five millions of them have been exported from the
territories under the government of the East India Company.

Though not employed for their fibres, yet as connected with
the different kinds of the genus Calamus, we may mention the
different Canes which are imported. Most of them are pro-
duced by species of Calamus. For the commercial names of
these we are indehted to Mr. W. Sangster. The walking sticks
called “ Penang Lawyers” are the stems of a small Palm called
Licuala acutifida, as also mentioned at p. 96.

The Ground Rattan is distinguished by its straight head,
and straight and stiff character altogether, as well as by its
USEFUL SPECIES OF CANE. 95

pale colour ; though some are at least an inch in diameter, and
others not half that thickness. Some are distinguished by a
hard, and others by a soft bark. It is not known whether the
slender are of the same species as the thicker kinds, growing
in different situations, or from roots of different ages, but
Rhapis flabelliformis is said to yield the Ground Rattan.

The Malacca Cane is supposed to be produced by Calamus
Scipionum, but said to be imported from Siak, on the coast of
Sumatra. Some of these are simply mottled or clouded, others
of a brown colour, in consequence, it is said, of their having
been smoked. The more slender specimens of these, with the
longest internodes, are those most highly valued.

The most common kind of Cane, that employed for caning
chairs, &c., is known in common by the name of Rattan Cane.
This must be yielded by a variety of the long trailing species
which abound wherever the genus is found. The most northern,
named Calamus Royleanus, no doubt yields the Rattans collected
in the Deyra Doon, while C. Roxburghii no doubt yields those
collected in more southern latitudes. But it is probable that
a variety of species yield the thin Rattans of different localities,
and some of which have already been mentioned.

Another kind of Rattan is called Dragon Cane. This is
thicker than the last, both light and dark coloured, with long
internodes and a hard bark, less flexible than the common
Rattans, but strong, springy, and much valued. A variety,
with soft bark, is called Manilla Dragon Cane.

Other kinds of Canes, imported from China, are known,
one with stiff stems and large knots by the name of Jambee,
and one as Whanghee. This has a pale, hard bark, and flexible
stems, with internodes of about an inch and a half or two
inches,.and a number of little holes at the knots.

Some which are occasionally called Canes, are produced by
species of Bambusa, Saccharum, and other grasses.

Calamus Draco, a native of Sumatra and the Malay Islands,
yields, as a natural secretion of its fruit, the best D’jurnang or
Dragon’s blood, which has been an article of commerce from the
earliest times, and still continues in demand.

The Cuamzrops, called Palmetto, is among those best known
in Europe. C. Ritchiana, called Maizurrye in Pushtoo, and
96 DATE SUGAR AND DATE TODDY.

Pfees in Sindhee, is a most useful plant. Of it are made san-
dals, baskets, mats, &c., and its moonyah or fibre makes twine
and ropes in Sindh. It is of extensive use in Affghanistan
for making cordage; in the same way that the Hemp Palm,
also a species of Chamerops, was found by Mr. Fortune to be
employed in Northern China; and as Chamerops humilis, or
Palmetto, is in the North of Africa and South of Europe, for
making baskets, brooms, mats, and cordage. Indeed, paper
and pasteboard are made of its fibres by the French in Algeria.

The true Date tree (Phenix dactylifera), the Palm tree
of Scripture, flourishes in comparatively high latitudes, and is
well known to afford the principal article of food to the natives
of Arabia and of the North of Africa; while the leaves are
employed in making mats, baskets, &c.; and at Cairo cordage
is made of fibres obtained from the footstalks of the leaves,
Though the tree grows well in India, it does not there produce
any edible dates; but Phenix sylvestris, the Khujjoor of India,
which closely resembles the former in character, is found in
every part of that country, as near Madras, to its north in
Mysore, in Bengal and the North-West provinces up into the
Punjab. This tree is especially valued in many places, as its
sap or Palm juice (¢ari) is either drank fresh from the tree,
or fermented for distillation, when it yields a common kind of
spirit or aruk. In Bengal it is valuable as yielding a con-
siderable quantity of the sugar produced in that province, and
known as Date sugar. ach tree, “on an average, yields 180
pints of juice, of which, every twelve pints are boiled down to
one of goor or jaguri, and four of goor yield one of good pow-
der sugar; so that the average produce of each tree is about
seven or eight pounds of sugar annually.” (Roxburgh.)

The leaves are very generally employed for making mats
and baskets, and also bags in Bengal. The footstalks of the
leaves are beaten and twisted into ropes, which are employed
for drawing water from the wells in Bellary and other places.
One species of Phenix (P. paludosa), the Hintal of Bengal,
abounds in the Soonderbunds, while another, P. farinifera,
common on dry, barren, sandy lands on the coast, and on
the hilly country between the Ganges and Cape Comorin.
Its stem abounds in farinaceous matter, which the natives
PALMIRA TREE, AND ITS USES. 97

make use of as food in times of scarcity. The leaflets are
wrought into mats for sleeping on. The common footstalks
of the leaves are split into three or four, and made into baskets
of various kinds.

The leaves of many of these Palms are employed for thatch-
ing, for making chattahs or umbrellas, punkahs, and hats.
Thus, those of Licuala peltata, the Chattah-pat of Assam, are
in universal demand in that valley. Scarcely a single plough-
man; cow-keeper or cooly, but has his Jhapee or Chattah made
of Chattah-pat.1 (Jenkins.) But the leaves of this Palm are
coarser than those of another, the Toko-pat of the Assamese,
which has been named, in honour of the zealous Commissioner
of Assam, Livistona Jenkinsiana, by the late Mr. Griffith.
Col. Jenkins says of this species: “This Palm is an indispen-
sable accompaniment of every native gentleman’s house, but
in some parts it is rare, and the trees are then of great value.
The leaves are in universal use throughout Assam, for covering
the tops of doolees (palkees), and the roofs of khel boats; also,
for making the peculiar hats, or rather umbrella-hats (jhapees)
of the Assamese. For all these purposes the leaves are admi-
rably adapted, from their lightness, toughness and durability.”

The Patmtra tree of Europeans (Borassus flabelliformis), and
the Tar of the natives of India, is to be seen in almost all
parts of India, and occasionally as far as 30° N. lat. It is
-stated by Dr. Roxburgh to be, next to Caryota urens, the
largest Palm on the Madras coast, and that it seems to thrive
equally well in all soils and situations, The seeds, when
young, are eaten by the natives, being jelly-like and palatable.
The tree, during the first part of the season, yields a pretty
large quantity of toddy (palm wine). This is either drank
fresh drawn from the tree, or boiled down into a coarse kind
of rob called jaggery, or it is fermented for distillation. The
wood, near the circumference of old trees, is very hard, black,
heavy, and durable. By the natives the leaves are universally
used for writing upon with an iron style. They are also
employed for thatching houses, for making small baskets, mats,

' The stems of Licuala acutifida afford the well-known walking sticks known by
the name of “ Penang Lawyers.” (Griffith.) :
98 TAR, TALIPAT, AND KITTUL PALMS.

&c,, and some also formed into large fans, called vissaries. The
fibres of the leaves (Palmyra nar) are employed on the Madras
side for making twine and small rope. They are about two
feet in length, strong, wiry, and not unlike those of Esparto
(p. 31). Near the base of the leaves there is also found a fine
down, which is used for straining liquids through, and also for
stopping bleeding from wounds.

Among other Palmswhich arevalued for different products and
employed to supply the place of cordage plants, we may instance
the species of Conypua. Of these, C. Gebanga has its young
leaves plaited into baskets and bags, affording much employ-
ment to the people in Java. The leaves are also employed for
thatching, and for making broad-brimmed hats. So, C. Talliera,
the Tara of Bengal and the Talipat of the Peninsula, is much
employed for making leaf hats and leaf umbrellas. The leaves,
moreover, when smoothed, are much used for writing on, and
also for tying the rafters of their houses, as they are strong and
durable. Thus, also, C. umbraculifera, the Codda-panna of
Madras and the Talipat of Ceylon, and very like the former, is
common in Ceylon, and found also on the Malabar coast. Of
this the leaf, being dried, is very strong and limber—and,
according to Knox, “most wonderfully made for men’s conve-
nience to carry along with them; for though this leaf be thus
broad [enough to cover fifteen or twenty men] when it is open;
yet it will fold close like a lady’s fan, and then it is no bigger
than a man’s arm; it is wonderfully light.” “This tree is
within, a pith only; they beat it in mortars to flour, and bake
cakes of it, which taste much like to white bread; it serves
them instead of corn before their harvest is ripe.” (Knox’s
‘Ceylon.’)

Canyora urens is another of those Palms which are common
to India and Ceylon. In Malabar it is called Evim-pannah,
and Jeroogoo in Telinga. Dr. Roxburgh describes it as highly
valuable to the natives of the country where it grows in plenty.
During the hot season, a single tree will yield at the rate of
one hundred pints of toddy or palm wine in the twenty-four
hours. The pith, or farinaceous part, is equal to the best sago.
The natives make it into bread, and boil it into thick gruel.
EJOO OR GOMUTO FIBRE. 99

It is the Kittul of the Cingalese ; of which, according to Knox,
“the inside is nothing but a pith, as the former. It yieldeth
a sort of liquor, which they call ¢edligee: it is rarely sweet and
pleasing to the palate, and as wholesome but no stronger than
water.” It “bears a leaf like to that of a betel-nut tree, which
is fastened to a skin as the betel-nut leaves are, only this skin
is hard and stubborn, like a piece of board ; the skin is all full
of strings as strong as wire; they use them to make ropes
withal:’ In a recent account of the ‘ Vegetable Products of
Ceylon, by Mr. Ondatjee, of which the author has been good
enough to send me a copy, it is said that the dlack fibre from the
leaf-stalks of the Caryota urens (kittul) is manufactured into rope,
which is of great strength and durability, being used for tying
wild elephants. The Rodyahs, or outcasts among the Kandyans,
make this rope, generally with considerable skill, as it is both
regular and compact. There is also a woolly material found at
the base of the leaves, which is stated to be sometimes used
for caulking ships.

Esoo or Gomuto Fisre (Arenya saccharifera, Labil.; Saguerus
Rumphii).

Malay—Ejoo, Sejee. Sumatra—Anou.

The Ejoo or Gomuto fibre, so well known in Eastern com-
merce and as used in Eastern shipping, is hardly known in the
“Western world. It is, however, occasionally heard of by the
name of “vegetable bristles,” Though a portion of the fibres
may be likened to stiff bristles, the greater part is more like
black horse-hair. This is celebrated, in the countries where it
is produced, both for its strength and for its imperishable
nature, even when exposed to wet. It is supposed to be the
same as the Cabo negro of the Spaniards of Manilla, The tree
yielding it was described and figured by Rumphius (‘ Herb.
Amb.,’ i, p. 57, t. 13) under the name of Gomuto, or Saguerus ;
but the latter name being too similar to that of the true Sago
tree, has been changed to Arenga, from the native name Areng,
under which it was described by Labillardiere. The specific
name has been given from the large quantity of sugar procura-
ble from its sap by cutting the spadices of the male flowers.
100 EJOO OR GOMUTO FIBRE.

We thus observe that the tree is valuable for several very dis-
tinct, and all very useful products. It is described by Marsden,
in his ‘Sumatra,’ under the name of Anou, as a Palm of “much
importance, as the natives procure from it sago (but there is
also another sago tree, more productive); ¢oddy, or palm wine,
of the first quality; sugar, or jaggary; and goo.” Dr. Rox-
burgh, writing in the year 1799, says of it: “I cannot avoid
recommending to every one who possesses lands, particularly
such as are low and near the coasts of India, to extend the
cultivation thereof as much as possible. The palm wine itself,
and the sugar it yields, the black fibres for cables and cordage,
and the pith for sago, independently of many other uses, are
objects of very great importance, particularly to the first mari-
time power in the world, which is in a great measure dependent
on foreign states for hemp.”

This Palm is to be found in all parts, from the Gulf of
Bengal to all the Asiatic islands on its eastward, especially in
low moist situations and along the banks of rivers.

Dr. Roxburgh describes the trees (in 1810) which had been
introduced into the Botanic Garden at Calcutta about twenty-
four years before, as from twenty to thirty feet in height, ex-
clusive of foliage or fronds, which rise from fifteen to twenty
feet higher. These fronds or leaves are pinnate, and from
fifteen to twenty-five feet long. The trunk is straight, at first
covered entirely with the sheaths of the fronds or leaves, and
the black horsehair-like fibres, called by the Malays Ejoo, which
issue in great abundance from the margins of these sheaths.
As the tree advances in age and size, these drop off, leaving an
elegant, columnar, naked trunk. He further states that he had
observed that each of the well-grown thriving trees produces
about six leaves annually, and that each leaf yields about three
quarters of a pound weight of these fibres, and, therefore, each
tree about four pounds and a half. But some luxuriant trees
yield at least one pound of fibre from each leaf.

As these black fibres issue from the sides of the sheaths, they
necessarily surround the stem, and may be cut off without
injury to the tree. Even in commercial specimens, some may
be seen covered both on the upper and lower surface with
dense cellular membrane, having between them a mass of these
black fibres. These are supported by thicker or whalebone-
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF KJOO. 101

like fibres, which are attached to the thinner fibres by cellular
tissue. These stiff fibres are employed in Sumatra as styles for
writing with on the leaves of other Palms, &c., as mentioned
both by Marsden and Bennett.

These fibres are further described as stronger, more durable,
but less pliant and elastic than those of the Coir; but they
resist decay, and are therefore more fit for cables and standing
rigging, but less fit for running rigging. “ The native shipping
of all kinds are entirely equipped with the cordage of the
Gomuto, and the largest European shipping in the Indies find
the advantage of using cables of it. It undergoes no prepara-
tion but that of spinning and twisting,—no material similar to
our tar or pitch, indispensable to the preservation of hempen
cordage, being necessary with a substance that, in a remarkable
degree, possesses the quality of resisting alternations of heat
and moisture. The best Gomuto is the produce of the islands
farthest east, as Amboyna and the other Spice Islands. That
of Java has a coarse ligneous fibre; the produce of Matura is
better. Gomuto is generally sold in twisted shreds or yarns,
often as low as a Spanish dollar a picul, and seldom above two ;
which last price is no more than one sixth part of the price of
Russia hemp in the London market. Were European ingenuity
applied to the improvement of this material, there can be little
doubt but it might be rendered more extensively useful.”

Milburn, again, in his ‘Oriental Commerce,’ mentions the
Ejoo as of all vegetable substances the least subject to decay,
and that it is manufactured into cables, and the small cordage
of most of the Malay vessels made of it: “it is equally elastic
with coir, but much more serviceable, and floats on the surface
of the water.” These fibres are universally employed, in the
countries where the trees are indigenous, for making cordage
for their nets and seines, as well as for the rigging of their
vessels, as also cables. These are described by all as remarka.
ble for their tenacity and durability, and as not undergoing
any change by exposure to wet, not even when stowed away in
a wet state. In some experiments made by Dr. Roxburgh,
some thickish cord bore 96 lb., and some smaller 79 ]b.; while
coir of the same size bore only 87 lb. and 60 Jb. respectively.
Besides the above horsehair-like fibres, there is at the base of
the leaves a fine woolly material (baree), much employed in.
102 COCOA-NUT PALM.

caulking ships, as stuffing for cushions, and as tinder. Ejoo was
sent to the Exhibition of 1851, via Singapore, from Malacca,
as separated from stiff fibres, and as prepared for manufacture or
export, and prepared as sinnet, or coarse line for making ropes or
cables. The portion belonging to each leaf having apparently
been cut off close to the sheath, and each measuring about
three feet in breadth and two feet in length. The bundles of
the coarse and fine fibres are about six feet in length, and about
twelve inches in diameter, neatly tied up with split cane. Inter-
spersed among the coarser, there are some finer fibres, some-
thing like black wool. The sinnet is coarse, but strong, and
broke with a weight of 85 lb., when coir of about the same size
broke with 75 lb.; but the comparison is not very exact.

Mr. Kyd, the celebrated ship-builder of Calcutta, possessed
a cable made of the Ejoo fibre, which he had had for four
years exposed to all weathers, and which raised the bow anchor
of a merchant ship of 500 tons, buried in the sands of the
Hoogly; in two previous attempts at which, three Russian
hempen cables had given way.

Besides making strong and durable cordage, the Ejoo fibre
is no doubt applicable to a variety of purposes for which horse-
hair and bristles are now employed.

Cocoa-nut TREE AND Fisre (Coir; Cocos nucifera).
Bengalee—Narikel. Hindee—Naryul. Tam.—Tenga.

The Cocoa-nut, little if at all known to the Ancients, was
particularly noticed by the Arabs, being by them called Jouz-
hindee or Indian nut; but at much earlier periods, in Sanscrit
works, by the name of Nari- and Nali-kera. It is, no doubt,
the “great nut of India,” which Sir John Maundeville men-
tions among the trees of that country, as producing nuts as
large as men’s heads. In the East, where it is indigenous, it
must from the earliest times have attracted the attention of
the inhabitants. But it would be impossible now to distinguish
the trees which have been introduced from those which are
now growing apparently wild, on the various tropical coasts
and islands where they are found in such vast abundance.
As, for instance, in the Maldive and the Laccadive Islands ; also,
COCOA-NUT PALM, USES OF. 108

on the Malabar coast and in Ceylon, as well as on the eastern
side of the Bay of Bengal, whence it ascends both the Burram-
pooter and Ganges Rivers to considerable distances. Likewise,
in most of the islands of the great Archipelago forming the
India aquosa of old authors, from the Sunda Isles to Molucca,
and in those of the Pacific Ocean. It is, moreover, cultivated in
various tropical parts of the New World. The Cocoa-nut
(Cocos nucifera) and the Oil Palm (Eleis guineenis) have been
remarked by a distinguished botanist, Mr. Brown, as the only
two of their group (Cocoine) found in the Old World.

The Cocoa-nut Palm is one of the great ornaments of the
shores of tropical countries. The cylindrical stems, with a
diameter of about two feet, attain an elevation of from sixty
to one hundred feet, and are surmounted with their crowns of
numerous, wavy, and which from their appearance may almost
be said to be feathery leaves. These are by botanists often
called fronds, and by travellers their footstalks are often called
branches. They are gigantic in size, being about twenty feet
in length, with a strong, tough stalk, which forms the midrib,
and has a number of narrow and long leaflets ranged along the
two sides, The fruit is borne in bunches, of which there are
from eight to twelve, each béaring, on trees growing in favora-
ble situations, from five to fifteen nuts, so that each tree may
produce from eighty to one hundred nuts annually. Mr.
Bennett has well observed that the tough and thick (and it may
be added, light) covering of the nut protects the germ while it
floats even on salt water, and it is thus borne to barren spots,
where it germinates, and causes even the smallest islets, just
appearing above water, to become covered with clumps of Cocoa-
nuts, as the fruit falling springs up and forms young trees
around the original tree. Thus the Cocoa-nut is found on
barren, uninhabited islands, as well as in populous districts ; and
though it attains the greatest perfection on the coast, it may
yet be seen at considerable distances in the interior, and even
at some elevation, as 800 feet in Ceylon. The Singalese
have a saying, that Cocoa-nut trees only flourish where you
can walk and talk among them. This evidently means that the
trees must not be planted too close together; nor should any
undershrubs be allowed to grow about their roots.

The Laccadive Islands are famed for the good quality of the
104 ; COCOA-NUT PALM IN LACCADIVES.

coir which is made there and exported to the Malabar coast.
The Cocoa-nut tree is almost the sole object of culture and
the chief means of subsistence, each person consuming about
four nuts per diem, The principal inhabitants generally
own considerable numbers of trees, and the custom prevails of
marking trees with certain house marks, in the same way that
sheep are marked in other countries. Taxes are levied on these
trees, according to immemorial usage; and mortgages are
secured on them at the rate of one rupee per tree of good
quality. :

The soil and climate of these islands is so well adapted to
the Cocoa-nut, that they require to be looked after only for the
first year ; after which they are transplanted, and watered for
a few weeks, until they take root, when they are left entirely
to themselves, and come into bearing at periods varying from
eight to twenty years, and will continue to bear for seventy or
eighty years. In the island of Kiltan, it is said that a nut
buried with a knife will grow, requires no attention, and comes
into bearing early. The tree is not so large and strong as that
of the coast, and the nut about two thirds of the size only, and
rounder in shape. The husk is smaller and less woody, and the
fibre finer and more delicate, but stronger than that of the
coast nut. The nut is also said to be more compact and oily,
and to keep better than the coast nut, although, for the sake
of the coir, the nut is cut before being quite ripe. Many of
the trees are cut for their sap, called neera, which the islanders
drink in its unfermented state. The juice is drawn frequently,
and fermentation checked by the addition of lime or chunam.
“ They are still so strict in the abstinence from all fermented
liquors, that the manufacture of toddy would not be tolerated
in the islands.” (Robinson on ‘ Laccadives,’ 1846.) Of the
extent of the cultivation, we are informed that in the islands
under British protection—that is, in Amendeevy, Kadamat,
Kiltan, and Chetlat, containing in 1844 a total population of
8609—there were 122,153 Cocoa-nut trees. Of these, 8129
were chouk or unproductive, 45,070 young trees and plants, and
69,254 were fully productive.

Of the abundance of the Cocoa-nut tree on the Malabar
coast, we may form an idea from the description of the chief
town, Cannanore ; as the topes or clumps of Cocoa-nut are said
COCOA-NUT IN MALABAR. 105

“to be seen between the officers’ houses, surrounding the can-
tonments in every direction, and extending in the distance as
far as the eye can reach ; and the cantonment may be said to be
imbedded in a forest of these trees.” But it is abundant every-
where, and in many places forms a belt along the whole coast.

The majority of the houses on the Malabar coast are roofed
with Cadjan—that is, with the dried leaves of the Cocoa-nut—
which resist the rain better than tiles ; but the roofs should be
fresh thatched before the accession of the rainy season.

The average produce of Cocoa-nuts in the whole of Malabar
is estimated at from 300 to 400 millions annually, which are
valued at half a million of rupees ; but in addition to this, from
20,000 to 25,000 candies of Copra ‘(or the dried kernels) are
exported, valued at 400,000 rupees.

The Cocoa-nut flourishes on the coasts of the southern pro-
vinces of the Indian peninsula, and succeeds on many parts of
the western coast of the Bay of Bengal, as well as in the
southern parts of that province. It also succeeds well on the
eastern coasts of that bay, though the cultivation has not been
carried on in the former Burmese territories to the extent of
which the coasts are susceptible, nor even to the degree which
the people require for their own consumption, as considerable
quantities have long been imported from the Nicobar Islands.
The trees are said to begin to produce fruit in the eighth, and
to be in full bearing in the twelfth year after planting, and
yield from eighty to a hundred nuts annually. But this is
probably above the average.

Mr. Baumgarten, in a paper on the agriculture of Malacca
(‘ Journ. Indian Archipelago,’ iii, p. 710), while considering
what kinds of cultivation are most inviting, states that those
of an indigenous kind claim a preference, such as the Cocoa-
nut, Betel-nut, Sago, and Kabong,! with the usual variety of
fruit trees found in the Dusans of Malacca. He further states,
that “ supposing a planter purposes opening a Cocoa-nut plan-
tation, he should choose a gently sloping or level surface, with
a portion of swampy land in its vicinity for a paddy-field for
food for the labourers.” ‘The Malays,” he says, “ bestow

1 All these are Palms; and of them, Cocos nucifera and Areca Catechu are no
doubt the first two. The Sago tree is probably Sagus levis, and the Kabong, 4renga
sacchartfera.
106 CULTIVATION OF THE COCOA-NUT TREE.

little care on their Cocoa-nut gardens. The Cocoa-nut there
begins to bear at the end of the seventh year, but full crops
cannot be expected until the ninth year. During this interval
the utmost average quantity that can be expected will not
exceed twenty-five nuts annually. But the fruit-bearing power
of the trees may be considerably improved by extracting toddy
from the blossom-shoots for the manufacture of jaggery, during
the first two years of its productiveness ; after which it may be
discontinued. The subsequent annual produce may be safely
reckoned at fifty nuts per annum ; and forty may be considered
the average number obtained from trees that are crowded to
within fifteen feet of each other. The Cocoa-nuts sell for about
eleven dollars per thousand.” Mr. Baumgarten also recom-
mends, that during the first four or five years, Millets, Chillies,
Kechong (pulse), Sweet Potatoes, Yams, and Pumpkins, be
cultivated in the intervals of the Cocoa-nut plantation.

Dr. Buchanan, in his journey across Mysore and down to
the Malabar coast, in 1800-3, observes that in some places he
found the green Cocoa-nuts sold for making ropes, at the rate
of 2000 for about 8d.; but the husk of the ripe Cocoa-nut
was not fit for the purpose (i, 156). These are commonly burnt
for fuel (ii, 50). The green husks of the nuts which have
been cut for their juice are steeped in water for six months,
They then beat them on a stone with a stick, and rub off with
their hands the rest of the adhering substance. The fibres, or
Coir, are then fit to be twisted into yarns. In South Malabar
(ii, 401), he says, a little bad Coir is made from the husks of
the nuts.that are used green in the country; a few of the
nuts are exported with the husk on, but in general they are sent
to the north inclosed in shell only.

USES OF THE COCOA-NUT TREE.

The Cocoa-nut tree is valued not only as applicable to
many of the same purposes as other Palm trees, but for the
sap procured by cutting the spathes of the flower-stalks, which
is either drank in its fresh state, boiled down to a coarse sugar
or jaggery, or allowed to ferment into spirit and vinegar.
The milk of the nuts also forms a wholesome drink, while the
kernel is used as an article of diet or in cookery in its fresh
USES OF THE COCOA-NUT TREE. 107

state, or dried and exported by the name Copra. In both
states it is well known to abound in oil, which is used in the
East for anointing the body, for the lamp, and for culinary
purposes, and is now exported in such enormous quantities to
Europe. The nut, besides, yields large quantities of a fibre
which is to be more especially the object of our attention.

That the Cocoa-nut is one of the most valuable trees of
tropical regions has long been known. It is therefore well
worthy of cultivation in such situations as are suitable to it;
as it abounds in products useful as articles of diet, as well as
for commerce and manufactures. The celebrated Rumphius
has given a very elaborate account of the Cocoa-nut Palm, and
of its uses, under the name of Palma indica major, or Calappa,
in his ‘ Herb. Amboin.,’ i, pp. 1—25. Mr. G. Bennett, in his
‘Wanderings,’ has also given a very interesting account of it
(vol. ii, p. 295); as also Mr. Robinson, of the Madras Civil
Service, in his ‘Report on the Laccadive Islands,’ published
in the ‘Madras Literary and Scientific Journal.’ From these
sources we condense the following notice of the useful products
of this “ Prince of Palms.”

The Cocoa-nut, valued as it is in its ripe state, is probably,
in the countries where it is indigenous, most used as an article
of diet in its young or green state. It then affords both solid
food and a pleasant drink, because it contains an abundance of
the fluid, which Mr. G. Bennett says is beautifully clear, and
has a sweetness, with a slight degree of astringency, which
renders it a very agreeable beverage.” This he always found
cooling and refreshing in all his excursions in intertropical
countries. The pulp of the young nut is delicate, easily re-
moved with a spoon, and may very well be named a vegetable
blancmange. The ripe fruit is also eaten, but it is more fre-
quently employed in cookery; the grated kernel being placed
in a cloth, water is poured on it, a white juice is extracted by
pressure, which, Mr. Bennett says, “may with propriety be

1 See also the ‘Wernerian Trans.,’ vol. v, for a full account of the uses of this
tree; as also Mr. Marshall, in his ‘ Natural and Economical History of the Cocoa-
nut,’ 1832.

2 Mr. Bennett mentions that in Ceylon, house-plasterers use the water of the
green Cocoa-nut as an ingredient in their white-washes, made of pure lime. It isa
general practice of the natives of India to add some vegetable matter to their
cements.
108 COCOA-NUT SAP OR TODDY.

termed ‘Cocoa-nut milk.’ It is used either with or without
the grated kernel in their various curries and mulligatawnies.”
Besides these edible parts, the heart, or the very young leaves
of this Palm, as well as of some others, is called the cabbage,
and, according to all accounts, forms “an excellent vegetable,
either cooked or dressed in stews, hashes, or ragouts.”

The beverage known to Europeans as toddy or palm wine,
is obtained from the flower-spathes, before the flowers have yet
expanded. These are themselves astringent, and used medici-
nally. To procure the toddy, the spathe is first tied with the
young leaves, and is then cut a little transversely from the top,
and beaten either with the handle of the toddy-knife or with a
piece of hard wood. After some days, an earthen chatty or
vessel, or a calabash, is hung to the spathe, so as to receive the
toddy as it exudes. This is collected every morning and
evening; the spathe being cut a little every day.

If this palm wine is drawn early in the morning, it forms a
pleasant drink. But fermentation takes place in the liquor a
few hours after it has been collected, and it is then used by the
bakers as yeast. The fermented liquor or toddy is much drank
by the natives; at other times the spirit is distilled from it,
and forms one of the kinds of arrack or aruk, that is, spirit.
One hundred gallons of toddy produce by distillation, it is said,
twenty-five of aruk. Or it may be allowed to undergo the
acetous fermentation and produce very good vinegar. Or, in-
stead of being allowed to ferment, the toddy may be made to
yield jaggery or sugar. For this purpose, a supply of sweet
toddy is procured mornings and evenings, particular care being
taken that the vessels employed have been well cleaned and
dried. Hight gallons of sweet toddy, boiled over a slow fire,
yield two gallons of a lusciously sweet liquid, which is called
Jaggery- or sugar-water ; which quantity being again boiled, the
coarse brown sugar called jaggery is produced. The lumps of
this are separately tied up in dried banana leaves.

Cocoa-nut oil is one of the best-known products of this
Palm, from its extensive employment in Europe, especially for
making the excellent candles known as Stearine. In the East,
it is employed as a lamp-oil, and for anointing the body,
especially after it has been rendered fragrant by mixture with
such aromatic oils as those of sandal wood and of jessamine.
COCOA-NUT OIL. 109

The oil is obtained by first removing the kernel from the
shell, which is boiled in water for a short period; it is then
pounded in a large mortar, taken out, and pressed. The milk,
as it is called, is then boiled over a slow fire, when the oil floats
on the top, which being skimmed off, is afterwards boiled by
itself. Two quarts of oil, it is said, may be procured from
fourteen or fifteen Cocoa-nuts.

“The Malabar method of extracting the oil, is by dividing
the kernel into two equal parts, which are ranged on shelves
made of laths of the Areca Palm or of split bamboo, spaces
being left between each lath of half an inch in width; under
them a charcoal fire is then made, and kept up for about two or
three days, in order to dry them. After this process they are
exposed to the sun on mats, and when thoroughly dried (then
called Koppera or Copra), are placed in an oil-press, or siccour.”
These form articles of export to Bombay and elsewhere.

Cocoa-nut oil is liquid at the ordinary temperature of the
countries where it is produced, but becomes solid at lower
temperatures, as about 70°, and has a specific gravity of 892.
It is one of the fixed or fatty oils, of which such large quantities
are now imported into this country, and, like them, consists of
both solid and fluid constituents; the latter, or Oleme, being
separated by pressure from the solid parts called Stearine.
The solid fat of the Cocoa-nut is by others distinguished by the
name of Cocein, which has been so largely employed in making
Stearine candles, but which, from the chemical changes
taking place in the process, are now called Stearic, and which
are made in such enormous quantities and of such excellent
quality under Mr. G. Wilson’s intelligent superintendence at
Belmont, Vauxhall. In consequence of this increased demand,
and the facilities afforded by the establishment of a Govern-
ment steam-engine at Colombo for separating the oil with
greater facility, as well as to the duty having been taken off,
we may account for the great increase in the importation of
this oil.

Cocoa-nut oil was sent to the Exhibition of 1851, from
different parts of the Madras territories, and of very fine quality,
by Messrs. Sainte, of Cossipore—for these a Prize Medal was
awarded. The refuse or oil-cake is stated to be excellent food
for fattening pigs and poultry.
110 IMPORTS OF COCOA-NUT OIL.

The imports, which were in 1838, 32,666 cwt., had risen to
85,463 cwt. in 1848, and have since continued to increase.

Cwt. Cwt.
1848 3 85,463 1851 : 55,915
1849 : 64,452 1852 - 101,863
1850 . 98,039 1853 - 164,196

How large a proportion of this is brought from India, will

appear from the following analysis of the quanties :

Imported into United
ingdom in 1850.

Cwt.
Cocoa-nut Oil imported from British Possessions in India - 85,096
” ” ” in Australia . 6,315
+ 46 other parts. . - 6,628

—_

98,039

Cocoa-nuts, from the quantity of fibre on their exterior and
oil in their interior, are necessarily well suited for burning.
Hence they are sometimes fixed on stakes, and used to illumi-
nate roads, &c. The shell itself, when burnt, yields an excellent
kind of charcoal. In their entire state they are used for a variety
of purposes, such as hoogas, vessels to hold water, cups to drink
out of; and with handles fixed into them, they serve as ladles
and spoons. We sometimes see them brought home as curiosities,
highly polished on the outside; sometimes scraped so thin as to
be semitransparent ; at other times, stained black, elaborately
carved, and mounted in silver.

Besides these various products, the wood of the Cocoa-nut
tree is used for various purposes, as among the Singalese, when
it has become old and the tree has ceased to bear, for making
small boats, frames for houses, rafters, &c.; also for spear-
handles, furniture, and fancy articles of different kinds. It is
also exported to European markets, where it is known by the
name of Porcupine wood.

The Singalese split the fronds in halves, and plait the leaflets
neatly, so as to make excellent baskets, and, under the name of
cadjans, they form the usual covering of their huts, as well as
of the bungalows of Europeans ; and are exported to northern
parts, where the Cocoa-nut does not flourish so well: 149,500
were imported into Bombay in the year 1850-51. The dried
fronds are sometimes used as torches or for fuel; their
COCOA-NUT FIBRE OR COIR. 111

midribs, tied together, are sometimes used as brooms for the
decks of ships, as the fibres of the stalk are woody, brittle, and
difficult to clean.

The leaves are also in other places plaited into mats and
screens, and also made into baskets; and combs are said by
Mr. Bennett to be made of the midrib of the leaflets in the
Friendly Islands. In the Laccadive Islands mats are made of
the Cocoa-nut leaf, cut out of the heart of the tree just before
the unfolding of the leaf, though this involves the loss of the
bunch of fruit which comes out with each leaf. It is probable
that the leaves of the chowk or unproductive trees are chiefly
employed. These mats are, however, of fine quality, and much
esteemed when exported. In these islands they are employed
for the sails of the smaller boats.

Though the Cocoa-nut is best known, for the fibrous cover-
ing of its nuts which is so well known under the name of
Coir, it also produces a downy fibre which is used to stop
bleeding from wounds. This is altogether of a more delicate
nature, and forms a kind of network, which is beautifully white,
and even transparent, when young. It is thus seen at the
bases of the young fronds; but as these attain maturity, this
natural matting becomes coarser, tough, and of a brownish
colour. It may be stripped off the tree in large pieces, which
are used both in India and Ceylon as strainers for palm wine
or cocoa-nut oil, or for straining sago or arrow-root. Mr. Ellis
describes it as “consisting of long and tough fibres which
regularly diverge from both sides of the petiole of the leaf.
Sometimes there appear to be two layers of fibres, which cross
each other, and the whole is cemented with a still finer, fibrous,
and adhesive substance: the singular manner in which the
fibres are attached to each other, causes this curious substance,
woven in the loom of nature, to present to the eye a remarka-
ble resemblance to cloth spun and woven by human ingenuity”
(vol. i, p. 53). This is very similar to the arrangement of the
Ejoo fibre, which has been already described, but in which both
coarse and fine fibres are intermixed.

The husk or rind of the Cocoa is thick and full of fibres,
which in their separated state are so well known by the names
of Coir or Khair. In order to remove this husk, an iron spike,
or sharp piece of hard wood, is fixed in the ground. The nut
112 PREPARATION OF COIR IN LACCADIVES.

is then forced upon the point, which passes through the fibres,
and thereby separates the rind from the shell. In this man-
ner, Mr. Marshall says, a man can clear 1000 nuts daily. The
husk, cut transversely, is frequently used for polishing furniture,
scrubbing floors, and as a substitute for brushes and brooms.

Mr. Robinson describes the method of making Coir in the
Laccadives, as follows: “ As the husk gets hard and woody if
the fruit is allowed to become quite ripe, the proper time for
cutting it is about the tenth month. If cut before this, the
Coir is weak; if later, it becomes coarse and hard, and more
difficult to twist, and requires to be longer in the soaking pit,
and thus becomes darker in colour. When cut, the husk is severed
from the nut and thrown into soaking pits. These, in some
of the islands, are merely holes in the sand, just within the
influence of the salt water. Here they lie buried for a year,
and are kept down by heaps of stones thrown over them to
protect them from the ripple. In others, the soaking pits are
., fresh-water tanks behind the crest of coral. In these, the
water not being changed becomes foul and dark coloured,
which affects the colour of the Coir. When thoroughly soaked
the fibrous parts are easily separated from the woody by beating.
If taken out of the pits too early, it is difficult to free the Coir
from impurities. If left in too long, the fibre is weakened, as
is said to be the case also with that soaked in fresh water.”
These different modes are also practised in Ceylon. “ At Cal-
pentyra and the Akkara-pattoo, the natives separate the Coir by
burying the husks along the border of the extensive salt-water
lake, and when, after six months or more, they are dug out
very clean, the fibres easily separate from the cellular tissue of
the husk. This mode of preparing the fibre prevents the
offensive smell emanated by macerating the husk, so common
along the road from Colomba to Matura.” (Ondatjee.)

The Coir from the islands of Kadamat, Kiltan, and
Chetlat, in the Laccadives, is said to be of the best description.
The manufacture into cordage of the Coir is entirely in the
hands of the women of the Laccadives. When soaked suffi-
ciently long, it is taken out of the pit and beaten with a heavy
mallet. Subsequently, it is said to be rubbed with the hands
until all the interstitial cellular substance is separated from the
fibrous portion. ‘ When quite clean it is arranged into a
VALUE OF COIR IN LACCADIVES AND MALABAR. 113

loose roving, preparatory to being twisted, which is done
between the palms of the hands in a very ingenious way, so as
to produce a yarn of two strands at once. No mechanical aid,
even of the rudest description, has yet found its way into these
islands.” (Robinson.)

It is curious that in these islands, Coir is one of the chief
commodities of barter for the necessaries of life, as rice, salt,
tobacco, &c. The Coir is made up for their petty traffic in
short kuts of a fixed length and weight, and at the end of the
year these are collected and made up into lengths of 70 to 75
fathoms, as received by the Government.

Mr. Robinson, in his ‘ Report on the Laccadives,’ states that
the difference in the quantity of Coir manufactured from a
coast nut and from an island nut is very considerable. We may
premise that forty Cocoa-nuts are said to yield 6 lb. of Coir
in Ceylon. Mr. Robinson says: “ Three large coast nuts will
yield 11b. of Coir, measuring twenty-two fathoms; whereas,
ten small, fine island nuts go to about 1 1b. of Coir—but this
will measure thirty-five fathoms: 21b. of such yarn, measuring
from seventy to seventy-five fathoms, are made up into sooties,
of which there are fourteen to a bundle, averaging about a
maund of 28lb. A Mangalore candy of 560 1b. will thus
be the produce of 5600 nuts, and should contain about 20,000
fathoms of yarn. The actual price of Coir received by the
islanders, is about thirteen rupees per candy. The value of
the Coir produce ofa tree is calculated to be from two to
two and a half annas; and that of the produce of one hundred
trees from fourteen to fifteen rupees. “ The average value of the
total raw produce of a tree bearing fruit, would then be seven
annas to half a rupee; and that of a plot of one hundred trees,
forty-five rupees.” For the nuts which they export to the
Malabar coast, they get from seven to ten rupees per thousand,
or rather 1100, as ten per cent. is always allowed for luck in
these sales. The islanders export from 300,000 to 400,000 nuts
annually. ‘The natives bring their Coir to the coast, in March
and April, which is then received into the Government Godowns.
Until the year 1820, all Coir was paid for at the rate of twenty-one
rupees fourteen annas per Mangalore candy, or twenty-fiverupees
per Calicut candy of 640lb. After that year, the Coir was
divided into three classes. Since then, the average price paid

8
Lit CORDAGE AND CABLES OF COIR.

for a Mangalore candy of Ameendevy and Kadamat Coir, has
been twenty rupees and two annas (or twenty-three rupees per
Calicut candy of 6401b). But for the Kiltan and Chetlat
Coir, which are the best, an average of twenty rupees twelve
annas and seven pie, or twenty-three rupees twelve annas per
Calicut candy, is paid. Up to a.p. 1825-26, the Bombay and
Bengal Governments took almost the whole of the Coir brought
from these islands, and credited the Mangalore collectorate with
twenty-five rupees per candy. The price has since fallen very
much during the last twenty years. It has been frequently
below the price paid to the islanders, and at best, has never
yielded above twelve to twenty per cent. profit. The average
imports of Coir have been from five hundred to six hundred
candies. (Robinson.)

Coir, besides its principal use as cordage, is much used in
India in place of hair for stuffing mattresses, and is certainly
preferable to those stuffed with ox- and cow-hair, which, I am
informed, are still sent out to India. It is also employed for
stuffing cushions for couches, and saddles.

Dampier also mentions that the Spaniards in the South Seas
make oakum to caulk their ships, from the husk of the Cocoa-
nut, “‘ which is more serviceable than that made of hemp; and
they say it will never rot.” He adds: “ I have been told by
Capt. Knox, who wrote the relation of Ceylon, that in some
places of India they make a sort of coarse cloth of this husk of
the Cocoa-nut, which is used for sails, I myself have seen
coarse sail-cloth made of such a kind of substance.” (‘A Voyage
round the World.’) But this seems to be made from the fibrous
substance found at the bottom of the leaves; for in Knox’s
‘Ceylon, Suppl., p. 250, it is stated: “The filaments at the
bottom of the stem may be manufactured into a coarse cloth
called gunny, which is used for bags and similar purposes.”

From the details which we have given respecting the pre-
paration, and other points connected with Coir, it is evidently a
substance of considerable value; and though there is some
difficulty both in separating and in twisting this fibre, it seems
long to have been applied to useful purposes—as cordage for
the boats and shipping of the East. Some of the boats even,
in Ceylon and on the Coromandel coast, are composed of planks
sown together with Coir yarn. So Sir J. Maundeville: “In
COIR CORDAGE TARRED. 115

that island are ships without nails or bands, on account of the
rocks of adamants (loadstones), &c.”” Though imported from the
islands in the form of sinnet, it may be manufactured into
cordage of any size and cables of various bulk.. A quantity of
hawsers and cables are now annually exported from Ceylon.

The character of Coir has long been established in the East,
and is now well known in Europe as one of the best materials
for cables, on account as well of its lightness as its elasticity
combined with considerable strength. These are further valua-
ble as being durable, and little affected even when wetted with
salt water.

Numerous instances have been related of ships furnished
with cables of this light, buoyant, and elastic material, riding
out a storm in security, while stronger-made, though less
elastic ropes of other vessels have snapped in two, and even
when chain cables have given way. Indeed, until chain cables
were so largely introduced, most of the ships navigating the
Indian seas were furnished with Coir cables. Mr. H. Dalrymple,
Master-Attendant, &c., at Madras, states in one of his reports:
“‘ Cordage from good Coir is extensively used by vessels of all
descriptions in India. In vessels of 600 tons it is commonly
used for lower rigging. The yarns being tarred previous to its
being laid up in Europe, are preferred for lanyards to the
lower rigging.”

Though rough to handle, and not so neat-looking as hemp
cordage for rigging, it is yet, when properly made, sufficiently
pliable, and being elastic, is well suited for running rigging
where lightness is an advantage, as for the more lofty sails
and sheets; but from its elasticity it is not considered so well
adapted for standing rigging.

Dr. Roxburgh, in his experiments, found that tan was not
applicable, and it is sometimes stated that it is not capable of
taking tar; but even in Dr. Roxburgh’s time, tar had been
successfully used in the Coir cables made at Calcutta. Mr.
Hornby already mentioned, states, that he could make from the
Cocoa-nut fibre (Coir), rope of every size up to a 14-inch cable ;
indeed that such had been made by the prisoners, and was then
under trial by the Government Marine authorities. Some
beautiful specimens of 8-inch rope were sent by Messrs. Harton,
of Calcutta, to the Exhibition of 1851, in the form both of cold
116 BENGAL AND BOMBAY COIR CORDAGE.

and of warm register rigging. The latter is well covered with
tar.

The comparative strength of Coir cordage is well known,
but we may, nevertheless, mention, that in some experiments
made by Dr. Wight, Coir cordage broke with 224]b., when
Hibiscus cannabinus bore only 190 1b., but the Moorva, 316 lb.

It having been inferred, a few years ago, that instead of
sending Russian Hemp and Europe-made cordage to Bombay,
it would be practicable to make good cordage and cables there,
as had long been the case at Calcutta. It was observed, in reply,
that a good manufactory of Coir rope could no doubt be esta-
blished there; as when a Mr. Rennie had his manufactory
at Bancoot, several of the country ships used Coir for standing
rigging. Also, that with good materials and machinery he
manufactured cordage which superseded some of the imports
from Europe; with the exception of buntlines and leechlines,
which chafe against the sails, and for which, therefore, Coir will
not answer. The largest ropes used there are for hawsers and
for messengers : and of these, Coir hawsers are much employed
in the port of Bombay. As it may be interesting to know the
kinds of cordage chiefly employed in the Hast, as well as its
weight and cost, we subjoin the following

STATEMENT SHOWING THE COST OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF COIR CORDAGE
USED BY THE GOVERNMENT VESSELS, INCLUDING THE CHARGES FOR MANU-
FACTURE, ETC.

No. Ms, Sr. Co. Rs. As. P.

Coir Cable of 14-inch 1 4415 at 6111 permd. 271 9 1
Coir Hawser, 8-inch 1 16 25 5 101 11 10
7 7-inch 1 12 30 ‘i 73 0 5

a 6-inch 1 920 - 58 2 3

5 5-inch 1 5 32 ‘ 35 7 11

Coir Rope of 43-inch coil 1 5 6 i 31 8 3
<i 4-inch coil 1 3 35 ‘i 23 11 5

3 33-inch coil 1 2 37 5 17:14 «5

. 3-inch coil 1 212 7 14 1 3

»  2h-inch coll . 1 1 28 a 10 6 5

Pr 14-inch coil 1 0 28 ip 446

i 1-inch coil 1 0 20 “s 3°10
BENGAL AND BOMBAY COIR CORDAGE. 117

STATEMENT SHOWING THE VALUE AND WEIGHT OF A COIL OF COIR ROPE OF THE
DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS MADE IN BOMBAY AND BENGAL.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Description. Bengal. Bombay. Difference.
Weight. Value. Weight. Value.
: ewt. qr. lb. Rs, ewt. qr. Ib. Rs. Rs.
1 Coir Cable of 14in] 32 2 4 — 32 17 _ _
+ Sin} 12 0 21 _ 11 1:10 _ _
” Zin} 9 1 10 _ 10 19 _ _
” Gin] 6 3 24 _ 7 10 _ _
” Sin] 4 0 27 = 4 0 0 _ _
l coil Coir Rope,44 in| 3 3 2 — 3 216 _ _
a 4in.| 2 2 27 _ 3 0 22 _ _
a4 3hin| 2 0 15 _ 2 2 20 _ _-
#1 3in.} 1 2 20 _ 20 0 _ —
” sin] 1 0 27 - 1 1 25 _ _
” ljinj) 0 2 1 _ 0 2 20 _— _
i lin.| 0 1 13 _ 0 125 — _
76 3 7 | 649 149/79 114] 592 133 | 5716

 

 

 

Supposing 648 cwt. of the above kinds of cordage were
required :

Value of this at the Bombay rates of 7 7 6 per cwt. . Rs, 4839 12 0
Ditto at Bengal rates, viz., at 8 5 9 per cwt.,is Rs.5416 14 0

Freight to Bombay, say, at one rupee per cwt. . 648 00
—_— 6064 14 0

Difference in fayour of Bombay Coir 3 . Rs.1225 20

In calculating the rate per cwt., the Bengal maund is esti-
mated at 82 1b.; and in turning the maunds into English
weight, fractional parts have been omitted.

As the authorities at Bombay complained that the market
could not always be relied on, for meeting demands as they
arose for good Coir cordage for the public service ; and as each
fresh demand was taken advantage of for raising the price or
for trying to pass off inferior articles at a high rate: a rope-
walk has been authorised (January, 1853) to be established at
the Mazagon Dockyard, in order to enable the Indian Navy
and Public Departments to be supplied with good Coir cordage.
The Collector of Mangalore was to supply the Maldive, proba-
bly Laccadive Coir, at thirty rupees per candy, and three rupees
for boat freight to Bombay.
118 USEFUL APPLICATIONS OF COIR.

The above account! of the uses of the Cocoa-nut Palm
would be very incomplete if we omitted all notice of the
various purposes to which Cocoa-nut fibre is applied in this
country, and in which so much ingenuity is displayed. We
therefore borrow the following contemporary account of the
articles exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851.

“Tt is instructive to witness the many useful and orna-
mental purposes to which the vegetable fibre of the Cocoa-nut
may be applied. Of the manufacture of the fibre which en-
velopes the shell of the nut, the principal exhibitors at the
Crystal Palace are Messrs. Wildey and Co., of Holland Street,
Blackfriars Road, and Mr. Treloar, of 42, Ludgate Hill. The
first-named firm show specimens of Cocoa-nut fibre in various
stages of preparation. Commencing with the husk,-we have
first the cleaned fibres, separated from the intervening vegetable
substance; then, a selection and preparation by patented
machinery of the fibre for making brushes and brooms—a
substitute for bristles; and next we have the fibres still further
cleaned, curled, and dyed to resemble horse-hair, such as
upholsterers use for stuffing mattresses; and, lastly, follow
samples of yarn and cordage of different kinds, together with
matting, door-mats, and netting for sheep-folds.

“The articles exhibited by Mr. Treloar still further illustrate
this novel and interesting manufacture. The stair-carpets and
floor-mattings produced by this exhibitor consist of upwards
of twenty different registered patterns, all of which are new,
and one of which now covers the floors of the Symposium, at
Gore House. The brushes comprise every kind; and, so far
as it is possible to form an opinion from mere observation,
they appear quite as well adapted for all ordinary purposes as
the best bristle brush—while, no doubt, the difference in price

' The statement frequently made of the Cocoa-nut Palm growing only in the
vicinity of the sea, in consequence of the presence of salt in the soil, has not been
noticed; nor the common custom of placing some salt round a cocoa-nut, when it is
planted and expected to germinate. The sea-coast is well known to be distinguished
by its moist climate, as well as by the soil below the surface being moist. Both
these afford facilities for the growth of the plant, while the salt which is often placed
round the germinating nut is positively useful in preventing white ants from eating
it up. In consequence of the injury these cause, it is considered preferable to trans-
plant the young plants when they have put forth three or four leaves, and in rainy
weather, z.e., in May and June, keeping the plantation clear from weeds and white ants.
EXPORTS OF COCOA-NUT PRODUCTS. 119

is considerable. It is not easy, one would suppose, to place
much ornament about a door-mat, without interfering with its
utility. But Mr. Treloar has succeeded in producing, from a
variety of shades of colour, a very ornamental door-mat, having
a crown worked in the centre. There are a great number of
small articles, such as table-mats, fancy baskets, &c., all made
of the same useful material. But the greatest novelties yet
produced from Cocoa-nut fibre are the bonnets and hats shown
by this exhibitor. These are of a bright cinnamon colour, and
attract considerable notice on account of the ingenuity displayed
in their fabrication.” The Ejoo fibre might well be intermixed
with that of the Cocoa-nut for some of the above purposes.

To give some idea of the importance of the Cocoa-nut Palm,
we may conclude with the following table of the value of the
Imports of Coir and Coir rope into the three Presidencies for
three years; for which I am indebted to the tables of the
Statistical Department of the India House.

 

In Year 1847-48. In Year 1848-49. In Year 1849-50.

 

Coir and Coir Rope

 

imported into Foreign. | India. Foreign. India. | Foreign. | India.
Calcutta . Rs.| 27,438 | 85,780 | 21,615 | 55,999 | 21,673 | 65,261
Madras : | 45,987 | 15,598 | 57,323 | 17,309 | 44,711 | 23,900
Bombay 5 : 873 | 76,571 333 | 116,338 1,618 | 143,210

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Subjoined is a tabular view of the Exports and Imports of
the different products of the Cocoa-nut, for the year 1850-51, in
order to show the extensive influence of the plant. This must
not be estimated simply according to the value of money in
Europe but in India, and the tree viewed as the source of employ-
ment and of comfort to great numbers of the people of the East.
But it is obvious that these Exports and Imports give but a
small idea of the usefulness of the plant to the people where
it is indigenous, as they find a use for every part of it.

In the following table, a few trifling entries appear, and also
some imports from places from whence we should not expect
them ; but this is owing to ships’ stores being sometimes landed
and sold, instead of being used on board of ship. In some
cases the value only is given, but generally both quantity and
value, in the official Reports published in India. It is from
these that the following facts have been taken :
120

BENGAL PRESIDENCY.
From May Ist, 1850, ro Aprin 30TH, 1851.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF COCOA-NUT PRODUCTS.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘Importep INTO CaLcurra. | Cocoa-nuts. Shells. Kernels. Oil. ci

From United Kingdom — _ _- _ 515

» North America —_ _ — _ 192
» Pegu : _ Rs. 125 a — _
» Penang . | Rs. 20 _ = _- _
» Ceylon 12,116 1,676 — —_— 449
» Maldives 109,299 4,169 _— —_— 3,826
» Coast of Coromandel] 11,100 _ Mds. 33 _
» Malabar . 16,996 _— Mds. 56,507 _ 9,259
Total . _— —_ Mds. 56,507} Mds. 33 14,241

Value . -|Rs. 149,646 | Rs. 5,970 | Rs. 176,398} Rs. 231 | Rs. 56,542

Exports FRoM CaLcurta.

To United Kingdom _— _ _ 363 138
. North America _ _ _ —_— 638
», Cape of Good oe — _ _ _ 139
», China _ _ _— _ 126
» Mauritius — — —_ 201 193
» New South Wales _ —_ — 20 349
» Pegu. — _ —_ 382 1,076
» Penang _ _ _ 52 i

Total _ _ — Mads. 1,018 | Mds. 2,654

Value _— _— _ Rs. 6,891 | Rs. 18,009

MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
Exports. Cocoa-nuts. Shells. Kernels. Oil. Cait Rope,
From RasaHMuUNDRY.

To Pegu . .| Rs. 10,140 —_ Galls.4,537 —

» Mauritius 3 — — —_ 420 —

» Bengal F é _ — —_ 2,009 _
From MALaBAR.

To United Kingdom _— — _— 173,394 Cwt.10,388

» Arabian Gulf. _ —_ Cwt. 82 686 3,761
» Ceylon 7 j _ — 867 36,670 3,361
» France 2 a — — 11,663 667
yy Maldives = — oars 510 15
» Mauritius and Bourbon = = _— 116,715 881
», Bengal _— _ 914 —_ 3,418
», Bombay _ — 108,701 251,402 74,735
» Indian French Ports _ _ 652 33,229 —_
» Goa . 7 ; —_ _— — — 1,324
», Malacca Straits . — a esi = 92
», Travancore.  , — — ze 24,883 V7
From CANaRA.

To Arabian & Persian Gulfs _ — i = 1,038
» Bengal —_ se ase 4,500
», Bombay — = —_ 5,091

I
Total . 4 _— —_ (Cwt111,216 Gls. 656,118 Cwt109,288
Value .| Rs. 10,14%

an nna! a oem aie)

 

 
 

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF COCOA-NUT, PRODUCTS. 121

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. : 4
Bompay Imports. Cocoa-nuts. Cadjans, Kernels. Oil. F Cont Rove.
From Ceylon . . : —_ _ -143 _ Cwt. 239
» Goa 7 . | 3,822,220 _ 86. — 53
» African Coast . . 694,830 _ _ _ _
» Arabian Gulf . : _ _ 42. — —_
» Malab. & Canara, Br.| 19,243,154 _ 88,225 102,875 61,273
- : n_ Foreign] 1,974,786 _ 72,530 |. _— 10,405
» Concan, British 5 969,415) 149,500 3,024 1,234 5,934
W » Foreign é 65,000 —_ — — —_
» Cutch . . . _ _ a 57 —
» Guzerat . 3 z _ _ —_ 164 8
» Sindh . ; . — —_ _ 469 _
» Aden . —_— _ 20 | - _—
Total : -| 26,670,105] 149,500 | 164,223 |Gls.104,799) 77,912
Value 3 .| Rs. 375,243] Rs. 2,990 |Rs. 689,722] Rs. 76,417 |Rs. 175,392
Exports.
To Arabian Gulf. — _ —_ _ 141
» Goa . a . —_— —_ _ _ 4
» Malabar mi os nas a 2
» Aden. - _ _ —_ _ 117
» Concan *: * _— —_ — —_— 42
» »- , Foreign peas a — ms 5
», Guzerat — _ — — 4,214
Total —_ _ _ —_ 5,705
Value —_ —- _— _— Rs. 19,653

 

 

 

 

 

 

The details of the foregoing tables do not yet give a com-
plete view even of the external commerce of, Cocoa-nut pro-
ducts, for the Imports and Exports dy /and from or into neigh-
bouring districts or from and into Foreign States do not appear.
And of those imported, the quantities retained for home con-
sumption are not distinguished from those which are re-exported,
and which, though they cannot be enumerated again in the
grand total, yet contribute to the activity of commerce. We
have, therefore, prepared the following table of the Re-Exports
of Cocoa-nut products, from the same official Reports. Some
discrepancies appear, as, for instance, no Cocoa-nuts are entered
as exported from Malabar, Canara, or Goa; and yet, in the
Bombay lists, they are stated to be largely imported from these
very districts.
122 RE-EXPORTS OF COCUA-NUT PRODUCTS.

e :

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BENGAL PRESIDENCY.
; ; Coir and
Rz-Exrorts. Cocoa-nuts. | Kernels. | Oil. | Coir Rope.
From CatcutTa. . . 4
To United Kingdom . 4 _ _ _ 265
» Penang . x ‘ " — — _ 12
Total 2... J — foo = Mds.277
Vaue . . 6 OO Rs 1061
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.
From VIZAGAPATAM.
To Bengal. . j .| 664,455 _ _ a
From Marasar,
To United Kingdom s _ _ 19,999 |Cwt. 5,193
, Arabian Gulf. ‘ _— _— _ 1,289
» France - q —_— —_ 11,663 126
» Ceylon s : , _ 344 3,400 504
», Mauritius and Bourbon " _ —_ _ 69
», Bengal : F ¥ _— 8 411 — 4,302
» Bombay . ri 5 F — 4,330 — 9,720
Total 5 ei | 664,455 |Cwt.5,085 |Gals. 35,062/Cwt. 21,203
Value é : «| Rs. 2681 | Rs. 17,135 | Rs. 7,545 | Rs. 65,983
BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.
To United Kingdom : _ _— — Cwt 37,467
» Mauritius . ‘ % ‘ —_— —_ _ 461
5, African Coast —_ — —_ 198
» North America . ‘ : _ — — 871
», Arabian and Persian Gulfs . —_ Cwt. 108 —_ 803
», Calcutta . é . i 26,300 12,434 _ 449
», Cutch 5 ; 2 -| 1,109,799 1,265 _ 1,877
», Soumeinaee P ‘ a 625 a7 _— _
+ Goa . és ‘ j _ 3 _— 16
», Malabar and Canara . _ —_ — -107
» Aden. ei ‘ é p _ _— _ 4
» Sindh , 5 ‘ | 134,355 9,800 _ 473
» Concan, British . * -| 8,531,025 51,953 — 2,586
» 9 Foreign . s _ 149 _ 32
» Guzerat : : -{12,685,658 19,319 —_ 8,435
ay: Foreign . : -| 933,835 8 =— 10
Total : . Mds.| 23,421,597 ‘Cwt, 95,079 — Cwt. 53,789
Value... _.|Rs. 373,743Rs. 452,605| —  [Rs. 180,010

 

 

In the Imports into Bombay from the African Coast, there appears an article
entitled Cocoa-nut Jarry, of which 449, valued at 386 rupees, were imported ; and
there were re-exported, 280, valued at 170 rupees, to the Persian and Arabian Gulfs,
and 2600, valued at 43 rupees, to Sindh. Here there is evident discrepency, but
the total is made 2880, valued at 213 rupees.
OTHER USEFUL PALMS. 123

In addition to these purely Indian exports and imports, it
must be remembered that this Palm is extensively cultivated,
and everywhere equally useful. The culture has greatly
increased in Ceylon, as well as on the Malabar coast of India.
The imports of Oil we here see have greatly increased, and
amounted, in the year 1853, to 164,196 cwt. ; and will probably
continue to increase, as it will be long before there is a limit to
the demand. Of Coir, about three millions of pounds used to
be manufactured in Ceylon, when the Dutch held that colony.
In the year 1838, there were imported into this country—of
Coir rope and twine, 5842 cwt., and of Coir fit for making into
mats, 167 tons 15 ewt.

Of the imports of Coir, &c., from Malabar and from Ceylon,
we may form some idea, from the following note, from the best
authority, that of the Messrs. Noble, who state respecting the
“imports from Cochin of Coir yarn, rope, junk, and fibre into
this country, that there exist no certain data in this article
on which to form a correct judgment (a great portion being
taken into the same ship, both at Cochin and Ceylon, as broken
storeage, of which a very uncertain account is kept), a general
idea can only be given of quantities, which are as under:

Coir Yarn F , - about 1300 tons annually.
» Rope : ‘i : » 800 5
» Junk < . . » 1000 ay
» Fibre 7 . ‘ » 150 ‘i

“From Ceylon we get rather over 2000 tons of yarn and
about 900 tons of rope. Junk is now only a small article from
this port. Of fibre we get about 260 tons to 300 tons.”

OTHER USEFUL PaLMs.

To the above list of useful Indian Palms, we might easily add
some, such as Zalacca macrostachya, used for making baskets
and for tying Nipa leaves (p. 36), as well as mention the native
names of others employed for many of the same purposes as
the foregoing. But these would in many instances prove to be
the same plant under different names in different districts ;
showing the necessity of appending a correctly ascertained
scientific name to any local one under which a traveller or
124 VARIOUS USEFUL PALMS.

planter may describe a useful plant or its product. For in this
way only are others enabled to recognise it, and, therefore, in
cases where an observer is himself unable to identify or to de-
scribe a natural product, it is of great advantage that he should
send sufficient materials of a plant along with its products, to
Societies or to qualified individuals, in order that these may
identify and refer them to their proper plants.

We might also have mentioned many of the Palms of other
countries, which are applied to various useful purposes on ac-
count of the fibrous materials with which their leaves abound.
Thus the Chinese are said to make cables of Palm leaves. The
Areca vestiaria is so called from clothing being made from its
fibres, and Rhapis cochinchinensis is employed for thatching,
&c. The Doum Palm of Egypt (Hyphene thebaica) is, like the
Date Palm, used for making utensils of various kinds, as are
also various South American Palms; while, in North America,
Palmetto thatch forms an article of export, and the leaves of
Lodoicea Seychellarum (the Palm yielding the formerly much
famed “Cocos de Mer’ or “ Double Cocoa-nut”’) are formed
into baskets and flowers—for a specimen of which, in the
Mauritius collection, a Prize Medal was awarded at the Exhi-
bition of 1851.

The detailed accounts we have given of so many of the Palms
prove incontestably the great value of these plants to the re-
gions where they are indigenous—yielding flour and sugar,
milk and honey-like fluids, demulcent drinks and fiery spirit,
fibre for cordage and for clothing, leaves for thatching and for
platting, as well as wood for a variety of purposes. There is
little doubt that some may yield the fibre which so abounds in
their leaves, sufficiently easily to be useful to the paper-maker.
125

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FIBRE OF ENDOGENS.

In a previous observation, we have already stated that an
arrangement of fibre-yielding plants, according to scientific
principles, would be found to be one which was also practically
useful, We have seen that the fibres of Endogens separated
for economic purposes, are contained in the leaves of these
plants; also, that these leaves are usually long and narrow, or,
as botanists describe them, sword-shaped. Their veins, more-
over, are parallel, and not reticulated; also, arranged longitu-
dinally, as are likewise the woody fibres; and all so regularly,
that if these leaves were to grow together round the central
flower-stalk, they would form rings of woody and vascular
tissue, much as we see in Exogens or, indeed, in the different
species of Musa or Plantain, in which the rings seen on
the transverse section of the so-called stem, are actually formed
by the encircling of the flower- and fruit-stalk or core by the
sheathing foot-stalks of the leaves.

Hence, to separate such fibres, simply scraping with a piece
of wood, or beating between two stones, is sufficient. There-
fore, passing them between rollers, such as those of the common
cotton churka of India, if enlarged, or those of a sugar-mill, would
not only be efficient, but economical. Whether these rollers
should be plain or grooved, must be ascertained by experiment,
and will depend, in some measure, upon the external hardness
of the leaves, or their more or less fleshy nature; as this
might soon fill up the grooves. Motion might be given to
such cylinders, either hy the Archimedean screw, cog-wheels,
or by bands, moved by hand, or by bullock- or horse-power as
practised in the cotton-cleaning machines and sugar-mills of
different parts of India. Careful washing of the separated
fibres is essential, in order to get rid of the adhering muci-
laginous or other matter and the cellular texture, but the
boiling in an alkaline ley may probably be dispensed with, as
it does not seem to be practised in all places. But steeping
in water, followed by fermentation and decomposition, is
followed in some of these localities, and no doubt facilitates the
separation of the fibre, at the expense, sometimes, of its strength,
126 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

as well as of its colour. Careful drying cannot be omitted, as,
if packed up in a moist state, fermentation followed by complete
destruction would ensue.

The characteristic of these fibres generally, is that they are
white in colour, of different degrees of fineness, and most of them
capable of bearing a considerable strain, but liable to break at
knots. They are, therefore, not suited to all the purposes of cord-
age, but admirably so to many, from strength and lightness, as
well exemplified in the case of Manilla Hemp. There is,
however, an unreasonable prejudice against white cordage,
though its true nature can be better ascertained than when
soaked with tar. From the experiments of Du Hamel and
others, it appears that this substance, unless carefully washed,
promotes the decomposition of vegetable fibre; and though it
is undoubtedly useful at the surface when ropes are exposed
to wet, there does not seem any advantage in its covering the
interior. Many compositions could, no doubt, be devised,
for covering the exterior, which would be efficacious in
excluding wet.

These fibres, though well known to the natives of the
countries where the plants are indigenous, have not attracted
from others the attention which they deserve, especially as they
are produced in abundance, and necessarily very cheaply, as
most grow in a wild state, or from the refuse of cultivation
that has already paid its expenses. Almost all, moreover, are
produced on the sea-coast, or in moist climates traversed by
navigable rivers, and therefore could cost little for carriage.
All would be valuable as affording employment for the people,
and material useful to them for a variety of purposes, if not
for exportation.

Of these, we have shown that both Grasses and Sedges
abound as well on the banks of the Indus as of the Ganges,
and might be turned to useful account. The Pine-apple
abounds in Assam and the Tenasserim provinces; and in the
islands near Singapore nearly 2000 acres are covered with it,
according to Mr. Logan,! who recommends their cultivation
for the manufacture of Pina cloth. The Moorva and the True
Aloes, as well as some of the so-called “ Silk-grasses” of South
America, and the inner fibres of the Plantain, resemble each

' «Journ. of the Indian Archipelago,’ vol. ii, p. 528.
FIBRE OF ENDOGENS. 127

other in fineness of fibre, and therefore of fitness for the
manufacture of similar textile fabrics, which are esteemed, at
least, by the people of the East, and worn by them. All may,
moreover, be twisted into fine twine or cord, and the refuse
form excellent materials for paper-making. The Pita or Agave,
commonly called Aloe, as well as the Yucca, New Zealand
Flax, Manilla Hemp, and the outer fibres of other Plantains,
are coarse in texture, and fitted for cordage, at least for ordi-
nary purposes. But if we take the Manilla Hemp as an
example, or the French experiments on the Pita, or its employ-
ment for naval purposes in South America, we may consider it
as fitted, with ordinary precaution, for most of the purposes of
cordage, as well as from its lightness for upper rigging. In the
experiments made at Madras, the Agave fibre grown there
certainly did not stand the trial to which it was subjected.
But, as we have stated in the article on the subject, the cause
of this is not easy to determine, whether owing to natural
weakness of the fibre, or to the high temperature of the water
in which the ropes were exposed, producing fermentation and
consequent decomposition. All of these, as well as the finer
kinds, are well fitted for paper-making, and therefore cannot
fail to be always in demand.

In cultivating any of these on account of their fibrous
product, it is an important point to determine the proportion
in which this is yielded by the several plants. In this, as
might be expected, there is considerable discrepancy in the
statements of different observers—some mentioning a few
ounces, where others find pounds of fibre. By some, from
one seventh to one tenth part of fibre has been obtained, but
this will depend upon the greater or less dryness of the leaves
operated upon. In the experiments upon New Zealand Flax,
it was calculated that 16 cwt., or 1792 lb. of fibre might be
obtained per acre. Dr. Roxburgh obtained two crops of
1613 lb., or 3226 1b., per acre of the Moorva fibre. In one
statement respecting Plantain fibre, it is stated that 600 1b. of
fibre may easily be obtained per acre in addition to the fruit,
but others, calculating upon four or five pounds per plant, and
only 450 plants to the acre, calculate that from 1800 1b. to
25501b., or about a ton an acre, might easily be obtained.
Others, counting upon the suckers which are successively pro-
128 OBSERVATIONS ON FIBRE OF ENDOGENS.

duced, calculate upon much higher returns, which, with good
cultivation and manuring, may, no doubt, be realised. But, :.s
there is danger in over-crowding, from the want of ventilation,
and weakness of fibre from the thinness and delicacy of the
plants which would be produced in a crowded plantation ; it is
safer to leave to practical experience, to ascertain the degree to
which a plantation may be safely and profitably crowded.

It has also been shown that the expenses of producing fibrous
material in suitable localities, and with appropriate means and
machinery, ought not to exceed from £9 to £10; and that
even from India, some of these fibrous productions can be
landed in England for from £18 4s. to £16 8s. per ton, according
to difference of quality. While we have been informed by
competent judges, that most of the above fibres, but especially
the Plantain and Pine-apple fibre, are worth about £30 to £35
per ton, if sent in sufficient quantities and in a proper state.
The difference in value, therefore, would easily repay any extra
trouble in preparing the fibres in a careful manner, especially
if we consider how cheaply Jute is grown and prepared, as will
be shown in the following pages.

* Mr. Dickson (v. p. 133) is of opinion that, though many of the white fibres, as has
already been noticed, pp. 125-6, are fit only for rope- and twine-makers, others are
suited for textile purposes, as, for instance, the Pine-apple fibre; even “ for the spin-
ning of yarn for the fine cambric manufactures in Ireland.”

The Author has also been informed by one of the best judges of the value of such
fibres and of their tow, that he has understated the prices which might be obtained
for them if sent in a clean state to market; but the Author has purposely done so,
after careful inquiry, that the expectations of planters might not be raised above
average prices, in order that they might confine the expenses of production within
proper limits. ‘

The Author has omitted to notice, under the head of Plantain products, a piece of
cloth, five yards and a half in length and twenty-six inches in breadth, sent by the
Singapore Committee to the Exhibition of 1851. It is described “as being manufac-
tured by the Arafuras, or mountaineers of the remote Eastern island, said to be New
Guinea, but more probably Ceram, where the aborigines are known to manufacture
articles from native fibres ;”” and is compared with the cloth made by the Saccalaves
of Madagascar, from the fibre of a succulent plant called the ‘“ Traveller’s tree,”
probably a Musa. The above cloth is of whitey-brown colour, like holland. The
fibres are not twisted, but the ends gummed together, as already related at Pp. 40.
The cloth is striped across, or in the direction of the woof, with threads of cotton.
129

ON THE FIBRES OF EXOGENOUS PLANTS.

We have already noted the great differences in point of
internal structure, between what botanists call Endogenous
and Exogenous growth, a distinction which we have shown to
be useful even for practical purposes. Exogenous plants may in
general be at once known even by their leaves, of which the vena-
tion is reticulated or net-like, and not parallel as among the
Endogens ; and therefore the fibres, united to each other in
meshes, cannot be separated from the leaves for economical
purposes, but must be obtained from other parts of these plants,
where the said fibres lie nearly parallel to each other, as, for
instance, in the bark.

The peculiar structure of Exogens may also be seen on
making a transverse section of the stems or branches, for in-
stance, of the trees of European climates. There we may see
rings of wood and layers of bark. But in annual stems, we see
in the centre a circle of white cellular tissue, called pith, and
round it a layer of wood-like matter, which in some plants is
called boon, or shove. This is surrounded by layers of cellular
tissue, which, examined longitudinally, form a tubular sheath,
inclosing the other parts. It is in some plants composed of long
and tough elongated cells or fibres, which are sometimes called
bast, and is covered externally by a delicate skin or cuticle.
It is these bast fibres which are separated from the Flax and
Hemp plants, and familiarly known by these names.

If we proceed to examine the transverse section of an
Exogenous branch or tree, we see a number of rings, propor-
tioned to its age. In the centre we observe the pith, which is
usually small when compared with the bulk of wood. There
may also be observed a number of lines, usually lighter coloured,

radiating from the centre towards the circumference. These
9
130 STRUCTURE OF EXOGENS.

are called medullary rays, and formed of cellular tissue like
the pith. This is surrounded by a longitudinal canal, which is
called the medullary sheath, and contains spiral vessels.
Outside of this are the rings of wood, formed of vessels and of
woody tissue; those near the centre, called the heartwood,
are denser and more highly coloured than those which are
more external. Of these, the youngest are known by the
name of sap-wood, and are those most recently formed, as all
additions of wood are on the outside of the growth of previous
years, in these trees.

On the outside of the layers of wood, we find the part called
bark, but composed also of a series of layers; of these the
oldest are on the outside, and may in some trees be seen
splitting and scaling off in a withered and dead state. The new
layer of bark will, however, be found in the inside of all, and
next to the young wood. The structure of this part can be
best examined in the bark of a young shoot. It will be found
to be composed of two layers of cells, which receive different
names from botanists, having the delicate epidermis or cuticle
on the outside; but in the inside of all, the layer consists of
tough, elongated cells and vessels, and is called liber or bast.
This part is very conspicuous in the Lime tree of Europe, which,
by the stripping off of its bark, yields the bast of which Russia
mats are made. In the East, species of Grewia, of Hibiscus,
and of Mulberry, are equally remarkable for their bast.

Besides the above characteristics in the leaves, wood, and
bark of Exogens, we may also observe distinctions in their
seeds and flowers, by which they may also be readily dis-
tinguished. Thus, the seeds of Exogens contain two seed-
lobes, which, in sprouting, become the two seed-leaves, as seen
in the germinating of Peas, Beans, Cucumbers, &c.; while in
Endogens only a single seed-leaf is seen, as in the sprouting
of Wheat and Barley, Rice, or the Date tree. In the flowers,
also, distinctive characters may be observed; but we shall
direct attention only to those of the Exogens, in which we may
see the flowers composed of stamens and pistils, surrounded
on the outside by floral envelopes.

In some, these floral envelopes consist of two distinct kinds
—the outer usually green and the inner variously coloured ; both
consisting sometimes of several pieces more or less united, as
FIBRE OF BXOGENS. 181

seen in the Flax plant, the Jute, the Hibiscus and Cotton
plant, the Sunn, and many other fibre-yielding plants.

Or, these two layers may be composed of the several pieces of
each, or of the sepals and petals, united together into a single
piece, as seen in the Convolvulus, the Jessamine, and Vinca.
The last contains tenacious fibre, is allied to the old genus
Asclepias, which abounds in plants yielding strong fibre, as the
Asclepias gigantea, &c.

Some plants have only a single floral covering, which may
be green or otherwise coloured, as may be seen in the Hemp,
the Nettle, China grass, and other fibre-yielding plants.

Plants belonging to this division of the Vegetable Kingdom
are the best known on account of their fibres. Of these many
are remarkable for their strength and useful properties.

Having lately had occasion to report on some Indian fibres,
I was anxious to ascertain the comparative strength of several
of those fibres, which were, upon the whole, but little known.
I therefore had equal weights and equal lengths of several of
these fibres taken, their ends tied and fixed in a vice, and then
the number of pounds ascertained with which each broke. In
these experiments :

Petersburgh clean Hemp . . broke with 160 Ib.

A fibre from Travancore, called Wuckoo 2 ; 7 175
Yercum fibre * : ‘ : ” 190
Jubbulpore Hemp é ¥ é ; 35 190
China grass, from China. ‘ ai 250
Rheea fibre or China grass, from iaaw ‘ “ 320
Wild Rheea, also from Assam rs 343

Hemp from Kote Kangra, in the Himalayas, ere 400 lb. without breaking.

Though we hope to be able to show convincingly, that
many of these Indian fibres are possessed of all the good
qualities required of such substances, I know that objections
are made to most of them. To some, that they are coarse ;
to others, that they are not strong enough, or that they break
at knots; also, that they are incapable of fine subdivision on
the hackle, or that they do not spin well, or have little twisting
property on the spindle; but I suspect that the greatest of
all objections is that modifications of machinery are sometimes
required for new fibres. With regard to the alleged coarseness,
and that they are not capable of fine subdivision; this is,
132 OBJECTIONS TO INDIAN FIBRES.

in most. cases, merely a question of preparation, which might
be carried to a greater extent in India, or in this country,
before attempting to spin them. I gave several of these fibres
to Mr. Dickson, of Deptford, and he returned them to me in a
few days, in a state in which I was scarcely able to recognise
them, from their soft and silky, hair-like appearance; and I
have little doubt but that the progress of experiment will show
that this change can be effected at a comparatively small cost.
With respect to their breaking at knots, this appears to be the
case only with the white fibres, of which we have just treated,
and which in this respect are like New Zealand Flax and
Manilla Hemp. Some of the same objections were made
against the Jute, when first introduced; and many years
elapsed before it came to be used as it now is, and considered
indispensable to the manufacturers of some localities. For
instance, about 15,000 tons are annually employed in Dundee
alone. Jute is certainly characterised by fineness, silkiness,
and facility of spinning ; but it is less strong than many other
Indian fibres, which are possessed of similar properties with
greater strength, as we hope to be able to show among the
Mallow and other nearly allied tribes of plants. Among the
Nettles, we hope to be able to prove that the combination of
strength with fineness and capability of being spun, is as great
in the Rheea fibre from Assam as in the China grass from
China. When, at the end of last year, I was endeavouring to
prove that many of these fibres were fit for all the purposes of
rope-making, I was equally told that they were weak, or would
not twist, or not take tar. I have since had some of them
made into every variety of cordage, from fine whipcord to a
five-inch rope, and I find that, in all cases, many of those of
which I am now about to treat, exceed Russian Hemp in
strength, and are therefore more than efficient substitutes.
Though some practical men have stated that these Indian
fibres do not subdivide, and will not spin, others are of a con-
trary opinion ; and though I shall have occasion to refer to
each more particularly under its respective head, I may yet
take the present opportunity of referring to the statements of
Mr. Dickson, published in the ‘ Journal of the Society of Arts.’
In the then expected deficiency of Russian Hemp and Flax,
and looking to the sources whence consumers might obtain
VALUABLE PROPERTIES OF INDIAN FIBRES. 133

substitutes for them, he observes: “From the experiments I
have made on all kinds of fibre, I fearlessly assert that they
can have a cheaper and better supply of fine and coarse fibre
from India, for rope-makers and fine spinners, than it is possible
for them to get from any other country, and the samples
in the Society’s rooms are a proof” (referring to his own
and the East India House specimens then displayed there).
“Dr. Royle gave a very correct account of the superiority in
the strength of the Himalayan Hemp compared with that of
Russia; but that is not the only advantage to be gained by the
importers and consumers of Hemp.” “I have made the
Himalayan Hemp so soft, fine, and white, that it will not only
take the place of Petersburgh Flax—now £60 per ton, the best
of which can only make 40s. warp yarn—but it can be used in
place of Dutch Flax, at £80 per ton; and I speak from twenty
years’ practical knowledge, when I say it is capable of being
spun into 60s. warp yarn.”

“The Rheea fibre, or Assam grass, when so prepared by
the machines and liquid, is a finer, and, consequently, more
valuable fibre. It is equal in strength and fineness to China
grass, at £100 per ton.” “The Yercum, which very much
resembles Belgian Flax, is also well calculated for prime warp
yarns, and worth £100 per ton.” The Wuckoo nar, Mr.
Dickson places near this in another statement. “The
Neilgherry Nettle is a most extraordinary plant ; it is almost
all fine fibre, and the tow is very much like the fine wool of
sheep, and no doubt will be largely used by wool-spinners.”
«The Madras Hemp, and Bombay and Sunn Hemps, will at
all times command a market, when properly cleaned out, at
£45 to £50 per ton, for twines or common purposes.”

In another published statement (Flax Works, Grove Street,
Deptford, April, 1854), Mr. Dickson says of—

“Madras Hemp, valued when imported at £24 per ton :

ewt. qr. Ib.
Madras Hemp F : F ‘ - 23 3
Produced by the machines:

ewt. qr. Ib.
Clean, long fibre, good, valued at £45 per ton 11%
Clean tow, valued at £30 per ton ‘ 119
Waste ‘i ‘ Z : 0 0144

_— 23 3

 

Cost of preparation . 6s. ljd.
134 DEFECTIVE PREPARATION OF INDIAN FIBRES.

“This Hemp, when prepared with the patent liquid, became
soft, white, and so fine when hackled, as to bear the closest
comparison with Flax at £80 per ton. It is better than any
Russian Flax for fine spinning.”

Practical men alone can judge of practical questions, when
they have made careful experiments on new products, and have
laid aside all prejudices in favour of old ones, The Author can
only vouch, as he has already done, that he was surprised with
the improved appearance and fineness of many of the coarse-
looking Indian fibres; though he ought not to have been so,
from what he had previously seen of some of these fibres,
This more especially, as there is no rational reason why the
varied soil and climate of India should not produce as finely
divisible fibres as any produced in the short, but warm and dry
summers of Russia. These fibres would, moreover, look as
well in the market, if the natives of India would take the
same trouble with their preparation as is done in Europe with
Flax and Hemp.

This appears a favorable opportunity for calling attention
to the little justice which the natives of India do to the pro-
ducts of their own country; for most of their fibres, like
their cotton, come to market intermixed with much dust;
some, moreover, almost in the state of bast, upon which freight
and charges have to be paid before they can be used either for
cordage or for textile purposes. Manufacturers, therefore,
give a lower price for them than would be the case if they
reached this country in a clean and workable state.

A considerable loss is likewise sustained, by what is very
unusual, that is, the extra care bestowed on some of these fibres
in different parts of India. Some are twisted into rope-like
bundles; others are plaited into the form of Chinese pigtails,
or tied together with knots at the ends. In this case, these
ends must at once be cut off, and the fibres thus much short-
ened, before they can be used. When twisted or plaited, boys
and girls are obliged to be employed in untwisting and opening
them out, in order to bring them to a state from which they
have been needlessly removed. All that is necessary is that
the fibres should be tied in convenient-sized bundles; and
retained in the state in which they are removed from the
plant, and that in which they must be when undergoing the
FARLY CULTIVATION OF FLAX PLANT. 1385

different processes of preparation, that is, nearly parallel to
each other. They may then be simply tied together near
the thicker end, so as to form what are called heads: or they
may be similarly tied in two or three places, if it is thought
desirable to do so, with long fibres. Such fastenings can most
easily be cut across with a knife, and with the least possible
expenditure of time.and labour; so as to expose the fibres in
a state in which they can be immediately made use of.
Besides this mode of tying up the bundles of fibres, which
would, in fact, save much of the time and labour now inju-
riously expended, it would be desirable if the natives could be
induced, generally, to pay more attention to the preparation
of these fibres, especially in not macerating the plants longer
than absolutely necessary for the purpose of separation, as
already referred to at p.29. The benefits of such care
would soon be apparent in the increased demand and improved
prices for Indian fibres, not only in this country but in other
parts of the world.

Frax, Linszep (Linum usitatissimum, Linacee).

Sans.—Atasee. Hind.—Atees, Ulsee. Beng.—Mushina. Persian—Kutan.

The Flax plant is one of those which was cultivated by the
earliest of the civilised nations of antiquity, and has continued
to be so to the present time, and is becoming every day of still
greater importance. We may see from the paintings in the
tombs of Egypt, that it was early cultivated in that country;
and we can also prove that it was so, from a microscopic
examination of mummy-cloth. We read in the book of ‘Exodus’!

' The word Pishtah undoubtedly refers to the Flax plant, of which the preparation
for its fibre is so clearly represented in the Grotto of El Kab. The words dad, butz,
and shesh, which occur so frequently in the Scriptures, are supposed to indicate
different kinds of Linen. But it has been doubted whether, in a language like the
Hebrew, it is probable that so many names are applied to the produce of one plant,
or whether it is not more probable that they refer to the products of different plants.
The Author has ventured to think that Linen, Cotton, and Hemp were all known;
and are mentioned—Cotton (Karpas), in Estheri, 6. Bad is very similar to the
Sanscrit pat. Shesh differs only in the aspirate from husheesh, which is one of the
Arabic names of the Hemp; as the Author has pointed out in the respective articles
in Kitto’s ‘Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature.’
136 PRODUCTS OF THE FLAX PLANT.

of the flax and the barley being smitten by the plague of hail
in Egypt, and in ‘Joshua’ of the spies, who had- been sent to
report on the state of Jericho, being hid with stalks of flax.
From many other passages, we know that the spinning and
weaving of Flax were common occupations of the people in
Palestine. Subsequently, it was much cultivated both by Greeks
and Romans. In India, Flax has also heen cultivated from very
early times, but strange to say, for its seed only, and not on
account of the fibre; which everywhere else is the principal
object of attention. This is probably owing to India possessing,
us one of its indigenous products, the Cotton plant, which re-
quires only the bursting of its fruit to display an elegant and
easily spun material, which can be obtained from the Flax only
after considerable labour.

We have lately seen how important the Cocoa-nut Palm, one
of the princes of the vegetable kingdom, is, not only to the
countries where it is produced, but also to those into which its
products are introduced. The Flax plant, on the contrary, is
one of the humblest of those which are cultivated, and yet it is
hardly less important, though not particularly useful as an
article of diet. Its slender stem, narrow leaves, and beautiful
blue flowers, give it an elegant appearance. Its smooth and
shining seeds have their external coating formed of much con-
densed mucilage, while the white kernel is gorged with oil,
especially valued for its drying properties; and the refuse or
oil-cake affords a nutritious diet for cattle. The fibre or Flax
separated from the stem may be made use of for cordage, for
coarse fabrics, or for the finest cambrics and lawns. Hence it
is a principal object of attention in Russia and Poland, a highly
successful culture in Belgium, carried on also in Germany,
France, and Italy, the object of frequent legislative enactment
in England, and of recent most successful cultivation in Ireland.
Hence, also, it was re-established by the late Pasha in Egypt.
It has been frequently recommended for culture in India on
account of its fibre, as it already is in almost every part of that
country for its seed.

Upon consideration, it will no doubt appear remarkable that
this small annual plant should be profitably cultivated over so
great an extent of the globe, and in apparently so great a
diversity of climate. But the fact is that the winters of these
IMPORTANCE OF THE FLAX PLANT. 137

southern latitudes enjoy a temperature which nearly approaches
that of the summers of more northern countries. Therefore,
in Egypt and India, Linseed is sown in autumn, and the stalks
harvested in early spring, even before the seeds have begun to
be sown in the more northern places where it is cultivated.
This winter cultivation of southern latitudes has probably given
origin to the autumnal sowings of European latitudes. But
this lowering of temperature is not all that the plant requires
for the production of fine flax, as we shall immediately more
particularly inquire. But the natives of India, who are more
ingenious in their devices and more successful in their agricul-
ture than is generally allowed, have adopted methods of culture,
such as thin sowing, though intermixed with, or in drills as an
edging to, other crops, which ensures them an abundant crop
of the produce they desire—that is, the seed-—which is large and
plump; while the stems remain short, branch much, flower
freely, and become loaded with bolls filled with the seeds, which
abound both in mucilage and in oil.

But before proceeding to a description of the plant, the
modes of culture, or the preparation of the fibre, we may
briefly notice the importance of these products to the countries
producing or importing them, and how beneficial they may
probably become to other countries which possess a suitable
soil and climate, and no more profitable object of culture or of
export.

Several. able writers, as Messrs. M‘Adam, Nichols, and
Wilson, having, within the last few years, drawn attention to
the importance of the culture of Flax, we may make use of the
facts which they have collected, and apply them to India.
Mr. M‘Culloch has observed with regard to this country, that
“ the legislature has paid more attention to framing laws regard-
ing the husbandry of Flax than to any other branch of rural
economy;” but not with much success, “as the culture of Flax
is, on the whole, found to be less profitable than the culture of
corn.” It has, moreover, always “ been considered one of the
most severe crops.” This, however, we shall see is not necessarily
the case, according to the improved methods of culture and of
preparation of fibre. But even in the present day, £1000 per
annum has been granted since 1847 to the Royal Flax Im-
provement Society, for the culture of Flax in Ireland, according
138 AVERAGE IMPORTS OF FLAX AND LINSEED.

to the Act 10 and 11 Victoria, cap. 115; and with considera-
ble advantage, as the culture of Flax has greatly increased.
The quality of the Flax has also been so greatly improved, that
the Jury of Class IV of the Exhibition of 1851, stated —“ The
entire collection shown by the Royal Society for Improving and
Promoting the Growth of Flax in Ireland is so highly valuable,
and so clearly illustrates the great advances which have been
made and the important service which this Society has ren-
dered to the country, that they determined to mark their high
appreciation of their labours by recommending them to have
one of the Council Medals.”

But, notwithstanding the endeavours of successive govern-
ments, the supply of home-grown Flax has never reached the
extent required by our manufacturers. At present, it is con-
sidered that the consumption is equal to 150,000 tons. About
70,000 tons were, for several years, annually imported; or
more precisely, in the year 1831, 46,820 tons: in the year
1843, about 72,000 tons were imported; but in 1853 no less
than 94,000 tons, or an increase of about 31 per cent. in the
last decennial period, If the 150,000 tons be valued at an
average of forty, or, according to others, at fifty pounds a ton,
the amount is enormous. To this must be added “£1,500,000,
the value of 650,000 quarters of linseed, used as seed and for
crushing purposes; and about £500,000, the cost of 70,000
tons of oil-cake, which we annually import, in addition to that
made at home, for feeding purposes. The quantity of Flax
fibre necessary to supply the demand of the United Kingdom
would consume the produce of 500,000 acres ; while in Ireland,
during the past year, only 136,000 were cultivated, and, pro-
bably, not a fourth of that quantity in the rest of the king-
dom.” (Wilson.) The seed is imported from India, Egypt,
Russia, Sicily, Prussia, and Holland; and the oil-cake from
France, Germany, and the United States.

Mr. Fane is of opinion that—“ Under proper arrangements,
the whole might be home-grown. If all were, the money result
would be enormous, because every ton of fibre involves the
growth of eight tons of flax straw—eight tons of straw being
required to produce one of fibre ; and every ton of straw involves
the production of six bushels of seed, worth at least 6s. 6d. a
bushel. These would give the following money result :
CONSUMPTION OF FLAX. 139

1,200,000 tons of straw, producing six bushels of seed to each

 

ton, at 6s. 6d. a bushel, would give : - . £2,340,000
150,000 tons of fibre, at £50 a ton, would give - . 7,500,000
£9,840,000.”

Without advocating, or considering it desirable, that all the
increasing quantities of Flax required by our manufacturers
should be, or can be grown in this country, we may take advan-
tage of the information collected as applicable to other coun-
tries. It has, indeed, been objected, by Mr. H. S. Thompson,
that if forty stone of Flax (value 7s. 6d. per stone) is the average
produce of a reasonably well cultivated acre of Flax, 70,000 tons
of imported Flax would require 280,000 acres of land for its
cultivation, which is “clean and in good tilth,” i.e., “ precisely
in the state in which it is best fitted for producing corn,” and
‘fon an average at least four quarters.” ‘The 280,000 acres
required to produce the Flax now imported, would therefore
produce, if cropped with wheat, 1,120,000 quarters, worth (at
7s. per bushel) £3,136,000; which approaches tolerably near
to the estimate given by Mr. Nichols of the value of the im-
ported Flax, viz., £3,490,000.”’ But these objections are made
to the occupation of good land in a country like England,
where the whole quantity is but limited, and “where every
acre of even moderate fertility has its work to do, and no new
crop can be introduced without displacing an old one ;” but do
not apply, as stated, to countries like America and Australia,
where there may be an unlimited extent of fertile but unculti-
vated land. Nor, indeed, to many parts of India, where more
corn is grown than is required by the people, and for which
they would gladly substitute some readily saleable or exportable
product. Further—

“Tf we refer to the statistics of British and Irish exports, we
find that in 1843 there were shipped from the United Kingdom,
in round numbers, 91,000,000 yards of linen, and that the ex-
ports of 1853 reached nearly 130,000,000 yards; the total
value of all kinds of linen and yarn exported in the former
year being £3,702,052, and in the latter £5,910,355.” (‘ Belfast
Mercury.’)

Though the culture of Flax is considered by some as not
particularly eligible for the best-cultivated lands of England, it
140 IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURE OF FLAX.

is yet, in other countries, accounted a most desirable object of
attention, being in Belgium called “the Golden Crop,” and
in Ireland “the Rent-paying Crop.” In Russia, it is one of
the principal objects of culture, and has been much extended
by the continual advances of English capital ; while in Egypt,
the culture was re-established by the vigorous but despotic
policy of the late Mehemet Ali. In India, it is to be hoped
that the ryots may be induced to cultivate it in suitable
localities, on account of the fibre, as they already do for the
sake of the seed. In such situations, it will, no doubt, be an
eligible crop, as land is cheap and labour almost everywhere
abundant. Mr. Nichols says—‘ The quantity of Flax which
ought to be cultivated in any locality, must, in some measure,
be governed by the quantity of labour there obtainable. One
acre in a hundred, and one in fifty, have each been named as
a suitable proportion to be applied for the growth of Flax.
In former times the farmer was by law required to cultivate
one acre with Flax, out of every sixty acres occupied.’ And
he further observes: “If the quantity of Flax grown be limited
by the labour which can be obtained, so may the amount of
obtainable labour be said to indicate the extent to which
culture ought to be carried in any locality. It is calculated
that an acre of good Flax, as it stands in the field, containing,
say about fifty stone of fibre, will afford employment for from
twelve to fourteen weeks to a man skilled in the several pro-
cesses of its preparation.” But itis not to men only that the
Flax affords employment, but also to women and to children ;
as it is skill rather than strength that is required for many
of the operations. Hence, its introduction is very desirable in
suitable localities, where population is abundant.

Success in culture will, therefore, depend on many con-
siderations ; as it is necessary to have a suitable soil and favora-
ble climate; also, a sufficient population, with facilities for
the sale and the transit of the produce. At present, Flax is
produced over a very wide area, and there scems no sufficient
reason why this may not be still further extended.

The principal sorts of Flax which are imported into this
country are Russian, Prussian, Egyptian, Dutch, Belgian,
and French. Of these the first three are, speaking generally,
coarser in nature than the last three. The proportion per cent.
COUNTRIES PRODUCING FLAX. 141

of the (say) 80,000 tons imported from different countries may
be judged of by the following table, as given in the Jury
Report of Class IV, p. 96, calculated: on the average imports
of 1840, 1844, and 1849. The details are given in the
successive editions of M‘Culloch’s ‘Commercial Dictionary,’
and will be given for one year at the conclusion of this article.

 

 

1840. 1844, 1849.

 

Russia ‘ 3 69 70 74
Prussia 11 10 10
Holland . 9 8 65
Belgium. - 65 7 4
France ‘i 35 35 15
Other Countries . Let 1:5 45

 

 

 

The increase under the last head, in this table, is chiefly
due to the importation of Flax from Egypt. Some is also im-
ported from Italy, Sicily, and Turkey. Much Flax is grown
in Ireland, and also in the West and North of England.

Though all the above countries produce some coarse Flax,
it is chiefly from Russia, Prussia, and Egypt that this kind is
imported, and is that which is chiefly required in increasing
quantities. In a letter with which I have been favoured from
Mr. J. M‘Adam, he observes—‘ It is certain that all hot
countries, or those which, like Russia, have a short, warm
summer, cannot furnish fine Flax fibre; but it is precisely
coarse fibre that is now so much wanted. The bulk of fine
Flax used in the linen manufacture is trifling compared with
the coarse. A Belfast or Leeds mill of 5000 spindles will
consume only 200 to 250 tons of Flax annually; while one of
the same size, at Dundee or Kirkaldy, will consume 1000 to
1200 tons. Belgium, Holland, France, and Ireland can supply
all the world with fine fibre; but Russia and Egypt cannot
keep pace with the demand for coarse.” The quality of the
latter has, however, greatly improved of late years. “ Fifteen
years ago, Egyptian Flax was selling at Belfast for £24 a ton,
and, in some cases, as low as £18. It now readily brings £30
to £40 on an average, and since the war has run up to £56.”
The above average prices ought to pay for its growth in India,
142 DESCRIPTION OF FLAX PLANT.

considering that Jute is grown and prepared there, and sold at
still lower prices.

In order to succeed in the culture in new situations, it is
necessary to know what is considered requisite in the situations
where the cultivation is successful. We shall, therefore, first
consider the nature of the plant, and then its culture in
Europe, and, subsequently, the attempts which have already
been made in India to produce Flax. From these, and the
extended information which we now possess, we shall draw our
conclusions respecting eventual success, either in the old or in
new localities, of the wide-spread territories of India.

THE FLAX PLANT AND ITS PRODUCTS.

The Flax plant belongs to the natural family of Linacee, so
named from the botanical name (Linum) of the genus to which
it belongs. The species are found chiefly in temperate parts of
the world, with a few in tropical regions ; most are remarkable
for the tenacity of the fibre of their inner bark. The native
country of the Flax plant is unknown ; but as it was cultivated
by the earliest civilised nations, it is probably a native of
oriental regions, from which it has travelled southwards into
India and northwards into Europe.

Description of plant—It is an annual, with long and slender but fibrous
roots, which penetrate to a considerable distance into the soil, where this is
loose and friable. The stem is smooth, simple, and erect; branched, or, as
usually cultivated, branching only towards the top; from one and a half to
three feet in height. It consists of a pith and woody part, with the layer of
bast fibres covered with cuticle on the outside.

The leaves are alternate, sessile, linear-lanceolate, and smooth. The
flowers, of a blue colour, are arranged in a corymbose panicle. The sepals
or green outer leaflets of the flower are five in number, ovate acute, slightly
ciliated, nearly equal to the capsule in length. The petals, blue in colour
and five in number, are obscurely crenate, comparatively large, and deciduous.
The stamens are equal in number to the petals and alternate with them,
having their filaments united together near their bases into a kind of ring.
The ovary, or young seed-vessel, is divided into five cells, and is surmounted
by five stigmata. Capsule, or bodl, roundish, but rather pointed at the apex,
divided into five perfect cells, each of which is again subdivided by an
imperfect partition, thus forming ten divisions, each of them containing a
single seed. These seeds are oval in shape, flattened or plump, smooth and
shining, of a brownish colour externally, but sometimes white ; always white
internally : the seed-coat mucilaginous, and the kernel of the seed oily and
farinaceous.
VARIETIES OF FLAX PLANT. 143

Besides other species of the same genus, such as L. perenne,
which affords a strong though coarse fibre, and one difficult
to separate from the woody matter, there are some varieties
of the true Flax plant known; but these are much fewer than
is the case with most other long-cultivated plants. Dr. Lindley,
as already quoted by Mr. J. Wilson, in his paper on ‘ Flax;
its Treatment, Agricultural and Technical’ (in ‘Journ. Royal
Agric. Soc.,’ vol. xiv, p. 188, 1853), describes two different
forms :

1. The Linum humile or crepitans (the Springlein or Klanglein
of the Germans), a plant somewhat shorter and more inclined
to branch than the other, and possessing larger capsules, twice
as long as the calyx, which burst with considerable elasticity
when ripe; its seeds, too, are both larger and of a paler
colour.

2. The Linum usitatissimum or true winter flax (Winterlein
of the Germans), which has smaller capsules, scarcely larger
than the calyx, not bursting with elasticity, but firmly retain-
ing their seeds, which are of a dark brown colour.

Mr. Wilson adds, that “in Austria and North Europe, where
the winters are severe, and the snow lies too long on the
ground to admit of early tillage in the spring, the Winterlein
is extensively used, and sown in the autumn; the summer
season being too short and too hot to admit of the successful
cultivation of the Springlein. With us the custom is to sow
in the spring, though, no doubt, in some of our northern dis-
tricts, where the ground cannot be got ready sufficiently early
in the spring, Flax could be advantageously cultivated if sown
in the previous autumn.”

The Indian plant, called ulsee or tesee, may be considered a
variety which has acquired certain characters from the pecu-
liarities of soil, of climate, and of long and peculiar culture. It
is always short, probably not more than eighteen inches in
height, much branched, loaded with bolls, which are filled with
large, ovoid, plump seed. That this retains its character even
in other situations, appears from a fact, of which I have been
informed by Mr. M‘Adam, the able secretary of the Society for
the Promotion of the Growth of Flax in Ireland. The Society
having imported some seed for experiment from India, found
that the plant did not grow beyond fourteen or eighteen inches.
144 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LINSEED.

But that it is also ready to change its habit, is evident
from facts to be detailed respecting the experiments which have
been made in India. I have also been informed that in a
recent experiment made by Mr. Burn, in Sindh, with thick
sowing and irrigation, it grew at once to upwards of two
feet. I have no doubt that, with a repetition of the process
of thick sowing for a few times, the Indian seed would produce
plants with tall, straight, and little-branched stems, each with
but comparatively few bolls and seeds.

A perfectly white variety of Linseed is common in the
Saugur and Nerbuddah territories, which was brought to the
notice of the Agricultural Society of India by Col. Ousley.
Seeds sent by him were distributed to different parts of the
country by the Society. Mr. Finch, of Tirhoot, after two years,
returned five maunds ; and stated that three fourths of his crop
were destroyed by caterpillars, while the common Linseed grown
in the vicinity of the white, was left untouched by them.

The useful products of the Flax plant consist of the seeds
and of the fibre or Flax. Linseed, or the seeds of the Flax
plant, are oval, pointed in shape, compressed with a sharp mar-
gin; brownish coloured, smooth, and shining on the outside,
but white internally, and without odour. The outside has a
bland, mucilaginous taste, in consequence of the skin of the
seed being covered with condensed mucus. The white part,
or almond of the seed, has an oily taste, from containing fixed
oil, which is separated by expression.

These seeds, analysed by Meyer, consist, in one hundred
parts, of 15:12 mucilage (nitrogenous mucilage with acetic
acid and salts, according to some), chiefly in the seed-coat,
11°26 fatty oil in the nucleus. In the husk, emulsin 44°38,
besides wax 0°14, acrid soft resin 2:48, starch with salts 1:48.
In the nucleus, besides the oil, gum 6:15, albumen 2°78, gluten
2°93, also resinous colouring matter 0:55, yellow extractive
with tannin and salts (nitre and the chlorides of potassium and
calcium) 1:91, sweet extractive with malic acid and some salts
10°88.

The condensed mucus which abounds in the testa of the
seed is readily acted on by hot water, and a viscid mucilaginous
fluid is formed, in which are two distinct substances ; one com-
pletely soluble in water, analogous to common gum, called
COMPOSITION OI LINSEED OIL. 145

Arabine by chemists; the other portion is merely suspended,
and is considered to be analogous to the Bassorine, found chiefly
in Gum Bussora, and in Cherry-tree Gum. Alcohol produces a
white flaky, and acetate of lead, a dense precipitate in
mucilage of Linseed.

Linseed oil, which we have seen is contained in the kernel
of the seeds, is obtained by expression, and may be either cold-
drawn, or, as usually obtained, after the seeds have been sub-
jected to a heat of 200°. The former, as in the case of cold-
drawn castor oil, is paler, with less colour and taste than
Linseed -oil prepared with the aid of heat. This is of a deep
yellow or brownish colour, of a disagreeable smell and taste,
specific gravity 0°932, soluble in alcohol and ether; differing
from many other fatty oils, especially in its property of drying
into a hard, transparent varnish—a peculiarity which is
increased by boiling the oil, either alone, or with some of the
preparations of lead.

“The yield of oil from a bushel of East Indian seed is 142 1b.
to 16 lb.; of Egyptian, 15 lb; of Sicilian, 14} lb. to 15} lb.;
of Russian, 11 lb. to 13 lb.; of English or Irish, 102 lb. to 12
|b.”’

Linseed oil, according to Sace, is composed of Margarine
and Oleine in nearly equal proportions. But the oleic acid of
Linseed differs from that of other fatty bodies. The anhydrous
acid is composed of carbon 46, hydrogen 38, oxygen 5. The
Margaric acid is as usual composed of carbon 34, hydrogen 33,
oxygen 8. The Glycerine obtainable from Linseed oil in large
quantities, is also similar to that procured from other fats.

Linseed, after having had the oil expressed from them, are
in the form of a flat mass, commonly called oil-cake. This
being reduced to coarse powder, forms the Linseed meal which
is so commonly employed for making poultices, though these
are also formed of the simply powdered seeds. Here it is
evident, from the internal oleaginous and external mucilaginous
parts being all ground together, and their properties elicited by
hot water, an admirable mixture is produced for making a
readily made emollient poultice. From the chemical compo-
sition, it is also evident how nourishing the Linseed is likely
to be, and, indeed, from experience, is well known to be, for

fattening cattle.
10
146

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE FLAX PLANT.

In addition to the composition of the seed, it is interesting to know that
of the plant in general. This we are now able to do in a very satisfactory
manner, from Dr. Hodges’ ‘ Lecture on the Composition of the Flax Plant,
and his paper read before the British Association, at Belfast, 23d September,
1852. In this he communicated the history of a crop grown by himself for
experimental purposes, and the progress of which he was able carefully to
watch, from the sowing of the seed to its conversion into dressed Flax for
the market. From this we obtain the following information :

July 28th.—One plant of Flax, in seed, was taken—height above ground,
31 inches, root, 5 inches long; length from surface of field to first branch,
24 inches. About 5 inches of the lower end of stem had become yellow.
The weight of entire plant was 71'1 grains. It was cut into three portions,
which were separately incinerated, with the following results :

“1. Root and lower part of stem weighed, dried, 6°60 grains, gave 0:094
ash =1°424 per cent.

“2. Capsules and branches, dry, weighed 9°47, gave ‘293 ash=3-094 per
cent.

“3. Middle portion, dry, weighed 5°55, gave ‘148 ash. Ash in dry stem,
2°622 per cent.

“ August 10th.—One plant taken—entire length with root, 37 inches;
length from surface of soil to branches, 29 inches; stem of a light straw
colour ; leaves withered on 10 inches of stem ; capsules 10 in number—seeds
green ; weight of entire plant, 71 grains ; branches and capsules, 31-8 grains;
water in plant, 45°335 grains; solid matter in do., 25-665 ; inorganic matter
in do., 1006 grains.

PER-CENTAGE COMPOSITION.

 

 

Water : e ; . 63°852 dry.
Organic matters : : . 34°732 96-08
Ash 7 ‘ - - 1416 3:92

Total . 7 0 - 100°000 100:00

“ August 25th.—The pulling of the crop was begun. A plant was taken
and examined; weight of entire plant, 62°40 grains; weight of capsules,
22°50.

PER-CENTAGE COMPOSITION OF STEM.

 

 

In Fresh Plant. Dry.

Water : é 5 64 _
Organic matters . . : - 41:97 96°89
Ash : é c . 1:39 3°11
Total . ‘ 5 + 100°00 100-00

‘Water in straw of plants as sent to the steeping works, after 14 days’
exposure to the air in stooks, 12-2 per cent; water in air-dried capsules,

11°84 per cent; weight of the air-dried Flax, with bolls produced on the
experimental field, 7°770 Ib.

COMPOSITION OF THE CROP.

_ “One hundred parts of the ash of the dry straw and capsules had respec-
tively the following composition :
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF FLAX PLANT. 147

Ash of Straw. Of Capsules.

Potash ‘ ‘ + 20°32 16°38
Soda . ‘ : ; 2:07 6:25
Chloride of Sodium , , » 9:27 12:98
Lime ; . » 19°88 13°95
Magnesia . : ‘ - 405 3°91
. Oxide of Iron. ‘ 7 - 283 0°38
Sulphuric Acid , : » 713 14:51
Phosphoric Acid ij s - 10°24 23°26
Carbonic Acid j 3 - 10°72 6:37
Silica 3 : A . 12:80 0°67
Total ‘ : « 99°31 99°66

“The proportion of nitrogen contained in the straw and capsules were
ascertained to be as follows, per cent. :

1. In the straw, dried at 212° . ‘ i . 0°53
2. In the capsules or bolls, ditto i : - 1:26

“ The general results of the examination of a specimen of Flax straw taken
from the experimental crop, are as follow: The presence of a volatile oil
having been indicated, a quantity of the stems of the plant carefully deprived
of the seed capsules was distilled with water containing common salt; and
from the distillate, which was without action on litmus, I obtained an oil of
a yellow colour. Five pounds of the stems afforded about ten grains of this
oil, which had an agreeable, penetrating odour, and the distillate of the stems
suggested the peculiar smell which is remarked on entering « room where
Flax is stored. The solutions obtained on examination were found to con-
tain wax ; traces of chlorophylle ; a peculiar green resin; a bright brown gum
resin, which presented some of the characters of the principle which
Pagenstecher termed linen, but could not be identified with it; a modification
of tannic acid which afforded a grey precipitate with perchloride of iron, but
was not affected by solutions of isinglass or tartar emetic; gum, not affected
by solution of borax or basic silicate of potash; a brown colouring matter ;
albumen; casein; starch; pectin; cellulose; and salts.”

The result of Dr. Hodges’ experiments has been further
placed in a very clear light by Mr. Wilson. The object of
these was to ascertain the relative proportions of the produce
of Flax, and also the distribution of inorganic matter in them.
The Flax employed had been steeped in the ordinary way, and
was found to contain 1°73 per cent. of ash. Of this, air-dried
straw, 4000 lb. weight, were taken, which produced :

Of dressed fibre . 500]b.
» fine tow : . 132,,
», coarse tow . 3° 292);

Of fibre in all . - 824]b.

These products contained :
148 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF FLAX

In the dressed Flax 4°48 lb. of ash.
» fine tow . 208 4,
» coarse tow . 266

Or, in the whole of the fibre 9°12 Ib. of inorganic matter.

So that 59°08 lb., which the crop had withdrawn from the
soil, remained in the useless portion, while only 9°12 1b. were
carried off in 824 1b. of the dressed fibre and tow.

Analyses of the Flax plant and of the soils in which it is
grown were first carefully made by Sir R. Kane, and after-
wards by Dr. Hodges and others. They have been repeated
by Messrs. Mayer and Brazier, in the Laboratory of the Royal
College of Chemistry.'. The localities from which the latter
obtained their specimens of Flax, by the aid of Mr. A. Marshall,
of Leeds, were Esthonia or Estland, Livonia or Lievland, Cour-
land, and Lithuania. The first of these districts, with the
second and third mentioned, are situated on the eastern shores
of the Baltic; the fourth, Lithuania, is the only inland
country.

From their analyses, the following comparative table was made, from
which it will be readily seen, in what points the ashes of these different
specimens agree in composition.

 

 

Lievland. Courland. | Lithuanian. EstJand.
L Il. ll. Iv.
Potash : . . . 43-42 37°44 36°61 25°70 .
Soda . 7 ‘ “ . —_ 3°74 3°06 8:37
Lime . 2 . ‘ . 21°35 25°39 24-09 26°41
Magnesia. . : 779 771 7°45 11°74
Sesquioxide of Iro . : 115 113 1:04 1:02
Manganese . : . _ trace. _ =
Chloride of Sodium. _— 1:94 3°75 167
» of Potassium . % 1:31 _ _ —
Phosphoric Acid . - . 10°94 8°31 14:30 15°47
Sulphuric Acid : 5°66 5°89 3°65 4:64
Silicie Acid ‘ a ‘ 8°38 8:45 6°05 4°98

 

100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“We also append, in a tabular form, the results of Sir R. Kane’s analyses
of this plant, taken from his paper, read before the Royal Dublin Society,
on the 6th of April, 1847.

“To facilitate comparison, we have re-calculated these analyses after de-
ducting the carbonic acid.

' Mr. Mayer is now Professor of Chemistry at Madras.
AND OF FLAX SOILS. 149

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A B c D E F G
Courtrai District.) Antwerp District.
eee oN
8 S| la
3 Z z d | 38 S =
Pie} a) sigs) 2] &
a a a 2 |eFR | & 5
Potash . 7 F - | 9°69} 30°62] 26-67 | 28-62} 21-35] 11-78; 6°60
Soda . ‘ ‘ ‘ 24°16} none.| 16°88] 0°48] 12°65] 11:82] 6°61
Lime . ‘ . ‘ 19°37 | 22°04] 22°15 | 21:19] 21°30} 14°85 | 23°67
Magnesia. : . 434/ 4:45] 4:70) 4:05] 3:50] 9:38] 4:22
Sesquioxide of Iron Zi 5°66; 2°03) 1:31] 2°53] 2-74) ,, ,, | 14°10
Alumina ‘ a ‘ 056) 0:58] O86] ,, ,, 1:67| 7:32] ys 55
Manganese . 7 . trace. | trace.| trace.| ,, ,, sircee: MN Seno 1:12
Sulphuric Acid =. F 7-93] 833] 8:18] 13-43] 11:22] 3:19] 9:30
Phosphoric Acid . 5 14:10} 15-78] 10°66 | 12°19 | 12°82] 13°05| 7-29
Silicic Acid . : ‘ 3°85] 4:54] 3:20] 3°36] 6:18] 25:71} 0°94
Chloride of Sodium z 10°34] 11°63) 5:49) 14:15) 657] 2:90] 26°15
100-00 100-00 100-00 |100-00 |100-00 |100-00 [100-00

 

 

“On comparing the results of our analyses with those of Sir Robert Kane,
we find at once that the general features of both are identical, although, as
might be expected, discrepancies present themselves respecting the individual
constituents. In the ashes, both of the Belgian and of the Russian specimens,
we meet with a very large amount of alkali (nearly 40 per cent.) : the quan-
tity, too, of phosphoric acid is very considerable (from 10 to 15 per cent.)
Our analyses then furnish a further proof that Flax must be classed among
the most exhausting crops, for, the amount of valuable mineral substances
which we remove from the soil in this plant considerably exceeds the quan-
tity which is generally extracted from it in the form of wheat or corn.

“From astatement of Mr. M‘Adam,! it appears that one rood of land
yields about 12-7 cwt. of recently pulled Flax plant. Ifwe take this number
as the basis of calculation, and the average per centage of ash at 3°53 ]b., of
alkalies at 39:58 1b., and of phosphoric acid at 12°51 lb., we find that a Flax
crop removes from a rood of land not less than 12:21 1b. of alkalies, and
5-941b. of phosphoric acid. On the other hand, we have learnt from the
researches of Mr. Way,? that a rood of land, which has served for the cul-
tivation of wheat, loses (an average taken from a great number of analyses)
about 7°5 lb, of alkali and 6:9lb. of phosphoric acid. These figures show
that the amount of phosphoric acid in the Flax crop closely approaches that
of the wheat, whilst the latter extracts only about half the quantity of
alkali which we find in the former. Hence, it would appear, that a Flax crop
is at least as exhausting as a crop of wheat.

“ There is, however, one striking point of dissimilarity between the culti-
vation of wheat and that of Flax, and we are indebted to Sir Robert Kane
for having for the first time brought this point under the notice of the
farmer in a forcible manner, viz.: that while the mineral ingredients which
we remove from our fields in wheat, or cerealia in general, become con-
stituents of food, and enter in this manner into a circulation, from which,
even under very favorable circumstances, they return to the soil only after
the lapse of some time; the woody fibre of Flax, as a necessary preliminary

1 ‘Royal Agricultural Journal,’ vol. viii, p. 361.
2 «Royal Agricultural Journal,’ vol. vii, p. 593.
150 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF FLAX

to its being used by man, is separated to a considerable extent from those
very mineral substances which are so essential for its successful growth.
This mineral matter, when economised in a proper manner by the farmer,
may be returned to his field to keep up the equilibrium of its fertility.

“The vegetation of the Flax plant resembles in this respect the growth of
the sugar-cane, from the culture of which, we expect a material consisting
entirely of atmospheric constituents. The inorganic substances taken up by
the plant are only instruments used in its production, which should be as
carefully preserved as tools in a manufactory, and will then do further duty
in promoting the elaboration of future crops.

Messrs. Mayer and Brazier then directed their attention to
the soils upon which the different specimens of Flax had been
grown, samples of which, through the kindness of Mr. Marshall,
had likewise been forwarded to Dr. Hoffman. These soils all
gave a brownish colour to boiling water, owing to a portion of
the organic matter being soluble in that menstruum.

From their various analyses, Messrs. Mayer and Brazier obtain, by calcu-
lation, the following amounts of constituents of 100 parts in the soils:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘ Lievland. Courland. Lithuania. Estland.
Potash 7 P 3 H 05011 0°3241 05466 0°3726
Soda . 2 = ‘ ; _ 0°1320 0°0452 0°0480
Lime . ‘ : : * 0°3751 0°7816 0:4980 0°7955
Magnesia. - : ‘ 0-2006 0-1304 0°1805 03619
Alumina. . . ‘ 11919 18731 21418 2°0102
Sexquioxide of Iro : - 18076 2°3767 31900 2°0206
Manganese . fi ‘ A trace. trace. trace. trace,
Chloride of Sodium. : 0-0455 00247 00421 0:0790
Sulphuric Acid. i 4 01539 0:0880 0°1206 0°1618
Phosphoric Acid 3 : 01399 00538 0:0805 0°1597
Organic matter. a ‘ 47176 4:0300 4°3442 48630
Insoluble residue after deduct- ; . ; :

Nees }| o1-0034 | seue72 | sa-azaa | 88-2364
100°1966 99:3016 99°6619 991087

 

 

The insoluble residue constituting the greater portion of the soil, was

fused with carbonate of potash. Upon calculation, they yielded the following
results per cent :

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lievland. Courland, Lithuania. Estland.
Lime . 7 . : : traces. 18727 0°8778 2-0120
Alumina . ‘ “ ‘ 11°6270 671145 2°2452 5°7949
Sesquioxide of Iron. " traces. traces. traces. traces.
Phosphoric Acid . . ° traces. traces. none. traces.
Silicie Acid : . 2 79°3424 81:5000 85-0938 80°5676

90-9694 92°6224 88-2168 88°3345

 

 

 

 

In all the four soils, they found, comparatively speaking, considerable
quantities of alkali, especially potash, and also of phosphoric acid. They
AND OF FLAX SOILS. 151

closely resemble the Belgian soils analysed by Sir Robert Kane, as may be
seen from the tables which they borrow from Sir Robert’s paper.

 

 

 

Heestert. Escamafiles. | Hamme Zog. [Not named. Holland.
Potassa . . .| 0-160 0-123 0-068 0-151 | 0-583
Soda . . . 0°298 0-146 0-110 0-206 0-306
Lime . . . 0-357 0:227 0-481 0°366 3°043
Magnesia . . : 0°202 0-153 0-140 0°142 0-105
Alumina . ‘ ; 2°102 1:383 0-125 0-988 5°626
Sexquioxide of Iron . 3°298 1663 1-202 1543 6:047
Manganese . . trace. trace. atrace. |no trace.! trace.
Chloride of Sodium . 0°017 0-030 0:067 0-009 0:023
Sulphuric Acid . . 0-025 0-017 0-013 0-026 0-023
Phosphoric Acid . 0-121 0-152 0:064 0:193 0:159
Organic matter not)
driven off at 100° 3°123, 2°361 4-209 3°672 5841
per cent. .
Clay . . »| 14-920 9°280 5°760 4-400 | 17:080
Sand . . «| 75:080 84-065 86°797 88°385 | 60:947
99-703 99-600 99°975 |100°081 | 99-783

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In conclusion, the authors express their warmest thanks to Dr. Hofmann
for his instruction and valuable advice during the prosecution of these
analyses. (0. the details in the ‘ Proceedings’ of Chemical Society.)

That we may have a complete view of what is required in
soils for the successful culture of Flax, we adduce Sir R.
Kane’s analyses of three Irish soils and one Belgian, from the
report of the Flax Improvement Society of Ireland. The Irish
soils, as described by Mr. M‘Adam, were from the counties
of Londonderry and Tyrone, and were considered very good
for Flax. The Belgian was from Duffel, in the province of
Antwerp, and may be taken as representing a third-rate class
of Flax soil in that country, requiring much manure, but pro-
ducing good crops. The large proportion of sand and the little
moisture in this last, deserve notice :

 

Trish, No. 1./Irish, No. 2.|Irish, No.3.) Belgian.

 

Silica and Siliceous Sand . 73°72 69-41 64°93 92°78
Oxide of Iron. . 7 . é 5°51 5:29 5°64 0°66
Alumina °* 2 . ri i c 6°65 5°70 8:97 111
Basic Phosphate of Iron . . 0-06 0°25 0°31 0-21
Carbonate of Lime . ‘ : « 1:00 0°53 167 0°35
Magnesia, Alkalies, and Sulphuri me 0-32 0-25 0-45 0-12
Muriatic Acids i a c ‘
Organic matters, with Nitrogen . é 4°86 667 9°41 2-74
‘Water ‘ : ‘ . * 7:57 11:48 8°62 2°03

 

 

 

 

99°78 99°78 {100-00 | 100-00

 

 

 
152

CULTURE OF FLAX.

The importance of Flax culture being admitted, we may
devote a few words to the objections which are usually alleged
against it. These chiefly consist of the opinions entertained
respecting the exhausting nature of a Flax crop. This is
certainly true, where everything is taken from the soil and
nothing returned to it; but the elementary principles of which
both cotton and fibre, as well as sugar, consist, are now known
to be obtained almost entirely from the atmosphere. There-
fore, by taking away only the cotton, the flax, or the sugar,
and returning all the other parts of the plant to the soil, these
products will impoverish the soil as little as it is possible for
any culture to do. This, as far as Flax is concerned, may be
effected by some of the improved methods of preparing the
fibre, and by feeding cattle on the oil-cake of the seeds, and
thus returning all the other constituents which had been taken
from the soil. Mr. Nichols observes that “ every farmer will
be enabled, by applying the seed of his Flax crop to that pur-
pose, to obtain a supply of the richest mauure, which, with the
offal separated from the fibre in course of preparation, will
serve to renovate the soil and secure its undiminished fertility.”
This we find fully proved by the foregoing and other
analyses of the different parts of the plant, and of the soil in
which it has been grown, as well as of the products obtained
in the improved steeping and preparation of the fibre.

The analyses of Mayer and Brazier correspond closely with
those made by Sir R. Kane, of specimens of Belgian Flax ; and
their conclusions also coincide with his: that, while the mineral
ingredients which we remove from our fields in Wheat,
become constituents of food, the woody fibre of Flax is
separated from those very mineral substances which are so
essential for its successful growth; and they forcibly observe
that “the inorganic substances taken up by the plant, are
only instruments in the production of Flax, which should be
as carefully preserved as tools in a manufactory, and will then
do further duty in promoting the elaboration of future crops.”

Climate.—One of the most important considerations in at-
CLIMATE SUITED TO FLAX PLANT. 153

tempting the culture of Flax in new situations or countries is
that of climate, though one that is very frequently neglected.
On this subject, Mr. M‘Adam has made some very just obser-
vations, which we shall afterwards have occasion to refer to.
He observes that though the climate of the British Isles is well
adapted to the growth of this plant, those districts which
possess the most equable temperature will be found the most
suitable. A regular supply of genial moisture in spring, with-
out an excess of wet in autumn, is most favorable. Our climate
is better adapted to Flax, in some respects, than that of Bel-
gium, since the severe droughts which frequently occur there
in spring often destroy the crop. If, after springing to the
height of two or three inches, a long continuance of drought
should occur, with a hot sun, the heat parches up the earth, as
the delicate leaves of the plant are unable to exclude the
scorching rays from the surface soil, and the roots have not
penetrated sufficiently deep to secure a supply of moisture.
“Flax is then in the most critical state; the plant droops,
turns a whitish yellow, and, if the drought continue long, dies
on arid tracts of land. In such a case Flax may be beneficially
watered; and a regular water-cart will go over an acre
a day.”

When the plant acquires a sufficient height to thoroughly
cover the ground, dry weather becomes comparatively harmless ;
but occasional gentle showers are very needful to produce a
regular and vigorous growth. “In fact, a slow, steady growth,
from the germinating of the seed to the maturity of the plant,
is requisite for the quality and yield of fibre. Hence it is
found that in countries approaching the northern limits of the
temperate zone, the short, hot summers induce too rapid growth,
and, although the quantity of fibre produced is pretty large, it
is never of a fine reed. This is strongly exemplified by Russia,
as, out of an export frequently reaching 40,000 to 50,000 tons
per annum, none sells higher than £48; whereas, in Belgium
and Holland, the price often reaches £150 and £180 per ton.”
The best samples of British Flax sell for £65 to £70 per ton,
or even £85 per ton.

“ For the same reason, insular climates or long lines of coast,
whose position insures a more equable temperature and con-
tinued supply of moisture from spring till autumn, are found
154 CULTURE IN FLANDERS.

to produce the best Flax. In such the plant springs up to a
height of thirty or forty inches, in a straight, slender stem, with
few or no branches, and only two or three seed-vessels to each
stalk.” Thick sowing produces the same effect.

So, also, Mr. Nichol: “ Flax will bear a good deal of mois-
ture, and, in fact, thrives best in a moist climate. Hence the
peculiar suitableness of England for its growth; our climate
being generally more humid than that of the Continent,
especially in the Western counties. Indeed, long-continued
drought is the chief enemy the flax-grower has to dread.”
(p. 447.)

The hot summers of Russia and Egypt cause a dryness and
brittleness of fibre, and prevent its retaining that elasticity,
pliancy, and oiliness which characterise the Flaxes of Belgium,
Holland, and Ireland.

“In Egypt, though the plant attains great luxuriance in the
rich alluvial soil of the Nile, yet the fibre does not attain fine-
ness and softness, and, notwithstanding the efforts made to im-
prove the culture and preparation, its value has not exceeded
£44 per ton.” .

Culture—In connection with the climate we may notice
peculiarities of culture in different countries.

“In Flanders a great variety of crops are raised; the farms
being for the most part small—the majority varying from eight
or ten to twenty and thirty acres.” (p. 448.) ‘“ Every Belgian
farmer, whether large or small, grows Flax sufficient to keep
himself and his people employed when not at work on the
land.”

The cultivation of Flax in Flanders is conducted with the
greatest care. The ground is well ploughed, rolled, enriched
with liquid manure, harrowed, and when the seed is sown
again harrowed in with a light harrow, and the surface rolled.
The fields when thus accurately prepared display an extreme
degree of neatness and smoothness. The liquid manure is
prepared with considerable care. It consists of the urine of
cattle in which rape-cake has been dissolved, and in which the
cleansings of privies from the neighbouring towns and villages
have been mixed; and is collected in subterranean vaults of
brick work, About 2800 gallons (beer measure) are allowed to
the English acre.
CULTURE IN RUSSIA—-DIRECTIONS FOR CULTURE. 155

In Russia the Flax is cultivated with less care, and without
any manure in the Ukraine. The time of sowing is from the
25th of May to the 10th of June, and that of reaping, from the
end of August to the end of September. The Flax is about
four months in a state of vegetation.

The directions for culture which, however, are most desirable
for us to notice, are those which have been drawn up with so
much care for the guidance of cultivators in Ireland. We,
therefore, reprint, in full, the—

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PROPER MANAGEMENT OF THE FLAX CROP,
COMPILED BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY FOR
THE PROMOTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE GROWTH OF
FLAX IN IRELAND,

The following directions have been carefully arranged from the mass
of information obtained by the Society and their agriculturists, during their
ten years’ experience in the improved system of management :

Soil and Rotation.—By attention and careful cultivation, good Flax may
be grown on various soils; but some are much better adapted for it than
others. ‘The best is a sound, dry, deep loam, with a clay subsoil. It is very
desirable that the land should be properly drained and subsoiled ; as, when
it is saturated with either underground or surface water, good Flax cannot
be expected.

Without method there cannot be success. Different soils require a
difference of rotation. In the best soils of Flanders, Flax is grown in the
third year of a seven-course rotation, or the fifth year of a ten-course
rotation.

It is not considered generally advisable to grow Flax more frequently
than once in ten years; not because it exhausts the land more than any
other crops, but because good Flax cannot be had, at short intervals, on
the same soil. In Belgium it invariably follows a corn crop—generally
oats; and in this country, where oats is such a usual crop, the same system
might be profitably pursued: but it must be understood, that it is only
after oats following a green crop or old lea, and never after two or three
succeeding crops of oats—which bad practice still prevails in some districts.
It is a very general error among farmers, to consider it necessary that Flax

! The following rotation, which would bring Flax once in ten years, has been pro-
posed :—First year, potatoes; second, barley, laid down with grasses; third year,
cut for soiling; fourth year, pasture; fifth year, flax; or the one half might be better
in flax, the other in oats, so that, with the return of the rotation, which would he in
five years, the flax could be put on the ground which, in the last rotatory course,
was under corn, throwing a range of ten years between the flax crops coming into
the same ground.

A gentleman of much practical knowledge recommends the following as being
the most profitable :—1. Oats after the grass and clover. 2. Flax pulled in August ;
then ploughed and harrowed in with two cwt. guano and two cwt. gypsum; then
sown with rape. 3. Potatoes or turnips, well manured. 4. Wheat, sown in spring,
with clover and ryegrass. 5. Hay and clover. 6. Grazing. 7. Oats. 8. Flax and
winter vetches; guano, as before mentioned. 9. Turnips, well manured. 10, Bar-
ley, sown with ryegrass and clover. 11. Cloverand hay. 12. Grazing. 13. Oats.
should follow a potato crop. Except on very poor soils, a better crop will
156 DIRECTIONS OF THE IRISH SOCIETY

be produced after grain, and the double benefit of the grain and Flax
secured. If old lea be broken up, and potatoes planted, followed by a grain
crop, a very fine crop of Flax may be obtained in the ensuing year. :

Preparation of the Soil—One of the points of the greatest importance in
the culture of Flax, is by thorough-draining, and by careful and repeated
cleansing of the land from weeds, to place it in the finest, deepest, and clean-
est state. This will make room for the roots to penetrate, which they will
often do to a depth equal to one half the length of the stem above
ground. (Sometimes twenty to thirty inches.) _ : :

After wheat, one ploughing may be sufficient, on light friable loam, but
two are better; and, on stiff soils, three are advisable—one immediately
after harvest, across the ridges, and two in spring, so as to be ready for
sowing in the first or second week of April. Much will, of course, depend
on the nature of the soil, and the knowledge and experience of the farmer.
The land should be so drained and subsoiled, that it can be sown in flats,
which will give more evenly and much better crops. Subsoiling should not
be done at a less interval than two years prior to the Flax crop. This gives
the land time to consolidate. But, until the system of thorough-draining be
general, it will be necessary, after oats, to plough early in autumn, to the
depth of six or eight inches. Throw the land into ridges, that it may receive
the frost and air; and make surface drains to carry off the rains of winter.
Plough again in spring, three or four inches deep, so as to preserve the
winter surface for the roots of the Flax. The spring ploughing should be
given some time before sowing, to allow any seeds of weeds in the land to
vegetate, and the harrowing in of the Flax seed will kill them, and save a
great deal of after weeding. Following the last harrowing, it is necessary
to roll, to give an even surface and consolidate the land, breaking this up
again with a short-toothed or seed harrow, before sowing, which should be
up and down, not across the ridges or anglewise.

Seed.—The seed best adapted for the generality of soils is Riga, although
Dutch has been used in many districts of country, for a series of years, with
perfect success. American seed does not generally suit well, as it is apt to

roduce a coarse, branchy stem. If used, it should be on deep, loamy soils.

n buying seed, select it plump, shining, and heavy, and of the best brands,
from a respectable merchant. Sift it clear of all the seeds of weeds, which
will save a great deal of after trouble, when the crop is growing. This may
be done by fanners, and through a wire sieve, twelve bars to the inch.
Home-saved seed has produced such excellent crops, of late, that it is
strongly recommended that every farmer should only sow, each year, as
much foreign seed as would produce a sufficient quantity for his Flax crop
of the following season.1. The thinner portion of the crop would be the best
for this purpose, as, when Flax grows thin, it produces much seed. This
plan, besides the saving effected in the price of foreign sowing seed, would
effectually secure the farmer from any danger of loss from fraudulently
made up seed. It will be best, in most cases, to use the seed which is saved
from this, in the following year, for feeding, or to sell it for the oil mills,
although it often produces good crops.

Sowing.—The proportion of seed may be stated at three and a half impe-
rial bushels to the Irish or plantation acre; and so on, in proportion to the
Scotch or Cunningham, and the English or statute acre. It is better to sow
too thick than too thin; as, with thick sowing the stem grows tall and
straight, with only one or two seed-capsules at the top, and the fibre is found

reatly superior, in fineness and length, to that produced from thin sown
lax, which grows coarse, and branches out, produces much seed, but a very

The produce of seed averages about twelve bushels the statute acre, so that the
seed saved off one statute acre would sow about five.
FOR THE CULTURE OF FLAX. 157

inferior quality of fibre. The ground being pulverized and well cleaned,
roll and sow. If it has been laid off without ridges, it should be marked off
in divisions, eight to ten feet broad, in order to give an equable supply
of seed, After sowing, cover it with a seed harrow, going twice over it—
once up and down, and once across or anglewise—as this makes it more
equally spread, and avoids the small drills made by the teeth of the harrow.
Finish with the roller, which will leave the seed covered about an inch—the
proper depth. The ridges should be very little raised in the centre, when
the ground is ready for the seed, otherwise the crop will not ripen evenly ;
and, when land is properly drained, there should be no ridges. The sowing
of clover and grass seeds along with the Flax is not advised, when it can
be conveniently avoided, as these plants always injure the root ends of the
Flax. But carrots may be sown, in suitable soils, in drills, so that the per-
son pulling the Flax may step over the rows, which may be afterwards hoed
and cleaned, and should have some liquid manure. A stolen crop of rape
or winter vetches, or of turnips of the stone or Norfolk globe varieties, may
be taken, after the Flax is pulled. Rolling the ground after sowing is very
advisable, care being taken not to roll when the ground is so wet that the
earth adheres to the roller.

Manure for the Flax Crop.—Recent chemical investigations have shown
that the fibre of Flax does abstract from the soil certain matters, although
not in so large a proportion as several other commonly cultivated crops.
To supply to the soil all the matters which the entire plant requires, so as
to leave the land in the same state of fertility as before, the following com-
pound has been proposed as a manure, which may be sown broadcast on the
land, prior to the last harrowing before sowing the Flax seed :

FOR A STATUTE ACRE OF LAND. Sa

Muriate of Potash, 30 lb., ‘ ; . cost about 2 6
Chloride of Sodium (common salt), 28 lb., a a 0 3
Burned Gypsum, powdered, 34 lb., ag 0 6
Bone Dust, 54 1b., é 4 ‘a Ws 3 3
Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom salts), 561b., . * 4 0
10 6

[Oil-cake of rape, cameline, and colza, applied either dry or with urine, are
also recommended as manures. |

Weeding.—If care has been paid to cleaning the seed and the soil, few
weeds will appear; but if there be any, they must be carefully pulled. It is
done in Belgium by women and children, who, with coarse cloths round their
knees, creep along on all-fours. This injures the young plant less than
walking over it (which, if done, should be by persons whose shoes are not
filled with nails). They should work, also, facing the wind, so that the
plants laid flat by the pressure may be blown up again, or thus be assisted
to regain their upright position. The tender plant, pressed one way, soon re-
covers; but if twisted or flattened by careless weeders, it seldom rises again.

Pulling. —The time when Flax should be pulled is a point of much nicety
to determine. The fibre is in the best state before the seed is quite ripe.
If pulled too soon, although the fibre is fine, the great waste in scutching
and hackling renders it unprofitable; and, if pulled too late, the additional
weight does not compensate for the coarseness of the fibre. It may be
stated, that the best time for pulling is, when the seeds are beginning to
change from a green to a pale brown colour, and the stalk to become yellow
for about two thirds of its height from the ground. When any of the crop
is lying, and suffering from wet, it should be pulled as soon as possible, and
kept by itself. So long as the ground is undrained, and imperfectly levelled
158 DIRECTIONS OF THE IRISH SOCIETY

before sowing, the Flax will be found of different lengths. In such cases,
pull each length separately, and steep in separate pools, or keep it separate
in the same pool. Where there is much second growth, the Flax should be
caught by the puller just underneath the bolls, which will leave the short
stalks behind. If the latter be few, it is best not to pull them at all, as the
loss from mixture and discoloration by weeds would counterbalance the
profit. If the ground has been thorough-drained, and laid out evenly, the
Flax will be all of the same length. It is most essential to take time and
care to keep the Flax even, like a brush, at the root ends. This increases
the value to the spinner, and, of course, to the grower, who will be amply
repaid, by an additional price, for his extra trouble. Let the handfuls of
pulled Flax be laid across each other diagonally, to be ready for the—
Rippling, which should be carried on at the same time, and in the same
field, with the pulling. If the only advantage to be derived from rippling
was the comparative ease with which rippled Flax is handled, the practice
ought always to be adopted; but, besides this, the seed is a most valuable
part of the crop; being worth, if sold for the oil mill, £3 per acre, and if used
for feeding stock of all kinds, at least £4 per acre. The apparatus is very
simple. The ripple consists of a row of iron teeth screwed into a block of
wood. This can be procured in Belfast, or may be made by any handy
blacksmith. Itis to be taken to the field, where the Flax is being pulled, and
screwed down to the centre of a nine-feet plank, resting on two stools. The
ripplers may either stand or sit astride at opposite énds. They should be at
such a distance from the comb, as to permit of their striking it properly and
alternately. A winnowing sheet must be placed under them, to receive the
bolls as they are rippled off; and then they are ready to receive the Flax
just pulled, the handfuls being placed diagonally, and bound up in a sheaf.
The sheaf is laid down at the right hand of the rippler, and untied. He
takes a handful with one hand, about six inches from the root; and a little
nearer the top, with the other. He spreads the top of the handful like a fan,
draws the one half of it through the comb, and the other half past the side;
and, by half a turn of the wrist, the same operation is repeated with the rest
of the bunch. Some, however, prefer rippling without turning the hand,
giving the Flax one or two pulls through, according to the quantity of bolls.
The Flax can often be rippled, without being passed more than once through
the comb. He then lays the handfuls down at his left side, each handful
crossing the other, when the sheaf shall be carefully tied up and removed.
The object of crossing the handfuls so carefully, after rippling, when tying
up the beets for the steep, is, that they will part freely from each other,
when they are taken to spread out on the grass, and not interlock, and be
put out of their even order, as would otherwise be the case. If the weather
be dry, the bolls should be kept in the field, spread on winnow-cloths, or
other contrivance for drying, and, if turned from time to time, they will win.
Passing the bolls first through a coarse riddle, and afterwards through
fanners, to remove straws and leaves, will facilitate the drying. If the
weather be moist, they should be taken in-doors, and spread out thinly and
evenly on « barn floor or on a loft, leaving windows and doors open, to
allow a thorough current of air, and turned twice a day. Whien nearly dry,
they may be taken to a corn kiln (taking care not to raise it above summer
heat), and carefully turned, until no moisture remains. By the above plan
of slow drying, the seed has time to imbibe all the juices that remain in the
husk, and to become perfectly ripe. Ifit be taken at once from the field,
and dried hurriedly on the kiln, these juices will be burned up, and the seed
will become shrivelled and parched, little nutritious matter remaining. In
fine seasons, the bolls should always be dried in the open air, the seed
thrashed out, and the heaviest and plumpest used for sowing or crushing.
FOR THE CULTURE OF FLAX. 159

The light seeds and chaff form most wholesome and nutritious feeding for
cattle. Flax ought not to be allowed to stand in the field, if possible, even
the second day; it should be rippled as soon as pulled, and carried to the
water as soon as possible, that it may not harden.

Though immediate rippling is thus recommended as the general practice,
it may not be convenient in all situations to adopt it. We, therefore, add
directions for stooking from other authors.

“Flax is always pulled up by the roots: these handfuls are usually laid
across each other, and subsequently bound up into small sheaves; these are
set up in circular stooks, the butts of each being spread out as much as
possible, to allow the air to have free access to them: there they remain
until sufficiently dried ; they are then either stacked in the field or at the
homestead, or the seed is separated at once, and then merely the stem or
straw stacked.” (Wilson.) “The drying must be sufficient to prevent their
heating. They must then be tied up in small sheaves or beets, and then
carted home.” (Nichol.)

“Many different modes, both of stacking and separating the seeds, exist :
probably, the cheapest and most efficient is to pass the straw through plain
rollers, which crush the capsule and let the straw pass through uninjured.”
(Wilson.) The seed is separated from the capsule, or ‘boll,’ by winnowing,
and the straw remains to be stacked in the usual way.” (Nichol.)

Under favorable circumstances we may expect an average crop to produce
from 30 cwt. to 40 cwt. of straw, and 12 to 16 bushels of seed, to the acre.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON CULTURE OF FLAX.

From these various details respecting the culture of Flax in
the localities where it succeeds best or is most extensively
cultivated, we become acquainted with the points requiring
most attention. We learn that though one of the crops
occupying a shorter time than most others, it is, like these,
liable to failure, and from causes often beyond our control.
Of these, the most important appears to be climate ; as, of this,
the temperature should be moderate, and the moisture, though
not excessive, yet abundant and continuous, except at the period
of gathering the crop. We also learn that though sandy
loams and alluvial soils appear best suited to its cultivation,
which water may permeate and the roots spread through it
in every direction ; yet the soil ought to be able to retain mois-
ture sufficiently to benefit the plant,-and not let it run off at
once, as some open soils do. Manure in many soils is useful ; but
in others, or when a large quantity is applied, the Flax is apt
to grow coarse. Then it will not yield a fine fibre, and is apt
to be lost from the weakness of the stem. Hence, it seems to
succeed best after a corn crop which has been manured, or on
recently turned-up ground. The soil requires to be well tilled,
and brought to a level, in order that the Flax plants may all
160 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON

grow of the same length. In Great Britain and Ireland drain-
ing is most important, but in India, facilities for irrigation will
be not less so. It ought to be freed from weeds as much as
possible ; and there is no fear of the land becoming exhausted, if
the modern methods of culture and of preparation are adopted,
In selecting seed, considerable care is necessary, though,
perhaps, too much importance is attached to foreign seed.’
The interchange of seed is useful for all crops, and, therefore,
is no doubt beneficial for Flax; but it is a question whether
it should be carried to the extreme extent of always using
foreign seed, or limited to only using it occasionally. Some
prefer Riga seed; others, that which has been obtained as the
first crop from such seed. Dutch seed is preferred by others,
especially for heavy soils. American seed is not generally ap-
proved of in this country; but it has succeeded well in India.
Excellent crops have been grown in Ireland, from seed saved
from the Russian; and it is recommended by Mr. M‘Adam and
others, that enough of the foreign seed should be produced
annually, to raise seed for sowing the crop of the following
year. In Norfolk and Essex, Flax has been grown year after
year from seed produced in the country, and good crops have
continued to be obtained. Mr. Nichol says that the seed
may be either home-grown or foreign—Flax equally good
being raised from both; but an occasional use of Dutch,
Belgian, or Riga is recommended as affording the completest
change; but that the seed “grown in England appears to be
the best, both from its great weight and freedom from weeds.”
Early sowing is especially recommended, and Mr. Wilson
considers that even autumn sowing might be suitable in some
localities ; but the time of sowing must, of course, depend
entirely on the season which is to follow for the growth of the
crop; and must be very different in Egypt from what it is in

Riga seed is imported in barrels, containing 33 bushels, and covered with a
coarse linen bag. The barrels are branded in Russia by officers named brackers, who
classify the seed, as it arrives from the interior, under the terms “sowing seed,”
“rejected sowing seed,” and “crushing seed.” But, notwithstanding this, Riga seed
usually contains from 15 to 20 per cent. of the seeds of weeds, and therefore requires
to be carefully sifted. Dutch seed is seldom adulterated. It comes in old wine-
hogsheads, containing 7 bushels each.

Riga seed varies in price from 7s. to 16s. per bushel; and Dutch from 7s. to 13s. 6d.
per bushel. (M‘Adam.)
CULTURE OF FLAX. 161

Ireland. By sowing early, that is, in the latter end of March
or the beginning of April, the crop might be gathered in before
the regular corn harvest in England. But another advantage
is, that early sowing is followed by slow and steady growth,
which is indispensable for obtaining a fine fibre. Later in the
season, vegetation is more rapid, the fibre grows more quickly,
and has not time to fine and mellow. The fineness of fibre,
however, depends also upon the proportion of seed which is
employed. From two to three bushels per acre—the latter
for fine fibre, and the former for medium quality of fibre;
therefore, 2! bushels, or about 180 1b. of clean seed is a fair
average to the English or statute acre; but if the crop of seed
is the principal object, then six pecks per acre is sufficient.

The time of pulling is, of course, a subject of the greatest
importance, as, if pulled too early the fibre will be flimsy, and
if too late, it will be coarse. If the object is to obtain very
fine fibre, then the crop is pulled before the seed is quite ripe,
and the seed should then be taken off by rippling. As long
as the seed is in the husk it continues to ripen; but if good
seed is required for future sowings, it should be grown for this
purpose, and allowed to ripen fully. In the directions of the Irish
Flax Improvement Society, it is strongly recommended to sepa-
rate the seeds immediately from the stems, and thus to preserve a
portion of the crop, which, in many places, is now unnecessarily
wasted. According to ancient custom, the plants should then
be steeped for a longer or shorter period, but often the former,
to the manifest detriment of the fibre. This may all be avoided,
either by stacking the dried Flax stems until some convenient
time, or adopting some of the improved methods for separating
the fibre.

With a few observations on the proportions of the different
parts of the crop obtainable per acre, and the probable profits
of the culture; we may proceed to apply the information which
we have collected to India, and ascertain what are the prospects
of success in the different parts of that wide-spread territory.

ll
162

PROFITS OF THE CULTURE OF FLAX IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Mr. Nichols gives an estimate of the value to the grower of
an acre of Flax; observing that, “although any such estimate
must at best be uncertain, depending as it does upon variable
contingencies, it may nevertheless not be without its use in
this place.

“The produce of Flax per acre, under a good system of cul-
tivation, is generally found to be from 40 to 50 stone—although
60 stone is not unfrequently obtained; and this quantity has,
in several instances, been grown in Norfolk within the last few
years. Forty stone per acre may, therefore, I think, be
assumed as a safe average. The price for Flax of average
quality may fairly be taken at 7s. Gd. per stone of 14 ]b.; but
that of the finer qualities is much higher. The general yield
of seed per acre is from 16 to 24 bushels, but it sometimes
rises to 80 bushels— and 20 bushels may, therefore, be taken
as a moderate average. The price of Linseed varies from 8s.
to 10s. per bushel for the finest sorts for sowing, to 6s. and 7s.
for the common kind, such as is used for crushing and cattle
feeding; 7s. per bushel may, therefore, be assumed as a fair
average. Against these estimations must be placed the rent of
the land, and the charge of cultivation and preparing the fibre
for market. The amount for an acre of Flax will then stand
as follows :

 

& we d. £ 2. d.

Rent, rates, and taxes . 110 0 | 40 stone of flax, at 7s.6d. .15 0 0
2} bushels of seed, at 9s. 1 2 6 : 20 bushels of seed, at 7s. 7 0 0
Tillage 100 Chaff, refuse, flax, and tow . 10 0
Pulling, steeping, &e. 110 0 | NTE i
Beetling 20 bushels of seed, | 22 100
at ls., and re-tying the flax 1 0 0 | Deduct outlay -10 2 6
Breaking and scutching 40 st., é : ~
inverts «Alef | een neat |,

£10 2 6

“Making every allowance,” Mr. Nichols concludes, “ for
unfavorable seasons, and the other contingencies to which Flax
growing, in common with all other agricultural operations, is
subject, a profit of £10 or £12 per acre may, I think, be
\

PROFITS ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX. 163

reasonably expected by the grower of Flax, provided he attends
properly to the business, and makes the most of the fibre and
the seed.”

Mr. Nichols, however, refers also to an account published
by Mr. 8. Druce, of Ensham, near Oxford, who gives £8 as the
rate of profit. But, as Mr. Nichols observes, he only obtained
23 stone per acre; and his Flax was evidently of inferior
guality, as it sold for only about 5s. per stone.

According to some accounts, about 800 lb. per acre is some-
times obtained in Great Britain. In the United States, 400 Ib.
of good clear Flax, and 8 or 10 bushels of seed, are considered
a medium crop.

Mr. M‘Adam has given two estimates: No. 1 being for an
acre, sown thinly, with a view to having a large produce of
seed, which necessitates a coarser description of fibre; and
No. 2 being sown more thickly, producing less seed, but a finer
fibre. The expenses of the culture and preparation of both are
about £9. The first (No. 1) is expected to yield 38 stone of
Flax (16 lb. each), at 6s. 6d.; 18 bushels of seed, at 6s, 6d.;
and 50 bushels of husks, at 4d.; yielding a profit of £10.
No. 2 is expected to yield 30 stone of Flax, at 9s. 6d.;
10 bushels of seed, at 6s. 6d.; husks, 8s.; yielding a profit of
£8 14s. 6d.: but the value of the Flax may reach as high as
15s., or even 20s. Mr. M‘Adam observes that “the profits are
usually pretty equal, whether the Flax be grown primarily for
seed or for fibre; the greater produce in the first case of seed,
and the higher value of the dressed Flax in the second, main-
tain a just equilibrium.”

REPORT ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX IN INDIA.

“Tndia having, at least, for centuries grown the Flax plant,
on aceount of the oil yielded by its seeds (Linseed), the
country has very naturally been looked to as a source of Flax
fibre ; the supply of which is so greatly diminished by the war
with Russia.! The Belfast Chamber observe, that “as India
annually exports nearly 100,000 quarters of seed to Great
Britain and Ireland, it has been calculated that the plants

! The following formed the substance of a Report prepared by the Author, in
August, 1854, and is printed nearly as it was written.
164 EXPERIMENTAL CULTURE

which produced this quantity of seed would yield, annually, at
least 12,000 tons of fibre—value, say £500,000 ; all of which
now goes to waste.” Besides the above quantity of seed, much
is also exported to North America and to other countries, and
much is consumed in the country in the form of oil, while the
cake is in some places employed in feeding their cattle. There
can be no doubt, therefore, that the question is one of con-
siderable importance, not only to this country, which requires
such immense quantities of Flax fibre, but to India, which
produces such enormous heaps of seeds, and is supposed to
waste so much of valuable exportable material. But it does
not follow that the production of fibre is in proportion to that.
of seed. Indeed, we have often to check vegetation, in order
to favour the production of flowers and fruit; while an undue
growth of the parts of vegetation, that is, of the stem, branches,
and leaves, is often obtained at the expense of the parts of
fructification.

The subject, however, has not escaped notice.

The earliest attempt to produce Flax in India seems to have
been made by Dr. Roxburgh about the beginning of this cen-
tury, as at that time, the East India Company having esta-
blished a Hemp farm in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, he
made many experiments on the substitutes for Hemp and
Flax. He also cultivated Hemp and Flax in the Company’s
farm at Reshera, in the neighbourhood of Calcutta.

Of Flax, he says, it is very generally cultivated during the
cold season in the interior parts of Bengal and Behar. “Sam-
ples of the Flax have frequently been procured by the Board
of Trade, and sent to England to the Honorable Court of
Directors, so that it is from home we may expect to learn its
properties. Ifthe Flax has been found good, large quantities
may be reared at a small expense, as the seed alone which the
crop yields must be more than equal to the charges to render
it profitable to the farmer.” (‘Obs. on Subs. for Hemp and
Flax,’ p. 17.)

The Author, as long since as the year 1834, stated in his
‘Tllustrations of Himalayan Botany:’? “In India the Flax is
cultivated only on account of its seed, of which the mucilage is
valued as a demulcent in medicine, and the oil in the arts; but
the plant, which in other countries is most valued, is there
OF FLAX IN INDIA, 165

thrown away; and others, such as Hibiscus cannabinus and
Crotolaria juncea, are cultivated almost in the same field, for the
very products which this would yield. It seems, therefore,
worthy of experiment whether a valuable product might not be
added to the agriculturist’s profits, without much additional
expense.”

And again, in the year 1840, the Author called attention
to this subject, im his ‘ Essay on the Productive Resources of
India.’

In the year 1839, moreover, a Company was established, by
the influence of Mr. A. Rogers, at one time one of the Sheriffs
of London, expressly for the growth of Flax in India. Money
was subscribed ; a Belgian cultivator and a Belgian preparer
of Flax were sent out to Bengal, with both Riga and Dutch
seed, and all the tools which are employed in the culture
and preparation of Flax in Europe. A pamphlet, moreover, was
published, in which full directions were given for the culture
and preparation of Flax, and illustrated with figures of the
various tools employed for this purpose. The subject was
warmly taken up by the Agricultural Society of India, and a
small committee appointed of members who took a special
interest in the subject.

The directions of the Irish Flax Society were printed in
their ‘ Proceedings,’ as well as those of Mr. Andrews from the
‘Northern Whig.’ Translations of plain directions were made
into the vernacular languages, which, as well as models of the
tools, were distributed. The Gold Medal of the Society was
offered for the production of a large quantity of Flax, and
smaller prizes for the natives. Experiments were made by
several members of the Society, in different parts of the Bengal
Presidency, as well as by the Belgian Farmers.

Specimens of the Flax produced having been sent to Calcutta,
comparisons were instituted between the samples produced by
different individuals, and those from European and from indi-
genous seed. Mr. Deneef, the Belgian farmer, pronounced the
samples worth from £44 to £60 a ton; and some that was pro-
duced from country seed and heckled, was thought worth £66
aton. Some of the specimens sent to Liverpool, were valued
at from £30 to £45; and those which were forwarded to me
by the Secretary of the Agricultural Society, were pronounced
166 EXPERIMENTAL CULTURE

by Mr. Hutchinson, of Mark Lane, to be worth from £40 to
£45 aton. The experiments were made chiefly near Burdwan,
Monghyr, and Shahabad ; but the best native seed was obtained
from the northern station of Saharunpore, and a white Linseed
from the Saugur and Nerbuddah territories. A little Flax was
also produced by Mr. Williams, at J ubbulpore, under the
direction of Mr. Macleod.

Mr. Leyburn gave as the result of his experiments near
Shahabad, that the expenses of culture of a bigah of land, and
the preparation of the fibre, amounted to Rs. 25 1a. 8p.; and the
profits to Rs. 27 la. 5p., supposing the four maunds of Flax pro-
duced to be worth £35 a ton.

In consequence of a communication which had been received
from the Honorable Court of Directors, Sir T. H. Maddock,
at that time Secretary to the Government of India, addressed
a letter to the Agricultural-Horticultural Society. In this the
Society was requested, in order to assist the Government in
determining on the measures proper to be adopted for improving
the cultivation of Flax, to supply such accurate, detailed
information as they may possess, or as they may be able to
obtain.

The Society accordingly prepared a report which contained
everything that was known at that time on the subject of the
cultivation of Flax in India. This was forwarded to the
Government, and also published in their ‘ Proceedings’ for
Noy., 1841. In this report, the Society took a very favorable
view of the probabilities of the profitable culture of Flax in
India.

The Revenue Secretary to the Indian Government, on this,
wrote (November 22d, 1841) to the Agricultural Society, that—
“The cultivation of Flax can no longer be considered a doubt-
ful experiment, since it appears from your report to have
proved in many instances successful; and where successful, to
be very fairly profitable. His Lordship in Council is therefore
much inclined to doubt whether any bounty or reward from
Government is necessary, or would be justifiable.”

Notwithstanding this favorable inference, the Flax Company
did not go on with the cultivation ; the various individuals who
had taken up the culture did not proceed with their experiments,
the several medals offered by the Agricultural Society seem
OF FLAX IN INDIA, 167

never to have been claimed, and there are no appearances of
the culture of Flax on account of its fibre in any of the places
where the experiments were made. It is probable, therefore,
that the success which appeared sufficient when the experiment
was of the nature of garden culture, was not realised when on
a greater scale.

M. de Verinne, indeed, states that the experiment in the
season of 1840-41 was a complete failure at Bullea, owing to
too little seed having been sown, to the unusually dry weather
at the late sowings, and to the improper time (the hot winds)
in which the Flax was cleaned.

Mr. Wallace, who had carried on the cultivation for three or
four years at Monghyr, writes on the 8th July, 1841: “The
crop has been in a great measure a failure this year. About
one eighth the produce that a favorable season would yield.”
But in the year 1844, he again forwarded samples to the Agri-
cultural Society, which were improved in cleanness and were
also softer than the produce of former years, from the same
cultivation. These were portions of several tons that had been
grown at Monghyr, and which he intended shipping to
Dundee, the port to which his last batch was sent. But Mr.
Wallace added, with regret, that after several years’ labour, with
a view to establish Flax cultivation at Monghyy, and after having
taught the art of dressing the article to many parties, the
speculation must be abandoned unless the Government gave
some encouragement. He therefore requested the assistance
of the Society in bringing the subject to the notice of the
authorities. It is stated at a subsequent meeting, that the
Committee of the Society, after being furnished with further
details respecting the cultivation, did not feel inclined to refer
the subject to the Government. But neither the details referred
to, nor the reasons of the Committee for their decision are given,
and, therefore, we are unable to ascertain the real causes of
failure after several years’ trial.

Mr. Henley, an intelligent merchant from Calcutta, to
whose observations I have already referred at p. 36, having
made some careful experiments on the culture of Flax, has
favoured me with the following account :
168 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE

“T have paid much attention to the fibres during my residence near Calcutta,
and, not wishing to conclude from hearsay only, generally cultivated most
things myself, having a large piece of ground available. I sent up to Bau-
gulpore (an excellent Flux seed district), and obtained a considerable
quantity of native-grown Flax straw, after the removal of the seed. I had
it collected from various fields, so as to obtain an average. This material
was in every instance too bushy for the proper production of fibre, and the

-yield was very trifling, and in fact worthless for manufacturing purposes.
The bushiness arose from the practice of the natives, who grow several
plants, as you are aware, at once, in the same field. The Flax plants were
consequently planted too far apart for fibre-yielding purposes.

Not yet fully satisfied on the question, I took a patch of land (three cottahs),
the best I could pick out, fine, friable loam, fit for anything—it had been a
cauliflower bed, and was therefore deeply spade-cultivated and highly
manured—its last crop, cauliflowers, having nothing prejudicial to a Flax
crop. I began very early in the season, had it turned up and laid for a
fallow; two months after, again pulverized and weeded; and again—
four times in all; with the addition of a large supply of fine old cow-dung.
I had it now sown in the proper season, with the best Flax seed, very thickly
planted, so as to draw it up as free as possible from lateral branches.
Everything promised well. ‘The field grew beautifully, and soon attained a
height of three feet. I began to collect the crop, first, as soon as the flower
had completed its growth and the seed-vessels began to form; secondly, as soon
as the seed-vessels had fully formed, and were filled with green, but immature
seeds; and lastly, after the seed was fully ripe. I took great pains in water-
retting the samples—generally removing them from the water rather under-
done, for fear of occasioning weakness in the fibre from over-retting.

In every instance, the quantity of fibre was small and weak, and very
inferior to the samples of Flax deposited at the Agricultural Society’s
Museum, obtained from Jubbulpore, and other upper-country districts.
No Indian Flax, however, which I have seen, equals in nerve and general
good qualities those of European growths.”

As the above is no doubt a correct account of what occurs
with the Flax plant in the moist climate of Bengal, of which
the effects may perhaps have been aggravated by too great
richness of soil; it might be inferred, that a different result
would take place in the drier climate of the upper or North-
West provinces of India. This is certainly the case, but though
the product is different, it is not, from the shortness and brittle
nature of the fibre, more suitable for the ordinary purposes
of Flax.

Mr. Hamilton, of Mirzapore, one of the up-country stations
alluded to, “sent some bales of the stalks to Calcutta, for the
inspection of the Belgians, and was told that the shortness of
the stalks would prevent their manipulation.”

It is evident, therefore, that there is some difficulty in pro-
ducing good Flax in India. This difficulty is, no doubt, the
climate ; while the native methods of culture are the most un-
ON FLAX IN INDIA. 169

suited to the production of good fibre. Mr. M‘Adam, Secretary
to the Royal Flax Improvement Society, has, in his Prize Essay
on ‘The Cultivation of Flax,’ well observed “ that a slow, steady
growth is requisite for the quality and yield of fibre; also a
temperate climate, that between the parallels of 48° and 55°
being the best ; and a continued supply of moisture from spring
till autumn.” He also observes that “the hot summers of
Russia and of Egypt cause a dryness and brittleness of fibre,
and prevent its retaining that elasticity, pliancy, and oiliness
which characterise the Flaxes of Belgium, Holland, and
Ireland.”

But considered generally, it is not to be expected that a
plant which attains perfection in Belgium, and is so success-
fully cultivated in the vicinity of Belfast, would succeed well in
the hot and moist, but sometimes dry climate of Bengal. In
fact, if the Flax was not one of those plants which, like the
cereal grains and pulses, can be grown in the cold-weather
months of India, it could not be cultivated there at all. But with
this culture, we have the anomaly, of the seeds being sown in
autumn,' when the climate is still hot and the ground moist,
and the plant has to grow while the temperature is daily becoming
lower and the soil drier—no irrigation being usually employed
with these winter crops, though dew begins to fall as soon as
the ground becomes cooled at night. In some places, the
crop attains perfection in about ninety days, is collected in
January, the coldest month; in others, not until February
or March, when the rapid rise of temperature is favorable to
the ripening of seeds, but not to the production of fibre.

Of all parts of India there are none that appear to me better
suited to the growth of Flax than the Saugur and Nerbuddah
territories, as the soil is rich and prolific, and the climate a me-
dium between the extreme moisture of Bengal and the dryness
of the North-West provinces. The Wheat of this district is con-
sidered superior to any seen in the English market, with the
exception of what comes from Australia. The Gram (Cicer
arietinum) and the Linseed are also of finer quality than any
produced elsewhere in India; while the suitableness of the
climate for the production of good fibre is proved by the length

1 In Egypt, also, the seeds are sown about the middle of November, in the plains
which have been inundated by the Nile, and plucked in about 110 days.
170 EFFECTS OF INDIAN CULTURE.

and strength of the Jubbulpore Hemp, as grown by Mr.
Williams; as well as by the specimens of Flax which he has
likewise grown.

The Indian method of culture is certainly not suited to the
production of fibre, but the seeds abound in oil. “ The yield
of oil from a bushel of Indian seed is from 143 1b. to 16 1b. ; of
English or Irish, 1031b. to 121b.” Therefore, it is evident
that the Indian ryut succeeds in his object, as well as the
Irish farmer, who grows the Flax plant for its fibre, but neglects
to gather the seed: though this is not only a saleable product,
but one which abounds in nutritious matter for his cattle,
and would further afford the means of fertilising his fields.
As it has been found difficult to persuade the Irish farmer to
gather the double crop, I believe it would be hopeless to induce
the Indian ryut to change a culture which is suitable for his
purposes, without the aid of successful example in his neigh-
bourhood. You might make him grow less seed, but I much
doubt whether we should get him to produce any useful fibre ;
and without his co-operation it would be impossible to attain
any considerable success. Indeed, the Agricultural Society of
India have given it as their opinion, in one of their resolutions,
—* That the culture and preparation of Flax in India, so as to
be able to compete with the Flax of Belgium or Russia, can
only be effected by practical European growers instructing
native cultivators in the art; and, further, that an entire
change in the mode of cultivation, as well as in the preparation
of the plant, is necessary to produce the article in a proper state.”

It has, indeed, been made a question, whether a good supply
of fibre and of seed can be procured from the same crops.
One gentleman, in reply to my inquiry, informed me (London,
4th July) that “it has been found impossible to preserve both
seed and fibre, z.¢., for the better qualities of each; and that
the plan pursued is simply to gather before the seed ripens,
when the delicacy and softness of fibre form the desideratum,
but to leave the plant standing until the fibre is dried and
greatly injured, in order to secure the superior seed fit for
sowing ;” and this is the result of information collected after
a residence of many years in the interior of Russia. Another
gentleman replies to the same inquiry, from Belfast, on the 8th
July: “It is not only quite practicable to have good seed and
PROPOSED SITES FOR EXPERIMENTS. 171

good fibre at the same time, but it is the universal rule in all
countries except Ireland, where we have only been able to get
the more intelligent farmer to abandon the wasteful practice of
steeping the Flax stems without removing the seed. The finest
Flax in the world is grown in Belgium, yet the seed is saved
from it.”

But as there is no doubt, from the experiments of the Indian
Flax Company, and from other more recent facts, such as the
production of Flax as far south as on the Shevaroy Hills, at
Jubbulpore, and near Lahore, that Flax can be produced in
India, it seems desirable to ascertain whether it cannot, by
careful culture and improved processes, be produced as a
profitable crop in some parts of the country; because, as I have
‘before said, “I cannot think that that which is done success-
fully in Egypt, is impossible in every part of India;” and
there can be little doubt that, in some places, at least, coarse
Flax could be produced, as well as some for the paper-makers.

I am informed that the Messrs. Hamilton, of Mirzapore,
propose, this year, attempting the culture of Flax, in the tract
of land of which they have a grant, in the Goruckpore district,
and which I should consider a more favorable locality than any
near Mirzapore. I would suggest, that Mr. Williams, at
Jubbulpore, should be requested to make an experiment, to
ascertain the quality of the Flax which may be produced in
that locality, as well as the quantity obtainable per begah or
acre; attempting at the same time to preserve the seed. Mr.
Williams has already grown a little Flax, he is accustomed to
the preparation of fibre, and the soil and climate are both, I
conceive, more favorable than in most parts of India.

Iwould also recommend that Dr. Jameson, the Superintendent
of the Botanic Garden at Saharunpore, should be directed to
make a small experiment, both in the plains and in the hills, in
order to ascertain the same kind of facts respecting the Flax
plant when grown according to European methods for the sake
of the fibre. The Agricultural Society of the Punjab are
already attempting the culture, as the Secretary has addressed
a letter to the Court, requesting an opinion respecting the
quality of the Flax which they have already produced ; but the
specimens have not yet arrived. (Further information has,
however, recently been received, and will be afterwards detailed.)
172 NEW EXPERIMENTS PROPOSED.

Though I am well aware that Government experiments are
not likely to prove profitable where those undertaken by indi-
viduals have failed, especially as these had good scientific and
practical advice, I am yet sanguine in thinking that experi-
ments conducted in the localities I have indicated, would give
information which would be practically of great value for exten-
sive tracts of country. The people are acquainted with the
culture and preparation of Sunn fibre, and might easily be in-
structed by the European gentlemen to whom I have alluded,
in applying the instructions for the culture of Flax in the
‘ Proceedings of the Agricultural Society of India’ for the years
1840 and 1841, including those prepared by M. Deneef, the
Belgian farmer, after practical experience in India, published
first in 1840, and then in 1842.

I have not thought it necessary to refer to the opinions
respecting the exhausting nature of Flax as a crop. By the
methods of steeping the stalks in steam and hot water, it has
been ascertained that the time required for the separation of
fibre can be very greatly reduced ; while the steep-water, where
no fermentation has taken place, has been proved to be useful
as manure water for the soil. Feeding cattle, moreover, upon
a portion of the seed, produces manure which is invaluable in
restoring much of what has been taken from the soil. But as
these methods are not applicable to the present state of the
culture in India, I will only allude to the probability of some
of the mechanical methods of separating the fibre from the
green flax, as very likely to be of useful application.”

Since, according to some accounts, considerable success at-
tended the experimental culture of Flax in India, while others
considered it a failure, it is desirable to ascertain the causes of
this discrepancy, and to draw some conclusions which may be
of use to other parts of India, if not to the places where the
experiments were made. This we may probably effect, by
analysing the statements of the different experimentalists.

Shahabad Experiments.

The cultivation of Flax in India in recent times seems to have begun at
Shahabad, in 25° of north latitude, in the year 1837. In the ‘ Proc. of the
Agri.-Hortic. Society,’ there is a communication from Mr. G. Leyburn, of
ANALYSIS OF FORMER EXPERIMENTS. 173

Nunnoa Factory, giving an account of the sale in London, on 17th July,
1838, of some Flax grown by him. “The Flax, per Windsor, is landed
sound, No.1 sold for £28 per ton, and No.2 for £14 per ton—nine months’
credit. They are described as harsh, and without the softness characteristic
of Russian Flax. Prices of the latter being lower than usual, P.T. R. selling
here at this time at £40 per ton.”

Mr. Leyburn states that he prepared his first sample of Flax in the com-
mon way, from plants which had borne seed. He sent them to Messrs.
Truman and Cook, who reported that any quantity of a similar article would
find a ready sale, at £35 a ton. In the following year, Mr. Leyburn entered
on the cultivation rather extensively, and succeeded in producing an article
of lengthened staple, and of a quality vieing with the Flax of Russia. A
portion of the cultivation was carried on in the bed of the Soane River, and
part in the uplands of the district: some of it was prepared before the
seeds were ripe. He calculates the probable profits of the culture to be:

 

PER BEGAH :! Produce.
Rs. A. P. Rs. A. P.
Rent of land . : - 1 8 O | Linseed, 53 mds. . 3 - 5 8 0
Ploughing 3 , 8 0 | Flax,4 mds., at (say) £35 per
Seed . 7 ‘ 2 - 1 8 0 ton . : 3 ‘ - 4610 8
Pulling, beating seed off, _—
watering . : . » 59 8 2 8
Packing, cartage, preparation Deduct expense of cultivation,
(nearly all hand-labour) .16 0 0 as per contra . 7 -25 1 3

 

Rs.25 1 3 | Profit on one begah of land .27 1 5

With a factory in full play and effective machinery, Mr. Leyburn considers
that the manufacturing price of the article would be three to four rupees a
maund, which is equal to about £9 or £12 a ton. But to give effect to the
production of this article, the aid of European enterprise is necessary. (It is
particularly deserving the attention of indigo-planters). He failed in over-
coming the deep-rooted prejudices of the native cultivators, and could not
induce them to enter on a cultivation which held out to them a prospect of
more than ordinary profit for their labour?

Experiments of the Flax Society.

We may now proceed to notice the efforts of the London
Flax Experimental Society. Mr. Woollaston, in presenting,
on their behalf, some specimens of Flax grown in Bengal, and
prepared in Calcutta, observed that—

“ The object of the Society is not at this time to produce a large quantity,
but to ascertain how good a quality can be readily obtained, the growth of
India, and such as shall readily compete with the Russian and Belgian Flax
in the Home market.. This object has been already attained to a con-

1 The begah of land in Shahabad is something more than the Bengal begah, which
is 1600 square yards, or the third of an English acre. :

* M. Bonnevie, indigo-planter at Rungpore, writes: “Having great difficulty to
prevail on these ignorant cultivators to plant it—owing to a superstitious belief that
the vengeance of an evil spirit will befall them for introducing the cultivation of a
new article. Flax grows remarkably well here, and I have no doubt would succeed
well in this district. The Zemindars now commence to show an inclination to
improve agriculture in general.” —
174 EXPERIMENTAL FLAX COMPANY.

siderable extent. These samples far surpass the Russian Flax,” and he
regretted that “the Government of India have not responded to the recom-
mendatior of the Horticultural Society in granting a bonus to the Experi-
mental Society of 10,000 rupees, to further its objects.”

“The seed received from England, Mr. Woollaston further remarks, has
been distributed freely to all applicants who were desirous of trying the cul-
tivation. The models of implements were sent out from Belgium, and fac-
similes made for any person requiring them at the bond fide cost of the
materials. Private profit or gain has never been allowed to interfere. Every
kind of information, as far as possessed, has been freely imparted to all in-
quirers, and every endeavour made to excite an interest in the experiment.

“Tts importance in a national point of view is incalculable. Both as de-
veloping the resources of India, in enabling England to supply herself from
her own possessions in a most important raw material, and in no longer
making her dependent, for what may well be considered necessaries,
upon a foreign and rival power. These observations, Mr. Woollaston con-
siders, will apply in a great measure to Hemp also, in the cultivation and
manufacture of which, the Experimental Society are deeply interested. The
successful introduction of these two staples into England, from this country,
will not only prove a blessing of the largest degree to India generally, but
be a severer blow to Russian aggrandisement and encroachment than the
destruction of her fleets, or the annihilation of her armies.”

The Agri.-Horticultural Society having recommended that
the bonus of 10,000 rupees should be given for the furtherance
of the objects of the Flax Society, Lord Auckland, who
was at that time Governor-General of India and _ was
as warmly interested as any one in the improvement of its
resources, was also a political economist: the Secretary to
Government was directed to reply :

“His Lordship cannot but regard with interest the public-spirited pro-
ceedings of the gentlemen who have come forward to promote the improve-
ment of the cultivation of Flax in India, but it is only in very rare instances,
and with the view of exciting a direct and general competition, that he would
attempt by encouragement or bounty to influence the course of commercial

and agricultural enterprise, and he does not feel that the case before him is
one which would justify the special interference of the Government.

“Fort William, July 29, 1840."

Mr. Deneef, the Belgian farmer, and Mr. Bernard, the pre-
parer of Flax who had been sent to India by the Society, were
of great use in examining the soil and giving directions on the
mode of culture best adapted to the country, as well as in re-
porting on the different samples of Flax which were grown in
the country. Mr. Deneef’s directions for the cultivation of
Flax, drawn up after he had had practical experience in the
country, remain as a valuable document for the guidance of
others. These we, therefore, reprint from the ‘ Journal of the
Agri-Horticultural Society’ for the year 1812, p. 393.
DIRECTIONS FOR CULTURE IN INDIA. 175

PRACTICAL INFORMATION ON THE BEST MODE OF CULTIVATING
FLAX IN BENGAL, BY MR. DENEEF, BELGIAN FARMER.

“Tn accordance with my promise, I send you as follows, a detailed report
at my observations since my arrival in India, on the cultivation of the Flax

ant.

I will not enter on an explanation of the mode adopted in the cultivation
of this plant in Europe, because nothing is easier than to do so theoretically,
but will content myself with informing you, from my own practical experi-
ments, of the means at our disposal in this country, which can readily be
made available for the production of Flax and its seed.

1. Such portions of land as are annually renewed by the overflowing of
the Ganges, or which are fresh and rich, are the best adapted’ for the culti-
vation of Flax.

2. After the earth has been turned up twice or thrice with the Indian
plough, it must be rolled; because without the aid of the roller the large
clods cannot be reduced, and the land rendered fine enough to receive the
seed. The employment of the roller, both before and after sowing,
hardens the surface of the earth, by which the moisture of the soil is better
preserved, and more sheltered from the heat of the sun. About and near
Calcutta, where manure can be obtained in great abundance for the trouble
of collecting it, Flax may be produced of as good a quality as in any part of
Europe. Manure is the mainspring of cultivation. It would certainly be
the better, if the earth be well manured, to sow first of all, either Sunn
(Indian Hemp), or Hemp, or Rice, or any other rainy-season crop ; and when
this has been reaped, then to sow the Flax. The tillage of the land, by
means of the spade (kodalee) used by the natives (a method which is far
preferable to the labour of the plough), with a little manure and watering
at proper seasons, will yield double the produce obtainable from land tilled
without manure and irrigation.

The mode of forming beds of six feet in width with intervening furrows,
in use in Zealand and in Belgium, is very inconvenient in India, because
great care must be taken to preserve the moisture of the soil; and on the
other part, for the purpose of weeding, they are unnecessary. When proper
Linseed, freed from mustard seed is sown, I think that the Flax requires no
weeding at all in India.

3. The proper time to sow the Flax in India is from the beginning of
October until the 20th of November, according to the state of the soil.
The culture must be performed, if possible, some time before the sowing.
The Flax which I have sown in November, was generally much finer and
much longer than that sown in the former month, which I attributed to the
greater fall of dew during the time it was growing. The quantity of country
seed required to the Bengal beega is twenty seers, but only fifteen seers of
the foreign seed, because it is much smaller and produces larger stalks.
The latter should be preferred ; it is not only more productive io Else but,
owing to the tenderness of its stalks, it can be dressed much more easily.

4. The Flax must be pulled up by the roots before it is ripe, and while
the outer bark is in a state of fusibility. This is easily known, by the lower
part of the stalks becoming yellow; the fusion or disappearing of the outer
bark is effected during the steeping, which may be fixed, according to the
temperature ; say, in December at six days, in January five, in February
four days, and less time during the hot season. The steeping is made a day
after the pulling, when the seed is separated, and then the stalks are loosely
176 DIRECTIONS FOR FLAX CULTURE IN INDIA.

bound in small sheaves, in the same way as the Sunn. The Indians under-
stand this business very well, but in taking the flax out of the water it
should be handled softly and with great care, on account of the tenderness
of its fibres. When it is newly taken out, it should be left on the side of
the steeping pit for four hours, or until the draining of its water has ceased.
It is then spread out with the root-ends even, turned once, and when dry it
is fit for dressing or to be stapled.

5. To save the seed, the capsules, after they are separated from the stalks,
should be putin heaps to ferment from twenty-four to thirty hours, and
then dried slowly in the sun to acquire their ripeness. ‘

6. When Flax is cultivated for the seed alone, the country Flax should
be preferred. Six seers per bega are sufficient for the sowing. It should be
sown very early in October, and taken up a little before perfect ripeness, by
its roots, separately, when it is mixed with mustard seed; the Flax seed
being “intended for the purpose of drying oil, is greatly injured by being
mixed with mustard seed, by which mixture its drying qualities are much
deteriorated. With regard to the dressing of the raw material, most of the
coolies are now acquainted with the process, and I have not theretore
alluded to it. Should you desire any further information on the subject,
I am ready to afford it.”

Mr. Deneef, in reply to some queries circulated by the Asgri.-
Horticultural Society, observed that too dry or saline soils were injurious
to the culture, but that his own had been a heavy clay soil; also, that the
Bengal begah contained 14,400 square feet, or one third of an acre, and that
he sowed of foreign seed, 28 lb.; of American, 36 lb.; but of plump Patna,
or native seed, not less than 40 1b, on account of its larger size. That the
foreign seed cost Rs.8 a maund of 82 1b., while the native then cost Rs.2 8.

The acclimated American seed he found to succeed well in India. But
on a previous occasion (Feb. 10, 1841), he had observed of some samples
grown at Entally, from acclimated English seed, from country seed, and
some from Saharunpore seed, (from 30° of N. lat.,) that the sample from this
last was very superior to the others. Of two samples from acclimated
American seed, one grown in rather poor ground, the other in a rich soil—
“ The former,” he observed, “is a most beautiful sample, containing great
length of stalk with thinness; the other is of very little value, the goodness
of the soil having caused the plant to become stunted and branchy.”

Mr. Deneef further observed, that he obtained the longest and finest fibres
in sowing from the 25th of October to the 15th of November: this he ascribes
to the plant being covered every morning with a heavy dew; while that
which he had sown in the beginning of October, in the same soil and the same
seed, was much shorter in stalks, but much more productive in seed,—
“the rain being very scarce from the first days of October until the end
of December, in this part of India.” (But the ground is still hot, and the
temperature high at this period.) The begah will yield 100 1b. of seed from
foreign seed, and about 12 per cent. more from native seed.

He concludes with an approximate account of the cost (amounting to £32)
of raising a ton of Flax from Foreign seed, well dressed, and which would be
worth £50 in the English market; stating that 801b. of Flax for a begah of
land is a very small product. ‘When we shall be able to have the seed
from our own product, Rs. 60 on that article will be saved.” The account
is as follows:
EXPERIMENTS IN BENGAL AND BEHAR. 177

30 begahs’ rent for six months—the other six months for other crops Rs. 45
10 maunds of American or European seed, at Rs. 8 . .

6 begahs of superior (spade) cultivation, at Rs. 5 7 . - 30
24 begahs, four necessary ploughings, each Rs. 3 . + 72
Sowing, malees, recolt, rippling, steeping, carrying, and petty expenses 48
28 maunds dressing, in a very clean way, at Rs.3 9. . - 98
Breaking of flax-tools : . . - 7

Rs. 380

Return :—1 maund Flax.
19 to 20 maunds Seed.
7 to 9 Codilla.

Chittagong Flax—One of the most southern districts in the Bengal
Presidency, where Flax has been prepared, is that of Chittagong.
A. Sconce, Esq., at that time Collector of Chittagong, forwarded, in March,
1843, some samples of Flax which he had grown there from acclimated
Europe seed; that is, from seed re-produced for two or three years from
imported seed, and sown there in the month of November. He suggested
to the Society the awarding of small prizes to natives who cultivated the
Flax on account of its fibre. His object being “to interest chiefly those
who are familiar with the cultivation of Linseed (which is common enough
for the purpose of extracting oil) and the country Sunn.” He states that he
had had an opportunity of observing in that season the very great difference
between Flax grown from Europe and from country seed—the latter being
softer and finer, but very much shorter, and very much weaker. If this is
found to be the case by others, the length might probably be easily increased
by cultivation. The samples examined by the Flax and Hemp Committee
were reported on as follow :

Undressed Flax.—This sample contains more Tow than Flax; it is badly
prepared, dirty, and not adapted for the Home market ; but the

Dressed Flax—strong, clean, of very superior quality, but of short staple :
if it were a little longer, say six inches, it would realise a very high price in
the Home and Continental markets. Mr. Deneef said of it that the staple,
though short, was most beautiful; but the mode of preparation (having been
hackled) is ‘too expensive to admit of its yielding a profitable return, even
were it to sell at the value I affix to it, viz., £60 a ton.”

Burdwan Flax.—¥our samples of Flax grown at Burdwan were presented
to the Agri-Horticultural Society, by Mr. J. Erskine, in July, 1844,
Of these, Nos. 1, 3, and 4 were the produce of acclimated and up-country
seed mixed together—sown in October and November, 1843, and reaped in
February and March, 1844. No.2 was the produce of up-country seed, sown
on 15th October, and reaped on the 27th February. Mr. J. Law having
examined these samples, considered them all as of a fair quality ; and judging
froma the prices of the different marks of the article then in Britain, valued
Nos. 1 and 2 at £32, No. 3 at £34, and No. 4 at £30 per ton, landed in
England.

Bullea Experiments.

Mr. de Verinne, Superintendent of Flax cultivation at Bullea (twelve miles
below Benares), in reply to the queries, states, as already mentioned, Sept. 20,
1841, that the experiment of the previous season had been a complete failure.
He sowed 130 Duncanee begahs, each containing 28,336 square feet, double
of the Bengal begah. The soil was not manured, but ploughed seven and
178 ANALYSIS OF FORMER

eight times. Somewhat sandy soils are the best. The hard soil which the
natives select for growing Flax for the seed remains in clods, and cannot be
pulverized. He first sowed one maund of seed (from the Chupra district)
per begah. Mr. Bernard, one of the Belgian farmers, thought this too much;
he reduced it to 20 seers, or 401b., which proved too little (and evidently so,
as the same quantity is recommended by Mr. Deneef for the Bengal begah,
which is only half the size). He began sowing on the 16th of October, and
concluded by the end of the month; the plant was ready for steeping on the
10th of February. He recommends sowing in the beginning of October, as
there is moisture enough at the surface of the ground to sow broadcast.
Early sowings, also, will in general do away with the necessity for irrigation,
which is otherwise indispensable, and expensive. (But is not the greater
heat both of the soil and of the sun more injurious than the greater dryness
of the soil late in the season, when dew falls?) He states, that from
the 10th of September till the 20th of January, when the Flax was in seed,
and had ceased growing, there was no rain. About fifty begahs were sown
with drill-ploughs, because there was no moisture at the surface of the ground,
but as Mr. Bernard disapproved of this mode, the rest was sown broadcast,
when they were obliged to irrigate the land.

The plants having been pulled by the 10th of February, and the seeds
taken off, the stems were steeped in (indigo) vats. The first vat was steeped
nine days; the second and third, ten days; and the fourth and fifth, eleven
days, the weather having got cooler from the fall of a shower of rain. Range
of thermometer, 60 to 70°. The plant for steeping was not perfectly ripe,
but the small plants were left to ripen their seed.

The crop was small, owing to the unfavorable season. Only 1 maund
25 seers of seed, and 70lb. of Flax per begah, while the Duncanee begah
ought to yield from 150 to 200 lb. of clean Flax.! The proportion of Flax
to the Tow or Codilla, varies according to the weather in which the Flax is
cleaned; if prepared in the dry weather or hot winds, or from April to the
end of June, the proportion is one third Flax to two thirds Tow; if prepared
in damp weather, or from July to October, it is half to half. With regard
to the cost, M. de Verinne says: “ Supposing the season to be an average
one, and the produce of the begah to be 150]b. of clean Flax, 100 begahs
would give 63 tons, and the cost, according to the annexed estimate, being
Rs. 2237, will show the cost per ton, landed in Calcutta, to be Rs.331, or £33.
In making up the estimate, I have calculated the expenses according to
those of the experiment of last year. Only the produce has been valued at
150 1b. per begah,” though 701b. only were obtained.

' With these Indian returns of the produce per begah (which is at Bullea two
thirds of an acre), we may contrast a statement by Dr. Hodges: “ From the returns
of the Royal Flax Society, and from my own inquiries, I would estimate the average
produce of a statute acre in the North of Ireland of air-dried Flax straw, with bolls,
at two tons, which, by the seeding machine, are usually reduced to 3360 lb. By the
various processes of the rural manufacturer, the amount of dressed Flax or fibre ob-
tained averages from four to five cwt. per acre.”
EXPERIMENTS IN BENGAL AND BEHAR. 179

Estimate of the probable expense for the cultivation of 100 begahs of
plant, the manufacture, and the despatch of the produce to Calcutta.

 

Land rent for 100 begahs, at Rs.4 3 : ‘ Rs.450 0 0
Irrigating the lands, if there is no moisture at the surface, at
R.1 per begah . . : - 100 0 0
Six ploughings, at 4 annas each per begah = - 10 0 0
Chikorage, or cleaning the fields before sowing, at 8 annas
per begah . 5 7 . - 500 0
150 maunds of seed, at R.1 8 per maund r - 225 0 0
Plucking the plant, at R.1 per begah_ z - 100 0 0
Weeding, at 8 annas per begah_ . » 50 0 0
Taking off the seed, at R.1 per begah . : - 100 0 0
Filling the vats, taking the plant out, spreading and turning
it, &c., at 12 annas per begah . : 2 » 7 00
Breaking the Flax for cleaning, at R.1 4 per begah - 125 0 0
Cleaning the Flax, at 2 annas per pound : ; - 468 12 0
Gunny bags, for bales i. . ‘ - 20 0 0
Making up the bales. é . . - 1440 0
Boat-hire, at 8 annas per ton . i - 50 0 0
Chaundar (person in charge of boat) . ‘ 5 7 0 0
Carriage of the plant, at R. 1 per begah % - 100 0 0
Four Zilledars, for six months, to look over the cultivation, at
Rs.3 each per month ‘ s . - 72 00
2156 12 0
Exchange, at Rs.3 12 per cent. e - 8014 0
Co.’s Rs. 2237 10 0

Monghyr Experiments.

The culture of Flax was commenced near Monghyr, on the Ganges River,
in the year 1839; and specimens were presented to the Agri-Horticultural
Society, in May, 1840, and again in the month of September in the same

ear.
: The strength of this Flax, as ascertained by Professor O'Shaughnessy, of
the Medical College, Calcutta, was as follows, and as compared with other
kinds tried at the same time.

Monghyr, undressed ‘i * ‘ - 40,000
Archangel . é . 5 , - 43,000
Baltic, dressed. i . a « 42,033
Ditto, undressed ‘ ‘ ‘ 19,075
Trish, dressed i “ ‘ ‘ - 17,075

Mr. Deneef considered it the best sample of India-grown Flax that he
had seen.

The sentiments of some of the members of the Flax Committee were as
follow :

Mr. Hodgkinson.—The samples of Flax are of middling quality ; the fibre
fine and strong, but deficient in cleanness and colour. The first defect arises
from carelessness in scutching. : . aes

Mr. Willis——The Baltic rough Flax, which of all the specimens it is the
most legitimate for us to compare with the Monghyr undressed one, is supe-
rior to it in colour, lustre, mellowness, and cleanliness.

The Monghyr undressed Flax, not having undergone the degree of
180 EXPERIMENTS IN BENGAL AND BEHAR.

cleansing, and preparative manipulation which has been given to the Baltic
rough Flax, beg more ligneous, &c., is not exhibited with all the com-
parative advantage it otherwise would have shown. ; .

The Monghyr undressed specimen seems to possess more fow In proportion
than the rough Baltic one. Its length of fibre seems somewhat inferior to
that of the Baltic one. Its strength of fibre seems good. But after all it
seems so promising a production that I think the parties engaged in the
experiment would do best to send home a good supply of it to the various
markets of London, Liverpool, and Scotland, that they may derive the opinion
of merchants, brokers, and manufacturers as their most true and unerring

uide. ;
R Mr. Wallace again submitted, in August, 1841, two samples of Monghyr-
grown Flax, to show the improvement on last year’s produce. He stated
that they were average samples of thirty-four bales (nearly four tons)
which had just been shipped by the Wary Bannatyne, for London.

No. 1.—Grown from country seed on a strong black soil, which had been
inundated by the river, and retained its moisture through the season. The
seed was sown on or about 10th November, 1840. Twenty seers of clean
seed to a begah (the begah is rather larger than that of Bengal); the plant
was allowed to ripen fully, and the seed come to full maturity. This was
all saved by rippling combs, which separate it easily from the stalk. The
soil received very little preparation ; it was drilled with one plough, another
plough following in the same track in which the seed was sown. The plant
was pulled about the 20th March, and steeped for three days. The breaking
or crushing of the plant was done by machinery ; the scutching by hand.
A man could clean of this quality of plant five seers a day. The outturn
per begah was 9 stone, such as the muster, and 3} maunds of seed.

No. 2.—Grown from country seed on a light sandy soil, also inundated
by the river; was sown about 8th October, with the same sort of seed; the
land was well prepared, having had three or four ploughings; the seed was
sown broadcast 25 seers per begah; it was allowed to ripen fully; it was
pulled 28th February, and steeped 43 days. The outturn of this was about
14 stone per begah, and one maund of seed—no rain having fallen from the
time of sowing, seven eighths of the crop was lost; the dressing of this was
similar to the other. A man could not scutch more than 2} to 3 seers per
day.

Mr. Wallace, in his reply to the queries of the Society, states that the
begah at Monghyr contains 3600 square yards—three fourths of an acre,
and that the inundated land is to be preferred. Alluvial land will yield a
crop if not too sandy, but that the higher land is preferable if rain fall two
months after sowing ; that dry soil produces a good plant, but of very coarse
quality. He sows at the latter end of September for seed only, but from
15th October and all November for fibre, to the extent of 60 Ib. to the
begah if sown broadcast, and 40 lb. if sown in drills.

The American and Europe seed, he states, produce double the quantity of
fibre, half the quantity of tow, and of a finer quality, but only half as much
seed as the native. Of this the price in the district was from R.1 4 to
R.1 8. That he reaps from the 25th of February to the 10th of May. That
the average crop is about 9 stone, or 126 lb. per begah; and that sixteen of
these are required to produce a ton of Fax; with of tow, first quality 36 lb.,
and second quality 141b. per begah ; while there is an average crop of 3}
maunds of seed. The time of steeping varies from two to three days in the
hot months, to four and five days in February, October, and November, and
to seven and eight days, in the cold months of December and January; and
that one day more is to be added for dry plants of the preceding season ; and
that the cost of Flax laid down in Calcutta, per ton of 20 ewt., is from £12
to £15, all expenses included.
ENGLISH REPORTS ON INDIAN FLAX. 181

These expenses consist of rent of land, R.1 8 to Rs.2 per begah. If the
ryut uses his land in the other months, then four annas less than the above
rates. Coolies obtainable at 14 annas per day for rippling, steeping, or
carrying to the factory; or one rupee for fourteen bundles of 33 cubits in

irth, tightly compressed. It is steeped in a vat, and taken out when the

bre will separate easily from the wood, and then dried in the sun. It is
crushed by being passed under large iron rollers, and then placed on the
edge of a board, where the fibre is separated from the wood by striking it
with a wooden sword. The expense is Rs. 3 per bazar maund, and the con-
veyance to Calcutta, Rs.20 per 100 maunds, Notwithstanding the small
cost (£12 to £15) for a ton of Flax laid down at Calcutta, which was
pronounced of good quality, and probably similar to the other Indian Flaxes,
which were valued in England at various prices, varying from £35 to £45 ;
also stating that the amount realised on the sale of the seed is calculated to
have more than covered the expenses of cultivation, rippling, and steeping
(Report in ‘ Agric. Soc. Proc.,’ Nov., 1841, pp. 38 and 95): the speculation
did not succeed. For we find in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the same Society for
February, 1844, pp. 45 and 165, Mr. Wallace, intimating, in reference to
his operations for several years past with a view to establish the cultivation
of Flax at Monghyr, that he was afraid, from the serious drawbacks he had
experienced, that he should be compelled to abandon the speculation unless
some encouragement was afforded by Government. The Society having
referred all the papers and samples of Flax received from Mr. Wallace to
their Hemp and Flax Committee for report, it is stated that one of the
members was in favour of an appeal to Government, while the other three
were opposed to such a step; but as neither the facts nor reasons for either
side are given, we are unable to draw any other general conclusions.

The foregoing rather detailed account of the experiments
culture, preparation, and cost of Flax grown in different parts
of India, may appear to the reader to have occupied more
attention than their importance entitles them to. But without
going through this labour, it would be impossible to draw any
satisfactory conclusions for the prosecution of any future experi-
ments in the same or in other parts of the country, if such
should be thought necessary. But it is first desirable to know
what was thought of these fibres when sent to the markets of
this country. This we are fortunately able to do, from some of
the results having been published, and from some of the speci-
mens having been sent to the India House.

A detailed report is given from Liverpool of the first samples
grown, and of which a report had also been made by Mr. Deneef.
But he generally rated them higher than they were valued
in this country, though we are unable to distinguish exactly the
respective specimens in the two reports. ‘

The Secretary next submitted an extract of a letter which he had been
favoured with by Mr. Hodgkinson on some samples of Flax (similar to those
182 ENGLISH REPORTS ON INDIAN FLAX.

so favorably reported on by the Flax Committee of the Society) forwarded
by him to iverson, (v. ‘Report’ 1841, p. 41.)

The letter, which bears date January 30, 1841, is from Mr. Grey, and he:
says: “From what I can judge, and having shown them to a friend here
who has probably as much through his hands as any other in Liverpool, a
partner of William Jackson, Son, and Co.

““Mr. Murray seemed far from sanguine about them, but I trust they
indicate the capability of producing an article of great importance and.
extent.

“Ist. The best is a lot (country Flax, native seed, 26th May, 1840)—
au may be worth £40 to £45 per ton here; it is finer, softer, and better

an

“2d. The large parcel (country Flax, native seed, 27th May, 1840)—
which has a fine broad fibre, and not much inferior; it is worth £40, if in
quantity equal to sample.

“The lengths are too unequal, which makes it fall upon the hackle, and
is a disadvantage. Of these two samples the fibre is by no means weaker
than of many other such Flaxes, and probably when this is the case it arises
from the preparation.

“3d. (Bengal, May, prepared by Belgians.) Dew-ripening weakens, I
understand, the fibre, hurts the colour, and even prevents its bleaching as it
ought to do, and for which such Flax would be used. Where water is
obtainable for steeping, this method should not be resorted to.

“4th. (Indian Flax, No. 1, grown in the neighbourhood of Calcutta,
worth at least £30 per ton.) This is better, but seems, if I mistake not,
also to be dew-ripened. It is worth £35 here, however.

“5th. These from imported seed don’t seem equal to the produce of
native.

“6th. The heckled Bengal Flax, does not show to advantage, being im-
perfectly dressed, and happens to be of a dry, hard nature.

“7th. (Country Flax, native seed, 26th May, 1840.) This markis similar
to the first, but you will distinguish it, being darker coloured and harsher.

“ The first is the best, I think, decidedly. Weakness of fibre is an insu-
perable fault where it exists, and it may be perhaps avoided by better pre-
paration. The Belgians’ is very weak, and some of the others.

“TOWS. One of these (Bengal Tow, native seed, 30th May, 1840), seem-
ingly the clearing or last tow, isa very good thing, worth in Dundee £30 to
£33, I should say; the others from firmer tools before this, £20. Another
of same mark as first worth perhaps £16. These are of great consumption,
as recommended before to your attention. Codillas from £12 @ 16 20 per
ton would do well, and could be obtained from the waste in preparing the
better Flax, observing always that the staple be good and the fibres strong,
though they need not be of great length by any means. In Flax the longer
the better, though not required beyond moderation, but the fibres should be
equal and uniform, so as all to split and yield as much dressed as possible.
These Flaxes on the whole resemble most the common Newry Flax, which
costs £40 @ 50 per ton, wanting the natural sap, in which all these are
deficient. :

“The quality I think will not be of the best for some time, but much that
would sell largely in Dundee or even Belfast might be obtained; in Dundee
every thing is used, down to the coarsest ; but Flax worth £40 to £60 per
ton is most saleable, and to the most certain and best buyers. The Codillas
and oe there seems no doubt of, and Flax to bring from £30 to £45 per
ton also.”
ENGLISH REPORTS ON INDIAN FLAX. 183

The next report we have is on the samples of Flax grown in
the following year.

Agricultural Society of India, 11th Aug., 1841.

1.—Four specimens of country-grown Flax, peered in Caleutta.—Pre-

ance by Mr. H. Woollaston on behalf of the “London Flax Experimental
‘ociety.”

No. 1,—Is asample of Flax of last year’s growth, from English seed, not
acclimated. Six hundred pounds of this quality, Mr. Woollaston mentions,
were forwarded to London by the Bucephalus ; and by the last mail Mr. Rogers
advises that it was valued at £50 per ton.

No. 2.—Is a sample from acclimated English seed, grown in Entally.

The seed was sown last November, and the plant gathered in February,
having been in the ground 85 or 90 days.

Mr. Woollaston states that this sample is considered much superior to
No. 1, and that Mr: Deneef attributes its superiority, to the seed being
acclimated, which renders the separation of the under-bark much easier, and

leaves the Flax finer and softer. Mr. Deneef estimates its value compared
with No. 1 at £56 per ton.

No. 3.—Is a sample from the same seed and growth as No. 2—but con-
sists of picked portions of plant, so as to furnish a specimen of the degree of
fineness that it is possible to produce. This sample is superior even to No. 2,
and nearly equal to the best produced in Belgium; much surpassing the
Belgian ordinary qualities. Mr. Deneef estimates its value at £60 the ton.

No, 4.—Is a sample of Flax from country seed grown and prepared at

Bowsing Factory, district of Burdwan; estimated in London at £40 to £45
the ton.

Some specimens of the Flax grown this year having been
sent to the India House, and having, in March, 1841, been
examined by Mr. Hutchinson, of Mark Lane, he thought them
very favorable specimens of so recent an experiment, as they
seemed to be equivalent to Russian and Polish Flax, which was
selling at that time for £40 a ton; and one of the specimens
appeared of a quality which might sell for £45 a ton in the
then state of the market.

Mr. Enderby, then of the rope-manufactory at Greenwich,
thought yarn made of it very good, and that nothing could
prevent both the Flax and Yarn proving valuable articles of
commerce, if sent in quantities, and of uniform and sorted
qualities. Messrs. Noble have recently informed the Author
that they also had received specimens, and thought them equal
to the middling and even better qualities of Russian Flax.
There seems no doubt, from the concurrence of opinion, that
the Flax produced in India was sufficiently good to stand
favorable comparison with both Russian and Egyptian Flax,
and was, therefore, of the kind which is much required, and
184 OBSERVATIONS ON RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

which could be consumed here in the largest quantities. The
question, therefore, is whether it can be produced at a cost so
as to yield a profit to both planters and the merchants who
would export from India to England.

OBSERVATIONS ON EXPERIMENTS.

On reviewing the accounts and the results of these experi-
ments, it appears that, though abandoned too soon in some
situations, they were carried on for a sufficiently long period in
others to allow of reliable deductions being drawn from then, if
full information on all points had been supplied. The soil does
not seem to have been complained of; but though drainage is
essential in many parts of Europe, the power of irrigating will
be found most useful in the East. The climate is obviously
very different from what the plant meets with in Ireland, as
not a drop of rain seems to fall from the time of sowing to that
of reaping the crop; but heavy dews compensate for this defi-
ciency during a part of the season. But as this dryness of
climate prevails over a great part of India during the season of
cultivation—that is, from the end of the rainy season to the
beginning of the hot weather—it is evident that irrigation is
necessary for such cultivation, and must not be too expensive.
Perhaps the double monsoon of the Madras Presidency might
in some localities afford a suitable climate, if the temperature
is not too high. <A perfectly appropriate climate may no doubt
be obtained at different elevations on the Himalayas, and in
some of the mountainous ranges of the South of India; but
European superintendence may not be available and the ex-
penses of transit be too great. The Saugur and Nerbuddah
territories appear favorable, from their more moderate climate ;
while some of the districts of the North-West, of Sindh,
and the Punjab, may be found suitable, from the command of
irrigation and the prevalence of a moderate temperature.

The proportion of seed required having been ascertained by
Mr. Deneef, we cannot but observe the unexpected results ob-
tained from the sowing of some native seed—the Flax produced
from Saharunpore seed having been considered to be of excel-
lent quality, and, in Liverpool, to be the best of all the specimens
sent. American seed was found to be suitable to the country;
OBSERVATIONS ON RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 185

but it is remarked that when sown in a rich, it did not do so
well, as when sown in a poorer soil. The whole question of
what is the best seed for the untried soils and climates of new
countries is one of considerable difficulty. It does not fullow
that seed from a rich soil and the most careful cultivation is
necessarily the best for transference to a poorer soil and drier
climate ; indeed, the converse would, in many cases, appear to
be the more suitable course. But even in the case of Wheats,
some from Australia and from the Nerbuddah, pronounced the
finest in the English market, have never produced good
crops in this country, notwithstanding the most careful
attention. Indeed, the most advisable course appears to be
to grow the best native seed, and as thickly sown as is found
to be suitable, for the express purpose of changing the branch-
ing nature of the plant, and then making an exchange with
the seed of other districts following the same course; in order
to insure that interchange of seeds which is so beneficial for all
kinds of crops, and is conspicuous in India in the indigo crops
of Bengal being grown from the seeds of the North-West. In
the directions for culture in Europe, we have seen that early
sowing is necessary to produce good fibre, and late sowing for
seed; but in India the reverse course is to be followed, for
early sowing, in consequence of the high temperature, induces
rapid but, from the dryness of the climate, stunted growth,
with an abundant production of seed; while later in the
autumn the temperature is lower, the growth is slower, but the
dews being heavy, there is greater moisture, and this, with the
slower growth, produces finer fibre. ‘The early sowing is pre-
ferred by some, in order to save the expense of irrigation, but
this must sometimes be with the sacrifice of the quality of
fibre.

With respect to the cost at which Flax can be produced in
India, we find Mr. Leyburn stating that he gets four maunds
of Flax, or 328 1b., from about one third of an acre of land, at a
cost of £2 10s., or for about £17 aton; and that this sold for
£28 a ton in London; but we do not find that he proceeded
with the cultivation. Mr. Deneef calculated the cost of Flax
produced by him to be £32 a ton, with a profit of £8, which
would afterwards amount to £14. Mr. de Verinne calculated
the cost would be £31 a ton, with an average crop; though he
186 OBSERVATIONS ON RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

did not get half the quantity. The cost of both is evidently
too high, unless the finer qualities of Flax are produced.
Mr. Wallace who continued the longest, and produced Flax at
the cheapest rate—that is, from £12 to £15—onght to have suc-
ceeded, as he states that the expenses of cultivation were paid
for by the seed. But we find him, as we have already stated,
representing to the Agricultural Society that he should
be unable to go on with the culture, from the discourage-
ments he had met with, unless assisted by the Government.
Though the difficulties are not specified, they must have been
greater than appear from the published accounts, and therefore
the facilities and the profit are not so great as they appeared
to the Agri-Horticultural Society,—who thus unintentionally
induced the Government of Lord Auckland to consider that
public aid was not necessary.

It is very evident that such experiments can only be made
under the superintendence of Europeans, when, if successful,
they may be adopted by natives. In repeating the experiments
in more favorable situations, it would seem very desirable at
first to ascertain as accurately as possible the quantity of
produce of ordinary quality obtainable per acre, with good
cultivation in a favorable locality, on an average of years, and
then to endeavour to improve the quality. The profits of the
two kinds of cultivation and preparation are not very dissimilar
(v. p. 163) in Europe. Though manufacturers may require
more of the coarser qualities of Flax, planters will of course
grow that for which they can get the best prices; though it
will be safest at first to reckon only on getting the prices of
Russian or Egyptian Flax.

We may proceed now to inquire where else Flax may be
cultivated in India.

CULTURE IN SAUGUR AND NERBUDDAH TERRITORY.

The foregoing experiments were made almost entirely in the
provinces of Bengal and Behar; but it has been mentioned
that the central province of the Saugur and Nerbuddah
territories seems well adapted for the culture of Flax, from the
nature of the soil and climate. Here, indeed, some Flax has
already been grown by Mr. Williams, of which I have been
CULTURE IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF INDIA. 187

favoured with a small specimen, and from whom we shall have
further samples as well as information. This being the result
of a first experiment, on a small scale, is not, perhaps, caleu-
lated to give a fair idea of what is practicable, particularly as
we are without any information respecting the mode of culture,
or the kind or quality of seed which was employed. But
Mr. M‘Leod, now Commissioner in the Punjab, mentions in
one of his reports, that the growth is very luxuriant there.
The Flax is comparatively short, light coloured, and rather dry,
and more like Egyptian than any other kind of Flax.

It might be objected to the growth of Flax so far in the
interior, that land-carriage for so great a distance would be an
insuperable obstacle. But, as Mr. Williams finds it suit his
purpose to send his now-famed Jubbulpore Hemp even to
Calcutta, there seems no reason why Flax should not be equally
able to bear the expenses of culture and of transit. In this
direction, there is, moreover, an excellent road, described by
the Cotton Committee of the Agri-Horticultural Society,
8th January, 1840. “From Jubbulpore to Mirzapore, on the
banks of the Ganges, the great cotton-mart of the North-West
provinces, a bridged and metalled road of 239 miles in length,
equal to any in England, has been made by Government; at
all the stations, the means of transport, and on the river, boats
of every description, abound.” This road is regularly kept up,
and a toll levied at the base of the ghauts. The native princes
have, however, without contributing to its expenses, diminished
its utility by levying extra duties on the goods passing through
their territories. (v. ‘Journ. Agric. Soc.,’ vol. viii, p. 115.1) There
is a prospect, however, of these being remodelled. The most
important consideration, nevertheless, is that of climate.
According to the concurrent testimony of different observers, as
reported in the Author’s work, on ‘The Culture and Commerce
of Cotton in India,’ p. 311, &c., deficiency of moisture is
seldom complained of; and there will, probably, be seldom any
excess in the season when the Flax would be cultivated—that
is, in the cold-weather months. Hence the chief difficulty in
India will be diminished, if not entirely escaped.

' See also a letter by Montague Gore, Esq., to the same effect, in ‘The Times,’ in
the summer of 1853.
188

CULTURE IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

Though not within the limits of the Bengal Presidency, we
may here most appropriately mention that good Flax has been
produced still further south, where elevation produces lowness
of temperature accompanied with moisture of the atmosphere,
as on the Shevaroy Hills and on the Neilgherries. Dr.
Cleghorn, Secretary of the Agri-Horticultural Society of
Madras, is well qualified to give the best advice on localities
where experiments may most fitly be tried; and Professor
Mayer is there, to give the benefit of his chemical investigation
of the Flax plant and soil. Mr. M‘Ivor, in charge of the
Public Garden at Ootacamund, is well situated for making
experiments on the growth of Flax in the cool and moist
climate of the Neilgherries, if the culture should in other
respects appear desirable.

Linseed has long been cultivated in the Madras Presidency,
though not to any great extent. Dr. Ainslie mentions the
seed under the name of Aliverei, and states that in the southern
parts of the Peninsula, the Mootchie men and oil painters
make use of Linseed oil. But we now find Linseed among
the Exports: in the year 1850-51, there were exported 801 cwt.
of Linseed from Fort St. George, nearly all to the United
Kingdom.

CULTURE IN BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

In the Bombay Presidency, Linseed is also cultivated, as in
all other parts of India, and has of late years been exported in
considerable quantities. We observe that in the year 1850-51,
59,076 cwt., and in 1852-58, 162,015 cwt.= Rs. 486,046 in
value, were imported into Bombay from the Concan; and
that there were exported to the United Kingdom, in 1850-51,
50,102 cwt., valued at Rs. 170,112, and in 1852-53, 114,309 ewt.
= Rs. 342,926 in value. We do not observe that any attempts
have been made to grow Flax. It is probable that the
low country along the coast may be too hot, and the country
above the ghauts too dry; but of this those who are located
in these parts can most correctly judge, if it should be thought
desirable to make the attempt. Col. Sykes describes Linseed
as generally cultivated in the Dukhun.
CULTURE IN BUNDLECUND AND IN THE DOAB OF INDIA. 189

The export of Linseed from Bombay is now estimated at an
annual value of about four lacs of rupees, although five years
ago it did not exceed one lac. This the Chamber of Commerce
ascribes to the improvements on the Thulghaut road, and to
the consequent reduced cost of conveyance in carts instead of
on bullocks. :

PROPOSED CULTURE IN BUNDLECUND.

An article has lately appeared in the ‘ Benares Recorder ’
(15th July, 1854), proposing the culture of Flax and of Hemp
in Bundlecund; observing that “with less capital than what
English merchants now expend in Russia, India’ can produce
Flax which will not be inferior in fibre or colour to the Riga
Flax. In Bundlecund the soil is almost free and unoccupied ;
and the land rent is also so low, that failure in the cultivation
of either of these two products—Flax and Hemp—would be
impossible. There are numerous hill streams with clear water,
over the whole country, that would admirably serve the purpose
of steeping.” But the great uncertainty is the climate, which,
like the parts of the Gangetic valley which have been alluded
to, is very dry during the season of cultivation. But it is
certainly worthy of inquiry, by those favorably situated for the
purpose, whether, by irrigation, or by the aid of the dew which
undoubtedly falls in the cold weather, this dryness might
not be sufficiently obviated to allow of the production of good
Flax.

CULTURE IN THE NORTHERN DOAB,

The most northern station from which any Flax was sent
during the experiments of the Flax Society was Allygurh, in
27° and 28° of north latitude. Mr. J. Saunders, on the 26th
July (‘ Proceedings,’ p. 100) wrote that he had sent a sample
of the Flax which he had grown on the banks of the Kote
Nuddee. But he described it as prepared with very clumsy
tools, and cost him about four rupees a maund for merely
breaking ; as to scutching, it has had none.

The finest seed was, however, obtained from Saharunpore,
in 30° of north latitude—a locality with which the Author is
well acquainted, but where no Flax is produced, and where the
190 CULTURE AT SAHARUNPORE AND IN THE HIMALAYAS.

soil and climate are dry during the cold-weather months and
season of cultivation; that is, from October to March, with
the exception of some rain at Christmas time, often called
the chota bursaut. The district has, however, enjoyed the
advantage of canal irrigation for more than twenty years,
under the superintendence of Sir Proby Cautley, greatly to
the benefit of the country and people. This would give great
facilities for Flax cultivation, and would not be expensive.
The experimental culture which has been sanctioned to
be made by Dr. Jameson in the Botanic Garden at Saharun-
pore, as well as in the Himalayas, will no doubt be carried on
with his characteristic energy. The experiment will be useful
from the information which it will undoubtedly afford for com-
parison with those which have been made in Bengal and Behar,
as Saharunpore is situated near the north-western extremity of
the Gangetic valley, and the temperature is such that there is
every prospect of the plant being slow in growth, and that,
with the aid of canal irrigation, the growth will be such as to
insure sufficient length of fibre. Of the temperature in the
cold-weather months we may judge from the following, deduced
from the Author’s observations while he was Superintendent of
the Botanic Garden ; from which it will be seen that November
would be the fittest month for sowing, and the crop could be
gathered in February or March, before the heat becomes great.

Mean Temperature.

Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March. April.
74 64 55 52 55 67 78

In the Himalayas the season of cultivation is the same as in
Europe ; for there, us here, the winter mouths are too cold for
the growth of plants—but the spring and summer temperature
is exactly suited to the growth of an annual like the Flax
plant.

Mean Temperature.

March. April. May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct. Nov.
53 59 66 67 67 66 64 57 50

As far as temperature is concerned, there is evidently a long
period for cultivation, and different months might be selected

? See the Author's Report on the Botanic Garden at Saharunpore, ‘ Journ. of the
Asiatic Society,’ vol. i.
CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB. 191

for the purpose. But there is a great difference in the moisture
of the different months, as the rains come on in the middle of
June, and are excessive for three months. But it would be
interesting to ascertain the effects of such moisture on the
growth of a fibre like that of Flax. It is probable that the
plant would require to be supported, to prevent its being laid.

CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB.

The Punjab, so recently acquired, is already as settled as
any of the older provinces, in consequence chiefly of the energy
and intelligence of the Service being applied to devising
methods of Government suitable to the people and country,
instead of attempting to introduce English institutions among
foreigners who are unable to appreciate or to take advantage
of them. In the Punjab, we see some of those who were
fighting against us, now employed in the far East with our
own troops; but many being necessarily left without employ-
ment, are ready to take to or return to agricultural pursuits,
The vigorous measures which have been adopted, while they
give security and freedom of communication, will also greatly
facilitate agricultural pursuits ; especially as some of the public
works in course of execution are canals of irrigation.

There, the Kote Kangra valley teems with Chinese Tea
shrubs, the first of which were planted in the year 1848, that
is, immediately after the conquest of these hills by Lord
Hardinge; and the Tea which has been prepared from these
plants is considered to be of the first class of China Teas, by
such excellent judges as the Messrs. Thompson. The culture
of Silk has lately been introduced by the Agri-Horticultural
Society of the Punjab—the first specimens having been
sent to Calcutta and to this country, were considered to be
naturally of good quality, but very indifferently reeled. Mr.
W. H. de Verinne having been sent up by the Government
with an establishment of silk-winders and -reelers from Mor-
shedabad, and some samples of silk of their winding having
been sent to Calcutta and to the India House, the former was
pronounced by Mr. E. Kilburn, on 1st September, as “requiring
only a little more attention to rank with the product of the
best Bengal Filatures,” and which would have been worth in
192 CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB.

May about Rs.12 8 per Factory seer. The specimens sent to
the India House were submitted to the Messrs. Durant, who
gave a most carefully drawn up report, and pronounced them
excellent specimens of Bengal Silk, but requiring a little
more care; and worth from 14s. to 15s. a pound in London.
Vigorous measures have in consequence been adopted for the
prosecution of the culture by plantations of different kinds of
Mulberry, besides the kind which is already common in the
country, which, in the opinion of Mr. de Verinne, is almost
equal to the Bengal Mulberry. It is probable that some
difficulties may be experienced from the dryness of the climate
in the plains of the Punjab; but there can be none in the
hilly districts, where the Tea plant is flourishing. Some of the
native Wools also having been highly approved of, twenty-five
Merino Rams have been imported by the Government from
Australia, for the further improvement of the breed of Sheep.

That some parts of the district are well adapted for the
production of fibres, is evident from the Kote Kangra Hemp,
to be afterwards described, proving one of the strongest of
known fibres. The Agri-Horticultural Society of the Punjab,
therefore, have begun their experimental cultures in a very
favorable locality, from the great variety of soil and of climate
within the command of their members. If the Geography of
Plants and of Animals is attended to, as well as the Principles
of Culture in new situations, little doubt need be entertained
respecting the success of the above cultures as well as of
Flax.

Though Linseed is so extensively produced throughout
India, we hear nowhere of the fibre being valued and sepa-
rated. But when we get to the confines of cotton-producing
districts—that is, into the Punjab—we find that some Flax,
prepared by the natives on their own account, is separated in
the neighbourhood of Lahore. For we are told that the stalks
of the Linseed plant yield a fibre, which is made into twine,
and used for the network of their charpaes or native beds.
This information was elicited in consequence of inquiries origi-
nated by Mr. Frere, the distinguished Commissioner of Sindh
from his desire to promote the culture of Linseed in the
province under his charge. The fibre, however, of the Linseed
plant is separated in still more northern parts, as some seed
CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB. 193

of Bokhara Flax sown in England was found to be that of the
common Flax.

The inquiries made respecting the growth of Linseed in the
Punjab elicited the following facts:

On the Cis-Sutlej it is stated that three seers to a begah are sown
broadcast when alone, or in drills; probably as an edging to other crops.
Three maunds of Linseed considered a good crop. The stalks and husks con-
sidered refuse and useless. The seed sells for 18 seers for the rupee to
oilmen, A maund. of seed yields of oil 103 seers; of oil-cake 29% seers.
The oil sells for 5 and 53, and the oil-cake at 60 to 66 seers for the rupee.

In the Jalindhur Doab, Linseed is cultivated, especially in the Khadir or
inundated Jand of the Beas and Sutlej Rivers; but plants always small;
seed sells for 20 to 30 seers for a rupee. Itis also cultivated in the Sheerwul,
or tract of country in which the soil is firm and covered by a deposit from the
rains, with the subsoil always moist—ripens before barley, and generally
before wheat.

Linseed is also cultivated in the rich loamy soils of the Kangra district
skirting the Himalayas, but chiefly in the eastern parts, on account of the
seed, which sells for 20 to 100 seers for the rupee—Flax itself burnt.

In the Punjab, sown with barley and mussoor (or lentils) in Katick (Oct.
and Nov.), and is ripein Cheyt (March and April); usually sown intermixed
with the above crops, or in separate patches. Never irrigated, but grown
along the Sutlej, in Khadir land, or that which is inundated during the rainy
season, but never manured.

In the Lahore division, it is grown chiefly about Sealkote and Deena-
nuggur, and is the only part where the fibre seems to be made use of, as it is
stated that the stalks yield a fibre which is made into twine, and used chiefly
for the network of their charpaes or native beds. The price of the seed
is about Rs,2 8 per maund. Ben localities are stated to be well suited to
it, and the seed was in little demand. Twine made of the fibre was sent, but
no notice seems to have been taken of its quality.

From the above details of cultivation, it is evident that
though Linseed is very generally known, it is nowhere exten-
sively cultivated, as is evident from the price of the seed, which
is dear in comparison with that of Wheat. Some of the uses
are well known; for instance, the oil is used as a drying oil,
and the bruised seed, mixed with flour, is described by Major
Edwardes as given as a strengthening food for cattle, and the
oil-cake is no doubt employed for the same purpose; while
the fibre is sufficiently valued to be separated in some, though
burnt in most other places. It would seem much in favour of
the production of good fibre that the growth is much slower
than in the southern provinces of Bengal.

The Society began some experiments on the culture of Flax,
in the cold weather of 1853, with seed obtained from Saharun-
pore; that is, the same place from which the best seed was

13
194: CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB.

obtained in the experiments in Bengal and Behar, and which
produced such good Flax. (v. p.p. 176 and 182.) The samples
were prepared under the superintendence of Corporal Keenan, of
H.M.’s 10th Regiment. Of the opinion formed of these samples
when sent to Calcutta, Mr. Wood, Secretary of the Chamber
of Commerce, writes: “7th June, 1854. The general opinion
regarding the Flax is very favorable. It is considered the
finest that has been ever grown in the country; and that the
cultivation of it might be encouraged.” Some of the special
reports are as follow:

Mr. Stalkartt writes :—‘‘ This Flax is decidedly the best specimen of this
country’s growth, and I should say a good merchantable article. It is very
difficult to give a thorough report upon it, as we have none from Europe to
compare it with. From the test it did not appear very strong, and from its
smell I should say that oil had been used in the preparation; perhaps with
an improved method it would have greater strength, as oil, ceneuely speak-
ing, deteriorates greatly the strength of Hemp and Flax. I would like to
see it in greater bulk; a handful is not a fair sample.”

Report from Mr. Haworth.—“ Although I am not a member of the Flax
and Hemp Committee, I am glad to have had the opportunity of examining
the sample forwarded to the Society by Mr. Cope. On the whole, I think,
its preparation does great credit to Corporal Keenan; any shortcoming is
owing to the finer heckles not being ready. I think the length of fibre is
good; the colour of the greater part is bright and healthy—that portion
shows good strength ; there is, however, a small part of the sample of a dark
dull colour, which, I think, is caused by over-retting, and that portion of the
sample’is, as might be expected, weaker than the rest. If the natives of this
country could produce such Flax as this specimen under notice, from the-
immense fields now grown in Bengal for seed only, what an enormous
amount would be added to the value of our exports.”

Mr. Stalkartt is a rope-maker, of the firm of Messrs. Harton
and Co., of Calcutta, and wished ten maunds to be sent to him
by the quickest transit—bullock-train and steam-boat—in order
to see what he could do with it in his own business. He
wished also for “a couple of maunds of the tow,” as he thought
“it might be useful for the railway.” Mr. Stalkartt’s remark
about oil being used in the preparation, is referred to by the
Secretary of the Society, and contradicted, “as no oil was
used.” It is probably an accidental testimony to the softness

of the fibre, which, in most of the Flaxes from warm countries,
is found to be dry and hard.

The Sub-Committee appointed by the Society to draw up a
proposition for Flax arrangements, submitted the following—.
CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB. 195

Suggestions regarding the improvement in, and increase of, the cultivation
of Flax, or Linseed plant, for the sake of its fibre.

1st.—It is to be made generally known that a premium, of Rs, 500, has been
sanctioned by the Supreme Government of India, to be given for the largest
area of land that may be appropriated, in the Punjab and the Cis- and
Trans-Sutlej States, to the culture of Flax, during the season of 1854-55,
being not less than 25 acres in any one village.

2d.—A second premium, of Rs. 350, has been similarly authorised, for the
next largest area so cultivated, being not less than 20 acres, in any one
village, and—

3d.—A third premium, of Rs. 200, is to be granted for the third largest
piece, being not less than 15 acres in any one village; that is to say, the
Government will award the first premium to any one land-holder, or village
community of land-holders, who may, in his or their own village, cultivate,
for the production of Flax fibre, ground aggregating, in the whole, 25 acres,
or as much upwards as the owners may choose.

Moreover, the Government of India have sanctioned the purchase, on
behalf of the Society, of the entire crop of merchantable Flax, including the
fibre, if of the required length, that may be produced in the Punjab, and to
pay for it at the current market rate of the Flax seed, with 25 per cent.
added for the fibre.

It is to be a condition that not less than sixty Company’s seers of Flax
seed, be sown on each begah, cultivated with a view to competition; and
that the growers be informed that Government is prepared to purchase the
whole of the seed, and likewise the fibre, if of the proper quality, on the
terms above stated, but that the authorities be instructed not to purchase
such produce unless it measure, in the stem, three and a half feet in length
or more; that it be well dried, and the seed just on the point of ripening,
but not so ripe as to allow of its falling out of the pod by the way.

The directions for cultivation are as follow: If the following instructions
are strictly attended to, there is no doubt that the Flax will all be of the
required length of staple. Not less than sixty seers of Flax must be sown,
broadcast, that is with the hand, on each begah, as the thicker it is sown the
longer will be the plant, and the more free it will be from branches, which
are very injurious. The land must be thoroughly freed from weeds by
repeated ploughings, previous to sowing; it must be well manured with the
richest manure procurable, such as is given to land for tobacco; be
smoothed, and divided into beds as for wheat. The seed must be
sown between the Ist and 15th November, but not later. The Flax
land must be watered as frequently as wheat-land ; and the fields must be
kept perfectly free from weeds until the Flax is six or seven inches high.
After that, no more weeding will be required. The land selected should be
light loamy soil; Khadir land is the best. When the seed begins to show
signs of ripening, the Flax must be pulled gently by the root, and laid on
the ground to dry in rows. When thoroughly dry, it must be tied up in
bundles as large as a man can conveniently span with both hands, and it can
thus be easily measured. The seed can be stripped off (rippled) on arrival
of the consignment at Lahore, and the final price be arranged according to
the current rate of Linseed in the Lahore market. That is, if the successful,
or any other, competitor (all Flax will be bought that is of the required
length, whether a premium have been awarded for it or not), who may
deliver Flax, yielding 125 maunds of Linseed, will, if, as at present, the nerik
be Rs. 2 8 a maund, receive Rs. 312 8 for the seed, and 25 per cent., or
Rs. 78 2, additional, as compensation for the fibre, or Rs, 390 10 in all, _

It is to be understood that successful competitors are to be paid for their
crop as well as others; but that no cultivators are bound to sell, should they
wish to dispose of their crop in any other manner.
196 CULTURE OF FLAX IN THE PUNJAB.

It might be explained to the ryuts, that those who are not successful in
growing Flax of the required length, will find a ready market for the seed
in Mooltan, whence it will be conveyed to Sindh for export to England.

It is further strongly recommended, as a new feature in the proposed
measures, for improving the cultivation of this important staple, that the
Society be authorised to hire, on behalf of Government, from 80° to 40
begahs of land, in the immediate vicinity of their garden, for the cultivation
of Flax, during the coming season, so as to admit of a comparison being
drawn between the Flax grown by the zumeendars and the plant reared
under probably more favorable circumstances. The seed required for each
begah, the purchase of which, it is hoped, the Government will also sanction,
will be one maund and a half (at a cost of about Rs. 4), and the land is
obtainable at Rs. 20 per begah; for which sum the cultivators undertake to
pertorm all agricultural operations, such as ploughing, watering, weeding,
sowing, and reaping, for one year—a plan by which the grower can ascertain
the expenses of his crop to a rupee. It is strongly recommended to the
Meeting that, in confident anticipation of the sanction of the authorities to
this measure, which anticipation they venture to rest on the past liberality
of Government, and the great importance of the subject, and also on account
of the advanced state of the season, the Secretary be, at once, empowered
to make arrangements for obtaining land.

The vigorous proceedings of the Agri-Horticultural Society
of the Punjab, and the ready patronage of the Government,
including the purchase of the produce, ought to produce some
decisive results, if the soil and climate are found to be favora-
ble; and of this there can be little doubt, from Flax having
been produced there last year, and from the description given
of it by the members of the Hemp and Flax Committee of
Calcutta. The specimens stated to have been forwarded to
the India House have not been received. But while the best
method of culture will be ascertained by the Society in their
own cultivation, it is to be feared that the length of stem
required (three feet six inches) will exclude much of what may
be grown by the ryuts. The extension of the culture will no
doubt reduce the price of the seed, and enable it to be sold at
such rates as to allow of its becoming an article of export to
Europe.

The Society having included in these recommendations an
application for some tons of the best Linseed (mentioning
especially the Belgian) as well as some tools, to be sent them,
this was approved of, and forwarded by the Indian Govern-
ment, in August, 1854; but as it was obviously too late for
any large quantity of seed to be sent in time for the sowings
of this year, small quantities were sent out by the overland
route for the sake of comparison with the native seed, and
4 CULTURE OF FLAX IN SINDH. 197

also some tools as specimens. But as it is extremely doubtful
what kind of seed will answer best in the soil and climate of
the Punjab, it has been thought preferable to send the seeds
of different kinds—as Riga, Dutch, American, English, and
Trish.

CULTURE OF FLAX IN SINDH.

The province of Sindh, about 360 miles in length, extending
from 23° 37’ to 28° 82’ N., consists of a delta of extensive alluvial
tracts, intersected by numerous canals and water-courses, which
enable cultivation to be carried on by irrigation ; thus making
up for the deficiency of rain. Though the temperature of a
great part of the year is high, it is probable that that of the
cold-weather months may be sufficiently low to allow of the
successful cultivation of Flax and Linseed, at the same time
with the Wheat, Barley, and Oil-seeds which form the Rubbee
or cold-weather crops of Sindh, as of most parts of India.

Indeed, Mr. Frere, the enlightened Commissioner of Sindh,
wrote to the Board of Administration of the Punjab, to have
inquiries made throughout that territory on the extent and
nature of the Linseed cultivation thereim—the result of which
inquiry has been given in the preceding pages.

A commercial gentleman, to whom were referred the speci-
mens of the Punjab Linseed, and the prices at which it was
sold, observes “that there, as in Sindh, the culture of it is
altogether upon so limited a scale as barely to supply local
wants, and judging from the Rs. 2; per maund quoted as its
sale price in Lahore, which, with cost of carriage to Kurrachee,
800 to 1000 miles, would stand in higher than the ruling rates
in Bombay.” “The quality of the Linseed” he considered
“ood, and such as would command the highest prices in
Mark Lane, which average about 48s. per quarter.”

Upon this, Mr. Frere justly remarks that “ the present prices
of an article, which is at present grown in small quantities
merely for local consumption, afford no means of judging of the
price at which it can be profitably grown in large quantities
for exportation ; and looking at the way in which it usually
flourishes in wheat-land in India, and at the present prices of
wheat, I feél little doubt but that it can be grown very cheaply
198 CULTURE OF FLAX IN SINDH.

in many parts of the Punjab and Sindh. The facilities which
exist for water-carriage down the Indus will render its transport
cheap; while great and constant demand exists for it in
Bombay.

“TJ think, therefore, that it is an article to which attention
may be profitably directed in any district where it is desirable
to discover articles of produce adapted for exportation.”

The Bombay Chamber of Commerce observe: “ Linseed of
the quality described as the growth of the Punjab would, under
all ordinary circumstances, command a ready sale in this market,
at from Rs.3 4 to Rs.3 8 per ewt. of 112 Ib.; and during
the greater part of the past year the price has been as high as
Rs. 3 12.”

The Author has been favoured with a letter (dated 19th
August, 1854) from Mr. Frere, in which he states that—* For
the last two seasons attempts have been made, with very satis-
factory results, to introduce the culture of Linseed into Sindh.
It grows well in the ordinary wheat-lands, and under every
disadvantage, there has been no failure traceable to soil or
climate. I have no doubt but that, in a few years, it will be-
come one of the staple articles of export.”

He also states that attention has begun to be directed to the
fibre, and that Mr. Harvey, who was in early life practically
engaged in Flax farming in Ireland, and who has now been
some years resident in Sindh, has commenced some experi-
ments, and hopes to be able this season to send to this country
some specimens of Flax grown in Sindh. In a previous page
it was mentioned that Mr. Burn, who had been some years in
Sindh, had seen some thick-sown Flax growing there luxu-
riantly, and which he had no doubt would produce Flax, though
it had only been cultivated on account of the seed.

Some Europe seed, for the sake of comparison with the na-
tive seed, and some heckles, which Mr. Harvey wished for,
have been, at Mr. Frere’s request, forwarded, by order of
the Court of Directors, by the overland route to Kurrachee.
There seems no doubt of success to at least the same extent
as in Egypt, if the culture is persevered in until the proper
methods of cultivation and of preparation have been carefully
ascertained.

«
199

SEPARATION AND PREPARATION OF FLAX FIBRE.

We have already seen that the stem of the Flax plant con-
sists of a central wood-like part, called shove or boon, and of the
tough fibres called bast or harl covered by cuticle, all cemented
together by gummy and azotized compounds. These parts are
so closely adherent to each other, and the fibres to one another
and to the cellular tissue, that they are with difficulty sepa-
rated from each other, and the fibres obtained for economic
use. But it may be observed that if green vegetable matter
be exposed to the continued influence of wet or of drought,
disunion of the adherent parts takes place; and that they may
then be readily separated from each other. The same effect
takes place if some of the constituent parts are dissolved
out by the agency of a chemical solvent, or water at
different temperatures, the rest being set free, the fibres
may then be easily separated. All these methods have been
and are employed for the separation of Flax fibre in different
localities. These are fully detailed in various works, as well as
in the papers of the authors we have referred to, in the ‘Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.’ The directions
of the Royal Flax Society are full and detailed, and include
most of the essentials given in Mr. MacAdam’s Prize Essay.

The oldest method, probably, is that called Dew-retting,
when the Flax straw or stems are spread out on the grass, and
exposed to the action of the atmosphere, combined with that of
dews or rain, or, in the absence of these, they are carefully
watered. This, though an effectual, is an uncertain, and also
a very tedious process, requiring from three weeks to a month
for its completion. Archangel Flax is thus prepared. Mr.
MacAdam informs us that it is practised among the Walloons,
and also in the United States of America, and that Flax
thus prepared requires a shorter time for bleaching.

The most generally adopted plan is that of steeping the Flax
stems, either in slow currents of water (and that of the River
Lys is particularly celebrated) or in pits or pools of water.
The action of water is useful, partly, by giving origin to fer-
209 SEPARATION AND PREPARATION

mentation, which loosens the adherence of the constituents, or,
at certain temperatures, by dissolving some of the constituents
and setting free the others. Both methods are practised in
India, in different parts; but the steeping so as to produce
fermentation is that generally adopted, and, according to Mr.
Deneef, well understood by the natives of India—who, indeed,
must have long, as they now largely practise the art, from the
quantities of Jute and of Sunnwhich they prepare by this method.
Though not applicable in all points, especially in the time re-
quired, from the difference of temperature, the instructions of
the Royal Flax Society are so full, that we reprint them here,
for comparison with the other directions.

Watering.—This process requires the greatest care and attention. River
water is the best. If spring water has to be used, let the pond be filled
some weeks, or months, if possible, before the Flax is put in, that the sun
and air may soften the water. That containing iron or other mineral sub-
stances should never be used. If river water can be had, it need not be let
into the pond sooner than the day before the Flax is to be steeped. The
best size of a steep-pool is 12 to 18 feet broad, and 3} to 4 feet deep. Place
the Flax loosely in the pool, in one layer, somewhat sloped, and in regular

- rows, with the root end underneath; the tie of each row of sheaves to reach
the roots of the previous one; cover with moss sods, or tough old lea sods,
cut thin, laid perfectly close, the sheer of each fitted to the other. Before
putting on the sods, a layer of rushes or ragweeds is recommended to be
placed on the Flax, especially in new ponds (or packed in crates which are
weighted down). As sods are not always at hand, a light covering of straw
may do, with stones laid on it, so as to keep the Flax just under the water;
and as the fermentation proceeds, additional weights should be laid on—to
be removed as soon as the fermentation ceases, so as not to sink the Flax too
much in the pool. Thus covered, it never sinks to the bottom, nor is
affected by air or light. A small stream of water, allowed to run through a
pool, has been found to improve its colour. In this case, if the pools are in
a line, the stream should be conducted along the one side, and run into each
pool separately, and the water of each pool run off, along the opposite side,
in a similar manner. It will be sufficiently steeped, in an average time,
from eight to fourteen days, according to the heat of the weather and the
nature of the water. Every grower should learn to know when the Flax
has had enough of the water, as a few hours too much may injure it. It is,
however, much more frequently under-watered than over-watered. The
best test is the following: Try some stalks of average thickness, by breaking
the shove, or woody part, in two places, about six or eight inches apart, at
the middle of the stalk ; catch the broken bit of wood, and if it will pull
freely out, downwards, for that length, without breaking or tearing the fibre,
and with none of the fibre adhering to it, it is ready to take out. Make this
trial every six hours after fermentation subsides, for sometimes the change
is rapid. Never lift the Flax roughly from the pool, with forks or grapes,
but have it carefully handed out on the bank, by men standing in the water.
Tt is advantageous to let the Flax drain twelve to twenty-four hours, after
being taken from the pool, by placing the bundles on their root ends, close
together, or on the flat, with the slope; but the heaps should not be too
large, otherwise the Flax will be injured by heating.
OF FLAX FIBRE. 201

Spreading.—Select, when possible, clean, short, thick pasture ground for
this operation; and mow down and remove any weeds that rise above the
surface of the sward. Lay the Flax evenly on the grass, and spread thin
and very equally. If the directions under the head of rippling have been
attended to, the handfuls will come readily asunder, without entangling.
Turn it two or three times while on the grass (with a rod about eight feet in
ena and an inch and a half in diameter), that it may not become of
different shades, by the unequal action of the sun, which is often the case,
through inattention to this point. Turn it when there is a prospect of rain,
that the Flax may be beaten down a little, and thus prevented from being
blown away.

Lifting —Six to eight days if the weather be showery, or ten to twelve if
it be dry, should be sufficient on the grass. A good test of its being ready
to lift is to rub a few stalks from the top to the bottom ; and, when the wood
breaks easily, and separates from the fibre, leaving it sound, it has had
enough of the grass. Also, when a large proportion of the stalks are per-
ceived to form a bow and_ string, from the fibre contracting and separatin
from the woody stalk. But, the most certain way is, to prove a small
quantity with the handbreak or in a flax-mill. In lifting, keep the lengths
straight and the ends even, otherwise great loss will occur in the rolling and
scutching. Tie it up in small bundles; and, if not taken soon to be
scutched, it will be much improved by being put up in small stacks, loosely
built, with stones or brambles in the bottom, to keep it dry, and allow a free
circulation of air. Stacks built on pillars would be the best.

Drying, by fire, is always most pernicious. If properly steeped and
grassed, no such drying is necessary; but, to make it ready for breaking and
scutching, exposure to the sun is sufficient. In some districts, it is put to
dry on kilns, ina damp state, and is absolutely burned before it is dry, and
the rich oily property of the Flax is always greatly impaired. On this point,
the Society can scarcely speak too strongly, as the Flax is either destroyed,
or rendered not worth one half of what it would be, if properly dried.

As success in the above processes depends in a great: measure
upon the quality, as well as on the temperature of the water,
and this being frequently cold in northern latitudes, led
to the invention by Schenck, in 1846, of his patented process
in which the requisite degree of temperature could be obtained,
and, of course, maintained, as well as increased. This, though
apparently a new process, has long been adopted in the East ;
as the natives of Sumatra, and likewise of the district of Rung-
pore, have employed warm water, as well as some chemicals,
for the separation of the fibre of different plants, as we shall
see under the head of Sunn and of Nettles.

In Schenck’s process the temperature of the steep-water is
kept at 80° to 90°, but may be increased to that which is
favorable to the process of fermentation—for the effects depend
upon the destructive power of fermentation quite as much as
in the old process. A great saving of time is effected—as not
more than seventy-two hours is required for the fine, and about
202 SCHENCK’S PROCESS FOR PREPARING FLAX.

ninety-six hours for the coarse qualities; and a more uniform
fibre is, moreover, produced.

A disadvantage of this process, in comparison with some
others, is that, during the process of fermentation, the same
kind of gaseous exhalations are given off as in the ordinary
method. These gases have been stated “by chemists to
consist chiefly of carbonic acid and hydrogen, in nearly equal
parts.” Dr. Hodges has clearly shown that the fermentation
is of a peculiar character, traces only of acetic acid being found,
while butyric acid is generated in large quantities.

Other objections have been stated—such as that the fibre
was weakened when over-heated; and another, that a most
offensive matter adhered to the straw, and that, in the process
of scutching, the scutchers could not bear the smell of the
irritant dust which flew off. With regard to other objections
—such as that the yield of fibre would be less, that it would
be weakened, and that the linen made from it would not bleach
properly—a Committee of the Royal Irish Flax Improvement
Society, after carefully conducted experiments, reported, first,
that the uniformity of temperature had the effect of increasing
the yield of fibre. With regard to the weakening of the fibre,
the Committee ascertained that the Flax steeped in the ordi-
nary way spun to 96 lea yarn, and that by Schenck’s system
to 101 lea yarn. In the second, the cold-steeped gave 60 lea
and the hot-steeped 70. The third objection was submitted to
an extensive bleaching firm, whose evidence in favour of the
hot-water process was very decided. The heated water of the
ordinary Indian tulaos, at some seasons of the year, will be
sufficient for this purpose, and will not be injurious to the fibre,
if it is otherwise good. The process only requires to be more
narrowly watched than in Europe.

But we observe in the ‘Journ. of the Chemico-Agricul.
Society of Ulster,’ for January, 18538, it said, that—‘In
Treland, great expectations were entertained that by the plans
for this purpose, which were introduced by the late Mr.
Schenck, the preparation of Flax for the spinner would be
made entirely a factory operation.” “ In Ireland, however, the
establishments erected under Schenck’s patent, have not,
generally, given satisfaction.” ‘In England and Scotland, we
are aware that the system has been more successfully carried
DR. HODGES ON THE CHANGES DURING FERMENTATION, 203

out ;’’ but “ Schenck’s process, which is, in fact,. merely the
ordinary method of the farmer, regulated and accelerated,
was, however, adopted by many persons but imperfectly
acquainted with the various requisites for success.” But
Mr. MacAdam, at the late meeting of the Royal Flax Improve-
ment Society, November, 1854, seems to consider it still as the
best method.

Having, at pp. 146-7, given Professor Hodges’s analysis of
the Flax plant, we will here subjoin his further observations on
his experimental crop, and his analysis of the steep-water. He
first observes that the crop, having been air-dried, was removed
to the steeping works at Cregagh.

It was there placed in stacks, and after some time prepared for steeping.
The first operation for this purpose is the removal of the valuable bolls or
capsules. This, in these establishments, where the cost of labour is carefully
considered, is usually most expeditiously and perfectly effected, by means of
a machine composed of two cast-iron rollers, to which motion is communi-
cated by a belt from the steam-engine. Between these the Flax is passed
and the capsules bruised, so that the seed can be readily shaken out. Having
been deprived of its bolls, by this machine, it was found that the 7770 lb.
(v. p. 146) of Flax were reduced to 52 ewt., or 5824 Ib.

Of the portions of the plant removed by the seeding machine, 910 Ib. con-
sisted of clean seed, 1036 lb. of husks, leaves, and sand. The loss experienced
by the Flax in steeping was 13cwt. From the 52 cwt. of seeded straw, the
produce of the experimental crop, there remained 6cwt. lqr. 2lb. of
marketable fibre.

The taste of the steep-water, at first, is rather agreeably acid, but followed
by the peculiar plant-like taste of the Flax. By the addition to the liquid
of carbonate of lime, its acidity is destroyed. Contrary to what has been
stated, in some reports on this subject, the liquid, I found, at the conclusion
of the process, yields merely a trace of acetic acid, and in numerous experi-
ments, no trace of the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen could be ‘detected
at any stage of the fermentation. When the Flax is allowed‘to remain in
the vats after the usual time, a new series of changes, and a fresh and rapid
extrication of gas, take place. I have made, during the last three years,
numerous experiments, with respect to the composition of the steep-water,
from several establishments, and, also, from the common steep-pools, which
afforded me some interesting results, and satisfied me that the fermentation
which is induced by steeping Flax in water resembles the so-called butyric
acid fermentation; merely traces of acetic acid, and invariably large
quantities of butyric acid having been detected in every case. In fact, the
fragrant butyric ether, so extensively employed in the preparation of pine-
apple rum, and in flavouring confectionery, might readily be obtained, in
large quantities, from the stinking waters of the Flax pool.

To ascertain exactly the effect produced by steeping, and the composition
of the steep-water, I obtained from the works at Cregagh, a sample of Flax
straw unsteeped, a portion of steeped straw taken from the same lot, and a
gallon of the steep-water taken from the vat immediately after the removal
of the Flax. The composition of the ash obtained by burning the extract
of the steep-water, and the samples of the straw, is given in the table. The
spring water employed at the works is moderately hard, indicating, on Dr.
204 ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTS BY SCHENCK’S PROCESS.

Clarke's scale, 8 degrees. It was not considered necessary to deduct the
ingredients supplied in it, as these would add but little to its fertilising value.
An imperial gallon of the liquid of the vat was found to contain in grains
and tenths—

Organic matters 136-7
Inorganic matters. . - 5 3 s 131-4
Total solid matters 5 . . . . - 268-1 grains.

Composition of the Ash of the Flax Straw before and after Steeping, and
of the Inorganic Matters of the Steep Water.

100 parts of each respectively contained— /
Unsteeped Steeped Ash of the
Flax. Flax. Steep-water.

 

 

Potash : 5 . 3 é . 13°88 11:40 19°31
Soda ‘ : ‘ , * - 5:33 4:17 —_

Chloride of Potassium . 3 ri ‘ —_ _ 3°83
Chloride of Sodium 3 4 - 6:47 3:28 21:24
Lime a . r 5 é » 1886 17-69 8:23
Magnesia ‘ 3 . 4 ~ 410 5°50 10°18
Oxide of Iron 3 G ‘ 3 . 540 5°76 2-02
Sulphuric Acid 3 ‘ » 11:16 4:07 610
Phosphoric Acid . ; ; . - 963 11:87 3°77
Carbonic Acid . P " - 10°37 20:06 23°30
Silica . : . . ” ‘ « 153 15°78 Pig
Sand A ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 7 —_ — 0:60

100°43 99°58 99°77 !

Ash per cent. in the Straw . 7 » 38°89 2°59 _

100 grains of the dried extract of the steep-water contained 1°56 nitrogen,
=1'89 grains of ammonia: therefore, an imperial gallon would be capable of
supplying five grains, and a vat, containing 3000 gallons of water, 2 1-101b.,
worth about 1s. 2d. to the farmer; while the same amount of liquid, placed
on his field, would convey to them about the same amount of phosphoric
acid.

By the kindness of the proprietors of the Steeping Works, at Cregagh,
who have liberally given me an opportunity of inspecting the books of their
establishment, I am enabled to give the following statement of the changes
which 100 tons of Flax undergo when treated by Schenck’s process.

100 tons of air-dried Flax straw yield—

Tons.

1. By Seeding—33 tons of seed and husks, leaving of seeded Flax . 67-00
2. By Steeping—67 tons of seeded Flax yield of steeped straw . 39°50
3. By Scutching—39} tons of steeped straw yield of dressed Flax . 5°90
” ” of tow and pluckings . 1°47

Watts Patent Process.—The advantages of Schenck’s method
of preparation, are sufficiently considerable to ensure its
adoption at once in an uncertain climate like that of the
British Isles. But it was yet to be proved whether the
process of fermentation was essential to the separation of the
fibre ; and whether, if it was got rid of, we might not obtain
an equally good fibre, avoid the noxious exhalations, and even
WATY?’S PROCESS FOR PREPARING FLAX. 205

utilise the products of the steep-water, which had previously
always been a nuisance. All this has been done by Watt’s
method of preparing Flax, and which I had the advantage, in
September, 1852, of viewing, through the kindness of Dr.
Hodges, before all the works at Messrs. Leadbetter’s were
quite completed; but even in this state, the Author saw
enough to be at a loss whether most to admire, the skill with
which the principles of science had been brought to bear on
the perfecting of a practical art, or the success with which
mechanical contrivances had been applied to the completeness
of every part of the process. We subjoin the following
account from the ‘Journal of the Chemico-Agricultural Society’
of Ulster,’ for January, 1853. To this, we have added Dr.
Hodges’s analysis of the steep-water, obtained by this patent
process.

« At the meeting of the British Association of Science in this
town, in September, the details of a new and totally different
process for the separation of the Flax fibre was, by permission
of the patentee, Mr. Watt, first made known to the public, by
Dr. Hodges, and excited much interest. Since that time,
trials of the new process have been made on a most extensive
scale, at works erected for the purpose in Belfast. As various
imperfect accounts of Mr. Watt’s process have been published,
the following account of the apparatus, and operations con-
nected with it, will be interesting to our readers.

“In Mr. Watt’s process the solution of the cementing matters
of the Flax straw, and the separation of the fibre, is effected,
not by the ordinary methods of fermentation, but by exposing
the straw to the action of steam, in a chamber of peculiar con-
struction, and afterwards subjecting it to pressure, applied by
means of heavy metal rollers. The first operation consists in
placing the seeded Flax in a chamber, formed of plates of cast
iron.

“The chamber used measures about twelve feet in length,
and is about six feet broad and six feet in depth, and contains
about fifteen cwt. of Flax. On the top is a tank for con-
taining water, also of cast iron, about eighteen inches deep,
the bottom of which forms the roof of the chamber, and
through which passes a tube, furnished with a valve. There
are two doors in the ends of the chambers, through which
206 WATT’S PROCESS FOR PREPARING FLAX.

passes a tube, furnished with a valve. There are two doors in
the ends of the chamber, through which the Flax is introduced,
and these, when the steam is admitted, are secured by screws.
A false bottom, formed of perforated iron plates, such as are
used in malt-kilns, is raised about six inches from the bottom
of the chamber; and, resting on this, there is an upright throw-
pipe, the use of which we shall presently describe. The
chamber being filled with Flax, and the doors secured, steam
is admitted, and when the straw has been thoroughly saturated
with moisture and softened, a weight is placed upon the valve
on the top, so as to confine the steam, which, as it strikes
against the cold bottom of the water-tank forming the roof of
the chamber, is condensed, and made to descend in streams of
distilled water, which dissolve the soluble matters of the
softened straw, washing them into the lower part of the
chamber. The liquid, as it accumulates, is conveyed into a
reservoir, and employed as food for cattle. The analysis of
this liquid is given at p. 208. Towards the conclusion of the
process, when nearly all the soluble matters have been removed,
the liquid is allowed to collect until it rises above the false
bottom, and, by placing a weight upon the safety-valve in the
roof, the pressure of the confined steam causes it to ascend in
the throw-pipes, by which it is discharged in showers over the
straw. The throw-pipes, it may be mentioned, are not
essential, and in some of the vats they are not used. In their
stead, a square iron reservoir is placed on the top of the
chamber, and communicating with it by a pipe with a stop-
cock, into which the liquid accumulated in the chamber is
pumped, and discharged occasionally over the straw.

“Tn from twelve to eighteen hours, the steaming process is
completed, and the straw, when withdrawn from the chamber,
is immediately subjected in small parcels to the successive
action of two pair of heavy iron rollers, by which it is pressed
into flat tape-like bands, and deprived of nearly all the
moisture contained in it; the longitudinal pressure also
removes a considerable portion of the epidermis, or outer
envelope, and facilitates the removal of the woody matter in
scutching. Each pair of rollers used exerts a pressure equal
to 10 cwt.

“The after-treatment of the pressed straw does not present
REPORT ON WATS PROCESS. 207

any remarkable difference from the system pursued in the hot-
water steeping establishments. The straw is secured between
rods, and suspended in a drying chamber, heated by the waste
steam of the engine. The arrangements for this purpose at
the Bedford Street works of Messrs. Leadbetter consist of
rooms with floors formed of spars. Below this flooring passes
a pipe conveying steam, by which the air admitted by openings
at the bottom of the chambers is heated, and made to ascend
through the Flax. The circulation of the air is ingeniously

effected by a series of revolving beaters kept in action below
the steam-pipe.”

The following extract from the Report of a Committee of the Royal Flax
Beery gives the results of an experiment made at Messrs. Leadbetter’s
works :

In this experimental trial, a quantity of Flax straw, of ordinary quality,
was taken from the bulk of the stock at the works, weighing 133 cwt. with
the seed on. After the removal of the seed, which, on being cleaned
thoroughly from the chaff, measured 32 imperial bushels, the straw was
reduced in weight to l0cwt. lqr.2lb. It was then placed in the vat,
where it was subjected to the steaming process for about eleven hours.
After steeping, wet-rolling, and drying, it weighed 7 cwt. Oqr. 111b.; and
on being scutched, the yield was 187 Ib. of Flax ; and of scutching tow,
12 1b. 64 oz. fine, 35 lb. 3 0z. voarse. The yield of fibre, in the state of good
Flax, was, therefore, at the rate of 133 Ib. from the cwt. of straw with seed
on; 18lb. from the cwt. of straw without seed; 2641b. from the ewt. of
steeped and dried straw.

The time occupied in actual labour, in the processes from the seeding of
the Flax to the commencement of the scutching, was 13} hours, to which, if
eleven hours be added for the time the Flax was in the vat, twenty-four
hours would be the time required up to this point. The scutching, by four
stands, occupied six hours sixteen minutes. But, in this statement, the time
required for drying is not included, as owing to some derangement in the
apparatus, no certain estimate could be made of the actual time required in
that process. It would appear, however, that about thirty-six hours would
include the time necessary, in a well-organized establishment, to convert
Flax-straw into fibre, for the spinner.

The cost of all these operations, in this experiment, leaving out the
drying, for the reasons noted, appeared to be under £10 per ton of clean
fibre, for labour, exclusive of general expenses.

A portion of the fibre was sent to two spinning mills to be hackled, and
to have a value put upon it. The valuation of the samples varied from £56
to £70 per ton, according to the quality of the stricks of fibre sent, and the
yield on the hackle was considered quite satisfactory. .

Appended to this report is a note of the time occupied in the different
processes during the experiment, and of the number of persons employed in
each, ;

It is to be hoped that so promising a plan may, on more extended expe-
rience, be found fully to warrant the high anticipation formed from what is
already known concerning it. (Signed on behalf of the Committee,)

Ricaarp Niven, Chairman.

Belfast, 3d Nov., 1852.
208 ANALYSIS OF STEEP-WATER FROM WATT’S PROCESS.

Appendix.

Note of the time occupied, and of the number of persons employed in each
of the processes witnessed by the Committee, on the experimental trial of
Mr. Watt’s system of preparing Flax fibre :

No. of Persons employed. Time oceupied.

Men. Women & Boys. Hours. Minutes.
Seeding 4 8 1 15
Placing in vat . 3 4 0 15
Cleaning seed 1 0 3 0
Taking out of vat <2 3 0 30

Wet-rolling and putting in drying

room . : 1 ee 16 2 20
Rolling for scutching . 0 11 1 8
Striking for ditto . 0 7 4 47
Total 2 ll 49 13 15
Scutching ‘ . 4 0 6 16

Analysis of the Liquid obtained in Watt’s Patent Flax Process.

At a meeting of the Chemico-Agricultural Society of Ulster, Dr. Hodges
gave an analysis of the liquid obtained in Watt’s Patent Flax Process, and
an account of the new process of preparing Flax, patented by Messrs. Watt
and Leadbetter, which, he said, offered the only practical method of econo-
mising the matters which are separated from the Flax plant in its pre-

aration for the manufacturer, which had hitherto been proposed. The
iquid which remains in the flax-vats employed in the new process possessed
none of the disagreeable qualities of the ordinary steep waters. It was free
from smell, and in taste and colour somewhat resembled an infusion of senna
leaves. It was, in fact, a strong tea, containing, unchanged by fermentation
or putrefaction, the soluble matters of the stem of the Plax plant. It was,
at the present time, advantageously used at Messrs. Leadbetter’s works in
feeding pigs. As it was desirable to ascertain the exact composition of this
liquid and its nutritive value, he had procured a sample of it from the
Bedford Street works, and had it submitted to chemical examination. The
following were the results: One gallon evaporated to dryness gave—

Of Organic matters A : . 353°97 grains.
», Earthy and Saline matters . ‘ » 161°49
Total amount of solid matter + 515-46 grains.

The organic matter afforded on analysis 14°79 grains of nitrogen.
The earthy and saline matters were found to possess the following com-
position :
Composition of the Ash of the.Steep-water of Flax.

Per cent. In a gallon
Potash 2 . - 27:17 44°63 grains.
Soda. 3 F » 818 512,
Chloride of Sodium - - 21°58 34°61 ,,
Lime . : 7 - 591 949 ,,
Magnesia igs ‘ - 4:60 7:40 = ,,
Oxide of Iron 5 : - 083 1:33 =,
Sulphuric Acid 5 - 15°64 25-11 ,,
Phosphoric Acid. - » 5°66 901 ,,
Carbonic Acid ; » 12:43 19:96 _,,
Silica. 3 5 -» 38:00 4:83 ,,

 

100-00 161°49 grains.
- COMPOSITION OF REFUSE FLAX STEMS. 209

Dr. Hodges stated that the Flax liquid possessed considerable’ feeding
qualities; and Mr. Leadbetter in reply to his inquiry said that it had not
been found to exhibit any purgative effect—the pigs at his works received
it mixed with turnips and the husks of the Flax, and were in a thriving
fattening condition.

The vat liquid, Dr. Hodges observed, could be drawn off in a more con-
centrated form than the sample examined, and it would be easy for the
manufacturer, by employing a hydrometer, to supply it of uniform strength.

Composition of the Ash of Flax Shoves.

The shoves, or refuse woody matters, which are separated in scutching
Flax, are at present employed in the steeping works as fuel. Dr. Hodges,
in the course of the extended investigation of the Flax plant, in which he is
at present engaged, found that the ash which remains on the incineration of
these matters had the following composition, and might, therefore, advan-
tageously be economised for use as manure. 100 parts of ash afford:

 

Potash 3 : ‘ - 773
Soda . 9 3 . 591
Chloride of Sodium “ r a » 178
Lime ‘ i i 20°15
Magnesia y : : . . 5:46
Oxide of Iron F é . : . 560
Sulphuric Acid . : : - 6:50
Phosphoric Acid. . . . - 1043
Carbonic Acid . ‘ . 7 . 20°10
Silica ¥ ‘ < ‘a 7 - 16:00

99-66

1000 Ib. of shoves yield, on combustion, 193 lb. of ash.

Upon this, Professor Wilson remarks : “ Here then we have a
process which presents the following advantages over the
ordinary methods: Ist. Great saving in time. 2d. Economy
of fibre. 8d. Avoidance of any nuisance, and beneficial appli-
cation of waste products.” All proving that a great advance
had been made in principles in this process.

As closely connected with Watt’s, we subjoin Professor
Wilson’s account of another process. ‘‘ No sooner, however,
had the spinners given their testimony in favour of Watt’s
fibre, than another process was patented by Buchanan, which
appears to be an improved application of the same principle as

’ Watt’s—for the solvent power is clearly not due to the steam,
as made use of by him, but to the hot water occasioned by its
condensation. In this, the steeping is effected by repeated
immersions in a tank of heated water, arrangements being
made by which the temperature is never allowed to exceed a

certain degree—a point of great importance, both as regards
14
210 BUCHANAN’S PROCESS FOR PREPARING FLAX. Zs

the abstraction of the azotised extractive matter, and also the
quantity of fibre produced. It is well known that albuminous
solutions, containing even a very small proportion of albumen
(1 in 1000), coagulate at a temperature of 180°, and then
became insoluble; and it is always considered that fibre is
more or less injured if exposed beyond a certain temperature.
These two important points have been taken advantage of in
Buchanan’s process: the temperature of the steep-liquor is kept
between 150° and 180°, and the operation, both as regards
time and produce, more satisfactorily performed. The process
is quite automaton—thus saving labour and the risks con-
sequent upon carelessness ; and the mechanical arrangements
by which it is effected are very simple and inexpensive.”’ So
far as the experiments have gone, it has been found that by
ten immersions, the whole of the colouring matter of the Flax
has been removed. By this process, the Author concludes we
have all the advantages obtained by water; economy of pro-
ducts, increased economy of time—only four hours being
required instead of twelve; and, in addition, great economy of
labour. Another great improvement is claimed by Buchanan
—his method of drying the steeped shove preparatory to
scutching. The process in Watt’s method is also very perfect,
but Professor Wilson had been unable to obtain, at the time
he wrote (16th May, 1853), any results of the working of the
process on a commercial scale.

Mr. C. Fane, referring to the difficulties experienced in the
fermentative processes,“has given a graphic account of another
method by which the fibre of the Flax, as no doubt of other
plants, may easily be separated, Subjecting the wet fibres to
heavy pressure is now adopted in most of the improved
processes.

“At this juncture, an English gentleman, a Mr. Pownall, in
endeavouring to work out Mr. Claussen’s idea of obtaining
from Flax a fibre that would spin on cotton-machinery, made
a most valuable discovery, as to the preparing Flax for the
common linen purposes, which was this, that if the Flax straw,
when taken out of the water in which it had been steeped and
fermented, were instantly, and before drying, subjected to severe
pressure and a stream of cold water, the pressure would press

‘ Professor Wilson’s paper in ‘ Journ. of Agric. Soc.,’ vol. xiv, p. 204.
POWNALL’S PROCESS FOR PREPARING FLAX. 211

out, and the water would wash away almost all the gluten
remaining in the plant not removed by the fermentation.

“Tt is impossible to over-estimate the value of this discovery.
The grand difficulty in the management of the Flax plant had
always been the difficulty of hittmg the happy mean between
over-fermenting and under-fermenting the straw. If the straw
were not fermented enough, the gluten was not sufficiently
discharged, and then the woody parts of the plant stuck to the
fibre so strongly, that nothing short of violent blows of the
scutching instrument would remove it, and violent blows broke
much of the fibre into short lengths, called tow, of little or no
value. On the other hand, if the straw were fermented too
much, then the gluten was, indeed, sufficiently discharged, and
moderate blows sufficed to remove the woody matter; but in
that case the fibre was weakened, and the blows, moderate as
they were, again broke the fibre into tow. In either case the
yield of valuable fibre was unsatisfactory, and the reed and
quality deteriorated, and it was only in those cases where the
exercise of the greatest care and judgment had enabled the
steeper to trim most happily between fermenting too much and
fermenting too little, that a satisfactory yield of fibre was ob-
tained. Mr. Pownall’s discovery at once triumphed over this
hitherto almost insuperable difficulty, because it enabled him
to stop short in the process of fermentation before he arrived
at the point of danger, and yet remove the gluten even more
effectually than excessive fermentation had previously done ;
from which there resulted the following advantages :

“1st. The squeezing and washing so completely cleansed the
fermented straw, that the objection to Schenck’s hot-water
system, arising from the putrid matter re-adhering to the straw,
and flying off from the straw in dust in scutching, at once dis-
appeared ; and hence the mills erected for hot-water steeping
resumed work, and no impediment now exists to steeping being

carried on all the year round.

‘2d, Fermentation need never be carried beyond the perfectly
safe point, and hence the fibre is not weakened.

“3d. The woody matter is easily removed by moderate blows
of the scutching instrument, because the sticky matter no longer
impedes the operation, and hence the yield of fibre is much
greater.
212 STEEPING FLAX IN A GREEN STATE.

“Ath. The fibre obtained is of a singularly soft and pliable
character, and is much preferred by the spinner.

«5th. The subsequent process of bleaching is greatly facili-
tated, because it is the gluten which remains in the fibre which
resists the action of bleaching ingredients, and under Mr.
Pownall’s process the gluten is effectually removed.

«The use is spreading more and more every day, and the re-
sults are universally acknowledged as most satisfactory. The
process adds from £10 to £380 to the value of the ton of Flax,
according as the raw material is of inferior or superior quality;
and the expense is the merest trifle.”’

These methods of preparing the fibre from Flax stems which
have been dried and stacked, afford considerable advantages, as
the seed becomes more ripe, and the farmer can choose a leisure
time for the preparation of his Flax—or, better, he may con-
fine his attention to growing the Flax, and then send it for
careful preparation to the factory or rettory.

Steeping green.\—With the above methods of separating
Flax which has been stacked, we may contrast that of steep-
ing the stems when green, and of which Professor Wilson
says, that ‘when the quantity is small and can be worked up
at once, would appear to be the most advantageous.” M. Dufer-
mont, cultivateur 3 Hem (departement du Nord), found that
when the Flax was used green, the steeping only required from
six to seven days; and that six days’ grassing gave the Flax a
finer colour than could be obtained by any other means. It
was dried and ready for scutching in three weeks ; whereas the
ordinary time in the district averaged from a year to a year
and a half. He found also that it yielded 5 per cent. more
fibre, which was worth fully 10 per cent. more money in the
market. The Flax was pulled before it was quite ripe, the
seed-bolls removed by rippling, and the straw immediately
placed in the pits. The seed, however, was reduced about two
francs per hectolitre in value. The details of the experiments
he gives thus:

1 The steeping of Hemp when in a green state, was strongly recommended by the
Abbé Brulles; and the natives of India insist upon its being the best mode for
Sunn, q. v.

-«
CHEMICAL PROCESSES FOR SEPARATING FLAX. 213

FIRST EXPERIMENT.

 

Gicieent seeped Value Vane é
rigin, an ex o! TOSS
Value. value. Dried. dried. Scuteh’d idiom Seed. | value.

 

‘ Francs. | Kilogs. | Kilogs. | Kilogs. | Kilogs, | Francs. | Frances. | Francs.
Green Flax + | 222 | 4:030

 

e — 826 191 | 1:70 27° «| 357°70
Dried do. «| 222 | 4:030 | 1142] 178 178 | 1:55 31 | 305°90
Difference a <S moan 2 Se = a= = zs 51-80

 

SECOND EXPERIMENT.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Green Flax . - | 605 | 100 — | 26-000) 6-350 | 1:90 — | 12:06
Grmmes.

Dried do. . - | 6:05 | 100 |30-250 | 22:500] 5-500 | 165}; — 9-07

Difference . -[— _ —_ — —_ — = 2°99

 

The practice of steeping green is carried on to a large extent
in the Waes district in Belgium.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES.

The action of water and the production of fermentation
may truly be considered chemical operations, but the term is
usually applied to other processes in which the action of soap,
of acids, or of caustic or of carbonated alkalies, or of some salts,
is employed to effect the separation of the fibres from each
other, as well as from the cellular tissue and accompanying
glutinous secretions. The natives of India have long been in
the habit of bleaching their muslins by boiling them in a ley
of carbonate of soda, and then washing them in a weak solution
of citric acid obtained from the juice of limes or of lemons. So
in other parts they boil the bast of certain plants in a ley of
wood-ashes, in order to facilitate the separation of the fibres
(see Nettles). Some of the chemical methods which have
been invented in Europe are similar to these.

In the ‘Jury Report’ of Class IV, by Professor E. Solly,
for the Exhibition of 1851, we have an account of the old
German process, called “ Molkenrost,” sometimes used in pre-
paring the finer sorts of Flax. This was steeped for four or
five days in a warm mixture of milk and water, and thus the
desired degree of fermentation in the Flax stems was pro-
duced. This is distinct from the more modern process in
214 CHEMICAL PROCESSES

which linen was boiled by the Dutch in a weak alkaline ley,
and subsequently treated with sour buttermilk, of which no
doubt the lactic acid was useful in removing the alkali, as well
as in dissolving some of the impurities of the fibre, and thus
was nearly identical with the Indian process of bleaching. Sub-
sequently, salt of sorrel (that is, an oxalate of potash, or the
same salt which is so abundant in the leaves of the Gram
Cicer arietinum,) and sulphuric and muriatic acids were em-
ployed, but were found to be too costly. The careful experi-
ments of Hermbstaedt at the beginning of this century threw
much light on the chemical principles involved in, and on the
influence of temperature on the separation of the fibre of
Flax.

These chemical processes have again attracted much atten-
tion, since the process patented by M. Claussen has shown how
much the nature and appearance of fibre may be changed by
the action of such agents. But this, like many other inven-
tions, has many points of similarity with what had been done
long before without attracting much attention. Of it we
have the following account in the above ‘Jury Report,’
p- 97: “This process (patented August, 1850) consists
essentially in boiling the cut and crushed stems of the Flax,
Hemp, or other plant, in a dilute solution of caustic soda,
containing about one two-thousandth part of alkali. The
fibrous matter is then removed, and plunged into a bath of
dilute sulphuric acid, consisting of one five-hundredth part of
acid, in which itis boiled for about an hour. It is next trans-
ferred into a solution, containing about ten per cent. of car-
bonate of soda; and, lastly, when it has remained in the latter
for an hour, it is plunged into a weak solution of sulphuric
acid, consisting of one part of acid to two hundred or five
hundred parts of water; in this it is left for about half an
hour, and the process is completed. The effect of these several
processes is ‘to divide and split up’ the fibre in a most
remarkable manner, so as completely to alter its character.
Flax thus treated is converted into a substance very nearly
resembling cotton.”

The idea of modifying the fibre of Flax and Hemp, so as
to convert it into a kind of cotton, is by no means new. In
1747, it was proposed to convert Flax into cotton by boiling
FOR SEPARATING FLAX. 215

it in a solution of caustic potash, and subsequently washing it
with soap. In 1775, considerable quantities of refuse Flax
and Hemp were converted into Flax cotton by Lady Moira,
with the aid of T. B. Bailey, of Hope, near Manchester.
It appears that the fibre was boiled in an alkaline ley, or a
solution of kelp, containing carbonate of soda, and subsequently
scoured. The result of this was, that “the fibres seem to be
set at liberty from each other,” after which it may be “ carded
on cotton-cards.” It appears that at this time “ Flax cotton”
was made and sold at threepence a pound. Some of it was
spun into cloth for gowns, and also for waistcoats; but her
Ladyship complains that the spinners were hostile to the
discovery, for fear of its injuring the cotton trade, and the poor
of the North of Ireland, to whom it was supposed it would be
beneficial, were indifferent about the merits of the inven-
tion. Specimens of the Flax cotton and of the fabrics woven
from it are still preserved in the Museum of the Society of
Arts.

Several attempts were subsequently made in Germany to
convert, with the action of alkaline solutions, Flax into a
fibre resembling cotton, which could be used, either alone or
together with cotton, in the manufacture of cotton goods,
But there, as in Ireland, the manufacturers probably set them-
selves against the introduction of Flax cotton, and the work-
people determined not to use the new material. The matter was
subsequently investigated by Berthollet, by Gay-Lussac, and by
Giobert, who employed alternately steepings in hot solutions of
soap, alkali, and sulphuric or muriatic acid; and‘ Berthollet
observes that equally fine cotton is obtained from the com-
monest refuse tow as from the best Flax. (v. ‘Jury Report,’
p. 98.) More recently, in 1842, M. Rouchon, of l’Ecole
Polytechnique, at Paris, has devised a method for preparing
Flax by means of immersion in a weak acid solution for a
short period, and then placing it in a mass kept moist by
occasional waterings. These are repeated daily until the
desired effect is produced. The Flax is kept tied up in
small bundles, and a man and a boy could attend to two tons
per day. (Wilson.)

As carbonate of soda is very abundant and cheap in most
parts of India, as well as the vegetable acids, and as the
216 MANUAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSES

natives are in the habit of employing both in one of their
processes for bleaching muslins, they could easily be induced
to apply this method to the improved preparation of Flax or
of any other fibre.

MECHANICAL PROCESSES BY HAND.

In the preceding account, some processes have necessarily
been hinted at and supposed to have been performed, because
without them Flax could not have been prepared for sale.
But these have not yet been noticed in detail. As they
require tools for their due performance, and these cannot be well
understood from mere description, we annex some woodcuts,
for the use of which the Author is indebted to his publisher,
Mr. G. Smith. They are the same which were used in the
pamphlet published by the Indian Flax Society, and which was
compiled from the then best authorities. Many improved’
methods of preparing Flax have since then been discovered,
and are now employed in Europe, and will, no doubt, be found
useful in an extended state of the culture in India. But at
present the simplest tools are the most suitable, such as those
formerly very generally employed, and still used in many places
in this country, and such as are required for cleaning by hand
instead of by machinery.

Of these we add, first, a figure of the instrument used for
separating or rippling seed,—a process which is recommended
to be performed by the farmer.

 

The ripple has already been described at p. 158.

The best ripples are made of half-inch square rods of iron, placed with
the angles of iron next to the ripplers, 3-16ths of an inch asunder at the
bottom, half an inch at the top, and 18 inches long, to allow a sufficient
spring, and save much breaking of Flax. The points should begin to taper
3 inches from the top. i

But in the Courtrai system the crop is stooked and ricked
FOR SEPARATING FLAX. 217

in the field, and afterwards stacked or conveyed to the factory
or rettory.

The Courtrai System.—This is the mode in which Flax should be saved
for steeping on Schenck’s or Watt's patent systems. It requires to be very
carefully done, as inattention will reduce the value of the straw, and yield
inferior fibre. The Flax stems should be put together in bunches, about
one half larger than a man can grasp in one hand, spread a little, and laid
on the ground in rows after each puller ; the bunches laid with tops and
roots alternately, which prevents the seed-bolls from sticking to each other
in lifting. It should be stooked as soon after pulling as possible, and never

allowed to remain overnight unstooked, except in settled weather. The
stooking should go on at the same time as the pulling, as, if Flax is allowed
to get rain while on the ground, its colour is injured.—It is then ricked, and
allowed to stand in the field until the seed is dry enough for stacking.—The
rick, if properly built, will stand secure for months. It can be stacked at
leisure, or put in a barn, the seed taken off during the winter, and the Flax
steeped in the following May; or it may be kept stacked, without receiving
any injury, for two or three years, or even longer.

If the capsules or bolls are brittle, or the stems have been
stacked according to the Courtrai system, the seed is beaten
out with a small wooden stick shaped like a cricket bat; a
bundle of Flax is laid on a board, and the bolls are broken
with the bat and fall on the cloth below; or they are separated
by thrashing with a stick, the foot being kept on the root end
of the Flax to prevent its turning about. In some factories
or rettories, the stems are passed between plain rollers, by
which means the bolls are crushed, and the seed falls out, as
mentioned at p. 159.

“ Breaking is simply crushing the bark and breaking the
wood-like part of the stalk into fragments, in order to facilitate
the separation of the fibre ; this is performed in various ways.

- “In order to give the boon such a degree of brittleness as to
make it part readily from the fibre, whereby this process is
rendered easy, the Flax should be well dried in the sun.

“ Primitive mode of breaking. —The
woody part and bark are broken by ,
twisting a bundle of stalks as it is th
passed along between the hands,
taking care not to ravel or entangle
the fibre. The fragments of the
stalk, &c., are then shaken, scutched

or beaten off by a wooden knife
eight or ten inches broad. The fibre thus cleared is the un-

  
218 BREAKING AND SCUTCHING OF FLAX.

dressed Flax of commerce, worth 6d. to 8d. per 1b., or 6 to 8

annas per seer.

“ Another simple mode of breaking is by taking a handful of
stalks in one hand, laying them upon a table or block, beating
them with a wooden mallet or bat; afterwards drawing them
forcibly over’ the edge of the table with both hands, and
scutching, in order to free them from the fragments and
stalks.

“Another method. The Bott-
hammer is a wooden block (some-
thing of the size and shape of a
denkee), having on its under face,
channels or flutings, five or six
deep lines, and it is fixed to a
long bent helve or handle. In
=: using it, a bundle of the dried Flax

stalks is spread evenly upon the
floor, then powerfully beaten with the hammer, first at the
roots, next at the points, and lastly in the middle. When the
upper surface has been well beat in this way, it is turned over,
that the under surface may get its turn. The Flax is then
removed, and well shaken to free it from the boon.

«By the hammer the whole wood is never separated from the
textile fibres, but a certain quantity of chaffy stuff adheres to
them, which is removed by another operation. This consists
either in rubbing or shaking. The rubbing is much practised
in Westphalia, and the neighbouring districts.’

The common brake consists of four wooden swords fixed in
a frame, and another frame with three swords, which play in the
interstices of the first, by means of a joint at one end. The
Flax is taken in the left hand, and placed between the two
frames, and the upper frame is pushed down briskly upon it.
It breaks the Flax in four places, and by moving the left hand,
and rapidly repeating the strokes with the right, the whole
handful is soon broken. An improved form of brake is worked
by a treadle, and motion given it with the left foot.

“ Scutching-block which may be used with either of the methods
of breaking.—Fig. 4 represents a board set upright in a block
of wood so as to stand steady, in which is a horizontal slit
about three feet from the ground, the edge of which is thin.

 
BREAKING AND SCUTCHING OF FLAX. 219

The broken Flax held in handfuls in the left hand is inserted
in this slit, so as to project to the right, and a flat wooden
sword, eight or ten inches broad, generally of shape of fig. p;

ne

o
: 4
8 >I
2 a
3 S
3 4 §
3 mn
: 23
= Ze
a Sy
43 °
3 os
Fe 3

380
a a
z 5
te
&

the breadth of this knife is important; when too narrow it
easily causes the Flax to twist round it, and thereby tears a
portion of the fibres. With this knife the Flax is repeatedly
struck, parallel to the board (and close to the slit), with per-
pendicular blows, to scrape off its wooden asperities, The part
which lies in the slit is continually changed by a motion of
the left hand.

“Tn flax-mills, the operation of breaking is performed by
passing the stems between three fluted cylinders, one of which
is made to revolve by horse or water power, and carries the
other two round. That of scutching is accomplished in the
same mill, by means of four arms projecting from a horizontal
axle, so as to strike the stalk or boon in a slanting direction,
until the useless parts are beaten away. The operation of
these mills was at first much objected to, on the ground that
they destroy much of the fibre before the woody part is all
separated ; but their mode of action has been greatly improved,
and such mills are now very generally established in
Ireland.”

So great is the importance of properly made scutch-mills,
that the Royal Irish Society have always made the state of the
machinery employed for scutching Flax a principal object of
attention. In the year 1852 an Act was passed by Parliament,
220 MACHINES FOR SEPARATING FLAX.

extending the provisions of the Land Improvement Act to
buildings for scutch-mills. Several have been reported on by
the above Society, and a section of one is given in Mr, Mac-
Adam’s paper in ‘Journ. Agric. Soc.,’ vol. viii, p. 304. Messrs.
MacAdam have lately invented a scutching mill which has the
great advantage of being able to do without skilled
labour.

These processes probably form the best introduction to the
mechanical methods of separating the fibre.

MECHANICAL PROCESSES BY MACHINERY,

We have already observed that the intimate union between
the constituent parts of plants may be dissolved by the action
of water, by the fermentative process, or by chemical reagents,
as well as in many instances by the mere absence of moisture.
Thus we may see the union of the leaves with the parent
plant ceasing on the approach of winter ; or, more to the point,
we may see the cuticle of the Birch bark peeling off, as well as
the bark of other trees; or, if we take a cut branch of the
Linden or Lime tree, some time after it has been cut, we may
see the layers of bark separating from the branch and from each
other. The herbaceous parts of leaves may also be reduced to
powder, when the fibrous parts still remain; or we may take
the dried bark of some fibre-yielding plant, and observe
that, by rubbing it between the hands, the cuticle may
become separated from the fibres, and these from each other.
All facts proving that the fibres of plants may be separated, in
some instances at least, by simple drying and by mechanical
means. Several machines have of late years been invented for
this purpose with more or less success. It is generally con-
sidered that such processes are fitted only for such fibres as are
required for coarse purposes, such as for rope-making and
coarse canvass. But the Author has seen some specimens
lately, which seem to prove that such methods are capable of
greater perfection than is supposed. They will be of certain
advantage where nature has produced a good fibre, and the
carelessness of man is liable to destroy its structure by over-
retting, or any other inattention.

The first of these patents was taken out by Mr. James Lee
- HILL AND BUNDY’S MACHINE. 221

for his method of separating the fibre by mechanical means,
and without the aid of water-retting. His discovery was
thought of such importance, that Parliament granted him the
peculiar privilege, that the time for the specification of his
patent should be extended from six months to seven years.
The Irish Linen Board expended a large sum in introducing
the method into the Flax districts, and Mr. Wilson informs
us that one of the machines is still preserved in the White
Linen Hall at Belfast. Before the time, however, for specifi-
cation arrived, Messrs. Hill and Bundy took out a patent
for their machine for breaking and preparing raw Flax
and Hemp.!

In this machine the frame is made either of wood or metal,
which supports two conical rollers. These revolve indepen-
dently of each other in proper
brass bearings, a third coni-
cal roller being similarly sup-
ported under the top piece of
the machine. All these rollers
are frustra of cones made of
cast iron. Whatever form of
teeth be adopted, they must
be so shaped and disposed
with regard to each other, as
to have considerable play be-
tween them, in order to ad-
mit the quantity of Flax stem
which is intended tobe broken
and prepared. The upper piece
of the machine, which carries
the upper conical roller, is attached to the main frame by a
moveable joint at its upper end, and is connected near its other

 

 

1 Several of these machines appear by the following extract from a despatch, to
have been sent to India by the Court of Directors: “A principle has lately been
discovered for producing the fibre of Hemp, Sunn, Caloee, and other similar
plants, in a most improved state, without steeping or dew-retting. We have
judged it advisable to send you several of the machines, with some printed directions
to assist in the use of them ; and as very little tuition is necessary, so we have judged
it proper only to have two men instructed in its operations, who belong to the ship in
which they came, and who will attend to instruct those you may appoint to be
taught.” (Public Department, May 8th, 1816.)
222 HILL AND BUNDY’S MACHINE.

end with an iron rod, which is attached below to a treadle with
a spring, to which motion is given with the foot, while the Flax
is held by the hands between the cones. The operation may be
commenced and continued for some time with the larger part
of the rollers, and finished with their smaller ends: this
forming one of the advantages of using conical rollers.

If it is intended that the Flax shall be bleached before it is
spun, then recourse is had to certain trays in which are con-
tained the water or other fluid used for bleaching the Flax or
Hemp. Then each small parcel is worked separately, while
wet, through a machine, similar to that in which the Flax has
been broken; but here the rollers should be cylindrical and
made entirely of wood, with metal axles, and the teeth, which
will be parallel, should be similar in form to those in the
lower right hand section (p. 221). This operation will loosen
the gluten and colouring matter, for the rinsing and wringing
which must follow, and which is preceded by soaking the Flax
in a weak solution of soap.

The above machine and process, though not now in use, are
interesting, as among those which were the earliest employed,
and as indicating the points which require to be attended
to; though, in getting rid of one set of difficulties, others are
encountered. But the powers and mechanical contrivances of
the later inventions have surmounted many difficulties as well
as given much greater facilities.

Another process, for which a Mr. Olcott obtained two
patents in the year 1840, is interesting, as showing the power
of rollers and the cleansing effects of water. This invention
consists in taking the sun- or kiln-dried Flax in the stem,
spreading it out upon a wide feeding cloth, from whence it
passes through a series of long fluted wooden rollers, say

‘thirty sets, that is, sixty altogether, viz., thirty upper and thirty
lower rollers, which so crush and break the stalk, that most
of the wood drops from the fibre, and renders the process of
cleaning it easy.

The Flax, when separated from the wood, is twisted into a
rope; the rope should be rove about the thickness of a stout
man’s arm. ‘This rope is then passed through another series
of fluted rollers about six inches wide, and made either of
wood or metal; the ends are twisted together, and an endless
DICKSON’S MACHINE, 223

rope thus made, The rollers, a series of twenty or thirty
sets, are then put in motion, and a stream of water set flowing
over them. The rope passing through in an endless round,
the remaining particles of wood, or shoves, as they are techni-
cally called, are rapidly separated from the fibre, the gluten and
colouring matter washed out, and the fibre itself reduced and
divided into smaller and finer fibres. After the process has
been continued a few hours, the rope is withdrawn, much
diminished in size, and quite white. On untwisting it, when
dried, the product is “ Flax cotton.” This article is much
more beautiful than the finest cotton: it is almost as soft as
silk, and exceedingly glossy, but when closely examined, pre-
sents many imperfections.

In the year 1851, Mr. T. Routledge completed a machine,
consisting chiefly of peculiarly formed rollers, under which were
' passed the leaves of the Agave, Plantain, New Zealand Flax, &c.

—that is, of all such plants as are arranged under the class of
Endogens—then washing and separating the fibre. The machine
was capable of turning out two or three tons of fibre per diem ;
-and trials were made with it at Messrs. Pontifex and Co.’s.

Mr. Dickson, of the Flax Works at Grove Street, Deptford,
has for some years been engaged in perfecting a machine which
will break, scutch, and heckle Flax, as it is taken from the
field, without being retted or steeped by any process; and if
’ the Flax be afterwards boiled in his patent flax-steep, it will
not only remain strong, but become white.

By this the expense of separating the fibre by hand is saved :
this amounts to from 2s. to 2s. 4d. per stone of 16 lb., on an
article the average price of which is from 8s. to 9s. per stone.
It also supersedes the necessity of employing skilled hands,
called scutchers, at 2s. 6d. or 3s. per day.

In a recent statement, Mr. Dickson observes that “his
machines produce in one day out of one ton of green Flax
stalks, 920 lb. of fibre; that is, 53 lb. out of 14 1b. of stalks.
This, when prepared by his liquid, has produced 2 Ib. 6 oz. of
very fine fibre, or in all 515 Ib. of fibre. fit for spinners’ use.”
Mr. Dickson further contrasts his process with that of others,
stating that, from many experiments caused to be made by that
most important and useful body, the Belfast Flax Society, and
who recommend Schenck’s process, it appears that Mr. Andrews,
224 DAVY’S MACHINE.

a gentleman of great practical knowledge in Flax culture, seems
to be only able to obtain 9 1b. of Flax, and 15 oz. of Tow, out
of 100lb. of Flax stalks. Mr. MacAdam, the Society’s
Secretary, says that improvements have now been made, which
enable parties working on Schenck’s system, to produce 14 1h,
out of 112]b. of Flax stalks; but by a much more profitable
process (that of Watt’s), where 10 cwt. l qr. 21 1b. of stalks
had been operated on, the result was 234 1b. of Flax and Tow;
while his own process, Mr. Dickson states, produces 268 lb. of
marketable fibre. Mr. Warner, of Trimmingham, the advocate
of hand-scutching, commonly obtains 20 stone of scutched
Flax out of one ton of stalks, at a cost of 2s. per stone.

The correctness of these conclusions, and the carrying them
out on a large scale, are of course dependent upon a variety of
circumstances. The Author can only vouch, as he has already
done at p. 1384, for the greatly improved appearance of some
of the Indian fibres which have been subjected to Mr.
Dickson’s treatment, and he has been assured by good practical
judges, that some of them might, in the state to which they
have been brought, be at once used for many of the purposes
of Flax. He therefore believes that much practical good will
arise out of the mechanical method of separating the fibres of
Exogens when in a dry state, and of those of Endogens when
still moist and green,

The Author has lately had an opportunity of seeing some
specimens of Flax from Northumberland, and of Hemp from
Italy, prepared by Mr. Dickson, with his machines and liquid,
and without steeping. One half of each specimen is in the dried
state of the stems, so as to give every facility for comparison.
These clearly prove the practicability of this method, and
therefore of the preparation of fibre, for many purposes at
least, without any steeping.

The Author has also seen some specimens of Indian fibre
beautifully prepared by Mr. W. Gardiner.

At the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society held at
Lincoln this year (July, 1854), a machine, manufactured by
Messrs. Ransome, was exhibited and worked by Mr. E. Davy,
of Crediton, in which Flax fibre was separated from the cuticle
and boon by mechanical means, and without any steeping,
This was favorably mentioned in ‘ The Times’ (July 20th, 1854),
THE PROCESS OF HECKLING. 225

and the instrument was afterwards sent to Leeds for trial,
though the Author has not seen any subsequent account of its
performances.

The Author further observes it stated in the annual report
for this year of the Royal Society for the Promotion and Im-
provement of the growth of Flax in Ireland, under the head of
“Unsteeped Flax fibre,” that “the plan of preparing the fibre
without. steeping has, on former occasions, been alluded to.
It is now being carried out practically, on a very large scale,
by Mr. Roche, M.P. for County Cork; and the fibre is stated
to find a ready market in England, for certain coarse purposes.
The price obtained is considerably under that of steeped Flax,
but, as the expense of steeping is avoided, it is stated to be
sufficiently remunerative.” (Belfast, 24th Nov., 1854.)

Heckliny—Among the operations which have been inci-
dentally mentioned, but not described, is that of heckling, also
called hackling. This, however, is more a spinner’s than a
planter’s business, though the latter do sometimes like to send
their produce in the best state to market, as noticed even in
some of the communications from India. It is, at all events,
useful to know the degree of subdivision of which a fibre is
susceptible. In this process, the fibres are not only split into
their finest fibrils, but are also cleaned, and arranged parallel
to each other ; while those which are too short for spinning are
separated, and form the finer kinds of tow. The heckle is a sort
of comb, with several rows of teeth fixed into round or oblong
blocks of wood; the whole resembling the hand cards formerly
used for carding cotton, and for which the jaw-bone of the
boalee fish is a substitute in carding cotton for the Dacca
muslins. The teeth of the heckle are of iron or steel, differing
in length according to their fineness, beautifully polished,
tapering, and having the points exceedingly sharp. Heckles
of different degrees of delicacy are employed in bringing fibre
to the required extent of fineness.

Mr. Tomlinson has given the following clear account of the
process: “In heckling Flax, only one card or heckle is used
at atime. The workman with one hand seizes a strick or
lock of Flax by the middle, throws it upon the points of the
coarse heckle, and draws it towards him; at the same time

with the other hand spreading the Flax, and preventing it
15
226 THE PROCESS OF HECKLING.

from sinking too deeply among the teeth. By this operation,
the Flax is divided into two parts ; viz., the short fibres forming
tow, which remains between the points of the heckle, and is
from time to time removed; and the long fibres, called line,
which remains in the hand of the heckler. One half of the
length of the strick being properly heckled, the other half is
turned round and prepared in a similar way. The process is
then repeated upon the fine heckle, and continued until the
required fibre is produced. It is calculated that 100 pounds
of well-cleaned Flax will yield from forty-five to sixty pounds of
line ; the remainder consisting of tow, boony particles, and
dust. Considerable force and dexterity are required to heckle
well, for in the hands of an unskilful operative, the best Flax,
instead of being separated into fine, delicate, parallel lines, will
nearly all be converted into tow, which is much less valuable
than line; but a good heckler throws the Flax more or less
deep among the teeth, according to circumstances, feeling the
amount of resistance required, and drawing it with the proper
degree of force and velocity.

“To assist the heckler in splitting the filaments, the Flax is
sometimes, between the first and second heckling, folded up
into a bundle, and beaten upon a block with a wooden mallet,
after which it is well rubbed with the hands., A similar object
is gained by bruising it upon a smooth board with a stiff
brush, and also by boiling it with potash ley.

“ Machines have been contrived for the purpose of superseding
heckling by hand, and in all of them the Flax is not drawn
through them as in working by hand; but, on the contrary,
the sharp points or heckles are moved through the Flax,
properly secured.”

It has been already mentioned, that applications had been
made, both from Sindh and from the Punjab, for some
heckles. A few of them have been forwarded by the overland
route, also breaks and scutchers, of the excellent manufacture of
Mr. Perry, of Hunslet Old Mill, Leeds.

In connection with the foregoing process of heckling, may
be mentioned that of dividing the Flax into lengths, as
Mr. Tomlinson saw practised in the extensive mills of Messrs.
Marshall, of Leeds. ‘“ The length of the Flax varies from twenty-
six to thirty, or thirty-six inches; the part nearest the root is
EXPORTS OF LINSEED FROM INDIA. 227

coarse and strong, the middle part fine and strong, and the upper
part still finer, but not so strong. The Flax is therefore
divided into three lengths, and the parts from the bottom,
middle, and top being collected into separate heaps, or stricks,
as they are called, several qualities of thread are afterwards
formed from them. Sometimes, however, the whole length of
the Flax is divided into four or five parts, which are called
middles, ends, and middle and end middles.”

This process it is especially desirable to notice, as showing
the great importance of having the Flax of uniform quality.

EXPORTS OF LINSEED FROM INDIA.

The large exports of Linseed from India have frequently
been mentioned. It is desirable, therefore, to give some of
the details. By these we may observe, that though compara-
tively a recent trade, the article is already known to other
countries besides England. The first Export of Linseed was
made from Calcutta by Mr. Hodgkinson,

In the year 1832, to the extent of 10 bushels, and increased

5 1833 xe 2,163 maunds.
is 1834 i 2,826 ,,
3 1837 » 982,327 ,,
i 1839 » 167,601  ,,
és 1850 » 765,496 ,,

As the details of this export may be interesting, we subjoin
the following table of the Imports of Linseed and Linseed Oil
nto, and Exports from, the three Presidencies :

 

LinsEEeD O1u Importep (1850-51) INTO Calcutta. |Fort St.George| Bombay. |

 

From United Kingdom : z --| Rs. 7,984 _ _-
» Amsterdam ‘ ‘ : * 805 _ —
Linstep IMportep—

From Concan . 2 : 7 ‘ _ _ Cwt. a

 

 

 

Value . oo... PRs. 8,789 — — {Rs. 201,035 |

 
228 QUALITY OF LINSEED OIL OF INDIA.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IinsEED Exported (1850-51) From Calcutta. |FortSt.George] Bombay.

To United Kingdom . ‘“ ‘ - |Ms.298,005 | Cwt.797 |Cwt. 50,102
» North America . Fi i 421,407 _ _
» France . * x i x ¥ 44,986 _ —_
» Guam . é 5 ‘ ‘i . 56 _ _
» Rotterdam . . x : : 500 _— _
» Mauritius. : . 7 5 60 —_ —_
» New South Wales “ : “ 74 i Sosa
» Trieste . ‘ 5 7 js 384 _ —
» Penang 4 : 5 - : 24 a _
» Ceylon . i . ‘ 5 —_ 4 _

» Concan ‘ é 5 ‘ _ ae 10

Total ‘i ; 5 - (Ms. 765,496] Cwt.801 |Cwt. 50,112

Value . j p . - |Rs1,530,902} Rs. 2271 | Rs. 170,539

 

 

But the commerce of Linseed has since then much increased ;
amounting in 1852-3, for Bombay, of Linseed imported to
162,015 cwt., and of exported to 114,309 ewt.

Quality of Linseed Oil of India.—It may appear remarkable
that Linseed Oil should be imported into Calcutta, when so
much Linseed is exported for the express purpose of yielding its
oil, This is in consequence of the Linseed Oil of India being
considered as not possessed of the full drying properties of the
oil prepared in Europe. But there is no doubt, this is owing
entirely to the Indian Linseed being expressed before the Mus-
tard seed has been separated, with which it is commonly mixed,
in consequence of the two plants being often grown together.
Mr. Bowen informed the Author that, when connected with one
of the lighthouses in India, he had at one time under his charge
some plate glass. This he made use of to separate the two
seeds, by placing it on a slope: the round seeds of the Mustard
rolled off, while the Linseed merely slipped down. These, when
expressed, yielded as good drying oil as any he ever obtained
from Europe. The same fact is confirmed by the following
statements.

In a report from Mr. W. Ewin, Branch Pilot, to Capt. W.
Hope, Master-Attendant at Calcutta, he acknowledges the re-
ceipt of five gallons of Linseed Oil, made at the Gloucester
Mills, situated below Calcutta.

“T beg leave to say I painted my boat inside green with the
above oil, without the assistance of turpentine, and it dried
IMPORTS OF FLAX, ETC., INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 229

within the space of twenty-four hours; and do not hesitate to
say if the above oil agreeable to the muster be given, that it is
equal to the Linseed Oil received from the Honorable Com-
pany’s Marine Yard, said to be Europe. .

“‘Sandheads, H.C.P.V. Sea Horse, 2d January, 1837.”

So Mr. W. Clark, commanding H.C.F.S.V. Hope, writes,
14th Dec., 1836:

“T have to report, for the information of the Master-
Attendant, in reply to his letter (No. 39) of the 7th ult., that
I have painted the Hope, outside, with the Gloucester Mill oil
on one side, and that supplied by the Naval Store Keeper on
the other,—both laid on at the same time; and of the two I
must give the preference to the former, in drying and bearing
a better gloss.”

IMPORTS OF FLAX, TOW, AND LINSEED INTO GREAT BRITAIN.

In the following table we may see the immense quantities
of Flax and of Linseed which are imported into Great Britain.
Account of the quantities of Flax, Tow, and Linseed, imported into the United

Kingdom during the year 1851, distinguishing the countries whence they were
imported, and the quantities brought from each. (M‘Culloch’s ‘Com. Dict.’)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Flax & Tow. Linseed.
: Cwt. Cwts.

Russia : . 7 e : . 818,676 417,950
Prussia. é ‘ 4 3 #) 38 135,825 58,179
Hanseatic Towns s i é : 7 14,925 2,352
Holland . é : ‘ ‘ * 6 83,121 14,779
Belgium ‘ ‘ 3 ‘i 7 : 79,973 55
France. : . a * 3,802 36
Italy and the Italian Islands . ‘ . a 1,885 1,667
Egypt. ; : : ‘ . 48,038 36,410
British Territories in the East Indies . : 3 48 93,814
United States of America 2 ; a> ue 6 1,152
Other parts. ‘ r 3 ‘ 2 7,885 4,077
Total ‘ 5 . j « «| 1,194,184 630,471

 

In reference to the expected deficiency of Flax during the
year 1854, it has been observed, in the Report of the Irish
Society: “So far, however, events have turned out differently
from what was anticipated, the permitted import of Russian
produce, through the ports of Prussia, having secured even
a larger supply than usual of Flax, the quantity received,
during the year ended the 5th of October last, being 86,837
230 PRICES, ETC., OF FLAX.

tons from all countries, against 74,418 in the same period of
1852-53.”

With regard to the cultivation in Ireland, the same Society
observes :

From the returns which had been obtained, by order of the Lord-
Lieutenant, it appears that the entire area under Flax in Ireland, in the
Eee year, has been 150,972 acres, against 174,579 acres, in 1853. There

as thus been a diminution, on the year, of 23,607 acres, or about 14 per
cent.

The average annual growth from 1847 to 1853 inclusive, was 101,939, so
that the crop of 1854 is about 50 per cent. above the average of the previous
seven years.—From the very indifferent yield of the crop of 1853, there is
reason to believe that the quantity of marketable fibre this year will be
equal to that of the previous crop; and its value may be roughly estimated
at about two millions sterling.

So late as 1850, the export of Irish Flax and Tow was but 3166 tons. Of
the crop of 1853, the large amount of 7486 tons of Flax and 2763 of Tow—
in all 10,249 tons, value £505,989—were shipped from Ireland to England,
Scotland, and France.

A very important consideration is the price at which Flax
sells. In the year 1840, fine French Flax sold for £90, and
ordinary at £80 a ton; Flemish at £80; Friezland at £60;
and varieties of Riga at about £48 a ton; at the same time
that Jute was selling for £15. At present (Dec., 1854) the
prices of Riga Flax vary, according to different marks, from
£39 to £48; St. Petersburgh, 12 heads, £51; 9 heads,
£45 10s.; 6 heads, £40 10s.; Archangel crown, from £54 to
£59 ; and the cheaper kinds of Russian and Memel, from £31
to £45 ; Jute being at the same time sold at Dundee for from
£19 10s. to £23 10s. Egyptian Flax sells for from £33 to £44.
The seed is generally sold by the bushel, which weighs from
52 Ib. to 541b., usually sent from Odessa in bulk, from Italy
in sacks; the Riga and Dutch in barrels.

The marks by which several of these Flaxes are distinguished
in M‘Culloch’s ‘ Dictionary,’ are thus explained :

The best Marienburg is called simply Marienburg (m) or Marienburg
clean ; the second quality, cut (¢ m); and the third, Risten Dreyband (Rp).
Of the three other provinces, the first quality bears the name of rakztzer ;
as Druania rakitzer (p R), Thiesenhausen rakitzer (rr), and Lithuania
rakitzer (uk). The cut Flax of these three provinces is the second quality,
and to the third quality belong the badstub and badstub cut (B and B @), the
paternoster (p N), and hafs three band (ap), Badstub and paternoster are
the refuse of the rakitzer Flax, and the three band again the refuse of the
former sorts, and consequently very ordinary. The Revel and Pernau con-
sist of Marienburg, cut, risten, hafs three band, and three band. The
Liebau and Memel growths are distinguished by the denomination of four

and three band. These two sorts, as well as the Oberland Flax, come from
K@6nisberg, Elbing, &c., and are little esteemed in the British markets.
CONCLUDING REMARKS ON FLAX CULTURE. 231

In the imports of Flax, the terms Codilla and Tow are very often used as
synonymous, but Codilla forms the first workings in the dressing of Flax,
and is longer than Tow ; it is more or less dirty, and in consequence sometimes
cheaper than Tow. The fixed charges on twelve-head Flax at St Petersburg,
are 73 roub. 63 cop.; on_nine-head Flax, 80roub. 50 cop.; and on six-head
Flax, 91 roub: 61cop. The charges on Flax in England, taking the price
at £45 per ton, are £6 13s. 8d. (v. M‘Culloch’s ‘Com. Dict.’)

Since the foregoing parts of this article have been printed,
the Author has received a letter from Lahore, dated 21st Oct.,
1854, stating that they were led to believe, from various letters,
that the production of Flax in the Punjab this year would be
“considerable, aud that we may look forward to a yield of
from 200 to 300 tons of Flax, besides a large quantity of seed.”

Dr. Jameson, to whom one of the Flax experiments has been
assigned (v. p. 190), and whose opinion, from his extensive
experience in the culture of Tea and knowledge of the
country, is particularly valuable, wrote to the Author from the
Himalayas, 6th Nov., 1854, to the following effect: “For
some years I have been cultivating Flax on a small scale, from
seed procured from Russia, and its fibre has been pronounced
by parties in Calcutta, of a very superior description. I have
already made arrangements to grow it more extensively this
season, in two or three different situations. There is nothing
to prevent this country supplying both Flax and Hemp on
a vast scale. It possesses immense advantages in abundance
of land and cheap labour. In the Punjab thousands of acres
are available; and from the means of producing both Hemp
and Flax cheap, this part of India will always be able to com-
pete with other countries.”

CONCLUSION.

The account of Flax has extended to a much greater length
than is perhaps suited to the nature of the work. This is
owing, partly to our having taken the opportunity of treating
rather fully of the different points connected with the culture
and preparation of this fibre, and partly to our having treated
in detail of the attempts which have been already made to
cultivate Flax in India. This. we have done, in order to
ascertain, if possible, the causes of failure, or rather of the want
of commercial success; while the examination of the various
questions connected with the analyses of soils, of the Flax and
282 . CONCLUSION—ON FLAX CULTURE,

its products, as well as of steep-water, and the various methods
which are now adopted for separating this fibre, cannot
fail to suggest to cultivators in the East some methods of
improving their own practice. Having already made some
observations (v. p. 185) on the results of their experiments,
we need now only observe that the chief want, seems to have
been that of moisture during the season of cultivation.
Therefore, we cannot but think, that when this deficiency is
supplied, either by canal irrigation, or by the nature of the
climate, as in the present experiments (v. pp. 188—195), that
success will attend the efforts, and that the example will be
useful to other districts. Considering the prices at which Indian-
grown Flax formerly sold for in England, and the cost of
growing such fibres as Jute and Sunn, -which have long been
sold at from £15 to £20, it appears quite possible to grow
Flax as a profitable crop, especially as it is said that in some
situations even the seed pays for the expenses of cultivation.
But in case the fibre should not be good enough as Flax, some
would be available as tow, and some for paper-makers,
especially if reduced to the state of half-stuff by the use of the
Indian dhenkee. The extra labour required for the preparation
of the fibre can certainly be supplied as cheaply and as profita-
bly in India as in any other country of the world. But if any
difficulty is experienced, it would be easy for planters to induce
native cultivators to grow the Flax in any particular manner
and to sell it at certain rates, as they now do the Indigo
plant. This the European now manufactures into Indigo
of such excellent quality, as to hold the first place in all
markets. Much of the same success might attend the culture
of Flax if the climate were equally suitable; but it is yet
sufficiently favorable in many parts to admit of at least as
much success as has been attained in Egypt. It is only
requisite that Rettories according to some one of the improved
methods should be established in a few central situations, to
which the ryuts could bring the results of their cheap agricul-
tural labours, and where a due subdivision of labour and
manufacturing cheapness could be substituted for a mixed
system, suited only to early states of society.
LIME TREE AND RUSSIA MATS. 233

Linven, Jute, &c., of the family of Tiliacee,

The Tiliacee or Linden tribe are so named from the well-
known European tree—a favorite in parks and public walks,
and the source of an extensive commerce, inasmuch as the
mats which are imported in such enormous quantities, are
formed of the bark of this tree. But in the same family with
the Linden tree, botanists place also the genus Corchorus,
species of which yield the now well-known Jute of India, as
well as the genera Grewia and Triumfetta, both of which con-
tain species remarkable for the tenacity of their bark. The
Tiliaceze are also remarkable for mucilaginous properties. The
leaves of many are edible, and the fruit of some afford pleasantly
tasted acid berries.

Lime or Linpen Tree (Tilia europea), and Russa Mats.

The Lime tree abounds in the forests. of Europe, but espe-
cially in those of Russia; and is esteemed for its sweet-scented
flowers. The wood of the tree is white and light, and employed
for making furniture, for turning, and for carved works. The
bark of these trees when steeped in water soon separates
into thin layers, which are employed for making a coarse kind
of rope, for making matted shoes much worn by the Russian
peasantry, and also for making the mats which are so largely
exported from Russia, and which are so extensively used in
this country for packing furniture, as well as for gardening
purposes, and for covering the floor. A Linden shoot grow-
ing in moist situations, is stated by Mr. Tooke as not fit for
peeling, for the purpose of being platted into shoes, in less
time than three years. To every pair of shoes, from two to
four young Linden stems are requisite ; and though these grow
faster as they are cut, yet the consumption is enormous, and
the destruction of the Linden tree is in consequence immense.
For the better, larger kind of mats, trees of from eight to six-
teen years are cut down when full of sap, and the bark is
immediately separated both from the tree and the branches.
It is first cut longitudinally, then raised with an instrument
made of bone, and then torn off with the hand. When the
bark has been removed, it is stretched on the ground to dry,
234 MANUFACTURE OF RUSSIA MATS.

two or three strips being laid one over the other, and kept
straight by being tied down to long poles. They are employed
for making ropes in some parts of England, and for well-ropes
in France. When required for use, they are steeped in water,
and the cortical layers readily separate from each other. The
best of these layers are those which are in the interior,
while the coarser layers are on the outside.

The manufacture of mats is nearly confined to Russia and to
some parts of Sweden. Trees of from six inches to one foot in
diameter are selected in the woods, and in the beginning of
summer the bark is stripped from the trees in lengths of from
six feet to eight feet. These are afterwards steeped in water,
till the bark separates freely into layers; it is then taken out
and separated into ribands or strands, which are hung up in
the shade—generally in the wood where the trees grew from
which they were taken; and in the course of the summer they
are manufactured into mats. The fishermen of Sweden make
fishing nets out of the fibres of the inner bark.

The trees from which the bark is taken are cut down in the
summer, and, properly cut, are burnt in heaps into charcoal.

The sap is drawn off, and, when evaporated, yields sugar.
The honey of the flowers is much sought after by bees.

The Lime tree is principally produced in the government of
Vialka, Kostroma, and those immediately contiguous; and in
the months of May and June—the period when the bark is
most easily detached from the stem—the villages in the govern-
ments in question are almost deserted, the whole population
being then in the woods employed in stripping the trees.
The academician Képpen, who has carefully investigated this
curious subject, estimates the average annual production of
mats in European Russia, as follows:

Government of Vialka ‘ é - 6,000,000 pieces
* Kostroma . ‘ - 4,000,000 ,,
4s Kasan ‘ ‘ - 1,000,000 ,,
‘3 Nijni Novgorod ‘ 1,000,000 __—,,
Vologda, Tamboff, Simbirsk,
and Penza 4 BMOD DOW 45
Total . ‘ - 5 - 14,000,000 __,,

Képpen further estimates that about a fourth part of this
INDIAN SUBSTITUTES FOR RUSSIAN BAST. 235

vast quantity, or 3; millions, are exported, the rest being con-
sumed at home.

Archangel is the printipal port for the shipment of mats,
and it appears that on an average of the years 1851 and 1852,
the export of mats from that port amounted to 615,360 pieces
ayear. Large quantities are also shipped from Petersburgh,
Riga, and other ports. (M‘Culloch’s ‘Com. Dict.’)

The extent of the Imports of Russia Mats into this country
may be judged of by the following statement furnished to the
Author by Messrs. Wrench :

1832. - 840,000 1847. « 520,359
1840 . « 817,772 1848. 397,553
1841 . - 508,485 1849 . » 576,565
1842. - 532,401 1850 . + 359,223
1843. - 861,565 1851 . « 734,659
1844. - 449,817 1852 . - 333,008
1845. - 634,041 1853. - 657,040
1846. - 898,619

The price in Jan., 1834, was £4 10s. per 100, the duty
included; in 1848, 95s. to 100s.; and in 1849, under 80s.
In 1850, 90s.; 1851, 87s. 6d.; 1852, 85s. to 100s. ; and in
1853, 120s. per 100.

Inp1an Susstitutes ror Russian Bast.

As stated above, botanists place in the same family of plants
the European Tilia and the species of the Indian Grewia,
from resemblance in points of structure. So, if we inquire
into the uses of these plants, we shall find, that as Lime leaves
used to be, and still are, employed in some parts of Europe,
both in a green and dry state, as fodder for cattle, so in the
Himalayas, cattle are fed with leaves of Grewia didyma, and
some are stacked for winter use, for cattle, sheep, and goats;
as the Author, when travelling there observed. As the inner
bark of the Linden yields bast for mats, so is the inner
bark of Grewia oppositifolia, called bihul, employed in the
same mountains for making ropes.

The inner bark of many trees is employed in other parts of
India for the same purposes, though it is not easy to identify
236 DIFFERENT KINDS OF

the plants, from only local names being usually given by
travellers. Thus, in the following account given by Capt.
Biddulph in a letter to the Agri-Horticultural Society of
India, in the year 1843, he states that, near Darjeeling,
“the Lepchas make rope from the fibre of the Kullyhain,
and stout bowstrings and sewing thread from the fibre of
the Ruffickee tree.” ‘Nothing can be more simple,” Capt.
Biddulph states, “than their mode of manufacture: the bark
is torn off the Kullyhain when from five to fifteen years’
growth; the inner bark or fibre is then detached, as shown in
the specimen, washed for a few minutes in water, and when
dry, pared or pulled into narrow strips, and twisted by the
hand into rope of any thickness. The bark of the Ruffickee
is taken off the plant when five or six feet high, and treated
in the same manner as the former, except that the outer bark
only requires to be scraped off with a knife. All the Lepcha
fishing nets are made from the Ruffickee, and are remarkably
light and strong.”

Among the Mallow tribe (or Malvacee), and some allied
families, as we shall afterwards see, there are several other
instances of the same kind. ‘To the Great Exhibition of 1851,
specimens of several kinds of Bast were sent, both from Assam
and from Arracan. Of these, the specimens sent from the
latter were so promising, that the Author was induced to send
them for examination and trial to the Horticultural Society’s
Garden at Chiswick; and as the opinion formed respecting
them was favorable, he included the information in the fol-
lowing report :

“Having been lately much engaged in examining and
showing to practical men the various fibres which were sent to
the Great Exhibition of 1851, as well as those which have
recently arrived from Assam, I was induced to turn my
attention to the subject of Bast. Of this, large quantities
are imported into this country, in the form of mats, from
Russia, chiefly for the use of gardeners, who use them for
covering pits and frames, or protecting plants, and afterwards,
when pulled to pieces, for tying up plants and vegetables. The
mats are also extensively used for packing cabinet-work and
furniture in general.

“The subject may appear trifling, but it is calculated that
- INDIAN BAST. 237

about 3,500,000 mats are exported from Russia, and about
500,000 to 800,000 are annually imported into this country.
They are made of the bark of the Lime or Linden tree, which,
when stripped off, is also made into shoes, cordage, sacks for
corn, &c. The Linden tree is not found in India; but there
are many which belong to the same family of plants found
there, some of which probably yield similar products, possibly
one or two of those to which I now wish to draw atten-
tion.

“ Among the raw products sent from the province of Arra-
can, there were six kinds of Bast (which there seems to be
called Shaw), with specimens of rope made with them. They
were named-——l, Theng-ban shaw; 2, Pa-tha-you shaw; 3,
Shaw-phyoo ; 4, Ngan-tsoung shaw; 5, Shaw-nee; 6, Eee-gywot
shaw. Observing that some of these, from their strength, flexi-
bility, and softness, were well calculated to answer the purposes of
the Bast in ordinary use, I sent some specimens to Dr. Lindley,
and requested him to have their useful properties ascertained
in the Horticultural Society’s Garden at Chiswick. As he
informed me that both the Superintendents, Messrs. Thompson
and Gordon, reported very favorably of them, I requested the
latter to give me a detailed report, including all such infor-
mation as would be useful to merchants in Arracan. The
kinds sent to him were No. 2, Pa-tha-you shaw; 3, Shaw-
phyoo; and one marked Sanseviera zeylanica, was probably a
specimen from Cuttack.

“Though well aware that the freight must always operate
against a bulky article of low price brought from so great a
distance, yet there are occasions when, from a stoppage of, or
a deficient supply from, ordinary sources, a rise of price ensues,
which might be taken advantage of at a place on the coast like
Akyab. I would, therefore, beg to suggest that the accom-
panying report should be sent to India for the information of
the merchants in Arracan, or for publication in the journals
in India. At all events, a knowledge of the good qualities of
these Indian Basts might lead to their employment in India,
and to their export to less distant countries than England. As
it is possible that merchants in Arracan might wish to make
mats in imitation of the Russian, I would suggest that a piece
of one of these might be sent there; as by this the thickness
238 REPORT ON BAST FROM INDIA.

of the transverse and the pliability of the longitudinal pieces
of the Bast of which they are composed might easily he
imitated.

* Hast India House, Jan. 16, 1854.”

Report upon new kinds of Bast-matting from India.

* Hort. Soc. Gardens, Chiswick,
January 11, 1854.

“ Sir,—The three pieces of Indian Bast sent appear all the
same, at least I cannot detect any difference in their qualities
or appearance ; and I think, when it is made into mats, will
prove an excellent substitute for Russian mats. It is very
strong, is in broad strands, very pliable and tough when
wetted, easily divided into small portions for the purpose of
tying, &c., and is entirely free from knotty places; and when
worked into mats in the Russian way, will be an excellent
winter covering for pits and frames. The material, also, seems
more firm and tough, and, I have no doubt, will last at least
twice as long (in wear) as the best Russian mats; and, if sold
at a less price, will in time supersede them.

“The price of Russian mats is now from £7 10s. to £8 per
100, wholesale; and from 2s. to 2s. 6d. each, retail.

« A full-sized Russian mat weighs about 5 1b. when new and
quite dry, is 7 feet long and 4 feet broad, and is made with the
rougher and worst strands worked crossways, and the thinner
and longer strands longways in the mats.

“In making mats, it should be observed never to have any
of them under the regular size, for small mats (either shorter
or narrower) greatly detract from the value of full-sized ones
when mixed with them.

“ T remain, sir, your obedient servant,

*“ Grorce Gorpon.
“To Dr. Royle, &c. &c.”

The appearance of these basts may be thus described. All
were sent in the state of bast, and twisted into rope, from
Akyab in Arracan. The price of all stated to be one rupee a
maund, or about 3s. a cwt.
INDIAN BASTS. 239

1. Theng-ban shaw.—Coarse-looking, and of a reddish-brown colour, but
divisible into a number of very thin layers, with a good deal of flexibility,
and some toughness. A portion twisted into rope.

2. Pa-tha-you shaw.—Strips seven feet in length, and fine in texture,
light-coloured, formed of several easily divisible layers; the outer layers
rather dense and compact, and the inner cancellar. A Muse species (?).

8. Shaw-phyoo.—Long, thin, smooth layers, light-coloured, tough, and
flexible; easily divisible into still finer layers.

4. Ngan-tsoung shaw.—Fibres and rope sent, but mislaid.

5. Shaw-nee—Of « reddish-brown colour, rough and coarse, but twisted
into rope.

6. Eee-gywot shaw.—Strips five to six feet in length, composed of several
layers; of which one side is smooth and compact, but the layers on ‘the
other side thin but cancellar, all having a considerable degree of toughness.

Mr. Ripley, in ‘Journ, Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ viii, p. 147, describes three
parks under the names Shaw-ne, Shaw-phrus, and Batharan shaw. These
may be Nos. 5, 3, and 2. But the spelling differs much. He also mentions
several useful Rattans at Akyab.

There are no doubt a great variety of other basts, which
might easily be procured from trees in Assam, Arracan, and
all along the Malayan Peninsula, as well as on the Malabar
Coast. In an account by Mr. Fenwick of the vegetable pro-
ducts of the Tenasserim he mentions a bast rope of consi-
derable strength, and also that plantains and pine-apples are
very abundant there. All the above places are on the sea-coast,
or accessible by river. But Akyab, where so many are already
produced, seems the most favorable situation for their export to
Europe, if it should be found desirable. It is probable that
several might be much improved by a little steeping in water,
as practised with the Russian bast.

Some of those sent to the Exhibition of 1851, and of which
the plants are unknown, may here be mentioned.

Patoo or Asta is a bast from Beerbhoom, is like the Putwa
from Bhagulpore, and will be noticed with it.

Chehoor, a pale, brownish-coloured cordage from Beerbhoom,
coarse, and of moderate strength.

Bark string, made by Hill tribes of Rajmahl, of useful size
and strength.

Bark rope, with the coarse but strong fibre of which it is
made: also from Rajmahl.

Several Bark cloths from the Islands, &c., will be mentioned
with the Paper Mulberry, formerly Morus, now Broussonetia
papyrifera.

There is a remarkable cord without name, which seems to
be formed of a salvage of fibre, with a yellowish bark folded or
240 JUTE OR JEW’S MALLOW.

laid round it, and of these, two threads so made up are twisted
into a cord.

A bark like some sent as that of Odina Wodier, is full of
fibrous material.

One of the best of the basts, and seemingly as like one of those
from Arracan, was sent from Assam ; the strips are from six to
seven and eight feet in length, consisting of several layers, easily
separable, tough, flexible, and strong. They have the number
on them of the box in which was conveyed, and in which
were contained Pine-apple fibre; but their appearance is
totally different.

Several of the basts of different plants which are used. by
the natives, and of which the names have been ascertained,
will be mentioned under the heads of Hibiscus arboreus,
or tiliaceus, Sterculia villosa and guttata, Bauhinia racemosa
and scandens, Celtis orientalis, Antiaris Saccada. Capt.
Thompson reports upon a bast rope made by the Munnee-
poorees, and on another from Singapore. (‘ Journ. Agri-Hortic.
Soc.,’ vili, p. 45.)

Jure, Jew’s Mattow (Corchorus olitorius and capsularis,
Tiliacee).
Sans., Putta ; Beng., Pat; fibre, Jute ; cloth, tat, chotee, megila.

The name Jute is now so familiarly known, and this fibre is
so extensively employed in some of our manufactures, that
one is apt to think that it must have long been established as
an article of commerce. This is far from being the case, for we
find no notice of it even in comparatively recent dictionaries
of commerce; and it is not above fifteen years since that
it has come to be much employed in the manufactures of this
country, though it has long been so employed in India, and
its fibres much used for making both cordage and cloth.

Under the name of Jute, however, the fibre of two very
distinct plants is included, though no recent accounts have
been published by any of the present growers of Jute. Both
plants are common in almost every part of India; the leaves
of both are used as pot-herbs, and the stems of both yield
fibre, and are cultivated on both these accounts; and both
are placed by botanists in the genus Corchorus, which is so
JUTE OR JEW’S MALLOW. 241

named from the Korkhoros of the Greeks, which also was a
pot-herb, and, indeed, is by many supposed to have been one
of the very plants which we have now to describe. This is
the species called Corchorus olitorius, which is still cultivated
in the neighbourhood of Aleppo, and is described by travellers
in the East as eaten for a pot-herb in Egypt and Arabia, as
well as in Palestine. Rauwolf saw the Jews about Aleppo
using the leaves as a pot-herb; hence the old name of “ Olus
judaicum” in old authors; which by the French is translated
Mauve de Juif, and by us “ Jew’s Mallow.” It is supposed to
be the plant alluded to in ‘Job,’ xxx, 4.1 It is the same
plant which, small and herbaceous in the dry soil of Syria,
grows to a height of four or five feet in the North of India;
but in the hot, moist climate of Bengal, attains a size that
allows fibres of twelve feet in length to be separated from it.

The other plant, which we suppose also yields some of the
Jute of commerce, is Corchorus capsularis, easily distinguished
from the other by the form of its seed-vessels being globular
instead of elongated and cylindrical. It is also more remark~
able for an east and west, than for a north and south distri-
bution. We have stated that it is to be found in most parts
of India, and likewise in Ceylon. It is curious that Rumphius,
in his ‘ Herb. Amboinense,’ v. 212, t. 78, describes it under
the name of Ganja (but this may be pronounced Gania), which
is that applied in India to the true Hemp. By Malays it is
called- Rami Tsjina, that is, Chinese Rami; a name which
we shall find is also applied by them to other fibre-yielding
plants, as to the true Hemp, according to Rumphius, and
also to the Urtica nivea, as we shall see under the head of
China-grass. It is no doubt cultivated in China, where
Roxburgh states it is called Oi moa.

This so-called Chinese Hemp—but a true Corchorus—was
at one time supposed to be superior to the true Hemp, and
_attempts were made to introduce it into England; the account
of which is detailed in the ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ vol. Ixxii. It is
there stated, that seeds sown in England produced plants
fourteen feet high, and nearly seven inches in circumference,
though few produced mature seeds. But some, however,
which came to maturity in the second season produced a crop

. «Malluach,’ in Kitto’s ‘Cyclopzdia of Biblical Literature.’
16
242 ° SPECIES OF CORCHORUS YIELDING JUTE.

of good Hemp, greater by one third than was ever known to
be obtained in England. ‘We may easily believe, therefore,
that this may grow to a great height in the congenial climate
of Bengal.

As both these plants seem to yield the fibre called Jute, we
may describe both, before proceeding to treat of their culture
or the mode adopted by the natives of India for separating
their fibre.

Corchorus olitorius, Pot-herb, or Jew’s Mallow, as seen in the Mediter-
ranean region, is an herbaceous annual plant, only a foot or two, but in
India of several feet in height, and erect in habit. The stem is smooth,
cylindrical, and more or less branched. The leaves are of a lively green
colour and smooth, alternate, on footstalks, oval or ovo-lanceolate in shape,
with the margin dentate, and with the two lower dentilures terminated by
a slender filament. The stipules are simple, awl-shaped, and reddish
coloured at their base. The peduncles or flower-stalks are one- to two-
flowered. The flowers are small, having the calyx consisting of five pieces or
sepals, and the corolla of five yellow petals. Stamens numerous. Torus, or
nectary cup-shaped, with glands at the base of the petals. Ovary solitary,
ripening into a long, nearly cylindrical capsule, ten-ribbed, six to eight
times longer than it is broad, five-celled, and formed of five valves, with five
terminal points. Seeds numerous, with nearly perfect transverse partitions
between them.

This is called Putta in Sanscrit, and Pat in Bengalee;
flowers in the rainy season, and fructifies in October and
November. Cloth made of it is called Tat, the fibre Jute.

Dr. Roxburgh states that there is a reddish variety of this,
which the natives call Bun Pat, that is, Wild Pat.

Corchorus capsularis, ov Capsular Corchorus, is also an annual, with a
straight, smooth, and cylindrical, afterwards branched stem, from four and
five to eight and ten feet in height. The leaves have long footstalks, and are
oval, acuminate, thin, and of alight green; serrated at their margins, with the
two lower serratures terminating in narrow filaments. The flowers are
small, yellow, and like those of the other species in the number of their
parts. The capsules are short and globose, wrinkled and muricated, with
five cells, and composed of five valves ; seeds few in each cell, and without
transverse partitions. It flowers in the rainy season, and the fruit is ripe in
September and October.

This is the Ghi-nalita pat of the Bengalese, and its fibre
sometimes called Nalta jute. It is called isbund in North-
West India. It has been called Chinese Hemp (Rami tsjina)
by the Malays, and its fibre China pat by Roxburgh. The
kind called Teetah pat is said to be a variety of this species.

It is cultivated both in Bengal and in China, on account of
its fibre, which is separated by maceration, and used as cor-

dage, both for agricultural purposes and for river navigation, as
CHARACTERISTICS OF JUTE. 243

well as for making paper. It is also employed for making the
coarse kind of cloth called Megila in Bengal; and ‘another
kind called ¢at or choti, whence, probably, has been derived
the name Jute. This kind of cloth is now well known by
the name gunny, and used for making guany bags; a name
derived either from the Ganja or Gania of Rumphius, or
from goni, a name of Crotalaria juncea on the Madras side,
(Buchanan) ; there the name Jute is in some places applied to
its fibre, and also to that of Hibiscus cannabinus.

There are several other species of Corchorus common as
weeds in every part of India, but all may easily be distinguished
from the last by the roundish form of its capsules. The
Author has found species at as great an elevation as 5000 feet
in the Himalayas, but only in the rainy season.

Dr. Buchanan found both the above species cultivated in,
the districts of Dinajpore, Rungpore, and Purneya. In the
last he was informed, that the Corchorus which is used for
cordage is the species called by botanists olitorius, while that
used as a pot-herb is the capsularis ; just the reverse of what
is the case in some other places, showing the probability of
both species being cultivated for their fibres.

The fibre is long, soft, and silky, and well fitted for many of
the purposes to which Flax is applied, as it is divisible into
very fine fibrils, which, like those of the other species, are easily
spun. It is possessed also of some strength and durability,
even after 116 days’ maceration, as in Dr. Roxburgh’s experi-
ments. Under the microscope, the fibres of the two species seem
exactly alike.

It is generally stated that the fibres of Jute, or of those
employed in making gunny bags, cannot be bleached. This is
incorrect; they may not be bleached by ordinary methods.
Indeed, a paper-maker mentioned to the Author, having dis-
covered Jute in some rope, because it would not bleach. But
the late Col. Calvert brought several specimens of beautifully
bleached Jute to the India House, as well as some furniture
damask made of it; and we observe that Mr. Rogers presented
some of his bleached specimens to the Agri-Horticultural
Society, in May, 1846.

Dr. Roxburgh has described the species C. olitorius as the
Pat of the Bengalese, and as partially grown for the leaves and
244 VARIETIES OF JUTE, ETC.

tender: shoots, which are used by the natives—both Hindoos
and Mussulmans—as an article of food. When wild it shoots
out many lateral branches, which renders it a difficult matter
to separate the fibres from the woody parts. In preparing the
filaments, the plant requires much longer steeping in water
than Hemp—a fortnight or three weeks being scarcely suffi-
cient for its proper maceration. (v.p. 248.) He called attention
to it as a substitute for Flax, from the length and fineness of its
fibre.

The gunny bags, in which sugar and similar commodities
are brought to this country from India, are made of this
material, These are now sent to America for packing their
cotton. Though only made known in the beginning of the cen-
tury, it is now imported in immense quantities, and used for a
variety of purposes, as it spins so easily, and being cheap, is
therefore used for mixing. It used to be employed for mixing
with Codilla; this is now used for mixing with Jute.

A description of the cultivation and manufacture of Jute
was given by Baboo Ram Comul Sen (in ‘Trans. Agri-
Hortic. Soc.,’ vol. ii, p. 91), where he mentions that the prin-
cipal places where it is cultivated are Malda, Purnea, Natore,
Rungpore, and Dacca—where both land and labour are cheap.
He mentions four kinds—Pat, Tasa, Mestah, and Coshta—but
without describing them ; and quotes Roxburgh’s descriptions of
C.. olitorius, C. capsularis, and C. fuscus.

Other names are given in other districts, as at Jungypore :
1, Ghore Sun; 2, Paut ; 3, Cooch-murda Paut ; 4, Amleeah
Paut, The first and fourth may be Crotalaria and Hibiscus, and
the second and third species of Corchorus. These may also be
included under the names of Amrah Sun, Chunduna Sun, and
Putooa Sun. Some Jute sent to the Exhibition of 1851, from
Rungpore, was distinguished by the names of Suffed (white)
Hemanty Pat; 2, Lal (red) Hemanty Pat; and 3, Lal Petrie Pat.

Culture-—The seeds are sown in April or May, when there
is a sufficient quantity of rain to moisten the ground, which is
generally low, and harrowed in the same manner as paddy
(rice) land (in any land that will produce summer rice, which
requires to be well ploughed and smoothed). The field is
weeded after the plants are a foot and half high. When it
has flowered, which happens about July and August (to 14th
CULTURE AND PREPARATION OF JUTE. 245

Sept.,—B.), it is cut. The plants are three to twelve feet high,
and the circumference of the stalk is about one inch. As the
seed is not ripe when ‘the plants are cut, some of them are left,
to allow the seeds to come to maturity.

After the plants are cut down close to the roots, their tops
are clipped off, and fifty to a hundred are tied together; ten to
fifteen of these bundles are laid in a shallow tank or reservoir
of water, like rafts, over which a quantity of turf and clods of
earth are laid to make them sink under the surface of the water ;
it is allowed to remain:there for eight or ten days, during
which the cultivator daily visits it, in order to see that it is
properly laid, and the trunks are not unduly rotted. When
the bark separates, and the stalk and fibres become soft, the
weight upon the raft is removed, and the stalks are unbundled.
The dresser descends into the water knee-deep, and takes up
five to eight sticks at a time.. He breaks off two feet of them
at the bottom; the bark, which is become soft like thread, is
held in both hands, and the stalks are ‘taken off. The fibres
thus separated (and by mere washing are brought to the state
of separated fibres,—-B.), are dressed, and exposed to the sun,
by hanging the bundles of fibres over bamboos to dry; they
are afterwards partially cleaned, and finally made up into
bundles of from one to two maunds for the market,

After the Pat has been removed, the fields of which the soil
and elevation are suitable grow a winter crop of tobacco or
‘mustard seed. ~ The produce is differently stated to be from
400 lb. to 700 Ib. peracre. The harvest price, according to Dr.
Buchanan, was, in his time, ‘about 12} annas per 1001b. Mr.
Henley informs the Author that “Jute used to be sold some
years ago for R.1 8 for the bazar maund; but the demand
in this country had had the effect of raising the price of Jute
to double its old Indian value. At present, any fine, long,
silky Jute is eagerly bought up at Rs.2 8; still for inferior
Jute I should say, dealing face to face with the village dulals,
the price would not exceed R.1 8 per bazar maund.”

The culture of Jute has of late years been greatly improved
in many places, as may be seen in much of that sent to
market, and of which we have an instance in the sample of
Jute presented for report by Mr. P. Carter of Bhojepore
Factory to the Agri-Horticultural Society. This having been
246 SPINNING OF JUTE.

submitted to the members of the Flax Committee, the following
favorable opinion has been expressed on it:

Mr. Hodgkinson.—This is the finest specimen of Jute I
have ever seen—being bright, clean, strong, and of excellent
staple ; the root ends particularly well freed of the hard woody
bark which characterises bazar Jute, and deteriorates its
value.

I should say that £16 to £17 could be obtained for Jute of
similar quality at home, being fully £2 per ton more than the
ordinary descriptions now fetch.

Mr. Fergusson.—It is very good Jute, worth £3 to £4 per
ton more than what is generally shipped.

Dr. Buchanan and Ram Comul Sen describe the Pat as
spun by two kinds of spindles, the Takur and Dhara. A
bunch of the raw material is hung up in every farmer’s house,
or to the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and every one who
has leisure, forms with one or other of these spindles, some
coarse packthread (sutoli), of which ropes are twisted for the
use of the farm. The Dhara is a reel, on which a thread when
sufficiently twisted, is wound up. ‘The Takur is a kind of
spindle which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot.
Ghurghurea is a third kind of spinning machine. It is only
the lower Hindu castes, called Rajbongsi, Konget, and Polya,
that form this packthread for being woven into sackcloth, and
spin a finer thread from which the cloth called Megili, or
Megila, is woven. By far the greater part of the cloth that
is used dyed, receives the colour in the state of thread.

The coarse cloth, called Megili, is woven by the women of
the lower class of people. Most families have a loom, and the
people, especially the women in the afternoons, work a little
occasionally, and this serves to clothe the family. The pieces
consist of three or four narrow cloths sewed together, some four
or five cubits long, and from two to three cubits wide, and
are worth from two to eight annas each. Some have red and
black borders. It is said to be more durable than cloth made
of cotton.
WEAVING OF CHATEE OR JUTE CLOTH. 247

CHATEE, OR JUTE CLOTH FOR GUNNY BAGS,

The kind of cloth called chatee is made from the same mate-
rial, and is made of three different kinds, and always woven in
pieces from three quarters to one cubit wide, of which two or
three are sewn together into one piece before it is sold. The first
kind, intended for bedding, is from four to five cubits long, and
from two and a quarter to three cubits wide, and sells at about
8 rupees per 100 pieces. Secondly, that intended for covering
bales of cloth is of the same dimensions, but is thicker than
the former kind. The 100 pieces cost from 6 to 10 rupees.
Thirdly, that intended for making rice- and sugar-bags is four
cubits long, and one and a half or one and a quarter cubit
wide, and ten bags cost 4 or 5 rupees. These are sewed or
doubled and made into bags. The value of the manufacture in the
Dinajepore district amounted to 160,000 rupees. (Buchanan.)

The principal places where Chatees are manufactured are
Malda, Purnea, Natore, Rungpore, and Dacca; where the cul-
tivation of Jute is extensive, and the price of labour and land
very cheap. Ram Comul Sen says, “If the labour of spinning
the Jute and weaving Chatee, are to be done according to the
rules of labour at Calcutta, the price of gunny would be more
than double that for which it is sold.”

The greater part is cultivated by those who use or manu-
facture it; for almost all the small Hindu farmers weave cloth
of this material, and every farmer requires some for the use of
his farm.

On all the eastern frontier a great proportion of the
women are clothed in the coarse cloth made of the Corchorus,
which also gives them much employment. The value of the
material consumed in those days was about 70,000 rupees. In
the cold weather the poor cover themselves by night, and often
by day with a sackcloth rug ; and the rich usually put one under
their bedding. Some is required for the packing of tobacco and
for some grains, but much even in those days was exported to
Calcutta, Patna, and other places. In the north-west part of
Bengal a great proportion of the people used to be clothed
with Megili or Pata. Specimens of this Pat clothing were
sent to the Exhibition of 1851.
248 CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF JUTE.

Since the foregoing remarks were written, indeed, since they
have been in type, the Author has been favoured with the accom-
panying remarks from Mr. Henley, who has already been men-
tioned at pp. 36 and 168, and whom he had asked for some re-
cent information respecting the culture and preparation of Jute.

The plant in question is by far the most extensively cultivated of all the
fibrous family throughout the delta of Bengal. Its easy culture, rapid
rowth, and comparatively large produce present advantages not to be over-
ooked by that eminently practical and economical people, the natives of
Bengal. Had it combined along with these advantages, the qualities of
strength and durability, it would probably have superseded all other fibrous
materials ; but, rapid in its growth, it is again remarkably rapid in its decay
—being in fact the most perishable of fibres. It is generally grown as an
after-crop, during the rainy season, on high land, or land not subject to
submersion, like rice land. A hot and moderately rainy season suits it best;
excessive rains or bad drainage injure and deteriorate it. In this point of
view it is a precarious and delicate crop; otherwise it presents the advantage
of affording a more valuable return from land at that season, than any
other crop which the cultivator canemploy. It is sown broadcast, requires
careful weeding when young, but soon acquires strength enough to keep off
all intruders. The young leaves are eaten by the natives as a sort of
spinach; they have, however, a coarse, weedy flavour, little suited to our
European palates. No plant is more grateful for good cultivation than the
one in question, in a good, loamy soil, well manured, or which has been
well manured under a former crop. It attains a height of ten or twelve
feet, with stems of three quarters of an inch in diameter. A poor crop, or
one which had suffered from excessive rains, would have a height of only
from three to six feet. :

The crop being ripe, the stems are cut down close to the roots, made up
into bundles, and laid to steep in some neighbouring ditch, where lumps of
mud are placed on them to keep them submerged. Here they are carefully
watched from day to day, the operator trying the bark with his nail, until he
finds the decomposition arrived at the proper point. In preparing Jute
intended for export, he will push the water-retting process to its utmost
limits, short of actually destroying the fibre by excessive putrefaction.
This is done in order to obtain that thoroughly detached silky character of
fibre, according to which it is valued in the export market. Such Jute has
always suffered more or less in strength_—Jute or Paut prepared for native
consumption is much more durable than that prepared for export. It is
likewise cheaper, as the yield per acre is much larger. It is much darker
coloured, and not so clean. The natives are very particular in the selection
of Jute for such purposes as pack-saddle bags for their transport oxen ; or
for their store-grain bags—great packages of six or eight feet diameter,
erected on bamboo stages, and looking like our European brewery tuns.
There are also a multitude of manufactures in this fibre, many of them
possessed of considerable strength, some again of very fine texture.

To return to our water-retting process. The proper point being attained,
the native operator, standing up to his middle in water, takes as many of the
sticks in his hands as he can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark
from the ends next the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the
whole with a little management, from end to end, without breaking either
stem or fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this half state, he
next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a large handful; swinging
CULTURE AND MANUFACTURE OF JUTE. 249

it round his head he dashes it repeatedly against the surface of the water,
drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the impurities; then,
with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface of the water, and
carefully picks off all remaining black spots. It is now wrung out so as to
remove as much water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on
the spot, to dry in the sun.

Jute is never so beautiful as at the first moment of its preparation ; for
such is its proneness to decay—a true eremacausis of Liebig—that it changes
colour from day to day, gradually descending from the beautiful pearly white,
through shades of fawn colour and brown, with proportionate loss of strength.
These changes, also, are occasioned or accelerated by causes which hardly
affect other fibres; hence, one of the difficulties of bleaching, and the ten-
dency to become brown, of all fabrics consisting of this material. That por-
tion of the hank of fibre next the root, or where it has been held in the hand,
being always more or less contaminated with bark and impurities, is cut off for
about nine inches. These ends are sold to the paper-makers, and for mixing
and making up various thick, coarse fabrics, of which whole cargoes,
amounting to tens of thousands of pieces, are now annually taken off by the
Americans from Calcutta, for cotton bagging and similar purposes, torming
an entirely new trade.}

But the great trade and principal employ of Jute is for the manufacture
of Gunny chuts or chuttees, z.e., lengths suitable for making bags. This
industry forms the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern
districts of Lower Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every
household. Men, women, and children find occupation therein. Boatmen
in their spare moments, husbandmen, palankeen-carriers, and domestic
servants; everybody in fact, being Hindoos—for Mussulmans spin cotton
only—pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning Gunny twist.
Its preparation, together with the weaving into lengths, forms the never-
failing resource of that most humble, patient, and despised of created beings
—the Hindoo widow—saved by law from the pile, but condemned by
opinion and custom for the remainder of her days, literally to sackcloth and
ashes, and the lowest domestic drudgery in the very household where once,
perhaps, her will was law. This manufacture spares her from being a
charge on her family—she can always earn her bread.—Amongst these
causes will be discerned the very low prices at which Gunny manufactures
are produced in Bengal, and which have attracted the demand of the whole
commercial world. There is, perhaps, no other article so universally
diffused over the globe as the Indian Gunny bag. All the finer and long-
stapled Jute is reserved for the export trade, in which it bears a compara-
tively high price. The short staple serves for the local manufactures, and
it may be remarked, that a given weight of Gunny bags may be purchased
at about the same price as a similar weight of raw material—leaving no
apparent margin for spinning and weaving. .

The stems or stalks of the Jute crop are of almost equal value with the
fibrous portion. They are beautiful white and straight stems, of a light,
brittle wood, somewhat like willow switches, and have a multitude of uses
amongst the natives, such as for the manufacture of charcoal for gunpowder
and fireworks, for the formation of fences and enclosures, for pea and
similar cultivation, and for the construction of those acres of basket-work
which the traveller may remark near every native village. These are the
enclosures in which the betel-pepper vine is cultivated, the leaf of which is

! The manufacture of Jute whiskey from these ends was tried experimentally, by
subjecting them to the process of conversion into sugar with sulphuric acid, and
afterwards fermenting. The produce had much resemblance to grain whiskey.
250 IMPORTANCE OF JUTE.

universally consumed by the million—peer or peasant. These stems
have another extensive employ which cannot be passed unnoticed—that of
furnishing a peculiar quality of fuel suited to the native process of careening
boats on the banks of the rivers. Great flaming fires may be observed at
night under the bottoms and sides of the native craft ; men running to and
fro with bundles of flaming faggots, applying them assiduously, as if they
were occupied in trying to burn the craft. Looking at the structures them-
selves, built up of mats and thatch, and appearing like slovenly, ill-
conditioned hay stacks, that an accidental spark would ignite, it appears
surprising that such a determined effort should not produce that result.
The only object, however, is to effect the destruction of the myriads of
worms or teredz, who, if not destroyed, would in a very short time have
eaten up the whole fabric.

Bengal Jute has now attained such an important position in the commerce
of the world, that any suggestion for its improved production merits
attention; and there can be no doubt but that the application to it of the
process of preparing the fibre without water-retting, would effect the most
gue improvement in its qualities. Such could never make it equal to
Flax or Hemp; but the method would increase the qualities of strength and
durability, and fit it for all purposes in which moisture took no part, for to
this agent it is peculiarly obnoxious. In reference to this point it may be
worth noticing, that in cases in which it is desirable to ascertain the amount
of Jute adulteratiou in such fabrics as sail-cloth (in which it appears to me
to be a highly criminal fraud), a very good test may be found in high-
pressure steam. A piece of such sail-cloth, kept for four hours in steam of
30 lb. pressure, lost on simple washing thereafter, 22 per cent.—the decom-
pee Jute actually washing out, and with little injury to the remaining
abric.

Besides being used in India and exported to England, it is
sent to America, and will probably be required on the Conti-
nent ; but it is necessary for the people, if they wish to retain
or extend their trade, to keep up the quality of their produce,
which is complained of in the following extract from a letter
from America to the Author:

“The article of Gunny bagging for cotton is imported largely into this
country from India; in fact, is superseding all other descriptions of cloth
for that purpose. I have been asked several times what it is made of, and
where manufactured. On both points I am ignorant, and should be much
obliged if you will give me the information. It is superior to and liked
better than any other bagging; but the manufacturers are already com-
mencing to make it inferior, by mixing ordinary (Indian) Hemp or tow
with it. They will spoil their market unless they desist from such practices,
for the planters will not use an inferior, if they can procure a good
article.” (Georgia, 15th April, 1853.)

Some of the Jute lately imported has been twelve feet in
length, in bales of about 4 cwt., bound round with Gunny cloth.
The exports of Jute have already been alluded to when
referring to the great increase which has taken place in this
trade. Many other Indian fibres are possessed of equally good
EXPORTS OF JUTE, 251

properties in some respects, and of very superior ones in others,
and which require only to be known to be very generally appre-
ciated in Europe.

JUTE, GUNNY CLOTH, AND GUNNY BAGS EXPORTED FROM CALCUTTA,
IN THE YEAR 1850-51.

 

 

 

 

 

Exports. Tute. uy oni
To United Kingdom : * |Ms.768,945  |Nos. 69,636
» France. é F 4 = 13,931 —
» Hamburgh . Z ‘ ‘ . 128 2,180
», North America. é . : 9,242 2,290,427
» Coast of Coromandel . . ei 598 1,955,150
» Malabar. ‘i . _ 2,054,075
» Penang and Singapore. ‘ : _— 1,043,600
» Ceylon ‘ ; ; — 357,290
» New South Wales 3 a * 54 32,125
» Trieste ‘ : j : 401 _
» Java . e . ‘ 7 . _ 242,550
» Pegu . i j i é Ki _— 672,950
» Mauritius i . é _— 213,980
», Cape of Good Hope ‘ ‘ ‘ _ 82,750
» Guam : ‘ —_ 15,000
» Arabian and Persian Gulfs _ 4,000
Total : ® 3 - |Mds. 793,299 | 9,035,713
Value . | Rs. 1,970,715 | Rs. 2,159,782

 

 

 

 

The following statement shows the proportion of Gunnies
and of Gunny Cloth; and also that a decrease took place in
the former, and an increase in the latter in the two years
given :

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exports from Calcutta. 1849-50. | 1850-51. |

Gunnies .  . ~—« ||-:12,961,441 | 8,759,185

Gunny Cloth . 238,039 276,528
Total. . .| 13,199,480 | 9,035,713
Value. . «| Rs. 2,683,551] 2,159,782 |

 

Besides these there were exported from the Madras Presi-
dency 58,950 gunny bags; but there is reason to believe that
these are made of Sunn, or Crotalaria juncea.

Bombay being in a small island, cannot export any of its own
growth; but as Gunny cloth is much required for packing
252 INDIAN HEMPS, OR THOSE SO CALLED.

cotton, it is imported in large quantities, as 167,820 pieces,
valued at Rs. 397,097 (but in 1849, to the value of Rs. 548,384),
from the United Kingdom, Ceylon, East Coast of Africa, and
Soumeeanee, but chiefly from Calcutta; also from Cutch,
Malabar, and Canara, Aden, Sindh, Concan, and Guzerat.
But we also find the places mentioned after Calcutta as those
to which Gunny cloth was exported, but not in any quantity,
except 296,757 pieces to the Concan—the whole export for
that year amounting to 391,279 pieces, and the re-exports to
3,403,453, valued at Rs. 468,177, therefore greatly exceeding
the imports, and hence probably including some brought by the
Causeway.

Invian Hemps, OR THOSE SO CALLED, as Sunn, &c.

In various notices of Indian fibres we frequently meet with
the word Sunn, as indicating a particular kind of Indian fibre.
Sometimes we find it called Indian Hemp, and we may often
see Hemp enumerated as one of the exports from India. At
other times we may see either the same or another fibre men-
tioned by the name of Brown Hemp. Now these various names
are sometimes applied to the fibre of one or of two different
plants, or they may be employed to distinguish the fibre of
three distinct plants, all of which are grown for their fibres,
and have been, and might be exported from India, though
only two of them are now usually to be found among the ex-
ports from that country. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, it is
necessary to notice the plants to which these several names are
correctly applicable.

The true Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is everywhere cultivated
by the natives in the plains of India, not on account of its
fibres, but for the intoxicating property of its leaves and their
secretions. In the Himalayas, however, the fibre is separated
for economic purposes, and was exported from India to England
during the last war, but we believe it has not been so for
many years.

The fibreof the Sunn or Taag (Crotalaria juncea) is often called
Indian Hemp, but incorrectly. It is the kind most generally
cultivated all over India on account of its fibre, and is that
INDIAN HEMPS, OR THOSE SO CALLED. 253

usually mentioned in the exports from Calcutta under the name
of Hemp, but alsoas Sunn. The plant may be distinguished by
its flowers being of a bright yellow colour, and of the form of
the Pea and of the Laburnum, while the leaves are entire and
lanceolate.

The Ambaree (Hibiscus cannabinus), Mesta paut of Bengal,
and Palungoo of Madras, is also very generally cultivated all
over India, and exported of very good quality from the west side
of that country. Its leaves are both entire and lobed, its flowers
are large, and in shape resemble those of the Mallow, the Holly-
hock, and the Cotton plant, of a sulphur-yellow colour with a
dark brown centre. The fibre of this plant is, like that of Jute,
sometimes called paut, and also Indian Hemp. It is often con-
founded with that of the Sunn, as it is one of the kinds of
Brown Hemp of Bombay, though the two plants differ much
from each other.

In the exports from the different Presidencies of India, it is
very difficult to distinguish these two different kinds of fibre,
inasmuch as the same name, Hemp, is applied to the exports
from all the three Presidencies ; but we believe, speaking gene-
rally, that the Sunn (Crotalaria juncea) is chiefly exported from
all the three Presidencies, and one kind of Brown Hemp (Hidis-
cus cannabinus), along with the other kind, Taag, from Bombay.

Or Matvacrous AND OTHER FIBRE-YIELDING PLAntTs.

As many plants have flowers and seed-vessels which closely
resemble the Mallow, they have been united by botanists intoa
natural family of plants, which they have called Malvaceae, or
Mallow-worts. Some other families, such as the Tiliacee just
described, and the Sterculiacee and Byttneriacee, to be imme-

- diately noticed, having also a considerable resemblance to each
other and to the Malvacee, have been further grouped into a
larger class which has been called Malvales. These groupings
are interesting to us, inasmuch as they bring together, though
in these different families, a number of plants which resemble
each other in properties ; for the greater number of the species
not only abound in mucilage, but their barks in fibres which
are manufactured into cordage. Of these, numerous instances
will be mentioned in the following pages, but still more will
254 AMBAREE, OR HEMP-LIKE HIBISCUS.

probably remain to be enumerated and reported on by subse-
quent observers; and, therefore, colonists in tropical countries
may search among these for fibre-yielding plants with con-
siderable certainty of finding many possessed of very valuable
properties.

The family of Malvacez or Mallow-worts is extremely
numerous in species, which abound chiefly in tropical parts of
the world in the form of trees and shrubs, though species, as
the Mallow and Marsh Mallow, do extend to temperate climates.
The known fibre-yielding plants belong to the genera Malva,
Hibiscus, Sida, Althea, Lavatera, Urena, &c.; besides Gossypium,
the genus yielding Cotton. Of these we shall find many
employed in different countries for yielding fibre for cordage
and for other purposes.

AmBarezE, or Hemp-tike Hrpiscus (Hibiscus cannabinus,
Malvacee).

Ambaree in Western India; Palungoo, Madras; Pooley Numajee, Coimbatore ; Gong-
kura of the Telingas; Maesta paut of the Bengalese; Sunnee at Saharunpore;
Wilaitee (or foreign) Sunn at Muttra; Deckanee Hemp of Bombay.

From the variety of synonyms which we have given of this
plant, it is evident that it must be generally known all over
India; but from its having several distinct names of its own
on the west, we should infer that it was a native of that side
of India, or of the southern part of the Peninsula, as on the
Bengal side its names are modifications of those of some of
the other fibres. In Bombay, besides ambaree, its fibre is
sometimes called Deckanee Hemp, to distinguish it from the
taag or Conkunee Hemp (Crotalaria juncea). But it is very
generally cultivated by the natives, though not in large
quantities.

This plant, found as yet only in a state of cultivation, is a herbaceous
annual of about three months’ duration. The stem is straight and simple,
of from three to seven feet in Belen, with here and there a few inoffensive
prickles, otherwise smooth. The leaves are spreading, alternate, with long,
slightly prickly footstalks; all are smooth, with their margins serrated; but
the lower leaves are heart-shaped ; those about the middle of the plant three-,
four-, or five-lobed, with lanceolate acute lobes; while the leaves at the top
are simply linear-lanceolate. Stipules awl-shaped. The flowers are solitary,
with short peduncles in the axils of the leaves; very large; of a pale sulphur
AMBAREE, OR HEMP-LIKE HIBISCUS. 255

colour, with a deep purple centre. Of the double calyx, the outer is seven-
to eight-leaved, each subulate, spreading, and inserted near the base of the
inner calyx. ‘This is five-cleft, divisions sharp-pointed, bristly, and
glandular near the margins, and with a large gland on the middle of each
division. ‘The stamens numerous, with their filaments united into a hollow
column. Anthers one-celled, bursting by a transverse chink. Styles equal
in number to the ovaries, and rising through the staminal columns.
ae joined into a five-celled, five-valved capsule, with few seeds in each

Dr. Roxburgh says of this plant, in his ‘Coromandel
Plants,’ vol. ii, p. 48, tab. 190, where a beautiful plate is
given : 7

“Tt is much cultivated by the natives. Its leaves are in
general used as an esculent vegetable, and taste something
like sorrel. The bark is replete with strong and tolerably
soft fibres, and is employed as a substitute for Hemp, to which
it is much inferior both in strength and durability.

“The usual time of cultivation is the cold season, though it
will thrive pretty well at all times of the year, if it has suffi-
cient moisture. A rich loose soil suits it best. The seeds are
sown about as thick as Hemp, but generally mixed with some
sort of small or dry grain, rendering it necessary to be sown
very thin, that the other crop (which is one of those grains that
does not grow nearly so high) may not be too much shaded.
It requires about three months from the time it is sown,
before it is fit to be pulled up for watering, which operation,
with the subsequent dressing, is similar to that hereafter
described for Crotalaria juncea.”

Dr, Roxburgh states, that he found the fibres to be stronger
when obtained from full-grown plants that had ripened their
seed, than when cut from plants in blossom. On the
Coromandel coast he found it cultivated, and a coarse sackcloth
made of its fibres.

In the Purneya district, Dr. Buchanan found it called
Ambya Pata, on account of the acidity of its leaves, but in
other parts chandana. In the southern parts the common
cordage of the country was almost entirely made from its fibre.
It was said to be sown in fields, which produce nothing else ;
a practice which Dr. Buchanan had observed nowhere else in
India. It appeared to him a coarse material in comparison
with the fibre of the Corchorus, but he had no oppor-
tunity of trying its strength. In some places a few of the
256 AMBAREE, OR HIBISCUS FIBRE.

seeds are scattered about among other crops on account of
its leaves.

In Behar he found it called Kudrum, and cultivated only
for being made into ropes, and not as an acid seasoning.
About 2000 begahs were occupied with it. In Bhagulpore he
found it cultivated nearly as much as the Corchorus. The
natives considered ropes made of it stronger and more durable
than those of the Jute; but its fibres are harsher, and, as he
thought, could be reduced to fine thread.

In Goruckpore it was cultivated to the greatest extent, but
always intermixed with the urhur or Cytisus Cajan, and ropes
made of it were used for agricultural purposes.

In the Dinajepore district, Dr. Buchanan found it called
Mesta, but its bark never used for making ropes; the leaves
only being used as an acid green, the taste being pleasantly
acid, and not unlike sorrel.

We find it equaily cultivated in Central and Western India.
It is mentioned as one of the plants employed for cordage at
Hyderabad.

Colonel Sykes, in his ‘ Statistical Report of the Dukhun’
(British Assoc., 1837, p. 241), enumerates it as one of the
plants cultivated in the wet season; and among his drawings
of cordage plants there is an excellent one of this plant, as
well as of Agave vivipara, there called gayal. Among dry
or spring season cultivation, the Colonel enumerates the Taag
or Crotalaria juncea, its fibres being employed for ropes and
for coarse canvas.

In the Madras Presidency, a number of fibre-yielding
plants are mentioned by their native names, but as these differ
in every district, and are not accompanied by Botanical
names, it is impossible to determine to what plants they
refer. We know that Dr. Roxburgh found Hibiscus cannabinus
in cultivation on the Coromandel coast, and that a coarse sack-
cloth was made of its fibres. In Vizagapatam it is called Gunny
fibre, and coarse sackcloth and rope made of it. So Dr. Ainslie
says, “with the nar, or tough stringy fibre of the bark of the
Hemp-leaved Hibiscus, a valuable kind of cordage is made, of
various thickness.” In a late Minute (19th Sept., 1854)
by the Madras Government on the subject of fibres, we find it
stated, that “the fibres of the roselle (Hibiscus cannabinus),
AMBAREE, OR HIBISCUS FIBRE. 257

which is known to grow readily and without much care all
over the Madras territories, have been found to be an excellent
substitute for tow, now imported from Europe.” As the plant:
is so universally cultivated over a vast tract of country for
home consumption, nothing would be easier than to obtain
a very large supply of its fibres, if they were required for any
of the ordinary purposes of cordage. The natives would have
nothing to do but to increase a cultivation to which they are
already well accustomed in all parts of the country.

Dr. Buchanan states, as the result of his experience in the
lower provinces, that it is cultivated everywhere in India, on
account of its leaves, which are eaten as a vegetable, and for
its bark, which is most useful for making cordage. The Author
has seen it in the same way very generally cultivated in the
North-Western provinces, chiefly for cordage for domestic and
agricultural purposes.

Though so generally cultivated, its fibre is hardly if at all
known as a distinct article of commerce,—the exports of Indian
fibres from the three Presidencies being entered as Hemp,
those from Calcutta only being sometimes distinguished as
Sunn. With regard to its strength, it may be said that,
speaking generally, the fibres of the species of Hibiscus are
not so remarkable for strength as for fineness.

Dr. Roxburgh, in his experiments, found that a line made
of this fibre, from plants in blossom, broke with 115 lb., but with
110 ib. when the seeds were ripe; Sunn fibre, under the same
circumstances, breaking with 130 and 1601b. Soin Dr. Wight’s
experiments, the fibre of Hibiscus cannabinus, which is some-
times called the Jute of Madras, broke with 290 lb., when Sunn
(Crotalaria juncea) broke with 4041b. Both these, like Dr.
Roxburgh’s specimens, were probably grown in the same
cliniate. But in the Author’s experiments, Sunn broke with
150 lb., when Brown Hemp broke with 190 1b.; but the
Sunn was from Bengal, and the Brown Hemp from Bombay.
There is, however, some uncertainty about this, because though
no fibres can well appear more distinct than these two, yet the
Author has in his possession fibres of.a Crotalaria which are
hardly to bedistinguished from HibiscusBrown Hemp. TheSunn
fibre of Bombay was, even in Dr. Roxburgh’s time, remarkable

for its dark colour. But some specimens of Amdbaree fibre,
17
258 AMBARLE, OR HIBISCUS FIBRE.

sent by Dr. Gibson as those of Hibiscus cannabinus, and which
closely resemble those of some kinds of ordinary Brown Hemp,
were favorably reported upon as follows, by Messrs. Enderby,
then of the rope-manufactory at Greenwich. The Author has
lately received an equally fine, if not finer, because softer speci-
men, from Messrs. Noble; but this is probably the produce of
Crotalaria juncea. Unfortunately the best specimens of fibre
come tied up in the same bundle with some ordinary Brown
Wemp, and with some dirty, uncleaned fibre.
September 26th, 1844.

We have received your samples of Indian Hemp, and are pleased to
observe that we are likely to obtain an article from thence, that will go far
to make England independent of Russia for the supply of that important
commodity. The samples supplied have much the character of Italian
Hemp, but is inferior to it in colour and softness of fibre. It will not, there-
fore, in its present state be applicable for fine purposes.

We send you a sample of some of the East Indian Hemp we have had
dressed ; it appears very good, but not equal in strength to the generality
of Russia Hemp; we feel, however, assured that it is capable of being got
up in better condition,

The present price of Italian Hemp is £32 per ton; Russia Hemp, £28
per ton; Manilla, £23 per ton; New Zealand, £15 per ton; and Jute,
about £13 per ton. The Indian Hemp, as per sample, £20 per ton; at
which price we should at this period be prepared to purchase.

Yours very truly,

To Dr. J. F. Royle. C. H. G. Exprrsy.

The Ambaree Hemp is stated by Dr. Gibson to be treated
like the Tag or Crotalaria, being cut in November, and stored
away until leisure time arrives for stripping the bark. It is
in common use for plough and cart ropes, and is esteemed by
the natives as very inferior to that of the Crotalaria juncea.

Some of this fibre sent to Hull to be reported on in the year
1840, was thus spoken of: “A greater part of that by the
‘Wanderer,’ which is of similar quality to your Umbarree,
or Hibiscus cannabinus, cannot be sold for £16 a ton in the Hull
market, when Baltic Hemp meets a ready sale at £40. You
will perceive how much depends on colour and staple. Preju-
dice is not wanting,—but that is giving way.” (Agric. and
Nortic. Soc. of Western India, 1842.)

The length of the fibres of carefully cultivated Ambaree Hemp
is from five to six feet ; they are of a paler brown than ordinary
Brown Hemp, harsher in feel, and stick more together, as if
all the gum had not been washed out; but they are divisible

into fine fibrils, possessed of considerable strength, and well.
FIBROUS SPECIES OF HIBISCUS. 259

calculated for rope-making, as also for coarse fabrics. But,
though esteemed by some of the natives of the West of India, it
is not so good as the best Brown Hemp of Bombay—to be men-
tioned in connexion with Sunn.

As the fibres of this Hibiscus and of the Sunn are not dis-
tinguished from each other, or from others, in the account of
the Exports from the Ports of India, we shall give these under
the head of Sunn, and reserve also to that article some obser-
vations on the preparation of these Exogenous fibres in India,
as well as on their prices, and the quantities in which they may
be obtained.

 

OtHEeR Matvaceovus Fispre-yiELDING PLants.

In connexion with Hibiscus cannabinus we may appropriately
mention the other fibre-yielding species of the same genus.
Among these we find those which are also used as articles of
diet ; as, for instance,—

Uibiscus esculentus, the Okhro of the West Indies, with which
is now united the H. longifolius of the East Indies, the
Bandikai of Madras, the Ram turai and Dhenroos of Bengal ;
and from both of which the Bammia of the west coast of
Africa probably does not differ essentially. Of all these, the
long, young pyramidal pods are filled when green, with a large
proportion of mucilage, on which account they are gathered
when green, and cooked as a vegetable, being much esteemed
by many, though considered too viscid by others. The fruit
is also used to thicken soups in the countries where it is
indigenous and in the South of France and in the Levant.
The seeds may also be added like barley to soups, and have
been recommended to be roasted as a substitute for coffee.
The bark of these plants also abounds in fibre, which is of fine
quality, as in many others of the same genus. Dr. Roxburgh
cut the stems when the seed was ripe, and committed them to
the steep a few days after. (For results see p. 268.)

H. Abelmoschus, so named from the Arabic hub-ool-mooshk,
in Hindee mooshkdana, or musk seed, is called calee kustooree in
Bengal. The seeds have been so named on account of their
odour. The plants abound in mucilage, and are much employed
260 FIBROUS SPECIES OF HIBISCUS.

in the North-West of India in clarifying sugar. ‘The stems
were cut when in flower by Dr. Roxburgh, and steeped imme-
diately : the result of his experiments is given in p. 268.

H. Sabdariffa, said to be so called from its Turkish name,
while in the West Indies it is called Red Sorrel, and in the
Madras territories rozelle and rouselle. It is cultivated in
most gardens, because its calyxes as they ripen become fleshy,
are of a pleasantly acid taste, and are much employed for making
tarts, as well as an excellent jelly. Browne states that they
are employed in the West Indies for making refreshing drinks.
The stems having been cut when in flower, and the bark
stripped off, and steeped immediately, display a mass of fibres
in Dr. Roxburgh’s specimens, some of which are still in the
India House, with the ultimate fibres of a fine silky nature.
The name rouselle is said to be a corruption of oseiile.

The dietetical uses of these species have been mentioned, in
order to show, that if cultivated on account of their fibre, they
would also be useful for other purposes.

HH, strictus was a new species described by Dr. Roxburgh,
and which seems to be a native of the Rajmahl Hills, with
a straight stem of from 6 to 14 feet in height, and a very
smooth bark. It thrives luxuriantly with little or no care;
seed-time the beginning of the rains; it is in blossom about
their termination, and the seed ripens in December and January,
soon after which the plants perish.

“Like many other of the Malvaceous tribe, the bark
of this species abounds in flaxen fibres; but in none have
I found so large a quantity, equally beautiful, long, glossy,
white, fine, and strong, as in this. To these promising quali-
ties may be added the luxuriant growth, and habit of the
plant, rendering it an object deserving of every care and atten-
tion, at least until the real worth of the material is fairly
ascertained.

“From several years’ experience, I find the best season for
sowing the seed in Bengal, is just when the first rains begin,
which is generally in May, in beds; and when the plants are
about six inches high, transplant them out in rows, about nine
inches asunder, and about as much from each other in the
rows. In 1801, Thad forty square yards planted in this man-
FIBROUS SPECIES OF HIBISCUS. 261

ner, which yielded thirty-three pounds weight of the naturally
very clean fibres.” Dr. Roxburgh’s original specimens, still
in the India House, are 9 and 10 feet in length, a fibrous
mass, apparently easily stript off, and composed of fine and
easily divisible fibres. (For strength, v. pp. 268-9.)

H. tiliaceus is the Bola of the Bengalese, common also on
the Malabar coast, and supposed not to differ from H. arboreus,
the Maho tree and Mohaut of the West Indies. These grow
abundantly both in the West and East Indies.

Forster states, that the bark of this species is sucked in
times of scarcity, when the bread-fruit fails. The mucilage
with which all these plants abound, will no doubt afford some
nourishment. The fibres of its inner bark are employed for cord-
age by the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, and by the
American Indians: it is said to gain in strength when tarred.

The Otaheitans make fine matting from it, and likewise
manufacture it into ropes and cords. Voyagers relate that
these filaments are adapted to any kind of cordage, even for
the rigging of vessels, but rope thus made is not nearly so
strong as that prepared from Hemp. The whips with which
the negroes in the West Indies used to be punished, are said to
have been made with the bark of this species. (v. p. 269.)

H. furcatus, a native of the interior of Bengal, growing to
a height of from 6 to 8 feet. he bark yields abundance of
strong white flaxen fibres, but the prickliness of the plant
renders it very troublesome to handle. The stems were cut
when in flower, and steeped immediately. (v. p. 268.)

H. mutabilis, a native of China, but common in gardens
in India, and remarkable for the change in the colour of its
flowers during the day. The fibres of the bark were found to
be of a hard nature, and of a bad colour. (v. p. 269.)

H. collinus (eriocarpus of D.C.), a native of the mountainous
parts of the Circars, where it is called kanda-gang, and where
the natives use the bark as a substitute for Hemp. Under
the head of this plant, Dr. Roxburgh states that he has
often observed that most of the Indian plants of this family
might be employed for the same purposes as Hemp, as the bark
is tough, and may almost always be stripped off in long slips.

H. ficifolius is a species which Dr. Roxburgh so named, and
of which he received the seeds from the Moluccas. It was an
262 FIBROUS SPECIES OF SIDA.

annual, growing very tall, often 12 to 14 feet high, growing
straight, with few branches. The fibres he describes as un-
commonly beautiful, and rather stronger than Sunn.

Besides these, other fibres of species of Hibiscus have been
separated in India, as mentioned in ‘ Journ. Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’
vi, App., 3, and vii, 193, though it is not easy to determine the
plants intended ; but this only proves how much the genus
abounds in fibre-yielding plants.

So other species of this genus are similarly employed in
other countries, as Hibiscus clypeatus and elatus in the West
Indies; as H. (now Thespesia) populneus and H. tiliaceus,
already mentioned, in the Society and South Sea Islands; H.
Manihot in Japan; H. heterophylius in New Holland; and
H, verrucosus in Senegambia.

Sra is a genus of Malvaceous plants, which like others of
the family contains many plants abounding in mucilage, and
others with bark containing tough fibres, employed for cord-
age in different countries. One species, S. tiliefolia, referred
at first by Dr. Roxburgh to S. abutilon, is cultivated for this pur-
pose in China. Some of its seeds were received many years
ago at the Calcutta Botanic Garden, under the name of
King ma, from Pekin, in the neighbourhood of which the plant
is cultivated, for the sake of its fibre. Seeds were similarly
received a few years ago by the Horticultural Society, and the
Author saw a fine crop of the plants in their garden at
Chiswick, which seemed about eight feet high. Some of these
Dr. Lindley had steeped, in order to separate the fibres, and
some were sent to Mr. Routledge in the year 1850, in order to
try in his machine.

Dr. Roxburgh notices “the fibre of this plant as strong and
pliable, very silky in its nature, and the plant of very rapid and
luxuriant growth, three crops being obtained in one year. It
may be brought into this country at the estimated price of £8
per ton, which is now about one fifth of the price of Hemp of
the best quality.” According to Dr. Clarke Abel, this plant
is preferred for cordage in China Proper.

S. rhomboidea and S. rhombifolia, the sufet and lal bariala
of the natives of Bengal, where the plants are indigenous in
the rainy season. The bark of both, according to Dr. Roxburgh,
FIBROUS SPECIES OF SIDA, ETC 263

yields abundance of very delicate flaxy fibres, which he
thought might be advantageously employed for many purposes.
When the seed is sown thick on a good soil, the plants grow
tall and slender, without branches, and are every way fit for such
purposes.

Major Hannay sent from Assam to the Agri-Hortic. Soc.,
in Dec., 1851, some of the fibre of Side rhomboidea, which grows
luxuriantly in that valley. Capt. Thompson thought from
its length, its similarity to silk, and its great strength, that it
would fetch a high price in England. The line (only half an
inch in circumference) sustained, after exposure to wet and sun
for ten days, 400 Ib.

S. periplocifolia, a native of the Malay Islands, was also
one of those subjected to experiment by Dr. Roxburgh, and
who describes the plant as flowering and ripening its seed in
the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, a great part of the year.
“Tts bark abounds in serviceable flaxen fibres, and as it shoots
quickly into long, simple twigs, particularly if cut near the
earth, it answers well for procuring the fibre of good length
for most purposes.”

Some of Dr. Roxburgh’s original specimens, marked July,
1804, are still in the India House; the fibres are from four to
five feet in length, and display a fine soft and silky fibre, as well
adapted for spinning as the Jute, but are apparently superior.

Various species of Sida, as S. asiatica, indica, graveolens,
and others, are extremely common in every part of India in
the rainy season. Many of them, no doubt, contain fibre
which might be turned to useful account.

Urena lobata and U. sinuata, two weeds also belonging to
this family, the one called dun-ochra and the other kungia,
and common in most parts of India, also abound in strong
and a tolerably fine substitute for Flax.

If the common Mallow (Malwa sylvestris, &c.) of Europe,
or the Marsh-mallow (Althea officinalis), are examined, it
will be found that they abound in fibre ; others of these
genera are valued for their fibres in different countries, as
Malva crispa is said by Cavanilles to have its fibre separated
in Syria, and Althea cannabina, is sometimes so employed in
the South of Europe; so Lavatera arborea, or Tree Mallow,
will be found to abound in fibre.
264 COTTON CORDAGE AND CANVAS.

Corton Corpace anp Canvas (Gossypium indicum, &c. ;
Malvaceae).

Though Cotton is a substance which is cellular in structure,
and not fibrous, also sold by the pound, and not by the ewt.
or ton, as the articles we have been treating of, yet it cannot
be entirely omitted from a work on the Cordage and Clothing
plants of India. But the Author may be excused from
dilating on the subject, as he has so recently treated of it fully
in his work on the ‘Culture and Commerce of Cotton in
India.’! Cotton, though used chiefly for clothing, is, in India,
also employed to a considerable extent for cordage, as, for
instance, for tent-ropes, of which so many are required for the
use of the army, and made entirely of Cotton, as are the tents

1 The Author has in the above work treated, first, of the Commercial causes
which influence the irregular imports of Indian Cotton: secondly, of the Cultivation
of Cotton, including the varieties of Commercial Cotton, and the species of Gossy-
pium ; Chemical Analyses of Cotton, its seed, and of Cotton soils ; Climate of Cotton
districts; and the Principles and Practice of Cotton Culture: thirdly, Experimental
Culture of Cotton in India, in which all the different districts have been successively
noticed. Some additional information has been published respecting Malwa, &c.,
in vol. vii of the ‘Journ. of the Agri-Hortic. Soc. of Calcutta.’

There is only one point to which the Author wishes to refer, and that because it
has been the subject of discussion, and because he ventured to doubt (pp. 449 to 454)
the correctness of Mr. Davies’s calcnlation of the cost of a candy of Cotton (20 begahs
being required to produce it, or 784 lb.) in the district of Broach, which he made to
be above seventy-five rupees. Mr. Landon, established as a cotton-merchant in Broach,
and cleaning native Cotton by his saw gins moved by steam power; and who has
lately taken out machinery for spinning Cotton, has stated by letter, and since,
verbally to the Author, the following facts:

“ About fifty patells and ryots who are now at my elbow with kuppas to sell,
have this moment unanimously stated that the average cost of cultivating a bhar of
kuppas in this district, including rent and all charges, is Rs.15. The average
quantity of kuppas which yields a candy of Cotton is 2} bhars (this season it is
28, bhars). Therefore, the cost of a candy of Cotton does not exceed, on an average,
Rs. 15 x 2=Rs. 37}! While the average price which I have paid the ryots, for a candy
of Cotton in the seed, during the last six years, is Rs. 883! or Rs. 35! per bhar.
This I am prepared to show from my books, and to make oath of it if necessary.
Again, I recently asked a ryot how many begahs of Cotton he cultivated: he replied
forty; and that they produced ten bhars of kuppas. At the rate of Rs.15 per bhar,
the total cost to him of these ten bhars, including rent and all charges, was Rs. 150.
The price which J paid him for it was Rs. 360! Others have repeatedly made
similar statements to me, as to the produce and cost of production, in respect to
greater and less quautities of land.”
SILK COTTON TREE. 265

themselves. So, Cotton ropes are also employed for many
domestic purposes. Specimens were sent to the Exhibition
of 1851, both from Calcutta and Madras, and have considerable
strength. Some of the native shipping, also, and even
a few American ships, are rigged with Cotton ropes; while
Cotton canvas is also employed for sails, especially on the
coast of Cutch, where some very good is made, and sells for
about three and a half annas per yard.

Six Corron Tree, and others (Byttneriacee).

The natural family of Byttneriacee, which includes such
genera as Bombax, Sterculia, Abroma, Guazuma, &c., like
that of the Mallow-worts, inhabits hot parts of the globe chiefly,
and also like it contains a number of plants remarkable for
abounding in mucilage and in fibrous bark. Of these some
are employed for cordage in different parts of the world, and
of them a few, as Abroma augusta, might probably be grown
with greater profit, and yield a better product, than some of
those which are now in cultivation.

Thus the species of Bombax, which are remarkable for
their gigantic stature and their splendid inflorescence, are
also so on account of their capsules, which, on bursting, dis-
play a flocculent substance, often mistaken by travellers for
cotton, and the tree hence called Cotton tree. But as this
substance is more silky than cotton, it has been distinguished
by the name of Silk Cotton. It differs also in not spinning
like cotton. Some difficulty, therefore, is experienced in
making use of this very abundant cotton-like produce; but
Mr. Williams, of Jubbulpore, has succeeded in spinning and
weaving some of it so as to form avery good coverlet. It might
be easily made use of for stuffing pillows, muffs, or coverlets,
for wadding, or for conversion into half-stuff for paper-makers,
perhaps for making gun-cotton.

In the ‘Trans. of the Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ iii, p. 274, there
is a report from the Society of Arts on two pieces of cloth
made from the Simool or Silk Cotton tree; and it is observed
that, from the shortness of the staple of the down, and its
elasticity, it could not be spun by cotton-spinning machinery.
266 FIBRE-YIELDING TREES.

Several of this family abound in mucilage, thus a Guazuma
is employed in South America in clarifying sugar ; as a Kydia is
in India. A species of Sterculia yields a tragacanth-like gum
on the west coast of Africa, as another does in India. Several
species of this genus are remarkable for the tenacity of the
fibre of their bark, which is employed for cordage, as
Myrodia longiflora in Guiana, and Chorisia crispifolia in
Brazil, Dombeya umbellata in the Isle of Bourbon, and Sterculia
Ivria in the West Indies. Helicteres Isora may be similarly
employed in India.

Sterculia guttata is a tree, a native of Malabar, which
was first made known by Capt. Dickenson, in the year 1802.
The bark of the younger parts of the tree abounds with
very strong, white, flaxen fibres, of which the inhabitants of
Wynaad manufacture a kind of coarse cloth. It is not usual
to make use of the bark until the tenth year, when its size
will be equal to that of most forest trees. The tree is felled,
the branches lopped off, and the trunk cut into pieces of six
feet long, a perpendicular incision made in each piece, the bark
opened, and taken off whole, chopped, washed, and dried in the
sun. By these means, and without any further process, it is
fit for the purposes of clothing.

Sterculia villosa, called Oadal in Assam, is another tree of
this genus, which is a native of the mountainous countries to
the eastward of Bengal. Trunk straight. The bark is smooth,
but fibrous. Bags are made of it. Its fibres are made into
cords by the natives of the eastern frontier of Bengal, to bind
wild elephants with.

Of a coil of Oadal rope, Major Jenkins gave the following
notice in the year 1847:

“The Oadal tree is very common, and the rope is made
most readily; the bark, or rather all the layers, can be
stripped off from the bottom to the top of the tree with the
greatest facility, and fine pliable ropes may be made from
the inner layers of bark, whilst the outer yield coarse ropes.
The nope is very strong and very lasting—wet doing it little
injury.”

Oadhal is a creeper in Kemaon, with fine, strong fibres ;
and Microlena spectabilis is a tree found at the foot of the
Himalayas, which yields fibres fit for rope-making.
FIBRE OF ABROMA AUGUSTA. 267

Guazuma ulmifolia is a South American tree, which was
introduced into India, and largely cultivated at one time in the
Madras Presidency under the name of Bastard Cedar, as
fodder for cattle. The fibres of its, straight, luxuriant, young
branches were submitted to trial by Dr. Roxburgh. (v. p. 268.)

Abroma augusta, the Woollet-comul or Ullat-kumul of
Bengal, and which Dr. Roxburgh at one time called Perennial
Indian Hemp or Flax, is a native of various parts of India,
growing luxuriantly in gardens even as far as 30° N. lat.,
and extending eastward to the Philippine Isles. It grows toa
small tree, but may be cultivated as an annual, flowers pro-
fusely during the rainy season, and ripens its seed in the cold
weather. It particularly attracted Dr. Roxburgh’s attention ;
as the bark abounds with strong white fibres, which make a
very good substitute for Hemp, affording good common cordage.
The plant grows so quickly, as to yield two, three, or even four
crops of cuttings annually fit for peeling; hence it may be
advantageously cultivated, and is deserving of more than common
attention on account of the beauty, fineness, and strength of
its fibres. Dr. Roxburgh ventured to prognosticate as large
a yearly produce as can be obtained from an acre of Danchee,
Jute, Sunn, Hemp, or Flax; as it is a perennial, large, shrubby
plant, in every respect easier to cultivate and to prepare the
fibres than Sunn, and the produce much greater. Indeed, in
an experimental culture, he obtained from three cuttings
271 lb. of clean fibre, which he states was three times greater
than the average produce of Sunn.

To separate the bark from the shoots, maceration in stagnant
water, from four to eight days, answers well during the warmer
parts of the year, while three times as much is scarce sufficient
during the cold season, indeed the process is scarcely prac-
ticable then ; besides, the fibres are greatly weakened by pro-
longed maceration. The fibres being naturally very white and
clean, they do not require to be cleaned. Dr. Roxburgh states
that, in its native state, without being dressed in any way, it is
about one tenth part stronger than Sunn, and in that state
much more durable in water. A cord of its fibre bore 74]b.,
when Sunn broke with 68 lb. (v. p. 269.)

In the following tables the results of some of Dr. Roxburgh’s
experiments are given:
268 RESULTS OF DR. ROXBURGH’S EXPERIMENTS

Comparative Strength of Fibres, both dry and wet, ascertained by weights
suspended to four-feet lengths of the several lines.

 

 

eo
NAMES OF THE PLANTS, ae | 34 ee
Bo Eo been
And brief Remarks on the various Materials ee as a g
employed in these Experiments. Bou | Bos 5 a2
No. 488 | 428 | 28
1 | Hemp, the growth of 1800, from the Com-
pany’s Hemp Farm near Calcutta ‘ | 158] 190 20
2 | Jeetee (Asclepias tenacissima) 248 | 343 38
4 | Sunn (Crotalaria juncea), cut before the plants
were in blossom, and steeped immediately .| 112 158 41
5 | The same as No 4, but dried, or rather kept
for some time before they were steeped 60 78 30
6 | Sunn cut when in full blossom, and sectied
immediately . . 130 | 185 42
7 | No. 6, kept drying for some time . ‘ 100 | 166 66
8 | Sunn cut when the seeds were perfectly ripe. 150 | 203 35
9 | The same as No. 8, but dried ‘ 110 | 163 48

10 Sunn, winter crop, cut when the seeds were
ripe, and steeped immediately . . -| 160 | 209 31

11 | A var. of Corchorus capularis, Teetah Paat .) 143 146 2
12 | Reddish Corchorus capsularis, from China .| 164 164 |. 0
13 | Corchorus olitorius, Bunghi Paat . ‘ 113 125 11
14 | Aischynomone cannabina, Dancha, cut when

the seed was nearly ripe. 138 | 145 | 5
15 | Abroma augusta, young shoots cut before the

blossoms appeared . 100 | 112 12
16 | The same, from old igneous. plants, that had

ripened their seed. 121; 121 0
17 | Hibiscus strictus, from the Moluccas - -| 104 115 10
18 | No. 17, after it had ripenedits seed . 128 | 135 5
1g Hibiscus cannabinus, cut when in blossom,

and steeped immediately . ‘ 7 +) 115 | 133 15
20 | The same, cut when the seed was ripe . 110; 118 7
21 | Hibiscus (No. 18 of the next table), cut when

in flower, and steeped immediately . 116 | 123 6
22 | Hibiscus Sabdariffa, cut when in flower, and

steeped immediately . 3 89 | 117 31
23 | Hibiscus Abelmoschus, Calee Kustoree, cut

when in full flower, and steeped immediately} 107 | 107 0

24 | Hibiscus esculentus, D’heroos, cut when the
seed was ripe, and cee a few days there-

after : 79 95 20
25 | Hibiscus furcatus, cut when in flower and
steeped immediately . ; 89 92 3

26 | Hibiscus pilosus, a large annual species, cut
when in advanced flower, and niece! im-
mediately.  . 97| 130 34
27 | Guazuma ulmifolia, stout young. shoots of
about six feet in height, from two rate
old roots, steeped immediately . i 100 140 40
28 | Fibres of the footstalks of the leaves of a
large luxuriant wild Musa, or Plantain | 79
29 | A line made of fifteen threads of cancels
Calloee, Urtica tenacissima : é 240 278 16

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
ON INDIAN FIBRES.. 269

Comparative Statement of the effect of Maceration 116 days in stagnant water,

comparing the strength by weights suspended to four-feet lengths of th
various cords therein mentioned, when fresh. ia nae

 

Average Weight at which each
sort of Line broke.

 

Wh ; After 116 days’
NAMES OF THE PLANTS, en fresh. | “maceration,

 

And brief Remarks on the various Materials

 

 

 

 

3 os : j =
employed in these Experiments. =| 4 E £/2/z
No. . F aja] e é é
4 rotten, as was also
-1 | English Hemp, a piece of a new tiller-rope .|105 jan English log-line
2g | Hemp, Cannabis, the growth of this season, | :
from the Company’s Hemp Farm near
Calcutta. 74 /139'| 45 all rotten.
3 | Coir, the fibres of the husk of the Cocoa-nut . 87 54
4 | Ejoo, Saguerus Rumphii, Roxb. . 96 94
5 | Hschynomene cannabina, Dansha of the Ben-
galese. The fibres of plants that had nearly
ripened their seed. 88 |101 | 84 | 40 | 56 | 65
6 | The fibres of the bark of No. 5, from plants
coming into blossom s | 46 | 61 | 48 frotten| 68 | 45
4 | Crotalaria juncea, Sunn of the Bengalese | 68 | 69 | 60 |rotten| 51 | 65
g | Corchorus olitorius, Bunghi-Paat. The fibres
of its bark called Jute . -| 68 | 69 | 61 | 40 | 49 | 60
9 | Corchorus capsularis, Ghee-Nalta-Paat.. The|
fibres called Nalta-Jute . 67 50
10 | Flax, Linum usitatissimum, the growth ‘of the
Company’: s Hemp Farm near Calcutta | 39 rotten
11 | Agave americana . 1110 | 79 | 78 lrottenlrotten| 153

12 | Sanseviera zeylanica ; in n Sanscrit Murva 120 | 73 | 48 | 30 | 26 | 34
13 | Abroma augusta. Woollet-comul of the
Bengalese 74 | 58 | 44 | 38 | 54 | 50
14 | Guazuma ulmifolia, Bastard- Cedar. The fibres
of the bark of some straight luxuriant young
plants. | 52 | 47 | 45 | 30 | 39
15 | Hibiscus tiliaceus, “Bola “of the Bengalese -| 41 | 62 | 61 | 40 | 55 | 70
16 | Hibiscus strictus, from the Moluccas, a tall,

 

white-flowered variety of it . . | 61 26
17 | Hibiscus mutabilis ; | 45 | 53 rotten) 45
18 | Hibiscus, from the Cape of Good Hope . : .| 22 17
19 | Bauhinia hich Roxb., a large scandent

species. 69 rotten!

 

20 | The same as No. 19, ‘only “maceration was
used to help to take the bark off the woe
with more ease . 4 . . 56 rotten
21 | Sterculia villosa. c % . . »| 53 30

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
270 SUNN HEMP OF INDIA.

Sunn anp otHER Lecuminous Pants (Leguminose).

Sans., Sana; Hindee, Sunn; Bengalese, Ghore Sun and Meesta pat ; Cing., Kenna ;
Hemp and Sunn Hemp in Calcutta; Janapa, Shanapum, also, Madras Hemp ;
Taag or Conkanee Hemp, Salsette, and Bombay Hemp. Some of the Brown Hemp
of commerce.

The now well-known Sunn of India belongs to a family of
plants, of which some, such as the Peas and Beans of Europe, are
familiar to all; as are also the species of Phaseolus and Dolichos,
yielding the pulses of India. The family has been named
Leguminose, from the fruit of all consisting of a pod or Legume.
Though very numerous in species, comparatively few are re-
markable for their fibrous properties, though one of the oldest
described cordage plants of Europe belongs to this family.

Under the head of Esparto, in the family of Grasses (p. 31),
we have stated that Stipa tenacissima was no doubt one of the
kinds of Spartum of the ancients, and that Spartium junceum
was probably another. It was very common for the ancients
to group substances together according to their properties
rather than according to their external characters. Mr. Yates
is of opinion, that this Spartium junceum, or Spanish Broom,
was the original plant, and that the name Spartum, con-
verted into Esparto, was afterwards applied to the grass. The
Spartium junceum, or Spanish Broom, common in the sterile
parts of the South of Europe, affords a fibrous thread which
used to be made into cloth in Turkey, in Italy, and in the South
of France, Near Lucca the twigs were formerly steeped in
the thermal waters of Bagno a Acqua. After this process
the bark is easily stript off, and it is then combed and other-
wise treated like flax. In the vicinity of Pisa, also, the twigs
were soaked in the thermal waters. In the South of France
the Broom is grown in dry and unproductive parts, and also
carefully prepared. The coarser thread is used to make bags
for holding legumes, corn, &c.; the finer for making sheets,
napkins, and shirts. (v. Yates’s ‘ Textrin. Antigq.,’ pp. 323-4.) A
white-flowered plant has also been long used for the same pur-
poses. This, there is little doubt, is the Spartium monospermum,
or the white single-seed Broom ; and probably also S. multi-
florum, which is the Portugal white Broom. As these plants
are naturalized in our gardens, it is easy to ascertain the
EARLY NOTICES OF SUNN PLANT. 271

toughness of their fibres by endeavouring to break one of their
twigs.

In the subdivision of Leguminous plants with these Brooms
we find the Suan plant of India (Crotalaria juncea), which has
so close a general resemblance to the Spanish Broom, that Mr.
Yates has figured them together in the same plate, with the
very object of showing their affinity.

The Sunn is probably the earliest of the distinctly named
fibres, inasmuch as we find in the Hindoo ‘ Institutes of Menu,’
that the sacrificial thread of the Cshatriya or Rajpoot is
directed to be made of Sana; cotton being reserved for the
Brahmins. Its name, Shanapam or Janapa, on the Madras
side, is not very unlike Canapa, Hampa, Hennip, and Hanf.
From these we derive our own name of Hemp. Under the name
Sana it is mentioned in many Sanscrit works; and by that of
Sunn it is known in most parts of India.. The first notices in
European works is, by Rheede (‘ Hort. Mal., v. ix, t. 26); by
Tronside, in the ‘ Phil. Trans. of London,’ Ixiv, p. 99; and it is
mentioned by Roxburgh in the early volumes of the Society
of Arts’ ‘Transactions.’ Towards the close of the last, and the
beginning of this century, it attracted much attention both in
India and in England; and much information respecting it is
contained in Dr. Roxburgh’s several works, as well as in
Wisset’s ‘Treatise on Hemp and on the Sunn Plant,’ 1804
and 1808. Dr. Buchanan in his ‘Journey through Mysore,’
mentions that Goni cloth for sacks is made of the fibre of
Crotalaria juncea.

The annual stem is straight, smooth, striated, from four to eight (varieties
even ten and twelve) feet high, branching towards the top, but more so when
the plant stands single. Leaves scattered, short petioled, lanceolate, obtuse,
with a small bristle-like point, from two to six inches long, both sides
covered with soft, silver-coloured hairs. Stipules subulate, small. Flowers
in terminal racemes, papilionaceous, of a beautiful bright yellow colour,
each supported by an oval bract. Calyx two-lipped; the upper lip two-
cleft; the under one two-parted in the middle. Of the yellow petals, the
-banner is obtuse, erect; the two wings oblong obtuse; the keel much
pointed, slightly twisted at the apex, and closely shut. Filaments ten, their
lower half united into one body, with a fissure down the upper side, which
has a circular gape at the base; extremities free, and the alternate ones
shorter than the others. Anthers on these linear; on the larger filaments
ovate and two-lobed. Legumes sessile, club-shaped, turgid, from one to

two inches long. Seeds numerous, kidney-shaped. (Roxb., ‘ Flora Indica,’

ili, p. 261; ‘Corom. PL,’ t. 192.)- a :
The seeds when ripe and loosened rattle within the pods, as in the other
species, whence the genus has been named from the Greek word krotalos.
272 CULTURE OF SUNN PLANT.

It is an annual plant, very generally cultivated in the
southern parts of Asia, and everywhere in India, on account of
the fibres of its bark, so well known as Sunn and Sunn Hemp,
often erroneously called Hemp, though the true plant is also
most common in India, but valued in the plains only for its
intoxicating properties. The Sunn is exported from different
parts of India, as from Calcutta, by the name of Sunn; that
from Madras is known here as Madras Hemp; that from
Bombay as Brown Hemp, being known there as Taag or
Conkanee Hemp. It being a common practice to name it
from the province where it has been grown. The late Dr.
Stocks informed the Author that it was cultivated in Sindh,
and that the species named Crotalaria Burhia, which grows
wild in the most arid places, is also employed in Sindh as a
cordage plant. The Author may mention that he has seen it
thickly sown and carefully cultivated in the most northern
provinces of India. The time of flowering and ripening its
seed, as stated by Dr. Roxburgh, depend on the season it is
sown ; though in most parts it is raised during the rainy season,
in others it is not sown until their cessation.

Culture.—The general time of cultivation is during the
rains; and in Bengal a rather elevated rich soil is required,
which ought to be well ploughed, or otherwise dressed to free
it of weeds, and bring it into good tilth. In Wisset’s treatise,
pp. 38 and 39, it is stated that clayey soils are injurious, and
that in a rich soil the fibre produced is of a coarser quality
than that from high, dry situations. The quantity of seed,
Dr. Roxburgh states, should be from eighty to a hundred
pounds weight to the acre. In some districts less, in others a
larger quantity is sown. (v. Wisset.) The natives say, the
thicker the Sunn grows the better, and so thick as to prevent
the air from passing through it. (l.c., p. 73.) At Com-
mercolly it is stated that there are two kinds of Sunn; one
being sown in June, the other in October, though they are
nearly similar in quality. That sown in June is generally cut
about August or September, and the other about April; but
it is also sown in October in parts of the Dacca district.
(v. Wisset, pp. 59 and 82.) The cause of the difference in the
time of cultivation, is supposed by some to be that during the
periodical rains the face of the country is under water.
CULTURE OF THE SUNN PLANT, 273

In most places the seed is sown when the first showers fall,
in May or June, and covered in by the harrow, or by any other
mode. Little more is required, as the plant grows so rapidly
as to keep down the weeds itself; otherwise it requires to be
freed from weeds, when about nine inches high. By August
the plant will be in flower, and from five to eight or more
feet high. When the fibre is required of a fine and soft
quality, it is pulled in this stage of its growth; if greater
strength is the object, it must stand till in seed, or even till
the seed is ripe. A portion of the crop always requires to be
left for the sake of ripening some seed. ‘The natives make
use also of the fibres of such plants, and consider them strong.
When ready for the purposes intended, the plant is cut or
pulled up by the roots. At Hurriaul it is cut down as close
to the ground as possible, and laid in ridges, care being taken
to place the plants so that the leafy parts be one upon another.
. In this state they continue five, six, or ten to twelve days, or
until the leaves begin to rot and fall from the stalks on being
shaken about. (l.c¢., p. 113.) For culture in Madras and
Bombay, see pp. 279, 282.

Produce, &c., per acre-—The produce of the cultivation of
this plant per acre is most fully detailed in the abstracts of
reports given by Mr. Wisset, and varies from 3 cwt. to 10 cwt.
per acre; or on a medium probably about 700]b. an acre.
But there is difficulty in determining the point with exact-
ness, from the difference in the begah as well as in the maund.
The cultivation was said to yield tolerable profit, inasmuch as
the plant requires scarce any attention, and consequently little
labour or expense; and it may be off the ground in time to
allow this to be prepared for any cold-season crop. But the
expenses and the profit are as variously stated as the produce.
The price is also given as varying from R.1 8, and R.1 12, to
Rs.8 per maund, at the same time; which it is difficult to
account for, except from the habitual carelessness of the natives
of India in all such statements. (v. ‘ Wisset, pp. 146—1535.)

Steeping—Having grown and cut the plant, as well as
removed its leaves, it is ready for the next process, that of
committing to water, or other operation for separating its fibre.
. The length of time required for steeping depends on the season
of the year, the heat of the weather, and consequently of the

18
274 PREPARATION OF SUNN FIBRE.

water. In August and September, from two to three days
is generally sufficient. When the required effect has been
attained, which will generally be known by the bark sepa-
rating freely from the stalk, the people employed in the work
stand in the water in which the plant has been steeped; each
takes a handful thereof, which he breaks in one or more
places, after having washed off any mud or filth; then grasps
it by one end between both hands, and beats it against the
surface of the water, which quickly removes the reed from
the fibres ; when the parcel is turned, and the other end treated
in the same manner. Care must be taken not to over-steep,
as this much weakens the fibre. (Wisset and Roxburgh.)

With respect to the proper time for steeping, and the period
during which the stems should be steeped, great differences of
opinion prevailed during the experiments at the beginning of
the century. Mr. Fleming, disapproving of the native method
of steeping the plants immediately after they were cut, and for ,
three or four days, recommended that the plants, after pulling,
be first dried in the sun for two days ; after which, they should
not be let remain in the water more than forty hours. Mr.
Frushard objected, first, to the drying the article before watering;
secondly, to the insufficiency of the time for watering ; and lastly,
to the manner of separating the fibre from the reed after watering,
The general practice, he observes, is to set the plant upright
in the water, immersed about one third only from the bottom,
for one day before the complete immersion, in order that the
thicker may be immersed longer than the thinner parts. Of
the natives one said, “to dry before steeping was doing to
undo.”’ Another observed that it seemed to be “ wanted to
make difficult what was easy.” Others exclaimed: “ You may
imprison our persons; you may strike our necks; but never
will we make Sunn according to the advertisement.” (v.
Wisset, pp. 162, 195, and 202.) The whole forms an in-
teresting commentary on attempts to improve native pro-
cesses, before principles are thoroughly understood, or the
superiority of European practices carefully established. (v. Table,
p. 268.)

At Commercolly, when the plants of Phool Sun have been
pulled and tied in bundles, they are for a day or two kept .
standing on their roots in an inch or two of water, which
PREPARATION OF SUNN FIBRE. 275

allows the fibre to obtain a proper degree of firmness, without
suffering it to be parched by the heat of the sun.

Dr. Roxburgh observes, ‘all that seems necessary is to
caution the cultivators against oversteeping the plant, which
they are apt to do, because it renders the separation of the
bark from the stalks easier, but weakens its fibres. Small
pools of clear water, well exposed to the sun’s beams, seem
best suited for steeping in, because heat hastens maceration,
consequently preserves the strength of the fibres, while the
clean water preserves their colour. Deep water, being cooler,
requires more time for the operation.” He further states, that
the result of many experiments leads him to think that
steeping immediately after the plant is pulled is the best, at
least in Bengal during the rains, for then it is very difficult
to dry it, and the fibre becomes weakened and the colour
injured. He found no advantage, but the reverse, by drying
the plant, after maceration, and before the bark was removed,
as often practised with Hemp and Flax in Europe.’ But in
his ‘ Fl. Ind.,’ iii, p. 262, he says: ‘“ Others, and I believe with
good reason, recommend its being dried for some time previous
to. its being steeped.” When the seed is ripe the fibre is
stronger, but requires a much longer time for steeping.

If the Sunn be dressed before it is shipped for England, the
commodity will be rendered more valuable; but considerable
loss of weight (probably about one third) having ensued from
the combing or heckling removing much short fibre or tow, it
is of course increased in price. The Sunn of Bengal is always
whiter than that of Bombay, owing to the mode in which it is
prepared.

Drying —When the Sunn has been thoroughly washed,
it is usually hung up on lines or bamboos to dry. When dry,
it is combed, if intended for fishing nets or small lines; but if
for common use, they merely separate the fibres a little with
their fingers, and make it up into bundles for market. The
use of the Hemp-brake is unknown in India, but the Sunn
might in many cases, after watering, be bruised with a brake
and then scutched.

It is in cleaning the fibres Mr. Frushard considers that the

! See also ‘ Observations on Fibrous Veg. Substitutes for Flax and Hemp,’ p. 45.
276 DRYING OF SUNN FIBRE.

natives are most liable to fail. He thinks it ought to be
strongly insisted that they beat the plant (by handfuls at a
time) on the surface of river water, in order to get rid more
readily of the filth and mucus with which it abounds after
steeping. But when the fibre is separated it must be tho-
roughly washed, by repeatedly squeezing the water out of it,
and ultimately well wrung, to accelerate the essential process
of careful drying. The cylinders for pressing Flax when
moist (v. p. 206) would be useful, as also scutching mills
properly suited to the fibres to be separated and prepared.

After the fibrous parts are well separated and well washed,
they are in some places in Bengal laid in the sun to dry, before
stripping them. At Jungypore, after washing and beating in
the water, the Sunn is laid in the sun an hour or two, and the
stalks are separated when half dried. Mr. Fleming recom-
mended that after watering the plants forty hours, they should
be taken out and dried gently in the sun for three or four
hours, before the fibres are separated. The natives say, that
to dry the plant on taking it out of the water before separating
the fibre from the seed, will occasion a much greater loss in
tow; so that they never practise this method but when dis-
tressed for time, and under the dread of leaving it too long in
the water, when any parcel proves too much for the labourers
employed in one day. Mr. Frushard also objected, that such
drying must be insufficient, and that in Europe, generally, the
plant is most thoroughly dried before it is put under the brakes,
and that in Livonia the Hemp is heaped up, and covered up
with straw, &c., in order to make it sweat, and that the
Livonians say, it is in this operation of sweating that the good
or bad quality of their Hemp depends.

Mr. Frushard observes, that “the natives get through the
whole business with so much celerity that their mode of
practice is highly in favour of the fibre retaining its strength;
and should sweating be found to answer, it will be found much
more congenial to its execution than the doing it while the
fibre is still on the reed.”

The measures adopted were successful to a great extent.
Though the natives did not adopt all the innovations which
had been proposed to them, yet from the supervision practised,
they prepared the Sunn carefully according to their own
STRENGTH OF SUNN FIBRE, 277

methods, and that of itself was a great advantage; as only the
good specimens were purchased by the commercial agents.

STRENGTH OF SUNN FIBRE.

In the anonymous pamphlet entitled, ‘Observations on the
Sunn Hemp of Bengal,’ 1806, it is stated, that “the Court of
Directors having sent orders to Bengal for the cultivation of
Sunn with increased attention, tolerable success was attained
in most places, but a superiority has certainly been manifested
in particular spots, such as Dacca, Luckipore, Chittagong.
Hurriall, Malda, Budaul, Rungpore, Raduagore, and Soona-
mooky’’—but Commercolly and Cuttorah are not particularised,
though good Sunn was no doubt produced at both places.
These places have been mentioned now, to show that the
experiments were carried on chiefly in Bengal, though it is by
n0 means proved that the soil and climate of that province are
better suited than those of many other parts of India for the
production of good fibre. Indeed, there is little doubt that,
whether owing to differences of soil and climate, or of prepa-
ration, the fibre of the same plant as grown in the West of India
is stronger than as grown in Bengal. In the anonymous
‘Obs.’ it is further stated, that “the culture has not only been
attended to by the most scientific men in India, but the
means of dressing it so as to preserve the greatest strength to
the fibre, &c.; and it is satisfactory to state, that some of the
Sunn has exhibited a very considerable proportion of strength
beyond the common expectation.”

But the above pamphlet is chiefly valuable for giving the
results of various “Experiments, made from 1802 to 1806,
to ascertain the comparative strength of Suun with Russian
Hemp,” made at Messrs. Huddart’s rope-manufactory. “ But
in order to ascertain its comparative merit therewith, it is
necessary first to state, that the difference in strength between
the best and ordinary Russian Hemp is in the proportion of
5 to 4, sometimes as 6 to 4: that the strength of the best
Russian Hemp to the best Sunn bears a proportion as
6 to 4.” (p.5.) “From hence it must be admitted, the Sunn,
manufactured in the usual mode for cordage, cannot be put
in competition for strength with Russian Hemp ;” but when
278 STRENGTH OF SUNN FIBRE.

prepared by Huddart’s Warm Register, “the proportion between
Sunn so manufactured and the best cordage made in the
common mode, when above six-inch, is in favour of the Sunn
cordage, progressively as the size is increased.” Instances are
then given of “a sixteen-inch cable made from Sunn in 1802,
laid down as a mooring cable at Gravesend the whole winter ;
and after various examinations, by cutting off the clinches,
upon different ships taking it in as moorings, for five months
in succession, it was found so fresh and good, that it went by
the last ship that rode by it, to India, as a working cable.”
(p. 6.) It was also made into canvas and other cloth with
success. “This has been manifested in a topsail made for one
of the Indiamen, put on board here without any intimation of
its difference ; and the sail is returned not worse than the other
sails of the ship.””? (p. 7.)

But it must be remembered that these experiments were
made with the Sunn which had heen grown and carefully pre-
pared under the supervision of the East India Company’s com-
mercial agents. A specimen of one of these Sunns is still in
the India House, marked per David Scott, 1802 ; which, though
having the light colour and showing the appearance of ordinary
Sunn, is from four to five feet in length, much cleaner, both
strong and flexible, and also divisible into fine fibrils. A salvage
of it bore 175 lb., when some Sunn sent to the Exhibition of
1851 bore only 150 1b. There is a specimen also of the heckled
Sunn, per Wellesley, 1802, about three feet long, a bright-
looking fibre, but with a good deal of the cellular part still
adhering to the fibres. Ordinary Sunn is, moreover, only about
three feet in length, rather dirty; fibres entangled and inter-
mixed with portions of the boon, as well as with many short
fibres ; hence much loss is sustained in heckling, and the men
complain of the irritating particles which are given off during
this process.

The want of strength is not surprising, for though three
days is thought sufficient for the steeping, we learn that the
natives, from the press of other work or from indolence, some-
times allow the stems to remain in steep for fifteen days.
(v. Wisset, p. 195.) It has already been mentioned that Dr,

' Its weft only was Sunn, the warp Flax.
DIFFERENT QUALITIES OF SUNN, 279

Roxburgh, in heckling, found it lost about one third; though
the tow is of course of use for some purposes.

But that some good Sunn is also prepared in the present
day is evident from the difference in price which it brings in
the English market. Mr. Dickson also having passed some of
it through his machine; the Sunn has become light-coloured
and clean, with the fibres lying parallel to one another, and
showing them as well fitted for spinning. Parties who have
seen it have pronounced it well worth £35 a ton.

That good Sunn may also be produced in some of the old
localities is evident, for Mr. Sconce, when Collector of Chitta-
gong, having grown some Hemp and Flax in this district, as
ready mentioned at p.177, grew also some Sunn, which was
thus reported on by the Hemp and Flax Committee of the
Agri-Horticultural Society, 1843.

“@. Sample of Sunn (Crotalaria juncea) or Indian Hemp.—
Quality in every respect superior ; clean, strong, of even fibre ;
would meet with an extensive and ready sale in Europe; it
would pay better if not heckled, but merely scutched.

“In addition to the above, your Committee would beg to
call the attention of the Society to the memorandum appended
to this Report, obligingly furnished by Mr. Deneef.”

“G. This is also a good-quality sample; but, like samples
B and E (dressed Hemp and dressed Flax), it has been prepared
in too expensive a manner to admit of its being profitable. It
is much better than my sample of Sunn, and perhaps would
fetch £20 per ton in the English market.” The sample of true
Hemp grown at Chittagong, Mr. Deneef says, would have
fetched £18, but if better prepared, £25 per ton.

CULTURE IN MADRAS TERRITORIES.

Dr. Roxburgh, in describing the culture about Rajahmundry,
and in the Northern Circars, states that the seed is sown
towards the close of the rains, in October or November. A
strong clayey soil suits it best, the farmers say. About
120 lb. of seed to the acre is the usual allowance. It requires
no further care than being covered with the soil, which is done
with the common Hindoo harrow. In February or March
soon after the flowers drop, and before the seeds are ripe
280 SUNN IN MADRAS TERRITORIES.

(when the Telinga people consider the fibre to be in the
greatest perfection), it is pulled up by the roots, like Hemp in
Europe; half dried in the sun, then tied up in bundles, and
committed to the water, where it is steeped, &c. This plant,
he further mentions—and it is the only one—is also cultivated
there by some natives to feed their milch cows with during the
dry season. It is very nourishing, and causes them to give
more milk than most other food. It only bears two or three
cuttings; after that, the plants perish. (‘Corom. Plants,’ v. ii,
t. 193.)

Sunn is also cultivated in Rajahmundry as a second crop, on
wet lands, with profit to the ryut; and is even exported from
that and other Northern districts in some quantity.

Dr. Buchanan, in his ‘ Journey through Mysore,’ mentions
that, at Bangalore, Goni is a considerable article of manufacture,
and that it is a coarse, but very strong sackcloth, from eighteen
to twenty-two cubits in length, and from a half to a quarter ofa
cubit broad, and that it is made from the Janupa, or Crotalaria
juncea. The Gonit maker hires from some farmer as much
high ground as he thinks will raise a quantity of Janupa
sufficient to employ his family in manufacturing for the year.
The soil may be red or black, but is not manured. The soil
is sown broadcast when the rains become heavy. But it is
also cultivated on rice-ground in the dry season, with the aid
of irrigation. It requires four months to ripen. When cut
down it is spread out to the sun and dried. The seed is then
beaten out by striking the pods with a stick. The stems are
then tied up in large bundles, and preserved in stacks or under
sheds. The bundles are taken out as wanted, and put in the
water, at which time their bands are cut, and the stems, being
opened out, are kept down to the bottom by stones or mud.
According to circumstances, they require to be kept in the
water from six to eight days. When the bark separates easily
from the stems they are taken out of the water, and a man
taking them by handfuls beats them on the ground, and occa-
sionally washes them, until they are clean, and at the same
time picks out with his hand the remainder of the booy, until
nothing except the bark be left. This is then dried, and, being
taken up by handfuls, is beaten with a stick to separate and
clean the fibres. (‘ Journ.,’ i, p. 226.)
MADRAS METHODS OF PREPARATION. 281

‘But when at Bhawani Kudal, in the Coimbatore district,
he found a great deal of the Shanapu. This was grown by
the farmers, who, when it is fit for steeping, sell it to the
people called Telinga Chitties, who make the Hemp, and work
it up into goni or sackcloth. There it thrives best on a poor, sandy
soil, which, however, is manured any day between the 12th of
July and the same day of August. The seed is sown broad-
cast after rain, and very thick—rather more than two bushels
for an acre. The stems are sold by the thousand handfuls.
Tall plants sell at two rupees for the thousand handfuls ; short
ones for a.rupee and a half.

But the same plant is also cultivated on fields that have
produced a crop of rice, between the 12th of January and the
12th of February. In the following month the field is watered,
the seed sown, and covered with the plough. Once a month it
requires to be watered, and it takes four months to ripen.
This is more valuable than the Hemp cultivated on dry field.
An acre requires 4% bushels of seed, and its produce was in
those days worth about £1 2s, 103d.

Of these two notices the first is interesting, as showing that
the natives of Mysore adopt a practice, that of drying their
Sunn stems, which is objected to by those of Bengal. The
second showing a separation of the occupations of growing and
of preparing the fibre; and this may, perhaps, with a congenial
_ climate, account for the goodness of the fibre of the Western

. coast. :
‘Dr. Wight states that on the Madras side of India, not
‘only the bark of this species, but of Crotalaria retusa is
exiployed as Hemp in the manufacture of cordage and canvas.
He further found the Janapa or Sunn plant cultivated at
Coimbatore. The stems, cut and dried, were afterwards steeped.
This loosens the bark, which is then easily stripped off, and
undergoes but little further preparation. He found its fibres were
next in strength to the yerkum or mudar, sustaining 407 lb., when
the latter bore 552 1b., and has since observed to the Author
that the Sunn, grown in the Pass of Poonany, open to both
monsoons, is stronger than that grown in the interior.

Dr. Hunter has given the following account of the prepa-
ration of such fibres near Madras: “The native process
of cleaning plants having bark and woody fibres’”—of
282 MADRAS METHODS OF PREPARATION.

which kind are many of the cordage plants—“ is very similar
to that followed in cleaning fleshy and pulpy plants, viz., by
burying in sand or mud at the edge of a tank or in a river,
and leaving them to rot. There is this difference, however,
that the plants are steeped longer, and are never exposed to
the sun to dry, or stacked and covered with matting to be
cleaned by dry beating. If this were done, the woody fibre
would get hard and brittle, and would again adhere to the
other fibre, which being partially rotten would break in the
cleaning. To obviate this the rotted plant is taken up in
large handfuls, and beaten on flat stones, first at one end and
then at the other, in the same way as clothes are washed by
the Dhobee; they are next well rubbed and washed to sepa-
rate the impurities, and are spread out on the ground to dry. ’
We can hardly wonder that most of the string and rope made
from fibres prepared in this rude, coarse way, should be dark
in colour, possessed of no strength, and of little value. Asa
general rule, every day’s steeping of a fibre takes from its
strength and imparts more or less colour. To obviate this,
woody plants should be first well beaten with a mallet; then
the bark should be separated from the stalk, for it is on the
inner part of the bark that the fibres for cordage usually
occur. When the bark is brought to a pulpy state, it must be
well washed in clean water to remove as much of the sap as
possible; for this is the distinctive agent which soon causes
putrefaction.”

CULTURE IN THE WEST OF INDIA.

On the Bombay side Sunn is also extensively cultivated,
and attracted some attention at the beginning of this century in
the islaud of Salsette, whence it was called Salsette Hemp, which
is probably the same substance now called Brown Hemp. On
that side of India, Dr. Roxburgh says, as in some other parts
of India, the seed is sown towards the close of the rains, when
a stronger soil is said to be required. We have seen that Col.
Sykes enumerates the Sunn among the spring crops; that is,
among those sown in autumn and reaped in spring. This
Bombay Hemp or Sunn has always been highly esteemed.
Dr. Roxburgh says it is reckoned particularly good—not
MALABAR AND BROWN HEMP OF THI WES? OF INDIA. 283

inferior to the best Russian Hemp (‘ Fl. Ind.,’ iii, p. 268) ;
which he conceives is due to the mode of preparation, which
we shall immediately notice. But something must also be
owing to climate.

So long ago as the year 1802, some fibre was imported
by Capt. Isaacke, of the Skelton Castle, which was at first con-
sidered to be the real Hemp, and called Malabar Hemp.
Capt. Eastwick, one of the Directors of the East India
Company has informed the Author that Major J. D. Watson,
also paid great attention at this period to Malabar Hemp. Dr.
H. Scott writes of it, that he does not know whether it be the
same plant as the Sunn of Bengal, but where very great
strength is necessary, the substance obtained from it is preferred’
to the Bengal Sunn, and is very superior to anything of the
kind he has seen in the Guzerat. This, he thinks, may
depend more on the steeping of the plant and the preparation,
than on any difference in the vegetables that produce it; and
this opinion was proved to be correct, for Dr. Roxburgh,
having obtained some of the seed, found it to be Crotalaria
juncea,

It was about the time that Dr. Roxburgh was employed in
the culture of fibres in Bengal, he learnt that in the island of
Salsette, where the best Sunn is said to be prepared, little
or no maceration is employed; that the plant while moist is
peeled by the hand, and immediately dried, in the open air
or under cover, according to the state of the weather. By
peeling, the fibres are better kept in their natural state of
arrangement, and give support and strength to each other ;
whereas, by the process of the Bengalese, they get so materially
entangled, that a great loss is always sustained. If they are
restored to their natural situation by the heckle, there is a
loss of nearly one half of the original quantity, which renders
the heckled Sunn of Bengal of a high price.

Dr. Roxburgh further says, in ‘Fl. Ind.’ p. 283: “ Nume-
rous experiments made by me induce a belief that the supe-
riority of the Hemp depends upon the peeling ; but it is probable
that the climate of the West of India may be more favorable
than that of Bengal for the production of a stronger fibre. For
no great attention seems to be paid to the culture, according to
recent accounts.”
284 CULTURE OF TAAG OR BROWN HEMP IN WEST OF INDIA.

More recently, Capt. Thompson, of the firm of Thompson
and Co., rope-makers, of Calcutta, in sending three samples
of fibre from the Malabar coast, writes: “ Allow me also
to hand you three specimens of Hemp and rope made
of them that I had brought from the west side of India,
grown at the places named on the labels (Calicut, Ghote,
and the Concan). These have been tested both at the Arsenal
and Government Dockyards, and proved perfectly equal to any
and all purposes that cordage made of Russian Hemp has
hitherto been used for. From the encouraging reports upon
this cordage from the heads of both the Naval and Military
Departments, there seems no reason to doubt that this Hemp,
and others that are being daily discovered, will completely
supersede the importation of Europe-made cordage.” Capt.
Thompson adds, in a note: “This Hemp is no new discovery.
I saw it in England, which led me to try it here (2. e., Calentta).
38lst Dec., 1847.”

Dr. Gibson, in a Report on the Agriculture and Horticulture
of the districts near Bombay, states, that both the taag and
umbaree, or Crotalaria juncea and Hibiscus cannabinus, are
both reaped in the month of November, and both are stored to
await the advent and leisure of the warm weather for stripping.
The Tag is most usually pulled up, instead of being cut off; as
in the latter way it leaves a strong and dangerous stubble. It
is in the Deccan, he adds, reckoned a species of cultivation
unworthy of a thorough-bred hushandman, and only to be
grown by the Ghat people and the wilder tribes. The Wun-
jaras not unfrequently hire land to grow it on, as it is essential
for affording them twine and materials for their gunnies. The
seeds are beaten out with a stick, a part is reserved for future
sowing, and the overplus is used to feed buffaloes. Its cultiva-
tion is more attended to inthe Concan and Ghat districts than
in the Deccan, It appears to suit any soil, and clears the
ground of weeds. Having cultivated the plant to some extent
in 1841, he found that it gave a return quite equal, if not
superior, to that of the common grains of the country. Its
chief expense consists in stripping the fibre. He had tried to
separate the fibre by beating, after a slight immersion, but
found the interior pith too soft to admit the separation of the
fibre by that means, It is first steeped in water for five days
REPORT ON BROWN HEMP OF BOMBAY. 285

—in running water—and the fibre is afterwards separated by
the fingers.

It is used by the natives for articles requiring much strength,
as fishing nets, &c. (Agric. and Hortic. Soc. of Western India,
1842.)

Some specimens of the fibre of the taag, or Crotalaria juncea, ~
having been sent to England to be reported on, were spoken
of in the following terms, though the name of the reporter at
Hull is not given (1840):

“This sample, No. 2 (Crotalaria juncea or tag), appears to
me of the same quality as the Baltic. I return a part of it,
made ready for spinning. You will see the great similarity of
the two. My twine-spinner assures me that by taking it
sooner, and by using more care in the steeping and exposure,
it will he fully equal to the Baltic. Surely, by attention, this
may be accomplished. It may require Englishmen to direct,
and our implements (which are truly simple) to be used—when
I have no doubt of the successful result, alike to the grower,
the merchant, and our country. Your Hemp is very clean—
a material point,—but it wants more beating and dressing ;
and I think the natives have not proper implements to do it
with. You cannot improve in your mode of packing; it is
decidedly superior to the Baltic. I do not despair of seeing
the produce of the Baltic supplanted by that of India; as the
defect appears to me solely to arise in the management of it:
it stands too long before it is pulled or cut, or is too much
steeped or exposed, to get the fibre to separate from the stalk.”
(Agric. and Hortic. Soc. of Western India, 1842.)

Wockoo naz (or fibre), or 7ravancore Flax, as it has been
proposed to be called, is another instance of the effects of
locality and of climate, combined with variations in the mode
of preparation, in making it impossible, from the appearance
of fibres, to know the plants producing them. To the Exhibi-
tion of 1851, some specimens of strong canvas were sent from
Travancore, which have been much approved of by competent
judges, from the compactness and strength of the manufacture.
On trial, it was found that a piece of this canvas, containing
eleven threads, was equal in strength to canvas containing
fourteen threads of Polish rein. Along with the canvas, afew small
286 WUCKOO NAR, OR BROWN HEMP OF TRAVANCORE,

heads of the fibre were sent, and labelled Wuckoo and Wucknoo.
nar, or fibre, from Travancore. The appearance of this fibre is
totally different from any other which comes from India; as it
is in the state as if prepared for spinning into thread, and must
have been combed or heckled. The fibres are brownish in colour,
about 3 to 4 feet in length, clean, and shining, not so fine as
Flax, but still resembling some of the coarser kinds. A very
competent judge informed the Author that it might be sold
for the purposes of Flax, or as a kind of Flax, and was worth
£35 a ton. So, some specimens sent to Dundee were valued
at the same sum, and it was said could be used for the same
purposes as Flax, though rather too dry.

As the Wuckoo nar was so highly thought of, and the Author
was unable to form any opinion respecting the plant which
produced it, he requested his friend, Dr. Wight, so well ac-
quainted with the Botany of the Peninsula, to ascertain the
botanical name of the Wuckoo plant. The more so, as Tra-
vancore, with Cochin as a harbour which large ships can enter,
is a favorable locality for the export of an article which seems
a very desirable object of commerce. Dr. Wight having.
written to friends in the locality to ascertain this point,
was surprised on hearing, as was the Author on being
informed, that the Wuckoo plant of Travancore was nothing
but the Taag of the Western ghauts, and which further north
yields the so well-known Brown Hemp of Bombay. The
Author may mention as a curious confirmation of the result
obtained, that specimens of the Brown Hemp, passed through
Mr. Dickson’s machine, are exactly like the fibres of the
Wuckoo nar, as sent from Travancore.

The whole subject forms a striking confirmation of the
importance of what the Author has frequently endeavoured to
impress upon planters and experimentalists, that is, the effects of
climate and of physical agents on the products of plants, As
these will be found to be quite as important as seed from par-
ticular localities, or the adoption of methods of culture which

may be suitable to one and not to another locality where it is
attempted to introduce them.

Besides Bengal, Madras, and the West of India, Sunn, that
is, Crotalaria juncea, is also extensively cultivated in North-
PROPERTILS AND VALUE OF SUNN. 287

West India, for ordinary use. The cultivation may be much
increased, and it is probable with considerable addition to the:
strength and flexibility of the fibre, by the aid of irrigation;
and this is easily managed in some, and will be so in most places
when the great Ganges Canal is in active operation. It will
be found there, as elsewhere, that, as stated by Mr. Deneef as
his declared opinion, nothing is wanted but an improved
preparation to make it a desirable article for the English market,

Enough has been said respecting the value of common Sunn
for most of the ordinary purposes of cordage, and also of the
invaluable properties of the fibre of the same plant as grown
in the Western ghauts, and where its culture may be indefi-.
nitely extended, and easily exported by sea. ‘Though some
recent Sunn broke with 150 lb., and some old Sunn bore 170 Ib.,
when Petersburgh broke with 160 lb., the two former may not
be able to bear the same degree of twisting as the latter, but
see the experiments at pp. 268, 289.

Brown Hemp has, by competent judges, been considered equal
to many of the purposes of Petersburgh Hemp ; and the Wuckoo
nar bore 175]b. in the same experiments. Dr. Roxburgh
made and published a very valuable set of experiments on
Sunn, as grown in Bengal. (v. Table, p. 268.) In Dr. Wight’s
recent experiments, the Janapa or Sunn bore 407 Ib., and
Cotton ropes 346 lb.; but the Ambaree or Hibiscus canna-
binus, 290 lb., and Coin, 2241b. The Janapa, or Madras Hemp,
_ as it is gilled in the markets here, is thus mentioned by Mr.

“Dickson, as already quoted at p 183.

“Madras Hemp, valued when imported at £24 per ton,

2ecwt. 3qrs. 3 1b:

Produced by the machines :

ewt. ‘ar. Ib.

Clean, long fibre, good, valued at £45 perton 1 1 7
Clean tow, valued at £30 per ton ; 119
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Cost of preparation . 6s. 1jd.

“This Hemp, when prepared with the Patent Liquid, became
soft, white, and so fine when heckled, as to bear the closest
comparison with Flax at £80 per ton. It is better than any
Russian Flax for fine spinning.
288 PRICES OF SUNN.

“Bombay Hemp, rough and dark, and valued at £20 per
ton :

“This article, being similarly prepared, was considered equal
in value with the Madras Hemp.”

Though the importation of Sunn for a time diminished, it has
again, during the last ten or twelve years, been imported in
increasing quantities; and though here it is avowedly used
only for ordinary purposes, Mr. J. Kyd, ship-builder, of
Kidderpore, near Calcutta, maintained that the Sunn, if pro-
perly cured and dressed, would prove equal to Russian Hemp,
and even as it was then produced, it was little inferior to it.
All that he considered was required to bring. this Hemp to a
state of perfection, was European superintendence in the growth
and manufacture of the material. The natives, moreover, who
have many good fibres within their reach, usually make use of
Sunn twine, well tanned with the bark of a species of
Rhizophora. (v. Table of Exports, p. 299.)

The prices of these fibres in the interior, are stated to be
from R.1 8 to Rs.2 8 per bazar maund; that is, from 3s. to
5s. for a maund of 84 1b., which is just three fourths of a hundred-
weight. So, in the Madras territories, it is stated that these
fibres may be obtained at 2s. a maund in the interior. In
Calcutta, Sunn is quoted at about Rs.5 per maund; and in
Bombay at Rs. 4 8 to Rs. 51 per cwt. in Oct., to Rs, 8 per cwt.
in June, but at Rs. 11 in June, 1854,

In the year 1844, when Petersburgh Hemp was selling here
for £38 per ton, Indian Brown Hemp was sold for £20, Sunn
from £16 to £18, and Jute from £10 to £12.

In Dec., 1854, Bombay Hemp was quoted at £35 to £48,
Sunn £27 to £33, Jute £21 to £25, in the same ‘Price Current,’
when Petersburgh Hemp was selling at £58 to £63.
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19
290

JuBBULPORE Hemp (Crotalaria tenuifolia, Roxb.)

Among the cordage sent to the Great Exhibition of 1851,
there were some specimens sent by Messrs. Harton and Co.,
rope-makers, of Calcutta. These appeared to be of excellent
quality, and were said to be made of Jubbulpore Hemp. The
first notice which we have of this substance is in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Agri-Horticultural Society,’ where some Hemp grown in
the Jubbulpore Garden from country seed sown at the end of
June, 1840, and cut in October, and of canvas woven from the
fibre in the School of Industry at Jubbulpore, were presented
to the Society by Dr. F. M‘Leod, Esq. When Mr. Williams,
Superintendent of the above School, and by whom the plant
had been grown and the fibre prepared, visited England in the
summer of 1853, he presented the Author with a specimen of
this fibre. This is long, that is, upwards of five feet in length,
of the colour of Petersburgh Hemp, rather roughly prepared,
inasmuch as some of the bast is still in the form of narrow
ribands, but most of it separated into fine and strong fibres.
In the experiments which the Author had made with it, its
strength was proved to be at least equal, if not superior, to that
of Russian Hemp, inasmuch as when a selvage of Petersburgh
Hemp broke with 160]b., one of Jubbulpore Hemp did not
break with less than 1901b. When examined by experienced
brokers and manufacturers, it was considered an excellent sub-
stitute for Russian Hemp, and if a little more carefully prepared
would leave hardly anything more to be desired, and was
valued as worth at from £30 to £35 a ton, that is before any
rise took place in the price of fibres.

The plant yielding this fibre having been discovered, we sub-
join a description by Dr. Roxburgh, and though some botanists
unite it with Crotalaria juncea, we keep it separate, until its
identity has been determined by experiment. We also add
the first notice of this fibre, and of rope made from it.

Crotalaria tenuifolia is a native of Coromandel, which is perennial, ramous,
straight, furrowed, hoary. Leaves linear, sericeous underneath. Stipules
minute, subulate. Racemes terminal. Legumes sessile, clavate, many-
seeded.
CORDAGE OF JUBBULPORE HEMP. 291

In the Botanic Garden (Calcutta) it is perennial, growing to the height
of nine feet, with numerous, slender, furrowed, straight branches, which are
again more ramous at the top. During the cool season, each twig ends in a
long raceme of large, yellow flowers, and the seed ripens in two months.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Agri-Horticultural Society’ for
April, 1851, we find Captain Thompson presenting some dressed
samples of the fibre from Jubbulpore, and a piece of rope made
of it, part of the rigging made for some ships that were dis-
mantled in the Bay of Bengal the year before, and which has
proved equal to any Europe-made rope.

A good account of this fibre and its uses having appeared in
the ‘ Journ. of the Agri-Hortic. Society,’ and referring to the
plant producing it, we here subjoin extracts from the paper.

At a meeting of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, held
on the 12th June, 1852, Messrs. Harton and Co. submitted specimens of the
Jubbulpore Hemp fibre in a raw state ; as also of fishing lines and tarred
rigging made from it. A quantity of this raw material, procured from
Jubbulpore by Messrs. Harton and Co. and the late Capt. Thompson
about three years ago, was considered so well adapted for cordage purposes,
owing to its excellent quality and great strength, that they have been willing
to pay a high price for it, to meet the heavy cost entailed by the transport of
so bulky an article from Jubbulpore to Calcutta. In consequence of an
impression on their part, that the fibre in question was the produce of Can-
nabis sativa—it being so similar in many respects to Russian Hemp—the
subject was deemed by the Society deserving of further inquiry.

An application was accordingly made to Mr. Williams, Superintendent of
the School of Industry at Jubbulpore, for a small quantity of seed, which
was sown immediately on its receipt on the 23d of June, 1852, in, the
Society’s garden. In the course of nine weeks the seedlings had attained
the height of 83 feet, without branching—an important point in a fibrous-
yielding plant—and commenced flowering in three months from the date
of sowing.

Dr. Faloones to whom a specimen was referred, has pronounced it to be
Crotalaria tenuifolia of Roxburgh, which Wight and Arnott, and some other
botanists, regard as merely w variety of C. juncea, the plant affording the
well-known “Sunn Hemp” of commerce. But their opinion, it may be
observed, is founded on dried specimens. The habit differs very much from
that of C. juncea. ‘

Messrs. W. H. Harton and Co. have been kind enough to furnish the
following memorandum regarding the above fibre: .

“This material has been tested several times in the Government Service,
both Military and Marine, and some ropes have been found equal to the
staple cordage of Europe. A coil of bolt rope, manufactured by us from
Jubbulpore Hemp, tested last year in the Marine Department, broke with a
‘strain of 57 cwt.° A coil of the same size, taken from one of H.M.’s vessels,
was tested shortly after, and broke with a strain of 59cwt. It may be
observed, that the Hemp used in the Naval yards of the British Government,
is all selected from the fleet of hemp-laden vessels, before any 1s permitted
to be delivered to private parties. This Jubbulpore Hemp can no doubt be
considerably improved, were the preparing process in the hands of Europeans,
292 STRENGTH OF JUBBULPORE HEMP.

manufactured according to the Russian method, instead of being left, as at
present, so entirely to the careless and ignorant natives.”

The following extract from Mr. Williams’s letter, dated Jubbulpore, the
19th Nov., 1852, will close this brief notice of a fibre, which, no doubt, will
be better appreciated when its merits become more generally known :

“ T am pleased to learn that the seed of the ‘ Jubbulpore Hemp,’ sent down
“by me in June last, has germinated so well in Calcutta. I can only grow it
to advantage here along the ridges of the neighbouring hills (where it attains
the height of from six to seven feet); that grown in the plains turning out
weak in fibre when made into Hemp. I have lost considerably by sending
this Hemp down to Calcutta for sale, having had the misfortune to have had
several boats burnt while going down the river; and the steamers decline
taking a cargo of it, in consequence of its combustible nature. The native
insurance offices at Mirzapore also object to insure it, except at such high
rates as to prevent all chance of profit ; so that if it could be cultivated along
the banks of the river, Ihave no doubt but that in a few years it would
turn out a profitable source of export.”

A copy of the official Report on the Experiments made in
the Arsenal of Fort William having been subsequently pub-
lished, is here subjoined.

Report of several kinds of Rope, the manufacture of Messrs. W.
H.. Harton and Co., of Calcutta, tested in the Arsenal of Fort
William, 3d June, 1853.

 

 

 

 

 

| Kind and quality of Rope. Bier, || Seen | aaa |
Inches.| ewt. gr. Ib. | ewt. qr. Ib.
Oiled Jubbulpore Hemp (Crotalaria |
|  tenuifolia), Artillery Traces . | 3 36 0 0 43 2 0
' Untarred do., superior four-strand, |
| plainlaid . : . » 4 384 42 0 0 83 0 0
Untarred Dunchee (Aischynomene
cannabina), do., do. . 4 | 32 49 0 0 75 0 0
Pine-apple Fibre, do., do. 3 «| 32 42 0 0 57 09 0

 

(Signed) J. Wirx1ys,
Officiating Prin. Conductor,
Rear Godowns.

Some of the properties of this fibre may no doubt be due to
the peculiar characteristics of the plant; but a good deal is no
doubt also due to the soil and climate in which it is grown,
and something probably to its having been grown and prepared
under Mr. Williams’s personal superintendence. This is ob-
vious from the fact, stated by Mr. Williams, that he was only
able to grow it on the sides of the hills; that grown in the
plains below, he observes, was weaker in the fibre. Mr. Henley
having grown some of this plant from the seed sent from
DHUNCHEE FIBRE OF BENGAL. 293.

Jubbulpore, has observed to the Author, that, when grown in
the lower provinces, although it attains a great height and
grows luxuriantly, it is weaker in fibre and the produce smaller
in quantity than when grown higher up the country.

The following reports have been made of this fibre by prac-
tical men :

“The Jubbulpore Hemp is a very strong article, and would
take well if it could be sold cheap enough. A considerable
quantity could be sold in Dundee.”’ In another note it is stated
to be “of considerable value, and that a good price could be got
both for it and for good Sunn, valued at £30 and £35 a ton.”
Some of it sold, in the summer of 1853, for £27 a ton; when
it was said to be worth £30 a ton, if a little better prepared.

Duuncuezt Fisre, Sesbania aculeata (formerly Aischynomene
cannabina, Roxb., ‘ Fl. Ind.,’ iii, p. 835, and 4. spinulosa, -
do., p. 833; Leguminose).

The natives of Bengal familiarly employ and highly esteem
a fibre which is known to them by the name of Dhunchee,
Dhunicha, and Dhunsha. It is produced by a plant which
Dr. Roxburgh thought was the same as the schynomene
cannabina of Kénig. This was described by Retz, and stated
to be a native of the Malabar coast, and that its stems yielded
a strong and useful fibre, as a substitute for Hemp. Messrs.
Wight and Arnott, in their ‘Flora of the Indian Peninsula,’
consider it to be identical with Sesbania cochinchinensis, which
they have from China.

Dr. Roxburgh states that he had not found his plant in a
wild state, but that, in various parts of Bengal, it was cultivated
for the fibres of its bark, which form a coarse substitute for
Hemp. Messrs. Wight and Arnott (1. c.) unite the plant
described by Dr. Roxburgh with one which is very common in
all parts of India in the rainy season, the Sesbania aculeata
of Persoon, and which is called Juyuntiin Bengal, and dhundain
in North-West India. It springs up in rice-fields, and other
wet cultivation, during the rainy season. These two varieties
are thus described by Messrs. Wight and Arnott, under the
name of-— ;
294 DHUNCHEE PLANT AND FIBRE.

Sesbania aculeata, herbaceous, annual, erect, sparingly branched, glabrous ;
stem and petioles usually sprinkled with minute cartilaginous points ; leaves
eight to ten times longer than broad; leaflets twenty to forty pairs, linear,
obtuse, mucronate ; racemes axillary, peduncled, erect, lax, often about half
the length of the leaves; few-flowered; flowers pretty large (more than half
an inch long), on slender pedicels; corolla about four times the length of
the calyx ; legumes erect, nearly terete, sharp-pointed.

Dr. Roxburgh gives the following general directions for its
culture. The soil is generally low and wet, and not requiring
much preparation, as the plant is hardy, growing from six to
ten feet, and rapid in growth. This renders it advantageous
to cultivate, especially as it is considered a meliorating crop.
The time of sowing is when the soil has been moistened by the
first showers of April or May. About thirty pounds of seed
are allowed to the acre, and less weeding is required than for
Jute. The crop is ready to cut in September and October,
though the fibre does not suffer if left standing till the seed is
ripe, in November. The process of steeping and cleaning the
fibre is similar to that required for Sunn, that is, Crotalaria
juncea. The general produce of an acre is from one hundred
to one thousand pounds of ill-cleaned fibre, the current price
somewhat less than that of Paut, viz., Corchorus olitorius and
capsularis. The expense of cultivation, including land-rent,
is about nine rupees,

This plant, generally cultivated about Calcutta during the
rains, grows to the height of from six to ten feet, the fibres are
long (six to seven feet), but coarser and more harsh than those
of Hemp, unless cut at a very early period. From its great
strength it is well calculated for the manufacture of cordage
and cables. In Bengal, the fishermen make drag-ropes to their
nets of this substance, on account of its strength, and dura-
bility in water. Indeed, by the Bengalese it is considered
more durable in water than either Sunn or Paut.

It has been observed to the Author by one gentleman well
acquainted with this fibre in India, that he was at a loss to
know why the Dhunchee remained so much neglected in this
country, as it is really a very excellent fibre for common
cord and twine purposes, and certainly very much superior in
strength and durability to Jute. It is also a much hardier
plant than Jute; the latter, indeed, being rather an uncertain
crop, for the production of the fine, long, silky fibre, so much
VALUE AND USES OF DHUNCHEE FIBRE. 295

called for in this country. Another gentleman observed,
that thoughr ather wiry it was strong, and chiefly remarkable
for its contraction when wetted, so much so, that it would
even carry away the mainmast of a ship by mere contraction.

Mr. Deneef, the Belgian farmer, presented samples of the
Bengal Hemp, called Dhuncha, to the Agri-Horticultural
Society, in November, 1840, and stated that they had been
dressed after the Belgian mode. A begah, he says, will yield
173 lb. of cleaned fibre, and 921b. of seed. A woman can
dress about 41b. a day. In April, 1851, Captain Thompson
presented a dressed sample of the fibre of the Dhuncha of Bengal,
and a piece of rope made of it. This rope, he stated, had been
used in various ways for nearly two years, and from various
reports upon it, he thought it likely to come into extensive
use. Specimens of the fibre and rope were also sent to the
Exhibition of 1851, and we have already given (at p. 292)
the result of the trial made with this rope in the Arsenal of
Fort William, whence it appears that a three and a half inch
rope of Dhunchee broke with not less than 75 cwt., though the
Government Proof, required for such rope, was only 49 cwt.

The price of the Dhunchee, in the interior, has long been
about R.1 8 per maund. The following are reports upon this
fibre:

“The Dhunchee is very suitable for ropes, and if it will take
in tar, is of considerable value. It would probably fetch from
£30 to £35 a ton, and after being introduced and known,
perhaps £5 more.” It was also valued by others at £35
in 1853.

These fibres, in fact all the fibres from the East, would be
much more valuable if properly scutched; and if scutching
mills were sent out, these fibres could be brought in a greatly
improved state to market.

Matsuun, or Matoo CuimBer, Bauhinia racemosa
(Leyuminose).

Along the forests of the Sewaliks and the hot valleys of the
Himalayas, from the doons of the North-West to the valley of
Assam, may be seen a magnificent climber, called Maljhun or
Maloo, with a two-lobed leaf. Of this, the Author observed,
296 MALJHUN, OR MALOO FIBRE.

in his ‘Himalayan Botany,’ p. 184, that Bauhinia racemosa
hangs in elegant festoons from the tops of lofty trees, which
one is at a loss to conceive how, from the distance of its root
from the stems, it could ever have ascended ; but occasionally
a half-killed tree displays the mode of its progress, and indi-
cates the destruction it must have created in the forest.

With the bark of this plant, which, when stripped off, is of
a reddish-brown colour, the natives of these mountains make
ropes. It was one of those to which Dr. Roxburgh tumed his
attention, and which has been frequently noticed by travellers
in the Himalayas. Capt. Huddleston states that the stems are
usually cut in July and August; the outer bark being stripped
off, is thrown away, and the inner is used for ropes, as wanted,
by being previously soaked in water, and twisted when wet. It
is also said to be boiled, and beaten with mallets, which ren-
ders it soft and pliable for being twisted into ropes and strings
for charpaes. Though the fibre makes very strong ropes, it is
not over-durable, and rots if kept constantly in water. ‘Though
not collected for sale, it is very abundant all along the foot of
the mountains.

Major Swetenham, formerly of the Bengal Engineers, on
the llth of November, 1840, despatched to the late Mr.
Thomason some of the fibres of the Maloo creeper, and a
specimen of a rope made from it, which he obtained from the
valley of the Jumna River within the hills. He describes it as
making strong coarse ropes, which he had found to answer
well for suspension bridges, though he was unable to say how
long they would bear exposure to moisture, for “they had
been in use only for two or three years, and iron suspension
bridges substituted.” Specimens of the fibre, and rope made
from it, were sent to the Exhibition of 1851, from Bhagulpore,
and called Patwa or Mawal fibre.

BavHINIA SCANDENS, similar in properties and uses to the
above, is another species of the same genus, of which we find the
following notice in the ‘Journal of the Agri-Hortic. Society,’ vi,
p. 185. Specimens of the fibre of Bauhinia scandens, and cloth
made therefrom, were sent to Major Jenkins by Major Hannay,
who mentions that the fibre is used by the Nagas. The plant,
Major Jenkins adds, is not uncommon about Gowhatti. It
DHAK, OR PULAS FIBRE. 297

was recognized by Dr. Falconer, from a few leaves forwarded
by Major Jenkins, to belong to Bauhinia scandens, a common
species in Silhet. Captain Thomson having tested this fibre,
reports on it to the following effect :

“The line made from the fibre sent by Major Jenkins, sus-
tained for forty-five minutes, 168 lb., having stretched six inches
only in three feet, and therefore is about the same strength
with our best Sunn Hemp. But, whether from the mode of
preparation or the nature of the material, is so harsh and
stubborn, and the fibres stick so close together, that the heckles
tear it to pieces, and injure its strength.”

Dr. Buchanan, in his ‘ Survey,’ mentions both these species
as used for many of the same purposes.

Duak, or Puzas Fisre, Butea frondosa, also B. superba
(Leguminosae).

One of the most generally diffused plants is the Dhak or
Pulas, as it may be found near many villages, forming their
tracts of apparently useless because jungle-like land, but which,
in fact, is a place of pasturage for their cattle. The Dhak, which
is the most usual shrub, yields them firewood, and its bark and
roots fibrous matter, which is used as cordage, or beaten to a
kind of oakum used for caulking boats. Though such fibre
is unimportant as an object of commerce, it is of great use to
the natives themselves, for agricultural and domestic purposes,
as it is possessed of a good deal of strength. Some Pulas
fibre was sent to the Exhibition of 1851, from Beerbhoom.

A ruby-coloured gum, which has been called Butea kino,
exudes from incisions into the bark, which, though it abounds
in astringent matter, Mr. Teil, of Calcutta, has found difficult
to apply to the tanning of leather, but its colouring matter is
powerful and permanent. In the jungles, where the Dhak is
allowed to grow into a small tree, it is highly ornamental
from the splendour of its inflorescence, and is further useful
from its large flowers, called ¢eesoo and keesoo, yielding a beautiful
dye, which is likely to come into extensive use. This plant is
further interesting, as that from which the name of the Pelasgi
has been supposed to be derived by Mr. Peacock, in his
‘Greece in India.’
298 OTHER LEGUMINOUS FIBRES.

PARKINSONIA ACULEATA.—Though this is an American plant,
it may, like the Agave, be enumerated among Indian products,
because it may now be met with as one of the most common
trees in villages and cantonments, flourishing with less care
than any other. Some of its fibre, of a beautiful white colour,
was sent to the Exhibition of 1851, as a material for paper-
making, and which could probably be afforded at a cheap rate,
from the cuttings of the shoots of this plant. It, however,
has been considered in this country as wanting in strength. It
might, nevertheless, be found useful in mixing with other
fibrous substances, and beaten up into half-stuff.

Boxuara Crover.—A plant under this name has attracted
some notice in Ireland, on account of its fibre. It is the
Melilotus arborea, and is nearly allied to M. leucantha, and there-
fore not a true Clover. It grows so freely as to yield five or
six cuttings in the season of green herbage, from which, it is
said, a considerable proportion of strong fibre may be obtained ;
but the Committee of the Irish Flax Society state, that the
trials made in steeping this plant were unsuccessful with
them.

EXPORTS OF SUNN AND OTHER HEMP-LIKE FIBRES, ETC.,
FROM INDIA.

In the beginning of this work, when referring to the great
increase which had taken place in the commerce of Indian
fibres, a tabular statement was given (p. 9) of the exports of
fibrous substances from the three Presidencies. In subsequent
pages, the detailed exports of Coir and of Jute have been sepa-
rately given, and under the head of Ambaree or Hibiscus fibre,
it was stated that the detailed exports of this fibre would be
given along with those of Sunn, because the two are not dis-
tinguished in the Reports of the Exports from India or in the
Imports into this country. Indeed, in the latter, Jute has not
hitherto been separated from the others; though it will be so
in future reports. In the following table, therefore, the details
of the Exports of Indian substitutes for Hemp are given, con-
+ EXPORTS OF HEMP-SUBSTITUTES FROM INDIA. 299

sisting chiefly of Sunn (Crotalaria); but some Hibiscus, and
perhaps a little of Dhunchee, may be included.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exports. a ) Canvas bolts. | Hemp Twine.) Log lines.
From CaLcurra—
To United Kingdom . |Mds. 5,641 _ 137 _
, North America .  . te 1,885 _— 1,593 _
» Hamburgh . - 4 . 80 —_ _ _—
» Mauritius .  . . 12 348 490 85
» New South Wales . . 7 150 1,097 653
» Cape of Good Hope : —-« 15 _ _
» Guam ae = 102 _— a
» Pegu . ¥ 4 — 272 447 69
yy Coast of Coromandel |. = 314 1,225 15
» Coast of Malabar j _ 728 2,937 39
», Penang, Singapore, &e. = 68 868 437
» Ceylon ; ‘ ‘ = _ 407 74
» China. . ae aed a 50 me
Total . . 4 , |Mds. 7,635 1,997 10,301 1,372
Value . me 7 . | Rs. 15,276] 12,672 93,284 9,716
From Mapras— “or Sinn
To United Kingdom ;: . | Cwt. 294 _ —_—
» Indian French ports. ‘ - _ _ 27,7 5750
» Arabian and Persian Gulfs . 75 77 — —
» Ceylon 4 sae —_ _ 25,000
» Maldives ‘ eae! 60 _
‘yy Pegu . é 7 7 ‘ _ _ _ 3,500
» Bombay. é a 1,709 333 _ _
»; Cape of Good Hope . = = _ _ 2,700
» Travancore . ; 3 7 _— _ _—
Total . ‘4 ‘ . | Cwt. 2,095 470 _ 58,950
Value . - . . | Rs. 10,577 3,711 _ 6,644
From Bompay— Bee.
To United Kingdom : - |Cwt. 7,851 _ _ _
» African Coast . ‘ 16 _ _ _
» Arabian and Persian Gulfs : 2,925 — _ —
» Guzerat . a , 500 _ 144 —
» Other Home ports > : 85 _ i —
» 9 Foreign ports . 3 _ = 65 =
Total . ‘ é . |Cwt.11,856 — 209 -_—
Value . 7 : . | Rs. 72,483 _ 1,503 —_

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tn a late Minute, published by the Madras Government
(19th September, 1854) for the express purpose of directing
300 EXPORTS OF HEMP-SUBSTITUTES FROM INDIA.

attention to the fibrous productions of that Presidency, the ex.
ports are given as valued at the following sums, in the respective
years from 1847 to 1852, excluding Coir and Coir rope. The
year selected in this work, in consequence of the published ac-
counts of the three Presidencies being complete, is that in
which the exports were the smallest.

Hemp.
1847-48 ae - Rs. 19,819
1848-49 ¢ x 23,242
1849-50 : . a 23,076
1850-51 4 . i 10,577
1851-52 . ‘ ‘i 46,683

Among the Imports of the three Presidencies, we find Cordage
and Canvas; but excellent cordage is now made in Calcutta,
both by Messrs. Thompson and by Messrs. Harton, as evidenced
by the specimens which both sent to the Exhibition of 1851.
Some of the canvas also is of excellent quality, as that sent from
Travancore (v. p. 285).

Bombay, from its insular situation, requires both its Imports
(some by sea, others by causeway) and Exports to be noticed.
Among the Imports we find Canvas, 9367 bolts,’ from the United
Kingdom, Calcutta, Malabar,and Canara; Gunny bags, 2,729,407,
‘from Calcutta, Malabar, Canara, and Concan. The first are
no doubt made of Jute; but the others, probably, of Sunn.
Hemp, 57,126 cwt., from Malabar and Canara, Concan, Guzerat,
Goa, and the Arabian and Persian Gulfs. This probably in-
cludes both Sunn and Améaree, or Crotalaria and Hibiscus
fibre. Twine, 9738 cwt., from the United Kingdom, Calcutta,
and Guzerat; Fishing Nets from the Concan, probably made
of Conkanee Hemp; and Grass cloth from China. Of these,
we find among the Re-exports, some Hemp, Canvas, Gunnies,
and Twine, as well as China.-grass cloth.

1 Europe Canvas is generally preferred in India, though much dearer, that is,
Rs. 24 5 6 per bolt of thirty-nine yards each, and country Canvas being only Rs. 16;
because the former is so much more durable, and therefore cheaper in the end.
But there is no doubt that some of the Indian Canyas is of much better quality than
others; and it is desirable to ascertain where the best qualities are made, as well as
of Twine and of Cordage; for though much depends upon manufacture, something is
due to the fibre, and not a little to the soil and climate where the plant is grown.
801

Fisrous PLANTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS.

Following, as we have done, an arrangement according to
the natural families of plants, for the express purpose of bring-
ing together a number of plants which are allied in properties
as they are in structure, we shall pass rapidly from the Legu-
minous plants to the Nettles and their allies, because few of
the plants in the intervening families yield fibres which are as
yet of commercial importance, though there are some well
qualified to become so, from their great strength and fineness,
as well as from the abundance in which they may be procured.

In the West Indies, cordage is made of the bark of a species
of Mangrove, which is hence called Rope Mangrove. The
coasts of the Bay of Bengal and of the Indian islands abound
in the Mangrove, which is found also at the mouths of the
Indus. Its bark has been used for tanning purposes, for
which it is probably more suitable than for cordage.

Among the Myrtacee, or Myrtle tribe, we have species of
Eucalyptus, called, by the colonists of Australia, “stringy
bark,” and “ box-tree,” and remarkable for the stringiness of
their bark, which is therefore employed for making canvas and
cordage by the aborigines, as mentioned by Bennett, in his
‘Wanderings,’ i, p. 169. In India the stringy bark of a tree
called koombhee (Careya arborea) is employed by the natives
of the countries along the foot of the Himalayas as a slow
match for their match-lock guns. Among the fibrous barks
sent from Assam to the Exhibition of 1851, was one that is
named Roxburghia in the Catalogues. This is no doubt a
mistake for some plant called after Dr. Roxburgh, probably
Poivrea Roxburghii, one of the Combretacee, of which several
are remarkable for tough wood as well as bark.

The Cucurbitacee, again, or the Cucumber and Melon tribe,
which are so extensively cultivated in all tropical countries as
food for the natives, abound, according to Dr. Hunter, in fibres
of great length.

Indeed, many of the plants which are cultivated in fields or
gardens would yield fibre in considerable quantities, which
would be useful to the paper-maker, instead of being wasted
or burnt. Of these we may instance, among the large family
302 FIBROUS PLANTS OF VARIOUS FAMILIES,

called Composite, the plant called Jerusalem artichoke, the
stems of which abound in fibres. So probably does also the
extensively cultivated Carthamus or Safflower.

Belonging to this family, we may mention a plant which is
remarkable for the under surface of its leaves being covered
with a cotton-like tomentum ; hence it is called kupassee, from
kupas (a name of cotton). The people in the Himalayas use
it as tinder. It is also spun into thread and woven into cloth,
of which bags are made. ‘The string, until examined, looks
as if formed of fibre. A coarse kind of blanket, called xurkee,
is said to be made of this substance by the Hill people north
of Deyrah. Though curious, this substance is not of much
importance.

COROLLIFLORALS (Corolliflore).

In a previous page (131) we have referred to the distinction
between Exogenous plants, as having their floral envelopes com-
posed of several or of a single piece. Having now passed
through all the former families of plants, we have arrived at
those which have the corol composed of a single piece or petal,
into which the stamens are inserted. Hence, by botanists
they are called Corolliflore. The arrangement may be useful,
in enabling observers abroad, who are unacquainted with
Botany, to ascertain the group to which any plant may belong
which they find possessed of fibrous, or of any other useful
properties.

Doezsanes (Apocynacee).

Among the division of plants which we have just noticed,
there are comparatively few which are known to be useful for
fibrous properties; yet there are some which are most con-
spicuous for the strength of their fibres. These belong to two
families of plants which are so nearly allied to each other, that
they were united together by the ‘celebrated Jussieu. Both
are remarkable for abounding in milky juice; and some of
them in caoutchouc, or some analogous products. Of these,
the Apocynacez or Dogbanes are composed chiefly of trees and
shrubs, of which the Oleander is a conspicuous example. But
FIBROUS DOGBANES. 3038

some are herbaceous, as in the case of the Vinea, or Peri-
winkle as it is called, which shows another characteristic, that
is, the climbing habit of many of these plants, as well as the
toughness of their fibre, as may easily be ascertained by trying
to break any of the long, trailing twigs of this plant, so com-
mon in gardens and shrubberies. Among these, is a plant
called Nerium piscidium, by Dr. Roxburgh, ‘ Fl. Ind.,’ ii, p. 7,
common in the Khasya or Silhet Mountains, and there called
Echalat, It there forms an extensive perennial climber. Its
bark contains a large quantity of fibre, which the natives use
for the same purposes as Hemp. Dr. Roxburgh, in steeping
some of the young shoots in a fish-pond, in order to facilitate
the removal of the bark and to clean the fibres, found that
many, if not all the fishes, were killed. Hence the specific
name which he applied. Dr. Wight has formed the plant into”
a new genus, Echaltum.

It is probable that there are many other fibre-yielding plants
in this and the next family among the climbing species.

Ascirpiaps (Asclepiadee),

_ Closely allied to the Apocynacee is the family of plants
which has been named Asclepiacee and Asclepiadee, from
the genus Asclepias, to which most of the species formerly
belonged. Among these, there are several remarkable for their
fibrous properties, and many more probably remain to be dis-
covered. Though many of this family of plants abound in the
hottest and moistest parts of the world, others are also found
in the driest and most barren parts of Asia, with a few species
extending even to the North of Africa and to the South of
Europe, Siberia, North America, and Japan ;. and southwards,
to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland. The great
majority are distinguished by their twining habit; though
their flowers are often inconspicuous, their seed-vessels are
remarkable for being in pairs, and which, on bursting, display
a quantity of thistle-like down attached to each seed, which
floats them about as those of thistles and dandelions. This
down may no doubt be turned to some useful purposes, and
therefore makes the plants abounding in fibre more valuable,
as thus yielding a double product; though it is probably only
304 SYRIAN DOGBANE—JLTEE FIBRE.

in dry and barren parts of a country, that it would be desi-
rable to attend to these, instead of to the numerous other
fibrous plants which may either be more easily cultivated, or
the fibre separated with greater facility.

Syrran Docsant, Asclepias syriaca (Asclepiadee).

Of the plants of this family, useful both for its down and for
its fibrous stem, we may first mention that called Syrian
Dogbane, which, although a native of the burning plains of
Syria, will grow in colder climes, and is indeed cultivated as
far north as Upper Silesia. It is easily propagated either by
seed, or by parting the roots. The plants thrive luxuriantly
in light soil, but will flourish on any poor land.

The silk-like down which surmounts the seed of this plant,
is not more than an inch or two in length; but it has, never-
theless, been usefully applied for articles of dress manufactured
of it both in France and in Russia. The fibres of the stem,
prepared in the same manner as those of Hemp and Flax,
furnish a very long fine thread of a glossy whiteness.

Jetes Fisre, Rasmauyt Bowstrine Creeper, Asclepias, now
Marsdenia tenacissima (Asclepiadee).

This comparatively small climbing plant, with greenish-
yellow flowers, was found by Dr. Roxburgh’s son growing in
dry and barren places in the Rajmahl Hills; since then also
near Chittagong. Of the fibres of the bark of this plant, the
Rajmahl mountaineers make their bowstrings. These are
said to last for five years, though in constant use and exposed
to all sorts of weather. A drawing and full description of this
plant is given by Dr. Roxburgh in his ‘ Coromandel Plants,’
ii, t. 240.

In preparing the fibres of this plant, the Hill people do not
put the stems in water, but let them stand in the sun for a day
till drier; from the ends, when cut, there exudes a milky juice,
which thickens into an elastic substance, like, indeed forming
one kind of caoutchouc, acting in the same way in removing
black lead marks.

According to Dr. Roxburgh, the fibres of this plant are
JETEE FIBRE; ITS GREAT STRENGTH. 805

not only beautiful in appearance and durable, but the strongest
of any he had met with. Some twine made with it bearing
248 and 343 1b. in the dry and wetted states, when Hemp
twine bore only 158 and 190 Ib. in the same states.

Mr. W. C. Taylor since then met with the same plant
near the Palamow coal-mines, having observed his boatmen
twisting a substance into thread, which they called chiétee,
of which they made nets, finding it much stronger and more
durable than Hemp, and not so liable to rot by being kept in
water. Mr, Taylor mentions that the stems are cut into lengths,
and then cut down the middle; then dried, and afterwards
steeped in water for about an hour or more, which enables the
bark to be separated with greater ease; when the fine silky
filaments are separated. A 1}-inch rope having been made
and sent to Calcutta, was there tested in the Master-Atten-
dant’s Office, and found to break with 903 lb., when even
Europe rope broke with 1203 lb., and others with greater
weights. Its elasticity was considerable, as it stood ninth in
strength, but second in elasticity. It was supposed that this might
possibly be caused by its being laid up by hand; and it was
also observed that the result might have been better, if the
yarns had been more easily (evenly?) laid up.” But the
plant is suited for better purposes than rope-making, besides
not being eligible for this purpose, from its comparative rarity
and mode of preparation. Mr. Taylor states it might be
easily cultivated. (v. ‘Journ. Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ 1844, p. 221.)

Specimens of the fibre of another species of Marsdenia,
which has by Dr. Wight been named M. Roylei, are stated in
the Catalogues to have been sent from Nepal to the Exhibition
of 1851. Though the specimens have not been found, we
may infer that the fibres of this species are made use of in
Nepal. .

Orthanthera viminea is another plant of this family well
calculated to yield fibre. The Author found it growing at the
foot of the Himalayan Mountains, and mentioned it in the fol-
lowing terms in his ‘ Himalayan Botany,’ p. 274. “ Another
plant of this family, Orthanthera viminea, attaining a height of
ten feet, is also remarkable for the length and tenacity of its
fibres, This grows luxuriantly along the foot of the mountains;

20
306 OTHER FIBROUS ASCLEPIADS.

and its long, straight, leafless, slender, and wand-like stems,
point it out as seemingly well suited for rope-making.”

Other plants of this family, useful for the same purposes, are
Hoya viridiflora, which yields an excellent fibre, and probably
also Leptadenia spartea. The fibre of another species of the
genus, L. Jacquemontiana, was described to the Author, by his
late lamented friend Dr. Stocks, as employed in Sindh with
Periploca aphyllum for making into ropes and bands used for
wells, as water does not rot them.

Specimens of the flowers, leaves, immature pods, and stem,
of a fibre-yielding plant, were presented by Capt. Hannyington,
Political Agent at Purulea in Chota Nagpore, to the Agri-
Hortic. Society in 1841.

Capt. H. mentions that this plant is very abundant in
the Hills about Purulea, and is also found in the neigh-
bouring plains. Jt is known to the Coles by the name of
Apoong. ‘The fibre is said to attain its best condition after the
rains. The Secretary mentioned that this plant was intro-
duced into the Botanic Garden from Western India, and is well
known to Dr. Wallich, who immediately recognized it as
Holostemma Rheedianum of Sprengel, the Ada-Modien of the
Hortus Malabaricus.

But there is no doubt that this family of plants contains
many others possessed of useful fibrous properties ; but we will
conclude with one which is likely to be the most important
of all, that is, the Mudar or Yercum.

e

Mopar or Yercum Fire, Asclepias now Calotropis
gigantea, and C. Hamiltonii (Asclepiadee).
Sans., drka and Akund; Arab., Ashur ; Hindee, dk, Mudar, and Muddar ; Madras,
* Yercum, Tella Jilladdoo.

In the Southern, as in the Northern parts of India, there is
met with in considerable quantities in all uncultivated, and
encroaching even on cultivated grounds, a plant with broad,
rather fleshy, glaucous-coloured leaves; and which, on being
wounded, gives out a milky juice from every part. This is
called Ak and Mudar in Northern, and Yercum in Southern
India. Its juice, and the powdered bark of its roots, have
long been employed as an alterative by the natives of India, in
MUDAR, OR YERCUM CAOUTCHOUC. 307

leprosy and other cutaneous affections, and are no doubt pos-
sessed of active properties. Dr. Duncan obtained from it a
principle which he called Mudarine. In Arabic authors on
Materia Medica it is even supposed to have been known to the
Greeks. It has long been famous for yielding a kind of
Manna, which is called Sukkur-al-ashur, and Ak or Mudar
ke shukur (sugar). (‘ Himal. Bot., p. 275.) Lately its milky
juice has been collected by making incisions into the plant,
and prepared as a substitute for Caoutchouc and Gutta
Percha. (v. ‘Journ. of the Agri-Hortic. Soc. of India,’ viii,
pp: 107 and 226.) Dr. Riddel calculated that ten average-
sized plants will yield as much jutce as will make a pound of
Gutta-Percha-like substance. This is evaporated in a shallow
dish, either in the sun or in the shade; when dry, it may be
worked up in hot water with a wooden kneader, as this process
removes the acridity of the gum. It becomes immediately
flexible in hot water, but is said to become hard in cold water,
and is soluble in oil of turpentine, takes impressions, and will
no doubt prove a valuable product, either alone or mixed with
other substances.

Mr. Moncton, C.8., has proposed making use of the downy
substance contained in the follicles of the Mudar; and, indeed,
has had paper made of it, as well pure as when mixed with
two fifths of the pulp of the Hemp (Sunn ?), such as the
natives use for making paper. As the glossy and silky, but
comparatively short fibre, is difficult to spin, a mixture of one
fifth of cotton was made, in order to enable it to be worked.
A good wearing cloth, which stands washing and takes a dye,
was produced. It is, however, well suited for stuffing pillows
or coverlets. Mr. Moncton calculated that its cost would
be one rupee a maund. This silky down of the pods is used by
the natives on the Madras side in making a soft, cotton-like
thread.

The Mudar, Mr. Moncton observes, grows all over India ;
it seems to thrive on soils that either reject or destroy every-
thing else. It is difficult to conceive anything less productive
than dry sand, and yet the Mudar thrives in it. Should its
cotton be found useful, the waste lands of India could be covered
With it, as it requires no culfure and no water. It comes to
maturity in a year, but is perennial; and when once planted
308 MUDAR, OR YERCUM FIBRE.

or sown, would require no further care; and where thickly
planted, might be made the means of reclaiming poor soils, as
the leaves and some of the upper branches rot, while the root
and stem remain. Col. Tremenheere, of the Engineers, has
suggested that the Mudar should be used as a hedge to protect
desert land brought under cultivation from the encroachment of
drift sand. This would give a healthful impetus to the culti-
vation of the plant itself,

We have not entered on these details, in a work on Fibres,
on account of the medicinal qualities, or of the down, or of the
milky juice of this plant, but because it is one yielding a very ex-
cellent fibre. Of this, some beautiful specimens were sent to the
Exhibition of 1851, by Dr. Wight, who made experiments upon
its great strength. The late Dr. Stocks enumerated it in a
list sent some years since to the Author, among the cordage
plants of Sindh ; and Capt. G. J. Hollings, Deputy-Commissioner
of Leia, in the Punjab, has published an account of this fibre
being used for fishing nets, and as cordage, at Dehra Ghazee
Khan, on the Indus. The species, however, is not the same
in all these places. Calotropis gigantea is that common in
the Southern, and C. Hamiltonit in the Northern parts
of India, and C. procera in Persia; the last extends even to
Syria.

The mode of separation of the fibre is tedious, and may for
the present oppose some obstacles to the ready supply of
this material. Capt. Hollings states that the sticks of the
Mudar were cut about twelve or eighteen inches in length;
the outer bark was then carefully peeled off, and the fibre
picked from the inner part of it. Several threads were then
placed side by side, and twisted into a twine by rubbing them
between the hands. No water is used (indeed is injurious) ;
everything is done by manipulation. In a subsequent paper,
Capt. Hollings observes, that the best plan is to select the
straightest branches, which are always the largest; to let them
dry for at least twenty-four hours, before any attempt is made
to separate the fibre. On the second or third day the sticks
are slightly beaten, especially at the joints, which ensures
the bark, with the fibre attached, being peeled off without
breaking. The workmen then bite through the bark, about the
centre of its length; they then hold the tissue of threads in
FINENESS OF MUDAR FIBRE. 3809

one hand, and separate the bark with the other. He did not
find that any of the ordinary methods of separating fibre were
useful; but it is probable that some of the mechanical methods
of separating Flax would be effectual with this fibre when in a
dry state.

Dr. Wight’s specimens, which are those of C. gigantea,
he describes as being merely stripped off from the stalk, and
slightly prepared, to remove the epidermis. He observes, that
as it ig a most common plant, it may become a valuable article
of commerce, if a less costly mode of separating it can be
devised, without injuring its quality. The colour, when fresh,
is of a greenish-white.

Dr. Wight, from his experiments, considered it the strongest
fibre on the Madras side of India, where it is used for fishing
lines, It bore 552 1b., when the Janapa or Sunn of Coimbatore
bore 404 1b. A small cord, made of the specimens from the
Punjab, examined by Capt. Thompson, at Calcutta, bore 3 ewt.,
“without showing symptoms of distress,” and was therefore
equal to the best cordage; but it seemed to him still
better adapted for the purposes of Flax than of Hemp. Mr.
Willis considered the fibre to possess extraordinary merit,
which would be valued by spinners for use in their finer fabrics.
So, when examined by practical men in this country, it has
been pronounced to be well calculated for supplying the place
of good Flax, for making prime yarns. One gentleman observed
that it twists all up at the end, and therefore could not be
heckled. But this is probably owing to the mode of prepa-
ration ; as the natives are described as twisting it between their
hands. It was considered well worth £30, or rather
£35 aton. Capt. Thompson thought, in Calcutta, that it
would be valued at from £30 to £40 per ton in England ;
perhaps more.

Though the Mudar or Yercum fibre, from its fineness, seems
well calculated to answer for many of the purposes of Flax ; yet,
from its strength, it is also well suited to supply the place of
Hemp. In the Author’s experiments, when Petersburgh
Hemp bore 1601b., and the Brown Hemp of Bombay and
Jubbulpore Hemp bore 190]b., the Yercum also bore 190 Ib.
Dr. Wight has given the following as the results of his
experiments :
310 STRENGTH OF MUDAR FIBRE.

Coir . : . y . 224 |b.
Pooley Mungee (Hibiscus cannabinus) .» 290,
4a. Marool (Sanseviera zeylanica) . « BILB x
Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) ‘ » 346 ,,
Cutthalay nar (4gave americana) . . 362,,
Janapa (Crotalaria juncea), Sunn, hindee . 407 ,,
Yercum (Calotropis gigantea) . . 552,,

In considering the varied useful properties of these
plants, we cannot but be struck with the fact, of how wonder-
fully the Creator of all has furnished every part of the world
with plants and animals suited to its diversified soils and
climates. So that if the people residing near these barren
places would make use of the natural riches within their reach,
they have the means, by commercial interchange, of com-
manding comforts to which they are now strangers; and we might
then apply literally the words of the Prophet: “ The wilderness
and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert
shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose.” (‘ Isaiah,’ xxxv, 1.)

AroosHa Fisre or Cairracone, Callicarpa cana (Verbenacee).

The family of plants to which the above belongs is not
remarkable for any fibrous bark, but it is so from the great
diversity of appearance in the plants placed in it, inasmuch as
it includes the lowly Vervein and the lofty Teak. The latter
conspicuous among plants for the strength and durability of
its wood; but its flower is small, and therefore not so much
out of place among the Verbenacez, because it is by the structure
of the flowers and fruit that plants are arranged. Mr. Sconce,
when at Chittagong, had some of the fibres of a plant, which he
says is there called Aroosha, prepared, first by cutting the stems,
which grew three or four feet high, and then steeping. The
inner bark was then easily stripped off. This was afterwards
heckled, and a portion of the fibre spun into thread, but it
does not appear of much value in a country where so many
others abound.

Capt. Thompson reports as follows, on the fibre:
“The line I now send you, made from the fibre forwarded from Chitta-
gong, broke at once, without stretching, with only 127 Ib.; only the finest
OTHER FIBROUS PLANTS. 811

and largest of the material was made into this line. A line of Russian
Hemp of the same size with the two herewith sent, will sustain with ease
400 lb.; so that this fibre is much too weak for either sail-cloth or cordage.
It however possesses all the free and kindly nature of Flax, and even smells
like Flax. It is easily worked, with little or no waste, and I think must
have been prepared with vegetable oil.”

Naravaui Fisre, Cordia angustifolia (Cordiacee).

Dr. Buchanan, in his ‘ Journey through Mysore,’ mentions
that ropes are made of the bark of the Narwuii, which is the
Cordia angustifolia, and which he found common near Severn-
droog. Its fruit is esculent, but tasteless. The plant belongs
to the same family as the. Sebestens, formerly famous in
medicine ; but which, when ripe, seems only remarkable for con-
taining much mawkish mucilaginous pulp. It is possible that
the bark of some of the species, when young, may yield a
useful fibre.

APETALOUS PLANTS.

Having at p. 131 pointed out that as some of the Exoge-
nous families of plants have only a single floral envelope, we
need here only note that the following families belong to this
subdivision.

Nepvat Paver Puant, Daphne cannabina (Thymelee).

At the Great Exhibition of 1851, many were much m-
terested about a huge sheet of Nepal paper exhibited by Col.
Sykes. This was curious, not only on account of its size, but

also on account of the plant from which it was made. This
' belongs to a genus and family containing plants remarkable
for their fibrous bark. Thus the Lace-bark tree (Daphne
Lagetta, now Lagetta lintearia) of the West Indies is “re-
markable for the beautiful net-like appearance of its several
easily separable layers of bark, whence it has received its
English name. As the fibres of other species possess con-
siderable tenacity, they have been employed in making cordage;
and the toughness, as well as fineness of the inner bark of
312 NEPAL PAPER PLANT.

these plants, may be seen in a plant common in our gardens,
and used in medicine on account of its acridity, that is, the
Mezereon, Daphne Mezereum of botanists. It is from the inner
bark of one of these plants, the D. Bholua (D. cannabina of
Loureiro, and which is supposed to be identical with the D.
odora of Thunberg), which is extremely abundant in the
Himalayas, that this Nepal paper is made, as from other species
in other countries. Another plant of the same, or of an allied
genus, as it is called both Daphne and Gnidia eriocephala, is
very common on the ghauts of the West of India, and in the
hilly parts of the Southern Mahratta country and of the
Dukhun. Several specimens, from various localities, are in
Col. Sykes’s collection. It is probable that it might be turned
to the same use as the Nepal plant.

Of the uses of this plant good accounts have been given by
Mr. Hodgson (‘Journ. As. Soc., i, p. 8, 1832) and Dr.Campbell.
The former describes the process as consisting, first, in boiling
slips of the inner bark of the paper plant in a ley of wood-
ashes for about half an hour, by which time the slips will
be quite soft. These are then beaten in a stone mortar with a
wooden mallet till they are reduced to a homogeneous pulp.
This is then diffused through water, and taken up in sieves and
paper frames, as in the ordinary process for making paper by
hand. When dry, the sheet of paper is folded up; sometimes
it is smoothed and polished by being rubbed on wood with the
convex side of a conch shell: but Mr. Hodgson does not explain
how the very large sheets of several yards square are made.
Though called Nepalese, the paper is not manufactured in
Nepal, but in Cis-Himalayan Bhote, in the midst of its
immense forests, where there is an abundant supply of the
plant, of wood for ashes and for firewood, as well as a constant
supply of clean water. This paper is remarkable for its
toughness, as well as its smoothness. Some of it, in the form
of bricks of half-stuff, was sent to this country previous to the
year 1829. As the quantity sent was not sufficient for a com-
plete experiment, a small portion of it was made into paper
by hand. An engraver, to whom it was given for trial, stated
that “it affords finer impressions than any English-made
paper, and nearly as good as the fine Chinese paper which is
employed for what are called India paper proofs.” (‘ Gleanings
PREPARATION OF NEPAL PAPER. 313

in Science,’ i, p. 210.) Dr. Campbell describes the paper, as
made by the Bhoteahs, “as strong, and durable as leather
almost, and quite smooth enough to write on; and for office
records, incomparably better than any India paper. It is
occasionally poisoned by being washed with preparations of
arsenic, in order to prevent the destruction caused by insects.
Many of the books in Nepal, written on this paper, are said to
be of considerable age, and that the art of making paper seems
to have been introduced about 500 years ago from China, and
not from India.” He states that this paper may easily be pro-
cured at Patna, Purneah, and other places in the plains of both
Southern and North-Western India.

Creitis onsentauis (Ulmacee).

Capt. Reynolds, who, like several of the other officers in
Assam, has paid much attention to the natural products of
the province, sent to the Agri-Hortic. Society a specimen of a
primitive cloth made by the Garrows from the bark of a tree,
whose leaves were enclosed in the parcel. ‘“ They make several
such cloths of different colours from various barks, and though
these manufactures would seem cheap enough, they are not
usually at the expense or labour of even such rough clothing
for themselves, preferring apparently to go naked ; they import
at least 100,000 mds. of Cotton, but to my knowledge do not
weave a seer for themselves. The Garrows who come to the
plains have generally some small ends of cloths; but these are
bought from the Bengalees, apparently to attend the hauts
(fairs) in, not as clothing to protect them from wind and
weather.”

Dr. Falconer, to whom the specimens were referred, pro-
nounced them to be those of Celtis orientalis, a tree which is
pretty common all over India, and known under the name of
Chakan in Bengal. The cloth is probably called ““Yangfung”
in Assam : Capt. Reynolds names it “ Amfuk.” Dr. Buchanan
Hamilton says, the under bark of this tree, like that of
the West India kind, consisting of numerous reticulated fibres,
forms a kind of natural cloth, used by the Garrows for covering
their nakedness. (‘ Lin. Trans.,’ xvii, p. 209.) He also describes
314 USEFUL RESULTS OF DR. ROXBURGH’S LABOURS.

it in his report on Assam as a kind of rug worn by the Gar-
rows in the cold weather, and serving them as a blanket by
night.

But the specimens of this, as well as some of others, are
chiefly interesting as showing the probability of the existence
of numerous plants, of which the useful properties still remain
unknown—for the fibrous properties of this are not mentioned
by Dr. Roxburgh; and of him, it is justly observed in the
‘Journ. of the Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ vi, p. 188: “ From this
circumstance it may be inferred he was not aware of it, as he
appears never to have allowed an opportunity to pass of draw-
ing attention to the useful properties of plants described by
him, but, on the contrary, to have ever been desirous of ren-
dering his botanical acquirements subservient to the dissemina-
tion of useful information in connection with every department
of the vegetable kingdom.”

Hemp.
Sans., Bhanga, Ganjica; Hind., Ganja; Arab., Kinnub; Pers., Bung.

Though so many fibres have been mentioned under the name
of Hemp, it is only now, as we approach the end of our labours,
following an arrangement according to the natural affinities of
plants, that we have arrived at the true Hemp plant, the
Cannabis sativa of botanists. The fibre of which is so gene-
rally employed for cordage in Europe, that the value of all
other fibres is estimated, not so much from their intrinsic
properties, as from their greater or less resemblance to Hemp,
and especially to Russian Hemp. There is every reason for
believing that the plant is of Eastern origin, while there is no
sufficient reason for thinking that the climate of Europe is so
peculiarly suited to the production of its fibre, as to exclude
those of its native climes. Especially where attention is paid to
those where the plant is grown on account of its fibre, and
these distinguished from the others where it is cultivated for
its resinous and intoxicating secretion. The latter requires
exposure to light and air. These are obtained by thin sowing,
while the growth of fibre is promoted by shade and moisture,
which are procured by thick sowing. But before we proceed
THE TRUE HEMP PLANT. 315

to consider these points, we may first notice the botanical
affinities of the plant. —

By the celebrated Jussieu, the Hemp and the Hop plants
were placed in the same natural family (Urticee) with the
Nettles. In more modern works, they are either continued as a
tribe of the same family, under the name of Cannabinee, or
these containing only the genera Cannabis and Lupulus are
separated into a distinct family, under the same or a nearly
similar name. These two plants are closely connected in pro-
perties, as in structure.

The Hop (Humulus Lupulus), besides a bitter, secretes a
resinous principle: Hop bines abounding in fibre, have often
been proposed to be turned to useful account, for cordage or
paper, but as yet to little extent.

The Hemp plant likewise secretes a resinous principle in
its leaves, on which account these, as well as the churrus
collected from off the young tops of the stem and flowers, is
highly esteemed in all Eastern countries, on account of its
exhilarating and intoxicating properties. Hence, among the
Arabs the Hemp has a variety of names, as “ the increaser of
pleasure,” “the cementer of friendship,” &c. By its name of
Hasheesh it is often mentioned in the works of travellers in
Egypt, Arabia, and Syria; while the name of Bhang is not
less celebrated in the far East. The Author has treated
together of these two plants, in his ‘Manual of Materia
Medica,’ pp. 622—629, 2d ed., from which he extracts the
following description of the plant:

The Hemp is a diccious (occasionally monecious) annual, from 3 to
10 feet high, according to soil and climate. Root white, fusitorm, furnished
with fibres. The stem erect; when crowded, simple; but when growing
apart, branched even from the bottom, angular, and, like the whole plant,
covered with fine but rough pubescence. This stem is hollow within, or only
filled with a soft pith. This pith is surrounded by a tender, brittle substance,
consisting chiefly of cellular texture, with some woody fibres, which is called
the reed, boon, and shove of the Hemp. Over this we have the thin bark,
composed of fibres, extending in a parallel direction all along the stalk.
These fibres consist of delicate fibrils, united together by cellular tissue, and
all covered by the thin membrane or cuticle. ;

The leaves are opposite or alternate, on long petioles, scabrous, digitate,
composed of from 5 to 7 narrow, lanceolate, sharply serrated leaflets, of
which the lower are the smallest, all tapering at the apex into a long entire
point. Stipules subulate. Males on a separate plant. Flowers in drooping,
axillary, or racemose panicles, with subulate bracts. Perianth 5-parted ;
segments not quite equal, downy. Stamens5; filaments short; anthers
316 DESCRIPTION OF HEMP PLANT.

large, perio, 2-celled; cells united by their backs, opening by a longi-
tudinal slit. Females in a crowded spike-like raceme, with leafy bracts.
The perianth consists of a single, small, spathe-like sepal, which is persistent,
acuminate, ventricose at the base, embraces the ovary, and is covered with
short brownish glands. Ovary subglobular, 1-celled, with one pendulous
ovule. Style short. Stigmas 2, elongated, glandular. Nut ovate, greyish-
coloured, smooth, covered by the calycine sepal, bivalved but not dehiscing,
and inclosing a single oily seed. Seed pendulous. Testa thin, membranous,
marked at the apex with a coloured hilum. Embryo without albumen,
doubled upon itself. Radicle elongated, turned towards the hilum, and the
apex of the nut separated from the incumbent plano-convex cotyledons
by a small quantity of albumen.

The Author having for many years been of opinion that
Hemp fibre might be advantageously produced in India in
much larger quantities than has ever yet been the case, wrote
a report on the subject, in the year 1839, which was sent to
India, and published in the ‘ Trans. of the Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’
vol. viii, p. 15. From this he will now make some extracts,
and then adduce some of the valuable information which it
was the means of eliciting :

“The cultivation of Hemp in India obtained very great
attention from the Court of Directors, and instructions were
sent to the Governments there to encourage its growth, as well
as that of other cordage plants. As the natives of India
employ between forty and fifty different kinds of plants for the
fibre which they yield, fitted for this purpose in different
degrees, the subject of investigation was sufficiently exten-
sive, and received great attention from Dr. Roxburgh.”

“On the present occasion I confine myself to the Hemp
plant itself (the Cannabis sativa of botanists), as being the most
valuable of the whole; and because it is in general erroneously
supposed that it can only be successfully cultivated in European
regions, though there is every reason to believe that it is origi-
nally a native of Asia, and even that its Greek and Latin name
Cannabis is derived from the Arabic kinnub. It is well known
to be common in Arabia and Persia, as well as in every part of
China and of India, and likewise in Egypt and Turkey ; but in
all these countries it is valued chiefly, if not only, for yielding an
intoxicating drug commonly calleddhang. In European countries,
it is on the contrary cultivated only on account of its ligneous
fibre, so extensively employed in the manufacture of the
strongest ropes, and of coarse but strong kinds of cloth. The
wide distribution of this plant throughout Europe and Asia is
DISTRIBUTION OF HEMP PLANT. 317

remarkable, but easily explained, when we consider that it is
an annual, which requires only a few months of summer
temperature to bring it to full perfection. The requisites for
its successful cultivation, it is, however, necessary to notice,
when endeavouring to introduce elsewhere its culture.

“Hemp is cultivated in almost every part of Europe for home
consumption, but only in large quantities for export in Russia
and Poland, though the finest quality of Hemp comes from
Italy. French Hemp is also much esteemed, as well as that
grown in both England and Ireland; but for the present pur-
pose it is necessary only to notice the culture of the chief
kinds which enter into commerce.

“ Hemp is cultivated in almost every province of Russia, but
in the largest quantities in the interior, beyond Moscow, as
well as nearer Petersburgh, and in the Polish provinces which
belong to Russia. The soil must not be over rich nor too
sterile, of moderate depth, and friable. The time of sowing
varies from the middle of May to the end of June; by some
‘it is recommended not to be sown until the latter end of June,
as frosts are very injurious to its growth. The season of
reaping is from the end of August to the end of September,
and it is therefore between three and four months in a state
of vegetation ; the male plants being pulled some weeks before
the female. The Russian summer, though short, is regular
while it lasts, and the temperature sufficiently high to bring it
to full perfection.

“That the northern latitudes of Russia are not essential for
the successful cultivation of Hemp is, however, evident, from
the large quantities which are grown in the southern climate
of Italy, both in Bologna and Romagna, and along the banks
of the Po, as well as in the neighbourhood of Naples. The
Italians have a saying, that ‘Hemp may be grown everywhere,
but it cannot be produced fit for use, either in heaven or earth,
without manure.’ The climate of Italy, it is well known, is
remarkable for its clearness, regularity, dryness, and warmth,
and that irrigation is essentially necessary for much of its
agriculture. The Italian Hemp is fine, soft, light-coloured,
and strong, as well as long in the staple; and it is important
to remark that it brings the highest price in the English
market, as, for instance, it sells for 50 shillings per cwt. when

\
318 SOIL AND CLIMATE SUITED TO HEMP PLANT.

the best Russia sells at 47 shillings for the same quan-
tity.

ve If we compare the summer temperature of the northern
with these southern situations, we shall not find so great a
difference as we might be led to expect by considering only
their latitudes, or their mean annual temperatures. Thus
Petersburgh and Moscow, in N. latitude 59° 56’ and
56° 45’, have mean summer temperatures of 62° 06’ and
67°10’ of Fahr., while Milan and Rome, in N. latitude
45° 28’ and 41° 53’, have summer temperatures of 73° 04!
and 75° 20'.”

“ Without entering into details, it might be inferred as
probable, that as Italy grows Rice, and so many other plants
of India, so might the latter cultivate a plant like the Hemp,
which succeeds so well even so far south as Naples, and which
requires only a few months to bring it to perfection; and this
even if India did not already possess it. But so far from this
being the case, the reverse is the fact; and it is well known
that no plant is so commonly cultivated in so many parts of
India as the true Hemp plant, which is there called ganja, but
which differs in no respect from the European plant, though
the natives employ it only for the purpose of yielding bhang.
But cultivated for this purpose, instead of being sown thick,
as it ought to be when intended for cordage, it is sown thin
by the natives, who afterwards transplant the young plants,
and place them at distances of nine or ten feet from each other.
The effect of this is to expose them more freely to light, heat,
and air, by the agency of which the plant is enabled to perfect
its secretions in a more complete manner, and the bhang will
consequently be of a more intoxicating nature. The fibrous
and woody parts at the same time attain a greater degree of
stiffness and solidity, as is found to be the case with timber
trees similarly exposed. The Hemp plant, thus grown, will
branch much. It may be small in dry situations, and large
in rich and moist ones, but in either case its fibres are found,
both in Europe and India, to be rougher, stiffer, and more
difficultly separated from the woody part than is desirable, but
seed is produced in larger quantity and of better quality.
This mode of cultivation has, moreover, the disadvantage of
being more expensive, from taking up more space than is de-
PRINCIPLES OF CULTURE. 319

sirable when the plants are required to yield the best quality
of fibre for cordage.

«Plants, when grown in moist situations, in shade, or set
thickly together, are well known to run into leaf, shoot up,
and to become more lax in texture, while their secretions are
imperfectly formed, as is exemplified in the growing of Lettuce,
Celery, &. Hemp and Flax, when cultivated for their fibres,
are sown thickly together, and they shoot up into long, wand-
like plants, which are much less branched than when freely
exposed. Air and light having less free admission, and heat
having less influence in evaporating the sap, the effect is to
produce a longer fibre, which is at the same time soft and
pliable, as well as more easily separated, and in larger quantity
on the same space, than when they are set widely apart.

“The natives of India also sow their Sunn and Jute very
thickly together when, for the sake of their fibres, they form
the exclusive crop. The effect is to produce a long and flexible
fibre, though this is not sufficiently strong to form a good
substitute for the true Hemp. This might be cultivated in
suitable situations in India, in a manner similar to that adopted
in Kurope, or like that practised with its substitutes in India.
The effect would undoubtedly be to produce a sufficiently long
fibre, which would also be softer and more pliable, at the same
time that it retained a great portion of its original strength,
and probably in as large a quantity as is yielded by the Sunn
plant. Thus an article might be produced, which, judging
from the Italian samples, might enter into competition with
the Russian product, and, at all events, afford much more
valuable cordage than the several (usually considered) inefficient
substitutes which are so extensively cultivated in India, and
which, imported into this country, sell only for 15 to 20 shillings
per cwt., at the same time that the Russian, Polish, and Italian
Hemps are selling for 42 to 50 shillings per cwt.

“The difference in price would appear a sufficient inducement
to attempt the culture of the true Hemp in India, especially
as there could be no doubt respecting its growth, as it is
already so common in every part of that country, and requiring,
if anything, only a little modification of its properties. This
could be ensured, most probably, by a change in the mode of
‘cultivation. Dr. Roxburgh, as long since as the year 1800,
820 PROPOSED CULTURE OF HEMP IN INDIA.

thought Rohilcund and the neighbouring hills suited to
the cultivation of Hemp. I have seen it in great abundance,
in a wild state, in the Deyra Doon, and also in the Khadir land
of the Saharunpore district, especially along the upper part of
the Doab Canal, and where it was chiefly valued for its leaves,
being made into bhang and sudjee, and the stems, when dried
up, being burnt for firewood.

“There would be little difficulty in cultivating this plant in
the low Khadir land, where it is wild; nor in converting it into
merchantable Hemp. For the natives of the neighbourhood
already make use of it, partially for the manufacture of ropes ;
and the inhabitants of Malabar are said by Dr. H. Scott to
employ the Hemp for making their fishing nets.

“The natives of the Himalayas likewise possess the plant,
from which though they prepare an intoxicating drug, which
they call churrus, they likewise value it for its ligneous
fibre, from which they prepare a coarse kind of cloth, which
they send into the plains for making very durable grain-sacks,
as well as the strongest ropes (called sel), for crossing their
rivers,

“This fact, though not generally known, is mentioned by
Kirkpatrick in his account of Nepal, and was ascertained by
General Hardwick, in his visit to Srinuggur, as well as by myself,
when travelling in the Himalayas (‘ Illust.,’ p. 333). I also
obtained specimens of the rope and cloth when travelling there,
but which I regret I am unable now to find. The plant I
have seen in a very luxuriant state at least ten or twelve feet
high, in the Himalayas, at elevations of 6000 and 7000 feet,
especially in the neighbourhood of buffalo-sheds. In such
situations and near villages it could no doubt be easily cultivated
to a great extent, and yield a valuable and profitable product.

“The Hemp could likewise be cultivated in the plains at two
seasons of the year; that is, during the rainy season, as is now
the case, but likewise along with the cold-weather cultivation,
which is so similar to that of the summer culture of European
countries. But experiments require to be made and specimens
procured in order to determine which season is most proper for
the culture of this plant in order to yield Hemp of the best
quality.

Hill people might no doubt easily be obtained for preparing
CULTURE OF HEMP IN THE HIMALAYAS. 3821

the Hemp according to their own method, and teaching the
people in the plains, who are already practised in the art of
preparing Sunn. It would, however, be desirable to procure, if
practicable, the assistance of some European (and such might be
found among the soldiery) who had seen and practised the pre-
paration of Hemp in this country. The experiment might be
made with little expense, and probably great advantage, from
the useful information which would be obtained for the use of
cultivators, in the Botanic Garden at Saharunpore, if instructions
were given to this effect to Dr. Falconer, Superintendent of
that Institution.

“For due attention being paid to the details of this subject,
it would be extremely desirable to send out to India specimens,
with prices of the different qualities of Hemp found in the mar-
kets of this country, so that cultivators in India might know
what they had to imitate and rival. It would also be extremely
desirable, in order to ascertain the present quality of the
Himalayan Hemp, that specimens, in different states of prepara-
tion, were sent here, as prepared by the Hill people, together
with specimens of the Hempen Rope and Sackcloth of the
Himalayas.”

Subsequent to the publication of the foregoing report, several
papers were sent to the Agri-Horticultural Society of Calcutta,
and which are published in vol. viii of their ‘ Transactions,’
and in vol.i of their ‘Journal.’ These were from Majors
Swetenham and Corbett, Captains Kirke aud Huddleston, and
from the distinguished naturalist, Mr. Hodgson. The sub-
stance of the last two we here republish, as containing much
of the information on culture contained in the others, while
Major Corbett and Capt. Kirke give valuable information re-
specting the cost and the expense of conveyance to Calcutta ;
which will be immediately noticed.

Extracts from a Report on Hemp Cultivation, §c., in British Gurhwal, by
Captain H. Huddleston, 14th July, 1840.

2. There are two kinds of Hemp, “Bhang,” indigenous to the Himalayas ,
—that called “Khur-Bhunga,” or Jungle Bhang, growing wild throughout
the whole of these Hills in all situations, and attaining a very considerable
height during the season of the periodical rains, is of no use whatever, for
the very insignificant quantity of “churrus” (the inspissated juice of the
leaves obtained from the plant by rubbing between the hands) does not
remunerate even the poorest class for the trouble bestowed upon it, and as

21
322 CULTURE OF HEMP IN THE HIMALAYAS.

it does not yield a fibre that can be turned to any use, I need not of course
make any further remarks regarding it. . :

3. The real Hemp, or cultivated kind, is grown chiefly on high lands, and
principally on the northern faces of the mountains, in well prepared and
abundantly manured soils close to villages, or in recently cleared lands by
burning the primeval forests, the soil of which, from the accumulated decpm-
posed vegetable matter of years, is rich enough to ensure the superior growth
of the plant and an abundant crop without any manure for one season. No
irrigation is ever resorted to, and very little is produced under an elevation
of 3000 feet, the heat of the valleys being detrimental to its quality, and the
plant appears to flourish best at elevations of from between 4000 to 7000
feet.

The middling district situated between the “ Pindur” to the north and the
“‘Nyar” or “ Samee” rivers to the south, and centrically with regard to the
province of Kumaon and Gurhwal, may be termed the chief Hemp-producing
districts of British Gurhwal. The fields nearest to villages, as being the
easiest for manuring, and the culturable wastes with a rich soil of accumu-
lated rotten vegetation, or recently cleared forest lands, being those in which
the Hemp plant is alone cultivated to advantage with respect to its quality.

4. The culture of “ Bhang” or Hemp, as practised in this district, is as
follows: After the ground has been well cleared and prepared, the seed is
sown, towards the end of May, or early in June, at the rate of 20 or 25 pathas,
equal to about 26 or 33 seers (from 52 lb. to 66 1b. avoirdupois) per beesee,
which latter is the common denomination now used in Gurhwal, and very
near equal to an English acre. During the early growth of the plant the
ground is kept free from all weeds, and the young plants are thinned, leaving
a few inches between each, and until the crop has attained a good height, the
ground is kept clean from all rank vegetation—after which it attains to the
height of twelve and fourteen feet, and is cut in September and November.

5. Of this cultivated Bhang there are two kinds, the plant called Goolanga
or Goolbhanga which produces seed (the female), and the one which only
flowers, but has no seed; and this latter is called ‘ Phoolbhang” (the male),
from which the best sort of Hemp is prepared ; the plants being cut a month
or six weeks earlier, and producing a stronger and superior fibre to the other.
On the stalks being cut green, they are dried for several days in the sun, by
being piled against the walls of the terraced fields until they become quite
brown. The plants have the seed extracted by rubbing between the hands,
which produces the “ Churrus,” and this is scraped off and made into rolls for
sale. The leaves also are pounded, from which ‘ Ganjah” and ‘ Subzee”
are manufactured in small quantities. When the stalks are sufficiently dry
they are tied up into bundles, and steeped for fifteen or sixteen days (eight
days, Swetenham) in tanks or running streams, being kept under water by
pressure—on being taken out they are beaten with wooden mallets, and dried
again in the sun, when the fibre is stripped off from the thickest end of the
stalk, and after being again beaten, this fibre is made up into twists for sale
and manufactured into sackcloth for wear, bags, and ropes.

6. The total money return from the produce of the cultivation of the Hemp
plant would be considerable, if there were any demand for exportation, though
the average return even now is amply remunerating to the grower, and were
it not from the well-known dislike which the Hill people have to extra labour,
it would be more extensively cultivated than it is. The limited cultivation
at present, however, supplies the wants of the population for sackcloth, bags,
and ropes, nearly the whole of which, in considerable quantities, is consumed
in the district—the lower classes of the Gurhwal population dressing them-
selves in the cloth manufactured from the Hemp, and this still encourages,
the cultivation in a great measure. The average return per beesee (or
English acre) may be stated as follows -—three seers (6 lb.) of churrus, value
CULTURE OF HEMP IN NEPAUL. 323

Rs. 6 (or twelve shillings); four raaunds (or 3201b.) of Hemp, value Rs. 8
(sixteen shillings) ; and about thirty to thirty-five seers (60 to 70 1b.) of seed,
yielding about five seers (10 Ib.) of oil, value R.1 (two shillings). Giving a
total of Rs, 15 per beesee.

7. The seed sells generally at 20 pathas per rupee, or from twenty-seven
to thirty seers (as this wooden measure varies in different places), and the
seed: being light, I have found that the average weight of each patha is about
one seer and five chittacks. The Hemp sells at 2 rupees a maund amongst
themselves, and the Dooms (or lowest class of the agricultural community)
are the chief cultivators of the plant. /

8. When Dr. Rutherford held a contract for the supply of Hemp to the
Honorable Company, and also made extensive purchases of it with other
staple articles of produce of the Hills on his own account, the cultivation of
Hemp was very considerable indeed in this district; and in case of any
demand being again created,.immense tracts would no doubt be sown with it,
provided the same plan of advances to cultivators were adopted.

9. The plan adopted by Dr. Rutherford appears to have been thus: ad-
vances through his agents to the landed proprietors and individual cultivators
were made during the early part of the year, stipulating for the Hemp being
delivered at their own doors at 4 rupees a maund, and the carriage during
the cold season to the marts of Kotedwarra in Gurhwal, and Chilkeea in
Kumaon at the foot of the Hills (where Goomashtas or agents were ready
to receive the Hemp), being defrayed extra—which did not, I imagine, on an
average exceed a rupee a maund—so that the raw material was and is capable
of being delivered at those marts for 5 rupees a maund; and as only a few
miles further of land carriage would be required to ship the Hemp into boats
on the Ganges or Ram Gunga for transit to Calcutta, this would not, [ should
think, double the cost. of it.

Hemp Cultivation in Nepaul: by H. B. Hodgson, Esq.

Mr. Hodgson states, that the cultivation is peculiar to the Northern
districts of Nepaul, but only, as he suspects, because the tribes inhabiting
them are less scrupulous than the people of the great valley, and other
Central and Southern tracts; for, at least in the valley, the plant flourishes
greatly, if properly tended, as Mr. Hodgson has proved in his own garden ;
and the spring crops of the valley are almost choked with spontaneous growth
of Hemp, which, however, being uncultivated, is stunted and virtueless. The
Northern districts (popularly called Cachar) are nevertheless the prime seats
of culture, and there alone is the plant manufactured into rope or cloth;
though the edible extracts are sometimes prepared nearer to and around
Katmandhoo.

The season of sowing Bhang seed in Nepaul is from Chyett to Bysack
(March to April).

Damp ‘soils, comprising black earth, are fittest for this crop. Before
ploughing the field, sufficient manure is to be sprinkled over it, then com-
pleting the work of the plough, the seeds are to be sprinkled, and having
broken the clods into dust, the field is to be made even.

At seven or eight days after sowing the seeds the plants come up, but
their rapidity of growth and their size and strength depend on the abun-
dance of the rains or artificial watering. Ifthe plants be very thick, they
must be thinned, so as to stand three inches distance from each other.
They flower and fruit in Sawun (July); and at the beginning. of Bhadoon
(August) are in their full growth; but while yet succulent and in flower,
they are tobe cut, with exception of some seed plants, which are not to be
reaped till October. It is the bark of the young but full-grown or Sawun
324: HEMP CULTURE IN THE PLAINS OF INDIA.

plants, which is soft, that is used for making Bhangela. That of the old or
October plants is hard and not suitable for manufacture.

After the plants have been cut off at the ground, they must be placed in
the sun for eight or ten days, or until they be dried sufficiently. They must
then be steeped in water for three days, and on the fourth day the plants
must be taken out of the water and peeled. The peelings are to be washed
and put in the sun; and when quite dried, they are ready for manipulation.
They are then to be torn into thin threads with the nails of the hands; next
twisted with a spinning-wheel (Tikuli), and when the threads are thus pre-
pared, they are to be boiled with ashes of wood and water in a pot, for four
hours, and to be washed again for the purpose of whitening. This is the
way of preparing Bhangela thread, out of which blankets are woven.

One mana (half a kucha seer) of seed is sufficient for a ropini of land
(one fifth of Badshahi bigah), which produces ten or twelve loads of bhang.
Hemp grows equally wall on slopes or flats, and near the tops as well as on
the sides of the mountains, if not too low. But a moist rich soil is indispen-
sable. The plant attains to a height of eight to ten feet, and should be cut
when the flower is falling and the seed forming. ;

Before proceeding to consider the prospect of obtaining
merchantable Hemp from the heights of the Himalayas, we
may notice what is practicable in regard to—

Hemp Culture in the Plains of India.—Though the pro-
duction of Hemp in the Himalayas, and in the low lands at
their foot, is chiefly contemplated, that of its culture in the
plains may also be mentioned. This was attempted by Dr.
Roxburgh, and though probably in the least favorable situation
in India, yet with some success; as he observes :

“In many parts of Bengal, particularly where the land is
so low as to remain humid through the dry season, Hemp
thrives luxuriantly during the cold season; at Soonamooky
it did well on a sandy soil, manured with dung from stables.
Prolonged immersion much injures the quality of the Hemp,
the rainy season is therefore preferable for the cultivation and
maceration of the plant, and we must content ourselves with
one crop in the year, for it is a very false, though prevailing
notion, that the fertile fields of Asia produce at least two crops
anoually. The burning heats of Asia, while they last, are
as unfavorable for vegetation as the frosts of winter are in
Europe.” And in Wisset it is stated:

“A native, who had an opportunity of observing the mode of
cultivating and preparing the Hemp raised by Mr. Douglas, at
Rishera, has offered to the Board of Trade to contract with
them for supplying a very considerable quantity, I believe 500
maunds (about 17 tons), of properly dressed Hemp next
CULTURE OF HEMP IN THE PLAINS OF INDIA. 825

season, at the rate of ten sicca rupees per maund (this is equal
to 800 sicca rupees, or, at 2s. 6d. £35 per ton, and at 2s.
= £30 per ton).”

The next important notice which we have respecting the
culture of Hemp in the plains of India, is from Mr. Deneef,
already mentioned at p. 174, &., and of and from whom we
have the following communication :

Sample of Hemp grown and manufactured in Bengal, after the manner
pursued in Belgium. Presented by Mr. H. Woollaston, on behalf of Mr. G.
Deneef, Belgian farmer.

Calcutta, Oe. 8, 7630, 1840.
Monsieur Spry, Secrétaire de la Societé d’Agriculture et d’Horticulture
du Bengale,

J'ai ’honneur de vous envoyer par l’entremise de Monsieur Woollaston,
membre de votre Société, un échantillon de chanvre, qui me semble
mériter beaucoup d’attention, il me parait aussi avantageux que le chanvre
de Russie et de Manille qui se vendent 4 Londres £22 4 £27 le tonneau. La
manufacture en est tres simple et n’exige aucun instrument; elle est faite en
Belgique par des vieillards et des enfants. Aucun ouvrage ne saurait étre

lus convenable pour les bras inactifs des familles pauvres de cette contrée,
i n’est nullement fatigant et se fait par assis; de plus, chaque livre de
chanvre, procure au teilleur 3 Ib. de matiére a briler.

La préparation du sol ne demande pas de grands soins ni par conséquent
de grandes dépenses ; sa végétation est superbe, la plante n’occupe le sol que
pendant 80 jours (du commencement de Juin, ala fin d’Aodt). J’en aia peu
prés 4 beegas, qui me donneront environ 1000 Ib. de fibres, que je prepare
en ce moment; et que je me propose d’envoyer le plutét possible, pour
échantillon, 4 la Société expérimentale du Lin a Londres, et aprés en avoir
regu une reponse, concernant sa valeur reélle; je m’empresserai de vous
envoyer un rapport exact sur la mode de sa culture.

Il serait étonnant que l’Inde, qui a tant de moyens en terrain et en
hommes, ne pourrait pas concourir avec la Russie, qui est obligée de payer
£2 0 0 par tonneau pour frais d’exportation au gouvernement Russe meme,
et 6s. per tonneau au passage du Sond, et ne pourrait réclamer sa part, des
millions d’espéces, que la mére patrie est obligée de payer annuellement & la
Russie sa puissante rivale.

J’ai ’honneur de vous saluer avec la plus parfaite considération,

Votre trés devoué serviteur,.
G. Denzer, Belgian Farmer.

The Hemp produced by so little labour and care, and which
only occupied the ground for eighty days from the beginning
of June to the end of August, according to Mr. Deneef,
was pronounced good by the members of the Flax and Hemp
Committee ; by Mr. Fergusson, as “ uncommonly strong, and if
it can be produced cheaply and abundantly, it is likely to be a
most important article”? Mr. Hodgkinson, who doubted of its
being the true Hemp—though without sufficient grounds—
326 HEMP CULTURE IN NORTH-WEST INDIA.

pronounced “the article as superior, be it what it may, and
deserving of the first attention.”

With respect to the interchange of seed, or to the kind
which is most desirable, we have the following fact, though it is
probable that some of the Himalayan seed would answer
equally well:

“A few fresh stalks of Hemp raised from Russian seed
received last year from Dr. Royle, and corresponding speci-
mens of the indigenous Hemp plant of Bengal. Presented by
Mr. Deneef. The superiority of the former in texture was
very apparent.”

In treating of both Flax and Sunn, mention was made of
Mr. Sconce’s experiments with both of these plants at
Chittagong, in the year 1843. He at the same time grew
some Hemp from country seed (ganza) sown in November.
Of the fibre, the Hemp and Flax Committee reported: The
Fibre is exceedingly strong and clean, but the admixture of Tow
spoils the appearance and deteriorates the quality; while of the
dressed Hemp it was said, that some of the fibres were strong,
others weak, and as only partially heckled. These defects,
being those of management, might easily be remedied.

From the far Southern we proceed to the North-Western
provinces ; here the late Mr. Bell, of Agra, on hearing of the
above experiments in Bengal, writes, that there “can be no
difficulty in the cultivation of the dhkang or ganja, which is
now sown only for the intoxicating drug the natives obtain
from it; but the vigour the plant shows, and the height it
reaches when thus sown, much scattered to admit of its throw-
ing out its branches, satisfied me that, sown more densely,
it would at least run the height of Sunn, and this I suppose
sufficient for the desired length of fibre in the Hemp.”

There is no doubt that the Hemp plant will grow to a great
height even in the plains of India. The Author received a
letter from his friend, Capt., now Sir Proby Cautley, dated from
Saharunpore (10th Aug., 1840), stating that the Hemp was in
cultivation in the Botanic Garden, and looking as fine as any
that he had ever seen, nearly twelve feet high, with a natural
healthy look of dark green. Dr. Falconer, however, afterwards
reported that the Hemp fibre did not retain the strength or
QUALITY AND COST OF HEMP IN THE HIMALAYAS. 827

flexibility which characterise it in the Himalayas. But the
Author has been informed that they are able to use some of
the Hemp growing spontaneously along the upper part of the
Himalayan base, for the general purposes of cordage. The
Hemp growing in the Goruckpore district at the foot of the
Hills, is considered of good quality, and some is being sent to
this country on purpose to have its properties tested. It is
probable that Mr. Williams might succeed in the cultivation
of Hemp in the soil and climate of Jubbulpore.

Quality and Cost of Himalayan Hemp—From the account
which has been given above, by local officers, of the cultivation,
and the other testimony which we have respecting the plant,
there is no doubt that the Ganja of the Himalayas is the true
Hemp plant of Europe (the Cannabis sativa of botanists). As
the plant has ceased to be as extensively cultivated as formerly
chiefly from the want of any external demand, there would
seem to be no difficulty in again increasing the culture, and to
a still greater extent, if this requisite for all culture was again
restored. The only questions which remain to be determined
are the quality of the Hemp and the cost at which it could be
conveyed to Indian ports, where, if not required for export to
Europe, it could be beneficially employed for naval and other
purposes. This would be preferable to their continuing, as in
some places is still the case, to import Hemp and Tow from
Europe, when India produces at least as good, if not a superior
article, and at a cheaper rate. This is evident from the follow-
ing abstract of the information on the subject.

“In the Himalayas the Hemp grows wild, and is, moreover, carefully culti-
vated, both on account of its exhilarating secretions, and its strong and
flexible fibre. With the properties of this the Hillmen are well acquainted,
as they make with it both twine and rope, and a coarse cloth (bhangela)
with which they clothe themselves, as well as make sacks and bags. ‘Their
hempen wrappers they wear much as a Highlander does his plaid, fixing it
in front with a wooden skewer, instead of a brooch. A traveller in the
Himalayas, some years since, described the natives as applying Hemp
‘extensively to purposes of a domestic nature, such as hanging their super-
numerary female children, administering rope’s-end to their wives, penning
up cattle, and making a sort of netted, or knitted, or knotted shoes, to
as sole of untanned leather is sometimes, but by no means generally,
affixed,’

“The culture seems to be very well understood in most parts, though the
best methods are not always practised either of planting, or of picking, or of
preparing their Hemp. All along the Himalayas—that ‘is in Nepaul, in
Kemaon, in Gurhwal, and up to the newly acquired hills of the Punjab, at
328 QUALITY AND COST OF HEMP IN THE HIMALAYAS.

elevations of from 3000 and 4000 to 7000 feet—Hemp is cultivated by the
Hillmen, though chiefly for their own use, the plants growing to eight or
ten, some say twelve or fourteen, feet in height. They sow about the
month of May, carefully prepare, and usually manure the ground, weed and
thin the plants to within three or four inches, and cut the male plants,
‘ phoolbhanga, which flowers, but has no seed,’ a month or six weeks before
the female plant, ‘goolanga, or goolbhanga, which has seed,’ the latter
being harvested about the end of September. The stems, when cut down,
are dried in the sun, and then steeped in water for three or more days.
Beaten with wooden mallets, the fibre is then stripped off, and again beaten.
In some places it is said to be boiled with wood ashes—that is, potash,—and
sometimes bleached before being spun into thread. The stalks are made
into torches. The culture is described to be the most profitable of any, as
the churrus and ganja, different forms of bhang, are said of themselves to
pay the expenses of culture. The Hemp they sell among themselves for Rs. 2
a maund—that is, 4s. for about 82 lb. The seed is even roasted and eaten,
or expressed for its oil, and the oilcake given to their cattle. The culture
is not much extended, for it is more laborious than they like, and there is
said to be a prejudice among the Brahmins and Rajpoots against the culti-
vation of this plant, which is therefore confined to the Doom class. But
there is no doubt that the culture could be immensely extended if the in-
ducements of price were greater.”

There being no doubt of this being the genuine Hemp plant, the next
point to ascertain is the quality of the fibre which the Hillmen produce with
their own unaided efforts. On this point the information is most satis-
factory. Mr. Hodgkinson, a Calcutta merchant, who was well acquainted
with this staple, and had personal knowledge of the produce on the Con-
tinent, pronounced some Hemp sent from the Deyra Doon to be “ equal in
colour, cleanness, length, and strength to the best Russian.”

Mr. Deneef, a Belgian farmer, sent to India by the Flax Experiment Com-
pany, said: “Ces échantillons ‘sont de vrai Cannabis sativa, pareil 2 celui du
nord de Europe. J'ai été enchanté de voir une si charmante vegetation de
cette plante produite dans l’Inde; mais cet article n’est pas preparé comme
on le desire dans les marchés Anglais; d’abord chanvre male et chanvre
femelle ont été coupés ensemble, et ensuite dressés dans l'etat_ humide d’apres
la methode des Indiens. S'il était dressé & la maniére des Européens du
nord, qui consiste & tirer le chanvre male, cing semaines avant celui qui
produit la sémence, 4 ne rouir que bien peu chaque genre séparément, la
chanvre male ne pouvant pas séjourner dans l’eau aussi longtemps que
l'autre; ensuite & ne Je dresser que quand il est bien sec et lorsque les
fibres se separent aisément; il formerat une belle matiére premiére pour les
cordages solides. Au contraire, dressé et rincé dans l’eau il perd’une cer-
taine graisse qui lui est naturelle, et qui est cause que la poix s’imbibe plus
facilement avec lui, ce qui le rend fort contre la pluie et la chaleur, et fait
en méme temps bénéfice du manufacturier, qui sait si bien distinguer la
différence de la préparation.” (‘Journ. Agric. Soc. of India,’ i, p. 46.)

Some specimens of Hemp from the Himalayas recently tried in this
country have been found to bear a greater weight and strain than the best
Petersburgh Hemp. Some of it is also very fine and soft, more like Flax
than Hemp.

There is little doubt, therefore, of the good quality of this Hemp, even
without any improvement from European instruction. It is a not less im-
portant point to ascertain the price at which it could be brought to this

' In preparing Hemp for the European market, care should be taken not to twist
or tie the ends together, but having laid the fibres parallel to each other, simply to tie
them together near the thicker end, so as to form heads, as seen in Petersburgh Hemp.

‘aT
QUALITY AND COS'’ OF HEMP IN THE HIMALAYAS. 829

country. In the ‘Journal of the Agri-Horticultural Society of India,
(vol. i, p. 45), may be observed a memorandum by the late Lord Auckland,
when Governor-General of India, in which it is stated :

Prime cost of Hemp at Deyra, Rs. 54 per ton ‘i 5 . £5 8 0
Carriage to Calcutta (about 1000 miles), Rs. 24 per ton . 28 0
Total cost and charges of Hemp at Calcutta . . £716 0

Prime cost of Hemp seed at Deyra, Rs. 36 per ton. . »- 812 0
Carriage to Calcutta, Rs, 24 per ton . F ‘ - » 2 8 0
£6 0 0

Though the above are deduced from the rates at which the natives sell
Hemp and Hemp seed among themselves, large quantities could not be
obtained at the above prices, for the natives would not extend their crop, or
take much trouble in preparing it for market, unless some greater induce-
ments were held out to them. Others, therefore, have calculated that the
price of the Hemp might be doubled to the natives, and that one rupee more
should be given for their bringing it down to the foot of the hills, whence it
could be readily conveyed to the Ganges, either from Kemaon or Gurhwal,
or from Sirmore to the Jumna, and from the Kangra Hills to the Sutlej.
Therefore Capt. Kirke calculated the cost of 500 maunds of Hemp from
Deyra Doon, a valley within the Himalayas, to be about Rs. 2500; carriage
on bullocks to the Ganges (but carts have been much introduced since
then), Rs. 125; 2600 maund boat from Sookertal, Rs. 130; together Rs. 2755 ;
this, with the addition of ten per cent. for contingencies, making the total cost
to Calcutta, Rs. 3030 for 500 maunds of Hemp,-.or for something more than
seventeen tons, or about £17 14s. a ton in Caleutta.

Capt. Kirke’s memorandum further states that 22% feet of the fine sail-
cloth which he forwarded could be bought for 95 annas; 223 feet of the
coarse sackcloth for six annas; 20 seers of the rough Hemp for one rupee;
and 29 seers of the Hemp seed for one rupee.

Major Corbett gives three calculations of the cost of Hemp from the dis-
trict of Kemaon to Calcutta, all expenses included :

From Kotedwarra, 37 tons, £661—£17 17 per ton.
» Chilkeea . 5 . - 315 =,
» Sunea . 7 7 . 14 =,

He also sent some Hemp cloth or canvas made in the Hills, which was
7+ yards long, and 223 inches wide, of which the price was one rupee.

The above facts being sufficiently favorable, both respecting
the quality and the cost of the Himalayan Hemp, and the
Author having been informed by good practical judges that the
best plan to make the peculiar qualities of any of these Indian
fibres known to manufacturers here would be to have a few
tons of each sent into the market for two or three years, he
was induced to recommend that this should be done with the
Himalayan Hemp.

“ As it is quite practicable to give an impulse to the growth
of Hemp in the Himalayas, and as the price is so moderate and
330 IMPORT AND COST OF HEMP FROM THE HIMALAYAS.

the quality so good, I believe it might be established as a
regular article of export from India, or, at all events, of con-
sumption in the dockyards of that country. I would therefore
suggest that the local officers of the districts of Kemaon,
Deyra Doon, Sirmore, and Kote Kangra (more properly Kooloo),
should be authorised to purchase certain quantities of the Hemp
(say from 5 to 10 tons), and send it down to Calcutta, for
transmission to and sale in the markets of this country, taking
care that while they give sufficient encouragement to the culti-
vators, they do not so far increase the cost, either by raising
the price or by enhancing the expense, as to interfere with its
subsequent profitable sale by merchants. It is probable that
the Himalayan Hemp would sell here for £35 a ton.”

The Author has lately received a letter from Dr. Jameson, dated
6th Nov.,1854, referring to this fibre, and also to the order which
had been sent by the Court of Directors to India for the pur-
chase of some of this Himalayan Hemp, in order to make it
known in the markets here. He states that the Civil Authorities
had “issued orders to purchase ten tons of the Hemp grown in
Gurhwal and Kemaon, which they were procuring at the rate
of from Rs. 4 to Rs.6 per maund, or £10 16s. to £16 4s. per
ton. Carriage to Calcutta will cost about £5, and to England,
with other incidental charges, say £10 per ton! more, which
will bring the article up to £25 16s. to £31 4s. Of course,
when it is exported on a larger scale the price of carriage will
be greatly decreased.” “This country possesses immense ad-
vantage in abundance of land, &c., and the Calcutta and
Bombay merchants could always have their Hemp to ship in
December.” With regard to the quality of the Hemp he
observes: “ Moreover, the Hemp grown in our mountains and
in the Doons (valleys) is far superior in strength to the Russian
samples of Russian Hemp which have been sent by the Court
of Directors. On showing these to the Puharee (Hill) growers of
Hemp, they declared that were they to produce such an inferior
article it would scarcely find a sale.’ The specimens were
obtained from one of the most respectable houses in London, and
bought for their own use. They were sent for the purpose of
showing how the Hemp of commerce comes into market, instead
of being twisted, tied, or platted, as is much of the fibre from

' Mr. Henley (v. p. 86) estimates all such charges at £7 a ton.
GOOD QUALITY OF HIMALAYAN HEMP. 331

India, But if the Himalayan Hemp generally resembles that
which has been referred to as from Kangra, no Russian Hemp
will come near it in point of strength.

The essentially good qualities of the Hemp grown in the
Himalayas, consisting in the strength, divisibility, fineness,
and softness of the fibres of much of what is grown there, will
make it, when known, very desirable for many purposes. That
grown at the lower elevations is also possessed of considerable
strength, as proved from the experiments made on a 2-inch
rope in the Master-Attendant’s office at Calcutta. The results
given in the accompanying table (p. 332) are a portion of an
extensive series of experiments, undertaken in the year 1840,
in compliance with the orders of the Marine Board, dated 7th
October, 1839,

The samples of Deyra and Arracan Hemp were forwarded
for experiment from the Agri-Horticultural Society, and were
laid up in a 2-inch rope, in November 1841, but the experi-
ments were interrupted by the death of the Master-Attendant,
and these samples were not submitted for trial till the 18th of
December, 1844, so that the rope was three years old. At
the same time, the small samples of jetee (v. p. 304) were
tried.

It will be seen from the abstract, that amongst the thirteen
samples of the 2-inch rope, the Deyrah Hemp stands the fifth
in strength and the twelfth in elasticity. (‘ Journ. Agri-Hortic.
Soc.,’ iii, p. 227.) Further details are given in other tables,
at pp. 224-25 of the Journal.

But Hemp of far greater strength is produced in these,
which are probably the native hills of the plant. Mr. Williams,
of Jubbulpore, gave to the Author, in the year 1853, a sample
of Hemp, which he stated had been forwarded to him by
D. F. Macleod, Esq., as the produce of Kote Kangra, in the
Sikh Himalayas. This the Author has, in his Lecture and
Experiments, as well as in communications with various indi-
viduals, called Kote Kangra Hemp. It is the fibre which
is mentioned (at p. 133) as not breaking with a weight of
400 lb., when China-grass from Assam broke with 3201b.,
and Petersburgh Hemp with only 1601b. It has, moreover,
appeared to all the practical men who have since then examined
it, as the strongest fibre with which they were acquainted.
332

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CULTURE AND PREPARATION OF HEMP IN EUROPE. 338

Dr. Jameson, in the above letter, observes, with regard to the
so-called Kote Kangra Hemp, that he himself had brought it to
Mr. Macleod’s notice, and that it was not produced in the
Kangra district, but in Kooloo and Lahoul, which are a little
farther in the interior. 5

Before concluding, we have to detail the method of culti-
vating and preparing Hemp in Europe, in order to contrast
them with the practice of the East, and for the information of
those who may wish to cultivate it in this country. We are
indebted for the directions to some of the most approved
writers on the subject, and have contrasted them with those of
Mr. Rowlandson in his paper in vol. x of the ‘ Journ. of the
Royal Agricultural Society.’

CULTURE AND PREPARATION OF HEMP IN EUROPE.

Hemp being one of the few plants cultivated in Europe,
which has the male and female flowers in different plants,
affords some anomalies in its culture, especially that of having
two harvests in the same crop. In some older works the male
is frequently named the female plant, and vice versa.

Soil_—The soil in which Hemp thrives, is a deep, rich, moist soil, five or
six inches deep; besides the alluvial, where sand and clay are intimately
mixed, and having the above characteristics, also the friable loams, which
contain much vegetable matter. All should contain a fair portion of sand,
as this keeps the soil open and light for the roots to spread in. Hemp
thrives well in Holland and Lincolnshire. Stiff, cold clays are unsuitable,
for even if the plant should grow well, it is not easy to pull it, “for when
strong clay becomes saturated with rain, the soil runs together, and on dry-
ing sets as hard as a pavement.” If the soil be over-rich, the plant grows
too luxuriantly, and produces a coarse but strong fibre. But Hemp is
sometimes sown in such soils to meliorate them for the cereals, which would
otherwise run too much to straw. But as many soils are too poor, they
require to be raised to a suitable state by the addition of manure; and with
this, it is said that Hemp may be grown in the same soil for many years.
When a fine quality of fibre is required, of course, only the most suitable
soil should be selected, or that in which the growth of the plant is neither
excessive nor stunted. In Italy, Hemp is sown in their best lands, which are
rich and strong loams, and made fine and friable. In Romagna, where the
best Hemp is produced, they say it may be grown anywhere with manure.
In the Himalayas, the Author has seen the Hemp growing most luxuriantly
in the neighbourhood of bullock-sheds, and producing fibre of great strength.
In India, spots near the habitations of natives are the best adapted for the
growth of Hemp; but in these they generally grow Tobacco. At Soonamooky
it grew luxuriantly in sand, which was manured with stable-dung. Hence,
Hemp grown in the plains will be dearer than the other fibres.

Culture and Manure.—But the richness of the soil, and the quantity of ma-
nure required, must vary, not only according to the nature of the soil and its re-
334 CULTURE AND PREPARATION OF HEMP IN EUROPE.

quirements, but also to the warmth of the soil and the nature of the climate,
Warm, moist ones require less than cold, whether dry or moist climates.
In England, Mr. Rowlandson says, the generality of soil will require a dress-
ing of ten tons of well-rotted farm-yard dung per acre, ploughed and har-
rowed in early in April. He quotes an extensive grower, who says twenty-
five tons of well-rotted, mixed stable and feeding-shed manure, should be
aap per acre. The land should, of course, be in the first instance well
ploughed and properly drained; also, well harrowed and rolled, to get the
top-soil into good tilth; and weeds, as horse-mint, or twitch, destroyed.
The manure must be carefully and evenly spread, and. the plough follow
close to the spreader.

Seed.—Of seed, that from Holland is the most esteemed, ripens soon,
yields abundant crops, and of a fine quality ; but well-grown English seed
is also of good quality. Indian seed, from external-appearauce, appears fine ;
but may not be so well suited in the first crop for fibre ; but the Himalayan
seed, both from its appearance and the nature of its produce, is probably
inferior to none, and perhaps only requires interchanging with different
districts. The seed should be of a bright, grey colour, and plump; and
must not have undergone heating in any way, and therefore the taste, when
bitten, should be sweet, and not bitter or acrid.

The quantity of seed may vary from two to two and a half, others say to
three bushels an acre. The last, if a fine fibre is required for weaving into
cloth. But the larger quantity cannot be sown on very rich soils. The
thicker it is on suitable land, the finer it will grow. The fresh-ploughed
land should be sown very evenly, care being taken to scare away birds.
The best time for sowing, in England, is from the Ist to the 15th of May;
but it is sown even in June, as frosts are apt to injure the young plant;
but late-sown plants are apt to grow thin and weak.

After-culture—Hemp seed is sown both broadcast and in drills. When
grown on account, chiefly, of the seed, it is sown thin. Sinclair says, by
sowing Hemp in drills, a-coarser and stronger bark or fibre, fit for cordage,
will be produced, and a less quantity of seed is required than by sowing it
broadcast. This latter mode‘ is. to be preferred, when Hemp is wanted for
textile purposes. The stems rise slender and fine, according to their prox-
imity ; but they require to be weeded or hoed out to within a foot of each
other, and may require a second hoeing, to destroy weeds ; but in general’
the Hemp will, itself, smother all weeds, except in the spaces between drills.
During its season of rapid growth, the plant necessarily requires moisture,
and therefore, in some countries, irrigation is practised.

Pulling. —As already observed, Hemp has usually two harvests ; but when
grown on account of the fibre only, it may be pulled when in flower, and
no distinction made between the male and female plants. But as itis usually
desirable to get both the seed and the fibre of both plants, the male plants,
or white Hemp, are pulled as soon as they have shed their pollen, usually-
about thirteen weeks after they’ have been sown. They may then be
easily recognised by their leaves becoming yellow, and the stem of a whitish
colour, and the flowers faded. Each plant is pulled up singly by the root,
care being taken not to break or cramp the stem in the hand. The ripeness
of the female plant is known not only by many of the same signs as those of
the male, but also by the seeds beginning to turn ofa grey colour, being firm
inside, and some of the capsules to open. This is generally about Michael-
mas in England. When the seed has become perfectly ripe, the bark is apt
to become woody and coarse, and to separate with difficulty. But the seed:
which is required for sowing, ought to be taken from plants allowed enough
of room to spread and then to fully ripen their seed.

Drying.—When the plants are pulled, it is recommended ‘to hold the root
CULTURE AND PREPARATION OF HEMP IN EUROPE. 38385

end upppermost, and with a wooden sword dress off the flowers and leaves,
as they assist in manuring the land. They are then bound in small bundles
with bands at each end, of sucha size that you can grasp with both hands,
or sometimes into bundles of twelve handfuls each, and arranged along the
borders of the field. If not done before, with a fork knock and shake off
the soil from the roots, and scrape off the undergrowth of leaves. It is
then set up like wheat in shocks, for a week or so. The stalks which
form each handful should be as nearly as possible of an equal length, and
the roots in particular should be placed as even as possible, If the crop is
kept till spring, it is tied in larger bundles, and stacked and thatched.

Gathering Seed— When the female Hemp is gathered, it is allowed to

stand eight or ten days in the air, to allow the seed to dry and ripen; the
tops being covered with undergrowth, to keep off the birds. After which,
they cut off the heads, or gently beat out or thrash them to get out the
seed, on a cloth. Care must be taken in conveying the bundles of seeded
stems, as by passing a rope round the bundles and under the heads, and
dragging the rope over the shoulder. The seed which remains after this
operation, is got out by combing the heads on the teeth of a ripple; but the
seed is inferior to that which first falls out, and is unfit for sowing. The
female plant is generally stacked during the winter, and not steeped till the
spring.
Pe prying —When the Hemp has been pulled, it ought, according to some
authorities, to be dried in the sun for one or two days, but Du Hamel
observes, that it isa matter of doubt whether the plant should be dried before
it is steeped; so Mills, in his ‘Husbandry,’ like the natives of India with
their Sunn (v. p. 274), thinks that this drying appears needless trouble.
So Marcandier directs, that when the Hemp is perfectly ripe, it must be put
into the water as soon as it is pulled out of the ground; and Sinclair says,
that Hemp should be watered as soon as possible. In this state, it is said to
require only four days, but, when it has been dried, eight days of steeping.
The time must, moreover, depend a good deal on the temperature of the
water.

Steeping —The steeping of Hemp, called Water-retting, is a very important
part of its preparation, and is to be distinguished from another method, which
is called Dew-retting. ‘The steeping places are often only ditches, three or
four feet deep, varying in breadth and length, dug for the purpose on the
margins of rivers. The bundles of Hemp are laid at the bottom of the water,
and covered with straw, and sometimes with sods, and loaded with pieces of
wood and large stones to keep them down. The object, as in the case of
Flax, is by a slight degree of fermentation to enable the epidermis, or outer
skin, to separate readily from the bark, and this from the boon or reed.
This is readily ascertained, by taking out one of the steeped stems and
holding it by the root end, and drawing the thumb-nail up the stem-to the
top. If the fibre slip up the stem, it is a proof that it has been sufficiently
retted.

Du Hamel, having steeped Hemp in different sorts of water, observes,
that the fibres steeped in putrid standing water were softer than those which
had been steeped in running water. But in water which does not run, the
fibres contract a disagreeable colour : they are, however, notwithstanding this,
easily bleached ; it is desirable, however, to make a small stream of water
pass through the steeping place.

Du Hamel, referring to the common opinion, that Hemp intended for fine
cloths should be retted more than that for coarse cloths, and that for making
of ropes should be steeped least of all, observes, that though there may be
some truth in this, it is in vain to hope greatly to improve, by this process,
fibres which are naturally coarse. A fine fibre cannot be obtained without
836 CULTURE AND PREPARATLON OF HEMP IN EUROPE.

the concurrence of soil, of seasons, and of climate, the mode of sowing and
of culture, and the degree of ripeness. os

Drying after Watering.—When the Hemp is sufficiently retted, it is taken
carefully out of the water, and then carried to a field of aftermath or any
other grass (hence called grassing) that is clean and free from cattle. Here
it is spread out very evenly, and will probably require to lie there for
three weeks or more, in order to bleach, and the fibre to become free; during
which time it must be carefully turned over, with light long poles, every
three or four days. Mr. Rowlandson says it is sufficiently bleached when
pink spots appear on the stem. It is sometimes dried along a wall, or on
rocky ground, and sometimes artificially, in ovens and kilns, When dry,
the Hemp is tied up in bundles again, and carried to the barn or rick.

Peeling and Breaking—When the Hemp is sufficiently dried, the next
process is either to peed it, by taking one stalk after the other, breaking the
reed, and slipping off the bark. The process is simple but tedious, and will
give occupation to those who are without any. But it comes off in ribbons,
which do not heckle so well as Hemp that has been broken, and they are apt
to retain some of the thick parts next the root, hence the saying, that this
mode is better for the seller than the buyer. ’

The term of breaking or braking Hemp, applies rather to the boon or
reed than to the fibre, for this only bends under the hand of the dresser, and
does not break. The operation is performed either by beating the Hemp,
which is a laborious and tedious work, or by the break, which may be moved
either by hand or by a spring or treddle attached to the upper jaw of the
break, or by fluted rollers, worked by horse-, wind-, or water-, and now
sometimes by steam-power. When Hemp has undergone the process of
breaking, it is ready, like Flax, for the process of scutching, in which
scutching mills are now used, as in the case of Flax. By rubbing, beetling,
and striking the Hemp with reiterated blows, the longitudinal fibres are
separated from one another, and in proportion to the greater or less degree
of that separation the Hemp becomes more or less fine, elastic, and soft to
the touch. (Du Hamel.)

Dew-retting (p. 199), Mr. Rowlandson says (1. ¢., p. 180) will produce
the most valuable white Hemp. The stems, after being pulled, are al-
lowed to stand in the stooks for two or three days; they are then spread
out on land where the grass is plentiful, and may require to be there for
six weeks, and to be frequently turned. The process will be completed
when the pink spots appear, as before noticed, which must be carefully looked
for, when it will be ready to gather and tie up in bundles, to form stooks, in
order to dry ; the fibre will not sustain any damage before the pink spots
appear. Snow-retting is practised in Russia and Sweden. After the first
fall, they spread the Hemp (which has been dried in the sun or otherwise)
on the snow, and leave it there to be covered with other falls of snow, until
spring, when it is usually found to be sufficiently retted. (Wisset, p. 194.)
In Livonia they steep their Hemp in a manner which is a medium between
still and running water, in a series of basins, one above the other, but as
has already been observed, the French, for whom this information was origi-
nally obtained, do not avail themselves of it. (v. 1. ¢., p. 204.)

In addition to the ordinary methods of preparation of
Hemp, we may briefly refer to others, most of which, however,
have in improved forms been already noticed under the head

of Flax.
The Abbé Brulles recommended the use of soap in the pro-
PECULIAR METHODS OF PREPARATION. 337

portion of one part to forty-eight of water, at a temperature of
about 200° F., and the water to be about forty times the weight
of the Hemp. Du Hamel tried boiling the Hemp stems in
water, but he did not find that the peeling was facilitated.
Marcandier recommended a second watering, and also the use of
a warm alkaline ley. (1. c., pp. 243 and 245.)

But as we have seen the use of hot water successfully
applied to Flax in recent times, and soap has been used
in several processes, and in a very ingenious manner in one
which we omitted to notice,—that in which a little acid is
afterwards added, so that decomposition takes place, in conse-
quence of the acid uniting with the alkaline base, when the oil
which is set free assists in softening the fibre.

In the article on Sunn we have already referred (p. 276)
to a peculiar method of drying, to which the Livonians are said
to ascribe the good or bad quality of their Hemp. The stems
are first set up to drain, and then spread out for a day to dry ;
after which they are made up in heaps, and covered over with
straw, or other similar material of any kind, to make them
sweat. When they have sweated enough, they are laid again
in small heaps, so that the air may dry them in the shade by
blowing through them; after which they are next effectually
dried by fire, kiln, or oven, and immediately put under the
breakers whilst yet hot. It is probable that this method, when
skilfully practised, must produce some of the same effects in
Hemp as in some other vegetable substances. Mr. Frushard
observes, with regard to the natives of India: ‘“‘ The reason why
their tobacco falls so much to dust, is owing to its not being
sweated enough. When properly sweated, as they manage it
in America, it becomes tough like a bladder; and toughness
and suppleness are the qualities wanted in Hemp.” (Wisset,
p. 223.)

Besides these, we have also the dry method of separating
Hemp in some places, as related by Mr. Durno, who was the
British Consul at Memel, and who states that in the southern
parts of Poland, steeping is not practised at all, on the suppo-
sition that the harle is thereby weakened, and the colour
darkened. Instead of steeping, they there dry the stalks in
the sun. But the dressing is more laborious, and consequently
more expensive. (Wisset, p. 177.) Mr. Dickson, as in the case

22
338 PRODUCE AND PROFIT OF HEMP CULTURE.

of Flax, has succeeded admirably in separating Hemp fibre by
passing dried stems from Italy under the rollers of his ma-
chine (v. p. 224), and the Author has no doubt that the
method may be successfully practised with several fibres for
many purposes.

Crop and Profit——Mr. Rowlandson says the best land for
obtaining fibre of the strongest description is a fat loam, not
too heavy with clay, and a portion of sand intermixed. On such
land, succeeding a crop of beans, Hemp will grow six or seven
feet high, and bean-stalks in such make good manure for
Hemp. He adds: “I have known 9 quarters of beans per acre
after Hemp, weighing 21 stone per sack. Hemp after beans
will produce 30 stone more per acre, of the strongest and
heaviest fibre, than by any other mode of culture; the weight of
fibre in ordinary culture and circumstances will produce 60 to
70 stone per acre.” A good crop of Hemp after beans will
produce 28 to 30 bushels of seed per acre ; in the ordinary way,
20 to 22 bushels per acre. But only particular circumstances
or prices render Hemp a desirable culture in England; for,
in general, it cannot be considered a productive crop—though
it may bring 5s. per stone, and good seed 5s. per bushel,—as
it requires much manure, and “ Hemp land will grow other
crops of equal or superior value at a less cost.’ But other
countries, such as parts of India and the Himalayas, which
prefer any exportable product like Flax or Hemp, will be glad
to cultivate both, if they get any reasonable encouragement.
The co-operation of a purely manufacturing establishment
might facilitate and give advantages to the production of Hemp,
as to that of Flax.

IMPORTS, ETC., OF HEMP FROM INDIA.

It is not impossible therefore that as India now supplies
England with the cheapest of fibrous materials, J ute, that the
country will also be able to supply the strongest and best, that
is, Himalayan Hemp. The greater distance which this has to
travel, but chiefly by the Ganges River, may be easily paid for
by its greater value. We also believe that as Mr. Deneef
succeeded in growing some good Hemp even in the plains
of Bengal in the rainy season, so others will be able to do so
IMPORTS, ETC., OF HEMP FROM INDIA. 339

in other parts of India, The expenses of transit from distant
parts will, no doubt, be diminished when larger quantities are
operated upon and the arrangements are made by mercantile
men, All such transactions in the Hills would be facilitated
if it were found possible to make the road from the Kemaon
Hills into the plains practicable for light carts, as this has been
done with the Sikh hills to some extent, but these are there less
precipitous. That there is nothing chimerical in the expectation
of greatly increased quantities of fibre being imported, even from
so distant a country as India, is evident from what has already
taken place. If this has been possible with the cheaper it
cannot be impracticable with the better. Though the infor-
mation is not very certain, we find from the published reports
that Hemp was exported from India to the following extent :

HEMP IMPORTED FROM INDIA, AND SOLD IN ENGLAND.

Cwt. Cwt.
1803 - 4820 1807 i - 4738
1804 a - 8335 1808 * - 4023
1805 - 3399 1809 < » 1543
1806 * » 6421 1810 ri 2555

In 1850-51, Imported into Bombay, of Ganza (Hemp-herb), 514 cwt. from Concan ;
and Exported to the United Kingdom 15,896.lb.—=Rs. 5796.

How greatly and rapidly the increase of fibrous materials has
gone on within the last few years from India is evident from the
following table of the imports from Russia and the British
territories in India, from 1847 to 1851; while in the year 1831,
506,803 cwt. were imported from Russia, and only 9472 ewt.
from the Hast Indies.

Quantities of Hemp Imported into the United Kingdom from—
1847 1848 1849 1850 1851
Russia ‘i * 544,844 540,207 641,548 614,535 672,342
Br, Ter. in East Indies 185,788 258,239 360,362 399,345 590,923

As soon as Hemp is brought down in the spring, or in the course of the
summer, it is selected and made up into bundles by sworn selectors (bruckers),
who are said to act with impartiality and exactness; and tickets are affixed
to every bundle as selected, &c.

Hemp at Petersburgh is assorted into clean Hemp, or firsts; outshot
Hemp, or seconds; halt-cleaned Hemp, or thirds; and Hemp Codilla, Riga
Hemp is distinguished as rein (or clean), outshot, and pass Hemp.

Particular care is taken to ship Hemp and Flax im fine, dry weather. If
either get wet, they are apt to heat, and to be totally spoiled. For this
reason every vessel taking in Hemp and Flax is furnished with mats to pre-
vent their getting damp.
340 BREAD-FRUIT TRIBE.

A bundle of clean Hemp weighs from 56 to 65 poods; ditto outshot, 48 to
55 poods; ditto half-clean, 40 to 55 ditto. (1 pood=36 Ib. avoirdupois.)
63 poods are about equal to an English ton; the fixed charges on which
in Petersburgh amount to 45 roub. 32 cop.; also commission and stamps,
and on import into London, about £10 5s. 8d., freight included; when the
Be is £40 aton. (v. M‘Culloch, from Mr. Borrison on the Commerce of

etersburgh.)

With regard to prices, those of Hemp will of course vary at
different times, like those of all other products. It is usually
highest in the summer months, and lowest in September.

In December, 1833, Petersburgh clean Hemp was 25s. to
26s.; Riga Rein at 29s. per cwt,

In the year 1840, Italian Hemp was at 50s. the cwt.; Polish
Rein, 48s.; Petersburgh clean, 47s.; clean for cordage, 46s. ;
Polish Pass Hemp, 46s. ; Petersburgh half-clean, 42s.

In the year 1844, the price of Petersburgh Hemp was 38s.
per cwt., or £38 per ton.

At the end of 1854, Petersburgh clean, £60 10s. to £68;
outshot, £59 to £61; half-clean, £57 10s.; Riga Rein, £61
to £64; do. outshot, £58 to £63. But we cannot do better
than conclude with an extract from the ‘Commercial Circular’
of the Messrs. Lindsay.

“As regards Hemp, the rates for this article advanced in the early months
of the year, and obtained their highest point in March, when £75 per ton
was paid for clean. They then gradually fell to £58 to £60—about its pre-
sent value—it having become apparent that supplies to a much larger extent
than were anticipated would be received vid Memel, &c. The future range
of prices will, of course, necessarily depend on the action of our Govern-
ment as respects Prussian neutrality. It, however, must not be lost sight of
that the variety and extent of substitutes in the course of introduction will,

under any circumstances, for some time to come diminish the consumption of
Russian Hemp.”

Breap-Fruit Trise (Artocarpee).

Though in general appearance no plants seem to differ
more than the Mulberry and Bread-fruit trees from the Nettles,
yet if we examine the actual flowers of all these plants, we
shall find that the resemblances are much greater than the
differences. Hence Jussieu united them together into the
natural family of Urticee ; but as some are distinguished by
their milky juice, and flowers aggregated into heads, these have
been separated from the others under the name of Artocarpee.
BREAD-FRUIT TREL. 341

Among these we find the Bread-fruit, Fig, and Mulberry, genera
of extensive distribution, numerous in species, growing to a great
size, and many of them of the greatest utility to mankind: though
we have only to notice them with reference to their fibrous
properties. These are probably much more important than is
generally supposed ; if we look to them as sources of material
for paper-making, since the bark of some of the species is al-
ready applied to this purpose in some countries.

Thus the Bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus ineisa), so famous for
affording the chief article of food to the inhabitants of the
South Sea Islands, and for which an expedition was sent by
George III, under the celebrated Bligh, to introduce it into
the West Indies, has bark which is also useful to the people
from its fibrous qualities: for being stripped and then beaten
and prepared, it makes a kind of cloth, with which the South Sea
Islanders clothe themselves. At Taiti, clothing made of it, and
worn chiefly by the common people, was more common than
that made with the Paper Mulberry, though inferior to it in
softness and whiteness.

Some of the Indian species of Artocarpus, as the Juk tree,
Kantal, or A. integrifolius, and the Dephal or A. Lakoocha, and
others, are probably possessed of similar properties; they are
very abundant, grow to a great size, and are frequently cut
down on account of their wood.

There were sent to the Exhibition of 1851, bark and bark
cloth, which may all be produced by species of Artocarpus, as
one of them is said to be bark of the

Trap tree, a species of Artocarpus, which furnishes the
Gutta used as birdlime. The fibre of the bark is used for
fishing lines, cordage, and nets at Singapore.

Chowat Kurnat, similar to the above, from Baram River.

Glam tree bark, from Borneo, furnishes a paper-like bark
much used in caulking the seams of vessels.

Kumut or bark cloth worn by the Kayans when mourning
for the dead—River Baram.

The Paper Mulberry, formerly Morus, now Broussonetia
papyrifera, is atree of this family which has long been famous
for its fibrous bark, as this is made into a kind of cloth as well
as into paper. It is a native of the isles of the Southern
Ocean, as well as of China and of Japan. In Taiti, or Otaheite,
342 PAPER MULBERRY TREE.

and other islands, they make cloth of its bark; and it is said
that the finest and whitest cloth and mantles worn by the
principal people at Otaheite and in the Sandwich Islands is
made of the bark of this tree, and this when dyed red takes a
good colour. It is called Kaili on the west coast of Celebes.
Some of the cloth made of its bark was sent to the Exhibition
of 1851.

The manufacture of paper from this bark was long since
accurately described by Keempfer, as seen by him in Japan,
where they are said to cultivate this plant much as osiers are
cultivated in Europe; the young shoots being cut down in
December, after the leaves have fallen. These are then cut
into good long pieces, and are boiled until the separation of
the bark displays the naked wood, from which it is then easily
separable with the aid of a longitudinal incision.

In order to make paper, the dried bark is soaked for a few
hours in water, after which the outer cuticle and the internal
green layer are scraped off. The stronger and firmer pieces
are separated from the youngest shoots, which are of inferior
quality. The selected bark is boiled in a ley of wood-ashes till
the fibres can be separated by a touch of the finger. The pulp
so produced is then agitated in water till it resembles tufts of
tow. If not sufficiently washed the paper will be coarse, but
strong ; if too much boiled it will be weaker, but white. It is
then beaten on a table, with batons of hard wood, into a pulp.
Mucilage obtained from boiled rice, or from a plant called oreni,
is added to the pulp. These three are stirred with a clean reed
till reduced into a homogeneous liquor, and when of a due con-
sistence are ready for conversion into sheets of paper. This
process is interesting, from its resemblance to that adopted with
the Nepal Paper plant, showing the probable introduction of
the art from China.

Specimens of Paper Mulberry cloth, or rather. paper used
for the purposes of cloth, and made from the bark of the Paper
Mulberry, as well as paper made from the same bark, were
sent to the Exhibition of 1851 from Singapore.

The fibrous properties of the foregoing plant are interesting
not only on its own account but also because it is allied
to the Mulberries, a genus (Morus) numerous in species, and
abounding in individuals, many of which arecultivated on account
PAPER MADE OF MULBERRY AND OF FIG-TREE BARK. 3843

of their fruit, but still more for their leaves as food for the silk-
worm. It is probable that most of the species of the genus
Morus have bark of a sufficiently fibrous nature. But few, if
any, seem to be turned to useful account. Yet the bark of the
White Mulberry seems from very early times to have been
made into paper in China; for Marco Poloinforms us that “the
Grand Khan causes the bark to be stripped from those Mulberry
trees, the leaves of which are used for feeding silk-worms, and
takes from it that thin rind which lies between the coarse bark
and the wood of the tree. This being steeped, and afterwards
pounded in a mortar until reduced to a pulp, is made into
paper, resembling that which is made from cotton.” This fact
directs attention to the bush cultivation of the Mulberry in
Bengal, for feeding silk-worms. This culture consists in
planting cuttings of the Mulberry, which, as they grow, are cut
down about four timés in the year, in order to produce young
leaves for the successive broods of silk-worms. The countless
number of shoots which are thus thrown away, or used as fuel,
would probably, under the agency of the dhenkee, yield good
half-stuff for the paper-maker. Mr. Henley, indeed, informs
us that, before leaving India, he had produced very satisfactory
specimens of half-stuff from the bark of these rejected stems.
The bark separates when the cut stems are steeped in water,
and when pounded up, the greater part of the mucilaginous
matter passes off, leaving a mass, having much of the good
qualities of linen rag half-stuff.

The genus Ficus, celebrated for one of the species yielding
the Fig, one of the most early cultivated of fruits, and another
the Caoutchouc of Assam, while the Bur and the Peepul are,
in India, two of the most highly esteemed of trees, is also
a genus numerous in species which abound in all parts of India.
It is probable that the bark of some of the species, like that of
the Mulberry, may be converted into half-stuff, as Mr. Ostandje
states that the bark of one of the species is used for paper-
making in the Island of Ceylon.

A stately forest tree, called Chandul, which has been placed
here and called Lepurandra saccadora, is indigenous on the
West side of India, as in the ravines at Kandalla and in the
jungles near Coorg, where people manufacture sacks from the
bark by a very simple process. A branch is cut, corresponding
344 FIBROUS NETTLES.

to the length and diameter of the sack wanted. It is soaked
a little, and then beaten with clubs until the inner bark separates
from the wood. ‘This done, the sack formed of the bark is
turned inside out and pulled down, until the wood is sawed off,
with the exception of a small piece left to form the bottom of
the sack, and which is carefully left untouched. These sacks
are in general use among the villagers for carrying rice, and
are sold for about six annas each.

Nerrizs (Urticacee).

In treating of Hemp, it was stated that it belonged to the
natural family of the Nettles, or Urticee. These are widely
diffused throughout both tropical and temperate climates,
though they generally occur where there is considerable
moisture either of soil or of climate. Though small and
herbaceous in Europe, they grow to a gigantic size in the hot
moist parts of Asia, and extend from its warm tropical islands,
all along the Malayan Peninsula, to the foot of the Himalayas,
and along which, and in its valleys, they flourish, even near
to the banks of the Sutlej. Species are also found around the
Neilgherries, and along the Malabar coast to the Concan.
Though the flowers of all are inconspicuous, some of the
species (as Urtica pulcherrima) are remarkable for the
beauty of their foliage; one of them (U. tuberosa) is distin-
guished by its tuberous rootstock, which is eaten by some of
the natives of India, either in its raw or cooked state. Every
one, however, knows that the great characteristic of the
Nettles is their sting. Some of the Indian species are re-
markable, even among Nettles, for this quality; as, for
instance, U. crenulata and U. heterophylla, the latter “a most
ferocious-looking plant.” Many of the Nettles formerly
placed in the genus Urtica have been removed to the genus
Boehmeria, which includes what are sometimes called stingless
Nettles. But many of each have long been famous for the
tenacity of their fibre.

Thus, of the European species, thread and cloth, as also
paper, have been made from the fibre of the common Nettle
(Urtica dioica). So, of the Siberian species, U. cannabina,
URTICA NIVEA, OR CHINA-GRASS. 345

thread and cord is made for the use especially of fishermen.
In the Society Islands, also, cord is made with the fibres of
U. argentea ; and in Japan, the bark of the species called
U. Japonica, is employed in making lines, cordage, and cloth.

Curna-crass, Rages, on Ramue Fisre (Urticacee).

China, Ché or Tchou Ma; Japan, Tsjo, Karao; Sumatra, Caloee; Malay, Ramee ;
in Bonoa, Jnan ; on East Celebes, Gambe ; Rungpore, Kunkhoora and Kunchoora ;
Assam, Rheea; in Shaw, Pan.

The species which is most famous among these Nettles
for its fibre is that called Urtica nivea, but now Boehmeria
nivea, Kempfer, in his ‘Amcenitates Exot.,’ gives Mao, Tsjo,
Karao, as the Japan names of the plant; and Thunberg says
of it, copying from him: “Cortex pro funibus conficiendis,
et filis validis ad texturas, expetitur;” and ‘‘EH seminibus
oleum causticum exprimitur.”

Though we have now abundance of information on the sub-
ject, in place of the hints we formerly had, it is only within
the last few years that Sir W. Hooker has published, in the
«Kew Journ. of Botany,’ vol. i, p. 25; and vol. iii, p. 313, that
he has obtained satisfactory information, through Sir George
Staunton and Dr. Wallich, that the so-called China-grass is
the fibre of this Urtica nivea of Linneus, the Boehmeria nivea
of Gaudichaud.

Though the beautiful fabric known as China-grass cloth
has long been known, its fibre has only in comparatively recent
times attracted much attention, and the plant producing it was
long unknown. When imported, however, into this country,
it sold for 60 to 80, and even for £120 aton. It can be, at
most times, had at Ningpo for about 6 dollars a picul of 133
pounds. The above high prices following every demand, have
prevented this fibre from coming into general use for our manu-
factures. But a small black, almost invisible spot, which
occasionally occurs on the fibre has also prevented its use for
fine purposes.

Though the plant was not known botanically, full descrip-
tions of the mode of preparing the fibre are given in Chinese

-works. One of these accounts was translated and transferred

to the ‘Journ. of the Hortic. Soc. of London, in vol. iv,

part iv, under the head of the Cultivation and Preparation of
346 MEDALS FOR CHINA-GRASS FIBRE.

the Tchou Ma, or Chinese Flax; and this we propose repub-
lishing, for reasons which will be obvious.

By this account we learn that the plant is cultivated with
considerable care; that it may be obtained from seeds, but
more quickly by parting the roots, as it throws up numerous
shoots; that these may be cut down, and that fresh ones
will spring up, so that three several crops are obtained in the
season. Great care is also taken in the scraping, peeling,
steeping, and bleaching of the fibre. We also learn that the
first crop yields strong and coarse fibres, and the second and
third crops, delicate fibres for the finer fabrics.

This China-grass fibre has of late years attracted considerable
attention, and no less than three Prize Medals were given at
the Exhibition of 1851, for the finely prepared specimens of
this fibre. These looked like fine white silk or asbestos, some
dyed of different colours, and some woven into cloth. The
Jury Report of Class IV thus mentions them:

“The process of Messrs. L. W. Wright and Co., for the
preparation of China-grass, &c., for which a patent was obtained
in 1849, consists, essentially, in a very ingenious arrangement
for boiling the stems in an alkaline solution, after they have
previously been steeped for twenty-four hours in water of a tem-
perature of 90°. The fibre is then thoroughly washed with
pure water, and finally subjected to the action of a current of
high-pressure steam till nearly dry. A very beautiful series of
specimens, illustrating the preparation of this fibre, the various
stages of the process, the bleaching of it, and the uses to which
it may be applied, both alone and in conjunction with other
fibrous materials in the formation of mixed fabrics, is shown by
Messrs. Wright.

“Very beautiful samples of China-grass fibre are likewise
shown by Messrs. Hives and Atkinson.

“Equally fine specimens are exhibited by Messrs. Marshall
and Co., of Leeds.

“For all these samples, the Jury have awarded Prize
Medals.”

Caloee or Ramee (Urtica tenacissima, Roxb.)

Dr. Roxburgh, when making his experiments on Fibres at
the beginning of this century, took much pains with one of a
GREAT STRENGTH OF CALOEE FIBRE. 347

species of Urtica, which he named U. tenacissima, because he
considered it one of the strongest fibres he had ever met with.
He first became acquainted with it in consequence of four plants
having been sent to him by Mr. Ewer from Bencoolen,in Sumatra.
He afterwards wrote that ‘some thousand plants have been
reared from these four, so readily does it grow and multiply ;”
in fact, that “it may be grown from cuttings as readily as the
willow.” He further describes it as thriving anywhere, but
most luxuriantly in shade, where there is much moisture. In
four months it attains the height of eight or ten feet, when its
shoots flower and can be cut down. Other shoots then spring
up, which are also soon fit to be cut; and so on successively for
almost any period. If left alone, the plant will in a short time
produce a complete jungle. He, however, experienced con-
siderable difficulty in separating the fibre. The Malays, he
learned, merely steep the shoots in water for ten or twelve days,
peel off the bark, and dry it in the sun.

Besides its strength, he considered that the beauty, fineness,
and softness of the fibre, are also greatly in its favour. In
Sumatra it is called Caloce; but the Malays call it Ramee, and
use the fibre for sewing thread, for twine, and for making
fishing nets. Marsden states, that the shoots are cut down,
dried, and beaten, after which the rind is stripped off; but
Dr. Roxburgh did not find this method to succeed with him.-
He was afterwards informed by a friend at Canton that the
grass cloth of China was made from the fibres of this plant.

In the year 1810 three bales of this Caloee fibre were sent
to the India House, having been produced in the Botanic
Garden at Calcutta, In December, 1811, one of these bales
was sent to Messrs. Sharpe, then of Mark Lane. On the 4th
Feb., 1812, they reported, that having brought the Caloee fibre
to the state of Hemp for the use of cordage, a thread was spun,
of the size of those spun in the King’s Rope-yards, which bore
252 lb., whereas the weight required to be borne in his
Majesty’s yards by Russian Hemp of the same size is only 82 lb.

Other bales were subsequently received on several occasions,
and in 1815 one was sent to Dr. Taylor, of the Society of Arts.
The Society voted one of their medals to Capt. J. Cotton, of the
East India Company, for his efforts in introducing this fibre
into this country.
348 THE CALOERE IDENTIFIED WITH CHINA-GRASS.

A bale of this fibre having been given to Mr. Lee, the
inventor of the machine mentioned at p. 221, he observed that
the fibre appeared to have been peeled off the plant while it was
in a green state, and that this rendered it of less value, He
conceived that it would be more easily cleaned if the plants
were taken dry, without water-steeping or dew-retting. But
when cleaned the fibre is strong, soft, and fine, and of more
value than the best Russian Hemp.

Two more bales were sent in December, 1814, to the Court of
Directors by Dr. F. Buchanan, who had succeeded Dr. Roxburgh,
with a letter, dated 16th December, 1814, from which the
following is an extract: “I beg leave to mention that the
Caloee plant is by no means a new species of Urtica, as Dr.
Roxburgh supposed. It is the Urtica nivea of Willdenow and
the Ramium majus of Rumphius.’ (‘Flora Amboin.,’ y, t.79,
fig. 1.) “The plant under the name of Kankora has from time
immemorial been cultivated in the Dinagpur and Rongypur
districts of Bengal, and its fibres are used for a few purposes
that require great strength with little thickness, but the expense
of cleaning the fibrous part has always prevented it from coming
into general use.” He therefore proposed discontinuing the
cultivation. But if we refer to Roxburgh’s ‘ Flora Indica,’ iii,
p. 591, then, certainly, in manuscript, we find that he was
quite aware of his plant being identical with that of Rumphius,
though it appeared to him to differ from the description of
the U. nivea of Willdenow.

We observe that it was considered at that time that Indian
fibres could never be introduced into this country, as the freight
could not be calculated on at less than £12 per ton, of fifty
cubic feet. Now about 30,000 tons weight are imported.

The Court, in a dispatch dated 8th May, 1816, in sending
out some of Lee’s machines (p. 222), and referring to this plant,
observed: “The Caloee is a plant that appears to be com-

' Rumphius observes, respecting tbe separation of the fibre, that it is more easily
effected when the stem is in a dry state: “ Caulium cortex tenuis est, inque fila findi
potest prasertim in siccata planta ;” and, again, ‘‘ Caules autem isti sponte siccari de-
bent tum facile separatur ipsorum cortex, qui in fila commode findi potest.” “ Alii
adultos sumunt viridis herbe caules, ipsorumque deglubunt exteriorem viridem, et
succosum, corticem ad interiorem album librum qui ligno incumbit, quum in tenuis-
sima findunt fila.” (1. ¢., p. 214.) | He further says, “ It is diligently cultivated in
all places inhabited by the Orang Badjos.”
RHEKA FIBRE OF ASSAM. 849

paratively in its infancy as to cultivation, but being a perennial
the expense attending other fibrous plants is not incurred ;
and if this process, instead of scraping and peeling, will furnish
its fibre clear of its mucilaginous coat, you may rejoice in the
acquisition of the invention ; for we have found the fibre stronger
than Russian Hemp of the best description ; and by some further
improvements of this person’s invention it has been brought to
a thread, preferable to the best material in Europe for Brussels
lace.”

So that at that time one of the most important applications
of this fibre was well known.

Rheea of Assam ; Kunkhoora of Rungpore. (Urtica tenncessimi.)

The above very valuable plant was for some time lost
sight of. But attention having been directed, by Major
Jenkins and the officers employed with him in Assam, to
the fibrous plants of that valley, Major Hannay and Capt.
Dalton were induced to cultivate a small portion of land with
this fibre ; and the former having prepared ten bales of a fibre
which he called Rheea fibre, and five bales of another called
Bon Rheea, and eleven of these having been sent to the Court of
Directors of the East India Company, were referred to the
Author to report upon. This he did to the following effect :

“ The Rheea fibre forwarded by the Government of Bengal
as the produce of Assam in order that its properties and value
may be correctly ascertained in this country, appears to me
likely to prove one of the most valuable products of India, for
in strength it far exceeds the best Hemp, and in fineness it
rivals superior kinds of Flax. Its culture is well known to
the natives of Assam as well as of the districts of Rungpore,
of Dinagepore, also in Burma, Siam, and of other Eastern
countries and islands. It can now be produced and sold with
profit at as cheap a rate as Russian Hemp.’ If any machine
could be invented for facilitating the separation of the fibre
from the woody part of the stalks, the Rheea would speedily
undersell all other fibres, as from four to five crops of fibre can
be obtained from the same plants within the year.

1 This is probably at present incorrect, from the Author misunderstanding a pas-
sage in Major Hannay’s report. (v. p. 352.)
350 IDENTITY OF RAMI, RHEEA, AND CHINA-GRASS.

« The Rheea fibre, though a new import from Assam, is well
known under another name, being identical with the highly
valued article of commerce, known by the name of China-grass,
the Chu-Ma4 of the Chinese, and from which the famed Grass
cloth of China is manufactured. The proof is very complete of
the identity of the plants from which these two differently
named fibres are obtained. One of the educated Chinese
introduced into Upper Assam on the establishment of the Tea
Manufactory in that valley, recognised the Rheea as identical
with the Cai Md of his own country." The Rheea of Assam
had been ascertained by botanists to be the same plant as the
Urtica tenacissima of Dr. Roxburgh, who half a century ago
was informed by a friend at Canton that the plant which he
had obtained as the Caloee of Sumatra, and to which he had
given the above botanical name, was that from which the
Chinese grass cloth was made. Lately, Dr. Macgowan, settled
at Ningpo, sent specimens of the Cha Ma to Calcutta. These
Dr. Falconer found to be the same plant as the Boehmeria
nivea of botanists, described under the name of Urtica tena-
cissima by Roxburgh. He says: ‘The specimens from China
correspond exactly with those grown in the Botanic Garden,
with which I have compared them.’ (May 5, 1849.) Sir
W. Hooker has also identified these two plants as being identi-
cal, and has described the former as yielding what is called
China-grass. Further, manufacturers in this country have
found the two fibres to be the same for all practical purposes.”

Mr. Sangster, who has paid much attention to this fibre,
writes, that ‘ our engineer, who prepared all our China-grass,
is satisfied that your samples are equal to the hest sorts from
China.” So Mr. Marshall, of Leeds, who is the largest con-
sumer of China grass in this country, is satisfied that the
Assam is the same for all practical purposes, as will afterwards
clearly appear.

“The identity of the Rheea fibre with China-grass, or the

' “JT went this morning to the old Chinese Doctor of Medicine here, with a good
grass cloth handkerchief in my hand; and on seeing which he immediately said it
was the Hengchung Hapo of China, and identical with the Rheea of the Doms of
Upper Assam, the stuff being whitened by bleaching. I can trust to what this old

man says, as he is an intelligent man and a great reader; his acount was corroborated

by another intelligent Chinese, formerly one of the Government head tea-makers.”
(Major Hannay.)
WIDE DIFFUSION OF THE PLANT. 351

Chi M4, and consequently its value having been proved, it
is important to find that it is a plant very widely diffused in the
East. Dr. M‘Gowan writes from Ningpo (‘ Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’
vi, p. 241), that ‘the Chad Ma is found at the base of hills from
Cochin China to the Yellow River, and from Chusan to the
farthest west that researches can for the present extend.’
We find that it is known in Celebes and Borneo, cultivated
in Java and Sumatra, and many other of the islands of the Hast,
where it seems to be known chiefly by the names Rami and
Caloee. It is known in Siam and at Singapore; the string
made of it is called ¢alt rami, and the fishing nets manufactured
with it are conspicuous for their elegance and strength. Col.
Burney, in 1836, obtained it from Pivela and Youkyouk, in
the Shan province of Ava, where it is called Pan, and where
Mr. Landers afterwards found it. Plants sent by the Colonel
to Moulmein and to Tavoy succeeded well, but required much
water. It has long been known as cultivated by fishermen in
the Bengal districts of Rungpore and of Dinagepore, where it is
called Kunkhoora. Col. Jenkins first sent it from Cochin in
1836; and it is found in different parts of Assam, where it is
called Rheea, and from whence specimens have frequently been
sent to the Agri-Hortic. Society of Calcutta, and whose
‘Journal,’ vols. iii to viii, contain numerous notices respect-
ing it.

“In Assam, Rungpore, and Dinagepore, this plant seems to
be very generally cultivated, though only in small quantities,
by the Dooms or fishermen, near their huts. The climate of
Assam, and of these districts, being moist, is very suitable to
the plant. Manure is useful, moisture essential for quick
growth, as well as shade and protection from storms to allow it
to grow to the height of eight feet, from which a six-feet fibre
may be extracted. Hence it is most common in the districts
along the foot of hills. It is grown from the separated roots, and
may be cut down several times, so that four or five crops may
easily be obtained during the year, and the aggregate produce
of an acre of ground be about twelve maunds. The different
crops vary in strength and fineness. All the officers of the
district state that the culture is perfectly understood, and
though cultivated only in small quantities by the fishermen for
their own use, it is susceptible of easy and rapid extension, if
352 COST OF PRODUCING RHEEA FIBRE.

the cultivators had any inducement to grow it. The expense
seems to be about five rupees a maund; for Major Hannay,
referring to the fact of £20 a ton having been offered for any
quantity in Calcutta, observes that, as ‘it costs at least five rupees
per maund, you will see that it can scarce be sent to Calcutta
at the price offered. He says, also, that if any cheaper
method of separation from the stalk could be discovered it
would undersell all other fibres.”

From the mode of expression adopted as above by Major Han-
nay, the Author was led to think that the whole expense for the
production of the fibre was five rupees a maund. But in another
place he says, the expenses of cultivation are ten rupees a
maund. Capt. Jenkins (‘Journ. Agri-Hort. Soc.,’ viii, p. 379)
also says, the present cost is ten rupees a maund; but as
the plant can be grown with the least possible trouble, and the
preparation of the Flax from it is a very facile process, he states,
that “there is no doubt the Flax can be grown at half this
price.” The dearness is no doubt owing partly to only small
quantities being produced for the use of the fishermen, who do
not for their purposes require very large quantities. Mr. Henley,
in a letter in the ‘ Journ. Agri-Hort. Society,’ says, that “it
must necessarily be a much more expensive article than either
Sunn or Jute, inasmuch as a labourer can prepare one and a
half to two maunds of Jute per day’s work, whilst of the
Kunchoora he cannot manufacture more than as many seers.”
It is evident that some improved method of separation is the
most essential requisite.

“ Various attempts have been made to make this fibre more
generally known, and to bring it into demand as an article of
commerce.” (The early experiments have already been mén-
tioned.) “It has frequently been sent by Col. Jenkins, and the
officers employed in Assam, to the Agri-Horticultural Society
of Calcutta. Mr. Henley, and others, have sent small quan-
tities to the markets of this country, but without attracting
much attention, or selling it at remunerating prices. Samples
were sent by Major Hannay, Capt. Reynolds, Baboos Deena
Nath, and Lokenath, to the Exhibition of 1851, when honora-
ble mention was made of their exertions.

“A Prize Medal was, however, awarded for some beautifully
white and silky looking fibre sent by the Singapore Com-
CULTURE OF THE PLANT IN JAVA. 353

mittee, from M. Weber, of Java, as the produce of a plant
which he called Boehmeria candicans, and also Linum usi-
tatissimum on the same label. The former is probably only
another name for our plant, as it is said to be the Rami or
Ramee of the Malays. The plant is cultivated by the
Dutch in Java, and its fibre has been introduced into Holland,
and gold medals awarded to Messrs. Meerburg, of Leyden, for
specimens of sail-cloth, ropes, cables, &c., and also for some
finer kinds of cloth and table-cloths. The plant producing
this fibre was called Boehmeria candicans, and also B. utilis by
Professor Blume, but it is probably only a variety of B. nivea,
or perhaps a nearly allied species.

“Major Hannay, who has long paid attention to this fibre,
and to whom much praise is due, was induced to grow, and
prepare the present samples together with some grown by
Capt. Dalton (six bales of Dom Rheea and five of Bon Rheea),
in consequence of applications from this country by merchants,
who, however, did not offer a sum (£20 a ton at Calcutta)
which would pay for the expenses of culture and preparation.

“ Since the samples arrived in this country, I have endea-
voured to make the fibre known, and its value appreciated.
Specimens of both the Rheea and the Wild Rheea were sent
to the Society of Arts, and an account of them published in
their ‘ Journal’ for the 9th of December, 1853. Specimens were
also sent to Mr. Marshall, of Leeds ; likewise to the Commercial
Association of Manchester, to Belfast, to Paris, and to the
Chamber of Commerce at Dundee. Its fibres have been
shown to, and specimens given to numerous individuals well
acquainted with such subjects.

“ The letter of Mr. Marshall is most satisfactory, as he is
himself a spinner of the finest yarns, and the largest if not the
only consumer of China-grass :”

Dear Sir,—We have examined the samples you sent to us, and I now give
you the result.

No. 1. Cultivated Kheea.—This is evidently just the same fibre we are
using, imported from China, under the name of China-grass. It is not so
fine in quality as the best descriptions we obtain from China, which are still
longer than this sample, and of a green colour. We should class it with the
middle or coarse quality, and estimate its value, delivered in England, at
£48 to £50 per ton. It appears to be clean and regular in colour, and free
from dead fibres, which are often a great detriment ; and would be an useful
quality of fibre, of which we could take a regular supply. .

9
354 VALUABLE PROPERTIES OF RHEKA FIBRE.

No. 2. Rheea fibre, sent to the Exhibition of 1851.—The same as No. 1,
but coarser in quality.

No. 3. Fibre from Java.—We think this is the Rheea fibre prepared, but
can hardly judge from so small a sample: it seems to be a good, clean fibre,
and worth further inquiry.

No. 4. Wild Rheea fibre-—Very coarse; only fit for rope-making.

I hope this report will be satisfactory to you. It would certainly be an
important advantage to us, as consumers of China-grass or Rheea fibre, to
be able to obtain a supply from Assam. If it could be supplied at lower
rates than those I have mentioned, that would, of course, much encourage
the consumption of it in this country. I have stated what we consider the
full value at present in our market here. At present there is not much
consumed in England, but a good supply from a nearer market than China
might enlarge the demand,

I an, sir, very truly,
Leeds; Dec. 10, 1853. J. G. Marswau.

Major Hannay, in one of his papers to the Agri-Horti-
cultural Society of Calcutta, mentions that some specimens of
his Rheea fibre having been sent direct to Leeds were valued at
£50 aton. Mr. Sangster, of the firm of Wright and Co., to
whom one of the Prize Medals was awarded, has no doubt of
the identity of the Assam produce with that of China, and
therefore of its being of equal value. Mr. Dickson, who has
had much experience with different fibres and the finer kinds
of Flax, pronounced it to be a splendid fibre. Mr. Norrie, of
Dundee, who has also examined many of these Indian fibres,
finds it a very superior article, which can be brought to different
qualities of fineness to suit the market it is sent to. It can
be prepared to a quality suitable for the Dundee market, and
also to a much finer quality, suitable for the markets requiring
it finer; but says it must be kept soft and silky, which no mere
mechanical means will do. These are very different opinions
from one given a few years ago by a practical man, who
stated that it might answer for carpet warps. Within the last
year many have applied to the Author for information respecting
this fibre, and how it could be obtained. One house in Belfast
applied, through the Secretary of the Commercial Association of
Manchester, for fifty tons of the fibre, and one gentleman, who
has long paid attention to China-grass, and has carefully
examined the Rheea fibre of Assam, addressed a letter to the
Court of Directors of the East India Company, stating that
he wished to obtain it to the extent of fifty tons monthly for a
Continental house.

“ The Rheea Fibres for Rope-making.—Though I hayenodoubt
GREAT STRENGTH OF RHEEA AND WILD RHEEA FIBRE. 355

that, when the peculiarities of the Rheea fibre, or China-grass,
are more generally known, its excellent qualities will be fully
appreciated, and it will come into more general use as a rival to
the finer kinds of Flax; yet at present there are, I believe, but
few. spinners who thoroughly understand its management or
have machinery to do it justice. It is not likely therefore to
realise its full value in the market at present. Hence it was
desirable to have its strength tested as a substitute for Hemp,
as it might not all be required to supply the place of Flax. Mr.
W. Cotton has been good enough to have a bale of Rheea fibre,
and also one of the Wild Rheea, twisted into five-inch rope, and
prepared by the warm register in Messrs. Huddart’s rope-
manufactory at Limehouse ; the strength of each was carefully
tried and compared with similar rope made of Russian Hemp. I
am happy to state that the experiments which I this day (16th
Jan., 1854) witnessed were most satisfactory, neither rope
breaking until the Rheea fibre bore above nine tons weight,
and the Wild Rheea, within a few pounds, nearly as much.
The results of the experiments are stated in the accompanying
memorandum, with which I have been favoured by Messrs.
Huddart. (v. p. 373.)

“ Bon Rheea or Jungle Rheea.—Though it is to be hoped
that the Rheea fibre will prove too valuable to be only employed
for rope-making, the Wild Rheea, on the contrary, is well cal-
culated, and is indeed sent, for this purpose. No information
has been sent respecting the plant yielding it, but it is no
doubt one of the Nettle tribe, and from being called Bon or
Jungle Rheea, it has been inferred that it-is the Rheea in a
wild state. But though we have no proof of this, it is satis-
factory to find that Major Hannay describes it as ‘ uncultivated,
but very common in all parts ‘of the province:’ and again,
“common in most of our forests; by proper management, any
quantity of young shoots can be obtained, and as the divided
roots afford numerous shoots, and the plant can be propagated
by slips as well as by seed, its cultivation for its fibre might be
carried on with facility.’ He further says, ‘it is cultivated
largely by the Hill tribes on the west of Yeunan, and by the
Singpoos and Dhoanneas of our own north-eastern frontier, toa
small extent only for a coarse cloth, but chiefly for nets’ It is
recognised by the Nepaulese as the Leepeeah of Nepal. Capt.
856 ENCOURAGEMENT TO COLLECT THE RHEEA FIBRES.

A. Thompson, of the firm of Thompson and Co., rope-makers,
of Calcutta, says of it, that it is all that can be desired for
either canvas or lines, and only requires to be known to be
generally used for that purpose.”

« Having ascertained in the most satisfactory manner that the
fibres in question are possessed of the requisite degree of
strength, and the Rheea fibre of fineness in addition, the next
point to determine is how to make their good qualities so
known in the market, that the fibres may not be condemned
as new things and of no value. I am informed by the best
judges, that, having taken the best means to determine the real
value of the articles, they must next be sent into the market
for three or four years in sufficient quantities to attract the
notice of the best manufacturers; and for this purpose I am told
that from ten to twenty tons annually would be sufficient:
others say twice a year, but this in the case of India would be
needlessly troublesome. The time, however, is extremely
favorable for such an experiment, from the high price of
Russian Hemp, which I am told will not come down to its
ordinary price for two years, if the supply of money from this
country is stopped for even this season.”

‘The next difficulty is to induce the natives of the districts
containing these valuable fibres to extend their ordinary culti-
vation of the Rheea or of the Hemp, or to collect the Wild
Rheea in increased quantities, and to prepare them all as care-
fully as possible for the English market. The officiating Com-
missioner of Revenue in Assam recommends that, as the culture
of the Rheea fibre is sufficiently well understood, ‘the best
way to encourage its extension would be to secure to the ryots
a sure market at remunerating prices.’ Capt. Dalton, Col-
lector of Debrooghur, states, ‘ that the best method would be
for Government to offer a premium of so much a ton on all that
is produced for three or four years.” Both recommendations
might be united in one, if the officers who take so zealous an
interest in the improvement of their districts were authorised
to purchase (unless they find individuals willing to do so) from
ten to twenty tons of these fibres in their respective districts,
taking care that they were as carefully and cleanly prepared as
possible, and as closely resembling as possible the specimens of
Petersburgh Hemp which Mr, W. Cotton has been good enough
TRANSMISSION OF RHEEA FIBRE FROM ASSAM. 857

to send for transmission to India. The improved appearance
of the Rheea fibre sent by Major Hannay is owing to specimens
sent out to him by Mr. W. Sangster. I would include in this
direction for the Rheea fibre also the districts of Rungpore and
of Dinagepore, where the same fibre is cultivated under the
name of Kunkhoora, and where labour is more abundant than in
Assam.”

TRANSMISSION OF RHEEA FIBRE FROM ASSAM.

In conformity to the orders of the Court of Directors,
directions were sent by the Governor-General of India with
printed copies of the papers to the Commissioners in Assam
and Rajeshaye, and to Singapore.

Colonel Jenkins, in his reply, dated 2d August, 1854, reports
that Capt. Dalton, Collector of Luckimpore, did not expect to
be able to obtain more than two or three tons, as the cultivation
of the Rheea is at present confined to a few villages of fishermen,
and that Major Hannay some time since abandoned the experi-
mental cultivation which he had commenced, on account of the
low prices then offered, which would not pay the cultivators.

But it is stated—“ As the large introduction of this article
amongst our articles of commerce is likely to be a matter of
great importance, I would beg to recommend that Government
should buy up any quantity, up to ten tons, procurable each
season for the next three years.” This has been sanctioned by
the Indian Government.

Capt. Dalton writes: “The lowest price at which it is likely
to be procurable is six annas a seer, or about £42 sterling a ton.
When it is more extensively cultivated, and the best method of
preparation thoroughly understood, so that, as in the reeling of
silk, women and children may be employed as well as men, it
ought not to cost more than four annas a seer, or £28 a ton.”
He continues :

“The process described in Dr. Royle’s aver, quoting from
Major Hannay, is that commonly used by the natives of the
province, Major Hannay practised a different method, which
he calls the Indo-Chinese, which is not only the most cleansing,
but also the cheapest.” (v. p. 363.)
358 TRANSMISSION OF RHEEA FIBRE FROM ASSAM.

Major Hannay, besides describing this method as below,
states that he had been requested to forward to England some
of the Rheea as stripped from the stalk, and without any further
scraping or cleaning. But he is of opinion that if the Rheea
is not immediately deprived of its gummy and mucilaginous
matter, it would most probably rot before reaching England.
(This, however, would only be the case if it were not perfectly
dry, and this may be difficult to effect in a moist climate like
that of Assam.) ‘‘ A cleaning factory established in the Rheea-
growing districts, and capital employed to encourage the ryots
to cultivate, would be the most likely means to cheapen the
article in the market and increase its subsequent consumption.”
Ten bales of the Dom Rheea had, however, been sent off to
this country.

Dr. Oxley, in reply to the requisition for some of the fibre
from Singapore, writes (19th July, 1854) that the Ramee is
indigenous all over the Malayan Archipelago ; it grows freely
at Singapore, but is not cultivated or planted to any extent,
and therefore it could not be obtained in any quantity, though
it is used by the Malays as twine, their common name for which
is “ tali ramee.”’ They make their fishing lines of it, and prefer
their own lines to any of European manufacture. The refuse
in preparing the fibre is admirably adapted for making paper,
and is used for this purpose in Java. As this fibre is remarkable
for fineness, flexibility, and strength, it seems well worthy of
cultivation, especially if any cheaper method of cleaning
can be devised, as it is an object of attention in Java,
whence it is imported into Holland, and various goods made
of it, as we have already stated, by the Messrs. Meerburg, at
Leyden.

The Ramee, that is, the Rheea of Assam, yielding four or
five cuttings in the year, amounting to about twelve maunds of
valuable fibre, must, therefore, be well worth cultivation in
many localities from Assam to Arracan, also in Pegu, and down
to Singapore, and perhaps also on the Malabar Coast. We
therefore republish modes of cultivation and of preparation. The
first, from Chinese works, is very similar to the directions from
similar sources given by Dr. M‘Gowan, of Ningpo (v. ‘Journ.
Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ vol. vi, p. 209); while the second is that
which Major Hannay so successfully practises in Assam.
359

CHINESE CULTIVATION.— THE TCHOU MA, OR CHINESE FLAX
(URTICA NIVEA).

Translated from the Chinese, by M. Stanislas Julien, and retranslated from
the French.

[The following extract possesses much interest, in addition to what it derives
from its Chinese origin, in consequence of its being not impossible
that attempts may be made to introduce the cultivation of Tchou-ma
into Great Britain. Its delicate fibre forms the Flax from which the
finest of the Chinese linen fabrics are manufactured. ]

Amongst the products of Chinese industry which were exhibited a few

ears ago in the Rue St. Laurent, were some pieces of a fine silky tissue,
called by the Chinese hia-pou or summer cloth, and made of the fibres of
the plant called by botanists Urtica nivea, Some seeds of this plant were
sent from Canton in 1843, by M. Hébert, but they never arrived; and I was
at that time told that they would probably not grow in our climate. I am
sorry that I was not then able to translate the papers which I now lay
before the public. After reading the following account of the cultivation of
the plant in question, it will be readily seen, by those who are competent
judges of the matter, that the supposed want of success was owing to nothing
but ignorance of the care and delicate treatment which are necessary for
the culture of the plant now before us. The way in which its valuable
threads are peeled, ‘steeped, and bleached, is, as will be seen, described by
the Chinese authors, with a precision and minuteness amply sufficient to
enable any person to pursue this new branch of industry in our own country.
Until a new supply of seeds is received from China, roots or young plants of
the Urtica nivea may be obtained from the Garden of Plants, and be pro-
pagated in the way mentioned below; and thus may a substance be given
to our manufacturers, which will, in their hands, be made into a tissue as
soft as silk, and as fine as, but stronger and tougher than the best French
cambric.

Cultivation of the Tchou-ma (Urtica nivea).
(‘Imperial Treatise of Chinese Agriculture,’ lib. Ixxviii, fol. 3.)

For the purpose of sowing the ¢chou-ma in the third or fourth month, a
light sandy soil is preferred. The seeds are sown in a garden, or where
there is no garden, in a piece of ground near ariver or a well. The ground
is dug once or twice, then beds one foot broad, and four feet long are made ;
and after that the earth is again dug. The ground is then pressed down,
either with the foot or the back of a spade. When it is a little firm, its sur-
face is raked smooth. The next night the beds are watered, and on the
following morning the earth is loosened with a small-toothed rake, and then
“again levelled.

After that half a ching (four pints and a half) of moist earth and a ho (one
pint) of seeds are taken and well mixed together. One fo of seeds is enough
for six or seven beds. After having sown the seeds it is not necessary that
they should be covered with earth; indeed, if that were done, they would
not germinate. ;

The next thing to be done is to procure four sticks, sharp at one end, and
to place them in the ground in a slanting position, two on one side of the
bed and two on the opposite side; they are for the purpose of supporting a
sort of little roof two or three feet high, and covered with a thin mat. :

In the fifth or sixth month, when the rays of the sun are powerful, this.
360 CHINESE CULTIVATION OF THE

light mat is covered with a thick layer of straw. If this precaution were not
adopted, the young plants would be destroyed by the heat.

Before the seed begins to germinate, or when the young leaves first ap-
pear, the beds must not be watered. By means of a broom dipped in water
the roof of matting is wetted so as to keep the ground underneath moist. At
night the roof is removed in order that the young plants may catch the dew.

‘As soon as the first leaves have appeared, if parasitical plants appear they
must. be immediately pulled up. When the plant is an inch or two high, the
roof may be laid aside. If the earth is rather dry, it must be slightly mois-
tened to the depth of about three inches. ~

A stiffer soil is now chosen and thrown into beds, to which the young
plants are to be transferred. The following night the first beds, in which
the young plants are, are to be watered, the next morning the new beds are
to be watered also. The young plants are then dug up with a spade, care
being taken to keep a small ball of earth round their roots, and are pricked
out at a distance of four inches the one from the other. The ground is
often hoed.

At the end of three or five days the earth must be watered, and again
at the end of ten days, fifteen days, and twenty days.

After the tenth month the plants must be covered with a foot of fresh
horse, ass, or cow dung.

(Extract from the General Treatise on to intituled ‘ Nong-tching-tsiouen-
chou.

When the tchou-ma is cultivated for the first time it is raised from seed.
The roots of the seedling plants give of themselves new shoots. At the end
of afew years the roots cross each other and intertwine, when the stems
must be separated and replanted.

At the present day it is very common in the countries of ’An-king and
Kien-ning, to disentangle the roots with a knife, and to replant them. ‘Those
who cannot procure seeds follow the plan adopted for obtaining young mul-
berry trees from layers.

This plan is a very quick one.

In those countries, however, where there are no roots of the tchou-ma,
and where it is not easy to procure them from other places, the seed is had
recourse to.

As soon as the young plants are a few inches high they are watered with
a mixture of equal quantities of water and liquid manure. Immediately after
the stems are cut the ground must be watered, and this ought to be done at
night or on a cloudy day; for if the plants were watered in the sunshine,
they would rust. Great care must be taken not to make use of pig’s dung.

The tchou-ma may be planted every month ; but it is necessary that the
ground be moist.

Transplantation and Propagation of the Tchou-ma.
(‘ Imperial Treatise on Agriculture,’ lib. Ixxviii, fol. 5.)

When the tufts of the Tchou-ma are strong enough the earth around is
dug, and new stocks are detached and transplanted elsewhere. The prin-
cipal stock then grows more vigorously. At the end of four or five years,
the old stock becoming excessively strong, they are divided and replanted in
other beds.

Some persons are satisfied with bending the long stems down and obtaining
layers in the ordinary way.

When a bed becomes too crowded, another must be formed, and then
another and another. In this way the plants may be propagated to any
extent.
TCHOU MA, OR URTICA NIVEA. 361

A stiff soil that has been well worked in autumn is chosen and manured
with fine muck. In the following spring the plants are transplanted. The
best time for carrying on this operation is when vegetation commences; the
next best is when the new shoots appear; and the worst is when the stems
have attained a considerable size.

The new plants are placed a foot and a half from each other, and when they
have been well surrounded with earth they are watered.

In summer as well as in autumn advantage must be taken of the time
when the earth has just been moistened by rain. The offsets can be trans-
planted to places near at hand; but it is essential to have a ball of earth
around each plant.

To propagate the ¢ehou-ma, proportions of its roots two or three inches
long are detached by a knife, and are placed by twos and threes in little
trenches that are about a foot and a half from each other. The roots are
then surrounded with good earth and watered; the watering is renewed
three or five days afterwards. When the new stems have attained a certain
height, the earth must be often hoed.

If the earth is dry it must be watered. Ifthe plants have to be carried to
a distance, their roots ought to be surrounded by the soil in which they have
been growing, well enveloped in leaves of the reed. They are placed, in
addition to this, in a mat folded so as to exclude them from air and light.
They may then be carried without danger to a distance of many hundred
miles.

The first year, when the plants are a foot high, they are gathered ; they
are gathered again in the second year. The fibres of the cut stems are fit
for spinning. :

In the tenth month of every year, before cutting the offsets which pass
beyond the roots, the earth is covered with a thick layer of cow or horse
dung. In the second month the manure is raked off, in order to allow the
new plants to come up freely. At the end of three years the roots become
excessively strong. If part of the plants which come up in close tufts were
not removed, the others would be smothered.

Gathering the Tchou-ma.

The échou-ma may be gathered three times a year. When the stems are
cut, the little shoots springing from the rootstock should be about half an
inch high. As soon as the large stems are cut, the suckers spring up with
more vigour, and soon furnish a second crop. If the young shoots be
too long, the large stems ought not to be cut; but the ground shoots would
not become vigorous, and would be prejudicial to the development of the
larger stems.

The first crop is got in towards the commencement of the fifth month ;
the second in the middle of the sixth, or at the beginning of the seventh
month; and the third and last in the middle of the eighth or the beginning
of the ninth month. The stems of the second crop grow much faster than
the others, and are by far the best. . 2

After the crop, the stocks of tehow-ma are covered with manure and imme-
diately watered.

Peeling the Fibres of the Tchou-ma.

When the stems are all got in they are split longitudinally with knives of
iron or of bamboo. The bark is first removed; then the lower layer (which
is white, and covered with a shrivelled pellicle which comes off by itself) is
scraped off with a knife. The interior fibres are then seen; they are to be
removed and softened in boiling water. If the échou-ma be peeled in winter,
the stems must be previously steeped in tepid water in order that they may
be the more easily split.
362 PREPARATION OF THE TCHOU MA,

The first layer of tehou-ma is coarse and hard, and is only good for making
common materials; the second is a little more supple and fine; the third,
which is the best, is used for making extremely fine light articles.

Steeping and Bleaching the Tchou-ma.

The stems are tied up in little sheaves and placed on the roof of a house,
in order that they may be moistened by the dew at night, and dried again by
the sun in the day. :

In the course of from five to seven days they become perfectly white. If
the weather be cloudy or rainy the stems are placed under cover in a current
of air. If they are wetted by the rain they immediately turn black. :

Another author’ says, after peeling the fibres they are tied in skeins,
arranged in a circle, and steeped for a night in a pan of water; they are then
spun on awheel. This done, they are again steeped in water containing the
ashes of burnt mulberry wood.

Having taken them from the pans they are divided into packets of 5 oz.
weight each; the packets are placed for a night in a tub of a mixture con-
sisting of a cup of pure water and an equal quantity of powdered chalk to
each packet.

The next day the chalk is got rid of, and the fibres are boiled in water
containing straw ashes, by which process they become white and supple.
Being now dried in the sun they are again boiled in pure water; they are
then stirred about in more water, which finishes the cleansing process, and
lastly they are dried in the sun.

This done, the fibres are joined end to end on the wheel so as to make
long threads, which form the warp and the woof, and are manufactured into
stuff in the usual way.

Another author says, after having spun the fibres of tchou-ma, they are
boiled in lime water, and when cool, carefully washed in pure water. Then
by means of a bamboo sieve, placed on the surface of the water, they are
spread out in equal layers in order that they may be as it were half wetted
below, and half dried above. As night approaches, they are taken out,
strained and dried : the same process is repeated the next and following days,
until the threads are perfectly white. They are then, but not before, fit for
being made up.

According to another process, the tchou-ma is first soaked, then spun and
made up, instead of being soaked after the spinning.

Other persons again take the fresh fibres, expose them at night to the dew,
and in the day to the sun; then spin and weave, bleaching last of all.

Others, lastly, following those who employ the plant Ko, cut the stems,
soften the fibres in the steam of boiling water, then weave, and do not
bleach at all, Fibres thus prepared give a material that is more supple
and fibrous.

Mode of gathering the best seeds of Tchou-ma.

When seeds of tchou-ma are wanted for the purpose of sowing, those which
are found on the main shoots are to be preferred. In the ninth month, after
the period choang-kiang (after the 2d of October), the seeds are collected
and dried in the sun; they are then mixed with damp sand, and put in a
bamboo basket, carefully covered with straw. This precaution is needed,
for if the seeds are frozen they will not grow. The seeds of the lateral
shoots are not fit for sowing. Before sowing, the seeds are thrown into water
and those that sink are used, while the others are of no use. : ‘

The seeds are sown before the first half of the first month. The best seeds
are those which are spotted black. After they are sown they are covered
with ashes. Ifthey are sown thick the plants coming from them will be weak
AND OF RHEEA FIBRE, 363

and sickly ; they will be strong and healthy, on the contrary, if the seeds are
thinly. sown. As soon as the leaves appear the plants are watered with liquid
manure. In the seventh month the seeds are collected, put on canvas, and
hung in a strong current of air ; this aids and hastens germination. (‘Journal
of the Horticultural Society of London,’ vol. iv, part iv.)

Inpo-CaunesE Mutuon for preparing the Rheea Fibre, as practised in Upper
Assam, By Major Hannay.

To cut the Rheea.—The Rheea is fit for cutting when the stems become
of a brown colour for about six inches upwards from the root.

Hold the top of the stalk in the left hand, and with the right hand strip
off the leaves by passing it quickly down to the root, and cut off with a sharp
knife, taking care to be above the hairy network of the roots, as these should
be covered up with manure immediately to ensure another crop quickly ; lop
off the tender top to the stalk, and make the reeds up into bundles of 200 or
250, if the stripping process is not to be carried on in the field or garden, but
it is best to strip off the bark and fibre on the spot, as the burnt ashes of the
stem afford a good dressing for the roots along with dry cow dung.

To strip off the Bark and Fibre.—The operator holds the stalk in both
hands nearly in the middle, and pressing the forefinger and thumb of both
hands firmly, gives it a peculiar twist, the inner pith is broken through; and
then passing the fingers of his right and left hand rapidly, alternately,
towards each end, the bark and fibre is completely separated from the stalk,
in two strands.

Making up into Bundles.—The strands of bark and fibre are now made up
into bundles of convenient size, tied at the smaller end with a shred of fibre,
and put into clean water for a few hours, which I think deprives the plant
of its tannin or colouring matter, the water becoming quite red in a short
time.

Cleaning Process.—The cleaning process is as follows :

The bundles are put on a hook fastened in a post, by means of the tie at
the smaller end, at a convenient height for the operator, who takes each
strand separately of the larger end in his left hand, passes the thumb of his
right hand quickly along the inner side, by which operation the outer bark is
completely separated from the fibre, and the riband of fibre is then
thoroughly cleaned by two or three scrapings with a small knife. This com-
pletes the operation, with some loss, however, say one fifth, and if quickly
dried in the sun it might at once be made up for exportation; but the
appearance of the fibre is much improved by exposure (immediately after
cleaning) on the grass to a night’s heavy dew, in September or October, or a
shower of rain during the rainy season. After drying, the colour improves,
and there is no risk from mildew on the voyage homewards.

Orger Srecizs or Urrica anp Boenmerta (Urticee).

Bon Ruaeza, Wild or Jungle Rheea, Boehmeriz species.

In the preceding observations, the Bon or Bun Rheea, that is,
Jungle Rheea, is so called as if it were the Dom Rheea or China
Nettle in a wild state. Of this there is no proof, but con-
siderable probability that it is a distinct species, possessed of
many of the same properties as the Ramee or Rheea Nettle.
36-4 OTHER SPECIES OF URTICA AND BOEHMERIA.

Indeed, Major Hannay, who has chiefly brought it into notice,
says of Bon or Jungle Rheea (Boehmeri@ species) that it is a
jungle plant, common in the Assam forests, and thriving best
in the vicinity of water or of running streams. When unmo-
lested it grows to a tree, but, by proper management, any
quantity of young shoots can be obtained; and as the divided
roots afford numerous shoots, the plant can be propagated by
slips as well as by the seed. Its cultivation for its fibre might
be carried on as with the Willow in Europe.

By the Chinese in Assam it is said to be exported into
Southern from Northern China. It is cultivated largely by
the Hill tribes, north-west of Yeunan, and by the Singpoos
and Dhoanncas of our own north-eastern frontier, to a small
extent only for a coarse cloth, but chiefly for nets. The
Nepaulese recognise it as the Leepeeah of Nepaul. (‘ Journ.
Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ vii, p. 222.)

This fibre, in the state in which it has been sent, is well
adapted for rope-making. It is about five feet in length, brown
in colour, strong, and flexible. Capt. W. Thompson, of the
house of Messrs. Thompson, rope-makers, of Calcutta, says of it ;
“Tt is all that can be desired either for canvas or lines, and only
requires to be known to be generally used for such purposes.”
It was the kind which was made into a five-inch rope by Messrs.
Huddart (p. 373,) along with the Dom Rheea or China-grass,and
broke with a weight of about nine tons, or precisely 21,025 Ib.
Since then, it has been made up into ropes of various sizes,
which have been carefully tested, and found in every case greatly
to exceed in tenacity those made of Russian Hemp of the same
size, as shown in the Table at p.374, It has also been made up
into lines and cords, some of them almost fine enough for fishing
lines: in all which it displays its fitness for all such purposes,
from the union of strength and flexibility. There is no doubt
that it would command a market as soon as its good qualities
become known. It would be desirable to ascertain whether,
by pressing it between grooved rollers, or something of that kind,
it could not be sent in a still cleaner state, and command a still
higher price. It was valued at £35 a ton.
365

Mesakuer Frere, Boehmeriz species (Urticee).

Another fibre is enumerated by Major Hannay (‘ Journ. Agri-
Hortic. Soc.,’ vii, p. 217), which he says is called Mesakhee, and
is an Urtica, but not a stinging one. It is a shrubby tree, pro-
bably a species of Boehmeria, and is very abundant. Its young
branches, which-are tender and red-coloured, as well as its
leaves, are edible. Only a small quantity was at first sent, but
afterwards three maunds of the fibre, to Messrs. Gouger and Co.,
to ascertain the value of the fibre in the Home market. Capt.
Thompson says of it, in a report to the Agri-Horticultural
Society : “I forward a log-line made of the fibre of the red
Mesakhee plant, as also the remainder of the fibre itself. I find
the strength of it quite equal to Russia Hemp, but for want
of being properly harvested, the fibres cling so close together
that great loss of material takes place in hackling it. I think
it well adapted for cordage, and if brought into general use
ought to bring as much as Petersburgh Hemp.” (‘ Journ. Agri-
Hortic. Soc.,’ viii, p. 90.)

Major Hannay says: “The Murrees and others might be
induced to bring the fibre for sale; but as the value of this
Nettle in the market has not been ascertained, I have only
offered at the rate of Rs. 5 per maund, which, however, on
account of the slow method of manipulation, has not been con-
sidered remunerative.”’ (1. c., p. 89.)

Of Major Hannay’s Nos. 6, 7, and 8, the first, which is the
foregoing, he says is called Mesakhee or Mejingah, the other
Mesakhee. No.6 has but little fibre and very rough stem.
No. 7 has much the same habits as Bon Rheea, and can be
cultivated like it. Its fibre is also of the same character, but
white, strong, and durable. It is used for the same purposes.

Capt. Dalton, in a letter, dated 20th July, 1854, referring
to what the Author had said respecting the Wild or Bon Rheea,
writes: “ As he alludes to the batch sent through this office by
Major Hannay in 1853, he must refer to the ‘ Mesakhee,’ of
which large quantities are procurable, growing wild in Upper
Muttock and elsewhere in the district. The imstructions
regarding the specimen of Petersburg Hemp sent out as a
sample are more applicable to this fibre than to the Dom Rheea.
366 CHOR PUTTA, OR SURAT.

I propose to take measures for collecting as much of it as I can
get prepared. The cost will be from three to four annas a seer.
This might be accompanied by samples of the Bon Rheea, Bon
Surat, and other fibres, all prepared to resemble the Petersburgh
Hemp. If for these wild fibres we had a good market, the
frontier tribes, Singphoos, &c., who understand how to prepare
them, might be induced to assist in supplying them.” The
specimens which the Author had referred to in the above com-
munication were sent under the name of Bon Rheea from India.
The two plants, Bon Rheea and Mesakhee, may be identical or
nearly allied species, but this cannot be ascertained without
authentic Botanical specimens. Major Hannay distinguishes
the two kinds—the Bon Rheea being his No. 2, and Mesakhee
No, 6—in his paper in the Journ. Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ vii, p. 215.

Cuor Porta, or Surat, Urtica crenulata (Urticee).

This plant is a native of the hills and valleys on the east of
Bengal. Dr. Roxburgh obtained it first near Luckipore. It
has since been found near the Pundua Hills. Major Hannay
enumerates it among the fibrous plants of Assam. It has an
erect shrubby stem, with oblong acute leaves, having the margins
crenulate or slightly dentate, both sides alike the hark armed
with acute burning hairs. The sting produces great pain,
extending to the armpit; abates after two or three days, but
does not disappear entirely for nine days. Major Hannay says
of this and another, which he enumerates as Nos. 3 and 4, and
calls gigantic stinging Nettles, that they afford a quantity of
fine white fibre, but apparently of no great strength, and, by
report, not very lasting. Some of the Hill tribes use the fibre
for fabricating coarse cloths.

Horoo Surat of Assam, or Nettenerry Nertiz, Urtica
heterophylla (Urticee).

The Horoo Surat of Assam, said to be the Urtica heterophylla
of Dr. Roxburgh, is the most widely diffused of the large Indian
Nettles, inasmuch as it is found in the Southern Concan,
NEILGHERRY NETTLEK. 367

on the Malabar coast, and specimens of fibre of what was
called Neilgherry Nettle, produced by Urtica heterophylla, were
sent by Dr. Wight to the Exhibition of 1851. It is also found
in Burmah and in Assam; and along the foot of the hills
extends to the DeyraDoon. It may be seen even in the northern
valleys of the Himalayas. It is an annual, with erect angular
stems, marked with small white specks, in which are inserted
stiff, most acute bristles. The leaves are long, petioled, caudate
at the base, variously lobed, aud towards the top of the plant
almost palmate; all are grossly serrate, armed with the same
bristles as the stem and branches, from four to eight inches
long and nearly as broad. Dr. Roxburgh says of it, that it is
the most ferocious-looking plant he has seen, and it acts
up to its appearance : the least touch of any part producing most
acute pain, but fortunately of short duration. The bark
abounds in fine, white, glossy, silk-like, strong fibre. Major
Hannay says of it, that it is the Horoo Surat of the Assamese,
and known to the Bhotecas as the Serpah or Herpah, —that the
fibre is extensively used by them in the manufacture of cloth.
It was recognized by the Chinese as the Theng Mah, and said
to be prized for the softness of its fibre, as well as for its strength.
As the seeds are quick of vegetation, the cultivation of this plant
can be carried to any extent.

The fibre of this Nettle, sent from the Neilgherries, is very
Jong, soft, white, and silky, and has been much admired by
many of the best judges of fibres. The specimens were sent
by Dr. Wight, and prepared in a rude way by boiling by the
Todawars of the Neilgherry Mountains. Dr. Wight says of
it, that “it produces a beautifully fine and soft flax-like fibre,
which the Todawars use as a thread material, and if well pre-
pared fitted to compete with Flax for the manufacture of even
very fine textile fabrics.”

This fibre could of course be equally well prepared in a mul-
titude of other places, some near, others distant from the sea.
Mr. Marshall did not consider it well suited for his purpose.
At Dundee, it was thought a very good fibre, but rather dry.
Mr. Dickson, who has passed it through his machine and
liquid, has rendered it like a beautiful, soft, silky kind of Flax,
and calls it a wonderful fibre, of which the tow would be useful
for mixing with wool, as has been done with the China-grass, and
368 POOAH FIBRE.

the fibre used for the finest purposes. If this should be proved
to be the case on trial, it might no doubt be produced abun-
dautly, and, with some improved process of separation, very
cheaply, at easily accessible places on the Western Coast of the
Indian Peninsula.

Pooau Fisre, Boehmeria frutescens (Urticee).

Dr. Campbell, Superintendent of Darjeeling, addressed a
letter to the Agri-Hortic. Soc., forwarding a new description of
Wild Hemp from Eastern Nipal and Sikkim, on behalf of
Sergeant Crutcher, who used the fibre in his craft of sewing
leather.

“ Description of the Plant.—The plant from which the Hemp
is made is called ‘ Pooah’ by the Parbuttias ; “ Kienki’ by the
Lepchas; and ‘Yenki’ by the Limboos. It grows to the
height of six or eight feet, and varies in the thickness of the
stem from the size of a quill to that of the thumb. The leaf
is serrated, of a dark green colour above, silvery white below,
not hairy or stinging; and has a reddish pedicle of about three
inches long. The secd forms in small currant-like clusters
along the top of the plant, and on alternate sides about an
inch apart. Two small leaves spring from the stem at the
centre of and above each cluster of seed,

“ Habitat.—The ‘ Pooah’ is not cultivated, but grows wild
and abundantly in the valleys throughout the mountains of
Eastern Nipal and Sikkim, at the foot of the Hills skirting
the Tarai to the elevation of 1000 or 1200 feet ; and within
the mountains up to 3000 feet. It is considered a hill plant,
and not suited to the plains or found in them. It does not
grow in the forest, but is chiefly found in open clear places, and
in some situations overruns the abandoned fields of the Hill
people within the elevations which suit it. It sheds its leaves
in the winter, throws them out in April and May, and flowers
and seeds in August and September. The exact period altering
of necessity with the elevation.

“ When used,—lIt is cut down for use when the seed is
formed ; this is the case with tle common Flax, in Europe.
At this time the bark is most casily removed and the produce
POOAH FIBRE. 369

is best. After the seed is ripe it is not fit for use, at least it is
deteriorated.

“ How prepared.—As soon as the plant is cut, the bark or
skin is removed. This is very easily done. It is then dried
in the sun for a few days; when quite dry it is boiled with
wood-ashes for four or five hours ; when cold, it is beaten with
a mallet on a flat stone until it becomes rather pulpy, and all
the woody portion of the bark has disappeared; then it is
well washed in pure spring water and spread out to dry. After
exposure for a day or two toa bright sun it is ready for use.
When the finest description of fibre is wanted, the stuff after
being boiled and beaten, is daubed over with wet clay, and
spread out to dry. When thoroughly dry the clay is rubbed
and beaten out; the fibre is then ready for spinning into
thread, which is done with the common distaff.

“‘ Uses.—The ‘Pooah’ is principally used for fishing nets,
for which it is admirably adapted on account of its great
strength of fibre and its extraordinary power of long resisting
the effects of water. It is also used for making game-bags,
twine, and ropes. It is considered well adapted for making
cloth, but is not much used in this way.”

Dr. Falconer recognized the “‘ Pooah” as the ‘“ Boehmeria
frutescens of Botanists, common at lower elevations on the
Himalayas from Gurhwal to the Sikkim hills (Ganges to
Burrampooter). In the outer hills of Gurhwal and Kumaon
it is called ‘Poee,’ and the tough fibre is used there for
making nets. In Darjeeling, B. frufescens goes by a similar
name, ‘ Pooah,’ and the fibre is used for similar purposes. It
was first described by Thunberg, who distinguishes it from the
textile species, Boehmeria (or Urtica) nivea, which grows there
in abundance.”

Capt. Thompson, to whom the specimens of Pooah fibre
were sent, says of it, that, ‘ when properly dressed, it is quite
equal to the best Europe Flax, and will produce better sailcloth-
than any other substance I have seen in India. I observe,
from Dr. Campbell’s communication, that mud is used in the
preparation, which clogs it too much, &. My superintendent,
Mr. W. Rownee, who understands the nature of these sub-
stances, tells me, that if potash were used in the preparation
(which is invariably done with Russian Hemp and Flax) instead

24
370 OTHER HIMALAYAN NETTLES.

of clay or mud, that the colour would be improved, the sub-
stance rendered easy to dress, and not liable to so much waste
in manufacturing.” Sergeant Crutcher thought that the fibre
might be supplied for four rupees a maund, when large quan-
tities were prepared. Capt. Thompson thought that it would
be worth twelve rupees a maund in Calcutta.

Oruer Himatayan NETTLES.

Major Swetenham, when writing respecting the MalooCreeper
(v.p. 296), mentions the large Nettle of Gurhwal—which he says
is considered by the natives as superior to Bhang, or the true
Hemp—thus: ‘There is another plant that grows in the interior
of the Hills from which stronger ropes even than the Hemp
are said to be made—I allude to the large Nettle plant. I
have seen this growing to the height of fourteen or fifteen feet ;
the Hill people in preparing ropes from this plant, steep it for
three days only, and then strip off the fibre; this is done in a
contrary method to the Hemp stripping, i.e., the top of the
Nettle is broken off, and the fibre pulled down from the
thin end.”

Capt. Huddleston, in his paper on the Hemp of the Hima-
layas, mentions also other fibres. Among these—“ The larger
Nettle called Jurkundaloo, Kundaloo, and Kubra, grows chiefly
in the northern parts of the district, in great quantities; it also
grows in the middle ones; and from its fibres the natives
make rope for tying up their cattle and snow-sandals. One
bundle will produce about a seer of fibre, but it is not collected
for sale. The plant grows about eight or nine feet high, and
the stalks are about the size of a finger in thickness. It is cut
in the cold season, and the stalks are soaked a few days in
water before the fibre is stripped off from the thick end like
Hemp.” (‘ Trans. Agri-Hortic. Soc.,’ viii, p. 275.)

Dr, Campbell also mentions the gigantic stinging Nettle of
the Nipal and Sikkim Hills, as made into Hemp and used in
making the cloth called “ Bangra.” The preparation is the
same as the “Pooah.” The Bangra is harder and stiffer
than the ‘“ Pooah,” and not adapted to making cordage
and nets,
OTHER HIMALAYAN NETTLES. 371

Mr. C. Gubbins, C.S., when at Simla, forwarded some
specimens of fibrous material produced by a species of Urtica
growing about and below Simla, used by the natives of those
parts for making string. The process, which he describes as
employed for separating this fibre, is interesting from its sim-
plicity. The plant is cut in October, and dried in the sun;
when brittle it is beaten, and the fibres separate easily. He
observes: “Seeing it stated that there was considerable labour
required in cleaning the fibre, I made particular inquiries on
this head; and as far as I can learn, there is no greater
trouble in cleaning the fibre of the Urtica when merely dried,
than is experienced with the Hemp of the Hills which is not
rotted in water.” Hence the separation would seem to be
effected entirely by the dry process and mechanical means.

Capt. Rainey, when Assist. Pol. Agent at Subathoo, sent a
net formed from the fibre of a Stinging Nettle, which grows
in the same locality as that described by Mr. Gubbins, as
he says:

1st. The Nettles from which this sample was wove, grew in
the low valleys adjacent to the Hill Station of Simla in the
Himalaya Mountains.

“2d. The vegetable abounds in all the ravines and valleys
of those mountains, and forms one of the most rank weeds of
these places, during the rainy months.

“3d. In August and September, when it is in perfection, it
can be obtained in any quantity, running from five to six and
seven feet in height.

“4th, As far as I have been able to ascertain, it is chiefly
in demand, if not at present wholly so, for fishing nets; in con-
sequence of the virtue ascribed to the cord wove from it, of
gaining increased strength by constant immersion in water, and
resisting decay from that element longer than any other de-
scription of cords.

“5th. The weed is known throughout the lower and centre
ranges of the Himalayas by the names Babar, or Allow, or
Bichoo ; the last evidently consequent on its stinging property,
being the common designation of the scorpion.

“6th. The following is the preparation to which the article
is subjected by the natives of the Place ; but, I doubt not, much
of the process might be omitted or simplified —
372 STRENGTH OF THE RHEEA OR NETTLE FIBRES.

“st. Being cut in August or September, the weed is
exposed for one night in the open air.

“2d. The stalk is then stripped of leaves and dried in
the sun.

“8d. When well dried it is deposited in an earthen pot which
contains water mixed with ashes (the refuse remains of any
wood fire), and boiled for four and twenty hours.

“Ath. The stalk thus boiled is then taken to a stream and
well washed.

“5th. The Hemp is then brought home, and being sprinkled
with flour (otta) (of the grain called Koda), it is again dried
in the sun, and afterwards spun at any time into cord for nets
of every description.”

As no distinctive characters are given of these Nettles, it
is impossible to determine the respective species. In Gurhwal
and near Simla, Urtica virulenta and U. heterophylla are
common as stinging Nettles, as well as some others; while of
species of Bochmeria, the B. frutescens, macrostachya, Goglado,
salicifolia, are found, and all probably abound in fibre, though
a few only have been as yet ascertained to do so, as has been
mentioned in the preceding pages.

STRENGTH OF THE RHEEA OR NETTLE FIBRES,

With regard to the strength of these Nettle fibres, it has
already been stated that Dr. Roxburgh found the Rami or
Caloee bore 240 1b., when Hemp bore 158 lb., and Sunn 150 lb.,
v. Table, p. 268. Messrs. Sharpe, in 1815, found a cord bore
252 1b., when Russian Hemp was only required to bear 82 lb.
So in our experiments with these fibres in an untwisted state
(already quoted at p. 131), Petersburgh Hemp bore only 160 lb.,
when China-grass bore 250 lb., the Rheea 320 lb., and the
Wild Rheea 343 lb. Mr. Henley had previously found the
Kunkhoora or Rheea to bear about three times the weight of
Russian Hemp. Capt. Thompson also thought it about three
times as strong; and though rather too wiry, he considered it
would make excellent cordage, as well ascanvas. But though
this is too valuable to be applied to such purposes, we have
in the Wild Rheea equal strength with greater flexibility, and
all that is required, as is Apparent from the following ab-
GREAT STRENGTH. OF RHEEA FIBRE ROPE. 373

stract of the experiments made at Messrs. Huddart’s, referred
to at p. 355.

Experiments on Strength of Rope made from samples of Fibre of the growth
of India, received from Dr. Royle, at Messrs. Huddart’s Rope-manufac-
tory, Limehouse, Feb. 13, 1854.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a ae o ow
3 Sa a a 2 rn
é lez /s8| &y [EL lis 2 | te
et = 33 : =] 2"
Description of Hemp. % 5 4 38 a a a ad a 4 z es
eo |23/58| we | wWee|/ Se] 's As
S |8a/85| Be | g8e/ 08 qa
wa ls pw | 8 a4 S &
a |e") 8 (88 je
Ine.
Wild Rheea, lst expt. 4] | 44 | 132] 19,032) *844 | 43 | 1-7th |1 in 16
Ditto, 2d expt. -| 4§ | 44 | 132 21,025) *894 | 43 | 1-7th |] in 16
Rheea, Fibre . «| 4§ | 44 | 132! 20,488: #910 43 | 1-9th [1 in 16

 

 

 

 

So Messrs. Morgan, having made some rope for Mr. Sangster
with the Rheea sent him by Major Hannay from Assam, found
it to be at least 50 per cent. better than similar rope made of
Russian Hemp. ‘This is conspicuous also in the following
experiments. The excellence of the fibre for lines and fine
cordage is particularly observable in the fine thread called
Talli Rami from Singapore, as likewise in the delicate nets,
some of which seem fine enough for lace instead of for catching
fish. The fitness of the Wild Rheea, from its strength, flexi-
bility, and durability, is seen in the various kinds of line and
cord which the Author has had made of it in this country, as
well for fishing lines, as bowstrings, clewlines for hammocks,
&c., in order to show its fitness for all and every purpose to
which fibrous substances require to be applied.

A subsequent report was made on the strength of these
fibres, when twisted into cords and rope of different sizes.

“Tn continuation of the experiments which I made on the
strength of some Indian fibres in their untwisted state, I beg
leave to subjoin an account of some others that I thought it
desirable to have made on some of these fibres after they had
been twisted into twine, cord, and rope, of different kinds, by
a regular rope-maker. This I have had done in order to
obviate the objections which are made against new articles
by ignorance or prejudice, or from the opposition of interested
parties.

“These cords and ropes having been subjected to a fresh set
of experiments, and compared with others made of Russian
374 STRENGTH OF RHEEA AS COMPARED WITH HEMP ROPE.

Hemp and of as nearly as possible the same size, I am happy
to report that in every instance the Wild Rheea has proved
stronger than Russian Hemp, and in the case of the two-inch
rope the Indian fibre bore 1000 lb. more than the Russian.
The cultivated Rheea, which is equally strong, will, I hope, be
applied to better purposes than rope-making ; but it is important
that the Wild Rheea is proved by these experiments to be fit
for every purpose for which strong fibre is required, either in
Europe or in India.”

A few experiments were also made with rope made of other
Indian fibres.

“Plantain and Pine-apple fibres, though less strong, are
capable of bearing considerable weights, and might be used for
many ordinary purposes. But the fibre of the Agave, com-
monly called American Aloe, is capable of bearing a great
strain, and the plants have the peculiarity of being able to
flourish in a dry soil and climate, such as that of the Deccan
and of Mysore. The Dhunchee fibre of Bengal, which is hardly
known in this country, appears to be as strong as Russian
Hemp, and is, I understand, as easily cultivated and as cheap
as Jute. The results which have been obtained will be incor-
porated in my forthcoming account of Indian fibres.”

lb.
Wuckoo Fibre small Cord p i : . : - broke at 86
Petersburgh Hemp Cord 5 5 . z a : s . 170
Wild Rheea Cord, same size as Russian . ‘ . - - 190
Rheea Fibre Cord, one thread larger 3 . ° . : . 230
Pound line of Wild Rheea_ .. é ‘ ‘ 7 é . 510
Six-thread Cord of Petersburgh Heat . ‘ ‘ e » 505
Six-thread Ratline of Rheea, tarred és ‘ ‘ F a ~« 525
Six-thread do. of Wild Rheea, do. é ¥ * . x . 530
Nine-thread do. of Wild Rheea, do. ‘i s ‘ : 3 . 860
Twelve-thread do. of Wild Rheea,do. . ‘ ‘ a . . 1120
One-inch Rope of Wild Rheea 3 ; ‘ ‘ . 1350
One-and-half-inch Rope of Wild Rheea, darned ‘ : - 1900
One-and-half-inch Rope of Wild Rheea, do. . : . : » 1900
Two-inch Cord of Russia Hemp . : z ‘i ‘ . - 1800
Two-inch Rope of Rheea Fibre, tarred . A . . é . 2800
Twelve-thread Rope of Plantain, made in India =. : : . 864
Twelve-thread do. of Pine-apple, do. : i ‘ i "i . 924
Two-inch Cord of Russia Hemp . : ‘ ‘ Fi . 1800
Two-inch Rope of Dhunchee fibre, made in Tadia é ; 6 . 1850

Two-inch Rope of Agave, usually called Aloe, do. ‘i ‘ - 1900
STRENGTH OF RHEEA AND OTHER INDIAN FIBRES. 875

For the sake of comparison we reprint the experiments made
with the untwisted selvages of some of the same fibres, and of
which the specimens were very carefully prepared by George
Aston, and their strength tried in the office of the Military Stores.

Petersburgh Clean Hemp. 7 . broke with 160 lb.
A fibre from Travancore, called Wukka i oe 175
Yercum fibre . . ‘ A 4 190
Jubbulpore Hemp : . F ‘ 190
China grass, from China ‘ ‘ Ps 250
Rheea fibre or China grass, from Mae: - i 320
Wild Rheea, also from Assam 343

Hemp from Kote Kangra, in the Hiniinvads bore 400 Ib. ssithuouit breaking.

The other tables, in which the strength of various Indian
fibres is given, as tested by different experimentalists, are to
be seen, of Pine-apple fibre at p. 41; of Agave, &., p. 49;
of Moorva, p. 56; of Plantain, p. 88; of different fibres,
pp. 268, 269; of Sunn, pp. 277, 289; Jubbulpore Hemp and
Dhunchee fibre, p. 292; of Mudar, p. 310; of Himalayan
Hemp, p. 331; and of other fibres, p. 332 ; of Rheea and other
Nettles, pp. 347, 355, 364, 372.

We have thus carried our investigation of fibre-yielding
plants from Grasses in the Endogens to Nettles among the
Exogens. We have found that in following an arrangement
according to the Botanical affinities of plants, we have obtained
some important practical results. Inasmuch, as we have seen
different plants with their products, possessed of the same
properties, grouped together in the same natural families; and
have been led to infer how appropriately we may search among
these very groups, for other fibrous plants in whatever country
we may be in, though none exceed India in such natural riches.

We may congratulate our readers that the arrangement has
brought us to conclude with a family like that of the Nettles, of
which somany of thespecies are conspicuous for fibrous properties,
each consisting of numerous individuals widely distributed, and.
which are easily cultivated. They appear useless only because
so few take the trouble, or, we should rather say, enjoy the
pleasure of reading the wide-spread book of Nature. When
some of the improved methods of separating fibre are success-
fully applied to such plants as the Rheea and Wild Rheea,
376 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.

the benefits to India and the world will be incalculable. For they
are exceeded by none in fineness, excel all others in strength,
and may be fitly compared to the trunk of the elephant, which
can pick up a needle or root up a tree.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.

The Author having endeavoured to carry out what he stated
to be his opinion in his Lecture before the Society of Arts,
finds he cannot do better than conclude as he did then:

“The foregoing enumeration will, I hope, be considered
sufficiently extended to prove that India possesses a number of
plants, many of them valuable as articles of food, or for other
properties, and which are capable of yielding very excellent
kinds of fibre, useful either for Paper-making, for Textile fabrics,
or for Cordage. They vary in fineness and in strength, as is
required for the various wants of the arts and manufactures of
civilised life. It would be easy to extend the list (as has been
done in this work) with the names of many other plants which
are already employed by the natives of India, or which have
been subjected to experiment by Europeans. But it will, per-
haps, be better to recapitulate the most important of the
subjects which I have brought before your notice. Neglecting
the Grasses, which, however, are not to be forgotten, if we want
a cheap material for paper-making—and this is far from an
unimportant object, considering the constantly increasing
demands and the rising prices, of the raw material required for
this indispensable requisite of civilised life. That paper so
made will uot be devoid of many useful properties I feel well
assured, from the pleasure I have myself experienced in
writing these notes on paper made from straw. But it is among
the white-fibred plants, such as the Moorva, the Aloe, and
the Agave, also in the Pine-apple, and, above all, in the Plan-
tain, that we have boundless supplies of material, not only for
paper-making, but for the finest as well as the coarsest textile
fabrics, and for cordage which may rival Manilla Hemp, or the
American Agave, which bridges over broad rivers. The oakum
of these plants may be converted into paper; and that made
from the Plantain is remarkable as well for fineness as for
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 377

toughness. The fibres may be woven into fabrics of different
qualities ; and though they may not be well fitted for making
knots, they may yet be twisted into ropes which are capable of
bearing considerable strains, and possess the advantage in their
white colour, of not being likely to deceive the purchaser by a
semblance to Hemp. So if we require a fibre which shall
unite with strength the property of being almost indestructible
under water, we have only to employ the black horsehair-like
fibres of the Ejoo or Sago Palm, which has also all the lightness
of the Coir of the Cocoa-nut.!

“Among the Malvaceous and Leguminous plants, or those
among which the Brown Hemp, the Dhunchee, and Sunn of
India are found, with the Jute among the Linden tribe, we
have a variety of cheap products, because the plants can be
grown with ease, and their fibres separated with facility. The
supply may, moreover, be indefinitely and rapidly expanded,
because they form a part of the ordinary culture. Though
these do not possess all the strength, they have the colour of
Hemp, which I am told is an advantage; and they are ad-
mirably adapted for many coarse fabrics, as well as for cord-
age for ordinary purposes. Many of them also are edible, like
the Okhro of the West Indies and the Ram turai of India ;
and, therefore, we may, as in the case of the Plantain, be multi-
plying the supply of food for the body, at the same time that we
are increasing the means for diffusing information for the mind.”

[Though numerous attempts have been made to produce
merchantable Flax in India and without much success, chiefly
from inattention to physical desiderata, I believe there is at
present a very favorable prospect of getting some good Flax

' Since the articles on Moorva, Pine-apple, Manilla Hemp, and Plantain were
written, the Author has received specimens from Bombay, from Dr. Gibson, of cord
made from the first, under his direction, who states that the plant is abundant
on that side of India, and yields one of their strongest fibres. Dr. Oxley, at
Singapore, writes that thousands of acres of Pine-apple plant cover the adjacent
islands; so that the supply might be considered inexhaustible, of a fibre remarkable
as well for fineness as for strength; and also, that the Musa textilis of Manilla grows
freely there, and would thrive well in the low lands, if these were drained. Dr. Hunter,
of Madras, has stated that Plantain fibre has begun to be exported from the West
or Malabar coast of India. Indeed, several of the fibres mentioned in the above
Lecture and in this work have been imported during the year into this country; or
have been sent as specimens, from new sources.
378 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.

from the North-Western provinces, from whence the suc-
cessful example may spread to other parts. As Jute has
come to be an important article of commerce for textile pur-
poses, so I believe that several other fibres might become so,
as they have also the characteristic of fineness with the pro-
perty of being spun, and that much more easily than either
the Plantain or Pine-apple fibre, employed for textile purposes
by the islanders of the great Indian Ocean.]

* But, if we require fibres possessed of all, or even more than
the strength of Russian or of Polish Hemp, we shall find this a
property, not only of the Hemp of the Himalayas, but of the
various Nettles which clothe the foot of these mountains, from
Assam to the Sutlej; and if we pay a price proportioned to the
quality of the article, I have no fears but that the supply will
increase in proportion to the demand. If we want them still
cheaper than they can at present be furnished, we have only to
supply the cultivators with some simple machinery, by which
the fibre may be separated more easily than by the present
primitive methods. In that case I feel assured that the Rheea
fibre will not only undersell every other fibre, but, in point of
strength, take a position which will be second to none of those
which are at present imported. India is in many respects so
well suited to the growth of fibres, that the supply not only of
this, but of many others, may easily become more abundant
than from any other country.

“Tn addition to affording such facilities, I hope the day is
not distant when something will be done to encourage, instead
of depressing the efforts of planters and colonists when they
send a new thing to market. Because some account of the pro-
perties and value of the article as suited to different purposes
would be more encouraging than a statement that it is of ‘no
value’ because ‘unknown in the market.’ While the fact
very often is that the substance is well known in many mar-
kets, though not in the one to which it has unfortunately been
sent. I feel confident that the Collections of Raw Products
which are being established will have considerable effects ; but
they should be multiplied so as to extend to every large com-
mercial town, or at least to the principal sea-ports; and as in
the city, time is counted by minutes, I would have one in the
very heart of the city. But to be fully useful such Collections
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS, 379

should be connected with Societies interested in the investi-
gation of such subjects, and publishing Journals where the
learning, the science, and the practical applications connected
with each subject should be published. I could almost hope
that the time is come (or very nearly so) in which knowledge
of Natural Subjects should be considered a part of General
Education, and that what is called the study of Geography be
connected with a general knowledge of the Soils, the Climates,
the Plants, and the Animals of the different regions of the globe,
and not be confined, as it often is, to boundaries, to the height
of mountains, the length of rivers, and to a bare enumeration of
places. Some of the improved views now entertained on such
subjects must be ascribed to the discovery that so many made
of their own ignorance at the Great Exhibition of 1851, which
in this, as in so many points, will continue to be, as it has
already been, of immense benefit both to producers and con-
sumers in all parts of the world.”

Finally, the Author may say, that if there is any truth in
the information which he has brought together, or in the
inferences which he has drawn, there need be no want of, but
an abundant supply of cheap and effective materials for Paper-
making, and our textile manufactures from the vegetable
kingdom need not be confined to Flax and to Cotton. While
with regard to cordage, neither our Royal nor our Mercantile
Marine need restrict themselves to European sources of supply.
So if, for fishing nets, track-ropes, and mine-ropes, we re-
quire the utmost degree of strength in the smallest amount
of space, the requisites are to be found in some of these Oriental
fibres, as, for example, in the Rheeas of Assam, the Rami of the
Malays, or the Chi Ma of China. These produce fibres of
different degrees of fineness, according as they are taken from
the later or the earlier crops; so, while the one may rival the
softest Flax in fineness, the other may exceed the Russian, or
any other except Himalayan Hemp, in strength.
APPENDIX.
A.

An Account of the Total Quantities of Flax and Hemp respectively ImporTED
into the Unirep Kinepom in each Year, from 180] to 1853, both inclusive ;
distinguishing the Quantities received from the Russian Empire from those
received from all other parts,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FLAX anp TOW,
ox CODILLA or HEMP anp FLAX. HEMP DRESSED.
YEARS.
From Russia. ier sates From all parts.|| From Russia. sities ee From all parts.
Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt.
1801 188,106 85,613 273,719 682,175 67,171 749,346
1802 215,086 67,528 282,614 445,759 61,634 507,393
1803 215,201 76,431 291,632 686,777 70,912 757,689
1804 261,814 90,786 352,600 716,013 23,124 739,137
1805 369,871 101,877 471,748 615,771 15,932 631,703
1806 306,119 52,793 358,912 742,382 5,691 748,073
1807 378,362 44,414 422,776 751,828 25,869 777,697
1808 136,481 80,311 216,792 240,146 22,294 262,440
1809 395,217 134,868 530,085 796,076 59,765 855,841
1810 476,100 38,383 514,483 844,308 116,302 960,610
1811 224,037 10,734 234,771 a he 468,884
1812 356,267 6,329 362,596 33,9 129,632 863,623
1813 The Records of the year 1818 were destroyed by fire.
1814 389,948 110,585 500,533 ae aie ata ee
1815 233,423 92,453 325,876 22,69 0,09 52,78
1816 150,321 62,350 212,671 369,177 6,280 375,457
1817 294,456 120,300 414,756 458,531 16,758 475,289
1818 286,603 141,045 427,648 659,431 24,777 684,208
1819 335,491 74,290 409,781 485,006 7,788 492,794
1820 315,481 66,907 382,388 415,813 10,350 426,163
1821 365,087 133,466 498,553, 253,425 2,372 255,797
1822 419,860 190,246 610,106 583,761 32,694 616,455
1823 297,845 256,093 553,938 ae ee BLE oe
1824 448,894 293,637 742,531 557,3 14,5 1,
1825 666,279 388,954 | 1,055,233 578,647 16,443 595,090
1826 527,905 160,717 688,622 465,088 24,242 489,330
1827 669,937 237,142 907,079 524,868 48,525 573,393
1828 643,153 233,036 876,189 454,303 49,817 504,120
1829 683,956 238.084 922,040 327,379 47,553 374,932
1830 703,582 240,514 944,096 461,099 45,671 506,770
1831 623,257 313,154 ae oe a ee
1832 667,868 314,648 982,51 f 101, ,
1833 776,856 352,777 | 1,129,633 469,960 57,499 527,459
1834 562,816 248,906 811,722 583,841 89,970 673,811
1835 438,483 302,331 ee ee a eee
1836 | 1,037,021 492,095 | 1,529,11 56,45 ‘ A
1837 682,025 318,840 | 1,000,865 591,675 181,946 773,621
1838 | 1,089,559 536,718 | 1,626,277 580,999 149,377 730,376
1839 705,708 517,993 | 1,223,701 781,462 214,231 995,693
1840 870,401 382,839 | 1,253,240 ober en pesiae
1841 969,455 377,388 | 1,346,843 542,764 109,4 ;
1842 844,725 301,034 | 1,145,759 415,565 170,340 585,905
1843 | 1,089,386 847,764 .| 1,437,150 -463,061 272,682 735,743
1844 | 1,112,024 471,470 | 1,583,494 655,954 257,279 913,233
1845 859,627 558,696 | 1,418,323 603,286 328,564 931,850
iu | haees | pee [eases | anaes | res | sa
1 681,167 370,922 Voz, B , |- ,
ie 1,085,732 377,929 | 1,463,661 536,400 309,371 845,771
1849 | 1,352,334 454,339 | 1,806,673 636,938 424,955 1,061,893
1850 | 1,240,766 582,152 | 1,822,918 600,992 447,643 1,048,635
1851 818,676 375,508 | 1,194,184 664,580 628,831 | 1,293,411
1852 949,907 458,807 | 1,408,714 537,132 531,024 | 1,068,156
1853 | 1,294,827 607,650 11,902,477 806,396 412,374 | 1,218,770

 

 

 

.
382

B.

MATERIALS FOR PAPER-MAKING.

The deficient supply of and an increasing price for, the
materials for making paper, with the prospect of a still greater
consumption, having for some time excited the attention of
manufacturers and of the public, the Author has, like others, been
requested to state what probable sources of supply were open
to the manufacturer.

In histories of the manufacture of paper, the Chinese are
generally acknowledged to have been the first to have made
paper from pulp. The Egyptian paper, or Papyrus, was made
by gumming slices of vegetable tissue together under pressure.
So what is called Rice paper consists only of thin slices of
cellular tissue of a little-known plant. The Arabs are supposed
to have learnt the art in the eighth century from the Chinese,
but much more probably from the Hindoos, as they translated
many of their works and adopted much of their science. (v. the
Author’s ‘Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine.’) The
Arabs are further said to have introduced the art of paper-
making into Spain in the ninth or tenth century. Paper was
first made at Nuremburg in the year 1390, but in England not
till the year 1450.

There is no doubt that the manufacture of paper from pulp
has been known in China from very early times: it is said for
at least 2000 years. They employ a vast variety of fibrous
substances for this manufacture, and apply paper to a variety
of uses little thought of in other countries. They make up an
infinite variety of kinds, from the coarse, heavy, half-inch-thick
touch-paper, for retaining a slow, enduring fire, to the beautiful
so-called India paper suited for our finest proof engravings.
In the tea-chests there is a lavish use of many thicknesses of
paper. If a hut or boat is leaky over-head, the bed is protected
by a large sheet of oiled paper. Ifa shopkeeper wants to tie
up a parcel, he seizes a strip of tough paper, and by rolling it
on his thigh at once converts it into a strong pack-thread.
Even patches on a torn sail are at times made of tough paper,
PAPER-MAKING IN CHINA. 383

as we have been informed by an intelligent visitor to that
country. It is the cheapest of materials in daily use, and the
manufacturers are very numerous. They make it of Rice
straw, of young Bamboos, of different fibres, and of the bark of
the Paper Mulberry. Showing that the inventors of the art
make use chiefly of unwoven fibres, though they also employ
refuse cloth and silk, &c.

So India, though hardly ever mentioned in histories of the art,
is a country where considerable quantities of paper are made,
though not generally of a good quality ; their thick ink does not
so much require this. There are small manufactories of it in most
parts of the country, and to a considerable extent at such places
as Ahmedabad, Lucnow, &c. As we have seen in the fore-
going pages, a great variety of fibres, such as Jute, Sunn,
Ambaree, Moorva, and old sacks and fishing nets are also
employed, though in general the natives prefer the Sunn fibre.
The Himalayan process with the inner bark of the Paper plant
very much resembles that of the Chinese with the Paper Mul-
berry. It is probable therefore that the art was introduced
from that country into the Himalayas, and not from India. Into
which it was probably carried at a very early period, and from
thence learnt by the Arabs; who would hardly else have
used Cotton, an Indian product. The Hindoos themselves,
as Tam informed by Professor Wilson, still used, about the be-
ginning of the Christian era, or as late as the age of the Dramas,
the inner bark of the Bhurja or Birch (Betula Bhojputtur)
for writing on. In Southern regions the leaves of the Palmira
and of the Talipat are well known to have been long used, as
they still are, for writing on with a style. But the manufacture
of paper from pulp has long been established in India, and
before the Arabs began to make translations from the Sanscrit,
at the same time that they did so from Greek writers.

Dr. Buchanan, in his survey of the lower provinces of the
Bengal Presidency, has given an account of the manufacture of
paper from Pat or Jute (Corchorus olitorius) at Dinagepore, and
in Behar, &c., from Sunn (Crotalaria juncea). Itis also so made
in other parts of the country, as well as from Hibiscus fibre. And
there can be no difficulty in doing so with the numerous fibrous
materials which India produces in such vast variety, and which
we have already mentioned in so much detail.
384 PAPER-MAKING IN INDIA.

It is objected that pulp from unwoven fibres does not draw
through the present machinery so well as that made from rags.
A modification of machinery would remedy this. But it is pro-
bable that if the half-stuff were made from the clean bark
without first separating the fibres, these might probably be so
entangled as to answer some of the effects of the weaving.
As rags have to be collected, cut, cleaned, and bleached, the
Author cannot but think that the primitive method of using the
bark of suitable plants and trees will afford both a cheap and
an effectual substitute. Besides which the supply of rags must
come short of the increasing demands of the world for paper.

Bengal and the east coast of the Bay of Bengal, as well as
the Malabar or west coast of India, are the places where the
growth of suitable materials, from the warmth and moisture of
the climate, is most abundant, and the conveyance by sea is
at the same time most easy. In Arracan the price of Bast,
even made into rope, is one rupee per maund. (v. p. 238.)

As the greatest natural riches would be of little value unless .
they could be made available at reasonable rates, the Author
consulted Mr. Henley, who is practically well acquainted with
the usages of the people and the rates at which their services
may be obtained. He has favoured the Author with letters
on the subject, and has also published a paper in the ‘ Journal
of ‘the Society of Arts’ for 1854, p. 486. He there observes :
“Jt is to India we must look for extensive and cheap supplies,
for it is there alone we find the necessary conditions of very low-
priced and intelligent labour, with an abundance of elementary
suitable materials; and that as articles of small price are par-
ticularly sensitive of charges, such as of freight, &c., it is only
by large operations that an average of low charges can be
accomplished.”

Suitable materials being abundant, he proposes that it should
be reduced to the state of half-stuff by the aid of the Dhenkee,
already mentioned at p. 86, as an instrument to be found in
almost every house in Bengal, being used for husking rice, the
preparation of tobacco, of drugs, dye-stuffs, and brick-dust.

The charges to London, including freight, insurance, ex-
change, dock, and in fact all commercial charges, he estimates
at £7 per ton weight. It is necessary to specify the ton weight,
as the ton for freight would be only 16 cwt. The cost of
COST OF PAPER MATERIALS FROM INDIA. 385

half-stuff, as already quoted at p. 86, of different qualities, would
be about £4 4s. and £7; as contracts could be made at the
rate of Rs. 1 8, or 8s., to Rs. 2 8, or 5s., per maund of 82 Ib.,
deliverable at any central depét within a radius of twenty miles,
The expenses of agency, conveyance, &c., in India, about £2 2s.,
and of freight to London, and other expenses, about £7; so
that the lower quality might be imported here for £18 4s., and
the better quality, equal to linen rags, for £16 5s.

“Tt would be necessary to have recourse to the usual Indian
system of making cash advances to contractors ere a pound of
the goods had any existence. Such, however, is the universal
system of the country. The natives, it must be admitted, are
wonderfully faithful on the whole in adhering to their bargains.”

“The method proposes to avail itself at once of their own
simple arts; it brings the question as nearly as possible to the
state of a domestic industry, ever the most economical in such
countries ;. it reduces to the lowest point the charge of col-
lecting from extensive districts the various elementary matters
which might present themselves.”

Dr. L. Playfair, in a communication on this subject, observes,
that the price mentioned in the Treasury letter, of 2d. to 23d.
per lb. for a partially prepared pulp, is by most makers considered
to be too high, and that materials should be looked for at the
price of 1d. to 13d. per Ib. for roughly prepared pulp; but if
bleached, or in as far an advanced state with regard to colour and
texture as cotton or linen rag, then 23d. to 4d. per lb. might be
obtained. “ The quantity of any promising material sent home
for experiment should not be less than half a ton in weight,”
though in some cases a cwt. will give satisfactory results.

To serve as points of comparison we may here insert a
notice of the ordinary and the increased prices of rags from
the ‘Journal of the Society of Arts.’

A. 26s. . f ‘ 328. to 34s. per cwt.
B. 16s. ‘ ‘ ‘ 20s. a
Cc. 1ls. 6d. i P . 15s. sé
D. 7s. x ‘ é 10s. 63

Bleaching salts, alkali, alum, hide pieces for size, are other
articles required ; and all have increased in price.
Of the quantity of material that is required, we may form
25
386 REPORT ON MATERIALS

some idea from the fact that 177,633,009 lb. weight of paper
were produced in 1853 in Great Britain.

C.

The Author having been requested to give his opinion re-
specting an increased supply of Materials for Paper-making, did
so in the Report which is subjoined to the following—

Copy of Correspondence between the Departments of the
Treasury and Board of Trade, in regard to the increasing
Scarcity of the Materials for the Fabrication of Paper.

(Printed by order of the House of Commons.)
Treasury Chambers, February 13, 1854.

Sir,—I am commanded by the Lords Commissioners of Her
Majesty’s Treasury to acquaint you that it has been represented
to their Lordships that great and increasing scarcity has been
felt of late in obtaining supplies of the raw material of paper,
consisting not only of rags, but also largely of the refuse of
cotton- and flax-mills. It is stated that within the last ten
years the prices of these articles have greatly advanced, that
rags can be imported from only a few parts of Europe, and
that as there is no regular and open market for rags and the
other materials used in the manufacture of paper, increased
demand and high price do not call forth increased supply, as in
other articles of commerce from abroad.

With a view to diminish the inconvenience thus felt, it has
been suggested to my Lords, that Her Majesty’s Consuls
abroad might be instructed to obtain information, and procure
samples of vegetable fibre in their respective localities, applicable
to the manufacture of paper. In doing this, it would have to
be borne in mind that the great essential of such an article
must be its cheapness, to cover the high freights now prevailing,
and which, it may be anticipated, will prevail for some time.
As regards the nature of the articles, my Lords are informed,
that with the exception of jute canvas and gunny bagging,
every description of vegetable fibre is now capable of being
bleached, and is available for fine papers. Fibrous reeds and
rushes, the inner bark of many trees, and several kinds of
vegetable fibre in warm or tropical countries, are substances
likely to be of service, especially where they could be imported
FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 387

as dunnage among the cargo, or in compressed bales, but
quantity and steadiness of supply are essential. As regards
price, my Lords understand that if the article could be laid
down so as to cost from 2d. to 2!d. per lb. when purified and
bleached, without reckoning the cost of preparation, it would
be sufficiently low to answer the purpose in view.

My Lords request that you will bring this subject under the
consideration of the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council
for Trade, and move their Lordships, if they concur in the
expediency of the inquiry here suggested, to communicate on
the subject with the Foreign Office, in order that the necessary
circular instructions may be issued to Her Majesty’s Consuls
abroad, to carry out the objects adverted to.

Tam, &c.,

James Booth, Esq., &c. (Signed) James Witson.

Board of Trade, April 19, 1854.

Sir,—I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy
Council for Trade to forward to you a copy of a communication
received from the Lords of Her Majesty’s Treasury, and to
request that the Commissioners for the Affairs of India may
bring it under the notice of the Chairman and Directors of the
Honorable East India Company, with a view to obtaining the
opinion of Dr. Forbes Royle, the officer in charge of the
scientific correspondence relating to the vegetable productions
of India.

I have, &c.,

Sir T. N. Redington, &c. (Signed) J. Emerson Tennent.

India Board, May 15, 1854.

Sir,— In reply to your letter of the 19th ult., enclosing a
letter addressed to the Board of Trade by the Treasury
respecting the procuration of raw material for the manufacture
of paper, I am directed by the Commissioners for the Affairs of
India to transmit to you a report by Dr. Royle, received from
the East India House upon this subject, in compliance with
the object expressed in your letter.

Ihave, &c.,

Sir J. E. Tennent, &c. (Signed) TT. N. Renineron.
388 REPORT ON MATERIALS

Memorandum on Materials for the manufacture of Paper
procurable from India.

In reply to the reference from the Lords of the Committee
of Privy Council for Trade, requiring my opinion respecting
increased supplies of raw material for Paper-making, I beg to
be allowed to observe that it is a subject on which I have of
late been frequently consulted, and have communicated much
of the following information.

Paper, it is well known, is in Europe made chiefly from
linen or cotton rags, but also from the refuse and sweepings of
cotton- and flax-mills, as also of the coverings of our cotton
bales and of worn-out ropes. But paper is also made from the
stems and leaves of many grasses, as from rice straw, and from
the bamboo by the Chinese, and of late from common straw in
this country, and even from wood shavings. The fibrous part
of many Lily- and Aloe-leaved plants have been converted into
excellent paper in India, where the fibres of Tiliaceous, Mal-
vaceous, and Leguminous plants are employed for the same
purpose: as in the Himalayas, one of the Lace-bark tribe (p.
310) is similarly employed, and in China one of the Mulberry
tribe, and the Nettle in Holland. I mention these various
sources, because plants belonging to the same families as the
above abound in India and other warm countries, and are
capable of yielding a very abundant and never-failing supply of
sufficiently cheap and very excellent material for paper-making
of all kinds. Some may be used without any further process
of bleaching, but all are capable of having any colour they may
possess destroyed by chemical means. I would not except
the jute canvas or gunny bagging, because I have seen
specimens of jute of a beautiful silky white, both plain and
manufactured into fabrics for furniture, &c., &c., as shown by
the late Colonel Calvert at the East India House.

As the Chinese make paper of rice straw, and of the young
shoots of the bamboo, while the Hindoos make ropes of
different grasses (such as Saccharum Munja and 8. Sara) strong
enough for their Persian wheels as well as for towing lines, it
is evident that these and probably many others contain a suffi-

' Some of it was published about the same time in the ‘ Gardener’s Chronicle.’
FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER, 389

ciency of fibrous material for paper-making (p. 80). The
cultivated Cereals cannot well be turned to much account, for
their straw forms the chief food for cattle; but as the country
abounds with grass jungles, which are in the autumn of every
year burnt down in order that the young blades may spring up
and afford pasturage for cattle, it is evident that there are
many situations where a sufficiency might be cut down before
it has become perfectly dried up, and converted into half-stuff
for paper-makers [as might also the refuse of the Sugar-cane].

Of the Sedges (p. 33) also some are, in India, employed for
making ropes, as the Bhabhur or Eriophorum cannabinum,
for making rope bridges for crossing some of the hill torrents.
The Papyrus we know was used by the Egyptians for making
their paper, but this was by cutting the material into thin
slices and making these adhere together under pressure. But
others of the genus, as the Cyperus tegetum, is used in India
for mat-making. As these plants as well as Rushes grow to-
gether in large quantities, it would be quite possible in many
places to turn them to profitable account.

Many parts of the world abound in the Lily- and Aloe-leaved
plants which have been alluded to above, and of which the
leaves contain much easily separable fibrous materials. These
belong to the genera Agave, Aloe, Yucca, Sanseviera, Bromelia,
and others, all of which abound in white-coloured fibres, ap-
plicable to various useful purposes, and of which the tow might
be used for paper-making, and considerable supplies obtained.
Paper used to be made from the Sanseviera in Trichinopoly,
and some has been made at Madras, of the unbleached Agave
alone, and also mixed with old gunny bags. (pp, 37, 41, 51, 57.)
[Recently, also, from the leaf of the Pandanus, p. 35.]

[The Arrow-root (p. 60) and Ginger tribes (p. 61), con-
taining such plants as those yielding the fecula called Arrow-
root, Tous les Mois, Tikkur, &c., and Ginger, Turmeric, Car-
damoms, &c., all have annual stems and leaves, which are the
refuse of the present culture, and might yield an abundant
supply of half-stuff.]

Among cultivated plants there is probably nothing so well
calculated to yield a large supply of material fit for making
paper of almost every quality as the Plantain (Musa paradisiaca)
(v. p. 61), so extensively cultivated in all tropical countries on
390 REPORT ON MATERIALS

account of its fruit, and of which the fibre-yielding stems are
applied to no useful purpose. The plant, as every one ac-
quainted with tropical countries knows, is common near the
poorest huts and in the largest gardens, and is considered to
yield by far the largest quantity of nutritious matter. Its
fruit in many places supplying the place of bread, and in com-
position and nutritious value approaching most nearly to the
potato, may, if produced in too large a quantity, be preserved
in the same way as figs, or the meal may be separated, as it
resembles rice most nearly in composition. Each rootstock
throws up from six to eight stems, each of which must be
yearly cut down, and will yield from three to four pounds of
the fibre fit for textile fabrics, for rope-making, or for the
manufacture of paper. As the fruit already pays the expenses
of the culture, this fibre could be afforded at a cheap rate, as
from the nature of the plant, consisting almost only of water
and fibre, the latter might easily be separated. One planter
calculates that it could be afforded for £9 18s. 4d. per ton.
Some very useful and tough kinds of paper have been made in
India from the fibres of the Plantain, and some of finer quality
from the same material both in France and in this country.’

All the plants which have been already mentioned are devoid
of true bark, and are called Endogenous in structure. Simple
pressure between rollers, and washing, would appear to be
sufficient for the separation of the fibres of most of them. But
the following families of plants are all possessed of true bark
which requires to be stripped off, usually after the stems have
been steeped in water, before their respective fibres can be
separated from the rest of the vegetable matter.

The Flax plant (p. 133) abounds in fibre, but this is too
valuable to be converted into paper. India, however, grows
immense quantities of the plant, on account of its seed
(linseed) which is both consumed in the country and exported
in enormous quantities. But nowhere is the fibre turned to any
account. This is no doubt owing to the climate not favouring
the formation of soft and flexible fibre; but the short fibre
which is formed, and might be easily separated, would be valu-

' Specimens of these and of the other Papers made in India, were sent with the
original communication, and were afterwards shown at some Scientific Meetings.
FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 391

able for paper-making, and might add to the agriculturists’
profits without much additional outlay.

So some Malvaceous (p. 258) plants are cultivated on account
of their fruits being used as articles of diet, as Okhro (p. 259)
(Hibiscus esculentus), in the West Indies and in the United
States. The Ram-turai of India is closely allied to it, and is
cultivated for the same purpose. Both plants abound in fine
flexible fibre, which is not, but might be easily separated, and
afford a considerable supply, especially if the cultivation was
extended in the neighbourhood of towns. Paper is made from
a species of Hibiscus in Japan, and H. Sabdariffa is cultivated
in India on account of its jelly-yielding calices. Numerous
other species of Hibiscus, of Sida, and of other genera of this
family, abound in warm climates; several are cultivated in
different countries, as Hibiscus cannabinus in India, and Sida
titiefolia in China: more might be so. They grow quickly, and
to a large size, and abound in fibrous material of a fine, soft,
flexible quality: on which account they might be cultivated
with profit, and the tow be useful to the paper-maker. (p. 200.)
[The stems of Cotton plants would also yield a supply.]

The Tiliaceze (p. 232) are likewise remarkable for the abun-
dance and fine quality of fibre which many of them contain.
Tilia europea produces the enormous quantities of bast exported
from Russia. Corchorus olitorius and C. capsularis, the leaves
of both of which are used as a vegetable, yield the large supply
of Jute (p. 239) imported into this country, as well as the
gunny cloth and bags exported even to America. Several
species of Grewia yield edible fruit, on which account they are
cultivated. Others abound in the jungles, and most would
yield a valuable fibre, as some of them already do, for com-
mercial purposes. [The Indian Basts, p. 239, are cheap, and
abound in fibre. ]

Some of the Leguminose also abound in valuable fibre.
Crotalaria juncea yields the common Sunn of India. Sesbania
aculeata or cannabina yields the Dhanchi of Bengal; while
Bauhinia racemosa is used for making rope bridges in the
Himalayas. The fibre of Parkinsonia aculeata was sent to the
Exhibition in 1851, expressly as being fitted for paper-making:
though colourless, it wants strength. (pp. 270—298.) [Some
paper is made from gunny bags in India.]
892 MATERIALS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER.

Several plants produce large quantities of a silky cotton-
like substance, not applied to any use, such as the Silk Cotton
tree (p. 264), the Mudar of India (p. 306), several species of
Saccharum (p. 32), &c., which might be collected where labour
is cheap, and would no doubt be well fitted for conversion into
pulp for paper. [So also the Dogbanes and Asclepiads,
pp. 302-3. ]

[The Nepal Paper plant (Daphne cannabina) has been men-
tioned above, and is treated of at p. 311.]

Among the Nettle, the Mulberry, and Bread-fruit tribes
of plants (p. 340), there are many which seem well calculated
to yield material for paper-making. The Chinese we know
employ the inner bark of Morus, now Broussonetia papyrifera
(p. 841). This, no doubt, produces some of the Chinese
paper, which is remarkable for toughness. I believe that the
refuse cuttings of the bush cultivation of the Mulberry in
Bengal (p. 343) might be turned to profitable account. The
barks of many stinging (Urtica), and of stingless (Boehmeria)
Nettles (p. 344), abound in fibres remarkable for strength ; the
tow of these might be converted into paper-stuff if not required
for mixing with wool (p. 358) [as might also the bark cloths,
p. 842].

The weeds of tropical countries which grow in such luxu-
riance, and among which are species of Sida (p. 262), of
Grewia, of Corchorus, of Triumfetta (p. 253), and of many other
genera, might all yield an abundance of fibrous material, if the
refuse of the above cultivated plants were found not to be suffi-
cient. Some simple machinery for separating the fibre would
greatly facilitate operations, while the expenses of freight might
be diminished by compression, or, as suggested, by packing the
material as dunnage. The cheapness of labour, as of every-
thing else in many of these countries, would enable material
for paper-making to be brought here in great abundance and
at a sufficiently cheap rate, if ordinary pains were taken by the
consumers in Europe, to encourage the planter or colonists of a
distant region.

I have, &c.,

(Signed) J. Forbes Royre.
East India House, May 8, 1854.
INDEX.

Abaca, 65, 66
brava, 65,
Abroma augusta, 265, 267
Ada-Modien, 306
Adam’s Needle fibre, 57
Advances required in India, 13, 384
in Russia, 14
Aischynomene cannabina, 293
spinulosa, 293
Agave, 41, 42, 48
American, strength of, 310
fibre, 47
oakum, 47
rope, 49
Agave Americana, 43, 44, 45
Cantala, 45, 47
diacantha, 44
vivipara, 43, 44, 45
yuccefolia, 43
Agavers, 41
Agotag, 65
Agotat, 65
ila wood, 42
Ak, 306
Ak ke shukkur, 307
Akund, Sans., 306
Aletris nervosa, 53
Aliverei, 188
Aloe angustifolia, 53
barbadensis, 51
indica, 51
perfoliata, 51
vulgaris, 51
Aloe, 41, 50, 51
rope, 46
Aloes, true, 51
Althzea cannabina, 263
officinalis, 263
Amaryllidez, 41

 

Ambaree, 253, 254, 257

Ambya Pata, 255

Amfuk, 318

Amleeah Paut, 244

Amoquid, 65

Amrah Sun, 244

Ananas, 37

Ananassa sativa, 38

Anasa nara, 40

Anou, 99, 100

Apetalous plants, 311

Apocynaceze, 302

Apoong, 306

Areca Catechu, 105
vestiaria, 124

Areng, 99

Arenga saccharifera, 92, 99, 105

Arka, Sans., 306

Aroosha fibre, 310

Arrack, 108

Arrangement of Fibrous plants, 27

Arrow-root tribe, 60

Artocarpex, 340

Artocarpus incisa, 341

integrifolia, 341
Lakoosha, 341
Aruk, 96
Arundo arenaria,. 32
Karka, 32
Asclepiades, 303
Asclepias gigantea, 131, 306
syriaca, 304
tenacissima, 304

Ashur, Ay., 306

Asta, 239

Atasee, Sans., 135

Atees, Hind., 135

Bad, Hebr., 135
394

Badstub, 230
Bakkul, 47
Bamboo Pandanus, 47
Bammia, 259
Banana, 69
Banana tribe, 61
Bandala, 67
Bandikai, 259
Bangra, 370
Bans-keora, 41, 47
Baquois, 36
Bark cloth, 341
rope, 239
string, 239
Basket-work, 93
Bast, 85, 129, 199
from Arracan, 237
from India, 236
Bastard Aloe, 44
Cedar, 267
Batiste d’Ananas, 39
Bauhinia racemosa, 295
‘ scandens, 296
Bet, 93

Betle-nut Palm, 91

Betula Bhojputtur, 383

Bhabhur, 34, 389

Bhabhuree, 34

Bhang, 315, 316

Bhanga, Sans., 314

Bhurja, 383

Bihul, 235

Bilbergia variegata, 38

Birch, 388

Boalee jawbone, 225

Boehmeria candicans, 363
frutescens, 368, 372
Goglado, 372
macrostachya, 372
nivea, 845, 350
salicifolia, 372
utilis, 363

Bokhara clover, 298

Bola, Beng., 261.

Bombax, 265

Bombay Imports of Fibre, 300

Hemp, 270

Bon Rheea, 349, 355

Bon Surat, 366

Boon, 199, 315

Booree, 35

Borassus flabelliformis, 97

Botthammer, 218

Box tree, 301

Bowstring Hemp, 51, 52

Brake, 218

Bread-fruit tree, 341

 

INDEX.

Bread-fruit tree, bark cloth of, 341
tribe, 340
Breaking Flax, 217
Bromelia Ananas, 38
Karatas, 37
Penguin, 37
Pigna, 39
sagenaria, 37
variegata, 38
Bromeliacese, 37
Broussonetia papyrifera, 239, 341, 392
Brown Hemp, 8, 252
commerce of, 270
Bulrushes, 35
Bung, Pers., 314
Bun-ochra, 263
Bun pat, 242
rheea, 363
Bur, 343
Butea frondosa, 297
superba, 297
Butea kino, 297
Butz, Hebr., 135
Byttneriaceze, 253, 265

Cabbage Palms, 91

Cable, 20

Cables of Palm leaves, 124

Cabo negro, 99

Cabulla, 43

Cadjans, 110

Calamus, 92
Draco, 95
extensus, 93
gracilis, 93
Rotang, 93
Roxburghii, 93
Royleanus, 93, 95
rudenium, 93
Scipionum, 93, 95
tenuis, 93

Calappa, 107

Calee kustooree, 259

Callicarpa cana, 310

Caloce, 8, 346, 350

Calotropis gigantea, strength of, 310

Calotropis gigantea, 306, 308

Hamiltonii, 306, 308
procera, 308

Canapa, 271

Canes, 92

Cannabinee, 315

Cannabis sativa, 252, 314, 316

Cantala, Hind., 41, 47

Caraguata, 37

Cardamom, 61

Careya arborea, 301
INDEX.

Caroa, 38
Carthamus, 302
Caryota urens, 97, 98, 99
Celtis orientalis, 313
Chakan, 313
Chamerops humilis, 96
Ritchiana, 92, 95
Chandana, 255
Chatee, 247
Chattah-pat, 97
Chehoor, 289
Chemical constituents of
Flax plant, 146
Flax soils, 149
refuse and of steep-water, 203,
208
China-grass, 345
cloth, 345
culture of, 359
medals for, 346
preparation of, 362
strength of, 347
value of, 345
China pat, Roxb., 242
Chinese Flax, 359
Hemp, 241, 242
Rami, 241
Chittee, 305
Chorisia crispifolia, 266
Chor Putta, 366
Chotee, 240, 243
Chowat kurat, 341
Chi Ma, 345, 350
Chundunah Sun, 244
Churrus, 315, 320
Cicer arietinum, 169, 214
Claussen’s process, 214
Climate for Flax, 152
Cocaiza, 43
Cocoa-nut Cabbage, 108
Exports, 120
fat, 109
Fibre, 102
Imports, 120
milk, 108
Oil, 108
Re-exports, 122
tree, 102
uses of, 106
Cocoa-nuts Produce, 105
Cocoine, 103
Cocos de Mer, 124
Cocos nucifera, 102, 103
Codda-panna, 98
Codilla, 19
Imports of, from 1801 to 1853,
381

 

895

| Coffo, 65
| Coir, 49, 101, 109, 111, 114, 115

cordage, 116
Imports, 119, 123
Laccadive, 117
strength of, 310
Yarn, 114
Combretacee, 301
Comparative strengths of
ibres, 268, 269, 375
Indian cordage, 332, 375
Rheea cordage, 374
Sunn cordage, 289
Compositee, 302
Composition of Flax shoves, 209
Concluding observations, 376
Conkanee Hemp, 254, 270
Conquin tay, 77
Cooch-murda Paut, 244
Copra, 107 ,
Corchorus, 239
capsularis, 241, 243, 244
391

fuscus, 244
olitorius, 241, 242, 243,
244, 384, 391
Cord, 20
Cordage, strength of, 25
Cordiacee, 311
Cordia angustifolia, 311
Corollifloree, 302
Corypha, 98
‘ Gebanga, 98
Talliera, 98
umbraculifera, 98
Coshta, 244
Cost of Flax in India, 185
Hemp in India, 330
Indian fibres, v. Prices.
Cotton, 135, 136, 264
canvas, 264
cordage, 264
grass, 34
strength of, 310
tree, 265
Country Hemp, 49
Craute de rede, 37
Crotalaria Burhia, 272
juncea, 49, 243, 252, 256,
284, 384, 391
strength of, 257, 310
retusa, 28]
tenuifolia, 290
Cucumber tribe, 301
Cucurbitacee, 301
Culture of China-grass, 359
Flax, 137, 152
3896

Culture of Flax in Bengal, 175
in Punjab, 195
Hemp in Europe, 319, 333
in India, 321, 323
Jute, 245, 248
Rheea fibre, 359
Sunn, 272
Curratow, 37, 38
Cutthalay nar, strength of, 810
Cyperacezz, 33
Cyperus tegetum, 33, 387

Dab, 32

Daphne Bholua, 312
cannabina, 311, 312, 392
eriocephala, 312
Lagetta, 311
Mezereum, 312
odora, Thunb., 312

Date Palm, 91, 96

Davy’s machine, 224

Deckanee Hemp, 254

Dephal, 341

Dew-retting, 199, 336

Dhak, 297

Dhara, 246

Dhenkee, 33

Dhenroos, 259

Dhuncha, 295

Dhunchee Fibre, 293, 391

produce, 294
value of, 295

Dhundain, 293

Dhunicha, 293

Dhunsha, 293

Dickson’s machine, 223

Difficulties in introducing new mate-

rials, 12

Djurnang, 95

Dogbanes, 302

Dombeya umbellata, 266

Dom Rheea, 363, 364

Double Cocoa-nut, 124

Doum Palm, 124

Dragon Cane, 95

Dragon’s blood, 95

Durma Mats, 32

Dwarf Palm, 91

Echatal, 303

Edueation, defects of, 10

Eee-gyot shaw, 239

Ejoo Fibre, 99, 100

durability of, 102

Palm, 91

Elis guineensis, 103

Elasticity of Fibre, 332

 

INDEX.

Endogens, 28
Fibre of, general observa-
tions on, 125 .
preparation of Fibre, 29
Eriophorum, 34
cannabinum, 34, 389
Esparto, 31, 32, 270
Evim pannah, 98
Exogenous plants, Fibres, 129
structure, 130
Exogens, 28
strength of Fibre, 131
Exports, Cocoa-nut products, 120
from India, 299
in 1850-51, ¢
unny bags, 251
eee Ah, 251
linen, 139
Linseed, 9, 227, 228
Hemp, 339

Fana, 65
Fibre, botanical nature of, 17
of Endogens, general observa-
tions on, 125
preparation of, 2°
of Exogens, 129
strength of, 131
-yielding plants, attempts to in-
troduce, 6
Fibres, durability of, 102
elasticity of, 332
preparation of, 28, 29, 78, 125,
199, 245, 248, 273, 321,
333, 359, 363
strength of, 49, 56, 88, 131,
268, 277, 287, 310, 331,
332, 355, 364, 372, 375
Fibrous plants, arrangement of, 27
Ficus, 343
Fig-tree bark, 343
Filo de pita, 43
Flax, 135
Breaking, 217
Buchanan’s process, 210
Chemical processes for separa-
ting, 213
Cotton, 215
cost of, in India, 185
culture, 137, 152, 154
in Bengal, 168
Bombay, 188
Bundlecund, 189
Doab, 189
India, 163
general observa-
tions on, 159
INDEX.

Flax culture in Ireland, 155
Madras, 188
Punjab, 191
Sindh, 197
profits of, 162
Experiments at Bullea, 177
Burdwan, 177
Monghyr, 179
Fibre, preparation of, 199
Imports, 10, 141, 229
from 1801 to 1853, 381
plant and products, 142
chemical constituents, 146
Pownall’s process, 211
prices of, 230
produce per acre, 163
Royal Improvement Society, 17
Society India Experiments, 173
Steeping green, 212
Steep-water analysis, 208
Watt’s process, 205
Food, Plantain, 70
Foo-foo, 76
Fourcroya gigantea, 43

Gambe, 345
Gania, 243
Ganja, 241, 243, 314
Ganza, 9
Gayal, 256
Ghi-nalita pat, 242
Ghoree Sun, 244, 270
Ghurghurea, 246
Ginger, 61
Glam tree bark, 341
Gnidia eriocephala, 312
Gomuto, 92

Fibre, 99, 101
Goni, 243, 280
Gong-kura, 253
Goor, 96
Gossypium herbaceum, strengthof, 310

indicum, 264

Gram, 169, 214
Gramina, 30
Grass cloth, 8, 67
Grasses, 30

in India, 31
Grawatha, 37
Grewia, 392

didyma, 235

oppositifolia, 235
Ground Rattan, 94 -
Guazuma, 265, 266

ulmifolia, 267

Gunjica, Sans., 314
Gunny, 114, 248

 

397

Gunny bags, Exports, 251
clo
"Exports, 251

Hackling Flax, 225
Hampa, 271
Hanf, 271
Harl, 199
Hasheesh, 315
Heckle, 225
Heckling, 19, 21
Flax, 225
Helicteres Isora, 266
Hemp, 314
Bombay, 133
Brown, 8, 252
Calcutta, 270
Conkanee, 254
Cordage, comparative strength
of, 289
cost, 327
crop and profit, 338
cultivation, 319
in British Gurhwal,
321
Europe, 333
Nepaul, 323
Plains of India,
324
Deckanee, 254
Himalayan, 133
Imports, 338
price, 330
quality, 330
strength of, 333
Imports, 10
from 1801 to 1853, 381
Jubbulpore, 290
Kote Kangra, 331
-like Hibiscus, 253
Madras, 133
preparation in Europe, 333
prices of, 340
Sunn, 133
so-called, Exports from India,
299

sweating of, 337
Hempen rope Exports, 299
Hengchung Hapo, 350
Hennip, 271
Herpat, 367
Hia-pou, Chin., 359
Hibiscus Abelmoschus, 259
arboreus, 261°
cannabinus, 46, 253, 254,
256, 263, 284,
391
398

Hibiscus cannabinus, ee of, 257,

clypeatus, 263
collinus, 261
elatus, 262
eriocarpus, D. C., 261
esculentus, 259, 391
ficifolius, 261
furcatus, 261
heterophyllus, 262
longifolius, 259
mutabilis, 261
populneus, 262
Sabdariffa, 260, 391
strictus, 260
tiliaceus, 261, 262
verrucosus, 262
Hill and Bundy’s machine, 221
Hintal, Beng., 96
Holostemma Rheedianum, Spr., 306
Hop, 315
Horoo Surat, 366
Hoya viridiflora, 306
Hub-ool-mooshk, 259.
Humulus Lupulus, 315
Husheesh, 135
Hyphene thebaica, 124

Imports of Fibres, Bombay, 300
Cocoa-nut products, 120
Coir, 119, 123
Flax, 10, 141, 229
from 1801 to 1853,
381 ~
Hemp, 10, 339
from 1801 to 1853,
381
so-called, from In-
dia, 339
from Russia, 339
Himalayan, 330
Linseed, 228, 929
Oil, 228
Russian Mats, 235, 236
Tow, 229, 381
Inan, 345
India, cost of Flax in, 185
Exports from, 299
in 1850-1, 9
Linseed, 227, 228
ar eee Experiments in,

peculiarities of culture in, 4
Indian Flax, perennial, 267

Hemps, 252

Hemp, perennial, 267

Nut, 102

 

INDEX.

Indian substitutes for Russian Bast,
235, 236
Wools, 192
Isbund, 242

Jaggary, 100, 108
Jaguri, 96
Jak tree, 341
Jambee, 95
Janapa, 270
Janapum, strength of, 310
Jeroogoo, Tel., 98
Jerusalem Artichoke, 302
Jetee, 304
Fibre, strength of, 305
Jew’s Mallow, 240, 242
Jouz, 102
Jubbulpore Hemp, 290
strength of, 292
Juncacer, 60
Juncus effusus, 60
glaucus, 60
Jungle Rheea, 365
Jurkundaloo, 370
Jussi, 67
dresses, 67
Jute, 8, 49, 182, 240, 242, 384
culture of, 244
Exports, 251
prices of, 245
Whiskey, 249
Juyunti, Beng., 293

Kabong, 105
Kaili, 342
Kalabuntha, 51
Kaldera, 36
Kanda-gang, 261
Kantal, 341
Karao, 345
Karpas, 135
Kutu-Kapel, 52
Keesoo, 297
Kenna, 270
Keora, 36
Ketgee, 36
Khair, 111
Khujjoor, 96
Khuskhus, 32
King ma, 262
Kinnub, 314, 316
Kittul, Cing., 99
Klanglein, 143
Koppera, 109
Koradi, 57
Korere, 57
Koombhee, 301
Koosha, 32
-Korkhorus, 241
Kote Kangra Hemp, 331
Krotalos, 271
Kubra, 370
Kudrum, 256

Kula abbal, 65
Kully hain, 235
Kumut, 341
Kundaloo, 370
Kungia, 263
Kunkhoora, 345, 351
Kupassee, 302
Kurkee, 302

Kutan, Pers., 185
Kydia, 266

Lace-bark tree, 311
Lagetta lintearia, 311
Lal bariala, 262
Lal Hemanty Pat, 244
Lal Petrie Pat, 244
Lamot, 65
Laquis, 65
Lashing, 21
Lavatera arborea, 263
Leguminose, 270:
Leepeeah, 364
Leptadenia Jacquemontiana, 306
spartea, 306
Lepurandra saccidora, 343
Liber, 130
Licuala acutifida, 94, 97
peltata, 97
Liliaceous plants, 50
Lilium chalcedonicum, 50
Lime tree, 130, 233
Linacer, 135, 142
Linden tree, 233
tribe, 232
Line, 20
Linseed, 135, 187, 144
Exports, 9, 227, 22
impentes 229
Indian, 169
Oil, 145
Indian, 228
in Punjab, 193
Linum crepitans, 143
humile, 143
perenne, 143
usitatissimum, 135, 143
Livistona Jenkinsiana, 97
Lodoicea Seychellarum, 124
Longbeard, 38
Lupis, 67
Lygeum Spartum, 31

 

 

 

INDEX. 399

Maceration, effects of, 269
Madoorkati, 34

Madras Hemp, 270
Maesta paut, Beng., 254

| Maho tree, 261

Maizurrye, 95

Malacca Cane, 95
| Maljhun, 295

! Mallow worts, 253
| Malluach, 241

| Malvacer, 253

Malva crispa, 263
sylvestris, 263
Malvales, 253

| Maloo Climber, 295

Manilla Dragon Cane, 95
Hemp, 60, 61, 64, 65, 89
Rope, 49

Mangrove, 301

Mao, 345

Marantacez, 60

Maranta dichotoma, 60

Marool, 61

' Marool, strength of, 310

Marsdenia Roylei, 305
tenacissima, 304
Marsh Mallow, 263
Mariil, 51
Materials for Paper-making, 382—392
Mats, 234
Matweed, 31
Maurvi, 52
Mauz, 61
Mawal, 296
Meesta pat, 270
Megila, 240, 243, 246
Mejinga, 365
Melilotus arborea, 298
leucantha, 298
Melon tribe, 301
Mesakhee fibre, 365
Mesta, 244, 256
Mesta Paut, 253
Mezereon, 312
Microlena spectabilis, 266
Mohaut, 261
Molkenrost, 213
Moocta patee, 60
Moogai, 44
Moonj, 32
Moonja, 32, 33
Moonyah, 32
jo nuree, 32
jo russa, 32
Moorga, 51
Moorgavee, 51
Moorgubbee, 54
400

Moorva, 116
cordage, 56
fibre, 50, 51, 53
Mooshkdana, 259
Morus, 342
Moz, 61
Mucta pata, 61
Mudar, 281, 306
Fibre, value of, 309
fineness, 309
strength, 310
Mudar, Hind., 306
ke shukkur, 307
Mudarine, 307
Muddar, Hind., 306
Muka, 58
Mulberry, 342
Mummy cloth, 135
Mirva, Sans., 51
Musaceer, 61
Musa string, 79
Musa, 61
Cavendishii, 62, 86
coccinea, 62
glauca, 62
nepalensis, 63
ornata, 62, 66, 79
paradisiaca, 62, 64, 69, 389
sapientum, 63, 64, 66, 79
superba, 62
sylvestris, 65
textilis, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 79
trogloditarum, 65
Mushina, fog 135
Myrodia longiflora, 266
Myrtacee, 301

Nali-kera, Sans., 102
Nalta jute, 242
Naanah-thi, 39
Nar, 32
Naravali fibre, 311
Narikel, 102
Nari-kera, 102
Narwuli, 311
Naryul, 102
Nature and structure of fibres, 18
Neera, 104
Neglect of Natural Sciences, 10
Neilgherry Nettle, 133, 366
Nepal Paper plant, 311, 312
Nerium piscidium, Roxb., 303
Nettles, 344, 370

Himalayan, 370
Nettle fibres, strength of, 372
New Orleans moss, 38
New Zealand Flax, 57, 59

 

INDEX.

Ngan-tsoung shan, 239
ipa fruticans, 36

Nipah Palm, 36

Nopal, 45

Nul, 32

Oadal, 266

Oadhal, Kemaon, 266

Oakum of Plantain, 87

Odina Wodier, 240

Okhro, 259, 391

Ot moa, 241

Oleander, 302

Olus judaicum, 241

Olcott’s patent, 222

Oil-cake, 145

Oil Linseed, 145
Palm, 91, 103

Orthanthera viminea, 305

Oseille, 260

Pala, 62
Palan, 62
Palma indica major, 107
Palmaces, 91
Palmira tree, 97
Palm leaves cable, 124
sugar, 100
wine, 37, 97
Palmetto, 95, 124
Palms, 91
Palmyra Palm, 91
Palmyra nar, 98
Palungoo, 253, 254
Pan, 85
Pan, 351
Pandanacee, 35
Pandanus odoratissimus, 36
sativus, 36
Vacoa, 36
Paper-makers’ half-stuff, 33
-making, materials for, 382
with references to plants, 388
Mulberry, 341
cloth, 342
of Chamerops, 96
of Plantain fibre, 87
Papyrus, 33, 387
Pangorei, 33
Parkinsonia aculeata, 298, 391
Pat, 135, 240, 242, 244, 384
Pa-tha-you Shaw, 84, 239
Patoo, 239
Patti-pata, 61
Patwa, 296
Paut, 244, 294
Peepul, 343
INDEX. 401

Penang Lawyers, 94 Processes, chemical, for separating.
Panga, 37 Flax, 213 P -
Pen reed grass, 32 : mechanical, for separating
Perennial Indian Flax, 267 Hemp, 216

Hemp, 267 Pulas, 297
Periploca aphyllum, 306 Pun, 35
Periwinkle, 303 Puteera, 35
Petha-kalabuntha, 41, 47 Putooa Sun, 244

Pfees, 96
Pheenix dactylifera, 96
farinifera, 96
paludosa, 96
sylvestris, 91, 96
Phool Sun, 274
Phormium, 50
tenax, 57, 59
Pigna or Pina, 39
Pina muslin, 39
Pine-apple, 38
fibre, 37, 41
strength of, 89
Piper Betle, 85
Pishtak, 135
Pissang utan, 65
Pita, 41, 48
thread, 42
Plantain, 63
baked, 71
cultivation, 75, 82
Fibre, 50, 69, 78, 79
Madras,3
Meal, 70, 72,77
composition, 73
Oakum, 87
reserved, 71
ope, Madras, 84
strength of, 88
tow, 87
tribe, 61
Platano pasado, 71
Poa cynosuroides, 32
Poee, 369
Poivrea Roxburghii, 301
Pooa, 368 ‘
Pooley Mungee, strength of, 310
Pooley (for Numajee read) Munjee,
253

Porcupine wood, 110
Portugal. White Broom, 270
Preparation of Fibre, 19
of Cordage, 20
Prices of Dhunchee, 295
of Flax, 185, 230
of Jute, 245
of Hemp, 340
of Plantain fibre, 85, 89, 128
of Sunn, 273, 288

 

Putta, 240, 242

Rajmahl Bowstring, 304
Rakitzer, 231
Ramee, 346, 351, 353
Rameum majus, 348
Rami Tsjina, Mal., 241, 242
Ram turat, 259, 389
Raphis cochinchinensis, 124
flabelliformis, 95
Ratline, 20
Rattan cane, 95
Reed, 315
Reree, 35
Rheea fibre, 133, 349
reports on, 349
for rope-making, 355, 364
nde Cliinese method ‘of
preparation, 363
Riga seed, 160
Ripple, 216
Rippling Flax, 158
Rope, 20
-making operations, 21
Mangrove, 301
Plantain, strength of, 88
Rheea fibre, 355, 374
Roselle, 256
Rouselle, 260
Rozelle, 260
Ruffickee tree, 235
Rushes, 60
Russia, Imports from, of Hemp and
Flax, 339, 381
Mats, 234

Saccharum Sara, 32, 388
Munja, 32, 388
Safflower, 302
Sagig, 65
Sago, 100
Palm, 91
Tree, 92
Saguerus Rumphii, 99
Sagus levis, 92, 105
Rumphii, 92
Salsette Hemp, 270
Sana, 270, 271
Sanseviera, 50

26
402

Sanseviera oe 52
anuginosa, 52
Roxburghiana, 52
Zeylanica, 51, 237
: strength of, 310
Sara, Beng., 32
Screw Pines, 35
Scutching Tools, 219
Sedges, 33
Sejee, 99
Serpah, 367
Bez bants aculeata, 293, 294
cochinchinensis, 293
Shanapu, 281
Shanapum, 270
Shaw, 85, 237
Shaw-nee, 239
-phyou, 239
Shesh, 135
Shove, 199, 315
Shur, 32
Sida, 262
abutilon, 262
asiatica, 263
graveolens, 263
indica, 263
periplocifolia, 263
rhombifolia, 262
rhomboidea, 262, 263
tilizfolia, 262, 391
Silk Cotton tree, 265
culture, 191
Sinamaya, 67
Sital-pati, Hind., 60
Snow-retting, 336
Soil for Hemp, 333
Flax, 149
Spanish Broom, 270, 271
Spartium junceum, 31, 270
monospermum, 270
multiflorum, 270
Spartum of Romans, 31
Springlein, 143
Steeping Flax, 200
Hemp, 335
Sunn, 212
Sterculia, 265
guttata, 266
Ivria, 266
villosa, 266
Sterculiacesr, 253
Stipa tenacissima, 31, 270
Strand, 20
Strength of Fibres, 268, 269
Agave, &., 49
Exogens, 131
Himalayan Hemp, 331

 

INDEX.

Strength of Indian fibres, 268, 332
for cordage, 372
Jetee fibre, 305
Jubbulpore Hemp, 292
Moorva, 56
Mudar fibre, 309
Nettle fibres, 272
Pine-apple, 292
Plantain, 88
Rheea and other fibres, 374, 375
for cordage, 355, 364
experiments with, 373
Sunn, 257, 277, 289
Urtica nivea, 347
Strength, loss of, 22
Stringy bark, 301
Sunn, 8, 49, 251, 252, 270
Sunn, Hind., 270
Sunn cordage, comparative strengths
of, 289
cultivation, 273
in Bombay, 282
in Madras, 279
drying, 276
Fibre preparation, 274
Hemp, Calcutta, 270
paper, 384
steeping, 212
strength of, 257, 277, 289, 310
value of, 287, 288 :
Sunnee, 254:
Surat, 366
Sur, 32
Sur jo kanee, 32
Sweating of Hemp, 337
Syrian Dogbane, 304

Taag, 252, 254, 256, 270

Tag, 258, 284.

Takur, 246

Tali nunas, 40

Tali rami, 358

Talipat, 98

Talipat Palm, 91 j

‘Tanning ropes, 27

Tar, 97

from Teak, 26

Tara, 98

Tari, 96

Tarring, effects of, 24

Tasa, 244

Tat, 240, 242, 243

Tchou Ma, 345
cultivation of, 359
preparation of, 362

- Tea, cultivation of, 191

Teak Tar, 26
INDEX.

Teesoo, 297

Tella jilladdoo, Mad., 306

Telligee, 99

Tenga, Tam., 102

Tesee, 143

Textile Fibres
Abroma angusta, 267
Abaca, 64, 89
China-grass, 345, 353
Flax, 139
Hemp, 328
Hibiscus cannabinus, 256

other species of, 260

Jute, 247
Mudar fibre, 309
Nettles, 364, 366, 367
Pine-apple fibre, 40
Plantam fibre, 89
Sanseviera, 55
Sida periplocifolia, 263
Sunn, 278, 285

Theng-ban shaw, 239

Theng-ma, 367

Thespesia populnea, 262

Thistle, 308

Thymelee, 311

Tiliacer, 232

Tilia europea, 233, 391

Toddy, 100

Toko-pat, 97

Tous les mois, 61

Tow, 19, 182
Imports, 229

from 1801 to 1853, 38]

_of Plantain, 87

Trade Museums, 11, 17

Trap tree, 341

Travancore Flax, 285

Tree Mallow, 263

Tsjo, 345

Tupoz, 67

Turmeric, 61

Twine, 20

Twisting, Experiments on, 23

loss of strength by, 22
Typha angustifolia, 35
elephantina, 35
Typhacee, 35

Ulmacez, 313
Ullat-kumul, Beng., 267

 

403

Ulsee, 135, 148

Umbaree, 284

Urena lobata, 263
sinuata, 263

Urtica argentea, 345
cannabina, 344
crenulata, 344, 366
dioica, 344
heterophylla, 344, 366, 372
Japonica, 345
nivea, 345
pulcherrima, 344
tenacissima, 346
tuberosa, 344
virulenta, 372

Urticer, 344

Vacoa, 35, 36
Verbenacer, 310
Petiveyr, 32
Vinca, 303

Water-retting, 335
Weaving, early notices of, 2
Whanghee, 95 ‘
Wheat in India, 169, 185
White single-seed Broom, 270
Wilaitee Sunn, 254

Wild Rheea, 355
Winterlein, 143
Woollet-comul, 267

Wool, Indian, 192

Wuckoo nar, 285, 286

Yangfung, 313
sees f
Yercum, 306
Caoutchouc of, 307
fibre, 308
strength of, 310
Yerkum, 281
Yucca, 57
aloifolia, 57
angustifolia, 57
filamentosa, 57
gloriosa, 57

Zalacca macrostachya, 123
Zambarone, 43
Zingiberacez, 61.

 

 

PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
ERRATA.

Page 32, line 38, for ‘Mr. Burns,” read “ Mr. Barns; so also in pp. 33 and 144.

» 33,
1 204,
» 341,
» 343,
1 345,
349,
» 375,

29, for “ Cyperace,” read ‘‘ Cyperacee.”
17, for ‘ Numajee,” read ‘‘ Munjee.”’
9, for “ineisa,” read ‘‘ incisa.””
37, for “saccadora,” read “ saccidora.”
8, for “Shon,” read “ Shan.”
12, for “ tencessime,” read “ tenacissima.”
4, after “ Military Stores,” add “the strength of the large ropes was
tried at the Rope-works of Messrs. Mathews, in Bermondsey.”
sb

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