ilk, cheese, and butter :a practical ha MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER MILK, CHEESE, ann BUTTER A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON THEIR PROPERTIES AND THE PROCESSES OF THEIR PRODUCTION INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON CREAM AND THE METHODS OF ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK BY JOHN OLIVER LATE PRINCIPAL OF THE WESTERN DAIRY INSTITUTE, BERKELEY With Two Colour=Plates, and upwards of Two ‘hundred Fllustrations, specially Drawn and Engraved for this Work LONDON CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 7 STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1894 PREFACE. ——~++——_ HIS volume, the Author is happy to say, represents the accomplishment of a purpose which he ‘has had before him for the last fifteen years. Several times has the work been commenced by him, only to be in- terrupted by ill-health or the pressure of duty in other directions. In the meantime, the need of such a volume has been constantly felt, both by the Author himself and other teachers, in the waste of time and toil in their class-work for want of a Text-book on Dairying, and by students desirous of mastering the subject. These delays, however, have brought with them some compensation in the opportunities given for testing previous experiences and for developing teaching methods; and the Author now offers the results of his labours in’a form which he trusts will be found the most useful for the purposes of both the student and the practical worker. ' The work may be described as a Handbook for the “ Dairyer,” a term which is used throughout the volume as vi PREFACE. distinguishing the manufacturer of dairy produce from the “Dairy-farmer” or the “Dairyman,” neither of whom is necessarily a maker of cheese or butter. For this apt and comprehensive term we are indebted to Dr. F. T. Bond, of Gloucester, who has laid the community under far greater obligations by organising the first British Dairy Conference, as well as by personal research and enthusiasm in the spread of knowledge. Now that his rivals of America and the Continent are pressing on eagerly and persistently to the attainment of the best methods, it is more than ever necessary that the British Dairyer should master his art. This cannot be done without a thorough study of milk—its composition, character, and capabilities, and the influences to which these are subject—as a preliminary to careful study and observation of the processes by which cream, butter, and cheese are obtained from the milk. And with this there must be unwearying endeavour after perfection in the actual work of the dairy. Unless the theory of his art be understood, the Dairyer will either repeat the same procedure day by day without reference to changing con- ditions which may upset his methods; or he will alter his methods blindly, following (it may be) mere convenience only, or taking up with practices which are inconsistent with the system or conditions under which he has to work. To master the theory of Dairying, some acquaintance with the elementary truths of Chemistry and Physics, and PREFACE. vii the conclusions arrived at by recent observers in those departments, is required; and the Author, in his own teaching, has found that those pupils who had acquired a fair elementary knowledge of natural science have invari- ably learned more easily, and retained more certainly, and followed more successfully, the practical teachings of dairy work, than those who had not enjoyed the like advantage. In his first chapter, therefore, he has aimed at giving a “foundation” of natural science, so plainly expressed that any one in training for dairy work who is familiar with elementary arithmetic may be able—at all events with the help of a dictionary—to master that portion of the subject. It has been, of course, impossible to avoid the use of scientific terms, but care has been taken to make them as clear, and as easy to use and remember, as may be. On the basis of Chapter I. is laid the work of the following six chapters, all relating to Milk and the con- ditions of its production and existence, matters with which every Dairyer ought to be familiar. (All the rest of the book, it may be mentioned, is written on the assumption that these earlier chapters have been carefully studied.) Chapter VIII. deals with the general principles of Cheese- making; and in Chapters IX. to XVI. the various local systems of Cheese-making are dealt with. The two next succeeding chapters are occupied with the separation of Cream and the making of Butter; and it may here be pointed out that it will be advantageous to the Cheese-maker to read the chapters concerning viii PREFACE, Butter-making, and to the Butter-maker to make himself acquainted with the theory of Cheese-making, if only to master the various phenomena which are common to both manufactures. In like manner, the Cheese-maker—no matter what system he may pursue—is advised to read up the accounts of the several systems here given, and then to make a special study of his own, In the last two Chapters, the subject of Testing and Analysis of the constituents of milk and its compounds, and the question of recording the results of the Dairyer’s observations and experiments, are briefly considered. It is hardly necessary to say that the Author does not pretend to have exhausted the subject with which this volume is concerned, His aim has been to furnish a Handbook which should be of practical utility to the Dairyer in preparation for work, and for constant reference in the dairy. With this view, the illustrations throughout the volume have been specially prepared for the purpose, and where particular appliances are mentioned they have been selected as applications of the principles referred to. KEYNSHAM, NEAR BRISTOL, February 1894. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. A FOUNDATION oF NATURAL SCIENCE Ne CHAPTER II. ORIGIN AND PRODUCTION oF MILK 24 CHAPTER III. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK 33 CHAPTER IV. CHEMISTRY OF MILK 40 CHAPTER V. INFLUENCE ON MILK OF THE BREED AND INDIVIDUALITY OF THE Cow 47 CHAPTER VI. INFLUENCE ON MILK OF SEASON AND OF THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE Cow 49 x CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. INFLUENCE ON MILK OF FERMENTATION, ANIMAL DISEASE, AND NON-PUTREFACTIVE TAINTS CHAPTER VIII. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CHEESE-MAKING CHAPTER IX. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM AND ITS PRODUCT CHAPTER X. THe CHEDDAR DAIRY CHAPTER XI. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE CHAPTER XII. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM WITH OVER-RIPE AND TAINTED MILKS - CHAPTER XIII. THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM CHAPTER XIV. Tur DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS PAGE 59 72 117 121 162 220 229 244 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XV. THE STILTON SysSTEM CHAPTER XVI. CREAM CHEESE CHAPTER XVII. CREAM AND THE METHODS OF ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK CHAPTER XVIII. BuTTER-MAKING CHAPTER XIX. TESTING AND ANALYSIS CHAPTER XxX. ReEcorps.—EXPERIMENTS.—CLEANSING INDEX xi PAGE 257 272 275 302 334 349 355 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. CoLourR-PLATES 1. THERMOMETER 2. HYGROMETER 3. Fitzroy BAROMETER 4. HyDROMETER 5. FIBRIN IN BLOOD 6. ALVEOLUS - 7. MILK UNDER THE MICROSCOPE 8. SCALE OF DENSITIES 9 (a, 6, c, d, e). Far GLOBULES o. CREAMOMETER 11. DIAGRAM OF MILK COMPOSITION 12. COLOSTRUM UNDER THE MICROSCOPE 13. Lacric Acip FERMENT 14. Lactic Acin FERMENT (No. 18) - 15. CASEIN FERMENT (No. 1) - 16. Test APPARATUS FOR TAINTS 17. CAPILLARY MILK COOLER 18. RENNET JAR 19. APPARATUS FOR TESTING RENNET 20. CHEESE-MAKER’S THERMOMETER 21. Do. Do. PREPARED FOR USE 22. WARMER 23 (a, 6). COAGULATION TEST 24. SELF-REGISTERING THERMOMETER 25. PENICILLIUM GLAUCUM 26 (a, 6, c). CHEESE FLY AND Maccot 27. CHEESE MITE 28. WALL LINING - 29. GUTTER AND DRAIN-WELL : 30. Usinc DRAIN-CLEARING TOOL 31. FARM CHEESE DAIRY—ELEVATION 32. Do. GROUND PLAN 33. Farm Darry BOILER—PLAN 34 Do. SECTION PAGE Frontispiece 9 10 12 14 26 28 31 33 34 37 45 49 60 61 63 69 7O 84 85 92 92 93 94 108 109 III Ilr 125 126 127 130 130 131 131 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. . AIRING Rack . CIRCULAR Hor-wateR MILK Vat . TIPPING BLock . COVER FoR Rounp Vat . OBLONG MILK VaT Do. SECTION . Facrory Vat Tar . MILK CONDUCTOR IN PLACE Do. IN USE . METHOD oF SUPPLYING HEATING WATER . WHEY TANK . CHEESE LIFT . WATER TANK AND BUTTER CELLAR IN SECTION . CURING-ROOM—PLAN Do. SECTION . HoworTH REVOLVING VENTILATOR . APPLIANCE FOR CONTROL OF AIR SHAFT . HOT-AIR STOVE Do. SECTION . Hot-airR APPARATUS . HoT-WATER BOILER . DIAGRAM OF HOT-WATER CIRCULATION - . HOr-wWATER TUBULAR BOILER Do. Do. SIDE ELEVATION . HOT-WATER COIL - . LOUVRE VENTILATOR—ELEVATION AND SECTION . CHEDDAR CHEESE FACTORY—ELEVATION Do. Do. GROUND PLAN . DELIVERY PLATFORM . MILK RECEIVER . STEAM HEATING PIPEs IN FAcToRY VATS . SECOND MILK RECEIVER . BOILER FRONT IN SECTION . CORNISH BOILER 69 (a, 6). STEAM AND WATER Tars 70. 71. 72. 73 74: 75+ 76. 77: 78. 79. 80. VERTICAL ENGINE WATER HEATER CHEESE TABLE Factory LIFT - CaGE OF Do. Factory CURING-ROOM—PLAN CooLER OVER VAT Avusrin AGITATOR FLoat WATER-WHEEL—FIRST POsITION Do. SECOND POSITION xiii PAGE 131 132 132 133 133 134 135 136 136 137 138 138 139 140 141 141 142 143 143 144 145 145 146 146 147 148 149 150 150 I51 152 153 154 154 155 155 156 156 157 158 160 162 163 163 164 164 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 81. MEASURE GLASS 82. OBLONG Vat (COVERED) 83. GRAIN OF CuRD 84. TESTING CURD FOR FIRMNESS 85 (a, 6). CuRD KNIVES 86. CurD CUTTING—OBLONG VAT 87. Do. Rounp Var 88. SKIMMER 89. CurD SPLITTING go. DIAGRAM OF SKIMMER BREAKING 91. CHEDDAR CURD BREAKER 92. TRACK OF BREAKER—OBLONG VAT 93- Do. RounbD Vat 94 (a, 4, c). PostrIONs OF BREAKER 95. LowreR HAND IN POSITION ¢ 96. STRAINER PLACED FOR DIPPING WHEY 97. BREAKER IN SCALDING 98 (a and 6). SYPHON AND STRAINER - 99. Do. Do. IN USE 100. LIFTING THE SYPHON 101. CURD STRAINER 102.° TIPPING VAT 103. VAT TIPPED 104. FUNNEL AND CONDUCTOR FOR WHEY 105. CURD DIVIDED FOR PILING 106. CURD SHOVEL 107. PILING THE CURD - a 108 (a, 6). TRIMMING THE PILES 109 (a, 6). CuRD WHISK 110. CuRD CuT FoR PILING—RouND VaT III. CurD Cut, TURNED, AND PILED 112, RACK - 113. CURD COOLER 114. EXHAUST FAN 115. CuRD MILL IN SECTION 116. CURD MILL OVER OBLONG VAT 117, CuRD MILL FASTENING 118 (a, 4). CHEESE Hoops 119 (a, 6, c, @)) DouBLE Hoop, FILLER, GIRTH, AND FOLLOWER 120. GIRTHING DOUBLE CHEESE 121. SALT AND CURD SCALE 122. WOODEN CROSS-FOLLOWER 123. LEVER PRESS 124. Do. 125. SPRING PRESS 126. BANDAGING CHEESE PAGE 172 173 174 174 175 175 176 176 176 177 177 179 179 180 180 185 — 186 189 189 190 190 190 191 191 192 192 192 193 193 194 195 196 197 199 201 202 202 205 205 206 206 207 209 210 210 211 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 127. RE-COVERING DOUBLE CHEESE 128. WATER TROUGH 129. CHEESE SHELVES 130 (a, b,c). CHEESE TURNING 131. CURD TIPPED FOR AIRING 132. CHESHIRE CURD CUTTER 133. CURD CUTTING 134. Do. SECOND PosIrIoNn 135. CURD KNIVES : 136. CURD GATHERER 137. Do. IN USE 138. CurpD SINK 139. OvEN Hoop 140. CHEESE OVEN IN PLAN AND SECTION 141. DERBYSHIRE CHEESE-MAKING APPARATUS - 142, CuRD CuT - 143. STILTON DAIRY—PLAN 144. AIR DISTRIBUTION 145. AIR OUTLETS 146. DRAINING TROUGH 147. FRAME TO CARRY PERFORATED PLATE 148. WHEY OUTLET 149. SUPPORTS OF INNER CASE 150. STRAINER CLOTH ON FRAME 151. CuRD IN CLOTH 152 (a, 4, c, d, e). TYING CuRD 153. STILTON Hoop 154. TURNING PLATES 155 (a, 6). FOLLOWER AND Hook 156 (a, 6). CREAM CHEESE PRESS AND RACK 157. CREAM CHEESE IN BaG 158. Do. IN PRESS - 159. KNEADING KNIFE - 160 (a, 5). CREAM CHEESE MouLp 161, FarM BuTTeR DainY—PLAN 162, CREAMERY—PLAN 163. BUTTER FACTORY—PLAN - 164. SHALLOW PAN 165. SKIMMER 166. JERSEY CREAMER 167. Do. IN SECTION 168. Do. TIPPED - 169. JERSEY CREAMER PLUG 170. THERMOMETER STAND 171. HoT WATER FUNNEL 172. SWARTZ CREAMER- XV PAGE 212 214 214 215 222 233 234 234 235 235 235 236 236 237 247 248 260 261 261 263 263 264 264 264 265 266 267 267 268 272 273 273 274 274 276 278 279 280 280 283 284 284 284 285 286 287 Xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 173. COOLEY CREAMER CAN 174. DEVONSHIRE CREAMING STOVE 175. DANISH SEPARATOR 176. LAVAL SEPARATOR 177. ALPHA LAVAL SEPARATOR 178. ALEXANDRA SEPARATOR 179. CREAM PAN 180. HoLsreIn CHURN - 181. Box CHURN 182, BARREL CHURN 183. DIAPHRAGM CHURN 184. SHAKSPEARIAN CHURN 185. TRIANGULAR CHURN 186. SWING CHURN 187. Disc CHURN 188. BUTTER ACCUMULATOR—PART SECTION 189. BuTTER Scoop 190. BUTTER COOLER 191. BUTTER TRUNDLE- 192, WORKING BUTTER WITH Scoop 193. ALBANY CUNNINGHAM BUTTER WORKER 194. BUTTER WORKER ROLLING 195. ScorcH HANDS 196. BRICK OF BUTTER - 197. MOULDING BRICKS 198. Roi oF BUTTER 199. BUTTER ROLLING - 200. RoLL MouLp 201. PATS OF BUTTER . 202, Cup MouLp 203. Box MouLD 204. BUTTER SCALE 205. BUTTER 1N POT 206. WHEY CREAM PAN 207. SAMPLE DIPPER 208. CHEMIST’S BALANCE 209. EVAPORATING BATH AND OVEN 210. DISH AND PIPETTES 211. DESICCATOR 212. MEASURING WITH PIPE1 TE 213 (a, 4, c, d, e). LACTO-BUTYROMETER 214. Ho_pinc LacTo-BUTYROMETER TUBE 215. Bascock TESTING BOTTLE 216. LisTER-BABCOCK APPARATUS 217. TESTING BUTTER : 218. MILK CAN BRUSH - PAGE 288 290 294 295 296 297 308 313 313 314 314 315 315 315 316 319 324 325 326 326 326 327 328 329 329 329 329 354 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. CHAPTER I. A FOUNDATION OF NATURAL SCIENCE. Elements and Compounds.—Our study may well commence with the simplest forms of matter. It is found that all natural substances are formed out of some sixty-seven materials, just as all the words in the English language are formed out of the twenty- six letters of the alphabet. These materials cannot be divided into unlike substances, and are therefore called e/ements, to distinguish them from the many forms of matter in which two or more of them are combined, and which are known as compounds. The elements are sometimes found in a free state, but generally in combination with each other, and this with so many variations in kind and pro- portion as to give the infinite variety which we see in nature. Elements may again be divided into metals and non-metals,—the former answering, more or less, to the general meaning of the term, the latter covering the rest. Only eleven of these elements are believed to be necessary to animals and plants, and these, with five others concerned in dairy processes, are sufficient to the purposes of this work. In the follow- ing table the symbol of each element, by which it is described in chemical science, is given, and the weight of each as compared with the first and lightest of them all :— Non-METALS. Non-METALS. Gases. Symbol. Wowk. Solids. Symbol. wenn, Hydrogen H 1.00 | Carbon C 11.97 Oxygen O 15.96 | Sulphur - S 31.98 Nitrogen N 14.01 Phosphorus P = 30.96 Chlorine Cl 35-37 Boron B 1I.00 Fluorine F 19.10 Silicon Si 28.00 A 2 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. METALS. ; Symbol. - eke, Potassium - K* 39.04 Sodium Na* 22.99 Calcium Ca 39.90 Magnesium Mg 23-94 Tron Fe* 55-90 Aluminium Al 27.30 The symbol is usually the initial letter of the name, with some- times a second; but in three cases above (*) it is taken from the Latin form of the name. The following brief notes on these elements will serve to give a general idea of their characters :— Hydrogen forms a large proportion of the gas used for lighting. Pure H burns with a pale yellow flame, but will put out that with which it is lighted. Oxygen is essential to all animal and vegetable life. It does not take fire, but will cause a burning substance to consume away very quickly with a bright flame. Nitrogen will kill by suffocation animals confined in it. It will neither burn, nor suffer other things to burn in it. These three gases are colourless, and can only be recognised by some test of their action on other substances. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, which irritates the lungs greatly if breathed into them ; while F/orine is powerfully corrosive. Carbon is best known as in coal, coke, charcoal, and soot; but it exists in many other forms, and is found in all living bodies and their remains. : Sulphur and Phosphorus are most familiarly known in lucifer matches and medicinal drugs. Boron and Silicon are grey substances, both found, in combination with other elements, in various forms. Potassium, Sodium, and Magnesium are of silver-white colour, and have certain other qualities in common; while Ca/c/u, though sharing the latter with these, differs in its colour, which is slightly yellow. Aluminium is a light and lustrous metal; while /roz needs no description. Air, when pure and dry, consists of about one-fifth (by bulk) of O and four-fifths of N simply mixed together, so that each is free to join with or act upon whatever may come within its range. The atmosphere, however, is never an absolutely pure mixture of O and’ N, for it contains more or less of moisture and certain gaseous wet NATURAL SCIENCE. 3 compounds, which serve sundry important purposes of animal and vegetable life, as will be hereafter seen. Water is also composed of two gases; but in this case it is H with O, and they are not merely mixed, as in the case of air, but are combined. / Statement of Composition.—The chemist is able to separate water into its elements, and finds that there is twice as much of H in it as of O (by bulk or volume). The proportions of the elements in compounds vary greatly, and he has_y...... 11.55 two systems by which he is able to show those Owes: 88.45 proportions in any case. One of these expresses the proportion by Jercenfages, or their relations to 100 parts. The composition of water so stated will be about as in the accompanying calculation, or there are about 114 lbs. of H and 884 lbs. of O in every 100 lbs. of water. Atoms and Molecules.—The other system is based upon the afomzc theory. The a/omz is taken to be the smallest conceivable quantity (by measure or volume) of any element. It cannot be seen or measured, but it is none the less a practical reality; just as the lines of latitude and longitude mark distances on the map of the world, and are of the utmost value to the navigator, though he cannot see them as he sails the ocean. The atom of each element is of the same size as that of any other of its class; and since there is twice as much of H in water as of O (by volume), the chemist writes the atomic statement of its composition as H,O, which he calls the formula of that composition. Whenever a symbol is given without a number, it is understood to represent one atom of the element. These two methods are used according to convenience,—the latter more especially in the statements of chemical changes. Here, then, we have two atoms of H and one of O combined to form water ; and since we cannot conceive of less than an atom of O, the quantity of water so described must needs be the smallest possible. This cannot be called an atom, because water is a compound: it is called instead a molecule; and in order to express molecules by number, a figure is placed before the atomic formula, as in the follow- ing, viz., 3H,O, which means three molecules of water. Atomic Weight.—A comparison of the proportions of H and O in water by weight and by measure, will show that though the former gives about eight times as much of O as of H, the latter shows twice as much of H as of O. This is because the atom of O weighs nearly sixteen times as much as the atom of H ; and in the third column of the table. of elements the great variations in the relative weights of these can be seen, and not only compared with that of H, the standard, 4 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. but also with each other. By this means the differences between statements by weight and by volume can be reconciled, and each calculated from the other. The molecules of all compounds occupy spaces according to the number of their atoms ; and their weights, as molecules, depend on those of the various elements composing them, and their relative proportions to each other in combination. The term molecule is sometimes used in connection with a single element, when two or more atoms of it join each other in a free state. Descriptive Names of Compounds.—The composition of com- pounds is not only described by formulz, but also by names. When a non-metal combines with a medal, the name of the xon-metal takes the termination “ide.” Thus Fe and O combine, and the compound is called an oxide of iron. In the same way Cl forms chlorides of metals, &c. But the quantity of the non-metal may vary, and the names are made to show this, the name of the metal being used for the purpose. The compound which has more of the non-metal makes this second name (the metal) to end in “7c,” and that which has Zess to end in “‘ ous.” Thus we have Fe and O combining in two proportions. In the one, Fe,Oz, there are three atoms of O (non-metal) to two of Fe (metal); and in the other, the two elements are equal. So, as the former has more O than the Jatter in proportion to Fe, it is called ferrée oxide; and the latter is ferrous oxide. When non-metals combine with each other, the termination “ide” is still used, but the name of the element considered to be the most important comes first. Sometimes, however, the proportion of the O in an oxide, or of S in a sulphide, is expressed by a syllable placed before the part of the name which refers to it,—as when there is one atom of O, the com- pound is a mon-oxide (example, CaO, which is calcic mon-oxide) ; or as when there are two atoms of O, and it is called a di-oxide (co, being named carbon di-oxide). So we have also ¢rz-oxides, tetroxides, and pentoxides, showing the presence of three, four, and five atoms of oO respectively, The same “ prefixes,” as_they; are called, are placed for a like reason before other names ending in “ide,” as sulphides. &c. The reader, if not already familiar with these rules, is advised to master them before proceeding further. Acids.—Certain compounds of non-metals with O are converted by the addition of H,O into acids. Thus C and O combine as CO, (carbonic di-oxide). This is sometimes, though wrongly, called carbonic acid ; its proper name is carbonic an-hydride,—the prefix “an” showing that it is w¢¢how¢ H in this case. When, however, a molecule of H,O is added, it becomes carbonic acid, H.CO;, NATURAL SCIENCE. 5 As this is the first example of the combination of two com- pounds, the manner in which the symbols are added to each other to express the composition of CO, the new substance is shown in the accompanying, H, O calculation. H,CO; CO, is a colourless and heavy gas, which, like N, will extinguish a light and kill animals by suffoca- tion when immersed in it. It is given off from the burning of oil, wood, and coal, and from decaying animal and vegetable matter, and ds breathed out from the lungs of animals. It therefore mingles with the air, and there serves very important purposes in connection with plant growth. Sulphur also unites with O as SO;, Sulphuric anhydride, and be- comes an acid with H,O as H.SO, (Sulphuric acid). This last is commonly known as oil of vitriol, a sour liquid, which either chars or corrodes objects in contact, and can dissolve many substances in nature, both organic and mineral. Phosphorus with O, as P.O,, unites with 3 molecules of water (3H,O=H,Os3) to form Phosphoric acid. It will be seen in the accompanying calculation that the P.O; 3 molecules of water and 1 of the anhydride Hy Os form 2 molecules of the acid; the result being — capable of division by 2, and leaving whole HgP.0g numbers of each element. This, like sulphuric =oH PO, acid, is corrosive, and also of great value to pests vegetation. Nitrogen with O, as N,O; (Nitric pentoxide, or anhydride), com- bines with 1 molecule of water to form 2 molecules of Nitric acid, HNO,;. Thus N,O,+H,O=H,N,O,=2HNO;. It is known in commerce as Aqua-fortis. Chlorine with H, as HCl, forms Hydrochloric acid, also known as Muriatic acid, or Spirits of salt. Acids have, in common, a sour taste, and the power to change vegetable dyes of a blue colour to redness.. The- best known test for acidity is a porous blue paper coloured with a substance called Zztmus, obtained from certain lichens. This upon being put into an acid becomes more or less red, according to the acid present. In naming acids, the relative proportion of O is recognised as before, and we have therefore Phosphorze acid with a higher, and phosphorows acid with a dower, proportion of O; while a still higher proportion than in the former is shown by placing the syllable fer before it (as per-chloric acid, HC1O,); and a lower proportion than 6 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. with the latter by the use of the prefix Ayfo (as Aypo-sulphurous acid, H,SO.,). Bases and Salts.—Bases are compounds which combine with acids to produce a third class of substances called Sa/¢s, They are of four kinds, as described in order. (a.) Oxides of metals.—In the accompanying calculation the base, Calcic oxide, joins with Carbonic acid, and, Base...... Ca O after the molecule of water necessary to Acid...... H, CO; the acid has been subtracted from the result, the salt, Calcic carbonate, or Car- Wien 8 bonate of lime, will remain. The similar — combinations of H,CO, with other bases Salt....... CaCO; of this class are given below, the metals being given in italics. Na,0 (Di-sodic oxide)-+ H,CO,=H,0 + Wa,CO, (Di-sodic carbonate). #,0 (Di-potassic ,, )+ ,, 5, +&,CO; (Di-potassic ,, ). MgO (Magnesic ,, )+ ,, +» +ZgCO, (Magnesic 5g). Cala The salts are known as carbonates of soda, potash, and magnesia. The same bases acted upon by Sulphuric acid, H,SO, form Sulphates, as Na,O+H,SO,=H,0+Na,SO, (Di-sodic sulphate) ; while K,0, CaO, and MgO, give K,SO, (Di-potassic), CaSO, (Calcic), and MgSO, (Magnesic), respectively. Similar results follow the action of Nitric acid, giving MV2trates, two molecules, 2HNO; (=H2N20,), joining with one of the base, as in NagO+H,N20g=H,0+ Na,N.O,, or 2NaNO; (Sodic nitrate). Phosphates are formed in the same way by the acids of P, the oxide P,O;, making Phosphorows acid, and P,O,, making Phosphoréc acid, and of the latter there are several kinds in which the propor- tions of H.O vary. P,0;+H,O = H,P,0,=2HPO. PO, +2H,0, (or H,O,)=H,P,O,. P,O,+3H,0, (or H,O)=H,P,0,;=2H,PO,. These are also called Phosphates, with H as a base. Now just as H is found in the examples above, so Na and Ca may be found in those now given. Hydric Sodic Calcic phosphates. phosphates. phosphates. HPO, ah ti NaPO, ate walt Ca2PO, Hy,P.0, eas ns Na,P,O, a5 oa Ca,P,0, IT,PO, ae ies Na;PO, a ae Ca32P0,*. Calcic phosphates are better known as phosphates of lime. There are others of iron and magnesia built up on the same principles, \ NATURAL SCIENCE. f. Leps We now come to the second class (4), in which KOH (Potassic hydrate or potash), and NaOH (Sodic hydrate or soda), are capable of being converted into salts by acids. In the following example the potash is acted upon by nitric acid. Base. Acid. Water. Salt. KOH + HNO;=H,0 + KNO, (Potassic nitrate). Ammonia (NH,) belongs io this class, for though differing greatly in composition from KOH and NaOH, it acts like them in all practical respects in combining with acids, and produces ammonium salts. Those bases which can be dissolved are called A/kalies; they are opposite in character to acids ; and litmus paper, which has been reddened by an acid, can be restored to its blue colour by an alkali. A compound which changes the blue to red is said to have an acid ve-action, while one which will bring it back to the blue, has an alkaline re-action. When the acid and the alkaline base balance with each other, the result is a eutral salt, which will not affect litmus paper either way. When an acid material has been brought to balance by an alkali, or an alkaline one by an acid, it is said to have been neutralised. Finally, there are A/kalozds, which include quinine, strychnine, &c., formed in growing plants, with others produced in organic matter under chemical decomposition ; and sundry other substances, which will be described as they appear in the course of the main subject. The foregoing will suffice to give a general notion of the relations of acids and alkalies and their products. Cl Compounds.—Ch/lorine combines with Na to form the familiar common sait, NaCl, so much used in the dairy, and which has other connections with milk besides. It is commonly obtained from mines, as rock salt ; or from springs, as brine, afterwards reduced to dryness. This substance is usually associated with impurities, such as Calcic sulphate, CaSO, (also called gyfsum), which produces a hard cake known as “an-scale,” and often found as veins in the blocks of salt bought at the stores. This and Magnesic chloride, MgCl,, cause bitterness ; while Calcic chloride, CaCl,, produces wetness by absorb- ing an undesirable quantity of moisture from damp air. Therefore the less of these the better, and a good salt will not contain of them altogether more than one per cent. by weight. Another Cl compound is that with K, called Potassic chloride, KCl, the character of which may be judged by the fact that K holds the same place and power as Na in the previous case. Silicon combines with O to form an oxide, Silica, SiO., common 2 8 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. < in sand and rocks, and found in the ashes of grasses and grain crops. Aluminium forms an oxide, Alumina, Al,O,, which with SiO, so largely makes up clay soils. Further references to these will occur. We now turn to the consideration of certain chemical and physical laws, and the definitions concerned therein. Suspension and Solution. These terms are often used in describing the relations of solids and liquids. A solution consists of a solid dissolved in a liquid, as salt dissolves in water ; whereas, when the solid, though distributed in the liquid, does not dissolve, it is said to be in suspension. A solid which can be dissolved is said to be soluble; and one which will not, is described as zzsoluble. A saturated solution is one in which the liquid has dissolved all that it can of the solid. If salt is added to water until it will dissolve no more, the result is called a saturated brine. Many substances will dissolve much more readily in warm than in cold water. To this salt, NaCl, is an exception, dissolving equally well in either. A solution is said to be dzluted when water, or some weaker solution, is added to it. Dilution may be made to describe the addition of water to milk, though this latter is not a simple solution. A substance in solution will pass, with its dissolving liquid, through a ///er,—which may be either (2) a porous paper, like blotting paper ; (4) a quantity of loose particles, as sand or charcoal ; or (¢) a compressed material, as charcoal or porous porcelain, according to the purpose in view. Solid substances are held back by all filters, and dirty water is thus made clean for household use. The clear liquid which passes the filter is known as the ji/trate, but this—with most filters—may carry through with it matter which can be separated from it by other filters of a closer character. Those forms of matter which in their natural state can only be filtered out of liquids by filters of the latter class, include gelatinous (jelly-like) and gummy substances, and are called colloids, to distinguish them from crystalloids, which are soluble, and can only be separated from their solutions by chemical action, heat, or the drying up of the water from them. Salt is left in crystalline form when the water is removed from natural brine by the two latter means. Colloids in liquids are said to be in dzfieston or gelatinous suspension. These two classes of matter can be separated, when found associated in a liquid, by the use of a filter of parchment paper; and this method is called dalysis, and the filter a déalyser, names derived from a Greek root meaning to unloose. Analysis is the discovery or separation of the different elements or compounds composing a substance. Qualitative analysis consists merely in proving the presence of NATURAL SCIENCE. 9 these by (a) physical separation or (4) the use of ¢es¢s. These are generally more or less associated. A test may be made by some chemi- cal action, which produces a certain result in contact with the element or compound supposed to be present; if that result is observed, the analyst concludes that it is present in some quantity. The microscope is of use in some cases, revealing what would be beyond the powers of the unaided eye. Quantitative analysis carries the matter further, either separating the different parts of a substance and weighing them, or estimating their respective quantities by proved rules. The different elements or compounds found in any substance are called 90 its constituents, because together they consti- J tute it. Heat and Cold.—We are conscious of con- siderable natural variations between the greatest heat of summer and the greatest cold of winter, and the changes of temperature not only affect us but the condition of.things around us. Water, for instance, expands with an increase of its heat, —z.é., it occupies more space than it did before,— while with the increase of cold it contracts or takes up less space; and this heating may be carried on to a point at which the water will boil and pass away as steam, and the cooling until it becomes ice. Many things which are solid at ordinary temperatures become liquid with greater heat; liquids, likewise, become gaseous; while liquids and gases may, at lower tempera- tures, become solids and liquids respectively. This law of expansion and contraction is turned to account to measure the variations in the temperature of bodies. Jercury readily responds to the influence of heat and cold, and is used in the construction of thermometers, or heat-mea- surers. Confined in a glass tube, with sufficient free space in which to expand upwards, it registers by its risings and fallings, as it expands. or con- tracts, the changes in the temperature of the air ie: 2 and other bodies. In boiling water it rises to a TyusrmomereER. point called the doc/ing point of water, and it will sink to a point at which water freezes, and which is therefore called the freezing point, and even higher and lower than these. Between ven, Fah. 100-41/L52!2 Boiling =>) TITTT G & °o oo & ° @ Ss Po Ss o a x Tapa TOTTI eT TT 8 8 8 o ° 2 a fergie fe eave Pe meae no aeicn Ptr o 8 w ° \ Peeing TIT] TTT TTT TTI TY TTT 60 50 20 ° phony 32 Freezing - 30 10 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the boiling and freezing points of water, Fahrenheit formed a scale of 180 divisions or degrees (Fahr., Fig. 1), making the former 212° (degrees), and the latter 32°, above his zero or lowest point. This scale is generally used in this country ; but another is coming into use, especially among scientific men, that framed by Celsius, a Swede, and commonly called the Centigrade scale (Cen., Fig. 1), because it makes the freezing point its zero and the boiling point 100°, so dividing the scale into one hundred degrees. So as the mercury rises under heat and falls with cold, the extent of its rising or falling is known by the degrees on the scale; and we regulate our dairy processes to a great extent by its teachings. In using it, care is needed to take the readings accurately. It should be held in the liquid until the column of mercury rises no longer, and—if prac- ticable—the figure rioted there. If the scale cannot be seen without removal it should be brought to the eye as quickly as possible, otherwise the mercury will rise or sink under the influence of the air-temperature, and the user will be deceived. He should therefore be familiar with the instrument, and thus reduce his. liability to error to the lowest possible point. Heat is absorbed and carried by some bodies better than by others, and such are therefore called good conductors, as compared with bad ones, or—as they are called when this quality is very pronounced * —non-conductors. The throwing off of heat by any- thing which has absorbed it, as for instance a stove, is called radiation (radius, a ray), because the heat is given out, as the sun gives out his rays. The heat of the fire is conducted by the iron of the kettle to the water inside it, and this soon becomes vafour and vanishes, it is therefore said to evaporate. There is Rig: &: in the soil much moisture, which similarly passes into Hycromerer. the air, and, though unseen, loads it in proportions which vary from hour to hour with all changes of wind and weather. The dampness of the air is called its humidity, and this can be measured as well as its temperature. Air itself, by contact with wet surfaces, takes up moisture ;° and when evaporation is going on, the substance, losing its moisture, becomes colder, An instrument has been devised to show the humidity of the air. This instrument (Fig. 2) is called a Aygrometer (hygros, moist). Two thermometers are fixed side by side, the one (a) being of the ordinary kind, the other (4) having its bulb wrapped around with a piece of thin cotton material, and thus kept moist by a few strands of soft NATURAL SCIENCE, II cotton which suck up water from a cup (¢) below. The evaporation goes on at a rate dependent on the dryness of the air; and according to the quickness with which the moisture drys off from the bulb, so is the cold and the variation of the mercury. There is therefore generally some difference between the temperatures shown by the two thermometers, and, this being observed, it can be known by reference to the table below how much moisture is in the air, the largest amount which it can carry being described as 100 degrees of humidity. Temperature by dry bulb Difference between thermometers. thermometer. *° 4 6° 8° Degs. Degrees of humidity. 40 84 70 58 47 42 84 71 59 49 44 85 72 60 50 46 85 73 61 51 48 86 73 62 52 50 86 74 63 53 52 86 74 64 54 54 86 74 64 55 56 87 75 65 56 58 87 76 66 57 60 83 76 66 58 62 88 77 67 58 64 88 77 67 59 66 88 78 68 60 68 88 78 68 60 70 88 78 69 61 72 89 79 69 61 74 89 79 70 62 76 89 79 71 63 78 89 79 71 63 80 90 80 71 63 Example—-If the dry bulb shows a temperature of 62° and the wet one 58°, the difference is 4°, and by looking in the second column opposite the 62° (dry bulb) it will be seen that there are 77° «of moisture present. In order to real usefulness such an instrument should be kept in a fairly sheltered spot, and out of the sun’s rays. The quantity of moisture which the air can carry depends on its temperature—the higher this is, the more it can hold. So at a high temperature the moisture may be considerable though unnoticed ; but if the air gets colder, as after sunset, its ability to hold moisture decreases, and whatever it can no longer carry will be deposited as 12 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. dew upon objects which have lost their heat by radiation. This pro- cess is called condensation, and is the opposite to evaporation. Fic. 3. Fitzroy BAROMETER. The air affected by heat becomes rarefied, and, like liquids and solids, becomes lighter also. Under the influence of cold it becomes heavier. As these changes occur in general harmony with certain changes in the weather, an instrument called a barometer (baros, weight) has been constructed to measure the weight of the air, by its pressure on a body of mercury rising into a glass tube, the column rising or falling according to the weight of the air. The barometer designed by the late Admiral Fitzroy, and used with his rules, is a valuable ally in dairying. This is shown in Fig. 3, with the tube (@) fully exposed. The bulb (4) allows the pressure of the air, (about 16 Ibs. to the square inch at ordinary levels), to be exerted on the surface of the mercury, under average conditions balancing that in the tube, which has no pressure upon it, the space above the column being a vacuzmz, or free from air. The top of the column con- sequently rises or falls as the air-weight in- creases or decreases with weather changes. The scale (c) which measures these variations is three inches long, each inch being divided into fifths or tenths, and two movable pointers (dd) can be set alternately so as to show the extent of the variations between any three observations, The mere indications of varying weight of the atmosphere are of little service by themselves. In order to forecast weather with some degree of correctness, the rate of rising and falling, the temperature, and other considerations, should be taken into account; hence the presence of a thermometer (e) with every good instrument, and often a chemical storm-glass (7), the crystals in which rise before a fall in the weather. The rules are printed on the Fitzroy barometer, or can be bought for any others for a few pence. Electricity is always present, more or less, in the atmosphere. NATURAL SCIENCE. 13 Into the nature and influence of this force it is impossible to go fully in this work. Suffice it to say that the electrical condition of the air exercises considerable influence within the realm of the dairyer, and will have further attention as occasions arise. This fluid, the performances of which are among the chief. wonders of modern science, has the power—when discharged as lightning—to bring about a striking change in the O of the air, concentrating and giving to it more active chemical properties. In this form the O is known as ozone, and causes oxidation of such metals as silver and mercury, and such materials as indiarubber. It is usually present in the air to a small extent, but with this, as with many other things, its power is large out of all proportion to its quantity. It has the capacity for rendering litmus paper pale, and proves its presence by other tests. In connection with thunderstorms there is a production of HNO, from a combination of the elements of the air with water ; and this being carried down by the rain, makes the latter more valuable to crops by reason of its greater nutritive properties than that which falls at other times. Attraction. — Gravitation. — The attraction of bodies towards each other, but more especially their tendency to move towards the earth’s centre, and therefore towards the lowest point they can reach, is called gravitation. It is because of this that when a liquid is set free it runs down any incline to the lowest level, and this law is consequently brought into continual application in the dairy. Cohesion._-The attraction by which bodies hold together is so’ called. It is much greater in some than in others; and in the same bodies at one time than at another. Capillary attraction is the tendency of liquids to rise or sink within minute tubes. Examples will occur later. Density, or Specific Gravity, is the weight of a substance in relation to its bulk. We have seen that an atom of O is about sixteen times heavier than one of H, and that other elements vary to a greater or lesser extent in this respect, although their atoms are alike in size. This isalso true of the substances formed out of elements. Let us test this for our- selves. Into a vessel of water we will drop a piece of cork and a stone—the former will float, the latter will sink. If we take a cubic inch of cork, of water, and of stone, and weigh them, we shall find that their behaviour is according to their weights as compared with each other. So we say that the density of the cork is least, that of the stone greatest, and that water holds a place somewhere between them. As with heat, so with density, a standard has been adopted and a 14 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. system of measurement. The standard of comparison for gases is H; and for solids and liquids, dis¢é//ed water. Why distilled? Because otherwise it would be liable to contain substances in solution which would increase its weight. Distilled water is that which has been converted into steam and condensed again. In this way it: leaves behind all mineral impurities, as it leaves the “rock” of CaCO, or CaSO, on the inside of a kettle. Next there is a standard temperature. We have seen that bodies expand and contract with heat and cold ; they there- fore become lighter with heat and heavier with cold in proportion to their size—z.e., their density decreases in the former, and increases in the latter case. With- out a standard of temperature there would be confu- sion, and 59° Fahr. (15° Centigrade) has been fixed for liquids because of its general convenience. The old method was to weigh a-given measure of the liquid to be tested, and compare its weight with that of the same measure of water, calculating its density on the difference. But a simple and more direct way is now used, an instrument called a hydrometer (Aydor, water)—Fig. 4—having been invented for the purpose. This consists of a hollow body of glass or metal with a closed tube or bar rising from it, and a weight attached to it beneath. In the glass instrument this last is a bulb from the main body, containing mercury or shot. In use it floats upright, and sinks more or less according to the density of the liquid. In water, the standard instrument will sink to the unit on the scale; but if salt is added, it will rise steadily until the water is saturated, showing the power of salt in solution to increase the density. A scale is employed, on which the point reached by the instrument in distilled water at 59° F. is marked 1; and all denser or lighter liquids Fic. 4. are estimated accordingly. While a standard instru- Hypromerer, ment has a long range, there are others made with narrower limits of scale for special purposes, and described hereafter. , Centrifugal Force. — When a body is made to revolve around a centre, its tendency is to fly away from it, and this it will do unless it is held to the centre by some greater force. A boy will swing a small bucket of water round his head by a cord, and without spilling ; because the water, which would fly away from him but for NATURAL SCIENCE. 15 the bucket and the cord, presses towards the bottom of the bucket. This is therefore called centrifugal force (centri-fugal, flying from a centre). The water, by reason of its pressing outwards, becomes - denser ; and its increase of density depends on its weight, its distance from the centre, and the speed at which it revolves. The boy finds it more difficult to hold the bucket when he lets the cord out to greater lengths, or swings it round him with greater speed. Proceeding on these facts, we find that there are definite relations between the force and the conditions described, and these relations are reduced to rules by which we can calculate the amount of the force, and in proportion to this the density also. This rule holds good when two substances of unequal density are together under the influence of the force. Cork has a less specific gravity than water, and if a body of that material was subjected to the same revolving motion, it would exert less centrifugal force than an equal body of water. Ifthe boy puts a cork into his bucket of water, it will have the same tendency to fly away from him; not, however, to anything like the same extent as the water, but only in proportion to its much lower weight or gravity. Further illustration of these principles will occur in practical dairy work. Rocks and Soils.—Soils are simply the rocks forming the earth’s surface reduced to powder by natural forces, such as water, and cold and heat, which are always at work, though unnoticed, wearing down or splitting up the materials referred to. In the simplest relations there will be a gradual difference observed as the rock merges into what is called the sub-soil, and from this again into the surface soil. But there are many places where tillage has interfered with these relations; and others where soils, formed elsewhere, have been brought by air or water and laid upon or mixed with those natural to the spot. In any case, however, the rock materials form on an average 95 per cent. of the whole. The main ingredients of soils are clay, sand, and “me, in varying proportions,—forming sazdy or clay soils when these predominate, sandy or clay loams as they approach a balance, and /oams in still closer proportions ; and when carbonate of lime—-CaCO,—is found up to a fifth of their total, forming marly or chalky, or, in higher propor- tions, calcareous soils. There are present also, though in small quantities, other substances more or less helpful or hurtful to vege- tation. The materials in general may be classified for our immediate purpose into so/zble and znsoludle substances, and since the latter form only a bed in which plants can grow, we may devote our attention to the former, upon which they feed, Among these may be found the following, viz. :— 16 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. Oxides—Na,O, K,0, CaO, MgO, FeO, Fe,O;, &c. Alkaline hydrates—-KOH, NaOH. Ammonia—NH3. Acids—H.CO,;, HNO;, H,SO,, H,PO, forming, with the alkaline bases, carbonates, nitrates, sulphates, and phosphates. Silicates—Soluble, formed by combination of SiO, with alkalies. Chlorides—CaCl,, KCl, MgCl,. These are either combined with each other or uncombined, accord- ing to circumstances ; and being very variable in their proportions, there are always present uncombined remainders of some of them. They are not all present at all times. Thus a limestone will contain some of them, a sandstone others, with some common to both, and even the composition of rocks of the same class will differ. The mineral constituents of soils depend, therefore, upon their original sources, and the physical and chemical changes wrought in them by the forces of nature. Organic Substances.—These are found in soils as the products of the decay of organised animal and vegetable bodies, especially of the latter. Everybody knows how wood rots away into the mould so valued by the gardener. The same process is continually going on with the dead leaves and roots of plants, and the general product is called Awus. This contains several acids of the Carbon- acid type, consisting of C, H, and O in varying proportions, and which—because of their origin—are called organic acids. Of these, humic acid, CooH;.O™ is an example. Besides the services rendered by these acids, humus takes up the valuable ammonia, NH, formed in or furnished to the soil, and holds it well for use by plants. Nor must we forget the soluble earthy matter brought to the soil in the farmer’s manures, for these become a part of the soil for all practical purposes. Here are many forms of matter, organic and inorganic, undergoing decomposition in the chemical sense, and being thereby prepared for new uses. Plant Life. — Now comes the seed, which finds shelter and anchorage under the suiface, moisture, and the warmth absorbed from the sun’s rays ; and with these conditions its life-germ becomes active, throws out roots, stem, and leaves, and becomes a plant. At first, feeding upon the stores of food within itself; it is ready, when they are exhausted, to take them up from the soil. Then the stores of soluble organic and inorganic materials already described are drawn upon for whatever the plant needs. Different plants re- quire different foods, or different proportions of the same food, in order to their best growth and increase ; and they will be vigorous or weak, luxuriant or puny, according to the sufficiency or deficiency NATURAL SCIENCE. 17 of the supply. The roots suck up, in a dissolved state, the soluble foods, and these are subjected to a marvellous system of selection and transformation done by certain parts of the plant called formative cells. These minute bodies consist of proto-plasm (meaning jirst Jorm), a jelly-like substance ; but, though of so simple a character, they have powers which cannot fail to excite wonder and admiration. As the foods and the water which dissolves them come into contact with these cells in the movements of the sap, they are absorbed by them, and part or all are used as may be necessary. Even water is decomposed into the two gases H and O, when either or both of these are needed, for single or separate purposes, to combine with other elements in the life processes. Carbon is taken from H,CO,, S from H,SO, and N from NH; or HNO; Now we see the value of the rotting roots and leaves, and straw of manures, and the use of applying manures which furnish other plant foods. The plant is very unlike the soil, but out of this it builds itself up, unconsciously, subject to the laws of the All-wise Creator. Almost all of the plant is constructed out of the five elements, H, O, C, N, and S, and their new combinations may be divided into two classes—(a) carbon and (4) nitrogen compounds. Carbon Compounds.—First among these are— Carbo-hydrates, in which C in 6 or 12 atoms is combined with H and O, these latter being always in the same proportion as in water. But it must not be supposed that the H and O are in the form of water, for they are properly combined with the C; there are, however, cases in which extra quantities of them are present in a weaker association. They may be sub-divided as follows, viz :— Starches, of which the typical composition is CgHi9Os, and of which the starch of the laundry is a familiar example, being obtained, from rice. Cereals and grasses contain starch in considerable propor- tions, and other plants have more or less of it. Ced/u/ose, or the woody tissue of plants, and gums, has practically the same composition. Sugars, as found in fruits, the sugar cane, and beet-root, are of the same family. Fruit sugar has a composition of CgH,O,, and cane sugar of C,,H,,Oun, the difference between them being one proportion of H, and O more in two. molecules of the former (=C,,H,O,,). But there is another—a physical—difference, for starch is insoluble, while sugar is soluble, as every tea-drinking washer- woman knows; for, while sugar dissolves in her tea, the starch with which she stiffens linen only becomes a jelly. Starch, however, can be converted into soluble sugar by the plant cells and certain processes referred to later. B 18 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. Pectose Substances. — Akin to the starches and gums is a compound called fecfose, which becomes jelly on boiling, ¢.g., the jelly of fruit. Like starch, it is insoluble, and undergoes several changes, varying its proportions of H and O, which, however, are not as in water. Pectose, acted on by acids, becomes soluble ectzz (CoH ygO3) ; and this in turn, and with different treatment, changes into three forms of acid, one of which separates into pectin sugar (CgH,.0¢) and an organic acid, and so works back to the carbo- hydrate principle. Fats may be divided into two kinds—the jired, which are stable under ordinary conditions ; and the volatile, which can be decom- posed by heat or dissolved out by water. Again, fixed fats can be sub-divided into those which are (a) so/éd and those which are (4) liguid at ordinary temperatures. The liquid fat can, of course, be solidified at low temperatures, and the solid fat can be liquified at higher temperatures. But whatever may be their physical differ- ences, they are built up of C, H, and O, and on one plan. The common foundation is glycerin (C3H Oz), which in each case combines with a fatty acid to produce a particular fat. Glycerin, as sold by the druggist, is well known as an almost colourless viscous liquid substance of sweet taste, and useful in healing skin cracks. The fatty acids differ somewhat from our previous con- ceptions of an acid, because they are of an oily character and not sour; but in composition, and in behaviour in combination, they follow the rules relating to the acid class. The way in which they combine with glycerin to form fats is illustrated below, where it is shown that three molecules of an acid unite with one of glycerin to form one molecule of fat and three molecules of water. Palmitin is a solid fat, which melts 3 (CygH gO.) Palmitic acid, at 115° F. The relation which the 3 acid bears to the glycerin in its for- pees mation makes it to be called a iri- CH "oO. Glycerin glyceride of the acid, or yet again eee tripalmitin, Palm oil chiefly consists C51H 940g of it. It may be remarked here H ,0,;=3 H,O that fats when melted and afterwards 5 cooled remain liquid at much lower ees temperatures an those at which they melt. Stearin (CypHyO,) is similarly a tri-glyceride of stearic acid (CigH4,0.), and is best known in the white fat of mutton. Its melting point is 157° Fahr. Olein (Cy7HigO¢), from Oleic acid (Cys,H,,0,), is a liquid fat which, NATURAL SCIENCE. 19 in a pure state, only becomes solid by freezing below the freezing-point of water. These fats are found associated in plants and animals, and as olein has the power to keep the solid fats in a soft state, the melting point of the mixed fats is lower than that of either of the solid fats, and this in proportion to olein present. The volatile fats are, like the rest, tri-glycerides of acids, but these latter make the difference in their character as compared with those called fixed fats. A few of them are found in plants, but not all; and their consideration is therefore deferred until they can be described in connection with milk. Nitrogen Compounds or Albuminoids.—We now come to a class of bodies in which, besides C, H, and O, the elements N and S are in combination. Because of the presence and relative importance of N in them they are y C - 51.5 to 54.5 also called nztrogenous substances, and some- H- 6.9to 7.5 ‘times also protedds. The name given at the D ~ 20.6 to 26.3 head of this section indicates that it describes N - 15.5 to 18.5 a family of which adbumzn is type and chief. S- .4to 1.6 Though many important facts concerning them are established, their chemical composition is not in all cases fully known. The formula C,,H,,,02N,,5 is typical of the group, and the range of proportions by weight is shown in the accompanying table. Albuminoids are of a gelatinous nature and under certain con- ditions will coagulate or become semi-solid—eg., vegetable-al- bumin coagulates at 150° Fahr., and in even a more solid state is found in the husks and harder parts of trees and plants. Another kind, vegetable casezz (ca-se-in), can be separated from an infusion of oatmeal by the use of an acid; and a third form can be obtained by simply washing out the starch from flour, the sticky residue being mostly a proteid called g/u¢en. Other varieties are found, as /eguimin, in beans, peas, and vetches ; avemin, in oats ; fibrin, in wheat, barley, and maize. Besides these organic substances contributing so largely to the make-up of plants, there are minerals which have been taken up from the soil. Whatever the forms in which they exist in the living plant, they are found in their ashes when burned. Animals next claim our attention. For them has the plant lifted soil materials into a form in which they can use them; and as that work was done by the plant-cell, so now the plant materials are subjected, to further changes by the action of animal cells, which raise them to the highest forms of organisation of which they are 20 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. capable. Some of these cells convert the foods into blood, and others employ the blood materials for repairing waste, providing for growth, and carrying on the other functions of the body. Foods for Animals.—-The substances found in the plants must now be considered as animal foods, and classified according to their feeding qualities :— (a.) Heat-giving or respiratory foods.—If plants store up fone} in their growth, animals expend it, and this in different ways. They must maintain a certain degree of warmth for health and vigour, and this is done in connection with the arrangements for breathing or respiration, It will be remembered that O assists in the burning of bodies, and this process, called combustion, goes on in a certain form in the animal system, which is heated by the combustion of the materials made out of the carbo-hydrates and fats of the food. Hence these are necessary to co-operate with the O breathed into the lungs in order.to warmth. (6.) Flesh-forming foods.—The albuminoids are so called, they being used for the building up of lean muscle, but, when needed, furnish also the materials for fats and other parts of the body. (¢.) Mineral foods are necessary for bones, especially lime, which these contain in large proportion. Fermentation.—While plants and animals raise their foods to higher forms, their waste materials during life, and their whole bodies after death, become reduced to simple forms, in which they can mingle with the air and soil and serve new generations of living beings. So nature pursues one ceaseless round of building up and pulling down, and rebuilding out of the ruins of her former activities. One of the main forces employed in the reduction of animal and vegetable matter through decay to fresh usefulness is the /er- ment, an organism belonging to the borderland between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and so minute as only to be seen by the higher powers of the microscope. The history of the discovery of ferment and of the proofs of their capabilities and operations would be interesting, but want of space forbids their being entered into. Suffice it to say, that though a comparatively new study, many facts of inestimable value have been established, which will be helpful in practical matters. Because of the confusion which prevails about names and systems of classification, we will adopt the term ferment, and its French equivalent mzcrobe, as best meeting our case for the whole class of organisms in a “ving state; and germ, as properly describing the seed from which the ferment springs. Ferments are differently shaped, round and oval, rod-shaped, NATURAL SCIENCE. 21 wavy, and spiral, &c., &c., but all of simple forms. They increase under favourable conditions at an incalculable rate, partly by each dividing into two distinct and complete forms, and partly by forming germs in a certain state and scattering these to form a new genera- tion of living ferments. If fission, the former method, occurs once in every hour, as is the case with many kinds, this continuing for twenty-four hours will give a progeny of 16? millions for the single original ferment ! The conditions which are essential to the germination of the germ, and the increase and action of the ferment, must now be stated. These are— (a.) Moisture in some degree. (4.) The food of the ferment in an available form. The albu- minoids are especially important, with O and C, alkaline phosphates, and ammoniacal salts. Some kinds need free O throughout their life work, others require it only to begin with, and can afterwards obtain it by the decomposition of the substance attacked. (c.) A suitable temperature’ Each ferment has its own best temperature, with a range above and below, within which it can thrive, and beyond which it grows feeble and inactive with greater distance from the most favourable point. Heat from 140° Fahr. and upwards, according to their kind and state, will kill them ; but the germs resist very much higher temperatures, and some only become incapable at 240° Fahr. and upwards. Cold within any range possible to the present does not kill them. The electrical condition of the air, or of the substance attacked, affects their activity; the prevalence of weguti/ve electricity, as in “muggy” weather and thunderstorms, being very helpful to some kinds at least; while in a clear state of the atmosphere, when its electrical condition is Joszt/ve, they are feebler. Although O is necessary to them, it is also a destructive agent when in excess of their needs, and especially in Ozone (O;) ; and as this influence is more considerable in the open country than in places thickly populated, fermentation is more liable to the latter, -and in its most rapid development. Ferments are not only found in substances actually fermenting, but also in the air, water, and soil; carried by the first, especially in the germ state, and in every current; and finding in the others their food materials and necessary conditions. Their distribution is very uncertain under these circumstances, not being alike at the two ends of an hour in any place. This explains many irregulari- ties which perplex observers, who find substances which keep well at one time and place, quickly spoiled at another time without any 22 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. apparent difference in conditions. They are usually most numerous on low grounds, damp spots, and in warm seasons. The decomposition of albuminoids, fats, and carbo-hydrates sets their elements free to form new and simpler combinations—H and O forming water, C and O forming CO,, while N is found with H and O as HNO; and HNO, (nitrous acid), and NH;; and P and S give rise to H,SO,, HsPO,, and other kindred compounds, The ash con- stituents of the decaying bodies follow suit in the general breaking up. The direct products of fermentation are also important, the Ptomaines (to-ma-éens, from ptoma, a dead body) being always unwholesome, and in some cases poisonous. They are akin to the Alkaloids, which are of two types,—the one having no O and being fluid and volatile, as pyridine C;H,N ; and the other having O, and represented by creatin CyH,N,0, and allied compounds, and by poisons of the narcotic and strychnine classes, which are crystallisable and non-volatile. These act as bases with acids as NH, does. The alkaloids of fermentation are akin to one or other of these. Besides there are other highly poisonous compounds, colloid, related to the Globulins, and commonly grouped under the head of “ fermentative extractives.” The work does not generally, if ever, proceed under the same ferment from beginning to end. There are several successive main fermentations, in each of which the products form a limit to its progress in its own direction ; when that limit has been reached, other ferments take up the work and carry it on to their limit, and so on ; even the ptomaines joining, in some cases, with the larger products to bar their way. / The leading forms of fermentation are briefly as follows, viz. :— (a.) Alcoholic fermentation.—Solutions of sugar are attacked by a ferment, yeas/, which separates the sugar into alcohol and carbon- dioxide, as in the following formula, — C,H,,0, (sugar)=2C,H,O (alcohol)+2CO,, with a certain proportion converted into other sub- stances by the feeding of the ferment. (6.) Ammoniacal fermentation._-The decomposition of urea in the urine of animals is effected by another microbe with the production of ammonium carbonate, as CH,N.O (urea)+2H,0 =(2NH,)CO; (ammonium carbonate), which again decomposes into 2NH3 (ammonia)+ H,O +CO,. (c.) Lactic acid fermentation.—This form, so called because of its best known connection with milk, may also take place in any sugar solution under the necessary conditions. The simplest conception of the work is shown in the formula CgH},.0,=2C,H,Os (lactic acid). NATURAL SCIENCE. 23 (@.) Acetous fermentation.—This follows the alcohol formation of a by taking up two atoms of O for every molecule of alcohol, as C,H,O0 + Oo= H,0 + C2H4Oz (acetic acid). It is by this process that vinegar is made. (e.) Butyric acid fermentation.—This form may follow lactic acid formation, as 2C3Hs03= CyHsO, (butyric acid) + 2CO,+ Hy, (free) ; but it can also be produced in starches, albuminoids, and organic acids, the processes involving further combinations, into which it is unnecessary to enter. (f-) Mannitic, viscous, or guimy fermentation.—This is a more complicated process than the foregoing, and probably consists of two actions making progress at the same time. In one case mannite— C,H,,05 with some CO.—is produced ; in the other, gum—C,H,,0; with H,O. The former result is akin to the mannite of manna juice, and the latter to the vegetable gums. This fermentation causes a peculiar slimy “ropiness” in wines, milk, and other liquids. There are besides the foregoing, microbes producing coloration, as that which forms litmus in an infusion of the lichen, Rocella tinctoria, and others ; and even more important to us, the many and very-little-known ferments which cause taints in perishable liquid foods, of which more by and by. Of the latter, however, it may be said that they are all helped by filth and carelessness in management, and no small part of the mysteries of the pantry, the cellar, and the dairy arise from the encouragement afforded to the mischievous ferments by the presence of the decaying materials on which they depend. In the light of the facts so far given, we may proceed to the study of our special subject with the advantage of a general conception of the principles which will be specially applied in connection with it. CHAPTER II. ORIGIN AND PRODUCTION OF MILK. The Cow and her Milk.—The original purpose of the milk of the cow is the sustenance of her offspring; and the other uses to which it may be put, though doubtless in view of the Divine wisdom in creation, must all be regarded as secondary. When therefore the dairyer employs it in the manufacture of foods, he must be guided in his processes by the natural laws which govern its composition and behaviour. The cow makes her milk out of her blood, which she has made in the first place out of her food, and it is therefore proper to consider the processes of transformation in order to understand the bearing of the cow’s personal functions, health, feeding, and other conditions, upon the milk and the foods prepared from it. Foods, how Converted into Milk.—Given, then, suitable foods, grasses, or other plants, hay, roots, meals, or what not, with their varying: proportions of starches, sugars, fats, albuminoids, and soluble minerals, the cow converts these into blood by the ‘processes of digestion, absorption, and transformation. Digestion consists in the change of the insoluble parts of the foods into the soluble forms necessary to their conversion into blood. The starches are so changed into sugar by the action of sa//va, an alkaline liquid which is secreted by glands in the region of the mouth, and mixed with the foods during eating and the chewing of the cud. The active agent in this case is Atyalén (ti-a-lin), one of a class of substances called exzymes, which are secreted from the blood and specially concerned in such changes, acting with water in pro- ducing them. In this they resemble the life-cells of animals and plants, though they differ in other respects. The formula C,H),0, (starch) + H.O= CsHO, (sugar) shows the chemical change, but the physical differences between the starch and sugar are much greater, and make all the difference between uselessness and usefulness. The colloid albuminoids are changed from the protetd or insoluble PRODUCTION OF MILK. 25 into the peptone or soluble form by the gastric juice, which is secreted by glands in the inner lining of the fourth stomach, and mixed with the finely chewed foods by contractions of that organ. The enzymein this instance is Zepsz7, the action of which is aided and modified by HCl and certain mineral salts, which vary with the feeding and con- sequent composition of the blood. Vegetable casein is coagulated by the juice, and the other nutrients of the same class are entangled with it, the whole being speedily reduced to solubility. It now enters the small intestine, in which it is at once mixed with dz/e, a bitter alkaline fluid of yellow colour, formed in the liver. This acts upon the fats, producing with them an emzdszon, in which they are finely divided and separated. The pancreatic juice, coming from the pancreas or sweet- bread, goes on to digest the remaining undigested starches, emulsifies fats, dissolves gelatinous foods, and even, it is said, albuminoids on occasion, besides decomposing some part of the fats into glycerin and acids. The foregoing are the main agents in bringing the foods into the chyme (kime) state, in which they are found in the follow- ing forms, viz. :— . Fats, in emulsion, . Carbo-hydrates, sugars, . Peptones, albuminoids, . Minerals, salts, . Water and digestive juices. . Digestible food still undigested. 7. Indigestible fibrous materials. The main parts of the first five items above are now absorbed into the blood, and changed into it also, by two stages,—the first being wrought by cells covering the tiny organs of absorption which line this intestine, and the second by those of the sf/eex. When the entire transformation is effected, the blood made differs strikingly from the chyme. It consists of a nearly colourless fluid called the p/asma, in which float many yellowish-red disc-shaped bodies called corpuscles (cor-pus-kels), with others which are colourless and are called leucocytes. The red corpuscles are mostly albuminoid ; a colourless proteid called para-globulin, having another—emo-g/lobin—distributed among it, and this latter containing A@matin, which has 9 per cent. of Fe, and gives the red colour. They are about one-third solid, and contain nearly one per cent. of inorganic substances coming originally from the soil. The leucocytes are usually nearly globular, but alter their forms much and undergo considerable physical changes, breaking up finally and leaving their denser internal part as red corpuscles. These latter are in much greater numbers than the colourless sort. The plasma has about ro per cent. of solids, of which cin solution. An PWN 26 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. 7.88 per cent. are proteids, .17 fat, and .39 extractives, while minerals are present in trifling quantities. Blood coagulates when removed from the living body, when a new substance, fiérvin (Fig. 5), appears in the shape of fine threads, which entangle the corpuscles and with them form the “clot.” Fibrin, as such, is not found in blood, but is believed to arise from the opera- tion of an enzyme upon a proteid called fibrinogen. The liquid re- maining is called the serum, and differs from the plasma in not having the proteid which has undergone coagulation. The blood, having been changed in the liver, goes to the right side of the heart, and is from thence sent into the lungs, where it comes into contact with the air breathed into these; being distributed for the purpose through many tiny blood-vessels called cafz//aries, taking in the free O of the air, and giving off CO,, vapour of water, and various impurities, changing from its previous dark colour to a bright red, and increasing its vitality and fitness for the offices of nutrition. The red corpuscles take up the O in association with their heemo-globin. Fresh Air and its Relation to Temperature.—The exchange of gases in the lungs points to the necessity to the health of the cow, of an abundant supply of pure and fresh air. Pure air breathed in, contains in 10,000 parts about 2,100 parts of O and only 3 of CO,; whereas that breathed out, contains only 1,600 parts of O and 470 of CO, At this rate, it would not take long to convert a considerable body of confined air into a gaseous combination danger- ous to life, for the suffocating effects of CO, will be remembered. The N of the air has a similar tendency. The injury to the health and vitality of animals lacking proper air must therefore be great. Here we may conveniently consider the office of O in the blood, as it is obtained by respiration. The nutrients of the blood are carried to all parts where cells are building up fresh growth, or repairing the waste caused by the various forms of activity; and there, with the production of force, and the formation of new substances, (whether incorporated with the solid parts of the body or circulating with the blood), they are used up. Decomposition takes place because of the agency of O in the kind of burning called ox¢datzon. Now, just as the burning of wood or coal furnishes heat and force to water, Fic. 5.—Fisrin in Boop. PRODUCTION OF MILK. 27 which in the form of steam will drive engines, so the using up of blood materials provides force for the requirements of the animal ; and just as the combustion of wood or coal is helped by O, and gives off CO, and H,O as gas and vapour, so these are given off whenever the oxidation or combustion of the carbo-hydrates and proteids of the blood takes place. With albuminoids there is some N to be disposed of, and one product of combustion is wvea, CH,N2O, which is.cast out of the system, not from the lungs but by a different route. The temperature of the body is maintained within a few degrees above or below its average—with the cow 100° Fahr. to 102°—by the circulation of the blood, absorbing heat, and carrying it to all parts where the temperature would naturally be lower. Within reasonable limits, the flow of blood can be easily regulated; for if the air becomes warmer, the capillaries, expanding with the expansion of the blood, give off more moisture than usual, and this evaporating as sweat helps to reduce the temperature. On the other hand, cold affects the nerves, which partly control the capillaries; and causing them to bring about contraction of those blood-vessels, helps to preserve the heat which would otherwise be lost. When, however, the cold is too great, these nerves become unable to act, being, so to speak, para- lysed ; and their control being suspended, too much blood is passed into the capillaries, and inflammation follows. This is aggravated by dampness in the air; for the bracing influence of a dry cold is lost in such case, to a great extent, because of the reduced evaporation. The effects may be local at first, but the whole system must be damaged by them, poverty of blood naturally arising out of the diseased condition, and waste of materials. So, also, too great heat may, by way of relaxed nerves, produce a similarly mischievous effect. Hence the necessity that the air temperature should rise or fall but little above or below that point which is best for the health and comfort of the animal body. For combustion, fuel is necessary, no less in the animal than in the fire-grate. This means that the food must contain sufficient fats and carbo-hydrates to meet the demands of the system for heating as well as for building. But heating by foods is a wasteful policy when the surrounding temperature is made a matter of no concern. Plainly, the greater the cold the heavier must be the demands made upon the foods for warmth ; therefore, arguing the other way, the warmer the air, within reason, the less the food required to serve that demand,— so that shelter and comfort save food, and, costing less, are more economical. Milk in Process of Secretion—-Returning to the blood circu- lation, we find that which has passed through the lungs returning 28 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. to the left side of the heart, and being sent out through the arteries to all parts of the system. Certain branch arteries supply the udder or mammary gland with the blood for milk secretion. The udder is a body of tissue of spongy character, divided length- wise into two main parts, called J/odes, by a wall of ligament or fibrous tissue which supports the organ. From this wall fibres run through the structure and join the outside coat beneath the skin, so binding the whole well together, and yet, by their elasticity, giving scope for motion and expansion. The cavities which give it a spongy appearance belong to four systems, and connect with tubes which join each other, and enlarge (just as streams join to form rivers), finally opening into the four large m/k cisterns situated above the four active teats of the organ. Two of these systems lie on either side of the ligament, and a cow is therefore said to have four guarters. There are sometimes two other teats, not fully developed, and having no milk-forming organs. Each system is distinct from its fellow, and it is possible for either to fail while the rest yield milk. The tissue is of a grey colour, flushed with the red of the blood. In the cavities referred to above the milk is secreted. They are of globular or pear shape, and extremely small. Each is an independent organ of itself (Fig. 6), and described as an alveolus (meaning a little cavity, plural a/veolz). It is lined with epithelium cells a, surrounding and close to which are the blood capillaries 4, fed by an artery ¢, and emptying into a vein @ The cells receive the blood which escapes from the capillaries, and convert certain parts of this into cer- tain parts of milk, while the remainders pass into the in- teriors of the alveoli without practical change. It appears to be reasonably certain that both kinds of blood - cor- puscles, as well as the plasma, ; furnish the cells with milk- Fics 6:—Atvretus: making materials. The red corpuscles alone contain Fe, and this (in Fe,O,) is present in the ash of milk. A complete decom- position of the constituents of blood, and their reconstitution in new forms, is quite within the range of cell possibilities. There are albuminoids in all parts of the blood, fats mainly in the corpuscles, PRODUCTION OF MILK. 29 sugar among the extractives, and inorganic substances. It is not, however, suggested that all these furnish directly, and only, the milk constituents of their own types; for some parts of milk are of wider origin, and are the products of the cells’ operations upon unlike sub- stances. But neither is it admitted that, as some claim, some of them have no share in the constitution of those parts of milk to which they are most nearly akin. The blood supplied to the udder does not contain enough fat to account for the usual proportion in milk, and in sugar the deficiency is striking ; so that at least there must be a pro- duction of these in part from other blood materials. But the fat and sugar of the blood are certainly not all used up in maintaining force and heat, as is proved by the influence of fatty foods which, within limits, increase the fat in milk, and, what is more important, stamp their character on that ‘product. On the other hand, it is found that specially fatty foods, used in large proportion to the whole feeding, do not increase fat in milk, and even cause it to fall off somewhat ; while albuminoids, with but little fat to accompany them, cause an increase of milk-fat beyond the proportion of fat in the food, or the amount available after warmth and force have been provided for. It has therefore been hastily assumed by some people, that all the fat of milk must be made from the albuminoids of the blood, a conclusion which is opposed to practical observation. The apparent contradiction and confusion are due to the ignoring of certain elementary facts which explain the matter clearly. The cells are proteid, and must be fed with foods of that nature. A purely fatty food would therefore starve them; and any food deficient in proteids would weaken them, and reduce their activity to an extent proportionate to the deficiency. But cells well fed with proteids can also deal with fatty foods to a certain extent, and the milk will increase in fats proportionately. Meanwhile, in the deficiency of fats and carbo-hydrates, the cells can make fats out of the C, H, and O of the proteids. But the powers of the cells to deal with any kind of blood materials is necessarily limited as to quantity. The limits may not be alike in every case, but they are there, and they are narrow ; and what cannot be used in milk-making will go to the building cells, and be used to pile flesh and fat on the animal frame. The limit will be discussed further under breeding and feeding. ~ The tendency of high feeding is to improve milk in all its con- stituents, but especially to increase its fat; and attempts to greatly augment the albuminoids by feeding foods of that character are disappointing in their results, the improvements being distributed all 30 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. round, with a special increase of the fats. But this might be expected, because the excess of albuminoids necessarily means a decrease in proportion of carbon foods, and the blood would use up the smaller quantity of the latter to a greater proportionate extent in making heat and force, leaving the milk-cells to make up the deficiency by converting the proteid elements necessary into fat. Evidently the Creator’s wisdom has conferred on these minute bodies a selective instinct, if it may be so called, requisite to maintain a general distribution of any enrich- ment, arising out of special feeding, in due proportion among the constituents, and to throw any excess of blood proteids used into the form of fat. Here the original purpose of milk puts a limit on any alteration of its composition upwards. The nutrients in the milk are kept within a range suitable to the needs of the calf, for which if one constituent is increased the rest should follow suit ; and if any one in particular must be in final excess, it should be that which will most tend to early maturity. This very provision has been made, for fat has that tendency, because it sets the proteids free for muscle build- ing, itself furnishing heat and storing up its balance as the fat of the calf’s body; while the growth is not only rapid, but procured with the least expenditure of cell force, because the conversion is into like substances. The same rule holds good on the other side. Poor feeding tends to impoverish milk all round, but especially to reduce the fat. Here the proteids form the final refuge ; for the calf can live with but little fat, but not without flesh-formers, which never fall so low in milk as fat will do. Given the proteids, even in their lowest proportion in milk, with just enough fat and sugar to maintain warmth, and the calf will live, though its growth will be slow and early maturity impossible. So it is evident that the proportions of the constituents are ruled by the secreting cells for the advantage of the calf; and we are taught that the cow is not a mere milk-making machine, to take in, and grind up, and turn out, just whatever it may suit our convenience to desire. The Sources of Milk Constituents.—In view of these considera- tions, it may be argued with good reason that the cells convert the albuminoids of the blood into similar substances, and, if neces- sary, into fats and sugar also; making up the lack of the two last, and bringing the proportions of all three to a proper basis of relation. In all probability the fats are secreted first from the blood-fats, then from the proteids ; the sugar first from the sugar of blood, afterwards from the proteids. There are, however, two main albuminoids in milk,—the one albumin, nearly like the kindred substance in the plasma ; the other PRODUCTION OF MILK. 31 casein, differing radically in certain important points of behaviour, and from seven to nine times more in quantity. To these may be added zuclezn, which is commonly included with the casein, though a distinct compound. The ash materials of the blood used are probably all conveyed into the milk without change; this is certainly true of the water, which is continually oozing through from the capillaries, removing the changed or newly-made milk constituents, and retaining them, either in suspension, as the fats ; in diffusion, as the casein ; or in solution, as the sugar. The fats are cast out in globules, in a semi-liquid state, and join together in many cases, and in varying numbers, to form larger globules. This is evident from their great variations in size, the largest being eighteen times greater in diameter than the smallest ; and the fact that many of them, as found in milk, are larger than the secreting cells. As seen under the microscope, milk presents the appearance shown in Fig. 7, where these variations in size are manifest. This gathering is arrested by the formation of an envelope of casein, which be- comes attached to the surface of each globule by cohesion. This statement is made with the knowledge that it is directly at issue with recent theories. But all evidence at present to hand on this subject has been carefully considered, and it is found that most of it confirms the envelope theory, and that the rest has no practical bear- ing on the matter. Such facts as are necessary Fic. 7.—MILK UNDER THE MicroscorE. for immediate purposes will now be presented, and the remainder will follow as they arise in other connections. First, however, it is not claimed that the covering is of such a character as to justify the use of the terms “membrane” and “cuticle” to describe it; these, when employed, have possibly expressed more than was intended by the writers. Nor is any appear- ance of rings in the globules, as seen under the microscope, to be advanced as proof; neither their presence nor their absence can count in the case at all, for they arise from refraction. A leading argument, which can be dealt with here, is raised 32 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. against the envelope theory out of the fact that soaps, syrups, or sugars, in water, when shaken up with fats, separate the latter in a fine state of division, and make what may be called artificial emulsions, in which the fats behave like the globules in milk. Whether all such liquids are precisely like casein in water in their relations with fats is of no consequence to the present question ; for in milk we have to do, not with soap or sugar, but with casein. A nearer and more natural parallel is found in alkali-albuminate (albumin diffused in water, with an alkali added), which will be recognised as akin to casein. Milk, in a dialyser, will leave its casein behind; alkali-albuminate, when tested in the same way, passes through. But if fat be shaken up well with the latter, it acts like casein, and leaves part of its albumin within the dialyser. Does not this show that the albuminate enters into the relations with the divided fat, which we claim to exist between the globules and casein in milk? This argument, therefore, illustrates the very theory it was intended to destroy. In view of the foregoing -and forthcoming facts, the presence of envelopes on the fat globules of milk will be assumed, and consistently maintained. The practical value of this belief is considerable ; it is admitted by opponents to be “a good working theory,” but if it be unsound let it perish. The milk secreted in the alveolus passes through its mouth to join that from neighbouring alveoli in a common ‘tube, and with other supplies on the way to the milk cistern, and occupy these or, when they are full, the tubes, until removed. The teat is simply a spongy tube, more or less distinct in different cases, but closed at each end by a ring-shaped. muscle, which is relaxed at will, and in response to the sucking of the calf or the hand of the milker. CHAPTER III. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK. First for consideration among the physical properties of milk is its density. The standard for liquids being 1 (or, as sometimes given, 1000), the average 9597 density of whole milk is 1.031 (or 1031); which means that a measure of such milk equal to 1000 ozs. of water would weigh , 103I 0zS., or 3I ozs. more than the water. Pure milks, however, may range between 1.028 and 1.034, according to the pro- portions of solids (Fig. 8). The density -970 of milk is for this reason, and in some measure, useful as an indication of its quality. As with other bodies, this pro- perty is affected by changes of temperature, — and it is found that a milk of 1.031 at 59 F. (15° C.), when heated to 67° F. is lighter by one degree of density, or when cooled to 50° F. becomes heavier by one degree, the difference on either side being caused by a variation of about nine degrees of temperature. The constituents of milk vary in their specific gravities when separated. The casein is about one-third heavier than the standard water, and when coagulated it sinks with a rapidity proportionate to its solidity, The sugar is one-half heavier than the standard, and the ash materials ' 020 are also on the same side. The fats average .930, or .o70 below the standard ; and albumin rises on coagulation, showing that it is lighter than the remaining part of the serum, This latter term is now used for the first time in this work in connection with milk ; and it may be explained that, as in the coagulation of blood the clot sepa- Fic. &—Scazz or DensiTiss. Cc Largest Globules boa © a So Dog pa iis © a o peeritati tiie pia D 2 © & ¢ Trt aE Un aa ae ee Ue Distilled Water 59°F . 8 lca ene [rei t Minimum, Whole Milk 1039 p Average ° b Maximum ” r} Range of Plasma [ ‘Smallest Globules Lr tippiateSletteeesl eee egy ° a ° L 34 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. rates the corpuscles from the main body of the plasma, so in milk the coagulation of the casein separates that constituent and the fat globules enclosed in its coagulum from the watery remainder, which may therefore be properly described as the serum of milk, though commonly called whey. This contains the albumin, which is not coagulated with the casein, but can be separated afterwards by heat, when it will rise and form a flaky layer on the surface. The fat globules rise to the surface of milk at rest, leaving behind what is often, though improperly, called the serum. Following the distinctions already observed with blood, it may be more correctly called the p/asma of milk, and this term will be used. The globules do not gather so closely as they appear to do, but float in the upper part of the plasma, and the globules and plasma so associated form cream. The collection of the globules in milk is hastened by certain methods, and the removal of the cream is carried out in several ways ; but the whole process of collection and removal is properly described as creaming, whatever means may have been used to bring it about. Under ordinary conditions, creaming takes a considerable time, and is never entirely completed. The reasons are not far to seek. The globules, which range from the 73,5 to the gs3s0 of an inch in diameter, have to carry up burdens of casein in their envelopes: their rising is also resisted by the plasma ; and, finally, the distances between their starting-points and the highest which they can reach vary according to the depth of milk. A comparison of the globules of milk is given in Fig. 9, where they LA O © 6 ¢c d e iso00 in diam 2000 in diam, 6000 in.diam 10000 in.diam. 25000 in.diam. Fic. 9.—FatT GLoBuLeEs. are shown as magnified 1000 times. The largest (a) and the smallest (e) are the extremes in size at present known, while (¢) and (@) repre- -sent the more common range, and ¢ is the average globule. The thickness of casein in the envelopes is equal though covering globules of varying size, for their origin is simply cohesion. It will now be easy to understand how the globule @ can reach the surface in much less time than the globule e, because the proportion by bulk of the lighter fat to the heavier casein is so much greater in the former than PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK. 35 in the latter, and the speed of their rising will therefore correspond with their size. This natural law may be applied to all globules in their varying sizes. The largest globules probably have a density of .950 (.020 heavier than the free fats), and the smaller ones an increased density in proportion to their size. In the smallest globule the proportion of the envelope by weight to the contained fat is such as to balance it. Their specific gravity is therefore about the same as that of the plasma, and they do not rise unless indeed, as is believed, they are in some cases carried up by some of the larger ones. These non-rising globules in milk which has been well creamed form about Io per cent. of the original whole, by number, but their extremely small size makes the loss in butter very trifling. The resistance of the plasma is an item of considerable importance Water itself would to some extent oppose their progress, though it would also help it when once they had begun to rise. Just as the water in front of a ship resists her onward movement until it is parted by her prow, and then closing in behind her actually urges her forward, so it is plain that the globules must be both hindered and helped by the same force. Every globule in rising must displace its own bulk of the plasma, which must needs descend as the globules ascend, Therefore as much of the plasma as the bulk of the whole body of the globules must descend as they rise, and both hindrance and help will be caused in proportion to this displacement. In milk, however, we have to do with special conditions, which require some study and skill to reduce their opposition to the lowest point possible. The sugar and salts in solution increase the resistance of the plasma, but they also increase its relative density, and thus help the creaming, But the main hindrance is in the presence and condition of the albumin and casein, which are in a state of gelatinous diffusion, and therefore, by reason of their character, capable of making milk viscous or sticky. The larger the proportion of these in milk the more difficult is its creaming. Experiments have been made to determine the resistance offered by the albuminoids, and it is computed to be 54 times greater than that of sugar, and this may be safely accepted. Bat this is not all. The fine threads of fibrin have been dis- covered in milk by Prof. Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, U.S.A., and though in very small quantity, yet so distributed in its cobweb fashion as to increase the difficulty of cream- ing. Its proportion in milk is about seo of I per cent., while in separated blood it is about 35 of 1 per cent., or 1,500 times more in blood than in milk. This fact shows that in the process of milk secretion, either the albuminoid of the blood, which is specially concerned in the formation of fibrin, is so changed as to be almost 36 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. incapable of producing it, or that for some reason the enzyme is less in presence or power. In either case, the possibility of fibrin formation in milk may be regarded as due to an incomplete action of the secreting cells, or to some cause behind them, such as unnatural conditions of the health, vigour, or feeding, of the cow, with consequent conditions in the blood beyond the power of the cells of the udder to remedy ; and it is morally certain that any unusual quantity of fibrin must be due to such disturbances of the regular processes, and their effects in the animal economy. Milk occasionally coagulates spontaneously, —i.e., without evidence of the causes which generally produce coagula- tion,—and this is believed to be due to an excess of fibrin, If this theory is correct, the coagulation is like that produced in blood, the fibrin being in great excess, and using up a proportionate quantity of the albuminoids of the milk in its production. In such cases it is evident that the cells have not wrought the usual change in the albuminoids of the blood, by which the fibrin formation in milk has been reduced to z¢osth part of that natural to blood, as noticed above. The failure of the cells may easily be accounted for by some- thing unnatural in the health or feeding of some cow, or perchance of a whole herd. This theory is the only satisfactory one known to us, and agrees with the observations which have been made on such occasions, and which have pointed to the causes named. Such experiences are happily uncommon, but the presence and influence of fibrin in ordinary milk remain, and add to the difficulties besetting the globule in its ascent. The formation of fibrin is hindered by cold, and even prevented by freezing ; but on the restoration of warmth it takes place, showing that cold does not destroy, and only temporarily impairs, the tendency to produce it. Distance is a factor in the undertaking; for it is evident that if two globules of the same size, the one an inch from the surface, and the other four inches from it, start at the same time, the latter will take more than three times as long as the former to reach the end of the journey, after allowing for all variations in help and _ hindrance. Therefore some of the smaller globules near to the surface reach it as quickly as many larger ones which start from lower points, and the earliest cream does not consist only of the largest globules, though these are most numerous in it, and the average size is high. The combined results of these conditions is that the globules require from half-an-hour to forty-eight hours to rise as completely as they can in an ordinary vessel at air temperature. Some milks with large globules begin to show cream within the time first named, and in six hours have cast up two-thirds of their whole fats ; while others, under similar management, have yielded less than half that proportion PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK. 37 The speed of creaming can be observed by the use of glass cream-tubes (Fig. 10), which are graduated to show the percentage of cream which has risen at any time. With these, too, simple experiments can be made, testing and illustrating the principles here laid down. The globules can be caused to rise through water from milk introduced below, and the cream which collects is like that ordinarily found on milk, which would not be the case if the fats were free. Variations of temperature not only affect milk as a whole, but even more strikingly its two divisions of globules and plasma. Water is a good conductor of heat, and the plasma re- sponds to its action by expanding, or contracts under the action of cold, with all readiness. Not so the globules. Whatever may be the character of fats as conductors of heat, the main reason for the slow response of the globules to its influence and that of cold, lies in the restriction of the envelopes, which. hinder those influences from reaching the fats, and these, therefore, from expanding or contracting as much as they naturally would in a free state; so the density of the plasma may be increased or decreased out of proportion to that of the globules, and the difference originally existing between them be widened or narrowed thereby, with a more rapid or a slower rising of the globules in consequence. To put the matter in another form: the globules, by reason of their materials and construction, need a longer exposure to the influence of heat or cold to bring about an expansion or con- traction equal in proportion to that of the plasma. Let this principle be considered as applied under various condi- tions. Heat causes both globules and plasma to grow lighter, but the plasma is so much earlier affected that it approaches nearer to the globules in density; and as long as the temperature then reached is simply maintained, the density of the plasma becomes fixed (apart from the influence of evaporation, which need not be considered in this immediate connection, and which is very little at any time). The globules, as they were last to respond to the heat, now continue to expand under its influence as maintained ; and, becoming lighter in proportion to the plasma, quicken their pace until all possible advan- tage has been gained, and they have resumed the relations with the plasma which existed before heat was applied. Cold has a precisely 1 AIO n Fic. 10.—CREAMOMETER. 38 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. opposite effect. With a falling temperature the respective densities of the globules and plasma both increase ; but that of the latter so much more rapidly than that of the former, that the difference between them is increased, and a quicker rising of the globules takes place. But when the temperature is fixed at some low point and steadily kept there, the plasma ceases to contract, and has a constant density according to the temperature ; while the globules continue to contract, and, coming nearer in density to the plasma, ascend more slowly. ; This view of the case is, however, imperfect, because it does not take in all conditions. When heat is conyeyed from some source which does not admit of its being equally shared by all parts of the milk at one time, currents are set up, which greatly interfere with the regularity of the rule of “slow rising with a rising temperature.” If the source of heat, for instance, is below the vessel containing the milk, the lower parts of the milk are first warmed and begin to rise, the colder upper parts descending. The globules are probably carried downwards by the falling currents to some extent, especially the smaller ones, but not to anything like the same extent as they are carried upwards by the ascending currents ; for their own tendency is to rise, and the falling currents have to overcome this, while it is in entire accord with the tendency of the ascending currents. It there- fore follows that, with a rising temperature brought about by heat from beneath, all the loss of speed caused by the nearer approach of the densities, may be counterbalanced by the influence of the helpful rising currents, and possibly even better results may be obtained than with a fixed air temperature. If however the vessel be surrounded by hot water, so that the heat reaches the upper parts of the milk nearly as quickly as the lower parts, it is plain that very little if any help would be given to the creaming. The reversal of the process, by cooling the milk from above, will give similar results, if the cold is as directly applied, and of equal intensity to the heat in the other case. Downward currents create the necessity for corresponding upward ones; and these, of course, are as helpful as those caused by heat. These currents, if not of the gentlest, would doubtless do more harm than good, and creaming would be imperfect, because of their disturbance of the globules which had risen, and their tendency to drag down the smaller ones ; but if slow, they would leave the deepening layer of cream in its place, besides adding to it. Heat and cold also affect the condition of the albuminoids ; the viscosity caused by which is slightly and proportionately reduced by the former, and increased by the latter. But whatever advantage PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK. 39 is gained in this way by the use of heat, the disadvantage of fibrin formation must be put against it; while cold, by hindering it, gives the falling temperature help as a set-off to the increased natural viscosity. The quantity of cream, by measure, is dependent on (a) the size of the globules, (4) the temperature under which creaming is carried on, (c) the depth of the milk, and (d) the surface exposed to the air. (a.) The larger the globules, the higher they rise, and the nearer they crowd together ; so making a thicker cream. (.) The higher the temperature the narrower is the cream layer, the lighter density of the plasma offering less resistance to the approach of the globules towards each other; on the other hand, the lower the temperature the deeper the cream, because of the resistance which the greater density gives to the gathering of the fats. (c.) A deep body of milk gives a thinner, and therefore a deeper, layer of cream in proportion to itself, than a similar quantity in a shallow vessel. And (d) evaporation, which is according to the surface of milk exposed, causes a greater loss of water from between the topmost globules on a ‘shallow body with a large surface, than from a similar quantity set deep with a smaller surface. Milk is, of course, subject to the laws of density before it leaves the cow, and we accordingly find that the “fore milk” (first drawn) and the “strippings” (last drawn) differ greatly in their pro- portions of fat; the latter having most, because the globules have remained nearest to the surface of the stored milk. The globules of the fore milk are mainly small ones, the largest being found in increasing numbers as the removal approaches completion. The stripping has five or six times more fat in it than the first pint of fore milk. The sugar is equally distributed throughout, but the albuminoids are in slightly larger proportions in the first than in the last milk. The Jdozling-foint of milk is practically the same as that of water, and its freezing-point is 30° F. The colour of milk is due in part to its fats, and in part to its casein, the whiteness belonging to the casein, which is more or less tinged with yellow by the fat in the globules. If the cream is removed, the plasma is found to have less colour, while the cream itself will appear slightly more yellow ; but if the fat alone is taken, the remainder has a sharper whiteness than whole milk. The ofacity, or non-transparency, of milk (which is only partial, for objects can be seen through narrow layers of it) also arises from the presence of the same constituents, and depends for its degree on their proportions. CHAPTER IV. CHEMISTRY OF MILK. Constituents of Milk—These are found to show differences of proportion in different examples, due to the influence of the breed and individuality of the cow, and her health, feeding, and management. ; There is no small difficulty in fixing upon a general average, but the composition given in the middle column below, which has been prepared from many sources, is: very near to the desired accuracy. The highest and lowest proportions of the constituents, as found in very exceptional cases, are given in the other columns. Maximum. Average. Minimum. Water 90.00 87.60 79.00 Fat - 12.00 3.25 1.80 Albumin -70 45 +30 Casein 5.00 3-40 3-00 Sugar- 5.50 4-55 3-30 Ash 85 “75 -70 100.00 The average above shows more water, and less solid matter, than is usually given by writers on dairying, but there is good reason to believe that the quality of milk is commonly overstated. Milk submitted to analysis may be divided into three classes— (2) milks which are exceptionally poor, and which come into the hands of the public analyst under suspicion of having been robbed of fat or adulterated with water ; (6) milks which are remarkably rich, analysed for special private or trade purposes; and (c) milks which are received by the leading milk-dealing firms in cities, and examined by their chemists for their own protection. Neither of these can give a general average, they having reference to exceptional experiences ; for even in the last case, stringent con- tracts, and the constant testing of milk received, ensure a higher average than is common to the country at large. The same objection may be CHEMISTRY OF MILK. 4I taken to the milking trials of the British Dairy Farmers’ Association, in which only cows specially selected for the quality as well as the quantity of their milks are entered, and in which special breeds are out of all proportion to the common classes of milking cattle. Important confirmation of our average is found in the yields of butter and cheese common in our dairy districts, which show a milk quality lower than we have given, requiring the better records to be set against them in order to our result. The relative proportions of the various constituents are not subject to any absolute rule; and the statement that all the “solids not fat” are constant in their relations, is very misleading. The fat varies much more than the other solids ; but these vary also, and enough to make serious differences in the processes of manufacture and their products. It will be observed that the downward limit, in each case, is nearer to the average than is the upward limit; z.e., the range of improvement is wider than that of impoverishment. This for the advantage of the calf. The constituents may now be considered separately. Fat.—The butter of milk consists of nine fats, which may be classed as follows, viz. :— Soltid— 3 Palmiti Butyrin. almitin, i Stearin. capris: Fixed Myristi Volatile Capryllin. yristin. : Liquid Caprin. “ge Myricin. Olein. oe Palmitin, stearin, and olein have been already described. Myristin, C3H;3C,,H»,O., of which traces are found, is also known in nut- meg butter. It is built up on similar lines to the others of its class. The volatile fats, with one exception, are constituted like the fixed fats, but differ from these physically in a striking degree. They are so called because they can be dissipated by heat. They are also more easily decomposed than the fixed fats, and some of them are soluble in water. If a volatile fat is dropped on paper and heated it will disappear, while a fixed fat will remain even when the paper is charred. This class includes the “essential oils” of plants, from which, as found in new milk, they are derived, at least in part, though it is believed that they are also produced by the cells from other blood constituents. Their proportions in milk are by no means certain, and probably vary much; but they are much more influential than the fixed fats in affecting the flavours of dairy produce. 42 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The chief fat of this class is butyrin. Its acid has two forms in nature—the normal,C,H;,COOH, and the iso-butyric, C(CH,), HCOOH. These, though containing like numbers of their several elements, have them grouped in different physical relations, and the former is much more pungent than the latter, which is probably the form found in plants, as in the parsnip, and the locust bean now so much used in mixed cattle foods. The proportion of butyrin has been estimated at from 3} to 4$ per cent. of the total fats, but there is no constant rule. Caproin, capryllin, and caprin are akin to butyrin, but not so soluble in water. Human sweat contains normal caproic acid, which is there a waste product of the system. Myricin is found in beeswax, being that part of it which boiling alcohol will not dissolve. It is differently constituted from the rest. These fats, all of them sometimes, and most of them always, pre- sent in milk, are so blended as not to be distinguished ; but if butter in a linen bag of close texture, be put under heavy pressure, the olein and volatile fats will separate as a fine yellow oil and leave behind the solid white fats. The relative proportions of these three kinds vary according to the feeding of the cows ; the liquid increasing with succulent foods, such as grasses, forage crops, and silage ; and the solid with drier foods, hay, cakes, &c. It has been a custom to state these variations as arising out of the seasons, but in this age of winter silage feeding, it no longer follows that the solid fats will be high at that time of the year. Estimating the volatile fats at 5 per cent., the general proportions of the whole, as in pure, dry, unsalted butter, may be stated as below, that being the average of the best available analyses :— Solid fat 60 per cent. Liquid 35 ” Volatile eee 100, The average melting-point of butter is 97° F., varying above and below this point according to the proportions of the different fats. Such, however, is the influence of olein, in proportion to its amount, that it keeps the solid fats in a semi-liquid state in the globules of milk ; and these, sheltered by their envelopes from the immediate consequences of changes of temperature, retain that condition under ordinary circumstances until released. Albumin.—This constituent is the albumin of blood plasma, some- what changed in physical character. If found in larger proportion CHEMISTRY OF MILK. 43 than .50 of I per cent., the excess is probably due to unnatural cell action. Its composition is as follows, viz. :— It is colloid, and may be obtained by dialysis, and C 53-5 by ordinary analytical methods. By the former, a H 7.0 transparent substance of yellow colour is found ; by O 22.4 the latter, a solid in flakes, brittle, odourless, and N 15.5 tasteless. In its ordinary milk form it coagulates S 1.6 at 163° F., forming a scum on the surface in which 1000) some of the fat globules are entangled. From the serum of casein coagulation it rises in flakes at the same temperature. Casein, when separated, is yellow and transparent, and readily absorbs moisture, which causes it to swell. Its composition is as follows, viz. :— After separation it is easily rediffused (some say C 53.57 dissolved) in an alkaline solution. Although it is H 7.14 so much like albumin, it differs from it radically in O 22.03 behaviour, for while heat coagulates the latter, N 15.41 casein does not respond to heat. On the other S oui hand, casein is coagulated by acids, and animal and P74 vegetable juices of several kinds, to which in its * ena turn albumin does not respond. Further, the —— physical forms of this substance vary according to the cause of coagulation. The coagulants include the gastric juice of digestion, which produces a coagulum or “curd” different in certain important respects from those produced by the others. The coagulum of an acid has less cohesion, and of a different kind, to say nothing of the after-variations in result. Some plants, as the common nettle, give out juices which coagulate casein. It was formerly believed, and is still asserted by some writers, that the casein is held in solution by free Na,O which might be neutralised by an acid, so making coagulation possible, but the late Dr Voelcker reported the coagulation of alkaline milk with a whey having a like reaction. Sundry experiences of later date confirm his position. Certain ash con- stituents are now known to affect the character of coagulation, but the “free soda” theory cannot be maintained. Nuclein, CoH O..N,P,, can be separated and coagulated, when it forms an opaque jelly-like body, diffusible to some extent in water, and readily in an alkaline solution. It coagulates in company with casein, and is, for that reason, generally included with it in statements of milk composition, in which it forms about a twelfth part of the casein stated. A peptone called A/éumznose is found in milk in uncertain propor- tions, and probably a remainder of peptone unchanged by the cells of 44 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the intestine and udder. As separated it differs only from the other albuminoids of milk by being white. It is associated with a colouring substance called Lacto-chrome. This is probably derived from the hematin of the blood, is of resinous character, of a bright orange colour, and soluble in water. This causes the colour of butter and of whey. It is in very small proportion, and varies much in that respect according to the action of the alveolus cells. Milk Sugar—/actin or lactose, CyH»OnH,O—differs from cane sugar only by the extra molecule of H,O, as here stated, but has striking physical differences. It can be obtained from whey in colour- less crystals, which are hard, do not readily absorb moisture, and are of low sweetening power. Ash.—The constituents collectively so termed came originally from the soil. They include the metals K, Na, Ca, Mg, and Fe, with the non-metal P, which are separated by the analyst, and estimated in combination with O as oxides ; and Cl, which is combined with Na and K as NaCl (common salt) and KC] (chlorides). Their proportions in these forms are as follows, viz. :— In milk, however, these are mainly in In proportion to Other combinations with each other, and Ash. Milk. with organic constituents. In the conver- Cl we 16.34 .122 sion of blood materials into those of milk, P.O; ... 28.31 +212 certain remainders are left—eg., the N CaO... 27.00 -200 and S of albuminoids converted into fats- K,O ... 17.34 ‘129 The N in this case combines with re- Na,O ... 10.00 076 mainders of C, H, and O to form Urea, MgO ... 4.07 03° CH,N.O ; Creatin, CKHyN,O ; and Crea- Bey a ee 10% Yinin, CyH,N;0—all products of the 103.68 773, natural operations referred to. These O of oxides 3.68 .023 having no means of removal in the udder — are found in milk, though, unless in cases £00.00 :75° of disease, in very “mainte quantities. The S joins with O to form SO,, and this again with K,O to produce K,SO, while remainders of C and O form CO,, and, with H, citric acid—C,H,O,—-a soluble acid, known in the lemon, and which is supposed to exist in milk, with K, as a neutral salt. The P.O; of the table forms phosphates with the calcic, magnesic, and ferric oxides, the first-named giving the important_result 3CaO + P,O;=Caj2PO,, or tribasic calcic phosphate, which, by reason of its larger proportion of the metallic base, exercises a great influence on the conditions and character of casein coagulation. Gastric juice cannot coagulate casein in the absence of calcic salts ; a deficiency gives defective results, as also does an excess, which brings the casein CHEMISTRY OF MILK. 45 nearer to the soluble state. The influence of the other phosphates is not fully known as yet. In addition to these, traces of F are found, which is a constituent of the teeth of animals and is therefore con- Le wn a 3 O } cS * a 5 “G o Le i & s = = ae 6 ° a! 3 = < wy 6 x| 5 = Oo & fs 2 a © TT aS pS 8 oO SiS < oO = Ry ~ 3 je z = = ri 6 Pe Ile f/f 3\ 3 53 x o § oe fe ‘< z WE in X N a ” oOo oO a fx Bs22 : c t a? a Q is la x x ee 5 odd # ai V ogee 0 2 x OG 2 x AN SS | NI sD cH sidered to be necessary to a perfect milk, but its relations with other elements is not certainly known, Gases,— As a consequence of the decomposition of blood materials 46 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. and only the partial recombination of their elements, there remain three gases in a free state—viz., N, O, and CO,—estimated at from .1 to .3 per cent. of newly-drawn milk. The N is in by far the largest quantity, about #ths of the whole, as shown by analysis, the O about ith, and the CO, covering the balance. It is useless to attempt any definite figures, because the causes of their presence are con- tinually varying ; and as they are soon lost to the milk, they are not of great consequence. _ The presence of alkaline substances gives to new milk a reaction of the same kind, while the CO, originally in it, with some probably absorbed by it during milking, and acid phosphates—if such are pre- sent,—give it an acid reaction. This makes the milk both alkaline and acid at the same time, and this double character is called the ampho- teric reaction. This tends to mislead the dairyer when testing such milk for condition. The alkalinity of new milk is increased by heating, because the CO, is driven off. Finally, there is the oz/ of mzlk, a volatile essence, which can be dissolved out with ether, and is believed to be the cause of the natural odour of new milk. Such, then, is milk as given by the cow. In the accompanying diagram the original elements are displayed in line 2, and from these a series of lines lead to the secondary combinations in line 3, and the final ones in lines 1 and 4. CHAPTER V. INFLUENCE ON MILK OF THE BREED AND INDIVIDUALITY OF THE COW. Terms Defined.—“ Breed” and “individuality” must first be de- fined. The former includes whatever is common to the breed as a whole, the latter those characteristics in the cow or her milk in which she varies from the breed standard. The one tends toa common level, the other to variation ; the one is inherited from past generations, the other is the result of special influences fixing the tendency and character of the one animal. These two influences reach and affect milk by the following channels, viz. :— (a.) By the digestion and blood formation, which are ruled by the vigour and health of the cow, these in turn being inherited and influenced by personal conditions. (6.) By the relative provision and tendency on the one hand to build up the body, and on the other to secrete milk. These are ruled by the breeding, and the greatest milkers are the products of breeding for milk. Either of these capabilities can be cultivated in the one case to beef-making, in the other to milk-making. In the latter case, the tendency is to width and depth of the hind part of the animal, to size of udder, and a relative number of alveoli and milk-forming cells ; and where the individual constitution is equal to the task the pro- vision is complete. (c.) The milk-secreting cells also touch milk in certain special respects, regulating the colour, and, in some degree, the proportions of the constituents. Breeds Compared.—In the light of the foregoing facts, the various breeds may now be considered and compared. They may be con- veniently divided into two classes :— I. Breeds which give large yields of average milk, and are there- fore suitable for the cheese dairy. The Shorthorn, when bred for milk, holds a high place in this class. The average yield is about 400 gallons, but the range reaches 1000 gallons and upwards with special individuals, The quality is usually 48 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. good, the globules comparatively small, and the average colour of the fat medium. The Ayrshires, in comparison with Shorthorns as a whole, are better cattle for our special purpose. The general quality of the milk is not higher, but the casein is in higher proportion, and the globules are consequently smaller and easier kept from rising. The milk is there- fore well fitted for cheese-making, and correspondingly unsuited to the butter dairy. In this class must also be reckoned the great body of cattle of mixed blood, found all through our cheese-making districts. Their yields, and the quality of their milks, make them in many cases profit- able, but in far more they are altogether unprofitable. II. Breeds which give milks richer in fat than those of Class I., and are therefore fit for the butter dairy. The Channel Islands cattle, bred first in the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, and called by these names for distinction, Though differing in build and colour somewhat, they have all a common type, and give milk of the highest quality, the fat being in large globules, its colour high, owing to the special secretion of lactochrome by the cells, and the texture and body of the butter being better than that of other breeds under equal management. The creaming and making of the butter is brought about in a time proportionate to the size of the globules. The Devons are associated with the production of the famous “Clotted Cream,” for which a milk of extra quality is required ; and though the fat proportion is much lower than that of the Channel Islanders, it is higher than those of Class I., and the globules are somewhat larger. The fat is of medium colour. The Kerry and Dexter-Kerry breeds are very small, but give a good supply of milk, equal to that of the Devons in quality and speed of creaming, but yielding a pale butter. The Welsh cattle of the southern type are also small, but closely follow the Kerries when bred for the purpose. The other breeds are mainly bred for beef, and dairying is a secondary consideration; although, as the milk must be dealt with, its quality in such cases generally makes it more fit for butter than for cheese. Where the making of either product is the chief business of the stock-owner, it is most profitable to choose the breed which gives the largest returns, and is in other respects suitable to the occasion, CHAPTER VI. INFLUENCE ON MILK OF SEASON AND OF THE FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COW. Personal Conditions.—The share of the cow’s personality in determining her yield of milk and its character, only is superior to that of her food and conditions of health, age, and season. Among these influences, those which are most intimately connected with the animal herself shall have first attention. The milk given by the cow for a few days after the birth of a calf differs greatly from her ordinary secretion. The old cells of the alveoli are cast out of their positions to make room for new cells, and occupy the interiors of the cavities until calving takes place. Then they are carried down with the milk secreted, and appear in it as clots; noticeable at first, and imparting a thickness and yellow colour, but growing daily less, until they disappear altogether, and the milk reaches its normal condition, During that period it is called colostrum, or beastings, and in Fig. 12 its appearance under the micro- scope is shown. The clots are of just the character which would suggest the conclusion that they are the displaced alveolus cells. They contain albuminoids in a granular condition — the nuclei being still seen in most of them, and fat enclosed in some as if they had ceased to be active while actually engaged in transforming the fats or proteids of the blood into the fats of milk. It is not quite possible to conceive fully of as e Fic, 12. the conditions under which these = Co.ostrum UNDER THE MIcKoscorE. cells exist after their displacement, but it is highly probable that a breaking down of their structure takes . : 50 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. place to some extent, and that some of the new fat globules adhere to the viscous albuminoid clots even before leaving the udder. The proportions of the various solids, as shown in the first flow, and their averages for the whole colostral period, are as follows :— First. Flow. Average. Fat 8.5 4.0 Albumin 15.5 7.5 Casein 11.2 7.3 Sugar - 0.0 3.0 Ash 3.3 1.0 38.5 22.8 The extraordinary maximum quantity of albumin (34 times the average) is the most striking item in the first column, and the casein (3} times the average), the fat (124 times the average), and the ash (nearly 43 times the average) are also in considerable excess. These figures probably represent the highest upward limits, and the constituents rapidly decrease until they reach the natural level. The sugar is nearly, or quite, absent at first, but very soon rises to its usual proportion. The albuminoids are accounted for by the needs of the calf,—an exceptionally nutritious milk being required for its earliest days of independent existence,— and these are, in all probability, physically different in some degree from the corresponding constitu- ents in ordinary milk, and more easily digested. The gastric juice of the calf is also at its greatest digestive power at that time, so that the whole benefit derivable from its food may be secured. The loss of the sugar cannot be so easily explained, but the excess of fat more than’ compensates for it, and fully meets the requirements of the young animal for respiratory foods. Colostral milk also exercises a purgative action in the intestines of the calf, and clears them of their contents accumulated before birth—a matter of necessity for life and health. The milk reaches its ordinary composition in from four to fourteen days, the time depending on the constitutional tendencies of the cow and her state of health. During that time it is entirely unfit for use in cheese-making. Rennet will not produce a natural coagulum with it, and any product possible would be liable to early putrefactive decom- position. It is therefore necessary that the cheese-maker should avoid the use of any milk which is not quite free from this character. In the butter-dairy it is less troublesome, but more than usual diffi- culty will arise in securing a good product. It is therefore pest to feed it to the calf, thus fulfilling its original purpose, until all danger for dairy purposes is past. This may be ascertained by heating a small quantity to 163° F., or higher, when the unusual proportion of albumin manifests itself by coagulating, and enclosing within its curd FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COW. 51 some casein and globules, just as the casein will do under the action of rennet and acids ; though, of course, the result will differ from the ordinary casein coagulum. With the reduction of albumin, the coagulum caused by heating changes until the milk assumes its ordinary character ; when it yields but the usual thin scum, it may be safely used in the dairy. At the beginning of the milking period the milk will be at its greatest flow, though usually of its poorest quality. Later, the quantity will fall off, and continue to do so, though generally with some periods of slight increase or steady yield, until milking ceases. Just before this point is reached changes take place in the alveolus cells, which sometimes render the last milk of the season scarcely less dangerous in the dairy than average after-birth colostrum. The quality of milk should improve as the season advances, but this will be to a large extent dependent on the conditions yet to be described as affecting the health and milk secretion of the cow. In no two seasons will the milk quality run on parallel lines, but the natural tendency is to increase with the lapse of time. In the earlier part of the milking period the fat globules are at their largest for each animal. As the season progresses the casein increases its proportion at a greater rate than the fats, and the globules become smaller, the covering by the envelopes putting a stop to the gathering process at an earlier stage. Creaming by setting systems, therefore, takes longer, but this is an advantage to the cheese-maker, because less fat is lost in his work in proportion to the amount present in the milk. The age of the cow will also affect the quantity and quality of milk. In the first milking seasons she is usually at her best in quality, but with the passage of time this falls somewhat, while the quantity increases. This rule ‘is, however, subject to exceptions arising out of variations in management. The general tendency is determined by the vitality, which is usually greatest in young animals, but which varies so much with feeding and other conditions as to give a much wider range in experience than is suspected by most stock-owners. Daily Variations.—The milk drawn in the morning differs from that of the evening in yield and quality, but here, even more than “in the case of age, no dependable rule can be made. The variations among cows of the same breed, occupying the same field or cow- house, and fed alike, would scarcely be credited by any who had not fully tested them. In a large number of cases observed, the morning. milk was in the largest quantity; but there were a few exceptions, due probably to local or temporary causes. The solids were highest in about two-thirds of the cases in the evening’s milk, and in the remaining one-third were in greatest proportion in the bo MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. morning’s milk. The variations ranged from .o2 to 3.5 per cent., both in total solids and fat ; and though a considerable part of the increase or decrease was in the fat, its variations by no means corresponded with those of the solids as a whole. The fat was in greatest quantity in the evening’s milk in about three-fourths of the instances referred to. These figures serve to show the uncertainty of the relative quan- tity and quality of the milk which a cow will give under constantly changing conditions. When, however, the variations are reduced to an average for a herd, the daily result is much more uniform than the foregoing facts would suggest. As an example, eighteen Shorthorns, in comfortable quarters, and subjected as nearly as might be to the same conditions in other respects, furnished in one day a range between } Ib. and 124 Ibs. in variations of quantity, and from 0.2 to 2.60 per cent. in solids; but the average was only 5.4 lbs. in the former, and .66 per cent. in the latter case. The milks of different days from the same cow vary also in both ways, though probably with a less range and average than may be noted in comparing the morning and evening milkings. Here, again, the range and average of a herd is below those of some individuals, The analyses of large buyers do not bring the variations to light, they are lost in the averages of mixed milks. Still less are they noticed in the farm dairy, where the falling off in milk quantity, or cheese or butter yield, only point to them as a whole. Only by recording the doings of each cow separately can they be correctly estimated. These variations are not merely, and wholly, inevitable occurrences, which must be borne because they cannot be hindered. They are due to definite causes operating with more or less of effect in all cases, and when it is known that of two cows under similar manage- ment one makes variations from two to ten times greater than the other, it is necessary to inquire into the reason. The facts drive us to one conclusion, viz., that while common conditions changing from day to day, or from morning to evening, naturally produce common variations in the quantity and quality of the collected milk of a herd ; the greater variations which occur in the milk of individual cows can only be explained by differences between the animals themselves, one cow being better able than another to resist the effects of such changes. In so far as breed touches the constitutional vigour of a cow, so far also does it affect the present question. That a delicate creature like the average Jersey should be more generally affected by changes than the hardy average Kerry cannot be disputed ; and if only wide ranges of variation occurred with the former, and only narrow ones were found with the latter, it would be easy to point to breed-constitution as the great cause, and to give a proper credit to FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE Cow. 53 the hardiest breeds for greater uniformity of milk yield and quality. But when such disproportion is found in the variations of every breed, we are compelled to admit that the personal influence lies at the very foundation of the matter, and to attribute to individual capacity, vitality; and health the power to determine how much and how good milk the cow shall give within her breed possibilities. The share of breed in fixing these characteristics has already been discussed ; it now remains to consider that of feeding and manage- ment, these including all the points which are more or less within the control of the stock-owner. These exercise a powerful influence on the directly controlling forces named, and therefore through them on the milk, and they must be studied carefully with a view to reducing the losses caused by changes to the lowest practicable point. By a treatment which will secure this with the animals most easily affected, those possessing the greater constitutional resistance to change will be included, with the advantages of greater quantity, quality, and soundness in the material upon which the dairyer oper- ates. Each distinct condition, with its appropriate effects on the cow and her milk, will be dealt with as it arises in the development of facts, to anticipate which would be inconvenient. The length of the milking season is also subject to considerable variation, One cow milks well up to her calving, another ceases to milk several months before that event. These are extremes, of course, the common experience being from six to eight weeks’ loss of milking. Here the same conditions rule as in the previous cases, for an animal which is able to continue her milk-giving while feeding her foetus must needs have good milking powers and a strong constitution. Such a cow must be more than usually well cared for during the time when others would be dry, but she will pay for it. The tendency to dry off early usually goes with that of laying on flesh, and the better milkers are less troubled with it. Years of the best breeding, feeding, and cultivation, will greatly reduce the dry periods in any good milking herd, and it is decidedly a point to aim at, but no great improvement is immediately possible. Feeding.—A cow may inherit the best of constitutions and milking capabilities, but the value of these will depend on the conditions under which she exists. Not only is it impossible for her to make some- thing out of nothing, but her profit at the pail will be in proportion to the judgment exercised by her owner in those matters which directly affect her. yield of the day or the season. Knowledge and care in feeding must accompany skill in breeding, or the latter will be of little service. A very large proportion of the food of the cow is grown on the farm, and of this again no small share is consumed 54 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. in the growing state, or as green fodder, hay, or silage. Other foods, whether home-grown or imported on to the farm, properly take a second place in the inquiry. The pastures must first be considered. The conditions affecting these having been already described, we may inquire briefly in what ways they can in turn affect milk. The “land” and the “herbage” are commonly blamed for most failures in dairy work, the true causes of which are either unknown or inconvenient to confess, and it is certain that their influence has been greatly exaggerated. The soil itself—z.¢., the product of the rock—can only reach the milk by the soluble minerals which pass into it by way of the food and blood. We have already seen that the calcic phosphates are capable of influencing the coagulation of the casein helpfully or injuriously according to the proportion present. How that can interfere with the success of practical cheese-making will later appear. In the mean- time, we may understand that the proportions of phosphate-forming materials (P.O, and CaO) vary greatly in different plants, and some- what even in the same plants on different soils, according as these soils furnish them abundantly or in lesser quantities. There may be, therefore, an unsuspected excess or deficiency of Ca salts in the milk brought from any pasture or from the hay made therefrom, and other foods—having all come from some soil—may exert a similar influence in their various degrees. Milks so affected will behave differently in manufacture, and the subtle quality which rules its behaviour may be properly called “character.” This, then, will vary with the soil; and it may be readily admitted, that wherever the variations are not recognised, and an unchanging line of practice is blindly followed in the dairy, inferior and irregular results will follow. When, however, our eyes are once opened to the facts, and we are able to trace the influence of the soil on milk character, it is but a step to the possession of the knowledge which shall enable us to conquer the difficulty, as we shall by-and-by see in regard to the case before us. What the influence of the other alkaline salts may be is not yet fully known ; but so far as can be judged it is at most small in comparison with that of the calcic phosphate, and covered in the dairy by simple changes in details of management. When we turn to the herbage, we find other sources of difficulty awaiting us. The plants which may be considered good for feeding cows will give us no trouble; but these are commonly associated with others which are mischievous. The true grasses and legu- minous plants may cause changes in milk quality by their many mixtures, proportions, and growth, but they will not interfere with FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COW. 55 the dairy processes, or give to the products ill qualities. The miscellaneous plants, which may all be considered weeds, include some which are dangerous to the health of the cow; others, more numerous, which flavour milk undesirably ; and a few which colour milk, or produce irregularities. To these causes of mischief must be added those arising from plant-diseases of a fungoid nature. Do cows eat any appreciable proportion of such plants? The occasions known may be few in which the mischief is recognised and traced to some particular plant ; but such do occur often enough to make the matter one of great importance; and we believe that a very considerable amount of harm is done daily by such weeds as are incapable of giving a distinctly bad flavour to milk, but in their many kinds combine to give one generally inferior. What is the cure? Clean pastures. If a weed is a pest in a cornfield, it is a much greater one.in the case before us, where it not only takes the p!ace of a better plant, and hinders the superior growths around it, but actually does direct damage to the dairyer’s goods. Weeds are the natural and almost inevitable consequences of neglect. There are few pastures which can keep sweet and free from such trouble by the mere force of natural conditions. Draining and manuring can do much in reducing the miscellaneous plants to small numbers and the more innocent kinds, and a constant war against them should be maintained. Hay includes, in a comparatively dry state, whatever grew in the field. If well made it will differ-mainly in the lower proportion of moisture and digestibility. Some of the essential oils will have been lost, but the making process will have given the food a higher flavour and odour than the growing grasses had. It must be noted that weeds are as harmful in hay as anywhere, and that good hay can only be made from good pasturage. There are also difficulties special to the case. When heated in the rick, hay suffers the loss of fats, carbo- hydrates, and proteids, from the ‘materials of which acetic acid, C,H,O, (practically vinegar); acetic aldehyde, C,H,O; ammonia and other such substances are formed in sufficient quantities to give characteristic odours and flavours to milk. Silage is a comparatively new form of cattle food in this country. On account of its value, and more especially because of its peculiarities of character and influence, it must be briefly described. It consists of green plants placed in a sz/o or pit, or in a stack, and subjected to pressure. Fermentation, which raises the temperature, determines the kind of silage which will be made ; above 120° F. the result is sweet, and below that point, sowr silage, with more pronounced character as the ‘temperature rises above, or falls below, that level. The greater 56 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. digestibility secured is heavily discounted by the tendency to injure milk, which has led some large firms of milk-buyers, particularly in the condensed-milk trade, to refuse all supplies from silage-fed cattle. It tends to increase milk, but unless well made from the best materials it will reduce the quality, and if badly made, should not be used for milking stock at all. Cereals, whether fed green, in the ear, or fully ripened, as threshed grain or straw, are valuable in their various ways, and under proper conditions only affect milk by their variations in feeding value. Certain succulent foods, as cabbage, rape, turnips, swedes, man- golds, carrots, and parsnips, are much employed, and in reasonable proportions are useful as foods, but, with the exception of the two last, affect the flavour of milk and its products in some degree, and injuriously. The same is true of brewers’ grains and distillers’ refuse. Meals and cakes of various kinds are much used, generally with more bulky foods, and with good effect on the quality of milk. The meals of peas and beans are in great favour with some feeders, their proteids being in high proportion (upwards of 20 per cent. digestible); while maize meal is used for its fat (ranging from 4.5 to § percent.). Either will increase the quality of milk. Linseed meal, within narrow limits, has the same tendency; while cotton seed and palm nut meals are both coming in, being credited with an increase of butter production and an improvement of its flavour, and the former is said to give a larger proportion of solid fat. Gluten meal, on the other hand, is reported to increase liquid fat. By-products of the mills, such as bran of wheat, &c., and the cakes made when pressing oil from linseed and other seeds, are in some cases good for milking stock, as also the mixed foods specially sold for them; but these should be watched for their influence on the flavours of the final products in all cases where this is not known, for some of them are distinctly mischievous. Condiments of various kinds are used to excite the appetite, and have some food value of their own. If they do not give unnatural tastes to the milk they are permissible. But they are being recommended to make inferior foods more appetising ; and when these latter are of themselves injurious, the disguising of their character is foolish. Bad hay and silage cannot by such means be made fit for feeding ; and the supposed economy of spicing them is really a means of increasing the original loss. The supply of salt in blocks which the cows can lick when they will is helpful to health and vigorous digestion, and increases the quality of milk, thereby. An occasional but troublesome experience in the dairy is in some FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COW. 57 cases caused by changes in feeding. It is known as sleepy milk, the creaming being very slow and imperfect. This must not be con- founded with sleepy cream, which will not churn into butter, for though they occasionally proceed from the same causes, they do not always, and must therefore be separately considered. ‘This is doubt- less due to the formation of fibrin to an unnatural extent, and follows changes from dry to succulent foods, as in turning out to pasture in spring. The effects are not necessarily, nor often, common to a whole herd, one cow passing through the change without her milk being noticeably affected in this respect, while another gives evidence of it in the way described. Special plants may sometimes be concerned in it, but there is every reason to believe that the constitutional or tem- porary inability of the cow’s digestive powers to accommodate them- selves readily and completely to the new form of diet, interferes with the physical condition of the albuminoids in the blood, and furnishes those concerned in the formation of fibrin and in the physical form favourable to it. This suggests the propriety of a gradual change from one style of feeding to another, when the differences intended are radical.: Water of good quality and in plentiful supply is more necessary to milking cows than to any other stock. Beyond what is required for the use of the system, the cow must have enough to maintain the natural proportions in her milk. Under proper conditions she will not use more than is good for her. The quality of the water is of the utmost importance. On this point certain errors are prevalent. One is that cows prefer filthy water to clean, but this is a mistake both as to the preference and its results in the dairy. That cows have been known to turn from spring water to some dirty pond in the farmyard may be true, but the pur- pose has been misunderstood. They prefer soft to hard water, and that which has “ the chill off” to a colder supply, but if soft water, not lower than 50° F. be provided, and foul sources cut off, the stock will be contented. The hardness of water will also affect the proportions of Ca salts, and through these the character, of milk. Management.—In what may be collectively termed “ manage- ment,” are included a number of points which have to do directly with the health and comfort of the cow, and indirectly with the value of her milk, and leading up to the time at which it is received by the dairyer for manufacture. The earlier teaching as to the effects of cold and heat must be applied by the provision of proper shelter and the use of it whenever the atmospheric conditions warrant, with good and dry bedding when the cows are housed by night. The quarters should be clean, and 58 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the animals also, for with them as with human beings, cleanliness is conducive to health. The cows should be brought in and milked with gentleness and quiet, for excitement is not only injurious to them, and liable to re- duce their yield, but is also mischievous to the keeping quality of milk. The milking should be done by clean-handed milkers, the udders of the cows having been also cleansed, and the vessels should be beyond suspicion. Wet-handed milking, with its common accom- panimeMt of filth, is bad even with clean hands and udders, because the sweats of both skins, with organic acids and other products of decomposition, are carried into the milk to its certain damage. If the dairyer helps in this work, he should wear a special dress and boots, changing these before returning to the dairy ; and this last should be provided with such means of delivery as will obviate the necessity of the milkers ever coming within its doors, thus avoiding one cause of taints. The milk of each cow should be separately weighed and re- corded, and all other methods conducive to the increase of profit and prevention of waste adopted, for while the commercial success of the dairy may be toa great extent dependent on the manufacture, it is certainly also much affected by the management up to this point. CHAPTER VII. INFLUENCE ON MILK OF FERMENTATION, ANIMAL DISEASE, AND NON-PUTREFACTIVE TAINTS. Liability of Milk to Fermentation.— Milk, in a remarkable degree, supplies the conditions essential to ferments — namely, ample moisture ; the sugar and albuminoids upon which they feed, and which, in turn, they decompose; and the inorganic compounds which influence their operations in various ways; everything is ready to their use, and a suitable temperature alone is needed to fill up the demand. As drawn from the cow it is usually free from ferments, and has even been preserved indefinitely, simply by being milked into clean bottles and hermetically sealed. Experiments of this kind have succeeded so often as to justify the belief that germs in the air or on the milker’s hands, or the teats of the cows, or in the receiving vessel, must account for the failures ; and although the risks in these cases are too great for trade purposes, they certainly point to the advantages of even such partial security as can be afforded by care in milking and immediate protection from the general risks run by milk on the farm. : Moreover it is at this time slightly alkaline, a condition helpful to many ferments even of the worst kinds; and the temperature is also specially favourable to most of them, ranging from the animal’s blood heat when flowing from the teat, to 85° F. or lower, before it can be discharged at the dairy on a cold day. The fine streams reach the pail through air which is liable to contain a high proportion of germs of different kinds, and doubtless carry some of these with them into the body of milk, from which they cannot be separated. Our raw material, under the best conditions, thus meets with the active causes of fermentation on the very threshold of its separate exist- ence, and in general circumstances will soon give proof of their presence in it. When to the ordinary, and well-nigh unavoidable, 60 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. conditions described, there are added a filthy condition of the cow- house, the cow, the milker, neglected pails, and wet-handed milking, it must be plain that the mischievous conditions are increased in proportion to the neglect, both by the introduction of the more abundant germs, and even of active ferments, and of the dirt which —once diffused though the milk—will meet the needs of bad ferments even more perfectly than the natural milk constituents can do. This is no fancy statement, drawn from imagination, for the almost excus- able purpose of frightening careless people into carefulness. Every item is supported by observation, both by scientific experimenters and practical handlers of milk. The honest truth is, that very little is received in the average dairy from which it is possible to make the finest of cheese or butter. There are risks at the best, but they are trifling as compared with those commonly encountered. More of this when the patent effects have to be discussed. In the dairy, too, ferments are found, and the milk receives them from the passing air currents, or by their settling in it when the atmosphere is still.“ But, from whatever source derived, they may be divided into two classes,—(a) the /rzend/y, which are either essential or helpful to the processes of cheese and butter making ; and (4) the unfriendly, which introduce objectionable conditions or qualities into the milk and its products. These shall be taken in connection with the special objects of their attention. Sugar has qualities which definitely assist certain ferments and hinder others. To such as produce lactic acid, it offers facilities in its physical make-up, and speedily becomes changed into that substance under their influence. The C).H»On H,O becomes 4C3H,O;, the water of crystallisation sharing in the conversion, and combining fully with the H and O of the changed sugar. This would not appear to be a step towards ultimate putrefaction, but such it is. The physical conditions and relations of the sugar elements are changed, and the way is prepared for still further changes. The ferments which produce these results are several in number. That shown in Fig. 13—Bactllus acid? lactici—is best known to the bacteriologist, and is probably far more 6 numerous in the dairy than any other, though > such may have a minor share in the work at any oO : Sat é ¢ time. This is of rounded form, 1 to 1.7 py. long, is found in pairs or chains, and multiplies by Fic. 13. fissions and germ formation at a great rate in Lactic Acip Ferment. favourable temperatures. It does little below 50° F.; but with higher temperatures steadily increases in vitality and activity, until at 95° F. it is at its greatest FERMENTATION AND TAINT IN MILK. 61 power. At 115°F. it is feeble, if not totally inactive ; and at 140° F. is killed. Its germs, however, are only killed at 240° F.; and as this is beyond any experience in the dairy, it may be seen that though by much lower temperatures it is easy to destroy the living microbes, their germs remain, ready to come to life when a suitable temperature is reached. Another ferment, separated and cultivated by Dr Storch of Copen- hagen, and designated No. 18, is shown in Fig. 14. This has been used in experiments with milk and cream, with satisfactory results. No others have as yet been eae” isolated. Further references will be made by the initials L.A.F., for brevity’s sake. These ferments probably use up some of the sugar as the alcohol yeast does, producing a small quantity of CO2 ; Fie. 22. When the maximum quantity of .7 to .8 of Lasonic Acip Ferment I per cent. of acid has been formed they (No. 18). cease to operate, and as in dairying no attempt is made to neutralise the acid in order to set the ferments again in action, we must consider their limit as reached. Long before this, smell and taste will have proved the presence of fermentation, and the milk will have passed beyond the useful stage. The sugar ferments, therefore, are only friendly up to a certain point, which will be better indicated in connection with their necessity in the dairy. Of unfriendly ferments, the a/cohol ferment (A.F.) produces small quantities of C,H,O and CO,; but the sugar but slowly re- sponds to its action, differing noticeably in this respect from fruit sugar. The dutyric acid ferment (B.A.F.) probably carries the work much further, the milk becoming noxious under its influence. After a certain stage has been reached, a general attack is made on the whole series of organic compounds by whatever ferments of general putrefaction are at hand, and in this the sugar elements reach their lowest forms of combination. One constituent of milk—Casezn—is attacked by so many unknown microbes that it is difficult to describe its position in the general course of decomposition. It has been said that the whole movement commences with the action of a casein ferment, in the absence of which L.A.F. is idle, and this theory is supported by certain practical considerations. But it is, by no means certain, being mainly based on the fact that fermentation is slow in a sugar solution, which may merely mean that the L.A.F. is to some extent dependent on proteid food. On the other hand, the existence in milk of any other friendly kind of fermentation than that producing lactic acid, is either ignored 62 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. or denied by not a few writers and teachers, probably because it is the only one which can be readily proved by a chemical reaction, There are, however, strong grounds for believing that while the sugar is being changed, the casein is also being attacked, and that in a way and to a degree which cannot be accounted for by any supposed action of the L.A.F., for this does not appear to affect the casein when sterilised milk is inoculated with it. It is not claimed that there is absolutely no influence exerted by the L.A.F. on the casein under those conditions, but simply that, as none is observable, it cannot be sufficient to explain the behavionr of casein in ordinary experience. Nor can it be set down to the B.A.F., for that does not appear to come into operation early enough for our purpose. At or about the limit of L.A. formation the casein coagulates, and has for some time before this betrayed increased viscosity, with other varying tendencies, most likely dependent on the ferments present. Unless we imagine the B.A.F. to be capable of attacking it, before it can do anything of consequence with the sugar, we shall have to dismiss it as an unlikely agent. Moreover, the B.A.F. has been used with sterilised milk, the casein coagulating in a firm mass in a week, and being dissolved in two or three weeks, with the appearance of NHs, leucine, tyrosine, and other fermentative products. Here, in the tendency to give a firm coagulum, it re- sembles the L.A.F., though it appears to digest it afterwards, which there is every reason to believe the L.A.F. never does. This diges- tion is, however, altogether too slow to explain our case, nor is it likely to be proportionately more rapid in the presence of lactic acid, as present in-dairy processes, but rather the reverse. Now there can scarcely be a doubt of the presence of a ferment (possibly more than one), the action of which tends to an opposite effect to that of the L.A.F., rather a softening and disintegration of the casein—both the denser form of the original in the envelopes of the fat globules, and the coagulum when formed. Such effects we have realised under conditions which could hardly deceive, when the usual tendency of the casein was plainly checked by another agent, locally and temporarily in excess of power, but not so easily recognised in its normal proportion of influence at other times. After estimating all known conditions, the results could only be accounted for by a ferment which could produce a much more rapid softening effect than the B.A.F. could be expected to do, and of a somewhat different character. Happily we have not to calculate only on the existence of such a ferment, for one at least is known to us, and it is not unlikely that more will be shortly discovered. FERMENTATION AND TAINT IN MILK. 63 The Tyrothrix bacillus (of Duclaux), Fig. 15, appears to meet the case fully. This microbe is very like the B.A.F. in form, and might easily be mistaken for it under the microscope ; but its action, in all moral certainty, is altogether in the direction of softening, and not of hardening, Ds even for a time, the coagulum of natural fermenta- es tion. We may therefore—awaiting the coming to light of a more powerful agent of this tendency— dub it casein ferment No.1 (or C.F.1). Further, FIG. 15. : . . CasEIN FERMENT since there are weaker alcohol, lactic acid, and (No. 1). other ferments of definite character, there is a probability of others bearing a similar relation to the C.F.1, and assisting in its work. Some ferments coagulate milk without the formation of acid, and such a coagulum will be much more easily broken up by the later fermentations than one caused by L.A.F., or probably B.A.F. either. In this respect it will approach in character the coagulum of rennet in a neutral milk. In view of the foregoing, the necessity for a kind of fermentation balancing with the influence of the acid forms, and explaining certain constant experiences and occasional difficulties in the dairy, is met by C.F.1 and its fellows, known and unknown. Such as properly fulfil this requirement may be reckoned among the friendly ferments. The decomposition of casein by all forces involves the separation, and in some cases recombination, of its elements very much as in other dead matter, and with the same variety and uncertainty of form. The taking up of O and H.O, and the setting free of N, CO., and sundry other gases, occur as usual. Sulphogenic ferments assist in the task, setting free the S to form sulphuric acid (H,SO,). This does not generally come within the experience of the dairyer, and it would be fortunate for him if it never did; but under some fermentations such evidences of special or advanced character are met with while the ordinary processes are going on, and some of them are recognised by the sense of taste and smell. Albumin, though it does not coagulate under ordinary fermentation, is undoubtedly the subject of attack at some stage of the general decomposition. In the serum, where any changes in its condition can be easily noted, the only unfriendly fermentation which we have seen has been the viscous or “ropy” form, and this but twice. Then the albumin appeared to be involved, although the change is in such case wrought in the sugar. The same remarks apply also to the albuminose. The protection of the fats of milk by their envelopes has in all 64 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. probability much to do with the real or apparent non-fermentation of these substances zz milk. There can be no doubt of their fermenta- bility, and that, in the presence of sufficient casein and water, the action is rapid, accompanied by an odour, pungent and well-nigh unmistakable. Evidences of B.A. fermentation, however, do not appear until an advanced stage of the general course of change has been reached, and even then is probably first due to the lactic acid being attacked. Later, when the C.F. and others have carried their work far enough to allow of the fat ferments reaching the con- tents of the globules, there is every probability of their being reduced to new forms, and especially to butyric acid and the other pro- ducts necessary to account for the original proportions of the fat elements. The B.A.F. is pretty certain to take a leading part in this, though it is not likely to act alone. It has been asserted that the presence of volatile fats in milk is due entirely to fermentation, but this is unreasonable. We have already met with examples of the same substances being produced in living plants and animals, and in fermenting bodies ; and there is no more reason for saying that volatile fats are ferment products only, than for asserting that mannite is entirely a product of fermentation. Abun- dant evidence is at hand to establish the closest kinship between some of the results of the activities of the living animal and vegetable cells and those of ferments, and that volatile fats are among the former has already been shown. It is now readily admitted that they are among the latter also; and while it may not be proved that caproin and its fellows are so produced, it seems likely, though they may need special microbes to produce them. It is but a step between the point here reached and the common putrefaction of all organic bodies, the nature of which has been already pointed out. Two kinds of ferments have been mentioned as necessary or help- ful in dairy processes, viz., those which produce lactic acid and those which soften and digest the casein without producing any objectionable effects from the dairyer’s point of view. All the rest may be properly regarded as his enemies. Taints.—Unfriendly microbes may, in some cases, be altogether idle until the conditions necessary to them have been brought about by others, or by human or accidental means; while others, though usually kept in check by the more numerous lactic acid and casein ferments, may be able, when in larger numbers, to take the lead and work much harm; while others again are always busy, and do as much mischief as their numbers will admit of. It is possible that some of them may bring about changes in milk constituents which will more or less interfere with dairy processes without giving any FERMENTATION AND TAINT IN MILK. 65 noticeable taste or smell; but most of them produce taints of one kind or another, often so mixed as to make it difficult for even an expert to determine their direct causes. By taints we mean odours or flavours, or combinations of these, which are not natural to milk during that period of its separate existence in which it is used for manufacturing cheese and butter, and which are not caused by the friendly ferments during that period, if at all. These are not all necessarily caused by fer- ments, and we may therefore divide them into putrefactive and non- putrefactive taints. With the former we have now to do. They are of many kinds; indeed, it is doubtful if most existing ferments have not the power to work havoc in milk under favourable con- ditions. That these last never come to their aid in ordinary cases, and that the actual kinds which can get a start and an advantage in relative power against the friendly ferments are comparatively few, may be true; but, after making all reasonable allowances, there is little room for comfort in these reservations. There are enotigh left to baffle the best manufacturing skill, and the exceptional conditions occur often enough to make taints the terror of every dairyer who values his reputation. At present only a few have been identified and described, and these have mostly been mentioned already. Ropiness is caused by the V.F. or some of its kin, and is exceed- ingly troublesome to get rid of, besides making the milk useless for manufacture. Bitterness, and peculiar tastes not easily described, can be recognised by the watchful, and these are generally caused by ferments. An exhaustive series of experiments will be necessary to secure the facts concerning them. Pasteur, the eminent French bacteriologist, has aptly called such affections of wine and beer ‘“‘diseases” of those liquors, and the term is applicable to the same in milk. Diseases.they are,—some of them fatal to the usefulness of our fluid, others cured with difficulty—and leaving behind changed conditions comparable to those which, after sickness, render human beings weakly and ready for other troubles ; and those due to fermentation are capable of transmission to other milk by the mixing of the diseased milk with it or by germs. To prevent—or, when our best efforts fail, to cure, as far as is possible— must be our aim. Ferments of the Soil_—In the pastures there are ferments of the soil and manure, and these doubtless of the worst kinds where town sewage is applied. Milk from lands treated with this latter has been known to become putrid in thirty-six hours. Silage, bad hay, grains, distillery refuse, decayed roots, cooked foods which have E 66 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. been allowed to ferment, and foul air and water, are a'l liable to produce mischief. The germs from all such sources are liable to be taken into the cow’s system in eating and breathing, and to interfere with her health ; though only in disease are microbes be- lieved to find their way into milk by way of the blood. There is, however, nothing to hinder the products of fermentation so reaching the milk, and creating conditions unfavourable to the dairyer’s aims. There is no more reason to doubt of the passage of such, than of the flavours of turnip or wild-garlic. Milk from cows fed on brewers’ grains has been found to contain free acid, and could not be digested by children. The fermentative products of decayed roots eaten by cows have been known to produce diarrhoea in their calves. Such milk, if brought into the dairy, could not fail to produce inferior goods. A more direct infection of milk may be by the germs being taken up in the field or byre, and carried by the cow’s body, or by the air, into the pail, and here again experience confirms reason. Fermented foods and foul bedding, especially of bad hay,—‘“ only fit to put under the cows,” as the thoughtless would say,—can do more harm than the cleverest dairyer can cure. In the light of these facts, the gravity of the objections to the use of such, and to dirty udders and wet-handed milking, is increased tenfold. One great source of contamination is the land pond,—in dry weather a mere puddle of foul water and mud, into which the cows go to cool themselves, splashing their bodies with the festering filth. We have directly traced some of the worst cases of bad milk we ever encountered to this cause. Even the cleansing of the cow’s udder, if not done with clean water and cloths, may fail to prevent the harm possible from such a source. Even teat plugs and milking tubes may contaminate our raw material if not cleansed and sterilised after using. The dairy may become infected, and we have known cases of complete failure ; the dairyers, unconscious of the true cause, chang- ing methods and making wild attempts to cure matters ; the cheese meanwhile continuing to rot and stink. The only cure in such cases is to cleanse the dairy and all its contents, while cutting off permanently the chance of recurrence by whitewashing the walls and ceiling with materials to which a disinfectant, as nearly inodorous as possible, has been added. Coloration.— Microbes producing coloration may now be men- tioned. Several of these have been identified and tested by experiment, The Micrococcus prodigiosus produces redness with acid, and casein coagulation. The Bacillus pyocaneus causes a greenish yellow; Sacdllus xanthogenus, an orange; and Vidrio * FERMENTATION AND TAINT IN MILK. 67 cyanogenus, a blue colour. Their products are liable to change with varying chemical reactions, Infected Milk.—Contagious or infectious animal diseases can be communicated by milk. In certain cases this is established, and in others suspected on reasonable grounds. These sometimes infect the milk by way of the blood, but are always liable to do so by free germs. Human diseases of this type may be carried by milkers. Sometimes the products of disease are infectious, and these can always reach the milk within the animal. Since there are no con- ditions in any of the processes of the dairy destructive to germs which would not also prevent success in manufacture, it may be said, once for all, that no milk which has been exposed to real danger of infection should be taken into the dairy, much less made into human foods. It should be received in a vessel kept for the purpose, disinfected thoroughly, and discharged where it can do no harm. Tests for Fermentation—We now turn to the means which may be used for ascertaining the presence, kind, and degree of fermenta- tion in milk, dealing first with the tests for the friendly forms. The need of such has been felt by dairyers for many years, and various attempts have been made to provide them, but only with partial success. The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland recently offered a prize of £100 for one which would properly meet the case ; but the prize was not awarded, the jurors deciding that the entries did not fulfil the conditions. Such tests should be reliable, simple, very quickly applied, and reasonably cheap. Some fail on one point, some on another, and there is not at present any absolutely certain test of the kind. _ Litmus paper is the simplest, readiest, and cheapest, now obtain- able, though it is often objected to as failing in common practice. The charge of general unreliability we deny : for experience of years has proved that it is safe in 95 per cent. of tests made, and the failures cannot only be accounted for, but turned to account in prac- tice. The truth of the matter is, that few people have ever used it long enough to prove it, and still fewer have attempted to reduce its use to any system. For want of a means of determining the extent of acid formation, the user has had to work long before he could become so accustomed to its indications as to depend upon them with safety ; but having such means in our possession, we now offer them to the reader. Litmus paper when plunged into milk which is acid in any appre- ciable degree, becomes reddened by absorbing the liquid with its lactic acid distributed in it, this depending naturally on the stage of fermenta- tion. As time passes, therefore, each test shows greater redness, and various useful stages of this are shown in the coloured plate opposite 68 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the title-page. The last example is reached a little before fermentative coagulation occurs ; but as this shows a stage within or below which every experience in this kind of fermentation comes which has need to be estimated in our work, the test fully covers the case in that respect. The real value of the test lies in the fact that the L.A.F. and C.F. generally bring about a well-balanced pair of results which combine to determine when the milk shall coagulate by fermentation, for other- wise the mere observation of the acidity alone would not suffice where it is only one of two powerful, and not always equal, influences. The acidity is alone revealed directly by this and sundry other tests, so that we have to take it for granted, in the absence of indications to the contrary, that the desirable balance of power is in operation. When it fails, registering a degree of acidity which does not agree with the time required for coagulation, or with the behaviour in other respects of the material tested, abundant evidences prove the presence of unfriendly forms of fermentation. In such cases the smell generally shows this ; but failing the appearance of a distinct odour, other tests can be applied to confirm the suspicion which the error in litmus indication awakens. Further, it is true that persons whose colour-vision is defective can- not perceive the distinctions necessary to its use, but this is true of all colour tests, and can only be regretted. To the multitude of dairyers it will be serviceable, and the colour-plate will make its ap- plication an easy matter. The paper is sold in tiny books of twenty-five slips (equal to fifty tests), and by all respectable chemists. It is liable to gradual spoil- ing by exposure to air or damp, and should therefore be bought fresh, or well kept, and should be carried in a little tin box. The fingers should be dry and free from acid when handling it. It should not be glazed, the greasy and viscous character of the dairyer’s materials hindering such a surface from properly absorbing the acid. Before using, the paper should be of the colour of A in the plate. Other tests might be mentioned, but they fail more frequently than litmus, and from the same cause, and the difficulty or cost of their employ- ment would make it unnecessary for the advantage of confirmation. Rennet, which shows the nearness of milk to fermentative coagu- lation without estimating the acidity as such, is a valuable testing agent. This, as usually prepared, is an infusion of the stomach of the calf, the gastric juice of which gives it the power to coagulate a neutral, or even an alkaline, milk. Therefore, in order to its use, its strength must be known, and the relation of that strength to a common standard of action, so that it may be said that so much of the work was done by the rennet, and the rest by the ferment. If FERMENTATION AND TAINT IN MILK. 69 three equal quantities of milk be tested by equal measures of the same rennet, and one milk coagulates in a fifth more time, and a second in a fifth less time than the third, it must be judged that fer- mentation tending to coagulation had reached a point in the first case one-fifth in advance, and in the second one-fifth below, that of the third case. This test is of great value in cheese-making when taken in comparison with the litmus test, in which case the rennet being that employed in the manufacture, the indications are immediately applicable. Asa means of more certainly discovering the causes of taints, a kind of “ferment forcing” may be resorted to. In Fig. 16 an apparatus is shown which fulfils the necessary con- ditions. It consists of a metal case a, the upper part of which contains water heated by a lamp 4, which should be regulated to maintain the water tem- perature at 100° F. Into the upper part, or tank, fits the tube frame ¢, to hold glass tubes @, of one-quarter pint each, with an inch and half of space to spare. The frame c¢ is divided into cells by divisions, and has a bottom of wire framework which support the tubes two inches above the bottom of the tank. The cells allow of any tube be- ing removed without interference with Fic. 16. the treatment of the rest. Each tube Tesr Apparatus ror TatnTs. is closed by a rubber stopper having a bent tube / passing through it to allow of all gases escaping, and these are conducted into two water troughs g g, so that no external air can affect the results, A thermometer occupying a central tube shows the temperature of the contents of the testing tubes, and pipes 7 2 provide for the admission or overflow of water as may arise. The whole apparatus may be enclosed in a ventilated chest or cabinet if desired, and locked up while in use, so preventing any in- terference. With the water maintained at the temperature named, the ferments in each of the tubes are enabled to develop and multiply rapidly, out of reach of all others. By observing the time required to produce fermentative coagulation in comparison with sound milks, and the odours and other evidences of special forms of fermentation, it is easy to trace troublesome milks, which may not be discovered by the litmus test, only developing their character when dairy processes are somewhat advanced. 70 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. Protection and Preservation of Milk.—Milk, as it comes from the cow, is within the range of temperature favourable to fermenta- tion. By cooling it to a point at which this will proceed more slowly, the milk may be sent in a closed can some distance to a factory, or kept more safely in the dairy than when left to the air influence. By exposing it to the latter in a thin body and in contact with a metal surface cooled by water within, not only is the temperature reduced, but the gases of milk are scattered, and the “cowy” odour also, the latter by oxidation cf the materials causing it. The best known apparatus for the purpose is the capillary cooler, Fig. 17, which consists of a series of tubes so arranged as to pre- sent continuous outer surfaces, over which the milk can flow from the distributing trough, until it reaches the collect- ing trough, and is discharged from its spout. Cold water enters by the lower pipe, rising until it reaches the top, where it flows out by the upper pipe, having cooled the milk on the way, and itself become warmer, The warm milk is therefore first influenced by the warmest water, and at last by the coldest. If the cooling reduces it to 60° F. or less, and the air and other conditions are not in Fic. 17.--Carittary MILk CooLer. opposition, the keeping quality of the milk will be well-nigh doubled. The effectiveness of such cooling depends on (a) the temperatures of the milk and the water, (4) the rate of milk flow, and (c) the water supply and its rate of passage. (a.) The higher the temperature of the milk, the more work has the water to do ; and the warmer the water is, the less chance has it of doing its work well. (4.) The more rapid the flow of milk, the less heat can the water extract from a given quantity ; while with a slower supply, the extraction is more perfect up to the point where the temperatures of water and milk at corresponding points of the appara- tus nearly agree. (c.) The more rapidly the water passes, the more cooling can it do; if more slowly, then so much the less; and the supply regulates the quantity, the passage of which can be distributed FERMENTATION AND TAINT IN MILK. 71 over the time required for the milk to pass. The regulation, there- fore, may secure efficient or deficient cooling, as the case may be, and the thermometer will show which is being obtained. Only pure air should come into contact with the milk while being cooled, so that the work should be placed beyond the ferments and smells of the farm steading. With this precaution air will be beneficial. Heat may be used for the purpose. At 145° F. the living ferments will be killed; and if the milk is cooled rapidly to 60° F. or less, it can be kept under protection for a still longer time than by cooling only. Antiseptics, or chemical preservatives, may also be employed, if they be wholesome, and not liable to interfere with later dairy pro- cesses. Those which we regard as safe in these respects have for a common foundation the element Boron, the most familiar being Borax Na2B,O,, found in nature, and from which is obtained Boracic acid H;BOs;, a still more effectual agent. But neither is so good as certain patent preparations of similar origin, one of which we have used for years with scarcely a failure ; and another of which we have employed as a disinfectant, because of its safety and freedom from odour with vessels which have become tainted, and without any con- tamination of milk afterwards put in them. But there are other substances sold which are either worthless or mischievous, and the reader is advised to experiment with them before buying in quantity. A special advantage arising from the use of good antiseptics, is that they serve when water fails, which happens commonly at a time when it is most needed. Non-infectious Animal Diseases.—Such of these as reduce milk quantity and quality—as pneumonia, and other effects of over- exertion and undue exposure—give also products of disease, and injure its keeping condition. Mammitis, or garget (of the udder), produces local inflammation, and in bad cases the milk coagulates. Sometimes blood appears, as also with the cow’s eating of certain acrid plants. Non-Putrefactive Taints.—These may be absorbed from the cow’s feeding (as to which, see Chapter VI.), or by the milk itself when it is drawn. Its powers in this direction are remarkable, and it seldom parts with its ill-gotten gains entirely, though much may be done by airing and oxidation. If suspected milks are tested as previously advised in the present chapter, it will be easy to detect these, and distinguish them from putrefactive taints, by the behaviour of the milk, CHAPTER VIII. ‘GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CHEESE-MAKING. Cheese and its Varieties.—Cheese consists of the casein of milk reduced by coagulation and after-treatment to a more or less solid state—commonly having the fat distributed within it, together with other constituents always present but in varying proportions, according to the manufacturing processes pursued and the attendant conditions. Upwards of ninety varieties are made in different parts of the world, their characteristics depending in the main on the principles and practices of the special methods of production, and not on the locality or the soil and herbage concerned in the matter, as is commonly believed. The overwhelming influence of the sanner of making will presently appear ; in the meantime, we may remark that the belief that certain famous cheeses can only be produced in certain districts has done much mischief, by misleading the consumers, and encouraging the local makers to lean on a supposed “natural monopoly,” instead of on sound principles and skilful practice. The only influence which the soil, as such, exerts on the character of cheese, is by way of the ash constituents already described ; and of the herbage, beyond this, by flavouring plants, for which the farmer is responsible. There is nothing to hinder the dairyer from making any variety of cheese, if he will provide a suitable dairy and sound milk, and follow the producing methods with proper care. Given half-a-dozen milks of equal quality, in as many different parts of the country and on as many different soils, and let these be made into cheese by one method, with no more variation in practice than is need- ful to balance conditions: the resulting cheeses shall beso much alike as to make it impossible to say from which district each comes. On the other hand, let a given quantity of milk be distributed into half-a-dozen vessels in the same dairy, and equal in every respect, and let these be made into cheese by as many different methods: the results shall be as if they had actually been made in the districts in which those methods are usually pursued, PRINCIPLES OF CHEESE-MAKING. 73 A system consists of a number of practices based upon certain principles, and so related to each other and applied as to give certain definite results, which may be repeated from day to day simply by repeating the system and its conditions. Such a system may be named after the district where it first came into use, or after its originator ; but when once the name has become associated with the cheese made under it, all goods so made in any part of the earth should bear its name. In this way only can we avoid endless confusion. Characteristics of Good Cheese.—The best system is that which gives the most good qualities, and the fewest defects in its product, considered as a food. The qualities desirable in cheese are— (@.) Quality, or richness, arising from such a proportion of fat as will properly balance the casein, and a mellow, plastic condition of the latter, caused partly by moisture and partly by fermentation. The larger the proportion of fat in the milk used, within certain limits, and the more skilful its management with a view to avoid waste of it, the better will be the quality of the product. The conditions already described as influencing the composition of milk, and the fact that, of all its constituents, fat is the most quickly and largely increased or decreased, will be remembered here, and their importance realised. Sometimes fat is intentionally removed from milk before cheese is made, and this, of course, reduces the value of the latter ; but by a suitable treatment foods of considerable value can be made from such milk. A fragment of cheese crushed between the thumb and finger, and rubbed abroad, will reveal its quality—the softness and unctuousness of the rich being easily distinguished from the dryness and resistance of the poorer, with many gradations between, only to be recognised by experience. (6.) Digestibility—The value of any food cannot be determined by its nutrients in the gross, but only by the proportions of these nutrients which can be secured for the building up of the system and for its other needs. Here the digestion steps in, and determines whether cheese is or is not suitable for any person, according as he may or may not be able to digest its casein, and by so doing also set free all its fat for use. This is not by any means decided only by the digestive powers of the consumer. The cheeses of different systems differ in relative digestibility, and even the goods of the same maker ; and while some are half-digested in the making, and are therefore easily dealt with by the ordinary human stomach, others resist the gastric juice so successfully as to be of low food value. It is of the utmost importance that cheese should be digestible for this economic reason, and no less, because if it fails in this respect, it interferes with the health, producing constipation, nausea, and other harmful effects, 74 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. disturbing the comfort of the consumer, and discouraging his use of cheese altogether. (c.) Freedom from objectionable substances—This includes the ptomaines of the unfriendly ferments, waste animal or disease pro- ducts, the vegetable oils or juices producing non-putrefactive taints, and anything added to the milk not entirely natural to it or necessary to the production of the cheese. The whole matter is concerned with the soundness and integrity of the raw material, which should neither be tampered with by doubtful chemicals, nor enriched with animal fats, nor allowed to damage the consumer by carrying into his system anything liable to cause even temporary disturbance. We have known of dairyers who actually employed copper dissolved in sulphuric acid to correct the tendency of cheese to go out of shape under bad forms of fermentation. The poisonous nature of the curative agency was worse than the disease it was intended to cure. When once the addition of animal fats to creamed milk is taken up, it is impossible to say where it will stop in the direction of danger to the consumer. It is plain enough that animal diseases and disease products may be directly introduced, to say nothing of the questionable trade practices encouraged. The only wise policy, in spite of the opinions of certain authorities to the contrary, is to let it severely alone. (@.) Flavour and odour.—These are of great importance in the eyes of the cheese consumer, with whom what is pleasant and natural is almost everything. He will pay a good price for a fine flavoured article, and use it constantly ; and, in the absence of this quality, no faith in the nutritive value of the food will persuade him to counten- ance it. Therefore the money value of the product is reduced by taints of any kind. The management has also a powerful influence in the case. Some kinds of cheese are made with a view to mildness, others for high flavour, and attract different customers accordingly. (e.) Keeping quality.—This is dependent upon the soundness of the milk, the tendency of the system, and the conditions under which the product is kept. The first-named point should be secured in any case, and the last should be favourable to long preservation as far as may be consistent with other aims, but the management will be ruled by the purpose of the maker. Different systems give different degrees of this quality—in one it is aimed at ; in another the cheese is intended for early consumption, and the system is con- structed to give that result, which is altogether inconsistent with long keeping. The advantage is great in one case, in the other it is of little consequence. Most of the kinds which are liable to early spoiling fetch higher prices, and therefore cover the evident risks PRINCIPLES OF CHEESE-MAKING. * 75 attending on accumulation of stocks and uncertain demand; while the others, though of lower market value, are safer, because they improve by keeping, within proper limits. These opposite aims and their consequences will be illustrated as occasions arise. (f-) Firmness and texture.—These are almost entirely controlled by management, though the character and condition of the milk have some bearing on them. A firm and close cutting cheese is safer in handling, and more economical in use, than one of loose texture. Dryness and hardness, however, are very undesirable ; also crumbliness and “chippiness” (the breaking of an apparently solid cheese into chips or angular fragments); while “toughness” and “soapiness,” which are well described by their terms, are at the opposite extremes, and should be avoided. (g.) Size and shape.—These are of more consequence than would at first appear. Cheeses of a soft character can only be made in small sizes, while the harder kinds are better in larger forms. They must in any case be portable without undue risk of breakage, and with as little loss by drying as is consistent with other purposes. Local and trade customs have combined to attach an unnecessary importance to size and shape as they relate to the naming of cheese varieties. It is supposed that one variety must be cylindrical, and another flat, in order to bear certain names; but this is an error. A cheese may be made in any conceivable form or size, and yet be properly named after its producing system. The qualities, a, 6, d, e, and f, are largely dependent on the same principles of the manufacturing system, and bound up together, There is an old maxim that “a good cheese is never of an ill shape,” the term “shape” here referring to the bulging and ungainliness seen in many inferior examples. This would point to a bad texture and insufficient firmness, and almost invariably be accompanied by low keeping quality, objectionable flavour, and general lack of value; points which would place it beyond the pale of even comparative “goodness” and worth. A cheese combining the afore-named good qualities in the highest degree is not to be excelled in food value by any solid food obtain- able. We do not mean by this that there are not more highly concentrated foods, for such there are, but they are not used in the same manner as cheese. Extract of beef, for example, is not eaten at the rate of a few ounces toa meal. Nor do we mean that cheese may be used by itself. It needs a balancing of carbonaceous food, such as bread and fruits. A comparison of cheese with other foods, such as butcher’s meat, shows that pound for pound it is much more nutritious; but figures are eschewed, because, apart from an 76 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. exhaustive statement of conditions, and descriptions of all the articles concerned, they would only mislead. Separation of Milk Solids.—In separating the constituents of cheese from milk, the dairyer has to choose between albumin and casein; for these cannot both be secured at once, coagulation taking place in their respective cases only under different agencies. So, as the casein is both in the largest, quantity, and of the more manageable character, it is chosen, and the albumin is allowed to pass off in the serum, In a general way the dairyer secures about half of the milk solids, the remainder passing off in the whey. Taking an average milk, its constituents are distributed about as follows by English systems, viz. :— Curd. | Whey. These figures are not intended Water 5.50 82.10 to represent the average com- er 3:00) 25 position of curd and whey, but aes ne eerie “45 only the proportion of each con- Co 3.1 -10 — — ~~ ~ $58 — 8 965 Py 296 4 300 2 i 34 Ht . fs Butter cellar ' 2270 Coal \store ine roopllBas Passatelll Y neon i Churning Ee tS xe) , ' (isk hig) _- Gabel) poe a io (153% 14%) Puderengrh hes 227% a pe aly A Bi i 27 . rh ' ' 1 lets A, Tine se= oes aes »—> = hr” : ih 8 “he. ay 798 ofc 22 225, 22 73 r ! 21 s > y (0x B) 1 : Press room™ 53(hA t f Making room (41x26) ; ‘ Projectetinig— t i= = 8 4 5 roatf oe ocak il Agi * 2n90 i : f 5 : 1 ' SRF =| Whdy 6 ‘ . ; ae 7 + [root Gool store and dispatchr: : J ! Laboratory (22x12) i 1@ Bl | (ioaio) ' Be! 9 13 so = \ i " Seay 555 U 57 55 Wy I = 2 7 fe MW —- oo Oe ee eo eo a) -— - ~~ Ut ---—--(i)—- == - fir - == 2 Bp 75 74 73 72t 7 70 Fic. 62.—Cueppar CHEESE Facrory—Grounp P1an. strain of the vehicles set against it, and this and the whole front wall from the ground upwards should be protected by pieces of wood, which when worn can be replaced, leaving the main fabric uninjured. To this platform the roadway should rise, so as to allow of compara- Na Te 1) 7, uw Fic. 63.—DELIVERY PLATFORM. tively low vehicles delivering their milk-cans with as little lifting as possible ; and if the road in front can be of stone paving it will be THE CHEDDAR DAIRY. 151 better, for, in turning, the wheels make sad havoc of a macadamised surface, and create much mud in wet weather. A drain-well (e) (and 80, Fig. 62) is needed to receive the cleansing waters used on the platform, which after a delivery will be one of the dirtiest places on the premises. A barrier (/), with a leather cushion on its top bar, allows of the cans being tipped without bulging, and with trifling labour ; and a pair of iron-bound skids (1, Fig. 62) should be provided, to raise them a couple of inches from the floor, to give the lifters clear handling. We have seen all sorts of devices for milk delivery, but none which allowed of such expedition as this one. The milk receiver rests on a lower platform, with its edge at two inches below the cushion top, so escaping any contact with the cans. Where milk is bought by measure, this should be gauged with a brass strip in imperial gallons, and the platform made absolutely level. Where purchase is by weight, the scale should be allowed for in determining the height of the platform, and any of the best scales of the various makers will serve, preference being given to such as most quickly give the correct result, and the balancing of which is least liable to interference from the milk carriers. The bottom (a) of the receiver (Fig. 64) is made to slope towards the discharging valve 4, which is lifted by the chain c, and held up by hooking to the side so as to allow of a safe flow. Two hooks at a half-inch apart will allow for the variations in flow, which are safe with larger or smaller quantities, avoiding waste. The end of the chain is se- cured to the edge of the vessel. On either side of this small platform, steps 3, 4 (Fig. 62), lead to the lower platform, office, and laboratory, the whole of which are enclosed by a partition 5, which is boarded up to the Fic. 64.—MILK RECEIVER, height of three feet, and glazed above, giving those occupied in either a clear view of the cheese- making room, at the same time cutting off the external air from it. The office is so placed as to be convenient for booking milk figures as given from the weigher, and for ready access to any persons deliver- ing milk who have also other business to transact. It contains a counter 152 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. (7), with nests and lockers, and a private desk (8) for the manager. The laboratory is also conveniently placed for receiving samples, and provided with two wide shelves (9, 10), high enough to work at while sitting, and a hot water and washing bath (12), with sundry shelves and pegs for appliances used. By the steps (6), we reach the cheese-making room. Here are four vats (13), of the same form, but larger than those recommended for the farm dairy. Their total working capacity determines the outside limit of milk supplies, unless some other manufacture, besides cheese- making or the milk trade, is continually carried on. Space is allowed in the plan for the greatest length used in practice, but the three sizes used in factories are as under, viz. :— Capacity. Width. Depth. Length. 400 galls. 38 ins, 26 ins, 129 ins. 500 2? 41 ” 27 * 146 x” 600 ,, 43» 27 5 166 ,, The largest size will seldom be required, and the smallest is more generally used in British factories than any other. The economy of the former in cost is not wholly gain, because with the Cheddar system only a strong and tall-man could manage a 600 gallon vat properly. These should be fitted for steam-heating, and connected with the pipe 2, Fig. 65, from the boiler by a piece 4 of the best rubber steam- Fic. 65.—STEAM HEATING Pipes 1n Factory VATS. tubing, secured by copper wire or a screw union, a thread being turned on the pipe ends in either case. Where the pipe ¢ enters the vat, the joint must be made watertight. Within, ¢ divides into two branches de, which extend the length of the vat, and are closed by caps / f to prevent steam escaping at their ends. The steam is distributed by small holes #, bored at intervals of a foot on either side, or one in six inches of the whole length. : THE CHEDDAR DAIRY. 153 The milk conductor (14) has no strainer in its receiver, because the discharge must be so rapid as to risk splashing or overfilling if one were used. Milk delivery is sharp business, and must not be hindered. A bag strainer on the end of the pipe therefore serves the double purpose of retaining solid matters accidentally found in the milk and preventing splashing. Fig. 63 shows that the platform carries the receiver high enough to give the pipe a good fall towards the vats; and also that the pipe is made in sections, the first reaching a few inches beyond the partition, the second to the nearest vat, the third to the next vat, and so on. In dis- tributing the milk the farthest vat is supplied first, then a section is removed and the next receives supply, the first vat coming last. This also has the advantage of preventing waste, because each of the joints is over a vessel, and any droppings are caught. Against the parti- tion is the second receiver (15), of the same capacity as the first two, from which milk is run into it for filling railway cans when milk is to be sold (Fig. 66). The city suppliers are frequently glad to purchase large quantities from the factories to meet emer- gencies, and such a provision is important to facilitate speedy Fic. 66,—SrconpD Mitk REcEIVER. despatch, for by this simple means the cans can be filled as fast as milk comes down, and without hindering the first delivery for a moment. When the last can is filled the pipe can be put in place and the next discharge made into the vats. Such milk will be despatched by the south door opposite. The objects 16, 17, 19, and 20 will be described later. The pillars (18) support the main girders, which have here to carry a great weight in cheeses and shelves on the floor above. The shaft (21), bearing four pulleys (22), provides motion for grinding the curd, being connected with the engine by the belt (23), and this shaft is carried by journals bolted to the cross girders of the ceiling. The engine-room adjoins the making-room, and this nearness gives ready communication with the driver, while no trouble arises from dust or heat ; for all the former, and most of the latter, is cut off by a 154 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. partition (24), which enables the engine-room proper to be kept clean, and comparatively cool, the boiler being covered with a non-conducting material, and the engine discharging its waste steam into the boiler supply or the chimney. In Fig. 67 this is shown in section. The boiler is so set as to rise but a foot above the floor- level of the engine-room, and steps (25) lead down to its front. Immediately before it the floor is level, but further back slopes s to a lower point under the coal gates (26), which give a draught to the fires and admit of a load of coals being discharged at once into the store, the blocks (27) stopping the cart-wheels at a safe point. The curbstones of the shute are sup- ported by stays. The hot-water boiler (28) for heating the curing-room, with its flow-pipe 29, its return-pipe 30, and flue 31 leading to the main chimney, is placed in the best position for the purpose. By the door 32 ashes are removed, and a bench (33) is handy for repairing work, of which there is always much to be done in a factory. The best steam-boiler for a dairy is the single-tube Cornish, Fig. 68, in which the fire-grate is set in the front part of the tube, the heat Fic. 67.—BoiLter Frontr—Secrion. Fic. 68.—Cornisn Bolter. passing through and coming in contact with a considerable heating surface. Multitubular boilers give steam more quickly, but are scarcely so safe in most hands. From the dome rises the main pipe, which THE CHEDDAR DAIRY. 155 carries steam wherever it is wanted, as shown by the dotted lines, Fig. 62. Taps suitable for this, and for water, are shown in Fig. 69; where a is the best for all water use, and for steam wherever it is used free, as in heating vats and boiling water. The handle, which should occupy the position shown when the tap is closed, can be more easily and quickly turned down, and the supply more quickly cut off, than with the wheel-valve 6,—which, however, is useful when accidental interference with a handle would be too great a risk. The pipe below, in a, is shown as connected with a vat distributing-pipe. The engine (35) may be ot any reliable make, but that shown in Fig. 70 has special advantages, and in practice has proved the best with which we have had experience. Set upon a foundation of stone- work, its cylinder 6 and pump @ are placed conveniently for attention, and in the full light ; while the pulley 4 being on the crank-shaft, is so high as to carry the belt g above the heads of passers-by. If desired, the main water-supply pump 7 can be worked by an eccentric 4 direct from it,—z.e., if the well is near enough to allow the pump-pipe to reach it with sufficient directness. In other cases that pump must be separate, and worked by a belt and pulley. In the plan, Fig. 62, the engine is made to draw only for the boiler from the tank (36), while the pump (37) is fixed against the wall opposite, and made to draw from a well situated under the man-hole (38), this well being either supplied by its own spring, if one is found there, or from a distance by pipes. The pipe (~ —--— —.-— — in plan) should rise directly to a point from which the water can flow by gravitation to the tank over the butter-room, a fall of two inches sufficing for this. Rain water should be collected for use in the boiler, hence the tank 36; but for emergencies, a pipe should: supply. this with well water from the general distribution. A hot-water tank (20) is useful in the making-room, and two other such are found in the washing (39) and churning (45) rooms. These have one common form, though varying in size according to use ; they are Fic. 69.—STEAM AND Water Taps. Fic. 70.—VERTICAL ENGINE. 156 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. all kept strictly for clean hot water only. The heating is done by free steam, which, as generally distributed, creates a great noise, which is very inconvenient. This may be largely prevented by a simple device, shown in Fig. 71, and which consists of a cylinder @ secured to the pipe 4 by a screw collar, and per- forated as closely as is consistent with its strength over three-fourths of its circumference, the remainder being turned towards the tank side, where steam escaping would cause rapid wear of the timbers, and is therefore undesirable. On_ this cylinder is fastened a thick and coarse hemp bag ¢, through which i the steam passes with but little —— 4 sound, and causing but little ebulli- IO iy i >| tion as compared with that arising 4, [gl Uli — in an ordinary steam heater. In the illustration a piece of the cylinder is cut away showing the pipe, which ends at two inches above the bottom. Various devices have been brought out for this purpose ; but this combines durability, cheapness, and effectiveness beyond any other known to‘us, the bags, though wearing out often, being easily replaced at trifling cost. An extra thickness of wood (d) lines the bottom of the tank, to receive the wear, and be replaced when worn nearly through, so leaving the real bottom in good condition. The capacity of this tank should be twenty gallons or more, according to demands, a considerable and ready supply of boiling water being required in the general cleaning-up of each day, as well as at other times. In the washing room a larger tank (39) is found, capacity 4o gallons or more, and here all the utensils are removed for cleansing as soon as they are out of use. Wide racks (41), narrower shelves above them, and pegs on the east wall, provide for Fic, 72.—Cueuse Tae, placing the appliances brought here, conveniently for the time being. A wall (42) protects the doorway from the wind, and a verandah sup- ported by pillars gives a good drying and airing place, in any state of the weather, for the many cloths used in cheese-making. TTT SSS Fic. 71.—Warter Heater. THE CHEDDAR DAIRY. 157 The passage admits air, in conjunction with the south windows of the making-room, for the airing of the curd, and of the front part of the building generally after the day’s work is over, and this is a very necessary provision. Along its walls are racks (43) on which the cleaned utensils are stored in readiness for use, and on hooks are hung the milk and whey conductors, with an inclination which allows them to drain and dry completely. The store room is similarly provided with a rack (44) and shelves, a rack platform (44a) raised a foot from the floor on substantial supports to carry the salt stores, and here should be kept cloths, brushes, soaps, and other washing materials. A doorway into the passage gives ready access from the washing room, another—at the south end—from all other parts. The churning and _ butter rooms and butter-cellar will be described under that manufac- ture. Over the two last, how- ever, as in the farm dairy, is placed the water tank. A tank measuring 14 feet in length by 10 feet in width and 3 feet deep, would hold 2500 gallons with proper margin, and this would supply such a dairy as we have in mind for several days. By pipes (...........- ) this is conveyed to all parts, and taps (x) are fixed wherever free water may be required for cooling or washing. The press-room is arranged to allow of the cheeses, when made, being drawn on the table (19) to the presses (53) ; and the same table serves for bandaging, emptying, and conveyance to the lift (56) in the cool store. It is shown in Fig. 72. The lift, having to do ae Vihdddddiththtsthda f Fic. 73.—Factory Lirt. 158 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. more work than in the farm dairy, is, for economy’s sake, made to carry heavier loads. It has two cages a 6 (Fig. 73), strongly built, and the strain of their loads is borne by an iron bracing which surrounds the woodwork as shown in Fig. 74. In each cage is a middle fixed shelf, and two others which rest upon side strips, and can be removed to allow of the largest cheeses being carried. They are raised by chains ¢ d, which wind around a cylinder e, which in turn is caused to revolve by the endless rope / drawing on the flanged pulley g, the whole winding apparatus resting in metal bearings 4 #4 on strong beams. The rope pulley g is divided by a flange in the middle ; and one of the rope ends being secured in one of the divisions, and the other in the remaining one, so as to draw in opposite directions, the cylinder may be worked either way, raising one cage while the other is being lowered. The cylinder is made of slightly larger diameter at the middle flange than at the two ends, so causing the chains to wind closely by their tendency to work towards the lowest points. The cages are kept in place while in motion by rollers which travel against the guides zz, and are seen in Fig. 74. From the ground-floor ceiling upwards, the track and apparatus are enclosed by a partition # (which is cut away to the right to show the cage 4), while a door at each side allows the cheeses to be removed, but is closed at all other times. The measurements for all purposes depend on the size, shape, and quantity of cheese to be carried, and no figures would be of general use. At the beginning of any season, when the old season’s goods have been cleared, the labour of raising new goods will be at its greatest, the return cage descending empty until the first cured goods are ready, after which the loads will balance each other ; but at no time will it be difficult to raise a load of separate cheeses of cylindrical shape, or flat goods piled two deep, the weight being only with the cheeses (for the cages balance each other), and the leverage of the flanged wheel being as great as its chosen diameter may make it. This room serves a double purpose—providing a convenient place for effecting sales of all cured goods, and for packing and despatching them. The scales (55) are used for weighing new cheeses as well as stocks sold, and furnish important figures for manufacturing and VW sae Fic. 74.—CaceE oF Lirt. THE CHEDDAR DAIRY. 159 commercial guidance. Stairs (56) ascend to the curing-room, and are enclosed by a partition with doors ; and the vehicles which remove cheese to the rail are set against the doorway (57) to receive their loads. If a station is near, a railway track could be laid to the south front, and trucks loaded with milk or cheese in the most convenient manner. The whey-room may be furnished as in the farm dairy with tanks of equal capacity with the vats (13), but here the arrangements are for mechanical separation, the tank (58) holding from half to two-thirds of the whole quantity of whey and supplying it to the separator (59), which is driven from a pulley of large diameter on the shaft (21) by an intermediate motion (60). As the top of the tank is nearly level with the floor of the making-room, and the separator feeding pipe proceeds from its lowest point and must have an inch of fall in its length, it is evident that the floor must be lower than that of the making-room by the depth of the tank, the fall of the pipe, and the height of the separator and fittings, combined. A platform (61) is convenient for cleaning the tank, and steps (62) lead to the floor. A strong railing should be placed here. The creaming of whey will be dealt with under butter-making. The floors of these ground-floor rooms are made to fall in the direction of the arrows, and where two arrows are shown on one floor it inclines towards a common point, or a gutter shown by a dotted line. There is no trap within the building; shallow open gutters and wall pipes carry all waters to the drain wells, which are covered with gratings, because they lie in the line of movement. The head of one line of drains is at 63, where is a ventilating pipe. This branch proceeds eastward, with inspection openings 64, 65, and 66, getting drainage at 67 from the butter and press rooms, at 70 from the cool store, and at 72 from the whey-room,— the latter is the lowest point of the system, being five feet below ground level. This marks the necessity for a good fall of the land in some convenient direction, and shows that man-holes, with cover plates, must be provided for inspection purposes at 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, and 75, at a depth varying from four feet to six feet in that distance. At the back of the washing-room the other branch begins at well 76, also with a ventilating pipe, and gathers the washings of the coal store at 77, which also serves for inspecting the section above it 5 going west and south it collects from 80, and joins the other branch at inspection-opening 82, thence going forward to a tank or dis- charge. The inspection holes of this branch, 78, 79, and 81, are all more or less beyond easy reach from the surface because of the rising roadway and their rapid fall. But it must be remembered hat whatever the drainage system may be, it cannot be effective f 160 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. it does not meet the need at all points ; and while the plan given is purely an imaginary one, it exactly illustrates what in one form or another has to be faced in any case where a true economy of build- ing and management is demanded. Moreover, the very difficulty which makes such a system of drainage necessary, and so more than usually expensive in the first outlay, makes the economy of that outlay the greater, as saving the cost of all possible openings of the ground to reach drains in case of stoppage. There is probably no item in the construction described which Fic. 75.—Factory Curtnc-Room—Ptan,. most factory owners would be so inclined to neglect in view of its apparent unprofitableness as drainage, and none is more important. It does not make money, but it prevents the loss of it ; and the pros- pective builder is urged to secure himself from such loss at the outset, when the cost of laying down such a system is lightest, be- cause the work is then most easily done. The windows on the east and south sides of the building are shaded by a projecting roof, which is particularly desirable to the latter, and useful on both ; and the manager’s dwelling will be well THE CHEDDAR DAIRY. 161 placed at 83, where he may enjoy the greatest privacy practicable in such a business, with nearness and economy of time. The curing-room, Fig. 75, covers the whole building with the exception of the washing-room; and may be provided with shelves (84) to hold over three months’ stocks, from the aggregate of four 400-gallon vats filled daily, with the floor beneath them besides for an emergency. Hot water is recommended as well-nigh indispens- able for heating this room. No present stove arrangements at the same cost will give equal satisfaction in working. In all other re- spects the details are as in the farm dairy. These designs are offered, not to be copied unless the conditions are entirely suitable, but to give suggestions in a practical form which may be adapted to meet such conditions as exist on the site chosen as the best within the area from which milk is to be drawn. A set of conditions better than those supposed to be at command here it would probably be hard to find. But the dairyer will have no diffi- culty, if he has a good site at all, in bringing his plans to suit the location, aspect, water supply, drainage, &c., and to make the best of his case. The next two chapters will still further illustrate the principles kept steadily in view in this one, and the remainder of the furniture of the cheese-making department will also be given where the use of each item can be best described. The cost of such buildings as these depends so much upon local supplies and possibilities as to make it very uncertain at best ; and in preference to quoting experience and calculations, we advise the intending factory builder first to carefully resolve upon his system of manufacture; the extent, immediate and future, of his under- taking ; the site and conditions ; the most economical and convenient general arrangement for the work ; and then to sketch his ideal, and, with all details on which he has determined, to submit his facts and designs to one or two reliable contractors and obtain. their estimates, with the understanding that the construction is to be of the soundest and best. The reader will now be aware, if he has not previously been, that there is nothing in the construction and furnishing of a factory to prevent any success possible in a farm dairy if the milk and skill in handling it are equal. CHAPTER XI. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. IN describing the manufacture of Cheddar cheese, it will be convenient to suppose that the dairy and conditions are such as have been already recommended ; adding, as occasion arises, direc- tions suited to other conditions under which the dairyer may have to labour. We will take as a basis the matter of Chapter VIII. The receipt of milk in a farm dairy is a very simple matter. The con- ductor being placed in position, with a bag of strainer cloth fastened to its end, the supplies from the cow-house can be poured in as fast as they arrive. If a sample of the milk is required, it should be taken.as soon as the delivery is completed, with a previous thorough stirring. In the factory the work includes the examination of milk and cans, and the weighing or measuring, sampling, and booking of the former. The person in charge of the laboratory should inspect all supplies, and none should be discharged into the receiving-vessel until he has passed it as fit for the purposes of the business. The evening supply requires special management, in view of the state of the air and the morning’s needs. The aim of the dairyer being to secure as much ripeness as is consistent with entire safety, it is necessary to determine on a treatment by considering the temperature of the milk on arrival, and the probabilities of , the night. The use of a capil- ! lary cooler is admissible, for w even if the water is unnecessary, 2 the passage of the milk over the Figs 76.-Gootke: oven Var: | fluted surface will aérate it, and Lateduee its temperature nearer to that of the air, It can be hung by a wooden frame (a, Fig. 76), and supplied with water by a rubber pipe (4), with another (c) to carry off the overflow. This is better in thundery weathery than any slower cooling ; but excellent results may generally be obtained by running THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 163 cold water into the space between the cases of the vat, freely at first, until the heat is reduced from 65° F. to 75° F. (according to the weather), and afterwards more slowly, with frequent stirring. = In order to thorough aération and the prevention of cream rising, the stirring should be kept up all night, but in such case only so far as will effect our purpose. A movement through it once in two minutes ae Lips yt m Uh Fic. 77-—AUSTIN AGITATOR. will serve for this, and can be provided by a mechanical device known as Austin’s agitator, after its American inventor. There is no British patent on this, and it can be made by any intelligent crafts- man. It consists, as best made (Fig. 77), of a wooden beam two inches in diameter, borne by hangers (4 4) secured to the ceiling, and carrying, at a point directly over the middle of the vat, a light ash rod (c) 1$-inch wide by }-inch thick, excepting at its extremities, where the thickness is equal to its width, to allow, at the upper end, of a proper joint with the beam, and, at the lower end, of the attachment of the floats (¢@), which is done by a bolt and thumb-screw. The floats are made as in Fig. 78, and when in use have the upper cross-rod resting on the surface of the milk, and the lower one at three inches below, From the end of the beam a second rod (e) hangs to Fic. 78.—FLoar. 164 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the level of the crank of a water-wheel (/), to which it is attached by a similar rod (g), the attachment being made with bolts and thumb- screws as before, and easily effected. The wheel may be made of zinc, Fic. 79.—WaTER WHEEL—First Position, with its sides projecting beyond its circumference, as seen in Fig. 79. Between these flanges (a) the buckets (4, c, d, and e) are so fixed that when the wheel is at rest and its crank at the lowest point (dotted Fic. 80.—WaTER WHEEL—SECcOND PosiTION. line), the first of them (6) is in a position to receive water from the source provided. By the time it is full, the wheel will have moved forward, so as to bring the bucket ¢ under the stream, as in Fig. 80, and d and e follow in turn. The crank has then been raised to the position of the dotted line 7, and no further resistance being offered the wheel turns over, emptying its buckets, and returning to its original position. It will be seen that the milk resists this motion by way of the floats, and this, with the weight of the crank and rod (g, Fig. 77), must be overcome by the slightly greater weight of the water in the THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 165 buckets when full. To regulate this accurately, a balance-weight of lead may be secured to the flange opposite the crank, when needed. The wheel-axle rests in bearings on the edges of a box (g, Fig. 79), the bottom of which slopes towards the outlet 4, from which a pipe conducts the water toa tank. As the crank rises it thrusts the rod e (Fig. 77) towards the position 4, and the floats follow ; then by the turning of the wheel-they are carried to the opposite extreme of the motion limits (dotted line 4), and the length of the cranks and floats are calculated to allow of the latter covering between them nearly the whole length of the vat at every such turning. These measurements must therefore be fixed according to the length of the vat, and the float-rods to its width, allowing two or three inches only of margin around their track. The elasticity of the ash rods gives a gentler motion, and longer continued, than stiffer ones would do, for they bend in following the motion ; and after the wheel has come to rest, float to and fro a few times with decreasing distances—being helped by the waves of milk which they have caused—before their motion ceases. This action should occur at intervals of two minutes, and the stream of water regulated accordingly. If the contents of two or more vats are agitated from one wheel the size of the latter must be increased, so that the water-weight may be sufficient to overcome the greater resistance. The water may be brought from the vat side, by the pipe g (Fig. 39) being lifted and fixed at a proper height for the purpose, so that the one supply may serve for cooling and motion; or it may come direct from a branch of the main; but in any case a very small stream will suffice, from one-eighth inch with one vat, to three-eighths inch with four vats being ample. This apparatus, by preventing the rising of cream, prevents also the sealing down of odours, which would otherwise happen with warm milk slowly cooled without motion, and in the morning the better condition of the milk is noticeable in comparison with the milk unstirred. Moreover, we have never seen loss of fat so fully avoided by skill in heating and stirring in cream which has risen, as by the use of this device for its prevention. The floats should be daily immersed for some minutes in boiling-water after washing, and longer after the least suspicion of a taint in the previous making, and the parts overhanging the milk should also be kept carefully clean. The wheel box may be made removable for convenience. The agitator, as used in the farm dairy, with water round the milk (supplied after the first half-hour only at the rate necessary for the motion), will answer admirably as a rule ; and if the capillary cooler is at any time required, it can be used in addition to the ordinary cooling, and the water used in it economised by requiring it only to reduce 166 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the milk to a temperature at which the vat water can be trusted to complete the work. The agitator can be used in the round vat, but not so well as in the oblong vessel. Where no provision for cooling and stirring is made, the separation of the milk in risky weather will greatly increase security from over- ripening. It may be partly or wholly set in shallow vessels, and frequently stirred until bedtime, but this is not so good for the cheese as the other arrangement. The milk should be brought from the farm to the factory at a temperature of 60° F.,—not higher when the air temperature is the same, and but little lower at any time. In such case the water need not be used with the vats, but served directly to the wheel, and the floats of each vat set in motion as soon as sufficient milk is in to allow them to clear the bottom. The temperature of the night’s milk will largely determine the progress of ripening. It is not possible to give figures always and everywhere applicable, because changes of weather may occur, and fermentation be helped or hindered by unsuspected causes. With the care of the milk earlier demanded, the following figures should be of practical value, as showing the temperature to which milk may be reduced during the night for safety :— Air. Milk. 70° Fahr. 50° Fahr. / 65° y 53° 60" 57°55 Le ” 60° ” 50° ” 63° ” With these it should be remembered that the larger the body of milk the longer will it take to reduce its temperature, and the means used must be estimated accordingly. The value of a free passage of pure and cool air at this time is apparent; but the air within the dairy, if pure, is preferable to any supply, however cool, coming from contact with any fermenting matter or objectionable odours. This should be carefully considered in connection with the direction of the wind, and its possible dangers, when determining on leaving the windows open or shut. The use of perforated zinc will not prevent mischief. Millions of germs could float through the finest perforations known to the trade, a hundred abreast, and with room to spare, and those borne by the air from manure heaps, &c., will not be hindered in any serious proportion. The state of the milk and of the weather should be the inquiries of the early morning, and calculations based on the facts made for the day’s management. Too much can hardly be said in favour of this, THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 167 for the leaving of these matters until the milk is coming in gives too little time for thought about it. Ten minutes’ consideration of the conditions existing at or before six A.M. saves an hour’s thinking at a later time, and enables the dairyer to go about his work with a clear idea of his bearings all day. If, for instance, he finds that the milk does not show the degree of ripeness which the air temperature at night and morning, and its own, would warrant him in expecting, he will know that something is amiss ; possibly some ferments checking the L.A.F., or a deficiency of the latter in number and influence. He will prove his first fact by litmus. If this confirms the backward- ness, he will further test with rennet; and if this causes coagulation in a time proportionate to the apparent state of the milk, then he will use means to encourage the L.A.F., heat being best; and a few degrees at an early hour being better than a considerable increase later, because the risks are less. The fermentation may advance more rapidly than he expects, and it may be necessary to check it by a reduction of temperature. This is more easily done when the heating has been slight, and the time for cooling is ample, than under the opposite conditions. If the rennet gives quick coagulation, this—with the acid tests—will show that some ferments are at work, not only checking the L.A.F., but hastening the casein towards curding at an unsuspected rate ; and he will check them by cooling until nearer to the time for the rennet, and then with a rising temperature help the L.A.F. by sour whey in a suitable quantity. To introduce the whey at once would unduly hasten coagulation, and make more trouble than it cured. This by way of showing how important it is to “take time by the forelock,” and have leisure for contingencies. If, on the other hand, all is well, then the dairyer is happier all day for knowing it, and pursues his duties with a con- tented mind. If the cream has not been hindered from rising, then what has risen must be removed before any new milk is allowed to mix with it; but if the milk has been set in pans, it may be kept until the morning’s supply is all in the vat, and heated, or, if that is not suitable, poured through a strainer set under the end of the conductor, so mixing with the warm milk as it enters the vat. The cream when skimmed is often returned in this way, and if it is well mixed in, and the milk stirred gently but constantly afterwards, it may be largely secured in the curd. But whatever method is followed, the stirring is more important than the heating; and if it is neglected, the cream will be found on the surface of the curd, and finally pass off in the whey. We have known makers turn a creamy curd over, to “get the cream in,” they said; but it invariably turned up in the 168 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. whey, generally showing itself during the second heating as the greasy scum, “Slut’s butter”; or increasing the whiteness of the whey. Any heating done with the cream will affect the ripening, and must be remembered in calculating for that. As the time for the last milk delivery is approaching, the dairyer ° should have ready a supply of boiling water, his implements and materials at hand, and his calculations made, so far as they can be, so that when the actual quantity of mixed milk is known he may ina few moments complete his figures and put them into practice. He will find a little tray useful to hang over the side of the vat and carry his measures and other aids. He must now have a definite estimate of the influence of existing and prospective conditions, and of the relations of the ripeness, heat, and rennet to each other proper to the case. Ripeness.—The standard of ripeness for the Cheddar system is indicated by litmus as at E (Colour-chart), provided, of course, that the fermentation is of the proper kinds, and balanced as usual. As this is exceeded, or fallen short of, the results already described follow in proper turn; and no other is at present known at which so fine goods can be made with any other combination of temperature and rennet. Other British systems need other standards for their best results. This one is consistent with the aims and practices of the Cheddar system, the practices exercising a great influence on the progress of after-fermentation, and therefore on the effect in general. Now, the standard being fixed, we may consider the various possi- bilities which arise in experience. (a.) When the night’s milk is sufficiently advanced to ripen the whole, as mixed at the temperature suitable for coagulation.—If the morning’s milk comes in at 92° F. and upwards, the night’s milk needs only to be at the standard for the mixed milks ; for although the new supply is so far from ripe on arrival, its mingling with so large a proportion of ripened material (nearly its own bulk), and the influence of its own temperature, will give ripeness by the time the preparations for curding are finished. If the morning’s milk falls short of the temperature named, a proportionately advanced state of fermentation in the night’s milk is, of course, necessary to the same result in mixing. (6.) When the mixed milks fall short of that point.—This may arise from—(aa) the temperature of the new milk being too low, because of the coldness of the air or the distance it has been carried, so that although the night’s milk is as far advanced as usual, the addition of the morning’s milk does not produce the usual result of mixing ; or (44), when the night’s milk itself falls short of the necessary stage to effect ripeness with a new milk of favourable temperature. When the dairyer THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 169 has reason to expect the former, he should increase the fermentation in the night’s milk beyond the ordinary stage by warming it proportionately before the new milk is in. By observation he can judge at what temperature the milk will arrive from any point in a given air tem- perature ; and such facts should be found in his note-book, so that he may have his night’s milk at such a temperature by the arrival of the new as to ensure the whole being within a few degrees of the coagulating temperature when the supply is complete; and in such cases as that now considered, he may commence his heating at a time suitable to his need. But this time will be short, because, however cold the weather may be, he will aim at a stage of ripeness in the night’s milk in keeping therewith, and the occasional failure of the new milk temperature will be compensated for by a very little exten- sion of the time in heating. But, owing to a proper caution, he will generally come under case 66, and find it necessary to adopt one of the plans earlier described for bringing up the whole milk to the ripe point. These are—(c) waiting on the milk at the coagulation temperature, which must not exceed a few minutes, or the mass will lose too much heat; (@) heating to a higher temperature, and cooling back to the curding temperature by the time ripeness is reached ; and (¢) the use of a ripening material. Only the two last need attention. (d.) This is a difficult method to explain in detail, because no figures can be relied upon to bring the ripeness and proper tempera- ture to coincide exactly ; and we can only advise that, where this plan is followed, the dairyer should err on the side of safety. With this in view, the following table is given, in which three leading air-tempera- tures are given, and those to which the milk can be raised, the heating and cooling not to occupy more than two hours, and probably much less. Here much depends, as to time, on the supply and application of cooling water, air-temperature, quantity of milk, and stirring, so that it is useless to attempt definiteness. The letters under the second heading refer to the Colour-chart, and show the state of the mixed milk at the outset of heating :— Air. Ripening. A Cc D E 65? Fetdecsiass 95° F. 93° F. 90° F. 88° F. 86° F. 60°F... 96° F. 94° F. o1° F. 89° F. 87° F. 5S? Be sergevavi 97° F. 95° F. 92°F. go F. 88° F. The intervals between these, and the many variations in application, which experience will suggest, we must leave to the dairyer, for they would fill a book if exhaustively worked out ; but we recommend that 170 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. if it be desired to commence heating before the milks are mixed, the aim should be rather to bring the curding temperature a little before ripeness than behind it. The chief difficulty is the cooling, which uses much water, and takes much more time than the heating ; but if this method is used, this must be accepted as a necessity, and faith- fully carried out. The high temperatures at which some who heat for ripening add their rennet are not consistent with the Cheddar system. (e.) The use of a ripener admits of much more definite advice, for experience with whey under proper conditions shows that it can be prescribed with great certainty. We will assume three stages of acid fermentation as shown by litmus, those shown at N, O, and P in the Colour-chart ; and, making allowance for the temperature as hereafter given, provide the following table for general guidance :— Wuey. Mik. Stages of Fermentation. Stages of Fermentation. A B Cc D I ial pi N... er ws 20 «12 7 alee pints OF ses ee .. IZ 10 6 3 Per P OA 8 4 3 100 galls. The lower degrees of acidity in whey, and those which come between N, O, and P, and between the stages in milk represented by the letters A to E (Colour-plate), can easily be calculated, and are given in the tables published separately in the cheese-making records. The proportions do not increase in an equal ratio at each stage, for it is found that while three pints (O) will procure ripeness in 100 galls. at D, twelve pints will not do the same in the same quantity at A as one might expect, but seventeen pints are necessary ; for it is not merely to add a given quantity of acid to the milk to make up a deficiency, but to encourage, by favouring conditions, the ferments already present (which at A have done little or nothing), and furnish more helpers, and these must either have time or numbers to enable them to do what is wanted. Therefore at D the rapidly increasing and active ferments need but little help compared with those at stage A, and yet are helped more in proportion ; and experience shows that less whey will serve than the proportions which might be calculated according to the needs of the earlier stages. These figures answer also with creamed milk. When ought the whey to be added to the milk? The quantities given in the preceding table are intended to be put in only so long before the rennet as is necessary to stir it well in, say from three to five minutes. Its effects will not exhibit themselves immediately in a ripeness shade of litmus,—the work will be going on while the curd is torming ; but practice proves that a properly calculated measure of THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 171 whey brings the result at the correct time. If added earlier, a pro- portionately less quantity must be used. Temperature.—This is fixed as low as is consistent with the ripeness and rennet standards; and it is found that with higher temperatures, whether with equal or less ripeness and rennet, the cheese is neither so fine, nor keeps so well. This, in view of the influence of heat on ferment life, is quite reasonable with equal ripe- ness at the outset ; and with less, the hardening effect of more rapid contraction when heat is out of proportion to the other factors in the reckoning, gives a lack of the mellowness which is one of the glories of Cheddar cheese. The temperature varies with that of the air, as all such should do in dairying. The temperature of the coagulum should not fall below 78°F. in warm, or 80° F. in cold, weather, or the contraction of the curd and separation of whey will be too slow. The quantity of milk must also rule, for the smaller this is the more readily does it lose its heat. The following table will usually meet the case :— Air TEMPERATURE. MILK. $ 2 o galls. and upwards. 100 galls. so galls. 65°F. 80° F. 81°F. 82°F. 60° F, 82°F. 83° F. 84° F. 55°F. 84°F. 85°F. 86° F. Rennet.—The quantity of rennet must be sufficient with milk ripeness and a proper temperature to produce coagulation in twenty minutes, and a curd of the proper firmness in thrice that time, or an hour ; and it is found that as that is departed from, whatever other advantages are gained, the mildness, long-keeping quality, and fine flavour are lost in proportion. Here is that balance of influences which lays a firm foundation upon the solid rock-bed of a sound milk. A milk which, under the ordinary treatment, makes a weak curd, will need a higher temperature and standard of ripeness,—a degree or two of the former, and a corresponding increase of the latter, being usually sufficient. The ripening is best done in such a case by whey ; if by heating, it is slower, and more uncertain than with normal milks. The order in which the day’s work up to this point proceeds may be conveniently summarised for reference as follows, viz. :—- (a.) Examination of milk and weather prospects in early morning ; calculations made as to immediate needs, and generally for the day; hot water got ready, and all early helps brought within convenient reach. (4.) If cream has risen on night’s milk, this skimmed, heated, and returned, with a few minutes’ vigorous stirring, and a gentle after- treatment maintained to prevent any second rising. (c.) Agitator, if used, removed before any heating of milk in vat. 172 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. (d.) If ripeness induced by heating, may be commenced at any suitable time, according to extent to which it is to be carried. (e.) If no other heating than to obtain renneting temperature, this commenced as soon as last milk has arrived, when the final calcula- tions for coagulation are made, and the work as quickly completed as it may properly be. If heating by old system, a proportion warmed to some suitable point not exceeding 130° F., being stirred meanwhile, and returned to the vat. A degree or two will be lost in returning, and to secure against a failure this should be allowed for according to .experience. Example—120 gallons milk at 78° F.; temperature desired, 82° F.—difference, 4° F. ; 10 gallons (one-twelfth of whole) taken for heating ; difference, 4° x 12 = 48 (additional heat required) + 78° (present heat) + 3° (allowance for loss) = 129° F., which will bring the whole body of milk to 82° F. Sometimes the night’s milk may be warmed by way of earlier assisting fermentation, but whenever it is near to ripeness it is better to use morning’s milk. (f) If ripener used, should be estimated, with margin for con- tingencies, and placed with pint measure and bowl close to vat. (g.) Quantity of milk gauged, entered on record, and proportion of night’s milk to whole noted. (4.) Rennet estimated by its strength, and the total quantity of milk, to procure coagulation in twenty minutes. If dry rennet, put it into a bowl of clean cold water, and completely dissolve before use. This may be helped by gentle crushing and stirring, after two or three minutes’ soaking. If liquid, should be ready in glass measure—Fig. 81—divided for fluid ounces. (z.) If colour is used, it should first be stirred in before anything else is added. (j.) Next the whey, or other ripener, if such is used, the quantity being fixed according to the then state of the milk as shown by the litmus or other test. This Fic. 81 stirred in thoroughly ; and MEASURE GLASS: (4.) The rennet added, with similar stirring for three to five minutes, according to bulk of milk. (2.) Stirring should be continued gently until coagulation takes place ; and after ten minutes from the addition of rennet, it should be confined to the upper part of the milk, and gradually decreased. In a round vat the tendency of the milk to swing around, whirlpool fashion, must be avoided ; for it will continue much longer in motion than in any irregular currents, and is difficult to arrest when it is necessary to bring the milk to stillness. A motion across the vat in various directions is more effectual in keeping the globules from rising, and can be stopped in a few seconds. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 173 (m.) The curding test should be used, with frequent dipping of the glass, and the exact time from the addition of rennet to coagulation made note of, and multiplied by three to ascertain the time at which the curd should be firm enough for the next process. If the time is more or less than twenty minutes, the work will proceed with pro- portionately greater or lesser speed throughout. This test is a good pointer to the whole after-management. (m.) The vat should then be covered up, as in Fig. 38 (round vat). The small sizes of the oblong vat can have an entire cover, with a hinged flap ; but in the larger, this would be too heavy and awkward. Excepting with high air temperatures, seldom known, no mere cheese cloth covering is sufficient. But such is often used, with the effect of a curd tender at the colder surface, and an uneven working under manipulation, and in final result. Here is one of the points at which Fic. 82.—OstonGc Vat (CovERED). waste arises, for no skill can prevent the weaker part from being broken unduly, while the firmer part is being treated in accordance with its condition. It is a choice between wasting some of the upper- most two or three inches of curd; or handling the rest so as inevitably to procure too great hardness, and a final necessity for rapid mani- pulation, with waste; or imperfect whey separation. Of the two evils the waste of the tender curd may well be chosen ; but the need of such a choice ought to be avoided. (9.) During the interval of forty minutes the implements, &c., used up to this should be removed, and such as will be used until whey separation is completed brought into their place. The time calculation must not be entirely trusted, but checked by an examination of the curd, at ten minutes before the time of expected readiness ; for fermentation occasionally makes unexpected advance, and the work must proceed when the curd is ready in any case. The fact that it is firm enough before it is due by calculation, points plainly to a need of quicker handling; and to suffer a delay under such con- ditions, is to make waste almost unavoidable by the later need of still 174 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. greater hurry. If, on the other hand, the curd is not firm enough, that condition must be waited for. Generally it will be ready at the time calculated upon. The condition of the curd is generally tested by putting the finger into it, and then bending and lifting it out again; if the curd clears from it, sufficient firmness is argued ; if particles remain on the finger, it is supposed to prove it too weak for handling. But this test is unreliable, as experience has proved; and the reason for its failure is found mainly in the fact that curd has a grain, and splits clearly in one direction, and not in another. The stirring - after renneting causes currents, unseen and very irregular, to form, and in these the viscous casein takes direction. They are still moving, though Fic 83. very slowly, when curding takes place, and this Grain oF Curb. fixes them just in the positions they occupy at that time. The fact of the grain may be proved by drawing the finger through the curd in different ways, as in Fig. 83, when it will be found that at any point the curd will break with a jagged fracture in all but one direction. It by no means follows that the clean fracture will follow one direct track,—it very seldom does so for more than a few inches, showing the many varied courses of the currents. Now, while the finger will carry no curd in the line of the clean fracture for some time before the curd is firm enough for treatment, it will do so from all other directions, and for some time beyond the firm point. A better test is by pressing the back of the finger upon the surface (Fig. 84) and estimating the resist- ance, which is soon learned under a teacher, or—with patience—by observation. It is not at present possible to describe the firmness by any standard. The im- Fic, 84. portance of a curd uniform at all points will be seen, TESTING CURD FOR | ‘ ‘ . . 7 . Puesinss. in view of this test being required to judge of the time proper for next duty. Whey Separation—In the Cheddar system this is effected by a series of manipulations which have a direct relation to each other, and a direct and estimated influence on the character of the cheese; and in whatever this differs from the products of other hard-curd systems, it does so mainly because of the treatment which is now to be described. Several other systems share with it the management up to this point ; and so closely alike are they, that the differences cannot account for those observed in results. Here the Cheddar system goes off on a track of its own ; and if we are to obtain the peculiar qualities of its THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE 175 product, we must follow it fully in principle, and with no more varia- tions in practice than will tend to an equal or greater value in the same direction. (a.) The curd is first cut into squares of six to eight inches, by a knife which may be a single blade as a (Fig. 85) for use in farm-dairy vats, or double-bladed as 4 for factory vats, and the blade as long as the greatest curd- depth in either. The distance apart of the blades in 6 must depend on the width of the vat, and be so calculated that the knife may make the cuttings at its own width, and leave a similar width on either hand against the sides of the vat. This may be done by a knife cutting, as at a (Fig. 86),—7.2 inches in a vat three feet wide. The cross cutting may be also made so as to distribute the length between them as evenly as may be, and a single blade can be used to cut away the curd from the sloping sides, where the double knife would leave an angle of curd uncut either at the side or bottom. This cutting is purely for convenience and economy, because the subsequent methods could not be employed to the best advantage without it. It must be so done as to give the greatest practical uniformity in the size of the blocks. In a round vat the Fic. 85.—Curp Knives. Fic. 86.—Curb CuTtinc (OBLonG Var). cutting, if done in squares, as is usual, leaves some parts much smaller than the rest; but if cut as in Fig. 87 much greater uniformity is secured, (6.) The next business is to reduce these blocks to smaller size, both by cutting and splitting, so as to prepare them for the third form of treatment; and this is best done by the ancient skimmer (Fig. 88), which consists of a perforated concave blade of a diameter equal to the width of the squares of curd as usually cut, and having a handle 12 to 18 inches long, according to the depth of curd provided 176 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. for in the vat, so that it may reach the bottom without carrying the hand under the curd surface. It is sunk into the curd edgewise, and so curved to the left as to come under a block, and then brought up flatwise, so raising and pressing. the curd until it splits into two or three parts (Fig. 89.), when the skimmer is brought out edgewise, and the action repeated with other blocks. The course of the move- ment is shown in Fig. 90. This action is brought to bear on every block, the skimmer entering at half the width of one block, and so dividing it on its way to raise the next one to the left. The movement must be slow and steady, so avoiding the waste which always follows haste or clumsiness ; and uniformity in the size of curd, as divided, must be the maker’s constant aim. This latter is not attain- able in the strict sense, especially in the first round of work, for the curd splits with an irregu- larity dependent on its grain; but at the second, or third—if such be necessary, the regularity in size becomes striking with a skilful handling ; for any fragments which are larger than they should be are cut through with the skimmer in its down- ward movement, while such as are too small are avoided—being only sub-. jected to the pressure of the upward movement. With the first round, if the curd is deep it may be treated to half its depth, and the lower-half lifted up through the upper on the second round, thus sending the upper part to the lower position. In any case the tendency will be to reverse the relations of the upper and lower parts of the curd, and to expose any larger fragments for special attention, whether of cutting or splitting, as may best fit with the maker’s purpose, Before the skimmer is Fic. 87. Curp Currine (Rounp Var). Fic. 88.—SKIMMER. Fic, 89.—Curp SpuitTinG. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 177 removed all fragments should be of three to four inches across ; and this will be generally reached by two rounds of working, when the whole depth of curd is taken at once in the first round, or in three rounds when it is taken at twice in the first breaking. By the . time the proper size is gained \ the curd lumps will be floating in a quantity of clear whey, and , : occupy less space in proportion it to fhe separated whey than e aaa G5 would have been the case if : : ' cutting only had been practised. | ! { This is due to the pressure which has been brought to bear ' ‘ é upon it, either of the skimmer | i direct, or of one lump against ee Le another in the upward motion, Fic. g0.—D1AGRAM OF SKIMMER BREAKING, this greatly assisting the natural contraction of the curd and the expulsion of the whey. Here also the cutting has been a convenience, because no tool has been yet devised to do the work equally well without cutting ; but the splitting has done its share of the work of division, and is a distinct step in the direction of the later manipulation peculiar to the system. From this point cutting ceases until the curd has reached a point where it is a matter of indifference. (c.) The splitting of the curd is now carried on by an implement called a “breaker,” the best form of which is the shovel-breaker (Fig. 91), T ! 1 I t ' ! t | I | I Fic. 9t.—Cueppar Curp BREAKER. which can be used in various ways to meet the changing needs of the curd, and more perfectly controlled in its movements than any other implement yet introduced for the purpose. It consists of a curved ash handle a varying from 4 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft. in length, and side pieces 6 6 from 4% to 5 inches distant from the handle, and these with round M 178 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. brass wires ¢¢ form a rack, the size being according to that of the vat in which it is to be used. The handle should be from j to 1 inch thick in its upper part, and narrow to from # to % inches at the lower part, and be of 14 inch to 14 inch in width throughout. The side pieces should be § to ? inch in thickness, of the same width as the handle, and 12 to 15 inches long. The wires may vary from ; to 75 inch diameter, and be set from 1 inch to 1} inch apart. ‘ The highest and lowest wires must be long enough to rivet the whole firmly together, those coming between only passing two-thirds through the side pieces. All parts should be rounded, and as smooth as possible. This tool is calculated to effect the purpose of the system perfectly ; it causes the curd to split in its own grain, and so reduces its size; at the same time it presses upon it, and assists the natural contraction and expulsion of the whey, while —with proper care—its smooth surfaces prevent waste. The aim of the dairyer now is to reduce the size of the curd until it has reached that of large peas, about ,°; inch through, and to carry on this work so as to continually expose fresh surfaces. If it is not done quickly enough the curd gets hard, and a very vigorous effort has to be made to complete the breaking, with inevitable waste. Beginners generally err in this respect in their anxiety to avoid that whiteness of the whey, which comes of too fast breaking, and shows a loss of fine curd in suspension, with fat globules. In either case waste is the result ; and therefore, of the two evils, too fast is better than too slow; for with the latter there is also loss of time, and the danger of being unable to break the curd fine enough at all, in which case after- mischief will arise. Of this more in its place. For the same reason the breaking must be continuous, for if it is left for even a few minutes it is still hardening by contraction, and settles also to some extent, so as to necessitate a too vigorous action in distributing it afresh, and overtaking the size suitable to the condition. The curd, as it hardens, slips easily between the wires, and seals over its surface in some degree, with a corresponding tendency to retain the whey instead of expelling it, so that stirring without breaking is mischievous. In fact this part of the work must be done without interruption. The care of the boiler must be on other hands, to enable the cheese-maker to give his whole mind to this one duty, without a passing anxiety as to the readiness of his hot-water or steam supply when he will need it. The curd has been brought by the skimmer-breaking to such a size as to admit of the breaker being used without harm. It is put in against the side, so gently as to avoid breaking the upper curd unduly, and when it reaches the bottom is thrust gently forwards, and moved about through all parts, so as to treat the curd uniformly. There should be method in these movements,—the best results can THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. scarcely be obtained without it. 179 In an oblong vat the work is easy, the breaker track following the dotted lines and arrows in Fig. 92, until the other end of the vat is reached, when the dairyer crosses to the other side and repeats his work. The shape of the vat tends to keep the curd in one place, so that the motion of the breaker is resisted by it, instead of its moving away from it. In a circular vat the tendency is to swim round in front of the breaker ; and the dairyer using such a vat must take care to prevent this as much as possible, by breaking from side to centre (Fig. 93), and, after going round, by turning back, so as to ensure equal treatment. The resistance offered to the breaker is an indication of the hardness of the curd, and must always be watched. The hand can be educated to a high degree of sensitiveness in this matter ; and although the resistance is much greater in the tender state of the curd when the lumps are large, than later when they are small and can pass between the wires freely, yet, with an allowance for this, the condition of hardness can be esti- Fic. 92. TRACK OF BREAKER— Ostonc Vat. mated with remarkable accuracy, and the dairyer can be sure at any point whether or not his curd is as small as it ought to be in that condition. The motion is slow at first, but as progress is made the speed must be increased ; and it is well to do this methodically also, going round once at a given speed, and quickening the pace at the old starting-point for another round at the new speed, and so on to the end,—rather than altering speed at irregular intervals. ‘The speed will also depend on the size of the vat ; in a small one it will be slower than in a large one, because the area will be covered by fewer movements. The aim should be to break it as quickly as may be, with a clear whey. Fine skill in this work can only be attained by intelligent and painstaking practice, but these given and maintained it is sure. The mind must dismiss all Fic. 93.—Track or BREAKER— Rounp Vat. other matters for the short time necessary to it, and give its best attention to the work in hand,—just as a painter on an exhibition 180 MILK, CHEESF, AND BUTTER. painting, or a musician on a solo before a large audience, would do. There is both science and art in this manipulation ; and the abtlity to carry a curd through this process with a whey well-nigh as clear as wine, and the curd particles themselves so uniformly broken as to make the next part of the work possible to be perfect, is within the reach of anybody who really cares about it and will patiently take the necessary trouble. It will be most easily, quickly, and permanently acquired by adopting the methodical course suggested. The first position of the breaker is shown in a, Fig. 94, breaking the lower part, and resting on the bottom,—this is used for the first Fic. 94.—PosiT10oNs oF BREAKER. two rounds ; the second at 4, which also occupies two rounds ; and the third at c, which may be maintained, with occasional returns to the second position, throughout the rest of the breaking process. The action at ¢ is very difficult to describe, either in words or by a diagram ; but it consists in a curve, which is made from one side of the vat to the other, by a thrusting forward and a drawing back, accompanied by a twist of the lower hand, which grasps the handle, as in Fig. 95, firmly but lightly, the upper hand Fic. 95. holding it loosely so as to allow it to move as Lower Han In Position ¢. freely as is possible without slipping from it. By this means rapid motions may be made without mischief, while long sweeping movements could not. As with all motions born of intelligence and training, those which are nearest to perfection are also the most easy and elegant; and while elegance may be held in light esteem in such a connection, it is inseparable from the best work, When the curd has been brought to pieces of an inch thickness, ; the sides and angles of the vat should be cleared of any adhering to them by wiping them down with the hand pressed flat against the metal and moved over all parts below the surface of the curd. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 181 If any is left, it will not be properly treated with the rest, and at the next stage will be over-heated. The breaking may take from a half-hour to an hour ; no positive rule can be laid down as to time, and it is never safe to attempt any. The condition of the curd must determine in all cases, and this is liable to frequent variations even when the first conditions are allowed for, according to the time of coagulation. During this time it will be tiresome to hold the breaker with the hands in one relation only, and it is wise to learn to break left-handed, so as to be able to frequently change hands, and give the upper hand rest in a lower position. All through uniformity must be kept in view. It is not enough that the largest pieces in the vat are small enough ; if any appreciable proportion of the whole are noticeably smaller, the results of the after-treatment will not be uniform; and that, and every succeeding part of the system, is dependent on this and on the others which have gone before them for their success. The immediate influence of the breaking, as described, is plain: at the end of it, and throughout the remaining processes, the curd contains less whey than that of any system which uses cutting tools throughout. There is an old Cheddar maxim that if too much whey is left in the curd at the end of the breaking it never can be properly extracted afterwards, and experience proves this to be true. The Cheddar system aims at a much more complete whey separation than other systems, because it desires a mild-flavoured and loeng- keeping cheese, and therefore takes this course consistently with that aim for the reduction of fermentative possibilities. If the use of cutting tools tends to leave a larger proportion of whey in the curd, it also manifestly tends to more fermentation, a flavour earlier and stronger, and a shorter lease of good quality, and therefore violates the first essential of the system. It may be answered that there is an evident gain in weight by the larger proportion of whey secured by cutting implements. We admit it, but the Cheddar system does not seek quantity so much as quality; and when any dairyer takes to cutting tools in order to gain that advantage, he forsakes the Cheddar system and has no longer a right to call his product Cheddar cheese. Our forefathers knew better. Formerly a tool of the kind shown in Fig. 132 was used, but it was of round form and made with round wires. In the middle years of the century an apparatus was brought out for breaking, to be worked by a revolving handle ; this has disappeared because it could not bear the test of use,—but it was consistent, for it presented only rounded surfaces to the curd. But in these latter days there have been brought into western dairies “cutting breakers,” easier to use, quicker in action, &c., with side 182 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. blades of metal and flat or diamond-shaped wires ; and these are the curse of those dairies, not only interfering with the integrity of the system, but also bringing about the cause for the complaint that modern Cheddars (such have no right to the name) do not keep as those did which made the system famous. The pastures of Somersetshire cannot save cheese which are so made. We are not concerned to dispute the claim to superiority according to the stand- ards of this market or that show, where quick-ripening goods, the product of cutting tools, are encouraged. They may be more pro- fitable to their makers, more pleasing to the modern merchant and grocer, they may be the cheeses of the future for all we know, but they simply are not Cheddars-—any more than they are Cheshires or Stiltons. This work cannot be satisfactorily done by mechanical power, all attempts up to date have fallen short of the needs of the case. It is dangerous to prophesy, but we cannot conceive of anything that could fulfil the demands of the system fully. If curds were uniform in their action, they might be so broken, though the necessity for a progressive speed, under a complete control, would make the apparatus -somewhat complicated. But the variations in condition and rate of hardening due to those which occur in fermentation, must be met by corresponding variations in the manipulation ; and we know of nothing equal to the human hand, educated to recognise such, and—with the mind and will to guide it—ready to adapt the action to the conditions. Any apparatus which could do the work as well as the trained hand can do it would be welcome, but there is at present no prospect of relief. It is not claimed here that the implements described are the only ones which can be used under the system ; for any others which fulfil its demands in regard to form and action are in order, and we shall be glad to see any real improvement on the present appliances. The breaking being now completed, further help to the separation of the whey is given by heat, which encourages contraction and hardening. Its effects, however, depend for their kind and extent upon the size of the curd particles. If these are larger than the size given, the outer part of each closes up under the influence of the heat and contact with the breaker, and encloses.a part of the whey which should have been expelled, and which no amount of after-treatment can fully get rid of. The retention of whey will therefore be in pro- portion to the excess of size in the curd. By failing to break it small enough, part of the advantage of the breaking (as against cutting) is lost ; and the rule as to the size of the curd at this point is therefore an essential of the system. When however the curd is of the right size, the heat reaches the centre of each particle so fully as to secure a uniform condition throughout it, leaving the extent of the hardening THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 183 _and whey expulsion to be regulated by the length of the exposure to the heat and breaker-action. Whatever may be the state of the curd (under these conditions) at the time that this part of the process ceases, it will be at least alike throughout each particle, which it could not possibly be if it was too large. It is also important that it should not be broken too small, for although in that case the hardening will take less time, the liability to waste is greater, and the exposure to the air, when the whey is withdrawn, does more mischief by unduly reducing the temperature. The heat could not be applied at any better time. Its action is controllable by varying (a) the temperature, and (4) the length of time during which the curd remains in the whey. These two items in the process must be carefully balanced according to the needs of the case, and therefore both must be considered separately, and as combined. (a.) The proper temperature depends on several considerations. The system demands as low limits as are consistent with its general aims ; and although higher ones would do the work more quickly, it is found invariably that, all other points being uniform, the lower temperatures give the best cheese, and the longer attention of the dairyer is. well paid for. With this in view, the system eschews high temperatures for coagulation, and the curd is only exposed to a higher temperature about half the time between the renneting and the removal of the whey. This means much less fermentation than would accompany higher temperatures administered throughout. The tem- perature must be such as, with proper care, will keep it warm enough until curd-ripeness is attained, to encourage fermentation, and the expulsion of the free whey which will-be taken up with it at a later point. Ifthe curd becomes too cold these are unduly checked, and a sodden and troublesome condition arise,—with a defective texture, flavour, and keeping quality, if compensation by greater curing heat is attempted ; or otherwise, an uncertain rate of curing, with bad flavour of a different kind. The temperature for this purpose should not be lower than 9o° F. at curd-ripeness, and it is found necessary to employ a scalding temperature ranging from 95° F. to 100° F., according to the air, and the quantity of milk in use. This carries the work into the “most favourable” range of the friendly ferments with the natural consequences ; limited, however, by the whey expulsion to narrower possibilities than in other systems. A lower range of temperature, with more whey retained, would give an equal fermentation, but would not by any means give similar final effects, for fermentation is not the only influence at work; and even this continues to alter the cheese in flavour, digestibility, and keeping quality up to the time of con- 184 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. sumption, which—occurring at varying ages—must make it difficult to fulfil the main aims of the system by any compensation. The system is more certain in its results with an average temperature of 97° F. and the drier curd, than with any other combination which we can think of. The air temperature will always be lower in our climate than that of the scalding, and in proportion to the difference will be its power to reduce the latter, for during much of the time the contents of the vat will be constantly stirred in contact with the air. The quantity of curd and whey will also affect our calculations, because the smaller it is the more rapidly will it lose heat. The table below will give general guidance in this matter :— Air. MILK. 200 galls. and upwards. 200 galls. 100 galls. 65° F. 96° F. 97° F. 98° F. 60° F. 97° F. 98° F. 99° F. 55 F. 98° F. 99° F. 100° F, With quantities which 1oo° F. will not keep at proper temperature, the loss of heat may be made good by applying a gentle heat a short time before the present part of the process is finished, but long enough before that to allow the vat to cool to the temperature of its contents before the curd is allowed to settle in it. It is not desirable to exceed the limit given, for the hardening effect of the heat increases in pro- portion to the excess of temperature, and, with a temporary check on the fermentation, disturbing the balance of influence. The further we proceed beyond the limit the greater is the difficulty, and even for special cases where the soil influence produces weakness of curd, we do not think it ever necessary to exceed 102° F. The hardness of the curd should be uniform in order to the uniformity of texture; and as the expulsion of whey will be propor- tionate in a curd of the proper size, the fermentation will be uniform too in the final product, other points being properly managed. The variations of temperature will, to some extent, affect the length of exposure to the hot whey, which is necessary to the uniformity of hardness, and no safe rule can be made as to time in the case. Many makers, finding that a certain time seems to work rightly adopt it for a standing rule; but observation shows that scarcely anything tends more to differences in curd-condition within the limits of the system than does this practice. It is wise to cast time out of the reckoning; and, having chosen a proper scalding temperature, to carry on the work until the desired hardness is obtained, however long it may take. Only in this way can a regular result be secured, for curds differ from day to day, and they can only be brought to a like state by meeting them with corresponding variations in management. In practice the “ scalding” THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN -PRACTICE. 185 he curd is carried out by turning on steam or hot water, or remov- a proportion of the whey to heat and return as in the case of heat- milk for coagulation. In the last-named method it is usual to do t twice, raising the temperature to a half-way point at first ; and le the whey is heating for this, to remove that-needed to complete work. The whey is returned to the vat by bowlfuls, with a circular ep of the hand, so as to distribute it evenly and ensure as uniform ting of the curd as may be. To reduce the quantity of whey to be ted in the boiler, most makers finally remove as much as they can n the vat, while the first heating is progressing, but this may be ‘ied too far. The whey should always be sufficient to allow of the 1 freely floating in it, and the removal of more than one-fourth ides what is needed for heating is unwise. With a reduction of. ul quantities it is necessary to increase the scalding temperature to ire against undue loss of heat, or to recover it by a late heating. this respect the original proportion of whey to curd is a distinct antage, as better maintaining the warmth. In getting out the whey for heating, it is necessary to let the curd : for a few minutes, and then to use a strainer to prevent its being ‘ied into the warmer. A hair strainer is best held, as in Fig. 96, 1 the inside of which the whey is dipped,—a much quicker 1 than that followed by many makers, who dip the whey with ch care to have as little curd in the bowl as possible, and pour through the strainer held c the warmer. Whatever 1 eludes this care is ex- 2d to the colder air, with of uniformity in proportion the quantity so exposed. whey while being heated ild be gently but constantly iad See eee er ‘ed, and the curd in the vat well. The common practice of letting the latter rest until the y is nearly hot enough, and then stirring it vigorously to fleat it sh, is bad, for either there will be waste by the violence which t be incurred, or there will be liability of its being heated in and with proportionate lack of uniformity. Che labour involved in this way of heating is not justified by difference in cost between the old style of vat and that for x-heating. The comparison of these as already made applies calding, but it has been asserted that a special benefit is obtained che curd being suddenly exposed to the action of the heated y, a theory for which there is not the slightest foundation. The 186 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. best makers among those who use it take all care to avoid this supposed benefit by distributing the whey as widely as possible, in the absence of which care an uneven scalding must result. Even if it were practicable to heat suddenly and evenly at the same time, no advantage could arise beyond the slight reduction of time in the after-treatment, which must be more than swallowed up by the waste of time in dipping and heating. Of late years supporters of this notion have brought out apparatus for reducing the labour, but their genius might have been better employed, for nothing has yet been given us which can equal, either in economy, or suitability to the system, the hot-water or steam vats as described. These, it has been said, tend to the clotting and over-heating of the curd, and—in careless hands—this may be true, as it is of the other method; but if the curd is stirred, as it ought to be in any case, no such trouble can possibly arise. It is best for all reasons to raise the temperature gradually, occupying fifteen to twenty minutes in the doing, and the breaker turned over as in Fig. 97, and kept scouring the bottom of the vat, and thrust into all its angles just rapidly enough to keep the curd well distributed. In hot-water vats the allowance of time for removal of the heating water must be calcu- lated by experience, so as to avoid too high temperature by its remaining too long around the contents. Some makers allow a part of the hot water to remain, but if this is done there should not be enough to reach the bottom of shu ee ¥-aupinc. the inner case. In farm dairy quantities it may be useful in maintaining a slightly higher temperature than would otherwise be the case. The stirring is afterwards maintained, but more slowly, until the curd has reached a certain hardness, which cannot easily be described. If before that some be squeezed in the hand, it clings together and mashes upon being pressed by the thumb ; but when it is firm enough it will, under like treatment, rub abroad into its original particles, The actual point at which the stirring should cease occurs a little later, generally within a few minutes ; and as it offers no evidence excepting a slightly greater firmness, it can only be learned by direct teaching or experience. It is often described as “shotty,” but this conveys an impression of a greater hardness than is desirable, and is likely to mislead. The stopping point also depends somewhat on the size of the cheese, for a small one needs a fraction more moisture than a large one, because it loses proportionately more in curing. The difference THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE, 157 is from one to five per cent., as shown by experience ; but this cannot be calculated by any rule, and there is no test by which the amount present can be determined at the moment when it must be known. Observation alone can teach in this case. : The errors which may arise in this work may now be noticed. If the stirring be stopped too early, too much whey is left in the curd, with the consequences already noticed ; while if it is stirred too long, the curd is too hard, and the cheese shows a dryness which seems to indicate poorness even when the fat proportion is ample. The dryness is opposed to the natural curing changes, at least those of fermentation. It has not been proved by direct experiment that the rennet is hindered by any such lack of moisture as might arise from this cause, nor does present knowledge of its action suggest its probability, but it is possible. The curd is now allowed to sink and “ pack,” or “mat” together in a solid body. This would happen at any time from the com- mencement of breaking onwards, but it is avoided in the Cheddar system until the “stirring in scald” is finished, and then it is en- couraged. The maker’s aim is to get the curd into such a form that it shall lose as little heat as possible, and thus secure a steady progress of fermentation. If the whey was withdrawn at once while the curd was in a loose state, the air would mingle with it, and by cooling it check the fermentation to a serious extent; and since the fermentation induces the viscous state which helps the packing, it would be difficult to get it to pack after the check. So it is left under the warm whey long enough to become solid, though the surface particles: are liable to be scattered by bad management. The packing is greatly hindered by too much hardness of the curd, and it is therefore only safe to judge of its state as ascertained by the hand; but a curd properly managed up to this point will be solid in thirty minutes, and variations in ordinary experience will not exceed a few minutes more or less than this. With a higher degree of fermentation it would take proportionately less time; with a lower degree, more time would be required. Here no time rule will serve. Some makers keep the curd under the whey until it will “draw” with the hot-iron test; but this is inconsistent with the Cheddar system, which requires the removal of the whey as soon as possible after solidity is obtained, and only a sour or tainted curd will respond to that test at such a time. What are the reasons for the Cheddar rule? Our forefathers made it because they found that their cheese was much milder and finer flavoured when the whey was drawn early than when it was left longer; and we know now that the mischief wrought in the latter case was due to improper fermenta- 188 MILK, CHEESF, AND BUTTER. tion. In the whey, which not merely covers the curd but also fills the tiny spaces between its particles, the fermentation is making pro- gress, although the evidences by any test show that there is but little more acid at the end of the stirring than at the renneting. The stirring has helped to this by exposing the contents of the vat to the action of the O of the air. But there is progress, and this becomes much more rapid after the stirring ceases, so much so that an hour or two will give the answer to the hot-iron test. But the flavour of the cheese will not be quite equal in any case, and often will be very inferior, This may be due to ferment relations unsuitable to the present needs of the curd, to the presence of bad ferments which are favoured by the progress of the L.A.F. and C.F., or to the other conditions under which the curd exists. The L.A.F. have done much of their important work in forwarding the conditions of the curd, modifying the C.F. action, keeping in check other ferments, and giving firmness to the curd. They are still neces- sary, but their proportions in the whey of the curd—both that actually retained in it, and that which is frée but mingled with it—are ample for all further needs, as experience proves, and their continued progress in the whey, where the C.F. have no equal chance with them, makes an ill balance. There is every reason to believe that the C.F. makes more rapid progress after the whey is withdrawn than before, for while the L.A.F. action may be necessary to the proper working of the C.F., there proves to be enough of it to carry forward the acid formation rapidly, and the C.F. has an increased proportionate influence. This is shown by the fact that, when the rennet is equal in two vats, the curd which is kept longest under the whey shows more acid, but a lower degree of the influence in which the rennet works with the C.F., to the mellowing of the curd. The rennet is also checked by the L.A.F. and its products ; but this does not satisfactorily account for all the result, even in the best cases of long covering by the whey. The whole fer- ment action is out of proper balance with that of the rennet. There is also the possibility of unfriendly ferments being retained with the whey, doing little or nothing until a certain state of preparedness is brought about by the friendly ferments, but then starting into mischievous activity. This would only occur in ordinary experience after the point at which the Cheddar maker draws the whey, and he therefore escapes it. Beyond all this there is also the moral certainty of the increase and retention of certain products of fermentation which are harmful by reason of their own flavours, and their tendency to form chemical combinations among themselves and with the materials of the curd and whey. These are largely got rid of by airing, which is impossible as long as the curd is covered with whey. This is the Cheddar THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 189 practice referred to earlier as having been grafted on to the American system to the great advantage of its product. From 100 gallons upwards, in vats of appropriate size, the curd may be allowed to sink evenly over the bottom; for with such quan- tities it will not harm if properly managed ; but with lesser quantities the depth will be scarcely sufficient to save it from undue cooling, and it will give an advantage if the curd be drawn up to the vat- side in a deeper body, with care to have as nearly as possible an equal depth in the pile. It will be a work of patience, but worth the doing. The removal of the whey is best effected with the use of a syphon (2) and cylindrical strainer (4, Fig. 98). The former is a bent tube, generally of tinned copper, IZ to 14 inch diameter, having one limb longer than the other by two or three inches; and the shorter of the two of such a length that, when resting on the vat-side as in Fig. 99, its end should reach within two inches of the bottom. The strainer may be from seven to ten inches diameter, and of such depth as to reach the top while resting on the curd. For the Fic. 98.—SvPHON AND STRAINER. curd thickness 13 to 2 inches may be allowed, according to the depth of the vat. The best straining material for use with whey is perforated brass, the other parts being made of tinned steel. The strainer being sunk as low in the curd and as close to the side of the vat as may be, the syphon is filled by holding it under the whey, and its ends tightly closed as in Fig 100; then lifted to an upright position, and lowered to its place. The whey in the vat is subject to an air pressure of 16 lbs, to the square inch; and there being but little resistance at the end of the longer limb, the whey from this flows out and is followed by that in the shorter limb and in the vat, as long as Fic. 99.—Svpuon AnD STRAINERIN Use. thereis sufficient tomaintain the action. The whey might be drawn through the tap, but this would cause a 190 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. powerful draught of the liquid over the surface of the curd, with the re- Fic. 100.—L1F TING THE SyPHON. moval of any fine or loose particles. The use of a strainer before the tap-opening would prevent this, but it would be easily clogged with the curd and give much trouble, while the syphon with its cylin- drical strainer causes but little disturb- ance by suction, and practically no loss. The syphon is sometimes made with a tap at the end of the longer limb ; this is useful where the whey is to be carried off in pails for want of any better provision. In such case the tap may be turned off, and the syphon kept full while the pails are changed. The advantages of the arrangement in our typical dairy will be seen as compared with such a method of removal. A conductor (18, Fig. 32) similar to that used for milk (Fig. 42), but without a strainer, is laid between the vat and the whey tank Fic. ro1. Curp STRAINER. (19, Fig. 32), or the outlet, where no creaming is done, and the longer limb of the syphon so secured as to safely deliver its outflow into it. At the lower end of the conductor is a bag of strainer cloth (Fig. 1o1), which catches all curd which may escape after the opening of the tap. Before the whey is set running, all particles of curd which have been splashed against the vat sides above the whey surface should be washed down with a clean fibre brush. When the whey has sunk to half the depth of the vat, this latter should be tipped (as in Fig. 102; or Fig. 37, if a round vat) so as to Fic. 102.—Tiprinc Vat. deepen the body of liquid and enable the syphon to draw out much more than would be possible with the vat in a level position. This tipping must be done slowly to avoid disturbing the curd, which would THE CHEDUDAK SYSTEM IN PRACTICE, 191 rwise rush with the whey to the lower end and be badly broken, h of the good sought in packing being undone. A pole, five to ‘eet long and strong in proportion to the size of the vat, is rest and simplest aid, this being set (as in Fig. 102) so as to take lescending weight, and, after the wedges are struck out from.under ront legs, lowering the whole under perfect control. The wedges then fixed securely under the hind legs (Fig. 103), so that they Fic. 103.—VWAT TipPED. not slip when the pressure is brought to that end of the vat. The luctor-head, which is at first raised as high as it can to meet the ‘ending whey and prevent splashing, must be lowered to accom- y the syphon limb. ‘n the factory (Fig. 62), the conductor may best be made to serve che vats at once, having under the tap of each an opening, into ch a funnel may be placed as in Fig. 104, so providing for the y removal from either vat without delay. In case a metal strainer is best, and a second will tseful to allow of replacement, so avoiding the assity of keeping the loose curd away from the s while the whey is being drawn from the *ral vats. At this time the whey supply for the t day’s milk ripening should be taken, and all »s required during the next half-hour’s work => ee => is RII Pins Bs —s a i mF ee qt Hi == STI Fic. 116.—Curp Mitt over OsLonc Var. shown in Fig. 116, where the mill is fixed to a wooden frame laid across the vat or cooler, and secured by a pinas in F ig. 117. The appli- cation of power is suitable to factory use, and pulleys (22, Fig. 62) are provided for grinding the curd of each vat over itself, shifting the mill and belt, and leaving each lot free for salting. The vat should be raised to its level and securely wedged, and the belt should be provided with a buckle to allow of tightening when needful. To en- Fic. 117.-—-Curp Mitt FastENING. sure the quickest and most uniform grinding, the hopper should not be filled, but the single pieces fed to the cylinders as fast as they can carry them through ; for in a congested state of the mill the curd is so crushed as to set free some of its fat to be lost in pressing, and no time is saved, as some makers seem to imagine. Nor should it be allowed to accumulate under the mill, for in the middle of the pile the fermen- tation proceeds more rapidly than at its outsides, as can be judged by the higher temperature. When the curd is really ready for grinding it needs no further ripening under the early conditions, but rather a continuation of the checking ; and, under any circumstances, the fer- mentation in progress should be made as uniform as possible, by dis- tributing the curd evenly over the vat or cooler, and breaking up any lumps which may form. The fragments should now be about a quarter THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 203 of an inch through, and if any larger ones are seen they should be passed through the mill a second time. The best of mills will some- times pass such, and the trouble of fresh grinding is well taken, for only by an equal size can there be uniform salting. If the curd has any ill odour, it should be well aired before salting by shaking it abroad with a scoop from a foot or two above the bottom of the vat or cooler. Generally there will be evidence enough of this at earlier stages to save from too long an exposure at this point. No other treatment is so beneficial in such cases ; but all pains must be taken to avoid loss of temperature. by grinding and airing earlier when the odour is dis- covered. This refers only to the non-putrefactive taints and the earliest degrees of the putrefactive forms. The correct proportion of salt is 1 lb. to 56 gallons or 575 Ibs. of milk used. The old method of weighing or guessing at the curd has already been discussed, and the reasons for the present course need not be repeated. Convenient as round figures would be, we cannot improve on the proportion nor express it in better form for calculation. All experience with such curds as we have here in mind confirms the wisdom of the fathers of the system. If the curd holds more whey than usual a proportionate increase of salt will be needed, or it must be kept after salting until it attains the proper dryness. If this latter course involves more than a few minutes’ exposure to the air, and especially if that air is cold, it will be preferable to choose the former, making the loss according to the judgment, for it is impossible to describe degrees of wetness in a form suitable to our need. The salt should be clean, dry, crushed free from lumps, and weighed correctly. Measuring is not safe ; the quantity which a vessel will hold depends on the pressure exercised in filling it. If bought in solid form, great care will be needed to avoid pan-scale ; and this can be best done by rubbing two lumps gently together, and frequently examining the surfaces, when any harder portion which produces scratches upon them should be removed by a knife. Uniform distri- bution is important, carried as far as it may be in the scattering of the ‘salt on the surface, and afterwards by mixing it thoroughly. There is no better way than by drawing the hands, backs downward and finger- tips touching, under as much curd as can pass between them, and turning it over, so making a series of ridges, and turning these a second time before piling the whole at one end of the vat or cooler for the next process. Moulding and Pressing.— The cheeses are formed out of the ground curd by being pressed in moulds or hoops. This not only brings the curd together in a solid body, but also gives it such protec- tion that there is very little loss of heat as long as the pressing con- 204 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. tinues. It is therefore important that it should not go to press until it has reached a temperature at which fat will not be lost nor fermenta- tion unduly encouraged. We have seen cheeses which originally showed no signs of taint actually swell under the action of fermentative gases formed while in press, and invariably with more or less of ill flavour, the result of neglect of this point. The proper temperature depends entirely on that of the air. When the latter is 60° F., the curd can be reduced by the end of salting to within two or three degrees of that same by proper management ; if the air is lower than that, the curd must be sent to press a little warmer, as see following table :— Air. Curd. 60° F. 62° F. 55 F. 64° F. 50° F. 66° F. In summer the air will be often too warm to allow the curd to be cooled sufficiently—as exposed in a thin body to the air—without too much drying, and consequent difficulty in getting it to cohere and form a solid cheese of good texture. Carried not very far beyond the correct stage, the result would be a crumbly article, very wasteful in the hands of tradesman and consumer. In such cases it is best to put it into the moulds immediately after salting, and place it, with no other covering beyond the cheese-cloth, on the presses or bandaging-table, until the cooler night air reduces its temperature to the limit of safety. This plan also sets the making-room free for cleansing. Size and Shape.—The moulding of the curd brings up the questions of size and shape. From the early days of the system a large size of cheese has been so much associated with it as to have created a general impression that it was a necessity. The trade, as usual, encouraged a mere notion ; and all the makers, up to quite recent times, have made, and many are even yet making, large cheeses to meet the demand, these ranging from 80 to 120 lbs. each in weight. It is fair, however, to admit that as an ordinary cured Cheddar is comparatively dry, it will retain its remainder of moisture better in large goods than in smaller ones; and it is quite likely that such attempts to make the latter without allowing for the greater loss of moisture natural to them, has had something to do with the prejudice against them. But it must be said, on the other hand, that Cheddar makers have time out of mind produced what are called “loaf” or “truckle” cheeses of 10 Ibs. to 14 Ibs. each, and of fine quality, and this should have sufficed to prove that there is nothing to hinder success in that direction. It may therefore be said that any cheese made according to the system is rightly called THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 205 by its name whatever the size or form may be. This does not argue that these items are unimportant ; they must be taken into account in determining the management, for the condition of the curd when cb» Mi Ei ae 118.—CHEESE Hoops. dropped from the scalding must depend—in hardness and consequent dryness—upon them. The general Cheddar shape, whether of full-sized goods or loaves, is cylindrical, with the diameter and depth about equal. There are sound objections to cheeses over 80 lbs. in weight, in the un- necessary labour in handling them, and the risk of breakage and loss incurred by it, all these increasing with increase of bulk. As long as the trade will give more for the largest goods than for lesser ones, makers will be willing to face the consequences ; but there is a noticeable tendency to reduction, which has not reached its limit as yet. The moulds are commonly called “ vats” (a misnomer, for a vat is properly a vessel for liquids), and sometimes “ oops,” which term we shall use to avoid confusion with the fungoid moulds of the curing-room. These were formerly made by coopers, of heavy wood, and many stch are still in use, and likely to bend the backs of a few more generations. To facilitate the removal of the cheeses, a screw opening arrangement was introduced in the fifties, and this made them more tolerable. Better in every way are those made of tinned steel (Fig. 118), ac Fic. r19. Douste Hoop, Fitter, GiRTH, AND FOLLowEr. with a diameter of one-eighth to one-fourth inch greater at the open end than at the other, to allow the cheeses to slip out easily. They 206 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. should be strengthened with bands, especially at the open end, where a flat galvanised iron band is much better than the usual round hoop. The bottom should consist of two parts, one fixed as shown at 4 (hoop reversed), with an open circle, the other (c) a perforated disc, exactly fitting above it when in use. This allows of a more perfect edge to the cheese, and an easier discharge for any whey pressed out; and is a convenience in emptying, the hand being pressed upon the bottom to start the cheese when needed. It should be deep enough to take the quantity of curd required, with no more than an inch of piling above the edge, so avoiding waste and crooked pressing, Another form is shown in Fig. 119, the “double” hoop so called because it gives the cheese the form of the Double Gloucester, here- after described. The products of the present system when moulded in it, are known to the trade as “ Cheddar Doubles.” The hoop a, of wood, is usually cooper made, and provided with a filler 4, which fits on the open end with a metal rim to keep it in place. This enables the curd to be piled so high as to require a girth ¢ to surround it, while this in turn allows each hoop to serve as a Fic. 120. follower for the one next below it, so that Girtuinc DousLe CuEEse. several may be piled within one vertical press, the follower @ for the uppermost cheese being a plain disc of wood of an inch or two larger diameter than the girth in place. The cloth is drawn tightly over the curd before the filler is removed, and the girth then quickly passed around it, being held as in Fig, 120. A scale, Fig. 121, with a large scoop capable of weighing at least half the curd for a cheese at one time (and serving also for weighing salt), will enable the dairyer to secure uniformity in the depth of his cheeses, a point of some im- portance in the eyes of the trade. : = With any increase of moisture, a Fic, r21.—Satt anp Curp Scare. —_ proportionate allowance in weight must be made to allow for after-loss. The knowledge of the total make of curd for comparison with the quantity and quality of milk, and the cheese as pressed, and as cured, is desirable, and furnished by the same means, Care must THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 207 be taken to avoid scattering curd or salt on any part of the scale save the zzszde of the scoop, or it will soon be spoiled. With the hoop shown (Fig. 118) a strainer-cloth is used large enough to hang inside it and fold conveniently, with margin enough to cover the curd. This put in place, the curd should be well and evenly pressed in with the hand, and the free ends drawn over and tucked in. Over all comes. a “ follower,” or disc of tinned steel, another of wood (Fig. 122) called a “cross- follower,” and the cheese is ready for pressing. This method is simple, and the best with ordinary presses, its only objectionable point being that it makes a second clothing necessary, and gives much washing work, the first day’s cloths speedily becoming clogged with the curd. If allowed to get foul, they affect the flavour Fis. 122.—Woopen Soak Cross-FoLLower. of the cheese similarly to some extent. Pressure is more necessary to the Cheddar system than to some others, because of the dryness of the curd ; indeed it may be taken as a general rule that the wetter the product the easier will it “go together,” as the old makers say. This rule must be taken with sundry limitations, but it is correct as to fact, and will be understood when we remember that the larger the remainder of whey, the greater will be the rapidity and extent of fermentation, and its results of curd ripeness and viscosity. Hence some systems do not need pressure at all. The amount of it suitable to the Cheddar system is regulated by the size and age of the cheese, for the variations in condition with well-made goods are insufficient to justify any difference in management. The larger the cheese the more pressure it needs, because it offers a greater resistance of elasticity to the action. In this respect it is like india- rubber, though possessing a much lower degree of the quality ; capable of compression, but resisting as most substances do not until brought to their final possibilities of solidity. The contraction observed all through is due to the same cause,—the physical character of the coagulated casein. As to age, for the first hour it needs only a pressure sufficient to cause a dripping of the remaining free whey, which it is the business of this process to expel, and as this will be also in proportion to the size of the cheese it is a safe guide ; but after that point it will need a greater weight—that which is effectual on the first day being too little to cause any appreciable further compression on the second day, for the resistance naturally increases with the solidity. However well made a curd may be, only by judicious and sufficient pressure can it gain a perfect texture and preserve its shape. Excess does mischief, especially at the outset, when it brings together the outer part too quickly, enclosing the air and free whey of the inner 208 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER, part, and making the latter of a loose texture, or full of “eyes” (irre- gular rounded cavities), as the case may be. This is more frequently found in /oaves than in large cheeses, because the difference in proportion of pressure suitable to the two cases is not rightly calculated, the makers being most familiar with large goods, and making the small ones occasionally out of remainders of curd. Probably four- fifths of Cheddar loaves are so made, and being regarded as odd products do not receive the consideration they deserve in these minor points. Experience proves that the desired result can be obtained in less time than is generally supposed. When efficient presses are properly used, the cheese may be put into press on one day, the weight increased the next morning, and again the evening of the same day, and the cheeses should be ready for the curing-room on the following morning, As it is, they remain three or four days in press. With low power presses this is well, but in any other case it is wasteful of press and floor-space and hoops, with original cost, and that of their cleansing. We may therefore divide the pressing into three stages, and the weights suitable to these are given in the table below :— Cheeses. Stage 1. Stage 2. Stage 3. 14 lbs. or less. 2 cwt. 5 cwt. Io cwt. 28 ” 3 o9 7 a9 I 5 a” 40 a9 5 2 10 ” 20 2 60 29 7 2 I 4 ” 25 ”? 80 tee 10 #¥ I 8 2 30 ” The best sources of pressure are combinations either of levers or springs with screws, attached to a frame so constructed as to hold the cheeses conveniently in an upright or a horizontal position as may be desired. A single press of the lever type is shown in Fig. 123, consisting of a bed a, on heavy feet 44, with uprights ¢ ¢, bearing a head d@ bolted to them, and carrying the levers. This head is hollowed at a point midway between the uprights to allow of the screw e passing freely through it, and has projections to which the levers f and g are attached. The lever / is provided with a series of holes, with a pin & which can be placed in either of them, and upon which the lever g rests, while the latter carries at its free end a grooved pulley z, over which a chain & runs, carry- ing a set of weights 7, so made as to allow of being easily put on and off. By shifting the pin % to right or left, the leverage 1s reduced or increased respectively ; and this, with the alteration of the weights, enables the pressure to be regulated from the lowest to the highest limits of the table above. The screw is actuated by a wheel 7 with handles, a plate # resting on the followers, The . THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 209 screw being turned until it is tight raises the lever f, and this in turn the lever g and the weights, all of which sink again with the compression of the curd until the wheel 7 rests upon the press head, when a fresh raising is needed. At first the levers fall quickly, and need frequent attention; but every interval is longer than the last, and if the press is screwed up at nine o’clock in the evening, it will not run down by the morning. This style of press has its diffi- culties. The plate # being necessarily made to move easily between the pillars, and con- nected with the screw by a free joint, is liable to tip to one side or the other, and this in pro- portion to the looseness of the fitting. This last is excessive \ in some presses, a point to be watched in purchasing. If such tipping occurs in use, the result will be ill-shaped goods, and this especially when two or more cheeses are piled on each other. The buyer and con- sumer will both object to this, and the best of curds will lose from id. to 2d. per pound if out of shape. The cheese must be placed so that the screw may be immediately above its true centre in any case, and this may be done by setting the hoop by the circular. whey gutters in the bed a, for when the press is properly constructed these are true to the screw centre. But it is not safe even then to trust the cheese without examination. A glance when screw- ing up afresh will show whether the pressing is level. There is a limit to the upward lever movements, the chain # preventing any further progress when the weights have risen to the head; if the screwing is carried further, the. pressure on the cheese is excessive, and there is danger of either the cast-iron head or the chain ‘ breaking. Forewarned, however, is forearmed, and with these oO Fic. 123.—LEVER PREss, 210 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. cautions observed, there is no single vertical press in the market which more nearly meets the needs of the case. It is often desirable on economical grounds to have two or more screws in one frame, in which case the cost and space are both much less than with single presses, Such a_ combination is shown in Fig. 124, where the differences in the con- struction and attachment of the levers and weights will be observed ; especially with the inner sets, the second levers of which are placed beneath the bed, and con- Wier aa 4.—LEVER PRESS. nected with the first by long rods, and the weights are lifted within the limited scope shown. Here the pressure is greater by one-third than with the outer sets, which should therefore be Fic. 125.—Srrinc Press. used for the earlier pressing. There is loss, however, as agairist the previous ex- ample, because the projecting arm cannot be provided, and the levers are shorter ; there must therefore be an increase of weights. The bed here is of wood, with dishes of lead to catch and direct the whey into vessels below. If this part is of cast- iron it should be much stronger than is necessary in a single press. Commonly there is but one weight, and that insuf- ficient for full requirements, and the dairyer should insist on a series of separate weights of known effectiveness, for otherwise he has no means of regulating his pressure. The press-makers’ notion of the case is generally very elementary, to judge by the machines on the market. In Fig. 125 the source of pressure is a powerful spring, which is enclosed with the nut (below it) in a box, the screw passing through the whole. When the plate reaches the hoop, the screw is compressed by the further turning; and the pressure exerted by it THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE, 211 is in proportion to the extent of its compression. This result is shown by an indicator, which rises with the spring, and points to the weight applied as marked on a brass scale. This plan does away with all shifting of levers and weights, and admits of any number of screws being set in one frame as near together as will allow only of the pillars coming between the cheeses, and therefore with saving of space, and proportionate increase of strength in the head. So far as simplicity and convenience go, this is the best type of vertical press for a factory. The one question remaining is the effectiveness of the spring, of which the reader may be doubtful, as we were until we found one which had been twenty years in use and was still doing satisfactory work. But everything depends on the particular spring in use; and with the possible variations in strength and staying power, it is well to require a guarantee of efficiency or replacement, extending over a reasonable period. On the following morning, as early as may be, the cheese, if pressed in ordinary hoops, is removed from press and bandaged. There are several methods of doing this latter, either of which may be followed. The system has no rule on the point, but that described is the simplest and best of them all. A bandage of grey calico, the thickness of which must depend on the size of the cheese, made to fit it closely, is drawn upon it from the lesser diameter downwards, and should leave from 1} to 2 inches of ends to overlap. A little skill is needed to put it on without breaking the edges, and in order to this it should be laid about 4 inch over the edge of the cheese nearest to the operator (Fig. 126), a hand then moving steadily on each side until the two meet, drawing it about an inch over on that side. Then the hands should return to their start- ing-place, drawing as they go, and repeat this rapidly until the work is done. If one hand only is used, or the two follow in rotation, the bandage will almost inevitably be twisted, and the seam will make a corresponding irregular mark on the cheese. The free edges being turned neatly back so as to lie as smoothly as possible, a circular piece of the cloth Figsssé. should be laid on the top of the cheese, the over- Banpacinc CHEESE. lapping turned down upon it, and the metal follower of a second hoop laid above the whole, the hoop itself following. The latter is now turned over, the uppermost end of the cheese covered as the other, a plain wooden follower put in place, and all is ready for further consolidation. Doubles are bandaged in similar fashion; but instead- of “tops and bottoms,” a loose cloth is placed 212 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. over the end, the girth pressed around it, and as close to the table as possible (see Fig. 127), the hoop placed over, and the whole turned. The corners of the cloth are allowed to fall over the sides. The upper edge of the girth should now be level with the cheese surface; or if not so, then drawn up to it. A cloth laid smoothly over the cheese completes its preparation for the press. When the cheese is taken from press, the bandage and end pieces are found to be adhering to it, and care must bé taken not to detach them; for this done they cannot easily be made to take a fresh hold, and the surface under is very liable to crack. The overlapping is sewn with double thread, so as to leave two free ends, which—being drawn tightly—are tied, and the folds evenly and neatly adjusted, so as to leave as little impression as possible on the cheese. If the bandage is well fitted and strong enough (medium grey calico will meet the outside demand for strength), no other support will be needed. One caution must be given here concerning the hoops. Their proper working will depend upon their being kept in good shape. Made as described, they will be easily emptied as long as they are not bulged ; this once done a difficulty arises, and they are banged on the table e to stir the cheese, more damage IG. 127. a . Re-covertnG Dousie CHEESE. being done meanwhile. The hoops are easily spoiled, and the cheeses injured in shape by such foolish treatment. The cheese should now be marked with its date, and removed to the curing-room without delay. There it will be in a proper tempera- ture, which will often be missing in the less protected press-room., Many a cheese becomes cracked by shrinkage in cold dry draughts through neglect at this point. Curing.—The general character of the changes wrought in curing have already been described, and it is only necessary here to apply those earlier teachings to the needs of the system. The best temperature for the Cheddar curing-room is 65° F., and the range from 68° F. upwards to 60° F. downwards. Above the upward limit the cheese dries too rapidly, considering its naturally dry character. For a time the fermentation makes progress in proportion to the temperature, but the loss of moisture checks it ere long, and the result is not the same ‘as would follow with a wetter curd. Moreover, there is a greater danger of losing fat with a dry cheese of good quality than with a moister one. On the other hand, from the lower limit downwards the tendency to retain moisture in the outer parts, with THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 213 discoloration, uneven curing, and ill flavour, increases steadily. It will, however, be readily understood that a Cheddar curd will not suffer so much in this way as one containing more moisture. The formation of mould will be scarcely noticeable within the range of temperature given, and this is an advantage because of the saving in bandages, which are more quickly spoiled, or if used afresh are more troublesome to cleanse than if free from moulds, and because of the greater cleanliness in handling the cheeses. The regulation of the temperature by either of the methods already given should not be difficult. When the temperature has reached the lower limit of its range, if there is a probability of increasing cold, sufficient heat should be provided to raise it 5° F.; and if this rule is followed with any increase of cold the results will prove the economy thereof. There is great reason to believe that many dairyers, when they find the thermometer reading down even to 55° F., wait on the hope of better conditions returning, or, finding the temperature not far below the safe line in the day-time, give little thought to the possibilities of the night. The curing-room, as designed, is calculated to protect from sudden or considerable variations ; but while the range of temperature within it will be narrow compared with that of the open air, it must not be supposed that the internal air will not get colder or warmer with outside changes ; and it must also be remembered that whatever changes do occur within it will not be so easily corrected by returning ones with- out, as ina less protected room. The best curing-room in the world will not do much for its owner in the absence of intelligent manage- ment ; and we are convinced that, within the lines of the strict system, there are no sources of loss so great to-day as bad curing conditions. So far as this item of heat is concerned, we also believe that there is no method of supplying and regulating it so economical and easily applied as the hot-water circulation earlier described. With rooms of the construction and proportions given in the farm dairy and factory plans, four doubles of pipes will suffice to raise the temperature an average of four or five degrees for each bend employed, and—with a proper control of the air inlets and outlets—maintain the needful warmth through our coldest nights. The cheese needs more air moisture than the products of most other systems. It gives off in its first days 2 lbs. per ton and upwards in twenty-four hours, this decreasing slowly but steadily under correct conditions, the average being probably from 1.2 lbs. for heavy to 1.5 Ibs. for smaller and thinner goods. It will be remembered that the latter are allowed to retain whey enough to bring them out cured with a mellowness and moisture equal to those of the larger cheeses. 214 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The moisture so cast off is usually ample for the needs of the case, but it is easy to err in heating and regulating the air so as to give too free a passage of warm air, which will take up more moisture than a colder air would do, and so exceed the occasion; or, on the other hand, to confine the damp air until it is saturated, and cannot relieve the cheese of further discharges. The hygrometer must be frequently consulted, and the moisture kept. within a range of 78° to 88° of humidity, or 2° to 4° F. difference between its two thermometers. The instrument should be so placed as to register the condition of matters near to the cheese, and not at a distance from it. Whien more moisture is needed than can be retained by proper control of the air, troughs (Fig. 128), containing water, may be set on the circulating pipes; or, when these are not in use, the floor may be sprinkled Lo from a watering-can. This occasion is not so liable to arise as the opposite, which can be managed by simply allowing more air to pass through, with warmth to encourage its speed if necessary. The maintenance of sufficient moisture saves the cheese from excessive loss in weight, and so indirectly encourages the fermentative changes so essential to perfect curing ; and this latter without the need for so much original whey in the cheese as would furnish the organisms and materials for excessive fermentation, especially of the L.A. kind. The cheese shelves may be of the simplest character. Strong standards of wood, as in Fig. 129, where the uprights (a, 2) as shown are secured to the ceiling and floor, with cross pieces (4) bearing planed boards (c¢) of 1% in. thickness, and from 12 to 18 inches wide, according to the cheeses to be made. In calculating the length of the shelves, the dia- meter of the cheese, and an allowance of two inches for spaces between them, should be added together, and the result allowed for every cheese. The shelves also should have a similar air-space between them, being: separated by a block of wood (@) as shown. Cheeses lying too near each other become sodden and discoloured at the nearest points. Each shelf should be of one board if practicable, or, failing that, have its joints kept well closed with putty, which should be allowed to dry Fic. 128,—WAaATER TROUGH. Fic. 129-—CHEESE SHELVES. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 215 well before cheese is put upon it. The vertical distance between any two shelves must be sufficient to allow cheeses to be placed on or removed from them without damage or difficulty. Generally three inches more than the depth of the cheese will suffice. If goods of varying depth are made, it will be well to store the heaviest on the lowest shelves, and the smallest on the uppermost ones, both to save labour and risk in turning. The lowest shelf should not be less than 18 inches from the floor, which may then be used for storage in emergencies. The shelf edges should be slightly bevelled and quite smooth. The cheeses will have need to be turned daily (excepting on Sundays) for the first month, on alternate days during the second month, and afterwards twice weekly will be sufficient, to secure the even distribution of the moisture and its accompanying advan- tages. They should be examined at the same time for evidences of damage, such’ as cracking, mites, &c.; and a keen eye will detect anything amiss in a cheese while it is being turned, so that no extra time may be consumed upon it. All goods up to 80 lbs. weight are best turned by hand, the lighter ones upon the hands only, the heavier with the aid of the knee. The cheese being seized as at a, Fig. 130, is drawn from the shelf, the lower hand supporting it so that it does not scrape against the edge | in passing, and then dropped into position ae 6, and turned over quickly ‘owards the f iF} operator, so that if there should be any slip Ee pe of the hand the cheese will fall against him. c If such should happen when it was being turned in the other direction, it would be difficult to save it from a fall to the floor, or against the shelf edge, with almost inevitable damage. In replacing it on the shelf, it should be lifted as at c, carefully clearing the edge. With care the dairyer will soon find himself able to gauge distances in turning with safety, but beginners in their-anxiety to avoid collision with the shelf are liable to strike the one above. The heavier goods are turned in the same way excepting that the hands are not trusted entirely, the bent knee taking part of the weight. The cheeses stored on the higher shelves make it necessary either to stand on a small Fic. 130.—CHEESE TURNING, 216 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. bench, or on the lower shelves; in the latter case, one on each side of the gangway should be used, and care taken to avoid touch- ing the cheeses on them with the feet. In carrying young cheeses care must be taken to avoid breaking them. Thin goods are most liable to breakage, and should be borne on their edges. In factories a little table on wheels, like to but lighter than the bandaging table (Fig. 72), may be used. Some makers grease their cheeses with whey butter, or a special preparation, to keep them from becoming too dry and cracking, but this is unnecessary where the humidity is correctly maintained, Others press sheets of light straw paper on the surface of thin goods with a hot flat or “sad” iron, and for the same purpose, but this also is a waste of time and trouble. We followed this practice till we found that the cheeses which were not so treated kept in perfect condition in a proper air, and that these others would crack in spite of the paper when the air was too warm and dry. Years of subsequent experience have confirmed the teaching on this point. For several weeks Cheddar cheese is practically tasteless ; at two months it is beginning to develop its nutty flavour, and a month later this is distinct enough to meet the tastes of many consumers. The- rennet, however, having had a better chance than would be possible . with higher proportions of retained whey, the cheese is proportionately more digestible ; and, so far as the consumer’s advantage is concerned, he may use it then without either the effects of indigestibility on the one hand, or of pungency of flavour on the other. For those who desire a stronger flavour, it will have to be kept two months more or upwards ; and if made on the lines laid down, and as perfectly as it may be from sound milk, will be at its best from eighteen months to two years old. If such long keeping is sought, it should be stored, after four months’ age, in a temperature never exceeding 62° F. nor falling below 55° F., with the humidity of the air maintained. The loss in weight under such conditions will not be great, but taken with the interest on capital lying idle, and rent of storage space, and the cost of labour in turning and of fuel, will justify such an advance in the selling price as the trade will not meet. In this case the gourmand must either pay the dairyer direct for bringing his article to perfection, or do the greater part of the curing in his own cellar. In respect of firmness and safety in transit Cheddars are ready in three months, and apart from special trade developments it is well to market them at that time. The proportion of cured cheese to the original milk depends upon the time of sale, with slight variations arising out of making conditions. An imperial gallon (roj lbs.) of average milk will give a pound of cheese THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 217 at four months old if made and cured as advised, but if waste is incurred at any point of the work it may require an excess up to twelve Ibs., or even more, of such milk to give that result. As the milk quality is less, or the curing extended, the cheese ratio will be less, while with better milks it will increase. At the time of sale the weight should be ascertained, and the loss by shrinkage since the making, and these facts, with the time in storage, recorded for comparison and reference. It is worth while weighing the makes of separate days or vats separately, so as to complete the records. They should also be examined, and, in case of special reason, cut with a cheese-taster. Useful as it is to know the quality of the cheese, it is not well to cut too many, the buyers naturally objecting to the practice beyond certain narrow limits. When the goods are sold the dairyer can easily take note of the qualities of each one ironed, and draw the buyer’s attention to any of special interest, so reducing the number which it may be necessary to cut for infor- mation’s sake. In this matter the factory, with its larger number of cheeses made together, enjoys an advantage—for one is a sample of the entire product of each lot of milk. Influence of Essentials. Having described the management appropriate to sound and natural milk of average quality, we may glance back to note the leading points in the system by which the special characteristics of the product are secured. They may be summarised as follows, viz. :— (a.) A comparatively low standard of ripeness for milk and curd. (6.) A correspondingly low level of initiatory temperature and a short exposure to its highest temperature. (c.) The expulsion of the whey by pressure, during the process of dividing the curd, by the usé of special implements, thus producing —with the after-help of heat—an unusually dry curd. (d.) The extraction of the free whey by draining, airing, and pressing the curd. (¢.) The exposure of the cheese in the curing-room to a moist atmosphere, which but slowly carries off the water expelled in the process of curing. These points are shared with all other systems excepting c, which is peculiar to the Cheddar system. But ¢ is consistent with and helped by @ and 4, which tend to a slower fermentation than would accompany higher temperatures and ripeness ; and as c leaves behind a specially low proportion of whey in the curd, d—extracting that which is set free—leaves proportionately less in the made cheese than with other systems which do not follow the principles of c, while ¢ pro- vides for the retention of the remaining water to an extent suitable 218 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. to the case and thus encourages the curing changes. The rennet is allowed a greater share of influence than usual, but the fermentation is well balanced with it, and the L.A. form furnishes, with the heat, sufficient firmness for all purposes. The fermentable materials of the whey being in such low proportion in the cheese, the flavouring changes are also slow, and never reach the pungency which belongs to old goods of other makes. Hence the Cheddars are,—- (a.) Digestible at an early age, because the rennet is not opposed by the L.A.F. to the usual extent. a (4.) Long-keeping and mild, because the fermentable materials of the whey are more limited, and the fermentation slower than would be the case with wetter curds, and to these leading characteristics may be added the following, which are needful for completeness, viz. :-— (c.) The quality is fully secured by the rennet and C.F. action in the casein, rendering it mellow and plastic, while other ferments help by converting casein into volatile fats. (d.) The texture and solidity are helped by the avoidance of any sealing of the curd surfaces in breaking and scalding, by the ripening of the curd, by the grinding appropriate to the system, and finally by the pressure. : (é.) The narrow limits of fermentation secure them from the for- mation of poisonous ptomaines; and care of the cattle and their feeding will give freedom from objectionable qualities introduced by bad management before the dairyer comes into control. The consistency of the Cheddar system with its aims is there- fore established ; and the reader will by this time be able to justify the directions and cautions given with a view to the realisation of those aims, and to keep within the essential limits of the system such variations in practice as are at any time necessary. The practical impossibility of obtaining uniform milk and atten- dant conditions will give him daily experience in manceuvring to obtain uniform excellence in the products, but this is possible, and the system elastic enough for any occasion. Excess or Deficiency of Lime Salts.—These create difficulties which have already been noticed,—the former producing persistent alkalinity, and the latter giving deficient co-operation with the rennet, and are both troublesome to the cheese-maker. The product in either case is a weak curd, which, with ordinary treatment, is slow in coagulation and contraction, therefore also in whey expulsion and hardening, in curd ripening and drying, and finally makes a soft and soapy cheese, wanting in firmness, and more or less defective in flavour. The reader is recommended to read up the whole subject back to the foundation in soil composition, THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM IN PRACTICE. 219 Excess.—In this case the practice of ripening milk by whey is necessary, so that the acid already formed in the ripener may neutralise the alkalinity of the milk, and more whey than usual will be required. As the dairyer will in very few instances have the means of determining the excess, which will vary somewhat with movements from one part of a farm to another, or with the feeding of foods from different parts, it will be best for each to make his own experiments, with notes thereon for constant guid- ance. Taking his clue from earlier references, he can judge whether his soil is likely to bé the cause of any irregularity observed, and carry the investigation as far as analysis if he finds reason to do so. If the grounds are sufficient, he can increase his use of whey until he finds his milk and curd working as described under ordinary conditions, and fix his practice accordingly whenever his milk comes from the troublesome locality. We have had experience with a milk the owners of which asserted that no good cheese had ever been made from it in the home dairy, and which proved to be hampered with this condition. The test applied showed it to be unusually alkaline, and when treated with this it resisted coagulation under air conditions for a day or two longer than other milks beside it. But mixed with other milks in large vats, or treated as advised, it gave no trouble, and showed no characteristic in the cured cheese which might be attributed to the original difficulty. Deficiency.—The proper cure for this is to furnish the soil with lime in some soluble form, and no treatment of the milk in the dairy is so satisfactory. Indeed there is not at present any other. method of supplying the requisite. CaO which we are able to re- commend to the dairyer as properly meeting the case. With a slight deficiency it is possible to procure a firm curd by an increase of whey, the acid being able to coagulate casein in the absence of lime salts, but only in such cases can this be used without seriously disturbing the balance of initial influences. Nor are the effects —even within narrow limits—exactly the same, nor the cheese on the strict Cheddar model. An instance of the necessity for the soil- correction on a large scale will be referred to in a later chapter, showing the entire practicability and advantages of that course. CHAPTER XII. THE CHEDDAR SYSTEM WITH OVER-RIPE AND TAINTED MILKS. Classification.—In this chapter we deal with the management of four kinds of milk, which may be classified as follows, viz. :— (a.) Sour milk, in which the friendly ferments are in excess, but which gives no evidence of putrefactive taint. (.) Milk in which the C.F. is in excess of the L.A.F. without evidence of taint. (¢.) Milk tainted by unfriendly ferments. (d.) Milk which has absorbed odours from other sources than those referred to in preceding divisions. The third class does not here include milks affected by the microbes of infectious amzmal diseases, such being dismissed as unsuitable for food production. (a.) Sour Milk.—There may be here either an equal L.A.F. and C.F. action, carried beyond the standard of milk ripeness, or of the two the L.A.F. may be in excess of the other. In either case the result is a “pure sour,” with a flavour and odour not disagreeable, and capable of being made into a comparatively valuable cheese. In the former case, however, the C.F. helps the rennet to the ordinary curing, though the L.A.F. influence is opposed to it ; whereas in the latter the L.A.F. action is proportionately greater by reason of the relatively weaker C.F. action, and the rennet has still less chance of effecting its digestive work,—the product of the former is therefore better both for the dairyer and the consumer. They cannot be distinguished at the outset, but the rate at which the curd becomes flaky or stringy will point to a safe conclusion,—for when this is rapid, we may be sure that the C.F. is equal, or nearly equal, in influence to the L.A.F.; whereas when the curd is hard and crumbly, the greater influence of the L.A.F. is shown. Between the extremes of equality and difference in power there are many degrees of relation, which may be recognised by the means described, and the management varied accordingly. It is of no CHEDDAR SYSTEM WITH OVER-RIPE MILKS. 221 material consequence to know anything beyond what the acid and speed in coagulation can show until the whey is removed, the manage- ment up to that point being the same in all cases. The state of the milk being ascertained by the litmus test, the early probabilities may be estimated. The colour may range from F to N (Colour-plate), but beyond the latter coagulation is liable to take place before the rennet can be stirred in, and the curd will be practically useless. What should be the relation of rennet to a sour milk? The excess of acid would suggest an increase of rennet to balance with it; but this would also unduly hasten coagulation, and make an increase in the rate of breaking necessary, with a corresponding loss. On the other hand, while less than the ordinary amount of rennet would lengthen the time of coagulation in proportion to the deficiency, it would equally increase the influence of the acid as against the rennet. It is therefore well to leave the rennet quantity unchanged; and here experience confirms theory. Fermentation and rennet action will give more than the usual curd contraction, and in proportion to the former the tempera- ture may be lowered with advantage, within limits fixed according to that of the air. In warm weather, when sour milks are naturally most frequent, the- subtractions of degrees (F.) in Column I. of the table at the end of this section may be made from the standard temperatures ; while in colder weather, below 58° F., those given in Column II. will be suitable, taken according to the litmus indications. In any case, the heating must be as rapid as possible, and if the old method is followed some new milk should be used for the boiler. Despatch must be made of all work, for every minute lost increases the difficulty and risk, so that it is wise to have help to carry through the preparations for coagulation. The stirring in of the rennet must be vigorous, and cease as soon as is consistent with proper distribution. The time taken to produce coagulation will vary, the numbers in Column III. giving the minutes under average conditions. The breaking must be done at a speed proportionate to the coagulation. There will always be some loss, but it should be made as little as possible consistently with the main aim, which must be to get the curd as small as usual before scalding. Of the two evils the waste of curd by breaking is the least. The tempera- ture for scalding may be reduced by the degrees given in Column IV. for warm weather, and in Column V. for colder weather. The harden- ing in scald will occur earlier, and’ must be watched for from the end of heating with great care. The stage of curd hardness should be the same as in half-creamed milk; for the whey must be as fully expelled by the end as in an ordinary curd, and the greater contraction will not carry it to the desired result if the stirring be stopped earlier. 222 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. From this point for the most advanced curd with the lowest scald- ing temperature, the variations may rise with less advanced curds to the ordinary hardness with such as are but little over-ripe, as F. The whey will naturally be removed earlier, but the time must be deter- mined by the packing ; and here is the first point at which the manage- ment is varied to meet the case of equal L.A. and C. fermentation, or an excess of the former. The packing will proceed more rapidly in the former case than in the latter, and by the time occupied in this we may judge which experience is before us. Taking the case of equal Jermentation, Column VI. gives the average time in minutes required for the proper consolidation of the curd ; and as it varies from this in the direction of increase, being tested by the hand, it may be known that the L.A.F. is in proportionate excess. The curd should be treated, after the whey is drawn, con- sistently with its state as shown in Column VII. In the lower stages of fermentation it is best to pile it as usual, simply cutting and turning at proportionately shorter intervals until it reaches the ordinary curd ripeness, or—if not then solid enough—for a little longer ; but with higher stages less depth in pile is desirable, until Fic. 131.—Curp TipPeD FoR AIRING. at J and onwards the squares of curds can be tipped against each other as in Fig. 131, when the air will cool it and check the fermen- tation. The turning, airing, grinding and salting, must follow as quickly as is consistent with the state of the curd. The proportion of salt will depend on the dryness of the curd, which should not be far from equal to an ordinary curd. The stringy and soft state of a sour curd, especially in advanced stages, gives an impression of more moisture than is present, though often there actually is more than usual, and this must be judged as nearly as may be. Wherever a drying oven (Fig. 209) is available, the dairyer can test the amount of moisture in an ordinary curd for a standard, and in varying sour curds for comparison, and make note of the results with suitable proportions of salt. Sucha test could not be made in time to be of service with the same curd, but it would be valuable as training the judgment, though only as applied to curds which the dairyer had handled would it be of use, because the condition cannot be accurately described. Hence we do not attempt a standard here. The salt must be calculated for an excess of free whey as in other cases, but no advantage can be gained by increasing it for any other reason. The pressing temperature should be a degree “CHEDDAR SYSTEM WITH OVER-RIPE MILKS. 223 or two lower if the final stage of fermentation in the curd is beyond the ordinary standard, and according to the excess. If the curd is unusually wet, it will give out some white whey in grinding, and the pressing must be less than ordinary at the outset when such is observed. No change need be made in the curing temperature. The cheese will cure slowly so far as concerns digestibility, but will early develop a flavour, sour, and more or less distinct, according to its history. Ifa wet cheese, it will be liable to crack, wet the shelves, and attract the flies. If too dry, it will be crumbly. Both evils may be avoided if the possibility and causes of them be kept in view. In the earlier stages of excess the cracking will be very slight, and give a marbled appearance to the goods by reason of the blue moulds which soon occupy the cracks. The flavour, with its pure acidity, and a possible smack of the mould, is much relished by the gourmand and sought by the trade ; and we have known the prizes at a leading Eng- lish show to go to such goods, though these, however much they may be enjoyed by the consumer, are not according to the standard of the system in the important point of digestibility. Subtract from tem- nee Subtract from tem- EQAy PERE E AOD perature renneting. | curdin fe. perature scalding. Aver. time Piling. packing. I \ 1 IL Iv. v. vi 7 VIL F 1 | 18 27 Ordinary. G 2 1 16 I 24 35 H gee 4 13 I I 20 Half depth. I 3 2 10 2 I 16 3 J 4 3 7 2 2 12 One layer. K 4 3 5 3 2 9 ” L 5 3 4 3 3 7 » M 5 3 3 4 3 5 » When the L.A.F. is in excess, it is necessary to pile the curd as quickly as possible in the ordinary way, for it is better to have too much fermentation than coldness and the increased tendency to be crumbly. The litmus test will be of little service here, the fitness of the curd for airing must be judged of by its flakiness and solidity. Nothing can be gained by increasing the proportion of salt, excepting for increase of moisture ; for though it would check the L.A.F., it would even more check the weaker C.F., and less than usual would unduly 224 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. encourage the L.A. fermentation. The results are, still slower curing, greater indigestibility, and lower food value than with the fermenta- tions equal, and there is no escape from them. Commercially the pro- duct may be made more valuable by encouraging the blue moulds. The foregoing directions cover all that can be safely advised at present for making the best of bad cases. The chief points of the matter are, that the dairyer must keep up with the progress of his curd, and by reducing temperatures discourage fermentation as far as s_ safe. Concerning the latter, it should be noticed that the various stages of the work occupying less time, and in proportion to the advance of fermentation, there is less risk of the curd becoming too cold than would ordinarily be the case. (4.) Milk with C.F. in Excess.—In our occasional experiences with such milk we found the earliest practical evidence of the exist- ence and operations of a casein ferment. The effects observed, and attributed to this cause, are given as they arise, and we know of no other consistent explanation. With little or no excess of L.A. fer- mentation, there has been very quick coagulation ; but in the absence of the rennet test this was not suspected, the first sign being followed so closely by the curding of the milk as to give no room for saving the curd from being broken into minute fragments. The rennet test would have shown the danger, and therefore should be used, at least after any such occurrence, and until the regular ferment relations are established afresh. We have found in most cases more L.A. than usual, and this, though far from enough to account for the time of curding, has given warning of special conditions. In such case great care in stirring, and the use of the curding test, saves from the waste which must needs follow too long an agitation. Whether the frequency of occurrence without any excess of L.A. fermentation is sufficient to justify the daily use of the rennet test it is difficult to say, for the known observations which have been complete, and have led to our conclusions, have been few. Only in the presence of acid and co- agulation tests, with conditions favourable for observation, can the facts be properly noted ; but we may now hope that such occurrences will be reported to the dairy press. It is, however, certain that the rennet test would give an advan- tage from the first, admitting of variations in the preparations for coagulation in consistency with the facts. Since the action of the C.F. is found to be rerinet-like, in that it tends to the softening and breaking down of the casein, less rennet may be used, reduced in proportion to the difference between the natural: expectation based on the L.A. indications and the actual time of curding in the test. . Supposing, for example, that with ordinary acidity (E) and the usual CHEDDAR SYSTEM WITH OVER-RIPE MILKS. 225 proportion of proved rennet, the milk would coagulate in ten minutes, as shown by test and calculation; then, since the C.F. can w#th these procure that effect in half the time proper to ordinary conditions, the rennet may be reduced to half its general quantity. If, however, the acidity would justify the expectation of a sixteen minutes’ coagulation (G), the reduction in rennet would be a little less than one-fourth its usual proportion. This so far as balancing the two influences can go; but it would be better to reduce the temperature (as advised on page 221), and so make a less reduction of rennet necessary ; and in the second example, the excess of L.A. would suggest that the greater excess of C. fermentation would probably act as an equal set-off against its opposition to rennet action, and the ordinary proportion of the latter—with a quicker manipulation—would give the best results. With differences between the two fermentations greater than this last, the rennet should certainly be decreased. In such cases the after-management would be closely like to that of ordinary or slightly sour curds, : When the state of the milk is only discovered at its coagulation, the curd must be managed so as to counterbalance, as far as possible, the mischievous conditions. The rate of breaking must be regulated by the acidity, for if this be no more or less than usual the curd contraction will be weak and slow, so that the rapidity proper to sour curds would be both unnecessary, and more than commonly wasteful. If, however, the softening tendency of the C.F. is more nearly balanced by the L.A.F., the speed should be greater up to the equality of the fermentations and the hardening suitable to such case. A quantity of sour whey may be added to the contents of the vat just after the skimmer is withdrawn, and this tendency to increase of the L.A.F. will greatly help to restore the balance of affairs. The pro- portion may range from one gallon to five gallons per 100 gallons of milk, according to the proportion of L.A.F. to C.F. influence originally present. A greater hardness of the curd must be secured in the scalding, not by a higher temperature but by longer stirring, or the cheeses will be too weak to retain their form, and the proportion of whey proper to be left in an ordinary curd is too great in view of the higher fermentation. A few minutes’ stirring beyond the usual point will suffice in any case, but the use of sour whey in proportion to its state and quantity will reduce the necessity for this. The packing will be rapid ; the whey should be removed as soon as the curd is solid enough, and the latter laid as Fig. 131, unless it nearly approaches to the ordinary or slightly sour condition. The C.F. excess will naturally tend to an early flakiness, and not unlikely carry it too far. The salt proportion need not be altered, unless no whey has been used, in which 226 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. case it may be increased by a quarter oz. to one oz. for every pound (as calculated by common rule), and according to difference between the fermentations. According to the final relations of the two fermenta- tions will be the rate of curing, but it is not possible to foreshadow the effects on flavour, solidity, and keeping quality beyond the general tendencies of the varying combinations. With the C.F. finally ahead the cheese will be ready earlier than usual ; with the L.A.F. brought up to level, the result will be mainly like a good sour cheese. (c.) Milk affected by Putrefactive Taints——The ferments which cause diseases of milk have been already discussed. We may there- fore proceed to describe the relations which they bear to the friendly ferments, and find in these the clue to the best management possible in the case. These relations may be classified as (a) association with, and (4) conquest of, the friendly ferments. The first relation is by far the most common—the two classes existing side by side, and varying in their relative influence ; the latter is less frequent, and we have not met with any case of complete absence of L.A.F. with the presence of the taints. It is easy to account for this, for the friendly ferments being universally present it is simply a case of numerical proportions, or favourable conditions, determining the chances which the unfriendly microbes shall have of increasing in number and damaging the milk. It would seem from all observed facts that the two classes are, in a certain sense, in competition ; and it is distinctly providential that the friendly ones are generally the most powerful. But there are cases in which the bad take the lead, and defy the dairyer to put them down by any practicable means of encouraging the good ones. When such cases arise no really useful cheese can be made, at least with present knowledge. When, however, there is sufficient lactic acid present to prove the activity of its producing ferment, there is hope for the result ; and if the acid is equal to the taint, and not more than should accompany ripeness, the outlook will be fairly satisfactory, and still better as the taint fermentation is weaker. The cheese cannot be strictly fine in any case, but the taints may be well brought under. But when the taint ferments are beyond the limits named, it is best to have the L.A.F. well up with them, when a good sour cheese may be made, with probably a peculiarity of taste which cannot be always absolutely got rid of, but better than anything otherwise possible. The dairyer’s policy throughout is to help the friendly ferments to conquer the others, and this was followed long before any explanation of its effec- tiveness was known. “Fight taints with acid,” said the factory managers making under the American system ; and though carried out in the dark, the rule proved very valuable with their frequent bad CHEDDAR SYSTEM WITH OVER-RIPE MILKS. 227 curds, There are of course limits to its application, but the principle is sound. With this in view, we may describe the management. The presence of a taint being discovered before coagulation, varia- tions may in some cases be made in preparing for the renneting. If the acidity is below the ripeness stage, then—even though the ferments may be liable to cause quick coagulation—sour whey in the ordinary proportions may be used to advantage. The effects of increased speed of progress in the earlier processes will be more than counterbalanced by the quality of the cheese. It must be ascertained, of course, that the whey used is not already affected by the taints, which may in some cases reach it and the milk from the same source. No change in the rennet quantity is necessary, unless there is good reason for believing that the taint ferments are akin to the C.F. in action, as shown by similar experience. In such case the directions earlier given may be followed. Temperature may be regulated as with sour milks, when the litmus test justifies it. The heating should be rapid, and the curding test kept at work from the moment of renneting, with cautious stirring, which will leave the coagulum at rest at a moment’s notice. It is not always known at the time of receiving milk that anything is amiss. The heating brings forward the evidence in hasty coagula- tion, or later in the scalding, with a smell. In the former case,—the ripeness, temperature, and rennet, being as with good milk,—the after- management must supply such compensations as are possible. The introduction of sour whey in the course of breaking, when there is reason to believe that the taint is ahead, may be properly resorted to. The tendency to the production of foul gases must be met by breaking more finely than usual, so that they may not be sealed down by the heat and cause a floating curd. This makes necessary a more rapid breaking speed than with a sour curd, but the loss of curd and fat is better than the mischief which the taints can do. The “floating” does not always accompany even the most advanced taints, but there will almost invariably be some gas, of which much less will be retained in fine curd than in that of ordinary size. Unless with a special fermentation of the C.F. kind, the hardness in scalding should be as with ordinary curd. The vat should not be covered after scalding, and the whey should be drawn as soon as the curd is packed. If acid is in excess of ripeness, treat the curd as if sour ; otherwise, pile and help it forward as quickly as possible. The standard of acidity should be advanced a stage or two, according to the power of the taints; and when reached, the curd should be divided and aired as quickly, and in as small size, as is consistent with he maintenance of a safe temperature. The main point now is to expose the curd to the action of the air, 228 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. and as soon as it is dry enough it should be ground fwice, and shaken from the shovel held at a good height over the vat or cooler, with a good draught passing. By this means the volatile products of fer- mentation are burned up, so to speak, by the O of the air, and the ferments checked. With the air-temperature lower than 60° F. the curd temperature may be maintained by warm water under the vat, kept at from 80° F. to 70° F., according to need. This airing should be done before salting, the latter having a tendency to harden and seal the curd surface so that gases do not escape as before. If the drying is too quick, it may be checked by sprinkling with water warmer by ten degrees than the curd should be. The proportion of salt must depend on the state of the curd, an increase of from } oz. to 2 ozs. to the pound as calculated, being made as need arises with the wetness which often accompanies a taint, and with the extent of the final fermentation. The pressing and after-management may be as with sour curds. If any gas forms within the cheese, it should be set free . by askewer. The time required for curing will vary much with the fermentative combinations, and it is useless at present to attempt any settlement of the matter. The character of the curd, as seen in the light of the general teachings on fermentation, will enable an estimate to be made in each case consistent with the facts. (d.) Milk affected by Non-putrefactive Taints.—These necessitate but few alterations in the general working of the system. When the air-temperature is lower than that for pressing, the scalding tempera- ture should be advanced a degree or two as may be needful, and the curd ground twice, and a little earlier than usual. These changes prepare us for a thorough oxygenation, as with a putrefactive taint, the curd being exposed to the air (see last section) for the removal of the odour, and this before salting. With the precautions noted, there will not be undue drying or cooling. The principles, and in the main the practices, recommended in this chapter for the purposes enumerated are suitable to other cheese- making systems, with such modifications as may be consistent with their general principles. CHAPTER XIII. THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. THE cheese of Cheshire has long been famous, but we are unable to account, even with probability, for its origin. The county of its birth is an undulating plain, almost wholly occupied by the rocks and soils of the New Red Sandstone system, the latter being either sandy or clayey. These soils having no lime- stone materials mixed with them by transportation (as in Somerset- shire), would not be the best for cheese-making, but for the local practice of applying lime in one form or another, that now most in vogue being bone. The late Mr George Willis, one of the greatest makers and teachers of the system, speaking in 1884, said, “ Draining and boning at a cost of from £8 to £14 per acre are the foundations on which our present system of dairying has been raised. Rich pastures make rich milk; and rich milk, if rightly handled, makes good cheese.” The proviso in the last sentence shows plainly that the speaker did not believe that the soil solely governs the cheese, but that correct management of the milk was also essential. The practice referred to by him is, however, a valuable example of the proper treatment of land naturally deficient in lime, and liable to trouble the dairyer with weak curds; and the results prove its propriety. The manufacture has not as yet been so fully systematised as that of Cheddar cheese, and there is a corresponding looseness and length of range in the practices. On the borders of the home dis- trict there is also a mixing with other systems, especially with the Staffordshire making, rendering a correct classification of the goods difficult. Here too the results are not equal to those which follow the consistent central lines of management. It is therefore our business to point out the leading characteristics of the cheese, and their causes in their individual and combined relations ; and, later, to describe the practices most consistent with these and most suc- cessful, with the hope of reducing them to a common basis. The variations in making Cheshire cheese make it also difficult 230 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. to give its correct average composition, for while they make more numerous analyses necessary to such a result, there is'a greater lack of reliable figures than with the Cheddar product. The following is the average of sundry analyses which seem worthy of notice :— Water - - 35-15 Fat - 29. 38 Casein - - 25.38 Sugar and extractives 5-77 Salt - - - 1.75 Ash : - 2.57 100.00 In the light of this table the character of the cheese will be under- stood. The water is in higher proportion than in Cheddar, which arises directly out of the larger quantity of whey retained in making, and this gives a larger yield of cured cheese than is possible to the other system when carried out in its integrity. This commercial advantage is, however, only secured by the sacrifice, to some extent, of certain others which affect the food value. The fat and casein are conse- quently in lower proportion, and the ratio of the former to the latter is 1 to .863. While it is not possible to give the composition of the original milks; judging from the cattle commonly kept in the county and their feeding, there is every reason to believe that the milk quality is much the same as in the best Somersetshire pastures, and the comparison is therefore fair. Moreover, the result is just what might be expected from such milk by the system. The quantity of whey in the newly-pressed curd was very much larger than that in the cured cheese would at first suggest. The water ratio between young and old cheese is not equal in the various systems. The higher the proportion of water, the greater is the pro- portionate loss within a given time by expulsion and drying ; so that if two cheeses started with a difference of six per cent., they would in three or four months after be not more than two per cent. apart in this constituent. This is not only confirmed by the actual practice on this point, but also by the remarkable proportion of sugar and ex- tractives, including lactic acid and other products of fermentation, which is about double the Cheddar average, and even further exceeds the best results of that system. The whey being held in the cheese, all of its solids remain when the water is lost in curing, and are mostly included in this group in analytical tables. Part of the sugar is fermented, but by no means all; and the more is retained in whey with corresponding after-loss of water, the larger will be the unfer- THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 231 mented proportion, because when the limit is reached by the ferments they cease their work of conversion, and leave the balance of sugar to the action of the B.A.F. and other microbes, and these after all leave a quantity of unchanged sugar. The whey, however, is throughout sufficient to encourage a much higher fermentation of all kinds than in the Cheddar, the ferments being naturally in proportion to the quantity retained. We have therefore both more of sugar and of the products of fermentation than in a system which makes a point of expelling more whey from the curd. The proportion of salt left finally is larger than in the average Cheddar ; but here, again, there has been more used than the figures suggest, for some of the original quantity has passed off in the free whey lost in draining and pressing, of which loss the system knows more than the Cheddar. The points of a true Cheshire may therefore be summarised as follows, viz. :— The quality is a little lower than the Cheddar standard, and the digesti- bility likewise on account of the higher fermentation. There is a greater liability to the presence of mischievous ptomaines, and the flavour and odour are distinctly more pungent than in a Cheddar of equal age. One peculiarity of flavour deserves special notice, a sugary sweetness, very pleasing to the average palate, and due to the proportion of sugar. This is not to be confounded with the nutty flavour of the Cheddar, being very distinct from it, and impossible to the Cheddar made as herein. The keeping quality is in proportion to the fermentation. The texture is the most noticeable characteristic, being loose and flaky, strikingly unlike the Cheddar’s smooth solidity. This gives a softness and appearance of quality which is considered a special Cheshire excellence by the merchants of the great north-western towns, who object to the Cheddar as too hard. The size and shape are commonly similar to those of the Cheddar, though the upward limit is not so high; this is natural, in view of the lower level of solidity. The colour is usually made a brick-red by the use of annatto, to the point of positive disfigurement. On this matter in a general way we have already delivered ourselves; but the grievous experiences of the Cheshire makers justify special reference to it here. Long ago the trade adopted the delusion that this cheese ought to be highly coloured. Whether the makers or the buyers were originally re- sponsible it matters not; the latter seized on the notion, and the former justified thereby their continuance of the foolish practice. It was said the London market demanded it, and in those days the great city fixed such fashions without doubt. The makers have had to pay dearly for this. A discoloration, locally called the “fading” or “flying” of the colour, has been always more or less prevalent, and at times has taken the character of an epidemic. The loss caused has been. ’ 232 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. very great, for whatever gain (!) in appearance might be made by the practice, it is certain that a mottled colour is worse than a regular paleness. Much trouble has been taken to conquer the evil without giving up the practice, but has so far failed, and we believe it to be impossible. There are several causes of fading, most of them arising out of errors in detail in the manufacture; but there is at least one which is at all times liable to arise, viz—the presence of special ferments feeding on the vegetable colouring matter, and not only redycing this, but either creating mischief in the substance of the cheese, or making the way for others to do so. Observation has led us to the conclusion that though these ferments may be present in uncoloured cheese, they are inoperative; and a comparison of the experiences of the makers in colouring and non-colouring districts and periods strongly confirms it. Nothing is more reasonable than that, among the many forms of microbes, there should be some which feed on vegetable substances alone ; and a few such, it is believed, are known already. If our belief is right, the fading is caused by such kinds, in which case the only real cure is to banish the annatto. We have known the goods of famous makers to be practically spoiled by this cause, and with wetness, ill-flavour, and other evidences of special fermentation of the cheese substance zz proportion to the fading. So strong and so justifiable are our objections to the use of colour, that we deliberately withhold any directions for reducing the risks of dis- coloration, saving the only effectual and sensible advice to empty any remaining colour on the rubbish heap, and never to buy any more. An average milk is suitable for this system. The dairy and its general furnishings may be like that for the Cheddar system, with the single addition of an oven (Fig. 140), and such alterations as arise out of the provision for heating it. This is generally so set as to derive its heat from the kitchen fire, or from a circulating boiler at its back ; but as it ought to be in steady operation by night as well as by day, it is better to provide for its being inde- pendently heated. It will be best described along with its use. The standard of milk ripeness is D (Colour-plate), a little lower than that of the Cheddar system; and as a consequence the manage- ment of the night’s milk should be confined within proportionately lower limits of temperature. The practice with various leading makers ranges between 60° and 70° F., according to surrounding conditions. The aim seems to be to secure ripeness without special treatment in the mixed milk, and by good judgment this is often done ; but there is just as much need to guard against over-ripening, and on the other hand to obtain full ripeness at renneting, as with any other system. THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 233 The means already described may be used to bring up any deficiency. In this and all other matters which have been earlier discussed repetition is unnecessary, and we shall confine our attention to main principles and special practices. The temperature for renneting ranges from 75° F. to g0° F. We have reason to believe that when a lower temperature is followed a higher standard of ripeness accompanies it, or is proper. It would be difficult to make successfully in the absence of sucha balance. The general custom makes the temperature from 85° F. to 90° F. with the lower ripeness, and this is most con- sistent with the after-practices. By the end of two hours from coagulation, the fermentation has reached the level of the corresponding time in the Cheddar system. The rennet is estimated to produce a curd of the Cheddar firmness in an hour ; and the calculation based on the time to curding is the same in both systems. The combined effects of the three initial items differ from those of the Cheddar method, according to the upward tendency of the heating, and that of the ripeness down- wards; but as the curds are differently treated from the outset of whey separa- tion, it is unnecessary to follow out the comparison further. This system recognises cutting only as the means of dividing the curd, and the implement mostly used consists of a frame (a, Fig. 132) 12 to 15 inches square, within which are a number of aaaa: blades crossing each other at squares Cuesuire Curp Cutter. of 1 to 1zinch. From the angles of the frame, iron rods 4 rise, meeting in the handle ¢, the height of the whole being 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches, according to the size of the vat. When a round vat is used, one side of the frame @ should be rounded so as to fit against the vat’s side. It is of course desirable to cut the curd as evenly as may be at all points of the process; but it is not so important a matter as in the preceding system, because uniformity can be much more easily attained with cutting than with splitting. The cutter being set against the side of the vat, and sunk through the curd to the bottom, .is drawn up again so as to cut the cubes 234 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. afresh, as in Fig. 133, this saving time and involving less waste than by causing the tool to return in its old track. The cutter should cover the width of the vat in either two or three times its own width. Its first use must be slow and gentle, with a later increase of speed as the curd grows harder. After a few rounds of the vat in this manner, the tool is drawn in various directions, as in Fig. 134, alter- , hating with a vertical movement which brings + the curd up to the surface, and gives the 1 \ 1 binary maker an opportunity of seeing that it is being uniformly treated. In order to the | least waste possible the edges should be keen; and in this respect the cutters as com- | monly made are defective, for their square —T edges of tinned steel cannot fail to rasp the curd. The Cheddar round edge would do —T much less mischief. Some makers have a | adopted the knives of the American system Fic. 133-—Curp-Curtinc., (Fig. 135), which are all that could be desired in that respect, and convenient as well. The vertical knife a is first used after the fashion of the Cheddar tool ; the horizontal knife 4 cutting the vertical strips into, cubes—somewhat irregular—for the curd does not present a rigid body; after which the knives are alternately used in oblique directions. Formerly small wires were used in the frame-cutter instead of blades, and these exercised a similar influence to the larger wires of ' ! 1 1 i 1 | ! | t : 1 I ' 1 L t | | 1 t t + fo i | | 1 ( | \ ! T | ' \ q ' ! 1 ' Loni Fie Preeti a eh oe Fic, 134.—Curp-CuTTER—SEconpD PosiTIon. the Cheddar breaker, though in a much lower degree, not only because of the difference in size of the wires, but also because the curd was left in larger lumps. With equal care and judgment a good cutting tool would do better work, in view of the aims of the system to retain a larger proportion of whey. The final size of the curd should be a little larger than the “peas” standard of the Cheddar method, and yet a little larger when a wire breaker is used. THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 235 When the curd is small enough it is allowed to sink, and when packed—which takes about half-an-hour, but should be tested—it is gathered under the whey. This may be done by the hands, the curd being doubled over from the lower end of the vat upon that at the upper end. It is better done with a “gatherer,” Fig. 136—a per- forated tinned sheet @ stretched on a light iron frame, having projections 6 6 which rest over the vat sides, with thumb- screws ¢ ¢ which hold it in place at any point. With the help of a second person the work may be very soon done; each having one hand to propel the gatherer, and the other to keep it at the right angle, as in Fig. 137, with an occasional touch to the curd to prevent its rolling or breaking. When the curd is doubled, the gatherer should be fixed in place by the screws ; and the hands, or a wooden rack, pressed on the curd surface to settle it in place. Here it remains until it has reached a stage of fermentation, which varies with different makers, but which, to be consistent with other points as here given, should be at least equal to I of the Colour-plate. Then the whey should be drawn, and the curd piled deeper if the air is below 60° F., and covered, the vat also being covered with its boards. In some dairies a separate cooler (Fig. 138) is used, a large cloth being spread within a 3 Fic. 135.—Cukb Knives, Fic. 136.—Curp GATHERER. _ Fic. 137.—~Curp GATHERER IN USE. the racks, and the curd piled closely within it. This should have also a wooden cover, and room enough beyond the racks for the curd to be ground. Since in the old method no heating is done after coagulation, ‘the propriety of the higher renneting temperature and the advanced stage of fermentation will be seen. The curd is cut, and, where no sink is used, piled afresh on a rack (Fig. 112), and covered again ; and this 236 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. may be repeated if the curd ripeness is not reached at the end of an hour and a half from the removal of the whey. The next stage of fermentation is shown by the litmus K (Colour- plate), and at this point the curd may be ground. If the ripening be carried beyond it there will be a corresponding tendency to hardness and solidity, and the texture special to the system will be ‘TT i HA Fic. 138.—Curpb Sink. lost. It is still wet and comparatively soft; and in the ordinary cylinder mill is liable to lose a good deal of fine curd and fat in the whey expressed by the teeth. Tearing is still better than cutting for the sake of the texture, but if it is adopted the teeth should be larger, and the cylinders correspondingly farther apart than in that suitable to the dry Cheddar curds. Attempts have been made to introduce ' cutting mills, but we do not know of one which properly meets the case. Apart ae from the improved tearing, the best ‘ practice is gentlé crimming, the curd . having first been cut into 3-inch cubes. 5 It will be difficult, if not impossible, to avoid some loss by white whey. That is one of the disadvantages of the system, ae a but it need not be so great as it com- 1. monly is. a The proportion of salt is one of the MH mysteries of the Cheshire dairy, and has Fic. 139.—OveN Hoop. many variations according to the practice of the individual makers. Such a curd as we have in mind should receive one pound to every forty gallons of milk, the great excess—as compared with the Cheddar reckoning—-meeting the higher fermentation and the loss of salt in the whey. As the latter item varies very much in different dairies, there is a like variation with the salt proportion also; and as it is not possible to describe the degrees of wetness, we must leave THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 237 the dairyer to follow his judgment, with the light given here and elsewhere to guide him. It is to be hoped that the public teachers will succeed in reducing the wetness to a fixed rule, as the hardness of the Cheddar curd has been, and so secure as nearly a uniform practice as may be. The coarse-grained salt is largely used with Cheshire curds, and mixed with them at this point. ; The curd is next put into a hoop a (Fig. 139), having a deep girth 4, and numerous perforations which admit of skewers, ¢ c, being thrust “into the cheese to assist in removing the free whey contained in its crevices. In this hoop the cheese is put into the ovex (Fig. 140), which is a cupboard large enough to contain one or two cheeses, the door a providing for ventilation (see arrows), the gutter 4 for the collection and discharge of the whey drainings through the spout ¢, and the hot-water pipes @ for the heating. The tempera- ture should be sufficient to secure a steady contraction of the curd with littleorno say pressure. The late Mr George Willis Uf la Mie, used to say that a well-made cheese 4 {I | | Hill NY should go together without pressing ; but doubtless this will depend on the tem- Y perature used, and the corresponding rate Z of fermentation and contraction. The Y ——=-— - oN TRAST NN TN PONY average of sundry practices makes 80° 1 es i F., with a range between 70° F.and go° =| et 1 ! | SS ——— F.; but we think that with the cheese “, made as above, from 80° F, to 85° F. will z (aN > best meet the case. A self-registering § @~!2Y/- TZ “Le thermometer (Fig. 24, p. 108) should be employed. Some makers use the water boiler in’ place of an oven, after its or- dinary use is over for the day; but while this may serve as a make- shift, it cannot be as manageable in temperature, and therefore not as reliable, as a regular oven. In the evening the cloth is changed, and the cheese replaced in the oven ; in the morning it is removed, reclothed, and put under low pressure. In the oven a half-cwt. is ample with a curd most needing pressure, and one cwt. is sufficient to commence with in the press. The weight is increased steadily during the four or five days it is in press, finally reaching a ton with all cheeses of 60 lbs. and upwards, Section. Fic. 140.— CHEESE OVEN. 238 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. and not less than 15 cwts. with lesser goods. In respect of pressure, the system goes beyond the Cheddar practice in point of time, but falls behind it in weight applied, and this is proper in view of the character of the curd and the texture desired. A greater pressure, and more rapid increase of it, would tend to retain an excess of /vee whey, and this could not fail to do mischief, encouraging irregular and excessive fer- mentation. However the systems may differ in their aims as to the proportion of whey to be held zz the curd, they all agree to expel the free whey which may be found among it. The Cheshire system seeks to effect this expulsion slowly, but none the less thoroughly in time ; and here may be noticed the old rule, that a cheese which becomes concave at its ends is a good one, while one which rises or becomes convex is judged to be inferior. The concave surface says plainly that the free whey has well escaped ; and the convex, that it is retained in sufficient quantity to cause undue fermentation, or that there is a taint at work. In either case gases are formed, which cause the bulging, though the taint is undoubtedly the worst of the two causes. A steady dripping of whey during the pressing, barely ceasing by the end of it, is also a sign of a good curd. The whole matter is dependent on the avoidance of haste, and excess, in the application of weight, and no shortening of the time of pressing can therefore be made without constant risk of damage. , The steady draining of whey makes it necessary to change the cloths daily, otherwise the outside of the cheese would be sodden, and the separation of the remaining whey hindered. The bandaging must therefore be left until the cheese is ready for the curing-room. The Cheshire makers lay on their bandages with flour paste, a custom for which we have so far failed to get any satisfactory explana- tion. The bandage as commonly made may need such help to adhesion, because it is not sewn to fit tightly; but the paste does not help the cheese, and the arrangement is clumsy and messy in spite of the fact that neat dairyers make a presentable cheese. The use of a closely-fitting bandage drawn on a few hours before the cheese finally leaves the press, would be cleaner, more easily applied, and afford a much better support to it. In the curing-room the goods are generally laid on plain shelves, or on the floors, and turned daily for the first month, on alternate days for the next month, and twice weekly afterwards. They are laid on. straw when fairly dry, but by the time a true Cheshire comes to the straw the advantage of its use is doubtful. Whatever purposes it is intended to serve are equally procurable on dry clean boards, in an atmosphere fulfilling the needs as to temperature and humidity. The curing temperature most suitable to the system is similar to THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 239 that of the Cheddar, ranging from 60° F. to 65° F.; but the moisture should be a little lower, ranging in the difference between the hygro- meter readings from 4° to 6°. There is reason to fear that, as with makers by other systems, the curing conditions are neglected ; but it must be plain that with so large a proportion of moisture in the cheese, the regulation of those conditions is a matter of the highest import- ance. The liability in this case is to an excess of atmospheric moisture, both because the cheeses need less than Cheddars, and because they give off at least 50 per cent. more, which cannot fail to increase the proportion in the air. This will often enough be in the wrong direction. On the other hand, the air must not be too warm or dry, or the goods will crack. The tendency to this is met by greasing them, in which case the material used should be simple wholesome fat, and a little—well rubbed on—will be better than a much larger quantity lightly applied. The time of curing will be from three to four months, and such a cheese will improve for as many more. Such, however, is the loss in weight that modern makers clear stocks as early as they can be carried safely. We may now describe new practices arising out of the change from the round wooden vat to the oblong one of metal, with its convenience for heating. One of these consists in heating the curd in the whey, somewhat after the manner of the Cheddar system of scalding, but with much less stirring, and no attempt at procuring any special degree of firmness. This takes the place of the oven, the temperature being raised as i the following table, viz. :— Air, Curd. 65° F. 94° F. 60° F. - : 95° F. 55°F. - 96° F. The effects of such temperatures on the fermentation is similar to that of the oven heat at 80° F. applied after salting and lasting fifteen or sixteen hours ; and the contraction of the curd is much greater also, tending to a dryness by the time it is ready for salting, equal to that of oven-dried curd when ready for pressing. A trained judgment will doubtless make equally good work by either course, but the old method is the safest in most hands. There is some difficulty in manipulating curd of such large size, and so tender, so as to avoid waste on the one hand and over-heating on the other. Some makers stir with their hands, laying their finger-tips together and drawing them towards themselves and upwards nearly to the surface, and then plunging them forwards and downwards again, so keeping the curd in a gentle rising motion. Others use an old-style wire breaker, or even a wooden hay rake, 240 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The hand-stirring needs two persons for the time; either of the tools make one sufficient ; but the latter are liable to cause more loss of fine curd and fat. Another practice is to heat the curd to about 90° F., and use the oven with a temperature of 70° F. to 74° F. to complete the work, Either method will serve, though we fail to see any practical advantage in the latter. The full scalding shortens the time of manufacture by a day, and is entirely consistent with the principles of the system; the partial scalding effects no economy whatever. The system as described is calculated to produce a typical Cheshire cheese, but there are still other practices which deserve notice. One is old, and still followed by a considerable number of makers in the early autumn, though it is not believed to work well in the later part of that season, when a return is made to the prac- tice given. It is known as the slow-rigening process, and by it some of the finest goods possible to the system have been made in past years. But the desire for an earlier turnover of capital is direct- ing attention more and more to the most recent or “ quick-ripening ” process. Besides these there is the Cheshire-Stilton method. These shall be dealt with in the order given. Slow-ripening Method.—-This proceeds with the night’s milk as the medium or standard method does, but uses a rather higher renneting temperature, averaging 90° F., and, with a corresponding decrease of rennet, produces curd of ordinary firmness in an hour. The curd is cut to the size of small peas, some makers scattering a little salt (apparently no definite quantity is used) over the whey during the division, with a view to check acidity. This last is a questionable practice, and might advantageously be replaced by a better management of the initial ripening. The heating, whether in vat or in oven, is applied as earlier described, and the whey re- moval and piling likewise; but the salting is done earlier than usual, the curd being crimmed for the purpose, and the salt proportion averaging 1 lb. to 40 gallons of milk. It is then put in a cloth or a hoop, and under a pressure of 28 lbs., for an hour, when it is crimmed again or ground, and sent to the oven under a pressure of 56 lbs. The after-management is like the other process. Quick-ripening Method.—-This commences like the others, but uses whey to forward fermentation, the standard of milk ripeness being equal to that of the Cheddar system, and the ripening may be safely carried out as there advised. The renneting temperature is low, 78° F. to 80° F., but the rennet is in great excess, some makers using as much as 50 per cent. more than for the medium process. The curd is ready for cutting in treble the time of curding, THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 241 and is reduced to the size of horse beans, when it is allowed to sink, and is gathered as usual, without scalding. The standard of curd ripeness is equal to L (Colour-plate). To allow for the great excess of whey, the salt proportion averages 2 Ibs. to 50 lbs. of curd. For the same reason the pressing is lower than in the other processes, and the draining continues somewhat after the cheeses have reached the curing-room. In other respects than those mentioned the man- agement is as in the other cases. The cheese is ready for sale in three or four weeks. It will now be well to briefly compare these methods. The most noticeable feature is the size to which the curd is cut in each case, providing for the retention of the appropriate quantity of whey ; the after-processes for whey extraction being alike, though differing in extent. The pains taken to expel whey and discourage fermenta- tion in the slow-ripening process also belongs to this connection. Next, the slight reduction in the rennet proportion of the slow- ripening, and the great increase of it in the quick-ripening method, and with these the variations in heating are consistent. The slow- ripening process approaches the most nearly of the three to the Cheddar, the quick-ripening method is its extreme opposite. The consistency of all three with general Cheshire principles must be manifest. The manufacture of quick-ripening Cheshires is attended by sundry risks and forms of commercial damage, which cannot be elsewhere so fitly considered as here. It may be freely admitted that a greater yield of produce is made, and a better price, along with an economy of time and labour in curing. .The bare statement would seem to establish the desirability of making such goods, especially from the farmer's point of view, but it does not. Against these items must be set the following, viz. :— (a.) The goods are subject to early deterioration ; and if not sold and used on the improving side of their best point, they are a source of serious loss to the maker, the trade, or the consumer, or to all of them. (o.) The increase of yield beyond the reasonable limit is entirely in water, and there is no advantage in that excess to any but the producer. Cut cheese in the hands of the consumer is subject to more waste by drying than would be possible with a standard cheese, and the shrinkage in the hands of the trade is unneces- sarily high. (c.) The better price is due to the state of the market when the early spring-made goods of this kind come into it, rather than to any inherent value. Q 242 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. (d.) The excess of fermentation, although accompanied by an excess of rennet, affects the food value prejudicially ; and the moral certainty is that the consumer, finding the tendency of the cheese to interfere with digestion and produce nausea, &c., will gradually cease to use it. It is evidently to the real and lasting interest of the Cheshire maker to encourage the use of cheese, and the making of quick ripeners is but a means of “killing the goose which lays the golden egg.” It will probably be answered by those who profit temporarily by the practice that the cheese was never more popular than now. That, however, has been true with many other things just before their collapse. Trading upon the ignorance of the people is growing more and more dangerous every day. They are learning to judge better of the value of foods; and although the day of enlightenment may seem far off, it is really very near. The people will not much longer buy whey at food rates, when its presence is known to be injurious to the cheese and to themselves. In the interests, as we conceive, of the makers of Cheshire we offer the foregoing facts for consideration, and with the hope that they will take the higher and safer ground of making the best food within the possibilities of their system, and so maintain their ancient reputation and their share of the public favour. The Cheshire-Stilton Method.—This is followed, to a small extent, with a view to the production of a cheese with certain characteristics of the two systems shared in common. The Cheshire texture, shape, and outward appearance are preserved, and the main lines of pro- cedure; but the fungoid moulds of the Stilton with their special flavour are secured also. We have already shown that the penicillium moulds can be cultivated in any cheese ; but this being the common practice of the Stilton makers, and of but few others in the country, the com- pound name chosen is appropriate. The management is like that for a slow ripening cheese until the curd is salted. Then a quantity of the previous day’s making, which has been kept partly covered in a stoneware vessel to prevent its becoming too dry, is mixed with the new product, and this carrying with it the spores of the mould starts the “fade,” as it is locally called. The proportion of the daily curd kept over is as follows, viz. :— Air Temperature. Proportion of Curd. 65° F. + 60° F. 4 55°F. & Certain Continental systems pursue a similar course. It is im- portant that the curd should be certain of being reached by the spores ; and if at intervals of a few days a little curd be kept in a separate THE CHESHIRE SYSTEM. 243 vessel until it is mouldy, the means of inoculation are always at hand. It is not safe to expect mere exposure to the air to secure the result, for a varying proportion of these goods fail to mould, and have to be sold at a low price. The oven is not used, the heat being destructive of the mould spores. The pressure is low, commencing with 4 cwt., in order to ensure the openness so necessary to the mould spreading, -and which is so liable to be lost with the drier curd ; and, as a result, and as a guide to practice, the dripping should have barely ceased when the cheese comes from the press. The best curing is done in a humid atmosphere, fully equal to that recommended for Cheddar cheese, and with a temperature ranging between 57° F. and 63° F. Finally, a comparison of the Cheshire and Cheddar systems will enable us to estimate their relative values, and teach us that neither can claim in full all the cheese virtues and economical advantages. In quality, digestibility, and keeping character, the Cheddar holds the first place ; but in cheese yield, and softness of body, the Cheshire surpasses. In labour, the Cheshire dairyer gets through his making earlier in the day ; but the long pressing, and many removals, and the changing and washing of cloths, fairly balance the account. It is out of our power to secure all the good points of both methods in their highest developments by any compromise; and the makers of both systems are recommended to stick to them, and do their best within their lines. CHAPTER XIV. THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS. Most of the remaining English hard-curd systems may be properly grouped together. They hold their principles in common, and their practices do not vary more than those of Cheshire makers in different dairies. Their products also are made either into small cylindrical cheeses, or flat and thin ones; the latter being probably twenty times as numerous as the former, and in even greater proportion by weight, because the flat cheeses are from two to four times as heavy as the others. This matter of size is determined by the character of the curds, which could not be safely made into large forms. Nothing seems to be known of the origin of any of them; but they have been followed time out of mind, and their simplicity confirms the probability that they are as old as either of those already described. The Derbyshire method is the most completely typical of the group, and shall be first dealt with, as fully as is requisite for practical purposes,—the others being afterwards compared with it, especially in the points of difference. As they are all alike in need of being reduced to a proper basis, the same course will be pursued as with the Cheshire system. The product of the Derbyshire method comes about midway between those of the Cheddar and Cheshire methods in proportion of water and in texture, being drier and more solid than the Cheshire, and more flaky than the Cheddar. In food value it holds an equal place with the Cheshire if equally well-made, and at its best is a fine article. Commonly, however, it is inferior to either ; and while we have known dairies which could command prices equal to the best made by other systems, we have generally found it tough and soapy, or hard and crumbly, ill-flavoured, and unevenly coloured. There is no explanation but the want of system and skill in the dairy. The pastures of Derbyshire are much of the same character of the best lands of Somersetshire, consisting of New Red Sandstone soils, skirting and uniting with the Carboniferous Limestone of the Peak district ; and THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS. 245 we believe that there are no better or more easily managed grass lands in any part of the country. Experience in making Cheddars from the milk of the southern part of the county has taught us that the soil influence is the same as on the Mendips,—the casein acting admirably under the rennet, and with standard milk-ripeness expelling its whey and hardening in the scald in about the same time as in the best Somersetshire dairies, and in less than half that required on ordinary sandstone or clay soils. There is therefore no “refuge for the destitute” in the mysteries of land and herbage; and the high possibilities of the method having been demonstrated, we see no reason for allowing it to fall into discredit and disuse. The milk is of much the same quality as that used in other hard-curd dairies, and is in good repute with the town trade for its keeping qualities. Large quantities are despatched daily to London, Birmingham, and other populous places. Here also are found the largest proportion of British cheese factories, the goods in which are made on the American, and not, as commonly stated, by the Cheddar system. The following description has nothing to do with the factory management of the Midlands, but refers simply to the making of the true Derbyshire cheese. From such materials as are at hand the accompanying table has been constructed as approximately representing the average composi- tion of the cheese. The eminent chemists who have analysed the products of other systems have largely passed by this article, but the figures given correctly present its special characteristics of composition. Water - - 35-00 Fat 28.00 Casein - - - 29.00 Sugar and extractives - 4.00 Salt ‘ 1.15 Ash - - 2.85 100.00 The high casein ratio, 1.036, is partly due to the practice of skimming the night’s milk, followed to some extent (though the average reduc- tion of the fat would be much greater if it were commonly done), and partly to the smaller extent to which the casein is changed by its fermentation into fats. The sugar and extractives are in much higher proportion than in Cheddar, but much lower than in Cheshire cheese. The Derbyshire has been called a “ sweet-curd” system ; but the term is liable to mislead, by conveying the impression that no acidity is developed. True, in comparison with the Cheddar, the production of acid in the early processes is lower ; but before the making of the 246 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. cheese is completed the curd-ripeness standard of that system has been passed, to reach its own, which is K (Colour-plate) by litmus test. One of the special causes of failure has been the insufficient encouragement of fermentation, as we shall presently show. The dairy in its general construction may be as for the Cheddar system ; the furnishings special to the case will be described in order. The management should secure a state of the night’s milk which, mixed with the morning’s, will bring the whole to the D standard (Colour-plate) ; and the greatest care should be taken not to exceed that point, the possibility of compensation being very limited by the principles of the system. But if the state of the mixed milks falls short of this standard of ripeness, it should be brought to it before renneting, otherwise the whole process will be scarcely less hampered by the effects of an ill balance than in the preceding systems. It is safest to err on the lower side of the standard, if at all; byt the best results cannot be uniformly obtained away from it. The renneting temperatures are as in the accompanying table, with proper variations for small quantities :— Air. Milk. 65° F. 790° F. 60° F, 80° F. 55 F. 81° F, The curd firmness, which is equal to that of the systems already dealt with, should be reached in an hour; and this, with the low standard of ripeness and temperature, makes a higher proportion of rennet necessary. The relative and combined influence of the three items gives the rennet the leading position and a start which would tend to softness and defective texture and flavour but for the later acidity. The careful covering of the vat is of the utmost importance, and “the double-cased vat may hold water kept at the renneting temperature with advantage. The division of the curd is as is in the Cheshire system, the fine wire breaker being much used, but this is inferior— for the system—to the cutter or knives, for the curd is slow in hardening, and more liable to waste than a more acid curd would be. It should be reduced to the size of horse beans, and then allowed to sink. The packing will be rather slow, but as the baling-out of the whey will take some time, this may be commenced in fifteen or twenty minutes, a hair strainer being used to prevent the disturbance of the curd (Fig. 96). The latter part of this work is but slowly done by hand, and the curd is much exposed to the air in any case ; it must therefore be as quickly performed as possible, without waste. The curd should be pressed by the hand, or by a wooden rack (Fig. 112), to consolidate it before the last whey is removed, and afterwards placed in a hoop (Fig. THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS, 247 119), and put under a gentle but increasing pressure, beginning with 14 lbs. and ranging upwards to 1 cwt., or even more, before the end is reached. The ancient plan was to press with the hands on the follower, and when the strength had reached its limit in that way the dairymaid knelt on the follower. It was observed that small women were unable to carry the work so far as was desirable before the cheese was put into press; for the presses used were of the old stone sort, which could not be regulated, and tended to seal up the whey in the curd, as undue pressure at first does in a Cheddar. More weight was needed to bridge over the gap, and as a heavy woman could furnish this, the old maxim “ The bigger the dairymaid the better the cheese,” k i { | m ——= z 6 HI b Fic. 141.—DERBYSHIRE CHEESE-MAKING APPARATUS. came into use. The practice gave the dairymaid sore limbs, however, and sundry attempts were made to put an end toit. The best of the devices for that is the apparatus designed by the late Mr Joseph Harri- son of Brailsford (Fig. 141), which places the vat (2) upon a frame, from which two uprights (4 4) rise to a height of five or more feet, according to the diameter of the vat, and support two transverse bars (c @), which are largest at their midway points where a toothed bar (e) passes through them. This bar is raised or lowered by a wheel (/), worked in turn by a crank (g), an arrangement which gives a much quicker motion than a screw could do. Upon a boss (4), the ends of two powerful springs (¢ 2) press, and the boss is controlled by a lever (2), while a second lever (/) controls a pin (), which catches between 248 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. the teeth of the bar (e) at any point desired. At the lower end of the toothed bar another short bar (7) connects it with a large tinned steel plate (0), which is fastened to a light but strong frame of malleable iron. The joints are so made as to allow this plate to be tipped, so as to put it out of the way, while giving all rigidity to it when in use. The plate has many perforations, of one-tenth of an inch diameter, which allow the whey to pass through it when it descends, and it should fit the interior of the vat as closely as possible without actual contact. The vat must therefore be a true cylinder, and if a hot-water case is provided it must be under it only. A tap () just above the level of the compressed curd, and another (7) at the lowest point, should be pro- vided for the removal of the whey. The bottom should be flat, and well supported by a ring (s) under it or in the hot-water space. The use of the apparatus is very simple. The plate, with a heavy covering of baize, serves as a cover for the new curd. When it is ready to cut, the lever (Z) is pressed down, releasing the catch-pin (#), and with the handle (g) the bar is raised as high as it will go and the plate tipped. The curd having been cut, the plate is let down into its place, and slowly lowered until the curd will support it with only the least per- ceptible lowering of surface. Then it can be left to itself for ten to fifteen minutes to the pressure of the plate and bar, the catch pin being fastened back to allow free motion. Then the lever & being pressed down, the boss % is raised an inch or two, and the pin m being released it catches in the teeth of the bar ¢, and the springs pressing on the boss force the bar and plate downwards. A repetition of this at intervals of five minutes will by and by depress the curd surface below the level of the tap Z, when the whey should be drawn off, and the pressure continued until the curd is packed firmly enough to stand without support. This will be readily learned by observation. The plate should then be raised and tipped, and a piece of the curd a foot or more wide be cut from around the tap, as in Fig. 142, and placed at the centre. If the curd around the free space breaks down easily under .its own weight, it needs more pressure before removing the remaining whey; if it stands well, the whey may be drawn off, and the curd cut as in the illus- Fic. 142.—Curp Cur. THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS. 249 tration, the pieces 4 6 being piled quickly and neatly in the middle. Then the pressure may be gently applied afresh, with increase until the curd is spread abroad nearly to the sides,—the vat frame being tipped an inch by wedges, so that the expelled whey may easily drain away. This cutting and pressing is repeated until the curd will bear crimming without loss of whzfe whey, when it should be so treated, and put into a hoop, and under a pressure of 1 cwt., this gradually increasing to 3 cwts. in five hours after. In a system which works the expulsion of the. whey entirely by cutting and pressure, it is plain that the weight must be very light at first, and gradually in- creased as needed, but without any sudden leap of even a few pounds from one stage to another, until the curd is able to bear 1 cwt. without loss of white whey. This delicate control is given by such an appar- atus as we have described, and is essential to the usefulness of any invention for the working of this system. The shortening of the curd exposure also helps to the very superior result which follows this plan, as compared with the older methods. Up to this point the advance in fermentation has been slow, and the curd has scarcely got beyond the Cheddar milk ripeness (E, Colour-plate) ; but being sent to press without salting it will ripen at such a rate that by the next morning it will show L (Colour-plate) by litmus. A small surface of the cheese being exposed by shifting the cloth, and a slit cut in it, the litmus paper should be pressed between its sides. If the stage given is not reached it should be returned to press. The time necessary to attain ripeness may easily be learned by observation, and the probabilities of temperature in- fluence during the making and following night should be watched as well. Ifthe fermentation has exceeded the proper stage, a slight increase of salt will check it ; but as it will also tend to dry the cheese unduly, it cannot be a proper compensation. The consequences of under or over ripening are as in other systems. The former is the more common experience; the result of starting with too low a fermentation, of the loss of temperature in the course of the work, of being in too great haste to salt, of salting by rule of time or insufficiently or unevenly, &c., and, in no small number of cases, due to the fear of over-ripening, and—for want of means of testing progress and of regulation—falling short of the proper condition for safety’s sake. Hence the soapy, dis- coloured cheese so often found under this system. In support of this, great benefit has been obtained by the practice, occasionally -met with, of keeping over a quantity of unsalted curd from one day to the next to mix with the new curd before sending it to press. What is this but the introduction of a considerably fer- 250 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. mented curd—for the curd so kept is distinctly acid—into one which has but the beginnings of fermentation, and this instead of putting whey into the milk? The difficulty of estimating a day beforehand the quantity of curd required, with all the uncertainties of changing conditions affecting the rate of fermentation in the old and the new curds, will occur to the reader. Nevertheless, some of the best cheeses made by the system have been treated in this way; and Professor Sheldon quotes, in “ Dairy Farming” (Cassells), an increase of price in one dairy of 15s. to 20s. per cwt., directly following on the adop- tion of this plan. The proper ripening of the milk, and the after- management on the lines already laid down, must needs, however, give much more uniform results than this practice, and in this way the Derbyshire maker may move towards certain and permanent improvement. Another item in the past and present practice must be noted. Most of the cheese- making is done in the farm kitchens. For several reasons earlier discussed this is not desirable, but in this particular case it has an important influence on the work, and one we believe seldom if ever suspected, The kitchen is generally the warmest room in the house during the hours of cheese-making, and being used much in the evenings also by the family or servants, it keeps at a comfortable tem- perature during the colder nights of the making season. This is specially good for the. cheese with its low temperature and ripeness ; and the removal to a separate dairy would necessitate either a warm- ing of the apartment at the colder times, or a raising of the initial conditions favourable to fermentation, in order to balance matters afresh. . After the curd ripeness comes the salting. The method practised from time immemorial has been that of rubbing salt on the outside of the cheese, or immersing it in brine, or bo:h. Hence in part the shape of the cheese, which is calculated to allow the salt to reach its middle. It is, however, quite certain that many cheeses are never so pene- trated, and that all the rest are unevenly salted. Experience proves what common-sense would dictate, that it is impossible to properly season the inside of a cheese without over-doing its outer portion ; and some makers finding this, scatter a little salt on the curd, from I to 5 ozs. to every 10 lbs. of curd. Even from this an improvement arises, but it by no means properly meets the case.’ It is believed by some that differences in soils make it needful to vary the methods of salting in different districts, and even on adjoining farms. This, however, we are convinced is a delusion ; and in cases where one method answers and the other fails, a search will prove that the secret lies in the management. It is, for instance, easy to understand why-many curds THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS. 251 made from unripe milk, or salted too early, and so damaged in curing by a proportion of salt which would have been suitable to a perfect curd, may be helped by the outside salting ; but the cure is not to be found in this, with its unevenness of result, but in the proper manage- ment of the fermentation /rom the beginning. 1n the calculation of the salt, too, no invariable proportion can be used unless there is also an invariable condition of the curd as to fermentation and dryness ; and yet there is too much reason to believe that when the salt is mixed with the curd, the state of the latter is not generally considered. There is, moreover, an impression among the makers that the adoption of this practice would spoil the goods, or at least involve such a revision of the management as they do not care to undertake. In this they are mistaken. The only necessary addition to the furniture is a mill (Fig.- 115), with which the curd should be ground when ripe, being torn into pieces of two or three inches across for the purpose. With only the trouble of doing this, and calculating the salt by a table and according to the dryness of the curd, and without the sacrifice of a single essen- tial principle, the change can be made; and, as we know from experi- ence, with entire and permanent benefit. We will not, therefore, waste space by describing the old methods, but recommend the employment of 1 lb. of salt to 50 gallons of milk, with slightly increased propor- tions according to need. The size of the cheese may then be increased without danger, even to Cheshire proportions if desired ; and this also with benefit, because with less waste by shrinkage, and more perfect curing. By the use of lever presses the last pressing may be more perfectly done than with those of stone; but, as with Cheshire cheese, the increase must be slow, taking from four to five days, and the figures given for that system is appropriate with this. The temperature is never likely to be too high for pressing under the main conditions of the system and in this climate, but the upward limits should not exceed those of the Cheddar; and of the curing temperature the same may be said. The danger is in the other direction ; and it must be clear that too low a temperature in either case would do more mischief than with a cheese made from the first with higher temperatures. The necessity for avoiding this error is therefore urged, and any reasonable means for bringing the curd out at the time of going to press at the tempera- tures in the accompanying table should be used :— Air. Curd. 65° F. 60° F. 60° F. 63° F. 55°F. 65° F. 252 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The curing-room should not fall below 60° F., nor the hygrometer vary more than 4° F. between the dry and wet readings. The Derby- shire cheese needs more air moisture than the Cheshire. The curing will take from three to four months, and improvement will follow for as many more ; but the thin shape allows of too much drying to admit of profitable keeping, and on the same account the cheese is not so palatable after the limit given. In the face of long usage the adoption of the Cheshire size and form, with internal salting, is desirable. The yield of cheese by the Derbyshire system is between the Cheshire and Cheddar, but comes nearer to the latter because of the greater drying. In labour it gives less than the Cheshire in the earlier stages, being out of hand an hour or two earlier when a proper apparatus is used. There is no oven-heating, no skewering, and only the same changing of cloths as with the Cheshire; and with the salting zz the curd, the time and toil of the outside treatment is done away. The Lancashire cheese-makers follow the Derbyshire system in every essential point, and, so far as we can learn, even in the details of practice. In East Staffordshire it is also commonly used, but in the north-western part of that county the tendency is to the Cheshire system. In North Warwickshire and in Nottinghamshire it is the general method, gradually mixing with or melting into the Gloucester in the former case, and into the Leicester in the latter. To the cheese-making within this wide field the foregoing applies as a whole. No small part of that district lies on the New Red Sand- stone soils, concerning which the remarks on Cheshire soils will be useful. The Leicester System.—This prevails in the county of that name, especially in its western part, occupied almost entirely by the Sand- stone formation. The eastern part is, to a like extent, occupied by the Lias, and is the district of the Stilton manufacture, though the Leicester is made more or less in different parts of it. The product is more flaky than the Derby, but less so than the Cheshire, and in all practical respects holds an intermediate position between them. The average of sundry analyses is given in the accompanying table :— Water - - 34.05 Fat - : 28.28 Casein - - 28.50 Sugar and Extractives - - 4.98 Salt - - - 1.12 Ash - - 3.07 THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS. 253 The proportion of sugar and extractives confirms the position assigned “ toit. The system is entirely consistent with these facts. The dairy, as for the Cheshire system, is suitable to it. A higher fermentation is secured by the renneting temperature in the adjoining table, though some makers use lower ones, and draw nearer to the Derbyshire standard :— Air temp. Milk. 65° F. 82° F. 60° F. 83° F. 55 F. 84° F. The half-way point is, however, very desirable, as giving a definite and distinguishable result, and this is only attainable by the higher range given. The standard of milk-ripeness should be D (Colour-plate), and the rennet calculated with the other items to cause curding in twenty minutes, the standard of curd firmness being reached in an hour, as in the previous systems. The curd should be cut rather than broken, and reduced to the size of horse beans. No scalding is allowed, but a second heating to bring the contents of the vat back to the renneting temperature is proper whenever more than a couple of degrees Fahr. have been lost. The curd should then be allowed to settle for twenty minutes, and gathered by hand or plate (Fig. 136) under the whey, after the removal of which it is cut and piled, and covered until it is ready for the next stage. The curd is now put under a gentle pressure, and this increased until the curd ripeness (K, Colour-plate) is attained, when it is ready for salting. By keeping the curd up to its first temperature as nearly as possible—water kept at equal temperature being under the vat, and this latter well covered—it should be ready for salting in the evening of the same day, just as the Derby with its lower temperature and whey proportion is ready on the following morning. The Leicester makers have long followed the Derby practice of outside salting, the remarks concerning which are quite as appropriate in this as in that case. The proper quantity for such a Leicester as we have before us will be 1 lb. of salt to 45 gallons of milk, All the after-management should be as with Derbies. The Gloucester System.—This is mainly confined to the county of its name, and to the adjoining north-western part of Wiltshire. The product is an advance Cheddar-wards from the Derby standard, being more solid and less flaky. There are two makes—the “ single” and “double” Gloucesters,—about which very erroneous notions prevail among the consumers. The most common is that the former is made from whole milk, and the latter with a double proportion of cream. The real difference is in size only,—the single being made of 14 Ibs., and the double of 24 to 28 Ibs. weight. 254 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The accompanying tables give the average composition of the two makes :— : Single. Double. Water 27.66 33-78 Fat - = (27/12 27.19 Casein - 38.00 31.50 Sugar and Extractives 3.05 3.21 Salt - - 1.26 1.55 Ash 2.91 2.77 100.00 100.00 The first of these represents well the modern typical “ szag/e,” made from the night’s milk, creamed, with the new milk of the morning, the casein ratio being 1.438, and the water much less than usual, partly due to the creaming, and partly to the shape of the cheese, which is seldom more than 23 inches thick. In earlier days the practice of skimming was little resorted to, but in these it is the rule rather than the exception, and the cheese has largely lost its old reputation, and goes to the colliery districts of South Wales for a market. The “ doubles” are but little made now—an exception this to the law of the “survival of the fittest.” Their composition shows a moister cheese, with a casein ratio of 1.154, showing some skimming. The capabilities of the system are equal to those of the Derbyshire, if correctly pursued, and with whole milk of average quality. It is therefore a cause of regret that it should have been allowed to fall to its present level. The only difference between the two in management is that the Gloucester- shire makers use a wire-breaker, or the hand, the result being a loss of the moisture and flakiness peculiar to the cutting systems. With this exception, the principles and practices are given under the Derbyshire system. One peculiarity of this make, however, must be mentioned with condemnation,—the practice of colouring the outsides of the cheeses with Indian red or Spanish brown, or a mixture of both rendered with beer, and so giving them a distinctive appearance by which the public are, or used to be, guided to the real (?) article. It is to be hoped that an earnest effort will be made to restore the ancient reputation of the cheese; and that such a decoration, not being needed to secure its credit, will be discarded. , The Wiltshire System.—This was probably at one time identical with the Gloucester, for even yet some of its goods, though of different shape, are made in that way. No fairly reliable representative analyses are at hand, but the cheese as now made may be divided into two kinds,—(a) the flat (or “ doudle-” shaped), or deeper cylindrical goods of Cheddar diameter; and (4) the small cylindrical cheeses THE DERBYSHIRE AND KINDRED SYSTEMS. 255 known as “ Wiltshire loaves.”. The former are made as the Glouces- ters, with one exception, and that a very important one. From the Cheddar system, whose stronghold is the neighbouring county of Somerset, it has borrowed the principle of a second heating—the average temperature used being go” F, ; and this, while not equalling in its effects the higher scalding of the Cheddar, makes such a differ- ence in the fermentation and the resulting firmness, texture, and flavour, as to justify a distinction from all others. The only item which needs to be mentioned is the standard proportion of salt, which is best fixed at one pound to fifty gallons of milk, with such variations as may be needed. In all other respects the principles and practices are those of the Derby and Gloucester systems, the wire-breaker being used. The second make is exactly similar to the Gloucester, no second heating being used. Salting on the outside is somewhat practised, but should give place to the better method earlier discussed. The unsuitability with cheeses of nine inches diameter and equal: depth must be evident. The Dorsetshire System.— This—if it deserves to be called a system —has reference to the treatment of milk that has been more or less creamed, the county producing large quantities of butter, and the cheese being regarded as of secondary importance. The stock is that common to the other systems described in this chapter, but there has been more or less grafting on to it of Cheddar practices, so that it is difficult to bring them into any order. Two main aims are kept in view—(a) the retention of sufficient moisture to ensure a mellowness of the cheese ; and (4) the cultivation of the blue mould. The former (a) has been dealt with at large under the Cheddar system; and the Cheshire, Derbyshire, and kindred systems have illustrated the principle with variations in temperature and fermentation, productive of correspond- ing variations in cheese character. It is, therefore, unnecessary to go into details. The general result of the Dorset practice is a cheese with a little more water than the Gloucester, but inclined to a Cheddar texture rather than to flakiness. The latter (4) is supposed to bea magnificent mystery, known only to the Dorset makers, and worth a fortune to its possessors. Unfortunately, however, for this notion, it can be practised with any British system, and the result happens occa- sionally in all dairies without any attempt at cultivation. The grafting of curds kept over for a day, as in the Cheshire-Stilton practice, is all that is needed, with an appropriate management of the curing tem- perature. The love of the mould flavour in the case of the Dorset gives it undeserved favour with consumers who do not know of its origin. 256 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The Wensleydale System.—This, which is confined to a district of small farms in Yorkshire, is specially adapted to small quantities of milk, and is really the Derbyshire system with wider ranges of tem- perature to allow for the rapid loss of heat. The largest cheeses seldom exceed 20 lbs. weight, the smallest weigh so little as 7 lbs. each ; and are of variable shape, though generally inclining to that of the Derbies. The best practice may be reduced to a brief statement of the points in which it differs from the Derbyshire system. Standard of milk ripeness, C (Colour-plate) ; renneting temperature, 97° F. Rennet to cause curding in fifteen minutes, the curd being cut in forty-five minutes, and broken by hand, or by a small-wire breaker. The temperature is restored at the end of breaking by hot whey—old Cheddar fashion. Curd put under pressure of 7 Ibs., increasing to 56 lbs. Temperature, 82° F. at hooping. Removed, crimmed, salted, and replaced. Salt, 1 oz. to 3 gallons of milk. Final pressing temperature, 60° F. CHAPTER XV. THE STILTON SYSTEM. WE have now to describe a system which differs so markedly from those which have gone before, and is of such importance, as to need special consideration. The Stilton is a modern method, dating, so far as its history is known, only from the middle of the last century. Its procedure is so unlike all others of its own age in England, and possesses so many points in common with certain Continental systems, that we consider it likely to have been imported. So persistent have been the efforts to keep it as a monopoly of the original district in Northern Leicestershire and West Rutlandshire, that it has always been difficult to obtain information concerning it. It has often been asserted that the real product cannot be made out of that district,—- that the soil and herbage are different from all others, and that the secrets of the manufacture are locked up in the bosoms of its dairy- maids and will never be divulged. But in spite of all this we have tasted Stiltons made far away from Leicestershire, of as fine quality as any we have ever seen of the make of that county. The Lias soils are found in other cheese-making districts, and with similar herbage. The special points in the construction of the dairies, and in the. system itself, are within the reach of human intelligence ; and the application of scientific principles to the aims and practices now known, will give higher and more uniform results than have been obtained in any past period. But for commercial considerations the Stilton might easily become as well known as the Cheddar or American cheese in the markets of the world. The dairy suitable for this system costs much more, the labour is much greater during the making, the time of curing is longer, and the cost of production proportionately higher, than with the systems already described. The prices of years ago paid well in spite of all these things, the maker realising -1od. per lb.; but we are assured that this is only rarely obtainable now, and that at times the price has fallen as low as 6d. per lb, Calculating upon a reasonable basis, it cannot pay the maker R 258 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. when it falls below 8d. per Ib., for at 7d. it would scarcely pay for its milk at cost production and making expenses. There should be no difficulty in securing a paying price, for the article is a luxury of the highest order, and people who desire it should not hesitate to pay from rod. per lb. and upwards for it. It will probably never be a cheese for the masses, for its food value is no higher than the average hard-curd cheese, and this points to a narrow limit of increased production. The manufacture should only be undertaken with the certainty of a sufficient demand, and under conditions which will make possible the finest quality. The Stilton is known by its drab-coloured wrinkled skin; its texture, which tends to be crackly rather than solid or flaky; its mould, distributed throughout ; and its flavour, in which the mould and the products of fermentation mingle to produce a combination only possible to such conditions, The material is either whole milk only, or this with extra cream in varying proportions. The cheese made its fame with the latter, the highest proportion of fat allowed to it being given by mixing the cream of the night’s milk with the whole milk of the morning,—an increase of from 30 to 45 per cent., according to the average size of the globules and the conditions of creaming. Hence the common notion that the product is a “cream cheese.” It is, however, not usual now to give it so much fat, and the extra cream more likely ranges from I0 to 15 per cent. increase on the average milk proportion. The original milk is of no higher quality than in other leading dairy districts; and as the average cream yield under ordinary conditions is from Io to 12 per cent., it may be taken that the proportion in the united material will range from 11 to 14 per cent. about equal to 3.50 to 4.50 per cent. fat. This is a much lower range than the old standard, but increases considerably the fatness of the cheese, because of the increase of the solids in proportion to the loss of water. The following analyses by the late Dr A. Voelcker (R.A.S.E. Journal, vol. 22, part 1) give a good representation of the facts of composition. The first was a comparatively young cheese, selling at a shilling, and the second an old cheese selling at fourteenpence, per pound. I Il. Water ... igs it 32.18 20.27 Fat. ws se 37.36 43-98 Casein ... wea te 24.31 Sugar and Extractives ad 2.22 33-55 Salt a sa a .89 +29 Ash ‘iis se aie 3-04. 1.91 100.00 100.00 THE STILTON SYSTEM. 259 Dr Voelcker noted that the latter, with its lower proportion of salt, tasted much more salty than the former with three times as much, and properly attributed this to the ammoniacal salts produced in the curing; and he stated that he has found in old Stiltons as much as 1.81 per cent. of ammonia (NH). More of this later; but it should be noticed that if the casein proportion of No. 2 be reckoned as equal to that of No. 1 (.65), though by reason of the increase of fat it would naturally be lower, it will have 7 per cent. of sugar and extractives, proving a high degree of fermentation with no original excess of whey, as shown by the final water proportion, and therefore the result of a low salt proportion. This typical example leads us to ask what the effect of such treatment is on the food value of the article. It is clear that the casein will be in a more advanced state of decomposition, and to some extent there- fore more digestible than in No. 1, but the pungent NH, salts, volatile fats, and ptomaines of fermentation, would render such a cheese altogether unfit for the use of many consumers, and more or less mischievous to as many more. There must also be some waste of the casein, which would be a good food with a lower fer- mentation, but—with the higher—is converted into products of little or no value. The increase of fat beyond the proportion of good milk does not increase the food value as much as is usually believed. That butter as a luxury is worth more money than casein, is true in these days; but pound for pound it is of far less value for the building up of the human body. Now it must be evident that when a certain quantity of partly creamed milk is sent to the pigs because its cream is wanted to enrich the morning’s milk, the loss on the former increases the cost of the cheese in proportion to the cream added to its material. In view of the real difference in food value, is it worth the while? We believe it is not. A cheese of high quality can be made from good whole milk without such waste ; and the maker who follows the old plan should calculate the loss arising from it, and claim for his cheese the extra price which will compensate him. If that is not obtainable, he will do well to fall back on the plain milk. Another question arises out of the assertion, sometimes made, that the finest goods can only be obtained from the milk of one farm, or even of one milking. The influence of mixing has been already discussed, and it remains only to be said that there is nothing in the Stilton system to justify any fear of it. The alleged necessity for using milk straight from the cow is based on the sup- position that the loss of “animal heat” is detrimental, if not fatal, 260 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. to high quality. This also has been dealt with elsewhere, and we have failed to find any special reason for an exception in the case before us. If it be shown that some makers have succeeded better with fresh milk than with a mixture of night’s and morning’s; or with the milk of one farm than with the milks of two farms blended; then we may safely say that the explanation is to be found in the inability of those makers to adapt their management to varying con- ditions. With fresh drawn milk there must needs be a modification in practice; we shall not waste space in de- scribing it, but leave those i ae of UE i who choose to make cheese twice a day on the strength of a foundationless _ belief, ; to judge from the facts of o Chapter VIII. what the man- EDEL EEE Zitat, Vee d agement should be. The Stilton dairy differs so much from those of the preceding systems as to justify a special description. ; The location and aspect may , be as before, and in Fig. 143 is shown the best arrange- ment of the interior for an equal manufacture. Entering the boiler room A (10x65), we find the boiler (1) with its flue (2), its feed pump (3) above the return water-tank (4), and the washing-tub (5) and rack (6), as in the Cheddar dairy (Fig. 32). In the making-room C (14 x 10) are the vat (7), draining troughs (8), sundry shelves (9), of which there should be several tiers fifteen inches apart for the numerous stores and utensils ; and if the night’s milk is set in pans, these will rest on shelves over the draining troughs (8). The milk is delivered by a conductor through the window, below which is a platform (10) protected by a projecting roof (11) (as in Cheddar dairy). A desk (12) completes its furniture. To the left are two rooms; the first D (12 x 8$) being the draining room, fitted with racks (13). A OY Y MK WwW AN UY WS IW mnt — YY - MLL LUE rennet Fic. 143.—STILTON Dairy—PLan, THE STILTON SYSTEM. 261 set of heating pipes connect directly with the hot-water boiler, so that this room may be warmed separately. A flue leads to a revolving venti- lator (Fig. 50) on the roof. We next reach the coating room E (12 x 5), also fitted with shelves, and ventilated like D (15), but of smaller size, because the cheeses do not remain in it so long. The drying room F (22 ft.x 7 ft. g in.) occupies the whole width of the building. The process carried on in it necessi- tates a passage of air, but this must be under complete control, and therefore a special provision must be made for it. No attempts to regulate the air, which may be admitted from without by windows, perforated zinc, wall ventilators, &c., can be altogether sufficient at all times, and in order to the best results we recommend the use of a-fan (Fig. 114) with a simple é device for the proper distribution of the Fic. 144.—A1r DisTRIBUTION. air admitted. A wooden partition at each end of the room, 6 in. from the wall at the west, and 9 in. from that at the east end, makes an air space which communicates with the outer air on the west by louvre ventilators (a, Fig. 144), behind which are sliding shutters (4) to allow of the air being cut off if necessary. The ventilators can be reached by little doors (c) in the partition. There should be three sets, two feet apart, and about half as high above the ground as the shelves are within the room. A series of holes (@) of four inches diameter, and covered with perforated zinc, are so placed as to distribute the air evenly. The hot-water pipes ¢ for the room are set within this par- titioned space, with a door (/) to reach them. The partition at the west end is constructed on similar lines, but there is only one outlet, where the fan works. So to prevent the air from gathering to the points nearest to the fan, instead of cover- ing the whole shelf-space in its motion, the draught holes (a, Fig. 145) are set vertically, and at half the distance between the fan (4) and the wall, and a cross partition ¢ supports the main partition and divides the air in the space, so helping to spread the draught. The fan may be worked by a water-wheel driving . the differential pulley. The use of this provision will be explained in its place. The shelves (16) in this room should be in double sets, Fic, 145.—Air OUTLETS. 262 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. and of five tiers 13 inches apart, placed across the line of the draught. Beyond this room is the curing-room G (22x20), similarly fitted with shelves (17), but in tiers of six, a single set also being fixed against each end wall. Flues (18) to a revolving ventilator on the roof work with the heating pipes (19) and air ingress holes (20), as in the Cheddar dairy. In placing this room on the ground- floor we are respecting an old Stilton practice, which seeks the necessary humidity by sinking its floor a couple of feet below ground level. We do not believe there is any necessity for this, and the cost of the building is considerably increased by the greater amount of foundations and roof required. A very little trouble would meet the need of air moisture; or, by shortening the time in the drying room a little, the youngest cheeses entering would maintain the proper condition. If the dairy be divided into two floors, the rooms F and G may occupy the upper. The provision of perfectly jointed ceilings, with sawdust, and a lined and white-washed roof, is as necessary with this system as with any; and in order to perfect control of the temperature, which must have more limited range than even with the Cheddar, it is advised that rooms D, E, and G be lined (Fig. 28), and with C and F, be provided with double windows, and these again with thick blinds or shutters. The room B, used as before for boilers and coals, needs no description, beyond the fact that since the hot-water circulation must, in part at least, be nearly on ground level, the boiler (22) must be set lower. A difference of three feet will be ample. The arrows show the direction of the various floors, and the drains are laid as in the Cheddar dairy (Fig. 32). The management of the night’s milk is the same as in all other systems, and where creaming is done on the old lines any good setting system may be followed. The use of cold water will make the ordinary double vat as good for the purpose as any, and for enriched cheese the creamed milk may then be drawn from under the cream to any desired extent by slightly opening the tap. The vat may be made deeper and narrower with advantage. When the whole milk only is to be used, the agitator (Fig. 77) is strongly recommended. Every precaution against ill odours should be taken. Probably the neglect of such has sent some makers, after sundry disasters, to the twice-a-day making ; a very costly and unnecessary remedy. No standard of ripeness seems ever to have been recognised ; but that one is as necessary as in any other case, there can be no doubt. We believe that, in view of the general tendency of the processes, the standard should be D (Colour-plate), and that this is better than a lower one would be, with more latitude given for after-fermentation by THE STILTON SYSTEM. 263 using less salt. The items to follow will be made consistent with this. The temperatures should range as in the accompanying table :— Air. Milk. 65° F. 84° F. 60° F. 85° F. 55°F. 86° F. and the rennet should be sufficient, with these conditions, to produce a curd of the same firmness as in previous systems in an hour. Here we differ from some makers, who follow a more advanced standard of firmness ; but Continental experience with kindred systems, shows that the best goods are made with curds not exceeding, but falling behind, the Cheddar standard ; and some of the most successful Stilton makers CTT Tai IY j Cee il Se . Fic. 146.—DRaAINING TROUGH. confirm this. The contents of the vat should be kept as closely as possible to the renneting temperature by covering, and even by using water of equal temperature around it if necessary. The proper con- dition being reached, it is well to cut the curd with keen knives, such as those used in the American system (Fig. 135), thus assisting a little Fic. 147,—FRAME TO Carry PERFORATED PLATE. the expulsion of the whey, and enabling the next process to be done without waste. The draining trough (Fig. 146) is now brought into use. This is best made in two parts, the outer one (a) of wood being 28 to 30 inches wide inside, and as many times that measure in length as may be necessary for the quantity of curd made at the height of the season. The inner case of tin (4) should rest on the outer one, sloping inwards an inch and half on every side, and being as much less in depth, so as to ‘allow space for water around and beneath it. At an inch to two inches 264 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. above the bottom of this case, a plate ¢ (or plates if the vessel is more than 4 ft. long), with coarse perforations, should rest on a loose frame, constructed as in Fig. 147, with spaces cut on the under sides of its cross-bars to allow of the whey draining off towards the spout at d (Fig. 146). This rack is necessary to prevent the plate from sinking in the middle. The total depth of the inner case should not be less than 6 inches, but may be deeper with large quantities of curd up to ro inches. The whey outlet should be made as in Fig. 148, and the joint with the outer case made water-tight with a rubber ring and white lead. An overflow pipe ¢, Fig. 146, should be provided for the water, and a tap / for removing it finally. The inner case needs a support also, as shown in Fig. 149, but this may be fixed. The whole should be made to slope a half inch in every 28 inches towards the outlets, and stand upon a substantial framework yg, making—with the trough—a total height of three feet. Squares of strainer cloth are now required, of 45 to 48 Fie. 148. inches, and these secured by pins or hooks to simple Wuey Ourter. frames, which rest upon the trough as in Fig. 150, The frames must be as wide as the trough, and 2 inches longer than that width, to allow of their projecting an inch on either side. Into these cloths the curd is now to be ladled by a bowl as quickly as is RVrrrrrnnsnvocsavatensvasuvonnccenvenerocnucucurnaacasneceatarnenaeeaneernenaeraanneaecaii! Fic. 149.—Supports oF INNER Case. possible without waste, distributing it equally among the cloths in use. After all that can be taken up by the bowl—with the vat tipped—has been got out, the remainder can be removed by the tap, fully open, the last being gently forwarded by the hand, and caught in a shallow pan placed close under the tap, so as to prevent the smashing which would take place with a longer fall, The vat is now done with for the day. The trough Fic, 150.—Strainer CLoTH on Frame. should now be covered, and if the air temperature is below 65° F. water kept at the renneting temperature should be supplied to maintain it. The more frequently this is done the less risk there will be of mischief, THE STILTON SYSTEM. 265 either by the curd getting too cold or being over-heated, or unevenly heated, in bringing up the temperature afresh. The quantity of water and frequency of removal will depend on the air temperature ; but if it be kept within two degrees of that for renneting, as tested by drawing a little from the tap f, there will be no difficulty. After fifteen minutes of draining, the frames should be removed, and the cloths tied loosely together as in Fig. 151. At thirty minutes from the first covering the whey can be drawn off, a con- ductor carrying it through the coating-room to a re- ceiver outside the building. This draining must be re- peated at increasing in- tervals (the whey being he: expelled less in proportion - fas - as time goes on), whenever _ li wna TAT i TT a AVA i Ae it has nearly reached the plate, and the plug replaced Fig. 151.——Curp tn CLoTH. until the curd can bear the air temperature (which should be from 55° F. to 60° F.) without harm. As the contraction of the curd pro- ceeds, the cloth must be drawn as closely around it as may be without pressing out white whey. The ends being untied and drawn upwards with the right hand as at a (Fig. 152), it is grasped with the left hand as at 4, as closely to the curd as will give the proper pressure. Then the right hand releases the ends, and—passing under the left—draws from its grasp the nearest corner, as at ¢, and—giving it a slight twist— carries it round the others, leaves it for a moment to be held in place by the nearest fingers of the left hand as at d, and returns to take it afresh and tuck it under its own noose asaté¢. This should be repeated at intervals of half-an-hour, one, and two hours respectively, according to the state of the curd, which can be judged of after a little experience by the looseness of the cloths showing the extent of curd contraction. When it is found that a four-inch cube cut from the curd will keep its shape without support, the whole may be cut into blocks of that size and distributed about half-an-inch apart upon the plate, which should be taken into the coating-room E, so that the making-room may be cleaned and aired before the arrival of the night’s milk. A light tin cooler of the same width as the trough, and long enough to contain one or two of the plates as may be needed, will be very useful. Here it should be kept lightly covered with a cloth until it is ripe and firm enough to be salted. This will usually be early the next morning ; but the probabilities should be estimated, and if ripeness is likely to be reached during the night a light salting, at the rate of from a quarter of Fic. 152.—Tyinc Curp. THE STILTON SYSTEM. 267 an ounce to an ounce of salt to every ten gallons of material, according to expectations, may be applied, the balance of the full amount being added when ripeness is secured. Better still for the cheese, the dairyer may turn out in time to salt it in the ordinary way. The standard of curd-ripeness should be K (Colour-plate), and the salting at the rate of 1 lb. to 60 gallons of “double cream” material, or to 50 gallons of whole milk. This difference, with variations suitable to intervening degrees of enrichment, is made because of the increase of fat out of proportion to the casein, and beyond the limits considered in Chapter VIII. The curd is gently crimmed to fragments as large as the top of the thumb in preparation for salting. The dryness of the curd at this stage should be uniform from day to day, or a suitable difference made in the salt quantity if ripeness comes before it is dry enough. The curd is now placed in the hoop (Fig. 153), which may vary from 6 inches to 834 inches in diameter, and from Io to 13 inches in height, the sizes of cheeses produced within this range being suitable to its character and the demands of the trade. The curd being pressed by the hand when filling, such hoops will hold enough to make cheeses of 10 to 15 lbs. in weight. For uniformity’s 3 sake the quantity of curd which the moulds used will 07 oe hold should be ascertained, and weighing practised. Stitton Hoop. In the hoops the curd should now be taken to thé draining-room, and kept at a temperature of 65° F., and with a humidity equal to a difference of two degrees in the hygrometer read- ings. It is customary to provide wooden shelves ten inches wide, and having grooves cut in them to carry the whey drainings toa common point of discharge. These are, in such case, covered with cloths, which must be frequently changed, and entail a great amount of wear and washing. A better plan is to provide frames only, with tin plates (Fig. 154) half-an-inch wider each way than the diameter of the hoop, and having three sides turned up and the re- maining one turned down, so as to carry the whey into a shute of zinc screwed to the front of the frame. This shute discharges into a common pipe at the end, where a vessel or conductor receives the whey. With this arrangement no cloths are Fic. 154.—TURNING PLATES. needed, there is no soaking of the shelves with sour whey, and the plates being movable can be brought to a common tub for cleansing and much more easily 268 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. kept sweet. They also take the place of followers whenever pressure is not required; and where it is, a single tin follower for each hoop is not enough, but specially thick ones (a, Fig. 155) should ‘be provided, one or more of which may be laid on the cheese ac- b cording to need, and drawn out by the hook é at turning. A few dozen of such followers should always be at hand. : The cheese must be turned in the hoops three or four times next day. At the early morning Fic. 135-—FottoweR turning, the hoops should be washed on the outside AND Hook. . ° with water at 80° F. to go° F., and the plates also cleaned. For this a tub should be brought into the room. In this a stool, with a top nearly as large as a turning-plate and as high as the tub is deep, may conveniently be used. A cheese with its plate being lifted from the shelf and placed on this stool, the hoop may be washed down with a brush and wiped. Then a clean plate being laid upside down on the top of the hoop, and held in place by the left hand, the right hand being passed under the lower plate, and, with a firm pressure of the plates against the ends of the hoop, all may be turned, and the cheese and the plate now under it placed on the rack; the dirty plate being then washed in readiness for the next cheese. In this way no cheese is more than two minutes away from its place, whereas all the cheeses on one of the ordinary shelves must be removed in order to its being cleaned. The second, third, and fourth turnings should be made at three, four, and five hours’ intervals from the previous turnings respectively, and without washing. During this period skewering should be practised at every turning and once between each two turnings. Some makers, anxious to secure the blue- veined appearance caused by the moulds, when the Jatter fail, are said to use brass or copper skewers, which—left in the cheese and rusting under the action of the acid whey—give an imitation of the colour, but with danger to the consumer by reason of the poisonous nature of the rust. It is to be hoped that nobody will ever more be so foolish. The moulds can be propagated with almost infallible certainty; but even if this was not so, no advantage in price could excuse such a practice. The skewers should be of steel, and not exceed one-sixteenth of an inch diameter. In the absence of any practical pressure the importance of this skewering is great. The cheese soon shrinks away from the hoop, becomes firm though elastic, and gets a nearly smooth surface. This generally takes from four to six days, and should never take more than eight days. We have heard of cases in which twelve to eighteen days THE STILTON SYSTEM. 269 have been required, but there could not have been any necessity for - this apart from bad conditions. At this stage the hoop is removed ; all the visible crevices sealed up, by drawing a knife-blade flatwise against the cheese; and a bandage of grey calico, a little wider than the depth of the cheese and long enough to allow 14 inch of overlapping, is stretched tightly and pinned securely upon it. The hoop is replaced, and it is sent to the coating-room by way of the cupboard. This is made in the wall between the two rooms, and has a door on each side, and shelf- room enough for one day’s cheese. Its use prevents much running to and fro, and admission of cooler air. The bandaging is continued daily until a proper coat is formed; but by the second day after entering the room, the cheese should be able to stand well with only the support of the bandage, and the hoop may be removed when this is found to be the case. The coating has generally been done either in the draining-room or in the making-room. There is a risk in the former case of “ s/f- coat,” which arises out of the lodgment within the skin of moisture which ought to come out, and which, under the influence of the warmth, produces rapid softening of the casein with sliminess. The skin will then break away, and the moist matter must be removed by scraping. In any such case there must needs be waste ; there will also generally be deterioration in the value of the remainder. The main cause of this is an atmosphere, by no means dry in itself, but too dry for our purpose, forming too close a skin ; and this in the presence of defective contraction, or too little salt, closes in the whey which is working toward the outside. Skewering has now ceased, and the only preventive is a lower temperature with maintained humidity ; and this the coating-room affords, being kept at 5° F. lower than the draining- room. The making-room has been mostly used in such cases, but there is a total impropriety in keeping cheeses at this age, and so affected, in a room where milk has to be held over-night. The special apartment meets the case well, and as the cheeses remain two days in their hoops there is no sudden lowering of their temperature. In both rooms the ventilation should have constant attention. The coat first shows itself by dry patches on the bandage, which increase steadily. When it covers all the cheese the bandage can be taken off, washed, and used on others. The cheeses now go to the drying-room, which provides a con- trollable draught of fresh air, for the cheeses ought now to be dry enough to allow of their skins being hardened without risk of s/zp-coat, and the remaining moisture must be treated as in Cheddars. They should be removed in the evening, so that they may become accustomed 270 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. to the gentler draught of the night, when the inlets are so set as to secure the goods against mischief from any unexpected fall of the temperature. In the morning the state of matters should be early examined, and the draught increased if the atmospheric conditions warrant it. The influence of the draught depends on its temperature and its dryness,— the former should not fall below 55° F., and the latter should not be such as, with that temperature, to produce any cracking. Beginning with a difference in the hygrometer readings of 4° F. in the morning, the drying may be carried on to 6° F. difference by the warmest part of the day. If this can be obtained by the passing air only, the matter is simple ; but if not, the fan should be brought into use. The drying- room (in Fig. 143) is arranged to admit air from the west, from which our prevailing winds blow. _ When the wind is in the other quarters, the fan will be more needed to induce a draught of western air, as usually warmer than that from the north or east winds, and cooler than the south wind. We believe that with such a provision the time of drying can be materially and beneficially shortened ; but there must be a limit to such an economy, and that on the safe side of any cracking, which would not only make the cheese too dry, but also open a way for the flies which, with the judgments of true gourmands, seem to specially enjoy a fine Stilton. Mites also share the same taste, and make more havoc with this article than with any hard-curd cheese. The variations within the correct range of humidity when properly graded are not injurious to the goods ; but sudden changes must always be avoided, especially ‘in the direction of increased cold and dryness. The appearance on the outside of black mould is a sign of too much air- moisture. The original drab colour should always be maintained. In from fifteen to twenty days the cheese will be dry enough to go to the final curing-room. If one cheese of each batch be bored with a trier, not cutting more than a quarter-inch diameter, it will be easy to establish a standard of dryness, and recognise variations from it on crushing a small fragment between the finger and thumb. From that time onward the cheese should be kept at a temperature of 55° F. to 60° F., and with a similar humidity to the coating-room. The ven- tilation must be carefully watched. The internal mould is obtained in the coating and draining room, and when once it is established in these rooms the cheeses will seldom fail to contain it. In every new dairy it will be necessary to encourage it by keeping a little curd over until it is well moulded, and scatter the spores from it around the new cheese. Doubtless, too, under present arrangements, some inoculation is done in the young curd in the vat or draining-trough by floating spores, but these need not be depended on for the presence of the mould in the finished product. THE STILTON SYSTEM. 271 We may now briefly review the main points of the system. Apart from the addition of cream, which is not an essential, its main business is to secure a special flavour ;—and in order to that, in part, a free culti- vation of mould ; and, in other part, a fermentation in character and degree approaching to that of the Cheshire; and in order to the spread of the mould, a crackly rather than a solid or flaky texture. Hence the avoidance of a second heating and pressure, and the consequent slow settlement of the curd, with all of which the remaining details are con- sistent. The length of the process as a whole cannot be reduced beyond the limits given without detriment to the product. CHAPTER XVI. CREAM CHEESE. THIS delicacy is made by most town dairymen to meet the ordinary and very uncertain demand for it; but it is also produced in some country dairies, and in cheese and butter factories, on a larger scale; and deserves notice, if only because every dairyer is liable to be called upon to supply it, and, being a profitable article, he should be ready to do so. First Form.—There are two kinds of cream cheese. In the first form it is simply cream reduced to a certain degree of solidity, with the effects of fermentation added, and the manufacture is of the simplest. The cream should be thick, and free from any but the friendly forms of fermentation. Cream mechanically separated (see Chapter XVII.) is best for the purpose, because it can be obtained in much thicker con- dition than that which is skimmed from set milk. This, put in a clean earthenware or glazed brownware vessel, should be left in a pure air at 60° F. until it has become thicker by fermentation, which will usually take three days. It should then be poured into a deep linen bag of fine texture, and closing with a draw-string ; and in this hung out of contact with other objects, and with a vessel under it to catch the whey dripping from it. The bag should not be more than one-third full. Here it will in two days become a soft and comparatively dry curd. It will now need pressure ; and this can best be applied by the simple device shown in Fig. 156. It consists of two boards (a) hinged to- gether, and grooved on their insides ; the grooves on the upper board furnishing a grip ~ for the bag when in place, ma and those on the lower one a means of gathering and dis- charging the whey. A ledge Fic. 156.—Cream CHEESE Press anD Rack. and spout completes the pro- vision for the latter purpose. A light rack (4) fits within the ledge when in use. The cream should now be compressed by hand in the lower part of the bag, the loose CREAM CHEESE. 273 part tied (as in Fig. 157) as closely as possible and placed between the boards as in Fig. 158. In this illustration it will be seen that the lower board is raised by angle pieces (4), so as to give it a fall for draining the whey, while the upper board (a) has a ledge (c) to keep in place certain weights used to give the pressure. The latter may be ordinary scale weights, of which a 2-lb., 4-lb., 7-Ib., 14-lb., and 28-lb. will suffice, or twenty lead plates weighing 2 Ibs. each, the latter being the best to buy because the simplest to use, if the others are not already at hand. The weight should be grad- ually increased from 2 lbs. to 4o lbs. during the following twenty-four hours. The curd being emptied from the bag, requires to be kneaded with a wooden knife (Fig. 159) until it is redaced to a uniform con- sistency. It will then be ready for the mould, which is a small frame of tin of any convenient shape, fitting into a board, as at a, Fig. 160, and lined as at 4 with strips of chemically pure butter muslin or vegetable parch- ment. The curd being pressed into [JE this, the ends of the lining are turned F%= over, the mould lifted, and the cheese = removed. It is now ready for use. Second Form.—The other kind is | made from a mixture of milk and cream, the latter forming one half, two-thirds, or three-quarters of the material as the | case may be. The coagulation may be by fermentation, as in the previous case, or it may be helped by rennet ; if the latter is used, it should be at half the Fic. 158.—Cream Cueese In Press. proportion required for Cheddar, for the fermentation should have the chief influence. It should be mixed with the material when this has reached the L standard (Colour-plate). In either case the process and conditions will be as before, but with rennet the time of making will be much shortened. The products may now be compared. That of the pure cream will differ from the other in its richness, and as a rule this is the favourite with British consumers. It tends, however, to early spoiling by B.A. fermentation and consequent rancidity. A little salt worked into it with the knife, or rubbed over its outside when finished (in which case wet muslin should be used for wrapping), will keep it longer, but the s Fic. 157. CrEAM CHEESE IN Bac. 274 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. flavour is not generally liked. Those made from the mixture are more strictly cheese-like in texture and flavour; and those made with rennet will develop the characteristic casein digestion and mellowness. Salt should be used with these, being mixed with the curd at the rate of one-eighth to one-quarter ounce to the pound of curd, as the fat pro- portion ranges from the highest to lowest points given. They will be Fic. 159.—KNEADING KNIFE. Fic. 160.—CREAM CHEESE Mou.p. ready to eat in two or three days, and in the meantime should be kept .turned at a temperature of 55° to 60° F. Most people would suppose the whole cream article to be worth more than the others, but from the food point of view the reverse is the case; and the mixed material being the least costly its cheeses can be sold at a proportionately lower price. CHAPTER XVII. CREAM AND THE METHODS OF ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. CREAM, consisting of the fat globules of milk with a portion of the plasma, is of itself a food, and the source of butter. Its use at the table has greatly increased since better methods of creaming and after-treatment have sent it to the consumer in such a form that he can depend on its character and keeping quality. The cream of commerce is no longer the thin skimmings of milk set but a few hours, or the half-soured skin of a day old and upwards, for- merly sold as a great favour to the dwellers in cities, to whom the name suggested a perfect delicacy, and who were happy with it in the absence of anything better ; but a thick and sweet article, which is much cheaper than the old one as compared at their respective prices, because of its lower proportion of water, and better food value in other respects. During the fruit season a very large de- mand is made for it, and the prices obtainable are so much in advance of the possibilities of butter-making during the same part of the year, as to justify the cultivation of the trade, even at some expense for suitable appliances and packages. For this purpose, means of immediate separation from the fresh milk is a practical necessity, and the proper management of cream for sale will be described in due course. Creaming, by whatever system, proceeds upon the same lines; recognising the laws -which govern the relative densities of the fat globules and the plasma, and varying only in the method of applying those laws. These have been already discussed at length in Chapter III. and need not be re-stated. The business of the dairyer is to secure all the fat, in the least time, and in the most perfect condition possible, in consistency with a proper economy. Exception will probably be taken to the first of these points, for there are those who assert that the smallest of the globules which are removed by the most recent methods yield only an inferior butter, which does not pay for the cost of securing them. It may be 276 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. granted that certain conditions arise in connection with the more complete separation, ignorance of which may give the inferior re- sults referred to, but there is no necessity for them. So far as the experiences of those who recognise those conditions are in evidence, they show—what we might have expected—that whatever the size of the globule, the butter is always the ordinary association of the fats earlier described, and there are no differences between these globules and the larger ones save in their size and the relative proportion of the envelopes to their contents. Whatever difference there may be between the food values of the butters of different systems of creaming, the cause must be sought for, and will be found elsewhere, as we shall by and by show. The economy of the question has been settled beyond dispute. The time occupied in creaming is of some consequence. It de- termines the space necessary for the appliances used, and therefore the original and working cost of the dairy as well, and, under ordinary conditions, the quality of the cream and butter. Nobody will quarrel with our remaining points of cream condition and economy; we will therefore leave them to be illustrated as occasions arise. Cream and Butter Dairy.—The dairy in which creaming and butter-making are to be carried on must be first described. The farm cheese dairy as illustrated in Fig. 32 has a room for making the whey butter of the cheese-making season, and the milk butter of the winter. Here, sees -----=H4 however, creaming is done for the former in the tank 19, and for the butter in the vat 7, or by special creaming appliances placed in the cheese-making room, which will form a very good apartment for the pur- EY ' pose, and for some parts of the butter making as well. In the butter-room are found the Fic. 161.—Farm ButrTer Dairy—Pian. cellar 25, shown in section in Fig. 47, with its cooling pro- vision of an overhead water-tank, the shelf 27, which should be of slate, the churn 28, and butter-worker 29, these being the principal furnishings. In a very large majority of cases, however, butter-making is carried on by itself; and the dairy for this purpose may be reduced to four LLL po UL TILL bre CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 277 rooms, and form a wing to the farm-house, as in Fig. 161. The boiler-room A and coal-store B properly occupy the same places as in the cheese dairies (Fig. 32, &c.), and are quite as desirable here as there. The boilers 1 and 7, with their common flue 2, the washing vessel 5 and rack 6, are necessary; and the tank 4, with its pump 3, may well be provided wherever a water-cooling system is used for creaming. Adjoining the boiler-room, the room C (12 ft. by 114 ft.) should be devoted to creaming, cream ripening, and churning, the nearness of the hot-water supply and air warmth being an advantage ; while the room D (12 ft. by 12 ft.) should be kept for the working, making-up, and storage, for which a low temperature is necessary to the finest results. The water-tank should therefore be within the last-named apart- ment. A delivery arrangement at the window in C should consist of a conductor 9, with a distributing vessel 10, a platform 11, with a projecting roof 12, as before. The creaming apparatus 13, of whatever kind, but here shown as setting pans; a chum 14; a shelf 15, for cream pans, with a water-heating coil 16 behind it, supplied from the boiler 8; air outlet flues 17, 18; a cupboard 19, for stores; and the water-pipes shown by dotted lines, complete its fittings. The flues 17, 18 proceed to a revolving ventilator (Fig. 50) on the roof, and can be used separately or both at the same time, as circumstances may demand. In the room D, the butter- worker 20, the slate shelf 21, and the cellar 22 are found; while the drain wells 23 are outside the building. If the creamed milk is to be used on the farmstead, it may be discharged into a vessel placed on the delivery platform through the conductor 9 reversed, a small platform, which may also form a stand for the distributing vessel 10, enabling the dairyer to reach the conductor easily. This where a setting system is followed, while from a mechanical separator a pipe may carry the milk direct to.the conductor. The direction of the floor inclination is in each case shown by arrows. In all other respects the building construction should be as advised for cheese dairies, and the internal temperature should be carefully under control. Factories concerned in this department of dairying may be pro- perly divided into (a) creameries, where creaming only is practised, these being either branches of the butter factories, or engaged in the cream-selling trade; (4) butter factories, in which either the whole business is carried on, or in which butter is made from purchased cream ; and (¢) blending factories, in which purchased butters are blended together in various grades. This classification will probably be objected to by those who have been accustomed to the present loose methods of description, but it is at least consistent with facts, and therefore necessary to our purpose, 278 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The Creamery.—The first kind supposes a milk supply insufficient to justify a complete provision, and such a building as is shown in Fig. 162 may be managed by a man with only the help of a youth, and that without AZ difficulty. The general practice is to l) send the creamed milk back to the farm, and a convenient provision is here made for despatching it for this purpose, or for the more profitable household consumption, which should be cultivated everywhere. If it is to be used by the creamery owner in feeding calves or pigs, it may be carried to them by glazed ware pipes, first, however, being discharged into 4 an open-air well, after the fashion of drainage waters (Fig. 29). The building consists of a milk- R=), veceiving platform A (16 ft. by 9 ft.), Fic. 162.—-Creamery—Pian, - With a combined office and testing- room B (9 ft. by 6 ft.); adjoining to it a creaming-room C (23 ft. by 16 ft.); and a combined boiler-room and coal-store D (23 ft. by 6 ft.). On the platform A are the tipping barrier 1, the receiving vessel 2 (which discharges by the conductor 5 into the milk vat 6), the desk 3, and shelf-table 4, serving for entry and testing purposes. From the vat—which is fixed on pillars and surrounded by a foot-board to allow of its being conveniently reached for cleaning—the milk is distributed to the mechanical creamer 7, which is driven by belts from the power-shaft 8, and which delivers its creamed milk by the pipe 9 to the capillary cooler 10, on the despatch platform 11, where a small desk 12 is provided for entries. A hot- water tank 13 is supplied by the boiler 14, which, for this case, may be a vertical, with the engine attached or separate, as may be most convenient. Other things being equal, we advise that it be separate. If the building can be placed on ground of sufficient slope the despatch platform may be done away with, the floor being higher than the ground outside. Any convenient location and aspect will answer for a creamery. The Butter Factory.—The butter factory may consist of a similar building with churning and making rooms added (the latter having a north aspect), steam power used for churning, and more cool storage room provided. The plan, Fig. 163, shows such a factory. The receiving platform A, with the office B, and laboratory C, are arranged as CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 27 in the “Cheddar” cheese factory (Fig. 62), and enclosed together, Wher. the creamed milk is sold or returned to the supplier, a second platform I y | Wp ee a ee tee Po ee Fic, 163.—ButTTer FacTtory—PLan. 1, Tipping barrier; 2, Receiver; 3, Conductor; 4, Counter; 5, Desk; 6, Water heater : 7, Shelf; 8, Testing table; 9, Separated milk receiver ; 1o, Coolers; 11, Shaft for separators ; 12, Milk vat; 13, Separators ; 14, Separated milk pipe; 15, Churn; 16, Water-heater; 17, Shelf; 18, Butter worker; 19, Shelf; 20, Shade over window; 21, Shelves; 22, Boiler ; 23, Engine; 24, Coal gates ; 25, Water-heater ; 26, Shelves and racks ; 27, Drain wells. Water Pipes. Steam Pipes. Drains. may be placed conveniently for the cooling and despatch; and in th latter case the supplier can proceed from one to the other, so clearin; the way for others to deliver their whole milk, The room E shoul: 280 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. be devoted to creaming, cold weather ripening, and churning; F to warm weather ripening and making up; G to cool storage (the water tank is over this and part or all of the making room) ; H to the engine and boiler, the boiler front being within the coal store I, as in the Cheddar factory (Fig. 62); J to washing; and K to stores and packing- boxes. The structural work should be as in the other examples, the furnishings as in the list of references ; the latter will be eset as they come into use. A blending factory will be simply a butter factory with the room and appliances for creaming and churning omitted, and needs no special description. The Methods of Creaming may be separated into two main divisions,—(a) setting systems, and (4) separation by centrifugal force. . Setting Systems proceed by leaving the globules to rise through the plasma under the existing natural conditions, or cause them to rise more quickly by changing those conditions for others more helpful. These shall be taken in order, commencing with the simplest. The shallow-setting open-air pan, Fig. 164, is the oldest form of creamer now used in this country. It is frequently made of large size and oblong shape, set on a frame, and pro- vided with a plug (Fig. 148) for drawing off the creamed milk. This method : ‘ gives a shallow body of cream of a Fic. 164.—SHALLOW Pan. varying density, the surface globules being closer together than those below. By reason of drying and oxidation a skin is formed in course of time, and with sufficient cohesion to resist breakage. But the under globules are free, and easily float away from this skin. It is usually removed by a shallow skzmmer, made as in Fig, 165, or with a long handle for use with wide pans as in Fig. 88. The ME ee cream being detached from the side of the pan at a starting point, the skimmer blade is carried under it and lifted. The milk runs out through the per- forations, which must neither be too large, too Fic. 165.—Sximmer, Numerous, nor too near the edge, or loss of the lower globules will follow. It will be plain that with all possible skill and care there must be more or less of such loss, or else a considerable relative proportion of the plasma must be removed with the cream. When the main body has been removed there will remain a fringe of cream against the sides, which, when the milk has been poured away over the clean part, should be scraped off with a CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 281 piece of horn. Numerous devices have been brought out for collecting the cream or drawing the plasma from under it, but in view of the facts now to be presented we think it useless to describe them. The method stands condemned on several charges, and its days are numbered. In order to prove its comparative wastefulness and general inferiority, let us summarise its conditions and action, and compare it with others. Milk as drawn from the cow loses temperature before it can be set, and from 102° F. will fall to 80°F. with the air at 50° F., or to 90° F. with the air at 65° F., unless the dairy is very near and unusual care be taken to protect it, in which case an advantage of two or three degrees may be gained. The fine streams of milk which pass from the teats into the pail, and from the strainer into the setting-pan, cannot fail to give off their heat to a serious extent. The milk being set at rest in the pans, the globules begin to rise at a rate dependent on the difference between its temperature and that of the air, this affecting the difference between the density of the globules and that of the plasma. This influence of temperature is just what is possible to a falling of twenty-five to thirty degrees Fahr. and no more, for the air of the dairy cannot reduce the temperature of the milk below its own. The results are much better, of course, than as if the two were at the same temperature, but as set against better methods it is a failure. At thirty-six to forty-eight hours after setting, the best of skimming or drawing will leave fat in the plasma which other methods would remove, and that in such proportions as to make the latter economi- cally profitable. But not only is the rising of the cream imperfect, there is no small amount of loss by the methods of removal (though of the two the greatest arises from skimming), by the disturbance and carrying away of some part of the collected globules. It is very difficult to estimate the average loss from these causes, but we have the best reasons for believing that it does not fall short of fifteen per cent. of the-butter realisable by the best methods. The long time required for all that can be done is also a source of damage. The number of pans, the size of the dairy, and the labour and time occupied in the management, are all affected by this, and at least two sets of pans are necessary,—generally three, sometimes four, —with corresponding expenditure. In the meantime, the ferments are at work, and so favourable are the conditions attending them that often the whole is near to coagulation before the cream has had its fair chance to rise. If the influence was confined to the friendly ferments, the harm to the cream would be trifling ; but the wide exposure gives to other ferments the best opportunity of working their 282 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. many forms of mischief, and what is started in the setting-pan is carried forward in the cream-pan. The skimmed milk is greatly reduced in value for feeding animals, and is unfit for human con- sumption. Finally, during the long exposure to the air, oxidation makes progress, and creates its share of waste ; and the drying of the cream surface makes it impossible by mere stirring to bring the whole back to the state in which the globules should mix with the proportion of the plasma proper to set cream. Such cream must be heated to restore the right condition ; and if this heating is carried beyond the temperatures favourable to fermentation, it checks, and if not allowed to pass that limit it favours, the ferments,—both good and bad. We have no practical control over conditions with this method, beyond taking what care we can to have pure air and clean milk and vessels. This, of course, we need in all cases ; but here the exposure is so long as to give the milk but a poor chance of escape. Nor can we import into it friendly ferments, as in ripening milk for cheese-making. Our need is in the direction of the lowest fermentation possible. Some makers skim at twelve hours, to secure cream with the largest globules and in the better condition, and make a butter of superior quality from it, leaving the rest to rise under the increasingly unfavourable con- ditions for an inferior result. So far as the satisfaction of making some good butter goes, this is better than the common practice ; but the best work so done does not bring the method near to a reasonable profitableness. Such is the open-air shallow-setting method, when its followers aim at the highest yield of butter. Often, however, they are content with a lower yield, and—fearing to keep their milk in doubtful weather—skim it at twenty-four hours old, with a heavier loss of butter than in the other case. A large quantity of skimmed milk goes from English dairies with one per cent. of fat, or nearly one-third of the average proportion. This must needs be the case when a milk of fair quality yields only a pound of marketable butter to every four gallons of milk, as we have known it to do. For many years dairyers, both in Europe and America, have practised cooling with shallow pans, and benefited thereby to some extent. Some have set the old style of pan in troughs with cold water running around them ; others have made them with two cases, and laid on water, running continually, to fill the spaces between. The results have been a greater rising of the globules, because of the increased differences in density due to the rapid cooling, and the influence of currents created thereby, and a better keeping of the milk, so that the yield has increased with less risk than in the old way. When the milk has been brought to the dairy immediately, and the water CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 283 temperature has been from 50° F. downwards, the gain every way has been considerable. We have before us reliable evidence of such pans having been in use in America more than twenty years ago, and so well constructed that we have not since made any important improve- ments in them. The cold had also the effect of checking the produc- tion of fibrin, the existence of which was not then suspected. Some makers provided covers, either solid, with occasional means of ventila- tion, or with wire gauze of considerable surface—in either case intended to keep out dust and flies. The real value of such protection lay in the hindrance to a great extent of microbes from reaching the milk ; and these inventions were, according to the most recent light, on the right track for improvement. There remained still a point which nobody seems to have touched until a much later time, viz., the propriety of raising the initial temperature somewhat, so as to extend the range of the falling. This has now been done, and not only can the cream be more quickly and perfectly obtained , fae om than with the cooling only, but ’ ff the loss which arose out of the variations in the temperature of the air, the milk, and the cool- ing water is at an end. Some- times for weeks together, in S warm weather, the water has TT TF | ny been nearly as warm as the air, Il q LAN . mi l rN ill and the advantage of its use correspondingly limited. This Fic. 166.—Jersey CREAMER. is an extreme case, but between that and the greatest possibilities with simple cooling, a reduction of effectiveness in various degrees must needs arise out of the variations referred to. As a consequence of these improvements, it is now easy to secure all but .35 to .50 of 1 per cent. of the original fat, according as the average size of the globules is large or small. This is equal to a gain of a quarter of 1 per cent., as against the old shallow pan as best used to half per cent. as worst used ; or, roughly, an increase from 8 to 15 per cent. on the butter obtainable from average milk under the conditions given. The “Jersey” and “ Dorset” pans are well-known representatives of this best form of the shallow pan. They are identical in essentials, excepting that the latter does not provide a cover. The former will serve to illustrate the practice. It consists (Figs. 166, 167, 168) of a double-cased vessel a, having a cover 4, a funnel c, overflow pipe ¢, and Paw 284 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. a water outlet e covered by a screw cap. A plug / fits into a pipe £, which again rests within the fixed pipe % for the removal of the skimmed milk, the pipe g having a strainer z of fine wire gauze, pro- tected when in use by the ring 7, which is removable. A pipe % supplies it with water, either from a special tank or--as in our ideal dairy—from a general supply, and the overflow is carried off by the shute #z to the tank (Fig. 161) for use in the boiler. The quantity of water used in this or any other water-cooling system is considerable, and should not be wasted. The pan rests on a frame 7, two projections, resting in the hooks o, keeping it in place, and allow- ing it to be tipped as in Fig. 168. The cover is roof-shaped, with an air opening half-way up each side, and extending its length at that point. In use the milk should be strained into the pan, and heated to a temperature which will give a fall of 50° F. by the use of the water at hand. Therefore in setting milk in any double-case pan, our first Fic. 167.—JERSEY CREAMER—SECTION. Fic. 168.—JERsEY CREAMER—TIPPED. Fic. 169.—JERSEY CREAMER PLuG. business is to take the temperature of the water to be used in cooling as a basis for determining what the starting temperature of the milk is to be. Allowing 3° F. for a margin, we may add 53° F. to the water temperature, and the result will give that for the milk :—Examples—(1) Water temp., 45° F.+53=setting temp., 98° F.; (2) water, 60° F.+53=setting temp. 113° F. The colder the water down ta near freezing-point the better, This is liable to CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 285 be disputed on the strength of alleged experiences, but these have an explanation which is of some importance. It is said that the use of water at 45° F. gives the best results, and that below that point the tendency is to loss. Doubtless, for in proportion to the increase of cold is the rapidity of the currents, and the disturb- ance of the cream layer ; and if a proper speed be exceeded nothing is more certain. But if the water used is raised by the addition of warm water to 45° F. until a thermometer, set in the milk at the start, shows that the milk has been reduced to 55° F., the coldest water may be used with advantage afterwards. A bent wire stand, as Fig. 170, may be made to hold the thermometer in a nearly upright position. It will, however, be readily understood that from 45° F. downwards there is no neces- sity for limiting the setting temperature by the rule given. A range of 50° is essential to the proper working of the principle ; but a longer range is still better if it is secured by a colder water, with an initial temperature not higher than that most favourable to fermentation. We may therefore set at 98° F. whenever the water is at 45° F. or lower. There is an objection to a higher initial tem- perature, and it increases in force as we rise above that point. The milk has to descend through the range of tempera- ture favourable to the ferments ; and while from 98° F. downwards it is getting out of, and away from, that range, from all higher points it is descending into, or within it. If, for instance, we start at 110° F., the milk has to pass through 12° more of the favourable range than as if heated only to 98° F.; and the increase of ferment encour- agement is in proportion. This is the weakest point in the method. If we are to obtain the best results in all respects we must give the range of 50°; and as water becomes more than 60° F. in continued warm weather,—and ice is an aid too dear to be thought of in this country, and difficult to get as well,—we must run risks on one side or the other of partial failure. With the increase of temperature we have also to reckon with the fibrin. In the case before us we have no hesita- tion in advising the use of safe preservatives of the Boron class, which, if carefully ‘stirred into the milk before setting, will carry it safely over the dangerous part of its descent, and that with a low proportion and at a trifling cost. In heating milk for setting it is important that the water should not be hotter than 150° F. at any time. Boiling water has been recommended by some ; but, as the milk cannot be stirred during the heating, the danger of local albumin coagulation arises with the higher Fic. 170. THERMOMETER STAND. 286 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. temperatures. Water maintained at 150° F. by fresh supplies will soon raise the small quantity of milk which any pan of this kind will hold to the necessary point. Moreover, the longer time taken is com- pensated for by the more perfect effect on the globules. Our purpose in heating is to cause them to expand, but they respond more slowly to the action of heat than the plasma. If after the desired temperature has been quickly reached we immediately begin to cool, we check the still-continuing expansion of the globules, and the full benefit of the heating is not obtained on them. If on the other hand the heating is slower, their expansion keeps much nearer to that of the plasma, and ten minutes’ maintenance of the final temperature will probably bring them to their outside limits of size at that temperature. The cooling will give immediately a greater difference between the densities of the globules and the plasma than would otherwise be possible, and a quicker rising of cream, with no greater force of the currents. There is also to be set against the more rapid heating, the greater rapidity of the currents created by it. The position of the inlet funnel makes Fic. 171.—Hot-WaATER FUNNEL. it necessary to use a separate one (Fig. 171) for the convenient supply of hot water. Another error is in supposing that the most rapid reduction of the milk temperature ought to be the main aim of the dairyer. This would have but the same effect as the first use of very cold water already observed to unduly increase the rapidity of the currents. There is a limit to the rate of reduction beyond which we, in part, defeat our purpose. The best practice is to run the cooling water freely for the first hour, and after that to reduce it to a stream of not more than one-tenth of an inch diameter, maintaining that until the thermometer shows that the milk is within a degree or two of the water temperature. After that, as more water cannot do any good, it is sheer waste to employ it. The time required for the best yield will depend on the size of the globules. The milk of Channel Islanders will give up their cream well in twelve hours ; with Shorthorns, from eighteen to twenty-two hours will be needed; with Ayrshires, from twenty to twenty-four hours—and so on. This means a shortening of the time required by the old use of the shallow pan by one-half. The economy is therefore CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 287 great in all ways, for even the labour of heating and cooling the milk is less than that which the method casts out. The plasma is drawn by lifting the plug 7, when it will flow slowly out through the strainer z into the shute or pail provided to carry it away. Then the pan is tipped, as in Fig. 168, and the cream gently scraped downwards into a ripening-pan. However many ingenious contrivances may be added to this method, it will always need judgment and attention to make the best of it. Occasional experiences show that its possibilities have not been commonly reached. We believe that with skilled management not more .35 to .40 per cent. of fat should be left in any milk of fair quality. This will only be attained by testing the efficiency of the work done by the thermometer, and the determination of the fat left in the creamed milk. (See Chapter XIX.) Deep-Setting Systems.—These may be divided into (a) open and (6) covered methods. The former has long been pursued in America, where on.many a farm the milk-house has been erected over a spring, a shallow tank made to receive the water, and the earthen crocks set in the latter with large stones to anchor them, and covered with thin pieces of wood. So far as the possibility of making a fine article was concerned, the conditions could scarcely be more favourable; and where the after-management has been in keeping, the results have been of the best. A conical dipper, such as we have recom- mended for sampling milk (Fig. 207), is used for skimming, being gently lowered into the milk until the cream can run into it. This could scarcely secure all the cream which had risen, even when skilfully used, but would not be so wasteful as the English skimmer. When the first American butter factories were established, the “pool” system was followed ; a cylindrical can, 8 inches diameter and 22 inches deep, being used for setting the milk, and the skimming done as on the farm. Akin to this is the Swedish “Swartz” method, in which the milk is set in a can of the form shown in Fig. 172, with its cover ven- tilated at @ a, and plunged in water, which in summer is cooled by ice. The introduction of this system wrought a great improvement in the butters of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, and shared largely in * the beginnings of that modern dairy movement which has made them such powerful rivals to us. (6.) The next step was the “Cooley” system which appeared in Fic. 172. Swartz CREAMER. 288 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. 1876, and submerged the milk in water within a closed cabinet. The inventor proceeded on two theories, viz., (a) that as cooling ought to be done from above, submersion was the best course, combining, with the benefits of the natural rule, those of cooling at the sides and underneath, and thus securing as rapid and complete cream- ing as at that time seemed possible; and, (6) that no harm could be done by setting milk warm from the cow in closed pails, provided the vapours arising from the milk could find their way to the water, and become condensed by it without necessi- tating the admission of air. The first theory as to the cream- ing was generally admitted to be sound; but the other, raised in the days of “animal heat” and “animal odour” creeds, was not trusted at first. This case was met by adopting the “diving bell” principle, and using a cover u, Fig. 173, which could be held in place by two curved handles 6 4, and which, being supported on the edge of the can by wire angles ¢, would allow an air space between it and the can. As the water would rise around the can, or the latter might be lowered into it in a level posi- tion, the water would enclose the air which was under the cover and within the can and slightly compress it. But the water exerting an equal pressure on the air at all points, could not rise to the top edge of the can. The milk would now be sealed down to contact with a small body of air, and the influ- ence of the water and the vessel, and the absolute necessity for purity in all three must be apparent. The theory” that all natural milk vapours would be harmless under such con- ditions proved correct, though there can be no doubt that bad fer- ments could damage the milk to some extent if introduced before setting. The cold could only hinder them, while the submersion would keep out others, but the invention could not altogether pre- vent the effects of bad management. The bottom of the can is made to slope towards a tap @, in which a syphon e is placed when the creamed milk is to be removed ; and this being turned, as shown, into a vertical position, the creamed milk flows out, the cream sinking until its lower line is seen to have reached the lower edge of the glass window f, when the tap is turned off and the cream poured into a — Fic. 173.—CooLtey CREAMER CAN. CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 289 ripening-pan. The bottom of the cabinet has strips of wood g g, which support the can so as to allow water to flow freely under it, and an inlet and outlets, one of the latter maintaining the water at a height of a few inches above the can cover while in use, and the other emptying the cabinet when required. The can is held in place by a strip of wood #, the ends of which catch under strips z fixed to the sides of the cabinet. This prevents accidents from the tipping of the can, when water would easily gain admission. This description gives the points essential to our purpose ; but in recent years conveniences have been added, such as a rack to raise the cans out of the water, and others, saving time and labour, but not altering the principles of the invention. Numerous patent cabinets have been brought out, some for cool- ing by water, others by air,—all, when the water becomes too warm, using ice, which is stored by all American butter-makers during their cold winters. These appliances need not be severally de- scribed, the Cooley represents them all in the points essential to successful creaming. Shallow Setting and Deep Setting Compared. — The same principles are concerned equally in shallow and deep setting, but the conditions vary somewhat. In the latter case the globules have , to rise through a longer distance to the surface, and it seems as if shallow setting would allow of the shorter distance being more quickly covered with a proportionately quicker creaming. This is not the case, however, for under equally favourable conditions the deep cans raise their cream quite as quickly and as perfectly as the shallow ones. The currents are much more powerful and effective, and the globules gather into groups and appear to help each other, as judged by their speed being greater than when separate. The cream is in thinner body than with shallow pans, and is therefore fit only for butter-making. It forms also a much deeper layer in proportion to its original milk. The Swartz and Cooley methods were at one time used in this country, but it was complained that deep setting in all forms did not separate the cream as well as the older practice, and we hear little of them now. We are convinced that sometimes it was the fault of the users, and sometimes the want of cold water. The same rules apply as for shallow setting; but few if any makers heat before cooling, though if this were done according to the directions given, it would have a similar effect in reducing the loss from variation of conditions. There has been much contention between the followers of the two methods as to which offers the greatest body of advantage. We believe the deep setting cabinets have the best place, on account of the T ‘ 290 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. more perfect protection from the outer air, and the reduction of fer- mentation and oxidation, and that in all points of yield and economy they are equal when rightly used. Much has been said about the quantity of cream, but this is of no practical consequence where the creamed milk is fed on the farm, for the excess taken up in deep setting returns as buttermilk. At different times attempts have been made to aid creaming by diluting the milk with water, under the belief that by reducing the viscosity the desired result would follow. But this theory left the reduction of the density of the plasma out of the reckoning, and disappointed its votaries. Experiments have proved that it is unsound even with milks known to be slow in creaming, and concerning the benefit to which expectation was strong. The Devonshire System must be noticed, though it is not largely followed outside of its native county. By this is obtained the cele- brated Devonshire or Clotted cream, names with which to conjure at the dinner-table, though they convey more to those who are not acquainted with the article than the reality would do, for with most people the taste for it has to be acquired. The reasons for this will presently appear. Since heating is the main point of the method, a stove (Fig. 174} is commonly used, with a water space over it, and openings to receive the setting pans, which are like the old shallow pans but of less diameter and deeper. The usual practice is to raise the cream at the air temperature for twelve hours and then to remove it to the stove, unless it is originally set in place for heating as is done where D the stove accommodation is iz a | sufficient. If carried, great = mom broratmy care is needed to avoid dis- turbing the cream layer. The temperature is raised to 170° F., or a few degrees Fic. 174.—Devonsuire Creamine Stove. higher. The makers gener- ally do not recognise any temperature as correct, but that given is the product of our own experience. The common rule is to heat to any point short of boiling, and continue it until a crinkled ring is formed at a point @ a, Fig. 174, immediately above the angle formed by the side and the bottom of the pan. But it is found that when the heat is carried above the point CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 291 named the flavour exceeds the correct degree as fixed by public taste. This heating has four effects :—(a.) It affords an example of heating from beneath with the creation of upward currents, which modify the rule of the influence of rising temperature on creaming. This, to some extent therefore, helps up the globules which have not reached the surface, and the separation is greater than with the old shallow setting in air. (4.) The albumin is coagulated, and rises with and helps up the globules, forming a skin. (¢.) The albumin acquires a heated or scalded taste, which is communicated to the cream, and in a less degree to the plasma as well. (d.) It kills the living ferments, and for a time checks the germs ; but as the milk descends through the range of favourable temperatures, fermentation commences afresh, and the end is but delayed. Sometimes the milk coagulates, but this can only happen under conditions specially favourable to fermentation, and in operation before the scalding takes place. When it does happen, the product is spoiled for trade purposes. There is scarcely less need for care and cleanliness with this system than with any other. After heating, the pan is set in a trough supported by strips of wood, and water is kept running round it, or cooled by any means which does not make it necessary to put it on a flat surface, for in that case the heat in the bottom of the pan is longer held, with increased risk of souring. Here it remains another twelve hours, the falling tempera- ture giving a further help to the creaming, and by the end of that time there should not be more than .30 of 1 per cent. of fat left in the plasma. The system can be perfectly carried out with Jersey or other double pans, if made of sufficient depth, eight inches minimum, the stove being then unnecessary. The quality of the milk is a matter of importance, for depth is desired in the cream layer as far as can be consistent with thickness of body, and this combination is only possible with a rich milk. The milk of the Devon cattle is suit- able to the manufacture, as are also the milks of the Channel Islanders, and the dairyer is advised not to attempt it with poorer milk. The scalded taste is objectionable to most people, and the article is in less demand relatively than it was, other delicacies passing it in popularity. Mechanical Creaming.—We now come to a method of creaming in which centrifrugal force is employed to effect the speedy removal of the cream. This is brought about by the mechanical cream separator, which proceeds on the lines of our boy with the bucket of water, a vessel being made to revolve so fast as to cause the milk to press towards its circumference with great force. Here the plasma naturally presses away from the centre, by reason of its density increased out of all proportion to that of the globules, and these therefore pass to the 292 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. inner surface of the body of milk and there form a layer of cream, which, as well as the plasma, is removed by various devices. In comparison with the best setting systems, the most striking advantage of the separator is the quickness with which creaming is effected by it. In this they cannot hope to approach it. This makes it possible to obtain the separated milk in so fresh a state as to be better fitted for household use than that from the best creamed at twelve hours old. Under equal conditions, the keeping quality of the former is superior, This is not only because the fermentation is less advanced,—though with proper cooling the difference is not great in this respect,—but even more because the separator throws out any solid foreign matter which may be in the milk to the furthest point possible in the drum,—and there it is found, after the creamed milk has passed off, mingled with a small quantity of nitrogenous matter, ‘ probably nuclein, and forming with this a filthy slime. This we cannot doubt is due to dirty milking. Its removal is highly desirable, and not possible in the pans. The accumulation during the running through of a few hundred gallons of milk. is astonishing and disgusting. There is a serious danger of the suppliers of factories assuming that this power to separate foreign matter covers their carelessness, and so they may become more careless. There is, however, no room for this. The effects of dirty management are by no means wholly removed in this way. The ferments and their products remain, as well as all soluble matter of dung or other forms of filth, and their ammonia, acids, &c. The reduction of possibilities is great, we know ; but we know as well that the cream and skimmed milk from a cleanly milked and properly managed setting in a cabinet, is in better keeping condition than those from a dirty milking which has passed through a separator. If the milk be pure at the outset, the separator has the advantage ; but it cannot give out a sound long-keeping product from any other original. The cream, in the absence of special treatment, is early spoiled in such a proportion of cases as to greatly reduce the profits of this more than usually profitable trade ; and the same is true of the separated milk when sold for household consumption. The yield, under equal management, is larger than with the best setting methods, but the difference is not so great as is commonly believed. It is usual to set the separator in comparison with the old style shallow-pans ; and anybody who has used these, and later adopted the separator, will be justified in giving strong testimonials, with quotations of record showing 20 to 30 per cent. gain by the change ; but manifestly such facts do not apply all round, The cabinets and shallow double pans press closely on the heels of the centrifugal machine ; and, if well managed, will do better work than the CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 293 latter can do in ignorant or careless hands. As a proof, the cabinet creamer has been known to remove all but .23, or less than a quarter per cent. ; while .20, or one-fifth, per cent. is regarded as good work with the separator, and a little neglect will easily leave .30 to .40 of I per cent. of fat. For the cream trade a thick article is demanded, and this the separator can give, though no setting system but the “ Devonshire” can do so. For butter-making a thinner cream will answer, down to the consistency at which it churns best. An economy of time is gained by this, for the milk can be more quickly passed through with good work than when thick cream is wanted. Against this must be set the loss of the excess of separated milk taken with the cream, which can only be obtained as buttermilk. We have now to fight some false notions concerning the separator. It is believed to injure the cream; this charge being based on the undoubted fact that in public competition its products are often beaten by those of setting methods. We have heard it repeatedly affirmed by persons whose opinions should carry weight, that such experiences are frequent enough to justify their preference for a good cabinet whenever butter is wanted for show purposes. The evidence so far has been strongly in their favour, but on being sifted it has been traced to error in the management of the cream and butter-making. It seems to be taken for granted that cream is alike whatever its source, and needs no variation in its treatment. That this is wrong will be presently shown. Microscopical examination of separated cream, and the practical hand- ling of such under suitable conditions, alike prove that nothing happens in the process which can by any possibility damage the cream. It simply needs to be treated consistently with facts. Equally absurd is the belief that the separated milk is harmed, and rendered unfit for cheese-making. Some have actually asserted that cheese cannot be made from it! These are delusions, as may be easily proved. We have made cheese from it, and as good as from any set milk of equal quality, nor have we found any difference in the comparative behaviour of the curds. On the other hand, unreasonable things are said in behalf of the machine, ¢,g., that it can produce cream free from casein. This is practically impossible, apart from the setting free and gathering of the butter. The cream will not churn in any case without leaving a residue of buttermilk with a full proportion of casein; for though the free part of this constituent as it exists in the plasma may be reduced by making a thick cream, the proportion of that which forms the envelopes is increased relatively along with the increase of the fats, The separation in this way gives a strong proof of the 294 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. envelope theory; for if this were not sound, there ought to be no difficulty in getting free fat by carrying the cream thickening as far as it will go. We have obtained it as thick as a fruit jelly, but never deficient in casein. The position of the separator is secure, and nothing can be gained by making unsound charges against it, or unsound claims in its favour. Examples of the Separator.—We may now describe the leading forms of the invention, taking first the Danish-Weston machine, as one of the oldest now in any considerable use. The drum a (Fig. 175), 7AM co | : - “gy_lil LE ALAN vill ei Fic. 175.—DAniIsH SEPARATOR, is nearly cylindrical. A flange 4 is fixed a little below its upper ring ¢, and the creamed milk passes through the aperture @ into the space between the two, from whence it is collected by a tube e, having a contracted and keen edge which is so set by a thumb-screw as to project into the milk as it revolves, and this then rushes into the tube with force enough to carry it upwards by e to a height convenient for capillary cooling. Another tube f, with a smaller end, collects the cream in the same way, but is provided with a screw ¢ by which the proportion of cream to be removed can be regulated. The milk is fed CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 295 from a tank into Prof. N. J. Fjord’s regulator 4, a vessel out of which a conical pipe leads the milk to the bottom of the drum, the flow being controlled by the graduated rod 2, which being raised or lowered, enlarges or contracts the space for the milk passage. The machine is set low on its bed, travels at a comparatively slow rate (from 2000 to 2800 revolutions per minute), requires from one to three horse-power effective to run it, and creams from 60 to 260 gallons per hour, according to size. It is run from an intermediate motion, which consist of two pulleys set on a common shaft, the one, being small and run from the main shaft by a belt; and the other being larger and similarly con- nected with the spindle pulley of the separator, the speed of this last being greatly increased by the arrangement. The means of separating the action of these two pulleys is provided in every inter- mediate by a clutch or a loose pulley, to which the main belt is shifted so that the machine may gradually run down when the en- gine has ceased to work. We need not therefore again describe this. part of all separator outfits. The Danish machine does not serve for thick cream so well as some other makes on account of the mode of removal. The “ Laval” machine, Fig. 176, is of Swedish manufacture. Its -drum a provides for the escape of the cream over the top of the neck 4, and of the creamed milk by the tube ¢, through an opening in the neck at d, the flow being controlled by a screw which en- larges or reduces the passage as may be required. The cream is collected within a dish with a tube outlet 4 and the creamed milk within another dish g, with its outlet #, the former fitting into the latter, and this again into‘the drum casing z, while into the cream dish fits the funnel dish J, Which receives the whole milk Fic. 176,—‘‘ LavaL” SEPARATOR. 206 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. from the heater and directs it into the cup & at the bottom of the drum. In entering this cup the milk strikes upon a cone which prevents frothing, and flies through the tube / to mingle with the other contents. A worm on the spindle 7 works a speed-counter , by which the revolutions per minute may be easily ascertained. The spindle and drum are inseparable, and great care is needed to avoid bending the former, or otherwise injuring it in removal or return- ing. The lower end of the spindle rests in a box at the head of the pulley spindle. The heater consists of a double-cased vessel 0, with a steam inlet pipe Z, and an outlet 7 in the track of which a tube holds a thermometer s to register the temperature of the out-flowing water. The pipe Z is connected with the steam supply by gutta- percha tubing, of the quality specially made for steam use; and another length should lead the water from 7 to a proper place of discharge, otherwise it will become a nuisance, splash- ing on the machine and keeping the floor wet. A funnel ¢ re- ceives the milk, a float automati- cally regulating the passage of milk from the tap, while the lower end of the funnel tube rests in a box w, both having apertures vw which correspond in size. By moving the funnel z around to right or left, these Fic. 177.—-“‘ALPHA” LavaL SEPARATOR. apertures are changed in their relations to each other, and make the spaces through which the milk may flow larger or smaller as may be necessary in regulating the inflow to the drum. The separated milk when wanted for the trade, or for cheese-making, can be carried to the height necessary for discharge to the cooler or vats by a pump w, worked by a worm on the spindle box. The motion may be derived from an intermediate, or a turbine, the latter being placed within an iron casing, and immediately on the lower spindle. Where an engine is in use the former is the better plan. Recently an improvement has been made by introducing a number of discs which divide the milk into thin layers, decreasing the agitation, and increasing the quickness and extent of the separation, Within CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 297 the drum a (Fig. 177), the discs (6) are set above each other, the conical upper part of the drum being screwed on, and holding them in place. The cup (c) is larger than in the other case, and a tube (d) conducts the milk into it, preventing any splashing against the nearer body of cream. Both forms are made in various sizes from 12 gallons to 360 gallons per hour, running at 6,000 to 7,000 revolutions Sz “y ; ‘ | | Go a A a / Y i] ; Uf it 4 Ca 3 of “f \ a z i | : AW ain) Fic. 178.—‘‘ ALEXANDRA” SEPARATOR. fg, | We | per minute, with from one to three horse-power required for machines driven by an engine. The most recent machine—the “Alexandra,” Fig. 178,—has its drum (a) separate from the spindle (4), which makes it easy of removal for cleaning, ensures regularity of speed, and, in the event of any accident to the engine, or gearing, enables it to run down without damage. The spindle runs on ball bearings. The whole milk is conducted to the bottom of the drum by a funnel «¢, the cream dis- 298 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER.. charges into the space between the covers d and ¢, and the creamed milk between the two covers ¢ and / (the latter being of iron, and carrying the inlet funnel g), the cream and creamed milk collecting for discharge in grooves formed in the drum casing. A worm on the spindle 4 works a speed-counter 4, the efficiency of which is increased by a gong 2, which is struck by the hammer at regular intervals. The foundation is of wood, and needs no bolting to the floor as other machines do; this allows of the belt being tightened as it becomes slack by drawing the machine a trifle farther away from the intermediate motion, and of its being removed to allow the floor to be cleansed. The machines of this make range in capacity from 25 to 300 gallons per hour, running at 6,000 to 8,000 revolutions per minute, and requiring for power machines from .20 to 1.20 horse-power. Management of Separators.—With these examples before us, we may describe the common principles of management. The threé main points on which the efficiency and economy of the separator depend, are (a) speed, (4) feed, and (c) temperature. (a.) There is to every machine a safe speed at which its best results are obtainable, and this should never be exceeded. In propor- tion as the speed falls below the best rate, will be the reduction of the centrifugal force and of the thoroughness of the separation. The drum should be got up to full speed before any milk is supplied, and as the best machines run by friction this will take a few minutes. The shaft pulley should be of such a diameter as, with the intermediate and spindle pulleys, will give exactly the correct speed when the engine is running at its best. There should be no danger of excess. (4.) The rate at which milk is supplied to the drum governs the rate at which it must leave it, for the neck or ring of the drum gives the limit to the holding capacity, and when this is reached all fresh supplies must cause a corresponding discharge of previous contents. The greater the feed of milk entering, the shorter time can it remain in the drum exposed to the centrifugal force ; and if the feeding is carried beyond a certain limit, there must be a more or less imperfect separation, Within the proper limits lies the regulation of the cream thickness. The slower the feed of milk and the longer therefore its stay in the drum, the thicker will be the accumulation of cream ; this effect being reversed with fast feeding, which is commonly followed when the cream is for making butter. The relative rate at which cream and creamed milk can leave the machine is regulated in each case by special devices. (¢.) The centrifugal force can be helped by a suitable temperature ; for, though it is sufficient of itself to effect separation with slow feeding, it will do as well in less time if the milk as a whole is of somewhat CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 299 lighter density than it would be as cooled for the factory. Between 80° F. and go° F. the best temperatures for the various machines are found. The old style, still pursued in some cases, is to collect the milk in a double-case vat, heated by steam or hot-water, keeping it stirred the while. This is objectionable with all but very small quantities, because the required temperatures are within the range favourable to fermentation, and the keeping quality of the products is reduced thereby. In cases where the cream is for butter-making, and the separated milk will be used on the farm, this may not be of much consequence but when they are for household use, the practice should be avoided. A much better plan is to use a heater over which the milk will pass on its way to the drum, and provide for the cooling of the products immediately after discharge, so that the exposure to heat may not last more than two or three minutes. In such case a témperature five degrees higher is necessary to bring the globules within so short a time to the density which they would gain with the lower heat and longer time. The heater should not be made warmer than the hand can bear before the milk is started ; and the tempera- ture of the outflowing water should not be more than five degrees higher than that suitable to the milk. The first milk is liable to be imperfectly creamed while the regulation is going on, and should be set aside to follow the last whole milk, and so to clear the bowl of cream while yielding its own remainder. The best of lubricants should be used, but not in excess, an error into which many people fall. At the great speeds named the damage arising, on the other hand, from neglect in this matter is great and soon done. Most separators require a syphon of 35 inch to 35 inch diameter to empty the drum, while others effect this by a special construction of the drum which causes it to discharge its contents when motion ceases. The trouble of the former method is not great, and its avoidance need not be sought where more important considerations are in the balance. A good separator should possess the following advantages, viz. : (a) perfect control of speed and the means of correctly calculating it ; (4) the means of regulating the milk feeding, the discharge of cream and separated milk, and the thickness of cream while the machine is in motion ; (c) ease in emptying and removing the drum, and the parts concerned in collecting and discharging the cream and creamed milk ; (d) as little agitation of the milk as is possible; (e) simplicity in con- struction, and ease in replacing damaged parts ; (/) safety to the user, the parts in motion being well protected ; (g) a low speed; (4) small demand for driving power, and (z) a reasonable first cost, with none for setting. We are well aware that all these cannot be obtained in the highest degreein any one machine; patents bar the way to such a 300 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. combination of excellencies. A better separator than any in the market could be made by bringing together the special protected points of three or four of the best machines. In the meantime the reader is advised to weigh well the advantages present in each machine, and take that in which the most in number and importance are found. The number of separators for a factory should be calculated to allow for two periods of not more than four hours’ consecutive running in each day. Longer use means a proportionately earlier wearing, because of the heat produced by the friction, and it is strict economy not to work a machine up to its full possibilities. We have taken it for granted that the separator will be used in all factories and wherever the cream and creamed milk are to be sold, but on farms where butter-making only is followed, and the by-pro- ducts are fed to animals, the case is different. Ifa farmer is changing from the old shallow-pan system, and can provide for the proper management of a separator, he should adopt it ; but if he has already a really good setting system we are satisfied that the change is unnecessary. He can make first-class goods with what-he has, and, with proper care, come within .o5 of 1 per cent. of the average separator creaming. The difference in economy will take long to cover the first cost of the exchange. Management of Products.—The cream, if intended for butter- making, should be cooled to €0° F. ; if for the trade, as much lower as is economically possible. The air will do something in this direction, but will generally need to be supplemented, and when plunging in cold water fails, it will need special treatment. Trade cream, we believe, usually has some preservative added to it, and—provided this be of a perfectly wholesome character—there can be no reason- able objection to the practice, any more than to the use of salt in cheese and butter. But this should follow the best cooling obtainable, and not take its place, for the effect of the preservative, or the quantity required, will depend somewhat on the temperature. The “Boron” class of such substances is recommended, and they should be mixed in a dry state with the cream by thorough stirring and before the pots are filled. The whole preparation should be carried through as quickly as possible. The best pots are of stoneware, but fancy shapes in terra-cotta are also used. The latter should be glazed on the inside. Separated milk for sale may be treated in several ways to ensure its keeping well. When the air is below 55° F. cooling will answer alone ; with higher temperatures preservatives or partial sterilisation will be necessary. The latter will inevitably give a scalded taste in CREAM AND ITS SEPARATION FROM MILK. 301 some degree, and this will create a difficulty with most consumers. The treatment in any case should keep the milk from perceptible sourness for twelve hours after it reaches the purchasers, many of whom will use it in cookery late on the day of arrival. The import- ance of pure air and vessels may here be afresh insisted on. Creaming Whey.—In the Cheddar factory plan (Fig. 62) the separator (59) is provided for the creaming of whey immediately on coming from the vats, and we are persuaded that such a provision gives a desirable economy. The creaming in tanks is always im- perfect, and if the whey is kept more than twenty-two hours the storing provision must be doubled, while experience has proved that the cream will be injured by lying so long on the surface. The large proportion of separated whey to the cream obtained makes most forms of the separator unfit for this work without structural alteration; but the Danish machine is an exception, the difficulty being met by regulation of the gathering tubes. As now made these will work to their estimated capacity for whole milk; while by the enlargement of the separated milk tube to treble its ordinary size, a corresponding increase of capacity will result, the cream tube collecting without alteration the product from the large quantity of whey removed by the other. The temperature at which whey is drawn is suitable to this process, and no heating is therefore required. Other facts relating to the economy of the whey butter manufacture will be found in the next chapter. Blending Butters.—This is much practised abroad, in countries where the texture and body of the butters are high, and the necessary manipulation does therefore but little injury; but with the products of most English breeds the results would not be satisfactory. The butters are purchased in the markets, classified according to quality, and each class blended by machinery to a common state. It is not of sufficient importance to justify further description. CHAPTER XVIII. BUTTER-MAKING. BUTTER is produced from cream, by setting the fats of the globules free from their envelopes, and gathering them into a solid form. This is done by churning, in which concussion, or the agitation given by blows, is applied to the cream, the repetition of this not only affecting the globules which directly receive it, but the rest also by collision with each other. Through the constant changing of the cream surface by the stirring which accompanies concussion, the globules share about equally in both forms of the action. In the course of time the envelopes are broken, after which, under the continuance of the same action, their contents adhere, and so become steadily larger until they can be seen. In the meantime the casein of the envelopes has been reduced to a fine state of division and evenly distributed; and the butter, being separated from it and from the water, is removed. The residue is buttermilk. In removing the butter a quantity of buttermilk is removed with it. This contains casein in solid particles, as also both casein and albumin in gelatinous suspension, and sugar and ash constituents, in their pro- portions to the plasma of the original milk retained in the cream, and it is now desirable to extract this as‘far as is possible without doing damage by the means used for that purpose. Up to the present we know of no means which will effect a complete extraction ; and com- mercial butter, therefore, contains a small quantity of casein and sugar, and minute traces of the other constituents referred to. For preserva- tion, salt is generally employed; and with this, in sufficient proportion, butter will keep for a very much longer time than it could do without it. The water is removed to a certain limit, the grains of butter are consolidated by pressure, and the manufacture is complete. Characteristic Qualities of Butter.—The product has certain quali- ties, varying according to the source of the fats and the management. These are as follows, viz. :— (a.) Flavour, which has two main or inherent causes, and sundry others arising from without. There is first a delicate flavour which BUTTER-MAKING. 303 belongs to the fats themselves. Even stearin is not absolutely tasteless, though nearly so; palmitin and olein have slightly more flavour, and those volatile fats which have come from the cow’s food are most pro- nounced of all. Nevertheless, they give altogether only a very faint taste ; but this to a perfectly natural palate would be preferable to any which comes by special treatment or with age. The second flavour is also composite, and arises from the changes which the fats undergo by fermentation, oxidation, and other natural causes which cannot be absolutely prevented under ordinary conditions, but which may be kept within certain limits. It is possible that some such changes commence quite early in milk, while the globules are still. protected by their envelopes ; but they must then be very limited, and there is every reason to believe that the ferments have no direct dealings with the fats until they have been set free. It is quite likely that the envelopes themselves, affected by fermentation, in turn affect the fats, and admit of the fermentative products in the milk at large doing the same, and this especially in view of the tendency of fats to absorb flavours and odours. But when the butter has been separated it may rapidly become a prey to its enemies, hence the importance of ridding it of all other matter fermented or capable of fermentation. There can be no doubt that much of the flavour of the butter of com- merce is due to the remainders of such substances. But even if these were eritirely removed, there would be nothing to hinder the action of air ferments,—the day of ruin would only be delayed by the best condi- tions practicable. The volatile fats are capable of being reduced to new forms, the normal butyric acid being one of the most pungent of these; and, with this, caproic acid and its relatives have been regarded as purely the products of the action of B.A.F. and kindred microbes, It is naturally very difficult to settle the case beyond dispute, but a consideration of all the facts before us leads to the conclusion that there are volatile fats in milk before fermentation can affect it in the least, but of such a character, and in such small proportions, as to bear no comparison, by ordinary tests, with the products of fermentative change. Following this view, we may be sure that the development of these flavours of the second class will depend on the conditions attend- ing the globules in the milk and cream, and those in the butter when made. We may now consider those which are inseparable from butter as best made and kept to be natural also, though not original ; and the others as unnatural or excessive. The former give no trouble until they become excessive, the unnatural are always a source of com- mercial loss; the one sort leaves butter a luxury up to a certain age, the others spoil-it early and beyond remedy. Among the unnatural is sourness, arising from the retention of 304 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. fermenting milk sugar in the original water of the milk, or—as is supposed from its proportion in some butters—as dissolved salt is held in some degree when the water dissolving it has been removed by pressure. The absorption of other fermentative flavours must needs be according to their kinds and proportions. Besides these, there is the mdlky taste given by buttermilk retained, but not yet showing advanced fermentation. This is much enjoyed by many people, innocent of the mischief lurking behind it. The flavours of foods, as roots, cabbage, badly made hay and silage, noxious plants in the fields or hay, cakes, meals, and such like substances, are found in butter ; in some cases recognisable, in others so altered or blended as to differ from those of the foods, but evidently caused by them, and disappearing when they are no longer used. Other flavours accompany odours taken from various sources, such as meat, fish, or high game, cooked food (so often kept in the convenient dairy “because it is cool”), from paint, tar, decaying substances, and what not,—and found either in the milk, the cream, or the butter, or all, as may happen. (4.) Odour arises from the same causes, and frequently agrees with flavour. The aroma of a perfect butter is delicate, and adds much to the enjoyment of its use ; but with deterioration this departs to give place to a nastiness finally intolerable. The value of butter is largely dependent on these qualities being of the finest ; it is this which makes the difference between a luxury and mere grease. The dairyer must watch all possible sources of mischief, beginning at the cow; and all his processes must be governed by the necessity for their exclusion. (¢.) Texture.—As butter in the mass consists of compressed grains of that substance, these are said-to form a “ gvrazn,” though the term is not strictly accurate, and “texture” is a better word. The grains or granules produced by churning are fine, but in a degeee more solid than the mass which they form, when well managed, because they are not brought into such close relations as exist between their own particles. Hence when a piece of butter of good texture is broken off it shows a rough fracture like granite, and when it breaks smoothly it is said to have no grain. Texture proceeds from two causes. The one (a) is original, dependent on the cow. The larger the fat globules in her milk, the coarser will be the grain of her butter under good management ; and under worse handling, the less will be the damage done within the first limits of mismanagement. The butter of Channel Islands cattle have this quality at its best ; the Kerry, Devon, and Sussex breeds in lower, and the Shorthorns in still lower degree ; while the Ayrshires come nearly or quite at the bottom of the list. This gives a guide to inherent possibilities ; but it by no means follows that BUTTER-MAKING. 305 the butters of these breeds will stand in such relations as to this point. Much will depend upon the other cause, (4) the management. The exposure of the butter to too high temperatures, and too much handling, will reduce the texture to a corresponding extent by separating the solid and liquid fats. (d.) Body.—Natural solidity, or resistance to pressure, accompanies the size of the globule in the original foundations of texture, though it it is not so easily discernible. It is also affected by such feeding as changes the relative proportions of the solid and liquid fats, for with the increase of the solid fats this quality rises. (e.) Solidity, as produced by manipulation. In finished butter there should be no loose parts or crevices, confining air or moisture with favourable conditions for the ferments. (f:) Keeping quality.— Fine butters, lightly salted, have been kept under the best natural conditions for five or six weeks without passing out of the good stages; the majority of butters would not keep so well for ten days, and many are spoiled within half that time. Failure in its various degrees is due either to (2) fermentation, (6) too much or improper handling, or (c) bad keeping conditions. The two former belong to the butter, but the last is to no small extent answerable for early deterioration. (a.) Fermentation scarcely needs discussion. If limited to the unavoidable it will take long to spoil our product. (4.) Too long working upon the butter, and especially with the human hand, helps in the same direction. In all moral certainty ferments are intro- duced in proportion to the fresh surfaces exposed and the time of their exposure to the air ; and this may be the explanation of the fact that with the breaking down of the texture, the keeping quality is lowered in proportion ; but it is likely that the volatile fats are separated by the same action, giving the ferments a better chance of attack. But when the hand is used, its heat tends to dissociate the fats still more, and the perspiration with its acids, and products of the waste of the human system, tend to spoil the flavour directly, as well as to intro- duce matter and conditions helpful to further fermentative changes. (¢.) The exposure of butter to heat tends to the tallowing of the fixed, and the dissipation of the volatile, fats, besides encouraging fermentation. In damp places moulds appear upon it, with accompanying decompo- sition. Dry cold is beneficial, and will prolong keeping indefinitely at and below 40° F. (g.) Colour.—The natural colour is due to the lacto-chrome, and varies with different breeds (Chapter V.); but whiteness, either in patches or distributed, may be given by an excess of casein, and the mechanical dissociation of the solid and liquid fats by over-pressure also produces a patchiness which is often attributed to buttermilk. U 306 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. Discoloration comes with advanced fermentation. Annatto or other vegetable materials are used to colour butter. The average consumer is suspicious of adulteration with lard, mutton fat, &c., if his butter 1s white ; and if it ranges somewhere between gold and a brickbat he thinks it must be the product of a Jersey cow. The obliging tradesman and dairyer at once humour and deceive him. He knows and he does not know—and the practice continues. When the consumer becomes enlightened, the annatto bottle will disappear from the dairy. Composition of Butter.— This varies greatly with different samples. The accompanying table gives a good standard. The water is much Water 9.50 Fat - 88.35 Casein -70 Sugar 15 Ash (salt) 1.50 100.00 lower than in common experience, which ranges between 12 and 15 per cent., but it is a matter for satisfaction that the tendency of present making in this country is towards reduction. Water weighs heavier than fat, and that is a great temptation to maintain the higher proportions; but it is mischievous to the keeping quality of butter by encouraging fermentation, and the consumers’ interest is sought when it is reduced to the point given or lower, and he should be prepared to pay proportionately more for the better article. The casein is commonly 2 per cent. and upwards, but with good management there will be no difficulty in reaching our figure, with a relative increase of the keeping quality. The sugar will be in keeping with the water, and should not exceed the amount given. The ash is calculated at a quarter ounce of salt to the pound of butter, an old favourite propor- tion. The ash constituents of the original milk would scarcely be estimable in such a butter, and are not attempted by analysts. The above refers only to goods made from raw or unscalded milk; and the Devonshire system gives a much higher proportion of albuminoids, mainly albumin, but with an increase of casein, totalling between them 6 per cent. and upwards. The Yield of Butter from a given quantity of milk varies greatly, according to the management. The proportion of the fat originally in milk is not equally recoverable in all cases and under like treatment. This is probably due to the difference in the relative size of the globules and the corresponding resistance to the churning action, as also to the proportion and state of the diffused albuminoids. If so, it argues the necessity of a separate treatment of each cow’s milk BUTTER-MAKING. 307 according to its churnability, if itis to give up its proper amount of butter. This, however, would exhaust the patience of the most devoted enthusiast, and we shall have to be content with a management which will give the best average result. The losses in creaming and in churning vary also according to the method and care in its employ- ment, and the dryness of the products also affects the facts. A very common calculation is that an average milk will yield 1 Ib. of market- able butter to three gallons,—and this is not far from the truth, under fair treatment, though doubtless the separator and fine work through- out will give more. With higher milk qualities the yield will be relatively larger, because retaining water in proportion. Therefore in this manufacture the richer the milk the greater is the profit beyond the original cost. Sweet Cream versus Sour Cream.—At the outset arises the choice between *zfened and unripened cream. Ripening, as in cheese-making, is the work of the ferments. It is found in practice that if a quantity of cream be divided into equal quantities of equal quality, and one-half be churned fresh from the separator or cold cabinet, and the other exposed to the air for a day or two, the latter will give more butter, and generally of better quality, than the former. This is doubtless due to the action of the friendly ferments, and is in proportion to the time of exposure up to a point near to coagulation, from which the butter quality usually declines. We believe that the C.F. has most to do with the changes wrought, these attacking the envelopes of the globules and reducing their cohesion, so that when the churning motion is applied it is earlier and more fully effectual in separating the butter. The casein of the envelopes in this state is also more easily removed, and the amount of it in the butter is less—with equal treatment—than in that made from sweet cream. It has been suggested that the L.A.F. does the work, but this is contrary to its action in cheese-making. The effects, attributed to it because they followed early on its use, were more likely due to the C.F., encouraged, as these are, by the presence of the L.A.F., with possibly some slight erosive action of its own. The result is a gain of from 15 to 20 per cent. more butter from ripened than from sweet cream, with the ordinary churn and proper temperature. The easier separa- tion of the buttermilk-casein gives a longer-keeping butter—other points being equal—than from sweet cream ; but when the cream is over-ripened, the free casein coagulates and increases the difficulty of separation, so accounting for much of the bad butter made from fermented cream. A great battle is being fought over this question,—the one side asserting that sweet cream butter is the most natural, perfect, and long- 308 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. keeping article, and must lead the markets ; the other, that it can never be profitable to make it because of the inferior yield, and that the honours of keeping quality also belong to the ripened cream product. It is wholly a question of conditions. If the butters are made in ordinary churns, the concussion is insufficient to secure the butter from the smaller globules, which resist it more effectually than the larger ones can do, for a body of larger area is more easily broken than one of small size if they are equally thin, Of two sheets of glass of the same thickness, for instance, the larger one is broken with a less blow than is necessary to break the smaller one. Now, when the envelopes are made weaker by the ripening, the maximum concussion of the churn is effectual with the largest of these smaller globules. Under no conceivable conditions, with such a low breaking force, can sweet cream be made to yield nearly as well as its rival. In removing the buttermilk-casein from sweet cream butter special treatment will reduce it to fair limits, but will at the same time proportionately damage the keeping properties of the butter from another point of attack. Ofthismore anon. With present appliances the ripening has a great advantage in results. There can be no doubt, however, that if a sweet cream butter can be made under conditions which preclude this loss and the work of clearing the casein reduced to proper limits, then the product will give it the victory. A perfect article of this kind will be more perfect than the best from ripened cream, because the original flavours will be enjoyed. That the public taste will have to undergo a great change is true, but the tendency is in the direction of mildness both with cheese and butter. What is needed is the concussion sufficient to set free the fats of the smallest globules in the cream, and divide the casein so minutely as to make its removal easy. For the present we must proceed to ripen our cream. \ Management of Cream.—The best vessel for storing cream is a jar of stone, earthen, or brown ware, the last-named glazed on its inside. Tinned vessels, when their surfaces are worn by the acid, admit the fermenta- tive products to their spongy iron or steel, with bad effects on the flavour of cream kept in them. The form shown in Fig. 179 is the cheapest and most useful, holding five or six gallons, and having a cover of 5 two inches larger diameter, with two strips Fic. 179.—CrEAM PAN. of wood or metal to support it, so that plenty of air can reach the cream, while dust and light are largely kept out. BUTTER-MAKING. 309 Cream ripeness and ripening.—The standard of cream ripeness by the litmus test is M (Colour-plate). This is obtainable in fresh separated cream in forty-eight hours at an air temperature of 60° F., in a little less time with cream from cabinets; in much less with “open-air” cream not cooled in rising. There are three methods of ripening, as with cheese-making :— (a.) Exposure to ferment action under atmospheric conditions when the temperature is 60° F. and upwards. The electrical condition of the air and its humidity also affect the rate of progress. The air should be pure, the room well ventilated, but no draughts allowed to reach the cream. (4.) Heating to suitable temperatures to encourage fermentation. At 55° F. heating the cream to 70° F., and letting it cool gradually to the air temperature, will give ripeness at the same time as with the air at 60° F. As the air temperature falls, that fixed for the cream must be raised in higher proportion, because the air at—say 45° F.—will more rapidly reduce a high cream tem- perature, and it is undesirable that the cream should fall lower than 55° F. at any time. The many variations in daily experience can be met by a simple calculation, based on the time at which the cream is required to be churned. More than two days in ripening is not desir- able, the best results in flavour being got within that time; for when the air is socold as to make a longer keeping necessary, there is a risk of bitterness, which increases with the cold. In heating, the cream should be set in the boiler (1, Fig. 161), or the hot-water tank (16, Fig. 163), and stirred. (c.) By the use of ripening materials, as whey is used in cheese-making. Ripe cream, whole milk, separated milk, and buttermilk, are all admissible, the two last serving as well as any, and costing less in case of accidental spoiling. This is much practised in Sweden and Norway. Its advantages are that it gives the friendly ferments a good start, and shortens the time; but there is a danger of error, and the inoculation of ill flavours in the absence of constant care. The following table, based on the Colour-plate, will afford a basis for calculation :— Condition of Ripener. Condition of Cream as received. A. B. G., ” D. Quantity of Ripener. N. 4 OZ 2.4 OZ. 1.4 Oz. -8 oz. O 3-4 95 2 1.2 ,, 6 4, 2.8 ” 1.6 5, 8, "495 These quantities (liquid ozs.) applied produce the desired result in from six to twelve hours, according to the original condition of the 310 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. cream, and in shorter time by relatively larger quantities. The vessel in which the starter is prepared should be cleaned and scalded after every using of its contents. Mixing Creams.—So far the directions have supposed that each cream is kept separate. But commonly those of several days, or even a whole week, are mixed together just before churning, it being con- sidered unnecessary to churn oftener. The results are, (2) a want of uniformity in the butter, and (4) loss of fat in the buttermilk. The former arises out of the inevitable variations from the standard ripeness according to passing conditions. It is much complained of, and will never be cured while cream is churned according to con- venience, and without reference to its actual condition. In the meantime, it is the uniformity of all those foreign butters, which are made on sound lines in this respect, that gives them the strong position they hold in our markets. (0.) The loss arises because, while some of the creams mixed for churning are ripe or over-ripe, others are unripe. When the churning has early broken those globules which have been acted on by the ferments, a considerable proportion remain unbroken, and their fats cannot be gained by any continuance of the action until the butter made has been removed. The result is as much waste as with sweet cream, for much butter. which might have been recovered under ordinary conditions is lost because its globules were not so responsive as those of the riper creams, and the youngest cream loses a larger share of its fat in the buttermilk than as if it had been churned by itself, The loss, as proved by experiment, amounts to about 15 per cent. as compared with the results of ripening. The prevalent notion that the mixing brings the whole to a com- mon level is erroneous. The acidity is levelled, doubtless, because the acid is dissolved in the water; but the effects on the envelopes” cannot follow suit until the ferments have had time enough to work upon them. This will be sooner done than in sweet cream, but is not possible in the course of churning. In mixed creams, therefore, the standard by litmus is not applicable. The best results are obtained by churning each lot of cream separately when just ripe; but if mixing must be done, the creams should be managed so as to bring them all to ripeness at a given time. By keeping-one day’s lot so as to be ready at two days’ age, the next to be ripe in one day, and a third in a few hours, they may be mixed when the last lot is ready, and the yield will be satisfactory. This is even better than mixing them at different degrees of progress some hours before churning as is so commonly advised. Salting, and the use of good preservatives, may be brought in to help in BUTTER-MAKING. 311 keeping cream when atmospheric or accidental conditions are adverse. Another practice is to mix all the creams of each day in the common vessel; and this, though better in respect to the yield, produces greater irregularity in the fermentation,—generally by excess, and often with ill flavours brought by one cream to the rest, and which would have done much less harm if not mixed until churning time. The influence of fermentation does not reach the fats to an injurious extent up to ripeness, but beyond it the effects become ‘rapidly manifest in the higher flavour. In the case of Devonshire cream—which in that county is not only sold as cream but also made into butter—the scalding makes the time longer, but the same rules hold good as to the necessity of ripening, and its standard. This system affords a strong proof for the envelope theory; for the scalding temperature does not make any difference to the necessity for churning this cream, nor is it churned in less time than might be expected in view of its condition in other respects. While awaiting churning, the globules rise closer together; and the drying and oxidation tend to form a skin, as on exposed milk ; while towards the bottom of the pan the cream is thinner, ending in a quantity of the plasma varying according to the original thickness of the cream, or the proportion of plasma taken in removing it. This leads to an uneven condition, physical and fermentative ; an uneven churning, and consequent waste. The cream should be stirred in early morning, at noon, and late in the evening of every day, for a minute or two, with a Scotch hand (Fig. 195), which should not be left in it, but cleaned with a piece of horn and washed, otherwise it will speedily become a cream-spoiler. The effects of stirring are, (2) to mingle air with the cream, the O of which is helpful to the ripening action, oxidation being at the same time evenly distributed ; and (4) the keeping of the globules in a free state, so that churning may act fully and equally on them all. The neglect of this treatment in cases where the milk condition is not at fault, shares with the irregular ripening in producing that frequent inferiority of separated-cream butters already noticed. Churning.—The semperature for churning depends on several con- siderations. (a.) The air temperature, which affects that of the cream within the churn, the time required to obtain the butter, and—by way of the latter—touches other results later discussed. (.) The relations of the solid and liquid fats. When the former preponderate, a higher temperature is necessary to secure the desired expansion of the globules, and the condition of the fats suitable for gathering them ; 312 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. and the melting point, being raised correspondingly, the help may be given without risk. As variations depend on the feeding, this, and not the season, should guide the judgment. The feeding of cotton-seed meal has been proved to increase the solid fats considerably, and other dry foods do so in lesser proportions. Air Temperature. mae ieee : 66° F. 57° F. 54° F. 64° F. 58° F. 55°F. 62° F. 59° F. 56° F. 60° F, 60° F. 57°F. 58° F, 61° F. 58° F. 55 F. 62° F. 59° F. 50° F. 63° F. 60° F, The figures are rather higher than are commonly given, but are justified by experience. In butter-making competitions, for instance, where the cream is carefully mixed, supplied in equal quantities, and usually churned in similar churns, we have found the best results in all respects follow their adoption. When heating is necessary it should be done as with milk. Cooling is more troublesome, for it is most needed when the water- supply is too warm to effect it. When this is insufficient, and here the prospects of the evening will guide, the cream may be closely covered and lowered into a well to water-level, or placed in a cool cellar; and, by early rising, a higher temperature may be used, in keeping with the lower one of the morning. To merely secure the proper temperature is not enough. The cream must be exposed to the heat or cold long enough for its globules to be brought to the expansion or contraction required. Cream which has been kept cold will not reach its proper physical con- dition for churning at the temperature proper for that process, for when that is reached the density of the globules is behind that of the plasma, and however beneficial that difference may be in cream- ing, it is altogether undesirable in churning, when the densities should be in equal natural relations. Whether heating or cooling is desired, the density of the globules must be brought to the utmost which the churning temperature can effect in that direction, and this can be secured by a maintenance of the churning temperature for twenty to thirty minutes. The cream churns most perfectly when its thickness is such that BUTTER-MAKING. 313 a gallon will yield 3 lbs. of butter. When thicker, the concussion has too much resistance offered to it; and when thinner, the globules are too far apart to affect each other properly. In the former case it should be thinned by water; in the latter, allowed to rest long enough for the excess of plasma to sink to the bottom, and held back when emptying the pan. Water used for thinning should be added before’ the temperature is fixed, and when cooling is needed it will help it. Colouring Butter.—If colour is used, it should be added immedi- ately before the cream enters the churn. The practice is objec- tionable, and in any case should not exceed the natural summer ran Fic. 180.—HoLsTein CHurn. Fic. 181.—Box Cuurn. References common to all the churns illustrated :—a, Stand; 4, Body; c, Axle; d, Bearings ; ‘e, Handle or Crank; /, Dash or Diaphragm; g, Cover; 4, Ventilator; i, Window; Jj, Buttermilk Plug. tint of butter. Annatto is preferable to other colours, especially if prepared in spirit, which preserves it from fermentative changes. Preparations in oil are in the market, and are rightly claimed to be economical because they only associate with the fats, so requiring less than. would be necessary of materials colouring the buttermilk. But there is a danger of rancidity, and in all cases the body and texture of the butter are interfered with, according to the quantity used. We have seen butters of good natural texture 314 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. made to appear salvy by the presence of such colours. The other kinds are therefore preferable. Churns may be divided into the following classes, viz. :— (a.) Fixed body with movable dash.— The “Holstein” churn, Fig. 180, makes its dash to revolve with the spindle, fixed dashes Fic, 182.—BARREL CHURN. co-operating with it. The “box” churn, Fig. 181, is the smallest example of a sub-class which includes also the “ Hibernia” churn of Bradford & Co. in this country, and the “Blanchard” and “ Spain” churns made in America, but also sold among us. (6.) Movable body with fixed dash.—In this class are found the SMT + Ze LZ, Wad NSSssss VLLSIS LA Le Fic. 183.—DiarHracm Cuurn. barrel churns of Hathaway, Waide, Llewellyn, Tinkler, and many others. An example is given in Fig. 182, but the dash varies according to the maker. In the “Diaphragm” churn, Fig. 183, a removable frame of bars is so set as to produce “converging” currerits in the cream, which are claimed to facilitate churning. BUTTER-MAKING. 315 —— ee!) [ . i 1a Ht} —— eta Fic. 185.—TRIANGULAR CHURN. Ly Fic. 185.— Swinc Cuurn. 316 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. (¢.) Movable body without dash.—This class contains the popular “End-over-End” churn, Fig. 184; Hathaway’s “ Shakspearian,” Waide’s “Victoria,” and their kindred, so much used in the dairy schools. The tri- i angular churn of Llewellyn is found in Fig. jai rae isi a: ee Th 185. tle bez iit Various forms of swinging churns have Fic, 187,—‘ Disc” CHurRN. been brought out in America, of which the “Davis,” Fig. 186, is a fair representative. The most recent invention is the “Disc” churn, Fig. 187, which gathers the cream upon a disc of wood, driven at considerable speed, and throws it against the end of the case with great force. In its action it differs materially from all others given, though it belongs to the first class. Points of Construction.—The special features of these classes shall next be described, while summarising the points of importance in a churn, which are as follows, viz. :— (a.) High Concussion in Relation to Speed and Power Reguired.— The time needed to produce butter, and the extent of the separation of the fats, will mainly depend on the concussion, and in this respect churns greatly differ. Those having no dashes give the least ; next above them stand those having fixed dashes; then the movable dashes ; somewhat beyond these the swing churns ; and the “ Disc” churn claims to stand at the head. In all these there is some friction of the cream, but the makers aim to keep this within narrow limits. “ Concussion, not friction,” is a standing maxim with them, and rightly so with low-speed machines, in which the most possible of the former must be secured in order to effectiveness. Every churn has a speed at which it gives its greatest concussion, and no variation from this can give equal results. The churns in which the dashes are numerous or movable work best at forty-five to fifty revolutions per minute, and this rises through the lower degrees of the force to sixty revolutions in the dashless revolving churns. The “swing” churns do not move so quickly as their fellows of the same class, and yet give quicker results. Our common experience has been thirty to thirty-five minutes with the “dashless” and “ fixed dash” classes; twenty to thirty minutes with the movable dashes; and fifteen to twenty minutes, generally the lower figure, with “swing” churns, the butter being equal in quality under a management equal in other respects, and varying but slightly in quantity. The speed and length of churning are in proportion, there- fore, and make a considerable difference in the aggregate of a season’s labour in their use. The “swing” churns prove the action of the BUTTER-MAKING. 317 globules on each other in churning, for these machines make the cream to dash into itself, as shown in Fig. 186. (b.) Aération of the Cream.—In a closed churn the cream swell: because the motion raises its temperature, and the air is therefore compressed and in turn compresses the cream. Gases of fermentatior also, and—in ‘new cream, not thoroughly aired—the original gases o: milk, are given off, and these add to the compression under the rising temperature. The limits of heat increase are narrow, but it produces sufficient compression to hinder the free motion of the cream, anc correspondingly reduce concussion. All churns must be provided witl the means of letting off such excess of air and gases. Those of the movable body and closed dashless types must needs have their mean: of airing made water-tight, or leakage would ensue. They are therefore either plugs, to remove by hand, or spring valves which close instantly when the hand is withdrawn. Those having movable dashes can have constant aération by small open tubes rising from their highest points the swing churns can employ still larger openings and scarcely neec covers, while the “ Disc” churn enjoys the same advantage in an equa degree but different form. Beyond the necessity for relieving the cream from compression there are distinct advantages in aération, touching the quality of thi product. The action of the air is as with curd in cheese making purifying it from the free odorous products of fermentation, anc the greater the passage of air the more perfect is this. Oxidation necessarily accompanies, but within harmless limits, helping also t reduce the envelopes to the breaking condition. (¢.) The most complete Churning possible-—The differences in yiel« from equal creams by different churns of the ordinary types at thei best are never great, and the claims sometimes made in this respec are based on trials made under unequal conditions ; for example, o two equal churns, one may be handled by an expert, the other by on who is not a dairyer, or scarcely familiar with his machine. All sort of circumstances enter into the matter, interfering with results. Bu that churns are unequal within a narrow range is certain, especially a to the extent and effect of aération. The dairyer should therefor estimate the two points, already discussed, to secure this one. (2) The Maintenance of Temperature.—lIf the dairy is properl: provided for in this respect, the churn need have no provision for it but in cases where churning has to be done in cold places in winter, i should possess a chamber for hot water, as in Fig. 184. (@.) The Tendency to Gather the Butter should not be too great.— Some churns do this much more quickly than others, those which hav internal dashes being more liable than those which have none, thoug] 318. MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. in this respect the “Disc” form is an exception. Strictly speaking this latter is not a dash, the concussion not being given by the disc but by the churn ends, as in the Swing churns, which share its freedom from this risk. (f) Easy Filling, Emptying, Examining, and Cleansing.—These are. but conveniences, but they deserve consideration, as touching economy of time and labour, and reducing the risks of neglect. The closed churns have comparatively small mouths, and are defective in these respects. (g.) The material should be wood, as sound and free from odour as possible. Metal is objectionable, because butter will stick to it, which it will not do to damp wood. Oak, commonly employed, needs special preparation before using. The best plan is to soak in cold water for a few hours, then in warm; either filling the churn, if one of the con- stantly ventilated kinds, or fixing the other kinds so as to expose all parts to the water for a time, and this will become darkly stained. This should be followed with boiling water, repeated until it comes off clear. Creamed milk or buttermilk should afterwards be used. This will absorb the odour, but will have need to be followed by further washing with water, boiling and cold, to remove the products of fermentation. The white, or colonial wood, though less troublesome in this way, will require similar treatment in its lower degree. The working capacity of a churn is generally limited to one-third of its actual measure, though each has its own limit, to exceed which is to reduce the chance of concussion until a point is reached at which it is practically impossible to get butter. In any case the results are delay and imperfect churning, proportionate to the excess. No churn ought ever to be scrubbed on its inside, and if properly managed it need not be. After use all particles should be swilled out with cold water, and then—and not until then—clean boiling water used to get rid of the effects of contact with the fermented cream. Ina closed churn, after a few minutes’ turning, the buttermilk plug may be removed, and the water driven out under pressure. Instantaneous Churning.—For some years attempts have been made to graft on to the separator some device by which the fresh cream should be churned into butter, and delivered in a fine granular state direct from the machine instead of cream. The “Butter Extractor” was the first to claim notice. It consists of a separator, within the drum of which a circular wheel-frame of bars is placed, which can be carried by a lever into a position where its bars can strike into the rapidly moving cream, and made to revolve by its action upon them. The globules are thus broken, and pass off in place of the cream, with some buttermilk. The BUTTER-MAKING. 310 next step was taken by Dr de Laval, who attached to the frame of his separator a churn driven from the spindle, and receiving the cream as it issued from the outlet and passed over a cooler. For this it was properly claimed that the reduction of temperature before churning was an advance on the other machine, which either churned it at the separating temperature, or separated at one much too low. The machine, however, was withdrawn for perfecting, as it is reported, and is not now in the market. The most recent invention is the American “Accumulator,” which is attached to the Laval separator, A ELEIAATII IT gj jaee j= i ae. ye gE gP ma ya yee SLA COATT if Y cm PASM Zs GP LP Z MEACCOMATAUUQLL\ - om Reet Ui od) Ce | Fic. 188.—BuTTER ACCUMULATOR (Part Section), DK WY, gree EET +H Z Ca rman S Ns SS SOSSSS SENS SSSE SSSI S) a é ‘ gf eee” iN SII Ey but is of separate manufacture. As shown in Fig. 188 it consists of a collar, which is secured to the neck of the drum. The cream escaping from the drum flies into the angle a, and when this is filled rises through the aperture 4 to the terraces ¢ ¢, filling the angle of each in turn, and then flying over its upper edge into the angle of the next. From the top terrace it passes through the tube d into the circular chamber, where the butter separates in fine granules from the butter- milk, and reaching the inner opening of the tube f, is discharged into the collecting dish 4, while the buttermilk passes through the tube g into the same. This device appears to have “come to stay,” as the Americans would say. There is doubtless room for improve- ment, but the principle will be developed, and make the production of first-class and long-keeping sweet-cream butter not only practicable but economical. There is every reason to believe that in the per- fected machines the separation of casein will be more complete than is possible with the old appliances, and on account of the dryness 320 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. of the butter produced, the after-manipulation will be greatly reduced with benefit. The special need now is a device for cleansing the butter from buttermilk as soon as it leaves the “ Accumulator,” and this must follow soon. It seems to have been taken for granted that these results are due to a mere gathering of free fat, and that there is no churning ; but we cannot conceive of higher concussion than is given in either case. In the “Extractor” and the “Instantaneous” machines the churning is evident. In the “Accumulator,” the globules are subjected to power- ful concussion at a, and in passing the edge of the terraces c, and this being administered to them when separated in the thinnest con- ceivable layers, they must needs be acted upon as powerfully as in the fifteen to forty minutes of churning under ordinary conditions. The effects of the “Accumulator” are no greater than might be reasonably expected on enveloped globules with a speed of 6,000 to 7,000 revolu- tions per minute, and the followers of the “free fat” theory cannot draw any proof in its favour from them. It will always be necessary to have in one machine the alternative choice of cream or butter. The churn will in time give place largely to this direct production, though it will probably be long enough in doing so. Preparing the Churn.—\n preparing the churn for use, it should first be swilled with cold water ; then treated well with boiling water ; and at once, and lastly, cooled with cold to the cream temperature. The hot water causes the wood to swell, saturates it to a little depth, and allows the cold water to do so afterwards to an extent which would only be possible in such a case. The cooling leaves the pores, though contracted, full of water to the depth of penetration, and this resists the entrance of butter. Salt added to the cooling water increases its density, and correspondingly its resistance to the entrance of butter into the pores ; and this explains why when butter has stuck to wood, if it is removed by melting with hot water, and the object afterwards washed in cold water and rubbed with salt, sticking will cease. The salt also adds to the penetrative power of the water. If a churn is properly managed from the beginning, nothing but water, hot and cold, need ever be employed within it. No such substance as soda should be used in a churn; for it is not easily removed from the wood, and, being alkaline, will give it in time the power to interfere with the churning by partially saponifying the fats at first breaking, or even the earlier saturation of the envelopes. From this sometimes arises the failure of churning. Management in Churning.—The cream should either be strained into some vessel with a lip, and from this poured into the churn; or BUTTER-MAKING. 32 emptied direct into the latter, a strainer cloth being used to final reduce it to a uniform condition, and to remove anything solid whi may have accidentally fallen into it. The churn being secured again leaking or splashing, churning should be proceeded with at the spec suitable to the churn, the revolutions being counted for half a minu to ensure correctness. With this practice will come the mental hat of repeating the speed. It is generally advised that churning shou start at a much lower speed; but experience with power churn run at one rate throughout, has taught us that any such variation unnecessary, there being no discoverable difference in the result. because of error in the initial and churning conditions, the churnir is too quickly or too slowly completed, the tendency will be softness ; in the former case, because of the heat or speed ; and the latter, because the increase of friction which follows the decrea of concussion also raises the temperature. With closed churns there should be at first frequent stoppings f ventilation; but when air ceases to escape on opening the valves, t] work may proceed with very occasional attention to this until the chan; of sound which comes with the separation of the butter from the butte milk, when the process will soon have to cease, and the state of affai must be watched by means of the glass plate, or other appliance f that purpose, which every churn should possess. From the glass tl cream will disappear, and very fine particles of butter will be seen wi the free buttermilk. At this time the churn should be stopped, at cold water added to its contents in the proportion of one-fourth of t] measure of the original cream. This cools and hardens the granule gives a larger and thinner body of liquid in which they can flo further apart, and therefore are prevented from gathering too rapidl If more water is used, the gathering is unduly interfered with; f in a proper degree such gathering is necessary, in order that tl butter may be removed without waste; but it should be slow, a1 the proportion mentioned is found to give the best results. T] water also helps to free the grains from adhering fragments casein, and makes less after- washing necessary. Any granul on the cover or sides of the churn should be swilled off wi this water. After a few rockings of the churn the buttermilk shou be drawn off, a hair strainer covered with a double piece of butte muslin being held close to the outlet to intercept all granule while the buttermilk passes into a pail or conductor for discharg Fresh water, in the measure of the buttermilk and water just remove should now be poured into the churn; this rocked again a few time and the water—whitened with remaining buttermilk—drawn off; tl being repeated until the water comes off clear. The amount of was x 322 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. ing will depend on (a) the original size of the globules, and (4) the con- dition of the cream, (a.) The larger the globules are, the more quickly is the washing effectual.. (.) If the cream has been well stirred in ripening, and brought toa proper ripeness and consistency, the removal of casein will be earlier and more complete than when these have been neglected. Both under-ripe and over-ripe cream require more washing than that which is just right. No invariable rule can be given, there- fore, as to the number of washings (though this is sometimes attempted), but that of final clearness of the water used, and no less will serve. From two to four are generally sufficient. Some makers object to all washing, on the ground that the butter flavour is reduced by it. This is true, for the butyrin is soluble in water, and being in much higher proportion than the other solid fats, its loss in this way must needs have that effect. To avoid it, they make up the butter “dry,” as they say, with the inevitable penalty of falling into two other occasions of trouble, of which more hereafter. Of the two courses, carefully considered in the light of experience, the. washing is decidedly preferable; but in view of the loss admitted the treatment must be confined within necessary limits, and the size of the granules must be fixed at a proper standard, not being washed at any stage lower than the “pin’s head” size commonly recommended. During the washing the butter granules will increase in size, and the loss in flavour will be trifling compared with the advantage of the reduction of casein. The old practice, which has almost disappeared as the result of ten years’ teaching, is to gather the butter in lumps of all sizes, from an inch to three or four inches. This was convenient for the old style of handling, but made the retention of too much casein unavoidable. No after-treatment could extract this properly, or even reduce it, without doing equal mischief by spoiling the keeping properties by too much washing and manipulation. The earliest removal is the most effectual; even a little advance on the limits prescribed carries the product away from the best possibilities. The importance of pure water in this and every contact with the butter must be evident. Not merely should it be free from dirt or discoloration by solid or dissolved matter, but free from ammonia, acids, and other products of decomposition which give no proof of their presence to the unsuspecting. These substances, however, are often found in water from old wells containing decaying vegetable matter, and enter into injurious combination with the fats, especially of the volatile class. The last water used may be slightly salted, this assisting in the carrying off of the casein. The temperature of the water should not be less than 45° F., when BUTTER-MAKING, 323 the air is at 60° F., or 50° F. when the air is at 55° F., with other variations consistent with these. It is a mistake to harden the butter beyond a certain point at which sufficient firmness to withstand the later manipulation, and a proper readiness to cohere, can both be secured. If it be exceeded in the direction of greater hardness, the consolidation cannot be effected without undue pressure. Since much of the mild salting of butter is now-a-days done at this point, the general question may properly receive attention. The preservative influence of salt is desirable, its proportion being regulated by the composition of the butter, and the time it is desired to keep it, or by the demands of the market. It has, however, become fashionable to say that good butter needs no salt; this assertion being based on the fact that the early spoiling of butter is mainly due to casein present, and the supposition that good management does away with this source of harm. But the casein is never entirely extracted from butter, and in good samples is sufficieut to justify the salt check. Even in the entire absence of this there is always the B.A.F. to reckon with, and it is useless to say that butter is not the better for such a salting as will preserve its fine qualities as long as is reasonable. When we say that the composition of the butter should rule the extent of the salting in part, we mean that, according to the water and casein, the proportions should be fixed, and the methods employed will be a guide to these. Water by itself greatly helps to decompo- sition,—the drier the butter is, the less of salt will it need; but however much may be present, z¢ should be saturated with salt. The extent of casein extraction may be estimated by the state of the cream, the size of the granules, and the state of the last washing water; and if these are as advised, the salt necessary to saturate the water will be sufficient for preservative purposes. If error has made it certain that the pro- portion of casein is higher than usual, the butter must either be used early, or salted more heavily in another way, hereafter described. The markets sometimes demand a lighter salting than the standard given, or even a saltless article. In such cases it cannot be kept so long as is possible with proper salting. On the other hand, much bad work has been covered by heavy salting ; and this is objectionable—for the consumer ought not to pay for more salt than is necessary to the preservation of a well-made butter. ‘Salt does not penetrate the ultimate grains of butter. It has been proved that a saturated brine will not pass through muslin closely smeared with butter in a form so thin as to be almost transparent. The salt, then, is dissolved in the water, and when in excess of satura- tion, probably held by cohesion to the surfaces of the granules and compressed between them, 324 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. For mild salting, “éréméng” is employed with advantage. The butter is immersed in its granular state in a brine strong in proportion to the needs of the case. Water will dissolve 3.2 Ibs. and upwards to every gallon (10 lbs.) according to the purity of the salt and the water, and every dairyer may test for himself. A brine of 2 lbs. to the gallon suffices for the mildest article. The quantity of salt retained in the butter depends on (a) the size of the granules ; (4) the time of their exposure to the brine; and (c) the final dryness of the butter. The smaller the granules and longer their exposure, the more is held, the two items appearing to share equally in securing the retention. Fine granules will hold a quarter of 1 per cent. from the 2 lbs. brine in thirty minutes’ exposure, in the same time a saturated brine will give nearly a half of 1 per cent. The facts strongly support the cohesion theory, and form a sufficient basis for calculating how to produce any desired effect. It has been at times proposed to keep granular butter in brine for long preservation, and, when required, to work it up for the market. We remember that twelve years ago a friend sent us some casks of fine butter from America in saturated brine. It arrived in excellent condition, but much too salt for the local markets. It was removed into a strainer cloth and gently immersed in cold spring water a few times to wash away the excess of salt. ‘This disappeared, and with it the flavour, leaving it a perfect fat, but almost tasteless. It was no case of original innocence, but of reduction of the flavour due to the volatile fats, leaving only the combination flavour of the stearin and olein. Except for short periods, therefore, butter should not be subjected to salt in such a form unless it can be permanently kept in it. A portion of the brine, if this is used, or of the last washing water, should now be drawn off, until the butter can easily be gathered on a scoop (Fig. 189) and then removed. The last particles can be swilled > uu, down with water, and collected. ; y) D When the butter is at all soft, it should be = put in a cool cellar until it is firm enough to Fic, 189.—Burter Scoor. bear the rest of the processes without injury. The cellar (Figs. 47, 62) is best where the water tank can be had; failing this, such a safe as is shown in Fig. 190 will serve with a little attention. Here is a metal box with a door a, made to fit closely by draught tubing, and having a trough 4 at the sides and back, while a small loose tank ¢ rests on the top. -Within, a removable shelf of slate @ rests on two projections, and another’ lies on the bottom. In use the trough 6 and tank ¢ are filled with water, and a coarse flannel cloth ¢ is BUTTER-MAKING. 325 laid over the sides and back, its upper end dipping into the water in ¢ and its lower, end into that in 4, so drawing it by capillary attraction as to keep the sides slightly wet. Placed in a free passage of air, the evaporation carries off the water as fast as supplied, and causes proportionate reduction of the internal temperature ; the hotter and drier the air, the more rapid will the cooling be, so much so as to make it necessary, in special cases, to sprinkle water frequently over the cloth to supplement the supplies drawn by the attraction. If these latter are not enough the middle part of the cloth will become dry, and the heat will undo at that point what the cooling is doing elsewhere. One hour under the conditions indicated above will harden the butter to the safe point. Working Butter.—The consolidation of the grains and the ex- traction of moisture in the correct degree, are carried out in one operation known as “working” the butter. The old practice is to do fl this with the hand; but this is nn Te happily vanishing, fox ‘it stands ti ; condemned on account of the mis- | Cee A chief done to the flavour, texture, f B and keeping properties, by the WD p heat and perspiration. The heat of the blood is 98° F., and while a HV AAHT al ARR that of the skin is not so high in ‘yf health, it is much too high for safety, We can raise the mercury in a Fic. 190.—BuTTER Coo.er. standard thermometer to 94° F. at writing, when free from physical exertion ; the average melting point of butter is 97° F.!_ The effect of a temperature of 70° F. is to partially dissociate the fats; and this in higher proportion with greater heat ; while no after-cooling will ever restore their original relations. By wetting the hands and reducing the surface temiperature by evapora- tion, the mischief may be lessened, besides which the moisture is interposed between the hand and the butter, but these things generally do little to save the delicate material. We have known cases in which this practice made so much difference as to become a matter of boasting. ‘My hand is a very good one for butter ; I can make it as cold as an icicle.” This was an exaggeration, of course, but true so far that the reduction of surface-heat was injurious to the boaster. What may be good for the butter is bad for the butter-maker in this case, and vice versd. So the days of hand-working are nearly at an end ; and there is the less excuse for their continuance, because the appliances to take its place are simple and cheap. 326 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. _ With a “trundle” (Fig. 191), and a scoop (Fig. 189), small quantities can be worked perfectly, the scoop being held as in Fig. 192, and borne down upon the butter,—not as if kneading putty, but gently; not with a grinding, but a pressing, action. The hand Fic, 191.—BuTTER TRUNDLE. Fic. 192, —WorKING BUTTER WITH Scoop. will warm the scoop in time; it is therefore well to keep a pair, the one being in water while the other is in use. But the work can be more economically done in larger quantities from 20 lbs. upwards with is : Ve. i i Cy q OD —— fj | SSC Mi Fic, 193.—‘‘ ALBANY” CUNNINGHAM BuTrrEeR-WorRKER. a “worker,” the best form of which, the “Cunningham,” is represented in Fig. 193 by Bradford & Co.’s “Albany.” Quite a number of other machines of the same class are in the market, made by Llewellyn, Hathaway, Dairy Supply Company, and others, each having its special BUTTER-MAKING, 327 vantages in convenience. The table a, which should slope towards point of discharge, is traversed by a corrugated roller 4, running in frame ¢, which is kept in place by strips of wood, and made to run sily by rollers of hard wood. Two pins act as bearings to the roller indle, and press on the ends of a wooden spring 4, allowing the ler to rise a little, and so to accommodate itself to varying thick- sses of butter. The roller is turned by the crank e, while the handle s used to propel the frame. The machine is either supported by a ind g, or placed on a table. In use, the butter should be piled on the middle of the table, d gently pressed down with a scoop until it is not more than an ch and half thick. Then the roller should be passed over it first wards and then back, driving the expressed water towards the tlet. Just as in pressing cheese, the tendency of excessive pressure to close in moisture; and though this may to some extent be pressed t later, it will not be perfectly done, nor without unnecessary work- z. As the granules draw together the crevices between them come smaller, but those within communicate with those nearer e surface ; therefore the more gently and evenly the compression the more rapid and thorough will be the extraction. The motion the frame and the roller must correspond. The roller catching the butter would, of course, carry itself forward ; but it should not allowed to do so; nor should the frame travel faster or slower an will admit of the roller Jvessizg the butter; for in either case tnding is inevitable, and this tends to the mechanical dissociation the solid and liquid fats, and helps to the spoiling of the keeping ality. The butter should now be rolled together by propelling the frame before, but turning the crank é in the apposite direction, the sult being as in Fig. 194. ae roll so made, if it is firm ‘ough to stand, should be cut half, and set on end near the of oe ater outlet to drain for a few - Mf fin ig SAULT inutes, and then presse d with Che “WA CSLLETTTS ETI EOTTSLLTELTL LATS EEO EI TELE “a e scoop as before and re- LA Z orked, This draining is equal once working, and saves om the working-in again of e water set free in forming e roll, The use of clean muslin wrung out of cold water is lmissible for the same purpose. Anything reasonable may be me to get the butter dry with the least working. The condition if dj Fic. 194.—BuTTER-WorKER ROLLING. 328 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. in this respect may be tested at any time by pressing a little between two scoops, or “Scotch hands” (Fig. 195). A worker should offer the following advantages, viz. :— (a.) The roller should be free to yield to S| any variations in the depth of the butter. | Many workers are made without springs ; their absence is a defect. This is especially mis- chievous in the circular power-workers, in == which rollers run in fixed bearings. We advise Fic the avoidance of these in spite of their economy 1G. 195.—ScoTcH Hanps. of labour. (4.) The corrugations of the roller should be so made as to make those in the butter oblique, so rendering the discharge of water easier. (¢.) The means of gathering the butter into a roll. This is not found in the lever machines, which in other respects do well. The scoops cannot readily bring it into a convenient form for draining. (@.) The frame and roller should run easily, but without looseness. (é.) The parts should be easily separated for cleansing. The capacity of the machines of the type illustrated ranges from five to twenty pounds of butter at one working. If the butter has become soft by this time, further hardening should be sought. When brining has been followed, no more working will be needed ; but in the case of dry-salting this should follow, the butter being laid out by the roller, and the salt sprinkled as uniformly as possible, then rolled together (Fig. 194) and worked without the draining or special drying. The salt should be in fine crystals and dissolve readily. Its even distribution cannot be effected without more working than is requisite with a brined butter, and only such as possesses a naturally high body and coarse texture will bear this without the beginnings of harm. The salt is most easily distributed at a quarter ounce to the pound ; as the proportions rise above this or fall below it more working is required ; and the evidence of damage is plain when the limit of three-quarter ounce to the pound is passed. It is also found that an excess over this does not keep the butter as well. But with this proportion a well-made butter will keep for six months in fine condition. It is a good plan to set the butter aside for a time to allow of a perfect dissolving of the salt, and finally work it once or twice before making up or potting. By this course the working required may be reduced. Here we may close the salting question. The saving by the dry method is striking ; for what can be done by half a pound of salt as brine on a pound of butter, a quarter ounce of dry salt will do in this way. For the finest results we must pay in this loss, and many BUTTER-MAKING. 329 4 } ikers of the “dry” class dispute the advantage. They set against 2 slight loss of texture that of flavour in the brining, and believe at they are nearly or quite equal. In such case, the argument is the side of dry-salting. With over-ripe cream and the “Devonshire” material, more work ist be done to free the butter from casein than under the conditions scribed. Whatever may be said for the “clotted” cream, the butter ide from it is not, and cannot be, equal to that made from raw cream. iy | PAIITIREZAS 8 ZZ, D WY Ay RESKORS Fic. 196.—Brick oF Butrer. Fic. 197-—Moupinc Bricks. Forms of Commercial Butter.—Butter is commonly made up in b., 1-Ib., or 2-lb. lumps, of various shapes, and often with more or is of decoration. (a.) Bricks (Fig. 196) are made with the Scotch hands, some of uich are plain, others fluted (Fig. 195); and very pretty designs n be made with these simple tools with a little artistic ingenuity. Fic. 198. Fic. 199. Fic. 200, Rout oF Burrer. BuTTer-Ro.uina. Rott Mouvp. ‘ey may also be made with a mould, Fig, 197, the block a bearing device, and this pressed on the lump in the frame 4, the latter ty be drawn up by the finger-tips while the thumbs keep the block d butter in place and the latter is set free. (4.) Rolls (Fig. 198) are made either by rolling the lump between 9 boards, as in Fig. 199, or by compressing them in a mould g- 200). Both forms of butter are easy to handle and pack, but are 330 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. awkward for table use unless divided into halves, the butter dishes seldom being long enough to receive them. (c.) Pats (Fig. 201) can be made according to form, by a “cup” mould (Fig. 202) for a, and by a “box print” (Fig. 203) for 4, the Fic. 201.—Pats oF Butter. Fic. 202,—Cur Moutp. Fic. 203.—Box Moutp. weighed lumps of butter being rolled with the Scotch hands into conical form before being pressed. The scale (Fig. 204) for weighing butter should be provided with a porcelain plate, and have its bearings well protected. Care must be taken to provide against defective weight through moisture on the plate, either by ee constant removal or by allowance for it. AETTTTTITIMIIMTMT,§«=«=_Several attempts have been made to f_________\ mould and print by complicated appli- Fic. 204.—Butrer ScaLe. ances, but we have found no satisfaction in them. The butter-moulding machine suitable to factory use we believe has yet to be invented. Here let us put in our protest against the meaningless and easily copied figures of animals and birds, and a plea for artistic designs presenting names or monograms in forms which may be registered under the Trade Marks Act. A good reputation is worth such protection, information respecting which can be obtained from the Comptroller, The Patent Office, London. When the consumer gets a fine butter bearing a certain “print,” he clings to that print with wonderful tenacity ; never suspecting that, as is often the case, his favourite butter is unprotected, and a good many other people’s butters bear the cow’s head or swan, squirrel or shell, beside that which he first fell in. love with, and that he does not always get the article he wanted. Such faithfulness ought to be cultivated; and the credit and profit to be enjoyed by the best makers, placed beyond the reach of the lower-grade men who want these good things without deserving them, Beautiful imitations of flowers and other objects can be made for special purposes, and as they fetch fancy prices, are worth learning to make. It is not possible to give satisfactory directions in full ina BUTTER-MAKING. 331 ok, but we may say that with two small tools—one of the Scotch id and the other of the knife (Fig. 159) form—-much fine work can done. The butter, being taken in small pieces, is flattened out ween the tools, and then laid around a centre-point, forming roses, 2s, &c., with comparative ease when a little practice has been built mn an art foundation. Roofing slates form the best carriers, when covered with the pure islin (free from chemical bleaches) specially made for butter, and these the prints may rest until despatched. The cloths should be ung out of clear cold water before use. Vegetable parchment forms : best wrapping material, and may bear the trade-mark. For keting, butter needs better protection than it usually gets as d by the farmer; and light and cheap boxes, non-returnable, are > best packages we know of for efficiency and economy. Even en made of common spruce, if they be lined with the parchment thin and with common paper next to the wood, the butter will travel thout injury. For returnable cases, poplar or colonial wood is sferable. Potting Butter—Heavily salted butter for keeping is put into ts, and hence known as “potted” butter. A really fine article, with ree-quarters of an ounce of salt to the pound, needs no special ‘atment beyond the packing. The pot should be absolutely clean, d not previously used for any purpose liable spoil it for our use. The butter should be 2ssed into it with a scoop, so as to leave no avices ; the top levelled, and covered with ghtly wet muslin; and this, with half an inch of lt pressed down upon it, covered finally with NN B ff paper, and put in a cool dry place. There i n be no doubt that any good butter keeps tter in a pot than in any prints in contact with the air, and Americans most of their business in this form. It is believed that sunlight, apart from air and temperature, affects tter prejudicially, tending to convert the fixed fats into tallow and compose the volatile fats. Storage in a low light will secure against ch risks. Whey Cream Butter.—In making cheese more or less of the milk obules are lost in the process of breaking the curd; and in the hard rd systems this is always enough to justify a reasonable outlay for curing it as butter. The loss will depend somewhat on the original ilk quality, and especially on the skill of the cheese-maker, for a amsy hand will waste much more than is necessary. The average sundry analyses gives .33 of 1 per cent. as the loss by one Fic. 205.—BuTTER 1n Pot. 332 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. system, while that of another—supported by manufacturing experience —shows .17, and even this must be regarded as too high. Whey cream, as it is called, is regarded too much as a half- worthless by-product. Many American cheese-makers, and some of our own people, make from it a grease for use on cheeses, and fit for nothing better ; but we have known the product when well made to fetch at the rate of 1s. 8d. per lb. avoirdupois (1s. rod. per pound Derbyshire weight) for nearly three months in succession, with an average of 1s, 5d. for the season, and keeping only a penny per lb. behind the best milk butters. Those days may never return again, but the butter is worth making at Is. per lb., or 1od. for potting, and makes the finest keeping article known to us. The cream differs in nothing from that of milk, excepting in so far as the conditions attending on the whey affect it. The whey is set in a tank, which is best made of wood or brickwork, and lined with lead. Neither cement nor cemented bricks will serve— the acid eats away the lime, and the com- bination affects the whey. We remember seeing the cream on a factory tank checked over strangely in a perfect pattern, and found that the bottom of the tank was laid with square tiles in cement; immediately over the joints there was no cream, and other observations have shown similar re- sults. Next morning it is skimmed with a bowl. More care is taken to get all the cream than to exclude the whey. The cream ought to be so thin as to tax the skill and patience of the dairyer; then he can comfort himself with the reflection that all the rest is in the cheese. We have already recommended the separator for this purpose in cheese factories. With present conditions it is desirable to scald the cream to a temperature of 150° F., and keep it at that for twenty minutes, so destroying the living ferments, and checking further fermentation by salting the cream at the rate of two ounces to the gallon, and stirring the while. It should then be set in a glazed pan, provided with a tap or wooden plug at its lower edge (Fig. 206), but should not be filled beyond two-thirds of its depth, the rest being filled with cold spring water, and mix well. The cream will rise to the surface, leaving the whey removed in skimming mingled with the water; and these should be drawn off next morning. After this the management should be as with milk cream. The long-keeping quality is due both to the early fermentation and the after-check Fic. 206.—WHEY CREAM Pan. BUTTER-MAKING. 333 tupon it. The butter if made for table use benefits by being kept ew days. There is not the room in butter-making for compensations for smanagement which is afforded by cheese-making. Errors in ening, for instance, cannot be set right to any appreciable extent, : effects being physical as well as chemical, and the latter are linly brought in to help the former in their setting free the fats. \e purely physical and mechanical laws, when transgressed, place > results almost entirely beyond remedy. But, on the other hand, tter-making is far simpler than cheese-making ; in it there are more ed rules, and fewer occasions where the judgment can err. The iults are also more easily reduced to uniformity ; and with the astant and widespread teaching which is being given on this dject, we ought speedily to put an end to the complaints made ainst us by the trade, and to the comparisons with foreign dairyers nerally made to our disadvantage. CHAPTER XIX. TESTING AND ANALYSIS. THE ability to determine the composition of milk and its products, to such an extent as will serve practical purposes, is a very desirable acquirement for the dairyer. The prosecution by him of the ordinary chemical practice to its furthest limits is usually too great an undertaking ; not that it is by any means beyond his intelligence, but it costs too much, and occupies too much time, to justify it. There are, however, methods, some of which are used by the analyst, which are both cheap and ready enough to meet his case, and which deserve his confidence. These we shall describe ; but whatever may be their inherent value, much of their practical usefulness will largely depend on the dairyer himself. Accuracy in’working, recognition of influential conditions, and reliability in inference, are essential to this. This is generally supposed to be the monopoly of men who have been trained in the science schools; but to that we take exception. There is no finer training in the world in this direction than the constant forecasting and estimation of the conditions of the cheese-maker’s daily experi- ence, and this is true of butter-making in a degree proportionate to its greater simplicity. By the time the dairyer has learned to under- stand and to do his-work as it ought to be done, he has necessarily passed through a mental and technical drill equal to that of the average laboratory. We are not thinking here of the empirical teaching of five-day courses of butter-making, but of the thorough study and practice which we are trying to promote ; and we are sure that any dairyer who can grasp the main principles and conditions of his art, and carry out its details faithfully, can also appreciate those which relate to methods of analysis. The methods within easy reach vary in eave, and there are with them, as with all, adverse conditions and accidental interferences which, if unrecognised or misunderstood, may make the results misleading or valueless, While we shall endeavour to anticipate TESTING AND ANALYSIS, 335 mmon risks, it will be impossible to go further within our limits space; and the dairyer who finds something amiss in his nclusions, must needs seek explanation by reasoning and experi- ant. In this case he will be in ‘the excellent company of the eatest scientific authorities, who have frequently to confess failure d begin again. Milk.—The purposes of the dairyer in wishing to know something out the quality of a milk are twofold, viz., (2) for the improvement his herd, feeding, farming, or manufacture; or | for fixing the commercial value of a purchased pply. For these aims the examination of milk may divided according as it regards (a) the whole ality, or the proportions of total solids; or (4) the fat. At the outset the taking and treatment of mples require notice. The whole benefit of any st is thrown away if the sample be not repre- ntative of the bulk from which it is drawn. ierefore it should, if possible, be taken before any 2am has risen, and in any case the mass should be rred to a uniform distribution of the globules. ven in a few minutes the balance of fat, and there- ‘e of total solids too, is destroyed; for the upper ie a Ik will contain more globules than that lower down. —Sampte Dirper. ilk which has travelled from the farm to the factory ll be fairly mixed in the receiving can; but even then the sample sper (Fig. 207) should be freely used for stirring it. The sample should be emptied into a jug bearing a number, ich corresponds with the supplier’s number in the factory book, with the cow, or other reference, as the case may be. However ort may be the time it stands after this, it must be thoroughly xed again before being tested, and there is no better way than pour it smartly from jug to jug as much as necessary. If the St cream appears at the milk level in the original jug, it should carefully swilled down by shaking the milk upon it before the xing is commenced. The capacity of this jug should be a pint, though a sample of a quarter pint will generally serve, more will netimes be needed, and there should be ample room to allow of uring without splashing. (a.) The total solids are best determined by evaporation of the ter from a weighed sample of milk, weighing the residue, and nparing it with the original quantity. For this purpose the lowing apparati are necessary, viz. :— A chemical balance (Fig. 208), constructed to weigh finely, and 336 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. consisting of a pillar 2, on which rests a beam 4, with pans ¢ ¢, and screws d@ d to balance it, until the pointer e stands at the middle line of the scale 7 when the pans are at rest. In use, the beam 4 is raised by a wheel worked by the milled head g, so that the pans swing clear of the bottom of the case 4, this being done by a quick, but not jerky, motion. The whole is protected by glass to preserve the bearings from atmospheric damp, which would soon ruin them ; and it is well to keep inside the case a small open jar of fused Calcic- oe oa (TTT XN COTTA Fic. 208.—CHEmIst’s BALANCE. chloride, which will absorb any moisture in the contained air, and so make “assurance doubly sure.” Screws 77 are provided, by which to set it perfectly level, with the help of a spirit level. The best weights are those of the metric system, the unit of which is the gramme, which is nearly 154 grains English weight. This is divided into lower weights, decigrammes (tenths), centigrammes (hundredths), and milligrammes (thousandths of a gramme), such being in the form of bent plates of platinum; and their decimal relations make them much simpler and more easily reduced to percentages than those of the English system. TESTING AND ANALYSIS. 337 A combined evaporating bath and oven (Fig. 209), consisting of a double-cased oven of copper, around which water is boiled by gas, oil, or steam, as may be convenient. At the top are openings a a, a tube 4 ventilating the oven, and another ¢ by which water is supplied through a funnel, while by @ any overflow finds its way to a proper place of discharge. Within the oven loose shelves of per- forated copper rest on projections. A ventilator ¢ controls the admission of air. When oil is used a chamber J is needed, with a flue g directing the heat into it, while apertures under the projections 7 7 allow of a current of ventilation to the lamp z, and a window # gives a sight of the flame for regulation. The lamp must be kept very clean, and not allowed to smoke. In a factory steam will be economical, and if muffled at its inlet, and only turned on sufficiently to cause a gentle simmering motion, will answer perfectly. The variations of steam’ pressure will how- ever have to be watched. Porcelain dishes (a, Fig. 210) hold- ing ten grammes, and nearly flat; a few pipettes (4) of bent glass tube, with fine points ; and others (c) with coarser points, and capable of holding five cubic centimetres up to the mark shown. This measure is very nearly equal to five grammes weight of milk. One or more glass bell jars (Fig. 211) for cooling samples will also be required. This outfit will cost from £8 to 412, according to size. The dairyer should place his scale on a firm table of ordinary height, and level it, arrange his sample jugs and mixing jug on his left, and his § dishes—which have been previously well dried in the oven—on his right. Taking his seat,—for he Fic. rz. must be comfortable, and have his hands free,—his P#S!°CATO®: first business is to weigh a dish. It will save trouble and time if he weighs his whole set, scratching the weight on each with a glazier’s diamond, so that in weighing he may come within a Y Fic, 209. EvaporaTING BATH AND OVEN. Fic. 210,— DisH AND PIPETTES. 338 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. fraction of the weight at that time by the first placing of weights. Raising the beam, the motions of the pointer é will show him if the weights need altering, and to what extent, for he will soon become familiar with the correspondence of the weights with the scale divisions. When the exact scale balance is secured, the beam is lowered (as it is also for all changes of weights and dishes), a sample is prepared by pouring from jug to jug, and the pipette ¢ (Fig. 210) filled to the five-gramme mark by suction with the mouth, and run into the dish, which is removed from the scale for the purpose. In using the pipette, the best plan is to draw into it a little more than is needed, remove it from the lips, and quickly cover the upper end of the tube with the finger, as in Fig. 212, when by lifting this very slightly at intervals sufficient air will be admitted to discharge some milk,—even the most minute quantities, if desired,—and thus lower the con- tents nearly to the mark. The last milk in the point should be blown out. On replacing the dish in the scale, a five grammes weight is put on the other side, which will rise with the lifting of the beam, the milk being a little the heavier. The pipette 6 comes now into use, and there are three ways of using it. For con- siderable removals, the large end is placed between the - lips and the point into the milk, and by suction enough is drawn up into it to turn the scale. It is then removed, the beam lowered to reduce its pans to steadiness, and when Fic. 212. raised again, the milk from the pipette dropped into the eee, dish under control of the finger as before. For finer adjustments, the point of the pipette is allowed to take up what it will by dipping ; and for the finest of all, the edge of its other end is touched so lightly on the milk surface as to require once or twice doing to change the weight by a millimetre. This is delicate work, and requires patience ; but any one can become so expert in doing it, as to be able within a week to weigh samples at the rate of one in two to three minutes. When all are ready the scale is closed, the water in the bath set at simmering point, and the samples placed over the openings @ a, Fig. 209. There they remain until reduced to a dry yellow crust, when they will contain only a thousandth or less of their original water. They should now be placed in the oven, and kept there until they cease to lose weight ; which may be tested by weighing two or three at three hours from the start, and replacing them for another half-hour. If they have lost weight during that time, they should be returned for another half-hour’s drying, and so on; when they are found to be steady at their last TESTING AND ANALYSIS. 339 previous amount, they can be removed finally. They should now be cooled under the bell jars, some fused Calcium-chloride being enclosed with them to absorb any moisture from the air. In an hour they can be weighed. In a rough book the calculations should be made as in the example given. As the dishes are weighed into the scale, the number of the sample (a), and the weight scratched on the dish (4), should be entered for identification. Leaving (2) _35 a line free, the actual weight of the dish is entered at ¢ () j2, 375 and of the dish and dried solids at d (a supposed case, of = course), and ¢ being subtracted from d@ leaves the weight (2) 12.998 of the solids, which being the product of five grammes «) 12.372 weight of milk must be multiplied by twenty, or doubled, (e) 626 and the decimal point removed one figure to the right to 2 give the result from 100 grammes, which here is 12.52 coe : » (f) 12.52 per cent., or 12 grammes 5 decigrammes and 2 centi- — grammes, as it would read in weight. This method of drying the water gives a result the nearest possible to absolute accuracy, and is the first step in the practice of the regular analyst. The principle is simplicity itself, and failure—within the course and care advised—is practically beyond our power. (4.) A third method has been offered, by which the total solids may be calculated from the density and fat, as determined by the ordinary tests for these. This proceeds on the belief that the solids —not fat—bear a constant relation to the fat and the density; but this not being the case, but so far from it that the formule and tables based upon them fall foul of common experience, it is idle to quote them. We have seen no table as yet on which we would dare to advise the reader to purchase milk. Fat.—(a.) The simplest estimation of this constituent is obtained by the creamometer (Fig. 10), which gives the percentage of cream raised within a given time. Such, however, are the differences in milks in the matter of creaming, that the test is only useful as a “pointer,” enabling the butter-maker to judge roughly of the profitableness of his cows, and showing by any sudden or special falling off of the cream proportion that something is wrong with the cow or her feeding. In order to its best results the tube should be warmed and afterwards cooled, as with the best creaming systems. : (6.) The opéical test, performed with an appliance called a lactoscope. which consists of a vessel of some convenient form to test the opacity of milk, and thus to estimate its quality. Certain marks which are visible through a fixed depth of water are hidden by mixing milk with it; or a certain quantity of milk hides the marks which 340 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. are seen when water has been mixed with it; the milk necessary to hide the marks in the former, and the water required to reveal them in the latter case, being calculated according to the fat present, ao that they may indicate its proportions. The great simplicity of this test makes it a matter of regret that it cannot be depended upon. We have experimented considerably with it, and find that between two users the difference in eyesight is often so great as to enable one to see the marks when the other could not, even in some cases to the extent of a half of 1 per cent. of the fat in the whole milk, or 16 per. cent of the average fat proportion. The more frequent lower variations would make it necessary for each user to make a scale for himself, with the necessary experiments to that end, and with the means for doing this he could do more certain work. Moreover, the sight of the same person varies with age and light, and the results are affected also by the size or number of the globules, so that at its best it can only be an approximate test. (c.) Marchan@s Method, with the lacto-butyrometer (bu-te-rom- e-ter).—This is the simplest test which may be considered accurate, when used under proper conditions. The essentials are a tube a, (Fig. 213), divided into three parts at the lines M, E, and A, with a number of fine divisions for an inch or two above and below the last named; also two vessels ( and c) contain- ing water, the one at 105° F. to 110° F., the other at 65° F. to 75° F.; and a supply of (@) ether (of density, .717), and of (e) methylated spirit (65 over-proof). The vessels in which these last are kept must be carefully closed when not in use, and not opened an instant longer than is necessary for pour- ing out required quantities, Neither must they be brought near to a flame, both being inflammable, the ether especially dangerous in this respect. With ether the waste by evaporation is very rapid. The water-bath 4 is a modification of a design by Dr Bond, of Gloucester, which may be made to hold any number ; but in practice one person cannot attend to more than four tubes at once. The funnel-tube in the middle leads nearly to the bottom, so that when Fic. 213.—LAcTo-BUTYROMETER. TESTING AND ANALYSIS. 3¢ warm water is poured in, it must rise through and mingle with t. whole. A single jar like ¢ will serve in the farm dairy. Into the tube a, freshly mixed milk is poured up to the mark followed by ether to the mark E, and these two mixed thorough together by tightly closing the tube with the thumb, as in Fig. 21 and vigorously shaking it vertically, with two or three turnings upside down at the start. Then the spirit should be added to the mark A, and another shaking given. The casein now coagulates in irregular patches, with a tendency to adhesion, which must not be suffered, the shaking being kept up until all are reduced to a very small and even size, and distributed throughout the whole mass. The pressure within must be relieved, by slightly lifting the thumb on the side furthest from the user, and only when the contents have been given a moment’s rest. If this ventilation is not done with great care some of the contents will be lost, and the test spoiled. In order to afford room for the shaking, the tube should be long enough to-give at least two inches of space above the alcohol mark, It shoul now be securely corked and placed in the vessel 4, where the fat wi separate with a portion of the ether in the form of an ethereal solutio1 The dissolved fat has its yellow colour, and can be seen rising rapid] in drops of varying size, and forming a distinct layer on the surfaci The action of the ether, which rises, being lighter than either th alcohol or the water of the milk, depends on the temperature in whic it has been kept or is being used. In warm weather its activity i great, and liable to blow out the stopper from the bottle or the cor from the tube, Therefore it should be kept in the coolest plac possible, and the temperature of the water in the vessels 4 and should be regulated according to the temperature of the laboratory, a in the accompanying table :— Fic. 214.—Ho.tpinc Lact BuTyromETER TupeE. Air. Maximum. Minimum. 65° F. 105° F. 100° F, 60° F. 107° F, 102° F, 55 F. 110° F. 105° F. A glass thermometer should be used frequently to ascertain whe more warm water is needed, and a little practice will enable the use to gauge the quantity necessary to raise the temperature the fiv degrees, The activity of the ether should be sufficient to keep th 342 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. curd particles in gentle motion as long as the. tube is in this vessel, and to prevent their settling ; when this last happens the dairyer may be sure that more warmth is needed. On the other hand, it should not be so lively as to expel the cork, or even to dash the curd upwards on the tube-side ; and at the first signs of such danger the temperature should be lowered by a degree or two by cold water. The observance of the temperatures given will generally secure a right action. When no more fat is seen rising, the tube should be removed to the vessel c, the temperature being as in the table below. The curd will now Air. Maximum. Minimum. 65° F. 70° F. 65° F. 66° F. 72° F. 67° F, 55°F. 75°F. 7o° F. gradually sink; and the slower the sinking is, the better, for any remaining fat will the more easily find its way up between the particles. If the curd gathers in clots, it is liable to enclose some of the fat and carry it down. When no more fat is seen to rise, the number of lines by the scale may be read off, and the quantity of actual butter- fat learned by the table given. Each space represents one-tenth of a cubic centimetre. By capillary attraction the sur- sc ae face will not be level, but dip to the extent of one 5 ie space, and the lower end of the fat layer will to some 3 1.8 extent correspond. For this due allowance is made 4 2.0 with this table, so that the measure may be read 3 BA from the top edge to the lowest point of the lower 7 2.6 dip. 8 2.8 The value of this test depends on the understand- 9 3-0 ing of conditions, and a ready recognition of their = 25 signs, and on the thoroughness of the work. The 12 3.6 ether and alcohol must be of correct and uniform 13 3.8 strength at all times, or their action will be unreliable. - oie The measuring of the quantities must be exact. The = ; 4 shaking-must be vigorous, and continued long enough 17 4.7 to ensure its results. It is not enough merely to 18 5-0 mix the ether with the milk; the purpose is to set the fats free by churning, so that the ether may dis- solve them; and in proportion to the churning up to the furthest limit, will be the success of the test. Then when thealcohol is added, the second shaking causes a fine division of the curd, and this also cannot be too thorough within possibilities. The temperatures under which the remainder of the process is carried on will determine the rest. Now there is nothing in all this beyond the range of ordinary TESTING AND ANALYSIS. 343 intelligence ; and if the dairyer will be so exact and thorough, he will find satisfaction in the results, which will correspond very closely to those of the best analyses. This test can be applied to creamed milks, whey, and buttermilk, to show loss in setting, separating, or churning. Below one space of the scale, however, the amount cannot be determined; and it is necessary to make a higher quality sample for the purpose. This is done by well mixing equal quantities of the material to be tested and milk—of which the fat proportion has been already ascertained,—and testing the mixture. The proportion of fat in this must be doubled, and the proportion of fat in the earlier tested milk subtracted from this total, when the remainder will be the fat in the special material tested. Example :—A milk with 3.50 per cent. fat is added to a creamed milk which it is desired to test. The mixture yields 1.86x2=3.72— 3.50=.22, which is the fat in the creamed milk. (d.) Centrifugal power has been combined with chemical means in the “Babcock” and “ Beimling” tests, both hailing from America. The former has already been introduced by Messrs Lister & Co., of Dursley, Gloucester, in a handy form, with certain mechanical advantages over American patterns, and is here known as the Lister- Babcock method. In this sulphuric acid (H,SO,) is used in a mixture of about one-tenth water to nine-tenths of the strongest trade acid. These should be mixed in a stoneware or earthenware vessel,—not in one of glass, because of the heat evolved in mixing. The result, when cold, should be a density of 1.834 and no more. If this 7 Fic. 215. is exceeded, water must be added to bring it down. An’ Bascocx acidimeter (which is a hydrometer, with a scale of proper TSTING- range for acids) should be used to determine this. After ee cooling, the mixture should be kept closed from the air, which would otherwise weaken it, and interfere with the working of the test. Care must be taken to avoid contact of the acid with the skin or clothes. The vessel used is a bottle (Fig. 215), the neck of which bears a scale of percentages, with intervening lines marking divisions of two- tenths of 1 percent. With a pipette (Fig. 210, c) marked to measure 17.6 cubic centimetres (briefly written ¢c.c.),—but really delivering 17.5, because the balance adheres to the glass,—milk is eae into the bottle, which is tilted to one side to receive it, so that it may run down the side leaving space for air. If more than one sample is to be tested, all should be placed in their bottles with means of certain identification. Then 17.5 ¢.c. of the acid mixture is poured 344 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. into the bottle, and in such a manner as to wash down all the milk on the neck,—-or if more than one test then all in rotation,—and this being heavier will sink to the bottom, the milk forming a distinct layer above it. The centrifugal machine consists of a case (a, Fig. 216), which should be screwed down to a table for stability, with a cover (é), constructed to hold hot water for the maintenance of the internal temperature; and a disc (c) driven by a wheel-gearing (@), which causes the disc to revolve ten times for every revolution of its own. Around the disc the bottles (e) are arranged so as to balance equally, and each contained within a wire holder. Before being placed in the machine each bottle is shaken with a rotary motion,—not up and down, as with the Marchand tubes,—and without any attempt to close the mouth, a. ae ETE hr i. | —— UT al ao tri 7 Fic. 216.—Lister-BaBcock APPARATUS. Sufficient heat is evolved in this mixing to turn the casein toa dark coffee colour ; and this heat must be made the most of, for the perfect action of the test depends on the temperature ; and if this process is done quickly, time and trouble will be saved later in special heating, The cover-space being supplied with hot water and the bottles arranged, the machine is set in motion and kept at full speed for ten minutes, after which it is brought to a standstill, but gradually, or the bottles will most likely be broken. The bottles are now to be filled with water at 200° F. to 205° F » exactly to the 7 per cent. mark by the pipette, and again set in motion for two minutes, and by the time it comes to rest the fat should be found clear and well separated from the other contents in the neck, If cloudy it will need more TESTING AND ANALYSIS. 345 heat. When the proper condition in this respect'is reached, each bottle is raised to a level with the eye, and the measure of fat is calculated. The figures are estimated to show the amount of butter realisable from the milk by separation, and if itis desired to know the full propor- tion of fat in the milk .4 of 1 per cent. is added. When creamed milk buttermilk, or whey are to be tested, they should be treated as advised with Marchand’s process. To prepare the bottles for further use they should be turned upside down, and so whirled round as to make the contents pass out with a funnel-shaped air-space through the middle,and two rinsings of hot water discharged in the same way will cleanse them effectually. The Bezmiling test proceeds on very similar general lines, but 15 cc. of milk are used, with two compounds, one of equal parts of Amyl alcohol (CsH,O) and hydrochloric acid (HC1), first mixed by shaking ; and then sufficient sulphuric acid to reach the 7 per cent. line, this last being added at twice, and a shaking with each, with care to avoid an action sufficient to produce foaming, The heat is so great that a dozen samples, if quickly prepared, may be carried through without hot water. After being kept in motion, by a machine similar in principle to the “ Babcock,” for two and a half minutes, the results are found by a table specially .prepared, the scale not giving percentages, (¢.) Where the drying and weighing method is employed to deter- mine the total solids, it is easy to carry the process further, and learn the amount of fatty and non-fatty solids, by extracting the fat from the residue of the drying. For this purpose the dried solids may be treated with benzoline, about the quantity of the original milk being run into the dish with a pipette, and the whole placed over the bath with the water maintained at 112° F. Though at 100° below boiling point of water, the benzoline will boil, extract the fat, and, like ether, dissolve it. When it has boiled away to half its original quantity, it should be taken off, and after being allowed to settle, so that the liquid may be free from any particles of a solid character, emptied— with all care to avoid loss of such,—and the process repeated until no more fat is forthcoming. This may be known by using ether finally, and allowing a drop after use to fall on unsoiled white blotting or filter paper ; if no stain is observable, the work is completed. The second residue should now be dried on the bath (Fig. 209) and in the oven, as for total solids, but will take only a third of the time, the spirit being rapidly evaporated. After a time in the desiccator (Fig. 211), its weight may, be taken, and this subtracted from the original total solids will give the fat. Other methods of extraction, 346 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. when that alone is desired, are practised by analysts, but they are of no better value than these given. We are now in a position to discuss the purchase of milk by quality, in which matter it was our privilege to do pioneer work. To-day our American cousins are taking it up in all directions, and finding in it a great and manifest encouragement to the production of good milk. The foundation of the whole lies in the self-evident fact that the dairyer can get no more out of milk than it contains of realisable solids. In view of the variations in the composition of milk, no fixed price can be just both to seller and buyer. It is nothing but simple justice that a farmer who supplies a good milk should be paid more for it than his neighbour is paid for a poorer milk, and it is just as reasonable that the factory owner should refuse to pay for the latter the price proper to the former. Care- less men, whose sole aim is to get for a poor article as much as another can get for a better one, will probably quarrel with the _ principle, and in doing so proclaim their character to their fellows ; but there are men wise enough to test the case for themselves, and the result is not uncertain. We have already pointed out that good breeding and feeding give larger profits beyond a certain limit of judgment and economy, and the surest way to bring these principles into common use is to put a premium on good milk at the factory. After exhaustive calculations, we recommend the following basis for valuation in cheese-making, viz., the making 12 per cent. solids the minimum quality receivable, and the fixing of a minimum price for such a milk, with the addition of a farthing per imperial gallon for every half of 1 per cent. of solids above that point. It does not serve to make up milks below the minimum at all, but if not returned they should be subjected to a fine of one penny per imperial gallon beyond the price due for the quality. In the cheese factory, the drying method should be adopted, because the yield of cheese varies less from the total solids standard than from the fat proportion. It has also the great advantage of simplicity; the supplier can under- stand how the mere drying of the water must needs leave the valuable portions behind. For dz¢ter-making, in which fat will naturally be the basis, the cost of production must be taken as higher, because no account is taken of improvement in the casein, and the burden of cost is thrown upon one item; but as fat increases at a much greater rate than the other constituents, the difference cannot be great, and one-third of a penny per half of I per cent. above the minimum meets the case fully and fairly for both parties. The lowest limit should be fixed at 3 per cent., for poorer milks are unprofitable to all concerned. The “ Marchand,” “ Babcock,” or “Beimling” tests will TESTING AND ANALYSIS. 347 answer admirably, and—though employing chemicals—can be made clear to ordinary intelligence. Prejudice may oppose for a time, but if the dairyer is frank about his method, and willing to let his suppliers see it in use at any time, he will win their confidence. To the supplier the profit on the production of a 12.50 per cent. milk will be greater than-on one of 12.00 per cent. of solids, and it will cost less in proportion to the time, labour, and materials used to make the former into goods than the latter. Even when the milk is made up on the farm, the economy in both ways is just as great. Cheese.—It is desirable that the amounts of water and fat in this product should be ascertained for guidance of the maker in the retention of whey and other points of management. A sample of ten grammes, chopped very fine with a keen knife, and dried like a milk sample, will show its loss of water ; and by treating the residue with benzoline and ether, the proportions of fat, and solids not fat, can be learned. The fat may be ascertained without separating the water by chopping up five grammes weight of cheese, and adding to it 13 c.c. of water ina Babcock bottle. By warming and shaking it the cheese becomes softened, and ready when cooled to receive the acid, as for milk, after which the work proceeds as in that case, the result as per scale being multiplied by eighteen and divided by five, when the final product will show the fat proportion, Further than this we need not go herein, for the processes require more apparatus and are much more difficult of performance. Butter.—In determining the water in butter, a sample of fifty grammes (a little less than two ounces) is necessary. This should be heated over a spirit lamp a, Fig. 217, in a dish 4, supported by a wire stand ¢c, and kept at from 212° F. to 220° F., being stirred meanwhile. For these temperatures a ther- mometer with a scale rising to 240° F, is necessary. The water escapes as steam with a fizzing sound. When the curd settles to the bottom the sample should be removed, first getting off any which clings to the thermometer. It should then be placed in the desiccator (Fig. 211) until the air temperature is reached and then weighed. The result subtracted from the fifty grammes will show the loss of water. The curd and salt may now be estimated by scraping them from the removed butter, and treating with benzoline and ether until no fat is left. Their weight can be taken together, and the percentage of the original weight calculated. Finally, the amount of salt may be found from the pro- portion added in making, and this subtracted from the total of the two constituents will give the casein with practical accuracy. Testinc Butter. 348 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. The great value of such tests and simple analyses as we have described, apart from the application of some to commercial matters, lies in the knowledge which the dairyer can gain from their bearing. on his processes, enabling him to act and speak with confidence where he would otherwise be in some doubt. He may, with such knowledge, pursue the work of improvement to its utmost limits, and find in it a constant inspiration and pleasure. CHAPTER XxX. RECORDS. EXPERIMENTS.—CLEANSING. Tus closing chapter may be devoted to a brief notice of three matters of no little importance to the dairyer, though in different ways. Records..—The philosophy of records may be summed up in a sentence—“ Learn by experience, and—to that end—record your experience.” For want of such records, every generation has to go over the ground of its predecessors, with trifling advantage and slow advance. If any lesson is prominent in this work, it is that the endless variations in the conditions attending on the practice of the dairyer make it necessary that he should study these as they occur in his particular experience; and that, while holding fast to first principles, he should make the finer modifications suitable to his case by the light of his judgment. It is in the recognition and correct manipulation of these delicate points that the highest success lies, where advantage increases at a much higher rate than the efforts necessary to secure it. We may furnish the teaching which will guide him in the main, but he can only learn how to apply it perfectly by observing, reasoning, practising, and keeping records. The practice of putting down the facts of his daily work helps to his better remembering them ; and he will be sure to compare one set with another, and so get that inestimable breadth and reliability of judgment which only such a practice can give. Then he will make fewer and fewer mistakes, and steadily increase the uniformity of his results. Several causes have combined to discourage the keeping of records. (a.) The want of a definite aim, and a knowledge of foundation principles. When the varying conditions of daily experi- ence are ignored, and the same practices exactly repeated, the monotony of recording them becomes unbearable; but when those variations are recognised, and the practices varied to meet them, every entry becomes instinct with light and friendliness. 350 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. (6.) The want of a true conception of the unity of the system pursued, - and the relative bearing of distinct practices on the common product. The details of working have been viewed too much apart from each other ; and the records attempted have accordingly been fragmentary, and have not taught what was wanted. If a record is to be of any practical service, it must show at a glance not merely the times or temperatures, but these and other items in their mutual relations, and in such a form that the dairyer can read between them, and see the reasons for, and consistency of, the course pursued. The absence of this coherency could not fail to rob the records of their value and interest, and make their keeping a useless task. (c.) The want of cheap and convenient forms, which will make the work pleasant. We have prepared suitable forms for publication, in which the items are based on the scheme of this work, and with all needful tables attached. It is, therefore, only necessary here to give general advice as to their management. Records of cows and their feeding should recognise their age, breed, and parentage, and the milking record of their dam, these items being entered in the early part of the book, with date of last calving, and any special facts touching their health and value. Then may properly follow some pages of feeding notes, in which the materials, their quantities and qualities, may be given, with the nutritive ratio of the various com- binations, and supplementary facts. Following these may be the milking records, in which the cow’s name is prefaced by the number of days since calving, and followed by the symbol of the feeding, and the milk given by her morning and evening during the time, covered by an opening of two pages. In cheese-making, the first entries should be (2) natural conditions, the temperature and humidity of the air in the dairy, and weather prospects, as these must always affect the work. (4.) The milk, its quality and condition, should follow next ; and if the total solids and fat can be stated in figures, so much the better. The progress of fer- mentation should be stated according tothe colour scale ; and in order to finer distinctions than are there made, shades intervening between the standards given may be expressed by figures Br or C2, represent- ing a slight advance on B, and a larger one on C. (c.) Times at which various processes commence. These should be made out roughly on a scrap of paper during the progress of the work, when the dairyer cannot conveniently leave it, the time of day only being written against the number of the item. When leisure comes these should be entered in the better form of time occupied (in minutes), so that all entries may stand in comparison without a moment’s calculation, An example of the two forms will show the advantage of each for its pur- RECORDS AND EXPERIMENTS. 351 pose. In these 2 represents the time of renneting, d that of coagula- tion, and ¢ that at which the curd was found ready tocut.. In columns I 2 3 4 a 7.21 => 7.15 ae b 7.41 20 7.37 22 ¢ 8.21 60 8.21 66 1 and 3 are found the facts stated in the rough notes of two days. He enters the facts in his record as in columns 2 and 4, where the differ- ence between the two curds in time of coagulation and becoming firm are readily seen; while in the other form, they must have been worked out mentally in order to comparison. (d.) The quantities of materials used should be reduced to proportions, and expressed as simply as possible. (e.) The ranges of temperature—as in making and curing rooms—should be given, as they relate to the processes with the cheese of any day. The curing temperature will not be procurable until the goods are despatched, when the date of manufacture being ascertained it is easy to find the daily readings in the pages devoted to the matter. (f,) The loss in curing, the price obtained, and its relation to cost and quality of milk, and other items of practical interest, should be pro- curable from the entries made. In butter-making, the creaming and ripening (if practised) should be first noticed, and the facts throughout treated on similar lines to those of cheese. In the long evenings of winter the dairyer can find leisure to reduce his records to totals and averages in their closing pages, and put them in comparison with those of previous years ; and we believe that they will grow in his estimation with the lapse of time. Experiments.—Every dairyer should be, within safe limits, an experimenter. The field is not yet half explored, and everybody may do something in the way of inventing or perfecting processes or appliances, or even in establishing new systems and products. In the ways first mentioned so many are at work as to make any extended reference to them and their efforts a hopeless task. It would seem as though nothing new could be brought out; but the recent appearance of the “Disc” churn, so different from its predecessors, is proof to the contrary. In new foods we may instance the “Little Gloucester” cheese, introduced by Dr Bond, of Gloucester, the system coming between the Stilton and the “Limburg” in principle and results, and winning for itself a high reputation as a delicacy. Where, however, one man may do some- thing startling, the mass will not get beyond the quieter, but no less valuable and honourable, work of improving their own manufacture 352 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. and the means thereto ; and if they bring their contributions of know- ledge to the common fund, they will deserve as well of their generation as the inventor. The following general rules for research in dairying are always applicable:— (a.) The dairyer should thoroughly master his system before he begins to experiment beyond its usual limits. He cannot know too much of the practice from which he proposes to change. (o.) He must study and follow natural law constantly, learning all he can, and reasoning, first on established facts, and, in a secondary degree, on probabilities also; digesting what is known, before he seeks the unknown. Experimenting is not leaping in the dark; and while by doing this one may occasionally find something worth finding, the real progress is made by those who “make haste slowly.” (c.) The essential principles of the system must always be kept in view when the purpose is to improve it ; and if some discovery is made which takes the experimenter out of his original lines, and justifies a new system being adopted, then, having satisfied himself of its value, he should put it on the world on its merits, and with a distinctive name. (d.) Definite aims should also be before him. Groping may be necessary sometimes, but we should know whither we are going. Scarcely anything is more discouraging than aimless work, and the total benefit from its findings is small. The common notion seems to be that there is a great deal of chance in research, and that a fool is more likely to drop on a fortune, than a thinker is to earn a com- petence, This is a delusion. Genius, which everybody covets, has been said by a high authority to be “the capacity for taking pains.” (e.) Conditions must be watched everywhere and always. Nothing in the universe exists apart from conditions ; some evident, others unseen but no less influential, as witness the microbe! When some unaccountable fact comes under observation, it should be reasoned upon and followed up. There is a cause for every effect, and the unknown cause may trip the experimenter at any time. When he wants to know which of certain practices is best, these must needs vary, but all other conditions should be reduced as far as is possible to uniformity. If, for instance, it is desired to determine which of two creaming systems is the best, they should be tried together, receiving equal quantities of carefully mixed milk, stirred while being distributed, and equal opportunities given to both throughout. Often we meet with statements concerning experiments in which systems and prac- tices are pitted against each other under conditions so utterly unfair to one or the other, or so lacking in definiteness, as to make the results worthless. CLEANSING, 353 (7) This work needs unwearying patience, and much repetition, before new theories can be regarded as safe to follow. The questions which we propose to nature have need in many cases to be put in two or three different ways. Nature is often ambiguous, and we must take care to know exactly what she means. (g.) Accuracy in observation is essential to real value. Ofttimes we deceive ourselves by not looking at a fact long enough. In all weighings, measurements, and testings, nothing short of exactness will be of use. (4.) The man who discovers a new principle does more good than he who merely improves its application. The one opens a gate toa multitude of advantages, the other only makes use of some of them. In this way the discovery of James Watt did more for the world than the last improvement in some detail of the steam-engine. The dairyer should ever be on the look-out for more light, as well as making good use of what he already possesses. (#.) What we learn we should teach, We have had frequent occasion in this book to reflect on the “mystery” policy which has so long cursed our work in this country. Whether it covers ignorance or selfishness, it matters not—it is altogether bad. The great advance which our American rivals have made has been due in no small degree to their willingness to help each other. We have great need of conferences, held not at the height of the dairy season but in winter, when the many who are free from cheese-making, or but lightly occupied with butter-making, can gather at suitable centres to exchange their experiences. From the individual we have advanced to the community and the nation. The reputation of every dairy district is in the hands of its dairyers, and that of the nation asa whole ; and whatever tends to the enlightenment and spread of knowledge is worthy of our intelligent and patriotic enthusiasm. Cleansing.—In this, as in all other departments of dairy work, scientific rules should be followed, not only that the work may be perfectly done, but for the sake of economy as well. In dealing with all vessels and clothes which have been used with milk, cream, or whey, they should be first washed out with cold water. Such as are greasy should go into a bath of water in which some suitable washing powder has been dissolved at boiling, thus forming a soap out of the fat and-the alkaline powder, while for those which have been used with curd, such as cover and pressing cloths, the alkaline solu- tion should be cool enough (90° F. will serve) to avoid the hardening of the curd, which speedily loads them, spoiling the cloths by making them smell unwholesomely. These methods of first treatment should be carried out in a tub and never in the open boiler or steam-heater, Zz 354 MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. which should be kept for clean water only. With cloths, soda tends to give a bad colour and early spoiling, and is fit only for cheese-hoops and presses, while a good borax washing powder gives the best results known to us. Brushes of various shapes for scrubbing are needed ; and all such should be of the best bass, which is more effective and more easily kept clean than hair. The short milk-can brush (Fig. 218) is specially useful as saving the hands when boiling water is being used; and one with a longer handle is useful in reaching to points where the hand cannot do the work comfortably. All dairy appliances and aids need as much airing as they can get: hence our suggested pro- vision of projecting roofs near the making-room, where they can be dried in wet weather, and in the Mitx-Can Brusn case of wooden objects at all times away from the sun’s direct heat. We are glad to be able to close our account of the work of the dairy by referring afresh to this all-important matter of cleanliness. During the day, each appliance should have been cleaned as soon as possible after passing out of use, and when the work is done, the cleansing of the dairy itself should be as thoroughly performed as that of its contents. When the dairyer can leave it to its airing, in a fine state of sweetness, wherein the evening’s milk may rest beyond the danger of taint, with everything in place, and within his own breast the consciousness of duty done, wisely and well, he will deserve success to his toils, and rest after them. Then he may remember—and he should remember to encourage himself to further efforts—that he has wrought within this department of service in harmony with that Divine Will which calls for every man’s best, and also for the benefit of humanity. We wish him—heartily and always—the noble, though humble, elation which fills every whole-hearted worker when he recalls the truth so worthily expressed in the famous lines— ‘* Who sweeps a room as by God’s law Makes that and the action fine.” INDEX. CID in milk, 22, 46, 60, 61. Acids, 43 organic, 16; produced by fermentation, 22. Agitator, Austin’s, 162. Air, composition, 2 ; humidity, 11 ; rarefaction, 12 ; relation to animal health, 26. Albumin, in milk, 42; in fermentation, 63. Albuminoids, 19; in milk, 35, 40, 42, 49; in fermentation, 22, 61. Albuminose, 43. Alkalies, 7; Alkaline hydrates, 7; Alkaloids, 7. Alumina, 8. Alveoli, 28. Ammonia, 7; in cheese, 105, 259. Analysis, 8, 334; butter, 347; cheese, 347; milk, 335. Animals, 19; foods for, 20. Annatto, 111; in butter, 313; in cheese, 231. Antiseptics, 71; in cheese, 99; in cream, 300; in butter, 303, 323. Atoms, 3; atomic weight, 3. Attraction, capillary ; cohesion ; gravitation, 13. Ayrshire cows, 47. ABCOCK test, 343. Balance, chemist’s, 336. Barometer, 12, Bases, 6. Bath and oven, evaporating, 337. Beastings, 49. Beimling test, 345. Blood, 25; circulation of, 28; fibrin in, 26. Breed defined, and influence on milk, 47. Breeds compared, 47. Brushes, dairy, 354. Butter Accumulator, 319. — Extractor, 318. — analysis, 347; commercial forms of, 329; composition of, 306; dairy (farm), 276; designs for commercial farms, 330; Devonshire, 306; factory, 279; salt, influence in, 323; ‘‘Slut’s,” 167; yield from milk, 307. — making, 302; brining, 324; churning, 320; churning temperature, 311; churn stopping, 321; churn, ventilation of, 321; colouring, 313; com- pensations difficult, 333; cream, sweet or sour, 307; cream ripening, 307; cream, management of, 308 to 311; cream preparing for churn, 312; hardening butter, 324; moulding butter, 329; salting butter, 332; washing butter, 322; whey cream butter-making, 331; working butter, 3253 by hand, 325; mechanical, 326. 356 INDEX. Butter, potting, 331. — qualities of, 302; body, 305; colour, 305; flavour, 302; loss of flavour by washing, 322; loss by brining, 324; keeping quality, 305 ; odour, 304 ; solidity, 305; texture, 304. — worker, 326; management of, 327; points in construction, 328. Butyrin, 41, 42. ABBAGE, 56. Cakes, feeding, 56. Caprin, 42. -Caproin, 42. Capryllin, 42. Carbo-hydrates, 17. Carbonates, 6. Carbon compounds, 5, 6; in organised bodies, 17. Casein, vegetable, 19; milk, 43; in fermentation, 61; coagulation of, 83; contraction, 87. Cattle, management of, 57. Centrifugal force, 14. Cereals, 56. Channel Islands cows, 48. Cheddar cheese, 117; composition of, 118; native district, 117. — dairy, 129; factory, 148; farm dairy, 131. — system of cheese-making, after-stirring in scald, 186; breaker, influence of, 181; positions in breaking, 180; in scalding, 186; use of, 177; calcula- tions for management, 167; cheese bandaging, 211; curing, 212; turn- ing,215; cream risen, how treated, 167 ; curd, airing, 196 ; temperature, as affecting, 200; condition for grinding, 200; condition while breaking, how known, 179; control of draughts in airing, 198; cooling, 196; cutting, turning, and re-piling, 195; danger of taints to, 200; dividing, 196; drying, 196; firmness, testing for, 174; gathering, 191; influence of delay in, 194; grain of, 194; grinding, 201 ; hooping, 207; oxidation of, 197; packing, 187; piling, 192; preservative treatment, 201 ; press- ing, 207; ripeness, testing for, 195; ripening, 194; salting, 203. — system with milk over-ripe, 220; C.F. in excess, 224; tainted (non-putre- factive), 228; tainted (putrefactive), 226. Cheese, characteristics of good, 73; digestibility, 73; firmness, 75; flavour, 74; keeping quality, 74; odour, 74; purity, 74; quality, 73; relative food value, 73; shape and size, 75; texture, general character, when cured, 106. — influence of soil on, 72. — varieties, character and composition of, 72. — Cheddar, composition of, 118; flavour and digestibility, development of, 216; influence of essentials on, 217; lime salts, influence on, 218; qualities of, 117. : — Cheshire, 230, 241; Cheshire-Stilton, 242. — Cream, 272. — Derby, 245. — Dorsetshire, 255. — Gloucestershire, 253. — Leicester, 252. — Stilton, 258. — Wensleydale, 256. INDEX. 357 Cheese, Wiltshire, 254. — bandaging, Cheddar, 211 ; Cheshire, 238 ; Stilton, 267. — lift, factory, 157 ; farm dairy, 138. g — making, stages of, 76 ; system defined, 72. — shelves, 214. — table, 157. Cheshire system of cheese-making, 229; bandaging, 238; Cheshire and Cheddar systems compared, 243; Cheshire-Stilton method, 242 ; colouring, 231}; curing, 238; dairy, 232; heating (second), 239; native district, 229; oven, 2373; pressing, 237; product, composition of, 230; quick-ripening method, 240; renneting, 233; ripeness, curd, 236, 241; milk, 232; salting, 236; slow-ripening method, 240; whey, separation of, 233. Chlorine compounds, 7. Churn, construction, points in; aération of cream, 317; capacity, working, 318; cleansing, facility in, 318; concussion, 316; emptying and examining, 318; filling, 318; gathering butter, 317; material, 318; separation of butter, 317. — preparing for use, 320. Churning, instantaneous ; Accumulator, 318 ; Extractor, 318. — management in, 320; brining, 324; churning temperature, 311 ; stopping churn, 321; ventilation, 321; washing, 322; water, temperature of, 322. Churns, examples of, barrel, 314; box, 313; Diaphragm, 314; Disc, 316; End-over-end, 315 ; Holstein, 313 ; Swing, 315 ; Triangular, 315. Chyme, 25. Cleansing, 353. Coagulation, spontaneous, 36, 43; by fermentation only, 87; in cheese- making, 83; testing for, 94. Cohesion, 13. Colloids, 8. Coloration, ferment of, 23 ; in milk, 66. Colostrum, composition, 49 ; action of, 50. Composition, statement of, 3. Compounds, 1 ; naming of, 4. Cooler, capillary, and management, 71. Cream, and cream trade, 275 ; management of, 310. — for butter-making ; aération, 311 ; Devonshire, 290; stirring, 311 ; sweet versus sour, 307 ; whey cream, 331. — cheese ; first form, 272; second, 273. Creamery, 278. Creaming, conditions of, 34; Cooler creamer, 288; cooling, 282; deep- setting, 287; Devon system, 290; Jersey and kindred pans, 283; mechanical creaming, 291 ; separating and setting compared, 292, 300; separators, 294; false notions concerning, 293 ; management of, 298 ; shallow setting in air, 280; shallow and deep setting compared, 287; Swartz creamer, 287 ; whey creaming, 301, 332. Creamometer, 37, 339. Creams, mixing, 310. Creatin, creatinin, 44. Crystalloids, 8. Curd, mill, 201 ; rack, 196; weighing, 206. — firmness, testing for, 174. Curing, cheese, 103; fermentation, 104; moisture, 108; temperature, 107 ; curing room, 140, 161; Cheddar, 212; Cheshire, 238; Derby, 252; Leicester, 253 ; Stilton, 270. 358 INDEX. AIRY, 1213 aspect, 122; construction, 124 ; convenience and economy, 123; departments, separation of, 123; drainage, 1263 floors, 125; heating and ventilation, 128; heating for processes, 129 ; infected, 66 ; lighting, 128 ; location, 122; materials, 124; roof, 1243 suitability to system, 123 ; temperature, control of, 124. — Cheddar : factory, 149; coal store, 154; curing room, 161 ; delivery plat- form, 150; drainage, 159; engine room, 153; laboratory, 152; making - room, 152; office, 151; press room, 157; steam boiler, 154; steam pipes, 155; store room, 157; washing room, 158; water heating, 156 ; water pipes, 155; ventilation, 141; farm dairy, 130; boiler room, 130; butter room, 138, 276; curing room, 140; heatzng, 142; by hot air, 1433 by hot water, 145; making room, 131; water supply, 139; whey room, 138. — Cheshire, 232; oven, 237. — Derby, 250. — Stilton, 260. — creaming and butter-making, 276; creamery, 278; butter factory, 279. Density, 13; of milk, 33. Derbyshire system of cheese-making : compared with Cheddar and Cheshire, 252; curing, 252; Harrison’s apparatus, 247 ;.mixing in of old curds, 249 ; native district, 244; pressing, 251 ; product, composition of, 245 ; renneting, 246; ripeness, curd, 249; milk, 246; salting, 250; whey, separation of, 246. Devon cows, 48. Dexter-Kerry cows, 48. Dialysis, 8 Digestion, 24. Dilution, 8; in creaming, 290. Diseases, influence on milk of infectious animal, 71. Distillery refuse, 56. Dorsetshire cheesemaking : management and product; character of, 255. LECTRICITY, 12. Elements, 1; description, 2. Envelope theory, 31. Evaporation, 10. Expansion and contraction, law of, 9. Experiments, 351. ACTORY, Cheddar, 149; system, 113. Fan, exhaust, in cheese-making, 199. Fat in milk, estimation of, 339. — globules, comparative sizes, 34. Fats, fixed, 18; in milk, 41; melting-point, 42; relative proportions in milk, 42; volatile, 19; in milk, 41. Fermentation, 20; acetous, 23; alcoholic, 22; ammoniacal, 22; apparatus for testing, 69; butyric acid, 23; coloration, 23, 66; general conditions, 21; lactic acid, 22; milk liable to, 59; test for, 67; viscous, 23. INDEX. 359 Fibrin, in blood, 26; in milk, 35. Filter, 8. Fly, cheese, 26. Foods, classified, 20; digestion of, 243; spicing, 56. Forces, balancing initiatory, in cheese-making, go. Fore milk, 39. ASES, 1; in milk, 45. Germination of seed, 16. Glycerin, 18, Gloucester cheese-making, compared with Derby, 254; management, 254; native district, 253; product, composition of, 254; “singles” and ‘* doubles,” 253. H*43 553 over-heated, 55. Health of animal, influence of air on, 26. Heat and cold, 9; conduction of, 10. Hoops, cheese, Cheddar, cylindrical, 205 ; doubles, 206. Hydrometer, 14. Hygrometer, 10; table, 11. NDIVIDUALITY of cow, defined; and influence on milk, 47. Insect pests, 110. KErey cows, 48. ACTIC acid, 22; ferments, 60. Lactin, lactose, 44. Lacto-butyrometer, 340. Lacto-chrome, 44. Lactoscope, 339. Leicester cheese-making, compared with Cheshire and Derby, 253; manage- ment, 253; native district, 252; product, composition of, 252. Lime salts, influence on milk, 44; cheese-making, 72, 77; Cheddar, 218; Cheshire, 229. . Litmus, 67. ANGOLDS, 56. Meals, feeding, 56. Metallic elements, 2. 360 INDEX. Milk, ash of, 44; boiling-point of, 39; chemistry of, 40; summary, 45; colour, 39; composition of, 40; constituents, sources of, 30; diseases of, 65; fore, 39; gases in, 45; infected by animal diseases, 67 ; influence of food on, 29; of sewage, 65; oil of, 46; opacity of, 39; origin of, 24; protection and preservation, 74; purchase by quality, 346; secretion, 28; sleepy, 57; solids as distributed in cheese-making, 76; strippings, 39; storage in udder, 32; sugar in, 44; testing, 335; under microscope, 31. — for cheese-making, aération of, 162; agitation of, 163; cdoling of, 162; evening's supply, management of, Cheddar, 162; Cheshire, 232; Derbyshire, 246; Stilton, 262; receipt of, 162; ripening as affected by temperature, 166. ; — conductor, 136; receiver, 131, 153. — separated, management for sale, 300. — vat, factory, 152; oblong, 133; round, 132. — yield, in relation to age of cow, 51; feeding, 53; daily variations, 51 ; different days, variations between, 32; season, 51; length of season, 53. Milking, 58. Milks, mixing, 114. Mite, cheese, 110. Molecules, 2. Moulding cheese, 103. Moulds (fungoid), 109. Myricin, 41, 42. Myristin, 41. ITRATES, 6. Nitrogen compounds, 19. Non-metallic elements, 1. * Nuclein, 43. ILS, essential, 41. Olein, 18; in milk, 41. Organic substances in soils, constituents of, 16. Oxidation, 26; of curd, 197. Ozone, 13. ALMITIN, 18; in milk, 41. Pan-scale, 7. Pastures, 54. Pectose substances; 18. Phosphates, 6. Plant life, 16 ; feeding, 17. Preservative treatment of cheese, 98. Press, cheese, lever, single, 208; quadruple, 210; spring, 210. Pressing cheese, 103 ; Cheddar, 207; Cheshire, 237; Derby, 251; Leicester, 253. Ptomaines, 22; in cheese, 106. INDEX. 361 ADIATION, to. Rape, 56. Rarefaction of air, 12. Reaction, amphoteric, 46. Records, dairy, 349. Rennet, 68; cost of, 87; making, 84; source of, 83; testing, 85. Renneting milk for cheese: Cheddar, 171; Cheshire, 233; Derby, 246; Leicester, 253; Stilton, 263. Ripeness defined, 76. — curd, Cheddar, 194; Cheshire, 236, 241; Derby, 249; Leicester, 253; Stilton, 267. — milk, for cheese-making, 76 ; Cheddar, 168; Cheshire, 232; Derby, 246; Leicester, 253; Stilton, 262; testing for, 98. — cream, for butter-making, 308. Ripening, for cheese, 76; butter, 308. Rocella tinctoria, 23. Rocks, 15. Ropiness in milk, 65. ALT, 7; for cheese-making, 101; for cows, 56. Salting, in cheese-making, 107 ; Cheddar, 213; Cheshire, 236; Derby, 250; Leicester, 253; Stilton, 267. Salts, 6. Seed, germination of, 16. Separator, 291; action on milk, 292: Alexandra, 297; compared with setting systems, 291, 300; construction, points in, 299; Danish, 294; false notions concerning, 2933 Laval, 295; Laval, Alpha, 296; management of, 298. Shelter for cattle, 57. Shorthorns, 47. Silage, 55. Silica, 7. Slipcoat, 269. Soils, 15; ferments of, 65; influence on milk, 54; organic constituents of, 16 ; soluble constituents of, 16; weeds, 55. Solids in milk, estimation of, 335. Solution, 8. Starches, 17. Stearin, 18; in milk, 41. : . Stilton system of cheese-making, coating, 269 ; curd, tying, 265 ; curing, 270 ; dairy, 260; draining, 265, 267; drying, 269; evening’s milk, manage- ment of, 262; extra cream, 258; native district, 257; product, character and composition of, 259, 271; ripeness, curd, 267; milk, 262; salting, 267; slipcoat, 269; whey, separation of, 263. Strippings, 39. Sugar, 17; in milk, 44; fermentation of, 60. Sulphates, 6. Suspension, 8. Swedish turnips, 56. 362 INDEX. AINTS, 65; danger of, to curd, 200; non-putrefactive, 71; influence of in cheese-making, 228; putrefactive, 64; influence of in cheese- making, 226. Testing, butter, 347; cheese, 347; milk, 335. Thermometer, 9 ; for cheese-making, 91. Turnips, 56. U REA, 44. Wee for cheese-making, 93. Water, 3; for cows, 57; heating, 156. Weeds, 155. Weight, atomic, 3. Welsh cows, 48. Whey, as a ripener in cheese-making, 81; influence of, on character of cheese, 69. — cream, 331 ; management of, 332; creaming of, 301, 332. -— separation of in cheese-making, 95 ; Cheddar, 174 ; Cheshire, 233; Derby, 246 ; Leicester, 253; Stilton, 263. PRINTED AT THE DARIEN PRESS, EDINBURGH. ADVERTISEMENTS. i SMALL HIGH-SPEED STEAM ENGINES SEMI-PORTABLE AND STATIONARY. STEAM DAIRIES. PRICES ON APPLICATION. RICHARD GARRETT & SONS, LEISTON WORKS, LEISTON, SUFFOLK. ADVERTISEMENTS. ii LaSuOd ‘NOLMOAOS-sH407 . ‘AS IGNIH "S “3 LONvIddy WO 991] WONeUO;OY [[ny pue sensoyeye9 “NS3WHYOM LNALEIdWOO pue ‘SAS 11Nd ONILAVHS ‘(pensap jr 3urddr1r-3172S) SLSIOH NITIW ‘SANIHOVW DNIHDISM IN ‘SdWNd IW ‘suOLVuVdaSsS WVauo osTy ‘SAUIV 8 SaldOLOV4 WILLING SINIDNI anv ‘0° ‘NOGNOT “3S B140}91 A Ueonh J] | ‘sjeoUM PEoY uo Ael]Jog pue eulsug [eojW]SEA,, ADVERTISEMENTS. ili BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT SS nae _ 10 THE QUEEN. A MATTER OF VITAL IMPORTANCE TO BUTTER MAKERS. ““ALPHA-LAVAL ” CREAM SEPARATORS, EFURTHER IMPROYEMENTS, / 5 GREAT INCREASE in the Separating Capacity THE “ ALPHA-LAVAL ” ®™= sansa IT WILL PRODUCE MORE BUTTER THAN ANY OTHER SEPARATOR And 20 to 25 Per Cent. MORE THAN the SETTING PANS. A BETTER QUALITY BUTTER and FRESH SKIM MILK. A BOY OR DAIRYMAID CAN WORK THEM. THEY TAKE LESS POWER, SKIM FASTER AND CLEANER THAN ANY OTHER. All Sizes for Dairies of 3 to 80 Cows easily worked by Hand-Power. OVER 55,000 IN USE. A Sample Testimonial out of Thousands received :— Mr W. Snowpon, College Farm, Greenhead, writes :—‘‘I am very glad to say that the Separator is giving every satisfaction, and we make about 10 lbs. of Butter per week more than we did on the old system. It is quite easy to turn and manage, and I am glad to tell you that it is every- thing you represented it to be.” BUTTER MAKERS, TRY THE Special BUTTER COLOUR <<:s> AND ANNATTO Brand MANUFACTURED IN OUR OWN FACTORY. Free from Sediment. Strongest and Purest. Imparts a natural tint to the Butter, which may thus be made uniform in colour all the year round. For further particulars of every Datry requisite you are earnestly requested to write for Illustrated Catalogue, free on application to DAIRY SUPPLY CO. LD, Meee ee iv ADVERTISEMENTS. “GILMAN, ROCESTER.” W. GILMAN, Gheese Fuctory, ROCESTER, Sintts., 2 Bee. 189 2. Gentlem en— Class, alle V Ofenm elo flr Qu natle Shawn zed furto fur too YO frcs 7 2a from 2660 Cores bk Be Cleerse factories ei Blive — Hffarel thm I thdlt want o Aerger peta thy fr mene Hoag on To be had only genuine from the STEAM ANNATTO WORKS of R. J. FULLWOOD & BLAND, 31 BEVENDEN STREET, HOXTON, LONDON; And of all Druggists and Grocers In the Kingdom. ADVERTISEMENTS. v TWO thincs are ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS IN DAIRYINC. The FIRST isthe daily use of TIPPER’S MEDI- CATED POWDERS in the feed of each Cow. The SECOND is to keep in stock TIPPER’S ANIMAL MEDICINES. A FEW WORDS ABOUT THE “POWDERS.” The name of Tipper has become a household word throughout the country. Those who have used Tipper’s Medicated Powders testify willingly to its unequalled Dae nes for keeping Milking Cows, Bullocks, and Calves ina thoroughly healthy condition. DAIRYMEN will also speak of its great value as a Milk Producer. Not only is there an increased yield of Milk, but the quality is better, the cream thicker. This is a point to remember. To those who have not yet tried Tipper, we solicit one trial, the ‘‘ Powders” will do the rest. They speak for themselves. 24s. per Canister, costing 34d. per week per Cow. ‘The attention of Dairymen and Farmers is also directed to Tipper’s Animal Medicines. These are becoming aswell known as the ‘‘ Powders.” a eee Se OE Tipper's CLEANSING Drench} TIPPERS BLACK OILS, A reliable Purgative Medicine for Cattle, &c. Useful in attacks of Indigestion, Costiveness, Yellows, &c. A drench should be given before and after calving. Will pre- vent Milk Fever, Garget, &c. &c. 12s. per dozen Packets. For Wounds and Injuries gene- rally, Cuts, Stakes, Wounds on Udder, A very soothing antiseptic dressing. Prevents gangrene. Par- ticularly useful at Calving time. 30s, per dozen Bottles. Tipper’s ANTI-DIARRH@A Drink. The facile princeps of remedies for thecure of Scour, Skit, Diarrhcea, Purging. Specially recommended for Calves and Lambs. Should be kept at hand by every Stock-kecper, 3Os. per dozen Bottles. TIPPER’S COLIC DRINK. A RESTORATIVE that has few equals and no superior. Horse Keepers and Farmers swear by these drinks for Colic and for Blown Cattle, 20s. per dozen Bottles. B. C. TIPPER & BALSALL HEATH, SON, M.R.C.V.S., BIRMINGHAM. vi ADVERTISEMENTS. BOOKS FOR THE DAIRYER. Royal 8vo, 1,100 pages, with 450 I/lustrations. Price £1. 118. 6d. strongly and handsomely bound. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER AND FARMER'S & CATTLE BREEDER’S ASSISTANT: A COMPENDIUM OF HIUSBANDRY. Originally Written by WILLIAM YOUATT. Thirteenth Edition, Entirely Re-written, Con- siderably Enlarged, and Brought up to the Present Requirements of Agricultural Practice, by WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., Author of ‘© The Elements of Agriculture,” &c. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. Book I.—On the Varieties, Breeding, Rear- ing, Fattening, and Management of Cattle. ‘ i Boox II.—On the Economy and Manage- ment of the Dairy. Boox III.—On the Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Horses. Book 1V.—On the Breeding, Rearing, and Fattening of Sheep. Boox V.—On the Breeding, Rearing, and Fattening of Swine. Boox VI.—On the Diseases of Live Stock. Boox VII.—On the Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Poultry. Book VIII.—On Farm Offices and Imple- ments of Husbandry. Book IX.—On the Culture and Manage- ment of Grass Lands. Book X.—On the Cultivation and Applica- tion of Grasses, Pulse, and Roots. Book XI.—On Manures and their Applica- tion to Grass Land and Crops. Book Sih —Monthly Calendars of Farm- work. ‘‘Dr Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he has made to give us a work which will at once become the standard classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe that it will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at present in exist- ence, . The illustrations are admirable."—The Times. “In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy, the work will certainly hold a pre-eminent and unique position among books dealing with scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricultural library of itself, and as such it should be in the hands of every agriculturist.”— North British Agriculturist. Demy 8vo, 384 pages, with 79 Plates and Maps. FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN. Price 12s. 6d. cloth. By ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c., Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in ‘the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. ‘The photos were always good, but they have been very much improved. Well chosen, well executed, they give the book, as a work of instruction for the young, the greatest help.” —The Field. Crown 8vo, 180 pages, with numerous Illustrations. Price 2s. 6d. cloth. BRITISH DAIRYING: A Hanvy Votume on THE WorK oF THE Darry-FARM. in Agricultural Colleges, and Dairy-Farmers. For the use of Technical Instruction Classes, Students By Proressor J. P. SHELDON, late Special Commissioner of the Canadian Government, Author of ‘The Farm and the Dairy,” &c. ‘Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet been produced.”—Worth British Agriculturist. “One of the best and brightest text-books for the use of technical instruction classes, students in agricultural colleges, and dairy farmers. . we have yet seen on the subject." 7he Times. It is the soundest little work 7, STATIONERS’ HALL Court, Lonpon, E.C. August, 1894, A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS INCLUDING NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN ENGINEERING: CIVIL, MECHANICAL, AND MARINE; ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING; MINING, METALLURGY; ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, INDUSTRIAL AND DECORATIVE ARTS; SCIENCE, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES; AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING; AUCTIONEERING, VALUING AND ESTATE AGENCY; LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. D.K.Clark’s Pocket-Book for Mechanical Engineers. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF TABLES, FORMUL4, RULES AND DATA. A Handy Book of Reference for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Crark, M.Inst.C.E., Author of “ Railway Machinery,” “ Tramways,” &c. Second Edition, Re- vised and Enlarged. Small 8vo, 700 pages, gs. bound in flexible leather covers, with rounded corners and gilt edges. Summary oF CONTENTS. MATHEMATICAL TABLES.— MEASUREMENT OF SURFACES AND SOLIDS,— ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.—FRENCH METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEa- SURES,—FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.—MOoNEYS.—SPECIFIC GRAVITY WEIGHT AND VOLUME.—MANUFACTURED METALS.—STEEL PIPES.—BOLTS AND Nuts.—Sunpry ARTICLES IN WROUGHT AND Cast Iron, Coprer, Brass, LEAD, Tin, ZINC.—STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.—STRENGTH OF TIMBER.—STRENGTH OF Cast Iron.—STRENGTH OF WrouGHT IRON.—STRENGTH OF STEEL.—TENSILE STRENGTH OF CopPER, LEAD, ETC.—RESISTANCE OF STONES AND OTHER BuILD- NG MATERIALS,—RIVETED JOINTS IN BOILER PLATES.—BOILER SHELLS-— WIRE ROPES AND Hemp RopEs.,—CHAINS AND CHAIN CABLES.—FRAMING.—HARDNESS oF METALS, ALLoYS AND STONES.—LABOUR OF ANIMALS.—MECHANICAL PRIN: CIPLES.—GRAVITY AND FALL oF BopiEs.—ACCELERATING AND RETARDING Forcres,—MILL GEARING, SHAFTING, ETC.—TRANSMISSION OF MoTIvE PowER.— Heat.—ComBusTION :. FUELS.—WARMING, VENTILATION, CookING STOVES.— STEAM.—STEAM ENGINES AND BoILers.—RAILWAYS.—TRAMWAYS.—STEAM SxHips.—PuMPING STEAM ENGINES AND PumPs.—Coat Gas, GAs ENGINES, ETC.— Arr IN MoTion.—ComPRESSED AiR.—HoT AIR ENGINES.—WATER POWEs — SPEED oF CuTTING TooLs.—CoLours.—ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. *,* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, Mr. Clark manifests what is an innate perception ot what is likely co be useful in a pocket: book, and he is really unrivalled in the art of condensation. Very frequently we find the informa- tion on a given subject is supplied by giving a summary description of an experiment, and a state- ment of the results obtained. There is a very excellent steam table, occupying five and-a-half pages; and there are rules given for several calculations, which rules cannot be found in other pocket-books, as, for example, that on page 497, for getting at the quantity of water in the shape of priming in any kaown weight of steam. It is very difficult to hit upon any mechanical engineer- ing subject concerning which this work supplies no information, and the excellent index at the end adds to its utility. In one word, it is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, possessed of which the engineer will be saved many a wearisome calculation, or yet more wearisome hunt through various text-books and treatises. and. as such, we can heartily recommend it to our readers, who must not run away with the idea that ‘Mr. Clark’s Pocket-book is only Molesworth in another form. On the contrary, each contains what is not to be found in the other; and Mr. Clark takes more room and deals at more length with many subjects than Molesworth possibly could." he Engineer. It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a similar compass, or produce a book of 65¢ pages which should be more compact or convenient for pocket reference. fz Will be appreciated by mechanical engineers of all classes." —Practical Engineer. “ Just the kind of work that practical men require to have near tothem."—Emglish Mechante B 2 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON’S CATALOGUE, MR, HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS. Handbook for Works’ Managers. THE WORKS’ MANAGER’S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND DATA. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W.S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of “The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Fourth Edition, carefully Re- vised and partly Re-written, In One handsome Volume, medium 8vo, price 15s. strongly bound. : Ke The Author naving compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety of modern engineering work, and having found his notes extremely useful, decidzd to publish them—vrevised to date—believing that a practical work, suited to ‘the DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ENGINEERS, would be favourably received. In the Fourth Edition the First Section has been re-written and improved by the addition of numerous Illustrations and new matter relating to STEAM ENGINES and Gas Enaines. The Second Section has been enlarged and Illustrated, and through- out the book a great number of emendations and alterations have been made, with the object of rendering the book move generally useful. *,* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS “The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop aotes for application in workshop practice, rather than from the theoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experi- ence, and is seldom written in books,”—Z7gineer, : ' “'The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers’ notes, memoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf."—Mechanical World, ‘The information is precisely that likely to be required in practice. .. . The work forms a desirable addition to the library not only of the works’ manager, but of anyone connected with general engineering."—Mining Fournad, “A formidable mass of facts and figures, readily accessible through an elaborate Index » » » » Sucha volume will be found absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all sorts of ‘works’ connected with the metal trades."—Ryland's ron Trades Circular. “* Brimful of useful information, stated in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a press- ing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practic possessing a copy."—Practical Engineer. New Manual for Practical Engineers. THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER’S HAND-BOOK. Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers: Marine, Locomotive and Sta- tionary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to recent Practice in Designing and Constrvcting all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certi- ficates of Comretency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By Wa.TeEr S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of “ The Works’ Manager's Handbook for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 370 Illustrations, Fourth Edition, Revised, with Additions, Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., price 18s, Strongly bound. => This work is designed as a companion to the Author's “ Works’ MANAGER'S HANpD-BOOK."” It possesses many new and original features, and con- tains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for publica- tion, but collected by the author for his own use in the construction of a great variety of MoDERN ENGINEERING Work. x The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by upwards of 370 Woodcuts, and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for ENGINES, BOILERS, and OTHER ENGINEERING Work. *,* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, ‘ “ We have kept it at hand for several weeks, referring to it as occasion arose, and we ave not ona single occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were in quest. —Athenaum, s er . ght good tical handbook, which no engi can go gh without lc arning something that will be of service to him."—AMarine E magic. ‘An Mt book of refe for i and a valuable text-book: for students or engineering."—Scotsman, . . 5 * This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on mechanical engineering."—Building News. . c ‘‘ The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has shown much judgment in the selections he has made. . . . There is no doubt that this book is one of the most useful of its Kind published and will be a very popular compendium."—E£vgitec™. “A mass of information, set down in simple language, and in such @ form that it can be easily referred to at any time. The matter is uniformly good. and well en .and.is_greatly elucidated by the illustrations, The book will find its way on to most engineers’ shelves, where it will rank as one ofthe most Leet books of references -_(ractical Engineer, -_“ Full of useful information and shor e found on the office shelf of all prac! z English Mechanic, filipractical-enginecrs, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ete. 3 MR. HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS—continued. Practical Treatise on Modern Steam-Boilers. STEAM-BOILER CONSTRUCTION, A Practical Handbook tor Engineers, Boiler-Makers, and Steam Users, Containing a large Col- lection of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice in the Design, Con- struction, and Working of all Kinds of Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine Steam-Boilers, By Watter S, Hutton, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of ‘‘The Works’ Manager’s Handbook," “The Practical Engineer’s Handbook,” &c, With upwards of 300 Illustrations. Second Edition. Medium 8vo, 18s. cloth. _ K= This work is issued in continuation of the Series of Handbooks written by the Author, viz ;—* Tue Works’ ManaGer’s Hanpsook” and “THE Practi- CAL ENGINEER'S Hanpsook,” which ave so highly appreciated by Engineers for the practical nature of their information; and is consequently written in the same style as those works. The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form for easy ee ence, of such a large amount of thoroughly practical information on Steam-Boilers, will be of considerable service to those for whom it is intended, and he trusts the book may be deemed worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to its predecessors, *,* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. ‘'Every detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly Jaid before the reader. The volume shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact sciences; and such 2 book is of the utmost value to the /iz de sécle Engineer and Works’ Manager."—Marine Engineer. “There has long been room for a modern handbook on steam boilers ; there is not that room now, because Mr, Hutton has filled it. It is a thoroughly practical book for those who are occu- pied in the construction, design, selection, or use of boilers.’"—Ezgineer. ‘* The book is of so important and comprehensive a character that it must find its way into the libraries of everyone interested in boiler using or boiler manufacture if they wish to be thoroughly informed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents." — Machinery Market. “ The value of this book can hardly be over-estimated. The author’s rules, formulz, &c., are all very fresh, and it is impossible to turn to the work and not find what you want. No practical engineer should be without it.”"—Codliery Guardian. Hutton’s **Modernised Templeton.” THE PRACTICAL MECHANICS’ WORKSHOP COM- PANION. Comprising a great variety of the most useful Rules and Formule in Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calcu- lated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations, By WiLL1aM TEMPLE- ton, Author of “The Engineer's Practical Assistant,” &c. &c. Sixteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by WaLTER S. Huron, C.E., Author of “The Works’ Manager's Handbook,” ‘The Practical Engineer’s Handbook,” &c., Feap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative Diagrams, 6s., strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear, *,* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. “In {ts modernised form Hutton’s ‘ Templeton ‘should have a wide sale, for it contafns much valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who have learned to value the original editions of ‘ Templeton.'' —Engtish Mechanic, “It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify 5 and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little book.” —Building News. “ This familiar text-book—well known to all mechanics and engineers—is of essential service to the every-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various. trades connected with engineering and builsing. The new modernised edition is worth its weight in gold.” —Bzslding . (Second Notice. : rer ils well bases ee largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the sort so useful to the foreman and draughtsman. So much fresh information has been introduced as to constitute it practically a new book. It will be largely used in the office and workshop.”— hanical World. . : ee ee publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable, and useful book to Mr, Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could. pot have found,”—/vovt. Templeton’s Engineer’s and M ichinist’s Assistant. THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHE'S, and MACHINIST’S PRACTICAL ASSISTANT. Accollection ofstJseful Tables, Rules and Data. By WILLIAM TEMPLETON, 7th Edition, with Additions, 18mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. i Sekar ind fe ‘itabl sent to an appren “Occuples a foremost place among books of this ind, A more suitable presen! an . i i bl; de.”"—Burlding News. es ee yea ane eae eae abe mane “rawer : of eveiy: mechanic.”"—Znglish Mechanic. . é 4 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE, Foley’s Office Reference Book for Mechanical Engineers. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK, for Machine and Boiler Construction. P Part II, BorLeR ConsTRUCTION., With 51 Plates and ENGINEERING Data. numerous Illustrations. By NELSon Fovey, M.I.N.A. bound, ‘ SUMMARY 0 In Two Parts, Part I. GENERAL Folio, £5 5s. half- F CONTENTS. PART I. MEASURES.—CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS, &c., SQUARES, CuBEs, FouRTH PowERS.—SQuARE AND CuBE RooTs.— SurFAcE oF TusEs—RECIPROCALS,— LoGarItTHMS.— MENSURATION. — SPE- ciric GRAVITIES AND WEIGHTS.— ‘Work AND PowEr.—HEAT.—CoMBUS- TION.—EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION, —EXPANSION OF GaSES.—STEAM.— Static Forces.—GRAVITATION AND ATTRACTION.—MOTION AND COMPUTA- TION oF RESULTING ForcEes.—Accu- MULATED WorK.—CENTRE AND RapDius Wita DIAGRAMS For VAtve-Gear, Suction Pires, ScREW PROPELLER: TREATING OF, PowER oF BoILers.— Usgrut Ratios.—NoTEs oNn_ Con- STRUCTION. — CYLINDRICAL BOILER SHELLS. — CIRCULAR FURNACES. — Firat Prates.— StTays.— GIRDERS.— Screws. — Hyprautic Tests, — oF GYRATION.—MoMENT OF INERTIA. —CENTRE OF OSCILLATION.—ELEC- TRICITY.—STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. —Evasticity.— Test SHEETS OF METALS.— FRICTION. — TRANSMISSION oF PowER.—FLow oF Liguips.—FLow or GASES.—AIR Pumps, SURFACE Con- DENSERS, &c.—SPEED OF STEAMSHIPS. — PROPELLERS. — CuTTING TooLs.— FLANGES. — CopPpER SHEETS AND Tuses.—Screws, Nuts, Bott Heaps, &c.—Various RECIPES AND MISCEL- LANEOUS MATTER. = BELTING AND Ropes, DISCHARGE AND S, AND CoPpPER PIPES, PART II. RIVETING.—BOILER SETTING, CHIM- NEYS, AND MounTINGS.—FUELS, &c.— EXAMPLES OF BOILERS AND SPEEDS OF STEAMSHIPS.—NOMINAL AND NoRMAL Horse Power. With DIAGRAMS ror ALL Bolter CALCULATIONS AND DRAWINGS OF MANY VARIETIES OF BOILERS. *,* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, “ This appears to be a work for which there should be a large demand on the part of mechanl- calengineers. It is no easy matter to compile a book of this class, and the labour involved is enormous, particularly when—as the author informs us—the majority of the tables and dia; iS have been specially prepared for the work. The diagrams are exceptionally well executed, and generally constructed on the method adopted in a previous work by the same author. . . The tables are very numerous, and deal with a greater variety of subjects than will generally be found in a work of this kind; they have evidently been compiled with great care and are unusually com- plete. All the information given appears to be well up to date. . It would be quite impos- sible within the limits at our disposal to even enumerate all the subjects treated; it should, however, be mentioned that the author does not confine himself to a mere bald statement of formule and laws, but in very many instances shows succinctly how these are derived... . Th latter part of the book is devoted to diagrams relating to: Boiler Construction, and to nineteen beautifully-executed plates of working drawings of boilers and their details. As samples of how such drawings should be got out, they may be cordially recommended to the attention of all young, and even some elderly, engineers. Altogether the book is one which every mechanical engineer mav, with advantage to himself add to his library." —/adustries. “Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work. . The diagrams are a great feature of the work. e Regarding the whole work, it may be very fairly stated that Mr. Foley has produced a volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become indispen- sable to all mechanical engineers."—Marine Engineer. “We have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reference book for the use of marine engineers.”— Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers. “ A veritable monument of industry on the part of Mr. Foley, who has succeeded i it what is simply invaluable to thi gi ing profession,” —S Nh eded iniproducing Coal and Speed Tables, A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, for Engineers and Steam-users. By Netson Foxey, Author of “The Mechanical Engineer's Reference Book.” Pocket-size, 3s. 6d. cloth. “These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-da' : 2 clent grope for most practical purposes, and may be commended’ to I uiobo ware ot su e. steam."— Ton. “ This pocket-book well merits the attention of the practical piled a very useful set of tables, the infec 4 i Sdn enginesr. Mr. Foley has Aue engineers, coal consumers and users of steam,”—Jvon and Coal Trades Review, . y MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc, 5 Steam Engine. TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With a Sup- plement on Gas Engines, and Part II.on Heat Encines. By T. M. Goopgve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal College of Science, London; Author of “The Principles of Mechanics,” “The Elements of Mechanism,” &c. Twelfth Edition, Enlarged. With nu- merous Illustrations, Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. ... Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise.” —Engineer, “ Mr. Goodeve’s text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself.” —Mining Fournal. Gas Engines. ON GAS-ENGINES, With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By T. M. Goopeve, M.A. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d, cloth. [¥ust published. “ Like all Mr. Goodeve’s writings, the present is no exception In point of general excellence. It is a valuable little volume.”—Mechanical World, Steam Engine Design. 3 A HANDBOOK ON 1HE STEAM ENGINE, with especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine- Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students and Users of Steam Power. By Herman Haeper, C.E, English Edition, Re-edited by the Author from the Second German Edition, and Translated, with considerable Additions and Alterations, by H. H. P. Powxes, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. With nearly 1,100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. “A perfect encyclopzdia of the steam engine and its details, and one which must take a per- manent place in Engl'sh drawing-offices and workshops.”—A Foreman Patteri-maker. » “This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who are interested in the con- struction and design of medium-sized stationary engines. . . . A careful study of its contents and the arrangement of the sections leads to the conclusion that there is probably no other book like it in this country. The volume aims at showing the resuhs of practical experience, and it certainly may claim a complete achievement of this idea.”—/Vatzere. 3 i “There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it to all concerned in the design and construction of the steam engine.”—Mechanical World. Steam Boilers. A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Theiv Strength, Con- struction, and Economical Working. By RoBerT WILSON, C.E. Fifth Edition. 12mo, 6s. cloth, “The best treatise that has ever been published on steam bollers."—Exgineer. ‘The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all em- ploying steam power to possess themselves of the work."—Ryland's Iron Trade Circular. Boiler Chimneys. P BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS ; Theiy Draught-Power and Stability. With a Chapter on Lightning Conductors. By RoBert Witson, A.LC.E., Author of “A Treatise on Steam Boilers,” &c, Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. “A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building."— Te Builder, Boiler Making. THE BOILER-MAKER’S READY RECKONER & ASSIST- ANT. With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, Smiths and Riveters. By Joun Courtney, Edited by D. K. CLark, M.LC.E. Third Edition, 480 pp., with r4oIllusts. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. half-bound. “No workman or apprentice should be without this book."—/ronx 7; ade Circular, Locomotive Engine Development. THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT, A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines between 1803 and 1893. By Clement E. Srrerron, C.E., Author of. Safe Railway Working,” &c. Second Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. With 95 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. : (Fust published, «« Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution of the modern locomo- tive will find much to attract and entertain in this volume."— The Times. ‘ “The author of this work is well known to the railway world, and no one probably has a better knowledge of the history and development of the locomotive. The volume before us should be of value te all connected with the railway system of this country."—Nature, 6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. Fire Engineering. is FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES, With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ae marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns; Foreign Fire Systems Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. &c, By CuarLes F. T. Youne, C.E, With numerous Illustrations. 544 pp., demy 8vo, £1 4s. cloth. ‘ ; “ To those interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we most heartily commend this book. It is the only English work we now have upon the subiect."— Expineering. “Yt displays much evidence of caretul research; and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly together. His acquaintance with the practical details of the construction of steam fire engines, old and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, is accurate and full."—Engineer. Estimating for Engineering Work, &c. ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS AND ACCOUNTS: A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous Examples of Esti- mates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and Steam Boilers; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By A GENERAL Manacer. Demy 8vo, 12s. cloth, “ This is an excellent and very useful book, covering subject-matter in constant requisition In every factory and workshop. . ... The book is invaluable, not only to the young engineer, but also to the estimate department of every works,”—Builder. “We accord the work unqualified praise. The information is given in a plain, straightforward manner. and hears throughout evidence of the intimate practical acquaintance of the author with every phase of commercial engineering."—Mechanical World. Engineering Construction. PATTERN-MAKING: A Practical Treatise, embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the methods of Estimating the weight of Castings; to which is added an Appendix of Tables for Workshop Reference. By A ForEMAN PatTrerNn Maker. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged. With upwards of 450 Illustrations. Crown. 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. Lust published. ‘tA well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has prac- tised what he has written about. ... We cordially recommend it to engineering students, yourg journeymen, and others desi of being initiated into the my ies of pattern- ing.” tf . ‘More than 450 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and ex- plicit, thus rendering the work an excellent vade secum for the apprentice who desires to become master of his trade." —Ev7glisk Mechanic, Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms. LOCKWOOD’S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, embracing those current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith’s and Boiler Shops, &c. &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions, Edited by A Foreman Pattern-Maker, Author of Pattern Making.” Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth, “Just the sort of handy dictlonary required by the various trades engaged in mechanical en- gineering. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and every foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy."—Sutlding News, “Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most valuable guide. It strikes us as a happy idea to combine with a definition of the phrase useful information on the subject of which ut treats."—Machinery Market, Mill Gearing. TOOTHED GEARING: A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By A ForEMAN PaTTERN Maker, Author of “ Pattern Making,” “ Lockwood's Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms,” &c. With 184 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. [Fust published, SumMARY OF CONTENTS, Cuap. I, Princrpres.—II. Forma- | Skew Bevets.—XII, VARIABLE AND TIon oF TooTH PRoFILES.—III. Pro- OTHER GeEARS.— XIII, DIaAMETRICAL PORTIONS OF TEETH.—lLV. METHODS PircH.—XIV. THe OpontoGRaPH.— oF MaxinG TooTu Forms.—V. Invo- | XV. Pattern GEARS.—XVI. MACHINE LuTE TEETH.— VI. Some Specrat | Moutpinc GeEars.—XVII. MacHINE Tootn Forms,—VII. Bever WHEBLS. Curt Gears.—XVIII, Proportion oF —VIII. Screw Gears.—1IX. Worm WHEELS. GeARS.—X. HevicaL WueeLs,—XI. “We must give the book our unqualified praise for its thoroughness of treatment, and we can heartily recommend it to all interested as the most practical book on the subject yet written."— Mechanical World. 7" MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ete, 7 Stone-working Machinery. STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economi- cal Conversion of Stone, With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis Bate, M.I.M.E. With Illusts. Crown 8vo, 9s. “The book should in the hai - Ne Cuan. shor be in the hands of every mason or student of stone-work."—Colltery ‘A capital handbook for all who ii beat 1 ie Machinery Market, stone for or Pump Construction and Management. PUMPS AND PUMPING: A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction and Management. By M. Powis Bate. M.I.M.E., Author of ‘* Woodworking Machinery,” ‘‘ Saw Mills,” &c. Second Edition, Revised, Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. ‘The matter is set forth as isely as ible. In fact. d tion rather than di bas been the author's aim throughout; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of use." — Fournal of Gas Lighting. ae aie * * Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written."—Glasgow Herald, Milling Machinery, ete. MILLING MACHINES AND PROCESSES: A Practical Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters, including Information on Making and Grinding the Cutters. By Paut N. Hastuck, Author of “ Lathe- work,"’ ‘‘ Handybooks for Handicrafts,” &c. With upwards of 300 Engrav- ings, including numerous Drawings by the Author, Large crown 5vo, 352 pages, 12s. 6d. cloth. ‘A new departure in engineering literature. . . . We can recommend this work to all interested in milling machines ; it is what it professes to be—a practical treatise.” —Egineer. “A capital and reliable book, which will no doubt be of considerable service, both to these who are already acquainted with the process as well as to those who contemplate its adoption.” é industries. Turning. LATHE-WORK : A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By Paut N. HasLucs. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged Cr. 8vo, §s. cloth. ‘Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to ge it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable.” —Engineering, “We can safely recommend the work to young. engineers, To the amateur {t will simply be nvaluable. To the studentit will convey a great deal of useful information,”—Z7gincer. Screw-Cutting. SCREW THREADS: And Methods of Producing Them. With Numerous Tables, and complete directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By Paut N. Hastuck, Author of “ Lathe-Work,” &c. With Seventy-four Il stration. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Waistcoat-pocket size, 1s, 6d. cloth. “ Full of useful information, hints and practical criticlsm. Taps, dies and scre wing-tools gene- rally are illustrated and their action described."—Mechan ical Worid. “TItisa complete compendium of ail the details of the screw cutting lathe; in tact a wzsJtum in parvo on all the subjects it treats upon.”—Carpenter and Builder, Smith’s Tables for Mechanics, etc. TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS, FOR MECHANICS, ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, «tc. Selected and Arranged by Francis Situ. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, with a New Section of ELECTRICAL TaBLEs, ForMUL#, and MemoranbDa. Waistcoat-pocket size, 1s. 6d. limp leather. “It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book s slection of 1 otes and formulz éo suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr, Smith's witstcvat- pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt."—Engineer. “The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful m ttter packed tnto the 4 men- stons of a card-case.”—Butlding News. “ A veritable pocket tre isury of knowledge."—Jron, French-English Glossary for Engineers, ete. A POCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH- FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, Engineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions, By JoHN JAMES FLETCHER, Engineer and Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, 1s. 64. limp leather. “‘It isa very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a liliputian volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers." —Architect. “The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the tables are new aad well arranged, We cordially commend the book,”—Mechanscal Wor 8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE, Year-Book of Engineering Formute, &c. SHE ENGINEER'S YEAR-BOOK FOR 1894. Comprising Formule, Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Elec- trical, Marine and Mine Engineering. By H.R. Kempe, A.M. Inst.C.E., M.LE.E., Technical Officer of the Engineer-in-Chiet’s Office, General Post Office, London, Author of “A Handbook of Electrical Testing,” “The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book,” &c. With 700 Illustrations, specially’ Engraved for the work. Crown 8vo, 600 pages, 8s. leather. [Fust published.. 7 “Represents an enormous quantity of work, and forms a desirable book of reference.”—The + er. : Oe the book is distinctly in advance of most similar publications in this country."—Angineering. “This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the demands of all descriptions of engineers."—Saturday Review. f : oy hd “‘Teems with up-to-date information in every branch of engineering and construction."— Building News. ' Aa & : “The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied in a more admirable, complete and convenient form. To say that it more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the highest sort, aid that may justly be said of it '—Atnine Fournat. i a : “There is certainly room ‘or the new comer, which supplies explanations and directions, as well as formule and tables. It deserves to become one of the most successful of the technica} annuals.” —A rchitect. 4 A . i “Brings together with great skill all the technical information which an engineer has to use day by day. Itis in every way admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successful.” —Scotsmtan. “The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality that will not be lost on the busy people for whom the work is intended."—Glasgow Heraid, Portable Engines. THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT. A Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally, By WiLtt1am Dyson WaANSBROUGH. With go Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. “ This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should beread by every- one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere."—Mark Lane Express. “ We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam engines, and to those who have to do with their construction or use."—Zimmber Trades Fournal. “Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader should be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine."—Bud/ding News. * An excellent text-book of this usefv] form of engine. * The Hints to Purchasers’ contain a D ish Mechani good deal of and 1 wisdom,’'—En1g fron and Steet. “IRON AND STEEL”: A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iron- masters and their Stock-takers; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheev Rolling Mills; Iron and Metal Founders; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting Engineers; Architects, Contractors, Builders, and Professional Draugbtsmen. By CHARLES Hoare, Author oF “The Slide Rule,” &c. Eighth Edition, Revised throughout and considerably Enlarged. 32mo, 6s. leather. ‘For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal.”"—Jron. “One of the best of the pocket books."—Exglish Mechanic, _ __‘*We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering the details of all kinds o> iron and steel works,"—Vaval Science. Elementary Mechanics. CONDENSED MECHANICS, A Selection of Formule, Rules, Tables, and Data for the Use of Engineering Students, Science Classes, &c. In Accordance with the Requirements of the Science and Art Department. By W. G. CrawrorpD Huaues, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. cloth. ‘' The book is well fitted for those who are either confronted with tical problems in theia work, or are preparing for examination and wish to refresh their knowledge by going through their formule again,’"—Marine Engincer. “It is well arranged, and meets the wants of those for whom it is intended."—Ratiway News Steam. THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. Containing Rules for Un- professional Steam-users. By an ENGinzER. Sixth Edition. Sewed, 6d. “If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become- sensations by their rarity."—Zxglish Mechanic, Warming. HEATING BY HOT WATER; with Information and Sug- estions on the best Methods of Heating Public, Private and Horticultura) uildings. By Water Jones. Second Edition. With 96 Illustrations. Crown Byoy 254 6d, nel i i “We ca t te te heati by hot wat ealiiable Haale trenton, = he Phimbay- and Decermon, 6 Tune 0 BOSUTOR SORE OE Rls MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ete. 9 THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS (“ Tue Encine Driver’s Frienp”), Locomotive-Engine Driving. LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING: A Practical Manual for Engineers in are of Locomotive Engines. By MicHaEL ReyNoips, Member of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L, B.and S.C. R. Ninth Edition. Including a Key ro THE Locomotive Eneing, With Illus- vations and Portrait ot Author, Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloin. Mr, Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines."— The Engineer, “Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter fn the literature of the day, This admirable practica) each the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation.”— ie Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly.”— Radlway Service Gazette. Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become of the every-day working of our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore."—Scotsman, Stationary Engine Driving. STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING: A Practical Manual for Engineers in eee of Stationary Engines. By Micwart Reynotps. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. ‘The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points treated is clear and practical. . . . He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful one for the class for whom it is specially intended," —Angineering. “Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only know something about the stationary engine, but all about it.”"—Engineer. “An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr. Reynolds's book will require but little actual experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them.” —Z7glish Mechanic, The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors, By MicHazt Reynotps. With numerous Illus- trations and a fine Portrait of George Stephenson. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. “ From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a tech- nical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with.”—Zuglish Mechanic. ‘We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine.” —/rom, Continuous Railway Brakes, CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES: A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom ; their Construction and Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables, By MIcHAEL Reynotps, Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. “A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance In forming public gpinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake."—Anglish CCHANIC. € ““Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped.” —Mechanical World. Engine-Driving Life. ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE : Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers. By Micuagt Reynotps. Third and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, rs. 6d. cloth. [Fust published. “From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown {nto the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page."—North British Mail. ** Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read ‘ Engine- Driving Life’ for himself ; and if he once take it up he will find that the author’s enthusiasm and real love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page.” —Saturday Review, Pocket Companion for Enginemen. THE ENGINEMAN’S POCKET COMPANION AND PRAC.- TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER_ATTENDANTS, AND MECHANICS. By Micuaet Reynoups. With Forty-five Illustra- tionsand numerous Diagrams. Third Edition, Revised. Royal 18mo, 3s. 6d., strongly bound for pocket wear. “This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship of a competent engineer.”—Glasgow Herald. «A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the Information an engine- minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would require.”"— The ‘itler, «A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics.’ —Dazly Chronicle, 10 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE, CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ete. MR. HUMBER’S VALUABLE ENGINEERING BOOKS. The Water Supply of Cities and Towns. A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By Witu1amM Humeser, A-M.Inst.C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., Author of ‘Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction,” &e. &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, 1 Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards ot 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of Text. mp. 4to, £6 6s, elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. List of Contents. I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns.—II. Water and the Fo- ign Matter usually associated with it.—III, Rainfall and Evaporation.—IV. Springs and the water-bearing formations of various dis- tricts—V. Measurement and Estimation of the flow of Water —VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply. Vil. Wells.—VIII. Reser- voirs.—IX, e Purification of Water.—X. Pumps. — XI. Pumping Machinery. — XII. Conduits.—XIII. Distribution of Water.—XIV, Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings,— XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply.— XVII. Description of Plates. — Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, c. &c., together with Specifications of seve: Works illustrated, among which will be found: Aberdeen, Bideford, canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others, “The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or In any other language. . . . Mr. Humber's work is ch ised almost through by an sxtaushivencss much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises.” —Engineer. “We can congratulate Mr, Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of Infor- mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in number, are mostly drawings of executed works, ani lone would have commanded the ai i of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession,” —Bzslder. Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction. A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Ivon Foundations. In Three Parts—Theoretical, Practical,and Descriptive. By Wititram Humeser, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, Re- vised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In Two Vols., imp. 4to, £6 16s. 6d. half-bound in morocco. “A very valuable to the dard li of civil In addition to elevations, plans and sections, large scale details are given which very much enhance the instruc- tive worth of those illustrations."—Civil Engineer and Architect's Fournal, “Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued—in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunel, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawk. shaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail."—Agincer. Strains, Calculation of. 4A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS IN GIRDERS AND SIMILARSTRUCTURES, AND THEIR STRENGTH. Consisting of Formulw and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Application, &c. By Wititram HumsBer, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c, Fifth Edition, Crown 8vo, nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 7s. 6d. cloth, “The are neatl: and the di: ly exp goo ‘We heartily commend this really Aanay book to our engineer and architect readers,"—Eng~ lish Mechantc, Barlow’s Strength of Materials, enlarged by Humber. A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS; with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. By PETER Bartow, F.R.S. A New Edition, Revised by his Sons, P, W. Bartow, F.R.S., and W. H. Bartow, F.R.S.; to which are added, Experiments by HopGKINsoNn, FairBaIRN, and KIRKALDY; and Formula for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by Wm. HumBER, A-M.Inst.C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous Wood. cuts, 18s. cloth, “ Valuable alike to the student, and the experten i future, as it has hitherto done, as the fandard treatise on ther pes rece ae u Wap usabude wile of fia aisrsiash incereetea a foritooge acuieat shay S$ a scientinc wor i eserve ore! jac civil engineer and practical mechanic,"—Engiish Mechanic Plate on the bookshelves offover d."— Ath CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ete. II MR. HUMBER’S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING. Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price £12 12s., half-morocco, .Each Volume sold separately as follows :— A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER- ING, First Sertes, Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WiLL1am HumBer, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specitications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco, List of the Plates and Diagrams. Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S.C.R, (8 plates); Southport Pier (2 plates); Victoria Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. W. R. (6 plates); Roof of Cremorne Music Hall; Bridge over G, N. Railway; Roof of Station, Dutch Rhenish Rail (2 plates); Bridge over the Thames, West London Extension Rallway (§ plates); Armour Plates: Suspension Bridge, Thames it lates); The Allen Engine; Sus» pension ridge, Avon (3 plates); Underground ailway (3 plates), ‘‘ Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve {na permanent form copies of the plans and s pecifications prepared for the guidance of the con- ik for many imp ing works, HUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. SeconpD SERIES. Robert Stephenson, C.E., M.P. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of . F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letter- press, Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco, List of the Plates and Diagrams. Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 plates); Charing Cross Station Roof, C, C. ailway ( plates) ; Digswell Viaduct, Great ailway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, Great Northern’ Railway; Iron Permanent ‘Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Rallway; Ebbw Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Rail- way; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Rail- way; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates) i Bridge over the Thames, L. C. & D. Railway (6 plates); Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). “Mr, Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples te has here brought before the profession and the public.” —Practical Mechanic's fournat, HUMBER’S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Tuirp SERIES, Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of : J. R. M‘Clean, late Pres, Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS.—North Stde.—Map showing Interception of Sewers; Middle Level Sewer (2 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over River Lea (3 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junc- tion; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway (3, plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over East London Waterworks’ Feeder {2 plates); Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet; Out- fall Sewer, Penstocks. South Srde.—Outfall Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 plates); Outfall “ The drawings have a i sentations of the two gr volume."—Zngineer. ly ing val eat works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber’s Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates); Outfall Sewer, Filth Hoist; Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides). THAMES EMBANKMENT.—Section of River Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates) ; Landing Stairs between Charing Cross an Waterloo Bridges; York Gate (2 plates); Over- flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) ; Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections Gullies, Plans and Sections; Rolling Stock; Granite and Iron Forts. h ue, and desires to possess clear repre- HUMBER’S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Fourtu Series, Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait ot John Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams, - Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain- age, Metropolis (4 plates); Barrow Docks ff phates); Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Val- paraiso Railway (2 eater: Adam's Locomo- tive, St. Helen's Canal Railway (2 plates); Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross Railway (3 plates) ;Road Bridge over the River Moka (2 plates); Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia; Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railway (3 plates); St. Germans Via- duct, Cornwall Railway g plates) 5 Wrought- Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell; Millwall Docks {6 plates); Milroy’s Patent Excavator; Metro- politan District Railway (6 plates); Harbours, Ports, and Breakwaters (3 plates). “We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its usefui- aess in giving the measurements and details ot some of the latest examples of engineering, ag casried out by the most eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly p ) — Artisan, 12 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE, Statics, Graphic and Analytic. GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical A ppli- cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. Hupson Granam, C.E, Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Re- vised and Enlarged, 8vo, 16s. cloth. Be Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied,” —Lnpineer, “The work !s excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of welk selected examples, It isan excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman.”— “As a compendious and useful guide to engineers of our mercantile and royal naval services, we should say it cannot be surpassed."—Building News. The information given is both sound and sensible, ‘cing hands on the straight road to the extra chiet’s certificate. spectors, draughtsmen, and young engineers."—Glasgow Herald, and well qualified to direct yowng sea- Most useful to surveyors, c 18 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON’S CATALOGUE. Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. A PCCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR.- MUL FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N.A. Third Edition. Royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4s. “'We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a Jong felt want.”--Naval Science, “A most useful companion to all marine engineers,”"—~Uned Service Gazette, Introduction to Marine Engineering. ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING: A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices, In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management ot Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By Joun SHERREN Brewer, Government Marine Surveyor, Hong- kong. Second Edition, Revised. Small crown 8vo, 2s, cioth. ‘Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in the chapters on the management of boilers and engines." —Naxtical Magazine, “ A useful introduction to the more elaborate text-books.""—Srotsman. ‘To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attain a thorough knowledge, Mr. Brewer offers decidedly useful help.”—4Achexn2um. Navigation. PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of THe Saitor's Sea-Book, by James Greznwoop and W. H. Rosser: together with the requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by Henry Law,C.E., and Professor J. R. Youna. Illustrated. 12mo, 7s. strongly halfbound. Drawing for Marine Engineers, LOCKIE’S MARINE ENGINEER’S DRAWING-BOOK. Adapted to the Requirements of the Board of Trade Examinations. By JOHN Locxiz, C.E. With 22 Plates, Drawn to Scale. Royal 3vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. “ The student who learns from these drawings will have nothing to unlearn."—Engineer. ‘The examples chosen are See practical, and are such as should prove of service to engineers generally, while admirably fulfilling their specific purpose.”"—Mechanical World, Sailmaking. THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. By SamuEt B, Savcer, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and other Illustrations. Small 4to, 12s. 6d. cloth. SumMaARY OF CONTENTS. CHap. 1. THE MaTERIALS USED AND ; —VI. On ALLowances.—VII. Catcu- THEIR RELATION To SaiLs.--II. ON | LaTION oF Gores.—VIII. ON CutTTING THE CENTRE OF ErFort.—III, ON | Out.—LX. On Ropinc.—X. On Dia- MeasurinG.—IV. On Drawinc.—V. GONAL-CuT Saits.—XI. ConcLuDING On THE NUMBER OF CLOTHS REQUIRED. | REMARKS, .* Th's work is very ably written, and is illustrated by diagrams and carefully-worked calcula- tions. The work should be in the hands of every sailmaker, whether employer or employed, as it cannot fail to assist them in the pursuit of their important avocations."—/ste of Hight Herald. * This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the branches of the manu- facture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It 1s copiously illustrated, and will form a first- cate text-book and guide."—Portsmouth [imes. : ‘The author of this work has rendered a distinct service to all interested in the art of sail- making. The subject of which he treats is a congenial one. Mr. Sadier is a practical sailmaker, and has devoted years of careful observation and study to the subject; and the results of the experience thus gained he has set forth in the volume before us." —Steamship. Chain Cables. CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c.&c. By Tuomas W. TRalLL, F.E.R.N., M. Inst.C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin- tendent, Lloyd’s Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings, Folio, £2 2s. cloth, bevelled boards, Jt contains a vast amount of valuable Information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it a co.nplese and standard work of reference on the subject."—Nautical Magazine, oe MINING AND METALLURGY, 19 MINING AND METALLURGY, Mining Machinery. MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES: A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers of Mines. By E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S, Crown 8vo, 580 pp., with upwards of 300 Illustrations, ras, 6d. cloth. (Fust published. __''Mr. Davies, in this handsome volume, has done the advanced student and the manager of mines good service. Almost every kind of machinery in actual use is carefully described, ani the woodcuts and plates are good.” —Athenaum, ‘From cover to cover the work exhibits all the same characteristics which excite the ccnfi- dence and attract the attention of the student as he peruses the hrst page. The work may sarely be recommended. By its publication the literature connected with the industry will be enrichea, and the reputation of its author enhanced."—Mining Fournal. __‘'Mr. Davies has endeavoured to bring before his readers the best of everything in modern mining appliances. His work carries internal evidence of the author's impartiality, and this con- stitutes Oue of the great merits of the book. Throuzhout his work the criticisms are based on his own or other reliable experience.’ —/vo ard Steel Trades’ Fournal. “The work deals with nearly every class of machinery or apparatus likelv to be met with or required in connection with metalliferous mining, and is one which we have every confidence in recommending.”—Practical kngineer. Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. By D.C. Davigs, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of “A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying.’ Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged, by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E.,F.G.S. With about 150 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. “Neither the practical miner nor the general readerinterested in mines canhave a better book for his companion and his guide."—Mining Fournal, iMinwy World, “We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to thts valuable work,” ‘* A book that will sot only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist but also very interesting to the general public.""—/ro2. oo “Asa history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value and it supplies an actual want."—Athengurm, Earthy Minerals and Mining. A TREATISE ON EARTHY & UTHER MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of “ Metalliferous Minerals,” &c. Third Edition, revised and Enlarged, by his Son, E, Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. With about roo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth, ‘*We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same amount of information packed in equally convenient form.”—