Lo es Roz ae
CORNELL UNIVERSITY.

RL THE
KHoswell P. Flower Library

THE GIFT OF

ROSWELL P. FLOWER
FOR THE USE OF
THE N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE.
1897

 
 

oO
D
ea |
XQ
=>
2 |
Zz
 

 

 

THE PRIMITIVE NATURALIST.
1

WILD TRAITS
IN TAME ANIMALS

NG so GOP,
BEING SOME ix

yey

/

FAMILIAR STUDIES IN EVOLUTION ( usr LleRaay.

\

t

Kp ~
ae Nar E vet

LOUIS ROBINSON

M.D., Etc.

 

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MDCCCXCVII

1
Fe

re
\
-
Ré6E

No | Tl a
Pie Poy E.

Ir is my hope that this book will be of some
service as an introduction to the study of Evolu-
tion. Not a few people who have a taste for
Natural History seem unable to grasp the ap-
plication of the Darwinian doctrine to the every-
day world about them, and I feel sure that
many of these will thank me for showing how
interesting some of the most trivial and common-
place facts about animals become when viewed in
this light.

Several of the chapters have been founded
upon articles which were written originally for
young students in the United States and were
published in the ‘North American Review.’
The greater part of that on Dogs appeared in

the ‘Contemporary Review,’ under the title of
vi PREFACE.

“Canine Morals and Manners.” The rest have
been chiefly evolved from papers contributed to
‘Blackwood’s Magazine. Although all have
been entirely re-written, in the hope that they
might thus be made more worthy to appear in
book form, I have thought it best to retain the
somewhat easy and colloquial tone adopted in the
original articles. As far as I can see, this need
not detract from the value of such a work to more
serious students so long as all facts and infer-
ences are set forth with the care and precision
demanded by science.

It will be seen by those who read the book
that I have put forward several new and perhaps
somewhat startling hypotheses. These I wish to
be considered as standing only upon such facts
as can be adduced in their support. Every
reader is at liberty to form his own judgment
as to the apparent “ protective mimicry” ex-
hibited by the tabby cat, or as to the political
significance of the white tail of the rabbit. Still, I

think it is not improbable that many competent
PREFACE. vil

naturalists will agree with the views I have
advanced.

My thanks are due to the Editors of the Maga-
zines and Reviews above mentioned for their
courteous permission to republish the articles.
I take this opportunity also of expressing my
obligations to several friends who have criticised
my work, both from the literary and scientific
standpoints, and have enabled me to remove not
a few serious defects. Especially do I thank Mr
S. T. Dadd for the infinite pains he has taken
in preparing the illustrations. In almost every
instance (and in all where technical accuracy was
important) the sketches were made direct from
nature, and were submitted to competent authori-

ties before they were finally completed.

STREATHAM HILL,
Lonpon, S.W., Oct. 4, 1897.
CONTENTS,

CHAP.

I. INTRODUCTION .
II. THE DOG
Ill. THE HORSE
IV. THE DONKEY
V. DOMESTIC CATTLE
VI. THE SHEEP
VII, THE GOAT
VIII. THE PIG
IX. THE CAT.
X. THE POULTRY-YARD

CONCLUSION .

INDEX . . .

PAGE

68
109
130

161
ILLUSTRATIONS,

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.

THE PRIMITIVE NATURALIST : . . Frontispiece
WILD DOGS. A STRATAGEM. ‘ 2 To face page 36
WILD HORSES PURSUED BY WOLVES : : " 68
WILD COW LEAVING HER CALF IN HIDING. . " 136
WILD SHEEP AT HOME ‘ 5 ; . " 164

iS}
tN
nN

WILD SWINE RESCUING A COMRADE . A "

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

PAGE
VIGNETTE—FOX IN HORN. : : ; Title-page
WAITING FOR A PASSPORT . ; : : ; 48
HOW THE OX LEARNED TO PULL. : : : 135
SEVEN YEARS’ OLD UNSHORN EWE . : 4 : 163
A HARD MASTER . : : : ; ; 181
KIDS CLIMBING SHAFTS OF ROLLER ‘ : ; 190
GREY AND TABBY CATS 236
BOA AND OCELOT 242
“1s 1T A SNAKE?” 259
TAILPIECE 326
WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.

In spite of the immense stimulus which Darwin-
ism has given to the study of Natural History, I
am afraid that hitherto it has proved rather a
stumbling-block than a help to a large number of
people who take an interest in such pursuits.
Most of these belong to a class who take up
some branch of natural history as a hobby for
leisure hours. One hardly likes to speak of such
students as amateurs; for the term generally
savours of contempt when used in connection
‘th the arts and sciences. We owe so much to
Observers, from Gilbert White downwards, to
whom the study of animated nature has been
A
2 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

chiefly a source of recreation, that it would be a
great mistake either to hold their work cheap or
to make their way needlessly difficult. When,
therefore, the word “amateur” occurs in the
succeeding pages, it is merely employed to dis
tinguish naturalists of this order from those who
have adopted the study of natural science as a
profession.

To acertain extent the untoward effect of the
new doctrine on many of the older order of
naturalists was inevitable. Our ideas concerning
nature have been so revolutionised during the
last generation, that one can hardly expect mature
students to find themselves at home in their novel
environment; while any attempts to patch the
new doctrine on to the damaged remnants of the
old, was like putting new cloth in an old garment.
Although, as I shall point out later, the amateurs
have themselves to blame to a certain extent,
their hindrances have come largely from outside.

In some directions the same fate seems to have
overtaken the pursuits of the naturalist which in
these strenuous days has overtaken various pop-
ular sports. Professionalism has seized them for
its own, and has established methods and stand-
ards which are beyond the reach of any but the’
INTRODUCTION. 3

professional. The impetus given by the new
doctrine has not only greatly multiplied the num-
ber of earnest professional workers, but it has also
increased the mass of our knowledge to such an
extent that no little perseverance is necessary to
enable a beginner to master the initial details of
any branch of natural history in which he hopes
to excel. It is one thing to cull fresh knowledge
in the open fields, but it is quite another, and re-
quires sterner stuff than a spirit of dilettanteism,
to wrestle with dry bones and technicalities in a
stuffy library or museum. Again, the increased
energy given to research is rapidly using up a
great deal of the material upon which our fathers
busied themselves. Their happy hunting-grounds
have been surveyed, mapped, and annexed by the
speculative professor, and the fauna and flora
thereon catalogued with a business-like precision
which would do credit to an auctioneer. The
naturalist who is content with merely collecting
and classifying natural objects now finds that he
must go very far afield if he is to be more than
an imitator of other men’s labours.

Furthermore, it must, I fear, be admitted that
some things, which are not roses, have been
strewed in the path of the amateur naturalist by
4 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

certain of his professional associates. This was
probably more true ten years ago than it is to-day,
and it is to be hoped that advancing civilisation
will remove such causes of offence. But any one
who has studied the habits of that uncompro-
mising vertebrate, the Learned Official, when he
deigns to mix with common folk at British Associ-
ation meetings and elsewhere, will probably have
observed that certain members of the order treat
their less exalted fellow-workers with a somewhat
disdainful patronage. Doubtless this is partly due
to a temporary combination of youthfulness and
authority among some of the leaders of the new
movement, which has resulted from rapid pro-
gress. But there seems also a tendency on the
part of a larger number of professional naturalists
to assume gwasz-manorial rights in certain regions
of nature’s kingdom. It is apparently a natural
law that wherever the members of a corporation
become the licensed exponents of a subject—
whether it be divinity, natural science, or what
you will—they develop the spirit of the custodian,
if not of the proprietor, and tend to regard all
others who meddle with it with a certain amount
of jealousy.

But it will be a disastrous day for science if
INTRODUCTION. 5

natural history ever becomes a close preserve of
specialists and professors. For a brief review of
the progress of knowledge in this direction shows
that many of the most important discoveries have
been made by the despised amateur. Further-
more, it is from the ranks of these enthusiastic
volunteers that by far the best material in the
great army of regulars is recruited. The true
naturalist, like the poet, is born, not made. No
amount of scholastic hammering, or Government
patronage, or societies for the organisation of re-
search, can evolve a Cuvier or a Darwin.

Yet if it be true that the old-fashioned amateur
is trending towards extinction, he has chiefly him-
self to thank. Should he fail to adapt himself to
his changed environment, he must go the way of
all flesh which has proved its unfitness in the
struggle for existence. His chief weak point
hitherto has been his lack of versatility. We
shall find the cause of many failures in attempts
to apply the principles of Darwinism in this want
of power to accord with new conditions. In some
cases it is evident that efforts to keep pace with
the times have ended in confusion because there
has been an attempt to pile new bricks upon an
old and sapped foundation. In many others
6 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

failure has resulted because the knowledge of
evolutionary laws has been merely theoretical
and superficial. There has been an immense
amount of literature upon the subject of Darwin-
ism poured out during the last thirty years, much
of it of a very speculative and evanescent char-
acter. One can hardly wonder, therefore, if
many students are somewhat bewildered as a
result of trying to inform themselves from such
sources. If the amateur naturalist is to profit
by the new doctrine his information must be
thorough and based upon experience, even al-
though it may not be extensive. When we are
going to make use of knowledge for some prac-
tical purpose, we generally find that it is necessary
to have a much more thorough grip of our subject
than can be gained from studying verbal state-
ments and formule. It is often absolutely impos-
sible to obtain from books the kind of knowledge
which is demanded in practice. What traveller
about to undertake an expedition in which a
knowledge of horsemanship or cycling was neces-
sary, could expect to reach his goal if he contented
himself with reading exhaustive treatises on these
arts? The very act of walking, which we deem
so simple, would, if taught in an abstract and aca-
INTRODUCTION. 7

demic way, tax the faculties of a Newton or a
Kelvin. I once knew a learned gentleman—no
longer young—who felt it advisable to add pro-
ficiency in dancing to his many attainments. Not
wishing to make himself ridiculous by practising
before others, he shut himself up in his study and
bent his whole soul upon a handbook professing
to teach such accomplishments. He had abilities
of no mean order, and had already gained fame
as a physicist; but after puzzling out—with the
aid of intricate diagrams—all the mysteries of the
guadrille, he stuck at the poxs astnorum (or shall
we say chévaux de frise ?) of the dancers, and con-
fessed that the whole thing was utterly beyond
him. What would have happened if, at the risk
of a mental breakdown, he had persevered to the
end and had then appeared in a ballroom, I will
leave to the imagination of my readers.

But if there are a good many amateur natural-
ists whose knowledge of evolution is too imperfect
to be of any practical value, there are probably
still more who may be said to possess none at all.
If any one doubts this statement, let him com-
mence a discussion on Darwinism with any aver-
age schoolboy, sportsman, or country parson, and
it will meet with abundant support. I mention
8 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

these three classes because from them, probably
more than from any others one can name, are
drawn the people who make a hobby of some
branch of natural history. The failure of the
schoolboy is owing partly to the inveterate con-
servatism of our educational methods, and partly
to the slovenly way in which science is still taught
in schools. To the sportsman, as a rule, reading
is uncongenial; and books bristling with new and
technical terms and full of half-digested theories
are an abomination. As to the average country
parson, he still seems to think not only that the
Darwinian theory is a disputable doctrine, but
that, unless filtered and diluted by ecclesiastical
wisdom, it smacks of infidelity.

By-and-by, when doctrines which are still novel
to most people (although forty years old, and to
many of us as much a matter of course as the laws
of gravitation) find a place in the elements of
knowledge absorbed by every youth, we may
expect most of these difficulties to disappear.
But in the meantime they may be depriving us of
some second Gilbert White, who, from his country
parsonage, might send us news of a thousand
delightful and invaluable facts which would be
beyond the reach of any but a cultured observer
who lives among the fields and woods.
®
INTRODUCTION. 9

For the latter day Gilbert White must be an
evolutionist down to the tips of his toes. The
Darwinian way must be as familiar to him as the
footpath from his rectory to his church. His
very spectacles must be tinged with the doctrine,
and his mind must employ its methods as easily
as his lungs breathe the air. There is every
reason to hope that the future will bring us seers
of this type, and it is with the desire that I may
in some slight measure hasten their advent that I
here invite attention to the light which Darwinism
throws upon the everyday world about us.

It will be a good way to show how wonderfully
the amateur student may gain both in pleasure
and knowledge from the new philosophy—and at
the same time will be consistent with the methods
I am recommending—if we briefly discuss some
points in the natural history of the naturalist
himself. Undoubtedly his passion for outdoor
life, and for watching and recording natural phe-
nomena, dates back to the time when the exist-
. ence of our forefathers depended upon success in
hunting. We are all of us aware that only a few
thousand years ago the ancestors of the modern
European and American had only reached a stage
of culture still found among savages which depend
entirely upon the chase. Plentiful evidences are
10 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

discovered in limestone caves, in the banks of
ancient rivers, and in the shell-mounds around
the Danish coast, that prehistoric Europeans
lived almost precisely the life now lived by the
Fuegians or the Australian blacks. But few of
us, I imagine, have realised the enormous length
of the epoch throughout which this stage of
utter savagery lasted. It is utterly impossible to
measure its length in years; but every geologist
and anthropologist will support me when I say
that, when compared with the historical period, it
was of inconceivable duration. Probably it would
be no exaggeration to say that if you took the
last leaf of this book as representing the era of
civilisation, you might take all the other leaves as
representing, in equal proportion, different stages
of the epoch of pristine savagery. Now since
man had to live by the chase, and by the chase
only, throughout the greater part of this period,
it is no wonder that all his faculties of mind and
body became moulded to the environment of the
hunter. To such primitive savages the habits of
taking note of everything around them and of
drawing conclusions from what they observed
were absolutely essential. Under the immemo-

rial régzme of the Stone Ages these were just
INTRODUCTION. II

as much duszness habits as are those which now
lead to success in any branch of commerce.
Indeed they were even more so, for nowadays
if one becomes bankrupt there are many mitigat-
ing circumstances; but in prehistoric times there
were no poor laws or charities, and failure in
business meant extinction. Even the miscarriage
of a single enterprise, such as the throwing of
a spear at a cave-bear or a bison, often involved
a death penalty.

We owe our instinctive liking and aptitude for
naturalising in the open air to the fact that the
practical study of natural history was at one time
of saving value to our race. Not only did such
accomplishments stave off imminent death —as
when the recognition of a footprint or a faint
sound in the forest told of the presence of some
terrible enemy—but they acted surely if slowly in
many other ways to the advantage of their pos-
sessor. Among the Esquimaux the hunter who
could be depended upon to bring home his seal
at the end of a day’s business on the ice-floe
could not only have the pick of the girls in
marriage, but gained other privileges which tend
to make a family prosperous.

Now let us inquire somewhat more in detail as
12 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

to the faculties which every savage hunter must
possess in order to be successful. First of all, he
must have a general knowledge of natural phe-
nomena, accurate and inconceivably extensive ;
so that when he is afield, every item among his
innumerable surroundings is so familiar that the
least unusual circumstance at once arrests his
attention. Next, he must have acquired, in ad-
dition to his general knowledge, a complete mas-
tery of the complex arts of tracking and stalking,
so that he may approach near enough to his wary
game for his rude weapons to take effect. If we
go no further than this, we find that the untutored
savage in his native wilds almost comes up to
that formula which defines culture as ‘‘ knowing
something of everything and everything of some-

J

thing.” But other gifts are required beyond
mere knowledge and skill. There must be an
infinite capacity for taking pains (which has been
given as a definition of genius), and also, and
above all, there must be a power to reason
accurately from the facts observed. I think that
many people who have spoken with contempt of
the mental capacity of the Bosjesmen and the
Black Fellow can never have estimated the men-

tal resources required for ordinary “spooring.”
INTRODUCTION. 13

Each minute item of evidence — often so faint
that civilised senses can no more apprehend
it than the unassisted eye can detect the microbes
in a drop of water—has not only to be observed
but to be weighed, and given its exact value in a
long and intricate argument.

If I may be allowed to digress from the
‘“‘spoor” of our present argument for a moment,
I should like to point out what seems to have
been one exceedingly important factor in the
development of the human intellect. In the next
chapter I shall discuss, in comparing a man’s
mental processes with a dog’s, the probable
psychic effect of the comparative size of the
olfactory lobe. \ mean by the olfactory lode that
part of the brain—so remarkably developed in the
canide — which receives impressions from the
nerves of smell.

Now why has man no olfactory lobe to speak
of? And what may possibly be the outcome of
the deficiency? The answer to the first question
is, that man’s progenitors were fruit - eating
creatures which lived in trees. Now a frugivor-
ous animal obviously does not need a keen power
of scent for detecting and following prey. It
usually discovers its food by means of the eye,
14 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

and one finds that Nature has adapted herself to
this state of things by making most fruits of con-
spicuous colours. Although this may partly ex-
plain why man and all the apes have the organ of
smell so very slightly developed, it is plain that
hereditary vegetarianism will not fully account for
their olfactory poverty. For we find that very
many graminivorous animals—such as antelopes,
deer, wild horses, and wild cattle—have an ex-
ceedingly acute power of scent, and can detect
the approach of an invisible enemy at several
hundred yards’ distance. But a little thought will
show that the life of a creature living high in the
trees is never threatened by a foe approaching
stealthily from afar off, and hence such a means of
protection is unnecessary. And, moreover, in such
a situation this sense would be very untrustworthy,
for air among the tree-tops moves in eddies and
veering gusts, owing to the continual obstructions
it meets with, and hence would not tell the direc-
tion from which the taint of danger came. Now
when man left his trees and his vegetarianism
behind him and became an amateur carnivore,
there was this great distinction between him and
the predatory beasts whose habits he was imitat-

ing—viz., that wheréas they were able both to
INTRODUCTION. 15

detect and to follow their quarry by scent, he
found his nose practically of no use as an aid to
a living. Had he developed, during his early
earth-walking career, olfactory powers anything
like equal to those of the dog, I make bold to
say that all of us, if we were now existing,
would be getting our livings by sniffing for
roots and grubs like a badger, or by yelping
along a trail like a pack of jackals! Because,
happily, he could not profitably follow his nose,
primitive man was obliged to exercise his wits.
Where the dog or the wolf gallops blindly and
without thought along the tainted line left by the
feet of his quarry, the primeval hunter had, from
the first, not only to learn to notice each displaced
twig, or shifted stone, or shaken dew-drop, but
had also—from these and a thousand other data
—to infer what had passed that way, when it had
passed, and often, in the case of one wounded
animal in a herd, “ow it had passed, and whether
it were sufficiently disabled to make pursuit a
profitable speculation. As far as I can see, this
faculty, engendered and necessitated by olfactory
shortcomings, formed the basis of much of our
vaunted reasoning power.

When we analyse, not only the hobby of the
16 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

naturalist, but almost any other form of pastime,
we find that it is founded upon certain primitive
tastes or instincts which we possess in common
with the uncivilised races, Civilised man when
at play always reverts somewhat towards the
condition of the savage.

The play instinct is one of the characteristics
of immaturity, and most of our efforts at recre-
ation involve attempts to revive or prolong the
youthful spirit. Now all young creatures, whether
of our own species or not, tend both in bodily
structure and in mental attributes to resemble
remote ancestors.

Who can doubt that the passionate delight
in “killing something” displayed by so many
of the more vigorous specimens of our race is
traceable to the old destructive instincts which
all savages possess in common with their chosen
exemplars, the Carnivora ?

Having traced the impulse both of the sports-
man and the field- naturalist to their pristine
basis, let us endeavour to picture one of our
prehistoric ancestors engaged in his everyday
pursuits; and we shall, I think, get a hint from
him as to the way in which the Darwinian doc-
trine may greatly enhance the value of natural
INTRODUCTION. Ty,

history as a source of recreation. As I have
said above, we are able, with a fair amount of
certainty, to reproduce the savage European of
ancient days by comparing him with modern
primitive races with whom the traveller and the
anthropologist have made us well acquainted.

Probably if any difference existed other than
that of colour between the earliest Britons or
Frenchmen of whom we have any traces, and
the American or Australian aborigines, it was
in the direction of a greater doggedness of char-
acter, and perhaps of a superiority in reasoning
from the evidence of the senses.

The sun has risen over the great eastern
plain that now constitutes the German Ocean.
From his dwelling-place, consisting of a river-
side cave, the entrance of which is closed by
roughly interlaced branches, strides our primi-
tive forefather. He is a brawny, hirsute savage,
hard-featured and ruddy like a modern tramp,
with his face and naked limbs stippled over
with tattoo-marks. His dress, such as it is, is
made of skins of the deer and wild cat, and
is drawn together by a belt holding a flint axe.
In his hand is his bow, and hanging behind
his left shoulder a rough quiver of flint-tipped

B
18 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

arrows. After a keen look at the sky and up
and down the valley, he moves stealthily away
among the bracken and brambles towards a spot
where the spotted deer of the forest are wont
to drink at the stream. As he steps silently
along, his eyes and ears are alert for the least
indication of the presence of prey or of danger-
ous neighbours. A hundred facts have already
been observed and commented upon (although
perhaps unconsciously) before he arrives at the
river-bank. He has, in fact, during this short
‘journey to business” been reading his morning
paper, including the Weather Forecast, the News
of the Night, and the State of the Markets as
they affect his own special calling. As in the
case with most of us when we read our modern
newspapers, many of the items displayed before
his eyes do not awake any interest. For in-
stance, the varnished petals of the buttercups
which reflect the golden sunlight are there to
catch the attention of the wild bees which are
already fussing around them. Such advertise-
ments do not concern him at all, and he does
not trouble himself about them any more than
we trouble ourselves about wants of people with
whom we have no points of contact. As he
INTRODUCTION. 19

nears the trampled spot where the thirsty herds
approach the water, he hears the shrill cackle of
a blackbird away in the forest some two hundred
paces beyond the deer-path, and the screech of
a jay accompanied by the warning “pink pink”
of a pair of chaffinches coming from a spot
nearer to him. Instantly he slips behind the
bole of a tree and stands motionless and alert,
with an arrow upon the string, for he has re-
ceived sure intelligence that some beast of prey
is prowling near, and it is necessary that he
should gain the fullest information before pro-
ceeding. As he stands there, still as the tree-
trunks about him, do you imagine that his mind
(although the nearest alphabet is ten thousand
years off in the future) is sluggish or inactive ?
It would be well for us if we could bring such
keen and apposite thoughts to bear upon our
avocations whenever we wished as those which
are now coursing through his brain! A dozen
different theories, suggested by the signs, are
being sifted with lightning rapidity and with
masterly discretion by the machinery inside of
that rugged, weather-beaten head. At the same
moment every faculty is keenly astretch for
further information which may aid in the con-
20 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

clusion he must come to before he stirs hand
or foot. Is it merely a belated fox slinking
home to his earth in the oak-grove? He knows
that fox well and all his kindred within an area
of several square miles. Or is some larger and
more terrible beast, some huge brindled mzachaz-
rodus, or cave-bear, prowling among the woods
in front of him? Within a few minutes, while
he stands there scarcely moving an eyelid, he
has received reports enough from the disturbed
birds and beasts in the valley to fill a column
in the ‘Times. By comparing the different
notes of alarm which reach his ears he learns
at length that there are two sources of provo-
cation afoot: one is comparatively near to him,
and is merely a fox or wild cat, he cannot tell
which — for the chaffinches and the jays have
the same name for both; but the other, where
first he heard the blackbird’s vehement outcry,
is a larger beast, which, from the shifting cries
of protest, seems passing slowly down the river-
bank. As far as he can judge, considering its
beat and the time of day, it is a sabre-toothed
tiger on the prowl for deer. These conclusions
have been come to, not only through the gather-

ing of innumerable facts, but by means of elab-
INTRODUCTION. 2I

orate logical processes, and a power of judging
the comparative value of evidence which would
do credit to a modern Lord Chancellor.

At length he cautiously moves forward and
comes upon the slot of the antlered herd. A
glance tells him that they have been startled
before reaching the brook, and have made their
way at headlong speed back into the forest.
Further scrutiny of the ground reveals the fact
that a huge machairodus has leaped from behind
a bush, has clawed the flank of one deer without
seizing it, and after galloping clumsily some
twenty yards after the herd, has given up the
pursuit, and turned down the river-bank in the
direction from whence came the blackbird’s
shriek of warning. The keen eyes of the
savage wander over the ground in search of
one further piece of evidence of the utmost
importance. At length he sees where the hoof
of a flying hind has displaced a pebble. Bend-
ing down and shading his eyes from the dazzling
sunlight, he examines the damp surface of the
stone intently; and when he rises, ten seconds
later, he could tell you, if you were to ask him,
that the events recorded in the writing on the

ground happened almost exactly half an hour
22 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

before he arrived at the spot! If he were ready
to reveal his methods, you would probably learn
that in making this calculation he took account
of the temperature of the air, the direction of
the wind, the character of the pebble and of
the soil in which it had lain embedded. Plainly
such problems could not be solved with success
without an immense and most accurate know-
ledge of natural phenomena, an alert imagination,
and logical ability of no mean order.

We will now wish him “good hunting,” and
return across the centuries. For, although it
would be very interesting to accompany him on
his day’s round and watch his method of getting
a living, we have “other fish to fry,” and having,
I think, captured what we want for the purpose
during our early excursion, we will no longer
embarrass our archaic progenitor with our clumsy
civilised ways.

Whether or no this imaginary family portrait
is correct in its details, I think we may be
tolerably positive as regards one particular. It
was an invariable and essential mental habit
with him not only to gather facts, but to read
their meaning, both immediate and_ remote.

Now, if we are justified in ascribing the delight
INTRODUCTION. 23

which the study of natural history gives to the
fact that, when we are engaged in such pursuits,
we are obeying an inherent impulse derived from
our innumerable hunting ancestors, it follows
that the more closely such primitive instincts are
obeyed the more enjoyment will the naturalist be
likely to get from his pursuits. If, in addition
to merely collecting specimens and classifying
them, we are able like our skin-clad forefathers
to regard each item as part of an argument or a
narrative, we shall reawaken more fully the keen
delight in outdoor pursuits which was the daily
portion of the savage.

Now this is exactly what Darwinism has
enabled us to do. Even if we are among those
who go no further than did most of the older
naturalists, and content ourselves with merely
observing and recording, our pursuits gain in-
finitely in zest. For the most trivial scrap of
knowledge, which at one time would only have
been one more item added to the chaotic dust-
heap of useless lore, may now turn out to be
a diamond beyond price. Many times of late
years has some small and apparently valueless
discovery enabled the man of science to establish
some widely reaching law. No single character
24 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

in the book of nature is without its meaning,
and even when the key to her cipher is not yet
in our hands, the astonishing progress which has
been made during a single generation makes it
probable that we have only to wait and to labour
awhile longer to be able to read the wondrous
tale. Darwinism has done more in this way for
the naturalist than the spectroscope has done for
the astronomer, or the discovery of the cuneiform
alphabet for the archeologist. As yet we are
only stumbling among the elements of the new
method, but already it is often possible, by
exercising our reasoning faculty and our know-
ledge of natural laws when observing the most
commonplace phenomena, to see in them a
revelation of the past which was utterly beyond
the reach of our fathers.

Yet it must never be forgotten that if our
attempts to interpret nature’s hieroglyphics are
not based upon extensive and accurate know-
ledge, we shall run the same risk of coming to
wrong conclusions as would the savage if he
were not thoroughly versed in all phases of his
wild surroundings. It is necessary to keep a
constant check upon the innate propensity to

draw inferences from whatever we see or think
INTRODUCTION, 25

we see. One finds that this habit of the human
mind is curiously automatic: for constantly when
we are in a ‘‘brown study,” and even when we
are asleep, we find that attempts are being made,
although often of a vague and fatuous kind, to
give reasons for what chances to be occupying
the attention. The fact that this habit is uni-
versal among mankind, and that it is also innate
and automatic, asserts its extreme antiquity.
Probably in it we find the actual merging point
of instinct and reason. Like many other mental
and moral attributes which have come down to
us from the remote past, it is liable to get us
into grave trouble if not controlled by the most
vigilant discipline. Regarded in the light of a
very raw recruit, with Logic—that stern martinet
of the Intelligence Department—ever at its
elbow, it is still capable of rendering useful
service.

The danger which besets us in accepting any
plausible explanation of phenomena without sub-
jecting it to the most searching criticism is not
death or wounds, as in the case of a primitive
hunter who formed a hasty and erroneous judg-
ment, but it is one which will certainly cripple

us as naturalists.
26 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Self-contradictory as the statement may appear,
what is common and obvious is often much more
mysterious and wonderful than what is rare. We
are so in the habit of taking circumstances in our
everyday surroundings for granted, that a very
great deal entirely escapes notice which offers
most fruitful ground for research. Do we not
constantly see, when some great invention or
discovery is announced, that the thing has all
the time been almost before our eyes, and that
it is of the most ridiculously simple character !
Within the last few years many of us learned
with astonishment that air contained a new ele-
ment in addition to nitrogen and oxygen. Yet
for generations hundreds of able chemists have
not only been breathing air but have been con-
tinually working upon it in their laboratories.
And furthermore, when the facts and methods
which led to the discovery of argon were an-
nounced, it seemed astonishing to every student
of chemistry that since the time when Cavendish
first drew attention to ‘residual nitrogen” not
one of these experimenters has apprehended a
truth which was all but naked before their eyes.
Although in the year 1777 Gilbert White drew

attention to the remarkable influence of earth-
INTRODUCTION. 27

worms in “boring, perforating, and loosening
the soil, and in throwing up such infinite num-
ber of lumps of earth called wormceasts, which is
a fine manure for grain and grass,” and although
he said, furthermore, “a good Monograph of
Worms would afford much entertainment and
information at the same time, and would open
to a new and large field on Natural History,”
it was not until more than a century had elapsed
that Darwin’s work on ‘ The Formation of Vege-
table Mould through the Action of Worms’ was
published. Yet all the time, in every field,
abundant evidence of the influence of worms was
displayed before the eyes of naturalists in the
shape of hundreds of tons of earth raised to the
surface in the form of wormcasts.

I make bold to say that, in like manner, most
of the future discoveries of great moment to the
naturalist will be made, not in the remote and
minute ramifications of science such as are occupy-
ing the attention of so many of our learned in-
vestigators, but among the everyday phenomena
which are open to the eyes of all. It is in this
truth (for truth is scarcely too strong a word
when all past experience declares and confirms
the rule) that the hope of the amateur naturalist
28 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

lies. The present writer, although he has never
been able to give much time to any branch of
study outside his profession, has been fortu-
nate enough to light upon several facts both in
physiology and general natural history which
had escaped the attention of abler students. In
addition to these he has chanced upon a hundred
curious hints and clues which may be regarded
as “spoor” leading possibly towards the lair of
more important quarry. And although prob-
ably many wild hypotheses so started will, when
finally run down, prove of little material profit
either to their captor or to science, yet the zest
such pursuits give to the study of natural history
is not only traceable to primeval methods of
getting a livelihood, but still takes no contempt-
ible place among the things which make life

worth living.
le ee ly
THE DOG.

Most of our domestic animals have become modi-
fied by changed circumstances since we took them
into partnership even more than we have our-
selves: they have, in fact, become partakers with
us of the advantages and disadvantages of our
civilisation. This is especially so in the case
with the dog, man’s closest associate and earliest
ally. Still we can trace nearly every trait in
the dog which proves of use to us nowadays
to a time when he lived a life of complete in-
dependence, and managed his own affairs without
the aid of a human partner or director.

We must remember that although the dog
is now our especial friend, with interests in the
main in harmony with ours, he was not always
so. The wild dog and wild man might have
30 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

been chance allies when, for instance, a fatigued
quarry pursued by the pack was struck down
by a flint weapon, and the greater part of the
carcass left to the original hunters; or when a
wounded animal escaped its human foe to be
followed up and devoured by the dogs. But,
as a rule, the interests of dog and man would
be conflicting, as is still the case where wild
dogs exist, such as the dingoes of Australia, the
dholes of India, and the hyena-like wild dogs
of Central and Southern Africa.

It must be borne in mind that in dealing with
these primitive canine creatures, the word ‘‘dog”’
is used in its widest sense, and must include such
animals as wolves and jackals, which undoubtedly
share in the ancestry of our familiar domestic
breeds.

Probably the partnership first began through
small helpless whelps being brought home by
the early hunters, and being afterwards cared for
and brought up by the women and children.
The indifference with which almost all savages
regard their dogs seems to negative the idea
that primitive man took the trouble to tame and
train adult wild animals of this kind for his own

purposes. The young dog would form one of
THE DOG. 31

the family, and would unconsciously regard him-
self as such. The reason why he should so
regard himself will be discussed later, when we
come to consider the probable canine view of
the relationship.

It would soon be found that his hunting in-
stinct was of use to his captors, for while wander-
ing abroad with them, his keen nose would detect
the presence of hidden game when the eyes of
his savage masters failed to perceive it; and
when a wounded animal dashed away, his speed
and instinct for following a trail by scent would
often secure what would otherwise have been
lost. The dog, in his turn, would find an easier
living and a better shelter while associated with
man than if he were hunting on his own account,
and thus the compact would be cemented by
mutual benefits.

Now let us consider why the dog should so
readily fall into the position of the companion
and subordinate of man. What “stock and good-
will” did he bring into the partnership besides his
swiftness and powers of scenting and seizing his
quarry? Let us look for a moment at his life at
home as apart from his duties while hunting. In
the first place, he evidently regards the dwelling
32 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

of his master as his own place of abode in which
he has certain vested interests, and while he is
complaisant and submissive to the regular inhabi-
tants, he looks upon strangers of all kinds with
suspicion, and regards their intrusion as an in-
fringement of his rights, or contrary to his sense
of what is lawful. Although watch-dogs have
doubtless been valued for many generations, and
their distinctive qualities cultivated by artificial
selection, it seems clear that here we are dealing
with an original instinct.

The pariah dogs of Constantinople and other
Eastern cities, which are practically as untamed
as their fellow-scavengers, the vultures, crows,
and jackals, and which probably have only in the
slightest degree ever come under direct human
influence, have the same habit. Each street is
the recognised dwelling-place of an irregular
pack, and dogs—and in some cases even men
—from other quarters are warned off or at-
tacked if they cross the boundary.

It is said also that the wild dogs of India will
drive off a tiger if he strays into the neigh-
bourhood of their chosen habitat. Even tame
wolves will, without being taught, threaten a

stranger if he comes near their master’s house,
THE DOG. 33

but will take no notice of the coming and go-
ing of the regular inmates.

It would seem, therefore, that the watch-
dog’s peculiar virtue is directly traceable to the.
old instinct for guarding the lair of the pack.
And in following this instinct, the dog indicates
that it is not his custom to act single-handed.
The very fact that he growls or barks at a
stranger shows that a vocal intimation to his
fellows of the presence of a possible enemy is
part of his plan. Every one has noticed that
the barking of one dog will set off others with-
in hearing, so that on a still night an alarm
at one spot will disturb a whole suburb. Al-
though no wolves or wild dogs are known to
bark in the true canine manner, it is impos-
sible to imagine that so distinct and almost
universal a habit of the domestic varieties can
have been deliberately initiated by man. Sev-
eral instances are recorded of Eskimo dogs, and
even dingoes and wolves, learning to bark by
spontaneous imitation of domestic dogs. Foxes
make a noise very like barking when they chal-
lenge one another among the hills at night, and
it is not difficult to provoke an answer by im-
itating the sound under appropriate conditions.

Cc
34 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

It seems probable, therefore, that the common
ancestor of our domestic dogs and their wild
relatives, which no doubt lived under some-
what different conditions from any modern wild
or feral creatures of the kind, was a barking
animal.

As I have already said, the very fact that the
dog barks when alarmed is an indication that he
is a creature of gregarious instincts, and that he
is accustomed to act in concert with others. The
sound is a signal to his comrades as well as a
threat to the intruder. If this be not so, what
can be the meaning and intention of the different
tones he adopts according to the nature of the
provocation, which are capable of conveying to
ears afar off an idea of the measure and near-
ness of the danger?

Most of our domestic animals, and_all which
act under our orders and give us willing obedi-_
ence, are gregarious in their habits when in the
wild state. A little thought will show that many
of the qualities for which we prize them are
dependent upon this fact, and that we are the
gainers by turning to our own use the stock of
tribal virtues and morals which they bring with

them into our service,—just in the same way as
THE DOG. ° ae

we gain by appropriating the winter food-store
of the bees, and the supply of starch and gluten
laid up for future use by many plants. An animal
of a troop has perforce certain social duties and
obligations which, as can be shown, are necessary
for his own existence as well as for the welfare of
the community. He must learn to give and take,
and be prepared to follow and obey the members
of greater capacity and experience. It is essential
that he should be of a peaceable disposition, as a
general rule, among his mates, so as to preserve
the harmony of the band; since a pack of dogs—
like a house — divided against itself will soon
prove its unfitness, and be eliminated according
to law. He must also be prepared to stand by
his fellows, defend them or any of them if at-
tacked, and warn them if danger approaches.
Seeing that most wild animals of the canine
tribe prey upon quarry swifter and larger than
themselves, their common welfare depends upon
systematic and intelligent co-operation. A single
hound following a trail by scent will frequently
be at a loss, for every now and then it will
over-run and miss the line; but when several
are together this will seldom happen, and the
pace of the pursuit will consequently be much
36 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

greater and the chance of a meal more certain.
In searching for prey it is necessary for the pack
to separate, so as to range a wider area; but the
instant a ‘‘find” takes place it is important that
all should be informed at once, so that a united
pursuit may be taken up while the scent is warm.
Among all hounds and many wild dogs the signal
is given by the voice; but, as will be shown later,
the dog has another and very perfect method of
signalling in addition to this. For the canine
tail, when considered philosophically, turns out
to be nothing but an animated semaphore, by
means of which important news can be tele-
graphed to the rest of the pack in much the
same way aS messages are exchanged between
different detachments of an army by the modern
development of military signalling popularly
known as “ flag-wagging.”

Of course in hunting all large and swift animals,
a great deal can be done by strategy; and this
involves a common plan of action, often of an
elaborate kind, and the giving and taking of
orders by the leaders and other members of the
band respectively. The value of quick percep-
tion and general intelligence, as well as of a

readiness to co-operate, here at once become
WNAOVIVALS VO ‘Sood GIL

 

 

 

 
THE DOG. 37

apparent, for without these qualities no such
combination could be successfully carried out.
Again, when the prey is within reach, it often
requires the united efforts of the whole pack,
acting intelligently in concert, to pull it down.
If a number of wolves or wild dogs were scattered
over a district, each acting for himself independ-
ently, as cats do, large animals, such as the elk
or bison, would be of no use to them as articles
of diet, and they might starve in the midst of
plenty. But if they combine and act under the
guidance of experienced leaders, they can at once
utilise what would else be, in canine economy, a
waste product.

As has been pointed out, this indispensable co-
operation at once involves the elements of politics
and morals. The obedience of the young and
inexperienced to their leaders, and the observance
of certain rules of conduct, are a swe gud non of
the success of any strategic combination.

It follows, therefore, that the young of gre-
garious animals of all kinds, and especially those
of this type, are submissive and teachable, and
have thus the very qualities we desire in creatures
which are to be trained for our special use. In

fact, we have here the natural basis for that
38 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

docility and readiness to obey which is such a
noticeable and invaluable characteristic in dogs
as we know them.

They must also be faithful to their fellows in
word and deed. A hound which gives tongue
when he has no quarry before him (and such
canine liars are not unknown, as any huntsman
will testify) may spoil a day’s hunt, and send the
whole pack supperless to bed. It is interesting
and amusing to observe the evident contempt
with which the hounds of a pack regard an un-
truthful member. His failing becomes perfectly
well known, and, let him bay as he will, not one
of his companions will rush to the spot as they
do the moment they hear the slightest whimper
from a trusted and experienced finder.

Loyalty to one another is also a virtue which
cannot be done without. Thus we see that, how-
ever great the emulation between the individual
members of the band, while the hunt is on it is
kept strictly within bounds, and is subordinated
to the common purpose. It is only after the
game is captured and killed that contests of in-
dividuals for a share of the plunder commence.
The very fact that an invitation is given to join
in the pursuit as soon as the quarry is started,
THE DOG. 39

instead of the finder stealing off after it on his
own account, is an illustration of this; and if
one of the pack is attacked by the hunted animal
at bay or by an enemy, his howls and excited
outcry are instantly responded to by all within
hearing.

Every one has noticed the uncontrollable power
of this instinct when the yells and shrieks of a
canine street-brawl are heard. Dogs from all
sides rush to the spot and immediately take part
in the quarrel. The result generally is a confused
free fight of a very irregular description, and each
dog is apparently ready to bite any of the others.
It will easily be seen that this confusion is owing
to a disarrangement of natural politics, caused by
the disturbing and arbitrary influence of human
institutions. If two of the combatants happen to
be comrades, they will hold together and treat all
the rest as enemies. In the wild state the sound
of strife would mean either a faction fight or a
combat with some powerful enemy of the pack ;
and probably in the former case every dog within
hearing would be a member of one or other of the
contending parties. By adopting dogs into our
families, and separating them from their fellows,

we upset canine political economy in many ways;
40 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

but still the old loyal instinct to rush to the sup-
port of supposed friends in distress is so strong,
that a lady’s pug has been known to spring from
a carriage to take part in a scrimmage between
two large collies.

Among wild dogs the prosperity of the com-
munity might be fatally impaired by a lapse of
this instinctive loyalty. All who have had to do
with hounds know that every pack contains cer-
tain individuals whose special talents are invalu-
able to the rest. Generally one or two of a pack
of beagles do most of the finding when driving
rabbits in the furze, and in the case of a lost trail
another individual will be, as a rule, the success-
ful one in making skilful casts forward to pick up
the line of scent. Another, again, will possess
quicker vision and greater swiftness in running
than the rest, and the instant the quarry comes
into view will cease the more tedious method
of following, and dash forward at full speed to
seize it.

Among wild dogs pursuing large and powerful
game, the need and scope for such specialists
would be even greater and more important. If
one of these were lost through not being well
backed up in time of peril, the whole pack would
THE DOG. 4I

be the sufferers in a very material degree; for it
would often fail to start, or lose during pursuit,
some animal which might otherwise have been
captured.

The study of this communal canine morality
is very interesting when considered along with
Mr Herbert Spencer’s theories of ethics. It is
here dwelt upon, however, merely to explain on
scientific principles many traits of our domestic
dogs, which (as is too commonly the case with
those who receive benefits) we are liable to profit
by and take for granted.

The great naturalist Cuvier observed that all
animals that readily enter into domestication con-
sider man as a member of their own society, and
thus fulfil their instinct of association. The pro-
bable view of the fox-terrier or the dachshund
which lies upon our hearthrug, therefore, is that
he is one of a pack, the other members of which
are the human inhabitants of the house.

Most interesting would it be, were it possible,
to get the dog’s precise view of the situation.
The chief bar to our doing so is owing to the
difficulty of putting our human minds, even in
imagination, within the restricting limits of the

canine thinking apparatus. Thus we constantly
42 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

see, when anecdotes of the cleverness of dogs are
told, that the narrator is quite unable, in estimat-
ing the supposed motives and mental processes,
to get out of himself sufficiently to escape the
inveterate tendency to anthropomorphism; and
he almost invariably gives the dog credit for
faculties which it is very doubtful if it possesses.
When we come to consider how few persons have
that power of imaginative sympathy with their
own kind which enables us to see to some extent
through another's mental spectacles, it is no matter
for surprise that a human being should generally
fail in trying to think like a dog.

Thinking, after all, is, like flying, an organic
process dependent in every case on actual physi-
cal machinery; and dissimilarity of brain structure
therefore absolutely precludes us from seeing eye
to eye, mentally, with the lower animals.

Often when we are dealing with the relation
between peculiarities of brain structure and special
mental attributes, we are obliged to depend to a
great degree upon conjecture, because the func-
tions of the brain as the organ of mind are so
little understood. But here it is possible to point
out one of the real reasons why mental furniture

in dogs and men differs so essentially. If you
THE DOG. 43

examine a human brain you will find that the
parts which first receive impressions from the
nerves of smell are very small and rudimentary ;
but in the dog these olfactory lobes are large and
full of ganglia which are connected by innumer-
able telegraphic fibres with the main hemispheres
of the brain. Hence most of the information we
gather comes in through the channels of the other
senses, and our ideas of external things are but
little based upon the presentation of them offered
by the organs of smell. The dog, on the con-
trary, forms his notion of the outside world more
from impressions gathered in this way than in
any other. He may be said, indeed, to think
through his nose.

Now we are able in some degree to understand
what an influence this might have upon the whole
process of thought when we observe the great
difference between ideas concerning external
things gathered by people who have all their
senses and by those who are absolutely blind or
deaf. For when the optic nerve hands in nothing
whatever to the brain, all the innumerable phases
of the external world which can reach us only
through the eye can play no part in any of the
psychic functions. And in the case of a person
44 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

born deaf the same may be said of those im-
pressions conveyed by the auditory nerve, upon
which most of us depend so much in gaining
knowledge.

But this structural difference of brain, with
its inevitable consequences, although it balks
us in one way, comes to our aid in another.
As has been said, our custom of ascribing human
faculties and modes of thought is an involuntary
and invariable one when we are dealing with
the mental processes of other beings. Even
when we speak of the supernatural the same
habit is manifest, and human passions, emo-
tions, and weaknesses are constantly ascribed
to beings presumed to be infinitely more re-
mote from us in power and knowledge than
we are from the dog. Thus we see, in the
not very distant past, roasted flesh and fruits
were thought by men to be acceptable to deity,
—doubtless because they were pleasing to the
palates of the worshippers, who reasoned by
analogy from the known to the unknown. This
should teach us to bear in mind that there is,
affecting the dog’s point of view, almost un-
doubtedly such a thing as cyzomorphtsm, and
that he has his peculiar and limited ideas of
THE DOG. 45

life and range of mental vision, and therefore
perforce makes his artificial surroundings square
with them. It has been said that a man stands
to his dog in the position of a god; but when
we consider that our own conceptions of deity
lead us to the general idea of an enormously
powerful and omniscient #zaz, who loves, hates,
desires, rewards, and punishes in human - like
fashion, it involves no strain of imagination to
conceive that from the dog’s point of view his
master is an elongated and abnormally cunning
dog,—of different shape and manners certainly
from the common run of dogs, yet canine in
his essential nature.

The more one considers the matter, the more
probable does this view become. If we, with
our much wider range of mental vision, and
infinitely greater imaginative grasp of remote
possibilities, the result of our reading and ex-
perience, are still bound by the tether of our
own brain limits to anthropomorphic criteria
when endeavouring to analyse superhuman ex-
istences, still more is it likely that the dog,
with his mere chink of an outlook on the small
world around him, is completely hedged in by

canine notions and standards when his mind
46 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

has to deal with creatures of higher and mys-
terious attributes.

At any rate, it will not be difficult to show
that the dog’s habits are generally consistent
with this hypothesis. As far as mental contact
is concerned, he treats his master and the
human members of the household as his com-
rades, and behaves in many ways as if he were
at home with the pack. Thus all the tribal
virtues previously mentioned come into play.
He guards the common lair and becomes a
watch-dog, and by his barking calls his adopted
brethren to his aid. He submits readily to the
rules of the house, because an animal belong-
ing to a community must be prepared to abide
by certain laws which exist for the common
good. He defends his master if attacked—or
possibly, if not a courageous dog, gets up a
vehement alarm to call others to his aid—
because he has an instinctive knowledge of the
importance of loyalty to a comrade, and_be-
cause, as has been shown, loyalty to a leader
is especially necessary. He is ready in under-
standing and obeying orders, owing to the fact
that, when acting in concert with wild com-

panions, it was imperative that the young and
THE DOG, 47

inexperienced should comprehend and fall in
with the plans of the more intelligent veterans.
The same ancestral habits and tendencies render
him helpful as a sporting dog, and in herding
or driving sheep or cattle. This last employ-
ment is very much like a mild kind of hunting,
under certain special rules and restrictions, and
with the killing left out. It has been observed
that the Indian dholes will patiently and slowly
drive wild animals in the direction of their habi-
tat during their breeding season before killing
them, so as to have the meat close at home;
and this could only be accomplished by the whole
pack exercising a patient self-control, and by
the leaders constantly keeping in check the fierce
impulse of the younger members to rush in and
kill the weary and bewildered quarry.

The peaceable disposition and readiness to
submit to discipline are also tribal virtues of
which we take advantage. The dog, when he
slinks away with drooping tail if reproved, or
rolls abjectly over on his back and lies, paws
upwards, a picture of complete submission, is
still behaving to his master as his wild fore-
father did to the magisterial leaders of the troop,

or a victorious foe of his own species.
48 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Jesse states that when a pariah dog of one
of the Eastern cities desires to pass through a
district inhabited by another pack, he skulks
along in the humblest fashion with his tail de-
pressed to the utmost, and on being challenged,

rolls over, and there remains, limp and supine,

 

Vatting for a passport.

submissively awaiting leave to proceed. The
same thing can be observed when a large and
fierce dog makes a dash at a young and timid
one. This expressive and unmistakable method
of showing submission is calculated to disarm
hostile feelings, and contributes to peace and
THE DOG. 49

harmony, and therefore to the unity and pros-
perity of the body politic.

Although it would seem that the canine im-
agination from its very feebleness transforms
man into a dog, yet, as we should expect, argu-
ing from the cynomorphic hypothesis, it does not
stop here. In a most interesting account of
the shepherd-dogs of the Argentine, given in
‘The Voyage of the Beagle,’ Darwin shows
that, by a careful system of training, the herds-
men have taught the dogs to regard their
charges as fellows of the same pack with them-
selves ; insomuch that a single dog, although he
will flee from an enemy if alone, will, as soon
as he reaches the flock to which he is at-
tached, turn and face any odds, evidently with
the notion that the helpless and frightened
sheep ranged behind him are able to back him
up just as if they were members of a canine
regiment of which he was leader. The pas-
sage is too long for quotation, but all who are
interested in the subject should refer to it.

An instance of the operation of the cyno-
morphic idea can be seen in the behaviour of
a dog when a bone is given to him. He will
generally run off with it to some quiet spot,

D
50 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

and is suspicious of every one who comes near
him, evidently having the notion that what is
to him a valuable possession is likely to be
regarded as such by his human associates. Few
dogs when gnawing a bone will allow even
their masters to approach without showing signs
of displeasure and a fear of being dispos-
sessed of their property only consistent with
the idea that the bipedal “dog” wants to gnaw
the bone himself.

Every one has noticed the elaborate prelim-
inaries which go before a canine battle. Teeth
are ostentatiously displayed, the animals walk
on tiptoe round one another, and erect the
hair on their backs as if each wished to give
the impression that he was a very large and
formidable dog, and one not to be encountered
with impunity. Frequently hostilities go no
further than this, one animal turning and re-
tiring with a great show of dignity, but plainly
with no wish to fight.

When we come to analyse such proceedings,
it will be seen that the ends of battle are
often gained in a bloodless manner by this
diplomatic exhibition of warlike preparations
and capabilities. One primary object of a hos-
THE DOG. 51

tile meeting between dogs (as well as between
higher animals) is to decide a question of pre-
cedence, either general or particular. Now, if
we could only settle which was the best man
in any dispute by duels @ outrance, a great deal
of blood would be needlessly shed, and many
valuable lives lost to the community. This
introduction of moral weapons among social
animals is therefore a great point gained, for
injury to one is injury to all. The quick re-
cognition of the superiority of a foe, and the
perception of when submission should take the
place of valour, is plainly of advantage to the
individual, since a pig-headed obstinacy in re-
sistance would frequently lead to elimination.
Where in the serious business of life there is
an interdependence of individuals associated for
common ends, any influence which lessens the
severity of civil conflicts tends to the general
wellbeing. Just as commanding officers have
forbidden duels between members of an army
in the field, so nature has among gregarious
animals, and more especially among formidable
carnivores, discountenanced internecine conflicts
which might weaken the general efficiency of

the pack.
52 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Few animals excel the dog in the power of
expressing emotion. This power is a sure sign
of an animal which is habitually in communica-
tion with its fellows for certain common ends.
Although probably long association with and
selection by man have accentuated this faculty,
a considerable share of it was undoubtedly there
from the beginning, and was of service long
before the first dog was domesticated. It is
easy to see how important it is for the general
good that the emotions of any one member of
a pack of dogs should be known to the others.
If, for instance, one of the band should perceive
an enemy, such as a snake or leopard, lying in
ambush, his rapid retreat with depressed tail
would instantly warn the others of the danger.

There are many reasons for the tail being the
chief organ of expression among dogs. They
have but little facial expression beyond the
lifting of the lip to show the teeth and the
dilation of the pupil of the eye when angry.
Among the wild Canidz, all of whom have stiff
erect ears, emotion is shown in the head or
visage even less than among domestic dogs.
The jaws and contiguous parts are too much
specialised for the serious business of seizing
THE DOG. 53

prey to be fitted for such purposes, as they are
in man. With dogs which hunt by scent the
head is necessarily carried low, and is therefore
not plainly visible except to those close by. But
in the case of all hunting dogs, such as fox-
hounds, or wolves which pack together, the tail
is carried aloft, and is very free in movement.
It is also frequently rendered more conspicuous
by the tip being white, and this is invariably
the case when the hounds are of mixed colour.
When ranging the long grass of the prairie or
jungle, the raised tips of the tails would often
be all that an individual member would see of
his fellows. There is no doubt that hounds
habitually watch the tails of those in front of
them when drawing a cover. If a faint drag
is detected suggestive of the presence of a fox,
but scarcely sufficient to be sworn to vocally,
the tail of the finder is at once set in motion,
and the warmer the scent the quicker does
it wag. Others seeing the signal instantly
join the first, and there is an assemblage of
waving tails before ever the least whimper is
heard. Should the drag prove a doubtful one
the hounds separate again, and the waving

ceases; but if it grows stronger when followed
54 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

up, the wagging becomes more and more em-
phatic, until one after another the hounds begin
to whine and give tongue, and stream off in
Indian file along the line of scent. When the
pack is at full cry upon a strong scent the
‘‘sterns” cease to wave, but are carried aloft in
full view.

The whole question of tail-wagging is a very
interesting one. All dogs wag their tails when
pleased, and the movement is generally under-
stood by their human associates as an intimation
that they are happy. But when we attempt to
discover the reason why pleasure should be
expressed in this way, the explanation appears
at first very difficult to reach. All physical
attributes of living beings are, upon the evolu-
tionary hypothesis, traceable to some actual
need, either past or present. The old and
delightfully conclusive dictum that things are
as they are because they are made so “in the
beginning,” no longer can be put forward to
settle knotty problems in natural history. No
doubt, in many cases—as, for instance, when
we speculate on the primary origin of human
laughter—the mystery seems almost unfathom-
able. But this present helplessness only results
THE DOG. me

from our defective knowledge of data upon which
to build the bridge of deductive argument. The
reason is there all the time could we but reach it ;
and almost daily we are able to account for mys-
terious and apparently inexplicable phenomena
which utterly baffled our predecessors.

Probably the manner in which domestic dogs
express pleasure is owing to some interlocking
of the machinery of cognate ideas. In order to
understand this better it may be helpful to con-
sider some analogous instances with regard to
habits of our own species.

One of the most philosophical of modern
physicians, Dr Lauder Brunton, has clearly and
amusingly shown that the instinctive delight
and eagerness with which a medical man traces
an obscure disease step by step to its primary
cause, and then enters into combat with it, is
referable to the hunter’s joy in pursuit, which
doubtless characterised our savage ancestors
when they patiently tracked their prey to its
lair and slew it for glory or for sustenance.

Mr Grant Allen, I believe, first suggested that
our appreciation of bright and beautiful colours,
and therefore of the splendours of the flower-
garden or of the sunset tints in the sky, might
56 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

be owing to the frugivorous habits of our very
early progenitors, to whom the sight of red or
golden ripe fruit was naturally one of acute
pleasure.

Another apposite illustration is the delight we
derive from all manner of contests of wits and
muscles, so that nearly all our games, from whist
to football, partake of the nature of strife for
the mastery. A game is, of course, a systematic
and recognised method of obtaining pleasure,
and if we take a survey of all the most popular
forms of recreation of this kind, we shall find
that none of them are free from the elements
of that struggle for supremacy which has been
a chief factor in the evolution of the human race,
especially throughout the ages of barbarism.

Now, if arboreal man took delight in discover-
ing and devouring luscious and gorgeous fruits,
and savage man in hunting for prey and in
fighting his rivals or the foes of his tribe—and
all these ancient habits leave an impress upon our
modern ways of seeking and showing pleasure—
we can see that the dog’s manner of manifesting
pleasurable emotions may be traceable to certain
necessary accompaniments of remote wild habits

of self-maintenance.
THE DOG, 67

As with man, so with the dog; civilisation
has made existence much more complex. The
sources of pleasure of the savage man are
few compared with those of the cultured and
civilised, yet we find that the means of expres-
sion which we possess are but elaborations of
those existing long before civilisation began.
We must, therefore, look at the dog’s past
history and find out what were his most acute
pleasures, and what the gestures accompanying
them, when he was a pure and simple wild beast,
if we wish to elucidate his manner of expressing
pleasure now.

There can be no doubt that the chief delight
of wild dogs, as with modern hounds and sport-
ing dogs, is in the chase and its accompanying
excitement and consequences. One of the most
thrilling moments to the human hunter (and
doubtless to the canine), and one big with that
most poignant of all delights, anticipation of
pleasurable excitement combined with muscular
activity, is when the presence of game is first
detected. As we have seen in watching the
behaviour in a pack of foxhounds, this is in-
variably the time when tails are waved for the

common good. ‘Tail-wagging is an inevitable
58 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

concomitant of one form of pleasure, which,
apparently, is chiefest among the agreeable
emotions when dogs are in the wild state.
Owing to some inosculation of the nervous
mechanism, which at present we cannot un-
ravel, the association of pleasure and wagging
has become so inseparable that the movement
of the tail now accompanies the emotion what-
ever may call it forth.

An explanation of a similar kind can be found
for the fact that dogs depress their tails when
threatened or scolded. When running away the
tail would be the part nearest the pursuer, and
therefore most likely to be seized. It was there-
fore securely tucked away between the hind-legs.
The act of running away is naturally closely
associated with the emotion of fear, and there-
fore this gesture of putting the tail between the
legs becomes an invariable concomitant of retreat
or submission in the presence of superior force.
When a puppy taken out for an airing curves
its tail downwards and scuds in circles and half-
circles at fullest speed around its master, it is
apparently trying to provoke its pseudo-cynic
playfellow to pursue it in mock combat. It may
be observed in passing that this running in
THE DOG. 59

sharp curves, with frequent change of direction,
is a common ruse with animals which are pur-
sued by larger enemies. The reason of it is
that the centrifugal impulse acts more powerfully
on the animal of larger bulk, and so gives the
smaller an advantage.

Several years ago there was a good deal of dis-
cussion of the distinctive peculiarity of the pointer
and setter in the ‘Field’ and other papers. It
was suggested that the habit of standing still as
soon as game was scented, instead of springing
forward at once to seize it, was an instance of the
manner in which a natural instinct might be ab-
solutely reversed by training. One of the ex-
planations attempted at the time for this apparent
anomaly was, that the immovable position of the
dog was comparable to the pause which most
beasts of prey make before a final spring. But
we must recollect, when considering this theory,
that few of the Canide pounce from an ambush
suddenly upon their prey after the manner of
cats. And although a terrier will stand immov-
able before a rat-hole for hours together, his
patient, watchful attitude is very different from
the rigid and strained position of the pointer or
setter ; which position also has nothing in it sug-
60 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

gestive of crouching preparatory to a rapid bound
forwards, as is seen when a cat stalks a bird, and
then gathers herself together before the final coup.

Not unfrequently the tail of a young setter
when it sets game may be seen trembling and
vibrating as if it had a disposition to wag, which
was kept in check by the supreme importance of
not disturbing the hare or covey. The tail also
is held out in full view like a flag, whereas a rat-
catcher’s dog on the watch at a hole often droops
its tail.

I think that there can be no doubt that the
pointer and setter, in acting in their characteristic
manner, are following an old instinct connected
with an important piece of co-operative pack
strategy, although the peculiarity has been en-
hanced by human training and selection, and the
sportsmen with their guns have supplanted, and
therefore act the part of, the dog’s natural com-
rades in the chase.

The writer during his boyhood had charge of
a small pack of beagles at a South Down home-
stead, several of which were allowed to run loose
at night as a guard against the foxes. Amongst
these was an old dog, a part-bred Skye terrier,

very sagacious, and well known in all the country
THE DOG. 61

round as a sure finder when the pack were used
to drive rabbits in the gorse.

Old Rattler (what a throng of memories the
name calls up!) was the recognised leader of the
others, and not unfrequently he would conduct
them on a private hunting expedition, in which
he served as sole huntsman and whip. Often on
a still night his sharp yapping bark, accompanied
by the clearer long-drawn music of the beagles,
might be heard among the hills, as they drove a
predatory fox from the farm-buildings, or strove
to run down one of the tough South Down hares.
It soon became evident that this pack had a
certain regular system of co-operation, and, like
the African wild dogs, well described by Dr
S. T. Pruen in his recent book, ‘The Arab and
the African, they made a practice of playing
into one another’s hands, or rather mouths. Old
Rattler would generally trot on ahead, surveying
every likely tuft of grass or ling, and exhibiting that
inquisitiveness and passion for original research
which is so characteristic of the terrier. On arriv-
ing at a small outlying patch of furze he would
invariably proceed to the leeward side, so that as
the wind drew through the covert it would con-
vey a hint of whatever might be there concealed.
62 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

He would give critical sniffs, with head raised
and lowered alternately, and then would either
trot indifferently away or else stand rigid with
quickly vibrating tail and nose pointing towards
the bush. The other dogs seemed to understand
instantly what was required of them, and they
would quickly surround the covert. When they
were in their places, and not until then, the cun-
ning old schemer would plunge with a bound
into the furze, and out would dash a hare or
rabbit, often into the very jaws of one of the
beagles.

By this artifice, which had never been taught
them by man, the pack when hunting for them-
selves would doubtless often secure a meal, pre-
ceded by the delight of killing without the weari-
some process of tiring out a hare.

Now it appears to me that this habit of the
leader of the pack—a habit which, from its
similarity to what has been observed in the
case of such widely separated Canidze as the
dingo, wolf, and hyena-dog, is one that is trace-
able to very remote wild ancestors—is the basis
of that peculiar talent in the pointer or setter
which adds to the piquancy of a day’s shooting
and to the weight of the bag.
THE DOG. 63

Let us endeavour to look at the part played by
a pointer in the light of cynomorphic theory.

“Ponto” goes out with his pack (often a very
scratch one), his comrades walking on two legs
instead of four like ordinary dogs, and carrying
their tails, or organs of a somewhat similar aspect,
over their shoulders. The pack separate and
advance in line, he being appointed to explore
in the van and to search the turnips or rape for
a tell-tale whiff of the scent of game. The covey
is detected, but, being a co-operative and a loyal
dog, he does not rush in and try to catch for
himself. He therefore stands and waits for his
partners to perform their share of the stratagem.
All that he has to do is to show them in an
unmistakable manner that there is quarry worth
having in front of his nose. The pack advance,
he generally taking careful note of their approach,
the covey rises, the “tails” of the bipedal dogs
explode, and Ponto is rewarded by holding in
his mouth a palpitating mass of feathers, with
perhaps the stimulating flavour of blood, and
by a public intimation that the community or
pack approve of his conduct and esteem him,
what he dearly loves to be thought, “a good

)

dog.’
64 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

When we come to consider the very long
period during which dogs have been domesti-
cated and under the influence of deliberate selec-
tion, it is surprising to find how much in their
behaviour they resemble their wild brethren.
The rule seems to hold good here as elsewhere,
that the outward form is much more plastic to
the influence of environment than the character
and mental habits which are dependent upon the
nervous system. Thus, although the deerhound
and the pug are so different in external appearance
that it is difficult to believe that they are related,
yet if we watch them we find that their mental
and moral qualities are of a similar cast. The
fine grey wolf in the Zoological Gardens, Re-
gent’s Park, and the performing wolves recently
exhibited in London, when in a good humour,
had precisely the same methods of express-
ing pleasure as domestic dogs, and would wag
their tails and gambol about in a manner which
made one doubt for the moment whether they
were not in reality Scotch collies masquerading
as wild beasts.

There are many other traits in our domestic
dogs suggestive of their ancestral habits which
cannot be dealt with on this occasion, but which
THE DOG. 65

offer a most interesting field for study to every
one who possesses a dog, and a taste for re-
search in this direction.

In concluding

g, it may be well to notice briefly

the chief points of dissimilarity between the wild
and tame Canidez. In the first place, there is
a general difference of aspect and bearing which
it is difficult to describe exactly. The wild animal
has an alert independent look which the tame one
has lost, chiefly owing to its long-continued habit
of dependence upon man. Although, of course,
all breeds of tame dogs have been at some time
or other deliberately adapted by training and
selection for special purposes, yet there seem to
be certain characteristics which have risen spon-
taneously, or because the parts in which they
are manifest are correlated with some others
where an intentional change has been brought
about. Darwin gives an instance of this in the
hairless dogs, which at the same time are deficient
in teeth. This question of correlation is one of
the most interesting and obscure problems of
natural history, and perhaps we are at present
a little too ready (with our hereditary tendency
to take refuge in an imposing mystery whenever
our reasoning powers fail us) to ascribe to it
E
66 . WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

certain phenomena, the explanation of which,
by the ordinary laws of evolution, is not clear.

Most probably the drooping ears of our domes-
ticated hounds and hunting dogs primarily arose
from the fact that the savage huntsman, disre-
garding shape, picked those dogs to breed from
which manifested the keenest powers of scent,
and that in these individuals the ears were not
so much in use as in others. Again, in every
litter of whelps the surly, independent, and ill-
tempered brute would always be more likely to
be eliminated than those which were confiding
and tractable; and so, from age to age, the
chief outward traits which distinguish the dog
from wolves and jackals would tend to increase.

Finally, the instinct of association has, in the
case of the domestic dog, become more exactly
fitted to the new conditions of environment. He
makes himself thoroughly at home with us because
he feels that he is with his own proper pack,
and not among strangers or those of an alien
race. The wild animal, on the contrary, which
refuses to become domesticated, still has the
perception that those who would palm them-
selves off as his comrades are creatures of an
THE DOG. ” 67

alien nature. He sturdily refuses to become
a party to the fraud, and remains suspicious of
their intentions; and, whatever they may do to
propitiate him, he keeps on the gzz vzve as against
a possible enemy.
68

CEA P TER. We
THE HORSE.

Tue horse has been the servant of man for such
a long time that we are liable to forget that he
once had an independent existence and managed
his own affairs without our help; yet, if we ex-
amine the qualities which bring him into associa-
tion with us, we shall find that man has had but
little to do with their development, and nothing
whatever to do with their origin. For instance,
we value the horse chiefly for his speed and
endurance, yet had it not been for the chief
ancestor of our faithful friend the dog, the grim
grey wolf of Europe and Asia with his perpetual
hunger and untiring gallop, the wild horses
which, in ancient times, swarmed over nearly all
the great plains of the world, and from which
all our modern steeds have sprung, would never
‘SSHATOM AM GANSUNd SASMOH CTIA

 

 

 

 

 
THE HORSE. 69

have developed the swiftness and staying power
which they undoubtedly possessed before they
became captives, and which they have trans-
mitted to their descendants.

The wolves and the wild horses were con-
stantly at war; and, moreover, the wolf was the
only predatory beast existing in ancient times
which was able to pursue the horses and hunt
them down on the open steppe. The speed and
staying power of the horse were undoubtedly
developed in the first place to enable him to
escape from these gaunt persistent foes. Un-
intentionally the wolves acted as agents for im-
proving the quality of the stock. The swift and.
the strong escaped them; the sluggish and the
weak were devoured: and hence the special
attributes which we value in a horse were
enhanced from generation to generation. So
certain does this appear to me, that I never see
a wolf in a menagerie without feeling inclined
to thank him for many an exhilarating gallop
on horseback. If his bloodthirsty forefathers had
never existed there would have been little to
choose between the pace of a horse and that of
a donkey.

It must be borne in mind that such influences
79 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

were at work from day to day and from year to
year during immense epochs before ever the first
wild horse was lassoed by prehistoric savages.
Strange to say, this long and bitter feud between
the Equide and the Canide seems now almost
entirely forgotten. Horses seldom show an in-
stinctive dislike to dogs; and in this respect
their conduct presents a marked contrast to that
of domestic cattle, which never seem able to
forget the enmity of ancient days. Probably the
truce which has been established between horses
and dogs is chiefly owing to their close associa-
tion in their common state of servitude to man.
The horse is an intelligent animal, quickly
adapting himself to new circumstances; and,
moreover, he readily finds out who are his
friends. Probably also when wild he had little
to fear from a single wolf; for he has plenty of
courage as well as speed, and is a skilful fighter
with hoofs and teeth. Occasionally, however,
the old dread and enmity crop up. I have
known young horses, when surrounded by a
pack of foxhounds for the first time, to become
almost frantic with fear. A gentleman who lives
among the Sussex Downs, and who spends much

of his time on horseback, has informed me that
THE HORSE. wa

he has often noticed when crossing the open hills
at night that his mare would suddenly start and
tremble and try to make a dash for home with
ears laid back and every sign of great agitation.
At first he was puzzled by this, for the animal
was generally quiet and tractable. At length he
found that the terrifying object was usually a
wandering hill-fox, which had chanced to pass
near enough to be perceived either by the horse’s
eyes or nostrils.

Foxes, of course, are not dangerous to larger
animals, but probably there is something in the

¢, which

wild beast about them, absent in the dog,

reminds the horses of their ancient foes. There
is no doubt that, when coyotes are ridden down
on the prairie and killed with a bull-whip or
revolver at close quarters, the horses enter into
the hunt with enthusiasm. They do their best to
catch the wolves, and will strike at them with
their hoofs if they get near enough. Darwin has
recorded the remarkable fact that almost the only
occasion upon which horses are known to scream
with terror, when not suffering pain, is when they
are attacked by wolves. Charles Kingsley, in
one of his charming prose idylls, very graphically
describes the conduct of his horse when a hunted
72 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

fox passed near. It laid back its ears, bared its
teeth, and bit at the air in the direction of the
fox. Kingsley accounted for the hostile demon-
stration on the part of his horse by the fact that
it was an old hunter. Excellent naturalist though
he was, I think he was wrong in his conclusion.
A horse ridden after hounds seldom has a chance
of seeing the object of pursuit, and probably in
nine cases out of ten knows nothing about it.
Certainly he could never learn enough to acquire
a savage hostility to poor Reynard. Nor is there
any reason why he should. The hunted fox,
whether known or unknown, is to him a source of
delight ; for a hunter always manifests pleasure-
able excitement when he sees the hounds and
anticipates a gallop.

I have often observed that young foals show
- some instinctive fear of dogs, and that they are
very careful to keep on the opposite side of their
dams when a dog comes into the paddock.
Doubtless this is due to an inherent protective
habit which was very valuable in the wild state.
In looking for remnants of wild traits in domestic
animals, we are far more likely to be successful if
we study young creatures which have not had
their innate primeval instincts adulterated with
THE HORSE. 73

impressions gathered from a civilised environ-
ment than if we confine our attention to adults.
It will be found that all truly innate instincts,
without exception, are of enormous antiquity, and
that they date back to an era long antecedent to
the time when man began to tame and make use
of any of the lower animals. We know that the
horse’s wild forefathers, like the free mustangs
and wild steeds of the Asian steppes, inhabited
open plains and trusted chiefly to their speed in
escaping from their enemies. This at once be-
comes evident when we examine a young foal,
which in outward shape as well as in mental
attributes tends to resemble the earlier types
from which the modern representatives of the
race have sprung. The legs of a colt are enor-
mously developed from birth. He looks absurdly
like a horse on stilts, and when four or five days
old he can gallop almost as fast as ever he will
in his life. He holds his head up boldly, and
never tries to slink away and hide like a young
calf or fawn, whose ancestors dwelt in the forest.
There is a story that a thoroughbred foal of about
a month old once beat a trained race-horse over a
half-mile course, and thereby won his owner a hand-
some sum which had been wagered against him.
74 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

His dam was a mare celebrated for her speed, and
she had a jockey on her back. She outstripped
the rival horse, and her long-legged offspring kept
level with her with ease.

If you watch how a young colt takes his nour-
ishment, you will see that his habit tells the same
story. He never takes a full meal like that glut-
tonous suckling the calf, which will distend its
stomach with a gallon of milk at a time, but keeps
constantly running to his dam, and refreshing
himself with a few mouthfuls. This shows, firstly,
that it is not his custom to be long absent from
his dam, as are young animals which lie hidden
among the thickets while their'parents go to seek
pasture ; and, secondly, that his stomach is never
so loaded with food as to hinder his running
powers, which were all-important when the
youngest member of the band had to keep up
with the rest in their flight from wolves or other
enemies. Again, a colt, when he lies down, does
not curl himself up in small compass as if to
escape observation after the bashful manner of
a calf, but extends his long limbs conspicuously.

Another sure sign that the early horses lived
on open plains is seen in the manner in which

their modern descendants bear themselves when
THE HORSE. 75

alarmed or excited. A horse will always hold its
head high; whereas a cow, if startled or sus-
picious, usually keeps its head rather below the
level of the spine, even when it has no intention
of using its horns. The reason of this difference
is, that the wild horse is in the habit of watching
the horizon for danger, and therefore—like the
look-out man at sea—finds elevation an advan-
tage; whereas the cow, whose ancestors were
forest animals, instinctively holds her head so as
to see under the interlacing boughs. Obviously
also a dweller in the woods is able to make better
progress when its head is kept low than when it
is raised. It would be quite easy, if some new
animal were brought to this country for the first
time, to decide whether its natural habitat was in
the forest or on open plains by observing the
manner in which it habitually carried its head.
The chamois, the prong-horn antelope of America,
the gazelle, the guanacoes of the uplands of Pata-
gonia, as well as the wild horses and the wild
asses, habitually hold the head high; whereas
the forest deer, antelopes that dwell in the bush,
buffaloes, and all wild cattle, adopt a converse
attitude, as if to obtain a clearer view among the

tree-stems.
76 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

When we consider how exceedingly different
are the present surroundings of the horse from
those to which it was at first adapted by nature,
it is rather difficult to understand how his legs
stand the perpetual wear and tear of work in our
great cities, where every step is upon a hard un-
yielding pavement. There is no other creature
living, with the exception of the donkey or the
mule, whose legs and feet could long bear the
constant battering and shaking entailed by rapid
locomotion over paved roads. Of course no
hoofs would stand the continual abrasion caused
by a granite or flinty surface unless they were pro-
tected by shoes. The horny matter of which the
hoofs consist is extremely tough and grows very
rapidly ; but its rate of growth was calculated, in
the first place, to the needs of the wild horse,
which spent most of its time on sandy or grassy
plains, where the hoofs would not wear away any-
thing like so quickly as on a rasping macadamised
roadway. Nature never reckoned on the ruinous
expenditure in hoof material involved in modern
road traffic, and, as a matter of fact, the feet of an
unshod horse are soon reduced to a state of bank-
ruptcy if in constant contact with a stony surface.

Man has got over this difficulty by fastening,
THE HORSE. 77

iron shoes to the tough horny layer which forms
the outside of the hoof. The need which existed
in ancient times for power to traverse rough and
stony ground has ensured sufficient toughness and
substance in the hoof material to allow the smith
to nail the shoes securely. But in getting over
this difficulty the horse’s master has rather in-
creased than diminished the shock of contact with
the hard ground, and if the ignorant farrier should
cut away the elastic triangular cushion called the
“frog” beneath the horse’s foot (which was
nature’s original provision for breaking such
shocks), the bones and sinews of the horse’s legs
soon reveal the injury caused by constant jars.
Among civilised surroundings (which, as far as
the horse is concerned, means interminable hard
roads) the indiarubber-like “frog” if left alone
would help to protect the legs from the effects
of vibration. But if we look at the structure of
the limbs just above the hoofs, we see another
important reason why paved surfaces and such-
like unfavourable conditions do not injure the
legs more. The fetlock or pastern-joints of a
well-bred horse are long and elastic, so that they
yield a little at each step and so break the force
of the concussion. The animal is, in fact,
78 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

mounted on springs. This is one reason why
a thoroughbred is a pleasant animal to ride.
Any one who has tried riding a cow or an ox
has found the difference between the stubby
jogging gait of these animals and the free elastic
movement of the horse.

We find that amongst the horses of Arab
and Barb descent the pastern-joints are longer
and more springy than among the breeds in-
digenous to Eastern Europe. This is what
might be expected; for the desert horse has
frequently to traverse hard rocky ground, and
moreover has been used during many genera-
tions for rapid travelling, whereas the progeny
of the native European horses (such, for instance,
as the common cart-horse and the Welsh pony)
have been used to grass-covered surfaces from
time immemorial, and have generally been em-
ployed in slow work on the land since they were
impressed into human service.

The importance of these natural means of
avoiding undue vibration to a highly organised
creature like the horse can be judged by those
who have ridden both a modern improved
bicycle and an old-fashioned “bone - shaker.”
Continual jarring is always most exhausting and
THE HORSE. 79

injurious to the animal frame. The reason why
a pneumatic-tired sulky is worth several seconds
in the mile to an American trotter is not so
much because it is of light draught, as because
practically no vibration is conveyed along the
shafts and traces to the horse’s body. Ever
so little vibration will weary his muscles and
hamper his movements to a certain extent.
A-further proof that the horse’s ancestors lived
on open plains where vegetation was sparse is
found in the arrangement of his teeth and in
his method of grazing. Unlike the cow, the
horse has chisel-like incisor teeth in both jaws.
This enables him to bite very closely; in fact,
a horse will thrive in a field where cattle are
starving. If you watch a cow grazing you will
find that she puts out her tongue and gathers the
grass into a bunch, which she nips off by means
of her sharp lower teeth pressing against the
elastic pad in the upper jaw. The very fact that
she always makes this gathering movement with
her tongue when feeding shows she takes the
length of the grass for granted, because she in-
variably acts as if there were sufficient herbage
for the tongue to get together into a bunch before
making an effort to bite or nip it off. Not so the
80 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

horse: he habitually behaves as if there was
only a short growth of grass, or as if it were
necessary to bite as near the roots as possible.

In the former case the method of grazing is
adapted for a life among trees and sheltered
meadows, where the grass is lank and lush from
abundant moisture. In the latter the method
is exactly suited for the parched and wiry
herbage which grows out in the open and is
exposed to drought, sun, and wind, and where
only that part of each stalk or blade which is
close to the ground has any great nutritive
value.

I should like to discuss the question why the
horse in the wild state took to a life out in
the open, and what are the other effects of
such a life upon his structure and habits, rather
more in detail; but this would involve too many
technical points in equine anatomy and physiology
for present purposes. His earliest known fossil
ancestor was a splay- footed five-toed animal
about the size of a collie-dog. It was by no
means swift or imposing in appearance, and pro-
bably paddled about in the soft marshes which
prevailed over a great part of the earth’s surface
during the early part of the Tertiary geological
THE HORSE. 81

epoch, much as the tapir wades and paddles in
the South American swamps at the present day.
During later periods there were huge herds of
three-toed horses abounding all the world over,
but, as time went on, certain evolutionary forces
caused the two outer toes to disappear. At
present, with the exception of a few curious
reverting “freaks” occasionally exhibited in
museums, all horses walk on the limb which
corresponds anatomically to the human middle
finger. The “ring” and “index” digits which
did duty as locomotive auxiliaries in the three-
toed horses have been found useless and have
been suppressed, although they occasionally make
themselves remembered in an unpleasant manner
even in the present day when they give rise to
‘‘splints” in young horses which have been over-
worked. One rule of equine evolution seems to
have been, “the fewer the toes, the better the
horse.” It is quite certain that a single-hoofed
extremity is better adapted for habitual swift
locomotion over hard ground than one of the
splay-footed type like those of the horse's re-
latives, the tapir and the rhinoceros.

At present it is by no means easy to state how
the structural changes in the equine foot came

F
82 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

about. Did the earth gradually dry up so as
to give the one-toed varieties, which preferred
a firm foothold, the advantage? Or had the
sedgy marshes and thicket - lined streams too
many bloodthirsty inhabitants with a taste for
horse - flesh, so that the early equine creatures
were driven to take refuge in the open? I am
inclined to think that the latter guess is the
correct one. Even now most young horses
resemble wild animals in being extremely sus-
picious of any strange sound or object, especially
if they are among bushes or high grass so that
they cannot obtain a clear view of their sur-
roundings. ‘“Shying” is most distinctly a relic
of a valuable ancestral instinct. The wild horse,
swift of foot and clear of vision, feared few
enemies when out on the naked plains; but
every bush or tuft of long grass might, and
often did, contain a fierce foe lying in ambush.
Many and many a time must the wild horse
have saved his life by a sudden swerve and
leap in the opposite direction the moment he
heard the rustle of leaves or descried some
strange and dimly outlined object among the
underwood.

I know several horses which are not timid or
THE HORSE. 83

given to shying as a general rule, but which be-
, come almost mad with terror when they hear the
loud rustle of reeds by a river-bank. Yet there
is no danger whatever to be anticipated from this
sound as far as their own experience goes. Such
seizures of panic in the modern horse tell us a
tale of many a tragic incident in the remote past,
when the herds of wild desert steeds, parched
with thirst, sought the watercourses where was
“‘orass with reeds and rushes,” and were there
pounced upon by leopards or tigers, crouching in
ambush on the watch for prey.

No doubt the so-called vice of ‘“ bucking” was
at one time a saving virtue as far as the horse
was concerned, for by this means he would often
be able to shake off an enemy which had pounced
upon him. The habit is rather a curious one,
and seemed to be partly due to imitation; for
one finds that horses in certain localities are
specially addicted to it, although they do not
seem to belong to any one special breed. For
instance, the horses in some parts of Australia
and the mustangs of Northern Mexico are noto-
rious buck - jumpers; whereas their relatives in
other parts are not nearly so given to the habit.
It is worth while noting, however, that both the
84 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Australian and the Mexican horses live a life
much more like that of their free ancestors than
do those in more settled countries, and hence
they would be likely to redevelop attributes
which are specially appropriate to the wild state.
It seems pretty clear, from the wide distribution
of the habit, that it is instinctive; and therefore
in searching for its origin we must look for cir-
cumstances in which it was of use in the horse’s
daily life. However effective bucking may be
in getting rid of a human burden, it can hardly
be said that such a result is of sufficient benefit
to the equine race to have established the habit
in the first place. In fact, it is pretty obvious
that the effect would be exactly the reverse of
beneficial. For if the custom became so common
that every would-be horseman found that he was
always maltreated and thrown as soon as he got
into the saddle, equestrianism would soon go out
of fashion, and thus a large and prosperous sec-
tion of the equine community would cease to exist.
One reason for assigning the origin of bucking to
a period long antecedent to the first experiments
in horsemanship is its undoubtedly instinctive
character. It has been remarked above that all

inherent instincts are of an almost boundless
THE HORSE. Ss

antiquity: indeed I doubt if a single instance
could be brought forward where a truly congenital
instinct in one of our domestic animals can be
traced, either directly or indirectly, to human
influence. A further indication of the natural
basis of the habit of buck-jumping is the fact that
young colts of all breeds go through the per-
formance when at play; and almost any nag,
when first turned loose at pasture, will lower his
head and hump his back and give two or three
vigorous hoists by way of showing that he is
happy. Now, natural play is without exception
of educative value. Nature had adopted this
method of ‘teaching the young idea” skill in the
use of its limbs and weapons both for purposes
of war with our own kind and for purposes of
defence against carnivorous foes. When, there-
fore, one sees any habitual action indulged in by
young animals at play, it is safe to say that it is
instinctive and extremely ancient, and, moreover,
that it was at one time necessary as a preparation
for the serious business of wild life. Any one
who has seen an accomplished buck-jumper rid
himself of his rider and his saddle, in spite of
girths and crupper, will be convinced that a
leopard, or any beast of a similar kind, would
86 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

have considerable difficulty in retaining his hold
on the back of such an animal. And, moreover,
when the head of the intended victim was down
between his knees, a panther could scarcely
accomplish his favourite method of killing by
seizing the nose with one paw and twisting the
head back so as to dislocate the neck.

Every horse which is employed on the road
must learn to trot or he is of little use to his
owner, yet we find that the wild prairie horses
and young colts out at pasture seldom trot ex-
cept for a few steps when changing from a canter
toa walk. Some naturalists have even said that
this pace is entirely artificial, and has been ac-
quired since the horse became man’s captive.
I need not say anything of the wonderful per-
fection to which trotting has been brought by
judicious breeding and training. But let us con-
sider what was the natural raw material out of
which the feats of ‘‘ Maud S.” and her competi-
tors have been evolved.

On the smooth, springy turf cantering or gal-
loping is the easiest pace; but on a hard, ir-
regular track, with rocks strewn about, even the
wild horse will trot, and lift his knees in the most
approved style. So at least I have been told by
THE HORSE. 87

those who have watched the wild “ brumbies” in
the mountains of Australia. The reason is not
difficult to see. A horse when he walks or trots
puts down one front foot at a time; and when
the rough and treacherous nature of the ground
renders great care necessary (for a false step
might mean instant death from foes or precipices),
this is by far the safest method of going for an
animal of his weight and bulk. He can choose
his foothold better when walking or trotting than
if, as when he canters or gallops, he has to find
resting-places for both his front hoofs together
instead of for one ata time. We find practically
nowadays that for road-work trotting is the safest
pace, and takes far less out of a horse than
cantering. Here again we see that a provision
of nature for certain special emergencies of free
equine life has been taken hold of by civilised
man and developed for his own ends.

When we come to discuss the useful attri-
butes of the ox it will be shown that his value
as a draught animal is directly dependent on
certain peculiar habits of his wild life. This can
hardly be said of the cart-horse. It is merely
through a happy coincidence that we are able,
without much difficulty, so to harness him as to
88 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

avail ourselves of his great muscular power for
the purpose of pulling loads. The only wild
trait upon which his value as a draught animal
can be said to be based is the propulsive power
in the thighs and loin of the wild steed which
enables him to jump obstacles and to gallop up
steep slopes when he is escaping from pursuing
foes. Precisely the same set of muscles as are
useful for such purposes are brought into action
when the dray-horse bends himself to his work
to haul a heavy load up-hill. The front legs of
a horse act somewhat at a disadvantage when
used for hauling, but still one can see that when
the wild ancestor of the cart-horse was climbing
some precipitous path he must have exercised the
muscles of the ‘‘arm” in a manner similar to that
of the draught-horse when doing his best to move
a heavy load. Perhaps the most happy coin-
cidence of all is the fact that one can fix a collar
on the neck of most horses in such a way as to
enable them to use all their most powerful muscles
in pulling without the pressure causing any im-
pediment or injury. Most young people who
have attempted to draw some heavy load when
“playing at horses” know how exceedingly diffi-
cult it is to arrange the band attached to the
THE HORSE. 89

traces in such a manner as neither to cause
painful pressure nor to interfere with the free
action of the lungs. I do not know any natural
reason why the region of the shoulder and neck
in the horse should have the structures so ar-
ranged as to offer facility for the wearing of a
collar. In this case chance has come to the
aid of man’s ingenuity, or perhaps it would be
more correct to say that man’s ingenuity has
seized upon a fortunate chance. One point as
to the special fitness of a draught-horse’s shape
for his work is probably due to an original
peculiarity of the heavier breeds which existed
in the days of equine freedom. For slow draught
an upright shoulder with a rather heavy “ point”
is considered most desirable, whereas a sloping
shoulder, which does not project forwards, is
found best adapted for the duties of the saddle-
horse and for light-harness work requiring speed
rather than strength. The aboriginal horses
of Western Europe, from which our heavier
modern breeds are probably descended, were
built on the former plan, whereas the modern
representatives of the more speedy Eastern and
Southern steeds have light sloping shoulders,
which, while unfitting them for heavy-harness
90 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

work, prove just what is wanted in a hunter or
a race-horse.

We owe the tractable and docile temper of the
horse to the fact that he is naturally gregarious
in his habits; for when many animals are associ-
ated together for common protection an accom-
modating temper and a readiness to obey the
leaders are most necessary virtues. Selfishness
and cantankerousness would soon break up the
band, and then each member would have to
fight the wolves or watch for the prowling
Felide single- handed. A two-year-old colt
readily yields his will to that of his trainer,
because the young wild horse always had to
“knock under” to the wild veteran which was
the acknowledged leader of the mob.

Further proofs of the social habits of the
horse are found in his readiness to respond
when spoken to, and in his numerous methods
of communicating with his fellows. Not only
does he neigh, but he makes use of various less
pronounced sounds, such as subdued whinnies
and snorts, by means of which he makes known
his wants or sentiments. A horse can readily
tell from the sound made by a fellow whether
he is alarmed or angry. Not long ago I was
THE HORSE. QI

driving a pony near London when, some distance
ahead, I saw a bolting horse which had got away
from its driver and was approaching at a furious
gallop. The pony did not see the terrified run-
away, which, fortunately, was stopped before it
reached me. As I drove past the spot where
some men were holding the animal, the pony,
which all the time had gained no knowledge of
what was going on, heard the snorting of the
frightened horse and at once became so terrified
as to be almost uncontrollable. The sound was
to him evidently a warning signal of the most
urgent kind, and for the rest of the morning
he kept his head up (although not naturally a
shy animal), as if on the look-out for some
dangerous object. There is no surer way of
judging whether an animal is naturally and
habitually accustomed to associate with its fellows
and to act in concert with them than by observ-
ing its readiness in expressing emotion.

One remarkable and most valuable trait in
the horse is its courage. This was doubtless
attributable in the first place to the habit of
the wild stallion of waging fierce war with rivals
or enemies. Although valour of the combative
kind is not often called for in the domestic
92 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

horse—unless he is used for military purposes—
and therefore has not been specially cultivated
by breeders, it is probable that the natural
courage of horses has been rather increased
than diminished by civilisation. This is due to
the selection of successful race-horses for breed-
ing purposes. Now a horse-race is quite as
much a test of pluck as of muscular power; in
fact it is usually more so, for the animal which
will keep up its pace as long as it has breath,
will generally prevail over a better equipped rival
which flags as soon as it feels severe fatigue.
Owing to this fact, and the long-continued choice
of winners for stud purposes, it is now an almost
universal rule that ‘‘blood”-horses are highly
courageous. They are certainly not so much
given to shying as are “half-bred” horses—al-
though this may possibly be due in part to
another cause. Modern race-horses have an al-
most pure and unbroken descent from the desert-
dwelling steeds of the East, whereas our heavier
horses are probably derived to a great extent
from the wild mobs which in prehistoric times
inhabited the moister regions of Central and
Western Europe. Now, if our interpretation of
the origin of the habit of shying be correct, it
THE HORSE. 93

is evident that the horse dwelling among com-
paratively thickly wooded regions in Europe must
have had to employ this method of escaping from
ambushed foes much more frequently than did
the wild Eastern steeds who made their home
on the bare and open steppe.

Every one has noticed that a horse lays back
his ears when he is ina bad temper. Darwin, in
his work on ‘The Expression of the Emotions,’
says :—

When horses fight together they use their incisors
for biting, and their fore-legs for striking, much more
than they do their hind-legs for kicking backwards.
This has been observed when stallions have broken
loose and have fought together, and may likewise be
inferred from the kind of wounds which they inflict
on each other. Every one recognises the vicious ap-
pearance which the drawing back of the ears gives a
horse. This movement is very different from that of
listening to a sound behind. If an ill-tempered horse
in a stall is inclined to kick backwards, his ears are
retracted from habit, though he has no intention or
power to bite. But when a horse throws up both
hind-legs in play, as when entering an open field, or
when just touched by the whip, he does not generally
depress his ears, for he does not feel vicious. Guana-
coes fight savagely with their teeth; and they must
do so frequently, for I found the hides of several
94 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

which I shot in Patagonia deeply scored. So do
camels; and both these animals when savage draw
their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, as I have
noticed, when not intending to bite but merely to
spit their offensive saliva from a distance on an in-
truder, retract their ears. Even the hippopotamus,
when threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth
a comrade, draws back its small ears just like a horse.
Now what a contrast is presented between the fore-
going animals and cattle, sheep, or goats, which never
use their teeth in fighting, and never draw back their
ears when enraged.}

The great difference between the various
breeds of horses has been largely brought about
by human agency, but not entirely so. We
find that in mountainous regions the native
horses are always small and stout, with coats
inclined to be shaggy. All modern ponies are
descended from those herds which chose the
hills for their habitat. I shall have something
to say in later chapters about the effect of
mountain -ranges in developing certain useful
qualities of our domestic animals. Not long
ago I saw some Hungarian mountain-ponies in
London, and mistook them for large Shetlanders.
The likeness is certainly very great, and strongly

1 “Expression of the Emotions,’ p. 118.
THE HORSE, 95

suggests a common source of origin. Most in-
teresting, therefore, is the fact that both kinds
bear a remarkable resemblance, as far as general
shape is concerned, to the prehistoric European
wild horse, which the early men of Central
France used to kill with their flint - headed
arrows. We know this partly from the shape
of the bones of horses found associated with
early human remains; but chiefly because of the
curious fact that these primitive savages were
accomplished artists, and have left many masterly
sketches of horses and other animals scratched
on reindeer horns, mammoth tusks, and pieces
of slate and stone in the caves which they used
to inhabit. The horses here represented have
large heads, straight short necks, round bodies,
and stout legs. We know that they existed in
countless herds, for at one place where the
ancient horse-hunters lived there are the bones
of many thousands, They were sturdy animals,
although of no great size; and there is very
little doubt that we have, in the Shetland and
Hungarian ponies, some of their direct descen-
dants. Most of our lighter horses owe their
origin largely to Arab and Barb importations.
Modern cart-horses are most probably of the
96 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

stout European aboriginal stock, but have been
much improved by constant selection and good
feeding. Many of them have the appearance
of overgrown ponies, and their general shape is
similar to that of the native European breeds
which have been kept fairly pure by isolation.
The mustangs of the West are now pretty
thoroughly mixed; but in the first place they
were the descendants of the horses which
escaped from the Spanish conquerors. These,
from ancient pictures, I should judge to have
been a cross between the native European horse
and the African barb.

One is often able to get interesting hints about
the habits of animals both in the present and in
the past by examining their colour: thus we shall
see, when we come to discuss the domestic cat,
that the markings familiar to us in the common
‘‘tabby”” reveal a very curious phase in the
ancient history of the animal. Certain horses,
especially the breeds common in Norway and
North-East Europe, have a dark stripe down
the spine, and occasionally a few cross markings
upon the upper part of the fore-legs. This seems
to indicate that at one time the horse was a
striped animal, especially as there seems a
THE HORSE. 97

tendency among all breeds for similar markings
to make their appearance. If so, such stripes
would doubtless be of protective value in the
same way as are the bands upon the zebra.
In a succeeding chapter we shall see how re-
markably useful these may prove in saving
zebras from their enemies both by day and by
night. There seems a curious tendency among
the wild and half-wild horses of the Western
world to develop conspicuous and_ eccentric
colours. A remarkably large proportion of the
Indian ponies are “‘piebald,” insomuch that one
ingenious correspondent suggested that in the
early days of Spanish rule the animals of a
travelling circus may have got loose and _ be-
come the ancestors of many of the mustangs!
Now it seems at first sight rather remarkable
that the wild members of a species should be
more conspicuous than the tame ones which do
not need to resort to concealment. But, as a
matter of fact,—as will be seen when we come to
discuss the colour of the zebra,—conspicuousness
may be a decided advantage to animals living
after the manner of wild horses. It would be
interesting if we could ascertain whether the
peculiarities of colour observable among the
G
98 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

prairie horses of to-day have become more
marked in the three centuries that have elapsed
since the Spanish conquest. At present the
Barb and Andalusian breeds are not more
variegated in colour than are the other horses
of the Old World; and unless the adventurers
who took their steeds West had a special taste
for “piebald” and other eccentrically coloured
steeds, it seems difficult to explain the present
prevailing colours among the mustangs, except
upon the supposition that the resumption of wild
habits has produced some remarkable changes in
this respect.

Possibly, however, an explanation of the phe-
nomenon may be found in the fact that the early
adventurers could only have brought a very few
horses with them, and that of these invaluable
animals the greatest care would have been taken.
Hence the number which escaped and which
became the ancestors of the wild mustangs would
have been very small, and if one of these chanced
to possess any special peculiarity it would be
likely to be repeated among all its innumerable
descendants.

The distinct types observable among the
various strains of domestic horses doubtless
THE HORSE. 99

depend upon the fact that our modern breeds
have been derived from several widely different
sources. This seems the more likely, because
certain peculiarities of disposition appear to be
associated with hair of a special tint: thus a
roan horse is usually placid and tractable, a
sorrel is generally vicious, and a bright bay or
chestnut, which shows some white markings and
white in the sclerotic of the eye, is almost in-
variably courageous and possesses a hot im-
patient temper. I do not see how this double
uniformity—both in colour and character—can
be explained except upon the supposition that
each of these distinct types represents some
pure-blooded ancient race which originated such
attributes of mind and body in the first in-
stance. We know that among mankind certain
types remain fixed, in spite of a free mixture
of different branches of the human family. And
in some cases, as, for instance, in that of the
choleric red-haired man of Celtic type found
wherever English is spoken, peculiarities of
complexion and disposition in the individual are
clearly traceable to racial idiosyncrasies.

Where animals have been domesticated for

many generations, it is difficult to trace the
Ico WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

original cause of any peculiarity of colour, but
it seems probable that the mottled markings
seen on grey and “hammer - marked” horses
were at one time protective.

Doubtless the abundant growth of hair upon
the neck of a horse served some essential pur-
pose in wild equine economy; but it is not easy
for the modern naturalist to explain its vazson
détre. One finds a mane of some kind to be
exceedingly common among quadrupeds, and the
peculiarity does not depend upon mere kinship,
for it is found distributed among very diverse
orders. As a rule, it does not amount to more
than an upright ridge of hair, such as is found
upon the necks of many antelopes and all the
horse’s humbler relatives. If we are to accept
Prejevalsky’s wild horse as a true representative
of the aboriginal stock from which our domestic
animals have sprung, it would seem as if the
mane has been considerably developed since the
time when the horse was made captive; for this
animal has but little more hair on its neck than has
the kiang or Thibetan wild ass. It is, however,
very doubtful whether either this animal or the
wild tarpan of the steppes of Tartary has a clean
record of independence. It is not at all unlikely
THE HORSE. 101

that both Prejevalsky’s horse and the wild camels
which inhabit the Zaisan and Dzungarian deserts
are feral; that is to say, they are descended from
animals which have escaped from captivity. The
Western mustangs, although they seem to have
undergone some of those reversionary changes
not uncommon among domestic animals which
have resumed their freedom, show no sign what-
ever of any curtailment of the mane. In fact,
Catlin and other writers who traversed Western
America in the days when there were innumerable
thousands of wild steeds living on the prairies,
describe them as possessing extraordinarily long
and thick manes reaching almost to the ground,
which, when the animals were in rapid motion,
enveloped the forepart of their bodies in a cloud
of flying hair. Of the various suggestions which
have been made as to the primary use of the
mane, two, I think, deserve attention. Doubt-
less such a covering would be useful in shielding
the delicate structures of the neck from the
weather ; although, seeing that the whole spine
of the animal seems equally to need protection,
this seems scarcely sufficient justification for the
local growth of the hair. More probably the
mane of the horse, like that of the lion, was
102 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

primarily of value as a species of defensive
armour. In their savage combats for the pos-
session of the mares, stallions will invariably
endeavour to seize one another by the neck with
their powerful teeth, and I think there can be
little doubt that the ‘‘crest,”’ which forms one of
the chief sexual differences in horses, was de-
veloped in the male to protect his cervical
vertebrze from attacks of this kind. Yet, since
fighting horses usually bite at the centre of the
nape of the neck in their opponents, and the
mane extends evenly from the forelock to the
wither, it seems somewhat doubtful if its pro-
tective value in battle would be sufficient to
account for its origin. Many very ancient sculp-
tures and drawings of horses found in the East
go to show that the early civilised races did
not consider a long mane desirable, and there-
fore it is pretty certain that breeders of those
days took no steps to cultivate it. Nearly all
these early representations of horses show the
mane to be ‘“hogged,” as if the horseman and
charioteer of ancient days found the free growth
of the hair to be a disadvantage when he was
fighting. Although we cannot satisfactorily ac-

count for the mane on evolutionary grounds, it
THE HORSE. 103

seems obvious that at some time a free growth
of hair on the neck was of essential value to
the equine race. Hence it is quite worth while
for any naturalist of a horsey turn of mind, and
with a talent for investigation, to try to unravel
the mystery contained in the “elf-locks” in the
mane of every yearling.

The horse’s tail presents no such problems as
to its value and origin. There can be no doubt
that the primary use of the long hairs of the
tail was to sweep away noxious insects from the
skin. We all know how exceedingly sensitive
the horse is to the attacks of flies, and how, when
his owner allows him a chance, he keeps swishing
the long brush with which nature has provided
him over the whole surface of his body. To a
great extent this action is involuntary and auto-
matic. Every one who has been in the habit of
driving will have observed that whenever a
whip touches a horse it instantly responds with
a spasmodic movement of its tail, even although
it may be so hopelessly tired or lazy as to re-
quire much severer coercive measures to make it
quicken its pace. Now this jerk of the tail in
the modern carriage-horse is an interesting piece

of vestigial reflex action which bears no reference
104 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS,

whatever to whips or any other civilised innova-
tions, but which probably dates back to the
Eocene epoch when the Phenacodus primavus
continually lashed his robust caudal member to
and fro in defending himself against the voracious
Tertiary flies.

Every one who has the welfare of the horse
at heart will commend modern legislative action
making it punishable to shorten the “dock” of
a horse’s tail. Although a docked horse may
look somewhat. smarter to the civilised eye than
one with a tail of natural length, and is certainly.
yless liable to the risk of getting its tail over the
reins when driven, it is to the interest of the
owner as well as to that of the animal that such
barbarous mutilations should cease. Every horse
gains in health, and therefore in value, by being
turned out to pasture, under proper conditions,
during the summer months. It is fairly obvious
that an animal which is able to protect itself
against insect enemies in the easy and effectual
way which nature has provided, will get much
more benefit from such an annual outing than one
which cannot get rid of its swarms of worrying
persecutors in spite of incessant stamping of the
feet and restless movements of the whole body.

Every horse has on its legs wart-like scaly
THE HORSE. 105

patches of bare skin called callosities. On the
front-legs they are above the knee, and on the
hind-legs below the hock. They are of no present
use that we can discover ; and, in spite of many
guesses, no theory has ever been put forward
that will satisfactorily account for their presence.
In spite of the fact that no horse is without them,
and although they hardly ever give rise to incon-
venience, certain old writers on veterinary surgery,
oddly enough, describe these callosities as mani-
festations of disease under the name of ‘“mal-
lenders” or ‘“‘sallenders,” and actually set forth
several approved methods for effecting a cure!
An equally ludicrous instance of want of observa-
tion once came directly under my notice. <A
farm carter, who had been among horses during
the whole of his life, one day made his appear-
ance at his master’s door with a very grave face,
stating he had just discovered that every horse
in his team had got something wrong with its
legs. The farmer on going to the stable, and
anxiously examining the supposed invalids, found
nothing whatever except these natural callosities,
which, for some reason or other, had on that day
for the first time attracted the attention of the
carter! One plausible explanation which has
been attempted of late is to the effect that these
106 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

patches represent the supplementary hoofs which
undoubtedly, among the ancient Equidz, used
to exist on each side of, and somewhat above,
the central hoof. A little knowledge of equine
anatomy, however, shows this hypothesis to be
untenable.

It is true that in every horse’s leg one finds
vestiges of the bones which used to support
the extra toes, but these invariably show them-
selves in their proper places—that is, below the
knee and hock joints. Supposing the callosity
on the foreleg to be the remnant of the hoof
of the first or second digit (corresponding to
our thumb or index-finger), I cannot see how
it could possibly have got displaced so as now
to be situated considerably above the knee-joint.
One of our humble relatives, the colobus monkey
of Africa, has lost its thumbs as completely as
the horse has, but we should be very much
astonished if a vestigial thumb-nail were found
embedded in the skin, not at the spot from
which the thumb usually springs, but on the
forearm between the wrist and the elbow.

An American gentleman who has travelled a
good deal in the East informed me that the
Arabs universally put forward an odd and rather

ingenious theory about the origin of these
THE HORSE. 107

callosities, which, however, will scarcely bear
scientific criticism. They say that, before birth,
the fore and hind legs of a young foal are joined
together at these spots; and they give as a
reason for this supposed state of affairs the in-
jury which might result to the dam if the un-
born colt were free to exercise his limbs, which,
as is well known, are very strong and muscular
even at birth. It is scarcely necessary to say
that no student of equine embryology who has
studied the subject in a practical manner finds
any confirmation of this oriental story.

We know that nature makes nothing in vain ;
and therefore these callosities on the legs of the
horse either serve some useful purpose now, or
else at some earlier period of his history played
an important part in the economy of equine life.
It is fairly certain that nowadays the horse would
be just as well off without such appendages as
with them, and hence they are probably historical
relics of some phase of existence belonging to the
remote past.

Certain circumstances of environment rendered
the callosities necessary to the horse, and fixed
them where we find them on his legs. Since
they differ both in shape and distribution in the
zebra and the ass, one may reasonably infer that
108 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

there were some material distinctions in the
special outward circumstances which created the
need for such things in these animals. One
clue to the mystery, therefore, may be found by
studying how the habits and history of wild
asses and zebras differ from those of the wild
horse.

Now here is a subject upon which some enter-
prising young naturalist may exercise his wits
and his capacity for original research. If any
one succeeds in solving the problem, he will
certainly receive one reward for which many
men of science have been content to labour; for
his name will be quoted as an authority, and
will pass down to future generations in every
book which may be written upon the natural
history of the Equidz.+

1 Dr Bonavia, in his ‘Studies in the Evolution of Animals,’ has
put forward the view that the callosities may be remnants of
glandular structures secreting an odoriferous material which was
useful in enabling horses to find one another after they had be-
come scattered. One piece of evidence, however, which would
have done more than anything else to prove or disprove this
hypothesis he has omitted. If the callosities in a newly-born
or foetal foal were found, when examined microscopically, to
contain tissue similar to that of ordinary odoriferous glands,

the problem would, I think, have been wellnigh solved. Until
this has been done the question must still remain an open one.
10g

CHAPTER SIV.
THE DONKEY.

Tue despised donkey may be said to be a more
typical representative of the horse family (Equidz)
than the horse himself. He has far more near
relatives living in a state of freedom than has his
prouder fellow-servant, and also structurally more
closely resembles the common ancestor of the
tribe.

The four known species of zebra—the Cape or
mountain zebra, Burchell’s zebra, the beautiful
quagga (now, alas! extinct), and the zebra of
North-East Africa—as well as the three or four
species of wild ass, are all the donkey’s near kin.

There is very little doubt that the forefathers
of our domestic donkey inhabited the mountain-
ous tableland to the south and east of Egypt.
There are still herds of wild asses to be found in
IIO WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

this region which closely resemble the finer speci-
mens of our domestic breed. Ancient Egypt
was almost certainly the scene of his apprentice-
ship as a servant of humanity. The appropriation
of the valuable qualities of the ass to man’s use
was an achievement of the early inhabitants of the
Nile Delta, and we have inherited the benefits
derived from it. The Persians and the dwellers
in Central Asia never succeeded in domesticat-
ing either the Syrian or the Thibetan wild ass,
although ancient sculptures representing mules
seem to show that it was used for breeding pur-
poses. The hybrid obtained by a cross between
an Asiatic ass and an Arab mare is usually a
much more shapely and active animal than the
ordinary mule.

The experience of the keepers at the Zoologi-
cal Gardens, and other places where Asiatic wild
asses are kept, has proved abundantly the ancient
sayings as to the savage and intractable nature
of these animals. In addition to this, another
reason why the onager was not used by the
ancients can be found in the fact that the horse
was domesticated in Asia long before he was
introduced into Egypt.

We have seen how many of the most valuable
THE DONKEY. III

qualities of the horse are attributable to the fact
that he inhabited wide plains, and we have dis-
cussed the suggestion that he took to a life in
the open because of carnivorous enemies which
lurked in the forests and jungles of the swampy
lowlands. The ass also appears to have been
driven forth into the wilderness by the same
agency ; but he sought safety in a different direc-
tion. He fled to the inaccessible hills ; and just as
the horse became structurally adapted for life on
the plains, so he became adapted for life among
the mountains.

The sure-footedness of the donkey and the
mule, which makes these animals so valuable
for traffic upon precipitous roads, is one of the
qualities developed by their ancestral home of
which man has constantly made use. Lessons
learned amid the heights and gorges of Abyssinia,
long before the first pyramid was thought of, still
yield valuable results among the passes of the
Andes and Alps.

Let us see how far an examination of the
donkey’s other prominent characteristics bear out
the conclusion as to his upland origin.

He is smaller than the horse, and the tendency
is for all mountain animals to be small. We
112 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

nowhere find huge beasts, such as elephants or
hippopotami, living upon the tops of ranges of
hills. In the first place, they would not there
find nutriment enough to supply their needs ; and,
secondly, their bulk would preclude that agility
of movement so indispensable to the mountaineer.

The ass is grey in colour, as are nearly all the
dwellers among the rocks. As a rule, by study-
ing the coloration of animals we can get some
very valuable hints as to their habits and history.
Generally speaking, animals are of such a hue as
renders them least conspicuous when among their
natural surroundings. There are striking excep-
tions to this rule; but when such exist, we find
that there are special circumstances which account
for them. For instance, the zebra is very con-
spicuous when seen in broad daylight, and the
reason is found in the fact that zebras are banded
together in large herds and live on bush-covered
plains. Now, a herd of animals which cannot
adopt the sentry system generally guards against
the approach of an enemy, not so much through
each member watching for himself, as through
all individuals keeping a keen watch on one
another. Supposing a lion or a leopard were
perceived by one zebra; his excited movements
THE DONKEY. 113

would at once catch the eyes of his fellows,
because he ts so conspicuously marked, and they
would either join in protecting him, or flee, as the
occasion required. The sharp vision of every
pair of eyes in the herd is thus made to contribute
to the safety of the whole community. I ought
to add that Mr Francis Galton has shown the
curious and interesting fact that, in the twilight,
when the zebra approaches the dangerous drink-
ing-places, his mixed colour seems to render him
much less visible than if he were all of one hue.
Most mountain animals go in small bands, the
members of which have to scatter over a wide
area to find food, and so have to exercise great
personal vigilance. To such, therefore, an in-
conspicuous colouring is advantageous, and in the
case of an ass it is an imitation of the rocks of
his ancestral domain. We do not know the
colour of the three-toed horse (which, after all,
was probably a donkey) which at one time roved
in enormous numbers over Europe, Asia, and
America, but there are some reasons for thinking
that it was a striped animal somewhat similar in
markings to the quagga. The chief reason for
believing this is that all its descendants show a
tendency to stripe-like markings. The ass is
H
Il4 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

no exception, for, as every one knows, it has a
dark mark down its shoulder. Now, why should
the other stripes which once existed, and which
are still seen upon the zebras and occasionally
upon the horse, have disappeared in the case of
the donkey ? or rather, why should this particular
stripe which characterises him have remained
after all the others have faded? According to

the first principles of Darwinism—which are now

 

fairly familiar to everybody—this peculiarity must
have been at some time of vital use to its possessor
or nature would not have preserved it. The only
use that I can think of for the dark stripe down
a donkey’s shoulder is something to do with his
mountain habitat; for although his grey coat
might fairly assimilate with the colours of the
rocks, his very bulk might reveal him to enemies,
unless the even colouring was somewhat broken
up. We find that nearly all animals which are
protectively coloured exhibit certain lines and
other markings which seem to be adapted for
this end. The most notable exceptions are the
white and tawny creatures whose habitat is either
among the monotonous snow-fieids or the sandy
deserts. As a rule, nature does not present

large surfaces of one colour, but almost invari-
THE DONKEY. 115

ably mixes her tints. Hence among ordinary
surroundings the evenly coloured animal is
more likely to be discerned by the eyes of his
foes than one which imitates nature’s motley.
Among the rocks dark lines indicating angles
and crevices are of frequent occurrence, and it
seems possible that this may have been the ori-
ginal use of the dark stripe down the shoulder of
the ass.

The coat of the donkey is more inclined to be
shaggy than that of the horse; and this also,
considering the fact that he is always found wild
in warm countries, suggests a habitat in elevated
regions where the air is cold. Yet he shows an
extraordinary power of adapting himself to dif-
ferent climates, and will stand fatigue under the
heat of the tropics better than a horse. I was
once told by a Kansas farmer that after a day’s
ploughing in the summer his horses would be
completely exhausted ; but his mules, after a roll
on the ground, would scamper away to the pasture
as if they had been keeping holiday all day.
Although the donkey has not been used in Arctic
regions, he bears cold remarkably well. Now
these qualities, which greatly increase the use-
fulness of the animal to man, are undoubtedly
116 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

attributable to the fact that his place of origin
was a mountainous region in the tropics, where
he was subject to great variations of temperature.
The giraffes and many of the antelopes, which
come from near the same region as the wild ass,
but are not highlanders, soon perish in a northern
climate, as the trustees of the Zoological Gardens
of London have found to their cost.

The donkey’s legs have a considerable resem-
blance to those of the bighorn, chamois, and other
climbing animals. They are stout and sinewy,
and his hoofs are more pointed than those of the
horse. He has no very great speed on level
ground, but he can climb almost as well as a goat
when he pleases. He has excellent nerves, is
not given to shying or panic, and never loses his
head on the most perilous track. The Syrian
wild ass, the one mentioned in Scripture, is a
much swifter animal; but I am here speaking of
the family of our domestic variety.

The fact just mentioned—viz., that donkeys
are not given to shying—rather supports the
theory put forward in the previous chapter as to
the probable origin of that troublesome habit in
the horse. It was mentioned above that horses

coming from an open country, such as the Arabs
THE DONKEY. 117

and Barbs, are not nearly so addicted to shying as
are those that live where there are bushes and
trees which might harbour an enemy. Now,
the donkey’s forefathers lived for long ages
where there was but little danger of foes lying
in ambush ; hence perhaps his freedom from the
habit.

The eyes of the donkey are not so prominent
and quick as those of the horse, nor does he so
often turn his head about to sniff the air; but we
all must acknowledge that in development of the
ear he excels his proud relation. On the sandy
or grassy plains, where the sound of footsteps is
deadened, the eye is most valuable as a sentry,
and the breeze blowing evenly across the open
to the nostrils of the wild horse not only gives
warning of the approach of a foe but reveals the
direction from which the danger comes. But
among the high rocks and gorges of a mountain-
ous region the wind is gusty and fitful; and there
are many projecting crags round which a prowl-
ing enemy might creep unseen to within springing
distance. Here the keenness of the auditory
sense is much more important. The rolling of
a loose stone down the slope, or the sound of

approaching footsteps among the hard rocks and
118 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

shingle of the mountain-side, at once warns the
sentry of the grazing herd. The long, movable
ears of the ass will enable him to judge the direc-
tion from which a sound comes to a nicety, and
many a time they have doubtless saved him from
a violent death.

Then consider his magnificent voice! What
could be better adapted for advertising his pres-
ence to his comrades on the neighbouring moun-
tains, or for challenging his rivals from afar, when
the echoes take up his defiant ‘“‘hee-haw,” until
every cafion and crag within half a mile rings
with its repetition? It sounds ridiculous enough
in the streets, I admit—but so do the Highland
bagpipe and the ydde/ of the Swiss mountaineer.
But whatever merits the ass may have as a public
speaker, it must be admitted that he does not
shine in conversation. Whenever he opens his
mouth, it is to utter a set oration of a strictly
formal character. He has none of the small talk
of his cousin the horse. If you, being his friend,
go into his stable, he will greet you silently (pos-
sibly because he has no speech prepared which
he deems worthy of the occasion), whereas the
horse is always ready with a remark, especially

if it is near feeding-time. Moreover, it may
THE DONKEY. 119g

readily be observed that when the ass is in com-
pany with his fellows, he pays but little attention
to them. If two or three horses are standing
together, they are perpetually turning to one
another and acting in a way which is distinctly
sociable ; although (like some higher society ani-
mals) they do not always greet or treat their
acquaintances in the kindliest manner. But if
you watch an assemblage of donkeys, such as may
be seen any day on Blackheath and the other
commons around London, the gathering is as
solemn and as silent as a Quakers’ meeting. All
this indicates certain peculiarities in the social
economy of the life of the wild ass which will be
dealt with further on.

There is a cadence in the “eloquent outpour-
ing” of the ass which always assails my pity;
and had I the bent for artistic pathos of a
Sterne, I would ignore for once the obligations
which science imposes, and would seek to trace
its origin to his first bitter taste of bondage.
His pean, or proclamation, or whatever it may
be, unlike the public efforts of bipeds (whether
of the Senate House, the Opera, or the barn-
door), has no soaring fzale. While still appar-
ently in full progress, it halts, stumbles into a
120 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

groan or two, and is still. Like the fanfare of
the baffled Tuscans, his

‘* Victorious trumpet-peal
Dies fitfully away.”

To many people the terminal gasps and grunts
in this fiasco of a peroration appear a fit sub-
ject for laughter. But to my imagination they
suggest that a sudden despair, prompted by the
memory of his fallen state, has struck him to
the heart like a leaden missile when in the full
flight of his eloquence. It is as if he said to him-
self: ‘‘ But, after all, what is the use of my old
mountain war-cry! Iam only a moke nowadays,
and I may just as well hold my jaw. Even the
Philistines make sport of it now. A day was
But — Well! well! T'll go and look
for a decent thistle!”

when

 

Civilisation has used the poor ass badly. Our
ways are not his ways, and he not unfrequently
reminds us of the fact. When he does express
dissent, he shows himself an uncompromising
bigot. Yet let us consider for a moment why he
is “such an ass.” He has been taken from a
bold and free life in the uplands, where the very
air tastes of independence, and has been de-
THE DONKEY. 121

graded to the lowest kinds of drudgery. Non-
conformist as he is, he is more of a Tory than
the horse. He cannot fit himself to changed
circumstances. He is like the free Caribs, whom
the Spaniards tried to reduce to slavery; the
condition is so foreign to his nature that he can-
not fall in with it without losing all the nobler
traits of his old self. It crushes him. He is
proverbially patient, but his patience has that in
it which suggests the despondency of a slave.
Yet obstinate and inert as he occasionally is, he
cannot, even in his environment of bondage, be
considered a fool. If he seems of dull intellect,
it is chiefly because we have removed him so far
out of his natural sphere. The duck and goose
show a like change of character when they come
under the influence of man. In the wild state, as
every sportsman knows, they are among the most
vigilant and cunning creatures in the world. A
wild goose is proverbially wild, while a tame
goose is proverbially “a goose.” The fact is that
their natural talents have no scope at all when
they are removed from the environment in which
these talents were first developed. Because such
mental qualities as they possess are hidden, the
casual observer jumps to the conclusion that they
122 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

are witless creatures, and makes their mental
poverty a byword. But if any of us highly
intelligent and educated folk were removed from
our normal surroundings, to which we have adap-
ted ourselves at considerable labour and expense,
and were suddenly turned loose to get a living
among the deserts of Nubia or the Siberian
marshes, we should doubtless offer as fair a
laughing-stock to the wild asses and the wild
geese,

The obstinacy of the ass is a trait in his char-
acter which must have attracted the attention of
the most careless naturalist. It is not a quality
which his employer deems specially useful, rather
the reverse: yet we must remember that on a
long journey where food and water are scanty
and the difficulties of travel are serious, the ass
or the mule will, because of this unyielding tem-
per, keep going longer than the average horse.

It seems to me likely that the great difference
in character between the horse and the ass is
chiefly owing to the fact that when wild the
former go in large herds and the latter in small.
As has been remarked above, the horse is much
more of a society animal than the donkey, and

this, doubtless, is the reason why his manners are
THE DONKEY. 123

more suave. He, like all those who have to mix
freely with their fellows, has acquired an accom-
modating disposition. In the case of men, we
seldom find an obstinate, self-assertive individual
among those who live in cities and mix freely in
society. Such ass-like natures are much com-
moner in small communities, such as farm-ham-
lets and villages. The common view that the
donkey is less intelligent than the horse is not
supported by those who have studied the subject
with thoroughness. Professor Romanes, in his
interesting book upon ‘ Animal Intelligence,’ tells
us some remarkable stories of the sagacity of the
ass. It is his unwillingness to fall in with the
wishes of those who would influence him, his
general conservatism, and his stubbornness in
sticking to his own view, which have won him
the undeserved reputation which he holds. But
if we look at him in his wild state we shall find
an explanation of this mental independence. In
his mountain home, where pasture is scarce, only
a few wild asses, as a rule, vo together. Should
a foe appear suddenly when they are scattered in
search of the scanty herbage, each must decide
on a course for himself, for it would not always
be possible to follow a leader. Hence self-reli-
124 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

ance and a disposition to act independently of his
fellows would be most valuable in the struggle for
existence.

How do we know that the donkey’s ancestors
lived where pasture was scarce? Because an ass
will eat a thistle; showing that his mouth has
become adapted for such meagre and prickly diet
as is found in desert places.

The dread of entering running water is another
characteristic of the species. Darwin draws at-
tention to this as an indication that the domestic
ass first came from a region where water was
scarce. He also alludes to the delight all don-
keys show in rolling in the dust as an instance of
inherited desert habits. I cannot see why the
mere scarcity of brooks in the arid wastes of his
original home should give the beast this instinc-
tive aversion. One would think that, after a day
in the parched wilderness, the cool streams would
have been his delight. There evidently must
have been something about the Ethiopian rivers
which gave rise to well-founded emotions of fear.
What could it have been? Crocodiles? We
have seen how some horses become frantic with
terror at the rustle of reed-beds, because it was

at such spots that, for countless generations, some
THE DONKEY. 125

of the most deadly foes of their race lay in wait
for them. Indeed, far-fetched as it may appear
at first sight, I am inclined to adopt the crocodile
hypothesis to account for this curious and uni-
versal prejudice of the donkey.

The dogs of Egypt have the greatest horror of
crocodiles, and approach the river with the utmost
caution. They even, as Herodotus remarked
long ago, run along the bank as they lap. Sir
Samuel Baker, in his ‘Rifle and Hound in
Ceylon,’ tells a most instructive tale of a pariah
dog which refused, when hunting, to cross a nar-
row stream. Sir S. Baker afterwards discovered
that there were alligators lurking among the reeds,
and of these the dog had the most abject terror.

Crocodiles and similar reptiles were much more
plentiful in the past than they are now. The
rivers in all the warmer parts of the world once
swarmed with them. If, as is probable, the wild
asses’ forefathers have inhabited a crocodile-in-
fested country ever since the Tertiary epoch, they
must have had business relations (of a very un-
profitable sort for the poor jackass) with these
voracious saurians for hundreds of thousands of
years. It would be a matter for surprise,

especially when we consider the rigidly conser-
126 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

vative principles of the donkey tribe, if such a
connection had left no traces in the instinctive
habits of the race.

Perhaps it may be as well to remark that any
such fixed mental trait is not the result of accu-
mulated experience. It is developed by the
ordinary processes of evolution—that is to say,
through natural variation and the survival of the
fittest—just as is any peculiarity of the bodily
frame. In spite of many expressions of opinion
to the contrary which one still hears even among
well-informed people, there is at present no satis-
factory evidence that experience, or anything
else, gained during the life of an individual organ-
ism is naturally inherited by its progeny. To
take the case we are dealing with as an example
—the inbred dislike to entering the water which
characterises the ass tribe probably originated
somewhat in the following way. Among every
herd of wild asses there were always individuals
which were more timid in certain directions than
their fellows, just as in any assembly of human
beings—every individual of which differs some-
what from his companions both in features and
character—there will be some who are naturally
more easily alarmed than the rest.
THE DONKEY. 1a7

Now, when our primeval donkeys went to
quench their thirst at a river, any incautious
animals which waded in before drinking, as is the
custom with horses and cattle, would be more
liable to be seized by crocodiles than those which
feared to wet their feet, and which started away
as soon as they noticed any strange object in the
water. In a comparatively short time in any
country where crocodiles were plentiful the more
reckless drinkers among the herd would be
eliminated. This sifting-out process would go on
continually ; so that in the end the majority of
the original members of the herd which remained
would be such as had from the first manifested
this instinctive aversion. And, since “like pro-
duces like,” all the young asses born of such
parentage would tend to inherit similar mental
tendencies. Moreover, the influence which first
evoked this natural trait would be constantly at
work from generation to generation; for it is
plain that while the environment remained the
same, every young animal which took after his
more reckless progenitors would tend to be
eliminated just as they were.

I do not mean to imply that the controversy
which has raged so fiercely of late as to the in-
128 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

heritance or non-inheritance of acquired charac-
ters is finally settled in the negative. Weismann’s
elaborate theory, as at present set forth, seems to
me to involve much which belongs rather to the
region of metaphysics than to that of physiology.
We must wait until we have acquired many more
solid facts upon which to base our arguments if
we are to attack the Heredity Problem in the
way in which Darwin attacked that of the Origin
of Species. But without doubt there is a growing
tendency amongst men of science to discounte-
nance the once common doctrine that the educa-
tion of one generation, whether among animals or
men, has an effect upon the mental attributes of

the next.
Most animals have an inbred horror of lizards

and snakes, and this instinct is almost certainly a
vestigial echo of the long and deadly struggle for
supremacy between the warm- and cold-blooded
populations which must have gone on without
intermission for many thousands of generations.

There was a time when, as Tennyson says—

‘“A monstrous eft of old
Was lord and master of earth,”

and when the largest mammals were miserable
THE DONKEY. 129

underlings, creeping and dodging about in the
hope of escaping his lordship’s terrible jaws.
Does it not seem probable that the donkey’s
reluctance to enter the water is based upon some
such natural legend, even if he has no conscious
dread of the crocodile ? He has never been told
that the brooks of Europe and of the northern
part of the United States contain no such vermin.
Let some one of the rising generation of natural-
ists think this theory out; and when he has got
at all the available facts—but not until then—let
him write a monograph upon the subject. I, for

one, will promise to buy it.
[30

CHAPTER. VY.
DOMESTIC CATTLE.

Tue study of the peculiar traits of domestic cattle
should be of especial interest to us, because the
genus Bos has undoubtedly occupied a more
important place in our own ancestral history
than any other species of animal. Our Aryan
forefathers, who lived on the plains of Central
and Eastern Europe, were cowboys almost to a
man. As is the case with the Caffres and
Damaras of South Africa to-day, their thoughts
and conversation were chiefly about their herds.
This is shown in a curious way by the study
of the early development of our language. The
Sanskrit word for a king meant originally a
chief herdsman; the word for a parliament or
assembly was derived from that for a cow-yard,

and a soldier was “one who fights about cows.”
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 131

It would seem as if they regarded nothing else
as worth ruling over, or talking about, or fighting
for. Professor Max Miiller traces our word
“daughter” to the ancient term for a milkmaid.
In the good old times they plainly did not take
any account of young ladies who were not ac-
complished performers in the cow-pen.

The cow and the ox were for long ages the
chief standards of value. Everything, from a
new coat to a new wife, was priced at so many
cows. Many of our words which refer to money
bear traces of this, such as “fee” and “‘ pecuniary,”
which are directly derived from the Old English
and Latin words for cattle. Doubtless there
were currency disputes when other materials
began to be used for coinage, and difficulties
arose about the adjustment of relative values.
‘Cow - metallism” might well have been an
important plank in some of the Aryan political
platforms.

Our domestic cattle are descended from at
least two wild varieties. One, the Bos primz--
genius or Urus, was a magnificent beast, as tall
as a_moose and with enormous horns. It prob-
ably inhabited the open, park-like country and
swampy, sparsely- wooded plains. Its great
132 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

width of horn would not have been suitable for
life in the dense timber. The wild white cattle
still kept in Chillingham Park in Northumberland
are supposed to be its direct descendants. The
other, the Bos dongifrons, was much smaller and
had short horns. Its habitat was probably among
the grassy glades of the forest, where it browsed
with the roebuck and the fallow deer. Some
naturalists consider that another wild species,
the Bos frontosus, was also an ancestor of the
modern breeds, especially of the Norse cattle.

In early times the strength of the ox was much
more generally made use of than at the present
day. In some parts of England, as in the
Southdown district, teams of black oxen, yoked
two and two, are still used on the farms, espec-
ially for ploughing and rolling. In America
the draught-ox is being superseded by the
quicker-stepping horse in all parts; but the first
ploughs which broke the virgin soil of the United
States were drawn by the cattle which the early
settlers took over with them.

For hauling lumber the ox has no equal. His
patient temper, and strength at a dead pull, render
him far better fitted for this class of work than
the more hasty and irritable horse. In France
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 133

and some other European countries he holds his
own as a worker, and in the lazy East, where
the heavy draught-horse has never been made
use of, he is still employed to scratch the soil or
to tread out the corn.

In Sussex and in parts of New England the
ancient form of yoke is still used, which fits on
to the nape of the necks of two bullocks. In
France and Germany the yoke is commonly fas-
tened to the horns and brow, so that the beasts
draw the load with their heads; while the
Spaniards make a clever compromise by con-
necting a neck yoke to the forehead of the ox
with straps of leather.

Certain humane people, both in England and
America, have thought this primitive kind of
harness barbarous, and have designed collars
and breast-straps for oxen. I shall show that
this well-meant attempt at improvement was
prompted by a misunderstanding of the history
and habits of the beasts which these good folk
thought to relieve.

Now, what were the natural circumstances
of the wild cattle which gave rise to the strength
which men have found so serviceable? Partly,
like the speed and endurance of the horse, it
134 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

may be attributed to the long struggle with car-
nivorous foes. The weakly or undersized cattle
would naturally fall a prey more easily than those
which were large and strong. But we shall find
the chief cause in the fact that a desperate strife
for the mastery was always going on between the
rival bulls which desired to lord it over the rest
of the herd. In these battles the strongest and
most active would naturally come off victors.
It was generally more a question of weight
and strength than of agility, for bulls fight by
charging and thrusting at one another with their
horns. There is no doubt that the massive
fore-end of the bull bison was developed by the
habit of using himself as a projectile wherewith
to batter his rivals out of the over-lordship of the
herd. But the strategy of the common bull
involves another method of attack. He tries to
toss his opponent, and this feat, when he is
dealing with a foe which weighs nearly a ton,
requires considerable strength of neck.

Now it is this very strength that has been
acquired for the purposes of war, which makes
the ox so useful in peaceful agriculture. Men
have not yet beaten their swords into plough-
shares, but the ox has for many ages bowed
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 135

the muscular neck by means of which he used
to overthrow and gore his enemies, to the yoke
which drags the plough. The strength of the
neck even in the more feeble cattle is astonishing.
I have known a slim and lady-like Jersey heifer
hoist a cast-iron water cistern with her horns as
easily as if it had beena teacup. It would appear

 

How the vox learned to pull.

then, that the French or Spanish peasant’s way
of “hitching his critters” is right, and that the
elaborate harness of the humane agriculturists
is wrong,

The old-fashioned beam-yoke, resting on the
nape of the neck, is a kind of compromise. It
is better than the breast-straps, but not so good
as the lighter yoke that fits the forehead and
136 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

base of the horns. Nature has exactly adapted
the structure of the head and neck of the ox for
pushing; and since a pull is only a push with
a string to it, depend upon it this is the most
advantageous way for a team of oxen to draw
a load.

When we take milk with our tea, or butter or
cheese with our bread, we are conniving at what
is, when looked at in one way, a particularly
heartless form of theft. Did nature, in the
first place, provide the milk for our benefit ?
Not at all: it is the provision for the poor
innocent calf, and we have filched his property
from him by force or trickery. But, passing
over the moral aspect of the question — which
you will generally find is the most discreet
method when we are discussing our dealings
with the lower animals — how is it that the
cow is so especially useful in yielding us an
abundant supply of milk ?

The answer is, Because she is naturally a
forest animal, which had often to leave her
baby behind and to wander far for food. Wild
cattle hide their young calves in the thickets.
Unlike the colt, the calf has but feeble loco-

motive powers, and therefore it could not ac-
“ONIGIH NI ATWO UAH ONIAVAT MOO CATIA

 

 

 
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 137

company the cow when she travelled to distant
glades where grass was abundant. Thus the
sucking calf cannot get his nutriment whenever
he wants it, as the young foal can, which is
never away from the mare. He has to wait
for his meals until his mother returns. But
this arrangement also renders it needful that
the cow's udder should hold a good store of
milk, which slowly collects during the hours
when she is absent from her baby. Hence
the large “bag,” which always distinguishes a
good milker; and hence, also, the important
fact that a cow retains her milk until the morn-
ing and evening visits of the farmer or dairy-
maid.

The habit of chewing the cud among cattle
and other herbivorous animals tells a similar
tale. They had no time to masticate the grass
thoroughly when they were feeding, but were
obliged to get in a supply of provisions as
rapidly as possible, and during the hours when
the wild beasts were least abroad. Having got
in their store, they retired to their safe hiding-
places and lay down to ruminate at leisure.

It is easy to see that cattle are at home in a
moist and wooded country. The feral cattle of
138 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Texas and Australia never from choice stray far
from the woods. Out on the Western ranches
there are, of course, few trees, and the beasts
thrive fairly well; but, for all that, the conditions
of their life are artificial, and are not such as
they would select if free to choose their own
dwelling-place. All cattle love to stand knee-
deep in water and under the shadow of trees.
Their heads are carried low, even when they
are startled, so that they can see under the
spreading branches of the forest. Compare the
habitual position of the head of a cow with
that of the heads of the horse, pronghorn, or
guanaco, which live in the open and have to
watch the horizon for the approach of enemies.
The split hoofs of cattle are wonderfully
adapted for progress over soft ground. In
galloping through bogs or deep mud an ox or
a buffalo will easily distance a swift horse.
Their toes spread wide, and so they do not
sink in so far as the solid-hoofed animal. What
is even more important, the open cleft between
the toes allows the air to enter the hole in
the mud as the foot is withdrawn; whereas a
horse's hoof sticks like a “sucker,” owing to
the partial vacuum below it, and can only be
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 139

dragged out by a great muscular effort. Mounted
hunters have been overtaken and killed by buf-
faloes—African and Indian—owing to this fact.
The tough material of which the horns of
cattle are composed has been applied by man
to an almost endless number of purposes. Horns
are of course the chief weapons of the ox tribe,
and all feral and half-wild cattle are provided
with them. Probably those most liberally en-
dowed in this respect in the present day are
the Bechuana cattle of South Africa. I have
seen a pair of horns belonging to an animal of
this breed which measured between thirteen
and fourteen feet from tip to tip round the
curves! Probably such a monstrous develop-
ment as this is due to the eccentric taste of
the Bechuana stock- raisers. No species of
domestic cattle belonging to civilised people has
had its horns specially cultivated; in fact the
reverse has generally been the case. Civilisa-
tion has but few uses for the horns of the ox
while they are on its head, although it is so
ready to turn them to account after his death.
A number of breeds of polled or hornless cattle
have been developed independently of one an-
other, in various parts of the world. These
140 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

have not been the result, as some people im-
agine, of the ancient barbarous practice of “ de-
horning” cattle, because it is almost certain
that the changes produced in the individual by
such mutilations are not inherited. Probably
in every instance in which such a breed has been
developed man has made use of a ‘chance

”

variation’ in this direction. It seems very
improbable that any of the ancestral types of
cattle were hornless. Among the many ancient
skulls which have been unearthed in all parts
of Europe one finds no trace of a polled breed.
Indeed the wild cattle, living as they did a
life of continual warfare both civil and against
numerous fierce carnivorous enemies, could
scarcely have existed without this natural means
of defence.

There are reasons for thinking that the horns
were developed, in the first place, not so much
to enable the wild bulls to be victors in their
civil contests, as to enable the wild cows to
protect their calves from wolves and_ other
enemies. It has puzzled some people that,
although the bull is a much more warlike
animal than the cow, the horns of the latter,

both in shape, length, and direction, are far
DOMESTIC CATTLE. I4I

more effective as weapons than are his. Pro-
bably the cow's long curved horns represent
the primitive type, while the blunt and conical
weapons of the modern bull represent a special
modification.

This leads us to one of those interesting
general questions concerning what may be
called the moral aspect of animal life which
Darwinism has done so much to reveal and
to unravel. One finds it to be a rule that,
where natural weapons are used in civil con-
tests, they are scarcely ever of a lethal char-
acter; and even where they are chiefly for de-
fence against bloodthirsty foes, they are seldom
of such a form as inevitably to produce death.
One can, of course, see that where animals live
in communities in the manner of the Bovide,
it is decidedly against the public interest for
duels to the death to occur between the rival
champions of a herd. Supposing, for instance,
that the bull was armed with the fearful bayonets
of the gemsbok, and was still in the habit of
charging impetuously at his competitors for the
chieftainship, it would often happen that the
herd would be deprived of its two most pro-
mising leaders and protectors; for neither beast
142 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

could escape from such a contest without dan-
gerous wounds. In bovine society, although
the practice of duelling has not been so rigidly
discountenanced as among our civilised selves,
private contests have been reduced to a com-
paratively harmless form, similar to that now
prevailing among French journalists and Ger-
man students—where, by the way, one sees the
same conservative law at work which has been
unconsciously operating for many centuries in
the wider realm of nature.

Again, in all probability an adult bull would
not stand in much danger from any of the
ordinary foes which threaten wild cattle. We
find, wherever horned stock have run _ wild,
whether in the Ladrone Islands, in America,
or in Australia, the bull constitutes himself
without difficulty as the supreme lord of his
district. None ventures to attack him in the
open except the hunter with his deadly fire-
arms. Hence the wild bull would have but
little need of the means to repel the attacks of
the Carnivora. One finds that wolves make a
special aim at capturing the young and help-
less members of a herd. Hence in the great

majority of cases when their onslaught had to
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 143

be met, it would have been by a cow which was
defending her calf. The bulls whose weapons
had been shortened and blunted for political
reasons were not losers by the change, while
the body politic was so much the gainer,
because it seldom lost a valuable member
through private duelling.

It would be a slight both to the genus Bos and
to the British people to refrain from alluding to
the noble attributes of beef. Doubtless, in the
first place, the table qualities of the bullock de-
pended simply upon chance, since one can hardly
imagine that—if we ignore festive reunions with
the Carnivora—it could make much difference to
an animal fer se whether he were pleasant to eat
or not. But it is probably more than a happy
coincidence that this crowning virtue of the ox
(which, as is often the case with virtues, is more
discussed after the death of its possessor than
during his lifetime) should meet with such an avid
response in modern Aryan palates. We must here
rather reverse the order which we have hitherto
followed in discussing the evolutionary connection
between certain qualities in the lower animals
and the needs of civilised man. For in this in-

stance it is man who has adapted himself to one
144 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

of the wild traits of the bovine race, and who has
been profoundly influenced by it. Why should
man, who has an almost exclusive vegetarian
ancestry, take such an instinctive delight in the
savour of roasted flesh? This is a question
which our present knowledge of the history of
human instincts will not allow us to answer. But
I think, without straining our evidence unduly,
we can form a shrewd conjecture as to why many
cow-keeping and beef-eating nations have come
to the front; and we shall also find that this
suggestion, if accepted, throws a somewhat new
light on certain questions which have attracted
the attention of the most learned writers on
ancient history.

In spite of a profound conviction which has
been religiously adhered to in England for many
years—viz., that much of our working and fight-
ing power depends upon a liberal consumption of
roast-beef—I am inclined to think that the latter-
day use of this article of diet has but little to do
with national vigour. Such physical and moral
prowess as we may possess, if analysed in the
light of what we know concerning the early
migrations of our race (alluded to at the com-
mencement of this chapter), seems more due to
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 145

the vices of living beeves than to the virtues of
dead ones.

Given a Northern tribe with a taste (however
acquired) for keeping and eating cattle, it seems to
me that the following chain of causes and conse-
quences might ensue. The keeping of horned
stock in a barren and unfenced country involves
the employment of herdsmen. The cattle, being
active and half wild, could only be controlled by
men on horseback. Hence in ancient days the
tending of unruly mobs of cattle always involved
the keeping of swift and serviceable horses. Now
we find that the most daring horsemen in the world
are found in the United States and Mexico, on the
Southern pampas, in the Australian bush, or amid
the steppes of Tartary, among the stockmen who
follow such half-wild herds. Such an employ-
ment develops hardihood, boldness, resourceful-
ness, and determination, as well as skill in
horsemanship ; for all these qualities are called
for in directing and mastering the fierce and
active beasts which the men have in charge.
Moreover, in a sparsely settled district the cow-
boy is almost always called upon to settle disputes
as to pasture rights and ownership in the rough-
and-ready fashion customary among frontier or

k
146 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

barbarous peoples. He has to protect his herds
not only from wild beasts but from robbers. Oc-
casionally also— doubtless only under extreme
stress of circumstances—it seems right or ex-
pedient for him to do a little raiding on his
neighbour’s domains. It follows that every tribe
which kept cattle, and which had to roam far
afield to find pasturage, had a most formidable
force of light cavalry always at its disposal. A
regiment of Western cowboys or Australian
stock-riders mounted upon their fast and wiry
horses would, even in the present day, be tough
customers for the finest troops to tackle. And
when we remember that, before the days of fire-
arms, cavalry was practically invincible when
opposed to men on foot, it will be seen that a
nomadic cattle-keeping race would soon become
supreme over those which were purely pastoral
or agricultural. Not only so, but by their con-
stant conflicts with the horsemen of similar half-
predatory tribes they would become practised in
the use of weapons, and in many phases of the
complex art of war. History shows over and
over again that it is this perpetual strife between
fierce clans of kindred blood which gives rise to
the qualities which lead to national supremacy.
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 147

To such causes as these—resting, as we have
seen, on a bovine basis—may be traced nearly
all those redoubtable characteristics of the Goths
and the Huns which enabled them to overcome
the trained legions of Rome.

Gibbon and Hodgkin may say what they like
as to the causes of the fall of the Roman empire :
I venture to maintain that in this one particular
the natural historian can give a hint even to such
authorities on matters historical. It was the
restive ox which developed the cowboy, and it
was the cowboy of old who broke the power of
Rome.

In this sense also it may perhaps be said that
the vigour of the Anglo-Saxon race is based
on a beef regimen; although, through the later
centuries, it has doubtless been enhanced by
change of air and a liberal use of salt water.

Before we turn from this carnal aspect of the
Bovidce, perhaps it may not be out of place to en-
deavour to track to their sources the vaunted
merits of ox-tail soup. Needless to say the ox
did not grow his extremity for this special, and
sapid, end—as is rumoured to have been the case
with the benevolent kangaroo. Primarily the glu-

tinous character of the ox’s tail which so fits it for
148 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

soup-making is owing to the fact that the bones
composing it are light, porous, and gelatinous, and
are surrounded by numerous muscles and tendons
so as to enable the animal to swing the organ
freely from side to side. Wild cattle inhabit
damp and wooded regions, which during the
summer are swarming with bloodthirsty flies;
and the tail of the ox is, and ever has been, its
main protection against these maddening pests.
If you watch cattle in a pasture-field you will find
that the long tassel at the end of the tail is per-
petually and automatically sweeping the surface
of the body to drive away noxious insects. The
Americans have drawn a most telling comparison
between a man in a State of frantic exasperation
and a ‘“‘stumped-tail bull in fly-time.” Had it
not been for the need of continual protection
against small enemies of this kind, the caudal
member among cattle would not have become
what the modern disciples of Alexis Soyer find it. .
When next you enjoy a basin of ox-tail soup—
thank the flies!

One function of the tail of the ox is that of
a signalling apparatus when there is some special
danger threatening him or the herd. The hoist-
ing of this natural semaphore is a sign of anger
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 149

as well as one of fear, although probably, as in
the lifting of the bristles on the back of the
dog, it is chiefly shown when both emotions are
excited. In this country the signal is most
commonly displayed when there are gadflies
buzzing near the herd. Under such circum-
stances an ox will erect its tail in the most
extraordinary manner, and at the same time
seems to be seized with an unreasoning paroxysm
of fear. I have known teams of oxen which
were quietly plodding along the newly turned
furrows suddenly hoist their tails and dash away
across country, dragging the plough after them
until it either was broken to pieces or the yoke-
chains gave way.

To those who know how to interpret nature’s
hieroglyphics this habit of the ox tells a curious
story. Its terror is purely instinctive—that is to
say, the emotion does not depend upon previous
unpleasant experience with gadflies, but is in-
herent in the animal, and forms part of the
mental stock-in-trade which it received from its
wild progenitors. Whenever one finds a habit
or instinct so strongly marked as this, it is a sure
record of some decisive phase of the struggle

for existence, just as the monuments at Waterloo
150 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

and Bunker’s Hill are records of great turning-
points in history. Nowadays the gadfly is but
a casual and puny foe. Even if it be successful
in planting its eggs in the skin of a cow, the
result does not in the least imperil the beast’s
existence. In modern times the gadfly merely
causes some fear and a little discomfort to an
animal, and some loss of money and temper to
its owner when he finds that the hide has been
perforated, and is therefore held cheap by the
tanner. But there must have been occasions
when the war between gadflies and cattle was
a much more serious affair. So strongly marked
a protective instinct can only have been produced
at a time when the very existence of the species
was threatened by parasites of this order.

The peculiarities of temper of the ox, to which
some allusion was made when we were speaking
of his usefulness in hauling lumber, may to some
extent be explained by the kind of life which he
led before man interfered with his liberty. He
' is undoubtedly a sociable animal, and it is owing
to this fact, as I shall explain further on, that
he is, when young, fairly easy to teach and to
control. Oxen have a peculiar kind of stolid

courage which has been many times made use
DOMESTIC CATTLE. I51

of in India. It is said that a team of oxen will
draw a siege-gun into action more steadily than
will any other animal; and it is customary where
elephants were used to haul these ponderous
weapons, to have a bullock-team attached to
each gun, so that it can be sent forward when
the elephants refuse to face the noise and danger
of the battle-field. Cattle are not liable to
sudden panics, nor, except under certain special
circumstances, such as those discussed in the
preceding paragraphs, does a herd “stampede”
owing to some trifling cause, as a mob of horses
or a flock of sheep will. Under anything like
favourable conditions the life of the wild Bovide
was a fairly placid one. Being so powerful, and
armed with such effective weapons, they did not
need to be continually on the watch, like deer
and other feebler creatures. Indeed this calm-
ness of temper which has so often been noted
in them was generally conducive to their safety.
While the herd of wild cattle stood firm not
even a tiger dared to attack them, and if a
single animal were away from its companions,
it would generally find it the safest policy
when enemies were near to remain quiet in

the hiding-place which it selected before it lay
152 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

down to ruminate. When roused or thoroughly
frightened, however, there is no animal more
unreasonable and more difficult to calm than
an Ox.

Those who have much to do with working
oxen, and who watch the behaviour of a num-
ber of such animals in the stall or the pas-
ture, find that there is quite a complex system
of etiquette among them, which is undoubtedly
traceable to the social laws which used to pre-
vail in the free herds. For instance, there is
an order of precedence in some ways as exact
and as rigidly adhered to as that at a German
court. It is customary when feeding working
bullocks in winter to fasten them by chains
which encircle their necks and are attached to
stanchions in the wall of the hovel. These are
so arranged that each beast can reach his own
lump of food (consisting generally of cut chaff
with a little meal and root-pulp) or the portion
of his neighbour on his right. The length of
the chain will not allow him to reach the food
of his neighbour on his left. Now, in order to
ensure that each beast should get the food
which is meant for his consumption and no

more, the oxen have to be so arranged that
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 163

every beast is ‘‘master” of the one on_ his
left; otherwise pilfering and discord would occur
at every meal. It often takes the oxmen a
long time in discovering the particular rank
and precedence of any new beasts which have
been added to the teams; but after watching
their behaviour when loose in the yard, and
thus ascertaining which bullocks give way to
the new-comers and which lord it over them,
they are at length apportioned their places in
the line. Curiously enough, an ox’s_preced-
encé does not depend upon his strength or
bulk, nor upon his courage—as we recognise
it—nor upon his steadfastness of character—
as revealed in his work. One frequently finds
some huge muscular beast occupying quite an
inferior position; and an animal which shows
fearlessness and resentment when _ interfered
with by men will humbly “take the lowest
room” and allow all the rest to drive him.
Again, the ‘“ boss ox,” although usually one
of the huge elder brethren of the team, may
have nothing either in his bodily or men-
tal qualities which, to our perceptions, fits him
for the post. But it is evident from the unan-
imity with which he and each of his inferiors
154 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

are granted their respective positions (often
after a somewhat hot debate), that the animals
readily recognise whatever moral or other
qualities tell in settling bovine precedence.
Occasionally one finds, when trying to study
the social and political institutions among oxen
—as I have often done during my boyhood
when ensconced in a snug bay of the straw-
stack overlooking the ox-yard—that matters are
somewhat more complicated than they at first
appear. Thus A may be the “boss-ox,” B
the second, C the third, D the fourth, and so
on; that is to say, each of these animals is
able to take precedence of the one next be-
low him. But if you remove some of the
series you will find sometimes that, although
B was master of C, and therefore “so much
the more” ought to be master of E or F,
this is not always the case. For the practical
purposes of the oxmen, however, the order of
natural rank, whatever it may depend upon,
proves useful in settling the place of the ani-
mal in the team and in the stall, and in pre-
venting contests between these powerful long-
horned brutes.

Mr Francis Galton, speaking of the differ-
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 15

ence which he found in the characters of the
oxen which he used for riding and for draw-
ing his waggons when he was in South Africa,
says: ‘Not one ox out of forty will make a
‘ride-ox,’ for only those are fit to break in
that show far less gregariousness of disposition
than oxen ordinarily do. The beasts that walk
first and lead the herd are the only oxen that
can be ridden with any comfort or success ;
the others ‘jib and crowd together and fight
with their horns when you try to urge them
on, and the whole caravan comes to a stand-
still.” Other African travellers dwell upon the
difficulty in finding oxen, of sufficient independ-
ence of character to take the front place in
the long teams. Doubtless among wild cattle
animals which show this disposition to act on
their own initiative would be the natural leaders
of a herd.

There is one peculiar habit, not unknown
among other domestic animals, but which has
attracted special attention in the case of cattle.
If an individual in a herd happens to be sick
or wounded, the others, instead of showing
sympathy, attack it, and either drive it away
into solitude or gore it to death. The whole
156 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

proceeding offers such a contrast to the civilised
human method of dealing with a distressed fellow-
creature, and seems so wantonly cruel, that in
most people it provokes surprise and - highly
unfavourable comments.

Now let us look at the matter in the cold
light of science, and strive not to mix up human
sentiments with bovine codes of morals. In
the first place, we may lay it down as an axiom
that the habit has in some way proved conducive
to the welfare of cattle; otherwise it would never
have become established. The problem is, |
think, a fairly simple one. A bullock, like a man,
has two sets of obligations to observe: first, his
duty to himself; and secondly, his duty to his
neighbours. There is the same painful friction
in both instances when the interests of self and
society are not identical. A like balance has
to be maintained between individualism and
socialism in nature as in our artificial human
communities.

Now, when a wild creature of the ox tribe is
sick or wounded, it is found that the dangerous
beasts of prey, which are always prowling on the
outskirts of the herd, are quick in ascertaining
the fact, and are drawn together by the prospects
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 157

of a feast. When previous experience has any-
thing to do with the action of the mob in expel-
ling their afflicted brother, one can conjecture
that they might, in their stupid beefy way, argue
the matter out somewhat as follows: ‘This
fellow seems to be a source of attraction to our
enemies; look how those beasts of wolves are
swarming about him! We had no idea that
there were so many of the brutes skulking about
in the woods! Perhaps he has wickedly col-
lected them on purpose; or, since they have
suddenly appeared out of nowhere, it may be
that the rascal makes them—who knows? At
any rate, he and his new friends are a nuisance
and a danger—so here goes to knock him out
of the herd!”

Probably, however, the action is generally the
result of inherent impulse, and is not founded
upon any acquired knowledge of the danger
to be feared from the presence of a sick com-
panion. We know that cattle are liable to in-
fectious diseases of many kinds; and, prompted
by a blind instinct, they have probably in the
past been able on many occasions to preserve
their communities from the spread of contagion
by driving those first affected away into the
158 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

wilderness. It would be as difficult to guess
how such an instinct first arose as it is to
guess the origin of life upon the earth. The
only certainty about the matter is, that the in-
telligence of the beasts themselves had little or
nothing to do with it. Plainly any herd which
adopted such a custom would be better off in
the long-run than one which did not; because
the beasts composing it would be less exposed
to dangerous diseases, and would also, probably,
be less harried by wolves and other enemies.

It is proverbial that anything of a bright red
colour tends to excite the anger of a bull. This
seems to result from the instinctive aversion to
blood which is observable among all the cattle
tribe, since the smell of blood has very much the
same exciting effect. I think that we have here
nothing more than a variation of the protective
instinct which we have been discussing. <A
wounded and bleeding animal is obviously a
source of weakness and danger to the wild herd,
for he would attract the Carnivora even more
than one which was sick. Probably, mixed up
with this instinct, is some muddle-headed notion
that an enemy has caused the flow of blood
(or the appearance of it), and hence a more
DOMESTIC CATTLE. 159

vehemently hostile feeling is provoked by a
wound, or by anything which might be mistaken
for blood, than by the appearance of an animal
which is merely suffering from illness. Indeed
in the latter case horned stock will often do no
more than boycott the invalid and persistently
avoid his society.

Mr W. H. Hudson, whose opinions are well
worth listening to, because they are always
founded upon careful personal observation, thinks
that the action of cattle in rushing upon and
goring one of their number which is wounded
or otherwise in trouble, is a misdirected attempt
to rescue it from an imaginary foe. Mr Hudson
gives various good reasons for coming to this
conclusion in his delightful book, ‘ The Naturalist
in La Plata.’ Probably, however, the instincts
of the animals which make brutal blunders of
this kind are quite as much mixed as are their
ideas.

How are we to explain the fact that farmers
find it necessary to make away with bulls when
they are four or five years old, because they then
become so pugnacious and unmanageable? |
learned from the keepers at Chillingham that
each mob of wild cattle is under the command
160 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

of a single powerful bull, and that he keeps all
the others in absolute subjection. When a
stronger than he arises, and indeed whenever
a younger one comes to maturity, there is a
terrific battle; and if the original lord of the
harem is worsted he retires into sour solitude.
The cows and all the young bulls yield ready
obedience to the chief; and this inbred disposi-
tion to submit to established authority is taken
advantage of by the stockman, who, among do-
mestic cattle, may be regarded as the deposed
King Bull’s vicegerent. But when- bulls get
their full growth and strength, their wild in-
stinct impels them to commence a determined
tussle for the mastery.

In the freedom of the forest this was laudable
ambition, and might lead to the chieftainship of
the herd: but in the farmyard it is regarded
as viciousness; so the usurping human “ boss,”
whose supremacy is thus disputed, settles the
controversy in a summary way, and sends for
the butcher.
1601

CHAPTER VL
THE SHEEP.

Wirtu the exception of certain breeds of dogs, the
sheep has undergone more modifications at the
hands of man than any other animal. All the
rest of our domestic animals have proved their
capacity to reassume the habits of their wild an-
cestors, but no once tamed sheep has taken to a
life of independence. This is at first sight sur-
prising, because many kinds, such as the Scottish
mountain sheep, and those upon the highlands of
Chili and Patagonia, manage to live and thrive
with very little aid from their masters. Yet it is
found that even a hardy pampas sheep cannot
hold its own when that aid is wanting. If man
were to become extinct in South America, or
indeed in any part of the world, the domestic
sheep would not survive him half-a-dozen years.
i
162 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

There are three chief reasons for this, and all of
them are of peculiar interest. In the first place,
a sheep is, as a rule, a timid and defenceless
animal, and at the same time is neither swift nor
cunning. It falls an easy prey to the meanest of
the wolf tribe. A single coyote or a fox-terrier
dog could destroy a flock of a thousand in a few
days. Secondly, it is found that the young lambs
_ and their mothers require especial care and nurs-
ing, and if they do not get it during lambing-
time the flock-owner will lose them by the
hundred. It is a common thing in the South
Downs for.the shepherd not to leave his flock
day or night during the whole lambing season.
Lastly, very few modern sheep shed their wool
naturally in the way that the horse and other
animals shed their thick winter coats.

There was exhibited at the first great Inter-
national Exhibition in 1851 a seven-year-old
Southdown ewe which had never been shorn.
Its enormous burden of wool hung to the ground,
and it would have been about as capable of
getting about as a man covered with a dozen
thick overcoats. It is quite plain that such a
creature could not get its living in the open fields

unless it were regularly shorn. Now, if we seek
THE SHEEP. 163

for an answer to the question,—Where did the
sheep get its wool from? we shall find an ex-
planation also of the other two characteristics
which now prevent it from holding its own in

the wild state.

Lg a A
aie
!

    
  

Lyf
NY A
| | i

fF Ml iN Ms

i , ia\ Ny \ f
eae ik:
\ al \ va h\wW ,
\\ Ny , \ Ny}
Ds. ‘WV
SSS

Seven years old unshorn ewe.

The wool was of course developed primarily to
protect the sheep from cold. But from what
cold? The cold of winter? That can scarcely
be, since the wool shows a tendency in all our
domestic sheep to persist and continue growing
all the year round. The cold of arctic climates ?
That also must be excluded, since no sheep,
either tame or wild, thrives in the extreme North.
164 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

On the contrary, in Australia and many other
warm countries the flocks flourish abundantly.
Certain naturalists say that the so-called musk ox
is really a sheep; but it is plain that, if so, that
curious beast is a very distant relative of the
familiar varieties. Neither the musk ox nor any
other arctic animal would long survive a removal
to a sub-tropical region.

If we study the various kinds of wild sheep all
the world over, we at once find an answer to the
question as to the origin of the wool. Without
exception they are dwellers upon high mountains.
Some live almost among perpetual snow. The
bighorn inhabits the Rockies, the moufflon the
mountains of Corsica and Sardinia, the Barbary
sheep the high regions of Morocco and other
parts of Northern Africa, while the gigantic Ovzs
polt, the argali, and the burrhel are at home amid
the towering ranges of Siberia and Thibet. On
the grassy slopes and terraces they find susten-
ance, and among the giddy precipices above they
take refuge when danger threatens them. They
took to the hills in the first place, like the wild
asses, because the fierce Carnivora of the low-
lands were too many for them. Their cousins,
the antelopes and deer, were swift enough to hold
 

 

 

 

 

 

WILD SHEEP AT HOME.
THE SHEEP. 165

their own in the woods and on the plains; but
the only chance of survival which was open to
the more sluggish Ovidze was to take to the
mountains. Many a human refugee, hunted by a
human beast of prey, has had to do the same.
Having once chosen this habitat, it was necessary
that their instincts and structure should become
adapted for the life of a mountaineer; and,
throughout long ages, by the survival of those
individuals best fitted to this kind of existence,
and by the elimination or sifting out of the unfit,
they have developed into what they are now.

As a protection against the cold of high alti-
tudes, they grew a thick woolly covering beneath
their coarse thatch of hair. The need of mount-
ing steep slopes with rapidity, and of propel-
ling their heavy bodies by leaps among the
rocks and crevasses of their place of refuge,
caused the muscles of the hinder quarters to
become peculiarly stout and fleshy. To the
former fact we owe our woollen clothing, and
to the latter the massive and succulent ‘legs
of mutton” which so often appear on our
tables. As has been said above, and as is
proved by the unfortunate animal shown in our

illustration, the wool continues to grow in most
166 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

of our modern domestic varieties in spite of
summer heat. It is known, however, that,
like the bison, the reindeer, and the musk ox,
most wild sheep get rid of some of their wool
in the hottest weather. Traces of this habit
are still to be found even in the Merino and
Southdown breeds. The Southdown _ flock-
masters are very particular in choosing the
season for shearing. They say that at a certain
time—which conforms with the almanac to a
remarkable degree—the fleece ‘‘lifts,” or “is
up.” By this they mean that, close to the skin,
there is some tendency to a separation between
the old wool and the new. This, as far as |
can make out, is not absolutely a separation
of fibre, for the staple can generally be traced
unbroken right down to the pelt. But there
certainly appears a division between the wool
and the skin, which seems to be caused by the
fibres of newest growth erecting themselves and
lifting the matted fleece slightly. When this
occurs the shears run easily; and the labour
of shearing is considerably greater if it is under-
taken before the change takes place.

It is most instructive to observe the date of
the “lifting” of the wool in the Southdown
THE SHEEP. 167

region. Within certain limits it depends partly
upon the elevation of the various farms and
the amount of exposure to which the flocks are
subjected, and partly upon feeding. One large
flock with which I am well acquainted (that at
Saddlescombe, near the Devil’s Dyke) is always
shorn, if possible, on midsummer day, because
at that time, and scarcely a day earlier, the
wool is “up.” Now why should this feeble
attempt at shedding the coat occur in the
South of England at midsummer? By that
time all the other farm animals have long cast
their extra winter covering ; and, as a rule,
the heat in May and June is very consider-
able. I think we must go for our explanation
far away from the smooth grassy Downs to the
rugged alpine heights of Central and Southern
Europe. There we find that midsummer marks
approximately the time when the mountain
pastures are open, and when the herdsmen
drive their cattle from the valleys to their high
feeding - grounds. The alpine summer comes
suddenly, and the sun, as every one who has
climbed the Swiss mountains knows, soon at-
tains a power which renders heavy clothing

unbearable. We have thus, in our domestic
168 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

sheep, a curious page from the meteorological
records of the Southern Highlands ages and
ages ago.

I have said that the date of the lifting of
the wool is dependent to some extent on feed-
ing. It is an occasional experience of the care-
less shepherd to have his flock escape from
control in the spring and ravage the standing
crops. Such a contretemps means not only
damage to the growing corn or hay, but also
injury, both immediate and long continued, to
the flock. A sudden change of diet from the
frugal fare on the hill-turf and in the “dead-
fold” to that of the lush cereals and grass of
cultivated lands is not unfrequently fatal to the
animals. But, even if they escape digestive
perils, further results are liable to occur, which
show themselves in the fleece. The wool not
only “lifts,” but actually peels off in great
flakes, leaving the animal in rags and _half-
naked, and, of course, destroying the hopes of
the flock-master. Now it seems to me to be
very likely that this may point out to us one
of nature’s agencies for fixing the time when
the wild mountain sheep get rid of their winter
clothing. When the midsummer heat melts
THE SHEEP. 169

the upper snows, and thus at the same time
both irrigates and forces the mountain herb-
age, the moufflon and his relations would
greedily avail themselves of the rich new pas-
ture. This change of diet, through some physio-
logical association of causes, has an effect upon
the system generally, and especially upon the
integument, which occasions a shedding of the
wool. Let me say, however, that this view is
merely put forward as a suggestion.

It was probably the fleece which first brought
the sheep into captivity, and it is the fleece
that is mainly instrumental in keeping him as
a servant and dependent. It now grows so
abundantly that he needs to be freed by the
shears once a-year, or the burden of it would
overcome him. Imagine being obliged to wear
two suits of winter clothing in July!

But both the fleece and the meat, as we now
find them, have, of course, been greatly altered
by human agency. Those sheep have con-
stantly been chosen by breeders which fattened
readily or which had the finest and most abun-
dant wool. The coarse outer covering of hair
disappeared ; although, as might be expected,
it occasionally shows itself. In the West Indian
170 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Islands even imported Southdown sheep _be-
come completely changed in appearance, for
the wool is hidden by long brown hair. Each
different breed of sheep, as the Cotswold, the
Leicester, and the Merino, has wool of a dif-
ferent character. This is chiefly due to arti-
ficial selection. The sheep-breeders of Saxony,
by picking out those animals which had the
softest fleeces, soon produced a greatly improved
supply of wool. They used the microscope to
ascertain which animals had wool of the finest
fibre, and rejected all which did not come up
to a certain standard,

Most of the other weak points of the sheep
come from the facts that he has been by nature
adapted for one special kind of life, and that
we have now removed him from it. The con-
ditions to which every atom of him had become
exactly adjusted are changed, and it is hardly
likely that he will be at home at all points under
the new circumstances. For this reason the tame
sheep, like the ass, appears a stupid animal.
At critical times, such as when the young lambs
are born, the unaccustomed surroundings may be
fatal. It is this “specialisation,” as the natu-

ralists call it, which accounts for the extinction
THE SHEEP. vi

of many creatures which used to be abundant.
They become exactly fitted to one particular
way of life, and unfitted for any other. If cir-
cumstances change, or if they are compelled to
migrate, they die.

Generally such a race comes to an end through
the parents being unable to rear their tender
young, which naturally feel the stress of an
unfavourable new environment more than the
adults. This is what would happen to the
domestic sheep if the shepherds were not to
take such assiduous care of them in the lambing
season.

Now let us see what other relics of wild life
can be found in the sheep. It is always, as I
have said in a previous chapter, worth while to
examine immature animals, if we wish to find
out the habits of their early ancestors. Young
lambs have enormously developed legs, and are
capable of keeping up with the flock when only
a few hours old. This at once suggests that
they had to run with their parents when wild
sheep moved from place to place, and were not
hidden in secluded spots by their dams. They
have a curious habit of following anything large

and light-coloured which moves quickly away
172 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

from them. A new-born lamb will rush after
a newspaper or any other large and light-coloured
object blown along by the wind, or, as Mr Hud-
son says in ‘The Naturalist in La Plata,’ they
will persistently gallop after a horseman on the
pampas. It is the old and most necessary in-
stinct of following the flock when it was fleeing
from an enemy, but the instinct is at fault in.
civilised regions. Mr Hudson, when speaking
of the habits of sheep in La Plata, alludes to
what he considers to be defective instinct in
lambs due to long domestication. I will quote
the passage in full, because I think another in-
terpretation may be attempted :—

I have frequently observed newly-born lambs on the
pampas, and have never failed to be surprised at the
extreme imbecility they display in their actions, al-
though this may be due partly to inherited degeneracy
caused by domestication. This imbecile condition con-
tinues for two, sometimes for three days, during which
time the lamb apparently acts purely from instincts,
which are far from perfect; but after that, experience
and its dam teach it a better way. When born, its first
impulse is to struggle up on to its feet ; its second, to
suck—but here it does not discriminate like the newly-
hatched bird that picks up its proper food, for it does
not know what to suck. It will take into its mouth
whatever comes near, in most cases a tuft of wool on its
THE SHEEP. 173

dam’s neck ; and at this it will continue sucking for an
indefinite time. It is highly probable that the strong-
smelling secretion of the sheep’s udder attracts the lamb
at length to that part; and without something of the
kind to guide it, in many cases it would actually starve
without finding the teats. I have often seen lambs many
hours after birth still confining their attention to the
most accessible locks of wool on the neck or fore-legs of
the dams, and believe that in such cases the long time
it took them to find the source of nourishment arose
from a defective sense of smell.

Now there is one important physiological law
which has of late come into prominence, which
has a marked bearing upon the question Mr Hud-
son raises. This is the law that nervous pheno-
mena, such as instincts, reflexes, and the like,
are much more fixed and permanent in the animal -
economy than are details of structure in the skin,
muscles, or skeleton. When we find that all our
domestic animals, with the one exception of the
sheep, are capable of resuming their original inde-
pendence without difficulty, in spite of thousands
of years of domestication during which the many
complex and delicate instincts necessary for wild
life lay dormant, one is very reluctant to accept
the theory as to a natural instinct having been
perverted or abolished by domestication. It is
174 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

much more probable, przmd facie, that the change
which has rendered any inbred habit inoperative
has taken place, not in the instinct itself, but in
some detail in the bodily structure or in the ex-
ternal environment. In the example given by
Mr Hudson this seems clearly to be the case,
for we must remember that in the wild state the
sheep has no tufts of wool hanging about its
flanks or belly, and that therefore the udder,
with its inviting teats, is the first thing that pre-
sents itself to the investigating muzzle of the lamb.
Civilisation has shortened the ewe’s legs, and in
this way also has interfered with nature’s adjust-
ment between dam and offspring, and has made
the source of nutriment more difficult to discover.
But here the fault clearly does not lie with the
lamb, which probably acts in precisely the same
manner as did the lambs hundreds of thousands
of years ago. In the same way the habit of fol-
lowing a horseman or a large bunch of pampas
grass blown by the wind, to which Mr Hudson
and other writers allude, may be explained by
changed environment rather than by the develop-
ment of a new and pernicious instinct. Doubtless
on the tops of the Corsican or Thibetan moun-

tains pampas grass and horsemen were as rare
THE SHEEP. 175

as newspapers; and certainly such objects were
never common enough to be taken account of in
the formation of habits of self-preservation.

However white the fleeces of their elders may
be, young lambs are usually of a brownish or
dirty-grey colour (as indeed are all wild sheep),
so as to harmonise with the rocks of their ances-
tral home. When at play they always seek the
steepest parts of the field, and, if there is a rock
or a log lying about, they will skip on to it and
butt at one another, as if playing “ King of the
Castle.” If mountain or moorland sheep on a
hillside are attacked by a dog, they will always,
from choice, run diagonally up-hill. Should a
flock of Southdowns take alarm and break out
from the fold at night, the shepherd knows that
the place to find them is the highest ground in
the neighbourhood.

If a dog enters a field where there are ewes
and lambs, he is watched in the most suspicious
manner, and at once attacked if he comes too
near. Many a valiant puppy, who thought that
sheep were poor spiritless things, has received
treatment which astonished him when he strolled
into the sheep-pasture in the lambing season.
Now dogs are rarely dangerous to domestic
176 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

sheep. The determined hostility shown to them
at such times is a relic of the old, wild instinct,
when the horned flock on the mountain - side
defended their young against jackals, dholes, and
wolves. An angry ewe will stamp her foot when
a dog comes within sight. This is probably a
relic of an ancient method of signalling the
approach of a foe. But it is also a menace; for
many animals akin to the sheep use their sharp
hoofs with terrible effect. Deer will destroy
snakes by jumping on them and ripping them
to ribbons with outward strokes of their hoofs.
Nearly all antelopes use this method of attack,
and incautious hunters have been killed by the
hoofs of the nylghau, the great Himalaya
antelope.

A wild sheep in his native country is no
trifling antagonist. The horns of the Ovzs polz
and argali are enormous, and must be seen to
be appreciated. Sir Joseph Hooker, the great
botanist, says that in Thibet foxes have been
known to make kennels in the hollow horns of
the argali! This sounds rather a “tall” state-
ment, and I confess I should much like to find
one of these hermit-crab-like foxes at home!

Some Indian tame sheep allied to the wild
THE SHEEP. 177

breeds are desperate fellows to fight, and are
exhibited by native potentates matched against
bulls and other animals. Phil Robinson tells a
story of a ram that was sent to the Calcutta
Zoological Gardens, and, since he was of no value
as a curiosity, the keeper thought that he would
make a tit-bit for a venerable tiger. The sheep,
however, being of a pugnacious disposition, “went
for” the tiger as soon as he was put into the cage.
The traveller goes on to tell that, after a sharp
tussle, the sheep killed the tiger! Whether he
ate him afterwards is not related, but one would
not be surprised at anything in such a sheep as
that !

The immense number of varieties of sheep,
and the widely different characters they present,
prove to us that the species has been domesti-
cated for a very long time. If the dog was the
first animal tamed by man, and the goat was
the second, the sheep was almost certainly the
third.

Naturalists are not agreed as to which of the
wild species our modern sheep are descended
from. I think it is probable that they owe their
origin to several kinds, including the moufflon,
the burrhel, and the argali. These, oddly

M
178 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

enough, have short tails, like nearly all dwellers
on high hills. The chief purpose of the tail
among herbivorous animals is to drive away flies,
and on the windy heights these are not trouble-
some. Yet domestic sheep are born with long
tails; and in spite of the long-established practice
of farmers and shepherds of cutting the tails short,
they still persevere in growing them. Here are
two problems for the rising generation of natural-
ists, who, of course, are incalculably smarter and
more intelligent than the old fogies who have
written on such subjects hitherto! Why does
the modern sheep grow a tail ? and why does a
lamb wriggle his tail at meal-times ?

A curious story has been told of wild sheep in
the Rocky Mountains, and in other parts of the
world, which has never, I believe, been verified
by any competent naturalist, yet which, in spite
of its incredible character, one is obliged to con-
sider with some respect. It rests on the testi-
mony of a good many independent although
uncultured observers, and is to the effect that,
when wild sheep are driven to the edge of a
precipice, and find escape impossible, they will
spring over and alight ox their horns, falling
considerable distances without the least injury.
THE SHEEP. 179

Now there appears to me to be one piece of
evidence of an anatomical character which gives
a certain amount of countenance to this strange
tale. Consider for a moment the force of the
impact when two heavy rams, rushing at full
speed from thirty or forty feet apart, crash their
heads together. It not unfrequently happens that
the recoil is so great that both animals are flung
over backwards. The structure of the sheep’s
head, whether he belongs to one of the horned
varieties or not, is extraordinarily adapted for
bearing a tremendous blow from the front, and
the vertebre of the neck are so immensely
strong that they receive the shock without the
least injury. Now a sheep might fall from a
considerable height and alight on his head with-
out the force of the impact being greater than
that which a ram experiences when engaged in a
desperate combat. It would certainly be safer
for a sheep to fall in this way than on its com-
paratively frail legs, especially if it possessed
large and spiral horns, the resilience of which
would break the shock somewhat before it
reached the skull and the spine.

The strange indifference shown by rams to a
blow on the head was demonstrated in an amus-
180 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

ing manner in the case of a farmer of my
acquaintance. This gentleman possessed a large
ram of a very pugnacious disposition. Every
one who entered the field where the sheep grazed
was assaulted by him; and he was seldom con-
tent until he had laid his victims flat upon the
ground. To cure him of this inconvenient habit
his master adopted the following stratagem.
Entering the field unperceived by the ram, he
took his stand against the trunk of a stout oak-
tree which stood near the centre of the pasture.
The instant that the sheep perceived the intruder
on his domain he came trotting towards him, and,
as he drew near, lowered his head and made the
usual blind, headlong charge. The farmer
waited until the animal was about six feet off and
then stepped suddenly aside, with the result that
the ram’s head banged against the rigid trunk of
the tree with a force which, although it did not
shake the latter, hurled him backwards on his
haunches. Although somewhat astonished to
find that he had such an unexpectedly ‘hard
master,’ the sheep’s wits were not sufficiently
alert to enable him to grasp the situation; while
his fighting instinct impelled him to renew the
charge on the instant. The same thing happened
THE SHEEP. 181

again, but the sheep, though equally ‘“ taken
aback,” was not yet daunted. Several times he
renewed the onset, until it at last began to dawn
upon him that something must be wrong, and he

ey y Siac
wines

Le

at

 

A hard master.

trotted off with a shake of the ears, as if feeling
puzzled and out of humour with himself at his
unaccountable failure to knock the man down.
There is another wild habit of sheep which can
be observed wherever a drove is moving along a
182 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

narrow or crowded road. If one gives a leap, all
the others following it on reaching the same spot
follow its example, although there may be no
obstacle whatever for them to jump over. The
whole proceeding looks extremely silly in the
street ; but supposing the flock to be on its native
mountains, one can easily see the value of such a
habit. Wild sheep always appoint sentinels and
leaders, and follow them in the most implicit
manner. Whether the animals are grazing or
are on the move, these sentinels or leaders act
as the eyes of the flock. When all dash off
together among broken ground, or are crowding
along some perilous ledge on the mountain-side,
it would be quite useless for those in the middle
of the band to endeavour to see obstacles at
their feet. Hence each keeps an eye upon the
leader, or upon those immediately in front, and
follows their example. If the leader thinks a
three-foot jump is necessary to clear some
dangerous spot, every sheep in the procession
will take a three-foot jump; if he jumps higher,
they will jump higher, and so on. They carry
out this imitated action with a most extraordinary
precision, even when it has to be transmitted
through a long chain of different individuals.
183

CHAPLER Vil,
THE GOAT.

ALTHOUGH the goat and the sheep are commonly
classed together, and not unfrequently run in
company, there is a great difference between
them in habits and disposition. In the first
place, the goat immediately regains the faculties
which enable it to thrive as a wild animal wher-
ever it escapes from human control. One finds
goats which have run wild almost all the world
over where there are mountains. The goat is
historically a climber among the rocks, whereas
the ancestor of the sheep, unless alarmed by a
foe, fed on the grassy slopes of the hillsides.
Wild goats to this day prefer to live among
precipices and broken crags, and to browse upon
the leaves of the scattered shrubs which find
lodgment in the clefts and crannies. The goat
184 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

is a more sure- footed animal than the sheep,
and, moreover, adopts different methods of pro-
gression when among its native haunts; for
where sheep prefer to jump, goats usually pre-
fer to clamber. One can see by merely ob-
serving the outline of a goat that it is not so
well adapted for jumping, and is better adapted
for climbing, than a sheep. It is altogether
more alert in its movements, and evidently be-
stows more thought on the process of locomo-
tion. Its hinder quarters have not the swelling
muscles which propel the wild sheep from rock
to rock, but are rather lean and light. Hence
the wide distinction (at times overlooked in
Wales) between a leg of goat and a leg of mut-
ton. The great difference shown between the
two animals in character is probably owing to
the fact that, where the wild goats feed, it is
necessary for the herd to become scattered and
for each individual to find its own way. Hence,
doubtless, the remarkable independence of the
goat. Like his fellow-mountaineer, the ass, he
has unshakable nerves, and will keep his presence
of mind even when exposed to sudden and un-
accustomed danger. How great a contrast is

he in this respect to the sheep, which is always
THE GOAT, 185

liable to sudden seizures of panic, and which,
when frightened, invariably loses its head! This
independence and sang-froid of the goat have
proved of service to its masters on many occa-
sions. It used to be the custom in almost all
stables containing a number of valuable horses
to keep a goat, which was allowed the free run
of the building. The reason given was that,
in the case of fire, when terrified horses will
sometimes refuse to leave the stables, and are
therefore in great danger of perishing, such a
goat will lead the way with the most perfect
calmness, and, encouraged by this example, the
bewildered horses will follow it, and so escape
destruction. I do not know personally of any
instance where this has taken place, but the
commonness of the custom asserts that it has
probably been justified by experience. There
seems to be something about a goat’s imper-
turbable character which inspires confidence and
respect in other animals. I have known in-
stances of butchers who have kept goats in
order to entice victims into their slaughter-
yards. Usually as soon as an ox smells the
taint of blood he becomes suspicious and refuses
to go farther, but if preceded by a goat he will
186 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

follow quietly to the place of execution. In like
manner, specially trained goats are constantly
used on the ships which bring sheep from
abroad. At the unloading-places in the Thames
these decoy-goats become very clever at their
business. They will proceed to each part of
the ship where sheep are penned, and lead
forth the huddled and frightened passengers
with very little guidance from their masters ;
and they will proceed in this way in the most
methodical manner until the whole ship is
cleared.

Not only does the goat show more initiative
and greater independence than the sheep, but
he also displays more versatility. This indicates
that, when free, he must have lived a kind of
life involving frequent changes of habit, and
must have been prepared to meet a great range
of emergencies. Mr Romanes, in his book on
‘Animal Intelligence, quotes two “cases of an
intelligent manceuvre performed by goats” which
illustrate the expedients to which these animals
occasionally have to resort :—

On both occasions two goats met on a ridge of rock
with a precipice on each side, and too narrow to admit of
their passing one another. One of these cases occurred
THE GOAT. 187

on the ramparts of Plymouth Citadel, and was witnessed
by many persons; the other took place at Ardenglass,
in Ireland. In both these instances the animals looked
at each other for some time, as if they were considering
their situation, and deliberating what was best to be done
in the emergency. In each case one of the goats then
knelt down with great caution, and crouched as close as
it could lie, when the other walked over its back. This
manceuvre on the part of goats has also been recorded
by other writers, and it is not so incredible as it may at
first sight appear, if we remember that in their wild state
these animals must not unfrequently find themselves in
this predicament.

Intellectually as well as physically the goat is
less specialised for mountain life than the sheep,
and hence he finds it easier to adapt himself to
the environment of the farm. That he is quick
at learning anything new—when he can be in-
duced to give his mind to it—has been shown by
the achievements of a most interesting troop of
performing goats which has been exhibited sev-
eral times in London. Another peculiarity of
the goat tribe which shows that they are less
specialised than the sheep is the way in which
certain varieties tend to resemble kindred animals
which are not goats. Thus there has been a

long controversy as to whether the ‘“ Rocky
188 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Mountain goat” is really a goat or an antelope ;
while some of the wild goats of Northern India
seem to be akin to the sheep tribe, since they
have, on all four feet, certain digital pits or
glands, which were at one time supposed to char-
acterise the genus Ovis.

Another point about the goat which we find
very useful, and which can be accounted for by
ancestral habits, is the liberal supply of milk
which it gives. Primarily this is owing to the
fact that, long before goat’s milk was used by
man, two or three kids had often to be provided
for at the same time; but to some extent the
special utility of the goat as a milch animal is
due to the same wild habit as that which gave
rise to the peculiar usefulness of the cow. The
udder of the ewe is small when compared with
that of a nanny-goat, and contains but little milk
at any one time. In this the ewe resembles the
mare, and the cause is the same in both instances.
When in the wild state, both these animals are
in the habit of keeping their young ones with
them from the first, whereas the cow and the
goat put their tender offspring in hiding when
they go to search for food, and only suckle them
twice or thrice daily. The extreme liveliness,
THE GOAT. 189

intelligence, and the early developed climbing
powers of young kids seem to indicate that they
were soon released from their nurseries in the
clefts of the rocks, and were allowed to accom-
pany their dams. Certainly when compared with
a young calf a kid is a prodigy of intellect.

Almost every movement of a kid proves the
mountain origin of its race. Its powers of climb-
ing are extraordinary, and must be witnessed to
be believed. I have seen them clamber on
slippery roofs and up the almost perpendicular
face of a quarry to places which seemed impos-
sible to reach without the aid of a ladder or the
clinging power of claws or fingers. I remember
once seeing a pair of kids running races up and
down the shafts of a disused farm roller which
were tilted up at an angle of about 45°. On the
extreme ends of the shafts, high in the air, the
little creatures would stand, one on each, and
turn about as on a pivot, with the tips of all four
hooflets close enough together to rest on a
penny-piece.

Such feats on the part of the goat are far more
artistic exhibitions of skill in climbing than any-
thing that can be done by a cat or a monkey;
for he does everything by calculating his distance
190 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

with absolute exactitude, and by an infinitely

delicate power of adjusting his weight so as to

fe fivah 7
fi ilu tl (

WA AS

\ |

 

Kids climbing shafts of roller.

maintain his balance. What gives such finish to

the performance is his sublime confidence in him-
THE GOAT. 191

self, and the extraordinary precision with which
every movement is executed. His judgment is
so perfect that he scarcely ever makes a mistake.
Necessity has been his grim schoolmaster ; for it
is of course easy to see that, when leaping from
ledge to ledge along the face of a precipice, the
least error in calculating either his distance or
the amount of muscular force to be exercised
would instantly prove fatal.

This is a branch of the study of natural
history which has a peculiar fascination for me,
and which, the more I think of it, fills me with
admiration and amazement. What a mathe-
matician the goat would make if he could only
tell us the process by means of which he per-
forms his feats! A Senior Wrangler or a
Smith’s prizeman would be nowhere beside him.
Let me endeavour, very briefly, to point out
the nature of certain problems which he is in
the habit of solving with absolute accuracy at
a moment’s notice. Supposing a goat, follow-
ing a new path, has to take a leap so as to
alight on a pinnacle or narrow crag overhang-
ing some abyss. First of all, he must estimate
the distance to be traversed, and having got
it—whether by trigonometry or by some cap-
192 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

rictous method of his own—he has next to
compute, to the fraction of an ounce how much
propulsive force is required to project his body
(the exact weight of which has to be taken
into account) precisely that distance and not a
quarter of an inch farther. Moreover, he must
take into calculation whether the spot he wishes
to reach is above or below his starting-point ;
and plainly his brain, when it sends forth
motor impulses to the numerous muscles in-
volved, must beforehand reckon out and ap-
portion to each its share in the task. At the
same moment he must also estimate the exact
proportionate amount of muscular force which
will be required in each of his limbs to stop
and balance his body on his new and _ pre-
carious foothold.

Of course one need scarcely say that the
whole process goes on without reaching the
consciousness of the goat, or anything that
could, even by courtesy, be called his mind.
But, nevertheless, it is obvious that, in some
way or other, the calculation is made, and is
completed in a time and with an unerring accur-
acy which completely puts to shame the mathe-
matical triumphs of the human intellect.
THE GOAT. 193

One term habitually—and alliteratively—ap-
plied to the goat appears, when we regard his
feats as a mountaineer, to be singularly inap-
propriate. People speak of him as “giddy”;
and as long as the word is applied exclusively
to his morals (which, judged by our standard,
I admit to be something worse than negative),
I have not a word to say against it. But if any
one ventures to impute physical giddiness to
a goat, he lays himself open to a charge of
false and malicious libel—false, because it must
be obvious to everybody who has seen goats
perched aloft in their native haunts, that they
can never experience any such feeling; and
malicious, because, the goat being above all
things one whose distinct calling it is to climb
in perilous places, the charge is one involving
professional incapacity.

In spite of the goat’s splendid qualities as a
mountaineer, and the toughness and vigour which
he evidently possesses, man has made little or
no use of him as a beast of burden. Doubtless
his small size largely accounts for this; and he
has been, in almost every country where he
could have been of use, cut out by the superior
muscular capabilities of the donkey and the mule.

N
194 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

It is easy to see that, had we been unable to
make use of larger and more robust animals,
the goat might have come to our aid in this
particular kind of service, just as did the llama
among the ancient Peruvians. Moreover, I see
no reason why, under the influence of domestica-
tion and proper selection, his size and strength
should not have been doubled or trebled. We
find, however, in investigating the growth of
civilisation among primitive races, that as soon
as their affairs are complex enough to require
pack-animals, they find it profitable to disregard
the claims of the goat and to take into their
service some more robust creature, such as the
yak, the donkey, or the mule. There are several
reasons for thinking that the goat was one of
the first animals domesticated by man. We find,
from the numerous records of prehistoric races
yielded by the mud on the shores of the Swiss
lakes, that the bones of goats are associated
with human remains belonging to a period long
anterior to that of the advent of the domestic
sheep in Central Europe.

Probably in nearly all cases where savages
have habitually tamed wild animals the custom
has arisen somewhat in the following way. The
THE GOAT. 195

hunter, having killed the dam and captured the
little ones, carried the latter home, very likely
as playthings for his children. If the little
orphans were pretty and playful, they would be
cherished by the “‘squaws” and “ papooses,” and
would become, as it were, members of the family
circle. Now young kids have very engaging
manners, and are to this day universal favourites
with children; hence they would be very likely
to be kept and brought up in some such manner.
Goats, again, require very little looking after ;
they can get a living almost anywhere, and will
remain in the vicinity of their owners without
much herding. Hence they would. suit the
indolent disposition of savages far better than
would animals which require constant attention.
Many of the African races seem to show little
or no faculty for keeping domestic animals, but
one finds that most of them have a few tame
goats about their villages.

Another reason why it seems likely that goats
have been domesticated for a very long time
is the great number of varieties now found in
captivity which are undoubtedly the result of
artificial selection. Some of these have certain
remarkable peculiarities which could only be pro-
196 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

duced by many generations of careful breeding.
Thus the ears of one kind are so enormously
developed as to be 19 inches in length and 434
inches in breadth. Others have an extra pair of
horns; and it is stated by one French writer that
in Nubia they have actually developed a breed
which has no goat-like odour. It seems likely
that the milking qualities of the goat would be
appreciated by primitive people, who would be
quite unable to turn the wool of the sheep to
practical account; and since sheep, when re-
moved from their mountain home, require very
much more care than goats, I should be inclined
to give the latter the prior place in the history of
domestication.

Attention has been drawn to the love of
thistles displayed by donkeys, and to the hint
it gives us of their desert origin. The goat has
some peculiarities of taste of an equally extra-
ordinary character, which may be explained by
an examination of the kind of vegetation which
thrives in his ancestral habitat. A goat will
cheerfully munch up strong cavendish tobacco,
cigar-ends, wormwood, red chillies, or almost any
vegetable substance the pungency or nauseous-

ness of which deters other animals. Now we
THE GOAT. 197

find that among the Southern rocks nearly every
herb and shrub has a markedly bitter or aromatic
character, partly induced, doubtless, by the abun-
dant sunshine, and partly as a defence from the
depredations of animal life. That the goat is
indifferent to some of the most deterrent flavours
is probably due to the fact that for many genera-
tions he has been obliged to exist upon highly-
spiced pabulum of this kind.

One peculiarity about the goat I only ven-
ture to mention (not that he is reticent on the
subject himself), because it illustrates by what
diverse means nature attains like ends. Now
among animals and plants, as well as in the
commercial world, the business of life cannot
be done without advertisement. The wild ass
uses his sonorous voice in proclaiming his pres-
ence to all whom it may concern within the
radius of half a mile. Now the goat has a
comparatively feeble voice, and yet he also
has occasion to make himself known to any
friends or rivals who may be in his_ neigh-
bourhood. He does it silently — but in this
instance silence is wholly unconnected with
modesty. He so arranges matters as to make
it abundantly evident to the nostrils of every
198 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

living thing within an area quite equal to that
dominated by the voice of the ass, that he is
at home.

Professor Lloyd Morgan, in one of his de-
lightful books about animals, indulges in what
Louis Stevenson might term a ‘romantic
evasion” when he speaks of the “natural pat-
chouli” of the billy-goat. Whether the use of
this somewhat strained euphemism be due to
respect for a national emblem of the Welsh,
or whether the learned and gentle Professor
desires to lessen the inevitable shock to our
feelings which must ensue from his further as-
sertion that that most worthy and respectable
female, the nanny- goat, takes a gross pleasure
in the effluvium, I cannot say. Professor Lloyd
Morgan’s statements are worthy of all respect;
but, if I have any choice in the matter, I
would much rather believe that feminine taste,
however capricious, could never sink to such
an abysmal depravity. Needless to say, this
wild trait in the goat is not one which man
has studiously cultivated. There may have been
circumstances under which it took its place
among the virtues —where, in fact, it contrib-

uted to that “odour of sanctity” demanded by
THE GOAT. 199

hircine moral ideals. But we will avoid the
risk of mental overstrain by not striving to ex-
plain or imagine how such could ever have been
the case.

The goat is an excellent example of what
seems to be a general law—namely, that when
mountain animals are tamed and are removed
from their natural habitat, they tend to dimin-
ish in size. Oddly enough, the converse holds
good with many creatures coming from more
fertile and favourable situations: thus no wild
horses ever reach the size of the modern
hunter ; while the huge dray-horse, so commonly
seen in our streets, would appear a stupendous
monster if put side by side with his ancient
European ancestors. Both the sheep and the
ass also exemplify the above law; for, in spite
of their having received the advantages of
human protection and of a more regular and
abundant dietary than they ever enjoyed in the
wild state, they are, as a general rule, markedly
inferior in size and robustness to their wild
surviving relatives, to whom ease and plenty
are all but unknown. These facts seem to show
that the average size of the animals of any

species (of course we are not here speaking of
200 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

individuals) is not directly dependent upon ease
and an abundant food-supply, or the reverse.
Size, after all, is only one of the many con-
ditions which go to make up conformity with
environment. If animals find it profitable,
whether for purposes of war or for the sake
of gaining sustenance, to be large, they will
tend to increase in bulk from generation to
generation. If, on the other hand, they find
it easier to maintain the struggle for existence
when they are small, each generation will lessen
them. Moreover (and this is more to the point
in the question as to why mountain animals
tend to degenerate when they are domesticated),
if the pressure of circumstances which is forcing
them to be large or to be small be removed,
they seem to revert to some ancient standard
of bulk which was probably maintained with-
out material alteration throughout an immense
epoch before the later circumstances which in-
fluenced their size came into operation. And
this traditional average standard may be said
to be (in so far as that often misused phrase
is allowable) the “natural size” of the animals.

One inference which arises from this suggested

explanation is that mountain animals are de-
THE GOAT. 201

rived from an ancestry inferior to most of the
modern species still living in a state of free-
dom; and that the degeneration which appar-
ently sets in as soon as such creatures are re-
moved from their mountain homes represents
a reversion to a more primitive lowland type.
Although in drawing such inferences one is ob-
liged to depend to a certain extent upon guess-
work, there are various grounds for adopting
this view. Every natural mountaineer, as I
explained in a previous chapter, first sought
refuge among inaccessible heights because it
was persecuted by the Carnivora in its original
dwelling-place. We still find many herbivorous
animals living where beasts of prey are most
plentiful; but they are usually either extremely
swift and vigilant like the antelopes, or well
armed and powerful like the buffalo. Naturally
the fugitives which sought safety among barren
and storm-swept mountains would be those un-
able to hold their own elsewhere. Thus it
seems probable that the weakest and least swift
of the ancient Herbivora fled to the hills and
became adapted for a highland life. If so,
such robustness as they now possess is strictly
of mountain origin, and hence when they are
202 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

removed to lower levels where the surroundings
somewhat resemble those of their pre-mountain-
ous days, they miss the physical stimulus of a
life at high altitudes and tend to become both
smaller and weaker. We must not, however,
while engaged in speculations of this kind, lose
sight of the fact that there have been few
attempts on the part of the breeders to increase
the size of any of the above-named animals.

The goat, being a mountain animal, is well
protected against the cold, and we find that in
some varieties there is a most abundant fleece
of soft, silk-like wool. But the wool of the
goat differs materially from that of the sheep,
and the reason is not difficult to explain. Goats,
from their habit of browsing among shrubs, need
to be able to force their way through thickets
without injury either to their coats or to their
skin ; whereas the sheep, living on the open hill-
side, is enveloped in a covering which is merely
calculated for warmth, and is not fitted to stand
much wear and tear. Hence we find that the
wool of the goat does not “felt” and become
tangled together in a mass like that of the sheep.
Microscopically the fibres are much smoother
and more compact, and lack the saw-like edges
THE GOAT. 203

of true wool. In fact, the silky fleece of the
Angora goat reminds one of the soft locks which
grow on the head and beneath the coarser hair
of the Skye terrier, whose aptitude for work
among gorse and brambles is proverbial. Man
finds that this special adaptation of the goat's
natural covering to bear friction among rocks
and thorns is an extremely useful one when
he uses the wool for his own purposes. Some
of the very toughest woven fabrics we have
(such as that now largely used for umbrellas)
are made of goat’s hair. For long ages the
Cashmere goat has been shorn to make the
beautiful materials woven by natives of that
country. The history of the introduction of
mohair (which is a wool of the Angora goat)
is one of the well-known romances of the his-
tory of commerce. It is now used in enormous
quantities in the manufacture of soft wear-re-
sisting fabrics. Not only is the hair of the goat
more fitted for standing wear and tear than that
of the sheep, but one also finds that its skin
is tougher, and therefore more useful to man.
When properly prepared it can be rendered ex-
ceedingly soft without its strength being in any
way diminished. Hence its great value for the
204 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

manufacture of gloves, and for other purposes
where such qualities are necessary. Doubtless
the reason why a pair of kid gloves wears well
nowadays is because, thousands of years ago,
the forefathers of the original owner of the
material had to have skins which would stand
continual contact with the rough and thorny
vegetation prevalent in regions where wild goats
make their homes.

A comparison of the horns of the sheep with
those of the goat also reveals to us the difference
of habit which has so affected the fleece in the
two animals. The spiral horns of the sheep are
exceedingly ill adapted for passing through
thickets, because it is obvious that they would
constantly become entangled and hinder the pro-
gress of the animal. Among some very ancient
records of human affairs we find an example of
this—for did not Abraham find ‘“‘a ram caught in
a thicket by the horns” when he was about to
sacrifice Isaac? The very fact that a sheep
usually is unable to disentangle himself if hung
up in the bushes proves that the position is an
unaccustomed one; although it does seem rather
odd that fighting rams, whose horns have become
hooked together, and who, one would think, would
THE GOAT. 205

be well used to such an accident, seldom have the
sense to make the half turn of their corkscrew-
like weapons which would suffice to set both
prisoners of war at liberty. Instances have been
known of sheep having perished, head to head,
because they had not sufficient wit—or possibly
too much obstinacy—to detach themselves from
one another.

Now the horns of the goat are never curled so
as to make it dangerous for him to pass through
tangled briers or closely set underwood. He has
merely to lift his nose and his horns lie back on
each side of his spine or curve down his shoulders
and serve as a protection for his body when he
is forcing his way among the thorny scrub of the
hillside.

It has been frequently asserted by hunters that
the ibex and other wild goats, when hard pressed,
will throw themselves over precipices and alight
on their horns. Mr Hutton (quoted by Professor
Lloyd Morgan) says that he has seen captive wild
goats use their horns for this purpose. There is
not the peculiar anatomical reason for accepting
such a story which we find in the skull and cervi-
cal vertebre of the sheep. Goats do not fight by
hurling themselves against one another, head to
206 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

head, as is the custom with rams. Their com-
paratively light weight and their greater activity
induce them to adopt a different method of attack.
A goat when face to face with an adversary will
usually rear on its hind-legs and strike a down-
ward blow with the rasp-like front edges of his
horns. This doubtless explains the peculiar cor-
rugations upon the horns of the ibex. Such a
habit does not necessitate that immense strength
in the sinews and bones of the head and neck
which is possessed by the fighting ram. Still,
since the front of the wild goat’s horns are plainly
constructed by nature to give and receive severe
blows, it is quite possible that they may be suf-
ficiently strong and elastic to receive the weight
of the animal when it falls from a moderate
height.

As regards the future of the goat one can now
speak rather more cheerfully than would have
been possible before the hidden excellences of
his fleece were discovered. Until comparatively
lately the general tendency has been for the goat
to act merely as a kind of temporary makeshift
among domestic animals; for we find that advanc-
ing civilisation has almost always replaced him by
others whose serviceable qualities have proved
THE GOAT. 207

better adapted to human needs. In fact, his fate
has been that of the ‘“jack-of-all-trades” who is
“master of none” all the world over. But there
are some regions of the earth where his star is
decidedly in the ascendant, and where it is not
likely to decline for a very long period. On the
exposed and parched tablelands of South Africa,
where at one time antelopes innumerable found
sustenance, goats, probably because of their kin-
ship to the antelope family, thrive better than do
any other imported animals. The thorny shrubs
and brown shrivelled herbage of the Karroo,
which seem to the European traveller to be of
the most unpromising character as fodder, afford
the goat abundant nourishment.

Not long ago, it may be remembered, a well-
known South African statesman went on a
mysterious visit to the Sultan of Turkey. As
this gentleman is popularly supposed to be
always engaged in some deep and dreadful
plot, sundry disquieting rumours got afloat as
to the purport of his mission. At last some
keen - witted journalist wormed out the awful
secret. It was this: His Highness the Padi-
shah happened to possess some particularly fine
Angora goats, and the gentleman in question
208 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

was desirous of ‘doing a deal” with him, so
as to improve the quality of Cape mohair.
When the supposed Machiavellian intrigue was
declared to be merely a pastoral incident of
the mildest and most commonplace kind, some
wise folk refused to believe that Mr Cecil
Rhodes and Dr Jameson would travel all the
way to Constantinople merely for the sake of
buying a few billy-goats. But the future will
probably show that this patriarchal piece of
traffic has done more for the permanent wealth
of South Africa than “all the gold of the
Rand.”
209

CPAP TEAR. VLE,
THE PIG.

THE pig and the sheep may be classed apart from
other domestic animals in one particular: man
makes but little use of them during their lifetime.
With the exception of the tribute of wool which
he exacts from the sheep—and occasionally the
contribution of bristles which he wrests with ori-
ental brutality from the reluctant boar—he chiefly
benefits by appointing himself their sole heir and
executor, and then arranging for their seasonable
demise.

Beyond this unfortunate fellowship, the sheep
and the pig have but little in common either in
habits or history. The more we examine them
the more evident it becomes that they have been
developed among utterly different surroundings.
Yet in each case the special characteristics which

O
210 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

render the animals valuable to us were of essen-
tial service in preserving them from extinction
during long epochs before the commencement of
their captivity.

We now chiefly regard a live hog as so much
perambulating bacon. His other qualities, both
moral and physical, are almost totally eclipsed, as
far as we are concerned, by ideas about the
number of pounds of pork which we hope—and
intend—to inherit from him. Yet, as I hope to
show, the pig is by no means the gross and un-
intelligent beast he is supposed to be by many
people who have to do with him. There are
certain points in his character which it is difficult
to describe or appraise without using terms which
"we generally consider appropriate to the highest
human virtues.

But since we always put the pig’s carcass
before his soul, and, when considering the car-
cass, think chiefly about the amount of grease
which it contains, let us first inquire whence he
gets his most praiseworthy aptitude for laying on
fat. Of course it is plain that no wild animal
could long exist in the condition of the prize hogs
which we see exhibited in agricultural shows.

Long-continued and assiduous care has been
THE PIG. 211

exercised by men in enhancing this one quality
in the domestic breeds both in America and
Europe, and to an even greater extent in the far
East. Indeed we are indebted to the ingenious
Chinaman for the delicate flavour of our pork in
nearly as great a degree as for our tea and China
teacups. If any of my readers require an au-
thoritative account of how, why, and when the
Chinese began to cook pork, I must refer them
to Chardes Lamb’s “ Dissertation on Roast Pig.”
This still holds the field, in spite of “recent
advances in science and literature,” as undoubt-
edly the most masterly monograph on the subject
which has ever been penned. At any rate, I have
never heard that the statement there put forward
as to the origin of “crackling” has ever been
seriously controverted.

The wild boar of Europe is an uncouth and
scraggy giant when compared with our domestic
swine. He would need a vast deal of civilising
before his gaunt and sinewy frame could be
cushioned over with the thickness and quality of
adipose tissue which is deemed orthodox in his
‘kinsman whose mission it is to die for humanity.
Very many years ago breeders found that the
European pigs were much improved by being
212 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

crossed with the Chinese. These are of a
different race altogether, and are not found wild
anywhere at the present day. The careful Mon-
golians have kept and improved them for untold
centuries, and this doubtless accounts for their
superiority from the farmer’s point of view.
Nearly all our breeds of domestic swine—such
as the Sussex, the Berkshire, and the white
Yorkshire varieties—show distinct signs—both
outward and inward—of Celestial descent. Until
comparatively lately the Irish pig—whether from
a sense of patriotism or under coercion I cannot
say—maintained his national independence. He
was a creature in shape somewhat resembling a
tailless and scaleless crocodile which had been
pinched sideways and mounted on stilts. His
snout was of enormous length, his back was con-
vex from end to end, not with a soft, blubber-like
layer of fat, but with corrugated bony promin-
ences arranged like the stones of an arch. He
was probably—like his masters—the direct de-
scendant of certain pristine monarchs of the soil
who owed neither blood nor allegiance to any
foreign nation (whether Saxon or Chinese) to the
east of St George’s Channel. His modern rep-
resentatives have, however, conformed to the
THE PIG. 213

current fashion, and are now but little different
from the other civilised pigs throughout Europe
and America.

In my childhood I remember learning some
verses in which an aboriginal Irish pig—described
as “very lean and tall, with long hind-legs ’—
was represented as making a speech (of an unusu-
ally ungallant character for any being hailing
from that polite country) to a Chinese sow who
inhabited an adjoining sty. It ran somewhat as

follows :—

“If you and I were bacon, ma’am, the difference between
An Irish and a Chinese pig would scarcely then be seen.”

Now, apart from the moral at the end (for I
have an impression that there was an excellent
moral), this didactic effort can scarcely be com-
mended. A closer adherence to Baconian meth-
ods would have convicted the poet—out of his
own mouth—of his error. Both to the eye and
to the palate the difference is very considerable.
Although the table qualities of our domestic
swine are to a great extent due to the care of the
early gourmands of the East, their disposition to
lay on an enormous amount of fat in a short

space of time dates back to an age far beyond
214 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

the beginning of Chinese civilisation. This
rapid acquisition of adipose tissue was a most
necessary habit in the case of the pig’s wild an-
cestors in any but the most favoured climates ;
for in all probability the hog which did not get
fat in the autumn would perish during a hard
winter,

To the casual observer there is not much in
common between fat pork and honey, although
analysts tell us that they are chemically very
similar. Yet in both cases they were in the first
place stores of heat-giving material laid up for
winter use by their respective owners, which man,
the Arch-plunderer, has appropriated for his own
purposes. There is this difference, however, that
whereas the bees accumulate their savings in a
joint-stock bank, the pig carries his about with
him.

Throughout the spring and summer in North-
ern and Central Europe the wild hog, by dili-
gently grubbing for roots and whatever else he
could find, managed to make a bare living. If
his present habits are a true record of his past
history, he must have had a hard struggle even
through these softer seasons. His passionate

addiction to ‘“rooting,” which is so inveterate
THE PIG. 215

that it can only be prevented, even in a well-fed
hog, by piercing his nose with an iron ring, and
the fierce eagerness with which he devours the
coarsest food put before him, show that strenuous
and unfailing attention to the main business of
life (which with him, as with all of us, is to avoid
extinction) was forced upon him by circumstances.

When the autumn came and the acorns and
beech-mast fell he revelled in plenty. Moreover,
at this season many of his enemies, such as the
bears, were feasting on the ripe berries and nuts,
so that he was left in comparative peace. The
result was that in the few weeks between the fall
of the mast and the first severe weather he filled
out amazingly. Then came the winter, during
which he had to face the cold and find what food
he could beneath the snow or on the surface of
the hard frozen ground. Towards the end of the
cold season commenced the most trying time of
all: the ground was still hard with frost, so that
even a hog’s indomitable snout, with the pig-
headed resolution behind it to ‘“‘root or die,”
could not unearth anything of value. By this
time, also, every nut or acorn in the forest had
been picked up by the thousands of hungry

searchers. The pig was no longer fat; his in-
216 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

ward store had wellnigh been consumed. It was
always an anxious question with him whether he
would “save his bacon” until the breaking of
the frost. We know that in every hard winter
when the cold lasts a few days or weeks longer
than usual, thousands of birds and other wild
creatures perish. Nature so nicely computes her
annual estimates that there is seldom any surplus
even in an average season. It is during winters
and droughts of unusual severity that the elimin-
ative force of adverse circumstances (of which
Darwin makes so much) makes itself most ap-
_ parent.

You will thus see that the hog which had
amassed within his own private bank a shilling’s
worth of adipose savings more than his fellows,
would in an exceptionally protracted and inclem-
ent winter be one of the few to survive. He
would naturally transmit his talents to his pro-
geny ; and thus it comes about that in the present
day no animal so handsomely responds to liberal
feeding as the domestic pig.

Many other beasts which lived under some-
what similar conditions share with the hog this
faculty for accumulating a store of fat during the

autumn, or whenever food is specially abundant,
THE PIG. 217

but in no other case has it been taken advantage
of by man to such an extent.

I am not aware whether any wild hogs are
in the habit of laying up a store of food out-
side their own skins. One often notices a pig
carrying a potato or some such morsel in his
mouth for a considerable time, but I have never
known one to attempt to conceal food after the
manner of dogs, squirrels, rooks, and many
other creatures which have to provide against
periodical scarcity. One faculty of the pig of
which man makes use occasionally is a further
proof of the stress to which he was subjected
in times of famine. He has an extraordinary
power of scenting certain roots and fungi which
are concealed beneath the ground, and the
truffle-hunters of Perigord have frequently em-
ployed pigs to aid them in their search for
these delicacies. That his olfactory sense is
by no means contemptible has also been shown
by his success, under proper training, in imi-
tating the useful habits of the pointer and
other dogs.

Many animals have an extraordinary and in-
explicable faculty for discovering hidden stores

of food, which reminds us of the mysterious
218 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

gift ascribed to some persons of finding water
or metals in places where they are quite con-
cealed from the ordinary senses. Squirrels will
without the least difficulty find stores of nuts
and acorns buried far from any tree or other
perceptible landmark, even when the ground is
covered by a recent layer of snow; and still
more wonderful stories are told of rats, termites,
and other creatures. Apparently, however, the
hog, although, with the exception of ourselves,
perhaps the most versatile and resourceful mam-
mal in existence, does not possess any mental
faculties of this mysterious order.

There are two other bodily peculiarities of the
pig which we find of especial value—viz., his
tough skin and bristly coat. We will now
briefly discuss the natural origin of these.

We have seen that the horse, the ass, the
sheep, and the goat found it necessary to re-
tire from low and marshy regions where cover
was abundant, and which swarmed with vora-
cious foes. Not so the wild hog: he stayed
and faced the danger. If you observe the
shape of a lean pig, you see at once that he
has been built for forcing his way through

dense cane-brakes and jungles. He is shaped
THE PIG. 219

something like a submarine boat or a White-
head torpedo. His nose is the thin end of a
wedge (or rather a cone) for forcing apart the
close-set stems of his native thickets. His
hide, especially about the shoulders and_ back,
is extraordinarily tough. The bristly cover-
ing of the wild hog is a perfect protection
against the thorns, which, however pointed and
curved, slide along among the stiff elastic hairs
without impediment and without reaching the
skin at all. Hence he will plunge at head-
long speed through dense masses of bramble
and brier where no other animal of his size
and weight can follow. If any of us were to
pursue the same track we should get our
clothes, and afterwards our skins, torn to
shreds. He merely gets his hair thoroughly
combed, and rather likes it than otherwise.
Another attribute traceable to the needs of
wild life among swine of which the farmer avails
himself, is the proverbial greediness to which
I have incidentally alluded. Now, we do not,
when using our civilised ethical standards, regard
gluttony as a virtue. But supposing a man
were so situated that it was his one supreme
duty to devour all the food he could get, it
220 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

would be decidedly immoral for him to abstain
from doing so. As we have seen, there were
frequent occasions when the wild pig which
wished to survive during a time of scarcity was
bound by every law of nature to “gather gear
with every wile” that his porcine intellect could
suggest. Survival was to him the great aim
of existence; and to neglect any means which
might contribute to preserving his precious life
would have been therefore grossly sinful, ac-
cording to piggish canons.

Many of the pristine bestial virtues which we
have been discussing have an unhappy way of
changing into vices when their possessors be-
come subject to man. Instances of these are
seen in the shying and bucking of the horse,
-and in the pugnacity of the adolescent bull.
But in this particular case the corrupting in-
fluence of civilisation is not seen. If any dis-
tortion of primitive porcine morals has taken
place, it seems to have been cancelled by a
lucky turn of circumstances. When farmers
are anxious that their hogs should fatten rapidly
they are careful to put several together in a
sty. Now the gross appetites and inordinate

desires of his wild and wanton past become
THE PIG. 221

means of grace. For is it not the one chief
aim—and end—of the pig’s changed life to
provide fat pork for the enjoyment of others ?
When a pig is alone in a sty he will often
take his meals in an indifferent and leisurely
manner, and as often as not, if abundantly sup-
plied with “wash,” he will leave some of it
in the trough until it becomes sour and un-
eatable. But when several are domiciled to-
gether, the beautiful influence of competition,
which we so often admire in human affairs,.
comes to the aid of the farmer. The instant
that the pail is emptied into the hog-trough
there is an eager rush to the spot—each pig
thrusting its fellows aside and plunging its
snout deep into the fluid in order to get as
much property as possible into the only strong-
room he knows of where his goods are in peace.
So determined is every pig not to let his fellows
have an undue share, that they all will con-
tinue diligently sucking up the fattening ‘‘ wash”
until not a drop is left.

Travellers tell us that in certain parts of Africa,
where an indispensable portion of a young lady’s
dowry is physiologically of the same nature as
the personal wealth of the hog, it is the custom
222 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

among match-making mothers anxious to get

their daughters “off” to put a huge bowl of

milk before a damsel, and at the same time to
apply a switch sharply and continuously to her
back with the view of stimulating her appetite.
Only when the milk is all swallowed and is
fairly on its way to enhancing the ddébutante’s
charms (according to Ethiopian ideals) the wes
a tergo ceases to operate. Comparing the two
methods of obtaining a like result employed by
the British agriculturist and the African mother
respectively, I think it will be acknowledged that
the artifice employed by the former is more
worthy of the human intellect. Its economical
soundness alone justifies his claim to a higher
civilisation.

The true wild swine, and the feral hogs which
have escaped from captivity in various parts of
the world, go about in herds for mutual protec-
tion; and when one is attacked the others are
generally ready to stand by him and defend him.
This affords an explanation of the original use
of the shrill voice of the pig, and of his readi-
ness to exercise it whenever he is in trouble.
In fact, whenever you hear a pig squealing,

you hear a testimony to the intrepid deeds of
“AGVUNOD V ONINOSAY ANIMAS GIL

 

 
THE PIG. 223

his race in the past, as eloquent and emphatic
as a Fourth of July oration, In the wild state
it was his appeal for help, to which he knew
his brethren, one and all, would respond with
splendid loyalty and courage. Many a hunter
has had to climb a tree to save his life after
wounding one of a herd of peccaries. Now
the hog would not expend his breath in ear-
splitting squeaks unless he felt pretty sure of
getting some benefit from so doing. His squeal-
ing, therefore, amounts to a lively expression
of faith in the noble moral qualities of his
brethren. It conveys precisely the same sen-
timent as do the words of a stump orator when
he says: ‘Gentlemen, | well know your con-
stancy and your courage! You have proved
many times in the past that you are worthy
of all trust when the party is in danger! I
confidently look to you, therefore, to stand by
me in the present tremendous crisis.”

The continual grunting of the pig is also of
interest, as revealing something of the condi-
tions of life of his wild ancestors. A herd of
swine searching for food in the long grass of
the jungle or among the brackens of a Euro-

pean forest would soon lose sight of one another,
224 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

and would be in danger of becoming separated
and destroyed piecemeal by pork - eating foes.
But the grunts of each would still advertise his
presence to his hidden neighbours; and so the
individual members of the herd would never
lose touch with the main body. Then there
are grunts and grunts. If one of my readers
will imitate the ingenious Mr Garner, and take
a phonograph to the nearest pigsty, he might
get material to make up a book on the language
and grammar of the hog. However thick the
jungle, the wild pig could, by taking note of
the pitch and emphasis of the grunts to right
and left of him, tell pretty much what his hidden
colleagues were thinking about.

There is another peculiarity of the Suide,
or pig tribe, which is of great importance to
the farmer, and which at the same time tells
a tragic tale of the circumstances of the early
forefathers of our domestic hogs. They are very
prolific, and produce from half-a-dozen to twenty
at a birth; whereas the other animals which we
have discussed produce, as a rule, only one or two.

Now, in a state of freedom the number of
individuals of an established species remains

fairly constant from year to year. If they
THE PIG. 225

doubled every year, the world would soon be
overpopulated. Supposing they increased ten-
fold and could find sustenance, it would not
take many generations to pack the whole sur-
face of the earth with hogs as closely as a
Chicago pork-factory-yard before a grand kill.
There must, therefore, be a corresponding de-
struction of life to make up for the annual
increase, or, more properly speaking, the nor-
mal rate of increase becomes adjusted to the
amount of annual waste.

But what a state of affairs this reveals! Out
of every family of from a dozen to twenty only
one or two were left alive by the following
spring. Truly, the pig paid dearly for his
pig - headedness in sticking to the forest and
the swamp! The wolf, the bear, the lynx,
and the panther were the chief factors in this
fearful process of subtraction. You may take
it as a general law that when a beast is a
member of a large family born at the same
time as himself, his prospects of long life are
not good. A life assurance society would not
take him at any price—except in the annuity
department—nor would a company which grants
compensation for accidents.

p
226 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

The natural term of life of the pig is longer
than that of the sheep, and the frightful mor-
tality implied by the above facts is therefore
due to violence in nearly every case. If he
is not made a meal of by a prowling enemy,
he will probably be killed in battle; for most
wild boars will cheerfully attack anything, from
a kitten to a locomotive.

Even this reckless valour of the pig has
been made use of by man in the districts which
once swarmed with rattlesnakes; and, curiously
enough, directly the grunting warrior appears,
the snake seems to know that he has met his
match. I should not wonder if some very re-
mote and gallant ancestors of the hog bore the
brunt of that deadly war between the reptilian
and the warm-blooded inhabitants of the earth
to which I have several times alluded.

If so, we owe him a debt of gratitude greater
than we imagine. What if, after all, ‘the
gintleman that pays the rint” were the real
St Patrick who cleared Ireland of snakes ?
227

CHAPTER. 2,
THE CAT.

ALTHOUGH cats live in closer association with
mankind than do any other domestic animals, they
have been less influenced by us, both as regards
their bodies and their mental habits, than any of -
the creatures which we have been discussing. All
the rest have become man’s slaves or servants, al-
though in some cases they may be said to attain
to a more equal and honourable relationship.
But the cat can scarcely be classed as a servant,
since it seldom yields to restraint or acts under
orders ; and, moreover, its co-operative relations
with mankind are of a very loose and limited
character. Even if we regard the cat as a part-
ner, we must acknowledge that it takes a very
free-and-easy view of the bond. It comes and

goes when it chooses, transacts its share of the
228 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

business of the firm (in the rat and mouse de-
partment) strictly in its own way, selects its mates
with an utter disregard of the views of its human
colleagues, and habitually keeps outrageous hours.
We, many of us, put up with a great deal from
our servants and co-workers, but what employer
or member of a firm would tolerate from his
associates in business brawls and riotous orgies
on his roof at two o'clock in the morning?

In fact, if we were to seek for any parallel
relationship existing between human beings, we
should find it rather in the case of two indepen-
dent people who occasionally find it convenient to
share premises or to transact business in com-
pany, than where there is a definite tie, such as
exists between partners or between employer or
employed.

We may expect, therefore, to find remaining in
the cat a great many attributes which were de-
veloped, not to meet any present needs, but to
enable it to encounter the emergencies of a wild
life in the forest before it joined its fortunes with
those of man.

All the cat’s habits show it to be by nature
a solitary animal. Even in early life, when

family ties necessarily bring out the instinct of
THE CAT. 229

association, this is apparent. If you compare the
play of puppies with that of kittens, you will find
in the one case that companionship of some kind
is an essential, for if a puppy has no playmate of
his own species he will always try to make one
of the nearest biped; whereas a cork or a bit
of string is all that is necessary to satisfy the re-
quirements of the kitten. The way in which the
cat takes its food is a sure sign that, in its natural
state, it is not in the habit of associating with
greedy companions. When given something to
eat, it first carefully smells the morsel, then takes
it in a deliberate and gingerly way, and sits down
to finish it at leisure. There is none of that in-
clination to snatch hastily at any food held before
it which we observe even in well-trained dogs ;
nor does a cat seem in any hurry to stow
its goods in the one place where thieving rivals
cannot interfere with them. Indeed no greater
contrast in natural table manners can be observed
anywhere than when we turn from the kennel or
the pigsty and watch the dainty way in which a
cat takes its meals. That a cat allows people to
approach it while it is feeding without showing
jealousy, proves that it does not attribute to

human beings like tastes with its own. A dog
230 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

which is engaged with a bone growls if his master
draws near, and the probable reason is that,
having accepted his human friends as members of
his pack, it seems to him probable that his master
would like to steal the bone and gnaw it himself.
Cats, indeed, appear to regard human beings who
may be domiciled with them rather as part of the
furniture than as comrades. We are probably, to
the feline mind, merely so many items of en-
vironment which might affect a cat’s safety or
comfort. I do not say that some muddle-headed
ideas of comradeship may not occasionally arise ;
but from the action of cats generally, this, or
something like it, seems to be the prevailing view.
We must remember that the cat has acquired no
new instincts since it left its den in the wilds and
came into our houses, and that all its present
innate habits were primarily adjusted to the
conditions of a free life in the forest. Possibly,
therefore, where the dog transfers his loyalty and
esprit de corps from the pack to his new associates,
the cat, having no such social traditions or pre-
conceptions, merely transfers instinctive notions
about trees, wind, and weather. While I was
considering the probable view held by cats about

human beings, it was suggested by one ingenious
THE CAT. 231

friend that they may look upon man as a kind of
locomotive tree, pleasant to rub against, the lower
limbs of which afford a comfortable seat, and
from whose upper branches occasionally drop
tit-bits of mutton and other luscious fruits! We
may laugh at this hypothesis, but certainly in
many ways the cat’s behaviour gives colour to it.
If the ancients found no difficulty in imagining
that beings bearing human shape habitually
changed places with trees, why should not the cat
transfer its pristine instinctive notions concerning
trees to men? It would be but one instance of
the extremely common habit of arguing by
analogy from the known to the unknown. Cer-
tainly the wild cat was a solitary roamer, securing
its prey, as a rule, without any aid from its kind.
In a sense the trees were its chief friends, for it
found a comfortable home in the hollow trunks,
and a safe refuge from its foes among the
branches.

Howcan we tell that the cat’s ancient dwelling-
place was in the forest? Firstly, because every
kitten takes to climbing trees almost as readily as
a young duck takes to water; and, secondly, be-
cause almost all cats are striped or mottled after
a fashion almost invariably adopted by denizens of
232 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

the woods. This system of coloration has the
advantage of rendering animals inconspicuous
when living among trees, where the light, shining
through the leaves above, generally falls in spots
and streaks upon the evenly coloured bark and
upon the ground below. Furthermore, nearly all
the wild cats, which show a marked family resem-
blance to our tame varieties, seem to prefer a life
in the woods,

Since the cat habitually preys upon animals
smaller and weaker than itself, it seldom needs
to resort to co-operation. Moreover, mice and
small birds could not be hunted profitably except
in the true feline style. A mouse is generally
close to a hole or some other place of refuge,
and a bird will be safe upon the wing within a
second of the time when it perceives an enemy.
Hence the best way of capturing such creatures
is by lying in ambush, or by adopting the method
known among backwoodsmen as “ still-hunting.”
Not only has the cat no need for comrades when
following its usual prey, but it has the best of
reasons for preferring room to company. When
your game (and your dinner) is a mouse or a
sparrow, the fewer partners you have to share

it with you the better. If the dog’s hunting
THE CAT. 233

motto is ‘The more the merrier,” the cat's is
“The fewer the better fare.”

It is often remarked that cats are more at-
tached to places than to persons, whereas a
dog will always prefer to accompany his human
friends, and will make himself at home with
them anywhere. Here again we see remnants
of certain ancient habits. Wild cats usually
choose some fixed spot as their permanent head-
quarters, and devote their attention to the game
in the immediate neighbourhood. Hence when
the cat takes part in our civilisation, the house
where it lives and is fed is regarded in the
same light as was the den it used to select for
itself among the gnarled roots of some forest
tree. Wild animals of the dog tribe, —such as
wolves, jackals, and dholes, —on the contrary,
range a great extent of country, and, except
when breeding, make their lair wherever night
finds them. Darwin pointed out that when-
ever a dog lies down he curls himself around
several times as if he were trampling and twist-
ing long grass into a comfortable nest. Each
member of the pack regards himself as at home
as long as he is with his fellows. Of course

when a swift creature, such as a deer or an
234 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

antelope, is run down, the chase would often
end many miles away from the starting-point,
and the weary and gorged pack would lie down
to sleep in the nearest place where a tolerable
bed could be found.

There is little doubt that the cat first came
into association with man in the same way as
did many other of our domestic animals—viz.,
through primitive hunters carrying helpless young
ones to their wigwams as playthings for their
children. No savage in his senses would have
brought home a full-grown wolf or wild cat
with an idea of taming it. Probably, as in the
case of the kid, it was the natural playfulness
and prettiness of the little creatures which first
made them welcome inmates in the primitive
household.

The young wild cat would grow up regarding
the habitation of the savage as its home. Guided
by its natural instincts or urged by hunger (for
we know that our early forefathers were often
in want), it would soon become expert in catching
small birds and animals, and would assume the
independent 7é/e which its race has maintained
ever since. From what we know of feline habits
nowadays, it seems probable that when a primi-
THE CAT. ae

tive family which had adopted wild kittens
migrated to fresh hunting- grounds, such _half-
tamed animals, if old enough to shift for them-
selves, would generally remain behind and re-
sume a life of freedom. Of course when man
took to agricultural pursuits, and had to live in
a fixed dwelling and to store his produce in
stacks or granaries, his partnership with the cat
became much more stable and profitable.

It is found in all parts of the world that
domestic cats mix freely with native wild ones.
Thus in the north of Scotland, even to this
day, an unusually large number bear the mark-
ings of the indigenous wild cat, and in India
and elsewhere the crosses with aboriginal varie-
ties have been so frequent as materially to alter
the shape and appearance of nearly all the
domestic cats,

Most naturalists hold that our tame cats are
descended from several distinct wild species, and
certainly the readiness with which they interbreed
with wild ones of many kinds supports this view.
Dr Gray states that ‘the normal colour” of our
domestic animal ‘‘seems to be that of the tabby
cat, grey with black dorsal streaks and sub-
concentric bands on the sides and thighs; some-
236 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

times all black from melanism.” Curiously
enough, Dr St George Mivart, in his monograph
on ‘The Cat,’ draws no distinction between the
two completely different types which are both
popularly known as “tabby.” For, in addition
to the true tabby spoken of by Darwin and Gray,

 

Grey and tabby cats.

one frequently sees cats marked in a manner very
similar to the European wild cat—namely, with
a dark band along the spine and a number of
small and narrow stripes or streaks branching
from it at right angles so as to mark the animal
somewhat after the fashion of a tiger, but usually
leaving so much of the neutral ground tint visible

that at a little distance the cat seems to be of
THE CAT. 237

uniform grey colour. For the sake of clearness
I shall speak of this type as “grey” and not
“tabby.” When we consider how little control
man exercises over the domestic cat, and how
freely these animals intermix, one would expect
that in the course of many generations they
would have become fairly uniform in appearance.
That they have not done so is due to the mys-
terious law as to the preservation of type which
so often aids us in detecting ancestral traits
among mixed-bred nations and animals. In
spite of a very free mingling of all the aboriginal
strains, one finds that certain distinct types
remain fairly constant, and I think that within
certain limits we may presume that these truly
represent different wild ancestors. I cannot help
thinking that the original progenitor of the
domestic tabby (which, as we have seen, is the
most common and representative type now exist-
ing in captivity) was a distinct natural variety
which no longer exists as a wild animal. Not
only are the markings of the true tabby very
different from those of the Caffre cat (Fedzs
caffea), which some naturalists confidently assert
to be the chief ancestor of our familiar tame

species, but it also differs essentially both in
238 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

colour and shape from the European wild
cat. The black-and-grey pattern of the tabby
cat is so constant and so characteristic that it
is impossible to think that this type is merely
a chance variety which has arisen since its
forefathers came under the influence of man.
Moreover, there are some exceedingly curious
points about the system of stripes upon true
tabbies to which I shall allude presently. If the
interpretation which I shall venture to suggest
be correct, the special traits alluded to are dis-
tinctly referable to certain peculiar needs of wild
life. Before discussing this point, however,
I may remark that there are several types of
tame cats which have peculiarities suggesting a
distinct wild ancestry, although no species may
be now extant in a state of freedom to which
we can refer them. Thus the tailless Manx cat
with its long hind-legs, which both give to the
animal its characteristic rabbit-like attitude and its
great leaping power, is probably a representative
of some ancient wild species. The peculiarities
exhibited by tortoise-shell and sandy cats seem
to indicate that they also may have sprung from
a separate race. One frequently finds that the
male and female of a species differ materially in
THE CAT. 239

appearance. Usually this difference indicates
some diversity of habit in the two sexes, and
is owing either to the special need of protection
of the weaker vessel—as in the case of sober-
coloured hen-birds which need to be concealed
when nesting—or to the profitableness of con-
spicuous colours to one sex only for advertising
and other purposes. Among the living wild
representatives of the cat tribe any marked
difference between the sexes is rare, but still,
as in the case of the lion and lioness, —and
possibly also in that of the male and female
jaguarondi,—it occasionally exists. Now it is a
well-known fact that a tortoise-shell cat is almost
invariably a female, and that if a tortoise-shell
be mated with a sandy-coloured “tom” all the
female kittens are tortoise-shell and all the male
sandy. Moreover, it is, I believe, rare to find
a true sandy cat which is not a male; and some
writers have put forward the view that the tor-
toise-shell is the true mate of the sandy cat, and
vice versa. If this be so, it is strong evidence
that at one time there lived a breed of wild
cats which had these colours, and which, owing
to some peculiar circumstances of environment,

found it profitable to have the protective mark-
240 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

ings different in the two sexes. We can only
guess at what these circumstances may have
been, for at present no wild members of the
cat tribe exist which exhibit like peculiarities.
Possibly, however, the ancestors of the domestic
tortoise-shell and her sandy spouse were creatures
living in some desert region where such colours
would be advantageous for concealment; and if
the male roamed abroad among the sand while
the female lived chiefly in the scrub or amid
the rocks surrounding their den, their respective
markings would each prove useful.

Although the wild progenitors of our modern
cats seem to have acquired their general system
of coloration in order to harmonise with their
surroundings, there are, as I have already hinted,
some further and very curious questions raised
by a closer study of the arrangement of the
markings upon certain familiar types. For,
taken in conjunction with certain other traits
which will be discussed later, it seems possible
that we have in the peculiar pattern of the dark
bands upon a true tabby a remarkable instance of
that ‘protective mimicry” which is so common

among insects and other lowly organised crea-
THE CAT. 241

tures, but which is supposed to be almost un-
known among mammals.

My attention was first turned to this subject
by noticing that when a very fine tabby which I
possess was curled up asleep, the dark bands
arranged themselves in concentric circles, or rather
in a closely set spiral, strongly suggesting the
appearance of a coiled serpent; and the resem-
blance was further increased by a dark oval
blotch in the centre of the coil where the head of
the snake should be. When the cat got up, the
snake-like aspect disappeared ; the coils became
the well-known curved bands running along the
sides and down the thighs of the animal, and the
dark spot which had formed the “snake’s head”
was shown upon the flank. After first noticing
this peculiarity, I made it a habit for some time
carefully to observe the markings upon tabby
cats of this type, and I found that, although
these differed somewhat on different animals, in
all cases they showed the same tendency to fall
into concentric curves with a dark oval blotch in
the centre whenever the usual sleeping attitude
was assumed. More extended observation brought
to light certain kindred facts which it is difficult

Q
242 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

to believe are mere coincidences, although in
some cases their protective significance is by no
means clear. Thus the ocelots and kindred cats
of Central and South America have parallel
curved bands running the length of the body,

which also appear to become merged into an

 

Boa and ocelot.

apparent spiral when these animals are curled
up. These lines are not black, as in the case
of our tabbies, nor is the general arrangement
of the markings the same in the two classes
of animals. They consist of chains of blotches
somewhat lighter in the centre than at the out-
side, and these linear mottlings, strange to re-
late, are almost exactly similar in size, shape,
and colour to the markings upon the backs of

certain of the most formidable serpents of the
THE CAT. 243

countries inhabited by ocelots, such as the rattle-
snakes and the pythons. Now, one does not
generally think of a wild cat as a creature re-
quiring special protection from enemies, more
especially if it is as robust and formidable as
are most of the ocelot tribe. But we must
remember that such protective resemblances—if
in reality they exist—are of very ancient date ;
and that in the early days of mammalian life on
the earth the warm-blooded quadrupeds were an
exceedingly feeble folk when compared with con-
temporary birds and reptiles. It is therefore
quite possible that many of the characteristic
markings upon creatures living to-day—which
are often so difficult to explain—are mere vestiges
of a state of affairs which existed in very ancient
times, and which demanded special means of pro-
tection. |

Did these phenomena stand alone, one would
perhaps be scarcely justified in regarding them
as more than suggestive coincidences. But if we
inquire further we find that they by no means
stand alone; and, moreover, that wild cats even
in the present day are exposed to dangers from
which such peculiarities might tend to preserve

them.
244 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Several writers have drawn attention to the
markedly viperine look of the head of an enraged
cat, when, with ears pressed flat, with eyes glassy
and glaring, and with exposed fangs, it faces an
enemy. Miss C. Hopley, in her well-known
work on Snakes (p. 375), draws the same com-
parison from the opposite standpoint, and alludes
to one circumstance which I have not found noted
elsewhere : ‘‘When a viperine snake yawns ex-
tensively, as it so often does, you may sometimes
perceive the fangs partially erected or entirely so,
or the vibratile motion in them observed by
Fayrer. When the snake is angry, this vibra-
tile action is much like that of a cat gnashing
its teeth.”

Moreover, when so situated a cat invariably
renders its tail as conspicuous as possible, and
switches it with a peculiar sinuous movement
from side to side. This habit is also remarkably
snake-like, for it has been remarked that nearly
all snakes when angry and about to strike will jerk
their tails to and fro. “ Excitement,” says Miss
Hopley, ‘displays itself in the tail of a snake as
much as in the tail of a dog.”

Now when one of the more formidable en-
emies of the cat tribe finds itself confronted by
THE CAT. 245

a creature bearing this aspect, one can easily
imagine that it would be somewhat disconcerted
by the horrid suggestion that, unawares, it had
come face to face with a venomous serpent.
For not only does the cat’s head and expres-
sion seem to mimic an angry snake, but at
the other end of its foreshortened body is seen
the quick to-and-fro movement of its barred
and sinuous tail, which further contributes to
the deception. Moreover, a cat appeals still
further to the instinctive terror which all warm-
blooded creatures have of snakes by uttering
sounds almost exactly similar to those emitted
by many of the most venomous species when
enraged. Miss Hopley states that ‘‘the rattle-
snake, cerastes, and little echis emit short spit-
ting sounds when about to strike.” It is worth
while noting that both serpents and cats make
use of two quite distinct sibilant threats. Snakes,
as well as certain other reptiles, in addition to
the spitting sound noted by Miss Hopley, give
vent to a harsh and somewhat prolonged hiss,
which is not like our sharp hiss of disapproval,
made with the tongue held almost against the
closed incisor teeth, but is somewhat deeper

and more guttural, such as is produced when
246 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

the back of the tongue is pressed against the
soft palate during expiration through the mouth.
This last is almost exactly the sound which
many animals of the cat tribe emit when they
wish to intimidate a suspected enemy. The
other and much more explosive hiss uttered by
cats and snakes — popularly known as ‘‘spit-
ting” —is of the nature of an ultimatum. It
signifies in both orders of creatures a much
greater degree of anger than the prolonged
sound, and may be considered to be a menace
which, if disregarded, may be immediately fol-
lowed up by an attack with the fangs.

Before bringing forward certain other facts,
gathered from a wider area, as to the use of
these sibilant snake-like sounds— which give
additional support to the ‘‘mimicry” hypothesis
—let us take note of some of the special
dangers which threaten wild cats nowadays, and
see if they will give any hints as to how a
serpent -like aspect might possibly afford pro-
tection.

St John, in his ‘Wild Sports and Natural
History of the Scottish Highlands,’ states that
in his day the British wild cat became almost

extinct in some districts, owing to its being
THE CAT. 247

persistently preyed upon by the golden eagles;
and he narrates that a tame eagle in his pos-
session attacked and killed several domestic
cats. Speaking of the Highland wild cat, he
says: ‘The strength and ferocity of the wild
cat when hemmed in or hard pressed is per-
fectly astonishing. The body when skinned
presents quite a mass of sinews and cartilage.

I never saw an animal fight so desper-
ately, or one which was so difficult to kill. If
the tame cat has nine lives, the wild cat has
a dozen.” Yet, in spite of its most formidable
powers of resistance, he found that an eagle
was able to destroy a full-grown wild cat with-
out the least trouble or danger by pouncing
upon it and driving its talons through its ribs
and flanks into its vital organs, and at the same
time bewildering the wretched animal by beat-
ing it with its wings and tearing it with its
beak.

The same author states that wild cats and
martens form the favourite food of the golden
eagle. I met, quite unexpectedly, with a par-
tial confirmation of this statement when visiting
the animals kept at the Crystal Palace a short

time ago. The keeper was showing me some
248 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

animals in his private sanctum when I hap-
pened to notice several cat-skins hung up on
a beam overhead. Being just then rather full
of my “protective” idea, I drew his attention
to the characteristic markings on the skins of
the tabbies, and asked him whether he had
ever observed them or thought about their
significance, at the same time narrating St
John’s account of golden eagles attacking wild
cats. I observed from his expression while I
was speaking that he had something interesting
to tell me, and when I had finished he re-
marked: ‘‘Perhaps it would interest you to
know, sir, that those are the skins of cats
which I have got from time to time as tit-
bits for my eagles when they were out of sorts
and would not take their regular food. They
are fonder of cat’s flesh than of anything else,
and if an eagle refuses to eat a cat it shows
it is very ill indeed.”

Here, at any rate, is a suggestion as to howa
sleeping cat might gain an advantage by imitating
a coiled serpent. Many eagles not only refrain
from preying on snakes, but always seem to fear
and avoid them. One finds also that certain

birds which are akin either in structure or habits
THE CAT. 249

to the eagle family, but which make a practice
of killing and devouring serpents, have developed
special structural peculiarities ‘to enable them to
carry on the war without any great risk of death
from snake-bite. Compare the secretary bird of
South Africa and the long-legged cariama of
South America with the imperial or golden
eagles, and the special structural adaptations
which the habit of preying on snakes have ren-
dered necessary at once become apparent. A cat
lying asleep on some exposed ledge of rock or
upon the broad limb of a forest tree would be in
a peculiarly defenceless position if swooped upon
from above by an eagle; whereas if it seemed to
be a creature of the dreaded ophidian order (and
it is chiefly when seen from above that a curled-
up tabby looks most like a coiled snake), it might
frequently escape an attack.

I admit that there are many objections and
difficulties standing in the way of this theory,
although most of them tend to diminish when we
examine the evidence in the light of evolutionary
law. Some of the animals of the cat tribe bear-
ing band-like markings which give the appearance
of a coil when the animal is asleep, are so large

and powerful as to be totally indifferent to the
250 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

attacks of any bird of prey. And, moreover,
one finds that the hissing and spitting sounds to
which we have alluded are uttered by jaguars
and tigers as well as by the smaller Felidae. Yet
evidence apparently so adverse to my suggestion
that we have in the markings of many cats a
curious instance of protective mimicry, loses much
of its negative force when we remember that with-
out doubt the traits we are dealing with are all of
vast antiquity, and probably date back to a time
when the ancestors of all cats were small and
feeble creatures living in a world which swarmed
with huge reptiles and formidable birds. We
know that it does not take any very long time—in
the geological sense—to increase or diminish the
normal bulk of an animal a hundred-fold, and we
know also that physiological phenomena, such as
some of the above, are often exceedingly stable
under changed environment. A minor objection
to the theory is the fact that the European wild
cat, although apparently standing in need of pro-
tection from eagles, is not marked in the serpen-
tine way, but is simply streaked and mottled so
as to present a general resemblance to its usual
surroundings. All such matters are settled by

nature’s protection department much as actuaries
THE CAT. 251

determine the premiums to be paid by insurers
of different ages and callings—viz,, upon averages
drawn from a vast number of cases. Animals
cannot be protected against a// adverse risks, and
if the balance of chances in the case of one species
shows in favour of a general protective coloration
(similar to that of the wild cat) and against a
special protective coloration (such as that of the
tabby), the former will be adopted. But such an
actuarial pronouncement is merely of general
application, and must not be taken by any single
cat as a certificate of immunity from risks requir-
ing a special premium. The common wild cat,
although exposed to occasional attacks from
eagles, has nevertheless found it most profitable
in the long-run to wear a kind of general-utility
uniform of mixed grey, which enables it to steal
unseen upon its quarry and to hide itself without
much difficulty when among its normal surround-
ings. But the original tabby—if our argument
holds good—found it worth while (possibly be-
cause it was first developed in regions much
infested by large birds of prey) to sacrifice a few
of the business advantages arising from an incon-
spicuous coat for the sake of avoiding one special

danger which threatened it with extinction.
252 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

What appears to my mind to be by far the
strongest evidence we possess that protective
mimicry is resorted to by certain of the Felide,
in almost as marked a degree as among insects
and other lowly organised creatures, is the habit
of hissing and spitting at an enemy shown by the
blind, newly-born kittens of almost all varieties
of cats. Now, whenever one finds an identical
instinctive habit displaying itself in every newly-
born individual among a number of distinct but
related species, one may be sure that it is of very
great antiquity; for it must have been established
before the separation between the several species
took place. Hence the explosive kitten helps
to explain away the difficulties raised by its
gigantic relatives, such as the jaguar and the
tiger, who, while still uttering sounds suggestive of
reptiles, obviously stand in no need of protection.
For, as was remarked above, the earliest cat-like
animals were undoubtedly much more defenceless
creatures than the great majority of those now
existing; and, moreover, at the time when they
and their instincts were first evolved, formidable
reptiles and birds were probably much more im-
portant factors of environment than they have
ever been since. Still the kitten, if its testimony
THE CAT. 253

were unsupported (and perhaps more especially
because we are presuming that every hiss it
utters is a lie), might be disbelieved when it
appears aS a witness in support of mammalian
mimicry. Fortunately we are able to call an
immense amount of the most unimpeachable
corroborative evidence; and, moreover, our
additional deponents not only belong to a pro-
verbially unsophisticated and unbiassed class, but
are wholly unrelated to the cat family and are
summoned from the most diverse quarters.

It has been remarked that the wild cats com-
monly make their homes in hollow trees and
other dark retreats where their broods are
fairly safe from molestation. Now if we ex-
amine into the habits of other creatures which
breed in similar places, we find that their tender
offspring have one common and very remark-
able trait. Nearly every young bird or mam-
mal whose nursery is in a comparatively shallow
hole, whether in the trunk of a tree or else-
where, utters a sharp hissing noise whenever
an apparent enemy approaches. Owls, bats,
titmice, woodpeckers, phalangers, dasyures,
hornbills, opossums, and even certain monkeys,

all unite with the kitten in employing this
254 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

method of intimidation. A mere glance at
this very incomplete list proves at once that
neither blood-relationship nor geographical pro-
pinquity can account for the common _posses-
sion of the habit. Indeed the only thing
which most of these sibilant youngsters have
in common seems to be the character of the
nurseries in which their parents deposit them.
So widespread a defensive method can only
have arisen from a common need of protec-
tion from one kind of danger. Now we know
that many beasts of prey are keen searchers
for nests, and make a habit of exploring any
hole likely to contain tender and defenceless
morsels which may be won without much
exertion or risk. When a family of young
kittens or owlets is left by its natural pro-
tectors, it is in a position of most imminent
peril if the nose or eye of a prowling foe
should chance to detect its hiding-place. I
do not know of anything which more em-
phasises the greatness of the danger which
often threatens dwellers in hollow trees than
the habit common to hornbills in various parts
of the world of walling up the hole in which

the female bird is sitting, so that only a small
THE CAT. 255

opening remains through which her mate feeds
her. This is purely a defensive measure, and
has nothing to do with any jealous tyranny on
the part of the cock or any moral short-com-
ings in the hen, as some people have supposed.
Now a hornbill is by no means one of the
most helpless of birds, and the hen sitting upon
her nest and presenting her formidable beak
at any meddling intruder should scarcely need
any further protection. I do not know what
particular enemy the brooding hornbill most
fears, but it is evident from the elaborate pre-
caution taken that the risk she guards against
is by no means a trifling one.

Now, one finds that among almost all warm-
blooded animals a dread of snakes is an in-
herent instinct. You may take what order of
the animal kingdom you please, and it would
be easy to show that many representatives have
an innate and intense horror of anything which
has the appearance of a serpent. This fact is so
generally known and admitted, that it is scarcely
necessary to insist upon it. Even when animals
are in the habit of attacking and killing snakes,
the presence of such an enemy arouses feel-

ings of intense excitement in which anger and
256 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

fear seem to be mingled. In creatures such as
the mongoose, hog, and certain deer and birds
which make a custom of killing snakes, the
feeling of aversion does not lead to flight, but
from the frenzied manner of their attack it is
obviously present. Usually their behaviour
shows much more emotional disturbance when
they are doing battle with snakes than when
they are pitted against any other form of
enemy.

When we consider the innumerable and mar-
vellous shifts to which nature resorts in pro-
viding safety for her feebler children, it would
be a matter for surprise if she failed to make
use of so pronounced and widely distributed an
influence as this inbred horror of the serpent.
I think there can be but little doubt that the
otherwise inexplicable and useless hissing of de-
fenceless young creatures, such as those men-
tioned, has been evolved in order to take
advantage of this instinct.

It may be objected that a hungry carnivore
which had discovered the presence of some help-
less creatures in a hole would be able to assure
himself of their true nature without much diffi-
culty, and would therefore not be deterred if,
THE CAT. 267

when he inserted his head or “privy paw” to
drag them forth, they greeted him with a chorus
of hisses. But any one who has watched a fox
or any similar beast of prey when he was prowl-
ing abroad in search of food must have noted
the extreme caution with which he approaches
any object which offers him the prospect of a
meal. The proverbial—and I think much over-
rated—cunning of the fox or the wolverene is
often nothing more than an almost incredible
degree of suspicion and timorousness when such
an animal is brought in contact with anything
which puzzles him or appeals to his fears. It
is well known that such animals will rather
starve than meddle with any object which has
the appearance of being a trap. A familiar
stratagem adopted by hunters in North America
to protect a carcass from the wolves takes ad-
vantage of this peculiarity of disposition. After
killing a deer or any other animal too large to
be carried home, the hunter will often inflate
the bladder and hang it over the carcass, so
that it swings to and fro in the wind. This
plan is said never to fail in keeping even fam-
ished coyotes or timber-wolves from meddling
with the meat. I cannot see that there can
R
258 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

be anything in the round swinging object which
can appeal to any definite idea of danger,
whether acquired or instinctive, in a _ wolf.
Bladders have never been destructive agents
either in his own experience or that of his
ancestors, nor, as far as I am aware, is there
any trap or other detrimental object, either
natural or manufactured, which in any way
resembles one. It is simply the inherent and
inveterate caution of the animal which makes
him bear the pangs of an empty belly rather than
face this mysterious apparition.

Now I think there should be but little dif-
ficulty in recognising the protective value of
the mock-ophidian hiss when uttered by a
creature concealed within some dark hole such
as is often made use of by snakes. That the
danger lurking within is occasionally a very
real one was demonstrated in a most unpleas-
antly conclusive manner in the case of a near
relative of mine, who when a boy assumed—
boy-like—the 7vé/e of an amateur beast of prey,
and groped in a hole which he thought likely
to contain a nest of young wild rabbits. I
do not know whether he received any warning

hint, but a viper which was occupying the hole
THE CAT. 259

struck its fangs into his hand and caused him
a somewhat severe illness. Supposing that our
prowling carnivore is met with a hissing sound
when he seeks to investigate the contents of
some arboreal nursery, even. although his

sense of smell may tell him that the hole con-

       

e “will in: Me

“Ts tt a snake?”

tains a litter of kittens, he will undoubtedly
think twice before he disregards that blood-
curdling threat. How is he to know — sup-
posing him for the moment to be much less
stupid than he usually is —that a poisonous
serpent has not recently invaded the hole for
260 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

the sake of its contents, and is still in pos-
session ready to defend its spoil against an-
other robber? If a wolf, fox, glutton, marten,
or other animal is generally ready to face
starvation rather than meddle with anything
that appears to him in the least like a baited
trap, still more would such a beast avoid the
risk of thrusting his nose or his paw into a
cavity from which there issues the awful men-
ace of an explosive hiss. For, in addition to
the habitual diffidence and cautiousness of the
beast, there is its ingrained terror of the serpent
fighting in favour of the innocents Zyzmg within
the hole.

Whatever doubt we may have as to the
protective meaning of the concentric bands
upon the sleeping ocelot or tabby, or of the
attitude, movement, and utterances which char-
acterise a cat at bay, there can, I think, be
no two opinions as to the cause of origin, and
as to the protective value, of the hiss when
uttered by helpless young creatures such as
those we have been discussing.

And if the latter part of the case be ad-
mitted, I do not see where the sceptic is to
draw the line and say, “7Zfzs may be true
THE CAT. 261

protective mimicry, but ¢izs must be accounted
for on other grounds.” Even the main objec-
tion, and the one which I myself at first felt
to stand absolutely in the way of the protec-
tive hypothesis—viz., that such formidable ani-
mals as jaguar display in common with the
weaker cats many of the special habits and
peculiarities upon which the argument is built
—does not seem an insuperable difficulty when
we take a wide view of our ground and con-
sider the facts in the light of what we know
concerning the general laws of evolution and
the history of the development of diverse mod-
ern species from common ancestral types.

The habit of purring when pleased is uni-
versal among all the cat tribe, and we may
therefore conclude that it also is of enormous
antiquity. I have no opinion to offer as to
the origin of the habit or as to its usefulness
either in the wild or tame state. The sound
seems to be caused by a rapid and continu-
ous vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx,
and is maintained with little variation when
the air is passing both outwards and inwards.
It is almost always produced with the mouth
closed, and seems to proceed not only from
262 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

the nostrils, but from the general surface of
the body. The other day while a kitten was
purring on my knee I took my phonendoscope
(which is a modern form of stethoscope some-
what on the microphone principle) and care-
fully investigated the origin and character of
the sound. I found that the purring was so
fully conveyed through the creature’s lungs to
the chest wall that its ribs vibrated almost like
the woodwork of a violin. Heard in this way,
the purring of a cat has a most curiously
exact resemblance to the sound made by a
powerful dynamo, and as I stroked the cat’s
fur the crackling of electric sparks—also mag-
nified by the phonendoscope — added to the
deception. Needless to say, I do not advance
this as another remarkable case of protective
mimicry! Tempting as such a hypothesis as
to the origin of the purr may appear to a
baffled evolutionist, it must be admitted that
dynamos scarcely played a sufficient part in
early mammalian development to have become
exemplars for future generations of mimics.

A cat’s scrupulous cleanliness is certainly one
of the chief traits which render the animal a wel-

come inmate of our houses. The force of the
THE CAT. 263

toilet-making passion in the cat was exhibited in
an amusing way a short time ago by the kitten
mentioned above. It was diligently cleaning it-
self in characteristic feline fashion when a boy
rather roughly tilted the chair on which it was
sitting, so that it fell off on to the ground.
Not for one moment did the little animal cease
from licking its toes and rubbing them over its
ears and face; in fact it was so completely
absorbed in the pursuit of cleanliness that it
did not appear to notice the sudden tumble on
to the floor.

Now we may get a hint as to the importance of
this habit of the cat by investigating the surround-
ings of many woodland creatures. In this soap-
and-water epoch we can have no idea as to the part
played by dirt and vermin of all kinds in settling
the destinies of our forefathers and their humbler
contemporaries. Many wild animals are so per-
secuted by ticks, forest leeches, and many minute
enemies of like bloodthirsty habits, that they
languish and die unless they can get help in free-
ing their skins from such pests. The cat, being
a solitary animal, could not rely upon the kind
offices of friends, as do our neighbourly kinsmen

the apes. It therefore was obliged to devote un-
264 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

ceasing and vigilant attention to its fur and skin
in order to prevent the lodgment of detrimental
parasites; and the habit remains, although,
thanks to human protection and sanitation, the
domestic cat can now do its daily rounds without
gathering many persecutors of this order.

I must confess ignorance as to the history of,
and the part played by, the vocal capabilities of
the cat in the economy of feline life. Why a
solitary animal which does not engage in faction
fights which render a rallying cry necessary, ex-
pends so much breath in squalls and howls when
face to face with a foe, and why its love ditties
should be of such a hideous and blood-curdling
character, I must leave for some future naturalist

to determine.
CHAPTER X.
THE POULTRY-YARD.

Ir is possible that certain of our domestic birds,
unlike their mammalian fellow-servants, first
came under the influence of man of their own
freewill. Many wild birds deliberately choose
the neighbourhood of human dwellings when
they are breeding, for the sake of protection
against the raids of egg-stealing enemies. Thus
we find that wood-pigeons—generally throughout
the rest of the year exceedingly shy and sus-
picious birds—will make their nests in suburban
parks and other places where people are con-
stantly going and coming. The missel-thrush
seems especially fond of trees situated close to
houses when it is choosing a nursery, and doubt-
less the same preference also explains why in

country gardens one usually finds so many more
266 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

birds’ nests of various kinds than in any equal
area far away from human habitations. In fact,
many birds seem to adopt man as a natural
partner. Business relationships of such a kind
between creatures belonging to totally different
orders are not uncommon; and many instances
could be given of birds which find it profitable
to establish a partnership with some quadruped.
The rhinoceros and buffalo birds of Africa afford
typical examples; as also does the more familiar
starling, which often may be seen riding on the
backs of domestic sheep. Some of these associa-
tions are of a very odd and complex character,
as when the prairie-owls share the same premises
with marmots and rattlesnakes. One interesting
example of a partnership between birds of dif-
ferent species which I think has not been alluded
to by any naturalist is that of the redshank and
the lapwing. The herdsmen of the Essex
marshes are well aware of this compact, and
if they find a redshank’s nest they invariably
search about with the expectation of finding the
eggs of a plover within a few yards’ distance.
In this case the mutual benefit derived from
association is pretty clear. The redshank is an
exceedingly vigilant bird, but has little power of
THE POULTRY-YARD. 267

self-defence. It gives early warning of the ap-
proach of any foe to the lapwing, and the latter
either beats off the enemy from the common
nesting- ground or entices him away by pre-
tending to be wounded. .

Some associations are of the slightest and
most temporary kind, as when a swallow skims
to and fro for a few hundred yards in front
of a rider for the sake of the insects disturbed
or attracted by the horse; while others are so
binding that a dissolution would bring ruin to
both parties. It seems not at all unlikely that
the ancestors of our domestic pigeons, which
built their nests on the ledges and crevices
of the rocks, found the dwelling of some pre-
historic troglodyte a very efficient protection
against the raids of hawks and crows. Yet
although pigeons and certain other birds may
have become partially domesticated in this man-
ner, it seems hardly likely that savages—who are
generally keenly on the look out for something
to eat—would, either from sentiment or any other
motive, have allowed such birds as the duck or
the common fowl to nest in their neighbourhood
without molestation. Most probably such birds

as these were tamed in the same way as were
268 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

many domestic mammals,—that is, they were
captured when young and helpless and brought
up in the dwellings of their owners. Many
savages, such as the Indians of Northern Brazil,
often tame young parrots and other birds, and
allow them to roam about freely among their
dwellings.

In the common fowl certain instincts proper
to the wild state seem to have become curiously
altered by association with man. Thus, although
it is plain that the custom of cackling after laying
is a habit not acquired during captivity, since its
deeply rooted and universal character shows it
to be extremely ancient, its primary utility is
altogether lost. We now take the spasmodic
outcry of a hen as a kindly intimation that it is
worth while to visit the fowl-house. But what
could a wild hen possibly gain by proclaiming
to a hostile and hungry world the fact that she
had laid an egg? Nature seems to have pro-
vided so carefully for the concealment of nests
and young that this habit of the domestic fowl,
which apparently operates in exactly the opposite
direction, seems very strange and anomalous.

Were we unable to get information about the
natural history of birds of this order which are
THE POULTRY-YARD. 269

living in a state of freedom, it would be very
difficult to explain the origin of this habit. Not
only are there still many of the original wild
stock (Gallus bankiva) from which our domestic
fowls have sprung living in the Indian jungles,
but in many parts of the world feral or half-wild
birds may be found which have enjoyed almost
complete freedom for many generations. Mr
Hudson, in his ‘ Naturalist in La Plata, discusses
this cackling question with his usual ability, and
states that in the “creolla” fowls, which live a
semi-independent life in South America, the habit
displays itself in such a manner as to prove of
undoubted value. He says :—

Each family occupies its own feeding-ground, where
it would pass a greater portion of each day. The hen
would nest at a considerable distance from the feeding-
ground, sometimes as far as 400 or 500 yards away.
After laying an egg she would quit the nest, not
walking from it as other fowls do, but flying, the flight
extending to a distance of from 15 to about 50 yards;
after which, still keeping silence, she would run or walk,
until, arrived at the feeding-ground, she would begin to
cackle. At once the cock, if within hearing, would
utter a responsive cackle, whereupon she would run
to him and cackle no more. Frequently the cackling
call-note would not be uttered more than two or three
270 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

times, sometimes only once, and in a much lower tone
than in fowls of other breeds.

If we may assume that these fowls, in their long
semi-independent existence in La Plata, have reverted
to the original instincts of the wild Gallus bankiva, we
can see here how advantageous the cackling instinct
must be in enabling the hen in dense tropical jungles
to rejoin the flock after laying an egg. If there are
egg-eating animals in the jungle intelligent enough to
discover the meaning of such a short, subdued cackling
call, they would still be unable to find the nest by going
back on the bird’s scent, since she flies from the nest in
the first place; and the wild bird probably flies farther
than the creolla hen of La Plata. The clamorous
cackling of our fowls would appear, then, to be nothing
more than a perversion of a very useful instinct.

From the fact that these half-wild birds only
cackle when they have travelled some distance
after laying we see that this seemingly foolish
habit of the barndoor fowl may originally have
served the same purpose as does the well-known
strategy of the partridge or lapwing in luring
enemies away from the nest.

But how has the habit become so altered
since the bird has been domesticated? Prob-
ably deliberate selection may have had some-
thing to do with it; for naturally every owner
of a hen wants to obtain its eggs without much
THE POULTRY-YARD. 271

trouble, and supposing one bird always laid her
eggs so that they were easily found while another
managed to conceal them, those of the first
would doubtless be chosen for breeding purposes,
and the chicks hatched therefrom would tend
to inherit their mother’s cackling idiosyncrasies.
Another reason why a change has taken place
is because domestic birds live a life almost
totally devoid of fear. Although man_ has
preyed upon them and defrauded them in the
most systematic manner for thousands of genera-
tions, the poor blockheads have never found
him out, and still allow him to pose as their
friend. He may go into the henhouse and
steal the eggs, and there is scarcely a croak of
protest, whereas if a fox or a ferret were to
make its appearance there would be a great
hubbub. If the wild hen has an impulse to
cackle when she moves from her nest, she re-
strains it because of the fear of enemies which
always possesses wild creatures, until she is at
a safe distance from her treasury. But the
domestic hen, having nothing to fear, requires
no such self-control, and can shriek as soon
and as loud as her hysterical impulse dictates.

It is strange how the security enjoyed by
272 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

many domestic birds has completely changed
their character. This is a subject which I shall
discuss more fully later on. There is little
alertness or cunning apparent about the ordin-
ary barndoor fowl, yet its wild cousin of the
jungle is said to be one of the most astute
and wary birds in existence. We shall see just
the same change in ducks and other domestic
birds when we come to deal with them.
Civilisation has not interfered so much with
the matrimonial arrangements of the fowl as it
has done in the case of most domestic creatures.
Both in the wild state and after he has entered
civilisation the rooster is a confirmed polygamist.
A little knowledge of natural history enables
one to declare this fact after merely looking at
his plumage. Nature clothes her Turks and
Mormons with a distinctive and conspicuous
dress, so that their matrimonial propensities
can generally be inferred at a glance. Wher-
ever you find a male bird who displays more
gay and conspicuous clothing than the females
of his species, you may be sure that he has (or
would like to have) a plurality of wives. Even
as low down in the animal scale as this it is

not difficult to recognise some of the social and
THE POULTRY-YARD. 273

moral advantages of monogamy. Matrimony
among the polygamous birds seems to be based
chiefly upon meretricious display and the exer-
cise of brute force. Birds which mate perma-
nently are scarcely ever sexually decorated, nor
are they in the habit of indulging in brawls as
part of the process of courtship. Evidently,
from the Quaker-like dress and disposition
which many of them display, it is their custom
to settle such affairs upon quite another basis ;
and I think one may say, without being accused
of conferring imaginary qualities upon them,
that they are actuated to some extent by an
appreciation of the higher moral attributes. In
a less degree the same is true of the birds
which are content with a single mate, although
they may regularly avail themselves of nature’s
autumnal divorce laws to try a new connubial
venture. It must be admitted that chanticleer,
with his gay coat and gallant bearing, makes
much more of a figure in the world than the
sober-coated monogamous quail, and his osten-
tatious politeness to the members of his harem
is more impressive to the superficial observer
than the commonplace domestic virtues of the

partridge.
274 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

It is pretty obvious that the pugnacity of
the cock was developed in the first place for
the sake of enabling him to acquire and to keep
guard over his wives. High as is his courage,
and formidable as are his weapons, they could
have been of little avail against eagles, tiger-
cats, and jackals. What is the natural history
of the splendid valour of the game-cock? As
a rule, a combat between two such birds, armed
only with their natural weapons, lasts a long
time. Of course when the brutal folk who take
a delight in cock-fighting fasten steel blades to
the legs of the birds, fighting-cocks soon cut
one another to pieces; but it is not an un-
familiar sight in a farmyard to see a couple of
roosters fighting until both are completely ex-
hausted, and renewing the struggle from day
to day until one acknowledges himself to be
vanquished. Under such circumstances it is
quite plain that the bird which had sufficient
pluck and determination to keep on fighting in
spite of innumerable wounds and intense ex-
haustion would be more likely to win his battle
and his hens than one which, after receiving
severe punishment, began to debate within him-
self as to whether the game was worth the
THE POULTRY-YARD. 275

candle. In spite of the intensely combative dis-
position of male fowls, under natural circum-
stances the fighting instinct is kept within eco-
nomic bounds. That is to say, nature never
allows it to become so developed as to be in-
jurious to the race.

Darwin has shown that the constant selec-
tion of victorious fighting-cocks for breeding
purposes may so intensify this trait as to render
it very detrimental. He says :—

Game fowls are notorious for their pugnacity : young
cocks crow and clap their little wings and fight obsti-
nately, even while under their mother’s care. “I have
often had,” says one author, “whole broods scarcely
feathered stone-blind from fighting, and rival couples
moping in corners and renewing their battles on obtaining
the first ray of light.” The weapons and pugnacity of
all male gallinaceous birds evidently serve the purpose
of gaining possession of the females ; so that the tendency
of our game chickens to fight at an extremely early age
is not only useless but injurious, and they suffer much
from their wounds. The training for battle during an
early age may be natural to the wild Gallus bankiva ;
but as man during many generations has gone on
selecting the most ostensibly pugnacious cocks, it is
more probable that their pugnacity has been unnaturally
increased and unnaturally transferred to the young male
chickens.
276 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

We see here that, as in the cackling of the
hen, and in many other psychic traits which
we have been discussing, changed conditions
may transform what was originally a virtue
into a vice.

Doubtless the continual clucking of the brood-
ing hen serves the same general purpose as
the grunting of the pig. When a brood is
abroad among the grass searching for food,
the chicks would be in great danger of wan-
dering and losing their mother if it were not
for this incessant intimation of her whereabouts.
Concerning the purpose originally served by
the crowing of the cock I am somewhat in
doubt. Doubtless it is a splendid piece of
advertisement, and, like the trumpet - blast of
the days of chivalry, is a most telling way of
proclaiming a victory or of challenging all and
sundry to single combat. But when we analyse
any natural trait in animals, we must remember
that nature is absolutely utilitarian. She does
not spend a farthing upon advertisement unless
she clears a profit by so doing. Neither does
she indulge in any “freaks” or superfluities,
in spite of numerous expressions of opinion to
the contrary. We know that, in some way or
THE POULTRY-YARD. 277

other, the expenditure of energy represented
by every ‘‘cock-a-doodle-doo” means a gain
to fowldom; but I confess I cannot see just
where the profit comes in. Doubtless this is
merely owing to a defective knowledge of
gallinaceous economy. Certainly, regarded as
an advertiser, chanticleer is admirable. Not
only has his voice a splendid carry, but he
is careful to choose a time when all nature is
silent, and when all who are likely to be influ-
enced by his announcement are just rousing
from sleep and have minds receptive and as
yet unoccupied with the details of daily business.
Perhaps it will be best to refrain from saying
more in praise of his methods lest one should
provoke some human competitor in the vile
art to shatter the blessed stillness of the dawn
with clamorous proclamations concerning pills
or soap.

The squalling of a hen when it is captured
would seem to indicate that in the wild state
it was the custom of the birds of a flock to
defend one another against enemies. That an
outcry made under such circumstances was often
originally an effective appeal for help was shown
when we discussed the habits of the dogs and
278 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

pigs. Doubtless some of the enemies of gallin-
aceous birds could be driven off or intimidated
by a combined attack, although, as has been
remarked above, the weapons of the jungle-cock
would not prove of much use against such a
foe as a wild cat or a jackal. St John states
that the fowls in a farmyard made a combined
attack upon a hawk which had destroyed a
number of chicks. The unlucky robber had
been caught in a trap and disabled so that its
beak and claws could do no damage, and the
indignant hens soon pecked it to death. A hen
will often defend her brood with the most reck-
less bravery, and always resorts to the stratagem
of ruffling out her feathers so as to give herself
a formidable appearance.

The vehement, hysterical cackling, flapping of
wings, and general excitement shown by a fowl
which is frightened, is doubtless the remains of
an artifice exceedingly common among wild birds
which live chiefly upon the ground. It can
hardly be said that the bewildering noise thus
made is sufficient to intimidate a formidable
enemy, and yet it is by no means difficult to
show how useful such a habit may be as a

means of protection. Every one who has flushed
THE POULTRY-YARD. 279

a covey of partridges close to his feet knows
how disconcerting is the sudden clatter and whir
of wings. The sportsman armed with a gun,
unless a novice, has usually time to recover
from the shock to his nerves before the birds
have got out of range; but we must remember
that a cat or a fox has to pull itself together
and make its spring before its intended victim
has flown a couple of yards. We know how
we are “put off” when attempting any athletic
feat requiring judgment and skill if we are sud-
denly startled at a critical moment. The rule
on the golf-links which orders absolute silence
when a player is ‘driving from the tee” shows
how important it is that the elaborate combin-
ations of the nerves and muscles involved in
such an action should not be disturbed. Now
without doubt the spring of a wild beast on
its prey often requires quite as complex nervous
and muscular processes as a stroke at golf.
Imagine, in the latter case, the effect of a
sudden clamour of a covey of partridges, or of
half-a-dozen panic-stricken hens, close to the
player who was “addressing the ball”! Without
a doubt the habit of making sudden startling

noises has a considerable protective value among
280 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

birds of this class, in that it often disconcerts a
prowling enemy at the moment when the hidden
flock has to reveal its whereabouts by taking
wing.

As soon as it gets dusk the barndoor fowl be-
takes itself to its roosting-place; and this shows
that nocturnal habits are not in accordance with
the traditions of the family. The eyes of the
domestic fowl show no indication that they have
ever been adapted for seeing in the dusk. Nearly
all birds of this kind depend upon sight in finding
or selecting food, and therefore the day’s business
is over with them as soon as the light begins to
fail. Moreover, it is when the sun goes down
that most of the enemies which they dread begin
to steal abroad, and they are obviously far safer
when perched aloft on some secure branch or pole
than they would be if they slept upon the ground.
The custom of going up to roost immediately the
light fails is very strongly marked in turkeys. A
story is current that George IV., when Prince
Regent, won a wager by backing a flock of geese
against a flock of turkeys in a three-mile race.
The conditions were that the birds should start
in the cool of the evening, and that they should
follow a road well shaded by trees. Of course
THE POULTRY-YARD. 281

the long-legged and active birds soon got far
ahead of their waddling competitors; but when
they had completed about half the distance it be-
gan to get dark, whereupon the whole flock of
turkeys fluttered up into the trees over the road
and refused to come down. In fact, the more
frightened they became at the shouts and threats
of the men who were driving them, the more
closely they stuck to their perches. Meanwhile
the geese, who were bound by no such arboreal
or crepuscular traditions, plodded steadily on and
were declared winners.

One curious habit of geese and of ducks seems
to show that the mimicry of snakes is by no
means confined to the Felide. It seems very
probable that the hiss of the goose, when it
desires to show hostility, is founded upon the
hiss of the serpent. Many ducks also, when
nesting, will thrust out their necks and _ hiss
when an intruder approaches, and a Muscovy
drake is almost as ready to adopt this method
of intimidation as a gander. It is found that
nearly all long-necked birds which nest among
reeds and bushes show a similar habit. The
South American ostrich, when sitting on its nest

on the open plains, has a curious resemblance
282 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

to a weather-beaten shrub, or bunch of pampas-
grass; and, if the bird is disturbed, from this
apparent covert there darts, with sinuous move-
ment and an ominous hiss, something that looks
enough like a snake to make most horses and
other animals start away in terror. In reality
this fearful object is nothing but the head and
neck of the brooding rhea. One can easily
understand that among thick grass or reeds,
where only the head and neck of a nesting duck
are visible, the forward dart and hiss might
often be sufficient to deter a cautious enemy
from making an attack.

It should be easier for us to trace wild traits
in the duck than in the barndoor fowl, because
the ancestors of the former were mostly natives
of our own part of the world. Many of our tame
varieties still bear a close resemblance to the
wild ducks with which many sportsmen and _nat-
uralists are familiar. It seems not unlikely that
the amphibious domestic birds have been domes-
ticated for a longer time than those of the gallin-
aceous order. Most tame ducks are still able to
make shift both in getting food and in guarding
against enemies with very little aid from their

owners.
THE POULTRY-YARD. 283

Probably most aquatic birds primarily took to
the water as a measure of self-preservation. We
all know how very early young ducks find their
way to the nearest pond, and how fearlessly they
launch themselves upon it. Few who are familiar
with country life have not sympathised with the
anxiety of some clucking foster - mother, who,
when taking her brood of ducklings out for the
first time, has found them all apparently bent
upon self-destruction. Now why do young ducks
take to the water so early? Because they are
extremely helpless little creatures, without either
the swiftness in running or the skill in hiding
possessed by chicks and other fluffy birdlings of
similar habits. Moreover, reed-beds and shrubs
along the banks of a river or lake afford lurking-
places for many enemies capable of destroying a
whole brood in a few seconds. But as soon as
the duckling is afloat, he is comparatively safe.
Even a hawk swooping from the upper air
would usually find him gone by the time it
reached the surface of the water; for most young
aquatic birds have an instinctive knowledge of
diving. One danger certainly threatens the
duckling when swimming, for sometimes a

hungry pike seizes his little paddles from below
284 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

and drags him under. Still, on the whole, there
can be no doubt that, like the average sailor,
he is much safer afloat than ashore. Ducklings
usually get a living very much more easily on the
water than on the land. Their beaks are not so
adapted for picking up unconsidered trifles as are
those of chicks, nor are their feet fitted for ex-
ploring the ground for worms, seeds, and insects.
Much has been said of the remarkable skill
evinced by the newly hatched chick in snapping
up crumbs without any preliminary training.
But the nascent duckling evinces an even more
wonderful instinctive skill in using its beak; for
as soon as ever it commences to swim it is able
to catch the midges and gnats which dart to and
fro near the surface of the water. For the first
month or so of their lives wild ducklings are
almost as purely insectivorous as the swallow
or flycatcher. Towards the close of the day
their little crops are distended with a mass of
insects which must be much of the same con-
sistence as the “midge dough” which Living-
stone describes as being baked and eaten by
natives living on the insect-infested shores of
Tanganyika.

A young wild duck is distinctly a more alert
THE POULTRY-YARD. 285

and independent little creature than a tame
duckling. Such differences between the newly-
born members of a species are at first rather
difficult to account for if we adopt Weismann’s
doctrine of the non-inheritance of acquired char-
acters. I am inclined to think that the difference
is not so much a matter of heredity as it at first
sight appears. Many newly-born animals can
be shown to be extraordinarily impressionable to
outside influence almost from the first moment of
independent existence. One might compare the
vacant brains of such creatures, instantly absorb-
ing impressions from the outside world, to an
empty sponge plunged ina basin of water. The
apparent lethargy of the infantile mind is de-
ceptive. How quickly impressions are received
during the first hour of life, and how profound
is their influence upon the character, is seen
in the case of the young calf. Most of our
domestic cattle, if their calves are born out in
an open pasture, will obey the ancient instinct
which led the wild cow at once to hide her
feeble offspring in the bushes. Now, if a calf
be once hidden in this way, it becomes prac-
tically a wild animal with an instinctive terror

of man; whereas if it has been born under
286 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

cover, and has been assisted in its first mo-
ments by the stockman, it is as tame as its
parents. Dr H. S. Williams,! when speaking
of the plasticity of the infantile mind, says :—

Young wild ducks, when they first come out of the
shell, have no fear whatever of a human intruder, but
will nestle contentedly in his hands; but after a few
hours of maternal tutorage they become so timid and
shy that it is almost impossible to capture them, and if
taken they show extreme terror of the being that a few
hours before did not alarm them. Birds that pass their
early childhood in a nest do not develop quite so rapidly,
but undergo the same transition. The young crow, if
taken from the nest during the first week or ten days of
its life, becomes the most confiding and amusing of pets,
seeming to regard men as beings of its own kind. If a
few days later another nestling is taken, this one also
will become domesticated, but it will never be tame and
confiding as the first; it will have something of the
suspicious nature of the wild crow. Yet another week
or ten days later and the remaining nestlings are able
to fly about with their parents and have become al-
together irreclaimable. Noamount of training will ever
suffice to tame them.

Doubtless the confidence and the lethargic
habits of the domestic mother-duck would in

1 “Can the Criminal be Reclaimed?” ‘North American Re-
view,’ August 1896.
THE POULTRY-YARD. 287

like manner impress the ducklings born in cap-
tivity, and they would not therefore during the
first few days of life acquire the alertness of
mind and movement shown by the young wild
duck. This alone is hardly sufficient to ac-
count for the difference—which is, to a certain
extent, structural and constitutional. We must,
however, remember that the vitality of nearly
all tame creatures is somewhat lower than that
of their wild relatives; and hence some of the
comparative helplessness evinced by the tame
duckling may be due to this cause; more es-
pecially since, as is so obvious in many ani-
mals, and in civilised man himself, the weakness
due to artificial surroundings shows itself in a
very marked degree in the production and
raising of offspring. Doubtless the protection
given to the domestic duck has for many gen-
erations prevented the sifting out of those young
ones which did not, in wits or physical de-
velopment, come up to the standard which,
under nature’s cruel competitive system, qualified
for survival. Obviously among wild creatures
which produce more than a dozen young in
the course of a season the natural process of

elimination must be exceedingly active. Under
288 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

ordinary circumstances the number of wild ducks
remains pretty constant from year to year. This
means that out of every family of fourteen
(taking twelve to the average brood) as a rule
only two survive to breed in the following
spring. Now we know that when wild animals
are closely observed they are found to differ
from one another as much in mental and physi-
cal characters as do human beings. Hence
among each brood of wild ducklings there
would always be dullards or weaklings which
would fall a prey to watchful enemies or else
perish from disease or accident. We find that
in most cases where a large number of young
are produced every year, infantile mortality
accounts for by far the greater part of the
annual waste. Now, among tame birds the
young are carefully nursed and are never pur-
posely destroyed, because they are of no value
until they have obtained their growth. More-
over, instead of being selected for breeding
purposes on account of their alertness or ac-
tivity, they are chosen on a principle which
often ensures the possession of exactly opposite
qualities. What civilised man wants is a duck
of a placid and greedy disposition which will
THE POULTRY-YARD. 289

not give much trouble to catch, and which
promises to acquire a considerable bulk in a
short time. Not only does the farmer care
absolutely nothing for quickness of wit in his
ducks, but he regards activity on the wing
and a disposition to roam far from the home-
stead as most undesirable qualities. When I
was a boy the common ducks found in many
Sussex farmyards belonged to a small black
variety which in habits showed near kinship
to the wild duck. Now, however, one finds
that these active, self-reliant birds have been
supplanted on nearly all farms by _ tubby,
lymphatic imbeciles known as_ Aylesburys.
Each generation born in captivity tends to
show a greater proportion of the more stupid
or unwieldy young birds which, under natural
conditions, would be instantly weeded out.
Owing to the above facts, I do not think
that, in accounting for the differences between
young tame ducks and wild ones, we need
suppose that confidence in man, or any other
peculiarities acquired by the birds during their
lifetime, are directly transmitted.

This confidence in man, as was stated in
an earlier part of the chapter, has had a re-

T
290 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

markable influence on the characters of many
of our domestic birds. What greater contrast
can be imagined than that between the wild
goose, which the ablest sportsman finds so dif-
ficult to outwit, and the cackling, waddling
fools of the farmyard whose name has become
a byword? Doubtless in some degree this ap-
parent stupidity, like that evinced by the
donkey and the sheep, is due to the creatures
being compelled to live among surroundings
totally different from those for which nature
first adapted them, so that their natural intel-
ligence, which sufficed for all the emergencies
of their wild life, has no chance of displaying
itself. But the lethargic disposition of such
birds as those we are discussing chiefly illus-
trates how ready nature is to dispense with
superfluities. We know how, when plants or
animals become parasitic, they quickly lose facul-
ties and organs which are no longer necessary.

I confess I feel some little difficulty in ex-
plaining this readiness on the part of many
birds and animals to trust entirely in human
protection. For we must remember _ that
domestication means the introduction of some-
thing which is almost absolutely new to the
THE POULTRY-YARD. 291

experience of every adult creature from the
very beginning of life upon the earth. For
thousands, and probably for millions of genera-
tions, the ancestors of these birds have had to
shift for themselves, and have known no security
except through their own activity and vigilance
from the time they were under their parents’
care. However carefully we may survey the
realm of nature, we find that ease and safety
are practically never secured outside man’s
tyrannous protectorate. Life is a perpetual
struggle. Hunger and thirst are never far off,
and, in the case of most animals, scarcely a day
passes without its danger of a violent death.
The state of things which Kingsley imagines
in ‘The Water Babies’ finds no counterpart in
the real world; and he would have had con-
siderable difficulty in explaining the economy of
‘“Mother Carey’s Peace Pool” if any inquisitive
young reader had asked him what the seals and
the polar bear lived upon! The laws of nature
provide for no retirement from the worries of
business other than that final compulsory retire-
ment to which all of us are subject.

One reason why many animals readily show
confidence in man may be because he is not one
292 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

of their traditional enemies ; although this would
only be true if we traced the origin of their
instincts back to an extremely remote period.
One finds that among many animals certain
inherent antipathies exist, some of which are
undoubtedly traceable to legends of infinite
antiquity. Thus the horror that most warm-
blooded creatures have of snakes and other
reptiles is probably traceable to the time when
the only mammals existing were the humble
little marsupials whose remains we find in the
Stonesfield slate and Oxford clay. During the
Cretaceous period the whole world was swarming
with voracious reptiles from the size of a house
to the size of a sparrow; and undoubtedly the
feeble mammals must have needed all the extra
quickness of movement and wit which their four-
chambered hearts and higher nervous organisa-
tion gave them in escaping such terrible foes.
In the long-run the mammals proved victorious ;
but throughout an immense epoch the strife must
have been of the most fierce and deadly character.
To such causes we may fairly attribute that innate
antipathy which we feel to reptiles and all cold
and crawling things. The hostility existing

between cats and dogs is shown to be innate
THE POULTRY-YARD. 293

by the behaviour of blind kittens when they
smell one of their hereditary enemies; and in
like manner, as has been shown in a previous
chapter, sheep, when they have lambs, display
a strong animosity to all dogs; although it is
probable that, as long as man has kept flocks
and herds, these animals have played the part
of protectors. Most of our domestic animals,
if taken to countries where lions or other large
or formidable beasts of prey are found, evince
an instinctive fear of such enemies before they
can gain any actual knowledge of their dangerous
nature ; and this is undoubtedly attributable to an
innate traditional aversion.

But man, if Darwin is right in his conclusions,
is able to enter into association with most of
the creatures whose company he finds desirable
without being hampered by any traditional feuds
dating back to the Eocene epoch. At a time
when the early Canidz and Felidz were leading
a cat-and-dog life, and when the primeval wolves
continually harassed the as yet untamed flocks,
he led a peaceful frugivorous existence in his
native forests. His arboreal habits enabled him
to live a higher life aloof from and superior to
earthly strife and turmoil, and made it easy for
294 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

him to avoid the far-reaching consequences of
a primordial vendetta. Although possibly be-
fore he took to ¢erra firma he was not wholly
clear of all bloodguiltiness, if in his habits he
at all resembled the gibbons and chimpanzees
—which are not averse to animal food when it
comes in their way—he never made a custom of
preying upon his weaker fellow-creatures. Hence
neither his appearance nor his natural odour
arouses in animals which are unacquainted with
his later habits instinctive feelings of hatred or
fear as do the appearance and odour of many
carnivores and reptiles. The young kitten does
not explode when it smells him, nor does the
anxious ewe stamp and lower her head when he
approaches her precious lamb. No doubt his
clean vegetarian record during the time when
most instincts were in process of manufacture
has been of great assistance to him in acting
the part of peacemaker or arbiter among the
heterogeneous and hostile elements gathered
together in the farmyard.

The authority which man so readily estab-
lishes over the lower animals seems _ largely
attributable to a curious readiness to acknow-
ledge superior mental gifts which we find very
THE POULTRY-YARD. 295

widely distributed in nature. It is often re-
marked that many animals are shrewd judges
of character; and we all recognise how quickly
very young children perceive and take advan-
tage of intellectual or moral weakness in those
about them. Probably to a great extent this
readiness of animals to accept man as their
superior is due to their perception of the con-
fidence which he feels in himself when dealing
with creatures of inferior brain power. All who
have had much to do with horses know how
quickly a rebellious colt recognises the autho-
rity of a courageous rider, and how readily
also he takes advantage of nervousness or in-
experience. Man, confident in his superior
wits and weapons, encounters animals much
stronger and more formidable than himself with
a comparatively calm mind and a steadfast eye.
Throughout the whole mammalian world there
is a remarkable uniformity in the machinery of
emotion. This facilitates sympathy, and estab-
lishes, to a certain extent, a common language
between creatures which are very widely sep-
arated in nature, habits, and mental develop-
ment. It seems probable that man’s moral and
mental superiority is chiefly recognised through
296 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

his confident bearing, because almost all animals,
however stupid, are able to judge the difference
between the outward signs of courage and those
of fear. And courage, we must recollect, is, in
nature’s utilitarian 7¢gde, almost invariably the
mark of superior physical qualities. If this
were not so, courage would prove a destructive
rather than a preservative agent, for it would
constantly lead its possessors into strife where
there was no chance of victory, and into other
dangers involving death or injuries for which
there was no compensation. Possibly the con-
fidence shown by domestic animals in human
protection is partly based upon the awe which
they themselves have of the human species, and
is not altogether owing directly to the economic
and automatic law which dispenses with every
unnecessary attribute. This is a subject which
is well worthy the attention of any naturalist
who has a bent for comparative psychology.
Certainly, when we take into account the ex-
traordinarily stable and permanent character of
most instincts and like nervous phenomena, it
does seem strange that a few generations of
domestication should so completely alter the
mental habits of many of our familiar birds.
297

CONCLUSION.

Ir will be seen in the preceding chapters that I
have chiefly devoted attention to those well-
known characteristics in the lower animals which
bring them into association with man. Thus the
sagacity and the social virtues of the dog, the
speed and endurance of the horse, the milk-giving
qualities of the cow and the goat, and the capa-
city of the sheep and the pig to provide us with
wool and pork, have been severally discussed, and
attempts have been made to trace them to their
origin in nature. In the same way I have
selected for analysis a few of the most obvious
characteristics of the cat, and of various domestic
birds. This choice of the commoner and more
well-known traits of domestic animals rather than
those which are exceptional or ‘‘ wonderful” has
been made purposely, and for several definite

reasons.
298 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

In the first place, it was my hope that the
inferences to be drawn from such everyday facts
would show how remarkably Darwinism illumi-
nates and vivifies matters which are regarded by
many people as dull, commonplace, and trivial.
To the evolutionist nothing is common or un-
clean, because every fact about a living creature
has its bearing upon those mysterious laws of life
which all philosophers have striven to unravel.
Secondly, it has been my wish to emphasise one
most important truth put forward in the intro-
ductory chapter—viz., that to the modern student
of natural history common and obvious things are
more valuable, and often far more fraught with
interest and mystery, than things generally
deemed wonderful and rare. Next, by pointing
out how much may be learned from familiar traits
in a few farmyard animals, I have sought to show,
indirectly, what a vast field for research has been
opened up to the modern naturalist by the new
doctrine ; and lastly, I have tried to demonstrate
in a practical manner—although, I fear, very im-
perfectly —the way in which the methods and
materials now placed within our reach may often
be utilised in reconstructing the vanished past.

Any one who has seen the changes which have
CONCLUSION. 299

taken place in some of our great museums de-
voted to natural history —such as that of the
Royal College of Surgeons, London—during the
last generation, will have noticed that a number
of specimens which used to be in the foreground
are now either discarded as mere lumber or are
given much less prominent positions. Our fore-
fathers seem to have had pretty much the same
idea in getting together scientific collections as
has the enterprising showman who caters for that
section of the public which revels in ‘‘ rarities”
and “freaks.” Even the records of that most
solemn and weighty body, the Royal Society, show
that the learned Fellows were at one time almost
as fond of what is called in Western England a
‘“gape show” as are the modern patrons of a
‘‘dime museum.” Interspersed with accounts of
the researches of Leeuwenhoek and of Isaac
Newton are papers relating some wondrous tale
—often upon the most shadowy authority—which
nowadays would hardly find a place in an odd
corner of a newspaper. Thus in the year 1700 a
learned Fellow read an account of various giants
which he had “heard of,” some of which were
11 or 12 feet high; and about the same time a

specimen was shown of a “monstrous animal”
300 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

(very like a whale) which had been cast out of a
human stomach; while second-hand stories of
sleeping girls, fasting men, and ‘infant phe-
nomena” of various kinds were recorded with the
utmost gravity. In fact the early volumes of the
‘Transactions’ of the Royal Society strongly re-
mind one of the illustrated accounts of abnormal
potatoes and other ‘remarkable phenomena”
which occasionally appear in our cheap popular
magazines.

Of old, when pious students dwelt with admira-
tion on the wonderful works of the Creator, one
finds that reference is almost always made either
to something very vast or very small, or else to
some strange and unusual phenomenon such as a
comet or a volcanic eruption. Things of a more
familiar type seem to have been taken for granted,
and to have inspired but little curiosity.

One reason why the old order (and lack of
order) has changed and given place to new is
because our knowledge of nature has become
more and more systematised. We now think a
great deal more of establishing and _ illustrating
natural laws than in drawing attention to apparent
breaches of law. It is only by treating each

phenomenon, whether small or great, in relation
CONCLUSION. 301

to others (rather than as a wonder standing by
itself), that anything deserving the name of science
becomes possible. Whena great number of items
are linked together by natural relationship the
human mind is able to obtain a general mastery
over them, but when you have a mass of data
chaotic and unclassified, it is impossible even for
the most powerful intellect to acquire anything
like a comprehensive knowledge. In the latter
state of affairs it is inevitable that attention should
be chiefly directed to such things as are boldly
advertised by some striking quality—which, after
all, may have no bearing upon their intrinsic value
—just as in a human assembly one first notices
persons of unusual dress or aspect who often turn
out to be mere nobodies.

According to the invariable rule, both our sense
of ignorance and our curiosity have increased pavz
passu with our knowledge. We are no longer
content to take common things for granted, but
are impelled to keep probing the foundations
upon which our predecessors built with a confi-
dent assurance that they “ knew all about them.”
A good illustration of this is seen in the change
of attitude of scientific inquirers with regard to
the question of the origin of life. Nowadays
302 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

nothing would so startle the world as an an-
nouncement that in an absolutely sterilised and
hermetically closed tube some exceedingly low
living organism had appeared spontaneously.
But we find that two hundred years ago learned
men accepted almost as a matter of course the
doctrine that many highly organised worms and >
insects were bred spontaneously out of dirt. As
soon as students began to give attention to the
everyday phenomena round about them, it was
found that the world, instead of containing seven
wonders, contained seventy times seven; and as
knowledge has increased these have multiplied
into innumerable myriads.

Although the comparison may appear rather a
fanciful one, it may be said that the same change
has come over natural phenomena (regarded from
the philosophic standpoint) as has come over
civilised society. Science is a great leveller. It
has pulled down mighty wonders from their seats
and has exalted facts of low degree. The old
oligarchy of marvels which was once supreme in
the realm of natural history, and whose claim to
prominence rested upon self-assertion or unstable
tradition, and was not broadly based on law, has
gone the way of many aristocracies whose tenure
CONCLUSION, 303

was of a like nature. In its place in our museums
are groups of commoners in orderly array, each
shelf a Parliament upholding and upheld by law.
All phenomena are now born free and equal, and
we judge of their merit according to their ability
to fill places which need filling, or to conduce to
public order, or to add to the capital of the
commonwealth. Yet, as in other republics, there
is not that dead level of equality which democratic
theorists seem to strive after, for every now and
then some fact (often of obscure birth) leaps into
prominence as great as that of any of the deposed
marvels who lorded it of old. Let a fact establish
a law or reconcile two opposing theories, and it is
hailed with acclamations of which a Cesar might
be proud. Within the last few years we have
seen the triumphal march of Argon, the “X
rays,’ and many other minor celebrities. By-
and-by, when their work is done and _ their
services to law have been sufficiently recognised,
they will drop back into the ranks again and
become once more mere items in the republic of
Nature. Just as any new-born American citizen
may become President, so the humblest fact may
become for a time the most prominent figure in

the scientific world. Hence—and with this we
304 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

will conclude our simile—there has been a general
levelling up as well as a levelling down. No
single item in the great commonwealth of science
can ever again be despised or ignored as under
the old réezme.

Although, as was pointed out in the intro-
ductory chapter, the stimulus given of late to the
study of natural history has greatly increased the
number of workers in this branch of science, it
has widened the field in a still more striking
manner. There need be no fear that, like the
British coal-fields, the supply of unworked
material is in danger of becoming exhausted.
Regions which offer the most tempting prospect
to the investigator are continually coming within
our view. Each fresh discovery, instead of fixing
a limit to our researches, is a Pisgah height from
which new lands “ flowing with milk and honey”
can be discerned.

In the preceding pages many examples have
been given of the way in which Darwinism opens
the door to the naturalist. It would have been
no more possible for our forefathers to have read
the meaning of many of the wild traits of
domestic animals than it would have been for
them to have studied the chemistry of the stars.
CONCLUSION. 305

In spite of the fact that the discussion has been
kept within the range of students whose know-
ledge is elementary, there has been no difficulty
in finding abundant material without going out-
side the walls of the farmyard.

I wish to lay special stress upon the help that
Darwinism gives us in breaking new ground,
because nothing so damps the enthusiasm of a
beginner as the thought that everything which
he can do has been done before. One finds that
among young students there seems to be a fixed
tendency to overrate the achievements of their
predecessors, and to consider that little remains
to be discovered. Equally mistaken is the notion
which one finds commonly prevalent among be-
ginners, that we must wander far in any region
of knowledge before we come to virgin soil.
The wilderness of the unknown comes right up
to our doors (had we but eyes to see it), and we
need not take many steps in any direction before
entering upon untrodden ground.

But in order to become a pioneer of science
the student must be prepared to leave beaten
tracks and most of the facilities for travel (such
as books, lectures, &c.) which have helped him
hitherto, and to launch forth alone into regions

U
306 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

which are often as difficult to penetrate as a
tropical thicket. Needless to say, he should
avail himself of all organised methods of progress
within his reach until he comes to the frontier.
Beyond that point his books will be of little use
to him in pushing ahead, although these and
many other ‘‘resources of civilisation” are neces-
sary in enabling him accurately to survey and
to report upon any new discoveries.

When the naturalist wishes to read the records
of the past in the world round about him, there
are certain conditions which must be scrupulously
observed. In the first place, a fairly comprehen-
sive knowledge of vital phenomena, including
comparative anatomy, is essential, otherwise he
may fall into many ludicrous errors.

Thus an old traveller told me that he was
firmly convinced that some blood relationship
existed between the penguins of the Straits of
Magellan and the Chola Indians of Peru, be-
cause these foolish-looking birds, standing in
rows upon the shore and dangling their flipper-
like wings, forcibly reminded him of a number
of gaping uncouth savages whom he had seen
undergoing military drill during a revolution in

Quito! This gentleman, it is true, made no
CONCLUSION. 307

pretence to scientific knowledge. Yet one finds
scattered up and down among the abundant
literature of Darwinism not a few mistakes
which are almost as ludicrous, most of which
also result from a defective acquaintance with
elementary facts and laws.

It is necessary that every hypothesis, however
plausible, should be subjected to the severest
scrutiny at home before it is turned loose to
bear the brunt of the world’s criticism. Every
fact also which arrests the attention of the
naturalist—such, for instance, as the snake-like
peculiarities of cats, which were discussed in the
previous chapter—needs to be put through a
very stringent testing process before its value
can be gauged. The only way to do this suc-
cessfully is to compare it with kindred facts
wherever they exist, and plainly this cannot be
done without a fair acquaintance with other
branches of natural history.

But knowledge is by no means all that is
required in order to form a just estimate of the
value of any such piece of evidence. There
must be a complete impartiality of mind. Doubt-
less it is on the whole a good thing that we
feel a kind of parental regard for notions which
308 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

we deem to be of our own begetting, for it
makes us take pains in following them up and
collecting sustenance for them in the shape of
additional facts. But this parental solicitude,
unless kept within lawful bounds, is liable to
spoil our theories even more completely than
too much indulgence spoils our children.

It is necessary for the parent of a hypothesis
to be sternly impartial when it is beset by hostile
criticism. He must to a great extent imitate the
conduct ascribed to Edward III. of Cressy, and
let his offspring “win its spurs” by its own merit.
I admit (and I speak from experience) that it
is very painful to one’s feelings to have a
favourite theory which one has nurtured from
its youth up turn out badly, and prove unworthy
of further support, when it has to face adverse
evidence. Let me say in parenthesis here, that
to the student of science facts are the best critics.
Pretty nearly anything may be proved by argu-
ment, and most theories so established are as
easily disproved by the same means. But when
a matter is established by facts it may be con-
sidered that it has come to stay. Moreover, if
an inanimate fact tells against one of our pet

notions, we are not so ready to become fierce
CONCLUSION. 309

partisans as when the offspring of our minds (or
imaginations) is assailed by a human critic. It
is, I think, the experience of most students that
the farther they go in scientific pursuits the
easier they find it to be impartial. Beginners
perhaps need to be cautioned against minimising
adverse evidence and making the most of that
which is favourable as regards the point of view
which they wish to establish. Let it be under-
stood that I am not here speaking of attempts
to mislead others, but of that tendency to self-
deception which besets all enthusiasts. The
earnest student of science soon finds out how
little satisfaction there is in fathering doctrines
that are not sound from the feet upwards, and
by-and-by he becomes as merciless as a Brutus
as soon as anything is proved against his pet
views. It is needless to waste words in con-
demnation of stupid people who squeeze their

)

“facts” to fit their theories.

One of the chief reasons why Darwin attained
his supreme position as a naturalist was because
he was absolutely unbiassed in dealing with facts
and hypotheses. So imbued was he with the
love of truth that those who knew him best

declare that he would have cheerfully abandoned
310 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

his whole theory as to the Origin of Species
if, towards the close of his life, he had come
across evidence that showed that it was not well
founded.

In concluding, I will endeavour once more to
illustrate the methods which I am recommending
to young naturalists by making use of them in
order to solve a riddle which has doubtless
occurred to many of my readers.

Why are many creatures which have every
reason for avoiding notice often marked so con-
spicuously as to be visible to every eye?

This problem had been occupying my thoughts
a good deal several years ago, when I chanced
to take a walk through Greenwich Park. The
dappled fallow-deer were grazing among the
chestnut-trees or lying down upon the soft grass.
I sat down on a seat to watch them, determined
if possible to learn something fresh from them
before I moved from the spot. One could not
help noticing how remarkably their mottled skins,
angular outlines, and branching horns fitted them
for concealment in the glades of a forest. Even
here, where the surroundings were to a large
extent artificial, every now and then the eye
would suddenly chance upon a deer resting
CONCLUSION. 311

among the checkered shadows which was so
inconspicuous that it had previously escaped
notice. Suddenly a dog came bounding through
the trees, and in an instant all the deer which
had been lying down leaped to their feet, and
after a moment’s hesitation the whole herd can-
tered away to another part of the park. As
they fled every animal was rendered exceedingly
conspicuous by its white tail, which flapped up
and down at every bound.

Now why should these timid creatures at the
very moment that they are avoiding an enemy
thus render themselves the most prominent objects
in the landscape? That the white tail is not
chance eccentricity of coloration, like the white
markings about certain domestic animals, is evi-
dent for three reasons. Firstly, deer have never
been sufficiently domesticated to be bred arti-
ficially, like tame cattle, fowls, or pigeons, and
therefore their present coloration must be attrib-
uted to natural causes. Secondly, the white
“ flag” displayed by certain deer is not a peculiar-
ity of one or two animals in a herd, but is uni-
versally present among all members of a species ;
therefore it can only be accounted for upon the
ground that it has proved of value in the struggle
312 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

for existence. And, thirdly, the fact that other
creatures having habits somewhat akin to those
of deer, but which belong to totally different
orders, have the same peculiarity, shows not only
that the white tail serves a distinct purpose in
the economy of certain of the cervvzdez, but that
some “widely felt want” has been met in this
way.

Every one who has wandered in the fields at
sunset must have noticed the white fluffy tails of
wild rabbits, and how extremely conspicuous
these are when the animals are scampering to
some place of refuge from a spot where they
have been disturbed.

Now it is pretty obvious that every deer or
rabbit which advertises itself to its enemies in
this manner must incur greater danger than if
it remained concealed. This, of course, has been
specially the case since man became the chief
enemy of all edible mammals, and grew skilful
in the use of missile weapons. Many a rabbit
and many a buck has been betrayed to death by
his conspicuous tail when a hunter with a gun
has been prowling near. Perhaps, however, it
is not fair to mention guns as evolutionary

forces, since almost all the natural characteristics
CONCLUSION. 313

of animals with which we are familiar were
developed long ages before Roger Bacon or his
Chinese predecessors taught men the lethal
power of ‘‘villanous saltpetre.” Nay, more, I
am inclined to assert that even such primitive
missiles as the arrow, the spear, and the sling-
stone are all too new to be classed among nature’s
moulding forces. Still, if we ignore these new-
fangled agents of destruction, we yet find plenty
of ancient date which might be called down by
the flaunting of a white tail. Doubtless if keen-
sighted wild dogs started several of a herd of
antelopes at the same instant, they would gen-
erally follow after the one which rendered itself
most conspicuous, so that if one animal of the
herd had a white stern and the others had not, it
would incur much greater danger than its fellows.
Again, birds of prey, which depend entirely upon
sight, would naturally direct their course towards
the creature which could be most easily followed
by the eye, and an eagle dashing suddenly among
a number of rabbits would be much more likely
to pounce upon one showing a considerable sur-
face of white than upon one which was almost
exactly the same colour as its surroundings.
Here, then, is apparently a remarkable conflict
314 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

between a general law —viz., that all clearly-
defined and widely- distributed attributes have
justified their existence by preserving the race
from extinction—and the actual and obvious fact
that every defenceless beast showing a white tail
to its foes is thereby rendered less likely to
survive than its neighbours which are not so
advertised.

If we carefully observe the conduct of some
of these white-tailed animals we shall get a hint
as ‘to the utility of their peculiar attribute. For
this purpose the common wild rabbit is more
useful to us than the deer, because we have no
difficulty in finding him in every part of the
country.

If we walk along a hedge-side on a summer
evening just as it is getting dark, we find that a
wild rabbit when grazing is a very inconspicuous
animal, but the moment when it takes alarm and
canters away its white tail betrays its where-
abouts. Even when it is very dark (it is never
pitch dark under the open sky) there is no diffi-
culty whatever in seeing a moving blotch of white
against the dark grass or foliage. Now let us
find some suitable ambush close to a bank or a
hedge frequented by rabbits. For this purpose
CONCLUSION. 315

there is nothing better than a seat on the branch
of a tree some ten feet or so above the ground,
for wild creatures scarcely ever look up, and the
tell-tale scent of a human trespasser perched aloft
in this manner does not easily reach the nostrils
of creatures which are close to the ground. As
it gets dusk rabbits begin to emerge from the
covert. Some commence grazing almost imme-
diately, others canter slowly some distance out
from their place of refuge before settling down to
sup. As the darkness thickens their little brown
bodies become almost invisible, for when they are
on the feed they keep their white tell-tale tails
pressed close to the ground. They have been
cropping the sweet grass with quiet diligence for
half-an-hour or so, and a few of the more ven-
turesome have wandered fifty yards from their
stronghold when some terrifying object—possibly
a prowling fox—is observed by one of the front-
rankers, and he comes scampering back towards
the hedge. Although it is now quite impossible
to see the outline of a rabbit, the bobbing tail of
the fugitive is visible enough. And, moreover,
one can tell by the rapidity of its oscillations how
fast its owner is going. This enables all the
other rabbits of the community not only to learn
316 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

the fact that danger is present but to measure its
imminence; and they all take the hint without
delay and scamper towards the bushes, suddenly
revealing many moving specks of white where the
observer had not suspected the presence of a
living creature.

When an opportunity offers for watching wild
fallow deer we find very much the same order of
events when one of their number takes the alarm
and bounds away waving his white flag. The
others at once take warning—although probably
they have not learned anything concerning the
approaching danger by means of their own senses
—and follow their comrade without a moment’s
hesitation.

It seems plain, then, that the conspicuous white
tails of timid creatures such as rabbits and deer
play the part of danger signals to the rest of
the community. But as soon as we reach this
explanation we find ourselves face to face with
a further problem. Can it be possible that the
white tail of the rabbit or the deer is an emblem
of altruism? For it would appear that each
beast, by possessing and displaying a conspicuous
tail, exposes itself to its enemies for the good of

its fellows.
CONCLUSION. ny,

This is such a pleasing notion that it is really a
pity to upset it. Tennyson speaks of the rabbit’s
“innocent face,” and if one could add to this an
altruistic tail it would imply qualities entitling
him to a very high place among the “good”
animals which are often held up as an example
for frail humanity.

Unfortunately for his moral reputation, the
rabbit’s claims to altruism are negatived by a
further examination of the facts. Yet the alter-
native conclusion which is forced upon us is
almost as remarkable. For it seems that the
white tail of the rabbit bears an almost exact
comparison with such highly civilised and prosaic
things as rates and taxes. Apart from any
special evidence, his pose as an instance of
altruism is completely upset by the absolute utili-
tarianism which pervades all nature. ‘“ Nothing
for nothing” is the invariable law.

Certainly our rabbit or deer confers a benefit
on his fellows at some expense to himself. But
we know—because of the universal character of
the above law, if for no other reason—that he
gets back from the community every bit as
much as he gives.

Now let us see how this works out. All
318 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

beasts displaying the traits under discussion are
natural socialists. Concerning one apparent ex-
ception—the hare—I shall have something to
say further on. Now rabbits and deer have
not brains enough to organise themselves into
co-operative societies or to start political insti-
tutions for the public good, after the custom
of civilised human beings. Mother Nature there-
fore undertakes the business for them; and
although in the case of the lower animals the
process is quite independent of anything ap-
proaching intelligence, the result is curiously
the same in both instances.

Wherever creatures live in communities they
do so for mutual protection. Sometimes they
may adopt warlike measures and form them-
selves into armies; at other times they find
safety by combining their wits instead of their
weapons. When their only means of safety is
flight, they will in some way utilise the com-
bination so as to aid one another in this method
of avoiding destruction.

Now if all the deer of a herd and all the
rabbits of a warren warn their associates by
displaying white tails when they flee from an
enemy, it is plain that each member of the
CONCLUSION. 319

community receives benefit from the custom.
Thus supposing the life of a rabbit is threatened
twenty times a-year (a very modest estimate)
through his rendering himself specially visible,
he receives more than twenty warnings from
the caudal danger-signals of his fellow-citizens
of the presence of dangerous foes which might
otherwise kill him. The result, as I have said,
is very much like what one finds in civilised
human communities. We pay out of our means
of livelihood so much a-year to the Govern-
ment (which represents the community) in rates
and taxes. When one comes to examine the
part which money really plays in the economy
of life, one finds that it must be placed amongst
the means of subsistence; for it is merely a
kind of substitute for such necessaries as food,
raiment, and covering. If such things are taken
from those of us who have only a bare com-
petence (and it must be remembered that this
is all we are xaturally entitled to, for Nature
does not give any of her children any surplus
income as a general rule), our chances of life
are thereby to some extent lessened. Thus,
broadly speaking, money stands to us in the
same relation as any other influence which tends
320 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

to preserve us from extinction, and we are there-
fore —from the purely selfish or individualist
point of view—apparently so much the nearer
extinction when we give our cheques to the
tax-gatherer and lessen our bank balance by
several pounds or dollars.

In reality we are of course purchasing from
the Government very much more effective pro-
tection for life or property than we could obtain
by the individual expenditure of the amount
which we pay in taxes. The money provides
us with the services of police and soldiers to
defend us against robbers and invaders, and
some of it is usually spent in safeguarding our
health and in aiding us in getting a livelihood.
Hence we get back from the community in the
long-run a good deal more than the money which
we had to yield up in the way of taxes.

Now let us return to our rabbits and deer.
Being creatures which live in communities, they
have certain obligations towards their fellow-
citizens. In some way or other each has to
contribute something to the commonwealth.
Silver and gold they have none, so they can-
not pay taxes as we do. Property they have
none, so they cannot pay in kind as do the
 

CONCLUSION. 321

bees and ants. Being totally without aptitude
for war, they cannot discharge their liabilities
to the state by serving as soldiers, as do the
wild hogs and other robust creatures which
are banded together for self-defence. Think-
ing power they have practically none, so they
cannot even contribute to the common welfare
by giving good advice during a political crisis,
or by helping to outwit public enemies. But
every one of them is born with a conspicuous
white tail, and this it loyally dedicates to the
service of the public.

Plainly, a rabbit living alone and possessing an
ostentatious tail would be at a great disadvantage.
It would pay its taxes and receive nothing in
exchange. Now the hare affords us a most
interesting example of how gregarious customs
become modified when a solitary life is adopted.
In many ways the hare betrays the fact that it is
descended from socialist forefathers which not
only lived in communities but which burrowed in
the ground and transacted all the business of life
without straying far from their places of refuge.
Its white tail is therefore a historic relic of the
time when there was little to choose between a
hare and a rabbit.
322 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

Nowadays the hare finds nothing is to be gained
by rendering itself conspicuous, and in this way
paying a tax which was originally imposed for the
sake of the welfare of a community. It therefore
keeps the white part of the tail carefully tucked
out of sight when disturbed by an enemy while
feeding or lying in its “seat.” This action on
the part of the hare surely should inspire us with
respect for the integrity and public spirit of our
friend the rabbit; for it would seem as if in his
case the payment of the tax were to some extent
optional. Certain animals of the deer kind have
white markings on the body around the tail, which
serve the same general purpose as the peculiarity
we are discussing, and which could not possibly
be concealed. But where the upper part of the
tail itself is of a dark colour and the lower part
only is white, it is obvious that a bolting rabbit
desirous of ‘defrauding the public revenue”
might easily do so if he chose by always holding
his tail down, hare-fashion, between his hind legs.

Whether his apparent virtue as a citizen—for
I have never known a rabbit to shirk his obliga-
tions in this fashion—be due to a tender con-

science or merely to some detail of caudal
CONCLUSION. 323

anatomy which prevents him from lowering his
tail when running, I cannot say.

Probably a rabbit would not get sufficient pro-
fit from his habit of displaying his tail to com-
pensate him for the danger thereby incurred
unless he were domiciled with a considerable
number of his fellows. The presence of only
two or three comrades would not be sufficient to
recoup him, for it takes many warnings to balance
the increased liability to attack which he incurs
by rendering himself conspicuous.

Yet while it is fairly obvious that wherever
there are a large number of rabbits assembled in
a warren each individual receives greater benefit
from this protective measure than where the com-
munity is small, there is some danger of such a
commonwealth becoming unwieldy. Supposing
a square mile of country were covered by rabbits
of one clan, and every time one of these saw
danger and bobbed his white flag all scuttled into
their holes, it is plain that none of them would
get far enough afield to obtain food, and the
system would prove detrimental.

Here is a problem which any one with a genius

for statistics and for calculating chances might
324 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

perhaps work out without much difficulty, sup-
posing he also were a fairly competent naturalist.

What is the size of a rabbit community which
is most profitable to the individual? Nature,
who is, as I have several times remarked, a great
actuary and statistician, does these calculations
continually, and her answer is set down wherever
a rabbit community can be found which exists
under anything like natural conditions. Of
course each community would be subject to
special circumstances according to the nature
of the surrounding country, so that an abstract
calculation would, after all, have but an academic
value.

If the question were asked, How did white tails
first become fashionable among rabbits and forest
deer? I do not suppose that any naturalist of
this generation would be ready with an answer.
The actual origin of phenomena like the above
is especially puzzling to the evolutionist, and
many such problems must remain unsolved until
our knowledge of natural history is considerably
greater than it is at present.

One point, however, is fairly evident, and that
is, that we must regard the “erd or the conemunity

rather than the zzdzvzdual as the chief unit with
CONCLUSION. 325

which we have to deal when analysing the traits
of many gregarious animals. We must, in fact,
regard individuals very much as the physiologist
regards the various component organs of the
body. Among social animals, including the
human race, it was not so much the question
which beast or which man would in the long run
prove the fittest to survive, as which herd of
beasts or which tribe of men.

The struggle for existence in nature, as in the
commercial world, takes place between those who
get a livelihood in a similar manner, and in both
instances amalgamations and joint-stock com-
panies are formed which, while not doing away
with competition, render it a matter of strife
between corporations rather than of strife be-
tween individuals.

The relations of the individual to his com-
munity, whether among men or among beasts, is
always a matter of great philosophic interest.
Almost every question of internal politics among
all peoples from the very commencement of civili-
sation has arisen owing to the perpetual need of
adjustment between public and private “ rights.”

We are beginning to understand that in hun-

dreds of instances among the lower animals nature
326 WILD TRAITS IN TAME ANIMALS.

had long ago traversed the very ground which
civilised human communities are now entering
upon for the first time in the history of our race.
Possibly by studying such examples of natural
social and political relationships as those which
we have been briefly discussing, our statesmen
and moralists might obtain some help in their
attempts to solve some of the burning questions
which are so sorely troubling them at the present

day.

 
Amateur naturalists, difficulties of, 2,
3,7, 8.

Angora goats in South Africa, 207.

Aquatic habits of birds, origin of, 283.

Argon, discovery of, 26.

Automatic reasoning, 25.

Barking of dogs, 33.
Beef-eating habits, influence on his-
tory of, 144.
Bonavia, Dr, on callosities, 108.
Bos frontosus, 132.
longifrons, 132.
primigenius, 131.
Brunton, Dr Lauder, on vestigial hunt-
ing instinct, 55.
Buck-jumping, origin of, 83.
Bull, pugnacity of, 160.

Cackling habit in fowls, 268.
Caffre cats, 237.
Callosities on horse, 105.
Canine liars, 38.
Cat as man’s partner, 227.
method of hunting, 232.
Cats, cleanliness of, 263.
and snakes, resemblance
tween, 241.
tortoise-shell and sandy, 239.
Cattle, courage of, 151.
Chinese pig, 211.
Cleanliness of cats, 263.
Clucking, habit of, 276.
Confidence in man, influence of, 289.
suggested explan-
ation of, 293.
Co-operation among dogs, 35.

 

be-

Courage of cattle, 151.

of horse, gr.

place of, in nature, 296.
Cow, method of feeding, 79.
Crocodiles in tropical rivers, 124.
Crowing of cock, 277.
Cunning and caution of many carni-

vores, 257.

Cuvier on domestic animals, 41.
Cynomorphism, 44.

Darwin on Argentine sheep-dogs, 49.
on earthworms, 27.
on pugnacity of game cocks,
_, 275
Darwinism, illuminating power of, 23.
Deer, white tail of, 311.
Difficulties of amateur naturalists, 2,
3) 7) 8.
Dog, origin of faculties of, 29.
Dogs, barking of, 33.
Domestic fowls, habits of, 268.
sheep, origin of, £77.
Domestication, influence of, on char-
acter, 271.
Donkey, ancestry of, 109.
coloration of, 112.
braying of, 118.
ears of, 117.
obstinacy of, 122.
Dread of snakes, 255.
Ducks, difference between tame and
wild, 285.

Eagles preying on cats, 247.
Ears of dogs, 66.
Earthworms, 27.
328

Etiquette of cattle, 152.
I-uropean wild horse, 89.
Evolution, knowledge of, essential, 8, 9.

Fat, use of, in nature, 214.
Fear of water in donkey, 124.
Feet of horses, 76.

Fighting among dogs, 39.
Forest habits in cats, 231.

Gadflies and cattle, 149.

Galton, Francis, on riding oxen, 154.

Goat, advertising method of, 197.
as a mathematician, 1gt.
climbing power of, 189.
independent character of, 185.
original home of, 183.
wool of, 202.

Gregarious animals, social virtues of,

34
Grey and tabby cats, 235.
Grunting, habit of, in pig, 224

Hissing in cats and snakes, 245.
habit of various young ani-
mals, 254.
Hoofs of cattle adapted to soft ground,
138.
Hooker, Sir J., on horns of argali, 176.
Horns of wild sheep, 176.
of goat, 204.
of cattle, 139.
Horse, courage of, 91.
method of expressing emotion,

Oy 9G
method of fighting, 93.
splints in, 81.
social virtues of, go.
Horses, ancestry of, 80.
dislike of fox by, 70.
feet of, 76.
method of feeding, 79.
origin of useful qualities of, 68.
wild home of, 73.
Hudson, W. H., on creolla fowls, 269.
on habits of cattle,

159.
on lambs in La Plata,
172.

Impattiality of mind, need of, 307.
Independent character of goat, 185.
Infant mind, receptive character of,
285.
mortality in wild birds, 287.
Trish pigs, 212.

Jesse on pariah dogs, 48.

INDEX.

Kingsley, C., on hostility of horse to
fox,72:

Kittens, their habit of spitting at dogs,
252.

Lambs, defective instinct of, 172.
Legs of mutton, 165.

Lifting of fleece, date of, 166.
Loyalty, importance of, in dogs, 38.

Mane, probable use of, 102.
Manx cats, 238.
Marks on true tabby cat, 240.
Max Miiller, Professor, on origin of
word ‘‘ daughter,” 131.
Mental processes required for spoor-
ing, 12, 21.
Milk-giving qualities of cow, origin
of, 136.
of goat, 188.
Mountain animals, 110.
diminution of, 199.
Mules, endurance of, 115.
Mustangs, origin of, 96, 98.

Natural size of animals, 200.
weapons, character of, 141.
Naturalists born, not made, 5.
Noise made by frightened fowls, ex-
planation of, 278.

Obstinacy of ass, 122.
Ocelot and boa, 243.
marks on, 242.
Olfactory lobe in dog and man, 13, 43.
shortcomings and reasoning
power, I5.
Origin of domestic sheep, 177.
of habits of setter and pointer,

59.
of wool in sheep, 164.

Partnership between dog and man, 30.
Pig, domestic origin of, 210.
gluttonous appetite of, 219.
natural habitat of, 218.
virtues of, 22
Pigs and snakes, 226,
Play instinct, 16.
Prejevalsky’s wild horse, roo.
Primitive savage, picture of, 17-2
Prolific animals, 225,
Protective theory, difficulties of, 250.
oun cry in cats, 240.
Pruen, Dr S. ‘T., on African
dogs, 61,
Pugn: acity of g game cock,
Purring, habit of, in ont eee

 

 

wild
INDEX.

Rabbit, white tail of, 312.
Race between geese and turkeys, 280.

Savages, ancient and modern, 17.
necessarily naturalists, 9-13.
Setter and pointer, origin of habits of,

59:

Shape and speed of foal, 73.

Sheep, falling on their horns, 178.
habit of following leader, 182.
in the tropics, 169.
stupidity of, 170.
their need of human protec-

tion, 161.
Shepherd dog, origin of habits of,

47:
Shetland pony, 94.
Shying in horse, origin of, 82.
Snakes, mimicry of, 278.
universal dread of, 255.
Social virtues of gregarious animals,

34+

Squeaking of pigs, use in nature of,
222,

St John on fowls killing hawk, 278.

on wild cats, 247.

Stamping of feet in sheep, 176.

Sure-footedness of donkey, origin of,
TTT,

329

Tabby and grey cats, 235.

Tail of ox, primary use of, 147.
wagging in dogs of, 36, 52, 57.
use of, in horse, 103.

Tortoise-shell and sandy cats, 239.

Treatment of sick and wounded com-

rades, 155.

Trotting, 86, 87.

Turkeys, roosting habits of, 280.

Type, persistence of, 99.

Unshorn seven-year-old ewe, 163.

Wagging of tails, 36, 52, 57.
Watch-dog, origin of habits of, 32.
Weismann’s theory, 128.
White, Gilbert, on earthworms, 26.
White tails in deer, 311.

in rabbit, 312.

utility of, 314.
Wild ducks, young, food of, 284.
Wolves and wild horses, 69.

method of expressing pleasure,

4.
Wool of goat, 202.
Yoke, use of, for oxen, 133.

Zebra, coloration of, 112.

PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS.
NATURAL HISTORY BOOKS.

A SKETCH OF THE NATURAL HISTORY (VERTE-

BRATES) OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. With a Bibliography
of over 200 Works relating to the British Fauna, and a List of Field
Clubs and Natural History Societies at present existing in the United
Kingdom. By F. G. AFLALO, F.R.G.S., F.Z.8., Author of ‘A
Sketch of the Natural History of Australia,’ &e.

With numerous
Illustrations by LopGE and BENNETT.

In 1 vol. crown 8vo.
[In the press.
THE WOODLAND LIFE. By Epwarp Tuomas. With

a Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 6s.

NORFOLK BROADS AND RIVERS; Or, THe Warer-
ways, Lacoons, AND Decoys or Easr ANGLIA. By G.
CHRISTOPHER DAVIES, Author of ‘The Swan and her Crew.’

New Edition. Illustrated with seven Full-page Plates.

Crown
8vo, 6s.

BY ‘A SON OF THE MARSHES.”

Cheap Uniform Edition, Crown 8vo, price 8s. 6d. each.

ANNALS OF A FISHING VILLAGE. Edited by J.
A. OWEN.

ON SURREY HILLS.

WITHIN AN HOUR OF LONDON TOWN. Among
Wild Birds and their Haunts. Edited by J. A. OWEN.

WITH THE WOODLANDERS AND BY THE TIDE.
Edited by J. A. OWEN.

FROM SPRING TO FALL; Or, Wuey Lire Stirs.
Edited by J. A. OWEN.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EpixpuncH anp Lonpon.
NEW BOOKS.

ANNALS OF A PUBLISHING HOUSE.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND HIS SONS. Terr MaGazine
AND Frignps. By Mrs OLIPHANT. Vols. I. and II., with Four Por-
traits. Demy 8vo, £2, 2s.

THE JUBILEE BOOK OF CRICKET. By K. S. Ravyagrr-
SINHJI.
The following Editions are on sale : —

I. EDITION DE LUXE.—Limited to 350 Copies, printed on Hand-
made Paper, and handsomely bound in buckram. Crown 4to,
with 22 Photogravures and 85 Full-page Plates. Each Copy
signed by Prince Ranjitsinhji. Price £5, 5s. net.

II. FINE PAPER EDITION. — Medium 8vo, with Photogravure
Frontispiece, and 106 Full-page Plates on Art Paper. 25s. net.

III. POPULAR EDITION. —lLarge crown 8yvo, with 107 Full-page
Illustrations. Fourth Edition, 6s.

WITH THE CONQUERING TURK: Conresstons oF A
BasHI-Bazouk. By G. W. STEEVENS, Author of ‘The Land of the
Dollar,’ &. With Four Maps. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

DARIEL: A ROMANCE OF SURREY. By R. D. Buack-
MORE, Author of ‘Lorna Doone,’ ‘The Maid of Sker.’ With Fourteen
Dlustrations by Curis. HAMMOND. Crown 8vo, 6s.

PEACE WITH HONOUR. By Sypney C. Grizr, Author of
“An Uncrowned King,’ ‘His Excellency’s English Governess,’ ‘In
Furthest Ind,’ &c. Crown 8vo, 6s.

THE HISTORY OF THE FOREIGN POLICY OF GREAT
BRITAIN. By MONTAGU BURROWS, Chichele Professor of Modern
History in the University of Oxford; Captain, R.N.; F.S.A., &e.;
“‘Officier de 1’Instruction Publique,” France ; Author of ‘Commentaries
on the History of England,’ &c. New and Cheaper Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, 6s. :

OLD MEMORIES. By Generar Str HUGH GOUGH, G.C.B.,
V.C. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EprnsurcH anp Lonpon.
Catalogue

of

Messrs Blackwood & Sons’

Publications
PERIODS OF EUROPEAN
Proressorn SAINTSBURY.

LITERATURE. Edited by

THE FLOURISHING OF ROMANCE AND THE RISE OF ALLE-

GORY.

(12TH AnD 13TH CenTURIES.) By GEORGE SAINTSBURY, M.A.,

Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in Edinburgh University.

Crown 8vo, 5s. net.

THE LATER RENAISSANCE. By Davin Hannay.

5s. net.

THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. By F. J. SNELL.
5s. net.
THE AUGUSTAN AGES. By OLiver ELTON.

Crown 8vo,

Crown 8vo,

Crown 8vo.
Un the press.

The other Volumes are ;—

Tur Dark AcEs.
THE TRANSITION
PERIOD . G. Gregory Smith.
Tae EARLIER RENAISSANCE. The Editor.
Tae Frrst Har of THE SEVENTEENTH
CENTURY . Prof. H. J. C. Grierson.

Prof. W. P. Kerr.

Toe Mip- EIGHTEENTH
| CENTURY . . J. Hepburn Millar.
Tas Romantic Revoir Prof.C.E. Vaughan.

| Tae Romantic TRICMPH T. 8. Omond.
Tue LATER NINETEENTH
| CENTURY . Sane . The Editor.

PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS.

Edited by WILLIAM KNIGHT,

in the University of St Andrews.
price 3s. 6d.

Contents of the Series.— DEscaRTES, by
Professor Mahaffy, Dublin. —Butier, by
Rev. W. Lucas Collins, M.A.—BERKELEY,
by Professor Campbell Fraser. — FicuTe,
by Professor Adamson, Glasgow. — Kant,
by Professor Wallace, Oxford.—HamILTon,
by Professor Veitch, Glasgow.—HEGEL, by
the Master of Balliol. —Lerteniz, by J. Theo-

LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy
In crown 8vo Volumes, with Portraits,

dore Merz.—Vico, by Professor Flint, Edin-
burgh. — Hopses, by Professor Croom
Robertson. — Humz, by the Editor. —
Sprnoza, by the Very Rev. Principal Caird,
Glasgow. — Bacon: Part I. The Life, by
Professor Nichol.—Bacon: Part II. Philo-
sophy, by the same Author. —LocxE, by
Professor Campbell Fraser.

FOREIGN CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS. Edited by

Mrs OLIPHANT. CuHeEap RE-ISSUE,

each,

Dante, by the Editor. — Vottaire,
by General Sir E. B. Hamley, K.C.B.
— Pascau, by Principal Tulloch. — Pr-
TRARCH, by Henry Reeve, C.B.—GoETHE,
by A. Hayward, Q.C.—Mo.uibre, by the
Editor and F. Tarver, M.A.—MontTaIGnr,
by Rev. W. L. Collins.—Ragexais, by Sir
Walter Besant. — CaLpDERoN, by E. J.
Hasell.—Sarnt Simon, by C. W. Collins.

In limp cloth, feap. 8vo, price 1s.

CERVANTES, by the Editor. —CoRNEILLE
AND Racine, by Henry M. Trollope.—
MabDamMeE DE SEvIGNE, by Miss Thackeray.
— La FonTAINE, AND OTHER FRENCH
Faxsuists, by Rev. W. Lucas Collins,
M.A.—ScHILLER, by James Sime, M.A.
—Tasso, by E. J. Hasell.— RovsseEau,
by Henry Grey Graham. — ALFRED DE
Mousset, by C. F. Oliphant.

ANCIENT CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS. Edited by

the Rev. W. LUCAS COLLINS, M.A. CHEAP RE-ISSUE.

feap. 8vo, price 1s. each.

Contents of the Series.—HomeEr: Iiap,
by the Editor.—Homer: Opyssry, by the
Editor.—Herroporvus, by G. C. Swayne.—
Casar, by Anthony Trollope.—VirelL, by
the Editor. — Horacg, by Sir Theodore
Martin.—scuy.uvs, by Bishop Copleston.
—XEnNopHON, by Sir Alex. Grant.—CicErRo,
by the Editor.—SopHoo.ss, by C. W. Col-
lins.—Puiny, by Rey. A. Church and W. J.
Brodribb.—Euriripss, by W. B. Donne.—
JUVENAL, by EB. Walford. — ARISTOPHANES,
by the Editor.—Hxsiop anp THeoanis, by

In limp cloth,

J. Davies.—PLautus AND TERENCE, by the
Editor. — Tacitus, by W. Donne.—
Luctan, by the Editor.—Puaro, by C. W.
Collins. — GREEK ANTHOLOGY, by Lord
Neaves.—Livy, by the Editor.—Ovip, by
Rey. A. Church. — Catuius, TIBULLUS,
AND PROPERTIUS, by J. Davies.—DrEmos-
THENES, by W. J. Brodribb.—ARIsToTLE,
by Sir Alex. Grant.—THucypipEs, by the
Editor.—Luoretius, by W. H. Mallock. —
Pinpar, by Rey. F. D. Morice.
CATALOGUE

oF

MESSRS BLACKWOOD & SONS’
PUBLICATIONS

ALISON.
History of Europe. By Sir ARcurBaLp Auison, Bart., D.C.L.

1. From the Commencement of the French Revolution to
the Battle of Waterloo.
Liprary Epition, 14 vols., with Portraits. Demy 8vo, £10, 10s.
ANOTHER EpiTIon, in 20 vols. crown 8vo, £6.
ProPLE's Epition. 18 vols. crown 8vo, £2, 11s.
2. Continuation to the Accession of Louis Napoleon.
Lisrary Epition, 8 vols. 8vo, £6, 7s. 6d.
PropLe’s Epition, 8 vols. crown 8vo. 34s.

Epitome of Alison’s History of Europe. Thirtieth Thou-
sand, 7s. 6d.

Atlas to Alison’s History of Europe. By A. Keith Johnston.

Lisrary Epition, demy 4to, £3, 8s.
Propie's Epirion, 31s. 6d.

Life of John Duke of Marlborough. With some Account of
his Contemporaries, and of the War of the Succession. Third Edition. 2 vols.
8vo. Portraits and Maps, 30s.

Essays: Historical, Political, and Miscellaneous. 3 vols.
demy 8vo, 45s.

ACROSS FRANCE IN A CARAVAN: Berne some Account
OF A JOURNEY FROM BORDEAUX TO GENOA IN THE ‘‘Escaroort,” taken in the Winter
1889-90. By the Author of ‘A Day of my Life at Eton.' With fifty Iustrations
by John Wallace, after Sketches by the Author, anda Map. Cheap Edition,
demy 8vo, 7s. 6d.

ACTA SANCTORUM HIBERNI#; Ex Codice Salmanticensi.
Nune primum integre edita opera CaAROLI DE SMEDT et JOSEPHI DE BackKER, e
Soe. Jesu, Hagiographorum Bollandianorum; Auctore et Sumptus Largiente
JOANNE Patricio MarRcHIoNEe Boruar. In One handsome 4to Volume, bound in
half roxburghe, £2, 2s.; in paper cover, 31s. 6d.

ADOLPHUS. Some Memories of Paris. By F. Apoupuus.
Crown 8vo, 6s.

AFLALO. A Sketch of the Natural History (Vertebrates) of
the British Islands. By F. G. Arcato, F.R.G.S., F.Z.8., Author of ‘A Sketch
of the Natural History of Australia,’ &e. With numerous Mlustrstions by Lodge
and Bennett. Crown Svo, 6s. net.
4 List of Books Published by

 

AIKMAN. ,
Manures and the Principles of Manuring. By C. M. Arkman,
D.8e., F.R.S.E., &c., Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow Veterinary College;
Examiner in Chemistry, University of Glasgow, &. Crown 8vo, 63. 6d.
Farmyard Manure: Its Nature, Composition, and Treatment.
Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d.

ALLARDYCE.
The City of Sunshine. By ALEXANDER AtLarpyce, Author of
‘Harlscourt,’ &c. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. 23
Balmoral: A Romance of the Queen’s Country. New Edition.
Crown 8v0, 6s.

ANCIENT CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS. Edited

by Rev. W. Lucas Conuins, M.A. Price 1s. each. For List of Vols. see p. 2.

ANDERSON. Daniel in the Critics’ Den. A Reply to Dean
Farrar’s ‘Book of Daniel.’ By Ropert ANpDERSoN, LL.D., Barrister-at-Law,
Assistant Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis; Author of ‘The Coming
Prince,’ ‘Human Destiny,’ &c. Post 8vo, 4s. 6d.

AYTOUN.
Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers, and other Poems. By W.

Epmonpstoune Aytoun, D.C.L., Professor of Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres in the
University of Edinburgh. New Edition. Fceap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

ANOTHER Epition. Feap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Cueap Epition. 1s. Cloth, 1s. 3d.

An Illustrated Edition of the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers.

From designs by Sir Nozt Paton. Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 10s. 6d.
Bothwell: a Poem. Third Edition. Fcap., 7s. 6d.

Poems and Ballads of Goethe. Translated by Professor
Aytoun and Sir THEODORE Martin, K.C.B. Third Edition. Fcap., 6s.

Memoir of William E. Aytoun, D.C.L. By Sir THeopoRE
Martin, K.C.B. With Portrait. Post 8vo, 12s.

BADEN-POWELL. The Saving of Ireland. Conditions and
Remedies: Industrial, Financial, and Political. By Sir GrorcE BapEn-PowELL,
K.C.M.G., M.P. Demy 8vo, 7s. 6d.

BEDFORD & COLLINS. Annals of the Free Foresters, from
1856 to the Present Day. By W. K. R. Beprorp, W. EB. W. Cours, and other
Contributors. With 55 Portraits and 59 other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 21s. net.

BELLAIRS. Gossips with Girls and Maidens, Betrothed and

Free. By Lapy Betuarrs. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. Cloth, extra
gilt edges, 5s.

BELLESHEIM. History of the Catholic Church of Scotland.
From the Introduction of Christianity to the Present Day. By ALPHONS BEL»
LESHEIM, D.D., Canon of Aix-la-Chapelle. Translated, with Notes and Additions,
by D. OswaLtp Hunter Buair, O.8.B., Monk of Fort Augustus. Cheap Edition.
Complete in 4 vols. demy 8vo, with Maps. Price 21s. net.

BENTINCK. Racing Life of Lord George Cavendish Bentinck,
M.P., and other Reminiscences. By JoHn Kent, Private Trainer to the Good-
wood Stable. Edited by the Hon. Francis Law.ey. With Twenty-three full-
page Plates, and Facsimile Letter. Third Edition. Demy 8vo, 25s.

BICKERDYKE. A Banished Beauty. By JoHn BicKERDYKE,
Author of ‘ Days in Thule, with Rod, Gun, and Camera,’ ‘The Book of the All-
Round Angler,’ ‘Curiosities of Ale and Beer,’ &c. With Illustrations. Cheap
Edition. Orown 8vo, 28.
Wilkam Blackwood and Sons, 5

 

BINDLOSS. In the Niger Country. By Harotp BInptoss.
With 2 Maps. Demy Svo, 12s. 6d.

BIRCH.

Examples of Stables, Hunting-Boxes, Kennels, Racing Estab-
lishments, &c. By Jonn Brrcu, Architect, Author of ‘Country Architecture,
&c. With 30 Plates. Royal 8vo, 7s.

Examples of Labourers’ Cottages, &c. With Plans for Im-
proving the Dwellings of the Poorin Large Towns. With 34 Plates. Royal 8vo, 7s.

Picturesque Lodges. A Series of Designs for Gate Lodges,

Park Entrances, Keepers’, Gardeners’, Bailifts’, Grooms’, Upper and Under Ser-
vants’ Lodges, and other Rural Residences. With 16 Plates. 4to, 12s. 6d.

BLACKIE.

The Wisdom of Goethe. By Joun Stuart Biackie, Emeritus
ee of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, extra
gilt, 6s.

John Stuart Blackie: A Biography. By Anna M. SroppaRt.
With 3 Plates. Third Edition. 2 vols, demy 8vo, 21s.

PopuLaR Epition. With Portrait. Crown 8vo 6s.

BLACKMORE.
The Maid of Sker. By R. D. Buackmozz, Author of ‘Lorna

Doone,’ &c. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo,
33s. 6d.

Dariel: A Romance of Surrey. With 14 Illustrations by

Chris. Hammond. Crown $vo. 6s.

BLACKWOOD.
Annals of a Publishing House. William Blackwood and his

Sons; Their Magazine and Friends. By Mrs Ovipnant. With Four Portraits.
Third Edition. Demy 8vo. Vols. I. and Il. £2, 2s.

—— Vol. III. John Blackwood. By his Daughter, Mrs
GERALD PorTER. With 2 Portraits and View of Strathtyrum. Demy 8vo, 21s.

Blackwood’s Magazine, from Commencement in 1817 to De-
cember 1898. Nos. 1 to 998, forming 164 Volumes.

Index to Blackwood’s Magazine. Vols. 1 to 50. 8vo, 15s.

Tales from Blackwood. First Series. Price One Shilling each,
in Paper Cover. Sold separately at all Railway Bookstalls.
They may also be had bound in 12 vols., cloth, 18s. Half calf, richly gilt, 30s.
Or the 12 vols. in 6, roxburghe, 21s. Half red morocco, 28s.

Tales from Blackwood. Second Series. Complete in Twenty-
four Shilling Parts. Handsomely bound in 12 vols., cloth, 30s. In leather back,
roxburghe style, 37s. 6d. Half calf, gilt, 52s. 6d. Half morocco, 55s.

Tales from Blackwood. Third Series. Complete in Twelve

Shilling Parts. Handsomely bound in 6 vols., cloth, 15s.; and in 12 vols. cloth,
18s. The 6 vols. inroxburghe, 21s. Half calf, 25s. Half morocco, 28s.

Travel, Adventure, and Sport. From ‘ Blackwood’s Magazine.
Uniform with ‘Tales from Blackwood.’ In Twelve Parts, each price 1s. Hand-
somely bound in 6 vols., cloth, 15s. And in half calf, 25s.

New Educational Series. See separate Catalogue.
6 List of Books Published by

 

BLACKWOOD.

New Uniform Series of Novels (Copyright).

Crown 8vo, cloth. Price 3s. 6d. each. Now ready :—

THe Maip oF Sker. By R. D. Blackmore.

WENDERHOLME. By P. G. Hamerton.

THE Story oF MaraR&épeL. By D. Storrar
Meldrum.

Miss Marsoripanks. By Mrs Oliphant.

THE PERPETUAL OURATE, and THE RECTOR.
By the Same.

SaLtem CaapsEt, and Taz Doctor's FaMmity.
By the Same.

A SensITIVE Prant. By E. D. Gerard.

Lavy Ler’s WipowHoop. By General Sir
EH. B. Hamley.

Katie Stewart, and other Stories.
Oliphant.

VALENTINE AND HIS BROTHER. By the Same.

Sons anp DaucHTERs. By the Same.

Marmorne. By P. G. Hamerton.

Standard Novels.

complete in one Volume.

By Mrs

FLORIN SERIES, (lustrated Boards.

Tom CrineLE's Loa. By Michael Scott.
fue CRUISE OF THE MipcE. By the Same.
Cyrit THorntTon. By Captain Hamilton.
ANNALS OF THE ParisH. By John Galt.
Tue Provost, &. By the Same.

Sir ANDREW WYLIE. By the Same.

Tuer Entart. By the Same.

Miss Motiy. By Beatrice May Butt.
REGINALD Datton. By J. G. Lockhart.

SHILLING SERIES, Mlustrated Cover.
Tae Rector, and Tar Doctor’s FamIty. |

By D. M.

By Mrs Oliphant.

Toe Lirz or Mansiz Wavca.
Moir.

PENINSULAR ScENES AND SKETCHES.

By
F. Hardman.

Uniform in size and binding.

| PEN OWEN.
| ADAM BrarrR.
| Lapy Ler’s WipowHoop. By General Sir E-

| Satem CHAPEL.
| Tae PERPETUAL CURATE.
| Miss MaRJORIBANES.
| Joun: A Love Story. By the Same.

Reata. By E. D. Gerard.

BrcoaR My NeicHBour. By the Same,

Tue WaTERS OF HERCULES. By the Same.

Fair to Sze. By L. W. M. Lockhart.

Mine 1s THINE. By the Same.

DovUBLES AND QuiTs. By the Same.

AuTIoRA PETo. By Laurence Oliphant

PiccaDILLy. By the Same. With Illustra-
tions.

Lavy Basy. By D. Gerard.

THE BLACKSMITH OF Vor. By Paul Cushing.

Tue Ditemma. By the Author of ‘The
Battle of Dorking.’

My Triviat Lire anD MisFoRTUNE. By A
Plain Woman.

Poor NELLIE. By the Same.

Each

Bound in Cloth, 2s. 6d.
By Dean Hook.
By J. G. Lockhart.

B. Hamley.

By Mrs Oliphant.

By the Same
By the Same,

Bound in Cloth, 1s. 6d.
Sin Frizzie Pumpxin, Nicuts at Mess,
&e

| Tar SUBALTERN.
| Lire In THE Far WEst.

By @. F. Ruxton.
VALERIUS: A Roman Story. By J. G.
Lockhart.

BON GAULTIER'S BOOK OF BALLADS. Fifteenth Edi-

tion.

With Illustrations by Doyle, Leech, and Crowquill. Feap. Svo, 5s.

BOWHILL. Questions and Answers in the Theory and Practice

of Military Topography. By Major J. H. Bown.

Crown 8yo, 4s. 6d. net.

Portfolio containing 34 working plans and diagrams, 3s. 6d. net.

BRADDON. Thirty Years of Shikar.

By Sir Epwarp Brappon,

K.C.M.G. With Illustrations by G. D. Giles, and Map of Oudh Forest Tracts

and Nepal Terai. Demy 8vo, 18s.

BROUGHAM. Memoirs of the Life and Times of Henry Lord

Brougham. Written by Himsr.r.
separately, price 16s. each.

BROWN.

8 vols. 8vo, £2, 8s.

The Volumes are sold

The Forester: A Practical Treatise on the Planting

and Tending of Forest-trees and the General Management of Woodlands.

By

James Brown, LL.D. Sixth Edition, Enlarged. Edited by Joun Nisset, D.Cc.,

Author of ‘ British Forest Trees,’ &c.

tions, 42s. net.

In 2 vols. royal Svo, with 850 Dlustra-

BROWN. A Manual of Botany, Anatomical and Physiological.

For the Use of Students.
numerous Illustrations, 12s. 6d.

BRUCE.

In Clover and Heather.
and Enlarged Edition.

Poems by Wattace Bruce.
Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.

By Rozert Brown, M.A., Ph.D. Crown 8vo, with

New

A limited number of Copies of the First Edition, on large hand-made paper, 12s. 6d.
William Blackwood and Sons, 7

BRUCE.

Here’s a Hand. Addresses and Poems. Crown 8vo, 5s.
Large Paper Edition, limited to 100 copies, price 21s.
BUCHAN. Introductory Text-Book of Meteorology. By ALEx-

ANDER Bucuan, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological
Society, &c. New Edition. Crown 8vo, with Coloured Charts and Engravings.

BURBIDGE. [In preparation.

Domestic Floriculture, Window Gardening, and Floral Decora-
tions. Being Practical Directions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement
of Plants and Flowers as Domestic Ornaments. By F. W. Bursipar. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo, with numerous Illustrations, 7s. 6d.

Cultivated Plants: Their Propagation and Improvement.
Including Natural and Artificial Hybridisation, Raising from Seed, Cuttings,
and Layers, Grafting and Budding, as applied to the Families and Genera in
Cultivation. Crown 8vo, with numerous [llustrations, 12s. 6d.

BURKE. The Flowering of the Almond Tree, and other Poems.

By CarisTIAN Burke. Pott 4to, 5s.
BURROWS.

Commentaries on the History of England, from the Earliest
Times to 1865. By Monracu Burrows, Chichele Professor of Modern History
in the University of Oxford; Captain R.N.; F.8.A., &c.; ‘‘Officier de l’In- -
struction Publique,” France. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.

The History of the Foreign Policy of Great Britain. New
Edition, revised. Crown 8vo, 6s.

BURTON.
The History of Scotland: From Agricola’s Invasion to the

Extinction of the last Jacobite Insurrection. By Jonn Hitt Burton, D.C.L.,
Historiographer-Royal for Scotland. Cheaper Edition. In 8 vols. Crown 8vo,
8s. 6d. each.

History of the British Empire during the Reign of Queen
Anne. In 8 vols. 8vo. 36s.
The Scot Abroad. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s, 6d.
The Book-Hunter. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
BUTCHER. Armenosa of Egypt. A Romance of the Arab

Conquest. By the Very Rev. Dean Burcuer, D.D., F.8.A., Chaplain at Cairo.
Crown 8vo, 6s.

BUTE. The Altus of St Columba. With a Prose Paraphrase

and Notes. By Jony, Marquess or Butz, K.T. In paper cover, 2s. 6d.

BUTE, MACPHAIL, anp LONSDALE. The Arms of _the

Royal and Parliamentary Burghs of Scotland. By Joux, Marquess or Burs,
K.T., J. R. N. Macpwam, and H. W. Lonsparz. With 131 Engravings on
wood, and 11 other Illustrations. Crown 4to. £2, 2s. net.

BUTLER.

The Ancient Church and Parish of Abernethy, Perthshire.
An Historical Study. By Rev. D. Burien, M.A., Minister of the Parish. With
18 Collotype Plates and a Map. Crown 4to, 25s, net.

John Wesley and George Whitefield in Scotland; or, The

Influence of the Oxford Methodists on Scottish Religion. Crown 8vo, 5s.
BUTT.
Theatricals: An Interlude. By Beatrics May Burr. Crown

8vo, 6s.
Miss Molly. Cheap Edition, 2s.
Eugenie. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d.
Elizabeth, and other Sketches. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Delicia. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

 
8 List of Books Published by

 

CADELL. Sir John Cope and the Rebellion of 1745. By the
late General Sir Ropert Capri, K.C.B., Royal (Madras) Artillery. With 2
Maps. Cyrown 4to, 12s. 6d. net.

CAIRD. Sermons. By JoHn Carrp, D.D., Principal of the
University of Glasgow. Seventeenth Thousand. Feap. 8vo, 58. ‘

CALDWELL. Schopenhauer’s System in its Philosophical Sig-
nificance (the Shaw Fellowship Lectures, 1893). By WitLiam CaLDWELL, M.A.,
D.Sc., Professor of Moral and Social Philosophy, Northwestern University,
U.S.A. ; formerly Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Edin.,
and Examiner in Philosophy in the University of St Andrews. Demy 8vo,
10s. 6d. net.

CALLWELL. The Effect of Maritime Command on Land
Campaigns since Waterloo. By Major C. E. CaLiwett, R.A. With Plans.
Post Svo, 6s. net. 5

CAPES The Adventures of the Comte de la Muette during the
Reign of Terror. By BernarpD Capes, Author of ‘The Lake of Wine,’ ‘ The Mill
of Silence,’ &e. Crown 8vo, 6s.

CARSTAIRS.
Human Nature in Rural India. By R. Carstrares. Crown
8vo, 6s.
British Work in India. Crown 8vo, 6s.

CAUVIN. A Treasury of the English and German Languages.
Compiled from the best Authors and Lexicographers in both Languages. By
JosEpH Cauvin, LL.D. and Ph.D., of the University of Gottingen, &c. wo
8vo, 7s. 6d.

CHARTERIS. Canonicity ; or, Early Testimonies to the Exist-
ence and Use of the Books of the New Testament. Based on Kirchhoffer’s
‘Quellensammlung.’ Hdited by A. H. Cuarreris, D.D., Professor of Biblical
Criticism in the University of Edinburgh. 8vo, 18s. :

CHENNELLS. Recollections of an Egyptian Princess. By
her English Governess (Miss E. CHENNELLS). Being a Record of Five Years’
Residence at the Court of Ismael Pasha, Khédive. Second Edition. With Three
Portraits. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

CHRISTISON. Early Fortifications in Scotland: Motes, Camps,
and Forts. Being the Rhind Lectures in Archeology for 1894. By Davip
Curistison, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scot-
land, With 379 Plans and Illustrations and 3 Maps. Feap 4to, 21s. net.

CHRISTISON. Life of Sir Robert Christison, Bart., M.D.,
D.C.L. Oxon., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edin-
burgh. Edited by his Sons. In 2 vols. Svo. Vol. I.—Autobiography. 16s.
Vol. 11.—Memoirs. 16s.

CHURCH. Chapters in an Adventurous Life. Sir Richard

Church in Italy and Greece. By E. M. Cuurcu. With Photogravure
Portrait. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

CHURCH SERVICE SOCIETY.

A Book of Common Order: being Forms of Worship issued
by the Church Service Society. Seventh Edition, carefully revised. In1 vol.
crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.; French morocco, 5s. Also in 2 vols. crown 8yvo,
cloth, 4s. ; French morocco, és. 6d.

Daily Offices for Morning and Evening Prayer throughout
the Week. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

Order of Divine Service for Children. Issued by the Church
Service Society. With Scottish Hymnal. Cloth, 3a.

COCHRAN. A Handy Text-Book of Military Law. Compiled
chiefly to assist Officers preparing for Examination; also for all Officers of the
Regular and Auxiliary Forces. Comprising also a Synopsis of part ot the Army
Act. By Major F. Cocuran, Hampshire Regiment Garrison Instructor, North
British District. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
William Blackwood and Sons. 9

 

COLQUHOUN. The Moor and the Loch. Containing Minute
Instructions in all Highland Sports, with Wanderings over Crag and Corrie,
Flood and Fell. By Joun CotquHoun. Cheap Edition. With Mlustrations.
Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

COLVILE. Round the Black Man’s Garden. By Lady Z. Cot-

VILE, F.R.G.8. With 2 Maps and 50 Illustrations from Drawings by the
Author and from Photographs. Demy 8vo, 16s.

CONDER.

The Bible and the East. By Lieut.-Col. C. R. Conpmr,
R.E., LL.D., D.C.L., M.R.A.8., Author of ‘Tent Work in Palestine,’ sc. With
Mlustrations and a Map. Crown 8vo, 5s.

The Hittites and their Language. With Illustrations and
Map. Post 8vo, 7s. 4d.
CONSTITUTION AND LAW OF THE CHURCH OF

SCOTLAND. With an Introductory Note by the late Principe] Tulloch. New
Edition, Revised and Bnlarged. Crown vo, 3s. 6d.

COUNTY HISTORIES OF SCOTLAND. In demy 8vo vol-
, umes of about 350 pp. each. With Maps. Price 7s. 6d. net.
Fife and Kinross. By Ainnas J. G. Maoxay, LL.D., Sheriff
of these Counties.
Dumfries and Galloway. By Sir Herpert MaxweEtt, Bart.,

Moray and Nairn. By Cuaries Ramprni, LL.D., Sheriff
Substitute of these Counties. :
Inverness. By J. Cameron Legs, D.D.
Roxburgh, Peebles, and Selkirk. By Sir Grorce Dovetas,
Bart. F [In the press.
CRAWFORD. Saracinesca. By F. Marton Crawrorn, Author
of ‘Mr Isaacs,’ &., &c. Cheap Bdition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

CRAWFORD.

The Doctrine of Holy Scripture respecting the Atonement.
By the late Taomas J. Crawrorp, D.D., Professor of Divinity in the University
of Hdinburgh. Fifth Edition. 8vo, 12s.

The Fatherhood of God, Considered in its General and Special
Aspects. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, 9s.

The Preaching of the Cross, and other Sermons. 8vo, 7s. 6d.

The Mysteries of Christianity. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

CROSS. Impressions of Dante, and of the New World ; with a
Few Words on Bimetallism. By J. W. Cross, Editor of ‘George Eliot’s Life, as
related in her Letters and Journals.’ Post 8vo, 68.

CUMBERLAND. Sport on the Pamirs and Turkistan Steppes.

By Major C. 8. CumBerLand. With Map and Frontispiece. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

CURSE OF INTELLECT. Third Edition. Feap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. net.
CUSHING. The Blacksmith of Voe. By Paut Cusuina, Author

of ‘The Bull i’ th’ Thorn,’ ‘Cut with his own Diamond.’ Cheap Edition. Crown
8vo, 38. 6d :
DARBISHIRE. Physical Maps for the use of History Students.

By Bernuarp V. Darpisnire, M.A., Trinity College, Oxford. Two Series :—
Ancient History (9 maps); Modern History (12 maps). (In the press.

DAVIES. Norfolk Broads and Rivers; or, The Waterways,

Lagoons, and Decoys of Hast Anglia. By G. CurisTOPHER Davizs. Illustrated
with Seven full-page Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

DE LA WARR. An Eastern Cruise in the ‘Edeline.’ By the
Countess DE La Warr. In Illustrated Cover. 2s.
10 List of Books Published by

 

DESCARTES. The Method, Meditations, and Principles of Philo-
sophy of Descartes. Translated from the Original French and Latin. With a
New Introductory Essay, Historical and Critical, on the Cartesian Philosophy.
By Professor Vertcu, LL.D., Glasgow University. Eleventh Edition. 68. 6d.

DOGS, OUR DOMESTICATED: Their Treatment in reference
to Food, Diseases, Habits, Punishment, Accomplishments. By ‘Magenta.’
Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

DOUGLAS.
The Ethics of John Stuart Mill. By CuHartzs Dovuctas,
M.A., D.Sc., Lecturer in Moral Philosophy, and Assistant to the Professor of
Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. | Post 8vo, 6s. net.
John Stuart Mill: A Study of his Philosophy. Crown 8vo,
4s. 6d. net.

DOUGLAS. Chinese Stories. By Ropert K. Douctas. With
numerous Illustrations by Parkinson, Forestier, and others. New and Cheaper
Edition. Small demy 8vo, 5s.

DOUGLAS. Iras: A Mystery. By THro. Doveras, Author of
‘A Bride Elect.’ Cheaper Edition, in Paper Cover specially designed by Womrath.
Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d.

DU CANE. The Odyssey of Homer, Books I.-XII. Translated
into English Verse. By Sir CoartEes Du Canz, K.C.M.G. 8vo, 10s. 6d.

DUNSMORE. Manual of the Law of Scotland as to the Rela-

tions between Agricultural Tenants and the Landlords, Servants, Merchants, and
Bowers. By W. DunsmMorE. 8vo, 7s. 6d.

DZIEWICKI. Entombed in Flesh. By M. H. Daztewickx1.

Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

ELIOT.

George Eliot’s Life, Related in Her Letters and Journals.
Arranged and Edited by her husband, J. W. Cross. With Portrait and other
Mllustrations. Third Edition. : 3 vols. post 8vo, 42s.

George Eliot’s Life. With Portrait and other Illustrations.

New Edition, in one volume. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Works of George Eliot (Standard Edition). 21 volumes,
crown 8vo. In buckram cloth, gilt top, 2s. 6d. per vol.; or in roxburghe
binding, 3s. 6d. per vol.

ADAM BeEpE. 2 vols.—THE MILL on THE Fross. 2 vols.—FeLrx Hott, THE
RapicaL. 2 vols.x—Romota. 2 vols.—ScENES oF CLERICAL LiFE. 2 vols.—
MippLemMarcH. 3 vols.—DanieL DERonDA. 8 vols.—Sr1Las MarRNER. 1 vol.
—JuBAL. 1 vol.—Tur Spanisy Gipsy. 1 vol.—Essays. 1 vol.—THEOPHRAS-
tus SucH. 1 vol.

Life and Works of George Eliot (Cabinet Edition). 24
volumes, crown 8vo, price £6. Also to be had handsomely bound in half and full
calf. The Volumes are sold separately, bound in cloth, price 5s. each.

Novels by George Eliot. New Cheap Edition. Printed on
fine laid paper, and uniformly bound.
Adam Bede. 8s. 6d.—The Mill on the Floss. 8s. 6d.—Scenes of Clerical
Life. 3s.—Silas Marner: the Weaver of Raveloe. 2s. 6d.—Felix Holt, the
eet 8s. 6d.—Romola. 3s. 6d.—Middlemarch. 7s. 6d.—Daniel Deronda.
's. 6d.

Essays. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Impressions of Theophrastus Such. New Edition. Crown
8vo, 58.

The Spanish Gypsy. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.

The Legend of Jubal, and other Poems, Old and New

New Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.
William Blackwood and Sons. il

 

ELIOT.

Scenes of Clerical Life. Pocket Edition, 3 vols. pott 8vo,
1s, net each ; bound in leather, 1s. 6d. neb each. Popular Edition. Royal 8vo,
in paper cover, price 6d.

Adam Bede. Pocket Edition. In 3 vols. pott 8vo, 3s. net;
bound in leather, 4s. 6d. net. i ;
Wise, Witty, and Tender Sayings, in Prose and Verse. Selected
from the Works of Gzornegz Exiot. New Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
ELTON. The Augustan Ages. ‘Periods of European Litera-

ture.’ By Ouiver Exton, B.A., Lecturer in English Literature, Owen's College,
Manchester. In 1 vol. crown 8vo. [In the press,

ESSAYS ON SOCIAL SUBJECTS. Originally published in

the ‘Saturday Review.’ New Edition. First and Second Series. 2 vols. crown
8vo, 6s. each.

FAITHS OF THE WORLD, The. A Concise History of the
Great Religious Systems of the World. By various Authors. Crown 8vo, 5s.

FALKNER. The Lost Stradivarius. By J. Meapr FaLKnur.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

FENNELL anp O’CALLAGHAN. A Prince of Tyrone. By
CHARLOTTE FENNELL and J. P. O’CaALLAGHAN. Crown 8V0, 6s.

FERGUSON. Sir Samuel Ferguson in the Ireland of his Day.
By Lapy Frrevson, Author of ‘The Irish before the Conquest,’ ‘ Life of William

Reeves, D.D., Lord Bishop of Down, Connor, and Drumore,’ &c., &c. With
Two Portraits. 2 vols. post 8vo, 21s.

FERGUSSON. Scots Poems. By Rosrert Frrcusson. With
Photogravure Portrait. Pott Svo, gilt top, bound in cloth, 1s. net.

FERRIER.

Philosophical Works of the late James F. Ferrier, B.A.
Oxon., Professor of Moral Philosophy and Political Economy, St Andrews.
New Edition. Edited by Sir ALEXANDER Grant, Bart., D.C.L., and Professor
Lusnineton. 3 vols. crown 8vo, 348. 6d.

Institutes of Metaphysic. Third Edition. 10s. 6d.

Lectures on the Early Greek Philosophy. 4th Edition. 10s. 6d.

Philosophical Remains, including the Lectures on Early
Greek Philosophy. New Edition. 2 vols. 24s.

FLINT. ;
Historical Philosophy in France and French Belgium and

Switzerland. By Ropert Fun, Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France, Hon. Member of the Royal Society of Palermo, Professor in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, &c. 8vo, 21s.
Agnosticism. Being the Croall Lecture for 1887-88.
p {In the press.
Theism. Being the Baird Lecture for 1876. Ninth Edition,
Revised. Crown 8v0, 78. 6d. 7
Anti-Theistic Theories. Being the Baird Lecture for 1877.
Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
Sermons and Addresses. In 1 vol. Demy 8vo. Un the press.
FOREIGN CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS. Edited
by Mrs OtipHant. Price 1s. each. For List of Volumes, see page 2.
FOSTER. The Fallen City, and other Poems. By Writ Fost.
Crown 8vo, 68. ‘ 2
FRANCILLON. Gods and Heroes; or, The Kingdom of Jupiter.
By R. BE. Francitton. With 8 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 53.
FRANCIS. Among the Untrodden Ways. By M. E. Francis
(Mrs Francis Blundell), Author of ‘In a North Country Village,’ ‘A Daughter of
the Soil,’ ‘Frieze and Fustian,’ &c. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
12 List of Books Published by

 

FRASER.
Philosophy of Theism. Being the Gifford Lectures delivered
before the University of Edinburgh in 1894-95. By ALEXANDER CAMPBELL
Fraser, D.C.L. Oxford; Emeritus Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in

the University of Edinburgh. Second Edition, Revised. In1 vol. Post 8vo.
Un the press.

GALT,

Novels by Joun Gatt. With General Introduction and
Prefatory Notes by 8. R. Crockerr. The Text Revised and Edited by D.
SrorraR Metprum, Author of ‘The Story of Margrédel.’ With Photogravure
Iustrations from Drawings by John Wallace. Feap. 8vo, 3s. net each vol.

ANNALS OF THE Parisn, and Tae AyRSHIRE LEGATEES. 2 vols.—SirR ANDREW
Wvuisz. 2 vols.—Tar Entait; or, The Lairds of Grippy. 2 vols.—THE Pro-

vost, and Tae Last or THE Larrps. 2 vols.
See also STANDARD NOVELS, p. 6.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.

Scottish Hymnal, With Appendix Incorporated. Published
for use in Churches by Authority of the General Assembly. 1. Large type,
cloth, red edges, 2s. 6d.; French morocco, 4s. 2. Bourgeois type, limp cloth, ls.;
French morocco, 28. 3. Nonpareil type, cloth, red edges, 6d.; French morocco,
ls. 4d. 4. Paper covers, 3d. 5. Sunday-School Edition, paper covers, 1d.,
cloth, 2d. No. 1, bound with the Psalms and Paraphrases, French morocco, 8s.
Ne. 2, bound with the Psalms and Paraparases, cloth, 2s.; French morocco, 8s.

Prayers for Social and Family Worship. Prepared by a
Special Committee of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Entirely
New Hdition, Revised and Enlarged. Feap. 8vo, red edges, 28.

Prayers for Family Worship. A Selection of Four Weeks
Prayers. New Edition. Authorised by the General Assembly of the Church of
Scotland. Fcap. 8vo, red edges, ls. 6d.

One Hundred Prayers. Prepared by the Committee on Aids
to Devotion. 16mo, cloth limp, 6a. : .

Morning and Evening Prayers for Affixing to Bibles. Prepared
by the Committee on Aids to Devotion. 1d. for 6, or 1s. per 100.

Prayers for Soldiers and Sailors. Prepared by the Committee
on Aids to Devotion. Thirtieth Thousand. 16mo, cloth limp. 2d. net.

GERARD.
Reata: What's in a Name. By E. D. Gzrarp. Cheap
Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Beggar my Neighbour. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
The Waters of Hercules. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
A Sensitive Plant. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

GERARD.
A Foreigner. An Anglo-German Study. By E. Gerarp.
rown 8vo, 6s.
The Land beyond the Forest. Facts, Figures, and Fancies

from Transylvanis. With Maps and Illustrations 2 vols. post 8vo, 25s.
Bis: Some Tales Retold. Crown 8vo, 6s.
A Secret Mission. 2 vols. crown 8vo, 17s.
An Electric Shock, and other Stories. Crown 8vo, 6s.

GERARD.
The Impediment. By Dorotuza GERARD. Crown 8Vvo, 6s.
A Forgotten Sin. Crown 8vo, 6s.
A Spotless Reputation. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
William Blackwood and Sons. 13

 

GERARD.
The Wrong Man. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Lady Baby. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Recha. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
The Rich Miss Riddell. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

GERARD. Stonyhurst Latin Grammar. By Rev. Jonw Gerarp.
Second Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s.

GOODALL. Association Football. By Jonn Goopauu. Edited

ARCHIBALD DE Bear. With Diagrams. Feap. Svo, ls
GORDON CUMMING.
At Home in Fiji. By C. F. Gorpon Cummine. Fourth
Edition, post 8vo. With i esiction’ and Map. 7s. 6d.
A Lady’s Cruise in a French Man-of-War. New and Cheape
Edition. 8vo. With Illustrations and Map. 12s. 6d.
Fire-Fountains. The Kingdom of Hawaii: Its Volcanoes,
and the History ofits Missions. With Map and Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo, 25s.
Wanderings in China. New and Cheaper Edition. 8Vvo, with
Illustrations, 10s.
Granite Crags: The Yo6-semité Region of California. TIllus-
trated with 8 Engravings. New and Cheaper Edition. Svo, 8s. 6d.
GRAHAM. Manual of the Elections (Scot.)} (Corrupt and Ilega!
Practices) Act, 1890. With Analysis, Relative Act of Sederunt, Appendix con-

taining the Cormpt Practices Acts of 1883 and 1885, and Copious Index. By J.
Epwarp Granam, Advocate. 8vo, 4s. 6d.

GRAND.
A Domestic Experiment. By Saran Granv, Author of
a ‘The Heavenly Twins,’ ‘Ideala: A Study from Life.’ Crown 8vo, 6s.
Singularly Deluded. Crown 8vo, 6s. : ;
GRANT. Bush-Life in Queensland. By A. C. Grant. New
Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. :
GREGG. The Decian Persecution. Being the Hulsean Prize

Essay for 1896. By Joan A. F. Greoo, B.A., late Scholar of Christ's College,
Cambridge. Crown 8vo, 6s.

GRIER

In Furthest Ind. The Narrative of Mr Epwarp OCartyon of
Ellswether, in the County of Northampton, and late of the Hononrable Hast India
Company’s Service, Gentleman. Wrote by his own hand in the year of grace 1697.
Edited, with a few Explanatory Notes, by Sypney C. Grier — Post 8vo, 6s.

His Excellency’s English Governess. Second Edition. Crown
8vo, 6s.

An Uncrowned King: A Romance of High Politics. Second
Edition, Crown 8vo, 6s. nae

Peace with Honour. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

A Crowned Queen: The Romance of a Minister of State.
Crown 8vo, 6s.

GROOT. A Lotus Flower. By J. Morcan bE Groot. Crown
8v0, 6s.
GUTHRIE- SMITH. Crispus: A Dramse. By H. Gurariz-

Smita. Feap. 4to, 58.

HAGGARD. Under Crescent and Star. By Lieut.-Col. ANDREW
Haaaarp, D.S.0., Author of ‘Dodo and I,’ ‘Tempest Torn,’ &c. With a
Portrait. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

HALDANE. Subtropical Cultivations and Climates. A Handy
Book for Planters, Colonists, and Settlers. By R. C. Hatpane. Post 8vo, 9s

 

 
14 List of Books Published by

 

HAMERTON. : '
Wenderholme: A Story of Lancashire and Yorkshire Life
By P. @. Hamerron, Author of ‘A Painter's Camp.’ New Edition. Crown
8vo, 3s. 6d.
Marmorne. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
HAMILTON.

Lectures on Metaphysics. By Sir Witt1am Hamitton,
Bart., Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh.
Edited by the Rey. H. L. Manse, B.D., LL.D., Dean of St_Paul’s; and Jour
VeitcH, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic and Rhetoric, Glasgow. Seventh
Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, 248, = a

Lectures on Logic. Edited by the Samz. Third Edition,

_ Revised. 2 vols., 24s. - 5

Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, Education and
University Reform. Third Edition. 8vo, 21s. i

Memoir of Sir William Hamilton, Bart., Professor of Logic
and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. By Professor Vzitcu, of the

_ University of Glasgow. 8vo, with Portrait, 18s. ‘ ;

Sir William Hamilton: The Man and his Philosophy. Two
Lectures delivered before the Edinburgh Philosophical Institution, January and
February 1883. By Professor VEircH. Crown 8vo, 28.

HAMLEY.

The Operations of War Explained and Illustrated. By
General Sir Epwarp Bruce Hamtey, K.C.B., K.C.M.G. Fifth Edition, Revised
throughout. 4to, with numerous Illustrations, 30s.

National Defence ; Articles and Speeches. Post 8vo, 6s.

Shakespeare’s Funeral, and other Papers. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Thomas Carlyle: An Essay. Second Edition. Crown 8vo,
2s. 6d.

On Outposts. Second Edition. 8Vvo, 2s.

Wellington’s Career; A Military and Political Summary.
Crown 8vo, 2s. ; ae

Lady Lee’s Widowhood. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Cheaper Edition, 2s. 6d. ,

Our Poor Relations. A Philozoic Essay. With Illustrations,
chiefly by Ernest Griset. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 3s. 6d.

The Life of General Sir Edward Bruce Hamley, K.C.B.,
K.C.M.G. By ALExanDER INNES SHAND. With two Photogravure Portraits and
other Illustrations. Cheaper Edition. With a Statement by Mr Epwarp
Hamury. 2 vols. demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.

HANNAY. The Later Renaissance. ‘Periods of European
Literature.’ By Davip Hannay. Crown 8vo, 5s. net.
HARE. Down the Village Street: Scenes in a West Country
Hamlet. By CHRIsToPHER Hare. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
HARRADEN.
In Varying Moods: Short Stories. By Bratrice Harrapen,
: Author of ‘Ships that Pass in the Night.’ Thirteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.

Hilda Strafford, and The Remittance Man. Two Californian
Stories. Eleventh Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. .

Untold Tales of the Past. With 40 Illustrations by H. R Millar.
Square crown 8vo, gilt top, 6s.

HARRIS.

From Batum to Baghdad, wié@ Tiflis, Tabriz, and Persian

Kurdistan. By Water B. Harris, F.R.G.S., Author of ‘The Land of an

African Sultan; Travels in Morocco,’ &c. With numerous Illustrations and 2
Maps. Domy 8yvo, 12s.
William Blackwood and Sons. 15

 

HARRIS.

Tafilet. The Narrative of a Journey of Exploration to the
Atlas Mountains and the Oases of the North-West Sahara. With Illustrations
by Maurice Romberg from Sketches and Photographs by the Author, and Two
Maps. Demy 8vo, 12s.

A Journey through the Yemen, and some General Remarks
upon that Country. With 3 Maps and numerous Illustrations by Forestier and
Wallace from Sketches and Photographs taken by the Author. Demy 8vo, lé6s.

Danovitch, and other Stories. Crown 8Vvo, 6s.

HAY. The Works of the Right Rev. Dr George Hay, Bishop of
Edinburgh. Hdited under the Supervision of the Right Rev. Bishop Srrain.
With Memoir and Portrait of the Author. 5 vols. crown 8vo, bound in extra
cloth, £1, 1s. The following Volumes may be had separately—viz. :
The Devout Christian Instructed in the Law of Christ from the Written
Word. 2 vols., 8s.—The Pious Christian Instructed in the Nature and Practice
of the Principal Exercises of Piety. 1 vol., 3s.

HEATLEY.
The Horse-Owner’s Safeguard. A Handy Medical Guide for

every Man who owns a Horse. By G. 8. HeatLey, M.R.C.V.S. Crown 8vo, 5s.
The Stock-Owner’s Guide. A Handy Medical Treatise for
every Man who owns an Ox ora Cow. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.

HEMANS.

The Poetical Works of Mrs Hemans. Copyright Edition.
Royal 8vo, with Engravings, cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d.

Select Poems of Mrs Hemans. Fcap., cloth, gilt edges, 3s,
HENDERSON. The Young Estate Manager’s Guide. By

RicHARD HENDERSON, Member (by Examination) of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and
the Surveyors’ Institution. With an Introduction by R. Patrick Wright,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical
College. With Plans and Diagrams. Crown 8vo, 5s. vate

HERKLESS. Cardinal Beaton: Priest and Politician. By
Joan Herxuess, Professor of Church History, St Andrews. With a Portrait.
Post 8vo, 78. 6d. 5 :

HEWISON. The Isle of Bute in the Olden Time. With Illus-
trations, Maps, and Plans. By James Kina Hewison, M.A., F.S.A. (Scot.),
Minister of Rothesay. Vol. I., Celtic Saints and Heroes. Crown 4to, 15s. net.
Vol. II., The Royal Stewards and the Brandanes. Crown 4to, 15s. net.

HIBBEN. Inductive Logic. By Joun Grizr Hissen, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor of Logic in Princeton University, U.S.A. Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6d. net.
HOME PRAYERS. By Ministers of the Church of Scotland

and Members of the Church Service Society. Second Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s.

HORNBY. Admiral of the Fleet Sir Geottrey Phipps Hornby,
G.C.B. A Biography. By Mrs Frep. Eczrron. With Three Portraits. Demy

8vo, 16s.

HUTCHINSON. Hints on the Game of Golf. By Horace G.
Hurcuinson. Ninth Edition, Enlarged. Feap. 8vo, cloth, 1s.

HYSLOP. The Elements of Ethics. By James H. Hystop,
Ph.D., Instructor in Ethics, Columbia College, New York, Author of ‘The
Elements of Logic.' Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. net. .

IDDESLEIGH. Life, Letters, and Diaries of Sir Stafford North-
cote, First Earl of Iddesleigh. By AnpREw Lane. With Three Portraits and a
View of Pynes. Third Edition. 2 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d.

PoruLaR Epition. With Portrait and View of Pynes. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

JEAN JAMBON. Our Trip to Blunderland ; or, Grand Ex-
cursion to Blundertown and Back. By Jean Jampon. With Sixty Illustrations
designed by CHaRLES Doyiz, engraved by DaALzIEL. Fourth Thousand. Cloth,
gilt edges, 6s. 6d. Cheap Edition, cloth, 3s. 6d. Boards, 28. 6d.
16 List of Books Published by

 

JEBB.
A Strange Career. The Life and Adventures of Joun

Guiapwyn Jeeps. By his Widow. With an Introduction by H. Riper Hacearp,
and an Electrogravure Portrait of Mr Jebb. Third Edition. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d.
CueaP Epition. With Illustrations by John Wallace. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Some Unconventional People. By Mrs Guapwyn Jrpp,
Author of ‘Life and Adventures of J. G. Jebb.’ With Illustrations. Cheap
Edition. Paper covers, 1s.

JERNINGHAM.

Reminiscences of an Attaché. By Huszrt EH. H. Jerninenam.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 58

Diane de Breteuille. A Love Story. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

JOHNSTON.
The Chemistry of Common Life. By Professor J. F. W.

Jounston. New Edition, Revised. By ArTHUR HERBERT CHURCH, M.A. Oxon.;
Author of ‘ Food: its Sources, Constituents, and Uses,’ &c. With Maps and 102
Engravings. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. :

Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. An entirely New
Edition from the Edition by Sir CHartes A. Cameron, M.D., F.R.C.8.1, &e.
Revised and brought down to date by C. M. Arxman, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.8.E.,
Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow Veterinary College. 17th Edition. Crown 8vo,
6s. 6d.

Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry. An entirely New
Edition from the Edition by Sir Caartes A. Cameron. Revised and Enlarged
by C. M. Argman, M.A., &c. 95th Thousand. With numerous Illustrations.
Crown 8yo, 1s.

JOHNSTON, Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts, 1883 and
1889; and the Ground Game Act, 1880. With Notes, and Summary of Procedure,
&c. By Curistopser N. Jonnston, M.A., Advocate. Demy 8v0, 5s.

JOKAL. Timar’s Two Worlds. By Mavrus Joxar. Authorised

Translation by Mrs Hraan KennarpD. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 68.

KEBBEL. The Old and the New: English Country Life. By
T. BE. Keppet, M.A., Author of ‘The Agricultural Labourers,’ ‘ Essays in History
and Politics,’ ‘ Life of Lord Beaconsfield.’ Crown 8vo, 5s.

KERR. St Andrews in 1645-46. By D. R. Kerr. Crown

8vo, 2s. 6d.
KINGLAKE.

History of the Invasion of the Crimea. By A. W. KINGLAKE.
Cabinet Edition, Revised. With an Index to the Complete Work. Illustrated
with Maps and Plans. Complete in 9 vols., crown 8vo, at 6s. each

—— Abridged Edition for Military Students. Revised by
Lieut.-Col. Sir GEoRGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, K.C.M.G., R.E. In1 vol. demy 8vo.

: ; [In the press.

History of the Invasion of the Crimea. Demy 8vo. Voi. VI.
Winter Troubles. With a Map, 16s. Vols. VII. and VIII. From the Morrow of
Inkerman to the Death of Lord Raglan With an Index to the Whole Work,
With Maps and Plans. 288

Eothen. A New Edition, uniform with the Cabinet Edition
of the ‘ History of the Invasion of the Crimea.’ 6s.
Cueaper Epition. With Portrait and Biographical Sketch of the Author.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. Popular Edition, in paper cover, ls net.

KIRBY. In Haunts of Wild Game: A Hunter-Naturalist’s
Wanderings from Kahlamba to Libombo. By FREDERICK VauGHAN KIRBY,
F.Z.S. (Maqaqamba). With numerous Illustrations by Charles Whymper, and a
Map. Large demy 8vo, 25s.
William Blackwood and Sons. 17

 

KNEIPP. My Water-Cure. As Tested through more than
Thirty Years, and Described for the Healing of Diseases and the Preservation of
Health. By Srsastran Kwzipp, Parish Priest of Wérishofen (Bavaria). With a
Portrait and other Illustrations. Authorised English Translation from the
Thirtieth German Edition, by A. de F. Cheap Edition. With an Appendix, con-
taining the Latest Developments of Pfarrer Kneipp’s System, and a Preface by
E. Gerard. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d,

KNOLLYS. The Elements of Field-Artillery. Designed for
the Use of Infantry and Cavalry Officers. By Henry Kxotiys, Colonel Royal
Artillery ; Author of ‘From Sedan to Saarbriick,’ Editor of ‘Incidents in the
Sepoy War,’ &c. With Engravings. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

LANG.

Life, Letters, and Diaries of Sir Stafford Northcote, First
Earl of Iddesleigh. By Anprew Lana. With Three Portraits and a View of
Pynes. Third Edition. 2 vols. post 8vo, 31s. 6d.

PoPULAR Epition. With Portrait and View of Pynes. Posi 8vo, 7s. 6d.

The Highlands of Scotland in 1750. From Manuscript 104
in the King’s Library, British Museum. With an Introduction by ANDREW Lane.
Crown 8vo, 5s. net.

LANG. The Expansion of the Christian Life. The Duff Lec-
ture for 1897. By the Rev. J. MarRsHALL Lana, D.D Crown 8vo, 5s

LAPWORTH. Intermediate Text-Book of Geology. By Pro-
fessor Lapwortu, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. Founded on Dr Page’s ‘Introductory
Text-Book of Geology.’ With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5s.

LEES. A Handbook of the Sherift and Justice of Peace Small
Debt Courts. With Notes, References, and Forms. By J. M. Lens, Advocate,
Sheriff of Stirling, Dumbarton, and Clackmannan. 8vo, 7s. 6d.

LENNOX anp STURROCK. The Elements of Physical Educa-
tion: A Teacher’s Manual. By Davip Lennox, M.D., late R.N., Medical Director
of Dundee Public Gymnasium, and ALEXANDER SturRRocK, Superintendent of
Dundee Public Gymnasium, Instructor to the University of St Andrews and
Dundee High School. With Original Musical Accompaniments to the Drill by
Harry Everitt Losesy. With 130 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 4s. 4

LEWES. Dr Southwood Smith: A Retrospect. By his Grand-
daughter, Mrs C. L. Lewes. With Portraits and other Illustrations. Post
8vo, 6s.

LINDSAY. ;

* Recent Advances in Theistic Philosophy of Religion. By Rev.
James Linpsay, M.A., B.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Minister of the Parish of
Sb Andrew's, Kilmarnock. Demy 8vo, 12s. 6d. net. “

The Progressiveness of Modern Christian Thought. Crown

8vo, 68.

Essays, Literary and Philosophical. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
The Nignificance of the Old Testament for Modern Theology.

Crown 8vo, ls. net. 3
The Teaching Function of the Modern Pulpit. Crown 8vo,
1s. net.
LOCKHART.
Doubles and Quits. By Laurence W. M. Locknart. New
Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Fair to See. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Mine is Thine. New Edition. Crown 8Vvo, 3s. 6d.
LOCKHART.

The Church of Scotland in the Thirteenth Century. The
Life and Times of David de Bernham of St Andrews (Bishop), 4.p. 1239 to 1253.
With List of Churches dedicated by him, and Dates. By Wittiam LockHart,
A.M., D.D., F.8.A. Scot., Minister of Colinton Parish. 2d Edition. 8Vvo, 68.
18 List of Books Published by

 

LOCKHART.
Dies Tristes: Sermons for Seasons of Sorrow. Crown 8vo, 6s.
LORIMER.
The Institutes of Law: A Treatise of the Principles of Juris-
prudence as determined by Nature. By the late James Lorimer, Professor of
Public Law and of the Law of Nature and Nations in the University of Edin-
burgh. New Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. 8vo, 18s. x
The Institutes of the Law of Nations. A Treatise of the
Jural Relation of Separate Political Communities. In 2 vols. 8vo. Volume lI.,
price 16s. Volume II., price 20s.
LUGARD. The Rise of our East African Empire: Early Efforts
in Uganda and Nyasaland. By F. D. Lucarp, Captain Norfolk Regiment.
With 130 Illustrations from Drawings and Photographs under the personal
superintendence of the Author, and 14 specially prepared Maps. In 2 vols. large
demy 8vo, 42s.

MABIE.
Essays on Natureand Culture. By Hammiton Wricut MaBIE.
With Portrait. Fceap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Books and Culture. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
M°CHESNEY.
Miriam Cromwell, Royalist : A Romance of the Great Rebel-
lion. By Dora GREENWELL MCCHESNEY. Crown 8Svo, 6s.
Kathleen Clare: Her Book, 1637-41. With Frontispiece, and
five full-page Illustrations by James A. Shearman. Crown 8vo, 6s.
M‘COMBIE. Cattle and Cattle-Breeders. By Witt1am M‘Comatz,
Tillyfour. New Edition, Enlarged, with Memoir of the Author by JAMES
MAcpDoNALD, F.R.S.E., Secretary Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
M‘CRIE.
Works of the Rev. Thomas M‘Crie, D.D. Uniform Edition.
4 vols. crown 8vo, 24s.

Life of John Knox. Crown 8vo, 6s. Another Edition, 3s. 6d.
Life of Andrew Melville. Crown 8vo, 6s.

History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation
_in Italy in the Sixteenth Century. Crown 8vo, 4s. a
History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation

in Spain in the Sixteenth Century. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. H

M‘CRIE. The Public Worship of Presbyterian Scotland. Histori-
cally treated. With copious Notes, Appendices, and Index. The Fourteenth
Series of the ieee Lectures. By the Rev. CHartes G. M‘Criz, D.D.
Demy 8vo, 10s.

MACDONALD. A Manual of the Criminal Law (Scotland) Pro-
cedure Act, 1887. By Norman Doran Macponayp. Revised by the Lorp
JUSTICE-CLERK. 8vo, 10s. 6d.

MACDOUGALL anp DODDS. A Manual of the Local Govern-
ment (Scotland) Act, 1894. With Introduction, Explanatory Notes, and Copious
Pate By J. PATTEN MacDovaa.t, Legal Secretary to the Lord Advocates and

M. Dopps. Tenth Thousand, Revised. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. net

MACINTYRE. Hindu-Koh: Wanderings and Wild Sports on
and beyond the Himalayas. By Major-General DonaLp Macintyre, V.C., late
Prince of Wales’ Own Goorkhas, F.R.G.S8. Dedicated to H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales. New and Cheaper Edition, Revised, with numerous Illustrations. Post
8vo, 3s. 6d.

MACKAY.

Elements of Modern Geography. By the Rev. ALEXANDER
Mackay, LL.D., F.R.G.S. 55th Thousand, Revised to the present time. Crown
8vo, pp. 300, 3s.
 

William Blackwood and Sons. 19

 

MACKAY.

The Intermediate Geography. Intended as an Intermediate
Book between the Author’s ‘Outlines of Geography’ and‘ Elements of Geo-
graphy.’ Eighteenth Edition, Revised. Feap. 8vo, pp. 238, 2s.

Outlines of Modern Geography. 191st Thousand, Revised to
the present time. Fcap. 8vo, pp. 128, 1s. ae

Elements of Physiography. New Edition. Rewritten and
Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. [In the press

MACKENZIE. Studies in Roman Law. With Comparative
Views of the Laws of France, England, and Scotland. By Lorp Macxenzir,
one of the Judges of the Court of Session in Scotland. Seventh Edition, Edited
by Joun Kirkpatrick, M.A., LL.B., Advocate, Professor of History in the
University of Edinburgh. 8vo, 21s.

M‘PHERSON. Golf and Golfers. Past and Present. By J.

3 Gorpon M‘PHERsoN, Ph.D., F.R.S.E. With an Introduction by the Right Hon.
A.J. BALFour, and a Portrait of the Author. Feap. 8vo, ls. 6d.

MACRAE. A Handbook of Deer-Stalking. By ALEXANDER
Macrag, late Forester to Lord Henry Bentinck. With Introduction by Horatio
Ross, Esq. Feap. 8vo, with 2 Photographs from Life. 3s. 6d.

MAIN. Three Hundred English Sonnets. Chosen and Edited
by Davip M. Main. New Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. ,

MAIR. A Digest of Laws and Decisions, Ecclesiastical and
Civil, relating to the Constitution, Practice, and Affairs of the Church of Scot-
land. With Notes and Forms of Procedure. By the Rev. WiLL1AM Marr, D.D.,
Minister of the Parish of Earlston. New Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 9s. net.

MARSHMAN. History of India. From the Earliest Period to
the present time. By JoHN CLarK Marsuman, ©.8.I. Third and Cheaper
Edition. Post 8vo, with Map, 6s.

MARTIN.

The Aineid of Virgil. Books I-VI. Translated by Sir THEo-
DORE Martin, K.C.B. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Goethe’s Faust. Part I. Translated into English Verse.
Second Edition, crown 8vo, 6s. Ninth Edition, feap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

Goethe's Faust. Part II. Translated into English Verse.
Second Edition, Revised. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.

The Works of Horace. Translated into English Verse, with
Life and Notes. 2vols. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 21s.

Poems and Ballads of Heinrich Heine. Done into English
Verse. Third Edition. Small crown 8vo, 5s.

The Song of the Bell, and other Translations from Schiller,
Goethe, Uhland, and Others. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Madonna Pia: A Tragedy ; and Three Other Dramas. Crown
8vo, 7s. 6d.

Catullus. With Life and Notes. Second Edition, Revised
and Corrected. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

The ‘ Vita Nuova’ of Dante. Translated, with an Introduction
and Notes. Third Edition. Small crown 8vo, 5s.

Aladdin: A Dramatic Poem. By ADAM OEHLENSCHLAEGER.
Feap. 8vo, 5s. :

Correggio: A Tragedy. By OEHLENSCHLAEGER. With Notes.
Feap. 8vo, 3s.

MARTIN. On some of Shakespeare’s Female Characters. By
HELENA Favcit, Lady Martin. Dedicated by permission to Her Most Gracious
Majesty the Queen. Fifth Edition. With a Portrait by Lehmann. Demy 8vo,

Ss

7s. 6d.

MARWICK. Observations on the Law and Practice in regard
to Municipal Elections and the Conduct of the Business of Town Councils and
Commissioners of Police in Scotland. By Sir James D. Marwick, LL.D.,
Town-Clerk of Glasgow. Royal 8vo, 30s.
20 List of Books Published by

 

MATHESON.
Can the Old Faith Live with the New? or, The Problem of
Evolution and Revelation. By the Rev. GEorcz Marueson, D.D. Third Edi-
tion. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. a
The Psalmist and the Scientist ; or, Modern Value of the Reli-
gious Sentiment. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 5:

Spiritual Development of St Paul. Fourth Edition. Cr. 8vo, 5s.
The Distinctive Messages of the Old Religions. Second Edi-

tion. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Sacred Songs. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

MATHIESON. The Supremacy and Sufficiency of Jesus Christ
our Lord, as set forth in the Epistle to the Hebrews. By J. E. Matuleson,
Superintendent of Mildmay Conference Hall, 1880 to 1890. Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

MAURICE. The Balance of Military Power in Europe. An
Examination of the War Resonrces of Great Britain and the Continental States.
By Colonel Maurice, R.A., Professor of Military Art and History at the Royal

; Staff College. Crown 8vo, with a Map, 6s.

MAXWELL.

The Honourable Sir Charles Murray, K.C.B. A Memoir.
By Sir Herpert Maxwett, Bart., M.P., F.S8.A., &c., Author of ‘ Passages in
the Life of Sir Lucian Elphin.’ With Five Portraits. Demy 8vo, 18s.

Life and Times of the Rt. Hon. William Henry Smith, M.P.
With Portraits and numerous Illustrations by Herbert Railton, G. L. Seymour,
and Others. 2 vols. demy 8yvo, 25s.

POPULAR Epirion. Witha Portrait and other Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

Scottish Land-Names: Their Origin and Meaning. Being
the Rhind Lectures in Archeology for 1893. Post 8vo, 6s.

Meridiana: Noontide Essays. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Post Meridiana: Afternoon Essays. Post 8vo, 6s.

A Duke of Britain. A Romance of the Fourth Century.
Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

Dumfries and Galloway. Being one of the Volumes of the

’ County Histories of Scotland. With Four Maps. Demy 8vo, 7s. 6d. net.

MELDRUM.

Holland and the Hollanders. By D. Storrar MeEtpRuUM.
With numerous Illustrations {n 1 vol. square 8vo. 9 Un the press.

The Story of Margrédel Being a Fireside History of a Fife-
shire Family. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

Grey Mantle and Gold Fringe. Crown 8vo, 6s.

MELLONE. Studies in Philosophical Criticism and Construction.
By Sypney HERBERT MELLONE, M.A. Lond., D.S Se. Edin. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d. net.

MERZ. A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Cen-
tury. By Joun THEODORE Merz. Vol. I., post 8vo, 10s. 6d. net.

MICHIE.

The Larch: Being a Practical Treatise on its Culture and
General Management. By CuristopHER Y. Micuix, Forester, Cullen House.
Crown 8vo, with Illustrations. New and Cheaper Edition, Enlarged, 5s.

The Practice of Forestry. Crown 8vo, with Illustrations. 6s

MIDDLETON. The Story of Alastair Bhan Comyn; or, The
Tragedy of Dunphail. A Tale of Tradition and Romance. By the Lady MIppLE-
ton. Square 8vo, 10s. Cheaper Edition, 5s.

MIDDLETON. Latin Verse Unseens. By G. Mippieton, M.A.
Lecturer in Latin, Aberdeen University ; late Scholar of Emmanuel College. Cam-
bridge; J oint-Author of ‘Student's Companion to Latin Authors.’ Crown 8vo,
1s. 6d.
¢

William Blackwood and Soxs, 21

 

MILLER. The Dream of Mr H , the Herbalist. By Huan
Miter, F.R.S.E., late H.M. Geological Survey, Author of ‘ Landscape Geology.’
With a Photogravure Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

MILLS. Greek Verse Unseens. By T. R. Mitts, M.A., late

Lecturer in Greek, Aberdeen University ; formerly Scholar of Wadham College,
Oxford ; Joint-Author of ‘Student's Companion to Latin Authors. Crown 8vo,
1s. 6d.

MINTO.

A Manual of English Prose Literature, Biographical and
Critical: designed mainly to show Characteristics of Style. By W. Minto,
M.A., Hon. LL.D. of St Andrews ; Professor of Logic in the University of Aber-
deen, Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Characteristics of English Poets, from Chaucer to Shirley.
New Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

Plain Principles of Prose Composition. Crown 8vo, ls. 6d.

The Literature of the Georgian Era. Edited, with a Bio-
graphical Introduction, by Professor Knicut, St Andrews. Post 8vo, 6s.

MOTR.

Life of Mansie Wauch, Tailor in Dalkeith. By D. M. Morr.
With CrorksHang’s Illustrations. Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
Another Edition, without Illustrations, feap. 8yo, 1s. 6d. :

Domestic Verses, Centenary Edition. With a Portrait. Crown
8vo, 2s. 6d. net.

MOLE. For the Sake of a Slandered Woman. By Marion
Moue. Feap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. net.
MOMERIE.

Defects of Modern Christianity, and other Sermons. By Rev.
Aurrep WILLIAMs MomeEnin, M.A., D.Se., LL.D. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.

The Basis of Religion. Being an Examination of Natural
Religion. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

The Origin of Evil, and other Sermons. Eighth Edition,
Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5s. i zs

Personality. The Beginning and End of Metaphysics, and a Ne-
cessary Assumption in all Positive Philosophy. Fifth Ed., Revised. Cr. 8vo, 3s.

Agnosticism. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Preaching and Hearing ; and other Sermons. Fourth Edition,
Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5s. ate

Belief in God. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s.

Inspiration ; and other Sermons. Second Edition, Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, 5s. f Dees

Church and Creed. Third Edition. Crown &vo, 4s. 6d. _

The Future of Religion, and other Essays. Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. : 5 ee

The English Church and the Romish Schism. Second Edition.
Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

MONCREIFF. ; ;

The Provost-Marshal. A Romance of the Middle Shires. By
the Hon. Freperick Moncreirr. Crown 8vo, 6s.

The X Jewel. A Romance of the Days of James VI. Cr. 8vo, 6s.

MONTAGUE. Military Topography. Illustrated by Practical
Examples of a Practical Subject. By Major-General W. E. Montaaug, C.B.,

P.S.C., late Garrison Instructor Intelligence Department, Author of ‘ Campaign-
ing in South Africa.’ With Forty-one Diagrams. Crown 8vo, 5s.

MONTALEMBERT. Memoir of Count de Montalembert. A
Chapter of Recent French History. By Mrs OxipHant, Author of the ‘Life of
Edward Irving,’ &c. 2 vols. crown 8vo, £1, 48.

 
22 List of Books Published by

 

MORISON.
Rifts in the Reek. By Juantz Morison. With a Photogravure
Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 5s. Bound in buckram for presentation, 6s.
Doorside Ditties. With a Frontispiece. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d..
fKolus. A Romance in Lyrics. Crown 8vo, 3s.
There as Here. Crown 8vo, 3s.
*,* A limited impression on hand-made paper, bound in vellum, 7s. 6d.
Selections from Poems. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.
Sordello. An Outline Analysis of Mr Browning’s Poem.
Crown 8vo, 3s.
Of “Fifine at the Fair,” “Christmas Eve and Easter Day,”
and other of Mr Browning’s Poems. Crown 8vo, 3s.
The Purpose of the Ages. Crown 8vo, 9s.
Gordon: An Our-day “Tdyll. Crown 8vo, 3s.
Saint Isadora, and other Poems. Crown 8vo, ls. 6d.
Snatches of Song. Paper, 1s. 6d.; cloth, 3s.
Pontius Pilate. Paper, 1s. 6d.; cloth, 3s.
Mill o’ Forres. Crown 8vo, 1s.
Ane Booke of Ballades. Fcap. 4to, 1s.
MUNRO.
John Splendid. The Tale of a Poor Gentleman and the Little
Wars of Lorn. By Nein Monro. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
The Lost Pibroch, and other Sheiling Stories. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
MUNRO

Rambles and Studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia.
With an Account of the proceedings of the Congress of Archologists and
Anthropologists held at Sarajevo in 1894. By Robert Munro, M.A., .
F.R.S.E., Author of the ‘Lake Dwellings of Europe,’ &e. With numerous illus-
trations. Demy Svo, 12s. 6d. net.

Prehistoric Problems. With numerous Illustrations. Demy
Svo, 10s. net.

MUNRO. On Valuation of Property. By Witt1am Munro,
M.A., Her Majesty’s Assessor of Railways and Canals for Scotland. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

MURDOCH. Manual of the Law of Insolvency and Bankruptcy:
Comprehending a Summary of the Law of Insolvency, Notour Bankruptcy,
Composition -Contracts, Trust- Deeds, Cessios, and Sequestrations; and the
Winding-up of Joint-Stock Companies in Scotland: with Annotations on the
various Insolvency and Bankruptcy Statutes; and with Forms of Procedure
applicable to these Subjects. By James Morpocu, Member of the Faculty of
Procurators in Glasgow. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, 12s. net.

MYERS. A Manual of Classical Geography. By Joun L.
Myers, M.A., Fellow of ene College; Lecturer and ‘Tutor, Christ Church,
Oxford. In 7 vol. crown 8 [In the press.

MY TRIVIAL LIFE ‘AND MISFORTUNE: A Gossip with
no Plotin Particular. By A PLain Woman. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.
By the Same AurTHor.
POOR NELLIE. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

NAPIER. The Construction of the Wonderful Canon of Loga-
rithms. By Joun Napier of Merchiston. Translated, with Notes, and a
Catalogue of Napier’s Works, by Wi~Lt1am Rar Macponatp. Small 4to, 15s.
A few large-paper copies on Whatman paper, 30s.

NEAVES. Songs and Verses, Social and Scientific. By An Old
Contributor to ‘Maga.’ By the Hon. Lord Neaves. Fifth Edition. Fcap.
8vo, 4s.
William Blackwood and Sons. 23

 

NICHOLSON.
A Manual of Zoology, for the Use of Students. With a

General Introduction on the Principles of Zoology. By Henry ALLEYNE
NicHoxson, M.D., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.8., Regius Professor of Natural History in
the University of Aberdeen. Seventh Edition, Rewritten and Enlarged. Post
8vo, pp. 956, with 555 Engravings on Wood, 18s. ‘ hes

Text-Book of Zoology, for Junior Students. Fifth Edition.
Rewritten and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, with 358 Engravings on Wood, 10s. 6d.

Introductory Text-Book of Zoology. New Edition. Revised
by AuTHOR and ALEXANDER Brown, M.A., M.B., B.8c., Lecturer on Zoology in
the University of Aberdeen. [In the press.

A Manual of Paleontology, for the Use of Students. Witha
General Introduction on the Principles of Paleontology. By Professor H.
ALLEYNE NicHoLson and RicHarD LypEeKxKeEr, B.A. Third Edition, entirely
Rewritten and reatly Enlarged. 2 vols. 8vo, £3, 3s. '

The Ancient Life-History of the Earth. An Outline of the
Principles and Leading Facts of Palzontological Science. Crown 8vo, with 276
Engravings, 10s. 6d. ‘ 2 %

On the “Pabulate Corals” of the Paleozoic Period, with
Critical Descriptions of Illustrative Species. Illustrated with 15 Lithographed
Plates and numerous Engravings. Super-royal 8vo, 21s. :

Synopsis of the Classification of the Animal Kingdom. 8vo,
with 106 Illustrations, 6s. ae. f 3

On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Monticulipora
and its Sub-Genera, with Critical Descriptions of Illustrative Species. Illustrated
am numerous Engravings on Wood and Lithographed Plates. Super-royal

vo, 18s.
NICHOLSON.

Thoth. A Romance. By JosepH SHIELD Nicuotson, M.A.,
D.Sc., Professor of Commercial and Political Economy and Mercantile Law in
the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. “

A Dreamer of Dreams. A Modern Romance. Second Edi-
tion. Crown 8vo, 6s.

OLIPHANT.

Masollam : A Problem of the Period. A Novel. By Lauruncr

x OutpHanrt. 3 vols. post 8vo, 25s. 6d. Done: ec

Scientific Religion; or, Higher Possibilities of Life and
Practice through the Operation of Natural Forces. Second Edition. 8vo, 16s.

Altiora Peto. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, boards, 2s. 6d.;

, cloth, 3s. 6d. Illustrated Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. f

Piccadilly. With Ilustrations.by Richard Doyle. New Edi-
tion, 3s. 6d. Cheap Edition, boards, 2s.6d.

Traits and Travesties ; Social and Political. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d.

Episodes in a Life of Adventure; or, Moss from a Rolling
Stone. Cheaper Edition. Post 8vo, 3s. 6d. as

Haifa: Life in Modern Palestine. Second Edition. 8vo, 7s. 6d.

The Land of Gilead. With Excursions in the Lebanon.
With Illustrations and Maps. Demy 8vo, 21s. 4 :

Memoir of the Life of Laurence Oliphant, and of Alice
Oliphant, his Wife. By Mrs M. O. W. Oureuant. Seventh Edition. 2 vols.

post 8vo, with Portraits. 21s. :
PopuLaR Epition. With a New Pretace. Post 8vo, with Portraits. 7s. 6d.

OLIPHANT. — a,
Annals of a Publishing House. William Blackwood and his
Sons; Their Magazine and Friends. By Mrs Ourpaanr. With Four Portraits.
Third Edition. Demy 8vo. Vols. I. and II. £2, 28.
A Widow’s Tale, and other Stories. With an Introductory
Note by J. M. Barrie. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
24 List of Books Published by

 

OLIPHANT.

Who was Lost and is Found. Second Edition. Crown
8vo, 6s.

Miss Marjoribanks. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

The Perpetual Curate, and The Rector. New Edition. Crown
8vo, 3s. 6d.

Salem Chapel, and The Doctor’s Family. New Edition.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d P ep ,

Chronicles of Carlingford. 3 vols. crown 8vo, in uniform
binding, gilt top, 3s. 6d. each. Me

Katie Stewart, and other Stories. New Edition. Crown 8vo,
cloth, 8s. 6d.

Katie Stewart. Illustrated boards, 2s. 6d.

Valentine and his Brother. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d

Sons and Daughters. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

Two Stories of the Seen and the Unseen. The Open Door
—Old Lady Mary. Paper covers, 1s.

OLIPHANT. Notes of a Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the Holy

Land. By F. R. OuipHant. Crown 8vo, 38. 6d.

PAGE.

Intermediate Text-Book of Geology. Founded on Page’s ‘In-
troductory Text-Book of Geology.’ By Professor Lapworts of Mason Science
College, Birmingham. With Dlustrations. Crown 8vo, 5s.

Advanced Text-Book of Geology, Descriptive and Industrial.
With Bngravings, and Glossary of Scientific Terms. New Hdition. Revised by
Professor LAPWoRTH. [In preparation.

{ntroductory Text-Book of Physical Geography. With Sketch-
Maps and IlJustrations. Edited by Professor Lapwortu, LL.D., F.G.9., &.,
Mason Science College, Birmingham. Thirteenth Hdition, Revised and Enlarged.
2s. 6d.

Advanced Text-Book of Physical Geography. Third Edition.
Revised and Enlarged by Professor LapwortH. With Engravings. 5s.

PATERSON. A Manual of Agricultural Botany. From the
German of Dr A. B. Frank, Professor in the Royal Agricultural College, Berlin.
Translated by Joun W. Paterson, B.Sc., Ph.D., Free Life Member of the High-
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland, and of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England. With over 100 llustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

PATON.
Spindrift. By Sir J. Nozt Paton. Fcap., cloth, 5s.
Poems by a Painter. Fcap., cloth, 5s.

PATON. Castlebraes. Drawn from “The Tinlie MSS.” By
James Paton, B.A., Editor of ‘John G. Paton: an Autobiography,’ &c., &c.
Crown 8vo, 6s. E

PATRICK. The Apology of Origen in Reply to Celsus. A Chap-
ter in the History of Apologetics. By the Rev. J. Parricx, D.D., Professor of
Biblical Criticism in the University of Edinburgh. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

PAUL. History of the Royal Company of Archers, the Queen’s
Body-Guard for Scotland. By James BaLrour Pavt, Advocate of the Scottish
Bar. Crown 4to, with Portraits and other Illustrations. £2, 2s.

PEARSE. Soldier and Traveller: Being the Memoirs of
Alexander Gardner, Colonel of Artillery in the Service of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh. Edited by Major Hucs Pzarss, 2nd Battalion the East Surrey Regiment.
With an Introduction by the Right Hon. Sir Ricoarp Trempte, Bart., G.C.S.I.
With Two Portraits and Maps. Demy 8vo, 15s.

PEILE. Lawn Tennis as a Game of Skill. By Lieut.-Col. S. C.
F. Perzz, B.8.C. Revised Edition, with new Scoring Rules. Feap. 8vo, cloth, 1s.
 

William Blackwood and Sons. 25

 

PERIODS OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE. Edited by Pro-
: fessor SarntsBury. For List of Volwmes, see page 2.

PETTIGREW. The Handy Book of Bees, and their Profitable
Management. By A. Perrigrew. Fifth Edition, Enlarged, with Hugravings.
Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

PFLEIDERER. Philosophy and Development of Religion.
Being the Edinburgh Giftord Lectures for 1894. By Orro Priripersr, D.D.,
Professor of Theology at Berlin University. In 2 vols. post 8vo, 15s. net.

PHILLIPS. The Knight’s Tale. By F. Emrty Puariires, Author
of ‘The Education of Antonia.’ Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSICS FOR ENGLISH READERS.
Edited by Wiuuiam Kwicut, LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy, University
of St Andrews. In crown 8vo volumes, with Portraits, price 3s. 6d.

: As {For List of Volumes, see page 2.

POLLARD. A Study in Municipal Government: The Corpora-
tion of Berlin. By James PoLuarD, C.A., Chairman of the Edinburgh Public
Health Committee, and Secretary of the Edinburgh Chamber of Commerce.
Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

POLLOK. The Course of Time: A Poem. By Rossertr PoLLog,
A.M. New Edition. With Portrait. Fcap. 8vo, gilt top, 23. 6d.

PORT ROYAL LOGIC. Translated from the French; with
Introduction, Notes, and Appendix. By TaHomas Spencer Baynes, LL.D., Pro-
fessor in the University of St Andrews. Tenth Edition, 12mo, 48.

POTTS anp DARNELL.

Aditus Faciliores: An Easy Latin Construing Book, with
Complete Vocabulary By A. W. Ports, M.A., LL.D.,and the Rev. C. DARNELL
M.A., Head-Master of Cargilfield Preparatory School Edinburgh. Tenth Edition,
feap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. ;
Aditus Faciliores Graeci. An Easy Greek Construing Book,
with Complete Vocabulary. Fifth Hdition, Revised. Fcap. 8vo, 3s.
POTTS. School Sermons. By the late ALyxanpDER Wm. Ports,
LL.D., First Head-Master of Fettes College. With a Memoir and Portrait.
Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
PRINGLE. The Live Stock of the Farm. By Rozerr O.

Prinate. Third Edition. Revised and Edited by James MacponaLp. Crown

8vo, 7s. 6d.
PUBLIG GENERAL STATUTES AFFECTING SCOTLAND
from 1707 to 1847, with Chronological Table and Index. 3 vols. large 8vo, £3, 3s.
PUBLIC GENERAL STATUTES AFFECTING SCOTLAND,

COLLECTION OF. Published Annually, with General Index.

RAMSAY. Scotland and Scotsmen in the Highteenth Century.

Edited from the MSS. of JoHN Ramsay, Esq. of Ochtertyre, by ALEXANDER
ALLARDYCE, Author of ‘Memoir of Admiral Lord Keith, K.B.,’ &. 2 vols.

8vo, 31s. 6d. :
RANJITSINHJI. The Jubilee Book of Cricket. By Princg

, RANJITSINHJI.

Epition DE Luxe. Limited to 350 Copies, printed on hand-made paper, and
handsomely bound in buckram. Crown 4to, with 22 Photogravures and 85
full-page Plates. Each copy signed by Prince Ranjitsinhji. Price £5, 5s. net.

Fine Paper Epition. Medium 8vo, with Photogravure Frontispiece and 106
full-page Plates on art paper. 25s. net. ; te

PorpuLtar Epition. With 107 full-page Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Large
crown 8vo, 6s.

RANKIN.
Church Ideas in Scripture and Scotland. By James Rankin,

D.D., Minister of Muthill; Author of ‘Character Studies in the Old Testament,

&c. Crown 8vo, 6s. :

A Handbook of the Church of Scotland. An entirely New
and much Enlarged Edition. Crown 8vo, with 2 Maps 7s. 6d.
26 List of Books Published by

 

RANKIN.

The First Saints. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

The Creed in Scotland. An Exposition of the Apostles
Creed. With Extracts from Archbishop Hamilton’s Catechism of 1552, John
Calvin’s Catechism of 1556, and a Catena of Ancient Latin and other Hymns.
Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. f ,

The Worthy Communicant. A Guide to the Devout Obser-
vance of the Lord’s Supper. Limp cloth, 1s. 3d.

The Young Churchman. Lessons on the Creed, the Com-

_ mandments, the Means of Grace, and the Church. Limp cloth, 1s. 3d.

First Communion Lessons. 25th Edition. Paper Cover, 2d.

RANKINE. A Hero of the Dark Continent. Memoir of Rev.
Wm. Affleck Scott, M.A., M.B., C.M., Church of Scotland Missionary at Blantyre,
British Central Africa. By W. Henry Ranuine, B.D., Minister at Titwood.
With a Portrait and other Illustrations. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 28.

ROBERTSON.

The Poetry and the Religion of the Psalms. The Croall
Lectures, 1893-94. By James Rogertson, D.D., Professor of Oriental Languages
in the University of Glasgow. Demy 8vo, 12s. ele 5

The Early Religion of Israel. As set forth by Biblical Writers
and Modern Critical Historians. Being the Baird Lecture for 1888-89. Fourth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.

ROBERTSON

Orellana, and other Poems. By J. Locrm Roserrtson,
M.A. Feap. 8vo. Printed on hand-made paper. 6s.

A History of English Literature. For Secondary Schools.
With an Introduction by Professor Masson, Edinburgh University. Cr. 8vo, 3s.

English Verse for Junior Classes. In Two Parts. Part I.—
Chaucer to Coleridge. Part 1I1.—Nineteenth Century Poets. Crown 8vo, each
1s. 6d. net.

Outlines of English Literature for Young Scholars. With
Illustrative Specimens. Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d.

English Prose for Junior and Senior Classes. Part. I—Malory
to Johnson. Part II.—Nineteenth Century Writers. Crown 8vo, each 2s. 6d.

ROBINSON. Wild Traits in Tame Animals. Being some
Familiar Studies in Evolution. By Louis Ropinson, M.D. With Illustrations
by StePHEN T. Dapp. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d. net.

ROSS anp SOMERVILLE. Beggars on Horseback : A Riding
Tour in North Wales. By Martin Ross and BE. @.SomeRvILLE. With Illustra-
tions by E. Gi. SomERVILLE. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d,

RUTLAND.

Notes of an Irish Tour in 1846. By the DuKE oF RuTLAND,
G.C.B. (Lorp Jonn Manners). New Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. F

Correspondence between the Right Honble. William Pitt

and Charles Duke of Rutland, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1781-1787. With
Introductory Note by JouN DUKE oF RuTLAND. S&vo, 7s. 6d.

RUTLAND

Gems of German Poetry. Translated by the DucnHsss oF
RUTLAND (Lapy JoHN MANNERS). _ Wew Edition in preparation.

Impressions of Bad-Homburg. Comprising a Short Account
of the Women’s Associations of Germany under the Red Cross. Crown 8vo, ls. 6d.

Some Personal Recollections of the Later Years of the Earl
of Beaconsfield, K.G. Sixth Edition. 6d. , ;

Employment of Women in the Public Service. 6d.

Some of the Advantages of Easily Accessible Reading and
Recreation Rooms and Free Libraries. With Remarks on Starting and Main-
taining them. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, ls.
William Blackwood and Sons. 27

 

RUTLAND.

A Sequel to Rich Men’s Dwellings, and other Occasional
Papers. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

Encouraging Experiences of Reading and Recreation Rooms,
Aims of Quilds, Nottingham Social Guide, Existing Institutions, &c., &c.
Crown 8vo, ls.

SAINTSBURY. The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of
Allegory (12th and 13th Centuries). ‘Periods of European Literature.’ By Grorcz
Sarntspury, M.A., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in Edinburgh
University. Crown 8vo, 5s. net.

SCHEFFEL. The Trumpeter. A Romance of the Rhine. By
JosePpH Victor von ScHEFFEL. Translated from the Two Hundredth German
Edition by Jessie Beck and Lovursa Lorimer. With an Introduction by Sir

at THEODORE Magri, K.C.B. Long 8vo, 3s. 6d.

SCOTT. Tom Cringle’s Log. By Micnart Scott. New Edition.
With 19 Full-page Dlustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

SELKIRK. Poems. By J. B. Setxrrn, Author of ‘Ethics and
Aisthetics of Modern Poetry,’ ‘Bible Truths with Shakespearian Parallels,’ &c.
New and Enlarged Edition. Crown 8vo, printed on antique paper, 6s.

SELLAR’S Manual of the Acts relating to Education in Scot-

land. By J. Epwarp Grauam, B.A. Oxon., Advocate. Ninth Edition. Demy
8vo, 12s. 6d.

SETH.
Scottish Philosophy. A Comparison of the Scottish and

German Answers to Hume. Balfour Philosophical Lectures, University of
Edinburgh. By Anprew Ser (A. 8. Pringle Pattison, LL.D.), Professor of
magi and Metaphysics in Edinburgh University. Third Edition. Crown
vo, 5s.
Hegelianism and Personality. Balfour Philosophical Lectures.
Second Series. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s.
Man’s Place in the Cosmos, and other Essays. Post 8vo,
7s. 6d. net.
Two Lectures on Theism. Delivered on the occasion of the
Sesquicentennial Celebration of Princeton University. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.
SETH. A Study of Ethical Principles. By Jamzs Sern, M.A.,
Professor of Moral Philosophy in-the University of Edinburgh. Fourth Edi-
tion. Revised. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. s 3
SHARPE. Letters from and to Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe.
Edited by ALEXANDER ALLARDYCE, Author of ‘Memoir of Admiral Lord Keith,
K.B.,’ &c. With a Memoir by the Rev. W. K. R. Beprorp. In 2 vols. 8vo.
Illustrated with Etchings and other Engravings. £2, 128. 6d.
SIM. Margaret Sim’s Cookery. With an Introduction by L. B.
Wa.rorp, Author of ‘Mr Smith: A Part of his Life,’ &c. Crown 8vo, 5s. ‘
SIMPSON. The Wild Rabbit in a New Aspect; or, Rabbit-
Warrens that Pay. A book for Landowners, Sportsmen, Land Agents, Farmers,
Gamekeepers, and Allotment Holders. A Record of Recent Experiments con-
ducted on the Estate of the Right Hon. the Earl of Wharncliffe at Wortley Hall.
By J. Simpson. Second Edition, Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, 5s.
SIMPSON. Side-Lights on Siberia. Some account of the Great
Siberian Iron Road: The Prisons and Exile System. By J. Y. Simpson, M.A.,
B.Sc. With numerous Illustrations anda Map. Demy 8vo, lés.

SINCLAIR.

Mr and Mrs Nevill Tyson. By May Sinciarr. Crown 8vo,
3s. 6d.

Audrey Craven. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
‘SKELTON.
The Table-Talk of Shirley. By Sir Joun Sxexton, K.C.B.,

LL.D., Author of ‘The Essays of Shirley.’ With a Frontispiece. Sixth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
28 List of Books Published by

 

SKELTON.

The Table-Talk of Shirley. Second Series. With Illustra-
tions. Two Volumes. Second Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. net.

Maitland of Lethington ; and the Scotland of Mary Stuart.
A History. Limited Edition, with Portraits. Demy 8vo, 2 vols., 28s. neb.

The Handbook of Public Health. A New Edition, Revised by
James PaTTtEN MacpouacaLL, Advocate, Secretary of the Local Government
Board for Scotland, Joint-Author of ‘The Parish Council Guide for Scotland,’
and ApiJAH Murray, Chief Clerk of the Local Government Board for Scotland.
In Two Parts. Crown 8vo. Part I.—The Public Health (Scotland) Act, 1897,
with Notes. 3s. 6d. net.

Part If.—Circulars of the Local Government Board, &e. [In preparation.

The Local Government (Scotland) Act in Relation to Public
Health. A Handy Guide for County and District Councillors, Medical Officers,
Sanitary Inspectors, and Members of Parochial Boards. Second Edition. With
a new Preface on appointment of Sanitary Officers. Crown 8vo, 2s.

SMITH. The Victory over Sin and Death gained by the Son of
God for His people. The Teaching of the Lord Jesus during His Personal
Ministry on Earth considered. By Georce 8. Smira, M.A., D.D., Minister of
the Parish of Cranstoun, Mid-Lothian. Crown 8vo, 5s.

SMITH. Retrievers, and how to Break them. By Lieutenant-
Colcnel Sir Henry Smiru, K.C.B. With an Introduction by Mr S. E. SHIRLEY,
President of the Kennel Club. Dedicated by special permission to H.R.H. the
Duke of York. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5s. 3

SMITH. Greek Testament Lessons for Colleges, Schools, and
Private Students, consisting chiefly of the Sermon on the Mount and the Parables
of our Lord. With Notes and Essays. By the Rev. J. Huntrr Smits, M.A.,
King Edward’s School, Birmingham. Crown 8vo, 68.

SMITH.
Thorndale ; or, The Conflict of Opinions. By Witt1am SMITH,
Author of ‘A Discourse on Ethics,’ &. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
Gravenhurst ; or, Thoughts on Good and Evil. Second Edi-
tion. With Memoir and Portrait of the Author. Crown 8vo, 88.

SNELL. The Fourteenth Century. ‘Periods of European

Literature.” By F. J. Snexu. Crown 8vo, 5s. net.

“SON OF THE MARSHES, A.”
From Spring to Fall; or, When Life Stirs. By “A Son or

THE Marsues.” Cheap Uniform Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

Within an Hour of London Town: Among Wild Birds and
their Haunts. Edited by J. A. OwEN. Cheap Uniform Edition. Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6d.

With the Woodlanders and by the Tide. Cheap Uniform

Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

On Surrey Hills. Cheap Uniform Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
anne os e Fishing Village. Cheap Uniform Edition. Crown
vO, 38.

SORLEY. The Ethics of Naturalism. Being the Shaw Fellow-
ship Lectures, 1884. By W. R. Soruey, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Aberdeen. Crown 8vo, 6s.

SPIELMANN. Millais and his Works. By M. H. Spretmann,
Author of ‘History of Punch.’ With 28 Full-page Illustrations. Large crown
8vo. Paper covers, 1s.; in cloth binding, 2s. 6d.

SPROTT. The Worship and Offices of the Church of Scotland.
By Georas W. Sprort, D.D., Minister of North Berwick. Crown Svo, 6s.

STEEVENS.

With Kitchener to Khartum. By G. W. Stegvens. With 8
Maps and Plans. Sixteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
Egypt in 1898. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s.
William Blackwood and Sons. 29

 

STEEVENS.
The Land of the Dollar. Third Edition. Crown 8v0, 6s.
With the Conquering Turk. With 4 Maps. Demy 8Vvo, 10s. 6d.
STEPHENS. ;

The Book of the Farm ; detailing the Labours of the Farmer,
Farm-Steward, Ploughman, Shepherd, Hedger, Farm-Labourer, Field-Worker,
and Cattle-man. Illustrated with numerous Portraits of Animals and Engravings
of Implements, and Plans of Farm Buildings. Fourth Edition. Revised, and
in great part Re-written, by Jamuzs Macponap, F.R.S.E., Secretary Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Complete in Six Divisional Volumes,
bound in cloth, each 10s. 6d., or handsomely bound, in 3 volumes, with leather
back and gilt top, £3, 3s.

Catechism of Practical Agriculture. 22d Thousand. Revised
by James Macponap, F.R.S.E. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 1s.

The Book of Farm Implements and Machines. By J. Sucut

and R. Scorr Burn, Engineers. Edited by Henry SrepHens. Large 8vo, £2, 28,

STEVENSON. British Fungi. (Hymenomycetes.) By Rey.

Joun StevENson, Author of ‘Mycologia Scotica,’ Hon. Sec. Cryptogamic Society
of Scotland. Vols. I. and II., post 8vo, with Illustrations, price 12s. 6d. net each.

STEWART. Advice to Purchasers of Horses. By Joun

Stewart, V.S. New Edition. 2s. 6d.

STEWART. The Good Regent. A Chronicle Play. By Professor
Sir T. Grainger Stewart, M.D., LL.D. Crown 8vo, 6s.

STODDART.

John Stuart Blackie: A Biography. By Anna M. Stoppart.
With 3 Plates. Third Edition. 2 vols. demy 8vo, 21s.
. PoPuLAR Epition, with Portrait. Crown Svo, 6s.
Sir Philip Sidney : Servant of God. Illustrated by MarcareEt
L. Hucervs. With a New Portrait of Sir Philip Sidney. Small 4to, with a
specially designed Cover. 5s.

STORMONTH.
Dictionary of the English Language, Pronouncing, Etymo-

logical, and Explanatory. By the Rev. James StormonTH. Revised by the
Rev. P. H. Puexp. Library Edition. New and Cheaper Edition, with Supple-
ment. Imperial 8vo, handsomely bound in half morocco, 18s. net. a
Etymological and Pronouncing Dictionary of the English
Language. Including a very Copious Selection of Scientific Terms. For use in
Schools and Colleges, and as a Book of General Reference. The Pronunciation
carefully revised by the Rev. P. H. Paerp, M.A. Cantab. Thirteenth Edition,
with Supplement. Crown 8vo, pp. 800. 7s. 6d. i
The School Dictionary. New Edition, thoroughly Revised.
By Wiritram Bayne. 16mo, 1s. . 7
STORY. The Apostolic Ministry in the Scottish Church (The
Baird Lecture for 1897). By Rosert Hergpert Story, D.D. (Edin.), F.8.A.
Scot., Principal of the University of Glasgow, Principal Clerk of the General
Assembly, and Chaplain to the Queen. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
STORY.
Poems. By W. W. Story, Author of ‘Roba di Roma,’ &e. 2
vols. 7s. 6d.
Fiammetta. A Summer Idyl. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Conversations in a Studio. 2 vols. crown 8vo, 12s. 6d.
Excursions in Art and Letters. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
A Poet’s Portfolio: Later Readings. 18mo, 3s. 6d. de
STRACHEY. Talk at a Country House. Fact and Fiction.
By Sir Epwarp StracHey, Bart. With a portrait of the Author. Crown 8vo,
4s, 6d. net.
30 List of Books Published by

 

STURGIS. Little Comedies, Oldand New. By JuLian Sturcis.
Crown 8v0, 7s. 6d.

TAYLOR. The Story of my Life. By the late Colonel
Meapows Taytor, Author of ‘The Confessions of a Thug,’ &c., &c. Edited by
his Daughter. New and Cheaper Edition, being the Fourth. Crown 8vo, 6s.

THEOBALD. A Text-Book of Agricultural Zoology. By Frep.
V. THEOBALD, M.A. (Cantab.), F.E.S., Foreign Member of the Association of
Official Economic Entomologists, U.S.A., Zoologist to the §.E. Agricultural
College, Wye, &c. With numerous Illustrations. In 1 vol. crown &vo.

[In the press.

THOMAS. The Woodland Life. By Epwarp THomas. Witha

Frontispiece. Square 8vo, 6s.
THOMSON.

The Diversions of a Prime Minister. By Basil Thomson.
With a Map, numerous Illustrations by J. W. Cawston and others, and Repro-
ductions of Rare Plates, from Early Voyages of Sixteenth and Seventeenth Cen-
turies. Small demy 8vo, 15s. "

South Sea Yarns. With 10 Full-page Illustrations. Cheaper
Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

THOMSON.

Handy Book of the Flower-Garden: Being Practical Direc-
tions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement of Plants in Flower-
Gardens all the year round. With Engraved Plans. By Davin Tuomson,
Gardener to his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, K.T., at Drumlanrig. Fourth
and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s. i

The Handy Book of Fruit-Culture under Glass: Being a
series of Elaborate Practical Treatises on the Cultivation and Forcing of Pines,
Vines, Peaches, Figs, Melons, Strawberries, and Cucumbers. With Engravings
of Hothouses, &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. _ Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

THOMSON. A Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the
Grape Vine. By WiL.iam THomson, Tweed Vineyards. Tenth Edition. 8vo, 5s.

THOMSON. Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent. With
Directions for the Preparation of Poultices, Fomentations, &c. By BARBARA
THomson. Feap. 8vo, 1s. 6d,

THORBURN. Asiatic Neighbours. By S.S. Taorsurn, Bengal
Civil Service, Author of ‘Bannu; or, Our Afghan Frontier,’ ‘David Leslie:
A Story of the Afghan Frontier,’ ‘Musalmans and Money-Lenders in the Pan-
jab.’ With Two Maps. | Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d. net.

THORNTON. Opposites. A Series of Essays on the Unpopular
Sides of Popular Questions. By Lewis THORNTON. 8vo, 12s. 6d.

TIELE. Elements of the Science of Religion. Part I.—Morpho-
logical. Part II.—Ontological. Being the Gifford Lectures delivered before the
University of Edinburgh in 1896.98. By C. P. Traxx, Theol. D., Litt.D. (Bonon.),
Hon. M.R.A.S., &c., Professor of the Science of Religion, in the University of
Leiden. In2 vols. post 8vo, 7s. 6d. net. each.

TOKE. French Historical Unseens. For Army Classes. By
N. E. Toke, B.A. Crown 8vo. 2s.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICUL-
TURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND. Published annually, price 5s.

TRAVERS.

Windyhaugh. By Granam Travers (Margaret G. Todd,
M.D.) Third Edition. Crown Svo, 6s.

Mona Maclean, Medical Student. A Novel. Thirteenth Edi-
tion. Crown 8vo, 6s. :

Fellow Travellers. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

TRYON. Life of Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon, K.C.B. By

Rear-Admiral C. C. Penrose Firzaeratp. Cheap Edition. With Portrait and
numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 6s.
William Blackwood and Sons. 31

 

TULLOCH.

Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in
the Seventeenth Century. By Jonn Tuttocs, D.D., Principal of St Mary’s Col-
lege in the University of St Andrews, and one of her Majesty’s Chaplains in
Ordinary in Scotland. Second Edition. 2 vols. 8vo, 16s.

Modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion. 8vo, 15s.

Luther, and other Leaders of the Reformation. Third Edi-
tion, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.

Memoir of Principal Tulloch, D.D, LL.D. By Mrs Ouipnant,
Author of ‘Life of Edward Irving.’ Third and Cheaper Edition. 8vo, with
Portrait, 7s. 6d.

TWEEDIE. The Arabian Horse: His Country and People.
By Major-General W. Tweepir, C.8.I., Bengal Staff Corps; for many years
H.B.M.'s Consul-General, Baghdad, and Political Resident for the Government
of India in Turkish Arabia. In one vol. royal 4to, with Seven Coloured Plates
and other Illustrations, and a Map of the Country. Price £3, 3s. net.

TYLER. The Whence and the Whither of Man. A Brief His-
tory of his Origin and Development through Conformity to Environment. The
Morse Lectures of 1895. By Joun M. Tyier, Professor of Biology, Amherst

; College, U.S.A. Post 8vo, 6s. net.

VANDERVELL. A Shuttle of an Empire’s Loom; or, Five
Months before the Mast on a Modern Steam Cargo-Boat. By Harry Van-
DERVELL. Crown 8vo, 6s.

VEITCH.

Memoir of John Veitch, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Rhetoric,
University of Glasgow. By Mary R. L. Bryce. With Portrait and 3 Photo-
gravure Plates. Demy 8vo, 7s. 6d. .

Border Essays. By Joun Verrcu, LL.D., Professor of Logic
and Rhetoric, University of Glasgow. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. net. iu 4

The History and Poetry of the Scottish Border: their Main
Features and Relations. New and Enlarged Edition. 2 vols. demy 8vo, 16s.

Institutes of Logic. Post 8vo, 12s. 6d.

Merlin and other Poems. Fcap. 8vo, 4s. 6d.

Knowing and Being. Essays in Philosophy. First Series.
Crown 8vo, 5s. :

Dualism and Monism; and other Essays. Essays in Phil-
Gaaphy: eon Series. With an Introduction by R. M. Wenley. Crown 8vo,
4s. 6d. net.

WACE. Christianity and Agnosticism. Reviews of some Recent
Attacks on the Christian Faith. By Henry Wacs, D.D., late Principal of King’s

College, London; Preacher of Lincoln’s Inn; Chaplain to the Queen. Second
Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d. net.

WADDELL. An Old Kirk Chronicle: Being a History of Auld-

hame, Tyninghame, and Whitekirk, in East Lothian. From Session Records,
1615 to 1850. By Rev. P. Harety WappELu, B.D., Minister of the United
Parish. Small Paper Edition, 200 Copies. Price £1. Large Paper Edition, 50
Copies. Price, £1, 10s.

WALDO. The Ban of the Gubbe. By Cepric Dang WaLpo.

Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

WALFORD. Four Biographies from ‘Blackwood’: Jane Taylor,
Hannah More, Elizabeth Fry, Mary Somerville. By L. B. Watrorp. Crown

8vo, 5s.
WARREN’S (SAMUEL) WORKS :—
Diary of a Late Physician. Cloth, 2s. 6d.; boards, 2s.
Ten Thousand A-Year. Cloth, 3s. 6d.; boards, 2s. 6d.

Now and Then. The Lily and the Bee. Intellectual and
Moral Development of the Present Age. 48. 6d.
Essays: Critical, Imaginative, and Juridical. fs.
32 Books Published by William Blackwood and Sons.

 

WENLEY.

Socrates and Christ: A Study in the Philosophy of Religion.
By R. M. Wentey, M.A., D.Sc. D.Phil., Professor of Philosophy in the Univer-
siby of Michigan, U.S.A. Crown 8vo, 6s.

Aspects of Pessimism. Crown 8vo, 68.
WHITE.
The Eighteen Christian Centuries. By the Rev. Jamzs
Wuire. Seventh Edition. Post 8vo, with Index, 6s. s
History of France, from the Earliest Times. Sixth Thousand.
Post 8vo, with Index, 6s.
WHITE.

Archeological Sketches in Scotland—Kintyre and Knapdale.
By Colonel T. P. Wurtz, R.E., of the Ordnance Survey. With numerous Illus-
trations. 2 vols. folio, £4, 48. Vol. I.,. Kintyre, sold separately, £2, 2s. 5

The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom. _A Popular

Account. Crown 8vo, 5s.

WILKES. Latin Historical Unseens. For Army Classes. By

L. C. VauGHAN WILKES, M.A Crown 8vo, 2s.

WILLIAMSON. The Horticultural Handbook and Exhibitor's

Guide. By W. Wittiamson, Gardener. Revised by Matcorm Dunn, Jardéper
to his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry, Dalkeith Park. Cheap
Edition. Crown 8vo, paper cover, 1s.

WILLS. Behind an Eastern Veil. A Plain Tale of Events

oceurring in the Experience of a Lady who had a unique opportunity of observ-
ing the Inner Life of Ladies of the Upper Class in Persia. By C. J. Wits,
Author of ‘In the Land of the Lion and Sun,’ ‘ Persia as itis,’ &c., &c. Cheaper
Edition. Demy 8vo, 5s.

WILSON.

Works of Professor Wilson. Edited by his Son-in-Law,
Professor FERRIER. 12 vols. crown 8vo, £2, 8s.

Christopher in his Sporting-Jacket. 2 vols., 8s.

Isle of Palms, City of the Plague, and other Poems. 4s.

Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life, and other Tales. 4s.

Essays, Critical and Imaginative. 4 vols., 16s.

The Noctes Ambrosianz. 4 vols., 16s.

Homer and his Translators, and the Greek Drama. Crown
VO, 48.

WORSLEY.
Homer’s Odyssey. Translated into English Verse in the

Spenserian Stanza. By Pxaitir StanHope Worstey, M.A. New and Cheaper
Edition, Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. net.

Homer’s Iliad. Translated by P. 8. Worsley and Prof. Con-

ington. 2 vols. crown 8vo, 21s.

YATE. England and Russis, Face to Face in Asia. A Record of

Travel with the Afghan Boundary Commission. By Captain A. C. Yate, Bombay
Staff Corps. 8vo, with Maps and Illustrations, 21s.

YATE. Northern Afghanistan; or, Letters from the Afghan

Boundary Commission. By Colonel C. E. Yarz, C.8.I., C.M.G@., Bombay Staff
Corps, F.R.G.S. 8vo, with Maps, 18s.

ZACK. Life is Life, and other Tales and Episodes. By Zack.

Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
1/99.
 

spe

       
     

eS eet

(Pies Ose ae ee or P paw Te Se CFE roe ne
=~ ce ORE WUE eas aaa RES TY acca hiss ‘i

 
  

a

\ hi

—S———
eS) ja
ee eer ere