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ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

NEw YORK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS

 

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

 

 

 

 

 

 
ee Oo
A SURVEY ‘F0/ SOME COMMERCIAL APPLE ORCHARDS

IN VIRGINIA.

Minor Thesis.

Submitted to Professor John Craig, Professor
of Horticulture, as a report of work done on first
minor subject for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of Cornell University.

By

A. W. Drinkard, Jr., B. S., M. S.

re

Cornell University

July, 1912.

—

Cols
CONTENTS

1. Introductory statements
Object of the survey
Distribution of orchards

(2)
(2)
(3)
(4)

2e The question of varieties

(11)
(12)

Acreage
Size of orchards.

Names and synonymns

Varieties in the bearing orchards

Varieties in young orchards

Varieties for future planting
Comparative tabular summary of varieties

Page

8-46
3

12
19
26
30

How many varieties should the grower plant 33

Fewer varieties being planted
General adaptation of varieties

Scale resistance

Susceptibility to scale
Disease resistance
Susceptibility to disease

3. Soils and varieties adapted to them

(1)
(2)

(3)

(4)

Literature on soils and soil surveys

Soils of the Piedmont region

a. Cecil series

(a) Cecil clay
(ob) Cecil loam
(c) Cecil sandy loam
(ad) Cecil clay loam
(e) Cecil stony loam

b. Penn series

(a) Penn loam
(b) Penn clay
(c) Penn stony loam

Miscellaneous Piedmont soils

(a) Loudoun sandy loam
(b) Iredell Clay loam

Soils of the mountains

a. Porters series

(a) Porters
(b) Porters
(c) Porters
(d) Porters
(e) Porters

sand

sandy loam
black loam
clay loam

clay

35
36
40
42
43
44

47-73

48
50
50
51
52
53
55
56
56
56
57
58
58
58
59
59
60
60
61
62
63
64
b. Dekalb series
(a) Dekalb stony loam
(bo) Dekalb sandy loam
(5) Soils of the Valley region
Hagerstown series
(a) Hagerstown stony loam
(bo) Hagerstown stony clay
(c) Hagerstown sandy loam
(d) Hagerstown loam
(e) Hagerstown clay loam
(f) Hagerstown clay
(6) General remarks 6n the adaptation of
varieties to soil type

Planting plans for orchards
(1) Plans for old orchards
a. Table of distances
b. Fillers
(2) Plans for young orchards
a. Fable of distances
b. Fillers

Fop-working and propagation
(1) Top-grafting
(2) Varieties which should be top-grafted
(3) Selection of cions

Spraying
(1) Dormant or winter application
(2) Summer spraying
(3) Experience with spray solutions

Orchard cultivation and management
(1) Old or bearing orchards

a. Sod
b. Sod mulch
ce. Tillage, - clean, partial,
intermittent
(2) Young orchards
- a. Sod

b. Sod mulch
c. Fillage,- clean, partial,
intermittent
(3) Catch-crops
(4) Cover-crops

65
65
66
66
67
67
68
68
69
70
TA.

72

74
75
76
77
73
78
79

81
81
82
83

85
85
87
88

90
90
90
Oo

92
94
95
95

96
97
102
8.

9.

10.

Marketing
(1) Where the fruit is sold
(2) Markets and varieties
(3) How the fruit is sold
(4) Packing
General Considerations
(1) An apple-orchard "boom"
(2) Natural drawbacks, insects, diseases,
frost
(3) Economic difficulties
a. Labor
b. Marketing
c. Transportation
(4) Remarks from the growers
Appendix

106
106
107
108
109

bit
lil

111
112
112
113
114
114

Liz
A SURVEY OF SOME COMMERCIAL APPLE ORCHARDS IN VIRGINIA.

This survey represents a part of my graduate work
on a minor subject in the Department of Horticulture.
Professor John Craig suggested the problem, outlined the
scope of the investigation and kindly supervised and criti-
cised the work during its progress, and I wish to acknow-
ledge the benefit I have derived from his helpful sug-
gestions.

This is the first survey that has been attempted
to ascertain the conditions in the Virginia apple orchards.
Such investigations have been conducted elsewhere far more
thoroughly than this survey. Under Professor Craig's dir-
ection, the leading fruit-growing counties of New York
State have been surveyed and the results of the investi-
gations published in Cornell Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletins 226, 229, 262 and 307.

There are several reasons why a survey of the apple
orchards of Virginia is desirable. (1) The fruit growers
in any given locality desire to know how the fruit growers
in other localities are conducting the business. There
is no line of agricultural work in which the experience

of the "other fellow" is more helpful than in the growing
of apples. <A knowledge of current practices is highly
essential to success. (2) Persons who are interested in
entering the orchard business desire to have all available
information concerning that business in the locality where
they would invest their capital. A survey such as this one
brings together facts which this class of persons is seek-
ing. (3) Persons and institutions desiring to advance

the horticultural interests of the State can the better
accomplish this end when they have at hand accurate data
bearing on orchard conditions. The Virginia Agricultural
Experiment Station frequently has requests for information
concerning the adaptation of varieties, and current orchard
practices in the State, and I believe this survey will mat-
erially assist in answering many of these questions. this
survey is by no means as extensive as might be desired.

I hope that it is but the beginning of a more detailed
survey which will enable us ultimately to know the average
cost in this State of producing a barrel of apples, and the
average profit that may be expected from it.

In April, 1911, I addressed five hundred circular
letters to fruit-growers in Virginia. The cordial attention
which the fruit growers gave my letters was very gratifying
to me. The growers were kind enough to answer at length

the series of questions which I submitted to them, and I
wish to acknowledge at this time my obligation for the
courtesy. I hope that at some future time the information
prought together in this report may be available to the
fruit growers of the state. The answers which I received
furnish the basis for this paper. Nearly three hundred re-
plies were received, of which two hundred and fifty-three
gave information that could be utilized in this paper.

Distribution of the Orchards Reported on in This

 

 

Survey. It is difficult to state in definite terms the
distribution of the orchards reported on in this survey,

for one county may lie partly in one region of the State

and partly in another. When classified according to the
geographical regions of the state we find the orchards fall-
ing into the following groups:

The Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions embrane about 50%

The Valley region embraces about 45%
The Middle Virginia region embraces about 4%
The Appalachian region embraces about 1%
Distribution of Orchards. - Distribution by counties

of the orchards reported in this survey is shown below.
Both the counties and the number of orchards reported from

these counties are given.
County Number of Orchards

Augusta 34
Albemarle 33
Rappahannock 22
Frederick 20
Nelson 18
Roanoke 13
Rockingham 11
Shenandoah ll
Loudoun ll
Bedford
Franklin
Botetourt
Wy the
Clarke
Warren
Patrick
Montgomery

0, Rockbridge
~ Faull, ~ Fauquier
Amherst
Pulaski
Orange
Page
Smyth
Alleghany
Campbell
Halifax
Buckingham
Spottsylvania
Caroline
Fairfax
Henrico
surry
Prince William
Culpeper

Total Number

BRE RP RRR eR RP RP RP PF NVNVNNNOPRAOOA WVWOO

 

w
ao
eo

The same date is shown in Fig. 1. This illustration
is copied from Alweod's publication on the fruit soils of
Virginia, which will be cited later. This map shows the
reader at one glance the location of the fruit growing

regions of the State.
Sakis ee Aa Shes Se Bh nee elimi try ai, aekohanes ‘anes Sat - oa. gee

Diagrammatic REPRESENTATION OF PHYsicat DIVISIONS OF VIRGINIA
in Recarion vo Fruir Cocrune

EDS aeonane
YY wren SD
ae Sas

MAP OF THE STATE OF

VIRGINIA

—Pr pared by —
HORTICULTURAL OEPARTMENT
VA AGR. EXP STATION
—is90—

 

 

Fig. #1. Map of Virginia showing the physical
divisions of the state. (After Alwood). The bold type
figures are mine and show the location by counties of the

orchards which comprise this survey.
Fig. 1 shows that replies to my letters came from
thirty-five counties. It may be pointed out, however, that
71 per cent of all the replies came from the first ten
counties on the list. The larger number of replies came
from those counties in which the apple industry has been
longest established, and best developed.

Acreage.- In order that a survey of this kind may
have value as an index by which the actual conditions may
be judged, it is necessary that the survey extend over a
considerable area. It would be desirable to have data on
a still greater area than that which is represented in this
report. Yet the area reported is large enough to furnish
reliable information. Two hundred and forty-four fruit
growers stated the extent of their orchards. The aggregate
acreage of all these orchards, including both young and
old, amounts to 12,419 acres.

Size of Orchards. - The orchards vary greatly in
size, ranging from two acres to five hundred acres; however
there are few orchards around either of these outlying ex-
tremes. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the orchards ac-
cording to size. The average size of all these orchards
is approximately fifty acres. It might be stated that
several very large orchards are reported, which tend to

make the average acreage high. Thirty-two of these orshards
contain as much as one hundred acres each,

 

 

 

 

Fig. 2. Diagram to show the distribution of orchards
according to size. Figures on the base line show the size
of the orchards, grouped into classes, with a class range
of 20 acres. The figures on the vertical line show the

number of orchards which fall in any particular class.
THE QUESTION OF VARIETIES.

One of the difficult questions which every fruit-
grower has to meet is that of choosing the right varieties
for his orchard. in my circular letter to the growers, I
asked three questions about varieties. It is desirable to
know what are the leading varieties in both the old or bear
ing orchards, and also the leading varieties in the young
orchards which have not yet reached the bearing stage.

Data on these two points will enable us to see the trend

of the plantings, and show from the growers' point of view
the relative value of the different varieties for commercial
orchards. Then, in order to get the growers' latest judg-
ment, a question was asked relative to future plantings.
Since the same variety is reported under different names

by different growers, it will be worth while to take up the
question of nomenclature at this point.

A List of Varieties Mentioned in This Survey.

 

 

Many varieties have several names. Authorities in pomolog-
ical nomenclature recognize only one name for a variety,

and the other names by which it may be recognized in differ-
ent localities become synonyms. For many reasons the growers
should designate a variety by its correct name; this matter
is important when apples are entered for competitive exhib-
itions and it should be guarded also when marking apples for

market. In the list which follows, I have placed in the
first column the names of varieties reported by the growers;

in the second column just opposite the first, I have written

the correct names of the varieties. ‘This nomenclature is

taken from the following authorities:

Ragan, W. H., Nomenclature of The Apple. U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No.

56. (1905)

Beach, S. A., et wls., The Apples of New York.

2 vols. (1905). In a few cases I was unable to find refer-

ence to the variety mentioned by the growers; and in such

cases the second column has been left blank. Throughout

this paper the varieties will be referred to by their cor-

rect names.

Name Given by the Growers

Correct Name.

 

America
American Beauty
Albemarle Pippin
Arkansas ilack
Baldwin
Baltzley

Belmont

Ben Davis

Black Ben Davis
Bonun
Buckingham
Cannon

Cannon Pearmain
Champion
Commerce
Delaware Red Winter
Delicious

Domini

Duchess of Oldenburg
Early Harvest

Danlw Raina

America
American Beauty
Albemarle
Arkansas Black
Baldwin
Baltzley
Belmont

Ben Davis

Black Ben Davis
Bonum
Buckingham
Cannon

Gannon Pearmain
Collins
Commerce
Delaware Red
Delicious
Domine

Oldenburg
Harly Harvest

Early Ripe
10

Esopus Spitzenburg
Fallawater

Fall Cheese

Fall Pippin
Lawyer

Gano

Genetian

Gibbs Late
Gilbert

Gloria Mundi
Golden Gate
Golden Pippin
Golden Russet
Gravenstein
Grimes Golden
Ingram

Jonathan

Justice

Kennards Choice
Kentucky Red

King David

Lady

Lankford

Lawver

Liveland Raspberry
Loudon Pippin
Lewry

Lowry Seedling
Maidens Blush
Mammoth Black fwig
Meafe

McIntosh

Missouri Pippin
Mother i
Nansemond Beauty
Nere

Newtown Pippin
Northern Spy
Northwestern Greening
Ortley

Paradise

Paradise Winter Sweet
Piedmont Pippin
Pilot

Queen

Ralls Jenette
Rebel

Esopus
Fallawater
Fall Cheese
Fall Pippin
(is probably Lawver)
Gano

Ralls

Gibbs

Gilbert
Gloria Mundi
Golden Gate
Golden Pippin
Golden Russet
Gravenstein
Grimes

Ingram
Jonathan
Justice
Kinnaird
Kentucky Red
King David
Lady

Lankford
Lawver
Livland Raspberry
Loudoun

Lowrie

Lowrie

Maiden Blush
Arkansas
McAfee
McIntosh
Missouri
Mother
Nansemond

Nere

Yellow Newtown
Northern Spy
Northwestern Greening
Ortley
Paradise
Winter Paradise
Piedmont
Pilot

Queen

Ralls

Rebel
11

Red Astrachan Red Astrachan
Red Streak Redstreak
Rhode Island Greening Rhode Island
Robinson Robinson
Rome Beauty Rome
Roxbury Russet Roxbury
Royal Limbertwig Royal Limbertwig
Russian Rambo (is probably Rambour Reinette)
Salome Salome
Senator Oliver
Shockley Shockley
Shockley Lady (is probably Shockley)
Silver King
Silver Pippin Silver Pippin
Smiths Cider Smith
Smokehouse Smokehouse
Sour Bough Sour Bough
South Carolina Summer
Springdale Springdale
Stark Stark
Stayman Winesap Stayman Winesap
Summer Pippin Sunmer Pippin
Summer Queen Summer Queen
Summer Rambo Summer Rambo
Tolman Sweet Tolman
Tompkins County King Tompkins King
Tweekesbury Winter Blush
Vandivere Vandevere
Vere
Via Via
Vine Vine
Virginia Beauty Virginia Beauty
Wagener Wagener
Wealthy Wealthy
Winter Cheese Winter Cheese
Winesap Winesap
Winter Smokehouse Smokehouse
Wolf River Wolf River
Yellow Belleflower Yellow Bellflower
Yellow Transparent Yellow Transparent
York Imperial or Johnsons Fine

Winter York

York Stripe York Stripe
12

Varieties found in Bearing Orchards. - "Name the
leading varieties of apples in your bearing orchard in the
order of their commercial importance, giving the approximate
number of each." Two hundred and twelve bearing orchards
were reported, and in the aggregate they contain over a
quarter of a million trees. The fruit-growers named the
varieties in what they considered the order of their com-
mercial importance. Table I briefly summarizes their an-
swers. A word may be said in explanation of this table.

In the first column under the caption "Variety", the variet-
ies are listed in the order of their importance as shown by
the number of orchards in which they are found. The second
column states that the rank is. The third column gives the
number of growers who have this variety in their orchards,
and the fourth column states the per cent of orchards in
which this variety is found. The total number of trees
reported of this variety stands in the fifth column. And
the per cent which this variety constitutes ef the total
number of trees reported in the old orchards stands in the
sixth column. Then the rank which the growers gave the
variety is shown; the number of growers who fave the var-
iety any stated rank stands beneath the ordinal which heads

the column representing that rank. For example, York ranks
13

first according to the number of orchards in which it is
grown; it is found in one hundred and sixty-five (out of

a total of two hundred and twelve) bearing orchards, which
is 77.83 per cent of the bearing orchards; there were
86,343 trees of this variety reported, which is 34.38 per
cent of all the trees of all varieties in the old orchards;
seventy-seven growers placed this variety first in rank,
forty placed it second, thirty-four placed it third, five
placed it fourth, seven placed it fifth, one placed it
sixth, and one grower placed this variety eighth in com-
mercial importance. In like manner the reader may run
through the entire table and find the rank of any given

variety.
Missing Page
15

The item "Miscellaneous" inserted at the end of the
column headed "Variety" in Table 1, includes a large number
of varieties which were mentioned by one or two fruit grow-
ers respectively. Since these varieties were reported by so
few growers, their relative ranks would have little signifi-
cance, and therefore they were not listed in the above table.
These varieties were reported in small numbers ranging from
ten to two hundred and fifty. Every variety mentioned in
the bearing orchards and not included in the above table

will be listed below:

Virginia Beauty
Summer Queen

Yellow Bellflower
Red Astrachan

Golden Pippin Mother

Ralls Early Harvest
King David Piedmont
Vandivere Silver Pippin
American Beauty Smokehouse
Loudoun Lawver

Vere Silver King
Gibbs Nero

Tompkins King Salome
Tweeksbury Winter Blush McAfee
Delaware Red Commerce
Collins Baltzley
Arkansas Black Summer Pippin
Gloria Mundi Vine

Tolman Roxbury
Wagener Lowrie

Ralls Esopus

Via Robinson
Pilot Weal thy
Golden Gate Yellow Newtown
Buckingham Oldenburg
Fall Pippin Kentucky Red
Lady Ortley
Oliver Lawver

Altogether eighty-three varieties

were reported in old orchards.
16

t Discussion of Table 1. - Several striking facts are

 

brought out in this table. York easily ranks first as re-
gards both the number of orchards in which it is found and
the number of trees planted; this variety constitutes one-
third of all the trees reported in the old orchards. York
is the great cosmopolitan apple in Virginia; it is found in
all the fruit-growing sections of the State. So far as my
information goes it does well in all sections, though it is
pre-eminent in the Valley region. Its popularity with the
growers is indicated by the fact that 46 per cent of the
growers who have this variety gave it first rank, and very
few growers considered it lower than third in commercial
value. The fact that York is adapted to all sections of
the State enables this variety to hold first place over
varieties, which are unquestionably superior to York in
quality.

Winesap is an easy second. This variety is found in
63.20 per cent of the old orchards and comprises 19.93 per
cent of the total number of trees in the old orchards.
Winesap is more or less limited in its adaptation. It is
especially suf&cessful in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions
of the State and in these regions it ranks second only to
Albemarle. Winesap usually succeeds wherever Albemarle

does; and its range is much greater than that of Albemarle.
17

The figures in Table 1 show that 34 per cent of the growers
who have Winesap in their old orchards place it first in rank
and 35 per cent give it second phace. This seems to be due
to the fact that Winesap and Albemarle are frequently grown
in the same orchard on account of the similarity of their
environmental requirements and a majority of the growers
seem to prefer Albemarle to Winesap. Winesap is held in
high esteem by the growers because of its high quality and
attractive appearance.

Ben Davis stands third as regards the number of or-
chards in which it is found, though this variety takes fourth
place when it comes to the total number of trees planted.
While this variety is very general in its adaption to soil
and locality, yet it is not nearly so important a factor in
the old orchards of the State as is commonly supposed.

From Table 1, it will be seen that Ben Davis comprises

12.56 per cent of the total number of trees in the old or-
chards. There are approgimately three Yorks to one Ben
Davis in the bearing orchards which are reported in this
paper. Of all the growers who have Ben Davis in their or-
chards, 16 per cent give it first rank; 31 per cent give it
second and 22 per cent place this variety third with respect
to its commercial value.

Albemarle ranks fourth as regards the number of or-
18

chards in which it is found and holds third place in the
total number of trees planted. The limitation of this var-
iety to a certain type of soil is frequently mentioned by
the fruit growers and this point is discussed under another
topic. But where Albemarle can be grown it is held in high
esteem and is very popular with the fruit-growers. The
growers give this variety high rank; 51 per cent of the
growers who have Albemarle in their old orchards, consider
it first in commercial importance. Speaking in relative
terms, Albemarle ranks higher than any other variety found
in the old orchards. It is interesting to note that this
variety makes up 15.70 per cent of the total number of
trees reported in the old orchards.

Perhaps it is not profitable to go further into the
details of Table 1. The reader can glance through the array
of facts which are set forth and draw his own conclusions
from them. There is a remarkably large number of varieties
reported in the bearing orchards. All told, there are eighty- -
three varieties, several of which I have not been able to
find mentioned in pomologival literature. However, it may
be seen that the main bulk of the plantings in the bearing
commercial orchards is composed of just a few varieties.
Some of the old orchards which are now still in bearing, date

from that period when commercial apple-growing in Virginia
19

was in the experimental stage. Then the fruit-grower had
no way to find out the varieties which were suited to his
locality; he did not have the benefit of the "other fellow's"
experience, and he was compelled to try out many sorts - if
not to his own profit, certainly to the advantage of the
apple industry in the State. Later on in the discussion,
we shall see that the total number of varieties mentioned
in the young orchards has decreased by 36 per cent.

Varieties In Young Orchards. - Under this topic the
following question was asked: "Name the varieties in your
young orchards(not yet bearing) in the order of their com-
mercial importance, giving the approximate number of each."
The young orchards will range in age from one to seven or
eight years. One hundred and seventy-four of the fruit
growers who replied to my letter have young orchards. The
total number of trees reported in the young orfhards is
260,124. This number slightly exceeds the aggregate of
trees reported in the old orchards. Doubtless the acreage
of the young orchards is considerably in excess of that of
the old orchards, owing to the fact that trees in the young
orchards are generally planted farther apart than trees in
the old orchards.

A summary of the answers to the above question is

given in Table 2. The explanation of this table is exactly
20

the same as in case of Table 1, and therefore it need not

be repeated here.
Missing Page
The varieties listed below were reported in one or-
chard each, respectively. As a rule they were reported in
small numbers ranging from ten to two hundred and twenty-
five. The numbers are included in Table 2 in the iten,
"Miscellaneous Varieties." These varieties were not in-
serted individually in the table because their relative
rank has no great significance owing to the fact that they

are found in so few orchards.

Cannon Livland Raspberry Missouri

Kinnaird Smi th Harly Ripe

Summer Rambo South Carolina Summer
Mother Wolf River Nansmond

Lawver Springdale Ralls

Gravenstein America Oliver

Buckingham Gilbert Paradise

Sour Bough Ingram Justice

Altogether, fifty-three varieties were reported in the
young orchards in this survey.

Discussion of Table 2. - This table presents an
interesting array of facts. York stands at the head of
the list of varieties in young orchards both as regards the
number of orchards in which it is found and also the total num-
ber of trees. York is found in 55.75 per cent of the young
orchards reported in this survey; and this variety comprises
29.30 per cent of the total number of trees in these orchards.
York also maintains its popularity in the young orchards;
of the 97 growers who have this variety in their orchards,

54 per cent give it first rank over all other varieties.
22

This variety is most popular in the young orchards of the
Valley region, yet there are extensive plantings of it in
the Piedmont region. York is a heavy bearer and a good
seller, and therefore the growers find it one of their most
profitable varieties.

Stayman holds second place in the list of varieties
found in the young orchards as regards both the number of
orchards in which it is planted and also the number of trees
planted. Stayman is found in 48.85 per cent of the young
orchards reported in this survey and comprises 15 per cent
of the total number of trees in these orchards. This var-
iety is becoming very important in the Valley region,
where it now ranks second only to York. The rapid increase
in the popularity of this variety is shown by the fact that
its rank has advanced from seventh place in the bearing or-
chards to second place in the young orchards. The large
size, high quality, good flavor and attractive appearance
of the fruit especially commend it to both the producer
and consumer. It is now found in nearly one-half of the
young orchards.

Winesap holds third place in the young orchards as
regards both the number of orchards in which it is found
and the per cent of the total number of trees. It is found

in 37.93 per cent of the young orchards and comprise 13.09
23

per cent of the total number of trees in these orchards.
It will be noticed that Winesap has decreased considerably
in distribution and number of trees planted. This may poss-
ibly be explained by the fact that Winesap has both soil
and climatic limitations. In the Valley region some growers
say that Winesap has a tendency to grow too small; but others
find it very successful in this region. In the mountain
regions at elevations greater than 1500 feet this variety
does not seem to do well. In the high plateau section of
the upper Valley (Montgomery, Pulaski, Wythe, and Smyth
counties) the growers say that Winesap does poorly. How-
ever, in the Piedmont region of the State and on the east-
ern slopes of the Blue Ridge up to an elevation of 1500
feet Winesap is very successful and is considered second
only to Albemarle. Winesap is very frequently planted side
py side with Albemarle; the former has a much wider range
of adaptation than the latter.

Grimes takes fourth place in the young orchards.
Grimes is really a fall apple, or possibly might be classi-
fied as an early winter apple in this State, and its promi-
nence in the young orchards calls our attention to two
points: (1) Fall apples may take an important place in our
commercial orchards, and (2) they may be grown profitably

as is Shownby the successful plantings of this variety in
24

many sections of the State.”

Arkansas holds fifth place in both the bearing or-
chards and the young orchards; yet it should be noted that
this variety has increased both in the per cent of orchards
in which it is found and the per cent which it comprises of
the total number of trees planted. This variety is mention-
ed favorably by growers in many sections of the State.

Delicious, along with Black Ben Davis and King David
are comparatively new varieties which have been planted in
small quantities by a number of growers. These varieties
have been extensively advertised during recent years, and
many growers are giving them a trial. They are varieties
of promise, especially is this true of Delicious. If Delic-
ious succeeds in this State as it has in some of the western
states, and proves to be suited to our environment, it will
become an important variety in Virginia orchards within the
next decade.

We saw that Albemarle ranked fourth in the bearing

orchards; it now holds seventh place in the young orchards.

* Note. - The same statements will, in a measure, apply to
summer varieties. In this connection the reader is referred
to Gould, H. P., Summer Apples in the Middle Atlantic States,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Bullt. 44. In this bulletin, Professor Gould discusses at
length summer varieties and their adaptation to various reg-
ions in the middle Atlantic states, giving considerable at-
tention to the fruit-growing sections of Virginia.
25

But here, as in the bearing orchards, Albemarle is supreme
in that limited region to which it is adapted. ‘The esteem
in which the growers hold this variety is shown by the fact
that 61 per cent of the growers who have this variety in
their orchards give it first rank over all others. Relative-
ly speaking, this is the highest rank given to any variety
in the young orchards. The area in Virginia over which ap-
ple orchards are distributed is constantly increasing.
Albemarle is peculiarly adapted to a limited area, commonly
known as "pippin land". It follows therefore, that the per
cent of orchards in which it occurs, and the per cent of the
total number of trees of this variety planted will decrease.
We saw that Ben Davis was third in rank in the bear-
ing orchards and now we see that it holds eighth place in
the young orchards. Plantingsof this variety have decreased

markedly. Those who advocate the growing of this variety

point out its good qualities as heavy bearer, attractive in
_appearance and a good seller especially when offered on the
southern markets.

Attention should be directed to Rome as a variety
which is coming into prominence in sections of the State,
particularly Loudoun and Clarke counties. It will be notic-
ed also that swnmer and fall varieties are coming more into

prominence in the young orchards.
26

Further details of Table 2 need not be entered into
in this discussion. The reader can draw his own conclusions
from the data presented.

Varieties for Future Planting. - It is important to
know what varieties the growers now consider best for plant-
ing in their respective localities. In order to obtain op-
inions from the growers on this point,- the following quest-
ion was asked:

“What varieties of apples would you plant if you were
to extend your orchard? State reason for making this choice."
From the nature of the case, the safest information on var-
ieties best suited for future planting can be obtained from
the growers, many of whom have been in the orchard business
for a long time, and have had experience with many varieties.
They have had opportunity to observe the behavior of variet-
ies.and they can estimate very accurately the commercial
value of a variety for their respective localities.

there were two hundred and thirty-one answers to this
question. Table 3 gives a concise summary of these answers.
This table is made in the same way as those which precede it,
and it needs, therefore, no further explanation. This data
should be specially valuable to those who contemplate plant-

ing apple trees.
Missing Page
28

the varieties listed below were mentioned by only
one grower each. They were not included in Table 3 since
nothing can be said as to their relative rank from the stand-

point of the grower.

Mother Golden Gate
American Beauty Cannon

Summer Rambo Rambour Reinette
Rebel Esopus

Pilot Golden Russet
McIntosh Stark
Belmont Redstreak
¥allawater Kinnaird
Royal Limbertwig Rhode Island
Oliver Smith
Smokehouse Queen
Shockley Early Ripe
Livland Raspberry Maiden Blush

Winter Cheese
Altogether fifty-one varieties are mentioned as being
desirable for future planting.

Discussion of Table 3. - One of the most striking

 

features of this table is the large number of varieties
which would be given a prominent place in future plantings.
There are at least ten varieties which would be planted
rather extensively. This data seems to indicate that a
number of varieties are giving satisfaction in different
parts of the State. Attention should be called to the reas-
ons which the growers gave for selecting the varieties ment-
ioned in fable 3.

York again easily ranks first. Of the one hundred

and twenty-seven growers who would plant this variety, 54
29

per cent gave it first rank in economic importance. Very
few growers place it lower than third in rank. A majority
of the growers in the Valley region gave York preference
over other varieties. The reasons stated for making this
choice are as follows: York is a good bearer; its fruit is
of good shipping and keeping quality, and it is a good sell-
er. Several growers stated that York is not a good variety
to hold in cold-storage because its skin is tender and has
a tendency to blister when taken out of cold-storage.

We found that Stayman Winesap had jumped to second
place in the young orchards; it retains this position in
the varieties for future planting. Staymen Winesap would
be planted extensively in both the Valley and Piedmont
regions. The growers favor this variety because it is large
in size, high in quality and very attractive in appearance.

Winesap holds third place among the varieties for
future planting; 45.45 per cent of the growers would plant
this variety, and of the number who would plant it, 50 per
cent give it first rank in economic importance. The growers
would plant this variety on account of its high quality.
It is also a ready seller and is held in high esteem on the
markets. There is a tendency for the fruits to grow too
small unless the variety is planted in an environment to

which it is adapted.
30

Arkansas would be planted extensively in the future
orchards. This variety has several points which recommend
it to the growers. It is of good size and good quality, and
it is a showy apple. Some growers have complained that it
is a shy bearer, but this objection is not shared by many
of the growers. :

Grimes is the most prominent apple of the fall or
early winter class. Its peculiarly rich flavor and ready
sale on the market recommend it to the growers.

Albemarle holds sixth plave, due to the fact that
it is adapted to a limited region. But in its own region
it is held in the highest esteem. This is shown by the
fact that 56 per cent of the men who would plant this var-
iety give it first rank in egonomic importance, which is
the highest individual rating of any variety suggested for
future plantings.

It is unnecessary to mention other varieties.

Fable 3 shows how the growers feel regarding the relative
value of varieties for future plantings.

Comparison of Varieties. - In order that the reader
may get at a glance the relative rank of varieties, I have
made in Table 4 a comparison between ten leading varieties
in bearing orchards, young and prospective orchards. This

table gives a bird's-eye view of the status of varieties in
31

the commercial orchards. It shows the trend of plantings

and it is a fairly safe index to the adaptation of varieties
to the State. It gives the growers' opinion based upon their
experience with varieties. The table is made up from the
preceding tables with the addition under "Young Orchards" and
"Prospective Orchards" of columns which show whether there
has been an increase or decrease in plantings over the old

orchards.
Missing Page
33

Discussion of Table 4. - York holds first place all

 

along the line as regards both the number of orchards in which
it is found and the per cent of trees which it comprises of
the total plantings. Winesap has shifted from second place
in the old orchards to third place in both the young and pro-
spective orchards. Ben Davis has changed from third place

in the bearing orchards to eighth place in the young orchards
and ninth place in the prospective orchards. Another re-
markable shift of position is noted in the case of Stayman
Winesap. As regards the number of orchards in which it is
grown, this variety was seventh in the old orchards, but it
has jumped to second place in both the young and prospective
orchards. And the increase in the percent which this var-
iety constitutes of the total number of trees is also very
noticeable. Delicious and Black Ben Davis had low rank in
the bearing orchards, but have come to positions of import-
ance in the young and prospective orchards.

How Many Varieties should the Grower Plant? - This

 

is often a difficult point to settle. There seems to be a
tendency for those who are beginning the orchard business

to plant too many varieties. In order to get the opinion

of growers on this point the following question was asked:
"How many varieties do you think it profitable to grow?"

One hundred and eighty growers answered this question
34

directly. The average of their answers is four. Some said

"the fewer the better", "not many", "few", etc. The answers

on the whole show clearly that the successful growers realize

the importance of not planting too many varieties. The grow-

ers who have large orchards usually want enough trees of each

variety to enable them to market that variety in car-load

lots, rather than to be forced to ship in mixed car-load
Srralle, ?

lots. Therefore the larger one's orchard the greater may

be the number of varieties planted.

Again, different varieties sometimes require differ-
ent methods of treatment; especially does this apply to the
operations of spraying. fherefore, it sometimes becomes
difficult to handle an orchard to the best advantage when
the varieties are very much mixed.

There is an important advantage to be derived from
mixed planting which should not be overlooked in this con-
nection. It is a recognized fact that vertain varieties
under certain conditions will not set fruit when planted
alone in large blocks. Some varieties are self-sterile,
that is, the pistil of the flower will not become fertiliz-
ed by pollen from this flower or other flowers of this var-
iety. The causes which influence self-sterility are not

understood. <A number of valuable experiments have been
35

made with the object in view of solving this problem.” It
has been shown that many varieties, even though they may not
be self-sterile, will set fruit better and produce better
apples when the pollen from another variety fertilizes the
variety in question. Winesap sometimes sets fruit when poll-
enized with its own pollen; again, instances are known where
large blocks of Winesap trees are barren, presumably, because
they are self-sterile, and no other varieties are near
enough to furnish pollen. For these reasons it seems advis-
able for the growers to plant two or more varieties.

Fewer Varieties being Planted. - In order to obtain

 

information on this point the following question was asked:
"Are growers using fewer or more varieties than formerly?"

Answers to this question are grouped below:

*Note. In this connection the reader will do well to con-
sult the work of the following authors:

Waite, M. B., Self-sterility in Orchard. Fruits. U. 5S. de-
partment of Agriculture, Div. of Veg. Path. Bulletin &.
Pollination of Pornaceous Fruits. Yearbook U. S. Dept.
Agr. for 1598, pp. 167-180.
Fletcher, S. W., Pollination in Orchards, Cornell University
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 181, 1900.

Pollination of bartlett and Kieffer Pears. Annual Rep.
Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. 1909 and 1910, pp. 2138-224.

Lewis, C. 1. and C. C. Vincent, Pollination of the Apple.
Oregon Agrl. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 104: pp. 40. 1909.
36

Relative to No. of Varieties No. of growers so reporting.
being planted

Fewer 136

More 44

No. Noticeable change a.

ae

#rom this it may be seen that there is a clear tend-
ency to use fewer varieties. In many communities the growers
have found out from experience what varieties are best adapt-
ed to the locality, and all others are becoming eliminated
rapidly from the plantings. There is a tendency in some
places to plant more varieties only in the sense that growers
are testing out new varieties, but this is usually done on

a small scale. The commercial growers are fonfining their
attention to the standard varieties.

Some Gauses Which Determine the Adaptation of

 

Varieties. - In order to obtain more detailed information
regarding the adaptation of varieties to certain localities,
and to find out what environmental factors are most import-
ant in the adaptation of varieties, the following question
was asked: “Does climate or any other factor, as elevation,
soil, insects or diseases peculiar to your locality limit
you to certain varieties?"

A majority of the growers agreed that the factors,
soil and climate have a very marked influence on varieties
and that the varieties to be planted in a given locality are

limited, in a measure, by the local environment. A number
37

of growers were of the opinion that there were no limiting
factors in their respective localities; it is entirely poss-
ible that these growers based their choice of varieties in
the first instance on the experience of the community in
which they began the business, and therefore they had not
observed any unfavorable influence of the environment, for
they made the right choice to begin with. It sometimes hap-
pens that a variety is reported very successful by one man,
while his neighbor on an adjoining farm may find the same
variety worthless. this shows that the influence of the
environment is very clearly marked. furthermore, it en-
phasises the importance of having all available information
regarding the adaptation of a given variety before planting
that variety on a large scale. ‘The difference between suc-
cess and failure may depend upon the grower's knowledge of
the requirements of the variety which he plants.

fhe question of acclimatization may well be consid-
ered here. A number of growers stated that certain varieties
which are prominent in the commercial orchards of the North
become fall apples when brought south. This point is illus-
trated by Baldwin, Northern Spy, Mother and Possibly Jonathan.
fhis is the ecological response of the variety to its en-
vironment.

fhe growers have a tendency to ascribe the limitat-
ions on a variety to some one factor, as, for example, soil;
when as a matter of fact it may be due to a number of Causes.
In general, we may say that there are four primary factors,
which affect the geographical distribution of varieties,
namely, temperature, moisture, soil, and parasites (includ-
ing insects and diseases). Many other secondary factors may
come into play; but they are essentially related to the four
factors mentioned above. Exposure, meaning the lay of the
land with respect to the points of the compass, and elevat-
ion are important factors in the adaptation of varieties.
Exposure may be important in securing protection from wind
or in allowing the fruit to take on a high color.

The human element, or the "personal equation" should
not be lost sight of when we begin to count up the causes
why varieties may succeed or fail. ‘fhe grower himself is
an important factor. One man writing from the Valley region
emphasized this point when he said: "With good care and cul-
tivation nothing hinders results; 1 have had six crops in
succession."

he limitations of the variety, Albemarle, are well
known and often remarked upon. This variety requires good
elevation (1000 feet); generally it does not succeed at an
elevation of 500 feet. It delights in a deep rich, friable

soil; Porters black loam, which is a black soil, commonly
39

spoken of as "pippin land", seems to be the most suitable
soil for the variety. This variety Goes well where the prop-
er soil and elevation are found in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge
regions of the State. The coves in the eastern slopes of the
Blue Ridge Mountains furnish admirable environment for this
variety. It does not succeed in the Valley region, nor has
it proved successful on the Appalachian plateau or southwest
Virginia. Albemarle is susceptible to fungous troubles
(particularly bitter rot). The same objection applies in a
general way to other varieties having light-colored or yellow
skin.

York is a cosmopolitan variety, especially adapted
to the Valley region of the State. In the lower part of the
Valley, York is severely attacked by cedar rust and several
growers stated that plantings of this variety would be re-
duced in the future on this account. York does well on the
clay loams. One grower finds that there is not enough lime
in the soil of the Piedmont region to grow York to perfection.
It does not seem to color as well in the Piedmont region as
it does in the Valley. York is well adapted to the Alleghany
Plateau in south-west Virginia.

Winesap is well adapted to the clay loams of the
Piedmont region ranging up the mountains to an elevation of

1000 feet. It does not succeed at high elevations. On the
40

Alleghany Plateau the fruits of this variety are small and
poor in quality. its fruits are frequently too small in the
Valley region. Many growers pointed out the fact that Wine-
sap is very susceptible to scab.

Grimes is well adapted to the Valley and Piedmont
regions of the State. Many growers spoke of the collar rot
which affects this variety, causing it to be a short-lived
tree. On account of its short life, some growers recommend
that trees of this variety be planted as fillers. The collar
rot is a disease which attacks the trunk of the tree near the
ground at the point of union between the stock and cion. Now
this difficulty may be avoided by whip-grafting or budding
at some distance above the ground. If this precaution is
followed, the objection to this variety mentioned by several
growers may be dispensed with.

Limitations of other varieties were merely mentioned
by the growers but not discussed at length, Ben Davis is a
sure bearer in the Piedmont region, and grows to perfection
in the Valley region. Stayman Winesap is especially adapted
to the Valley region. Some growers reported Arkansas as
very successful, while others considered it a shy bearer.

One grower in the Valley region stated that Cannon Pearmain
is frost proof in the Valley.

Scale Resistance. ~- It has heen observed that some

varieties of apples resist the attacks of San Jose scale quite
41

markedly; while other varieties are attacked much more severe-
ly by this insect. The cause of this difference is not known;
nor is there any definite information on the extent of immun-
ity and susceptibility among varieties. In order to find out
whether the growers had observed differences in the resist-
ance of varieties, the following question was asked: "What
varieties resist scale most successfully"?

. Naturally it will be difficult to get consistent re-
plies to this question, for the growers have only a few var-
ieties for comparison. And this comparison must be based on
the few varieties which the individual growers have, which
comparison might or might not hold true for varieties in
general. A large number of growers had seen no difference
in the capacity of varieties to resist scale, but considered
all varieties alike in this regard. One man said that "Lime-
Sulphur" is the most resistant varicty. Table 5 gives a
summary of the replies of the growers who had a positive
opinion on the question.

Fable 5. Scale Resistant Varieties.

 

Variety Number of growers who considered it so.
York 42

Winesap 26

Albemarle

13
Stayman Winesap 8
Arkansas 8
Ben Davis 6
Rome 4
Jonathan 3
42

Royal Limbertwig
Baldwin

Grimes

Bonum

Queen

Virginia Beauty
Cannon

Ralls

Red Astrachan
Wagener

HH ee een ag

Susceptibility to Scale. - The following question was
asked: "What varieties are most susceptible to scale?" Among
those who answered this question, sixteen growers had observ-
ed no difference, six did not know, one thought sweet variet-
ies more susceptible, another thought acid varieties more
susceptible, and still another considered fall and summer
varieties to be attacked most quickly by San Jose scale.
‘Table 6 gives a summary of the replies made to this question.

Table 6. Varieties Susceptible to Scale.

Variety Number of growers who considered it so.
Ben Bavis 69

Winesap 15

Albemarle 15

York 11

Grimes

Arkansas

Baldwin

Northwestern Greening
Fall Cheese

Missouri

Nansemond

Jonathan

Royal Limbertwig
Gano

Winter Paradise
Smokehouse

Black Ben Davis

HEE RE EE EEN YD PA
43

By comparing tables 5 and 6, it may be seen that the
replies are not entirely consistant. A variety may be con-
sidered resistant by one grower and susceptible by another.
There seems to be a decided agreement of opinion among the
growers regarding the susceptibility of Ben Davis and its
allies.

Disease Resistance. - "What varieties resist disease

 

most successfully?" This question was asked to find out to
what extent disease immunity and resistance are prevalent
among varieties. Naturally one could not expect very defin-
ite answers to this question. It is also very largely a
matter of comparison. Of course the growers were able to
compare only those varieties which they had in their orchards, ,
and in any correct interpretation of their answers this point
must be taken into consideration. A number of growers stat-
ed that they had observed no difference in varieties with
respect to disease resistance. Some growers noted that
wertain varieties are comparatively free from disease, but
may be attacked by some particular disease. For example,
York is a very clean, healthy apple, but it is attacked in
some localities by cedar rust. Likewise, Winesap is very
healthy excepting its susceptibility to scab. Table 7 gives
a summary of the replies which the growers made to the above

question.
44

Table 7. Disease Resistant Varieties.

Variety Number of growers who considered it-so.

York

Winesap a
Ben Davis 19
Arkansas 18
Stayman Winesap 14
Bonum

Albemarle

Grimes

Rome

Royal Limbertwig
Delicious

Beack Ben Davis
Robinson

Shockley

Baldwin

Northern Spy
Roxbury

Yoek Stripe

Fall Cheese
Jonathan

Yellow Transparent
Queen

Ingram

Nero

Gibbs

Delaware Red
Lowrie

Summer Rambo
Gannon

Stark

Virginia Beauty
Smokehouse
Wealthy

ot ee ee 090 RR A 200

Susceptibility to Disease. - In order to bring out
the point of difference in varieties with respect to their
susceptibility to disease the following question was asked;
"What varieties are most susceptible to disease?" Some

growers stated that they had noticed no difference in variet-
45

ies in this regard. Others had very positive opinions on
the question. Several growers stated that summer varieties
suffered more from fungous diseases than winter varieties.
fhe answers to this question are tabulated in Table 8.

Table 8. Varieties Considered Susceptible to Disease.

Variety Number of growers reporting it so.
Albemarle 44

York | 38

Ben Davis 34

Winesap 30

Grimes 12

¥allawater

Rome

Early Harvest
Kentucky Red
Fall Pippin
Smith

Wealthy

Pilot

Jonathan
Arkansas
Baldwin
Smokehouse
Delaware Red
Missouri

Rambo
Strawberry
Arkansas Black
Lawver
American beauty
Northern Spy
Rhode Island
Paradise
Yellow Transparent
Domine

Bee RE RE RE ERP PD VNNNNNNNAHOWAAM

It is not possible to draw definite conclusions from
the data presented in the above table, yet certain tendencies

are clearly indicated. Many growers stated that York is
46

susceptible to cedar rust; otherwise it is comparatively
free from disease. The most frequent disease of Winesap is
scab. Albemarle is susceptible to Bitter Rot; this point
was noted by many growers. Grimes is attacked by collar rot.
Bitter rot is the most common disease of ben Davis. Stayman
Winesap is not mentioned by any grower as being susceptible
to disease.

A comparison of Tables 7 and 8 brings out the fact
that many of the varieties mentioned as disease resistant
in the former are catalogued as susceptible to disease in
the latter. The point which I mentioned in discussing the
data in fable 7 applies here also; the answers were compara-
tive and of course the growers could make the comparison
only between such varieties as they were growing. Since a
few varieties constitute the bulk of the plantings in the
commercial orchards, we would naturally expect the compari-

son to be drawn between these varieties.
47

ey ae MBI ee oe ka)

 

 

 

Fig. 3. Sketch map showing the location of

areas of which soil surveys have been made. (after Winston,

U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Soils).
SOILS AND VARIETIES OF APPLES.

Literature.

Alwood, Wm. B., The Fruit Soils of Virginia.
Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bullt. 98: 29 - 41. 1899

Mooney, Charles N., et als. Soil Survey of the Bedford Area,
Virginia. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Soils, Report
on Field Operations for 1901, 3: 239 - 257.

Mooney, Charles N., and F. E. Bonsteel, Soil Survey of the
Albemarle Area, Virginia. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau
of Soils, Report on Kield Operations for 1902, 4:
187 - 238.

Carter, William 1., Jr., and W. S. Lyman, Soil Survey of the
Leesburg Area, Virginia. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau
of Soils. Report on Field Operations for 1903, 5:
191 - 231.

Coffey, George N., et als., Soil Survey Hield Book. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bureau of Soils, Field Season 1906:
99 - 182.

Winston, R. A., and Ora Lee, Jr-, Soil Survey of Montgomery
County, Virginia. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau Soils,
Report on Field Operations for 1907, 9: 193 - 225.

Winston, R. A., Soil Survey of Campbell County, Virginia.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of Soils, Report on Field

Operations for 1909. 11: 309 - 348.
 

 
49

Data on Fruit Soils. - The following question was
asked: "Give a brief description of the soil in your orchard;
state whether sandy, sandy loam, clay loam, heavy clay, light
clay, color, etc., and state character of the subsoil."

From the answers received to this question I was able
in most cases to identify the soil type from the descriptions
given by keeping in mind the location of the orchard and com-
paring the growers' descriptions with the technical descrip-
tions of soil types given in the soil surveys.

Soil surveys have been made in several counties in
the State. (See Fig. 3). The information regarding soil
types herein discussed was obtained from the surveys made by
the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agri-
culture. I asked the fruit growers to give a brief descrip-
tion of the soil on which their orchards were planted. In
some cases, where the orchards were located in an area which
had been surveyed, it was easy to determine the type of soil;
in other cases where the orchards were located in areas which
had not been surveyed it was more difficult to determine the
type of soil from the grower's description. I have made an
attempt to correlate varieties of apples with the different

types of soil. The data at hand is not sufficient to warrant

definite conclusions.
50

Soils of the Piedmont Region.

The topography of this region is that of a broad,
rolling plain that has been cut by numerous streams. The
altitude varies from 500 feet to more than 1000 feet above
sea level.

fhe soils of this region are purely residual in origin
and have been derived almost exclusively from the weathering
of igneous and metamorphic rocks and the principal soil types
are included in the Cecil series. However, there are some
sandstone and shale areas. The principal soil types formed
from the sand stones and shales are included in the Penn
series.

Cecil Series. - The Cecil series includes the most
important and widely distributed soils in the Piedmont reg-
ion. ‘fhe heavier members are known as "red-clay lands" and
are characterized by red-clay subsoils, with gray to red
soils ranging in texture from sand to clay, the lighter
colors prevailing with the sandy members of the series. The
subsoil is characterized by a sharp quartz sand, which is
always scattered through it, and occasional veins of quartz
or flint rock. ‘These soil types are residual in origin,
being derived from the degredation of igneous and metamorphic
rocks. OQOutcrops of the parent rock are rare; however frag-

ments and bowlders are found on the surface in varying quanti-
31

ties.

Cecil Clay is sometimes spoken of as "red land" and
sometimes as “chocolate land", depending upon the color of
the soil. The soil of the Cecil clay varies from a brown to
a reddish or dark brown loam or clay loam, averaging about
8 inches in depth. ‘The subsoil is a dark red clay loam, grad-
ing into stiff, tenacious red clay, 36 inches or more in depth. ,
Quartz sand and fragments are present in both the soil and
the subsoil, and angular fragments are found upon the surface;
these fragments often form as much as 60 per cent of the sur-
face. The wide extent and distribution of Cecil clay is shown
by the following table, compiled from the soil surveys refer-
red to above.

Area of Cecil Clay Proportion-

al extant
Albemarle area, Harrisonburg Sheet 1,344
m " Waynesboro % 24,704 8.8
: " Buckingham ft 53,632
Bedford Area 142,730 35.3
Leesburg " 32,000 11.9
Campbell " 23,680 6.7

Other areas in the Piedmont region where fruit is not grown
also show considerable bodies of this type of soil.

The adaptation of varieties may be shown to some
extent by noting the order in which varieties were reported

on the Cecil clay type of soil, and the number of growers

reporting then.
52

Variety Number of growers reporting it.
Winesap 40
York 27
Ben Davis 22
Stayman Winesap 13
Arkansas 13
Albemarle : 11
Rome 9
Grimes 7
Bonun 5
Jonathan 3

It seemed to be the general opinion of the growers
that most varieties of red apples succeed well on this heavy
type of soil. However, both Gees and Albemarle are grown
to a limited extent on Cecil clay. Grapes do well on the
Green Mountain area which is composed of Cecil clay. The
more loamy areas having an eastern exposure are best suited

to vineyards. The soil is generally too heavy for peaches.

Cecil loam varies greatly in color, yellowish, light

 

or dark brown, reddish-brown or red color is met with in
different localities. The depth of the surface soil varies
from 6 to 12 inches, with an average depth of 10 inches.
There is usually some fine sand in the soil, which is occas-
ionally great enough to give the soil a somewhat sandy char-
acter. The subsoil also varies in color and texture. There
are two principal phases. The typical one is yellowish,
occasionally slightly reddish, loam, grading into the rotten

rock (a mica schist) at a depth generally less than 36 inches.
53

The heavier phase of Cecil loam, occurring on the uplands
and more gentle slopes consists of a loam to Clay loam, and
it usually becomes more micaceous and lighter with depth.
fhe soil and subsoil contain a large quantity of finely divid-
ed mica, giving it a soft and greasy feel.

Cecil loam is a piedmont soil. The typical Gecil
loam is of residual origin, being derived from the weathering
of mica schists. The distribution and extent of this soil
type is indicated by the following data:

Area of Cecil Loam Proportionate

Acres extent per cent
Albemarle Area, Waynesboro Sheet 39,104 10.5
u Buckingham " 55,488
Leesburg Area 89,600 33.4

Cecil loam is well adapted to apples and pears and
there are successful commercial peach orchards on this type
of soil. When this soil extends up the slopes of the foot-
hills it is well adapted to fruit. The red varieties of
apples, such as Winesaps, Ben Davis, Rome, Stayman Winesap
and others. Grimes also does well. Peaches are grown on
the lighter phases of this soil.

Cecil sandy loam.is locally called "gray land".
This is a gray, yellow, or light brown sandy loam with an
average depth of 12 to 14 inches. It is underlain by a yel-
low sandy loam passing through a red clay loam into stiff

red clay. In some localities the sandy surface soil immediate-
ly overlies the stiff, red clay subsoil. Both the soil and
the subsoil carry fragments of quartz and these fragments ap-
pear also on the surface.

Cecil sandy loam is a residual soil derived from the
weathering of granites and other igneous and metamorphic
rocks. This soil generally accurs in small irregular and
broken areas. It is found on the level uplands, and slopes
of the rolling plateau, and it extends up the mountain slopes
to an elevation rarely exceeding 800 feet. The distribution
of Cecil sandy loam is given below.

Area of Cecil Sandy Proportionai

Loam Acres extent per cent
Albemarle Area, Harrisonburh Sheet 3,944
" Waynesboro " 38,912 5.2
* " Buckingham . 5,952
Bedford . 33,740 8.3

Other regions not adapted to fruit growing also
have this type of soil. Cecil sandy loam is considered thin
or poor; however it responds readily to improvement. The
following table shows the order in which varieties are plant-

ed on this soil.

Variety No. of growers reporting it
Winesap
York
Stayman Winesap
Arkansas
Ben Davis
Bonum
Albemarle

Nw D9 6 BP C1
55

Cecil sandy loam is well adapted to peaches and
small fruits. On the higher eee pears also do well.

Cecil clay loam is a reddish yellow or light brown
heavy loam with an average depth of 10 inches. The subsoil
consists of reddish-yellow or light brown heavy loam grading
into clay loam at an average depth of 30 inches. From 10 to
30 per cent of stones and bowlders, principally syenite, are
commonly present in both soil and sub-soil. The surface is
moderately to steeply rolling, with occasional small level
areas. The soil is residual being derived chiefly from
syenith, but in small local areas, other metamorphic rocks
have entered into its formation.

Cecil clay loam is not mapped in the areas which
have been surveyed in Virginia. However, a number of growers
in the Piedmont region described such a clay loam in their
replies to my question. The data which follows shows the

adaptation of varieties to Cecil clay loam.

Variety No. of growers reporting it.
York 12
Winesap
Ben Davis
Grimes
Arkansas

Stayman Winesap
Black Ben Davis
Rome

Bonun..
Jonathan
Albemarle

VNYNNOWRANO
56

Cecil stony loam varies from brown sandy loam to
brown or red loam with an average depth of 8 inches, beneath
which is a red clay loam or clay. srrom 30 to 60 per cent
of the soil and subsoil is composed of stones and bowlders.
This is a residual soil derived from the weathering of in-
trusive dikes of trap rock, and in part also from other ig-
neous or metamorphic rocks. The surface is usually hilly
and broken.

This type of soil is not mapped in the soil surveys
of the State, though several growers have orchards on this
type of land. The soil is adopted to apples. York, Ben
Davis and Winesap do well on Cecil stony loan.

Penn.Series. The Penn series consists of Indian or
purplish red soils derived from the weathering of red sand-
stones and sholes of Triassic age. Detached areas of Triassic
rock occur in shallow basins.

Members of this series have been mapped in the Albe-
marle area, the Leesbury area and the Campbell area. I shall
not give detailed descriptions of these soils. As yet there
are few orchards grown on these types of soil, though several
numbers of the series are well adapted to fruit.

Penn loam is a dark {ndian-red loam from 8 to 12 in-

 

ches deep, underlain by an Indian-red clay loam. This pecul-

iar color is distinctive of the formation wherever found and
57

the type is easily recognized. The soil is known locally as
*red-rock land", on account of the numerous small red sand-
stone fragments which occur in the soil, and subsoil in quan-
tities varying from 5 to 20 per cent. fhe surface is gently

rolling. The following data shows the extent of this soil

type.
Area of Penn loam Propoptional
extent per cent.
Leesburg Area 18,880 7.0
Campbell " 5,696 1.6

I have not obtained sufficient data to determine
the correlation between this type of soil and varieties of
apples. However, it seems clear that apples will succeed on
Penn loan.

Penn Clay consists of from 6 to 12 inches of a red

 

or reddish brown loam, resting upon a sub-soil of heavy red
clay. Both the soil and subsoil have the Indian-red color
characteristic of the Triassic red sandstone from which the
soil is in part derived. From 1 to 10 per cent of the soil
mass is composed of small sandstone fragments. In other
areas of this type numerous limestone conglomerate bowlders
cover from 10 to 25 per cent of the surface. This soil type
bears a close relationship to the Hagerstown series found in
the Valley region. The extent of this soil type is shown by

the figures which follow.
538

Area of Penn Clay Proportional

Acres extent per cent
Leesburg area 11,776 4.3
Albemarle " Buckingham Sheet 16,128 1.8

Some small orchards are found upon Penn clay. Apples
do well upon this type of soil.

Penn stony loam consists of a rather heavy Indian-
red loam, 8 to 10 inches deep, containing from 30 to 60 per
cent of red or brown sandstone fragments. The subsoil is of
much the same character, though it is a heavier red loam.
There are 1280 acres of this soil mapped in the Leesburg area,
which is 1/2 per cent of the area.

This type of soil is well adapted to orcharding.

Apples do well upon it.

Miscellaneous Piedmont Soils.
Loudoun Sandy loam consists of 8 to 12 inches of a

heavy brown or gray sandy loam, underlain by a heavy yellow

or red loam or clay loam. Often the subsoil contains a quan-
tity of coarse sand, making the texture much the same as that
of the soil. The sand is composed of coarse rounded and sub-
angular quartz particles. Occasionally the surface is covered
with 5 to 20 per cent of angular quartz fragments. The to-

pography of this soil varies from rolling to hilly and ridgy.

It is well drained. In the Leesburg area, 27,968 acres of
59

this s0il have been mapped, which makes up 10.4 per cent of
this area.

Peaches do especially well on the more elevated phases
of this soil. Apples also succeed well. Rome, Winesap, York,
Ben Davis, Grimes and Arkansas were reported as doing well on
Loudoun sandy loan.

Tredell clay loam is a dark brown loam about 8 inches
deep, containing small rounded iron concretions on the sur-
face. The subsoil is a stiff impervious yellow clay, under-
lain by soft decomposed rock. It is locally known as "wax
land" or "blackjack land". Yhe distribution of this type of
soil is shown by the following data.

Area of this soil Proportional

type Acres extent per cent
Leesburg area 18 ,048 6.7
Campbell ‘ 1,344 -4

Where the soil is elevated and well drained, apples

succeed fairly well upon it.

Soile of the Mountains.

 

The parallel ranges of the Appalachian Mountains ex-
tend across the state from northeast to southwest. The alti-
tude of the mountain regions ranges from 1000 to about 4000
feet. The rocks of the Blue Ridge Mountains, or the eastern
range,are igneous and metamorphic in origin. The rocks of

the Alleghany Mountains, or western range, and Alleghany
60

Plateaus are sedimentary. Thus we have different series of
soils in different parts of the mountains and plateaus. The
igneous and metamorphic rocks give rise to soils of the Porters
series; while the Dekalb series is formed from the weathering
of sandstones and sholes of sedimentary origin.

Porters Series. - ‘the Porters series includes the resid-
ual soils of the Appalachian mountains derived from igneous
and metamorphic rocks. These soils are quite similar to
those of the Cecil series, but are classed separately on ac-
count of the difference in topographic position. Some mem-
bers of the Porters series are eminently adapted to fruit
culture.

Porters sand is a mountain soil. It consists of a
gray or yellowish sand averaging 8 inches in depth, underlain
by a coarse yellowish sand that runs into the disintegrated
rock at depths usually less than 36 inches. Rock fragments
are present in both the soil and subsoil and huge bowlders
are scattered upon the surface. This soil is derived through
the weathering of granite, gneiss and similar rocks. This
soil is of rather general occurrence in the mountains.

Area of Porters sand Proport-
ate extent

Acres per cent
Albemarle Area, Harrisonburg Sheet 12,800
- Waynesboro : 25,472 12.6

s " Buckingham ” 76,864
61

The smoother and less stony slopes of this soil are
well adopted to fruit growing. Many orchards have come into
bearing on this soil. Peaches do well, the most successful
varieties being Elberta and Bilyeu. Slopes with an elevation
of 1000 to 1500 feet are best for peaches. Apples do well on
this soil. The following varieties are reported: Albemarle,
Winesap, Ben Davis, Arkansas, Bonum and Grimes. This soil
produces apples of fine quality. Porters sand needs to be
fertilized in order to keep the orchards in good condition.

Porters sandy loam is found upon the tops and slopes

 

of the mountains. The soil varies from a gray sand to a
yellowish gray sandy loam about 10 inches in depth. The sub-
soil is yellowish sand, sometimes a reddish sand, the sand
becoming coarser at lower depths. Rock fragments are found
in both the soil and the subsoil. Rocks and bowlders are
found upon the surface also. There are 46,150 acres of this
soil in the bedford area and it comprises 11.4 per cent of
this area. Porters sandy loam is well adapted to peaches
and grapes. Apples do well on this soil. Some idea of the
adaptation of varieties of apples to this type of soil may

be had from the following data.
62

; Variety No. of growers who reported it.
Winesap 14
Albemarle 12
York 12
Bonun 5
Grimes 4
Ben Davis 4
Stayman Winesap 3
Arkansas 2
Rome 2

All these varieties were reported satisfactory. It
is probable that Porters sandy loam occurs outside of the
Bedford area.

Porters black loam is a loose, mellow, dark-brown
to jet-black loam, averaging about 12 inches in depth. The
subsoil is a loam of slightly heavier texture and of a
light-brown to yellowish color. The depth of the subsoil
ranges from 36 inches on the tops ahd slopes of the mount-
ains to many feet in depth in the coves. The color of the
soil is due in some measure to the presence of comparatively
large proportions of organic matter. This forest mold also
probably accounts for the mellowness of the soil. Frequently
rock fragments are found on the surface and in both the soil
and subsoil to the amount of about 20 per cent. Porters
black loam is a residual soil derived from granite, gneiss
and schist. Locally Porters black loam is called "pippin
land" or “black land". It is found in the mountain coves,on

the slopes and mountain tops at elevations greater than 800

feet.
Porters
practically all
the state. The

the areas where

Albemarle area,
Ly it
it ""
Bedford area

Porters
es succeed well
ain region does

given below was

63

black loam is known to occur in counties,
of the counties in the Blue Ridge region of
data which follows shows its distribution in

soil surveys have been made.

Area of Porters .black Proportionate
loam Acres extent per cent

Harrisonburg sheet 18,112
Waynesboro ‘i 21,888 7.6
Buckingham 28,786
8,270 2.0
plack loam is an excellent fruit soil. Peach-

upon it, Bilyeu which is adapted to the mount-
very well on this type of soil. the data

obtained from the fruit growers and it shows

the varieties of apples which are being grown upon this soil.

Variety
Albemarle
Winesap
York
Arkansas
Ben Davis
Grimes
Bonum
Stayman Winesap
Rome

No. of growers reporting it on this soil
37
23
19

PPO ®

Albemarle and Winesap are preeminently adapted to

Porters black loam and these two varieties are perhaps the

most porfitable

to grow upon this soil. Many growers mentioned

the fact that Albemarle is limited to this soil type and per-

haps a few other members of this series.

Porters

clay loam is not mapped in any of the areas
64

of which soil surveys are available. However the growers
discribed a clay loam of this series lying between Porters
loam and Porters clay.

Varieties reported on this soil type are Albemarle,
Winesap, York, Arkansas and Ben Davis.

Porters clay consists of from 6 to 12 inches of a
brown or reddish-brown loam, underlain by a heavy red loan,
or stiff tenacious red clay. It is a rough mountain land,
and is usually very stony having from 15 to 60 per cent of
small and large schist fragments on the surface. It is found
in small areas on the mountain slopes between 1000 and 2000
feet elevation. This soil is often spoken of as "mountain
red land". The distribution of this soil type in the surveyed

areas is given below.

Area of Porters clay Proportional

Acres extent per cent
Albemarle Area, Harrisonburg Sheet 10,944
x % Waynesboro " 16,0090 3.6
s * Buckingham " 5,568
Leesburg area 2,752 1.0
Bedford area 28 , 240 7.0

Porters Clay has proved to be a good fruit soil. The
more elevated parts of this soil approach very closely Porters
black loam and in such localities apples do especially well.
The data which follows shows the correlation between varieties

and this soil type.
65

Variety No. of growers reporting it.
Winesap 13
Albemarle 12
York il
Ben Davis 9
Stayman Winesap 5
Arkansas 3
Grimes 2
Bonum 1
Esopus 1
Dekalb Series. - The Dekalb series is derived from

the disintegration of sandstones and sholes, from Silurian

to Carboniferous in age. The surface soils are gray to brown
in color, while the subsoils are commonly some shade of yellow.
fhe surface features consist of gently rolling table-lands,
hills and mountains. The stony and sandy members of this
series are well adapted to orchard fruits.

Dekalb stony loam was mapped as Edgemont stony loam

 

in the earlier surveys. The soil is a gray to yellowish sandy
loam from 6 to 10 inches deep, grading into a subsoil of slight-
ly heavier texture and yellower color. In some cases the sub=
soil approaches a true clay. Both soil and subsoil contain

a great quantity of sandstone, conglomerate and sandy cal-
careous shale fragments. The topography is rough and broken.
The distribution of this soil type in the areas surveyed is

given below.
66

Area of Dekalb stony loam Proportional

Acres extent per cent
Albemarle area, Harrisonburg Sheet 75,136
" " Waynesboro m 50,048 14.9
" " Buckingham " 9,472
Leesburg area 19,072 7.1
Montogmery area 31,872 12.7

From these figures it may be seen that this soil
type is rather extensive. With proper elevation and exposure,
the sandy and sandy loam phases are well adapted to peaches.
Apples are also grown upon Dekalb stony loam successfully.
Rome, Grimes, Stayman Winesap and York are the varieties
mentioned on this soil. Data is not sufficient to show the
adaptation of varieties of apples to this soil.

Dekalb sandy loam is not mapped in any of the areas

 

surveyed in the State. The soil consists of a gray to brown
sandy loam of medium to fine texture from 9 to 12 inches
deep, underlain by yellowish-brown, slightly sticky sandy-
loam. It is a residual soil derived from sandstone rock.

This soil is very well adapted to apples and peaches.

 

 

Soils of the Valley Region.
The soils of the Valley are seventiaiay limestone.
The limestone soils are residual in origin being derived from
the weathering in place of limestone of differing age and
composition. These soils constitute but a small percentage
of the original rock, the larger part having gone into solu-

tion. The most important soils in the Valley region are em-
67

braced in the Hagerstown series.

Hagerstown Series. - fhe Hagerstown series is formed
mainly from the solution and subsequent filtration of pure
massive limestone of Cambro-Silurian age. These soils, as a
rule, occur in valleys bordered by areas of more resistant sané-
stones and shales.

Hagerstown stony loam to an average depth of 8 inches,
consists of silty or fine sandy loam usually brown in color,
but varying from light gray to yellowish. The subsoil con-
sists of a yellow or yellowish red clay loam grading at an
average depth of 24 inches into a stiff red clay which ex-
tends to unknown depths. On the surface, and in the soil and
first few inches of the subsoil occurs a high percentage of
angular chert fragments. This type of soil is residual and
is derived from the solution of impure limestone containing
cherty layers, the insoluble material being concentrated on
the surface. Hagerstown stony loam occupies high ridges in
the limestone valleys.

The distribution of this soil type in the areas where
soil surveys have been made is shown from the date given below.

Area of Hagerstown stony Proportional

loan Acres extent per cent
Albemarle area, Harrisonburg Sheet 47,552
" n Waynesboro . 11,584 6.5
Bedford area 11,950 3.0

Montgomery area 29,888 11.9
68

There are a large number of commercial orchards on
this type of soil. Peach orchards have given very good re-
sults on this soil. The data which follows gives some idea

of the adaptation of varieties of apples to Hagerstown stony

loam.
Variety No. of growers reporting it.

York 19
Stayman Winesap 12
Winesap 10
Ben Davis 10
Arkansas 6
Grimes "7
Black Ben Davis 4
Rome 2
Jonathan a

Hagerstown stony loam is generally regarded as thin
land. But with proper care and some fertilization it pro-

duces excellent fruit.

Hagerstown stony clay. consists of about 8 inches of
brown to yellow clay loam or clay, underlain by sticky clay.
Usually limestone fragments are abundant in both the soil
and subsoil. This soil type does not occur in any of the
areas which have been surveyed.

The following varieties of apples are reported on
this soil type: York, Stayman Winesap, Arkansas, Winesap,
Black Ben Davis, and Ben Davis.

Hagerstown sandy loam is a fine sandy loam about 12

inches deep, of a gray to yellowish or light brown color.
69

The subsoil is a yellowish-red clay grading into a stiff red
clay. The type occupies some of the higher ridges of the
valleys and has good drainage. It is of residual and colluv-
ial origin, being derived from limestone. The occurrence of
this s0il type is shown by the figures given below.

Area of Hagerstown Sandy Proportional

leam Acres. extent per cent
Albemarle area, Harrisonburg Sheet 35,520) 5.0
Waynesboro " 9 084) .
Bedford area 11,910 2.9
Leesburg area 1,216 0.5
Montgomery area 7,652 3.0

The ridges and lower slopes of mountains have been
found to be especially well adapted to peaches. A number of
successful commercial peach orchards are found on this soil.
Many apple orchards have been planted on this type of soil,
and some of them have already come into bearing. The adap-
tation of varieties to Hagerstown sandy loam is shown by

the data which follows.

Variety No. of growers reporting it.
York 28
Ben Davis 19
Winesap 16
Stayman Winesap at
Arkansas 9
Grimes 8
Albemarle a
Gano 3
Jonathan 1
Rome 1

Hagerstown loam is a brown or yellow loam 12 inches

 

deep, underlain by a yellow clay loam to a depth of 24 inches,
70

and at greater depths Brading into a stiff, yellowish-red
clay. The type occupies rolling valleys and expands. It is

widely distributed in the areas which have been surveyed.

Albemarle Area, Harrisonburg Sheet 11,776) 2.4
A " Waynesboro : 19,008)
Montgomery area 22,400 8.9
Leesburg area 4,864 1.8
Bedford area - 40,520 10.0

Hagerstown loam is well adapted to fruit growing where
elevation, exposure and drainage are favorable. The follow-
ing varieties of apples are reported on it: York, Stayman
Winesap, Arkansas and Ben Pavis.

Hagerstown clay loam is a heavy reddish loam or silty

 

loam 24 inches deep, overlying stiff, tenacious red clay.
The type occupies rolling valley land and is derived from
the weathering of pure massive limestone.

This soil type occurs in the Montgomery area, where
1,792 acres are mapped which comprises only 0.7 per cent of
this area. However the Hagerstown clay loam occurs in other
parts of the Valley region. It is a good, strong soil and
apples succeed well where exposure and elevation are favor-

able. The data below shows how varieties of apples are

distributed on this soil.
71

Variety No. of growers reporting it.
York 15
Ben Davis 12
Stayman Winesap 7
Winesap 6
Arkansas 4
Albemarle 3
Grimes 3
Jonathan 1
Black Ben Davis 1

Hagerstown clay is a heavy brown to reddish-brown
loam or clay 12 inches deep, underlain by a stiff, tenacious
reddish-yellow, or red clay. The type occupies rolling val-
ley land and is derived from the weathering of pure massive

limestone. It is widely distributed in the Valley region of

the State.
Area of Hagerstown Clay Proportional
Acres. extent per cent
Albemarle area, Harrisonburg Sheet 25,920 2.9
Leesburg area 4,224 1.6
Bedford Area 19,210 4.8

Hagerstown clay is one of the strongest of the lime-
stone soils. It is fertile and productive. Apples are grown
rather extensively on this type of soil. The following data

will give some idea of the adaptation of varieties.

Variety No. of growers reporting it.
York 25
Ben Davis Ze
Winesap 12
Grimes 11
Stayman Winesap 9
Arkansas 7
Black Ben Davis 5
Rome 3
Gano 2
Jonathan i
72

There were some miscellaneous soil descriptions
given; but these were not of sufficient extent to warrant any
correlation between the soil type and the varieties of apples
grown upon it. Hence, it does not seem worth while to discuss
these miscellaneous soils.

Adaptation of Varieties to Soils.- I thought it was
desirable to obtain the grower's opinion regarding the adap-
tation of varieties to soils. Therefore this question was
propounded: "Do you find that certain varieties of apples
are adapted to certain kinds of soil?"

This question was answered by 159 growers. Of this
number 139 growers considered that certain varieties whould
be grown on particular types of soil and 20 considered that
a given variety would do as well on one soil as another pro-
vided the soils were about equal in fertility.

The most striking adaptation met with is the case of
Albemarle. This variety, as is frequently pointed out, suc-
ceeds best on the Porters series of soils in the mountain
region. It is grown on other soil types, as certain members
of the Cecil series; and indeed it was reported by a number
of growers on the soils belonging to the Hagerstown series
of the Valley region. But it does not succeed anywhere so

well as on the mountain soil.

York grows well on nearly all kinds of soils that are
73

at all adapted to apples; but it does best on the soils of
the Valley region.
Winesap finds its most congenial home on the soils
of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions. Many growers had
observed that Winesap is limited by soil types.
Jonathan, which is not well known in the State, suc-
ceeds well on the stronger types of soil in the Valley region.
Red apples are not as a rule so much affected by soil

conditions as are other sorts.
74

PLANTING PLANS FOR ORCHARDS.

There are a number of systems in vogue for laying
out orchards. Each has its advantages and none are free
from disadvantages. The plans for orchard planting may be
brought into three systems, each of which has various modi-
fications,

(1) Rectangular. - According to this system the
trees are set in rectangles or squares. This is a conven-
lent plan for cultivation, spraying and other orchard oper-
ations. The main drawback to this plan is its waste of
space. It does not utilize the land to best advantage.
This plan is not well adapted to the filler system. A
large majority of the orchards reported in this survey are
planted on the rectangular or square plan.

(2) ein ux. This is a good plan, though not
commonly used by the growers. It is admirably adapted to
the filler system. It consists in planting the trees in
fives. On this plan, the permanent trees may be set in
squares or rectangles, and a filler tree placed in the
centre of each square or rectangle. This system utilizes
the land to the very best advantage and by means of it about
75 per cent more trees may be planted on an acre of land
than by the rectangular plan.

(3) Hexagonal. - This plan, in brief, consists of

setting six trees equally distant in a circle and setting
75

one tree in the centre of the circle. It may be worked out
with equilateral triangles. The advantage of this system is
that all the trees are the same distance apart, and therefore
the trees would receive equal amounts of sunlight, and food
supply. This system is not well adapted to fillers. It
will permit the setting of about 15 per cent more trees per
acre than the rectangular system permits.

The table given below shows the number of trees which
may be set on an acre of land at given distances by the three
plans just discussed. (See Lewis, C. I., Orchard Management.
Oregon Agr]. College Exp. Sta. Bullt. 111: p.18. 1911.)

Number of Trees Per Acre.
a

Distance Apart Rectangular Quinaux Hexagonal
16 x 16 170 303 196
18 x 18 134 239 154
20 x 20 108 192 124
22 x 22 90 148 104
24 x 24 76 132 87
25 x 25 70 125 80
26 x 26 64 114 GA
23 x 23 56 100 64
30 x 30 48 85 55
32 x 32 43 76 49
33 x 33 40 WA 46
36 x 36 34 60 39
40 x 40 oT 48 32
45 x 45 ae 39 25

Plans for Old Orchards. - The growers were asked re-

 

garding the plans on which their old orchards were planted,
and the distance between the trees. The answers to this

question are summarized in the following table.
76

Orchards
System Distance Number Per cent
26 = 25 ft. 2 0.83
27 x 27 1 0.42
28 x 28 L 0.42
30 x 30 67 27 «0S
32 = 82 13 5.42
33 x 33 32 13.33
Square 35 x 35 39 16.25
36 x 36 10 4.17
38 x 38 3 1.25
40 x 40 39 16.25
45 x 45 1 0.42
50 x 50 1 0.42
20 x 40 = 0.83
25 x 35 1 0.42
28 x 34 x 0.42
30 x 32 1 0.42
Rectangular 30 x 35 1 0.42
30 x 40 4 1.67
32 x 37 1 0.42
35 x 40 1 0.42
36 x 40 1 0.42
ce
Quinedus 40 x 40 1 0.42
40 x 40 2 0.83
35 x 35 2 0.83
Alternate 30 x 33 1 0.42
33 x 33 - 0.42
30 x 30 2 0.83
Irregular or
Haphazard 9 3.75

This table requires little eomnent. It shows the
system of planting employed in the bearing orchards of the
State and also the distance between the trees. The distances
given refer to the permanent trees, not to fillers.

It is noticeable that the distance between the trees

of many of the bearing orchards, more than twenty years old
77

is rather close. In the bearing orchards planted more re-
cently distance between the trees is greater.

Fillers. - Less than a third of the old orchards were
planted originally with filler trees; that is to say, trees
which are to be removed when they begin to crowd the perma-
nent trees. Forty-three growers stated that they used peach-
es as fillers, but did not name the varieties; eight planted
apple fillers; three planted pear fillers and one planted
plum fillers but did not name varieties. The varieties of
apples employed for fillers are given in the table which
follows:

Variety Number of growers reporting it.
Ben Davis
Grimes
Bonum
Missouri
Jonathan
Yellow Transparent

Stayman Winesap
King David.

HR eR NOOO

One grower thinks it is advisable to use dwarf ap-
ples (that is to say, varieties grafted on either Doucin
or Paradise stocks ) for fillers. They do not occupy so
much space and they come into bearing earlier than standard
trees. However, the practicability of this is very doubtful.

The varieties of peaches listed below were reported

as fillers in apple orchards.
 
78

Variety Number of growers reporting it.

Elberta
Oldmixon Free
Mountain Rose
Stump
Champion
Bilyeu

Early Crawford
Late Crawford
Salway
Triumph
Chinese cling
Smock

Heath

all well coll ell ool oe OO

Plans for the young orchards.- The growers were
asked for information regarding the system on which their
young orchards were planted and distance between the trees.

This data may be best set forth in the table which follows:

System Distance Orchards
(feet) Number Per cent
25 x 25 3 1.45
27 x 27 1 0.48
30 x 30 45 21.74
32 x 32 14 6.76
Square 33 x 33 23 11.11
35 x 35 38 18.36
36 x 36 9 4,35
88 x 38 3 1.45
40 x 40 25 12.08
44 x 44 1 0.48
30 x 35 4 1.93
32 x 37 5 2.42
Rectangular 35 x 40 3 1.45
86 x 40 ir 3.38
Miscellaneous 7 3.38
20 x 40 3 1.45
27 x 32 1 0.48
Alternate 30 x 30 1 0.48
35 x 35 2 0.97
40 x 40 2 0.97
79

30 x 30 Z 0.97
Quincunx 36 x 36 2 0.97
40 x 40 i 0.48
35 x 35 1 0.48
Hexagonal 30 x 30 2 0.97
Haphazard or Irregular 1 0.48

Fillers in young orchards.- The growers were quest-
ioned regarding the use of filler trees in young orchards,

The following is a summary of replies to this question,

System practiced Number of growers so
reporting.
No fillers used in young orchards 74
Peach fillers 53
Apple fillers 33
Pear fillers 5
Cherry fillers 1

More than half of the young orchards are inter-
planted with filler trees of some kind. It may be seen from
the above table that there is a growing tendency to use apple
trees of some suitable variety for fillers instead of peach
trees for fillers.

Very few growers stated the varieties of peaches
used as fillers in their young orchards. The table which
follows gives the varieties of peaches mentioned by the

growers who are using peach fillers in young orchards.
80

Variety Number of growers who mentioned it.

Elberta

Smock

Bilyeu

Stump

Heath Free
Oldmixon Cling
Champion

Ree enw

There are a number of varieties of apples which are
used as fillers in the young apple orchards. These are

given below.

Variety Number of growers mentioning it.

Grimes

Ben Davis

Bonum

Stayman Winesap
Jonathan

Missouri

Rome

Yellow Transparent
Gano

Arkansas
Northwestern Greening
Delicious

Smith

Oldenbrug
Raspberry

King David

HEE EHH HPV NYNVNARADA
81

TOP WORKING AND PROPAGATION.

Top grafting. - "Are any of your trees top grafted?"

Fifty-eight growers have trees that are top-worked for one
reason or another. In many cases they had only a few trees
top-worked; in a few cases orchards of considerable size

were reported top-worked.
Table showing Varities top-grafted onto other sorts.

Variety No. of growers reporting it.

Winesap

Grimes
Delicious

Rome

King David
Stayman Winesap
Albemarle

Wolf River
Virginia Beauty
Winter Paradise
Esopus
Nickajack
Baldwin
Jonathan
Oldenburg

PEE RR EEE NYY NOAD

Table showing Varieties on which other sorts were top-grafted.
Variety No. of growers reporting it.
Arkansas
Northern Spy
Ben Davis
Ivanhoe
Gibbs
Red Winesap
Nickajack
York
Albemarle
Delaware Red
Shockey

HH eH He ee 9 6 09
82

Where top-working was employed on an extensive scale,
the growers chose some vigorous growing variety as a stock,
as, for example, Arkansas or Northern Spy and on these strong
trees a weaker variety as Grimes was top-worked later on.

In many cases the choice of stock was incidental; the grower
simply top-grafted some undesirable sort which happened to
be in his orchard, either seedling trees untrue to name or
odd varieties for which there is no market.

Varicties which should be top-grafted. - In order to

 

get the growers viewpoint on this matter the following quest-

ion was asked. "That varieties should be top-grafted?" Rel-
atively few growers had had experience in top-grafting. This
question brought forth about the same information that is

given in the preceding paragraph. A number of growers stated
that they thought it desirable to top-work seedlings, also
varieties poor in color and quality or otherwise unprofit-

able. On the other hand, a number of growers were positive

in the opinion that top-working old trees is a practice of doubt-.
ful practicability.

A number of growers were agreed as to the desirabil-
ity of top-working Grimes on some strong, vigorous tree owing
to the fact that this variety is subject to collar rot when
root-grafted. There are two common practices by which this

is accomplished. One method is to plant some strong-growing
83

variety, as Arkansas, and after one, two or three years top-
work these young trees with cions of Grimes. Another, and more
desirable method is to insert buds of Grimes into young trees
of the variety to be used as the stock while those trees are
still in the nursery. Several growers stated tiat Winesap,
Stayman Winesap, and Rome make better growth when top worked
than they do when root grafted.

The varieties most frequently recommended for stocks
(that is, trees on which to work some other variety) are
Arkansas, Spy, Baldwin and Ben Davis.

Sélection of cions. - The following question was

 

asked: "How are your cions selected?" I did not receive very
many replies to this question, for most of the fruit growers
buy their young trees direct from the nurseryman. But among
the growers who propagate their own trees, we find that con-
siderable care is exercised in selecting grafting wood. Pata

on this question is given below:

Method No. of growers practicing it.
cions selected from bearing trees 21
cions cut from trees in the nursery 7
cions cut from young trees in the orchard 2
Miscellaneous selection 13

From these figures it may be seen that a few of the
growers are giving attention to the source of the grafting
wood. In recent years much has been written and said in re-

gard to "pedigreed trees". It will be worth while for the
84

growers who have carefully selected cions from bearing trees
of known quality and characteristics to compare their results
with the results obtained in unselected orchards. Some promi —
nent horticulturists claim that there is nothing in cion se-
lection and "pedigreed trees",

An interesting paper has recently been published on
this subject. (See Hedrick, U. P., Pedigreed Nursery Stock.
New York Agr. Bxp. Sta. (Geneva), circular No. 18, pp. 8.
1912). In this paper Professor Hedrick takes the position
that the practice of some nurserymen of advertising "pedigreed
trees" with "the actual blood record of every tree" is to
be frowned upon by the growers. It must be borne in mind
that a pedigreed fruit tree is a different proposition from
pedigreed livestock or pedigreed seed. Apples are propagated
asexually; and the case is not analogous to livestock or
seed. Professor Hedrick concludes that it will not be wise
for the fruit grower to demand pedigreed trees from the
nurserymen.

At all events, there can be nothing lost by the
fruit grower, who propogates his own trees, selecting his

cions from bearing trees of known characteristics.
85

SPRAYING.

Spraying has become one of the common orchard oper-
ations and indeed it is necessary in order to grow high class
fruit. In this survey the growers were asked several quest-
ions regarding spraying in order to determine the present
status of this phase of orchard management in the state.

Dormant Spray. - “Do you give your trees a winter
spraying?" This question was intended to cover the spraying
done in the fall, winter or early spring while the trees are
still dormant. The purpose of this is to kill scale insects
and to give the trees a general cleaning. When applied late,
that is just before the buds open, it is equally effective
for scale and is also efficient for scab.

Of the 253 growers whose letters are used in this
report, only 22 failed to answer this question. The replies
to the question are tabulated below: -

Bumber of growers so Per cent

reporting
Spray during the dormant season 207 89.61
Do not spray during formant season 24 10.39

The growers who reported that they did not give a
spraying during the dormant season, had, as a rule, young

trees which were not in need of treatment.

The lime-sulphur solution is used by over 90% of the

growers for the dormant spray. Many of the growers prepare
86

this solution at home according to the following formula:

15 lbs. sulphur

15 lbs. quicklime

50 gals. water
The lime is slacked with hot water, and while it is slacking
the sulphur is poured in rapidly. After mixing, the amount
of water is increased to 15 gallons, and then boiled briskly
for 45 minutes. The most common practice is to prepare this
solution in an open kettle. However, some growers have elab-
orate and convenient outfits for making lime-sulphur.

Commercial concentrate lime-sulphur solution is used
by some growers for winter spraying. The commercial con-
centrate is diluted with water to the required strength.

A convenient table for making dilutions of the com-
mercial concentrated lime-sulphur is found in Bulletin No.
320, of the New York Agrl. Exp. Station, and is reported be-
low in part.

Amount dilution recommended for

 

Hydrometer reading San Jose scale
Per cent Estim- Winter Spray Apple and Peach,
sulphur ated Pear (sum- Plume and
in sol- value mer treat- cherry
ution of 50 Sulph- ment for (summer

gal-bbl. ur _ diseases) treatment

Baume Sp. Gr. mixture Sol. Water for disease

26 1.2184 19.76 $7.87 1 gal. 5 3/4 23 gals. 92 gals

27 1.2288 20.56 8.19 1 " 6 ga 8 96 "

28 1.2899 21.28 S.46 21°" 6 1/296 * 104 "

29 1.2500 22.04 S.78 4" @ 38/4 27 108"

30 1.2608 22.80 9,09 14 ° 7 2a." 112

31 1.2719 23.56 9.99 1 " 7 472 a0 " 1200"

32 1.2881 24.32 9.69 1 " 7 3/4 31 : 124%

33 1.2946 25.08 10.00 1 " 8 32 128
87

Several spray mixtures besides lime-sulphur were re-
ported for winter spraying. Several of the proprietary mis-
cible or soluble oils have been used, as "scalecide", "Target
Brand", "Kiloscale", "San-u-Zay", etc. Whole-sil soap and
lye were used rarely.

There was no complaint from the use of the lime-sul-
phur solution; however there was some injury to the trees
reported from the use of oils and lye when these preparations
were not applied with proper precaution,

Summer spraying. - Under this topic the following
question was asked: “How many times do you spray during
spring and summer?" This question was intended to cover all
the spraying done from the time the buds are open until the
end of the spraying season. There were 217 answers to this

question, and the replies are sunmarized in the table which

follows.
Number of growers so Per cent
reporting
One application a7 7.83
Two applications 50 23.04
Three applications 85 39.17
Four or more applications 65 29.95

From these figures it may be seen that the growers
realize the importance of spraying. The number of applicat-
ions of spray solution made during a given year will depend

on the season and the variety of apples in question. Gener-
88

ally speaking three applications is enough for most red ap-
ples. Pippins require more. It is not infrequent that the
growers who have the variety Albemarle, report making six or
eight applications in one season; and one man stated that as
a rule he sprayed his Albemarle trees twelve to fourteen
times in a season.

Spray solutions for summer are discussed in the next
paragraph.

Experience with Spray Solutions. - In order to get

 

their estimate of the value of the different spray materials,
the growers were asked the following question: "Give your
experience with spray solutions". The following table shows
what sort of spray materials the growers are using:

Numbers reporting it Per cent

Lime-sulphur (summer strength) 147
Self-boiled Lime Sulphur LL
Bordeaux Mixture 14
Lime-sulphur followed by Bordeaux 4?
"Sulfocide" 3
Atomic Sulphur 1

Prior to the season of 1910, the fruit growers used
Bordeaux mixture almost exclusively for summer spraying.
As a result of the experiments conducted by Scott in 1909
making comparison between Bordeaux and Lime-sulphur as sum-
mer sprays a great change in spraying practice has taken
place and during the summer of 1910, Lime-sulphur almost

replaced Bordeaux except for pitter rot treatment, in which
89

case Bordeaux has proved to be more effective than Lime-sul-
phur. Bordeaux rusts the fruit of many varietics if applied
while the apples are young; but cam be applied later without
injury.

Many growers give the first two summer sprays, viz.
(1) the one just after the petals fall and (2) the one two
weeks later with Lime-sulphur and later sprays ere given with
Bordeaux. This is frequently done in the pippin orchards
which are subject to bitter rot.

Three growers had tried "Sulfacide" and one of these
reported it unsatisfactory. The poison used with Sulfocide
is Paris green; the manufacturers of this fungicide caution
against the use of any other arsenical with this fungicide.

One grower had used "Atomic Sulphur" and reported
it unsatisfactory.

For practically all summer spraying where a poison
is desired against biting insects, arsenate of lead is used,
and is generally applied along with the lime-sulphur solut-
ion of Bordeaux mixture as the case may be. Arsenate of

lead has practically replaced Paris green in orchard spray-

ing.
90

ORCHARD CULTIVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

Old or Bearing Orchards.- The bearing orchards are

 

handled in various ways by different growers. In order to
find out the most common methods in vogue the following re-
quest was made: "Describe briefly your system of cultivation
for your old orchards". This request brought forth a varied
series of replies. Very few growers handle their orchards
in exactly the same manner. However the 213 answers’ given

may be grouped in systems as set forth in the table which

follows:
System No. of Orchards Per cent

Sod 30 14.08
Sold Mulch 2A 9.86
Clean tillage followed by cover crop 56 26.29
Clean tillage alone 36 16.90
Clean tillage for a period of years,

then sod 5 2.35
Intermittent tillage with cover crop 21 9.86
Partial tillage 11 5.16
Tillage with a catch crop 33 15.49

¥rom this data it may be seen that there are three
main systems of management practiced in the bearing orchards,
namely, sod, sod mulch, and tillage. These, together with
their various modifications will be discussed briefly.

Te Sod. - In the orchard sod the surface soil is

. In some cases a grower might handle part of his orchard
by one system and part by another.
91

held together by the matted roots of grass and other vege-
tation. The type of sod is very variable; it may consist of
orchard grass, clover, timothy, blue grass, and in many cases
a general mixture of grasses and weeds. In many of the Vir-
ginia orchards it is practically necessary to keep the or-
chard in sod. Many orchards are located on land that is
steep and rough and the surface soil would be rapidly washed
away if tillage were practiced regularly. It is almost nec-
essary to keep vegetation on the land in order to hold the
soil. These sod orchards are handled in various ways; some
growers cut the grass and remove it as hay. Others pasture
the orchard. I was interested to note that one man has a
poultry ranch in his orchard. I am of the opinion that the
poultry business will make a good combination with apple
growing, and I hope more of our fruit growers will give at-
tention to this matter. Many growers simply have their or-
chards in sod without touching them in any way, shape, or
form. There are 14.08 per cent of the bearing orchards in
sod.

2. Sod Mulch.- This term signifies the seeding of
the land to grass and clover and mowing the same once or
twice during the summer, leaving the cut grass to lie as a
mulch under and around the trees. In contrast with this

term we have the term "mulch", which consists in covering
92

the ground under and around the trees with some kind of
coarse material which has not been grown in the orchard, as
hay, straw, cornstalks, etc., and may be applied thick enough
to prevent the growth of grass and weeds in the orchard.
However, I am unable to distinguish between the sod mulch
orchard and the mulch orchards reported in my survey. Both
are lumped together. The sod mulch method is practiced in
9.86 per cent of the bearing orchards. In most cases the
mulch is obtained by cutting the grass in the orchard and
having the same as a mulch to lie on the ground. Several
Zrowers stated that they were using stable manure as a mulch,
Some pasture the sod and top-@ress with stable manure. There
are other cases where the mulch is obtained by hauling into
the orchard leaves, straw, etc.

3. Tillage.- By referring to the table given above,
it may be seen that a large majority of the fruit growers,
to be exact 76.05 per cent, are practicing tillage in one
form or another in the management of their orchards.

Tillage should begin when the orchard is planted,
and the entire surface of the land should be tilled. The
most usual practice reported by the growers is to plow the
land very early in the spring. It is important to get on
the land early, in order to conserve the moisture which has

accumulated in the soil during the winter and early spring.
93

This first plowing ‘6 followed up by the disc, cutaway,
spring-tooth, or acme harrow or some suitable type of culti-
vator depending on circumstances. Shallow surface tillage
should be kept up until about July 15th. At the last culti-
vation a cover crop is sown. There are several advantages
to be derived from a cover crop. It unlocks plant food; it
stops growth of the ipeceeua causes them to ripen up their
wood, There are times when it is not desirable to stop till-
age in July. For example, in a very dry season, it may be
very desirable to till right up to the fall season in order
to conserve moisture.

Clean tillage is practiced in 26.29 per cent of the
bearing orchards until about July 15th, at which time a
cover crop is sown as outlined above. Clean tillage alone
is practiced in 16.90 per cent of the orchards and after
July 15th, weeds and grass are allowed to grow.

In 2.35 per cent of the bearing orchards clean till-
age is practiced for a period of years and then methods of
management are combined. One man would till every year until
the orchard is eight years old; then till every third year,
allowing the orchard to lie in sod the other two years.
Another grower would till every year until the trees are

seven years old and then mulch occasionally with stable

manure.
94

Intermittent tillage is practiced in 9.86 per cent
of the bearing orchards; that means the grower tills one
year and then skips one or two or three or four or five years
and then tills again. As a rule, however, they till every
other year or every third year. The remainder of the time
the orchard is left in sod, sod mulch, or handled by the
mulch system.

In 5.16 per cent of the orchards, partial tillage
is practiced. This is done in several ways. Some till a
strip of land on either side of the tree-row; this is done
to economize time and labor and expense. It is not as de-
sirable as complete tillage. There are many cases where
partial tillage is necessary; for example on very rough land,
where it is almost impassible to plow, the grower may dig
around his trees with a hoe.

In 15.49 per cent of the orchards tillage of the
apple trees is accomplished by growing between the trees
some kind of a catch-crop which requires surface cultivation
at a time when the orchard requires tillage. Thus the grow-
er "kills two birds with one stone". Catch-crops will be
considered in a subsequent paragraph.

Young Orchards. - The following request was made:
"Describe briefly your system of cultivation for your young

orchard". Two hundred and eleven described their systems
95

(the same grower may have treated part of his orchard by
one method and part by another, in which case he is counted
twice in my calculations). These descriptions are briefly

summarized in the table which follows:

System Number of Per cent
Orchards.

Sod 2 90.95
Sod mulch | 10 4.74
Clean tillage followed by cover crop 64 30.33
Clean tillage alone 35 16.59
Clean tillage for a period of years

then sod 3 1.42
Intermittent tillage with cover crop 7 3.32
Partial tillage 11 5.21
Tillage with a catch-crop 79 37.44

The few growers who stated that they had no system
of managing their young orchards are not included in the
above table. A glance at the table shows that there are
three dominant systems of management, and several others
used in a lesser degree. I shall not go into details of
tillage and sod methods since these were considered under
old orchards.

Sod.- The sod method was reported in only 0.95 per
cent of the young orchards. In one instance the grower was
trying to get a stand of alfalfa in his young orchard.

Sod mulch. - The sod mulch method is practiced in
4.74 per cent of the young orchards. These are generally
orchards on mountain land where cultivation is undesirable.

These orchards are mulched in various ways, as by use of
96

stable manure, weeds, straw and bones.

Tillage. - The same types of iiiape are met with
here as in the old orchards.

In 30.33 per cent of the young orchards clean tillage
is practiced up to July lst, or 15th, at which time a cover
crop is sown. A deep plowing is given in the late winter
or early spring, followed up by shallow tillage in order to
maintain a dust mulch. Some growers think it best to make
the spring plowing shallow after the third year.

In 16.59 per cent of the young orchards clean till-
age alone is practiced. Frequent surface tillage is kept
up until July 15th, after which time the grass and weeds
are allowed to come up and shade the land.

The owners of 1.42 per cent of the young orchards
recommend clean tillage for a period of years, ranging from
5 to 8, allowing a sod to form at the end of this time.

Intermittent tillage is followed in 3.32 per cent
of the orchards, that is the growers till the land every
other year or every 3rd year, etc. The remainder of the time
the orchard is in sod.

Partial tillage is carried on in 5.21 per cent of
the orchards. Generally from 2 to 4 feet of soil on either
side of the tree-row is kept tilled and sometimes a cover

crop is sown at the end of the season of tillage. Ina few
97

cases the young trees are worked with a hoe. Orchards in
which hoe work is done are usually on rough land.

In 37.44 per cent of the young orchards the trees are
tilled by means of growing a catch-crop in the young orchard.
This seems to be a very common practice. Various catch-crops
are grown as will be shown later. The fruit growers have
given attention to the matter of rotation as well as fertili-
zation in connection with the catch-crops. They seem to take
great pains to return to the land the equivalent of the eae
food removed by the catch-crop so that the trees may not suf-
fer. A catch-crop, in many cases, helps to cover the expense
of growing the trees to the bearing age.

Regardless of the system of tillage employed, the
growers have laid great stress on the cover-crops.

Catch-Crops in the Commercial Orchards. - In order
to find out to what extent catch-crops are grown in the or-
chards and what crops are most satisfactory for this purpose,
the following question was asked: "Do you crop the orchard,
if so what crop do you think most satisfactory".

One hundred and eighty-four growers answered this
question. Twenty-four of these growers stated that they
grew no crop for profit in their orchards; that is they took
nothing off the land. A large majority of the growers take

one crop or another from their orchards. This is done in
98

order to assist in defraying the expenses of cultivation
until the orchard comes to that age when the apple crop it-
self is profitable. A summary of the replies to this quest-

ion is given in the following table:

Crop No. of orchards in Crop No. of orchards
which it is found in which it is
found
Carn 103 Soy beans 2
Potatoes 53 Timothy 2
Cow-peas 52 Rape 2
Clover 27) Buckwheat 2
Red clover 1) 31 Vegetables 2
Crimson ) Melons a
clover 3) Strawberries 1
Tomatoes 12 Turnips 1
Tobacco 8 Canteloupe 1
Wheat 6 Cabbage 1
Beans 5 Onions 1
Rye 5 "Pruck Cpops" 1
Oats 4 Sweet Potatoes 1
"Grass" 4
"Small Grain" 2

184 growers gave data on this question.
24 of this number took no crop from the orchards.

From the above table it may be seen that corn is
grown in a larger number of orchards than any other one crop.
Very few fruit growers plant corn in old, or bearing orch-
ards; for the trees shade the land to such an extent that
the corn crop is poor and unprofitable; and furthermore
the trees need the plant food which would be taken up from
the soil by the growing crop of corn. It is a very common

practice to grow corn in young orchards. The following sys-
99

tem of rotation is the one most commonly followed by the
fruit growers: Corn is planted in the orchard the first
year the apple-trees are set. In cultivating the corn, the
orchardist also keeps his young trees cultivated. A space
of several feet is left on either side of the tree-row. There
is room between the tree-rows for about 5 rows of corn, de-
pending upon the distance given the trees in the young or-
chard. The space left beside the trees is cultivated every
time the corn is cultivated. At the last cultivation, which
will generally be made in July, a cover-crop is seeded.

Many sow rye in the fall after the corn crop is harvested.
The rye protects the land through the winter. In the spring,
after the rye has made a good growth, it is turned under,
and about the last of June cow-peas are planted. The cow-
peas are frequently planted in rows so they may be cultivat-
ed and at the time of tast cultivation, crimson clover is
seeded, which serves as a cover crop. The following spring,
the crimson clover is turned under and potatoes are planted.
After the potatoes are dug, a cover crop is seeded and the
following year the rotation is begun again. There are var-
ious modifications of this system of rotation, both as re-
gards the number of years and also the crops rotated with
corn. Naturally, the growers decide this point according

to local conditions. Some growers stated that they never
100

grew corn in their orchards after the first year, and they
thought a crop of corn did no harm in the first year of the
young orchard's life, provided the fertility of the land was
properly conserved By subsequent methods of rotation and
cultivation. Other growers were of the opinion that corn
could be grown in the orchards until the trees came into
bearing without danger of injuring the trees. One point em-
phasized by all who answered this question is the matter of
rotation. None of the growers made a practice of following
corn by corn successively. A few were growing corn every
other year, but most of the growers had a three-year rotat-
ion.

Potatoes stand next to corn as a catch-crop for com-
mercial apple-orchards. In localities where the potato
does well, it has proved to be a very satisfactory catch-
crop. It requires surface cultivation; it does not grow
up high enough to shade the trees; it is not hard on the
land; and it has generally been found profitable. No one
pointed out any objections to growing potatoes in the or-
chard. I judge that the potato is one of the most satis-
factory crops that can be grown in the orchard.

Cow-peas, the Clovers, Soy-beans, and Rape were
reported By a number of growers. In some instances these

crops are taken off the land as hay; in other cases they
101

are pastured. It seems to be a coimon practice to turn
hogs into the orchard after the above crops have reached

a certain stage and"hog down" the crop. This practice gives
the soil the advantage of a leguminous crop and at the same
time the hogs are prepared for market economically.

In some sections where a cannery is accessible, to-
matoes have been found to be profitable catch-crops. The
same may be said of beans and sugar corn.

Tobacco is grown in some of the orchards of the middle
Piedmont region, particularly in Nelson, Bedford and Amherst
counties. This crop is very satisfactory when grown in
proper rotation.

Wheat, rye, oats and "small grain" were reported by
several growers; but even the growers, who reported these
crops, were of the opinion that it was not best to grow
grain crops in the orchard.

Beans, "vegetables", melons, strawberries, turnips,
canteloupes, cabbage, onions, “truck crops", and sweet po-
tatoes are reported by a few growers. These growers were
located near some town or city which furnished a local mar-
ket for truck. ‘The truck crops require hoe-cultivation and
theis keeps the surface of the soil thoroughly tilled.

When these crops are taken off, the land is usually seeded

to a cover crop, such as clover, vetch or rye. On the whole,
102

truck crops were reported as profitable and satisfactory.

"Grass" and timothy were reported by a few growers.
These probably refer to taking a hay crop off the land where
the orchard is in sod. In one section of the State buckwheat
has given satisfaction as a catch-crop.

From the above data, it would seem that our fruit-
growers have a large number of profitable crops from which
they may choose profitable catch-crops, and in this choice
they may be guided by local conditions, as the demand for
the crop to be grown, adaptation of soil to the crop, time
when the catch-crop requires attention, and the character
of cultivation which the grower desires to give his apple-
trees.

Sowing Cover-Crops. - In order to find out the prev-

 

alence of the practice of sowing a cover crop in orchard
management, the following question was asked:- “Do you sow

a cover-crop when the last cultivation for the season is
made?" This question was answered by 190 growers. It was
found that 87 per cent of these growers made a practice of
sowing a cover-crop. This does not imply that they sow a
cover-crop every year; but that they followed the practice
when season and other conditions permitted. This means that
they considered the practice desirable in orchard management.

Only 13 per cent of the growers stated that they did not sow
103

a cover-crop. And it is easy to see why the practice can

not be adapted in all cases, for some orchards are on rough

QULE-
land, that is not readily cultivated; in other cases the or-

chards are in sod and hence no cover-crop could be used.

Best cover-crop to sow. - In order to get the growers

viewpoint on this matter the following question was asked:

"What cover-crop is best?"

One hundred and eighty-three

persons answered this question. The grower frequently ment-

ioned two or more cover crops and the table which follows

gives a summary of all the answers.

Cover-Crop
"Clover"
Crimson Clover
ned ss
German
Sapling
Mammoth 4
Alsike "
Cow-peas
Soy Beans
"Vetch"
Hairy Vetch
Sand Vetch
Rye
Rape
"Any legume"
Timothy
Orchard Grass
"Grass"
Buckwheat
Corn
Oats

No. of growers who mentioned it.
54
71
18

PUR HE HP HY RE WORRY POOR E AO

From the above table it may be seen that the Clovers

are by far the most popular cover-crops in the commercial
104

apple orchards. Crimson clover is most commonly grown. In
many cases the sort of clover was not specified. Red clover,
German clover and Sapling clover are mentioned quite frequent-
ly. Many growers spoke of the difficulty of obtaining clover
seed during the seasons of 1910 and 1911, and even where seed
could be had it was sold at a high price. There was com-
plaint about obtaining a stand of crimson clover in the fall
of 1910. This was probably due to a dry summer and fall.
There was enough moisture in the land to enable the seed to
germinate but not enough to enable the young seedlings to
survive. One man writes “crimson clover is uncertain unless
the soil has been limed."

Cow-peas are prominent among cover-crops. Cow-peas
are planted the latter part of June when the last cultiva-
tion is made. The crop is then treated in several ways.
In some instances a little corn is planted with it and late
in the summer hogs are turned into the orchard to "hog down"
the corn and peas. In other cases the peas are plowed under in
the fall. In other cases they are simply left upon the land
where they furnish a protective covering during the sunmer
and fall, and the dead vines furnish more or less protection
to the soil through the winter season.

Rye is not considered as good cover crop as the clovers,

but rye is surer, and generally the grower can be sure that
105

he will get a crop when he sows rye. Some growers resort

to the use of rye later in the fall if they see that the

clover failed to "catch". Rye is sometimes grazed with sheep.

Most growers turn the rye under green. Some growers recom-
mend alternating rye with peas on successive years.

Some growers have tried vetch with satisfactory re-
sults. One man recommends sowing vetch with enough oats
to hold it up.

Timothy, orchard grass and buckwheat are mentioned

in combination with other cover crops.
106

MARKETING.

Where the Fruit is Sold. In order to obtain some
definite information on this point the following question
was asked: "What is your apple market"? This question was
answered by the growers who have orchards in bearing. The
following table shows a summary of the replies received to

this question.

Markets No. of growers shipping to
them.
Southern Cities 28
Northern Cities 6
Middle western cities 11
Eastern cities a
No. special market 16
Local Market 24
Export 24
Associations 9
Richmond 52
New York 38
Washington 18
Philadelphia 11
Baltimore 10
Roanooke 9
Pittsburg 8
Lynchburg
Cincinnatti 5
Chicago 3
St. Louis 3
Louisville 2
Cleveland 2
Winston-Salem 1
Columbus :

Erie
In replying to this question, as may be seen from

this table, a number of growers merely designated the local-

ity of the market at which they sold in general terms, as

northern cities, middle western cities, eastern or southern
107

cities, etc. Some had no special market. A number sold at
local markets; this number included men whose orchards are
near some town or city and generally their orchards were
small. Some growers sell through associations and of course
the associations sel] at the market which demands fruit at
that particular time wherever that may be. A majority of
the export appears to go to England. Many of the apples
which are sold in Richmond are put in storage there and lat-
er in the season reshipped to other cities, particularly
southern cities.

It is interesting to note that so many growers are
finding their markets in the south, Baltimore, Washington,
Richmond and many other southern cities. Virginia fruit-
growers have the advantage of proximity to the southern
markets as compared to their competitors in the north and
northwest fruit-growing regions.

Markets and Varieties. - "Does your market demand
particular varieties?" The answers to this question do not
bring out any very definite information, but they give some
significant suggestions. Nearly half of the growers who
answered this question were of the opinion that the markets
were not particular as to the varieties provided the fruit
was of good quality, clean and well packed. But other grow-

ers had observed that it pays to sell certain varieties in
108

certain markets.

Cities in Virginia prefer Winesap and Albemarle.
Southern markets, as a rule, do not want Albemarle or any
other light colored apple, but prefer red apples, as Wine-
sap, York, Arkansas, Ben Davis and other large, red apples
of attractive appearance. The export trade prefers Albe-
marle and York. The cities of the middle west have shown
a preference for red apples. New York is a good market for
fancy apples. Pittsburg demands a cheap apple.

How the Fruit is Sold. - "Do you sell your fruit at

 

the orchard in lump to buyers, or do you sell through com-
mission merchants, or do you sell direct to some fruit
dealer?"

Answers to this question show that various methods
are employed in selling. A grower frequently sells part of
his crop by one method and part by another. A summary of

replies to the above question is given in the table which

follows:

Method of Selling No. of Growers Using this Method
In lump to buyers ; 99

Fruit Jobbers 60

Commission Merchants 47

Cooperative Associations L7

Direct to Consumer 10

Storage (selling to jobbers later) 9

Miscellaneous 15

In the leading fruit centers of the State, buyers

come to the orchards, examine the fruit while it is on the
109

trees and much fruit is sold in the orchards. Such sales
are sometimes made in lump. Again, sales are made for a
stated amount f. 0. b., the buyer reserving the right to
supervise the grading and packing.

How the Fruit is Packed. - "Have you packed any ap-
ples in boxes; if so with what success?"

The answers to this question indicate that a number
of growers have tried the box package. The table which fol-

lows gives a summary of replies to this question.

Results obtained Na. of growers who have tried the
box package.
Very good 12
Good 22
Fair 3
Poor v
Indifferent 5

From these figures it may be seen that over two
thirds of the growers who have tried the box package met
with good or very good success, while the other third re-
ported fair, poor or indifferent success. Some of those
who met with poor success atbributed their failure to the
fact that they were unable to pack the boxes well. Few
growers have tried the box package on an extensive scale;
generally their trials were made with a few hundred boxes.
One man packed 1,100 boxes in the season of 1910 and lost
money by doing so. Another man who has a large orchard

of Winesaps and Albemarles, packs his entire crop in boxes
110.

and considers that he greatly increases his profits by doing
so. The latter grower understands the art of packing apples
in boxes and does not have to depend upon inexperienced and
untrained labor to do the packing.

Fourteen growers indicated that they expected to pack
some of their apples in boxes in the future. Six growers
were of the opinion that fancy apples, Albemarle, Winesap,
and Stayman Winesap should be packed in boxes. The general
opinion is that it is not worth while to pack apples of low
grade in boxes.

The chief difficulties reported by the growers regard-
ing the use of the box are (1) the markets do not particu-
larly demand boxed apples; (2) the labor obtainable is in-
efficient for this work and consequently the packing is
done poorly, and at greater expense than packing the same
quantity of fruit in barrels. The latter difficulty may
be overcome in a large measure by gradually training men
to know the art of box packing.

The great bulk of Virginia apples is packed in

barrels.
lil

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Rapid Development of the Industry. - Within recent
years, there has been a marked forward movement in commercial
apple-orcharding in the State. The widespread and general
extent of this development came out clearjJy in a question
asked in this survey.

"Is comnercial apple culture on the increase in your
locality?" This question was answered by 235 growers; 229
answered it in the affirmative and 6 in the negative.

From every fruit section of the State the report comes
that commercial apple growing is increasing. Many described
this increase as a "boom" and "people have gone wild on the
subject". Young trees that are being set are counted by
the thousands and tens of thousands. Many people from other
states and other countries are coming into Virginia and
purchasing orchards or fruit lands on which to set young or-
chards. As a consequence of this great demand for orchards,
land which is adapted to fruit growing has greatly increased
in value.

Natural Drawbacks. - "Which are your greatest natur-

al drawbacks, frost, insects, or diseases?"

Drawbacks No. of growers so reporting
Insects 122
Diseases 81

Frost 51
112

Most prominent among the insect pests are Codling
moth, San Jose scale, aphids, curculio, borers, etc. Most
prominent among diseases are bitter rot, scab, cedar rust,
and various leaf spots.

Insects of one sort or another and fungous diseases
are always present. Systems of Spraying and caring for the
orchards, have developed to the extent that these drawbacks
can be controlled - at more or less expense and labor, to
be sure, but they can be effectively remedied. From many
sections of the state, reports of injury from frost are
made. There are few frostless areas in the State. And
after all, I suspect that frost is the greatest natural
drawback against which the fruit growers have to contend.

Economic Difficulties. ~ What are your economic dif-

 

ficulties, labor or marketing?" There were only fourteen
men out of the whole lot who had met with no particular
economic difficulties. From the answers received it seems
that labor is by far the most troublesome economic problem
with which the commercial fruit grower has to deal. In
many places it is difficult to get skilled labor. This
is particularly true in the localities where the apple in-
dustry is just beginning to develop. There are many kinds
of orchard work which require practice before the laborer

attains efficiency at it. Such orchard work as spraying,
113

pruning, harvesting and packing, is not usually done either
rapidly or thoroughly by a new hand at the business. Lab-
orers who have grown up in the orchard are far more efficient
and satisfactory than raw hands. Communities in which or-
charding is an old and well established business do not have
a serious difficulty with inefficient labor.

In some sections, there is complaint of scarcity of
labor and high wages demanded by the laborers. The farmer
who grows fruit as an exclusive farm product, can not employ
labor through the entire year. There are times when he needs
a great deal of labor and there are times when there is no
way for him to keep his labor profitably employed. ‘The re-
sult is, he must keep just a few men all the year and depend
on picking up extra help in the busy season, for example at
harvesting time. The evidence at hand seems to indicate
that a combination of fruit growing with some other type of
farming is the most economic method of management.

| Many growers find marketing an economic difficulty.
This is a question of many phases. The simplest solution of
this problem is to sell the fruit to the apple buyers who
come to the orchard. But the grower does not know what his
fruit is worth. It is almost impossible for the individual
grower to keep in touch with the markets. One man expressed

this well when he said "I don't know how to get in touch
114

with the markets at the right time". Some think that cooper~
ative selling through associations is the solution to the
marketing problem. I think there can be no doubt that organ-
ization of the fruit growers is necessary and will each year
become more necessary as the industry develops. However,

it is not to be overlooked that there are difficulties even
in organization.

The growers who are having most difficulty with the
marketing problem at the present time are those whose orchards
are distant from a shipping point. There are many orchards
in the State aS much as twelve, fifteen and even twenty miles
from a shipping point. As competition becomes stronger, the
disadvantage of distance becomes more noticeable and besides,
the roads in sural sections are poor as a rule, which makes
hauling still more difficult.

A number of growers complain of high transportation
rates on the railroads. Individuals or associations who
ship only in car-load lots have a decided advantage over
growers who ship in small and broken lots.

General Remarks and Suggestions from the Growers. -
The growers were asked to give suggestions regarding the
fruit growing industry in the State. I will merely give the

substance of these suggestions in the few paragraphs which

follow.
115

Choose a good location for the orchard. You must
have a fruit soil to begin with. ‘There must be good drainage;
if the land is not well drained naturally, drainage must be
provided for artificially. The orchard site must have air
drainage as well. In low places, orchards suffer far more
from frost than do those which have good air-drainage. The
profits from orchards on very rough land are becoming less
as competition grows stronger. Several growers suggest that
apple trees should not be planted on land that is too steep
to drive a wagon over- The cost of cultivation, spraying
and harvesting is greatly increased on rough and steep land.

Choose varieties which are adapted to the soil and
locality. This is not easy to do in locatities where apples
have not been grown. In the well established fruit centers
accumulated experience has shown what varieties are standard
sorts for that locality. Plant only a few varieties, and
only standard varieties in a commercial orchard. Exception
to this rule is made in case of orchards intended to supply
a local or special market.

When the orchard is planted, it must be cared for
properly. Cultivation, pruning, fertilization and spraying
must be done well and at the right time. To win success,
the fruit grower must produce good, clean apples. The grow-

er must see to it that apples are produced at a cost which
116

will yield him a profit and at the same time allow the con-
sumer to purchase them at a moderate price.

The questions of grading and packing were emphasized
from every point of view. Thorough grading and harvest pack-
ing are the corner stones of successful marketing. The kind
of package is of small consequence compared to the character
of the fruit in it.

Many growers made suggestions regarding organization
and cooperative action in the business. There was a general
agreement regarding the desirability for organization but
there were differences of opinion as to the best method for
obtaining the end desired.

Some growers who are just beginning the business ex-
press the feeling that lack of experience in the work is the
cause of many expensive errors.

In many ways, a sentiment was expressed by the growers
favoring a conservative substantial development of the great
fruit interests of the State as opposed to the spirit of

speculation in orcharding.
THE TREND OF APPLE PLANTING IN VIRGINIA.

My Dear Sir :--

In connection with my studies in the Graduate
School of Cornell University, I am making an investigation
with the object in view of determining the trend of apple
planting in the State of Virginia. My purpose is to bring
together definite information regarding varieties which are
most popular in the newer plantings, and to compare these
with varieties found in old orchards. In like manner, I wish
to compare the methods of planting the young orchards with
the methods used in set~ing out the older orchards. 1 am
asking also for information regarding cultivation and spray-
ing

In connection with this survey, an examiration of the
adaptation and quality of varieties themselves will be made.
This will help us to determine the relative impcertance of
varieties, and their probable influence on the development
of the fruit industry in Virginia.

The general conclusions which may be derived from the
information obtained by this survey will be made available
to the fruit growers at an early date. I hope to publish
it either in the Report of the Virginia State Horticultural
Setisiy, OF in some other accessible publication.

I therefore hope ‘hat you will feel disposed to co-ope-
tate heartily in this matter. Pléase auswer the following
questions as completely as possible. [ enclose an envelope
(addressed and stamped) for reply.

T take this opportunity to thank you in advance Tor

the courtesy, ;
A. W DRINKARD, Jr ,

Graduate Student.

Approved ¢ John Craig, Professor of Horticulture, in
Cornell Universiy.

[Note: After two years I will resume my duties as assistant in the department of horticulture
at the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station.—A. W. Drinkard, Jr.
QUESTIONS.

[Please answer the questions as far as possible and omit those which do not apply to your conditions. |

 

t. How many acres have you planted to apple trees ?....-..-.----------------.0--2eeeeeeeeee ee

2. Name the leading varieties of apples in your bearing orchard in order of their commercial [that is, money,
making] importance to you giving approximate number of each. ----- 0.20.22. 2s 2 ceece cece eec cnet ene ene eee

 

 

4. a. What varieties of apples would you plant if you were to extend your orchard ? [State reason for smoking. 7
this selection.] .... . ZR GER Be SOR SWE) «see SSE ey ene Tee ee et meee ee

 

5. Does climate or any other factor, as elevation, soil, insects or diseases peculiar to your locality, limit you to

Certain Varieties: os cee pe She Beets

   

 

7. a. Give a brief description of the soil in your orchard [state whether sandy, sandy loam, clay loam, heavy clay,

light clay, color, etc., and state character of subsoil J...... 3 HE Fao ween 2 ee, tee

 
8. How are your old orchards planted, Square or alternate?.......__.

 

Distance apart ?. : - aces aciate sede Us eee, =

Age of trees Poi. lec ee ee ccc eeceeeee ee eee ile, bs
Were they planted with or without fillers? een

If with fillers, state distance of permanent trees......00 00000. :

milate: Gistance: of Silene. se aaa oe

9.

 

 

 

 

Varieties [whether apple or peaches] used as fillers?

10. Are any of your trees top grafted ?. 00... smmAGin Sesetiatiges Le one ae

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

14. Describe briefly your system of cultivation,

a. For your old orchard. ...

 

   

d. Do you sow a cover crop when the last cultivation for the season is made ?....--.------------

e. What cover crop is best ?
15. Marketing,
a. What is your apple market ?.......-...--e ee ;

   

c. Do you sell your fruit at the orchard in lump to buyers, or do you sell through commission merchants, or
do you sell direct to some fruit dealer?

 

d. Have you packed any apples in boxes, if so with what success ?.---.-.------ ee ee

 

Signed: byseiess « ececse
POStO MCE add ReS See, os pharenes yes entand ce sea, B Salou aes
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