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SF523
C311
‘92°72,
Cornell University Library

SF 523-6314
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3 1924 003 443 219

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
STATE OF NEW JERSEY

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ALVA AGEE, Secretary

CIRCULAR

No. 53

A Manual of Bee Husbandry
4 Elman B, Cow,

Trenton, N. J., June, 1922
CONTENTS

Tmtrod terion sc. cciec Jaga irs gun eepren wer Sauees teaoubeveay oe pa Aa ean 7
Dike History <2: cacavndcuaventeins oe cen oles epnaiteme ane e tact Acson terteici bn one ba 8
Queens 9554 Gessner miosis ete otek auceieid ome Ando sina es bad intaencloueeennons 9
AMPPCATANCEY scene diensce tie o2,0 500.5 cuaye geeeehs yon adadeca save aes ance wea obra eles 10
Abnormal: QUééens. <.424.00<.04 china dee avai dew an deetamaane sas eee: AD
WOrKers) 2.5.2.csttncentecnavacy on alan saeaheeiamenie wan ea chen a. WeMemmacnta ten’ 11
Appearance: crscanines warccws ss Mas eek awww nae as minum adie a 12
Abnormal Workers 2.2.0.0... 0.0. c cece cece cnc ceseeeeneeeeneucuenes 13
Drones fio oe eee raehvec caida oa ais dic de bavapaleoesesne Ad Ao cen e-ancitan ete mmngnnnnniaoanauele goats 14
APPEATANCES <ssess. loinc nantes sha sconveadhat npc teaatite Moraaieie Calan ala eestor: Oe 14
BPOOR.. .5'e.2:0:0.4.4 eecerenetivietna ds See ewe hae Rieu romayaiewn bua NRW St 44 Nemo ees 15
PEG 8G niu cae aicis pire eet Wale eine @ wa boned in Su tetas ER nies Maude an Meuet 15
Cyclénof the: Wear cuavicsaess 226 vas iM eomatetie bos ee del aoa a hau pobiteaeoanaek 16
The Swart 224 vesecceseaad wa eed deed d Sessdn cancupaelom ts Shade vereualoletulenhimernes 16
‘Phe: Parent: Colony” aiicases oc 4 ccucis aradbacdatiagal Ao odd aoe ache e wee pareninieoeetnerw' 18
AwWormial Colonies: is ase centie Shed ace io ania canivercaimeniacnk oe swe neaidies patonbccomiesens 19
Queénless: Colonies: ..% s4%4.5 Ageneneaeasy sense bein sleaanetoanuarns 19
Signs of Queenlessness ........... 00sec cece tence n eens eee eueeneens 19
Replacing “a: Lost: Queens e:.sss. 44.4 sahene gence sg cae B45 ER GAGS Ghani eas 20
Food. Supply: awescauaihe sve ec whee ehh giges de bE Cee Me Wad Ms nlealevenaenerennee 20
New Jersey Plants from which Bees Gather Pollen...............00c00eeees 21
New Jersey Plants from which Nectar is Gathered in Less Than Surplus
Quantities: elite ieee G 5 ed eek 0s aio A RO es on PROS
New Jersey Surplus Honey Plants ............ 00 ccc eee ee cece eee neeeeneees 22
Surplus Honey Regions: jecscas ox aeneaeemes sade se 8 896.704 < 06 4 6 OMG 23
Races! of Bees: vas rccaiiae vase th 465 seevithem eases EEA bya eee aamenne 24
Making: a. Start; with Bees: 2. <0 5644 wiaisesedbte sdeenesacoie doe eee bnew ba ce eaitgaleneccayasiee 25
LO CAINE the): Colony <socsiiicnhi0.3 See-e oun ide eeiudivenisiotealW are Wad taths Sadasole Rede 25
Loéating: the -Apairry’ <cesc.c%0 ews wwe aestelesenneeiondgtaccib's Walia 4 eaaiauvrensnectreedconsecs 26
AD Paratus: © Gxicerid accecincger gira stoitelase lene oman goannas selene eee aabaAee eae 27
SDS: GAVE: aivedcm betes dan ule vials che ea ates aval acai Gels 6 bee stead sos gene na ee eee 27
SUDETS: oe i cs po atugetcnewey bat yew as SRR ELEN SER eee oes os oa eae 30
Tools: and ‘apparatus: {022225244444 be oeeade Son ee eee ades Ne eRe 32
SMOKER i. scys.gcsnsieuauese, dosse Sus score ace Giah vaectheaetausearMeacee h P ere GR na & duaovaMeTichatdyins 32
Viel) «A. Macaalcnseih & odsaea, toa giuask Sudwisincnactiaatasvinensi and Di G-oe rad MRS ees oes Auemtendaolaaniels 33
Cloves S ccsrecicrsend ieee. bel pce nee LIC Ga oka eee an be adem eaeibnctataus 34
hive Tool sects cnc stele tate ese rercy cic oe tata pata aha tatedipac ance aise co aeonere nese emutearn 34
Bee -Kecape: swis succes xr aniurea varus Mah a ea heed ae 35
Queen Excluder sis :255scssases gnretineae i nero ede dais on aaeinenees 36
Uncapping: Knile: o2sis¢c sacs nemuitevesee eee ney <eds Hees eeaelees 37
Honey IEXtPa Clon: * coatuas ¢ ase vi A seseyetenstcacecewiaabaa crue BES accede Med 8 Gar casa 37
Settling: Pamke. igen cn scot. c.b 3 tae h his epee heinietetcseeici go Se daa heuer ans dees ypenensetea 38
Cappings “Press: aii. t.3 ee atti axs sa svevasalaisseceeansiecdge ad a ie asace Sine. ak aveannaiets 38
Comb Honey siaccs c-stead ec acaraieinde 5 icine aa ap inane wndaeeiqieeon Monsen tatiarhd-svansnacita ateonanabnigeads 39
Section Foundation Cutting Box ............ sees eee ee eee tere eeee 39
Section “Folder: siase20e+2eiwiasuargausaumnnse cases enone a Pines 39
Section Foundation Fastener ........0. 0.0 cece eee eee eee ee nee eee 40
Handling sthe: Bees... 2 sesscodeausesis aco aved acesd aie Sainte mad IE DET OAM COLE N Reames 41
Stings:and Remedies: cc. sicccec ce cand actemaieumeiuneind 64,08 dareie jaune heb rase 42
Developing the Colony Previous to the Honey Flow .............eeseeeeeees 43
Adding the Second :Story™ : ssasoucve ney teyos page ote wromwniamaa ary nnee se es 44,
Swarming and Its Control] ........0. cece cece eect ten eee e eee e ene nn eens 45
Factors Favoring the Swarm Impulse ............ 0c cece cece eee eee 45
Comb Room ...... 0... ccc e cece ene e eens ee ee ere 45
QU en 2g ss Reeser a ea teehee dc tras nai Soapaecha agatha aoeaian fate Bus Macedh are a a 45
DrOneimsarxis cts so posse tees inetd Cues Wanna e 5.08 anemic nus avtetes 46
Veeritila biome’. 7 cc phivtnvodtidacl bras ace ar sdee Beeler ananeee erected ha Eo Menrenic eenaseeets 46
Comb ‘Spacing, 242124 ekeeses i see reese so Athens s Tes Fe 47

Destruction of Queen Cells 1.2.0.0... cece cece cence tent ence neces 47
CONTENTS (Continued)

GS WAETHCOMERON, spccssijutta tusvicns ange dane oa iaudaud 4 spadiiaahantoas amide Bar emeM Inaba n nn Goer saaaene AT
Clipping the Queen’s Wings ........... 60 ccc eee ene ener e eee ets 47
Artifictal Swarms = acceosicpniscwmesstaanncaodnd adv em snacnecsnend GL OSES De REO TS 48
Ped tee SS War nnis cee, 2 oa eae ase ieee cecer ce tic Sk Sag Suds retanerimcncls doo eases 48

Comb or Extracted Honey Production .......... 2000s eee cece teen eee eens 49
Comb Honey for Home Use ..........0 0c cece eee rere ene een eeee 49
Commercial Comb Honey Production .......... 00sec eee eee eee eens 50
Reducing the Colony to One Story ........0- 2. cece ences eee e eens 50
SUPETINE: acu eanesecd veins syed scene pertanengeaiedeninaniaaals AP Dasa ae RN TORENT A Le ee 50
Extracted Honey Production .........6. 0s eee e eee e eee eects 51

Harvesting and Marketing ........... 000s ccc eee e eee teen e teen ener es 52
Comb Honey sexes einen eu neuen a aeeeind Ons ome iaeomn lens shay 52
Removing from the Hive ...........0.. cece eee e eet t ene ete 53
Marking with Net weight ...... 0.0... cece cece eee ee eee eee renee 54
Pumigation. gacssiacosae ayo.s's erases doGunede SOS Ea GEN ST ee Ne ae 54
Harvesting Extracted Honey .........:c esc e cece eee eee nee 55
Returning Wet Combs to Bees ......... 0... c cece eee eee tee eee 55
Preparing Extracted Honey for Market .........--6. essere eee ee eens 56

° INA ec septecyate a6 oa eas wo gov ice GT gata BNR a er RR Ree arena IN cae Hide hcdeg se ava 58
Rendering Old Combs: #45 2: vcsgunnirigins gen gee egret ee areas 58
Marketing « c.cccithagic aes eeee ee Ba teses ted seT Eee Gees Beery 58

OWES INTOMUCHON eo. cis Bo5a Pao MANS ASE EEDA eNom Pee RRA 59
Removing the Old Queen .......... cece cee cece cent eee e eee ene 60
Introducing the Queen ......... 0.0 ccc cc cece eee t teen eee 61
Balan: Queen, ssc ssisecsensee prove axswinn eantiinbaiagigeecs fare tusbetatotaveneyet nib Saceacneuaniieu 63

Diseases “anidt Hime es. fecyesscrs ce etecrakosctenseaieamainciniene ald nstcat be eau eeceeNen ease liad tbe tls 63
Brood Diseases: wscawwe cnn veae hiner alae er tena horas Vente 63
American Foulbtood, 22:<25 cssnse eae nessa ese esanlesiennictnla en macaes) 64
Furopéan: Foulbtood) iacdeoeescawacsae celoet © eek Aga ewOR eyes 67
SAC DEOOO soc gaszssicccgueveak ta) OH eee ian cake rdcsadraes giedas Loser Saeheumae ey ooeceRiaes 70
Brood Diseases Contrasted ............ 0000 cece ete eee nee 71

JA digit, Bees sDisea sess jncesiacicigichis-y aa eoccce yd ere mavnie nanan Scacudt stoke einai arabe avin 71
Paral ysisi, xcecswiairaytasain en ease ccc gogegeneeeaniatn ips aoe anecs anata niteoe la iment 71
Crawling’ Disorder 2 asexas caneoseaws esis has ieanesuidaaaine cemeS 12,
Dysentety <cccces dasa oes sane ele weed ae eee eee era heer saci 73

SCH S «yh cea ce Beh cache athe asthe Shak ev ANE eee a Beda eacs, 6S Gs tye ones eS Forde 73
PRTG sod osie a shay Ste Soest Seay eens tea RE ee EW aelech gS ene AIT Tet DUE ec ae 73
Wiiaie: STO CHE: crs reiensncrde mthicoeaniexsrrenotege easwntaisecreactsetuti Vaated eset hetaaaaley  Riaked tameactraed 74
SISO AAS: aaiuswelesncesnstat en eee dates al ata ewe e ect Soe hrc tig Aen ae Nae) cya 75
Skunks: cemakisnawnevalay y eae raed eee bax Cee ee eat hae Dee oat ange 75
SNAKES. 2 whan aade hoa. 4 88 Se RG Beene sce Got aeaadaaa cindnan ds aede ce Gacuaners 75
IMEC Ee cc sosassisostuscoirsau ater) ScdsR «abasic advniartars Sed) Ged cgebctee dw aeew Nenad Mies as onheenesess 75

HE ECTS BEES: “prev esenreniesaces toni Sot a 59 ttt ethcas fa chtcdoncusnsies aed monestemsnecincceap ent iou ietd we oonNetated 715
RECO rE sais: teioss seca esracaktaeaaecabee stare eeceas agence d 2 be eer erential sie a valhceeriece 76

Robbing. sacscawswmamentemexcen sa gxxumorenieriad oy Mee ecmendn 5 eens Leen 77

Smoker Fuel, sve sreyucnoats eaiy-v 20 x KANG eee fea a wie vevoabiononensieedrasiad uammsearnagaba 77

Springs Dewan lane: sec ycpcasdecccesa isha soe srsic Sinden’ Gavnsu as oc tee eo devenowugrh seh dveveodneasennticice 78

Pravisherring! Bees: sasvescceime.s W cokidve ed raennnians anakcech aren coumenegvemneeare ls a-eaqeumeaineueR 78

STanging vasdvsascx an pyaeseea aaa tne a eommnaleelaidin wah etuaves wleety ooo e ee oa date 80

Snow-Covered Hives: seseissuniwe's xe sacar quero shea SE BNR AARK a o/b Seaadodctaah ocdenee 80

Bee Disease Control Laws .......0. ccc cee n cece scene evecenneeeeeenevees 80

Winter: Feeding: sc aciiscsoccsscnscinsratdasinasndeicaved wiatelavd-acene a weavedantda leone le eacesnecaigaatieing 85

Ownership of Escaped Swarms .............0-cccecces ccc tecucesveunseas 85

Beer Mees: ccssnawveihs Ganeoregdiasin 5 a aparece Syms Ke dheseNcaasiacs Comataeeheens 85

Uniting; ‘Colonies: sass wing amc vx tee eG msakcales cessed soled assenseleseeac ge dus ialacandea eonaecers 86

WATER UV BOOS 2s ie cnet 4 hts shen x rashes tre ancl Srmnor hehe gts as Sx aren alee 86

Periodicals and Publications ............ ccc ces cecccceeeuceuceaeueuseues 90
 

  
 
 
 
 
 
 

Two hundred sections of
comb honey were taken, in
one season, from the New
Jersey colony of bees shown
at the right.

 

 

Two hundred and
fifty pounds of ex-
tracted honey were se-
cured in one season
from the New Jersey
colony shown at the

left.

   
A Manual of Bee Husbandry

By Etmer G. Carr, Deputy Bee Inspector
INTRODUCTION

In 1915 the writer, in “A Manual of Bee Husbandry,” attempted
to set forth some of the principles of profitable bee management.
Many persons have found this publication helpful, and the edition
has been exhausted.

Interest in better beekeeping in New Jersey has immensely in-
creased, and requests for information on the subject continue to
be received. For these reasons it has been considered wise to rewrite
the Manual and embody in it the information gleaned in the past
five years in bee disease control and honey production, both from
the writer’s experience and from the experience of others.

In beekeeping, as in some other vocations, it is a human trait
to look to some distant field as the one where the greatest success
might be achieved. Undoubtedly this results in many cases in the
beekeeper giving his bees less attention than is necessary for good
results, under the impression that in some places bees require little
or no care.

At the outset it should be borne in mind clearly that, although
bees do not need constant attention, if a reasonable amount of success
is to be had their needs must be anticipated and adequately met.

The record in New Jersey of 400 pounds of extracted honey
from one colony, and another record of 1500 sections of comb honey
from five colonies of bees in one season, are sufficient to show that
there is good honey-producing territory in New Jersey. (See Frontis-
piece). Good stock, a good location and good management are needed
to produce such results.

These data are not shown to give the idea that such yields are
common, but they do show that heavy yields under favorable condi-
tions are possible in New Jersey. The data gained in the work of
bee inspection and the inquiries of beekeepers received by mail
clearly indicate that beekeepers of this state need a clear presenta-
tion of the principles of good beekeeping as they apply to New Jersey
conditions.

Honey bees cannot be classed as domesticated in the sense in
which that word is used in relation to other farm animals. It is

7
quite possible that they carry on their activities in practically the
same way as they did thousands of years ago. It is true that bees
may be induced to live in man-made hives, but these must conform
quite generally to the bee’s instincts, or the bees will perish, -

As man has gained knowledge of the bees’ normal activities and
adapted them to his use, in just that proportion has he been able to
derive profit from the bees. '

Since, then, profitable beekeeping is based upon turning to man’s
account the natural activities of the bees, the first part of this work
will be devoted to a discussion of the bees when uninterfered with
by man. In the latter half will be discussed methods of directing
the activities of the bees so that they may prosper and produce a
profit for their owner. (Fig. 1).

 

 

Fig. 1. The annual returns from this New Jersey apiary are entirely satisfactory.

LIFE HISTORY

A knowledge of ihe activities of a normal colony of bees. both
collectively and individually, is necessary for its profitable manage-
ment. A hive occupied by bees is called a colony.

A normal colony of bees consists of a series of parallel combs
of wax with nearly hexagonal cells extending in opposite directions
from a common base. These cells are slightly elevated at the mouth.
The combs are suspended from above, spaced approximately 1 3/8
inches from center to center and stocked with honey, pollen and in
the breeding season with immature bees in all stages of their growth.

8
On these combs are clustered adult worker bees (undeveloped fe-
males) to the number of from 3,000 .to sometimes 100,000 individ-
uals, depending upon the prosperity of the colony; one fertile queen
(fully developed female) and, in the season when mating is possible,
a few hundred drones (males); all housed in some place protected
from the weather. Honey bees cannot exist except as colonies.
When the number of individuals in a colony becomes small they
perish.

The different classes of occupants of the hive will be discussed
separately.

QUEEN

The queen (Fig. 2) is a fully developed female whose only duty is
the production of eggs. She is reared in an especially constructed cell
which normally points downward and is usually built singly, although
queen cells are sometimes found in groups of two or three. The inter-
nal diameter of the queen cell is about one-third of an inch. In its
early stages of construction it resembles an acorn cup, and when
completed the outside is indented, somewhat resembling a peanut
shell. In this cell a female egg is deposited from which, at the end of

 

Fig. 2. Queen—Redrawn ABC.

three days, emerges a minute grub so small as to be almost invisi-
ble to the unaided eye. The grub is then surrounded by and floats
in a creamy mass called royal jelly, a mixture of honey and pollen
which has undergone a process by the nurse bees who supply it
to the developing larva. On this the larva feeds and increases
in size until at the end of the fifth day of its existence, or eight
days from the deposition of the egg, the grub (larva) entirely fills
the cell which has been elongated as the larva grew until it is up-
wards of an inch in length. At this time it is sealed over by the
worker bees.
In the next stage of development, known as the pupal period,
the creature undergoes transformations and is changed into a winged
snsect. It also lines its cell with a cocoon which does not extend
to that third of the cell nearest the base. About eight days after
sealing the adult winged queen removes the cap from the point of
the cell and emerges from the cell. Usually about one day previous
to the emergence of the queen the bees remove the waxen point from
the cell leaving only the fibrous cocoon confining the queen. The
queen is equipped with a sting which is slightly curved, is not barbed,
and is seldom, if ever, used except against a rival queen.

Appearance

The shape of the queen reminds one of a wasp or hornet. As
compared with the worker her abdomen is longer and more pointed
at the posterior end. Because of the length of the abdomen the
wings appear shorter than those of the worker bees, but in reality
they are slightly longer. The color of the queen varies, with the
race or admixture of races, from a light brown to a glossy black
or a combination of the two, and varies most on the abdomen.

Soon after emergence from the cell the queen goes to an open
cell of honey and satisfies her need for food. When from five to
eight days old she leaves the hive for the mating flight which occurs
in the open air. After a successful mating the queen returns to
the hive bearing evidence of union with the drone by the drone’s
genital organ still attached to her body. At the time of copulation
the queen receives a supply of spermatozoa which is stored in a
receptacle (spermatheca) within her body. The spermatozoa re-
main active during the lifetime of the queen, which may be four or
five years or until the supply becomes exhausted. About two days
after mating the queen commences to deposit eggs, which she places
in the cells to the bottom of which they are attached at one end.
These eggs are pearly white in color and about one-sixteenth of an
inch in length. Their short diameter is about that of the period
used in this printing. Under favorable conditions a queen will
deposit upwards of two thousand eggs in a day and continue. at this
rate for weeks. She deposits eggs which will bring forth males,
these eggs being called fertile but unfertilized. Eggs which will
result in females are also deposited; these are said to be both fertile
and fertilized. No spermatozoa are found in the male eggs.

After a successful mating flight, only one of which occurs during
the lifetime of the queen, she does not again leave the hive except to
accompany a swarm.

A queen which does not become fertilized before she is many
weeks old seldom, if ever, proves to be of any value. There are re-

10 :
ports of queens reared in the fall having mated the following spring,
but positive evidence on this point is lacking.

Any female larva less than two days old may become a worker
or queen, depending upon the manner in which it is reared. If the
larva is in a cell one-third of an inch in diameter and is fed on
“royal jelly” for the full feeding period, the result will be a fully
developed female—queen. If by accident or otherwise a colony be-
comes deprived of its queen and still has female larvae less than
two days old it is possible for the bees to produce a queen from a
female larva by enlarging the cell and giving the royal food for
the full feeding period. In this manner the loss of a queen may be
corrected if there are still female larvae young enough. But if the
larvae are older than two days a queen cannot be developed and the
colony is said to be hopelessly queenless.

A queen will deposit more eggs the first year than in any sub-
sequent year of her lifetime.

Abnormal Queens

Beside the normal queen just discussed there are the following
abnormal ones: (1) Those which deposit eggs irregularly (poor
layers); (2) those whose eggs produce drones only (drone layers) ;
(3) those whose eggs do not hatch, and (4) queens which do not
deposit eggs. The work of the poor layer is distinguished by the
combs of capped brood having scattered through them cells vacant
or containing young uncapped larvae instead of solid spaces of brood
of uniform age. If, from any cause, a queen is not able to take the
mating flight before she becomes some weeks old, she can and usually
will produce eggs which will hatch. These eggs, however, because of
the absence of spermatozoa in them, will give rise to drones only.
Such a queen is known as a drone layer. The work of a drone layer
may be recognized by drone brood in worker comb, indicated by the
very convex cappings over the cells plus the eggs regularly placed in
the bottom of the cells.

Occasionally there is found a queen depositing unfertile eggs.
This is rather uncommon, and more so is the case of a queen which does
not deposit eggs at all, although these abnormal queens are some-
times seen.

There is but one normal laying queen in a hive except in case of
supersedure, when both mother and daughter may, for a time, produce
eggs in the same hive, Soon, however, the old queen disappears.

WoRKERS

The workers (Fig. 3) are undeveloped females and do not pro-
duce eggs except under abnormal conditions.

ll
Workers are reared in cells which are by far the most numerous
in the colony and measure one-fifth of an inch in diameter. They are
hatched from female eggs. The incubation period is three days.
The worker larvae are fed on a prepared food which, during the first
two days, resembles that given the queen (royal jelly) except that
the quantity is much less. After the first two days the food is less
finely prepared and becomes coarser, until at the end of six days
feeding ceases. During this period the larva has increased in size until
it completely fills the cell. It is then capped over by the workers.

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 3. Worker—Redrawn ABC.

During the next twelve days it undergoes transformations, and at the
end of this period, which is twenty-one days from the time the egg
was deposited, bites its way from the cell a fully developed winged
insect.

Appearance

The worker bee differs from the queen in appearance principally
in the size and shape of the abdomen. There is also a difference in
the size and shape of the thorax and head. The abdomen of the worker
bee is considerably shorter than that of the queen and comes to a
point more abruptly. It is also smaller in diameter, particularly
as compared with a laying queen whose abdomen is distended with
eggs. After emerging from the cell it soon takes up the inside work
of the hive, such as feeding larvae, secreting wax and building comb,
ventilating, and keeping the hive free of refuse matter. These young
workers are called nurse bees. About midday on bright sunshiny
days the young workers fly from the hive and mark its location and void
the feces. The first flight is a very short distance from the hive. These
flights increase in length until the bee has fixed the location of the
hive and can unerringly return to its home. These flights are called
“play flights,” and because frequently a large number of bees engage
in it at one time it is sometimes mistaken for an attempt at swarming.
When about two weeks of age the workers take up outside work and

12
collect and bring to the colony nectar, pollen, water and propolis
or “bee glue.”

Workers are furnished with eight glands, called “wax pockets,”
on the underside of the abdomen arranged four on each side. These
secrete wax which is removed from them by the bee herself. At the
time of removal these wax flakes are about the diameter of the head
of a pin, tend to a circular form and are of milky whiteness in color.
These the workers fashion into comb by a kneading process with
the mandibles.

The adults under fourteen days old are the ones which secrete
wax most readily. Older adults do little or nothing in this line, as the
organs which produce wax fail to function readily.

The number of workers in a colony may vary greatly and may
be a few hundred or many thousands. The lifetime of a worker bee
under active working conditions is about six weeks, but one hatched
late in the season may live until the following spring, and is old or
young as she has worked much or little. The worker bee is furnished
with a sting which is straight and barbed. This she freely uses in
defence of the colony.

The shaft of a worker’s sting is composed of three parts, the
two-barbed parts of which are held together by a third semi-sheath
along which the barbs alternately glide as they are driven into the
flesh by the controlling muscles. Connected with this is the poison
sack about the size of a cabbage seed, from which the poison is forced
into the wound through a canal formed by the union of the two
barbs and the sheath. As the sting is driven into the flesh the poison
is injected into the wound until the sting is driven in its entire length
and the poison sack entirely emptied. Because of the barbs the
sting cannot easily be withdrawn when inserted in the flesh. It is
seldom removed by the bee, but by her efforts she separates herself
from the animal attacked by forcibly separating the sting from her
body, leaving attached to the sting the poison sack, the muscles which
control them and a part of the intestine. This constitutes a rather
serious injury to the bee and results in her death, although a bee so
injured has been known to live two or three days.

Abnormal Workers

When a colony becomes queenless and has no worker brood young
enough to develop into a queen, often a worker or workers will
produce eggs. Since the worker cannot mate with the drone these eggs
produce drones only, being unfertilized. These eggs are not placed
in the normal position in the bottom of the cell but are found largely
on the side walls. Another indication of laying workers is drone
brood in worker cells characterized by the very convex capping on

13
worker cells. This condition of the cappings is also present in the
case of a “drone laying” queen, but the eggs for the most part are
normally placed in the bottom of the cell.

DRONE

The drone (Fig. 4) is the male bee and, so far as is known,
serves no useful purpose except to fertilize the queen.

He is reared in a cell shaped like the worker cell but larger and
measures one fourth of an inch in diameter. He is hatched from an
unfertilized egg in three days from the time it is deposited in the cell.

 

Fig. 4. Drone—Redrawn ABC.

The tiny grub is then fed in a manner similar to the workers, is sealed
over at the end of the feeding period (seven days) and fourteen days
later, or twenty-four days from the time the egg was deposited, comes
forth from the cell fully developed. It is believed a drone is not
capable of fertilizing a queen until about two weeks old. Drones are
present in a normal colony only during that season of the year when
queen mating normally occurs; hence, there are no drones in a normal
colony in winter. Drones fly from the hive for exercise and to void the
feces. They are not capable of gathering their own food, but feed upon
the stores within the hive. After the season has passed when queen
mating is possible, or at a time when there is a severe dearth of nectar.
the drones are driven from the hive by the workers and perish from
cold and hunger. Their lifetime, therefore, may vary from a few
days to a few months.

Appearance

In appearance, as compared with other members of the colony.
ihe drone is a massive fellow. His whole body is larger and has
the appearance of being cumbersome. The most marked difference
is in the abdomen, which is larger in every way and very blunt at
the posterior end. He has no sting.

14
There may be abnormal drones, but there are always so many
more drones reared than can fulfill their mission that no fear need
be felt that an insufficient supply of normal drones will occur. But
one drone is needed to fertilize each queen, in which act he loses
his life.

Table showing the approximate time of development of honey
bees in different stages of existence.

 

 

 

 

| Eggs | Feeding | Transfor- Total [| Adult Period

period | mation per-

a mc iileae | Larva iod—Pupa

Queen ........... | 3 days | 5 days | 8 days 16 days 3-4 years

Worker ......... | 3 days | 6 days | 12 days 21 days 6 weeks in
| | active season
Drone .......... 3 days | 7 days 14 days 24 days | uncertain, 2
eee fl | wks.-2 mos.

 

 

Note:—Half-days are sometimes used in indicating the periods of development
except for the .egg.

It is entirely possible that because of the food supply or temperature, the
development may be accelerated or retarded. However, for the practical bee-
keeper the figures given will prove reliable.

BROOD

During eight or nine months of the year in New Jersey, there
are found in the combs of a normal colony young bees in all stages
of development, from the newly deposited egg to the winged insect
emerging from the cell. This is known as the brood and is called
sealed or open brood, depending on whether or not the cell is capped.

EGGS

So far as outward appearance goes there ‘is nothing to distin-
guish an egg which will produce a male from one which will bring
forth a female. One can be assured, however, that an egg which has
been deposited in a drone cell will bring forth a male and one in a
queen cell may be depended upon to develop into a queen. Very
rarely worker brood may be found in drone cells.

When deposited in a worker or drone cell an egg projects in a
horizontal position from the center of the base of the cell. As hatch-
ing time approaches it leans over and rests for its full length on the
cell base.

The normal color of uncapped brood (larvae), whether drone
or worker, is a bluish white. When not so colored it is probably
diseased. This will be discussed later.

The capping of brood has a porous appearance, and in reality
it is sufficiently porous to admit the amount of air required by the

15
developing creature beneath. The capping over normal brood is
slightly convex. Over drone brood the convexity 1s pronounced,
and its appearance has been likened to that of pistol bullets stand-
ing upright close together.

When cappings become sunken or perforated very likely disease
is present.

CYCLE OF THE YEAR

There is a season cf the year when no brood-rearing is being
carried on within the hive. This in New Jersey commonly begins
about November 1, although a colony headed by a young vigorous
queen may have brood later than this date.

At the approach of the inactive season brood-rearing gradually
diminishes until it finally entirely ceases. If the nectar supply
will permit, after the young bees emerge the cells are stored with
honey and capped with a waxen lid.

Seldom, if ever, are all the cells filled with honey, but when the
nectar supply fails there are still cells containing developing brood.
When this brood emerges there is an area of unfilled cells in and
around which the bees cluster when the temperature within the hive is
57 degrees F. or less. When the temperature within the hive is
less than that named the bees, by muscular activity, generate heat
and keep the temperature within the cluster of a normal broodless
colony of bees up to this point.

The bees feed on the stored honey to supply their needs. When
the weather, because of low temperature or storm, is such that they
are confined to the hive for some weeks, there is an accumulation
of waste (fecal) matter within their bodies. This is normally dis-
charged only when on the wing.

When the coldest period of the year occurs a normal colony of
bees, when not abundantly protected from low temperatures, greatly
increases its activity, and the cluster temperature is raised to a point
where egg deposition begins. This in New Jersey occurs some-
time about the tenth of February, varying perhaps ten days between the
extreme northern and southern parts of the state, and also varying
with the outdoor temperature.

But a few eggs are deposited in one comb at this early period.
The rate of egg-laying increases as the season advances until the
queen reaches her maximum production sometime about May 15
to June l.

THE SWARM

The numerical force of the colony is gradually reduced by deaths
through the non-broodrearing period. Gradually in spring through

16
the stimulus of increased temperature and incoming food, the nu-
merical strength is increased by the daily emergence of young bees
in excess of the death rate, until plans are made by the bees for
the departure of the queen and a number of the bees to build a home
elsewhere. This is called swarming. (Fig. 5).

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. A large New Jersey swarm (original).

In anticipation of this event, drones have been reared and later
queen cells appear. The rearing of drones is not usually considered
by practical beekeepers as a sign of swarm preparations, but the
building of queen cells, except supersedure cells, is taken as a
dependable swarm preparation sign. Rarely colonies under cer-
tain conditions will abandon swarm preparation even after having
started swarm queen cells. The queen cells are not all started at
one time, but their ages will vary several days. When the oldest
of these cells is sealed, the swarm departs on the first favorable
day. With the first or primary swarm goes the old queen, a con-
siderable number of drones and thousands of workers of flying age.

17
Just previous to the departure the workers fill themselves to their
fullest capacity with honey. Thus they are equipped for the work
of establishing a new home, and are provisioned against hunger
should there immediately follow a few days when no food-collecting
is possible. Usually swarms alight and remain clustered on some
support for a varying length of time before occupying their new
home. There is evidence that certain worker bees called scouts
frequently and possibly usually select the new home and direct
the swarm to it after they have been clustered for a time. Swarms
have been known to remain on the limb of a tree where first they
clustered, there build their nest and remain until they perished from
the winter storms.

Primary swarms usually alight comparatively low and not far from
the hive, but after-swarms are not so considerate of the beekeeper’s
wishes and often alight high and at some distance from the hive.

Eventually the clustered bees normally break cluster and fly
to the home selected. In this they cluster again in a compact mass.
The younger workers within a short time secrete wax, and the work
of building the combs of the new home begins. A part of the field
force goes out, collects and brings to the hive pollen, water and
nectar, and as soon as cells are prepared the queen commences egg
deposition. The size of the nest enlarges as the number of bees
and the season will permit, and in due time the colony becomes
fully established. Honey and pollen are collected and stored. As
autumn comes on preparation is made for winter, and brood-rearing
ceases.

THE PARENT COLONY

When the swarm departed from the hive it left behind combs
stocked with honey, pollen and brood of all ages. There were also
queen cells in different stages of development, some of which were
sealed, and the worker force which was afield at the time the swarm
issued,

If the primary swarm was not delayed by unfavorable weather
conditions, a second swarm is due to issue about the ninth day
after the primary swarm came forth. This second swarm, and any sub-
sequent after-swarms, is accompanied by an unmated queen (virgin).
The behavior of after-swarms is similar to that of primary swarms
except that they usually alight higher and farther from the hive.
A prosperous colony in a favorable season may cast three swarms.
The third issues about four days after the second. When the last after-
swarm is cast all the emerged queens go with it except one. A swarm
may thus have several queens (virgins) with it. It is supposed

18
the surplus are killed in the battle which occurs between the queens
when more than one normal queen is at liberty in a colony.

When the bees determine that no more swarms shall issue, the

emerged queens, except one, go with the last swarm, and the imma-
ture queens, if any, are destroyed in their cells. Such destruction
is indicated by an opening in the side of the queen cell, whereas
when the queen emerges normally the opening is at the point.
The queen which is left alive in the parent colony fares forth,
mates, returns and carries on the work of egg production there.
Brood-rearing and food-collecting are carried on so long as weather
conditions permit, excepting that as autumn approaches brood-rearing
is reduced until a time arrives when it ceases entirely. The cells
which have been vacated by the emerging bees late in the season
are filled with honey to supply the needs of the colony during the
time when collecting is not possible.

This briefly is the story of the activities of a normal colony during
the year. Without a knowledge of these activities and how to direct
them the beekeper has small chance for satisfactory profits from bees.

ABNORMAL COLONIES

Beside the normal colonies discussed there are abnormal ones.

Queenless Colonies

A colony which has a normal laying queen. is said to be “queen-
right.” When no queen is present it is termed “queenless.” Queen-
lessness may be the result of accident or disease. When the virgin
goes forth for the mating flight she may be caught by a bird and
her colony becomes queenless, because at this time there is no brood
in the hive young enough to be made into a queen; she may mis-
take her hive when returning from the mating flight, enter the
wrong hive and be killed, or she may be killed by careless handling
of frames by the beekeeper. This latter rarely occurs. The develop-
ing queen in the cell may die of disease and the colony thus become
queenless. This will be discussed under the head of disease.

Signs of Queenlessness

During the normal brood-rearing season eggs are present in the
combs if the colony has a laying queen. The presence of eggs
then indicates the presence of a laying queen, except in the case
of laying workers as discussed under the head of “workers.” There
is one period when there may be a normal queen in the colony and
no eggs be present. This is during the period three days after the

19
primary swarm issued until the young queen commences to deposit
eggs. This condition will be indicated by the presence of brood,
sealed and unsealed, and the absence of unsealed queen cells.

REPLACING A LOST QUEEN

A female larva under three days of age may become a queen
or a worker, depending upon the care and environment given. If
fed abundantly on the finely prepared food for its entire larva]
existence (five days) and given a cell of sufficient size, it will be a
fully developed female (queen). If fed on a less finely prepared
food and confined to the smaller size cell (worker cell) it will be
a worker.

Within a few hours after a colony loses its queen, the bees take
steps to repair the damage. This is done by enlarging the cell around
one or more sufficiently young worker larvae less than three days old,
if such are in the hive, and feeding them abundantly. These are
called “post constructed” cells or emergency cells. Since ‘these
are built over already hatched larvae, they are more frequently found
on the side of a comb than on its edge. By using a two-day larva
rather than a fresh egg, a queen is had in the colony about five
days earlier.

Except in treating European foulbrood it is considered inadvis-
able to have a colony without egg production during the active
season for a longer period than is unavoidable.

Soon after the emergence of a queen from her cell in a normal
colony, the cell is torn down leaving only the base.

FOOD SUPPLY

It is not practicable to confine honey bees and supply them
with food as is done with many domestic animals, but they gather
food from plants which may be bearing pollen and nectar in the
vicinity. How far a bee will fly for food is not definitely known.
Neither is it known if it is unprofitable for bees to collect from plants
which are at the bounds of their range of flight. It is the opinion
of many beekeepers that profitable range of flight is not greater
than two miles. In order that the largest crops of honey be secured,
the beekeeper needs to have at least a general knowledge of the
pollen and nectar resources of his locality. Other factors being
equal, the beekeeper who succeeds in having his colonies reach
maximum strength when the surplus honey plants begin to secrete
nectar and is able to keep them contentedly working through this
period is the one who will secure the largest yields. .

Some plants have no value to the beekeeper so far as food for

20
bees is concerned; some have value as producers of pollen for brood-
rearing; some produce considerable nectar, but not in quantities
beyond that which the bees need for their own use, while some
plants produce nectar in such quantities that the bees are able to
collect and store many pounds more than they need.

No claim for absolute correctness is made for the list here given
of pollen- and nectar-producing plants of value to honey bees. It
is hoped it will serve as a basis for further observations by the

beekeeper.

NEW JERSEY PLANTS FROM WHICH BEES GATHER POLLEN

Common Name

Skunk Cabbage
Shad bush

Maples

Hazel

Elms

Willows
Dogwood
Dandelion

Ash

Horse Chestnut
Birch

Hickory

Oaks

Locust

Crimson Clover
Tulip Whitewood
Wild Cherry
Mountain laurel
Sheep laurel
Black alder

Ox Eye daisy

Indian corn

Cucumber

Melons

Sunflower

Wild turnip

Ragweed

Touch-me-not

White aster |

Heath aster

St. Michaelmas |
daisy

Goldenrod

Botanical Name

Spathyema foetida, L.

Amelanchier intermedia
Spach.

Acer, Spp. L.

Carylus americana, Wilt.

Ulmus, L.

Salix, L.

Cornus florida, L.

T. taraxacum; L.
Fraxinus

Aesculus hippocastanum L.
Betula

Hicoria

Quercus

Robina pseudacacia, L.
Trifolium incarnatum, L.
Liriodendron tulipifera, L.
Prunus serotina, Ehrh.
Kalmia latifolia, L.
Kalmia angustifolia, L.
Tlex verticillata, L.

Chrysanthemum leucan-

themum, L.
Zea Mays
Cucumis salivus, L.
Citrullus, K.
Helianthus
Brassica campestris, L
Ambrosia, L.
Impatiens biflora. Walt.

Aster ericoides, L.

Solidago Spp. Britton

2]

Approximate
Blooming Time

February-March

April

March-Mid April

Late March-Early April
Late March-Early April
Late April

May

May

May 1-15

May-June

May 15-30

May

vy:
Late May-Early June

Late May-Early June
Mid May-Early June

Mid June-Late June

Mid June
July-August

August

August

Mid Aug.-Mid Sept.
August

August
August-September

August-Mid October

Late Aug.-Early Oct.
NEW JERSEY PLANTS FROM WHICH NECTAR
SURPLUS QUANTITIES

Common Name

Maples

Peach

Pear

Apple

Willows
Dandelion

Wild Strawberry
Lupine
Raspberry
Grape
Persimmon
Vervain

Virginia creeper

Milkweed
Silkweed
False indigo
Button bush

Burdock

Tree of Heaven

Pride of China oa

Catnip
Motherwort
Horsemint
Boneset

Poison ivy
Holly

Mountain laurel
Sheep laurel
Burdock

Common Name

Crimson clover
Locust

Tulip tree
Swedish clover
Alsike clover
‘White clover
Dogbane
Indian hemp
Basswood
Linden
Hucklel.erry
Blueberry
California privet
Sumac

we

ye

Botanical Name

Acer Spp. L.
Amygadalus persica, L
Pyrus communix, L.
Pyrus malus, L.

Salix

T. taraxacum, L.

Fragaria virginiana, Mill.

Lupinus perennis, L.

Rubus occidentalis, L

Vitis

Diospyros virginiana, L.

Verbena hastata, L.

Ampelopsis quinquefolia,
Michx.

Asclepias syriaca, L.
Baptisia tinctoria, L.

Cephalanthus occiden-

talis, L
Arctium minus, Schk.

Ailanthus glandulosiis,

Desf.
Nepeta cataria. L.
Leonurus cardiaca, L.
Monarda punctata, L.

Eupatorium perfoliatum, L.

Rhus radicans, L.
Tllex opaca, Ait.
Kalmia latifolia, L.
Kalmia angustifolia, L
Arctium minus, Schk.

Botanical Name

Trifolium incarnatum, L.
Robina pseudacacia, L.

Liriodendron tulipifera, L.

Trifolium hybridum

Trifolium repens, L.

Apocynum cannabium, L.

Tilia americana

Vaccinium, Spp. L.

Ligustrum  ovifolium

Rhus Spp. L.

22

Is GALHERED

IN LESS TITAN

Approximate
Blooming Time

Mid March-Early April
Early April

Mid April

Late April-Early May
Late April

Early May

May

May

May

Late May-Early June
Mid June-Late June
Late June-Early Sept.

Late June-Late July
July
July

July
July-October

July

July

August
August-September

Mid August-September
Mid May-Late June
Late May-Late June
Late May-Late June
Late May-Late June
July-November

NEW JERSEY SURPLUS HONEY PLANTS

Approximate

Blooming Time
Mid May

May 20-June 1
May 20-June 10

June 1-July 10
Early June-Mid July
Early June-Late Aug.

Late June-Early July

Late May-Late June

Mid July-Late July
Mid June-Mid July
White sweet clover Melilotus alba. Desr. June-November

Yellow sweet clover Melilotus officinalis May 20-June 15
Cranberry Oxycoccus macrocarpus,

Ait. :
micnee ae June 15-August 15
Soap bush Clethra alnifolia, L. Late July-Late August

Sweet pepper bush i
Rose mallow \

Swamp iaallow ‘ Hibiscus moscheutos, L. Late July-Early Sept.
poet needle Bidens. L. Spp. Mid August into Oct.
t

Ghisreca Polygonum Pennsyl-

Blackheart vanicum, L. Late August-Mid Oct.

Heath aster \

White aster 5 tts

Sa Michaahans { Aster ericoides Late August-Mid Oct.
daisy

Goldenrod Solidago spp. Britton Late August-Mid Oct.

Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum Early August-Late Aug.

SurpLus Honey REcIoNs

We may divide the State of New Jersey into three zones on the
basis of surplus honey production. (Fig. 6).

The first zone includes all of the southern and middle counties
and the southern part of Middlesex, Somerset and Hunterdon. As
a rule the surplus honey in this district comes from clover. There
are occasional places, such as lowlands along large streams, where
a second flow is harvested in late summer and early autumn.

The second zone includes all north of the first with the excep-
tion of Hudson County and a part of Bergen, Passaic, Essex and
Union. In this district there are generally two distinct heavy honey
flows: the first from clover, and the last from buckwheat and fall
flowers, such as goldenrod, aster, etc.

The third zone, which roughly includes the Passaic and Hacken-
sack Valleys and the Raritan Valley below New Bruaswick, usually
produces no surplus honey except in the fall. This fall surplus
is gathered from goldenrod, aster, heartease, and mallows.

The zone map is general and must not be taken as specific.
Instances could be cited where a distance of three miles made the
difference between a good surplus honey flow and no flow. There
are districts within these zones which differ considerably from the
general conditions of honey flow in the zone. To illustrate, there is
a narrow area along the Delaware River from Burlington to Camden
where no surplus from clover can be expected, but the Spanish
Needles (Bidens spp.) furnish a fairly dependable fall surplus flow.
Again there are areas in Hunterdon, Warren and Morris counties
where an abundance of Sumac furnishes a splendid surplus honey
flow in July. There are also limited areas in Hunterdon, Somerset,

23
Morris and Warren counties where sweet clover is em important
surplus honey plant. Therefore each beekeeper is urged to collect
data for his own locality.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 6. Zone map (original).

RACES OF BEES

The world has been searched for honey bees in an effurt to secure
the race which will give the best results under North American con-
ditions. The German, Italian, Egyptian, Caucasian, Carniolan and
Cyprian honey bees have been tested, also crosses of these races.
The domestic Italians have gained and still hold a reputation for
utility far ahead of other races or strains.

There are strains of Italians, the results of selection and breeding,
called three-banded, leather-colored and golden, according to the color.
It is probable the difference is principally one of color. The pref-
erence at this time is for the leather-colored bees.

A colony is considered to be pure Italian when all of the worker
offspring of a queen have a pronounced yellow band on each of

24,
the three anterior segments of the abdomen and the bees are quiet
under manipulation. The abdomen of the Italian queen is usually
colored a light brown. The drones vary considerably in coloring,
some being a light brown while others are a rather dark brown with
combinations of these shades.

MAKING A START WITH BEES

There are business concerns which make a business of selling
bees and beekeepers’ supplies. In many cases it is wise to buy a
colony of Italian bees from a reputable firm as early in the spring
as is possible, even though the cost is considerable. Another way
to make a start is to purchase a colony nearby, if one satisfactory
in every way can be had. Still another is to secure a hive fitted
up for bees and get some beekeeping neighbor to put into it an early
swarm. Buying bees in box hives or old frame hives, and trans-
ferring to modern frame hives, gives excellent experience, and when
a novice has accomplished this he has gained experience which is
valuable and can hardly be secured in any other way. From a
financial standpoint it is of doubtful value. Buying bees in pack-
ages without combs, or buying two or three frame nuclei, is sometimes
practical for the experienced beekeeper, but only by rare chance
will the person with limited knowledge of beekeeping avoid loss
by this method of starting with bees. For this reason the novice
is advised to get a full colony. The experienced person needs no
advice in the matter but can apply his knowledge in 'a way which
will give best results.

LOCATING THE COLONY

The majority of New Jersey beekeepers have bees as a side line,
and because of limited space have little choice as to where they
shall be located. The wise beekeeper will bear in mind that the
public is afraid of bees whether there is danger or not. He should
further consider that there may be considerable advantage to the
bees in one location rather than in another. The colonies should
be placed where there will be the smallest danger of annoyance
to persons or animals passing or to animals in fields.

The bees will be favored if the hive is protected by some sort
of windbreak from the prevailing winter winds. Bees are sometimes
kept on the roofs of buildings, and at least one colony in New Jersey
is kept in a living room with an entrance through a board under
the window. A solid board fence is not a good windbreak, but if
a fence is used for this purpose the boards should be spaced a
short distancé apart. This arrangement checks the currents of air

25
and does not set up eddy currents which may blow in the hive
entrance. It is exceedingly unwise to place the hives close together
making it impossible to work at them from the side. The young
queens also are more likely to mistake their hive upon returning
from a flight, and, entering the wrong hive, be killed.

If conditions make it necessary, the hive may be placed a con-
siderable distance from the ground; otherwise, it is best elevated
only enough to preserve the bottom from decay.

The direction the front of the hive shall face appears to have
but little bearing on the prosperity of the colony, although when
practical a southerly direction is chosen. Dense shade is not con-
sidered desirable, neither is it well to place the hive close beside
the south side of a building in the full sunlight in summer unless
adequate shade is provided.

LOCATING THE APIARY

If the largest financial success is desired, care should be taken
to locate the apiary where there is the greatest opportunity for the
bees to gather nectar. The “back-lotter” with his dozen or less colonies
will, of course, make the best of the location in which he finds
himself, but the person who plans to make honey production a worth-

 

 

Fig. 7. The annual return from this New Jersey apiary is $7.00 per colony.

26
while business will be well repaid for the trouble taken to search
out the most advantageous location. There are locations where,
because of a variety of nectar-secreting plants, there is usually more
than one major honey flow, making it less likely that there will
be an entire crop failure should any one of the surplus honey plants
fail to yield. Such a location the wise business beekeeper will use
much care to find. Selecting a place where a natural windbreak,
either forest or bluff, will provide protection from the prevailing
winter winds may mean the difference between strong colonies or
weak and dead ones in the spring. (Fig. 7). A location in a wood
is excellent so far as wind protection is concerned.

Accessibility by the vehicle used is essential, as is also security
from annoyance to animals or persons. If the beekeeper’s residence
is beside one of the trunk highways there is then afforded the op-
portunity to dispose of much of the crop at a roadside stand, and
in this way more profit may be secured.

APPARATUS

Successful beekeeping does not require much nor complicated
apparatus. As with other agricultural pursuits, there is a change
in apparatus as the business develops. It is but a few years since
swarms were hived in a plain box with perhaps two cross sticks
to help support the combs. To get the honey the bees were killed
(taken up) over a pit with sulphur fumes. Later the box was made
with an upper and lower compartment. The surplus honey was
removed from the upper compartment without killing the bees. This
did not permit an examination of the interior of the colony and gave
only a limited control of the bees. In 1851 Rev. L. L. Langstroth
invented a hive with each comb surrounded by a frame so that each
could be removed and replaced at will without damage. This was
made to accommodate ten frames, and the hive used by the majority
of beekeepers in America today is, so far as capacity and arrange-
ment of frames are concerned, the same as that made by Langstroth.

There is a tendency at this time to use a hive with deeper frames
than the Langstroth. While those who advocate this present some
strong arguments for its use, more experience seems necessary before
definite statements are advisable.

THE HIVE

The modern ten-frame hive, sometimes called the Langstroth hive,
is a box with removable top and bottom, (Fig. 8) the top being tight
fitting and the bottom so made that there is a space below the level of
the bottom of the box. (Fig. 42). This box measures outside 16 1/2

27
 

Fig. 8. Modern 10-frame bee hive—Root Co.

X 20 X 9 1/2 inches, and is rabbetted on each end to support ten
frames measuring outside 9 1/8 X 17 5/8 in such a manner that
there is a space of approximately one-fourth inch between the ends
of the frames and the end of the hive, and a like space between the

ra
"

l
:

 

TL

HA

Fig. 9. Brood frames.

top of the frames and the level of the top of the hive. The frame
ends touch each other for one-third of the distance from the top
and are spaced 1 3/8 inches from center to center (Fig. 9). These
frames have the end bars pierced so that four small wires can be
strung horizontally through the frame, the first 3/4 inch from the
top bar, the bottom 1 1/4 inch from the bottom bar and the other
two equally spaced between. These are to support and strengthen

28
the comb, which is built by the bees from a sheet of embossed bees-
wax (foundation) that is secured at the top in the groove provided
and is fastened to the wires. This is done by pressing the wires into
the foundation, or, which is far better, the wires are embedded

 

Fig. 10. Electrical wire imbedder (Root).

by an electrical device (Fig. 10) which heats a section of the wire,
and by a rocking motion the current is transferred to other sec-
tions as each beomes sufficiently heated. This causes the wire to
sink into the softened wax. A full sheet of medium brood foundation
should be used rather than a narrow strip. It frequently occurs when
only a narrow strip of foundation, called a starter, is used in the
frames that the bees build much drone size comb. This is most likely
to occur if the queen is not a vigorous one. As a rule, so long
as the queen produces eggs rapidly enough to use cells for eggs
as fast as the bees build them, worker comb will-be built; other-
wise, the tendency is to build drone or store-size cells. To insure
the greatest amount of worker-size cells in the colony, which is
desirable, a full sheet of foundation should be used in the frames.
This is to reduce the number of drones, since the foundation is
embossed with the rudiments of cells of worker size and, with rare
exceptions, the bees follow the pattern and build worker comb. It
also insures greater regularity of combs.

As sent from the factory the frame end-bars are pierced so
that the top wire is three-fourths inch below the top bar. Much better
results follow when this wire is but one-fourth inch below the top
bar. When go placed and the foundation is electrically imbedded,
fastening the foundation in the groove is unnecessary.

That part of the hive which rests on the bottom board and con-
tains the ten frames is known as the brood chamber. In it the
bees rear their young and store honey for their use when collecting
is not possible. That portion of the combs in the brood chamber
occupied by brood is known as the brood-nest. Sometimes a second
chamber is used for brood, and it is then a two-story brood chamber.
This is becoming a common practice, as it gives a larger space for
the activities of the queen, results in a larger force of bees being
reared and, as a consequence, a larger crop of surplus honey.

29
Bees do not consciously gather nectar and convert it into honey
for man, but their object is to supply their own needs when gather-
ing is not: possible. Man has taken advantage of this providence
of the bees, supplies them with room in which to store surplus honey
instead of dissipating their energies in swarming, and removes from
the hive the amount above that which the bees will need through
the non-collecting period.

SUPERS

When an addition is made to the hive in which the bees are ex-
pected to store the surplus honey it is known as the super.

 

 

 

~~

2! &
Fig. 13. Comb honey super for 4% square, beeway sections (Root).

30
The construction of the super depends upon whether comb or
extracted honey is desired. When extracted honey is produced bee-
keepers in general use a super with frames the same as the brood
body, which provides for the interchange of frames from one to
the other. A few beekeepers use what is known as the shallow
extracting super (Fig. 11) the frames in which are similar to brood
frames but of lighter construction and about one-half the depth.

For the production of honey for market to be used in the comb,
a comb honey super (Figs. 12 & 13) is used. This accommodates twenty-
four to thirty-two thin basswood frames depending upon the size and
style. These frames are called sections. The sections are of such size
that when well filled with honey they will weigh approximately one
pound. Four of these sections are supported in a three-sided frame
(section holder), and each section holder is separated from the one next
to it by a “separator” or “fence” depending upon whether it isa
thin board or a fence-like affair made of thin slats of wood.

 

Fig. 15. The three common sizes of sections folded (Root).

In most common use are the two beeway sections measuring 4 1/4
X 41/4 X 1 7/8 inches, the plain section measuring 4 1/4 X 4.1/4 X
1 1/2 inches and the 4 X 5 X 1 3/8 plain section. (Figs. 14&15).
The beeway section has insets in its edges which provide for spacing
them the proper distance apart from side to side in the super. A
fence provides this spacing when the plain sections are used.

Apparently it is about as much a matter of personal choice as
anything else as to which style of section shall be used. It would
be inadvisable to use any style of section other than one of these
three. A full sheet of thin or extra thin foundation should be used
in the sections.

For the production of honey for home consumption to be used
in the comb, the shallow frames are best. The honey can be cut

31
from these leaving about one-half inch attached to the top bar,
which serves as a guide for the bees when the frames are returned
to them for refilling. More honey per hive can be produced in the
shallow frames than in sections and with less labor and expense
and less trouble from swarming.

TOOLS AND APPARATUS

Smoker

Protection from the attacks’of bees is one of the essentials in
successful beekeeping. Fortunately for the person who has to deal
with bees, much stinging can be avoided. When smoke is blown
on bees they fill with honey, and when so filled seldom venture an
attack. This will have little or no effect upon angry bees when on
the wing. In order that the smoke may be applied as needed a

 

 

Fig. 16. Bee smoker (redrawn).

smoker (Fig. 16) is used in which is burned almost any inflam-
mable material, wood in all probability being the best. Tobacco is
not used. So far as its effect upon the bees is concerned the smoke
from any fuel appears to differ little if at all, from another, except
that greasy waste which is sometimes recommended and tobacco
are to be avoided as a bee-smoker fuel.

Smokers are made in two types: the hot and the cold blast.
The hot blast smoker forces the air through the fire and out the
nozzle, carrying the smoke with it. The cold blast smoker forces
the air over the fire and out the nozzle drawing out the smoke. This
latter type cannot be recommended.

There are three sizes of the hot blast smoker known as the Junior,
Standard and Jumbo, having a 2 1/2-inch, 3 1/4-inch and 4-inch

32
firepot, respectively. The Standard size is recommended, although
for a very few colonies the Junior is satisfactory. It is believed
the extra expense of a copper rather than a tin firepot is not warranted.

Veil
It is seldom safe to manipulate bees without some protection

from stinging on the face although experienced beekeepers who
well know the bees’ behavior sometimes work without a veil.

 

 

|
Fig. 17. Cotton bee veil (Root).

   

Fig. 18. Wire cloth bee veil (original).

Protection for the face is of two general styles: the soft veil,
made of thread or cloth which can be folded in small compass and
is worn over a hat (Fig. 17), or the stiff veil made largely of wire cloth
which cannot be readily folded (Fig. 18). The wire cloth veil has
all the desirable features needed in a bee veil, possibly, excepting ease
of folding. It is not easily torn and stands out from the face in
spite of wind. This is commonly called the Alexander veil, although
Langstroth* illustrates it in his book dated 1853. It can readily
be made at home. A piece of painted wire cloth mosquito bar
9 1/2" X 30” is fastened in the form of a cylinder, first having

*Langstroth, L. L. 1853, Langstroth on the Hive and Honey Bee.
33
turned over 3/8 inch of each edge to take care of the cut wire ends.
A circular cloth crown is then sewed over one end of the cylinder
and a cloth skirt 9 1/2 inches deep is sewed on the other. Around
the bottom of the skirt is a 1/4-inch hem. A piece of cloth 9” X
12” is then sewed on the outside of the cylinder on what shall be
the back, to provide shade for the back of the head and also to prevent
the bee stinging through at this point, for when worn the veil touches
the head at the top and back. To make the veil complete thread a
stout cord 3 yards long into the hem of the skirt drawing the ends
out of the hem 3” each side of the centre of the front of the veil
so there is a space of 6 inches in front where the cord does not
run through the hem. The veil is worn without a hat. To adjust
the veil place it over the head with the cloth covered wire at the
back, grasp the ends of the string in each hand, pass them around
the back, then to the front of the body and tie. In the commercial
Alexander veil no provision is made for the string in the bottom
hem. Without this, easy and safe adjustment is not possible.

Gloves

Until confidence and experience is gained the operator may use

   

Lidlbe

Fig. 19. Bee gloves (original).

long gloves (Fig. 19) to protect the hands and forearms from stings.
Those made for the purpose can be bought at beekeepers supply
houses, or a fairly satisfactory substitute may be found in a pair of
canton flannel gloves thoroughly wet with linseed oil and sun dried.
This makes them practically impervious to stings. If it is desired, old
stocking tops may be added as protection for the forearms. Rubber
gloves are not satisfactory for this purpose.

Hive Tool

Some instrument is needed to pry apart the frames and the supers
and hive bodies. Many tools are made to serve this purpose, such
as an oyster knife, screw driver, old jack knife, part of buggy spring,
ete., but a tool for the purpose will be found to be a worth-while
mvestment. The Root tool (Fig. 20) is a good one. It has been
improved by Dr. C. D. Cheney, a New Jersey beekeeper, by making
the straight end a quarter circle instead of square and also slightly

34
 

\

 

 

oma

 

Fig. 21. Cheny hive tool.

bending the same end in the direction opposite to the end which
is bent for scraping (Fig. 21). When two supers suddenly part
when inserting the Root hive tool the thumb nail is sometimes in-
jured. With Doctor Cheney’s modified hive tool this does not occur.

Bee Escape

When supers are to be removed from the hive it is desirable
that the bees first be removed from them. When producing extracted
honey it is possible to do this by driving the majority of them from
the super by smoking and brushing off the remainder with a bee

 

Fig. 22. Bee brush Gedleswal,

brush made for the purpose (Fig. 22). This is impractical when
comb honey is to be taken as the bees, following their instinct
to fill with honey when smoked and finding no uncapped honey in
the super, make holes in the cappings which spoil it for marketing.

35
   

Fig. 23. Porter bee escape (Root).

To avoid this damage a Porter bee escape (Fig. 23 is used. This
permits passage of the bees in one direction only. This is placed

 

Fig, 24. Escape board (Root).

in the escape board (Fig. 24), and the board is placed between the
super to be removed and the brood chamber. Usually within half
a day the bees will have left the super, and it can be removed with-
out damage to the honey or annoyance from the bees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 25. Queen excluder (Root).
. Queen Excluder
The queen excluder (Fig. 25) is a device made either of per-
36
forated zinc or a series of parallel wires with openings of such size
that the workers can pass through but the queen and drones, because
of the larger thoraces, are debarred.

This is used in extracted honey production to confine the queen and
her brood-rearing operations to the brood chamber.

Uncapping Knife

When extracted honey is to be produced, before the honey can be
extracted, the cell cappings must be removed. This is done with a

 

Fig. 26. Bingham uncapping knife (Root).

specially constructed knife. The Bingham uncapping knife (Fig. 26)
is recommended. For a large outfit a steam heated knife is sometimes
used, but it has no value to the side-line beekeeper. Some good bee-
keepers find a large straight bladed butcher’s knife satisfactory for
uncapping.

Honey Extractor

After the cappings are removed from them the filled combs are
placed in the honey extractor, rapidly whirled, the honey thereby
being thrown out, and the comb is returned for refilling. The extractor
removes the honey from only one side of a comb at a time and the
combs must be turned before the other side is extracted. The wire
cloth baskets (comb pockets), in which the frame is held during

 

37 '
extracting in the reversing extractors, swing like a door on its
hinges, allowing both sides of the comb to be extracted without
removing it from the comb pocket. The non-reversible machines
make it necessary to remove the comb from the pocket to reverse it.
The smallest size extractor made, the Novice (Fig. 27) does not
have the frame reversing feature. This, however, is not so essen-
tial as one might be led to think. This machine does work equal
to a larger and more expensive one, and the non-reversible fea-
ture is not missed when the trick of working without it is learned.
When the honey has been thrown from one side of the combs, cross
the arms and grasp a frame in each hand. Remove them from the
extractor, uncross the arms and return the frames. This accom-
plishes the reversing and requires no more time than does reversing
with any of the reversible machines except the large automatics.
For a large business a power automatic machine should be used.

Settling Tank

Even though but a few hundred pounds of extracted honey is
produced, a settling tank should be provided. A tight wooden
barrel with one head removed and a syrup gate near the bottom
may answer fairly well if coated on the inside with paraffine, but
a metal tank is much to be preferred. There is no need for any
straining device, the settling tank sufficing except for the last few
pounds of honey in the tank.

Cappings Press

When uncapping combs to be extracted, some utensil is needed
to support the comb, receive the cappings with the adherent honey
and to separate as much as practical the honey from the wax.
This end is very well accomplished by the adaptation of a cider
press to this purpose, which has been developed by Mr. O. W. Bedell,
Earlville, N. Y.

A cider press with an extra circular slatted bottomless tub is
secured, and the table on which the tub is used in pressing ground
apples is made to extend about twice its length beyond the original,
the projecting end being supported by legs and inclined slightly
from the press proper. A piece of lumber with projecting nail
point is supported across one of the slatted tubs which is placed
at the outer end of the extended table. One end of a filled frame
is placed on and supported by the nail point while the capping:
are removed, slicing downward. The cappings fall into the tub,
and much of the adhering honey drains away and runs off the end
of the inclined table into a vessel placed to receive it. When a

38
tub is full it is placed under the screw of the press and pressure
is gradually applied while the second tub is being filled. By the
time the second tub is filled the maximum pressure has been applied
to the first, and the cake of wax may be removed for further treat-
ment.

COMB HONEY
Section Foundation Cutting Box

The foundation for sections comes from the factory in sheets,
which when cut into four equal parts will fill four sections.
To cut these strips accurately and quickly a mitre-box-like device

 

Fig. 28. Foundation cutting box (Root).

may be used to advantage. (Fig. 28). This differs from a carpenter’s
mitre box in that the cuts through the sides are made from the bottom
instead of the top and also in that it has a follower board with
two deep cleats. Six or eight sheets of foundation are placed in
this, and the follower placed upon them. The box is then inverted,
and with a sharp knife by quick strokes through the saw cuts the
whole lot of foundation is cut at one operation.

Section Folder

The regular bottom board can be made to serve as a section
folder even though a considerable number of sections are to be
put up. After the V. cuts in the sections are dampened the lock
corners may be pressed together by hand and the section placed
in the angle formed by the side and back rails of the bottom board
with the deep side up. About three light blows with a hammer on
the lock corner of the section slightly crushes the corner and locks it.

The Hubbard section press is an excellent piece of apparatus,
although any employing the same principle would serve equally well.

39
Section Foundation Fastener

Another home-made device giving satisfaction is the foundation

=
a

[

 

  

 

Fig. 29. Foundation fastener.

fastener (Fig. 29). This is a board 1/2 inch thick and two inches
longer and wider than four folded sections lying flatwixe end to end.
On this board is nailed four blocks, each long and wide enough to fit
loosely inside a folded section and one-half the thickness of the sec-
tion minus one-half the thickness of the foundation used. These blocks
are nailed to the board in such a manner that when four sections,
just as they fit in the section holder, are placed over them the sec-
tions fit without space between. There is also needed one or two
pieces of galvanized iron or similar weight sheet metal slightly less
in width than the inside width of the section and about 5 inches

   

Se aper “( Root).

long. A rounded stick about 5 inches in length has a slot 1 1/4
inch long sawed centrally in its end, into which the sheet of metal
is pushed and nailed. Still better is a wall scraper (Fig. 30) of
the proper width. Provision is made for heating this plate. A
kerosene lamp may be made to serve the purpose.

The multiplex (Fig. 31) foundation is a good one.

 

Fig. 31 Multiplex foundation fastener (Root).

40
HANDLING THE BEES

Although it is much easier to learn the method of manipulating
the colonies by seeing an experienced person operate, an effort will
be made to direct a person not permitted so to observe.

The smoker should be fired and should be working in such a
way that a rather dense cloud of smoke can be forced from it if
necessary. After the veil and gloves are adjusted, if gloves are
desired, the operator should approach the colony from the rear
or side and send a few gentle puffs of smoke on the bees at the
entrance, the guards, which will send them into the hive sounding
the note of alarm. Should the few puffs of smoke not have the
desired effect more may be used, holding the smoker a foot or more
from the entrance. No one can tell exactly how much smoke will
be needed for a colony, and the amount needed may differ with
each colony. It is inadvisable to use an excessive amount, as this
may defeat the purpose for which the smoke is used by driving
the bees out of the hive.

The theory of smoking bees is that when smoked they fill with
honey, and when in this condition they are much less likely to make
an attack.

When the guards have been driven in by smoke and a roar is
heard inside the colony, gently loosen the hive cover with the hive
tool and when a crack is made large enough to admit smoke but
too small to allow bees to escape, send some smoke into the crack
to drive away bees which are there ready to emerge. Then raise
the cover giving enough smoke across the tops of the frames to
drive the bees down between the combs, but no more. It is always
advisable to use the smallest amount of smoke which will accom-
plish the desired purpose. An excessive amount at this time will stam-
pede the bees out the entrance of the hive. With the hive tool break
the sealing between the first and second and third frames from the
side of the hive near the operator. This will permit the removal
of the second frame from the hive side, by prying it up at one
end, grasping that end with one hand while the other end is pried up
enough to be seized by the other hand and gently lifted from the
hive.

The desired frame is more easily and safely removed if the frame
on either side of it is pried away from it to provide more space
for its withdrawal.

It is best, when possible, to work at the side of the hive which
will allow the sun’s rays to be at the operator’s back. This gives a
better view of the interior of the hive.

If it is desired to remove more frames for examination, the first
one removed may be stood on end leaning against the front corner

41
of the hive. Any bees which may drop from the frame may then
walk into the hive without disturbance. It is best not to dislodge
bees from the combs unnecessarily.

With one frame removed any other frames may be removed with
less difficulty.

During the examination, should the bees show a decided dis-
position to come to the top of the frames, gentle smoking should
be used to keep them down out of the way.

When the examination is finished care should be used in replac-
ing the last frame in order that bees be not killed or angered. Should
many bees be on the last comb replaced they may be shaken in front
of the hive out of the way and allowed to run in.

STINGS AND REMEDIES

Much stinging in handling bees is unnecessary and it is possi-
ble to work with them without receiving stings. However, the extreme
care and amount of protection necessary to insure entire freedom
from stings results in the practical beekeeper using less care and
protection and taking a few stings. ,

The effect of stings varies in different persons, and there is de-
veloped in many persons a certain amount of immunity to the
effects of the sting poison. There seem to be no grounds for the
belief that the pain is less to an old beekeeper than to a new one
when the same amount of poison is received.

That part of the stinging apparatus of honey bees which enters
the flesh of its victim is composed of three horny parts. Two of
these are armed with barbs. These are held together by an incom-
plete sheath along which the barbed parts glide as they are alter-
nately driven into the flesh by muscles. The union of these three
parts forms a canal leading to the tip and connecting at the base
with the poison sac. Through this canal the poison is injected
into the wound made by the sting. The longer the sting is allowed
to remain in the flesh the deeper becomes the wound and the greater
the amount of poison injected. If, therefore, the sting is removed
quickly the unpleasant results will be less.

Experienced beekeepers acquire the habit of striking the hand
or other part stung with a glancing blow the instant the prick
of the sting is felt, killing the bee and dragging the sting from
the flesh at the same time. The attempt should never be made to
remove the sting by grasping it between the thumb and finger. The
poison sac, which is torn from the bee when it stings, as well as
the muscles which control it, is so small in proportion to the fingers
and so close to the skin that in the attempt to grasp it, its entire

42
contents are squeezed into the wound. The sting should be scraped
out wiin the finger nail if the glancing blow fails to dislodge it.

Carlet says that the sting poison comes from two glands, one
of which secretes an acid and the other an alkali, the former being
the larger. Neither of these substances alone produces unpleasant
effects. The puncture made by the sting is so minute, and swelling,
if it occurs at all, follows so quickly, that it is next to impossible to
have a remedy follow the path of the sting.

The practiced beekeeper considers that the best remedy is to
remove the sting as quickly as possible and forget it. Sometimes
he moistens the injured part with spittle which may or may not
have any effect. :

In case of severe stinging, local application of hot cloths coming
from salt water has been recommended, and the heart action should
be stimulated if necessary.

DEVELOPING THE COLONY PREVIOUS TO THE HONEY FLOW 4

The following suggestions are intended to apply to places where
the surplus honey is secured from clover or some plant giving the
maximum yield during June and July. Where the surplus honey
flow occurs later in the season a slight modification, so far as
dates are concerned, will be necessary. As Doctor Phillips has
well said, “The two essentials in beekeeping are to get the maximum
number of bees in a hive by the time the surplus honey flow starts
and to keep them contentedly working together during the honey
flow.” :

In order that we may secure the first essential it is necessary
to lay the foundation the year previous. The first step is to see
that by August 1 each colony is headed by a young, vigorous Italian
queen; that each has at least 3 to 4 frames of brood, and that there
is at least 15 pounds of stores in the hive at all times. Mr. G. S.
Demuth is authority for the statement that a colony with less than
this amount of stores will curtail brood-bearing.

It should be the beekeeper’s purpose at this time to have conditions
such that brood-rearing will progress without interruption, so that
a good colony of young bees may be on hand for winter. Provi-
sions should be made for an ample quantity, forty pounds being
not too much of good stores for winter, substituting sugar syrup
two parts sugar, one part water for poor stores when necessary.
It is also desirable when the 8- or 10-frame Langstroth hive is used
to winter the bees in two stories. The desirable condition is that
the bees shall’ pass through the inactive period of the year with

43
the smallest possible expenditure of energy. Doctor Phillips has
likened a bee to a miniature dry battery which cannot be re-
charged when the energy has been exhausted. Therefore, to insure
the most energetic colony of bees in spring they should be thor-
oughly insulated from the winter’s cold by an outer case around
the hive large enough to provide space for insulating material between
it and the hive; that there shall be an ample windbreak and that
the bees shall be left undisturbed. This combination of young bees,
good stoves, insulation and protection from winds is necessary for
best results. If any one of these factors is absent the results will
be proportionately less satisfactory.

While the minimum of activity on the part of the bees is desired
through the winter, when spring with its brood-rearing activity ar-
rives it is desirable that this activity be at its maximum in order
that the colony may attain maximum strength as early as possible.
When the steps as suggested have been taken, there is nothing the
beekeeper can do to facilitate matters since the colony has all the
essentials for rapid breeding—a vigorous queen, an abundant supply
of stores and ample protection against temperature changes. Instead
of using a large part of their energy in maintaining the brood-rearing
temperature (96°F.) they can use all their energy in producing more
bees.

When the maximum strength of colony is reached just as the
surplus honey flow begins without the swarming impulse having
been started, the maximum crop of surplus honey will be secured.
In just the proportion that the beekeeper fails to have his bees reach
this condition, will he fail to secure the maximum yield. If, on the
other hand, maximum strength is reached previous to the beginning
of the honey flow, care must be used to prevent the colony dividing
its energies by swarming, or, balked in this, get sulky and loaf.

ADDING THE SECOND STORY

If the bees have not been wintered in two stories, a second one
may be added during the building-up process in spring. It is now
believed that a desirable queen is one which will need more room
for eggs than is provided by the ten-frame hive, allowing the neces-
sary room for stores. When in the spring a colony has six frames
or their equivalent full of brood before the honey flow arrives,
it is advisable to add a second brood chamber. If ready-built combs
are on hand they are desirable at this time; otherwise, full sheets
of foundation should be used. This second chamber is put above
the occupied one, and one or two frames of unsealed brood from
the lower chamber placed in it in exchange for the frames of empty
comb or foundation as the case may be. The two frames of brood

44.
should be put in the center of the second story, and the two combs
put below should be put at the side of the brood-nest, not between
frames of brood.

The nurse bees come up to care for the unsealed brood and the
warm air ascends to the upper chamber, making its occupancy by
the queen more quickly assured.

SWARMING AND ITS CONTROL

Factors Favoring the Swarm Impulse

While we may not be able to give a very satisfactory reason why
bees swarm, we know some of the factors which tend to stimulate the
swarm impulse. These are lack of room for the deposition of eggs
{empty comb room), lack of room for the storage of incoming pollen
and nectar, an old queen, a large number of drones, lack of ventila-
tion and, co-related with this, comb spacing. These factors are
under the control of the beekeeper.

Comb Room

If a queen is given the run of two 10-frame bodies this should
afford sufficient comb room for the reception of her eggs provided
sufficient storage space is also given.

It sometimes happens that the flow of nectar is so heavy that
twice the comb space is occupied with the raw nectar as will be the
case with the ripened honey. In such times there is a tendency,
unless the beekeeper uses care, to crowd nectar into the brood
nest, thus restricting the queen’s activities. When producing ex-
tracted honey this matter of storage space is more easily handled,
since a superabundance of room is not likely to cause undesirable
results. In the production of comb honey the addition of an excess
of room may result in too large a proportion of unfinished sections.

The person, therefore, who produces comb honey must expect
to be obliged to contend with swarm preparations, as comb-honey
production requires conditions which favor such preparations. To
get well filled sections crowding is necessary, and this will aggra-

vate the swarming tendency.

Queen

An old queen produces more drone eggs than does a young one,
and the bees show a greater tendency to develop the swarming impulse
when an old queen heads the colony. A vigorous young queen
helps to overcome the tendency. Requeening every year is advocated
by some beekeepers, while others claim that a well-reared queen is

45
equally efficient the second season. Few, if any, favor retaining a
queen after she has given service two seasons, unless she is kept
for breeding purposes.

Drone

A great horde of drones in the hive adds to the general unrest
and serves to aggravate the swarm impulse. Try as we may to pre-
vent, the bees will raise more drones than will ever be needed. The
remedy, besides having a young queen, is to provide such condi-
tions within the hive that drone-rearing will be restricted. This
may be accomplished by using full sheets of foundation in the
frames, and better results will be had when medium brood founda-
tion is used rather than light brood foundation. The light weight
is too much subject to damage by the bees, often resulting in “sagged”
cells of such a size that drones are reared in them.

Ventilation

Bees have a ventilating system which provides that there shall
be a current of air passing through the spaces within the hive in
summer. This insures that the temperature shall be kept below a
point where the combs and brood would suffer damage. When a
considerable number, say two dozen, of bees are seen on the alight-
ing board with heads turned towards the entrance vigorously fan-
ning with the wings they are drawing a current of the air out of the
hive and another current rushes in to replace that withdrawn. Not
alone are the bees working on the alighting board in this manner,
but there are bees so working all through the hive. This takes a
great many bees from other work and creates a condition of unrest
within the hive favoring the swarming impulse. This condition
can be remedied to a considerable extent by providing more space
for the egress and ingress of air. This is accomplished by raising
the front of the hive from the bottom board and supporting it by
a block under each front corner, the block to be 3/4 inches or 7/8
inches thick. This provides a front entrance 3/4 or 7/8 inches deeper
as the case may be, and also provides a triangular opening on
either side, securing much better ventilation. Sometimes the hack
of the hive is similarly raised.

The hive should be replaced directly on the bottom board by the
time cool nights occur in the fall, if not done before this time. This
blocking up should not be done unless the bees show by their excessive
fanning that it is needed. No damage will occur to a colony so
manipulated when it is strong enough to indicate this need of more
ventilation.

46
Comb Spacing

When Mr. Langstroth invented the movable comb hive in 185]
he made it so that the combs were spaced 1 3/8 inches from centre
to centre, and this is the comb spacing provided by the Langstroth
hive as today manufactured.

About 1858 when Mr. Quimby tried the movable hive, he changed
some of the dimensions, retaining the essential feature of mobility
of the combs and declared 1 1/2 inches to be the proper spacing.
The Dadants at Hamilton, Illinois, now operating 800 colonies of
bees, aodpted the Quimby spacing (1 1/2 inches) and have used it
about 50 years. Dadants claim a much smaller proportion of swarm-
ing than do other beekeepers, and contend that the increased spacing
is an important factor in swarm prevention. This is really an in-
creased ventilation measure, as the brood is the same thickness as
in combs spaced 1 3/8 inches apart thus providing an added eighth
of an inch between the combs of the brood, facilitating ventilation.

Those using the ten-frame hive may secure the one and one-
half inch spacing by leaving out one comb and spacing the re-
maining nine an equal distance apart.

Destruction of Queen Cells

Another swarm prevention measure is the destruction, as often
as once in seven days, of all swarm queen cells started.

When a swarm queen cell contains an egg or a grub but two
or three days old, the destruction of such cell by jabbing with the
finger or hive tool and providing increased room and _ ventilation
will often be sufficient to cause the bees to abandon further efforts
toward swarming. Damaging a queen cell is as effective as re-
moving it, as the bees do not repair one which has been damaged.
When, however, the cell has an older grub in it or is sealed, rarely
will anything short of swarming, either natural or artificial, cause
them to settle down again to honey production without a period
of loafing. Bees balked in their efforts to swarm often become so
demoralized as to be of no value as producers for several days. They
lose what Mr. Demuth has termed the “colony morale.” It is of
the utmost importance that this be preserved if the most effective
work is to be done by the bees.

SWARM CONTROL
Clipping the Queen’s Wings

When a colony is found with swarm preparation measures so
well under way as to make preventive measures seem inadvisable,

47
it is still unnecessary to have the swarm issue from the hive un-
controlled and possibly be lost.

If someone can surely be present when the swarm issues to care
for the queen, her wing or wings may be cut off rendering her un-
able to fly with the issuing swarm. The attendant may then find
the queen on the ground in front of the hive, put her in a small
wire cloth cage for safety, remove the hive which cast the swarm
to a new stand about 10 feet away and place a new hive prepared
for a swarm where the old one stood. Presently the swarm will
miss its queen, return to the old stand and, as they run in the entrance,
their queen may be released and allowed to go in with them and
the hiving is done. However, should there be another queen on the
wing at this time the swarm will probably go off with her.

Artificial Swarms

The actual issuance of the swarm with its attendant uncertainty
may be avoided. During the season when swarms may normally
be expected, a weekly examination should be made of all colonies
which have attained the strength which would warrant their making
swarm preparations. If at these examinations there is found a queen
cell with only an egg or very small larva this may be destroyed
and normally the colony is safe for another week. If the ventila-
tion and comb room needs of the colony are given proper attention
the colony may make no further swarm preparations, but this must
be determined by subsequent examinations. When swarm queen cells
are discovered at a stage beyond that where it can be reasonably
expected that their destruction will result in the colony abandoning
further swarm preparations, the cells may be left until sealed. Then
the queen with the frame on which she is found can be placed in a
hive prepared for a swarm and placed on the stand of the old colony
after having moved the old colony to a new stand. The bees from
3 or 4 frames of the old colony should be shaken in front of the
new colony. These, with the returning field bees, will constitute
the “swarm.” Do not shake a comb on which is a queen cell to be
kept, but carefully brush off the bees from such a comb. Shaking
may cause the queen to emerge from the cell with faulty wings. Be-
ing unable to fly she will become a “drone layer” and therefore
will be useless.

After Swarms

The old fertilized queen goes out with the prime swarm. A
colony may send out a second or third swarm and even fourth swarms
may occur. Normal swarms after the first are headed by a virgin

48
unfertilized queen. When the bees decide no more swarms shall
be sent out the surplus virgins are disposed of, and one is allowed
to mate and carry on the work of that particular colony. If the
beekeeper desires that none except the first or “prime” swarm shall
issue he may go through the colony and destroy all queen cells
except one. This plan has the disadvantage that it entails con-
siderable labor, a cell may be overlooked, and it is impossible to tell
whether or not the occupant of the cell which is left is normal.
A better plan is to move the parent colony to a new stand at least
ten feet away from any other colony, placing the swarm on the
old stand. The parent hive may, after a week or two, be placed near
the old stand if desired. This draws off the bees from the parent
colony in such a measure that the surplus swarm cells will surely
be destroyed by the bees and a normal one be left.

COMB OR EXTRACTED HONEY PRODUCTION

The conditions of honey flow will determine whether comb honey
may profitably be produced. If the surplus honey flow comes from
a source giving light-colored honey (buckwheat excepted) and the
flow is very heavy, comb honey may be produced profitably. If on
the other hand, the honey produced is dark in color and the flow
is slow an attempt to produce comb honey will, except on rare
occasions, result in unattractive combs. They will be unevenly filled,
with different colored honeys, and an excessive amount of wax will
be used in their construction. It is also possible there will be con-
siderable discoloration due to the sections being in the hive a long
time. All of these reduce the salability of comb honey.

Comb Honey for Home Use

If comb honey for home use only is desired it is more profitable to
raise it in what are known as shallow extracting frames, excluding
the queen from the supers with the queen excluder. With this style
super something like fifty per cent more comb honey can be secured
with less trouble with swarming.

When the honey is to be used it is cut from the frames and the
frames again fitted with a full sheet of foundation, or half an inch
of comb may be left at the top of the frame to serve as a starter,
thus slightly reducing the cost. The use of a full sheet of founda-
tion will be the most profitable, as the bees will more quickly build
and fill a comb from a full sheet of foundation than will be the case
with a starter only.

49
Commercial Comb Honey Production

Whether the beekeeper plans to produce comb or extracted honey,
his first care should be to produce the largest possible colony by
the time the honey harvest arrives. If the suggestions as outlined
under that head have been followed the colony will be boiling
over with bees in two stories when the blossoms open from which
the surplus honey is gathered.

In producing comb honey it must be borne in mind that bees
show a preference for large frames for storage as opposed to the pound
sections; that new work (comb building) is best done when in close
proximity to the brood, and that when the super in which comb honey
is being capped is next to the brood chamber there is danger that
some of the darkened wax from the brood combs will be carried above
and used in the capping, thus spoiling its looks.

Reducing the Colony to One Story

With the first proposition in mind, if the colony has been built
up to two stories it is necessary to reduce it to one story when the
comb honey super is put on; otherwise, the super would be neg lect-
ed and most of the crop stored in the deep frames.

When the surplus honey flow arrives the first move is to put all
the brood in one body on the old stand, giving preference to the
oldest; also put all the bees and the queen in this single story. The
remaining brood, if any, and the combs are put on a colony not yet
strong enough to do comb honey work, are used to make other colo-
nies of the required strength, or enough bees are left with the brood
to care for it and it is used to start new colonies.

Supering

The first super, fitted with full sheets of foundation, is placed
on the prepared colony. It will clearly be seen that when a two-
story colony is reduced to one and a half stories no measures will
be needed to coax the bees into the super as there is no other place
for them. They will be forced to occupy the supers.

The conditions which have been created by this manipulation
are ideal for getting good comb honey work done, provided the
beekeeper is able to keep the colony contentedly working together.
It is also to be remembered that conditions have been created which
favor the development of the swarming impulse. For this reason
very close attention must be given to conditions in the brood nest
in relation to swarm preparation measures.

If the honey flow is good the second super will be needed soon,
perhaps within three days. It is desirable that there be work for

50
the comb builders at all times, keeping them occupied at some
useful pursuit and out of the brood nest where their presence in
great numbers would tend more quickly to bring on the swarming
impulse.

The second super is added beneath the first when work in the
first is well under way. Perhaps some storing has been done in it,
but surely not so much as to be near the capping stage.

A general rule in comb honey supering is to place the new
super under those already on the hive if the honey flow can reason-
ably be expected to continue, and if there is any doubt along this
line place the new super on top.

The third super is added below the others, with number one
and number two arranged above in the order mentioned. The fourth
(if honey flow conditions seem to warrant) is added next the brood
chamber with one, two and three above in the order named.

It will be noticed that this manipulation keeps the oldest super
one super depth removed from the brood nest where it is reasonably
safe from dark wax, and it also puts the new work next the brood
chamber where it will be done with the greatest facility.

Adding supers in this manner provides considerable storage space
for raw nectar, keeping it out of the brood nest with its attendant
congestion and also facilitating evaporation. For a more detailed
discussion of comb honey production than is possible in this work
the reader is referred to Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1039, “Commercial
Comb Honey Production” by Demuth, which can be secured from
the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Comb honey production requires much guess work and judg-
ment, both of which may fail the beekeeper because of unusual
weather conditions, leaving him with a lot of unfinished sections

on hand at the close of the season.
Extracted Honey Production

The extracted honey producer has the same problems as the pro-
ducer of comb honey up to the time the surplus flow arrives.

With few exceptions extracted honey producers use the same
frames and bodies for supers as are used for the brood bodies. The
majority also allow brood-rearing in combs which are used for ex-
tracting combs if that adds to the convenience in manipulation.

It is a common practice, with nothing tangible to be said against
it, to allow the queen free range of two and sometimes three ten-
frame bodies until the surplus honey flow has been in progress
for ten days or two weeks. To avoid the possibility of having brood
in the extracting combs when extracting time arrives and also having

ol
the first story vacant except for pollen, it is necessary that the queen
be confined to the first story with a queen excluder.

It would be very desirable if the use of this implement could
be dispensed with since it undoubtedly hinders, in a measure, the
free passage of the bees to and from the upper stories. The Dadants
claim to be able to do this with their large deep brood chamber
and shallow extracting supers.

When the surplus flow has been on for ten days the queen
should be confined to the first story by a queen excluder.

When it comes time to put the queen below, if the colony is
but two stories high it is not absolutely necessary to see the queen.
Put the queen excluder between the two stories, and four days later
look for eggs in the upper story. If they are not present the queen
is below and no further manipulations are necessary so far as she
is concerned. If eggs are above the queen is also above, and the
first and second stories may be made to change places.

Where there is an abundance of pollen it is sometimes advisable
to sort over the combs and put those with considerable pollen in
them in the first story.

Crowding the queen down into the first story at this time is not
so likely to start swarm preparation measures since, when the honey
flow is heavy, the queen does not get the attention from the bees
she otherwise gets and she will bear the crowding without protest.

It seems to matter but little whether the new supers are added
above or below those already on the hive when extracted honey is
being produced, except that it may be well to remember the new
super if it contains foundation will probably be worked out more
quickly if it is mext the brood chamber. If ready-built combs are
used it is likely that it will not pay to lift off the supers partly filled
to place the new one below.

Queens cells are sometimes started from brood in the second
story above the excluder, and therefore a week after the excluder is in
place these must be destroyed or used elsewhere if desired; other-
wise, there may be an incentive to swarm due to the presence of
the virgin in the second story.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING
Comb Honey

Although some comb honey is produced where the honey is
not light in color, for the most part the beekeeper’s energy is used
to have light-colored honey only stored in the sections, and when so
stored care is used to keep it from soil or stain from any source.
For this reason it is the practice of the most successful comb honey

52
producers to remove the sections as soon as sealed, not individually,
however, but by the superful, returning any sections which by
chance may be unfinished. If supering has been done as fast as
is advisable there will be no fancy sections (sealed to the wood
nearly all the way around) but for the most part the row of
cells next the wood will be empty (No. 1 grade). It is more
profitable to produce grade No. 1 rather than fancy grade except
for exhibition purposes. Comb honey no doubt acquires an increased
ripeness and richness if left long with the bees, but since it sells
largely on its looks the customer will not pay for extra quality.
Its fine appearance is often injured when left long on the hive.

Removing from the Hive

There are times when the expert can safely remove comb honey
from the hive without the use of the bee escape. It is seldom
advisable for the expert and never so for the less experienced to
dispense with the use of this device.

The bee escape permits the passage of bees in one direction only.
It is placed between the finished supers and the brood chamber
or the unfinished supers, and the bees go down through the escape.
Since they cannot return, the super can be removed practically free of
bees. If the escape board is put in position about three o’clock usually
by ten o’clock the next day the finished super can be removed free
of bees.

A word of caution should be given regarding the use of the bee
escape. When this is in position on the hive ventilation to the super
above is shut off and if the hive is so arranged on a hot day, the
sun’s heat may cause damage to the honey. If, however, the escape
is put in place and the honey removed at the time suggested no
harm is likely to occur. Should it be necessary to leave the escape
in position through the heated part of the day, possible damage
may be avoided by shading the hive with boards which project
six inches on each side and end.

When the comb honey supers are removed, sometimes consid-
erable propolis (bee glue) will be found on top the sections. It
is well to scrape off most of this while the sections are still wedged
in the super. A steel brush such as is used by butchers in cleaning
the meat block serves this purpose well.

When removed from the super any propolis which is still found
on the edges of the sections should be removed. The sections are
then graded according to weight.

Two grades only are common: No. 1, including sections weighing
12 1/2 ounces net and over (1 ounce being allowed for the weight
of the wood), and No. 2, weighing net between 10 ounces and 12 1/2

53
ounces. Anything lighter in weight than ten ounces goes into the
“culls.”

It is good business to enclose each section in a carton (Fig 32)
for the sake of cleanliness, which is appreciated by most customers,
and further, the carton provides space for advertising matter.

‘

 

 

Fig. 32. Carton for comb honey (Root).

Marking With Net Weight

The law of New Jersey, as well as the Federal law, requires that
each package of honey shall be marked with the net weight of the
contents. In case of comb honey, which may vary considerably
within a grade, it is permissible to mark the sections or carton “net
weight not less than 12 1/2 ounces” for No. 1 grade, and “not less
than 10 ounces” for No. 2 grade.

Fumigation

If damage from the attack of the larva of the wax moth seems
probable, fumigation by carbon bisulphide will overcome this trouble.
When using this drug two things should be kept in mind: first,
that it forms explosive mixtures with the air, but the same care
that is used in handling gasoline is sufficient to avoid trouble; second,
the fumes of this drug are heavier than air and tend to settle to
the bottom of the container. In using this fumigant, first. place
the super full of sections on a flat surface with a whole newspaper
beneath to help make an air-tight contact. For one comb honey super
pour one teaspoonful of carbon bisulphide on the sections, cover with
a single sheet of newspaper, put on another super, another charge of
the drug, more paper and so on as high as desired, covering the
top tightly. This arrangement prevents the effective fumes settling
to the bottom of the pile and leaving the upper portion without an
effective charge, as might be the case if the dividing sheets of paper

54
were not used. The charge for a full depth hive body would be a
tablespoonful. If the drug runs on the comb honey no harm is
done. Better results are secured when the temperature is 60°F. or
higher. Full dependence on this for killing eggs should not be
placed, since it sometimes fails. A second fumigation 10 days
later, after all eggs have hatched, will get the creatures which
have emerged in the interim.

Harvesting Extracted Honey

Supers of honey to be extracted, when the bees are kept near
neighbors, should first have the bees removed by the use of the
bee escape. It is possible when the bees are kept where no annoyance
to neighbors can result from considerable excitement in the apiary
to remove the bees from the combs by heavy smoking, shaking
and brushing. This, however, usually gets the apiary in an uproar
and may result in the less experienced beekeeper deciding that bees
are undesirable property.

Extracting honey and working with wax is a mussy job, and
it is good business to provide a room for this and other bee work
only.

The honey house should have screened windows but a tight
wooden door. The supers after the bees are removed should be
taken into the honey house, which is provided with the extractor,
uncapping knife, buckets, the settling tank and the cappings re-
ceiver and press.

The capping should be removed from the combs using the down-
ward stroke of the uncapping knife.

The honey should be allowed to accumulate in the extractor
until it reaches the level of the bottom of the baskets and then
a pailful drawn off; then again allowed to accumulate. In this
way the largest particles of wax will be retained in the extractor
until the last and then strained through some very coarse material.
This will provide against a great amount of wax particles being
in the settling tank.

When, after a few days, the heavier and lighter particles which
may have been in the honey have gone to the bottom or top, the
honey may be drawn from the faucet without straining. When the
settling tank is nearly emptied it may be tilted forward toward the
faucet and clear honey drawn off until about the last ten pounds,
which must be strained.

Returning Wet Combs to Bees

If a later honey flow is expected the supers should be returned
to the hives to receive such flow. Even if no later flow is expected

59
it is good apiary practice to return the extracted combs to the
bees in order that they may be cleaned of adhering honey before
storage for winter. It is never advisable to put out such “wet”
combs and allow the bees to help themselves, as this may result
in some colony or colonies being robbed out and will nearly always
result in damage to combs. The wet combs should be returned to
the colonies in the evening just before dark. The excitement occa-
sioned by the presence of these wet combs will have subsided by
morning and no damage will be done.

Preparing Extracted Honey for Market
Extracted honey may be drawn from the settling tank into the
retail packages or into the square 5-gallon can (Fig. 33) which is
the common wholesale package.

 

 

 

Fig. 33. Wholesale extracted honey package—two 5-gallon cans cased (Root).

Granulation—Practically all extracted honey will granulate sooner
or later. Some persons prefer it in this form. Some do not so
prefer it and suspect that something is wrong with honey when
it granulates. The person who prepares honey for retail trade
should do everything possible to prevent its being suspected . of
being adulterated. When retailed in pound jars (Fig. 34) or con-
tainers of less capacity the honey should be kept liquid. When sold
in five and ten-pound pails it may be allowed to granulate and lique-
fying directions for those who prefer it liquid put on the con-
tainer. (Figs. 35 & 36).

If honey is heated to 160°F. and the container sealed while
hot, granulation will be very much retarded, if not entirely pre-
vented. When heated above 160°F. the color and flavor may be
changed in an undesirable manner. Honey heats through very slowly.
For this reason a water bath is the safest method of heating it so
far as overheating is concerned. If retail packages are filled from the
settling tank they may be heated in this manner before sealing.

56
 

Fig. 36. Onecallow can ton vets trade (Root).

Heating to 120°F. and holding at that temperature for forty-
eight hours will cause the honey to remain liquid longer than a
higher temperature for a short time.

Honey which has granulated may be restored to the liquid state
by this method, and if not overheated is not noticeably changed.

57
There is much to be said in favor of doing all possible to dispel
from the minds of the general public the idea that granulated honey
should not be eaten. Many who have not had the opportunity to
use it in this form are delighted with it, and it is possible that most
of the extracted honey could be disposed of in the granulated form
if beekeepers generally used their influence in this direction. This
would save the beekeeper an immense amount of worry and unneces-

sary work.

Wax

After the honey has been pressed from the cappings they may be
melted in an abundance of hot water and practically all the free wax

dipped from the top.
Rendering Old Combs

It sometimes happens that the beekeeper has old combs which,
by reason of damage or disease, he wishes to render into beeswax.

If there is a hundred pounds of such material it will pay well
to ship it to some reliable wax-rendering plant which will usually
get enough additional wax from it to pay the charges, and an exceed-
ingly disagreeable job is avoided. If the beekeeper has but a small
amount, a good quantity of wax may be secured by crowding the old
combs tightly into a coarse burlap bag and boiling in some large
vessel. It is suggested, to avoid accidents, that this be done out
of doors.

While the boiling is in progress the bag should be prodded with
the end of a board to facilitate the free wax coming through the
meshes of the bag. When there seems to be no more wax escaping
from the bag, cause it to sink to the bottom of the vessel with some
weight, remove the source of heat, and when the water is cold the
cake of wax can be lifted from the surface. While this does not
get all the wax, it gets all that it will pay to recover where the
amount of material is small.

If old combs infected with American foulbrood are to be shipped
to a wax-rendering plant, unless they are entirely free from honey, they
should be boiled before shipment to prevent the possibility of con-
tagion by means of dripping honey being spread on the way or any-
where the smeared car may go. The laws of some states prohibit
the shipment of such infected material.

Marketing

New Jersey beekeepers for the most part have a peculiar advan-
tage in that there are so many opportunities for the disposal of

08
honey locally. A great amount is disposed of in the beekeeper’s
own or nearby towns, and it is certain that much more could find an
outlet in this manner, as there are annually many tons of honey
shipped into this state in packages.

The roadside markets are another outlet for the crop. Some
beekeepers in the state find their own crop entirely insufficient to
take care of this trade.

It has been suggested that trade could be stimulated by giving
demonstrations in local groceries. The groceryman usually welcomes
such advertising.

If a New Jersey beekeeper finds himself with more of a crop
than he can retail readily and cannot sell to someone with a trade
larger than his production, the principal honey market of the East,
New York, is almost at his back door. This insures the smallest
charge for transportation to the wholesale market,

QUEEN INTRODUCTION

It is gratifying to those who are interested in the advancement
of bee culture to note the increased interest in better stock.

The first bees are said to have been brought to this country
by the Spaniards in the 17th century. These were blacks. In 1861
the Italians were introduced. Other races have been tried but none
have measured up to expectations, and now there is rarely found
in the United States any race except blacks or Italians or crosses
of these two.

The Italians have proven to be so much superior to blacks that
it is highly desirable that they supplant them.

It is fortunate that there are persons giving their time to the
production of good Italian queen bees for sale, and also that it
is a comparatively simple matter to get them from the breeder’s
yard to that of the purchaser.

Many practical beekeepers requeen all colonies every year, while
a few believe they can get two years’ good service from a queen.

If a queen is markedly poor, or allows her colony to become
badly infected with European foulbrood, a new queen should be
introduced as soon as practical. If there is not the urgent need
of a new queen the desirable time to requeen is during July or
the first week in August. This gives the beekeeper time to get in
a second queen, should the first be rejected, in time to produce two
generations of brood, which should result in a sufficient number
of young bees for the winter colony.

An old queen frequently ceases laying so early in the fall that
the colony goes into winter quarters with a large proportion of

59
old bees. This results in a high winter mortality and, as a con-

sequence, weak colonies in the spring.
Removing the reigning (if that word may be used in this con-

nection) queen and safely substituting therefor the purchased queen,

presents some difficulties even to some apiarists with considerable
experience.

Removing the Old Queen

A colony will not accept another queen so long as one is already
in the colony, and therefore the old queen must be found and
removed.

The most formidable part of the operation of requeening is
removing the old queen. This is especially true if the bees are
black or hybrids, since these, under manipulation, display an ex-
citability much resembling the behavior of a nest of large black
ants when disturbed. This excitability is shared by the queen, mak-
ing it more difficult to locate her.

The writer knows of no rules which are of much value in finding
the old queen. If anywhere in beekeeping there is such a thing
as luck he believes it is manifested during this operation.

There are, however, some suggestions which may prove helpful
in finding black and hybrid queens, especially, and which also apply
in a lesser degree to locating Italian queens.

It is desirable that the colony be manipulated as gently as possible
and that the smallest possible amount of smoke be used in order
that the bees be not stampeded.

It is rare except in a colony much overcrowded or which has
been stampeded by too much smoke to find the queen on the outside
frame. It is therefore safe to defer looking for the queen on this
frame until the others have been examined and the queen not found
on them. It is quite common, then, first to remove the frame which
is second from the hive side. As soon as this frame is lifted from
the hive the operator should hastily glance at the comb in the hive.
Many times the queen will be seen on this comb running toward the
bottom in an endeavor to reach the dark unexposed side. Should
she be seen, the comb on which she is found should be quickly lifted
from the hive to prevent her getting off on another comb. Should
the hasty glance not reveal the queen, the comb in hand should
be examined.

This process is repeated, placing the removed combs into an
extra hive body, until the queen is found or the examination of all
combs fails to reveal her presence. Occasionlly she will be found
on the hive side or bottom board after all combs have been removed.

If this operation fails to disclose the queen’s whereabouts the

60
combs should be returned to the original hive, giving them another
careful examination while so doing.

The whole process may be repeated if necessary, but it is advis-
able when practical to allow the bees to hecome reorganized before
making a second attempt to locate the queen in the same manner.

If it is necessary to get the queen quickly and the operator’s time
is limited, the bees may be driven through a queen excluder and the
queen secured.

The process is as follows: Provide a hive body equipped with
drawn combs, or if they are not conveniently at hand frames of
foundation may be used. Empty frames give poor results. Place
the body with combs on a bottom board beside the hive to be oper-
ated on. On top the prepared hive body place a queen excluder
and above this the hive body containing the queen desired. Drive
the bees down through the excluder by vigorous smoking, taking
out the frames one by one and shaking off any adhering bees inside
the hive body. As the frames are removed for shaking have in
mind the possibility of seeing the queen on one of the combs or
in the mass of bees on top the excluder. By smoking keep the
bees from running over the top of the hive. If not located before,
the queen will be found after all combs have been removed, trying
to escape through the excluder into the lower hive body. After she
is secured the hive should be restored to its former condition. Should
this operation be attempted during a time when robbing is easily
started extreme care should be used to prevent this.

Introducing the Queen

The methods of queen introduction may be classed under two
general heads—direct, in which the queen is at once free to go
where she will in the hive; and indirect, in which the queen’s move-
ments are restricted by some sort of cage from which she is later
released by the bees or the beekeeper.

Direct Methods—There are a number of ways of applying the
two classes of introduction. Under the first head may be mentioned
the smoke method, in which the bees are thoroughly demoralized
by excessive smoking and the queen allowed to run in at the en-
trance while they are in this condition; the honey method, in which
the queen is immersed in about 1/2 cupful of diluted honey and
honey and queen poured on the topbars of the open hive; and the
fasting method, in which the queen is placed in an entirely empty
cage and left until she shows signs of weakness from lack of food
when she is released on top the frames. The time necessary to get
a queen in the proper condition by fasting will depend upon whether
or not she has been actively depositing eggs immediately previous

ol
to the fasting. A queen actively laying may perish from hunger
in forty-five minutes, while one which has not deposited eggs for
a considerable time may show no effects from an hour’s fasting.

The essential thing is that the queen be in such condition when
put into the colony that she will request food. If the bees at once
feed her no fears need be entertained for her safety.

If a direct method is desired the fasting or honey method is
recommended. Very few have had success with the smoke method.

 

Fig. 37. Queen cage (original).

Indirect Methods—Indirect methods are used more than are others,
probably because less labor is entailed and if the queen is a pur-
chased one she is already in a cage (Fig. 37) which well serves the
purpose of an introducing cage. The mailing cage may be placed
above the frames if the hive has an inner cover by turning this
cover top down, placing the wire cloth of the cage over the space
between two frames.

If the colony is populous enough so that the bees hang down
to the bottom board the queen cage may be pushed into the entrance
with the wire cloth up.

The cage may also be placed between two combs, although this
spreads the combs so that if there is a honey flow extra comb may’
be built in the gap, and, further, it is necessary to remove one frame
to provide room for the cage. Always arrange that the bees in
the hive will have access to the candy plug in the end of the cage
and to the wire cloth. Do not dequeen a colony in anticipation
of the reception of a queen, as she may not arrive when expected.
There seems to be no good reason for leaving a colony queenless three
days before introducing the new queen. It doubles the labor and
there is no evidence that the reception of the introduced queen is
made more certain.

Another indirect method is by the use of what is known as the
push in the comb” cage. This is simply a shallow wire cloth box

62
with one open side. Jt is made of a piece of wire mosquito bar
or similar wire cloth about five inches square. From each corner
is cut a piece half an inch square and the edges are given a right-
angled fold resulting in the shallow cage.

To introduce a queen by this method, a comb containing emerg-
ing brood with cells of honey within two inches of it is taken indoors.
Before a window the mailing cage is opened allowing the queen to
crawl up on the window. She is then caught by the wings and
placed on the comb and covered with the cage in such a manner that
she will have access to empty cells and honey and emerging bees
to keep her company. The cage is pressed into the comb firmly
enough to prevent its falling off.

Soon the queen will place eggs in the empty cells and the
emerging bees will be friendly to her, both of which seem to be
favorable for her reception by the colony.

In about three days the cage may be removed by the beekeeper
and the queen released if the bees have not burrowed under the
edge and in that manner released her. Some beekeepers prefer
to bore a hole through the comb into the cage from the opposite
side, leaving the particles of comb in the hole for the bees to remove.
This insures that the queen shall make her exit among the bees after

the disturbance has subsided, and for that reason it is believed to
be a good plan.

Balling Queen

Not always does a colony accept an introduced queen, but they
may cluster about her in a tight mass making a cluster about 1] 1/2
inches or less in diameter. Whether they sting her, smother her
or deprive her of food and thus cause her death is not proven, but
the queen is often dead when the cluster breaks.

Balling may occur when a colony is opened too soon after a
queen has been introduced. This is likely to occur especially where
there is no honey flow.

The usual practice when a queen is found balled is to smoke
the mass to cause the bees to disperse and again cage the queen,
hoping that later the bees will accept the queen. When convenient
the cluster may be dropped in water to cause the ball to break up.

There is as yet no absolutely certain method of introducing
a queen. A loss of ten'per cent is not considered unusual.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES
Brood Diseases

There are three known diseases of the brood of bees, called

63
American foulbrood, European foulbrood and sacbrood. These cause
loss to the beekeeper by causing the death of developing brood,
thus reducing the colony in strength so that it becomes unproductive
and may fall a prey to wax moths or die from depletion. These
diseases also cause loss to the beekeeper by increasing the labor
necessary to keep them under control.

American Foulbrood

This disease is caused by bacillus larvae, White*, an organism
which is harmless except to the baby bees. American foulbrood was
so named because it was first seriously studied in America. Death

  

abe, Normal expbings.

ef. Sinton and pofersted capbings.
9s,. Febue feted by disease.
‘har, Scales from dried-down larvag
PALM, Diseased Varvec

Fig. 38. American foulbrood (redrawn).

 

from the attacks of this organism occurs principally after the develop-
ing bees have been sealed in the cell. The normal color of healthy
larvae is pearly white, but when attacked by this disease the larvae
become a light brown, later turning to dark brown. Since death
as a rule does not occur until after the larva is sealed, at that
time it is lengthwise of the cell with the posterior portion slightly
elevated against the cell base. (Fig. 38). Therefore, the remains of
larvae dead of this disease are usually on the lower cell wall. This
position is best observed by holding an infected comb upright in such
a way that the light comes from over the shoulder and looking at the

 

 

*White, G. F., 1907. The cause of American Foulbrood.
ment Agriculture. Bureau Entomology Circular, 94,

ot

inited States Depart-
lower cell walls. As the larvae decay the cappings become dis-
colored, sunken and perforated by the bees, many cappings being
entirely removed by the bees in their effort to clean up. These
sunken and perforated cappings are one of the symptoms which
first attract the beekeepers’ attention. After the death of the larvae
the remains dry until there is visible only a scale on the lower
cell wall. These scales adhere very tightly to the cell walls and
practically cannot be removed by the bees. There is a characteristic
odor about a comb containing a considerable number of larvae
dead of American foulbrood which has been described as the “glue
pot” odor. In some cases this is not very pronounced. At a cer-
tain stage in the decay of the dead creature just previous to the
dry stage, it is sometimes possible when inserting a small sliver
of wood into the decaying mass to withdraw it and have the rotten
material stretch out like a thread for as much as three inches. In
some cases death does not overtake the developing creature until
the pupal stage has been reached and there may be found cases
where the pupal tongue will be seen extended at an angle of forty-
five degrees across the cell from the lower front towards the upper
back part. This latter symptom is said by Doctor Phillips to be
conclusive evidence that American foulbrood is present in the colony.
Of the other symptoms, color, odor and position, it is believed
the latter is most reliable. The dried down larvae adhere tightly
to the cell wall, making it impossible for the bees to remove many, if
any, of them. A colony of bees is subject to an attack of this dis-
ease at any period of the brood-rearing season.

This disease is carried from colony to colony and place to place
in infected honey which the bees may rob from an infected colony;
from infected honey which may be shipped and the container with-
out washing thrown out where bees can get at it; it may be carried
in queen cage candy which has been made with infected honey,
or it may be transmitted by contaminated hives, tools and apparatus.

Preventive Measures—There is no evidence to show that Amer-
ican foulbrood attacks one race of honey bees more than another,
and we have nothing definite to hope for in preventing the disease
from this quarter. It is known that the spores of this disease are
carried in honey and that considerable honey on the market is
produced in infected apiaries. Therefore, the beekeeper should never
feed his bees honey purchased on the open market. Feeding honey
is a doubtful practice except where the honey is the beekeeper’s
own production and he knows positively that it is free of disease
germs.

Remedial Measures—Remedial measures in short consist in re-
moving from the infected colony all material which could carry

65
infection, causing the bees to make a new start. The usual process
is to shake or brush (brushing preferred) all the bees from the
infected hive into a clean hive equipped with full sheets of founda-
tion, melt up or burn the old combs and disinfect by scorching
the hive and frames before again putting them into use. Because
the scales contain millions of the spores of this disease, the combs
must be destroyed. This treatment gives best results when done
just at the beginning of a honey flow. The bees do not always
take kindly to this radical change in their household arrangements
and may abscond. To prevent this a queen excluder may be placed
between the hive body and the bottom board, a queen and drone
trap may be fixed at the hive entrance or a piece of queen-excluding
zinc may be placed before the entrance to retain the queen.

If there is much healthy brood in the treated combs they may
be stacked several stories high over a weak colony and after ten
days, when the worth-while brood will have emerged, this colony
treated and the combs disposed of by boiling and the wax recovered.
The heat necessary to melt combs renders the wax safe for use.

Chantry Method—A modification of this treatment known as the
“Chantry” method appears to have considerable to recommend it
because the bees are not so greatly demoralized and the queen re-
tainer is not needed.

This consists first of reducing the colony to one story two days
before the treatment if it occupies more than one story; second,
the bees are brushed into the prepared hive as before, except that
it has in the center one empty dry comb, one which the beekeeper
plans to discard, leaving this comb for forty-eight hours only. Then
it is quickly removed, the bees brushed off and the comb destroyed.
The gradual reduction in the size of the hive seems to cause less
discontent. The empty comb serves as a place for the deposition of
eggs, keeping the queen better satisfied, and in this old comb the bees,
when the excitement from brushing has subsided, place the honey
which they took up in their honey sacs and which may contain
germs of disease. When this comb is quickly removed there is small
chance for the bees to recover any of the infected honey. When
American foulbrood is found in a colony it should be treated before
it is allowed to become a producer of surplus honey.

With so much honey on the market in which there may be germs
of this disease, it is not a source of great surprise when it shows
itself in new areas, particularly around the larger towns and cities.

The beekeeper may have no surety against infection in this manner,
but he is morally if not legally guilty if he does not employ every
known measure to rid his bees of infection and prevent its spread
as much as lies in his power.

66
Great care should be used to prevent other bees getting any of
the honey from the infected combs, and if there is any possibility
of honey dropping from them to the ground during treatment news-
papers should be spread to catch any possible drops and the paper
burned.

After treatment the hive body, bottom and top should be scorched
or in some manner subjected to over 212°F. to free them from in-
fection which may be on them.

No disinfectants known are effective in killing the germ caus-
ing American foulbrood.

The frames may be made safe for further use by boiling for
half an hour, by dipping in boiling lye water, one can of lye to
a washboiler of water, or by subjecting to rather high heat by baking.

One New Jersey beekeeper successfully got the bees out of the
infected hive into the clean one by placing the infected colony over
the clean hive with nothing between and smoked and brushed the
bees down as the combs were removed one by one.

Any honey which may be in the combs may be extracted and
put to family use, or it may be diluted with an equal amount of
water, boiled for half an hour in a closed vessel and fed to bees.

This should never be fed when it will be used for winter stores,
as it will surely cause dysentery and death to the bees.

European Foulbrood

Description—This is a disease of the brood of bees caused by
bacillus pluton White.* This organism causes death of the larvae
in the majority of cases before the time for sealing has arrived. The
color of the affected larvae differs much. It may be discolored
only by having a yellow spot near the head, or it may be a light
brown or a dark brown. The odor when present, which is not
always, is distinctive but not easily described. It resembles in a
measure the odor of ear wax (cerumen). ‘The position of dead
larvae also varies and in truth it may be said that there is practi-
cally no possible position in the cell which the dead larvae do
not assume. The per cent of larvae affected also varies and may
involve a very few cells up to ninety per cent of the larvae. Its
progress in the colony is often rapid but may be slow. Thus it will
be seen that the symptoms are exceedingly variable. As the writer
has had opportunity to study the manifestations of this disease in
New Jersey the most dependable symptom is the position of the larval
remains (scales) in the cells and the shape of the scales them-
selves. The scales are exceedingly irregular in form, and their

*White, G. F., 1912. The Cause of European Foulbrood. United States
Department Agriculture. Bureau Entomology Circular 157.

67
   

abe, Normal capprrigs.
apg hop Gmina diseased. lartag

p78, dried-down larvae or scales.

Fig. 39. European foulbrood (redrawn).

position in the cells is almost limitless in variety. (Fig. 39). The
scales do not adhere tightly to the cell walls, and the bees remove
many of them. If the colony is sufficiently strong in young bees,
they will entirely clean out the scales. Bees are more subject to
an attack of this disease during the forepart of the brood-rearing
season.

The manner in which this disease is transmitted is not well
understood. It is believed it is carried in the honey.

It would seem that bees of a good Italian strain, when well
cared for so far as food supply and winter protection is concerned,
as a rule are able to throw off an attack of European foulbrood or
to resist it entirely.

Preventive Measures—Beekeepers have learned from experience
that certain bees show a great resistance to bacillus pluton. So
high is the resistance that in many cases it approaches immunity.
This trait is more in evidence in the Italian bees than in blacks
or hybrids of these two races. Occasionally there is found a colony
of blacks or hybrids which shows this trait to a marked degree, but
this is the exception rather than the rule. On the other hand, oc-
casionally a colony of Italians will show a low order of resistance.
This also is not common.

It is evident, then, that the beekeeper cannot afford to risk
. ie of European foulbrood by keeping anything except good
talians.

Doctor Phillips is authority for the statement that a colony of
68
bees well wintered, with sufficient insulation and an abundance of
good stores, will be much less subject to an attack of this disease.

Remedial Measures—Farmers’ Bulletin No. 442* advises the shak-
ing treatment for European foulbrood with the addition of a vigorous
Italian queen, and for cases of heavy infection (seventy-five per cent
or more) the writer believes this treatment still applies. In aggra-
vated cases there is such an enormous amount of infected material
to be cleaned out that it is the writer’s belief that it is more eco-
nomical to take away and render these much infected combs. Then
let the bees use their energy in building new combs or in working
with uninfected, ready-built combs, always, of course, removing the
old queen and giving a young, vigorous Italian.

A method for treatment, known as the Alexander, is giving good
results when handled with care. There are three factors involved!
in this treatment, all of which in most cases must be used to obtain,
satisfactory results. These are (a) a strong colony (b) a period
of queenlessness (c) a vigorous Italian queen introduced.

Strength of Colony—Sometimes, although not frequently, the
colony is already strong when it is discovered to be infected with
European foulbrood. If this should be the case the beekeeper is saved
the work of strengthening it.

Strength of colony necessary for a clean-up of European foul-
brood, according to Doctor Miller and the Dadants, is at least an
amount of brood sufficient to fill five frames of Langstroth dimensions
and enough bees to cover seven frames. If infected colonies are not up
to this standard of strength two or more should be united until
this strength is attained, or a colony may be strengthened by the
addition of combs of emerging healthy brood.

Period of Queenlessness—The method as published by Alexander
called for a twenty-one-day period of queenlessness. When Doctor
Miller tried this plan he misread the directions and gave a ten-day
period of queenlessness and effected a cure. This led to further
experimentation along this line and seems to have resulted in a
very flexible rule governing this period. There is evidence to show
that bees vary in their ability or disposition to clean out the in-
fected material afid that a colony should be left without a queen
until they have cleaned out most of the dead matter. It will readily
be seen that the per cent of infection and the disposition of the
bees are the two factors in the clean-up. The condition of Doctor
Miller’s colonies should not be overlooked, as they were undoubtedly

above the average in strength and vigor.

 

*Phillips, E. F., 1913. The Treatment of Bee Diseases. United States
Department Agriculture. Farmers’ Bulletin, 442.

69
Introduction of Vigorous Italian Queen of Resistant Stock—Un-
fortunately bee breeding has not as yet been carried to the place
where anyone can safely say his bees are European foulbrood proof.
Indeed this time may be far distant. The best, then, that can be
done is to secure queens from a reputable dealer unless the bee-
keeper is so situated that he can get pure matings in his own
locality. If the beekeeper can rear the queens for this operation
it will prove beneficial if mature queen cells rather than virgins
or laying queens be introduced to the colony under treatment. The
period of expectancy and preparation when the queen is due to
emerge from the cell and until she has had the mating flight appears
to stimulate the cleaning-up process. Of course it is necessary
to have good Italian stock from which to rear the queens.

A bountiful honey flow will serve to stimulate the clean-up, and
a meager one will have a deterrent effect.

Sacbrood

Sacbrood is a disease of the larvae of honey bees which, ac-
cording to White*, is caused by “a filterable virus.” This causes
the death of the larva at the stage of its development just after
sealing when the larva is extended in the cell. The bees soon re-
move the cappings from cells containing the dead larva, exposing
to the view of the beekeeper the dead larva with head pointed,
curled upward away from the lower cell wall, Chinaman shoe
fashion, and the forward quarter of the larva darker than the
posterior portion. The color of the forward portion is a dirty
brown, somewhat mottled. The posterior portion is usually only
slightly discolored with brown. If these larvae are burst the contents
are found to be watery and somewhat granular.

Aside from the position in the cell the most characteristic symp-
tom of this disorder is the fact that if the head is carefully grasped
the larva can be lifted from the cell entire, whereas in American
or European foulbrood a like procedure would result in lifting from
the cell only that portion of the larva grasped.

Seldom in New Jersey does sacbrood cause any appreciable de-
crease in strength of the colony attacked. The reason for a discus-
sion of this disorder is that the beekeeper may be able to recognize
it and not confound it with foulbrood, either American or European.
and needlessly treat the colony.

Remedial Measures—Since the cause of this bee disorder is not
known no definite directions for treatment can be given, and the only

*White, G. F., 1913. Sacbrood a Disease of Bees. United States Depart-
ment Agriculture. Bureau Entomology Bulletin, 169.

70
suggestion which seems advisable is that a colony much affected be
given a vigorous Italian queen.

Ww

of twelve to fifteen inches of the entrance.

BROOD DISEASES CONTRASTED

American Foulbrood

. Larva dies at advanced

stage
many

of its growth,
after sealing.

. Color a decided brown.

. Odor distinct but not

intense.

. Spreads slowly in hive

and apiary.

. Dead larva on lower

cell wall except in col-
ony in the last stages
of the disease.

. Larva decays as one

mass and in advanced
stage may be ropy.

. Scales formed by dried-

down larvae are on
lower cell wall and are
removed with difficulty
by the beekeeper and
not at all by the bees.

European Foulbrood

. Most of the larvae die

before time for sealing.

. Color gray, yellow and

light brown.

. Odor pronounced, often

intense, sometimes al-
most absent.

. Usually spreads rapidly

in hive and apiary. May
spread slowly in both.

. Dead larvae in every

conceivable position in
cell.

Larva decays as one
mass, and has jelly-like
consistency and is not
markedly ropy.

. Irregular scales in every

position in cells and not
difficult of removal.

ADULT BEE DISEASES

Sacbrood

. Larva dies after

sealing.

. Color, dirty light

brown often mot-
tled, head almost
black.

. Odor very slight

yeasty.

. Spreads veryslow-

ly over exceed-
ingly small areas.

. Dead larva on

lower cell wall.

. Larval skin re-

mains unbroken
and contents are
watery.

. Seales regular on

lower cell wall
and do not ad-
here at all.

Adult bee diseases are imperfectly understood, and much that has
been written on the subject is probably mere conjecture.

Paralysis

There is a disorder of adult bees which is called paralysis or
palsy. The manifestation of this disorder is the dead and sick bees
massed on the ground in front of the affected colony within a radius

These are principally

old bees, many of which are quite devoid of hairs and give the

appearance of having been dipped into oil.

The wings are often

held at an unnatural angle, and the bees exhibit a trembling motion.
Often the abdomens are considerably swollen.
These shaking, hairless bees are often seen on top the frames
when an affected colony is opened.

7
Not often does this disorder cause the death of a colony, but
it frequently takes such a toll of the working force that the colony
is rendered unproductive.

Without any real foundation for such recommendations, the sug-
gested treatments are requeening, sprinkling powdered sulphur on
top the frames and transferring the colony to the stand of a healthy
populous one.

The introduction of a more vigorous queen is in itself a good
move, and of the three suggested treatments this probably has the

most to recommend it.
Crawling Disorder

A disorder of adult bees, because it is in a measure descrip-
tive of the behavior of the affected bees, the writer has chosen to
designate the crawling disorder. So far as can be learned this first
made its appearance in New Jersey near Matawan, Monmouth County,
in 1912. What appeared to be the same trouble had been seen at
Huguenot Park, S. I., N. Y. as early as 1906. This disorder con-
tinued to spread until in 1918 it could be found from Matawan across
Monmouth County to Allentown and to Hamilton Square in Mercer
County. What appears to be the same trouble has been observed at
Washington in Warren County, Palatine in Salem County, Glassboro
in Gloucester County, Moorestown in Burlington County and Lake-
wood in Ocean County. The bees which are affected by this trouble
are for the greater part young adults at about the age when they
do the first field work.

The affected bees may be seen crawling in every direction away
from the hive, many exhibiting a nervous haste. Many are found
clustered together in groups on small objects such as sticks and
stones or in depressions in the earth. When disturbed these bees
show an indisposition to move, similar to bees benumbed by cold.

This disorder appears suddenly and may be in evidence but a
few days and disappear as suddenly as it came. In aggravated
cases the colony becomes entirely depopulated, even the queen de-
serting the hive. This disorder has usually occurred during a period
when there was little or no nectar gathering due to dull weather,
and when bright sunshiny weather reappeared the trouble often abated.

The only abnormal condition noticed inside the affected colony
is the decreased population, the decline in brood-rearing and an
excessive amount of stored pollen.

The greater amount of this trouble has been seen where white
potato growing is carried on extensively and dusting with arseni-
cals for the control of insects is common. For this reason beekeepers
in the regions affected have believed the trouble is poisoning from

72
the collections from clover on fields adjacent to the dusted potatoes
where the dust floats and settles on the clover. It has also been
suggested that bees get the poison from leaves of plants when gather-
ing moisture from them. In support of this theory is the fact that
in some samples of affected bees subjected to chemical analysis
arsenic was found in sufficient quantity, it is believed, to kill the bees.
On the other hand no poison was found in other samples in no
way, so far as could be seen, differing from those which showed
arsenic.

Remedial Measures—The only suggestion which can be given to
a beekeeper whose bees are troubled with this disorder is to move
them out of the affected zone.

It has been suggested that this disorder, the Isle of Wight disease

and May disease are the same under different names. This, also, is
mere conjecture.

Dysentery

This is a trouble which is sometimes experienced by adult bees
and is due to their being confined to the hive for a long time by
low temperature when the stores contain much material which is
indigestible by bees. Under this condition there is a great ac-
cumulation in the intestines. The bees normally void this ac-
cumulation while on the wing. However, when it becomes great
they may be forced to void it in the hive. When this occurs the
trames, combs and bees are befouled, and unless the bees shortly
get relief in flight they perish.

Preventive Measures—No remedial measures are open to the
beekeeper, but he must depend upon the weather for the only help
that can be given. He can nevertheless take precautions against
this condition. These are (1) if the stores are of doubtful quality
he can feed, in the fall after the bees have ceased gathering from
natural sources, five or more pounds of sugar made into a syrup.
Mix one part of hot water and two parts by weight or measure
of sugar; and (2) he can provide an abundance of winter packing
and thus slow down consumption and consequently the accumulation
of feces.

ENEMIES
Birds

Some birds, prominent in the list of which is the king bird,
have been accused of being enemies of bees in that they catch them
while on the wing. The few drones or workers which might be so
caught would hardly make any appreciable difference to the colony.

73
If queens were thus caught when on the mating flight serious ‘loss
would result, especially in a queen- -rearing apiary. The evidence
that this occurs in New Jersey is not clear.

Wax Moth

The wax moth is a greyish insect (Fig. 40) measuring about 5/8
inches long with a wing spread of 1 1/4 inches, which deposits its
eges on unprotected bee eonib, and when the larva (Fig. 41) emerges

 

 

Fig. 40. Wax moth (original).

 

Fig. 41. Wax moth larva, enlarged (original).

from the egg it feeds on the pollen and cocoons of the combs.

As the larva develops in size it spins a silken gallery through
the combs which serves as a protection against attacks of the bees.
When the larva has attained its growth it spins a cocoon, and in
due time the adult moth emerges.

This insect causes loss to the beekeeper by damaging stored
combs either with or without honey and also combs in colonies
too weak to protect them properly.

The black and hybrid bees do not show as great resistance to
this insect as do the Italians. If only Italian bees are kept and’ the
colonies are always strong, no damage will come to the colony from
this source.

Should a colony become weakened and be attacked by the wax
moth it should either be strengthened, or all combs not covered
by bees removed from the hive and fumigated with carbon bisul-
phide or burning sulphur.

In using either of these fumigants it must be remembered that
the fumes al carbon bisulphide descend and the fumes of burning
sulphur arise. Therefore, when carbon bisulphide is used it is
put on top the combs to be fumigated; sulphur is put below.

74
Toads

_ Toads are sometimes mentioned as bee enemies. It is not likely
that if they do eat bees enough are taken to cause appreciable loss.
Toads are beneficial in keeping down harmful insects and should
not be killed. If desired they may be kept away from the hive
by wire cloth with mesh of suitable size.

Skunks

Considerable damage may be done in the apiary by skunks,
both by the untimely disturbance of the bees, particularly in winter,
and by annoying them in summer, making them more difficult to
handle by the beekeeper.

The skunks apparently paw at the hive entrance, induce the bees
to come out and then eat them. The number of bees eaten would
not in itself constitute a serious damage, but the disturbance in winter
dissipates the bees’ energy. This renders the colony less likely to
survive the winter season in good condition.

Sometimes in summer the bees are so annoyed by skunks that
whenever the beekeeper goes to the apiary he finds his work more
dificult because of cross bees.

The remedy is either to fence the apiary skunk-tight or to kill
the skunks.

Snakes

These are also beneficial animals, except the venomous kinds,
and if harm to bees is anticipated through their visits they also
may be excluded by wire netting.

Mice

When the bees are inactive during the colder period of the year,
mice will enter the bee hives, if possible, make nests in the combs and
feed on the bees. This occurs only during the inactive period.
Damage is done a colony both in the mutilation of the combs and
the dissipation of the bees’ energy due to the disturbance. The bees
which are eaten constitute only a minor part of the damage.

The remedy is to reduce the entrance to the hive to such size
that mice cannot enter. If the entrance is no more than a quarter

inch high mice will be debarred.

FEEDING BEES

Although normally bees gather all the food they need, occasion
may arise when this is not possible and the beekeeper to properly

75
care for the bees, must supply the deficiency. It is believed that
there is no place in New Jersey where there is a shortage of pollen
sufficient to make it advisable to feed the bees a substitute if there
were such a thing. Various substances have been suggested as pollen
substitutes, but those who have investigated the subject believe noth-
ing is an advantage and many so-called pollen substitutes may be
harmful to the bees.

When the bees are short of stores the best way to feed is to
give them combs of disease-free honey. Very often, however, this
is impractical for one reason or another. It is possible to use sugar
syrup as a substitute, and there is no tangible evidence to show that
harm has ever come through this practice. Granulated sugar only
should be used for feeding.

For feeding in the active season a syrup made of two parts
water to one part sugar by measure may be used, or the syrup may
be even heavier—equal parts of sugar and water. For feeding
late in the season when it is desired to supplement the amount the
bees have been able to store for winter the proportions should be
two of sugar and one of water, or even 2 1/2 parts sugar. It will
be necessary to use hot water to dissolve this proportion of sugar.

Feeder

Seldom if ever is it desirable to practice what is called open
air feeding when the material to be fed is placed where all the
bees in the apiary may help themselves.

Individual feeding is best and calls for individual feeders. A
variety of styles of these are listed by the dealers in beekeepers’
supplies. It is the opinion of the writer that what is known as the
friction top tin can will serve the purpose of a bee feeder for all
conditions better than any other type. This can is such as that in
which some paints and cooking fats are sold and has a depressed
lid. To adapt the can to bee feeding the lid should be perforated
with holes 1/16 inch or less in diameter and about 3/8 inch apart.

To use this feeder fill it with the syrup, press the lid firmly
in place and invert it directly on top the frames over the bees to
be fed. To provide room for the can an empty hive body is used
as a second story, and if the weather is cool a cloth may be spread
over the can and top of the frames to help retain the heat within
the cluster. Care must be used that the can is nearly level or the
feed may leak out.

This places the feed close to the bees and they can take it with-
out breaking cluster and only the needy colony can get the feed.
If a considerable amount of feed is needed by a colony a number
of cans may be used. Fall feeding should be done as rapidly as

76
possible, or untimely broodrearing may be started. As much as two
gallons of heavy syrup has been taken down by a strong colony
in less than 24 hours. For late feeding the feed may be given as
warm as the finger can be borne in it.

ROBBING

Honey bees have no pity for a weak neighbor but will, when
given the opportunity, rob such a weak colony of all its stores. Pre-
vention of robbing is much better than any cure, and when a beekeeper
has had a robbing fracas on his hands he usually is careful that no
fault of his causes a second such affair. When robbing is at its
height the bees become furious and will sting almost anything in the
neighborhood, animate or inanimate.

When a colony is robbed no smoke should be used on it, but
the entrance should be contracted to a size that will permit but one
bee at a time to pass and grass or hay placed lightly over the entrance.
It is better yet if the hay is liberally sprinkled with water.

If a colony has been so badly robbed that saving it seems im-
practicable, it may be best to let the robbers complete their work
and become satisfied that nothing more can be had from that source.
Sometimes the robbed colony will desert its home and go with the
robbers.

It should be borne in mind that robbing always is extremely un-
desirable, and especially so when disease is in the apiary or neighbor-

hood.

SMOKER FUEL

Perhaps every inflammable material has at one time or another
been used as fuel for the bee smoker. Nevertheless some materials
are decidedly better for this purpose than are others. Tobacco is
sometimes recommended for vicious colonies, but it is much better
to discard the vicious stock, and evidence is lacking to show that to-
bacco smoke gives better control than smoke of burning wood.

Because it fires easily and burns freely, rotten wood of any vari-
ety gives excellent results. Crushed corn-cobs make a good smoke
when once well fired but cause the smoker to become clogged with
creosote. Burlap which is rotten enough to be easily torn gives
a good smoke. New burlap is not easily fired. Wood chips are
also excellent. Greasy waste has been suggested for use in the
smoker. When oily enough to light readily it often refuses to
continue burning freely; when less greasy it does not fire easily.
There is some evidence to show that the fumes from greasy waste
have an effect upon the bees opposite the desired one and they
become infuriated.

77
SPRING DWINDLING

Another trouble sometimes met by the beekeeper is called spring
dwindling. The colony at that time in the late spring when it nor-
mally should be rapidly increasing in strength declines in numerical
force. There is a mortality of the adult bees greater than is made
up by the emerging bees, and the colony may be reduced in strength
to such a degree that it becomes unprofitable if it does not succumb
entirely.

This is believed to be evidence of poor wintering. The adult
bees, because of the intense activity in raising the cluster temperature.
become exhausted of vitality unduly early in the season and die be-
fore young bees can be reared to take their places. The remedy,
better wintering practice, is obvious.

TRANSFERRING BEES

Unfortunately there are still a few bees in box hives in New Jersey.
and occasionally. there is a colony with immovable combs because no
foundation has been used in the frames. It is highly desirable that
all bees be on movable combs in order that the manipulations necessary
in modern beekeeping may be readily accomplished and that bee
diseases be detected and controlled.

The method of transferring the movable comb hives known as
the Heddon short method has much to recommend it, the chief
advantage being the fact that there is less likelihood of the person
with small experience meeting failure. Transferring by this method
is best accomplished at fruit-blossoming time. No extra apparatus
is needed in transferring from a movable frame hive with crooked
combs, and in transferring from a box there is needed only another
box of the same width and length as the open end of the box hive
and about twelve inches deep.

First, vigorously smoke the box hive to be operated on, then turn
it bottom up and place the prepared box on it with the two open
ends together. Should there be cracks or holes where bees may
escape they should be stopped. Then pound vigorously on the
sides of the old hive for about ten minutes. The greater part of
the bees and the queen will run up and cluster in the upper box.
They should then be dumped in front of a hive prepared for a swarm,
placed where the box hive stood and’ the box hive placed ten feet
away from its former location.

If the colony to be transferred is on crooked combs in a regular
size hive, the prepared hive may be placed as the second story and
the bees drummed up into it. The top story should then be put on

78
a bottom board and placed where the old colony stood, and the
old colony moved to a stand ten feet away.

A new queen will be reared in the old hive, and the hatching
bees will make a fair-sized colony if the old colony was populous.

  

 
 

      
       
 

 
 

A

—-
Va = ee ;

A

Fig. 42. Showing the several parts of a modern beehive and their relation
one to the other (Root).

At the end of three weeks the operation should be repeated on the
old colony, and this second drive hived as a separate swarm or it
may be united with the first drive. The combs can then be cut
from the old hive and made into wax.

79
“PANGING”

Beating on pans or ringing bells—‘“tanging” as it is called—to
cause a flying swarm to settle has not been proven to have any
effect on the bees. Spraying with water or throwing sand among
them sometimes causes them to alight. ,

SNOW-COVERED HIVES

There is no evidence to show that harm has come to bees in
New Jersey due to being covered with snow. In fact it seems to
have a beneficial effect. Should the entrance be covered with snow
no harm will result. If a colony is strong enough to need more air
than comes through the snow they will raise the temperature enough
to melt the snow in front of the entrance. If not strong enough
to need more air they are all right even with the entrance covered.
Through mistaken kindness some beekeepers remove the snow from
the entrances of hives. This does the bees no good and actually
results in harm, due to the disturbance.

These statements apply to colonies of bees wintered out-of-doors
without extra protection. Although this is a rather common practice it
is a very poor one. If the hive is covered with an outer case or
other winter protection there is still less reason for disturbing the
snow-covered entrances.

BEE DISEASE CONTROL LAWS

In order that better control of bees diseases might be brought
about, in 1911 the following bill was enacted.

CHAPTER 60.
Laws oF LOLI.

An act to supplement an act entitled “An act to prevent the intro-
duction into and the spread of injurious insects in New Jersey, to pro-
vide a method for compelling their destruction, to create the office of
State Entomologist, to authorize inspection of nurseries and to pro-
vide for certificates of inspection,” approved April fourteenth, one
thousand nine hundred and three; to provide for the inspection of
apiaries and for the suppression of contagious or infectious diseases
among bees.

BE IT ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State
of New Jersey:
1. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to
have or keep in his or their possession or in any apiary, any colony
of bees infected by the diseases known as American foulbrood or
European foulbrood or by any other disease which is contagious or
infectious in its nature and injurious to honey bees in their egg,
larval, pupal or adult stages, and any person, firm or corporation
so having in his or their keeping or in his or their possession any
colony of bees so infected, after notice of the existence of such
disease given as hereinafter provided, shall become and be subject
to a penalty of twenty-five dollars, to be collected as hereinafter
provided.

2. It shall be the duty of any person, firm or corporation in
the State of New Jersey who is engaged in the rearing of queen-
bees for sale, to have his or their apiary inspected at least twice
during each summer, and it shall be unlawful to ship from such
queen-rearing apiaries any package or parcel containing queen-bees
without having attached to it a certificate from the State Entomologist,
giving the date of the last inspection, and containing the state-
ment that the apiary in which such queen-bees were reared was,
at the time of such inspection, free from American or European
foulbrood, or other discoverable contagious or infectious disease.
Any person violating the provisions of this section shall be liable
to a penalty of fifty dollars, recoverable as hereinafter provided.

3. It shall be the duty of the State Entomologist, designated as
provided in the act to which this is a supplement, by himself or
by a deputy appointed as provided in said act, to investigate, or
cause to be investigated, all apiaries or other places where bees are
kept or raised in New Jersey, and to study and investigate, or cause
to be studied and investigated, outbreaks of bee disease and other
conditions unfavorable to the development of bees within the State.
It shall also be the duty of said entomologist to investigate all com-
plaints of the existence of disease of any kind in apiaries or other
places where bees are kept, and to inspect or cause to be inspected
at least twice each season, when requested by the owner, all apiaries
where queen-bees are reared for sale. It shall further be the duty of
said State Entomologist, whenever he finds any apiary where queen-
bees are raised free from foulbrood or other discoverable infectious
or contagious disease, to furnish the owner of such apiary with a
certificate stating that fact, and such certificate shall state the date
beyond which it will not be effective.

4. Whenever in the course of the inspections or investigations
made or carried on as provided in this act by the State Entomologist
or under his direction, said State Entomologist shall become aware
of the existence of American or European foulbrood or other infec-

81
tious or contagious disease in any apiary or colony of bees, it shall
be his duty to notify forthwith the owner or owners or manager
of such infested or diseased apiary or colony, of the character of
the infection and of the means to be taken to treat the same for
the eradication of such disease. Said notice and order for treat-
ment shall be in writing, and the directions for treatment may be
written or printed, and may consist of a bulletin or other publica-
tion of the New Jersey State College Experiment Station. Said notice
and order for treatment shall also specify the time within which
the prescribed treatment must be made, which shall not he less
than eight days after service of the notice or order upon the owner,
owners or manager of the apiary or colony. And in case of doubt,
where the presence of disease is suspected but cannot be definitely
determined because of the character of the hives used, said State
Entomologist may, in his discretion, order any owner of bees in box
hives without movable frames, to transfer such bees to movable-
frame hives to facilitate inspection and supervision. It shall there-
upon be the duty of the owner, owners or manager upon whom such
a notice and order is served, to comply with it in all respects within
the time limited in said notice and order, and in case of a failure
so to comply, such owner, owners or manager shall be Hable to
a penalty of twenty-five dollars, recoverable as hereinafter specified.

>. It shall be unlawful for any owner or other person having
diseased bees or their larvae, or infested hives or combs, or other
appliances or utensils for keeping bees, to expose, sell, barter or
give away or allow the same to be moved, until after treatment as
prescribed by the State Entomologist, and it shall be unlawful to
expose, sell, barter or give away such infested bees, larvae, hives or
combs or other appliances after treatment, until such materials are
declared safe and permission is given by the State Entomologist or
his deputy. Any person offending against the requirements and
provisions of this section shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars.

6. In case the State Entomologist or his deputy shall find any
apiary or colony of bees, in his opinion, so badly infested by Ameri-
can or European foulbrood or other infectious or contagious disease
that he shall deem it necessary to order the destruction of same or
all of the hives, combs, bees, larvae or other material as part of
the treatment, and the owner. owners or manager of such infested
apiary or colony shall dispute the diagnosis made by the State Ento-
mologist or his deputy, or the necessity for the destruction of the
hives, combs, bees, larvae or other material, it shall be the privilege
of such owner, owners or manager to appeal within three davs after
the service of the notice and order upon him or them, to the committee
of appeal provided for in section twelve of the act to which this

82
is a supplement, and the proceedings of such appeal shall be in
all respects as provided in said section. Said committee of appeal
shall have the same power to reverse, modify or confirm the order
of the State Entomologist made under this act, that is conferred
upon them in the act to which this is a supplement.

7. Any person who offends against the provisions of this act
and becomes liable to the penalties prescribed in any of its sections
shall be prosecuted as prescribed in section fifteen of the act to
which this is a supplement, as amended by chapter forty-seven of
the laws of one thousand nine hundred and four, approved March
twenty-second, one thousand nine hundred and four, and if the order
of the State Entomologist commanded the destruction of any bees,
larvae, hives, combs, or other utensils or material used in keeping bees,
the judgment of the court imposing the fine shall include also an
order to the officer enforcing its judgment to seize and destroy
the specified colonies of bees, larvae, hives or combs or other uten-
sils or material used in keeping bees, in accordance with said order,
which the said officer shall thereupon be fully authorized to do.

8. For the purpose of making the investigations and inspections
specified in this act and to enforce the provisions of the same,
the State Entomologist or his deputy shall have free entry upon
or into any apiaries or premises where bees are kept, or infected
hives or combs are stored, and any interference with or obstruction
made to the entomologist or his deputy while engaged in the per-
formance of the duties herein imposed shall subject the offender
to punishment as a disorderly person under the general laws of the
State, upon a charge made against him by the officer interfered with.

9. The sum of two thousand dollars annually is hereby ap-
propriated to the State Board of Agriculture for the purposes of this
supplementary act; provided, that no payment shall be made pur-
suant to this supplementary act until the amount thereof shall have
been included in the annual appropriation bill.

10. This act shall take effect immediately.

Approved March 28, 1911.

A careful reading of this measure will show that there is ample
provision made for legal steps against the person who does not show
a reasonable disposition to control any contagious bee disease which
may be in his apiary. It also throws a safeguard around shipped
queen bees to prevent disease being carried in the queen mailing
cage. It also provides that a due process of law shall be followed
in dealing with bee owners likely to become a menace in the spread
of bee disease, rather than giving the Bee Inspector unlimited power
to destroy as he might see fit or feel inclined to do. We believe

83
this act gives ample power to control bee diseases and assures proper
respect for property rights as well as, if not better than, similar
acts for other states.

Believing sufficient restrictions were not provided for incoming bees
and apiary material capable of carrying disease, in 1915 a bill was
enacted to take care of such incoming bees and material in a way
which will provide protection and insure justice to all concerned.
This act is known as Chapter 104, Laws of 1915, and follows in
full.

CHAPTER 104.
LAWS OF 1915.

A FourTHER SUPPLEMENT to an act entitled “An act to supple-
ment an act entitled ‘An act to prevent the introduction into and the
spread of injurious insects in New Jersey, to provide a method
for compelling their destruction, to create the office of State Ento-
mologist, to authorize inspection of nurseries and to provide for
certificates of inspection,’ approved April fourteenth, one thousand
nine hundred and three; to provide for the inspection of apiaries and
for the suppression of contagious or infectious diseases among bees,”
approved March twenty-eighth, one thousand nine hundred and eleven.

Be ir ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State
of New Jersey:

1. No colony or nucleus of bees or used apiary supplies coming
from a state or country having apiary inspection service shall be
accepted for transportation to points within the State of New Jersey
by any person or common carrier unless accompanied by a valid
certificate of inspection, stating that such colony or nucleus of bees
or used apiary supplies are free from infectious or contagious bee
diseases. Any colony or nucleus of bees or used apiary supplies
coming into the State from a state or country having no apiary in-
spection service shall be immediately reported by the consignee and
by the common carrier or person delivering same in this State,
giving name and address of consignee, to the State Entomologist,
who shall cause said shipment to be inspected at such time as shall
be expedient; provided, however, that nothing in this section shall
be construed to apply to the delivery of queen bees when not accom-
panied by brood or comb, or bees shipped in wire cages when not
accompanied with brood or comb. Any person offending against
the requirements or provisions of this act shall be liable to a penalty
of twenty-five dollars for each offense, to be recovered in action of

84
debt, in the name of the State Board of Agriculture, said penalty,
when recovered, to be paid into the treasury of this State, for the use
of the State. ;
2. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith be and the same
are hereby repealed, and this act shall take effect immediately.
Approved March 30th, 1915.

WINTER FEEDING

It is doubtful if any directions for winter feeding are advisable.
Already too many bee owners gamble on the weather and bet a good
colony of bees in the fall with meagre stores against an abun-
dant and early supply of nectar. If beekeepers in general would act
on the principle that it is practically impossible to have too much
stores in the hives in the fall after the first killing frost it would make
a tremendous increase in the crops of honey harvested. Many a
good nectar-producing location yields the beekeeper a small crop be-
cause the bees have been obliged to use stores sparingly, due to a limit-
ed supply in sight. When the honey harvest arrives, instead of a
booming colony of vigorous bees, too often there is but little more
than a strong nucleus which increases on the honey flow instead
of being a full-gathering colony for the honey flow.

However, this page may come into the hands of a bee owner who
through no fault of his may have colonies of bees with insufficient
winter stores too late to feed syrup. There are two feeds which may
be given such colonies, one of which is cut loaf sugar placed on top
the frames and well covered with blankets, and the other is a candy
made by boiling equal amounts of granulated sugar and water until it
makes a brittle candy. This is made into cakes one-quarter inch thick
and placed on top the frames under the hive cover. Great care must
be used to avoid scorching this candy, because if scorched it will
cause dysentery and death to the bees.

OWNERSHIP OF ESCAPED SWARMS

If a swarm escapes from the beekeeper, so long as he can keep
it in sight he can claim it. If, however, it gets out of his sight any-
one who finds the swarm can claim it. Should the swarm alight
on a neighbor’s property, the owner cannot legally recover the swarm
except by permission of the owner of the property.

BEE TREES

There is a common notion that the bees in a tree are the property
of the finder, and he may cut the tree to get the bees and honey which
may be in it. The truth is the bees belong to the owner of the land

85
on which the tree stands, and no one has a legal right to cut the tree
or take the bees from it unless permission be secured from the owner.

UNITING COLONIES

It sometimes occurs that colonies will be so reduced in strength
that uniting two or more is necessary to get together the necessary
working force to accomplish the desired object. Except under certain
favorable conditions when two colonies of bees are put together they
show a decided antagonism one toward the other, a fight ensues and
so many bees are killed that no increase of strength of colony is had.

Various plans may be used for having the two colonies unite peace-
ably, but the one which will give good results under all conditions
is known as the newspaper plan. The hive bodies containing the
two colonies are placed one above the other when the bees are not
flying, with only one sheet of newspaper between. The bees re-
move the paper and peaceably become one family.

It is best, if one colony is weaker or is queenless, that it be
moved to the stronger or queenright one to avoid loss by the bees
returning to the old location. After the bees in the moved colony
make their way through the newspaper and through the lower colony
to the outside, they accept the new location.

WINTERING BEES

At one time when the beekeeper experienced a loss of colonies
of bees in winter it was thought to be “bad luck.”

The work of Phillips and Demuth* has served to show why
bees did or did not survive the winter in good condition, and it is
clearly seen that colony loss in winter is due to bad management
or no management, either of which will produce practically the
same result.

Some of the more prominent causes for winter loss are a failing
queen, queenlessness, small colonies, colonies with too small a pro-
portion of young bees, colonies weakened by disease, poor stores
and insufficient insulation and inadequate windbreak. (Fig. 43).
It is obvious that giving proper attention to these conditions involves
nothing difficult nor complicated, and they are all under the bee-
keeper’s control.

If each year a good Italian queen is given to each colony some-
time between July 1 and August 10 it is improbable that any trouble

from a failing queen will be experienced and queenlessness_ will
also be avoided.

 

“Phillips, E. F. & Demuth, George 5. The Preparation of Bees for Outdoor
Wintering. United States Department Agriculture. Farmers’ Bulletin, 1012.

86
Late and excessive swarming or unwise division of colonies may
result in small colonies for winter. Swarming can be and should be
controlled, and no divisions of colonies should be made subsequent
to six weeks before the time the first frost may be expected.

A colony headed by a young queen in July or early August will
continue breeding late in the fall provided sufficient stores are in
the hive, insuring young bees for winter.

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 43. Unfortunately, many apiaries are obliged to pass through the winter
with no more protection than is given this New Jersey apiary.

87
Colonies which have been weakened by disease should be united
until a sufficient number of bees are in one colony to winter well.

A good windbreak is a large factor in the successful wintering
of a colony of bees. To keep the temperature of the cluster up to
a point at which the queen will surely be protected, the bees, when
the temperature of the air surrounding the cluster drops to 57°F.,
or below, generate heat by muscular activity. Everyone can ap-
preciate the increased rapidity with which this heat is carried off
when the hives are not protected from the cold winds.

A solid board fence is not considered as desirable a windbreak
as one with many small cracks. When the fence is tight the wind
whirls over the top and a return current is set up which blows
directly on the row of hives near the fence. An artificial windbreak
should be provided if a natural one cannot be had. In some cases
the apiary is surrounded by coarse mesh woven wire fencing in

 

 

Fig. 44. A New Jersey apiary provided with winter cases, which give ample
protection against low temperatures.

which corn stalks are woven. This answers fairly well. It is obvious
that a natural windbreak when it can be had is superior to an arti-
ficial one. A bluff, the edge of a wood or a row of evergreens are
excellent: and are self-maintaining. (Fig. 44). Some beekeepers
stack corn stalks around the hive for winter. This is far better
than no winter protection. So much depends upon the bees having
a comfortable winter location thal any pains to secure the ideal
site will be well repaid.

88
It has been shown by Phillips and Demuth in their work pre-
viously referred to that the quality of the winter stores has much
bearing on the way a colony will pass the winter. When the stores
are of such quality that there is a large proportion of indigestible
matter in them, there is a corresponding accumulation of feces in
the bees which causes them to be uneasy, and this uneasiness and
activity causes them to consume more of the stores resulting in in-
creased activity. There are localities in New Jersey where the winter
stores are usually from some source, principally golden rod, which
contains a large percentage of waste matter. In such localities it
is good practice to feed each colony after all gathering has ceased
five pounds of sugar syrup, made of two parts sugar to one of water.
This will be stored near the cluster, where it will be used during
the coldest part of the year, and as it is practically all digestible
the accumulation of feces will be very small.

Bees do not hibernate. There is a much reduced activity during
the winter season, but the cluster temperature of a colony of brood-
less bees does not go below 57°F. no matter how low the outdoor
temperature may be. The only way the bees have of maintaining
this temperature is by muscular activity. It is readily seen that to
maintain the temperature when the outdoor temperature is low the
bees must use considerable muscular activity. To maintain this
activity the bees must consume food. This activity not only causes
the bees to consume more food, but it uses up their energy so that
they are largely worn out when spring arrives and are not able to
do efficient work.

To provide that the bees shall come to the spring work with energy
unimpaired their winter activities should be slowed down to the lowest
possible point. This is accomplished by giving abundant insula-
tion to the colony. The studies of Phillips & Demuth have shown
that bees in New Jersey need four inches of packing beneath the
hive, six inches on the sides and eight or more inches on top.

The insulating material used will depend largely upon what
the beekeeper can conveniently get locally, bearing in mind that
the finer materials have a higher insulating value than the coarser
ones. Leaves and chaff are good insulators and one or the other
is within the reach of every beekeeper. Planer shavings and dry
sawdust are also good but present difficulties in keeping them in
the proper place. Hay, straw and like coarse long material, are
not good for this purpose.

The manner of holding the packing material in place is also
largely a matter of individual preference or convenience. Some good
beekeepers make a substantial case of 7/8 material large enough
to house four colonies placed back to back and allow sufficient room

89
for packing material. This has the advantage of permanency, and
when four colonies are packed in one case the cost of packing each
colony is less than it would be if they were cased singly. Some use
a rather temporary affair of slats and slaters felt. The essential
is that sufficient packing shall be used and that it shall be applied
early enough and left in place late enough in the spring. Bear in
mind that it is not possible to put on too much packing and no
harm can come through excessive packing.

The packing should be applied immediately after the first killing
frost in the fall and left in place until the last killing frost in the
spring.

PERIODICALS AND PUBLICATIONS

In all probability there has been no change in the response of
bees to their environment in the last thousand years, but the manner
of guiding their activities to man’s profit has and is still under-
going changes. For this reason a beekeeper needs to keep abreast
of the changes by making use of the current literature on the subject.

There are two excellent beekeepers’ journals: “The American
Bee Journal” published monthly at Hamilton, Illinois, and “Gleanings
in Bee Culture” also issued monthly, from Medina, Ohio.

Two old bee books, because they so thoroughly discussed _hees,
have been reprinted and can be had at beekeepers’ supply stores.
They are “Langstroth on the Hive and Honey Bee” and “Mysteries
of Beekeeping Explained,” by Quimby. There are a number of good
modern works on beekeeping. One of the best for the beginner is
Dadant’s “First Lessons in Beekeeping.” There are also “Beekeeping,”
Phillips; “Fifty Years Among the Bees,” Miller; “A BC & X Y Z
of Beekeeping,” Root; “Advanced Bee Culture,” Hutchinson, and
“Langstroth on the Hive and Honey Bee” revised by Dadant.

The United States Department of Agriculture has published
bulletins on beekeeping which should be thoroughly studied by every
beekeeper who wishes to get the most from his bees, either of pleasure
or profit. These can be had by addressing a request to your Congress-
man at Washington, D. C., and are as follows:

Farmers’ Bulletin 447 “Bees.”

Farmers’ Bulletin 1039 “Commercial Comb Honey Production.”

Farmers’ Bulletin 695 “The Outdoor Wintering of Bees.”

Farmers’ Bulletin 1012 “The Preparation of Bees for Outdoor Wintering.”
Farmers’ Bulletin 975 “The Control of European Foulbrood.”

Farmers’ Bulletin 1084 “The Control of American Foulbrood.”

Farmers’ Bulletin 1198 “Swarm Control.”

Farmers’ Bulletin 1215 “Beekeeping in the Clover Region.”
90
NEW JERSEY BEEKEEPERS’ ASSOCIATION

This association has for its object the advancement of the bee-
keeping industry in New Jersey. Its activities are social and educa-
tional, and it is managed by the Executive Committee consisting of
president, three vice-presidents and the secretary-treasurer.

It holds an Annual Convention at Trenton during Agricultural
Week. At this time at least one speaker on the program is of na-
tional repute.

From four to six summer demonstration meetings are held in
various parts of the state. At these meetings demonstrations are given
of seasonable manipulations of bees. These have proven very popular
and profitable.

By arrangements with beekeepers’ supply houses liberal discounts

are allowed members on purchases of beekeeping apparatus.
The dues at present are $1.00 per year, and the secretary-treasurer
is Elmer G. Carr, Pennington, N. J.

91
Pressboard
Pamphlet
Binder
Gaylord Bros,
Makers
Syracuse, N. Y.
PAT, JAN -21, 1908