Sees eee Bet cranes Te oe emcee a Cornell University Library OF THE Rew Work State College of Agriculture A i ANI a] wil | iN pror jarket gardening, THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES FOR VOCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS EDITED BY JOSEPH M. JAMESON QIRARD COLLEGE THE WILEY ‘TECHNICAL SERIES EDITED BY JOSEPH M. JAMESON TEXT BOOKS IN AGRICULTURE NOW READY Market Gardening. By I. L. Yeaw, Manager, Oasis Farm and Orchard Company, Roswell, N. M. Formerly Professor of Market Gardening, Mas- sachusetts Agricultural College. vi+120 pages, 5 by 7. 36 figures. Cloth, 75 cents net. Studies of Trees: Their Diseases and Care. By J. J. Levison, Department of Parks, Brooklyn, N. Y. 54 by & x+253 pages, 156 half-tone illustrations. Cloth, $1.60 net. (Also 8 by 10!5, loose leaf.) Agricultural Drafting. By CHArLEs B. Howe, Bush- wick Evening High School, Borough of Brooklyn. New York, N. Y. viii +63 pages, 8 by 1034. 45 figures, 26 plates. Cloth, $1.25 net. Exercises in Farm Dairying. By Professor C. Larsen, Department of Dairy Husbandry, South Dakota State College. Loose leaf, 8 by 101%. 69 Exercises. Single Exercises two cents each. Corm- plete, $1.00 net. READY IN SEPTEMBER, 1915 Farm Crops and Soils. By Professor A. G. McCa.n, Ohio State University. Agricultural Chemistry. By Professor T. E. Keirr, Clemson Agricultural College. Injurious Insects. By Dean E. D. SANDERSON and Professor L. M. Pearrs, West Virginia University. Vor full announcement see list following index. 1M. 6/10/15 MARKET GARDENING BY F. L. YEAW Manager, Oasis Farm and Orchard Company, Roswell, New Mexico Formerly Professor of Market Gardening, Massachusetts Agricultural College FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Lonpoxn: CHAPMAN & HALL: Limrrep 1915 Copyright, 1915 BY Fr. L. YEAW THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY BROOKLYN. N.Y PREFACE THE income from the sale of vegetables is practically twice that produced from the great fruit industries of the country. Only recently, however, is Market Gardening receiving the attention that it merits as a subject in which valuable instruction may be given in our schools. The purpose of this little manual is to furnish, in a con- densed and usable form, information concerning methods and best practices for growing and marketing the com- moner vegetables. It is designed primarily for use as an elementary text on market gardening. Methods for the propagation, preparation of the soil for, planting, cultivation, harvesting and marketing of twenty-three of the more common and hardy vegetables are considered in detail. In addition, such information is given concerning soils, fertilizers, moisture requirements, seeds, germination, the preparation and care of hot beds and the storing and packing of vegetables as is necessary to a reasonably complete understanding of the whole problem. A special chapter is devoted to the location, planning and care of home and school gardens. Growers of vegetables in a small way for the home table, as well as those engaged in market gardening on a commercial scale, it is believed, will find this a practical, reliable and handy guide. F. L. YEaw. RosweE.u, N. M. April, 1915. iii CONTENTS CHAPTER I LocaTION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN. CULTIVATION PAGE Market—Soil—Exposure—Labor—Water—Tools—Cultivation... 1 CHAPTER II FERTILIZERS Stable Manures—Composting—Chemical Fertilizers—Nitrogen— Nitrate of Soda—Potash—Phosphoric Acid—Complete Fer- tilizers—Soil Acidity—Lime—Green Manures—Legumes— Ploughing Under—Catch Crops. ............ 0.00000 eee eee 9 CHAPTER III Hor Beps Uses—Location—Means of Heating—Construction—Preparation ‘of the: Manure—Cares cock wees ensayo eR ea ee es 19 CHAPTER IV SEEDS AND SEED SowING. TRANSPLANTING Quality of the Seed — Germination — Seed Beds — Planting — AP TANS pLATUUM Bred iasaais ceoak eines renee ioe Seth ere ak Oommen ema ct 24 CHAPTER V IRRIGATION Moisture Requirements of Plants—Methods of Irrigation...... 32 v1 CONTENTS CHAPTER VI VEGETABLE GARDENS The Home Garden—School Gardens...... CHAPTER VII STORING AND PackKING Storage Cellars and Pits—Storing Root Crops—Celery—Onions and “Cabbage Packing... ae cn cones densa iowa we os 43 CHAPTER VIII Crops Propagation, preparation of soil for, planting, cultivation, harvest- ing and marketing of the following: 1. Asparagus. 2. Beans.— 3. Beets —4. Cabbage.—5. Brussels sprouts.—6. Cauliflower.— 7. Celery.—8. Cucumbers.—9. Dandelion.—10. Egg Plant.— 11. Horse-radish.—12. Lettuce.—13. Muskmelon.—14. On- ions.—15. Parsnips.—16. Salsify.—17. Pea.—18. Radish.— 19. Rhubarb.—20. Spinach.—21. Squash.—22. Sweet corn.— 23. Tomatoes. ou wo MARKET GARDENING CHAPTER I LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN. CULTIVATION THE location of the market garden is determined by a number of factors, the most important of which are market, soil, transportation facilities, labor supply, manure supply and water. 1. Market. The market, and nearness to market, are of first importance in choosing the location for the market garden. The grower must have a sure and dependable market for his products; the larger cities generally afford the steadiest and most dependable markets. Most of the products of the market garden are of a perishable nature; if the garden is not located close to a market, within hauling distance, the express or fast freight service must be efficient and dependable. The condition of the roads is of vital importance to the grower who intends to haul his produce to market with a team or auto truck. 2. Soil. The soil is of secondary importance to the market. A market must be had in which to dispose of the produce; but a good gardener can build up and improve the average soil so that it will produce good crops of most vegetables, while it might be impossible to create or build up a market. 2 MARKET GARDENING The ideal market garden soil is a good sandy loam, under laid by a gravelly subsoil. Such a soil warms up quickly in the spring, never bakes or puddles, can be worked soon after a rain, can be worked early in the spring, is well drained and is adapted to a wide range of crops. 3. Exposure. The land should slope to the south or southeast. Such an aspect assures the earliest warming up in the spring, is protected from cold north winds and receives the greatest amount of sunshine, Fic, 1.—Disc Harrow. Windbreaks are desirable and may be temporary or per- manent. Temporary wind breaks may be built by stick- ing brush into the ground or constructing a tight board fence along the exposed side. A more permanent wind- break is to be had by planting trees close together along the exposed side; this will, in time, form a compact hedge which is very efficient in breaking the wind. LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN 3 4. Labor. The market gardener is dependent upon a quickly available and cheap supply of labor. The large (i Fig, 2.—The Meeker Smoothing Harrow. cities are the sources of such a supply of labor. Intensive gardening must be done very largely by hand and a large Fig. 3.—Double Wheel Hoe. number of hands must be available, for a few months’ time during the year, for the successful carrying on of the inten- sive market garden. The larger cities also furnish a large G MARKET GARDENIN ‘uapiey yooyos & Ul asf) Ur seoF] jaeyW— Fold LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN 5 supply of horse manure which is most important in market gardening. 5. Water. A market garden is not completely equipped unless it has an abundant supply of water for irrigating the crops and for the preparation of the vegetables for market. The gardener should not depend upon the rain- fall for the success of his garden. It is essential that water be available for irrigation whenever the conditions demand it. Practically every kind of vegetable is washed when being prepared for market and a good supply of pure water is necessary for this work. 6. Preparation of the Soil. After the manure has been applied, the ground should be well ploughed. Four to six inches is sufficient depth for ploughing in most cases; too deep ploughing is not advisable because new soil is brought to the surface which will take a number of seasons to come to a proper condition for the growing of vegetables. Fol- lowing the ploughing, the soil should be thoroughly disced. A double cut-a-way disc harrow is the best tool to break up lumps and with which to get the soil into its best con- dition for the planting of garden crops. The discing should be followed by an application of a high grade chemical fer- tilizer which should be mixed with the top soil by the use of a peg tooth smoothing harrow or by the use of a Meeker disc smoothing harrow. When the soil is of an usually poor quality or is somewhat heavy and lumpy, it is advisable to follow the first discing with the plough. It may be necessary to plough the ground three times to get it into proper condition for such a crop as lettuce. The first and last ploughings may be shallower than the second ploughing when three ploughings are made. 7. Cultivation. The vegetable garden must have fre- quent and thorough, but shallow, cultivation. Most vege- MARKET GARDENING ‘uapisr) ATIWBY B UI BS) UI Japseag puey—g ‘og LOCATION FOR THE MARKET GARDEN 7 tables do not root deeply but send their roots out quite near the surface. The cultivation, if carried on too deep close to the plants, is liable to injure the roots. The object of frequent cultivation is to keep down the weeds and to maintain a dust mulch for.the conservation of the water held in the soil. Cultivation lets the air and sunlight into the soil thereby favoring the development of certain ben- eficial bacteria and helping to make available the plant food applied to the soil. Fig. 6.—Combined Hill and Drill Seeder and Wheel Hoe. For the use of the seed drill the soil must be in a smooth, mellow condition, free from lumps or coarse material that would interfere with the planting or with keeping the rows straight. The Meeker smoothing harrow, Fig. 2, is the best tool on the market for finishing the ground pre- vious to drilling in the seed. This harrow consists of four rows of small discs, placed close together, two rows of discs in front and two rows behind with a smoothing plank in the middle. This harrow will leave the surface in as fine condition as though the ground had been hand raked. 8 MARKET GARDENING When the rows are close together and hand work must be employed, the choice of tools will largely determine the cost of the cultivation. The two-wheel and single-wheel hoes are commonly used in cultivating the smaller vege- table crops. The two-wheel hoe is designed and intended to run straddle of the row with a wheel each side and close to the plants. The various teeth and cutters furnished with the double or single-wheel hoes are adjustable so that the cultivation may be very close or farther from the plants. The single-wheel hoe is designed for use between the rows. There are a number of combination seed drills and wheel hoes on the market which are very desirable for the small grower, the cost of the combined tool being but little more than the cost of the seed drill alone. The best makes of the combina- tion tools allow for the climination of the seed drill or wheel hoe attachments as may be desired. Others make it neces- sary to use both the seed drill and the wheel hoe attachments at the same time; the drill sumply beg thrown out of gear and the teeth attached. CHAPTER II FERTILIZERS 8. Kinds. There are three general sources of fertilizer, or plant food; stable manures, chemical fertilizers and green manures. The term ‘‘ green manure ’”’ is used to designate such crops as cow peas, crimson clover, rye and other green crops grown for ploughing under. Such crops add humus to the soil and, when a leguminous crop is ploughed under, a considerable amount of nitrogen is also added to the soil. Green crops are usually ploughed under in the spring although it is often desirable to plough the crop under in the fall. 9. Stable Manures. Stable manures are more gen- erally used than any other source of plant food for grow- ing vegetables. In many instances, they are the cheapest source of plant food obtainable, as when the grower is located near a large city and the stable manure may be had at small cost or for hauling it away. In other instances, manure brings a good price and is often shipped long distances for the market gardener. Rotted stable manure is the best fertilizer for the garden, for not only is a supply of quickly available plant food added, but stable manure also furnishes a store of humus in its most desirable condition for readily incorporating with the soil. Stable manure runs compara- tively low in its plant food value. It is estimated that a ton of partly rotted stable manure is worth about $2.00 for the plant food contained in it; it is of course worth more than this to the gardener because of its supply of humus. 9 10 MARKET GARDENING Humus, or rotted vegetable matter, is indispensable for the successful growing of vegetables or any other crop. Humus makes the soil more friable, helps it to hold moisture, lightens a heavy soil and makes more retentive a light soil. A soil deficient in humus is hard to work, bakes quickly after a rain, is slow to warm up in the spring and is very unfavorable for the use of chemical fertilizer. If humus is not present in a soil, the chemical fertilizer applied will largely be lost. The addition of humus renders the soil fit for the use of chemical fertilizers, and furnishes a condition favorable for certain chemical changes which constantly go on in the soil, and for certain friendly bacteria. Other manures used in vegetable growing are sheep manure, hen manure, cow manure and hog manure. Hen and sheep manures are rich in nitrogen and their store of plant food is quickly available; they are valuable for use as a top dressing or for crops requiring unusual amounts of nitrogen. They are “ hot’? manures and must be used with care else the crops may be damaged by burning. Cow and hog manure are cold manures, their content of plant food is slow to become available except when they are well rotted. 10. Composting. It is not generally desirable to apply fresh horse manure to land intended for growing vegetables. Fresh manure tends to the production of top at the expense of the root in many crops. The general practice in using stable manure is to compost it for a considerable time before applying it to the soil. Rotted or partly rotted stable manure has its store of plant food in a quickly available condition, which is very desirable in growing vegetables. The plant food contained in fresh manure is not so quickly available except the nitrogen in the form of ammonia. FERTILIZERS 11 Stable manure is composted by making the manure into a pile as soon as it is hauled to the market garden. Manure is generally hauled as fast as it is produced and is then built up into piles conveniently located for final distribution The pile should be about five feet high and as long and wide as necessary. As the pile is constructed, the manure should be firmed by tramping, and if very dry, the manure should be wetted sufficiently to prevent burning in the pile. When fresh horse manure is placed in a pile, fermentation takes place with a considerable amount of heat. The heat will cause the manure to fire fang, or burn. The pile should be examined frequently, and if it is showing a whitish or grayish color, the pile should be turned and watered lightly. It should be remembered that every time the pile is turned there is a consequent loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia; therefore handle the pile carefully and do not disturb it more often than is absolutely necessary. About six months time is ordinarily required for the proper composting of the manure. Rotted stable manure is usually applied in the spring just previous to ploughing. After ploughing the ground should be thoroughly worked with a disc harrow. Fresh or partly rotted manure is best ploughed under in the fall; the procedure in the spring then is to thoroughly disc the ground before planting. The rate of application of manure depends upon the condition of the ground and the crops to be grown. In intensive gardening, where the ground is not allowed to be idle during the growing season, from twenty to fifty cords of rotted manure per acre should be ploughed under each season. The average application is twenty to twenty- five cords. 11. Commercial Fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers are 12 MARKET GARDENING necessary for the maximum production from the area planted. Stable manures alone may furnish sufficient plant food for some classes of vegetables, but being unbalanced in their content of plant food, their use cannot be depended upon entirely for the successful growing of all vegetables. Manures have a relatively high content of nitrogen, and are usually deficient in the mineral elements of phosphorous and potash. To balance the ration of plant food, chemical fertilizers are used. The plant food contained in manures becomes available rather slowly, except for the nitrogen which is in the organic form, ammonia. This becomes available very quickly, particularly if the manure is rotted. Chemical fertilizers may be obtained in forms which are quickly available. This is important in intensive gardening where quick results are very desirable. Slow plant growth results in vegetables of inferior quality and oftentimes the yield is small in quantity. Slow growth tends to produce vegetables tough in texture and of poor flavor. Rapid growth produces tender, succulent vegetables of fine flavor. Then again, the more quickly a crop may be matured, the sooner it will become ready for harvesting and thus out of the way for succeeding crops. The use of chemical fertilizers enables the grower to raise a maximum crop of fine flavor and quality, and to produce the crop in the shortest time possible. Chemical fertilizers should seldom be used alone; they give the best results only when used as an adjunct to stable manures. To get the largest results from an application of chemical fertilizers, the ground must be liberally supplied with humus, and must be in a high state of cultivation. 12. Nitrogen. The element necessary in the production of tender succulent stems and leaves is nitrogen, and it is FERTILIZERS 13 therefore very valuable in the growing of such crops as celery, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, asparagus, or any crop grown for its top, or for early maturity. Nitrogen stimu- lates the plants and tends to produce a good growth in the early spring before the ground becomes thoroughly warmed. 13. Nitrate of Soda. The most available and therefore valuable form in which nitrogen may be supplied is known as nitrate of soda. The nitrogen becomes available as soon as the compound is dissolved, while if supplied in manures, dried blood, bone or tankage, these materials must decom- pose before their supply of nitrogen becomes available. Nitrate of soda may be supplied alone or in combina- tion with other elements. The rate of application varies with the richness of the soil and with the kind of crops grown. The method of application varies with the condi- tions; whether it is used as part of a complete fertilizer, or is used alone as a top dressing. Under most conditions the best results are obtained from sowing the nitrate broad- cast, even when the plants are young and tender. If the foliage is dry at the time of broadcasting the nitrate of soda, none of it will adhere to the leaves but all will glance off to the ground. pe Nitrate of soda may also be sown along the row quite close to the plants and then cultivated in, or it may be applied by any one of the numerous fertilizer distributors that are adapted for use in narrow rows. Nitrate of soda is used as a part of complete fertilizers for vegetables. Such fertilizers should be broadcasted over the land, or applied with a fertilizer drill just preceding the final harrowing before seed sowing, or placed in the hill, or drill, at the time of planting. The amount of nitrate of soda to be used at one time will vary with the richness of 14 MARKET GARDENING the soil and with the character of the crop to be fertilized. The amount varies from a few pounds to as much as 250 pounds per acre. It is the better practice to make smaller and frequent applications rather than to make larger and fewer applications. 14. Other Sources of Nitrogen. Nitrogen may also be obtained from the use of dried blood, tankage, manures, raw or steamed bone and ground fish. Dried blood decom- poses quite rapidly and its supply of nitrogen becomes available quickly. Tankage decomposes somewhat more slowly than does dried blood. Manures, raw bone and steamed bone decompose slowly. Ground fish becomes available slowly. The supply of nitrogen in a complete fertilizer should have at least two sources, nitrate of soda, and another source such as dried blood or tankage. 16. Potash. Potash is particularly necessary in grow- ing root croops, as carrots, turnips, beets, radishes, and parsnips. It is also important in growing other vegetable crops. Sandy or muck soils are usually very deficient in their supply of this element. Potash is obtainable in several forms, muriate of potash being the most available form. Sulphate of potash is also a desirable form. 17. Phosphoric Acid. As most soils are deficient in phosphori¢g agid, the gardener must supply this element of plant food in some form. Phosphoric acid is very impor- tant in the growth of nearly all vegetable crops, the cereals being particularly benefited by it. A deficiency of phos- phoric acid is indicated by small yields and the slow maturity of the crops. Phosphoric acid is derived from several sources, the most important being Rock Phosphate, Thomas Slag, raw and FERTILIZERS 15 steamed bone and tankage. The rock phosphates are the principal source of phosphoric acid for use in gardening. 18. Complete Fertilizers. Fertilizers containing all three of the principal elements of plant food, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, are called complete fertilizers. The per- centages of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, vary with the crops for which they are intended, nitrogen being higher, for example, in a fertilizer for asparagus or onions, while a fertilizer for the root crops would be lower in nitrogen and higher in potash. A fertilizer containing 4% nitrogen, 8% phosphoric acid, and 10% potash, is considered the basic fertilizer, but as has been indicated, the percentages vary with the need of the crops to be fertilized. The rate of application of complete fertilizers is governed by crop requirements and soil conditions. The amount varies from a few hundred pounds to a ton or more per acre for a single crop. The average application per season in intensive gardening is 1500 to 2000 pounds per acre, although the amount applied during the season may be as high as 4000 pounds or more. 19. Effects of Chemical Fertilizers on the Soil. Exces- sive applications of chemical fertilizers tend to cause sozl acidity. In instances where the supply of humus is not kept up, the soil will become hard and unproductive, as well as acid. To remedy these conditions, the supply of humus must be maintained and liberal applications of lime made as required. The amount of lime to apply varies with soil conditions; a ton to the acre is usually sufficient for most soils, although as much as three tons per acre are sometimes required to neutralize an acid soil. 20. Effects of Lime. Soil acidity is neutralized by 16 MARKET GARDENING applications of lime, the physical and chemical condition of the soil are improved, causing plant food to be liberated and to become available. Lime, by neutralizing the soil acidity, renders the land unfavorable for the development of the club foot of cabbage and other crops belonging to the same family. Most garden crops do best in a soil slightly alkaline and applications of lime bring about this condition. The best results are obtained when the lime is applied in the spring. 21. Methods of Application. Fertilizers and lime may be sown broadcast over the land or applied with a fertilizer drill. The drill is far preferable to hand sowing, both for uniformity of application and for convenience. Lime should never be applied with manure, because it liberates the ammonia which will then be lost. The manure should be ploughed under and the ground then harrowed, after which apply the fertilizer or lime, just previous to the time of planting, and harrow it in. 22. Green Manures. Green manures and stable man- ures are the best sources of humus. While the growing of crops for green manuring, or for cover crops is not generally practiced by the market gardeners, humus must often be obtained by ploughing under green crops. Cover crops, and crops grown for green manures, are divided into two classes, leguminous and non-leguminous. Crimson clover, red clover, cow peas, and vetch are examples of leguminous crops. Rye is a commonly grown non- leguminous crop. 23. The Legumes. The legumes have the ability to take nitrogen from the air and to store it up in nodules which grow on their roots. When a leguminous crop is ploughed under, not only is humus added to the soil, but some fertilizer in the form of nitrogen is also added. FERTILIZERS 17 The clovers are usually sown in the spring or early summer following an early crop of vegetables. The pro- cedure varies as to when the crop is to be turned under. The crop may be allowed to grow during the season of sowing, and all of it ploughed under the following spring, or a cutting may be had and then the second growth ploughed under. This may be done either in the fall or spring, depending upon whether an early planting is desired. For early results, the crop should be ploughed under in the fall. Cow peas and Canadian field peas are desirable legu- minous crops used for green manuring. Neither of these crops is hardy and they must therefore be ploughed under in the fall. The Canadian field pea is one of the best of the crops grown to add humus to the soil. 24. Non-Legumes. Rye is considered more of a catch crop than most of the cover crops grown. It may be sown quite late in the fall, and will make a good growth even in a rather poor soil. Very often poor soils are built up by first growing rye on them, which is turned under and followed by some leguminous crop. 25. Ploughing Under. The older or more mature a green crop becomes before ploughing under, the longer it will take for the crop to decompose and for its plant food and humus to become available. The more mature the crop when ploughed under, the more danger there is that the capillarity of the soil may become more or less disturbed, because of the layer of undecayed vegetable matter under- lying the ploughed soil. The furrow should be turned on edge as much as possible to avoid this condition. Thorough discing is a great help in restoring the soil to its former capillarity, and also in cutting up the green crop ploughed under. 26. Effects of Green Manuring. Green crops are valu- 18 MARKET GARDENING able and desirable sources of humus, but the rotting of green crops when ploughed under has a tendency to leave the soil somewhat acid. Before attempting to grow all kinds of vegetables in soil on which a green crop has been grown and ploughed under, an application of lime must be made to neutralize the acidity. 27. Catch Crops. Green crops are often grown as catch crops. After the ground is cleared in the fall, or even before the crop is off the ground, a sowing may be made of crimson clover or rye. Crimson clover is often sowed between the rows of sweet corn when the last cultivation is given. Such catch crops may be grown as sources of humus, or as is often the case, they are grown to hold the soil and to prevent washing. Catch crops being grown only through a limited season seldom grow to much size. CHAPTER III HOT BEDS 28. Uses. Hot beds are used to start. plants ahead of season, thereby enabling the grower to mature such crops as tomatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, peppers, and many others earlier than their normal period of maturity. They are also used to grow such crops as radishes, lettuce, and green onions for marketing. Hot beds are often used for protection, either in the spring or fall. Plants may be planted in a hot bed in the spring and allowed to remain in them until the danger of frost is passed, when the beds are removed; or the hot beds may be used in the fall for maturing crops after the frosts begin. 29. Location. The hot beds should be constructed on a well drained piece of ground with a south or southeast exposure. The beds should be protected against cold winds. This may be done by taking advantage of natural wind breaks, such as hedges, board fences, or buildings. A tem- porary protection may be afforded by erecting frames and putting hot bed mats on them. 30. Means of Heating. Hot beds are usually heated by fermenting manure, although steam or hot water are sometimes employed as sources of heat. The coils of pipe are hung on the frames, and pipes incased in tile are buried in the soil. The tile prevents too rapid drying out of the soil. Hot air is used for heating hot beds by constructing a furnace outside and at the end of the hot bed, and burying 19 MARKET GARDENING Fic. 7.—Lettuce and Green Onions Grown in a Hot Bed. HOT BEDS 21 the flue in the hot bed. The flue should divide into two lines and unite again at the farther end of the bed. Tile is commonly employed in building the flue, although brick may be used. 31. Construction. Manure heated hot beds are con- structed by digging a pit fifteen to thirty inches deep and six feet wide and placing over it a frame as long as may be desired. The front of the bed should be six inches lower than the back so that the glass may have the proper slope toward the sun. The common practice is to build the front six inches high and the back of the bed twelve inches high. Fig. 8, which is a cross-section view of a hot bed, shows the general features of construction. The frame should be strongly constructed of durable lumber, such as chestnut or cypress planking, and 24 inch posts. Cross bars should be placed from the front to the back of the bed at regular intervals to stiffen the frame. The frame of the hot bed is constructed to support the sash, which is commonly 3X6 feet, and glazed with 10x12 inch glass. Smaller glass is sometimes used, but three sections of 10X12 inch glass is preferred by most growers. Sash is often made and used in sizes larger than 3x6 feet, but larger sash is much heavier and more awkward to handle, also a bed over six feet wide cannot be worked advantageously. The sash should be made of cypress or cedar to assure durability. The depth of the pit is determined by such factors as the time of year, whether the weather is severe or mild, and the kind of crop to be grown. Such crops as radishes or lettuce do not require so much heat as do tomatoes or peppers. 32. Preparation of the Manure. Horse or mule manure may be used as a source of heat. The manure should be 22 MARKET GARDENING freshly gathered, or else should be manure that has not been heated. Place the manure in a pile about six feet wide and four feet deep and as long as may be necessary. The manure should be prepared under cover of a shed for best results. As the pile is constructed, the material should be shaken out and well firmed with the back of the fork or by lightly tramping. The pile should be examined often, and as soon as a good heat is generated, it should be turned, taking care ase). Manure Fic. 8.—Cross-section of a Hot Bed. that the outside of the pile is placed in the centre of the new pile. Examine the pile carefully and in two or three days the fermentation will again have become well started heating the manure thoroughly. The manure is then ready to put into the pit. The manure is placed in the pit, a layer at a time, four to six inches deep, and tramped well, especially in the corners and along the sides. After the pit has been filled to the required depth, two to six inches of good loam is placed on the manure. When the hot beds are used for the growing of plants in flats or pots, two inches of soil is HOT BEDS 23 sufficient to keep the air sweet, and to absorb the moisture from the manure. When crops are to be grown in the soil of the hot bed, the soil should be at least six inches deep. After the manure has been placed in the pit and covered with loam, the hot bed thermometers should be thrust into the manure, and the sash, shutters and mats should be placed over the hot bed. As soon as the manure has again become hot and the soil is warmed through, the bed is ready for the introduction of plants in flats, or for the planting of crops in the soil. 33. Care of the Hot Bed. Careful attention to the details of watering and ventilation are necessary for the suc- cess in growing plants in hot beds. The water should be ap- plied evenly and at a time when the temperature is rising. Watch the beds at the sides and corners that they do not dry out too rapidly. The hot beds are ventilated by raising the sash, either at intervals along the bed, or all of them, as the conditions may demand. Small blocks of wood are handy for placing under the sash for ventilating. Avoid drafts as much as possible at all times, particularly with such crops as tomatoes, peppers or any other of the more tender crops. In the early spring, when the weather is yet quite severe at times, the hot beds must be banked with hot manure at the time that the pit is filled with manure for heating the bed. The manure should be banked to the full height of the frames and tramped firmly. Anything that will exclude the cold may be used for covering the frames at night and during severe weather. Mats of various kinds may be purchased, or straw mats may be made at home. Old blankets are sometimes used, also wooden shutters. The shutters are made the same size as the sash, 3x6 feet, and of light lumber. CHAPTER IV SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. TRANSPLANTING 34. Quality of the Seed. The importance of planting good seed cannot be overestimated, because upon the selee- tion of the seed may depend the success or failure of the crop. Several factors determine the quality of the seed; the most important are viability and truth to name and type. To have a high percentage of germination the seed must be viable,i.e., must have the ability to germinate under average conditions and grow into seedlings. The seed must be true to name, that is, it should produce plants of the variety for which it is purchased. It must be true to type, or strain. Most varieties of vegetables and fruits have a number of types; it is undesirable that a planting of any crop should be a mixture of several types. The average of good seed is reasonably free from weed seeds and dirt, but the grower should be sure that his seed is clean before planting it. The growing of seeds at home is quite extensively prac- ticed and with good results if the grower has a definite, fixed idea as to the type of plant which he wishes to propagate. When selecting fruits for their seeds, the grower should select the plant for its good qualities rather than select the biggest and finest fruits regardless of the plant upon which they have been grown. Ifthe plant is not vigorous and does not possess desirable qualities, it is probable that the seed saved, even though the fruits be 24 SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. TRANSPLANTING 25 desirable, will not produce fruits of the grade desired. The average grower will usually do better to buy his seed from a reliable seedsman rather than to attempt to grow his own seed. The seeds of most vegetables are viable and will produce good plants and crops if they are more than one year old when planted. The best practice is to plant fresh seeds be- cause the quality of the seed is determined as much by the conditions under which they have been stored as upon the conditions under which they have been grown. Seeds should be stored in tight bags in a cool dry place. 35. Germination. Each seed contains a minute plant ready to start into growth as soon as sufficient heat and moisture are supplied. Figs. 9(a), 9(b), 9(c) and 9(d) show successive stages in the growth of a corn seedling. The minute plant in the kernel absorbs moisture and increases in size, first sending out a root and later the stem. Later, other roots appear and the stem turns upward toward the light while the tap root pushes its way downward into the soil. Until the roots are grown, the kernel furnishes food to the plant. Seeds may be germinated between layers of moist, warm flannel, or in small germination dishes, and will make suffici- ent growth under these conditions for the grower to test his seeds and determine the percentage of viable seeds. All seeds which will germinate, that is start into some growth, will not grow into a good plant. It is only the seeds producing a strong root and sprout that will grow into good plants. Every grower of vegetables should test his seeds before planting any of them in the ground. A simple and con- venient method is to take a piece of clean white flannel, dip it in warm water and wring the water out until it no longer Tap Root Tap Root Fic. 9 (b).—The Germination of Corn. ‘Tap root longer and stem appearing. Note how the stem is growing upward toward the light and the root downward into the soil. Fic. 9 (a).—The Germination of Corn. The tap root is appearing and the embryo plant is much in- creased in size. round Line Fi Stem Tap Root Fic. 9 (c).—The Germination of Corn. Stem breaking through the Soil. Fic. 9 (d).—The Corn Seedling. SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. TRANSPLANTING 27 drips from the flannel. Two warm, eight inch plates will then be needed to contain the flannel. Lay the flannel in one plate and on one end of it count out a number of seeds. It is best to use the seeds in lots of from ten to one hundred; one hundred being the best number to use as a fairer test can be had from this number of seeds than from any smaller number. After the seeds have been counted and laid on one end of the flannel, fold the other end of the flannel over the seeds so that they are all covered. The second plate should then be placed over the first plate containing the flannel and seeds, with the bottom of the plate upwards, and the whole set aside in a place where the temperature can be kept at about 70°. The seeds should be examined every day that the flannel may be kept moist by additions of water, and all germinated seeds counted and thrown out. The number of seeds remaining after all the germinated seeds have been thrown out will determine the percentage of germination for the lot tested. Thus, if we have one hundred seeds and twenty remain after the test, we know that eighty per cent of the seeds are viable and can reasonably be depended upon to produce plants. 36. The Seed Bed. The seed bed must be carefully and thoroughly prepared; lumps and coarse material must be raked out, leaving the surface in a fine, smooth condition. The seed bed should have a depth of at least four to six inches of good loam and should be thoroughly pulverized clear to the bottom. The lighter soils furnish the best con- ditions for making the seed bed and are more easily gotten into proper condition than are the heavier soils. After having thoroughly prepared the seed bed, the con- ditions necessary for the germination of the planted seeds are principally heat and morsture. All soil contains some air, at least a sufficient amount will ordinarily surround a seed 28 MARKET GARDENING for its use while germinating and growing into a seedling. The conditions which have to be supplied then are the heat and the moisture. If the seeds are to be planted in a hot bed, the ground must be warmed by the use of glass and the manure under the bed; if the seeds are to be planted in the open ground we must depend upon the weather conditions for the right temperature of the soil. The seeds of the cooler loving plants such as cabbage, or turnip, may be planted in cooler soils than such seed as tomato, egg plant or cucumber. Such seeds as lettuce, spinach, cabbage, beet and radishes may be sown earlier and under cooler conditions than may seeds of tomato, corn, egg plant, melons and other warmth loving plants. The time for seed sowing depends upon such factors as condition of the soil, liability for frost and the season. For such plants as tomatoes, peppers, egg plant, lettuce, cabbage and other transplanted crops, the time for sowing the seed under glass is determined largely by the season in which it is desired to harvest the crops. 37. Planting. In the home garden the seeds are usually planted by hand by dropping them in the hill or furrow previously prepared. That the rows may be straight and a uniform distance apart, the ground should be measured and staked and a line used in marking out the rows. The line should be stretched tightly and the corner of a hoe or the back of a rake used to follow the line and make the pro- posed furrow. The seeds should be dropped at uniform intervals; seed held between the thumb and finger may be dropped evenly with a little practice. For the larger garden, a seed drill is indispensable for economical planting. The depth of planting is then easily regulated. After planting, the soil should be firmed by pressing it down with the back of a hoe or rake. This is done to restore SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. TRANSPLANTING 29 the capillarity of the soil which has been destroyed by open- ing the furrow or hill. The seed drill does this by the pressure of the trail wheel which follows over the planted row after the seed is covered by the planter wings. For the best and quickest results the seed should be planted only in freshly prepared ground. In such ground the conditions of heat and moisture are at their best and the seed is placed in surroundings most favorable for quick germination and the growth of the seedling. 38. Transplanting. To obtain early fruits of such plants as tomatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, egg plant and peppers, it is necessary to plant the seeds early, in a protected loca- tion, or in a green-house or hot bed, from which the seed- lings are transplanted one or more times. Some of the benefits of transplanting are early maturity, the economical use of the ground by growing seedlings for transplanting to the field as soon or even before a crop is taken off, the increase in productiveness that results from transplanting. A plant that has been transplanted develops ‘a better root system than one that is not transplanted. Plants to be transplanted should be allowed to dry out for at least a day previous to transplanting and watered just before transplanting. This procedure tends to fill the plants with water just before disturbing them, it also aids in retain- ing a ball of earth around the roots. The plants should be lifted carefully that the system of roots be disturbed and broken as little as possible. The plants will start easier and more quickly if a little water is poured around them when transplanted, or if they can be irrigated after being set. Before transplanting begins, the field should be carefully marked that the rows may be straight and properly spaced. The time to transplant is determined by conditions of the plants to be transplanted, the weather conditions, conditions 30 MARKET GARDENING of the soil, whether dry enough, moist enough, warm enough, or properly prepared. If possible, it is best to choose a cool or cloudy day for transplanting, or to trans- Fic, 10.—Dibbers for Transplanting. plant just before a rain. When these conditions are not to be had, do the transplanting late in the day, rather than in the morning. Fic. 11.—Proper Method of Using a Dibber in Transplanting. Note how the soil is pressed firmly around the roots of the seedling, When transplanting, set the plants Just a little deeper than they were set previously. Plants are generally transplanted by hand, a dibber or SEEDS AND SEED SOWING. TRANSPLANTING 31 trowel, Fig. 10, being used to make the hole. After the seedling is placed, the soil should be pressed firmly around the roots with the fingers, or with the dibber or trowel handle as in Fig. 11. When the gardening operations are small, the trans- planted plants can easily be shaded for a few days after being set in the field. Shingles, paper bags, small boxes, or anything that will cast a shadow may be used for shading. CHAPTER V IRRIGATION 39. Moisture Requirements of Plants. Water plays a most important part in all stages of plant growth. Mois- tureis necessary for seed germination and is no less necessary to the seedling and plant. The soil may be properly pre- pared and there may be an abundance of properly balanced fertilizer, but unless sufficient moisture is present in the soil the plant can make but little growth or get but little benefit from the fertilizer supplied for it. Water is a solvent of plant foods. It also acts as a carrier of plant food in solution, and holds plant foods in solution in the soil. Moisture is necessary for the action of friendly bacteria, and by carrying solvent acids to the plant food present in the soil, it makes the plant food avail- able to the plant. Vegetables are composed very largely of water; in some cases they are over 90% water. The plant juice, or sap, is composed very largely of water, it thereby becoming the principal agent in the carrying of plant food from the soil to the various parts of the plant. Enormous quantities of water are transpired during the life of the plant, several hundred pounds of water being necessary for the making of a pound of dry matter. Irrigation may be looked upon as insurance against drought. With a plentiful supply of water the gardener is independent of the uncertainties of rainfall. Sufficient . 32 IRRIGATION 33 Fig. 12—Furrow Irrigation. 7. Qo Q 2