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CORNELL
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

 

FROM

 

 

 

 

 

DEPARTMENT or ZOOLOGY
—SEHMSON “ehteits

 
 

 

DATE DUE

 

RETURN TO

ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY

ITHACA, N. Y.

aie University Library
QL 52.R

‘iii

systematic verte

WU

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
LABORATORY
OUTLINES

FOR

SYSTEMATIC VERTEBRATE
- ZOOLOGY

REED and WRIGHT

ITHACA, NEW YORK
1914
Laboratory Outlines for Systematic
Vertebrate Zoology

Prepared by
H. D, REED and A, H. WRIGHT
Department of Zoology, Cornell University

ITHACA, NEW YORK
1914
Ke

Le WEG yf
UNIVER E FEY
AAW
Laboratory Outlines for Systematic
Vertebrate Zoology

Prepared by
H, D. REED and A, H. WRIGHT
Department of Zoology, Cornell University

ITHACA, NEW YORK
1914
Ke
CU: , !
UNIV ERG EL Y
AY
Laboratory Outlines for Systematic
Vertebrate Zoology
Prepared by H. D. ReEep and A. H. Wricut

In order to follow the laboratory outlines, it will be necessary for
each to bring to the laboratory the notes and drawings made in the
lectures. All drawings should be made large,and never more than
two on a sheet.

Each student should be supplied with both ruled and plain paper,
8 x 10)4 inches, and a pair of dividers. A good eraser and a medium
hard pencil are essential for neat and accurate drawings. Results of
observations and descriptions should be recorded upon the ruled
sheets.

At the end of each week the notes are to be bound to the back cover
of the portfolio and submitted for inspection.

Make and label drawings in pencil. After inspection they are to
be “inked in’ with India Ink. At the end of each term all of the
notes are to be bound together and submitted for final inspection.
Credit for laboratory work will be based upon the neatness and
accuracy of the laboratory reports.

Definition of the Terms Used in the Following Outlines

Dorsum .......... . back.
Dorsalcncn ee eeeennd pertaining to the back.
Dorsad .... «ese towards the back.

Venter acces, sedaes . belly.

Ventral cesses gi earded pertaining to the belly.

Ventrad ... ww. toward the belly.

Cephalic .....  ....... pertaining to the head.

Cephalad..... ....... toward the head.

Cadalis22cc5- goaaateie pertaining to the tail.

Caudad......  —....... toward the tail.

MESON soe. Green. eas the imaginary plane which
divides the body into equal
right and left halves.

Mesal.itecn8:. chacker as . pertaining to the meson.

MGS site gees towards the meson.

Laterad .... ._.,,.....away from the meson.
I.

PISCES
THE STRUCTURES OF THE YELLOW PERCH,

Perca flavescens

External features:

(a).

(b).

(c).
(d).

(e).
().

(2).

(h).

Form of body—Comfpare with the stone cat and the
porgy. Compare the skin of the catfish and perch.
Result?

Lateral line—(For this study use the common white
sucker.) A line on the side of the body extending
from the head to the tail. Examine withalens. Of
what is this line composed? Trace the lateral line
upon the head of the pike or a pickerel.

Mouth—lIs it terminal, superior, or inferior? Examine
the mouth of a white sucker and of a stargazer.
Which of the above terms applies?

Barbels—Examine 4 catfish and the creek chub. The
barbels are fleshy projections about the mouth.
Does the perch possess such structures?

Operculum—A flap on the side of the head covering the
gills. Lift its caudal free margin to expose the gills.

Branchiostegals and branchiostegal (or gill) membranes
—Turn the specimen upon its back. Extending
ventrad from the operculurn is a membrane sup-
ported by curved rays. The membrane is the

__branchiostegal or gill membrane, and the tays are the

_ branchiostegals. Determine their number. Write
the formula.

‘Isthmus—A narrow strip on the oe side of the
head, extending from the chin to the breast region.
Are the gill membranes joined to it? Examine the
white sucker. Result? Make a diagram of this

region in the perch andin the sucker, Examine this re-
gion in the bowfin, Amzatus, and note the ovoid gular
plate between the rami of the lower jaw. Draw.

‘Fins.

(1). Names, number and position.
(2). Types of tails.
(a). Heterocercal—Study and aew tail of
the gar.

4
(b), Homocercal—Study and draw tail of
the halibut.

(ec). Isocercal—Study and draw tail of the
cod.

(d). To which type does the tail of the
perch belong?

(3): Finlets—Small and flaglike fins of the dorsum
and venter cephalad of the caudal
fin. Examine a mackerel. Draw

; the tail region.

(4). Structure of fins.

(a). Types of fin-rays.

(1). Soft rays. Ask the instructor
for a fin composed of soft
rays. Note the method of
branching and the joints.
Make a drawing of a single
ray.

(2). Spines. Ask for specimen.
Compare with soft ray.
Result? Examine the first
dorsal fin of the miller’s
thumb. To what type do
the rays belong? Examine
the brook stickleback and
note the spines on the dor-
sum unconnected by mem-
brane. These are termed
free spines.

(3). Fulcra—Rudimentary spine-
like projections on the
cephalic margin of a fin.
Examine the dorsal of the
gar.. Draw.

(4). Examine the dorsal fins of the
common bullhead. Note
that the last dorsal fin is re-
duced in size and lacks rays.
Such a fin is known as an
adipose fin. Compare the
adipose fin of the bullhead
and of the stone cat. In the
former it is free, while in the
latter it is said to be adnate
to the back.
(b). Write the fin formulas of the perch.
(c). Make a table which will contrast the
fins (including type of tail) of the
perch, bullhead, stone cat, and gar.
(i). Types of scales.
(x). Placoid—Fromaray. Draw.
(2). Ganoid scales—Bony plates from the sturgeon;
rhombic plates froma gar. Drawing of each.
(3). Cycloid—From white sucker. Study an ordin-
ary scale and one taken from the lateral line.
Drawing of each. Examine the scales of an
eel. Make a drawing of the scale arrange-
ment and an enlarged drawing of a single
scale. Repeat for the burbot. What name
is applied to each?
(4). Ctenoid—From the perch. Draw.

(j):; Maxillaries—Flat, triangular bones forming the lateral
margins of the upper jaw. Identify. Determine
extent. Compare with the maxillaries of the white-
fish,in which note the supplemental maxillary in the
dorso-caudal angle. Draw. Examine the maxillary

_ of the bullhead. Result?
Examine the maxillary of the porgy and note that it
slips under the edge of the preorbital bone.

(k). Premaxillaries—Forming the cephalic margins of the
upper jaws. Are they protractile, i. e., are they capa-
ble of being pulled cephalad leaving a groove over the
top of the snout? Compare with the bullhead.
Result?

(1). Snout—Distance from the tip of upper jaw to the front
margin of eye.

(m). Caudal Peduncle—The region in front of the caudal fin.
Compare the perch and the mackerel. What
characters are found associated in the mackerel?

(n). Make a drawing of the left side of the perch. Repre-
sent the mouth open and the fins extended. When

6
the margins of the fins are torn, represent them entire
as in nature. Represent the actual number of rays
in the dorsal and anal fins. Below the drawing write
the technical and common names of the fish, the
measurements, and the scale and fin formulas.

(0). Face bones of the perch. By reference to Fig. 1, identify

the following bones in the perch, after carefully
removing the skin and muscles from this region:
opercular bones, 24, 25, 26, 27; orbital ring, 49, 50;
nasal, 51; jaws, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32; ‘‘suspensorium,”

17, 18; 10, 20,21, 22, 23.

Make a drawing of the face bones of the perch.

 

 

 

 

. I. FAcE BONES OF THE STRIPED Bass, Roccus lineatus.

Hyomandibular
Symplectic
Quadrate
Pterygoid
Palatine
Mesopterygoid

, Metapterygoid

Preoperculum
Operculum
Suboperculum
Interoperculum
Articular
Angular

(AFTER STARKS.)

30. Dentary 51. Nasal

31. Maxillary 52. Supratemporal
32. Premaxillary 53. Posttemporal
33. Interhyal 54. Supraclavicle
34. Epihyal 55- Clavicle

35. Ceratohyal 56. Postclavicle
36. Basihyals 57. Hypercoracoid
37. Glossohyal 58. Hypercoracoid
38. Urohyal 60. Actinosts

39. Branchiostegal 61. Pectoral rays
49. Preorbital 62. Pelvic girdle
50. Suborbitals 63- ‘Ventral rays

7

 
II. Internal features.

(a).

(b).

(c).

(d).

(e).

(£).

(g).

(h).

Oral cavity—Expose by making a slit with the scissors
from the corner of the mouth to the caudal angle of
the operculum. Where do teeth occur?

Types of teeth in fishes:

(1). Villiform—Study and draw teeth of the com-
mon bullhead.
(2). Setiform—Study and draw teeth of the black

angel fish.

(3). Cardiform—Study and draw teeth of the com-
mon pike.

(4). Canine—Study and draw teeth of the wall-
eyed pike

(s). Incisor—Studyand draw teeth of the sheeps-

head.

(6). Pavement—Study and draw teeth of the ray.
Write formula.

(7). Coalescent—Study and draw teeth of the
parrot fish.

Oral breathing-valves—Folds of mucosa forming
pockets just behind the teeth on both upper and lower
jaws. Function?

Vomer—This is a bone forming the middle of the roof of
the mouth. Determine its location. Does it bear
teeth? Examine a preparation of the brook trout in
which the vomer is flat, and the lake trout in which
this bone is boat-shaped.

Tongue—Compare with the bullhead.

Gill arches—Determine number, connections, and shape.
Identify the gill rakers and gill filaments. Function
of each. Write the formula for the gill rakers in the
perch and whitefish, and make a drawing of each.

Pseudobranchiae—Examine the inner surface of the
operculum of the striped bass. Near the junction of
the operculum with the preoperculum is a small gill-
like structure, the pseudobranchia. Whenit is evident
as in this species it is said to be exposed. When
the pseudobranchia is not apparent, it is said to be
concealed.

Phacyngeal teeth—Located at the beginning of the
esophagus. Upper pharyngeals, above the esophagus,
and lower pharyngeals, below the esophagus.

8
(1). Types of. pharyngeal teeth:
(a). Falciform—Study the lower pharyn-
 geals of the horned dace. Draw and
write formula. Examine the lower
pharyngeals of the white sucker 7
situ. Relation to the esophagus and
gill arches?

(b). Molariform—Examine the upper and
lower pharyngeals of the drum.
Result? The lower pharyngeals of
either side in this species are united
at the middle. When found in this
condition, they are said to be united
below. Draw.

(c). Villifiorm—Borne on pads. Examine
the bullhead. To which type do the
pharyngeals of the perch belong?

(i). Abdominal viscera—Remove the ventral wall of the
abdomen.
(1). Peritoneum—What is its color? Compare
with the peritoneum of the stone-roller
(Campostoma). Result?

(2). Identify stomach, liver, intestine, reproductive
organs, and air bladder. What is the relation
of the air bladder to the intestine? Compare
with Campostoma. Result? What is the
relation of the esophagus to the air bladder?
Compare with the white sucker and bullhead.
Result? What is the relation of the presence
or absence of spines in the fins and the
presence or absence of a duct between the
esophagus and air bladder? Apply the terms
Physostomt and Physoclysti in this connection

(3). Stomach—To what type does it belong? Are

pyloric ceca present? Compare with the
stomach of the bullhead and of the whitefish.
Results?

Gj). Vertebre of fishes. Employ Fig. 2 in this study.
(1). Trunk or precaudal vertebra. Identify the
following parts; centrum, neural arch,

9
neural spine, zygopophyses. Are the vertebrae
studied, of the amphiccelian or opisthoccelian

type?
(2). Tail or caudal vertebra. Compare with trunk
vertebra and identify parts.

 

 

74

 

 

Fic. 2. THE TRUNK SKELTON OF THE STRIPED Bass, Roccus lineatus.
AFTER STARKS.

64. Precaudal vertebra 70. Hemal spine 76. Dorsal rays and spines
65. Caudal vertebra 71. Zygapophyses 77. Interhemals

66. Centrum 72. Transverse process 78. Anal rays and spines
67. Neural arch 73. Rib 79. Hypural

68. Neural spine 74. Epipleurals 80. Caudal rays

69. Hemal arch 75. Interneurals

III. Fill out chart I according to the directions of the instructor.
This is a summary of all the characters of classification con-
sidered in the foregoing study.

IV. Identification of representative species with the aid of a manual.
Identification blanks will be employed for a record of the
characteristics of the order, family, genus, and species. The
number of the specimen is to be placed at the top of the sheet,
and after the identification is completed,the technical and com-
mon names of the species are to be written on lines provided
for the purpose. Remarks and drawings are to be made upon
the lower half of the sheet. All specimens are to be identified.

Io

 
When the number of the specimen does not appear in the out-
line, it signifies that identification only is required.
Upon removing a specimen from the jar for study, dip it in
_ water and keep it moist until returned to the alcohol. After
the specimen is removed, cover the jar. Do not return jars to
the shelf until the rubber gaskets and metal clamps are
properly adjusted. The jars should be replaced according
to their serial number.

(1). Make a drawing of the oral disk to show the supraoral
lamina. From a medisected head, make a sketch of
the nostril and nasal cecum.

(3). Make a drawing to show the differences of the sexes.

(6). Determine the sex. What are the short appendages on
the dorsum of the snout?

(7). Examine a prepared skull,and note the fontanelle on the
middle line of the dorsum.

(10). Make a drawing of the left side of the head to show
characteristics of the breeding male. Make a sketch
of the dorsal fin to show one of the specific distinc-
tions.

(11). Makeasketch of the ventral fin to show accessory scale.

(16). Make a drawing of the left side of body.

(17). Compare the head with that of a pickerel and a muskal-
lunge. Make a drawing of the cheek and opercular
region of each.

(22). Drawing of left side. Compare with the pipefish.
Note opening of brood pouch in male.

(31). Make drawing of left side of head. Compare with
small-mouthed black bass. Make a drawing.

(32). Young of number 31. Make drawing of left side to
show color pattern.

(37). Drawing of head and pectoral region. Note suborbital
stay.

(38). Drawing of left side. Label parts.

(40). Drawing of the right side. Compare the lateral line
with that of Paralichthys, in which this structure is
strongly arched in front.

(41). Jar of miscellaneous fishes to be identified, if time per-
mits.

II
AMPHIBIA

I. Study of the skull of the bullfrog.

(a). The skull of the frog, as in Amphibia generally, is broad
and flat. It is composed of four divisions: The
cranium or bones which surround the brain; the
auditory capsules which lodge the internal ears; the
olfactory capsules developed about the organs of smell;
the jaws and hyoid apparatus.

(b). Identify the following bones:

(2).

(2).

(3).

(4).

(5).

The exoccipital bones are two irregular masses
forming the caudal boundary of the cranial
cavity. They bound the foramen magnum,
through which passes the spinal cord, and
articulate with the first vertebra by means of
the occipital condyles, two oval convex
processes.

The fronto-parietals are two long flat bones, one
on either side of the mesal line of the dorsum
of the skull. They form the roof of the
cranial cavity and are united at the meson.
Caudad they articulate with the exoccipitals
and prootics; cephalad with the spheneth-
moid which they overlap. The lateral
margins of the bones dip down into the orbits.

The parasphenoid is a single bone on the ventral
side of the skull forming the floor of the
cranial cavity. It is cruciform in shape.
The cephalic arm, which is longest, extends
to and articulates with the palatines and
overlaps the sphenethmoid. The transverse
arms lie on the ventral surface of the exoc-
cipitals and prootics. The caudal arm is
short and triangular in shape.

The sphenethmoid forms the cephalic boundary
of the cranial cavity. It is overlapped by
the fronto-parietals and nasals from above
and by the parasphenoid and palatines
below.

The nasals are triangular bones on the cephalo-
dorsal part of the skull. The cephalic por-

12
(6).

(7).

(8).

(9).

(10).

(x1).

(12).

tion of the bases of the triangles meet at the
meson. The caudal portions diverge, thus
enclosing, with the cephalic end of the fronto-
parietals, a diamond-shaped area in which
the sphenethmoid is visible from the dorsum.

The prootic bones are paired and form the
caudal boundary of the orbits. Dorsad they
articulate with the fronto-parietals; ventrad
with the parasphenoid; caudad with the
exoccipitals; laterad with the squamosals
and pterygoids.

The vomers are two triradiate bones on the ven-
tral surface of the skull within the tri-
angular space formed by the palatines
(behind), the maxillaries (at the sides), and
the premaxillaries (in front). The meso-
caudal arm of each bone bears a group of
small pointed teeth. The internal nostrils
(ental or internal nares) open between this
and the lateral arm.

The premaxtllaries are two dentigerous bones
which form the extreme cephalic margin of
the upper jaw. They meet at the meson.
There is a short process projecting from the
dorsal edge of each bone.

The maxzllaries are two long curved bones form-
ing the sides of the margin of the upper jaw.
They are wide in front where they articulate
with the premaxillaries, and narrower caudad.

The quadrato-jugals are short, toothless, comma-
shaped bones joined to the caudal end of the
maxillaries and forming the extreme caudal
margin of the upper jaw.

The palatines are slender rodlike bones just
caudad of the vomer. They extend laterad
from the apex of the parasphenoid to the
maxillaries.

The pterygoids are triradiate bones on the ven-
tral side of the skull. The inner arm is the
shortest and is attached to the prootics.

13
(c).

(13).

The cephalic arm is attached to the maxil-
lary just caudad of the middle of its extent
The caudal arm throughout its extent is
attached to the ventral surface of the squa-
mosal.

The squamosals are T-shaped bones visible on
the dorsum of the skull. They form the
articulation between the cranium and the
lower jaw. Of the three arms of the T, the
cephalic has a free pointed extremity, the
upper caudal arm articulates with the prootic,
the lower caudal arm (longest) extends down-
ward and backward to unite with the caudal
extremity of the quadrato-jugal.

(14). The mentomeckelians are two small bones at the

(25).

(16).

extreme cephalic portion of the lower jaw.
They unite the two halves.

The angulo-splenial is a strong bone forming the
imner and ventral part of each half of the
lower jaw. It articulates cephalad with
the mentomeckelian; caudad with the
squamosal and quadrato-jugal.

The dentary is a thin plate of bone articulating
with the mentomeckelian in front and joined
to the outer surface of the cephalic half of the
angulo-splenial.

Make a drawing of the dorsum and venter of the skull,

and label all the bones. Represent sutures by heavy

lines.

II. Identification of species. Caution. Jars containing eggs must
be handled carefully. Please refrain from touching pre-
pared skulls with pencils or instruments. Dried skulls of
salamanders and lizards are very fragile, and, therefore, easily
destroyed. Do not handle salamanders and lizards by the

tail.
(iy
(20:
(7).
wh.

Place them in the jars, tail first.

Make a drawing of the left side.

Make a drawing of the left side.

Make a drawing of the left side.

Eggs of No. 3. Note the membranous projections from

opposite sides of the eggs. In nature, the eggs are

14
(5).
(6).
{12).

(13).

(15).
(16).

(17).

joined in strings by these projections. Makeadraw-
ing representing several eggs connected.

Make a drawing of the left side.

Make a drawing of the left side.

Make outline sketches of the dorsum and venter of the
skull, and compare with the skull of No. 8. Point out
the distinctive features. In tracing the specimen to
its family, you will find names for the distinctive
structures. These constitute family characters.
This jar contains both male and female. Note that
in the male, the vent is swollen; the legs are
wider and stronger than those of the female; the
palmar surface of the toes and the inner side of the
ankle possess patches of a dark horny substance.
These are secondary sexual characters and aid the male
in holding the female while mating. The patches are
present only during the breeding season. The tail
crest of the male is much larger than that of the
female.

Make a drawing of the sole of the foot and the inner side
of the leg, and of the lateral aspect of the tail and vent
of both sexes.

Eggs of No. 12. Make a drawing of the eggs and
the plant to which they are attached.

Eggs of No. 14. Drawing of the egg-mass.

Specimens illustrating the larval and transformation
periods of No. 14.

(a). Mature larva. Drawing of the left side.

(b). Transforming larva. Note changes on the
exterior, and draw the left side.

The shoulder girdle of the frog, illustrating the type
found in the Firmisternia. The girdle is here con-
sidered as composed of an axial portion and two
lateral portions or wings.

(a). The axial portion—The episternum is a spade-
shaped piece of calcified cartilage, and is the
most cephalic of the axial pieces. Its edges
are very thin and composed of unchanged
hyaline cartilage. The xiphisternum is the
most caudal of the axial elements; In shape

15
and structureit is much like the episternum,
except that it is larger and deeply notched at
its caudal margin. The omosternum is an
elongate bone narrowed at its middle and
broadened at either end. Its cephalic ex-
tremity is articulated with the episternum.
The sternum proper is attached to and
extends cephalad from the xiphisternum.
This bone is narrow in its middle, gradually
broadening towards either end. Between
the omosternum and the sternum extends a
cartilage known as the epicoracoid cartilage.
Inold individuals, this is almost concealed by
the mesal development of the clavicles and
coracoids.

(b). The lateral portions or wings—The suprasca-
pula is the most distal (dorsal when the
girdle is 7m satu) element, and is trapezoidal in
shape. The distal portion is composed of
hyaline cartilage, while the proximal or mesal
half is composed of bone. The scapula is
articulated with the proximal end of the
suprascapula. It is a flat, compact bone, con-
tracted in the middle and wider at the ends.
Mesally it is articulated with the clavicle and
coracoid. Between the scapula and epi-
coracoid cartilage are two bones; the more
cephalic is the clavicle, which is very narrow;
the caudal one is the coracoid, contracted in
the middle and very broad at its mesal end
where it articulates with the epicoracoid
cartilage. At its distal extremity it takes
part with the scapula in forming the glenoid
cavity for the articulation of the arm-bone
(humerus).

Make an enlarged drawing of the ventral aspect,
with the notched xiphisternum directed
toward the bottom of the sheet.

(18). The shoulder girdle of the common toad. This illus-
trates the type of girdle found among the Arcifera.
16
(x9).

(20).

(21).
(26).

(27).

Identify the bones according to the directions given
in section 17. Make a drawing of the ventral aspect,
noting any differences between this type of girdle and
that found in the frog.

Sacrum (goth vertebra) of a frog—The lateral processes
are known as diapophyses, which in the frog are
cylindric or “not dilated.”” Make a drawing of the
dorsal aspect. The centrum is on the ventral aspect,
and the diapophyses point caudad.

Sacrum of the common toad—This is an example of the
dilated diapophyses. Draw the dorsal aspect.

Make a drawing of the sole of the right foot.

Egg cluster of No. 25. Make a drawing of the cluster
and the branch to which it is attached. Represent a
few eggs as if in the periphery of the cluster to show
the enveloping jelly and the relation of the eggs to
each other. Do not remove the eggs from the jar.
Compare with No. 1s.

A series of specimens to illustrate the larval develop-
ment of the frogs and toads.

(a). On the left side of the body, below and behind
the eye, is a cleft, the spiracle, opening
through a thin walled tube. After the loss of
the external gills, internal gills are developed
and the respiratory stream passes in at the
mouth, over the internal gills and out at the
spiracle. Is the tadpole symmetrical with
regard to the spiracle? Determine the
nature and position of the vent. On either
side of the vent note the rudiments of legs.
Make a drawing of the left side of the speci-
men.

(b). Mouth partsofatadpole. Examine the mouth
of stage a with a hand lens for the general
arrangement of the parts. Note: the broad
expanse of lips bordered by a fringe; the jaws
covered by a horny substance; the rows of
fine teeth on the lips above and below the
mouth. With a microscope study more
carefully the parts of a spectmenmounted in
balsam. Make an enlarged drawing.

17
(c). The skin on the right side has been turned back
to show the arm developing beneath. Make
a drawing of the right side showing the arm
and the leg.

(d). The arms have broken through to the.exterior.
The left projects through the spiracle; the
right actually came through the skin. Noite
that the arm holes are still evident (7. ¢., the
skin has not yet united with that of the arms).
What changes have taken place in the eyes,
mouth, and tail crest? Draw the left side.

(e). Transformation stage. Note vestige of tail and
scars of the arm holes. Make a drawing of
the left side.

(29). Eggs of No. 28. In nature, two strings are deposited at
the same time. Make a drawing showing the spiral
twist of the string.

REPTILIA

I. Identification of species.

(1). Before identifying this specimen, makea study of the
scutellation. Make a much enlarged drawing of the
dorsal, lateral, and ventral aspects of the head. Iden-
tify and represent the following scutes (scales):
frontal (vertical), large and unpaired on the middle of
the dorsum of the head between the eyes; the
supraoculars, one on each side of the frontal between
it and the dorsal margin of the eye; the parvetals,
a pair of large plates immediately caudad of the
frontal and supraoculars; the prefrontals, a pair of
large plates immediately cephalad of the frontal;
the internasals, a pair of plates cephalad of the pre-
frontals and between the nostrils; the rostral, a mesal
plate fitted about the snout; the preorbitals (pre-
oculars), a series of plates forming the cephalic boun-
dary of the eye; the postorbitals (postoculars), a series
of plates varying in number in different species and
forming the caudal boundary of the eye; thesuborbitals,
when present, are continuous with the preorbitals

18
and postorbitals, and form the ventral boundary of the
eye; the nasals, two plates surrounding the nostrils
and bordering dorsally on the prefrontals and inter-
nasals; in some species these plates are fused into one,
in which case the nostril is said to ‘‘penetrate the
nasal plate’; the loreals, one on either side
between the preorbitals and nasals; the Jabials
(supralabials), a long row of plates along the margin
of the upper jaw, the temporals vary in number in
different species, and are placed caudad of the post-
orbitals, between the parietals above and the
labials below. The number and arrangement of
these plates are emp!oyed in classification. For
example, the formula “‘temporals 1-2-2” indicates that
there are three (vertical) rows of temporals, and
that there is one plate in the first row behind the
postorbitals, and two in each of the other rows.
Write beneath the drawing the formula for the
temporals of this species. The mental plate is
unpaired, and, placed at the tip of the lower jaw.
There are two pairs of submentals (genetals) directly
caudad of the mentals on the ventral side of the head.
The znfralabials constitute a row along the edge of the
lower jaw caudad of the mental. The ventral plates
(abbreviated V. P., and sometimes called gasterosteges)
are the large plates covering the ventral side of the
body. The one directly in front of the vent and
sometimes divided (bifid), is called the anal plate. It
is usually cresentic inform. The plates caudad of
the vent on the under side of the tail are in pairs and
called urosteges. In some snakes they are not found
in pairs. The gulars are the small plates on the side
of the throat between the infralabials, submentals,
and ventrals.

Make a drawing of the ventral aspect in the region of
the vent, showing urosteges, ventral and anal scutes.

(6). Make a drawing of the dorsum of the head. Label the
scutes.

(7). Make a drawing of the left side of the head. The pit
located between the eye and the nostril is the
loreal prt. Compare the urosteges with those of No. 1.
Result?

IQ
(1s). Make a drawing of the dorsum of the skull, oye

(16).
(20).

(21).
(23).
(24.)
(26).
(28).

orbits and temporal fossa.

Compare the skull with that of No. 15. Result?
The body of turtles in encased in a bony box, the dorsal

portion of which is called the carapace, and the ven-

tral portion the plastron. Both carapace and plas-

tron are covered with thin, horny scutes or shields.

Before identifying the specimen, study the scutella-

tion and make a drawing of both carapace and

plastron.

(a). Carapace—The row of scutes forming the mar-
gin of the carapace are the marginals. The
narrow marginal scute situated on the middle
line above the neck is the nuchal. The two
marginals above the base of the tail are the
supracaudals. The scutes extending along
the middle line of the back are known as the
vertebrals. The costals are those scutes be-
tween the marginals and the vertebrals.

(b). Plastron—In the plastron are six pairs of
scutes. The most cephalic pair, placed
directly beneath the neck, are the gulars.
The others named in order from the gulars
caudad are: humerals, pectorals, abdominals,
femorals, anals. Caudad of the arm, be-
tween the carapace and the plastron, is the
axillary scute, and in a similar position
cephalad of the leg is the inguinal. In some
species both axillary and inguinal scutes are
more numerous.

Drawings of the ventral and the lateral aspects.
Drawings of the dorsal and ventral aspects.

Drawings of the ventral aspect.

Drawings of the ventral and the lateral aspects.

A jar of miscellaneous specimens to be identified if time

permits.

20
AVES

I. A study of the topography of a bird.

(a).

(b).

Study a specimen for the purpose of determining the
various external parts of a bird which are used in
classification. Reference may be made to a wall
chart or figure in the manual.

Study a prepared specimen of a wing to determine the
various groups of feathers and their relation to the
segments of the wing. Drawing is optional.

(1). Primaries—Attached to the hand.

(2). Secondaries—Attached to the forearm.

(3). Tertiaries—Attached to the upper arm.

(4). Primary coverts—Covering the bases of the
primaries.

(5). Secondary coverts—Covering the bases of the
secondaries. These coverts exhibit three
groups, and are named according to size and
position, greater, middle, and lesser coverts.

(6). Under coverts—Covering the bases of the flight
feathers on the under side of the wing. A
special group of feathers growing from the
axilla (arm-pit) are termed avillars.

(7). Scapulars—A group of feathers on the upper
side of the wing growing from the shoulder
region. They are opposite the axillars of the
under side.

II. Identification of species.

(1).
(2).
(3):
(4).
(5).
(6).

(7).
(8).

(10).

Drawings of the bill and thefoot. Label parts. To what
type does the tail belong?

Make a drawing of the bill to show unguis or nail and
the lamellz along the edges.

Draw lobate foot.

Note the serrations on the caudal edge of the thin tarsus.

Draw the bill with its cere, one foot, and the scutellate
tarsus.

Make a drawing of the foot which is of the perching
type. ~

Compare the bill with that of No. 2.

Make a drawing of the totipalmate foot. Why so
named? Note the position of the fourth toe.

Drawing of the ventral side of the tail.

21
(11).
(13).
(14).
(24).
(26).

(30).
(32).

(38).
(45).

(48).
(53).

(68).

(86).

(88).

Drawing of syndactyl foot. Why socalled?

Drawing of zygodactyl foot. Why socalled?

Note the tubelike nostril. Draw.

Drawing of the foot.

Drawings of the bill and the dorsum of the wing and
tail. Note the arrangement of the toes.

To what type does the tail belong?

A good example of the seed-eating type of bill. Make
drawing.

To what type does the tail belong?

The tarsus of this species is known as the booted tarsus.
How does it differ from others? Draw.

Drawing of the bill.

A good example of the fly-catching bill. Note its width
and rictal bristles.

Make a drawing of the reticulate tarsus. How does it
differ from the scutellate and booted types?

Note the somewhat swollen and pitted end of bill.
This is the sensitive type of bill used in probing in
mud for food.

Drawing of the head to show the frontal shield.

MAMMALIA

I. A study of the mammalian skull. Time will not admit of a
careful study of the skull of any one species. Figures 3, 4,
and 5 have, therefore, been introduced as an: aid in the
identification. of skull characteristics. The study of the skull
of any given species is optional with the student.

II. Identification of species. Write the tooth formula of each
species identified.

(2).

(2).

“G)
(4).

Draw the left side of the skull and label parts. Draw-
ing of the foot. Examine a mounted female which
shows the pouch in which the young are carried for a
time after birth.

Draw the lateral aspect of the skull to show the type
of dentition.

Compare the skull with that of No.2. Result?

Draw the lateral aspect of the skull.

22
i Postorbital Process

Temporal Fossa

 

Lambdoidal Crest

Fic. 3. Dorsat ASPECT OF THE CaT’s SKULL.
(6). Note the long muzzle. The dentition is of the insec-
tivorous type. Compare with others already studied.
(7). Compare with No. 6. After identification of the
species, correlate structure and habit. Drawings of
characteristic features are optional.
Alisphenoid \
Postorbital Process

    
 
    
  

Premaxillary

   

Auditory Bulla Supraoccipital

Pterygoid Process

     
    
 
  

| |g Canin : Palatine

Prem i
olars Coronoid Process

  
 
 

SS

   
 
 
   

QA?
Se 8S
Wk.

Condyle

Angle
Lower Jaw

Fic. 4. LATERAL ASPECT OF THE Cat’s SKULL.

(8). Make a diagram of the crown of a molar. Name the
parts. Examine a tooth which has been extracted.
Does it possessr oots or grow from a persistent
pulp?

(9). Drawing of a skeleton of the right arm and name
the bones.

24
(i0). Examine an extracted molar. Conclusion?

(11). Note relative length of arms and legs. Conclusions?

(12). Drawing of the left side of the skull. What are the
characteristic features of the dentition?

Incisors

   
  
  
    
  
 
  

Premaxillary
Canine

Maxillary

Maxillary

fe " Presphenoid
Pterygoid Process + yo HRY Vi oT of Orbitosphenoid
. Alisphenoid

 
 
  
    

Basisphenoid

Auditory Bulla 4H Temporal
Basioccipital External Auditory
Meatus

Mastoid Process

Lambdoidal Crest

Fic. 5. VENTRAL ASPECT OF THE CAT’S SKULL.

(13). Drawing of a crown of amolar. Compare with No. 8.
(14). Drawing of the ventral aspect of the animal.
(15). Drawing of the crown of a molar.
(16).

(21).
(31).

Examine the cephalic and the caudal aspects of the
incisors. How do they differ from those of other
rodents?

Compare the crown of the molars with those of
Nos. 8 and 13.

Draw the lateral aspect of the skull to show the roots
of the molars.

26
     

Date Due
 

 

Name Reed and Wright

Address Laboratory outlines ...

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