Es,
a +H]
on a 4 fe — ee as aia
a 2 ae
| }
Se Se Se
{ t t
The student will examine carefully and perform the two examples, compar-
ing one with the other, and particularly noticing the variety of the imitations.
In the latter example it will be perceived that the scale commences with the
1st violin, but is continued in that part for only three bars; after which itis taken
up by the second violin for the following three bars, by which an imitation
between these two parts is effected.
* Re-peruse what has been said on passing notes by half-tones, Ex. 192.
190 -HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
It has been fully shown that all dissonances, whether by suspension or retard-
ation, have been produced by one simple circumstance, viz., by arresting the natural
progress of the intervals of a melody while ascending or descending. These
dissonances therefore are in fact artificial; they do not exist in nature; but why
are they introduced? They are introduced to heighten the effect of the returning
consonances, and thus produce in a greater or less degree that light and shade in a
composition which is so striking in the works of great masters. A careful study
of this branch of harmony is strongly recommended; indeed, the importance of it
must, ere this, have been evident to every intellectual student.
When we treated on the chord of the minor 9th,* it became necessary to draw
particular attention to two intervals of the chord of the fundamental 7th, viz., the
8rd and 7th; the former ascendiny a half-tone, the latter descending a half-tone;t
by these two intervals ascending and descending by half-tones, the whole machin-
ery of harmony is guided.
In order to impress this strongly on the mind, we shall repeat here a portion
of Ex. 141, the whole of which, however, the pupil is strongly urged again to
peruse.
- “ae
a. b. oe d.
i 3 a SN 8g 7 4 3 3-——~7, Rg]
rT f: A oe ini ey ih: a
T Log: 1 T IF f az J— fF. t oe Z
Zz rE 1. | oe Ty coe 4. t ah
eae re i Ll { 3 1. tee ae (a. 3
1 Tv L “———"" I~—|4 [3
Ex. 222.
T R 4 3 1 5
= far] | f: a i oe . re T ok
eg . U YW tT (a =
wt I iJ 1. { ae. i [ 7. i E 7. 1
= RTM) iat i ; Og iis a os
<— e f. & h. 7 =
ae “1 == —}— gd. =4—d- —
SS tr
——————— = ee ee
a. Exhibits the essential notes of the chord of the fundamental 7th.
b. The ascending dissonance of the 7th. (Retardation.)
c. The descending dissonance of the 4th. (Suspension.)
Now observe. If these two opposite dissonances are united (as at d), they will
produce a new chord, called
The Chord of the Eleventh.
Let it be well remarked, that it is through the instrumentality of these two
principal intervals of the fundamental 7th that this chord is produced. We may
introduce the dissonance of the 9th also (as at e)t; but the chord is not thereby
changed, it still remains the same in name and character; or we may introduce
a retardation, the 2nd ascending into the 8rd (as atjf). Here the note which at
(e) is a dissonance by suspension (the 9th into the 8th), is at (f) a retardation,
the 2nd into the 38rd.
Again, we may have both the suspension and retardation at the same time
(as at g), where the 2nd in the soprano ascends into the 8rd, and the 9th in the
tenor descends into the 8th; and if we add the octave to the dominant, the choré
* See preceding. + See example 141. t Zxample 2:7, IX.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 191
of the 11th will appear (as ath). If the question be asked, what the chord of the
11th really is, the reply is simply, The chord of the dominant or fundamental 7th
placed over its tonic : for instance, take the bass-note B-flat as the tonic, (the domi-
nant of B-flat is F), write the chord of F, with its fundamantal 7th, over the B-flat,
and the chord of the 11th is produced: its resolution follows as a matter of
course.
Why is this called the chord of the 11th? The chord takes its name from the
dissonance of the 4th, prepared by the 7th,* because this 4th is the 11th interval,
counting upwards, from any given bass. In thus counting upwards, we must
necessarily pass beyond the 7th and 9th, before we can arrive at the note which
constitutes the 11th; so that, in this case, the interval in question is not a 4th, but
really and truly an 11th.
Chord of the Eleventh, prepared.
Hitherto, the chord of the 11th has appeared on the accented part of the bar,
having been prepared on the unaccented; but this is not necessarily the case; as it
originates in the chord of the fundamental 7th, which requires no reparation, so
the chord of the 11th is entitled to the same privilege: this is exhibited in the fol-
lowing example, where all the chords of the 11th are unprepared.
Chord of the Eleventh unprepared.
1, 2. 5: 3. R 4,
# 2} 3] at a ¢ Zl .9| a
gg Pee = ——
> Ex. 223.
at i = "} See bl Bees i i +0
ee a |
In bars 1 and 2 the melody ascends; consequently, the retardation of the 2nd
is introduced, figured with a (2 thus, 4); but as, at bars 3 and 4, the melody
descends, the supension of the 9th is employed, and the figures required are = Bs
the chord of the 11th may therefore be introduced, prepared, as in Ex. 222; or
unprepared, as in Ex. 223.
The following is a practical illustration of this chord with both these charac-
teristics: —
The Chord of the Eleventh practically illustrated.
Andante ioe ee a
ase = tla
ae Pet eo iret oc
pil Te
ve t f= re —e— == - i
oe i z “te f EE ir t Es = a = re a I ef ir 0
Bar 2. “Bar 5” Bar 6: Bar 8.
In the preceding Ex. all notes of embellishment have been carefully avoided,
and other dissonances excluded, that this chord may appear in the simplest pos-
sible form.t ;
* See i, Ex. 222.
+ In Examples 224 and 225, bars 2, 5, 6, 13, the chord of the 11th is unprepared.
Bars 8, 10, 12, 16 —-—-———-~--- prepared.
192 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
N.B. When the chord of the 11th is employed UNPREPARED, and the melody
ascends, the note which represents the fundamental 7th may ascend.
At bar 5, the fundamental 7th ascends in the alto, and at bar 6 it ascends in
the tenor.
The following Example is in substance the same as the preceding; but here it
is embellished with passing and auxiliary notes; and the student will be amply
repaid for the trouble of a careful comparison: —
The same Air as the preceding embellished.
Andante. Bar Io. = ~ Bar 12,
ts i eg =_) 5 =
{ 4 } ig ——F oe = = ma
r is ar
Sostenuto. # | eae ate | |
a : | o. é # eee be oe
Bx. 295. { er = Ee a =
‘| ie te SSS
Figured Bass. bs
= 3 g 3 q 5 § ge ee 3
ee T im T ae)
apne 3 f 1 = ee tte Ef ¢ =
—e Bar 16
==@. e a @. }: 1. pt i
4 © a | —— |
@ > £ oh
Eel 2) original 5
N.B. When the chord of the 13th is immediately preceded by the chord of
the fundamental 9th (as in the above Example), the chord is prepared. When it
is not immediately preceded by the fundamental9th (as in the following Example),
then it is unprepared, and may be treated precisely as the chord of the 11th.
=
e blee. oes
=3 8 Ey
Ex. 231. ns §
The preceding Ex. 231 is the Diatonic Minor Scale of C; but, in order to mark
the interval of the chord of the 13th as much as possible, no signature is
employed to denote the key; the accidentals are all expressed where required; the
fundamental basses are also added, which may be found useful in more respects
than one.
Before we proceed to give a lengthened example on the employment of this
very important chord (the 13th), it will be found necessary to make the student
acquainted with the chords of the sharp sixth and compound sharp sizth.
Q. What is the chord of the sharp sixth (#6)?
A. Itis neither more nor less than the second inversion of the dominant
chord, the inverted bass being lowered a minor semitone.
In the following Example (at a) is exhibited simply the 2nd inversion of the
chord of the dominant: —
a a
(Reese Se Sa
Ex, 232.
re a tt ia) ad bel | J
abe o a. 12], — =
1 re ee
5 Os b,
_——————— b b, bs bs b
i. T To lat
ae SF —— Se — |
1
Cadence to A flat. IIL. Cadence in the relative Minor.
* Before the student proceeds, he is strongly recommended to peruse once again the com
mencement of the subject of cadences (pages 117,118); of which the following may be com
sidered a continuation.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 201
D Minor. IV. Cad. in A Minor. iis 2 D ig ie V. Cad. to By Major.
+ 4.
— —_ = a eS
= Spa hee a SS SI
a 6 2 f bo Hy ‘ 6 bg bz |
s. Ct escent: a Si ahaa lili =.
© = = SS ay
In the preceding Ex. (238) the pupil commences in the key of D major at I.
If, instead of closing in that key, he were to make a cadence in the key of its
dominant, it would be an irregular cadence; — irregular —because it does not close
in the key to which modulation has been made.
At II, he modulates to F minor, and makes a cadence in the relative major.
At ITI, he modulates to A-flat, and makes a cadence in the relative minor.
At IV, D minor is the key, and a cadence is made in A minor.
At V, a modulation to D minor — cadence in B-flat.
N.B. Let it be observed that the irregular cadence must always bear some
relation to the key to which we modulate.
It occurs frequently, that instead of proceeding direct from the tonic to the
subdominant, a minor chord is first introduced, whose bass, when we are in a
major key, is a minor 8rd below the tonic, as in the following Example (I). On
the contrary, when we are in a minor key, this bass must be a major 8rd below
the tonic (II).
I. II.
ae —— : go es
G2 Bebe ae 2 2 se eee
Ex. | ‘a
- - § E be ie TT b i me a i Pf ba hess b —t
Bee a eee
When the cadence is made in a minor key the added sixth may be written
minor instead of major. See III, following
Ex. 240. k be
b q
= as H: = E z fs ml
i E ta fet
TI
a
At IV, the added minor sixth is doubled and the 5th omitted.
N.B. This chord is emineatly calculated to express a feeling of the most
poignant grief and sorrow, and should be sparingly used.
202 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
Sometimes a cadence is written as at (V) in the following Ex. being the first
inversion of the minor 9th (diminished "th. )
Or as at VI, 2nd inversion of the same chord.
Or as at VII, compound sharp #6.
Or as VIII, sharp 6.
Ex, 241.
In the following Modulations, the preceding cadences are introduced: —
fae oh Og o
Se wo = oe al
=. — ee ee a ae
6 z 1 os be
te @. = He: t 4
Er t i + +
oF 1 >t
=e Fe aa
¢-—_—___
b:
g 7 br br be bs p bs___ sg ‘ a
Ex. 250.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 207
Great Cadence.
In the perfect final cadence, the tonic is always preceded by the dominant. In
the great cadence, on the contrary, the tonic is preceded by the subdominant.
oa rt
=. aT
= = =
22S Ae
Ex, 251.
\ el
=
This cadence is usually employed in sacred music to the word Amen!. It pro-
tluces an effect calculated to create in the mind a feeling of reverence and awe.
Equivocal Modulation.
In order to form a clear and distinct idea of the principles on which these
modulations are established, a few preliminary remarks will perhaps be necessary.
It has frequently been observed that the two principal intervals of the dominant
7th, in their progression, insensibly lead the ear towards the chord of its tonic;
the 7th having a tendency to descend and the third to ascend. This incessant
inclination of these two intervals to proceed thus will be found on investigation
to be occasioned principally (if not entirely) by the 3rd in the chord being major,
for, were we to make the 3rd minor, this inclination would immediately cease, as
will be evident on performing the following Example :—
La GOON PGT RET OS
I. IL. Iii. Iv. V. Vi. VIL. Vil. Ix. X.
{ —f — —t =o b = t |
| ao bsSs3 % 75 3 ;
—" —_
Ex, 252.
Tl .* by bg a
== he | — See
SESE re IE = ee
The chords at I, II, III, having minor 3rds, no expectation is excited in the
mind that these 3rds ought to ascend, although each chord contains a fundamental
ith: the ear (as it were) remains passive, and without the smallest reluctance per-
mits these 3rds to be changed in the course of their progression into Tths. AtIV,
however, the case is very different, for the 3rd (G) being major, the ear immedi-
ately expects this 3rd to ascend, and the chord of the tonic (A-flat) to follow: thus
the chord of the minor 9th at (V), having a major 3rd, must necessarily proceed to
its tonic (A); at VI, to D minor; and at VII, toG minor. Now let us recollect,
that this important interval forms a major 8rd with the fundamental bass only,
and with no other interval. If, therefore, the fundamental bass be taken away,
no major 8rd will be found in the chord to guide or direct our ear. See VIII, IX, X.
We are left, as it were, in complete uncertainty as to where the chord will proceed;
for the remaining intervals of the chord (after the fundamental bass has been
removed) are all minor 3rds, no one of which possesses any peculiar power or qual-
ity to guide the ear. But if we lower any one of these four intervals of the chords
at VIII, IX, X, a half tone, it will produce a major 3rd, giving thereby a decided
direction to the course of the modulation (which was before equivocal). Now as
the interval thus lowered will be the dominant of the key to which we modulate.
208 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
and as each of these four intervals may alternately be lowered a half tone, it follows
that an equivocal chord may be converted into four different dominants, and may
consequently modulate to four different keys. The three remaining intervals of
the chord undergo no alteration, except what may be occasioned by an enhar-
monic change, which may perhaps be found necessary when once the dominant is
established.
2 3824 8 6 %. 8 9. 1. TL iz. 33
Ex. 253.
Ati: is the chord of the diminished 7th. It has no decided character but
what it receives from the fundamental bass, which has been placed under it, by
which the modulation goes to D minor.
The C-sharp, in the inverted bass at 2, isat 3 lowered a semitone to C-natural,
and thus E (which at 2 was a minor 8rd) is changed to a major 3rd; and as the C-
natural is the dominant to the key of F, we modulate to that key at 4.
N.B. All the rest of the intervals remain as before.
Here we see that by only lowering one interval of the chord of the diminished
7th, we are enabled to modulate to F instead of D minor.
At5: The chord appears again as originally written at 1, but at 6, the E is
lowered a half tone to E-flat (forming thus a major 3rd with G), and as E-flat is the
dominant to A-flat, we modulate (at 7) to that key, instead of D minor.
N.B. All the intervals remain as before, except C-sharp, which must be
changed enharmonically to D-flat; because the fundamental 7th to E is D-flat, and
not C-sharp.
At 8: The chord appears again written as at1. The Gis lowered at9 a half
tone to G-flat; and as G-flat is dominant to C-flat, we modulate (at 10) to that key
instead of D minor.
N.B. Two intervals must here be changed enharmonically, viz., E to F-flat,
and C-sharp to D-flat. The reason is obvious.
At 11: No change of modulation has taken place, for, by lowering (at 12) the
B-flat to A, we produce the same fundamental bass as at 1:.the only difference is,
that, as the minor 9th is removed, we have moduiated to a major, instead of a
minor key.
N.B, Any inversion of the minor 9th may be thus employed, as well as the
diminished 7th, instances of which are given in the following example: —
(A
| wa
? f 22 I | |
Ex, acy. a :F_¢,
—E =o t SS
5
ts *
Ml
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 209
4, 5. 6.
fen) ten. hed. Pl
Lit
Lit
210 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
14, 15.
j &
= se
ma TT
z wees *. indi ee o-4- 4
bs “te te
8 *
fe 4
Bs-
16. 1%. 18,
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 211
- 0 r
*
+ : == |
LE. ae 3 oe os
28.
rs
pp» 4 Fett Foe 2 Ee ot
o te (=
= === ee
49.
z be 4 4 2 ¢ ¢ 2.
= : j
bs 7a :
—_ |
F =
In the preceding example —
At2: A demonstration is made to modulate to D minor, by the third inversion *
of the minor 9th; but by lowering G (the inverted bass) at 3, the half tone to
F-sharp, a modulation is effected to B-natural minor (at 4).
At 5: A demonstration is made to modulate to A minor, by the first inversion
of the minor 9th; but B-natural being lowered (at 6) a half to B-flat, the modula-
tion goes (at 7) to E-flat.
At 8: We make a demonstration to modulate to F minor, by the second inversion
of the minor 9th; but, the B-flat (at 9) being lowered to A, the modulation pro-
ceeds (at 10) to D minor.
At 11: The demonstration is made to C minor’ but (at 12) B-natural is lowered
to B-flat, and we modulate (at 13) to E-flat.
Although the ear cannot recognize any change having taken place between
the chords at 14 and 15, when played on the pianoforte, yet, if we examine the fun-
damental basses of these two bars, it will be evident, that in order to modulate to
212 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
G minor (at 16) this alteration of the chord became necessary; for as the dominant
to G is D, and not F, we could not have modulated directly from the chord at 13
to G minor at 16, it would have been ungrammatical, as modulating without a
dominant.
At 20: We make a demonstration to modulate to B-natural; changing this
determination, however, by lowering the A-sharp to A-naitural (at 21), we makea
demonstration to modulate to D; here, however, the course is again changed, by
resuming the dominant F-sharp (at 20), and we seem to modulate once more to
B-natural; instead of which, however, we lower the C-sharp (at 21) to C-natural,
and modulate (at 13) to F. ea 2
The preceding exercise, which is written for the pianoforte, not only abound
in secondary harmonies,extended, passing and auxiliary notes, but is likewise calcu-
lated to point out some of those contrivances in composition, by which a series of
modulations or progressions may be made pleasing and interesting; for example:
from the commencement to the end of bar 12, the right hand plays variations,
founded on secondary harmony, interspersed with extended, passing, and auziliary
notes, while the left hand accompanies this variation by the simple chords. In
order to produce still more variety, the right hand, from bar 13 to 25, plays a simple
melody without the least embellishment, while the left plays a variation, founded
on the intervals of the chord. At bar 26, the right hand again commences a varia-
tion, the left hand accompanying as before. The example concludes with a
cadence, commencing at bar 28, in which the minor 6th has been introduced.
Equivocal Modulation by the Compounded Sharp Sizth ys
This chord is another powerful agent, which may be employed with great
effect in producing an equivocal modulation.
If we lower the bass of any inversion of the chord of the minor 9th a minor
semitone, the chord of the -
already explained in examples 235 and 236.
N.B. We must be careful not to mistake this chord for one of those just des-
cribed in example 253; because the note which was there lowered became a dom-
inant; whereas, in the present case, it becomes a false 5th, and (being the bass) is
the second inversion of the dominant chord.
In the following example (at bar 2), is the first inversion of the minor 9th.
will be produced, after which we can modulate as
The bass being thus lowered (at 3) a semitone the e is produced, and thus, in-
stead of modulating to A-minor, we modulate (at 4) to F-sharp major.
Ex. 255.
The following example will show the application of this method of treating
the chord, which will be found particularly effective when introduced immedi-
ately after the imperfect false cadence: —
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 213
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Ex, 256.
Imperfect Ped.
False Cadence.
oe eo os
Ti+
be a eee eo 7
: Ped. * Ped: x Ped. *
le . 3 !
= =
At2: An irregular false cadence having taken place upon the first inversion
of the minor 9th, this inverted bass F-sharp is lowered a half tone in bar 3, to F-
natural, producing thus the #§. Here we ought to modulate to E, instead of
which, however, we make that E a dominant, apparently with the intention of
proceeding to A (for at 4a regular cadence commences in that key); but instead
214 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
of proceeding to the tonic, the dominant chord at 5 falls again at 6 a major half
tone, as it did at 2, and thus produces once more an irregular false cadence on the
chord of the diminished 7th. The same process is observed through each succeed-
ing four bars of the Example, until we arrive again at the key from which we
set out.
Deceptive Modulation —in which the Fundamental Seventh}
resolves into the Octave.
It cannot be too frequently impressed upon the mind of the learner, that the
chord of the Fundamental 7th hasa natural tendency to guide the ear to the chord
of its tonic only. When, therefore, either of the principal intervals of the dominant
chord, (viz., the fundamental 7th or 3rd), do not proceed thus, though they may
resolve into consonances, a kind of deception is practised.
In the following Example, at 1, the 7th of (G) the fundamental bass descends
as usual, but instead of proceeding to the third of its tonic (C), it falls, at 2, in the
octave of the following dominant chord.
The 8rd, instead of ascending into the octave, remains in its place, and
becomes a 5th.
The 5th likewise remains in its place and becomes the 7th; and the bass,
instead of proceeding to its tonic (C), ascends a minor semitone, and forms the
major 8rd:* thus we modulate to A minor instead of C.
{ (2322 53=
= jtecqeackeyq
Ex. 257.
o -
N.B. All the inversions of the fundamental Tth may be here employed; the
most effective, however, are the first and third.
The effect which these deceptive modulations produce will be better under-
stood by the following short example of Recitative: —
——— ae ee a
RECITATIVE. Modulation.
Tremolando.
Ex, 258.
ox
%
*This must, however, be understood as referring only to the inverted bass, because the
fundamental bass falls on this occasion on a minor 3rd.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 215
DErepuNE Modulation, ~ ee Modulation. =
SS |
SSP GS ig PE
a ge- oe
{ ft . [
ec F f= E
S = 2 = <=
f oOo
&c.
= FS f === — Ez
B. Le t=: Ee t C -s—
j é #4 it g
Deceptive Modulations —in which the Fundamental Seventh
resolves into the Fifth.
In the following Example, the dominant (G), instead of proceeding to its tonic
(C), ascends a whole tone, and becomes (asin the foregoing Examples) the domi-
nant of another key, which latter we prefer to be minor, as being the relative
minor to the subdominant of the expected key, c.
a. | | 2. a ; pies
See ESE
7 an
o 2 2 tL ao 7, $ j
Ex. 259. ) : ee (22 t [ x BIT
| : 4 . 4 a
(e)
HL
In this deceptive modulation the 7th descends on the 5th of the new dominant;
the 3rd ascends into the 3rd in the inverted bass, and the octave remaining in its
place, prepares the 7th in the chord of the new dominant. The different inver-
sions of the above chords are exhibited at b and c.
The following Example is an exercise on the preceding: —
a 22 3 4
|
@.
Ex. 260
216 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
Observe, that the subject of the two first bars in the tenor, is imitated in bars 3
and 4 by the bass; in bars 5 and 6 by the alto; in bars 6 and 7 again by the tenor;
and in bars 8 and 9 by the soprano.
Protracted Modulation.
If the 3rd of the dominant chord, instead of ascending to the Sth, continue to
fall a minor half tone on the 7th of the following dominant, it will produce alter-
nately the : and 3, and form thus a continued chain of unresolved dominant
chords, by which the expected tonic is omitted, and the final close of the modu-
lation deferred, or protracted, as in the following example: —
O s ie oo. g 2.
ae f aro i t E
5 Ss SSS
ev
Ex. 261./ | . ij 2 be &c.
i 3 $ § bs D5
2a =
; i = a Ze 1 — c be a
a > eS
ee ee
q |
b = &
ho tg ts bi » bie
t iS Ee i — t { 1 IE = = eae ee ——
= oe ba Tv Bo
At b: Dissonances are introduced, by which the imitation which naturally
arises out of these modulations is more apparent.
The following is a protracted modulation with the addition of the chord of
the minor 9th: —
= > ! tee
= ie |
‘tf 6 ae
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 217
)
R ts
Ata: A modulation, such as has been exhibited in Ex. 255 (b), is here intro-
duced.
At b: Appears the imperfect false cadence, as shown in example 256.
The following example shows another kind of protracted modulation, by
which the inverted bass is enabled to descend by semitones through the whole
octave: —
<-——- —beo : bs
Ex. 263./ e: Ee t H T E
b
z a i
7 a,
a os
5. 6. 4. 8.
pat = = + 5
om as me —-e£ < o—e Sas
eer cea ae ce per ae =|
eF § (a= = |
be 7 os g
(a)
\e 4 <3 =]
ee
9. 10. if, 12.
28) ,
Eee oe fee = =e c=TSEs a Se
————— i — po Fe ES
\
= 5 = = el
E- FE eres ac To
$ t pss =
= = = ==
os
At 3: Is the first inversion of the minor 9th, changed at 4 to the chord of the
compounded sharp sixth by the inverted bass being lowered a semitone.*
* See example 255.
218 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
At 5: The resolution of the chord of the § has been omitted, but we proceed
as if it had taken place, thus: ja é
At 6: The chord of the diminished "th.
At 7: The chord of the compounded sharp sixth.
At 8: The resolution of the § again omitted.
At 9: The first inversion of the minor 9th.
At 10: The 9th of the preceding cherd changed to a 7th. See example 265,
MODULATION THROUGH THE ASCENDING AND DESCENDING
CHROMATIC SCALE,
_In the following example the fundamental th is changed to a minor 9th, by
which the inverted bass continues to ascend by half tones: —
IL IL. III.
—
———— He ge eg
ao 2 f coe en ae ee =|
— — Li and
eS age a i z
Best (Ga eee
< voy “i 7 [ar a,
Cc.
CHE E on i fy ees
—| { te Ea a aime t a 4
+ +
The above modulation bears a strong resemblance to example 257. Here,
however, the 7th is not resolved into the octave, but changed into a 9th, which
occurs again at II, and III; and in this manner we are enabled to modulate
through the whole ascending chromatic scale.
In the preceding Example the fundamental 7th was changed into a minor 9th;
in the following Example, on the contrary, the 9th is changed into a 7th, by which
the inverted basses continue to descend by half tones: —
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 219
The following example will show how the several inversions of the minor 9th
may be employed with effect.
Ex. 266,
The first five bars contain only the chord of the minor 9th. The bass com-
mences with the interval of the 9th, and passes from thence to the 7th, 5th, and
8rd successively; the rest of the parts interchange places, during which the alto
proceeds from the 7th to the 9th; the tenor from the 5th to the 7th; and the
220 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
soprano from the 8rd to the 5th. The same occurs frequently in the course of the
example. From the commencement to the end of the 5th bar we are led to
expect the arrival of the key of C minor; however, the 8rd (B-natural) in that bar
having been lowered a half tone to B-flat, in the sixth bar, we modulate in the
seventh bar to E-flat.* From thence to the twelfth bar is continued the chord of
the minor 9th of F, and thus a demonstration is made to modulate to B-flat minor;
but, by the introduction of the in the 13th bar,t we modulate to G, and from
thence to C minor.
Modified, or Secondary Basses.
The only fundamental basses which have hitherto been employed in harmo-
nizing melodies are the tonic, dominant, and subdominant. We have seen that
from these three basses, with their harmonies, inversions, occasional introduction
of modulation, dissonances, passing and auxiliary notes, we have been enabled to
proceed thus far with sufficient variety. Let us now, however, make an attempt
to discover other basses than these hitherto employed, and thus procure a still
greater diversity of effect.
It has already been stated, that the natural scale consists of three sounds only;
that our modern diatonic scale is compounded of two of these scales; that, were
we to continue the succession of these scales of three sounds, we should continue
to modulate ad infinitum; that, in order to avoid this, we are necessitated to break
off at the sixth sound, and modulate back to the original key, by which consecu-
tive fifths and octaves are produced.
Let us now, instead of breaking off at the sixth sound, continue the scale, with-
out paying any regard whatever to the semitones which should occur between
each of the subsequent scales of three sounds. If we continue to repeat the
figures 8, 5, 8, in succession, over the intervals of this scale, and write the funda- -
mental basses as indicated by these figures, we shall find that (after the first two
scales) the intervals which follow, instead of being accompanied by the tonic,
dominant, and subdominant, will be accompanied by other basses; the chords
of which (except those arising from the three original) are either minor or
imperfect. t
If we divide the above continued scale into scales of three sounds, and place
under each its generator, or tonic, it will produce a progression of harmony, whose
basses continually ascend by fourths, or descend by fifths.
8 5 3 2
BOS .
0. 8 2. o. 2 aig tig Ss. eS é « oe
aa x C= = Ce Fiat -
ny 8 —5—~—Te—# t : oe tT
& i:—te—# E t t —E t —|
a Lc i. @ a | | os 12a 4th
SS ee
Ex. 267. ; s ; : .
— +s t = Z oz. cS =|
be tr Tes: L ac AE 3
Wil tanniaiiaaaaiet
E E Ee E E fe E—
E = E Spe
* See example 253. + See example 255.
¢ An imperfect common chord has its 3rd and 5th minor, thus:
The imperfect common chord of B is B,D, F.
D — D,Ff, A-flat.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 221
In accompanying the scale as above, it is evident that we have deviated (com-
mencing with the third bar) from the path pointed out by nature, and conse-
quently the harmony produced is often obscure and crude. Yet this very
obscurity we shall endeavor to turn to advantage, and by introducing it judi-
ciously amongst the harmonies of the three original basses, produce still more
light and shade than heretofore. Having premised thus much, let us enter into
an examination of each interval of the diatonic scale, and see how the chords, as
exhibited in the above Example, may be employed in our future Exercises.
The first sound of the scale we know may be accompanied by two basses, viz.,
the tonic, which is an 8th below, and the subdominant, which is a 5th below.*
Now, if we take the note which is a minor 3rd below (as at a in the following
Example), we shall procure a new bass (which is neither one cf the original three
belonging to the scale, nor a dominant by which we can modulate), and which,
for distinction, we shall call a modified or secondary bass.
Ex. 268.
In order to show the application of these basses, and enable the pupil to
form a just idea of their effect, let him compare the accompaniments to the
melody at b, c, d, in the example with those at e, f, g.
At b: The first of the scale has been accompanied according to the third rule
of employing fundamental basses. t
At c: According to the second rule of modulating in a melody.{
At d: Both are united.
At e: Modified bass, with third rule of accompanying the scale.
Atf: se with second rule of modulation in a melody.
Atg: +s followed by the chord of the sharp 6th.
At h: When the key is minor, the modified bass to the first of the scale has
a major chord.
The second of the scale, as we know, has only one original fundamental bass,
which is a 5th below, and thus admits of two modified, viz., one an octave, and the
other a third below {see a in the following example): —
* Third rule of accompanying the scale, page 44
+ See page 44, ¢ See page 150.
222 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
Ex. 269. ao 3
. . eo 2 6
a ee eee ee
=F =f Ss — 4 — por =H ° i ——
mm mM Mm ;
It is necessary to remark, that the modified bass, which is an octave below,
produces a better effect than the other, and should therefore have the preference;
the reason is this, —the chord produced by the modified bass, a 3rd below, is an
imperfect common chord having a minor 3rd and false 5th. The false 5th and
octave of this chord, when heard together, ‘produce the same effect upon the ear
as the two principal intervals of the fundamental 7th (to the first inversion of
which the imperfect common chord in its effect bears a strong resemblance). But
as the false fifth in ascending (d), and the octave in descending (e), have the same
effect as if the fundamental 7th had ascended and the 3rd had descended, the ear
feels a certain degree of dissatisfaction, particularly when this chord is employed
fundamentally (c); when inverted (d), the defect is not so very perceptible, owing
to the octave not being doubled.
The third of the scale, having but one original fundamental bass, may be
accompanied by two modified basses, viz., a 5th and 8th below: the first of these,
being the chord of the relative minor to the original key, produces the best effect,
as in the following example, at a: —
a. 4. a 2. oo
Ex. 270.
eee e ities —a— EH
The fourth of the scale may have two modified basses, viz., a 3rd and 5th
below (b). The former is preferable, the latter being the imperfect common
chord.
The fifth of the scale has but one modified bass, viz., a 8rd below (c )s
An application of the preceding modified basses will be found at d.
The sixth of the scale has two modified basses, viz., a 5th and 8th below (as in
the following example at a), both of which are — _
(ete
Ex. 271. t
re. Pe: +
——- t i % fot nt
[ 1. if Th
me L.
t
n
ee iE TO
The seventh of the scale has two modified basses, viz.,a 5th and 8th below.
The first is preferable, as the latter produces the imperfect common chord.
It is necessary to remark, that the introduction of modified basses demands
great care and circumspection, as in employing them more mistakes are likely to
occur than on any other occasion; these, however, will be prevented by a little
attention to the following observations: —
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 223
1st: Employ the modified basses very sparingly; for, as melody is derived from
the harmony of the original fundamental basses, they should be more frequently
employed than any other: they originate with nature, and, therefore, are the most
satisfactory and pleasing. On the contrary, by introducing too many modified
basses, the beauty of natural harmony accompanying a simple melody is fre-
quently obscured, and crudities arise which we should endeavor to avoid,
2nd: Very seldom employ the imperfect common chord fundamentally; to the
first inversion of that chord, however, no objection can be made.
3rd: Those modified basses which produce the relative minors of the tonic and
subdominant should be employed in preference to any other, particularly when
introduced as fundamental basses; they are on these occasions exceedingly
effective.
4th: No modified basses should, on any account, be introduced until the
melody has first been harmonized with the three original basses, employing the
five rules, and rules of modulation, as occasion may require; after having done so,
we should carefully examine where the modified basses may, with most propriety,
be introduced.
In order to show the application of these basses, and give some idea of their
effect, the simple melody at I, in the following example (written within the com-
pass of a 6th) is variously harmonized.
Ex. 272.
0.
EA een eee OR Ree & ox Ei
LE fest eta fee ee ee aes ed
mr
Harmonized with the original ie interspersed with a few modulations: —
9 fe pa | Ps ge SS sy !
—— a w— — sas eae
3 SSS = Z|
II ¢ 4 §
2: 2 @ o be . ‘eo be ce: = o . a} z {==p]=
(ca EF T if | r = t f t cs E t t = Ht fe = 3 EE
With other modulations: —
pes a ee ee ee
— ee toes a SHE
a = Tia an to
sagt ee pysitid,
a =
224 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
eS H ) , ae 1 | } | | ! 4 !
SS 3 aa o_-y— cw 2 7 eee
ee ee ee te er
eg J e
eo es: l
\ pata rt dg nog
m3 : 8 i a ie fe
—e—e—e — 0 —}-0 2 = oH}
CT oo. a de CO pp r
Iv. |
* @ a 2 5 a @ he o ne 7 <. 2 4 s + 2 £ = =H
= Stee FS ee
f t re tg t 7 o r
br 4
Peres ose Mek et seeped Bence Sh 7 7
|e ae ee a ae ee
a. ; — tf 7%
= een eS i he ae —vorw eos
FoR ot eee Pe teem
Pn bo 6 & 6 UL I
oe 2 eo 2 o 2
Tae Ls «& 1: eat - t & i ae ae Cm +1
r f= Fs rs t C 2 + a Hy t +t + f = E pease oof iL p ft = : ae at}
v or = a a t i 7 f 7 t 7 JF FH
7
If, instead of permitting the 38rds of the basses, in the preceding Example,
at a, b, to ascend, we let them remain in their places (as at c), they will produce a
succession of 7ths prepared by the 8rds. Atc, the 7th appears only alternately;
but if we add another part, as at d, we shall have an uninterrupted chain of Tths,
as at e, where it will be perceived that, in consequence of the uniform progression
of the bass, we are enabled to treat the 3rds of the new part which was added at d,
exactly in the same manner as those at ¢.
These sequences of Tihs seem to partake ina great measure of the character
of unresolved retardations, —see f, where the retardation of the 7th, has been
regularly resolved upwards.
If we write the preceding exercise in four parts, asin the following example
at a, each chord will be accompanied alternately by a 5th or 8th: that is, —the
8th remains in its place, and, by the progression of the bass, is changed into a 5th,
similar to a progression of fundamental 7ths.
io 28 fens spies
Gaines sie = a ee
ae. 3 oe £
pede Se Spy
Oe gt
7
* In this peoprestion of. sequences a most admirable symmetry is observable. It was the
great source from which the ancient sompoters drew their subjects for fugue, and the ground
upon which they chiefly constructed their church compositions.
Ex. 274.
228 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
At b, this exercise appears in five parts; and the interchange of the 5th and
3th takes place between the second soprano and tenor alternately.
Observe that the preparation of the 7th may be effected by any interval of the
common chord. At (c) the 7th is prepared by the 8rd; at (d) by the 5th; and at (er
by the 8th.
Characteristic difference between the chord of the fundamental 7th, and that
of the 7+h in Sequence.
The choril of the fundamental 7th is produced The chord of the 7th in sequence is produced
by nature.* by art.
It stands between consonances and dissonances,as_ Itisadissonant chcrd, and must be prepared.
it requires no preparation, but must be resolved.
By its means all modulations are effected. It prevents modulation.
In every other respect both chords are exactly alike.
The 7th by sequences has its inversions like the Fundamental 7th: —
Ata; First inversions. At b: Second inversions. Atc: Third inversions.
In the above example, sequences of the 7ths and common chords succeed
each other alternately, which produces a much better effect than an uninter-
rupted succession of 7ths.
Intermizture of the Fundamental Tths with Tths in Sequence.
When the 7th in sequence is a half tone higher than the fundamental 7th, the
chord will be a major chord (a): —
Ex. 276.
tt uy T tt +n
ut i L i 0
When the 7th in sequence is a whole tone below the octave (like the ‘anda
mental 7th), the chord will be either minor as at b, or imperfect as at c.
If, therefore, in the first case (at a) the 7th be lowered a half tone, as at a; or
the chord changed from minor to major, as at e; or from imperfect to perfect, as
at f; the chord of the fundamental 7th will be produced.
If, during the progression of sequences of 7ths, we change any one of the
chords to a dominant chord, a modulation will immediately be effected to the
succeeding tonic, upon which a close, though not a final one, may take place; or, if
we choose, we may, upon this last tonic, commence a progression of sequences,
and continue as before.
* See example 48.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 227
Observe that, in a progression of sequences, no sharp or flat can be introduced
which dves not belong to the key in which the progression takes place; for a mod-
ulation to another key would be the immediate consequence, as will be seen by the
following ae —
3. 4, 5.
el Lai |
geez a eS SS
t T { if eo -s-
Ex.
7 2 Es a i f J a) os apa : out}
te SS Sa ell
- “o-
The sequences continue to the 3rd chord (inclusive); the fourth chord, having
been made major, modulates to the key of A minor at the 5th chord, after which
we close with a cadence.
The progressions of sequences may be intermixed effectively with a progres-
sion of tome thus:—
In the preceding example, the same progression of the fundamental bass
is continued throughout; but, after the first three, instead of sequences, we have
employed dominant chords, by which a protracted modulation is effected at 4, 5, 6.
The following example will show how admirably these sequences, when inter-
mixed with dominant chords, are adapted for imitation and variety of effect: —
1. 2. 3. 4, 5. Oak % 8 9.
[~~ Ae
(| pe cle eee = oie hee
alte ay —TtT r i
ea ee) i J ioos Jam 7
"ets rhe jer
eo J
Ex. 279.
a
. >
i
wy
in
| 7 1 7 7 1 1 bz bz
- = i. Lies be
2 =|
a Se — + or
10 11 12 13 14, 15 16. 17
be 1 bw fo
| be va be “0 ao —he
7 “7 : ae Leni = |
br By 7 7 Ob
br 5 5 bs b o bz
ie t Cc 1. T ay!
fe 1 d f ae A of Ble on
Lh. | t SS (nz } 4. ze
Tire 1: Te A a a
228 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
18, 19, 20. 21,
vitard. ir
In the preceding example, at 1, 2, the soprano commences a short subject,
selected from the two first chords of these sequences; and, in ordex to give this
subject more character, two notes of secondary harmony have been introduced.
At 2, the alto commences the imitation, which is continued to 6; here the
tenor takes up the subject, with a slight variation, and pursues it as far as 10.
where it is resumed by the alto, and subsequently imitated by all the parts
alternately.
The bass, at 1, 2, also commences a short subject, founded on the two first fun-
damental basses, with their first inversions. This subject is answered at 11 by the
tenor, and at 14 again, slightly, by the bass; which part, at 15, takes up and con-
tinues the subject of the soprano to 19.
The sequences continue as far as 7, consequently we remain in the original key.
At 8, commences a protracted modulation,* which ends in the key of E-flat;
for, at 11, the modulation is arrested in its progress by the introduction of
sequences, which continue to 14.
From 15, a mixture of protracted and deceptive modulationst leads us back to
the original key.
In order to ascertain whether a bass melody, about to be harmonized, will
admit of sequences, it is only necessary to examine whether it contains any of the
following progressions: —
7 a 7 3g 2 7 2 Ie es SO gk oe NG ae
St & { rd ae ‘= ——f}=—F c= 2+ E a +—f]
Ex. 280, rs f io + ——H e ! : ct he —H
a. ‘ 4.
ar
a oe a ee oe Be 2 ge
fied T t ea eS T a ¢—7h
a ae gy — qr Et f t ree t tH
i= Tea ir t —+-= @ ea Hf ff fat t HH
— ‘ zs (= a,
-
At a: Is the progression of the fundamental bass itself.
At bd: The progression of its 3rd.
Atc: The progression of the 7th; and as that interval must be always pre-
pared, itis easily distinguished from any other, by two notes of the same denomi-
nation being tied together. The first of these notes is the preparation of the 7th,
the second is the 7th itself, and the note which follows is its resolution.
Although the progression of the 5th is similar to that of the 7th (see d), yet
the effect is not so good, and therefore it ought to be sparingly employed,
® See page 216. t See page 214.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 229
BASS MELODY WITH SEQUENCES.
Let us suppose that we were required to harmonize the following bass
melody: —
ee eee ee ee ee er ee =|
Ex. 281, ePa soe ara a ae ee
}
Ao
See Pew Soto Pe
nH
LL
|
tL
1 (eamst
t T
fey jest T 7H
pl {= to {eh
ne
It is evident, from the progression of the intervals of the above theme, that
the greater part of them may be considered in three points of view: —
First, They may be treated as a progression of sequences, as follows: —
7 7 1 .—~3 6 7 7 6 7 a
Ges Se ae oa
SS ee ee eh
Secondly, As a progression of dominant 7ths, and thus modulate: —
eee ae ee
a
7 i C | ae Lo a t ne I te:
Thirdly, As partaking of both: —
f bz 1 yh 6 é br Z i
2
SESS Be
t L oh
In the following example, at a, the bass melody of example 281 will be found
harmonized throughout with sequences, except where the progression of its
intervals rendered it impracticable: —
pp} i> J]
o—y = ~—t FS i =
——— = Ee
. r roy ~T Pot 1.8
' I mM
aes ee ee ae ee,
et = fo = t =
i [ x: : es Tt a ae +: =
7 tA 7 6 a vr : ‘ “e 7 rT :
6 7
" 3 1 “bog
oe I~! | ' 1 | 1 :
o. a oe ow ; p# wo a ——— = 7
=r f=. fe Fe se & onl 4
= r | | tot Joc HP Va mele
ofa 809 eatin ea)
oft —— : |
— i Le t et ee} —— 4
7 7 | o@ey to ls gy ~
DO af al -t ) \ 4 I S app ;
Yr om yet — o_o wy —s
y= z =
~ = jee
p-hb—9--+s bw ne | =e oo op oe 5) J ~ S
Ty f eo rome Ce—5,
he aI = re t r a a
eo So ae 2) é J 3-4. a Sarg
SS eee fe @:-@he-o-@. SS
7 v 7 ‘a — i i a
7 ° 56 g
Dy 4 | J =e +
(eset fa? fF = ww oe tye * =|
ee a a ——— - ° =
{ uJ (e) { — — l | 6
a ae é a oe OS
es omental anaes ie = Fo ae SS - mm zy =]
F . x eo neo t +
Fr = te —— qi eS [ 4
Ea SN tr
pp RS ——— ee]
yy i a = — = =< er t — } ae ry < HH
vy —1 SS PB Ta v
pp |{™“——"
; rs 3 |
— 27 ew ee = bw ew ne
| hy i. 2 t Hl
. hee - —
c 7 br fe 7 ic
bs 4
N.B. The 5ths, atc, between the soprano and tenor by contrary motion, are
aliowable.*
* See example 289 (/).
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 231
Those basses, which in the preceding example were treated as sequences, are
in the following example treated sometimes as duminants: the rules of ‘‘ modula-
tion by the intervals of a melodyt”’ have likewise been employed; and thus an
effect is produced, so very different from that in the preceding example, that one
would scarcely imagine both to have emanated from the same bass melody.
The student will find much improvement in a careful examination and com-
parison of these two examples.
[Ps eS ee
= Sp ee gate
And (rae ip a aero ae oe
Ex, 283. Naan kee re Legato F| | |
1 !
\bex qe
a t [ tr "hp 7 - fe Lek r 1 ¢ assault
z ac i $ 7 ng
calando.
N.B. In the second bar a deceptive modulation takes place.*
Lastly. The melody, in example 282, which has deen extracted from the bass
melody of example 281, is, in the following example, re-harmonized with other
basses, according to the five rules of employing fundamental basses, and ‘‘ modula-
tion by the intervals of a melody.”
[—_ =| TC a
= =< z ry-2 Kee ee
to ee ee
Ex. 284.
27
ay tee a a oid
ptr f eS
7 p= 3s te § 8%
* Page 148. to 161. t See example 260.
(a) See Licensed Resolution of Dissonances, Ex. 345, (b) See Ex, 242.
(e) See Ex. 210, f. (d) Ex. 255,
s
232 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
eo
6 wo
us 7
By comparing the bass and harmonies in this example with those of the two
preceding, we shall perceive what a variety may thus be created; and those who
are inclined to study composition, will, even in these few examples, find ample
matter. The preceding specimens will sufficiently show how 7ths in sequence
may be employed with etfect; their introduction not only prevents frequent mod-
ulation (thus impressing the present key more strongly on the mind), but also
adds strength and vigor to the texture of the harmony. They contribute, more-
over, materially to cement and interweave the several sections of which periods
are constructed*, thus forming a still more connected chain throughout the whole
composition.
Sequences of 6ths, 6 5, and 7 6.
From the progression of fundamental sequences of common chords, at a, arise
those at b and c.
Ex, 285, & aot 5
ez t = TT =, i t t A
eae a J. J. + + H i T T
at ae i w. 1 HA
1 7: a J. gz, ae !
et = au = | ——e3——]
Z| =5 {——s— je Se
5 6
—. & 6 6 6
a
*See Periods, example 307.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 233
et 7
p# 4 a | ot: § ——1
ey
+ Fo J t i
r ( eC — t | P es
16
oe 4a ——— Bs. 2
e T. a 1: sh TT. f 1h { 1 i. say
eat ee ae =. me Seal: ity L L 1. [ Wy
+ 1 os 1. it) = a ce oO
NX f ae J. OF. c s i o iO
ae
| a ae |
re fT: £ oe Ec mil
c= H = bre aE -H
Pee fos oO [ i E c = oO
cee | P v T C
76 =
e =. see ea fe
aS {7 L - t f or i} o
Cs Ht E ; pot i
t u E c H
| z &.
=. fT. | iT ES TW]
_ —! th = ——— ||
; a oe oC : ro} oo. ae: U
r eo = { Pe \ fr
1
sop 6 6 6 6
oh Es TT [ fi
+ t ae [ ray is (i Hi
L 5 a L iif
c C oo I oO
=
z Z,
{
2 ———-f\-— a — | Ss —— fF SH
1 Toe oar Ay eS mail
a c or ~_ f a. a To
o i 1 eo SF
6 6 6 ‘5, 6
= f{——ez — Hf FE: |
tL Ty. i ime th 1
iri i il C
In employing the progressions of the preceding Ex., it may perhaps be better
to let the 6th appear on the accented part of the bar (as at b), because the 5th in
that situation produces in some measure the effect of consecutive 5ths: this obser-
vation, however, has only reference to what is called the strict style of writing.*
By omitting the common chord in the progression at c, a sequence of the
chord of the 6th will be produced (as at d), the effect of which, when judiciously
employed, is very good.
From the descending progression of the 6th at e, is derived that at f, which
indeed is nothing else than the dissonance of the 9th resolving into the Sth; in
this case, however, the interval of the 9th (which is the 7th to the present bass)
must appear in the soprano: were we to give it to the alto, as at g, consecutive
5ths would be produced; for the intervening dissonance does not obviate the
improper progression. This is shown at gg, where the dissonance is omitted;
should we, however, consider the proper fundamental bass to this progression to
be, as written at h, then the 7 6 arises from a sequence of 7ths, and these two
intervals may appear in the alto.
Tt may be observed, that a sequence of 6ths is better calculated for a harmony
of three parts than four; because, in avoiding the consecutive 5th atl, the tenor
is obliged (as at i, k) to proceed by great intervals, which disturbs that smooth
and graceful progression for which sequences of 6ths are distinguished.
* See Strict and Free Style.
234 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
How admirably Haydn has treated a progression of sequences of this de-
scription will be seen from the following specimen, extracted from one of his
quartets: — 2 a
& a a i é 3 7 =
fee eee
eo " ee a
7 3 7 BAN T 3 7 3
Ex. 286. —s— =
eS eee
»
rs
et t 4 £ J 1: |
eras z E Te
T. Zz te s ees 7s =
The following example, which is written for the pianoforte, exhibits all the
preceding sequences in their various forms, ascending and descending. They are
written chiefly in three parts; and still more clearly to show their effect when
written thus, a contrast is produced by writing the harmony on every other occa-
sion as full as possible.
QD. 174 3 = t ia a zh fa é repre Sid
te, eae espe eee: @ ot = =
——— tea fi Me a a
co —™~ p =
TE -#: be Pz o— 2 = f £ = = =. ! 2 Jy
SS E =e
> C 6 6 é 6g 6 5 6 5 3 6 4 | yee 6
ae
=
Oty d | es | 1 al
9 — He t = ; aS
—- 5 2 = = pet pe ope Ply oy
e fe - ee i Tose ie r fe
ee ee —T_. ye — Wao 5 pot}.
t TH
at i 1 SE==T ae a
\iee t t= aH
* The upper figure expresses the number, and the lower figure the value (as to time) of each
note in a bar.
+ In modern compositions, this measure of time is generally marked thus, é: it would, how-
aver, be advisable to adopt the above simple mode, as itis better calculated to show the real
difference between the { here mentioned, and the 2 hereafter shown.
240 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
Two bars of the above may be united to form one bar; which will produce a
‘ . is 444
measure of time of four; thus: ,, 35, 4) 8°
‘ ate ag eS ac. ac. e
Ayo te Fa —| Hl
1 4 — J +} —— | a th
{ at + + + t th
| + t oo
ac.
| fs Ac. oa Ac. ac,
ES Ee
Ex 296. | +t —+ t + + t r i
cr Tih
Ac oo ge Ac =e
t
. . . ai
4—2— haat t = } 7H
t r le fee fea
: t jt} t F th
J—t +H
As each bar of the latter arises from a union of two of the former, it follows
that each bar of the latter must necessarily have also two accents, viz., on the first
and third portions; with this difference, however, that the second accent (marked
here with a small a) is not so strongly accentuated as the first.
The time arising from four notes of equal value is called long common time.
_N.B. Let this distinction between the measure of 5 and Z be carefully kept
in mind.
If that equal measure or division of time, which was first described, be des-
troyed by doubling the value of the first portion (as at a in the following exam-
ple), or by reducing that of the second portion to one half of the value (as at bd), a
new measure of time will arise, consisting of three notes of equal value (as to
time) in each bar; this is called triple, or unequal time, and is marked thus:
333
248°
As the above triple time arises out of the measure of ae as described at Ex.
295, it should consequently have but one accent, viz., on the first portion of each
bar.
It is, however, necessary to observe that another kind of triple time is in use,
arising out of an original grouping of three notes of equal value, between which
notes the accent is sometimes equally divided.
) fp.
p a 5 =—7
1@ 4
ay tie
a Tih
pod S
2 ee
Ex. 298. yor t FE = { ni
a 2 -o-
Pye —— ————"|
r?} a T - T tl
A Loa t I ie Ae may
i: fia ze hh
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 241
The characteristic difference’ between these two species of triple time is suffi-
ciently strong not to be easily mistaken; for instance, it will be clearly seen that
the triple time at (c), in the following’ example is derived from the measure 2 at
(b); while that at (d) is derived from an original grouping of three notes of equal
value. The accent of the former measure of time admits of no doubt, while that
of the latter is equivocal. ;
Bs (3) ac. ac. ac. ac.
i ae — Ez f | | — E: +
te? bh—} oe E t a a a t tH
ar “hed. i 1 1 r =z qe 1g
Ex. 299.
\ es (c) ac. ac. : ac. ac.
fea om RoR ao a f } t tt a =e 1 +H
jn f t t oe oe s J. ie ks nay
Ly ¥ f i. t {— L L e Ts, mil
HaAyDN.
st ,
(2)
Mozart. s ,
If in a bar of 2, one half its value be added after each note, « new measure of
time will again be produced, called compound common time, marked thus: oe an
ac.
p > 2 = [ FE. f : e
3= Ff = |
yo-— : F Hi
ac.
ac. a. ac. ac.
o—e— —~ o—e—P.
Be 308 —— = pee fee
As this division of time arises out of the measure of 2, it ought consequently
to have but one accent, and we shall call it short compound common time.
When two bars of triple time, arising out of the measure of 2, are united, long
compound common time will be produced.
| .
Ex. me
As this time arises out of the measure of 4, each bar must of course have but
two accentuations, as in Ex, 296. This long compound common time, arising out
of 4, is sometimes mistaken for that arising from 2. The difference, however,
will be immediately perceived on comparing the short compound common time at
(b), with the long at (c)* in the following example: —
* See also Ex. 309.
242 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
is
e
8
Le
f :
(TH
1 y
H he
Lt
TTT.
Ee
ac.
Age ig gi — ac ac 2
[;-—-e—e— @-e—@-f
= oft fe fee fates TH
‘al 258 =. rea]
a __2e: ag. ~o- ¢. ac. ac. oe
Vo) ae T. [ wd - EE pas
(fé at t at = t TH
t ;. et. iat a t InIT
J. Jt J. iG
. ac. e
= sae]
i t TH
+ Lt i
mail
mn AC. 2
r 3 ry +i]
| ENS 7 t t 0
i t jt +H
f i
By adding the bars of short : together, we produce 2. and as this measure of
time arises from ra it follows that two accents must take place in each bar.
ac.
ac. a fo: ac. ac. ig
a =) y i 1 =. mS +
eee ae + — ++ t + + t { q
1.
a had. x T al:
i Ac as Pa @. Ac ac. rs
Ex. 363. ae + e ft t f oe = i t +7
SY 4 ot aH
Ac ai a oo. Ac. ac.
2 ae r 2 + Res 1 r Yr 3 T
4): i =o it. - ie — an t + C i b +H
By adding one half of its value to each note of 3 in a bar, compound triple
time» By is produced.
ac.
aes os Ss
1 Se eat rs Th
1s t Ae t Ty
[ - Ry
a ial. j ma AL
ac. Bx ac eo
Ex. 304. BR i ct f HH]
ae = ta a0
ac.
_ ac. 2 oa 2@ a2"
foe eee et eRe a
chia aetaant acini dent etercteiyaeeanaeney ET
Whether the accent is to fall on the jirst part of the bar, or to be equally
divided, will, of course, depend on the original measure of time from which this
compound time is derived.
The following example (305) will exhibit, in a still stronger point of view, the
variety of effects which may be produced by merely altering the rhythmical form
of asimple melody. In this it will be perceived that, without deviating from the
original progression of the notes, all the subsequent variety of effects has been
produced by either changing the measure of time; by shortening or lengthening
the value of some of the notes; by employing dots, rests, etc., etc. As one
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 243
example often tends more to elucidate a subject than pages of explanation, the
following may serve asa slight specimen of the importance of"*rhythm; and to
show how much it influences the effect of a musical composition, a description has
been attempted of the various feelings and passions supposed to be portrayed by
the different alterations of the rhythmical form of the melody. Rhythm, indeed,
may be considered as the soul of music,’and demands our utmost attention.
Ex. 305.
fp: oe 2 i ae * _@
INANIMATE. [C5 td
ev
Moderato.
INDOLENT Es o
SLUGGISH. een = = ee ee ee ||
Lanouip. a = a ee tH
OLE EE Oss:
sO! wet ~"o-2__2 * “go 9.
A LITTLE MORE Fe eae faa ee OR Reet
ANIMATED. CE& ~ Et ay ol | iH
Allegro moderato. os
Q >. p22 > ea o_2 oe — ae? =
_=— f a c e eh —an
Bxcirement. [@egeh-Papoechne oP 0 o- tet ene ee pet eal
ae cw Ew id . i ti
Allegro con spirto. ‘
PAssIOoN. eng ane -e-F —:_4,-@-@__@___, i =a
TURBULENCE. =F Saal a ee —
IMPETUOSITY. & if
Allegro agitato.
a? ae oe a
VEXATION AND <— wet Ae ae ate apes eae +H
ANGER. 2 er Se ———FH
Asitato. ea ee de ee Bon cag 7a
FEAR. ahaa va be Stages < fe Seo
TREMBLING. Sp Eo I tH
Allegro.
— —— area =f en
AGITATION. £ —— = — coq
— t reat
i A t =< a. rink t Th
rin . .
Maestoso. : ere ee
RESOLUTION. cick epee eee erie rey
DETERMINATION.E =— +H
eo Staccato. of
Moderato,
COS ae aS Ye.
MEEKNESS. = a=
GENTLENESS. Aas See ===
InTREATING. CRP ra boast
od p —=azz sR —=z_
Moderato.
A Ee eat = cet = = —— rf Ti
I MULELE: by @-p ——F E Et -—t+—t E i
NSINUATING. Dp = t iE rt SS I +H
Andantino. fe a
Gracerut, [R-a=* — E- =e * ae Hl
: Ea pe -+| ptt t f——E — —— tH
dol. = =
Andantino,
SUAVITY.
244 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
PRIDE,
HAuUGHTINESS,
Allegretto. h - :
CONTENTMENT. 4 a= : ta
p dol, == —== =
Scherzando.. e Sen at ae ace z
INFANTINE
PLAYFULNESS.
On the Construction of Periods, or Musical Phrases.
In the preceding examples it has been shown that, by dividing a succession
of notes into certain portions, bars are produced. Proceeding thus with a succes-
sion of bars, we shall produce musical periods, or phrases. A union of several of
these periods forms a composition. a ue most natural measure of time arises
out of an even number of bars, viz., a 43 4 * those periods which consist of 2, 4, 8,
10, or any even number of bars, are the most natural and pleasing; we shall there-
fore call them regular periods. The conclusion of a period, in music, is similar in
effect to a full stop in language; every period should therefore end with a
cadence.
The following example is a period consisting of four bars, including the final
cadence: —
to. >| 7
he Modera 0. bees 1 J =—_, he ‘
Ss , = os @. 1 nasi J.
As at the close of this period the ear is brought to a state of perfect rest by the
final cadence, we shall call it a ‘‘ perfect period.”
It is not absolutely necessary that all periods should end in the same key in
which they a ees
| ea 4
2 —s a | = I. Sd x t : i
Ex. “I ie me =
ae ae ee ‘a z ae jo :
Tr
gs 7b q—t t f=
oe gis cg ep Roretpeae zat
Zs AS
SS =
(@) «>, a as Spo : : : &e,
ae Gonee r 2 @ oe se. ga — 2 eo =
aS t = a f = ———_—
v
We often find that two periods in immediate succession are constructed, so
that the last bar of the one immediately preceding is also the jirst bar of the one
succeeding.
Although the interweaving of periods in this manner is sometimes very effec-
tive, it can only be considered as a license, and ought not to be indulged in too
frequently.
When the expected final close of a period is interrupted by either an imper-
fect, or any of the false cadences, we shall call it ‘‘ an irregular period.”
How to Construct Melodies.
The pupil may now construct melodies himself, by proceeding thus: — Having
determined on the key and the time in which he intends to write (the former of
which we shall suppose to be the key of C major, and the latter, short common
time, Ads let him divide the staff into eight bars; on the first and last of which let
him place the tonic, and on the fourth bar the dominant. This simple arrange-
ment may be considered as the first sketch or outline of a whole period, divided
in the middle by the half period.
* Ending of the first period and commencement of the geeencs
250 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
1 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7.
Ex. 322. Fee =
8
E
a Half Period. ; =
+
=1
C
5 va
ror
T
I
Fe
c
rH
Whole Period.
The unoccupied bars may now be filled up with different fundamental basses,
as in the following example: —
1, 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8.
Cage = J. T. a. RE A oh J. I
1: 1 7 a ay ea } 1 gt}
a. oat 1. —. 1 |. fad 1. 1 1 = +
i J. 1. J. Z: ak IT TH
ZS Ss
Ex. 323.
\ nigh | a 4 + “4 = + Hh
We J a i 1 1. 1. y: i
a" ak ot. ok oak 1 a To
ze Half Period. =
Whole Period.
The pupil is here supposed to havé chosen the dominant for the second bar,
and the tonic for the third, thus arriving at the half period by progression; from
hence he sets out again with the tonic, succeeded by the subdominant and domi-
nant. Having now selected his fundamental basses, let him extract from these
his inverted basses, which will produce a melody in the bass.*
‘ i. rf. ob ‘ 1
‘| i 22 ee a
” Ex. 324.
Th
mt
ro
Preis
Hb
a Hal Peicl es -
Whole Period.
From these inverted basses, or bass melody, must be extracted a counter-
melody for the soprano, or treble.t
ee ee
ie | tp + = -&2—F — FF. 5
) « i 4 oe es —
Ex. 325. / |@zp— Je ae ef
£ e- rE T
i Wa { T
£ [ & ae 3
‘B- I = 2 t a C6
Half Period. ~
Whole Period.
mo
rH
—
To which let him now write the alto and tenor, and he will have a simple
melody harmonized in four parts, to which may be added, if necessary, disso-
nances and passing notes, according to the instructions already given from page
72 to 174.
* The pupil will be greatly assisted in selecting his inverted basses by again perusing what
has been said upon that subject, commencing at page 103. + See Ex. 206.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 251
s_ 3 be 4 6 i sl 4 a
> =. aa a. f eat eo! [ Steel
Ex. 326. | a = eS Ee Eee ea
e
Ia $oo7 br Ff § §
o f ui rc tne £ [ [ In
a —— — = E EH
= Half Period. = ioe
Whole Period.
Although the above specimen is, for the sake of simplicity, constructed in
common time, ? 2, yet, that it may be changed with very good effect into any other
measure is evident, according to the principles laid down from Ex. 293 to 304.
In the following example, the same melody has been altered into short com-
pound common time, oo No change in the harmony has taken place (except that
of its being extended), as will be seen by examining the fundamental and inverted
basses.
py et os \t | | _N | 4 fen en ny 4 Jo a }—— |
we o. fe—e_y: =a, Jey, eee 9 = —
eo — ——— = bs ‘o- ote. —
1ST TS { I oo a |
{ N
2 — ie ne il all
= ete 28 —te= Fee> =e
Ex. 327. ——— RS Seapets ete
v v 6 q $ 6 C vr § R 4
EG E £ = —
= E Fe = —4
ta Half Period Whole «
| Rosy eS ys |
bes ay = 7 tal as t TH
2 #0 te Oe
lr rey erie |
a oe ee cal
ee y 3 f=. eo ee +H
ee
g 7 4 ¥
AN
Trt]
TTT]
BeEH
Period.
in the following example the original melody (Ex. 326), is harmonized in the
minor mode. Dissonances are added, with passing and auxiliary notes, and the
harmony is extended. At (a) the second inversion has been chosen instead of the
fundamental bass.
*see Ex. 300. + Accented passing note, see Ex. 225 (c).
252 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION,
Se ee
rea Ee b | : SSS eee cu!
Andante. oO i ad
oa! t ! i
Ct eee = 4, “o _ tated
Ex. 328.4 S267 eo f = f E = = = =e 2
"4 tS r tg ts
LE = |
Half Period.
th
LLity
i fa
Whole Period.
pb + = = a et -S fpf oy t —
( ae ae ae ee ee ee = =i
ee oo a or a a a
———_——————
ee i = ft ra & Bf ie Set. - t Ee
g 3 br 6 g 8 6 g 7 ‘oe
ov
- a
The same melody as in the preceding example is written for the pianoforte,
in the style of variations.
rinf.
Ex. 329.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 253
In the second bar of the following example, a slight alteration has been made
in the inverted bass, by which the soprano is affected. The passing and auxiliary
notes are here introduced chiefly in the bass. The pupil is recommended to com-
pare the simple inverted bass (at a) with the florid one (at b), either of which may
be used.
Andante esp.
Ex. 330.
S Half Period.
Whole Period
=— = — Sal
a
o i; -~o-
Ce. f=. Ft i> 7A
if t oe: oi — HH
Ee td
E m5 ra
E f mt
C Tw ah
t ig oo
The ewe example exhibits the former melody, written in long common
time: —
aModerato, _s Sal —s
Ex, 331.
T
t
Half Period.
The melody of example 328, is, in the following example, divided and dis-
persed between all the parts, showing how imitation may be thus effected, without
any alteration whatever in the original fundamental harmony.
* See Ex. 296.
254 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
From 1 to 4, the melody appears in the 2nd violin;* at 5 and 6, in the tenor;
at 7, in the 2nd violin; and at 8, 9, and 10, in the 1st violin. The two first bars of
the melody (as they appear in the 2nd violin), are imitated by the bass in bars
3 and 4,
The student is requested to examine this specimen with care and attention, as
he will find it not only improving, but very interesting.
Ex. 332. Andante esp.
— oN
23h Ds o-6-@6 4 ce. Sey ar
1st Violin Ab et Et eee
or Soprano. 1: t —— a e 4
eat SS
nn, os
and Violin ph) ——~ Pes =e ag = eae 1
or Soprano. Gee See
1 ened
a reas?
Tenoror ||@eb-get 3 = ao ad
bo T r 7 4
Alto. By t - E 4
i 2 tee Se to
Violoncello ele — = rt ee [ =
or Bass. 5 =f F E 1
. wae, i 85 c aah
1 ae as
4 Qs 8
3 i = f a =
Fund, | (2b ge F E E
Bass. Dp 0 i Cre a
1 2 3. 4
be E E 4
\ z £ £
cm
u
ie Half Period.
Whole Period.
a
* The above example, it will be perceived, is arranged for two violins, tenor and violon-
cello; the student will, however, observe that this arrangement does notin the least affect the
harmony, which may be performed by two sopranos, tenor and bass.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 255
It is presumed that the pupil, by this time, will have formed a tolerably just
idea how a period may be constructed, and when once constructed, how variety
may subsequently be produced, by either altering the inverted basses, employing
different passing and anxiliary notes, dissonances, etc., and lastly, by changing
the rhythm, or measure of time, in which the melody was originally written.
Let him recollect. that all the different effects which have been produced during
the last nine examples. have arisen solely out of the sketch or outline in Ex. 323, and
that no other fundamental basses, or inversions, have been employed during that time,
but those found in Ex. 325;* and when he also reflects that many other bass melo-
dies may yet be extracted from the same fundamental basses, and that these
melodies again will produce correspondent melodies in the soprano and inner
parts,—he will easily perceive that, in the preceding examples (however simple the
original materials), the subject is very far from being exhausted, and that much.
much more may yet be done with it. This fact ought to stimulate the pupil to
exert his own ingenuity in discovering other bass melodies from the same funda-
mental basses; and should he in the beginning find some trifling difficulty in suc-
ceeding according to his wishes, a very little practice will convince him that this
difficulty exists more in imagination than in reality,
If. then, so much variety can be produced from the simple materials exhibited in
Hx. 323, what may not be produced when the first outline (Ex. 322), is filled up with
different progressions of fundamental basses.
The following example exhibits at one view a variety of specimens of filling
ap the original outline with different fundamental basses and inversions.
At II, we arrive at a half period of modulation, from which we proceed by
a modulation to C, and from thence to D minor.
N.B. Aand D, in bars 1 and 2, are modified basses.
At III, a half period by modulation; preceded in the second bar by a modula-
tion to the relative minor.
At IV, a ha. period by modulation; preceded by a false cadence at bar 3.
At V, a half period by progression; after which a modulation to the relative
minor takes place.
At VI, a half period by modulation; this modulation has previously been
effected at bar 2.
VII, needs no explanation.
* Except in one single instance, where the second inversion 1s chosen instead of the funda
mental bass, and which is scarcely worth noticing.
256 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
Ex. 333. i te
4
vii.
Vi.
IV.
Il.
I.
Half Period.
Whole Period.
Al
\s)
The pupil may take any of the above bass melodies, and proceed as already
shown in the preceding example.
In the following example (334) the dominant of the relative minor has been
selected to conclude the half period. AtI, we arrive there by progression; a mod-
ulation to the tonic of the relative minor having previously taken place in the
second bar. At II, we arrive at the half period by modulation.
fe Us
Ex. 334. § ges ae = 6 6 br 4
. Ee T cade js ioe T T TT
0, (3 ee ee
a = ae - = = >
s 2c ee $ gz 4 § % § 7
I we —E—F ft — P= a
SS ee ae ee eS ma
-
fi T- Tr: TE T TC C Th
Ss F f PQ ! th
Ree Half Period. =
Whole Period.
~~ =)
Here follows an example where the half period ends with the relative minor
of the subdominant.
* See Ex. 265 (a).
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 257
4 og he, j «br 6 7
eee ee Se eee
I eke = =a - came = eae = + eH J.
Ex. 335.
E : —
+ z 4 (——F
Half Period. wr -
Whole Period.
In the following sketch the half period ends with the relative minor :—
= i = cab. T i T p= | SEE EE i= ™
_ SSS SS SS
Ex. 335}.
jee A = ; z A
= Half Period. 7 ‘er
Whole Period.
Heretofore, our sketches have consisted of one period or part only; the fol-
lowing example exhibits such as consist of two parts.
In sketching outlines of the first period, it will be perceived that nothing
decisive has been settled with respect to the key in which the half period is to
end; that arrangement shall hereafter be left to the judgment and taste of the
pupil himself; for the present we shall only point out how he may proceed on
such occasions.
Ex. 336. f * (a) ty i
= 6 x s— 2 _ 8 ‘ § +
3 Se eee eee
(Ee Se SS aa
iL oi 4. e243 9 em 3 : 4
z | Eee | SS —
a &. te ot : 1 |
2 bows = f a § Ee —— | | S | t = Sse iE
cz | == | — EF +t at es HE
(4)
3 4 Sa ————
1. a J. a. ta eS.
Half Period.
First whole Period or Part.
4 6 4 = 3 as + oo 6 sd
=e _——— |
= eS SS =
a t v 4 T
= z eub Sa g + ps. Mad ——
2 | a ell
Qa
t
2\ bec ete ah eh a
Q = ete SS FS
: = 7
2g f E f E E E E =H
f t Ee E E tC bo HH
a Half Period. Ss w
Second whole Period or Part.
® Ex, 264. + Deceptive Modulation, Ex. 259. ¢ Ex. 261. § Deceptive Modulation, Ex. 257.
258 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
At (a) we have modulated to the relative minor.
At (b) ——_——————— to the dominant of the relative minor.
At (c) ———_———————- to the dominant of the original key;
which latter will produce rather a monotonous effect, as the same modulation
occurs again in the eighth bar.
In the second pari, the half period is made to fall upon the dominant of the
original key; this arrangement became absolutely necessary in consequence of the
several modulations which were introduced after the first half period, and by
which the ear was imperceptibly led away from the original key. The dominant,
however, in the 12th bar, is celeculated to recall to our recollection the origina!
key; and thus our ear is gradually prepared for its re-introduction.
Hitherto our periods have consisted of eight bars only; but by the introduc-
tion of the false cadence at (a), and the irregular false cadence at (b), the final
close on the eighth bar has been avoided, by which these periods are lengthened
to ten bars.
=e ens! ts a
re. Loz ir Tabs | a
soidlon t t
[- = | c 4
6 7 fi ts $ se alee de 7
Ex, 337. et =— goapa ee esas fae FY Sea med
ep e re oe ery
tr.
lee 4 : —
m= Half Period.
Whole Period.
12 4, be § 8
a a { tH 7H
ee ae =a | == =H
7 | (2) 5
a ee: ee i 9 a8 i j
1c: = { TI + { — fo { 1 oe +H
Bt zs 2 o sv gee oe SEE —-—— tH
_) (a) T T
. oe
% | | | 5; i
The following questions very naturally present themselves at this time, viz.:
suppose I commence ina certain key, in what key shall I conclude my first period and
commence my second, etc. ?—In answer to these questions, we shall proceed to
give the following suggestions as general rules. Let us suppose that the melody
is to consist of sixteen bars, divided into two parts of eight bars each:
If the key is C major, we can end the first part —
First: In the tonic, C. Second: In the dominant, G. Third: In the relative minor, A
Fourth: In the dominant of the relative minor, E.
Should the key be minor (suppose C minor) we can end the first part —
First: In the tonic, C. Second: In the dominant, G. Third: In G minor (the 5th of the
original key). Fourth: In the relative major of the original key. E-flat.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 259
FIRST CASE.
Then the half period may end
1st. With the dominant by modulation ... G.
2nd. “ “ subdominant by modulation . F.
Suppose the key is major, and the first part | 37a. “ “ relative minor of the
ends in the tonic? subdominant, D.
4th. “ “ relative minor of the
original key, A.
The first part having been thus disposed of, the second part may commence with
The half period may end
The dominant, G, at once, or with a mod- J 1st. Withthe relative ....... . A,
ulation to it. 2nd. Dominant of the relative minor, E major.
8rd. Dominant of the original key,.. G.
Again:
The second part may commence with the
dominant of the relative minor (E major.) 1st. With the relative minor......... A.
| Tn that case the half period may end
2nd. Dominant of the original key..... G.
Again:
dominant of the relative minor of the subdomt- period himself.
The second part may commence with the \ Here let the pupil choose the key of the half
nant, A major.
SECOND CASE.
The half period may end
1st. In the dominant, proceeding there by
progression.
2nd. In the relative minor.
When the first part ends in the dominant, G.
The first part having been thus disposed of, the second may commence
1st. With the dominant, G. Here let the pupil again choose the key of
2nd. With a modulation to the relative minor. the half period himself.
THIRD CASE.
The half period may end
1st. With the dominant, G: proceeding there
When the first part ends with the relative J either py progression or modulation,
minor. 2nd. With the subdominant, F.
3rd. With the dominant, G.
The second part may commence
1st. With the relative minor, A. 5 ‘
2nd. With a modulation to the subdominant. a a saan Ee caies the Fak
Pgs the dominant of the relative minor, of the pupil directs.
A melody which originally consists of only eight bars may be extended to 10,
12, 16, or a greater number, by repeating some sections of 2, 4, 6, or any other even
number of bars.
The following example is a melody consisting of eight bars. At (b) it is
extended to ten, by twice repeating the last crotchet of the fourth bar with the
three crotchets immediatcly following. At (c) the same melody is extended to
sixteen bars, by repeating the last six bars found at (b).
260 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
All these additional bars, however, are not intended to be introduced into the
soprano only; some of them are also to appear alternately in the alto, tenor, or
bass; and as these parts will, in consequence, be obliged to interchange places,
a series of imitations will be produced.
In order to show the practical utility of this extension, and how these reiter-
ated sections (which in the last example occasioned rather a monotonous effect)
are here employed to produce imitations, let us harmonize the preceding melody
in four parts.
Andante. tr [om |
tr
=
Ra
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 261
. b. | | Ce.
Dh be be a
ee ee eee ee
(| oe lee eee ea
tr i =
pits —— SS =
pe 2 ee ete eS |
5) a | “al
a
ee ft ter, a
Sas > cr f f f — f — T a
5. i IT it 1 Tor Pas
et £ aH
12. 13. 14. 15 16.
Cae, tn =
t TH: ws T z
The letters a, b, c, have been added to the soprano, alto, and bass, in order
that the interchanging of the parts in the above example, by which the imita-
tions are effected, may be more easily perceived.
At 5, the section for imitation (marked a) appears in the soprano as originally
written. At6,it is imitated by the alto an octave lower; and at 7, by the bass.
While the alto and bass thus successively imitate the soprano, the latter, at the
same time, at 6, imitates the bass (b), and then the alto (c).
At 7, the tenor also partially imitates the bass (b). From 10 to 16, the parts
continue to imitate each other with still more variety; for the sections in the
soprano and bass, at 5, appear at 11 in the tenor and bass, and are imitated at 12 by
the soprano and alto. And while at 13 the sections a, b, appear once more in the
bass and tenor (but inverted),* the soprano at the same time again imitates the alto
(c) an octave higher. Observe also that the melody in the éenor, from 7 to 10 inclu-
sive, has, at 13, been transferred to the alto.
It will be observed that hitherto the imitation has always commenced upon
the same measure of the bar as the subject itself; in the following example,
however, the case is different; for, although the subjects for imitation (which here
appear in the soprano and alto) do commence on the second crotchet of the unac-
cented part of the bar, as in the preceding example, yet they are not answered
by the tenor and bass on the same measure, as heretofore, but on the second
crotchet of the accented part of the bar. Thus a mixed rhythm is introduced, by
which a new and still more striking effect is produced.
im 1 { Eat r
tr
é.
[ a T ffs f BEET
i FT c 1: Ee J t i |. oa_| 1)
Se — 1 1. Ze i aa + i f - =" Lt
=e aie ———_ Sees aoe
Ex. 340. ; r eos
L yee ee be |
a. | “5
+ —— = {ee
= b= fe Se ot
. s- Sey,
* By which the two original parts in bar 5 proceed by what is called “ double counterpoint ”
in the octave. See Ex. 137.
262 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
The parts which appear in the soprano and alto, at I, are here transferred to
the tenor and bass, by which a mutual interchange of all the parts is effected.
a. tr
=a
ae Se
_
esate
—
The alto and tenor, at II, have here interchanged places; the former being
written an octave lower, and the latter an octave higher. The soprano and bass
remain unchanged.
Pra» aN
—-. = ee =
= = =e Tepe eto tH
ge eek
tr —— Ts
i a
athe th eee nH
[etek Jt ee a
f T f L > Ty
1. cn f {T rr
fb f [ -. ah
Le 5 = c Li
a. ; a
— Sa FS Po fe Fa
f [ cs f + G + 1 a
ae Lg: a. { t wt tA ied. ft Ces ao
tr —
There is not perhaps a more fertile subject, and one which might be more
dilated upon than that upon which we have just been treating. If, however, the
student possesses a little perseverence and industry, it will be found that enough
has been said to enable him to pursue his object with pleasure and benefit.
In the meantime he is requested tou examine and compare the preceding speci-
mens with care and attention (commencing from Ex. 338); and here he will see
how few materials* are sometimes requisite to enable us, by a little ingenuity, to
produce variety and pleasing effects. This truth will be still more illustrated and
confirmed when we commence analyzing the compositions of some of our best
and most classical authors, which we shall do presently; preparatory to this, it
will be necessary to give a few hints with respect to what is called the strict and
free styles of writing..
In the truly strict style, four sorts of notes only (that is, with respect to their
duration) are allowed; for example: if the longest be a semibreve, then the
shortest will be a quaver, the latter of which can be employed only as a passing
note.
* From these few notes are derived all the foregoing imitations and effects:—
See Example 338, bar 5.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 263
All dissonances, in which is included the fundamental 7th, require to be pre-
pared upon the unaccented, and struck upon the accented part of the bar. No
octaves or fifths on the accented part of a bar as exhibited in Ex 285 (k), are per-
mitted, nor may they be thus prevented. The note of preparation must not be of
less duration than the dissonance; and to add still more to the seriousness of
the style, these dissonances must be suspensions.* Consecutive major thirds,
whether proceeding diatonically, or by skips, as well as all extraneous modula-
tions, or progressions,t are prohibited.
In the following example at (1) the note C in the alto is succeeded immedi-
ately by C-sharp in the inverted bass; this is called ‘‘a false relation between two
parts,” and is forbidden. A false relation is exhibited at (2) between G in the
tenor, and G-sharp in the bass; and at (3) between the soprano and inverted bass.
1. 2. es 3 as
e 4 3 SS Z
——— = — Se ey
aed = a =
Ex. 341. *. a %
\ 2 ee ee pe H
These are a few of the leading features characterizing the truly strict style;
which style of writing, however, is now generally considered as antiquated, and
almost entirely laid aside.
In the free style many licenses are permitted which would be quite inadmis-
sible in the style just described. For instance: dissonances may be introduced
upon the accented or unaccented part of the bar, prepared or unprepared.
These dissonances, when introduced thus, are sometimes written as at (a) but
performed as at (b), and are called appoggiaturas.
a +, 1. 2 oO | £ Bie ehh i
ate: | Cpe eee aay oes?
7 (zeae eeeg Sala
Ex.
eee
toffee eH
It has already been explained that dissonances should resolve upon the same
fundamental bass on which they are heard.**
* From these few notes are derived all the foregoing imitations and effects.
— a
= =
See Example 338, bar 5.
+ Progressions cf sequences are therefore particularly suited to the strict style. See Ex.
Wi to 284. + See examples 69, 70. «* Page 77.
264 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
In the free style, however, dissonances, instead of resolving upon the same
bass, may resoive upon another bass, provided that the intervals of the resolved
discords form either the common chord, fundamental 7th, or 9th, with that bass;
so that, in point of fact, the bass on which the dissonance should have resolved is
altogether omitted, and another substituted. This will be better understood if
we peruse the following example, where, at I, the dissonances resolve as usual,
and at II, they have been resolved upon a new bass. This may be called a
licensed resolution of dissonances, and employed with great effect on various
occasions.
+
——— as
pee eee
II.
ANALYZATION.
It is both instructive and amusing to trace the gradual and almost imper-
ceptible change which has taken place in the compositions of eminent writers
since the time of Corelli to the present; and how, with nearly the same materials,
one author has constructed works so very different, with regard to their general
style and effect, from that of others, that one would scarcely believe they had
emanated from the same source. With the peculiarities. and excellencies of the
works of these great masters, then, the student should make himself acquainted;
and as this can only be accomplished by analyzing them,* we shall detail the
method to be pursued on this occasion; and in order that we may preserve regu-
larity and method in this branch of the study, let us divide our materials into the
following parts:—
The Key, whether major or minor.
The Time.
Fundamental Basses. ,
Modulation and Fundamental 7ths.
Dissonances,
Passing Notes, Auxiliary Notes, and Secondary Harmony.
Periods.
Sections and Imitation.
Each of these several parts shall be explained as we proceed.
* The pupii will be much assisted in this study by perusing the work called “ Practical and
Theoretical Studies,” being a selection from the compositions of Corelli, Handel, Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven, Clementi, etc., arranged for the pianoforte, and analyzed by the author of this work,
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION, 268
The composition which has been selected for analyzation is the first concerta
of Corelli, and commences in the key of D major.
Q. How do we know that it is that key?
A. Because D major has two sharrs.
Q. But as the relative minor B requires also two sharps, might it not be the
latter?
A. No; because the first chord then should have been B minor, being the
key chord;* besides, between the 7th and 8th of the scale, a semitone must be
found. Had the key been B minor, the note A-natural being the 7th of the scale
of that key, could not have been admitted: it must have been A-sharp.t This
not being the case, the key is decidedly D major.
The time is long common time.
Let as now proceed to find the fundamental basses, that the ground upon
which the superstructure of the present work rests may be clearly established.
1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6.
Largo.
Ist Violin.
end Violin.
a.
Bass.
Fund.
Bass.
* See Ex. 160. ¢ See Ex. 144, 1 See Ex. 296,
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
266
19.
18,
1%.
16.
IT] ry TTT fT TN
Te q HL ow | p
cre irre fase rie
TE
Te ii won| FTT@ ote
Tie a) lite Le Lhe
ff ors x
7 mie OH «| Jal!
f » Te b {I a
a 1 & a i ont |) | fo
) D
ne |r| qi
re | Ate =n
| a i? cl] oot Le
LLL \ Li La
, ‘
tare 4
Te Ife gy) MLL =
. wr J l a | \ ost] | Hd
ila
" wh
; i | WLI x =
i re «4 PE "1 | HY
" i ety
1 OE a)
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 267
33, 34. 35. 86. 37. = 88,39. 40.
ON
4, 48, 49, 50. 51. 52.
268 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
54, 55. 56. 57.
Adagio. Allegro,
| ees,
The composition commences with the common chord of D; D, therefore, is
the fundamental bass, which we place under the chord.
N.B. The notes E and G in the first and second violins are accented passing
notes*,
If we examine the notes of the four parts (2), we find that they collectively
produce the chord of A: the note A, therefore, we place as fundamental bass under
that chord. ,
C, in the bass, being the 3rd of the chord, consequently produces the first
inversion; viz., the chord of the 6th.
N.5. The note B, in the first violin, is an accented passing note.
At (3) the chord B minor arises from a modified basst on the first of the scale,
which is here used fundamentallyt. The second chord at (3), we find to be the
chord of the fundamental 7th, to E. The 7th is in the first violin; the 5th, in the
second violin; the 8th in the tenor; and the 3rd, in the bass, producing the chord
of the £; the note E, therefore, as fundamental bass, is likewise placed under the
harmony, as exhibited in the example.
N.B. The note A, in the bass, is an unaccented passing note. E, in the same
part, as well as E and B in the first violin, are notes arising out of secondary
harmony§. :
Continuing thus to proceed upon the same principle, D will be the fundamen-
tal bass at (5), E the fundamental bass at (7), and F-sharp at (9).
The inverted bass E, at (10), arises from a modified bass, and is an imperfect
common chord||. From 29 to 35, the harmony arises out of a progression of
sequences of 5 69. That they are sequences may be inferred from the uninter-
rupted and regular ascending progression of the 1st and 2nd violins by imitation.
N.B. The notes G and B in the bass (23), are unaccented auxiliary notes, and
C. at (24), an accented auxiliary note.
The harmony from 49 to 52, arises from a progression of sequences of 7ths;
this may be proved by the regular and uniform ascending 4ths, and descending
5ths of the fundamental bass, which progression, when divested of its auxiliary
notes will appear thus**: Z
1 eo 7 1
et fF
y
C E
* See:Ex. 221. +See Ex.268. +See remarks on modified basses, “thirdly,” page 223,
§ See Ex. 237. | See Ex. 269, also page 223 “secondly.” qSee Ex. 285
** See Ex. 273 (e).
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 269
Now, if we add the harmony which the progression of these fundamental basses
will admit of (a), and then compare that harmony with the 1st and 2nd violins in
the original, the similarity will immediately appear; for it is only necessary to
suppose that the quaver rest in the first violin stands in place of the 7th, and that
this 7th previous to its resolution (according to secondary harmonies), has pro-
ceeded to a part of its chord (b), and the legitimacy of the fundamental basses and
sequences from 48 to 52 is established. See also example 242.
The student may now continue to find the fundamental basses as already
shown, and place them under the harmony, as exhibited in the example.
Let us now proceed to examine the modulations which have been introduced.
The movement commences in the key of D, in which it continues until (3),
when a modulation to the dominant takes place, indicated by G-sharp in the
inverted bass, which ascends half a tone to (a)*, E being a note of secondary har-
mony.
At 5, a modulation to D, which is indicated by G-natural in the inverted basst
at 4. At6, a modulation to Gis indicated by C-natural in the first violin. At 8,2
modulation to A, and at 10, to the relative minor, both of which are indicated by
the inverted bass. From 12 to 17, various modulations have been introduced,
which require no further explanation, as the student will easily discover them
himself,
Dissonances. t
As the fundamental bass from 3 to 4, 5 to 6, 7 to 8, &c., ascends by 4ths, or
falls by 5ths, we are enabled to introduce the dissonances of the 9th or 4th.
Q. What dissonance has the composer employed? A. The 9th.
Q. How, and where is it prepared? A. It is prepared at 3 by the 5th in the
second violin, where it resolves into the octave.
A question naturally presents itself here: Why did not the composer intro-
duce the 9th and 4th alternately, as the progression of the fundamental bass admit
ted of both these dissonances? — thus:
oe es ay
At ——— S lo
Ky —t |
al t fe { et =
It would have obviated that monotony which must naturally arise by employ
ing the same dissonance so frequently and consecutively. °
© See Ex. 167. t+ See Ex.168. + See Ex.79, 85.
270 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
Or, by employing both dissonances together, thus:
It would certainly have produced more variety and interest. In that case,
however, the imitations which appear between the first and second violin, from 6
to 17, must necessarily have been omitted.
N.B. The process of examining the motion of the fundamental bass, as
regards the introduction of dissonances, may thus be continued to the end of the
composition.
That the composer should have figured the bass at 32 with the dissonance of
the 9th, without subsequently introducing that dissonance, may seem strange.
This seeming omission will be explained when we arrive at Imitation; at present,
we must consider the guaver rest in the second violin to stand in the place of the
dissonance, as pointed out by the small notes, and which has already been ex-
plained when treating on fundamental basses. The same occurrence takes place
at 33, 49, 50, 51, &e. At 33, the 9th has been prepared by the 8rd; at 34, by the 5th,
but resolved into the 3rd*, At 11, the fundamental bass having ascended a Stht,
the dissonances of the $ have been introduced.
Q. How and where have these dissonances been prepared?
A. The 4th has been prepared in the second violin by the 8th, and the 5th in
the first violin by the 8rd.
Periods.
From 1 to 4 comprises a half period by modulationf. From 5 to 6, 7 to 8, 9 to
10, are sections of modulations§. The period, consisting of six bars, concludes at
12 in the relative minor of the original key. From 13 to 20, are sections of modu-
lation similar to the preceding; from lv to 22a half period by modulation. Here,
in order to give more dignity and consequence to the half period, the author adds
an odd bar, by which it is made to contain five bars.
From 28 to 37, isa half period, divided into sections by modulation and pro-
gression. From 24 to 25, 26 to 27, are sections of modulation. From 30 to 31, 32 to
33, &c., are short sections by progressions, ending at 37 with a half period by pro
gression. From 39 to 42, a short period ending in F-sharp minor. From 48 to 48,
&c., sections of modulation; from thence to 53, sections by progression.
Imitation. |
The subject at 5 and 6, in the first violin, is repeated at'7, 8, 9, and 10, by the
same instrument each time a whole tone higherf. Instead of which, had 7, 8, been
written in the second violin, and 9, 10, in the tenor, it would have produced imita-
tion, and been less monotonous.
At 23, the first violin commences a short subject on the accented part of the
bar, which is imitated or answered by the second violin, on the unaccented part of
the bar, in the unison. This strict imitation continues uninterruptedly until we
arrive at 30, where the imitation, as far as rhythm is concerned, still continues; but
the intervals are different in their progression from those of the first violin. Here,
# See Ex. 169 (b). + See Ex. 85. +t See Ex. 308, 309. § See Ex. 310 (c).
{| See Ex. 232. A similar .progression of sequences, ascending whole tones, will be founé
' {n Handel’s Hallelujah Chorus, to the words “King of Kings.”
HAPMONY AND COMPOSITION. 271
that the imitation might be pursued in rythmical order, it became necessary to
suppress the dissonances at 32 and 33, of which mention has already been made*.
The imitation from 42 to 48, is similar to that already described from 23 to 34.
It may seem strange that the 3rd of the dominant in the first’ violin (at 41), in-
stead of proceeding to its 8th, should have ascended a 9th; but this was necessary,
in order that that part (viz., the 1st violin) might commence the subject of imita-
tion. It will be perceived that the third of the tonic chord of 42 has been omitted;
such omissions, however, are very frequently to be discovered in the works of
ancient composers, particularly when closing in minor keys.
The parts cross each other sometimes very unwarrantably: at 1 and 39, the
second violin and tenor, without any ostensible cause, appear above the first vio-
lin. Why has the author permitted the tenor to appear above the first violin at
59?—Had that part been written an octave lower, it would have been in its proper
situation. To prevent the consecutive 5ths in the resolution of the chord of the
diminished ‘th, between the second violin and tenor at 56, and between the first
violin and tenor at 58 (the 9th of the fundamental bass being in both cases above
the 5th), the author has caused the tenor to fall to the 5th of the following bass,
instead of the 8th. Had the dissonance of the 4th not been introduced, the 5th
might have ascended tv the 3rdf.
It will be perceived that the fundamental basses have, in the commencement,
been figured with ail the dissonances which their progressions weuld admit of.
The pupil is advised to figure the rest himself, and he will then see how much
more may be added to the harmony.
As music may be considered a language capable of portraying all the passions
and feelings of which the human mind is susceptible, and as a composition which
lays any claims to excellence ought to possess the power of awakening in us at
least some of those feelings, we shall proceed to make a few general remarks upon
the effect produced by the composition just analyzed, with reference to that
object.
The introduction, in its effect, is noble and majestic. The first violin performs
a melody portraying kindness and affability; the steady and measured pace of the
bass proclaims dignity and self-possession.
The second violin and tenor play, of course, mere subordinate parts; for whilst
the former appears humbly to echo the sentiments of his superior, the latter is
making exertions to attract notice by his little sections of dissonances. Thus the
introduction continues to proceed with a degree of seriousness verging on solem-
nity, until we arrive at 23; here, however, the scene changes; the allegro, which
now commences, is gay and playful; the second violins appear to mock the first
violin, whilst the bass, having as it were dismissed all state and formality, seems to
make amends for the restraint imposed upon himself, and gives way to playfulness
and good-humeur. This, when contrasted with its former solemnity and sobriety
of pace, appears truly comic.
The effect of the passage in the bass, as it continues to ascend, leads us to
imagine that, during its progress, it increases in velocity. The tenor, who during
four bars, had been a silent spectator, joins the party at 31, and thus they proceed
together in a manner calculated to portray a high feeling of joy and ecstasy, until
they arrive at the half period at 37. Here the parties appear to be brought, for an
instant, to a state of reflection; the adagio movement, preceded by the pause, cer-
tainly produces that effect upon the mind. This reflection, however, is not of long
duration; the former scenes of merriment and joy are resumed at 42, and continue,
without interruption, to 53.
* See page 270. +t Sce Ex. 146,
272 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
We shall now take, for our subject of analyzation, an adagio, selected from one
of Haydn's quartets.
It is an elegant and highly-finished composition; and, like all the productions
of this great master, contains abundant matter for the contemplation of the stu-
dent. Simplicity and variety are so happily blended, that we scarcely know which
to admire most. In order that the student may be better enabled to understand
the beauties and excellencies of this composition, we shall, preparatory to our
entering upon the particulars of each portion, first explain the general plan and
contrivance of the whole.
Adagio sostenuto.
4 Hayon.l . 8. 4, 5. 6.
ist Violin. (aE Ses F- E =}
Pa Se
_ Mez. voce.
on Viel. | i
Jv + wg. * SS ee ws SS
(ap
ait BS ee
ASSO. c eee ds ft C ¥, I =]
ron © = ee,
1 ee 1 — 8 2 of
aed
Fund. Bass. 4 a See eee t
staccato.
a
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 273
*19, 20.
te? « © @ ple...» a
atl] bh We
a
a
1 = =
} + ey Io. =], 1 4
Fo I bo + >
‘E t oe a cs: t oe =. j
rrrrceee
: —
es zi
3
— 5 is
[Ss a $
‘eto mare |
q { ]
1c + \~< t =
X a. Bit = 7
*See example 160; also 197, 198.
274 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
25. 26.
——— = = - —-
= ——— 2 =|
————
= j
— fee 3
te 5
es = :| 4
=
29. 30. 31.
275
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
38.
87.
=
eT
a
J
SS
gee
36.
ees
a
=
ts
88.
a
—|— gy te
--2=.
Fs
34,
= ——— $e
Sa
=
loco,
33.
T — J. { 1
+ int = T ae L —).
—te—— | 2
mez. voce.
=. J: 2.
+5 a fl t
and Violin,
(é
=
— |
z=
@.
Sa
|
lto.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
47,
276
48.
== =
2
oe.
alto.
53.
52.
51.
50.
7
—— J
a
ia cenit
=
eel
SS. Aba: —— *
—
ios
2
J__
é
and Violin.
HARMONY AND COMPOSITICN. 277
61. 62. 63.
It will be found to comprise three subjects: the first, a graceful cantabile move-
ment, contains a period of eight bars, divided by the half period at4. This subject,
with a little alteration, is repeated from 9, an octave higher, and ends with a
cadence at 16. Upon this last bar commences a series of sections by modulation»
on which is constructed, and afterwards continued, the second subject, commencing
with the bass at 16. This subject contains two bars, and is divided into two por-
tions; the second portion of which, 17, is given to the first violin. By this contri-
vance, a sort of conversation is maintained between these two parts as far as 20.
Here these parts interchange subjects, after, which the conversation ceases
at 22,
278 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
The first violin now proceeds alone, with passages which are constructed in
such a manner that we are still enabled to recognize, though but faintly, the sub.
ject of the bass, as well as that of the first violin*.
At 25, the third subject commences, and after various modulations, closes with
a cadence in the dominant of the original key at 33. Here the author, instead of
reiterating the first subject, most judiciously introduces one which, though bear-
ing (with respect to its rhythmical form) a strong resemblance to the first, is, in
fact, only calculated to recall it to our recollection. By this admirable contrivance,
all extraneous or new matter is excluded, and unity and variety are preserved; for,
as a mere repetition of the original subject in the dominant would have produced
monotony, so an entirely new subject would have had the effect of injuring the
simplicity of the whole. This subject continues to 40, where it closes witha
cadence.
Here the second subject is resumed by the bass and the first violin in the dom-
inant of the original key, and ends at 44, where a series of imitations in all the
parts commences, and is continued to 47. It will be observed that the passage
here selected by the composer for imitation does not contain any new matter; it is,
in fact, only the last half bar of the second subject at 43.
Thus the unity of the whole is preserved without any sacrifice of variety.
As the passages of the first and second violins, which follow the imitations
from 47 to 48, are written upon the dominant harmony of the original key, an ex-
pectation of the approach of that key is excited preparatory to its re-introduc-
tion, which takes place at 491; at the close of which the first portion of the second
subject is again resumed between the first violin and the bass, with this difference,
however, that the first violin commences that subject instead of the bass, which
now replies to it in the dominant.
At 55, the third subject, which continues for eleven bars, is again introduced,
with some alteration in its general construction; upon which follows once more,
and for the last time, the first subject.
A series of imitations, founded on the passage of the first violin at 22, com-
mences between the first violin, tenor, and bass, and thus continues until the whole
isconcluded. This may be considered as the general plan of the composition: let us
now enter more minutely into the examination of its various parts. The key is C
major. A false cadence occurs between. 2 and 3, after which a modulation to D
minor takes place, indicated by C-sharp} in the first violin§. At 3, follow two
sequences of 6ths, after which a modulation to the original key is effected. At 5,
the first bar of the subject is repeated, but differently harmonized; for that which
at 2 was only a progression to A minor, is here become a modulation|.
At 7, a modulation to F has taken place, after which we proceed, by an irreg-
ular cadence J, to the original key, and thus close a period of eight bars, the half
period of which is by progression.
From 9 to 12, the first half period is repeated, with nearly the same harmony
as the preceding. At 13, a modified bass on the fourth of the scale is employed
* The legitimacy of the suspension of the 3rd at 17,19, and 21, in the tenor, whilst the 3rd itself
appears in the first violin, is questionable. This oversight (if we may be allowed to use that term
when applied to the works of so great a composer) is corrected at 41 and 43.
t See bars 1 to 8. t See Ex. 167.
§ It may here appear that the fundamental 7th in the alto has ascended into the 5th, instead
of resolving into the 3rd; the author, however, does not in the present instance consider this chord
as that of the fundamental 7th, but,.the first inversion of the imperfect common chord, see Ex. 269
(a); the same occurrence will be found to take place frequently inthe works of this author, and
of others. | See Ex. 170. q See Ex. 264,
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 279
fundamentally*. Here a demonstration is made to modulate to D minor, which
modulation is, however, prevented by the false cadence at 14; a modulation to F is
then introduced, succeeded by the chord of the compounded sharp sixth, ee the
resolution of which is suspended, t and a final cadence once more closes the for-
“mer period. Upon the last bar (16) of this period the second subject commences
with the bass, founded on the following simple melody :—
; Bass. Viclin, be
which is made characteristic and interesting by the introduction of extended aux-
iliary notes at 16, and by the simple passing and auxiliary notes at 17. From 16, a
modulation takes place to G, and from thence to D minor; here the author pro-
ceeds, for the sake of variety, to the dominant of the last key, by progression; the
same occurrence takes place from 20 to 21, where the first violin and bass inter-
change subjects.
At 24, a modulation is effected to the original key; the note A, in the second
half of that bar, is a modified bass on the first of the scale, and G-sharp in the
second violin, a passing note}.
At 25, the third subject commences upon the chord of the dominant 7th, whilst
in the act of modulating to G. G-sharp at (27), in the first violin, is an ascending
dissonance, viz., a retardation of the 5th by the 4th§. At 28, a modulation toG
minor takes place, and at 29, to E-flat. In the same bar a modulation to G (the
dominant of the original key), commences with the compounded sharp sixth, #
$
the resolution of which is suspended from 80 to 32\|, and closes at 33 with a final
cadence. It may now be said that the composition is virtually finished; for that
which follows (if we except the first subject, altered as it appears from 33 to 40,)
is in substance a repetition, in various forms and imitations, of that which has
alrcady been noticed, and with which it is presumed the student is now suffi-
ciently acquainted. We shall, therefore, proceed, in conclusion, to make a few
general remarks on each of the three principal subjects, and endeavor to discover
the feelings which they are calculated to excite.
The melody, harmony, and modulation of the first subject from 1 to 8 is sooth-
ing and placid; it portrays the peaceful and happy state of a united family, gliding
along the stream of life without care or anxiety. This kind and affectionate feel-
ing is particularly observable in the first eight bars, when contrasted with the eight
bars which immediately follow; for the latter, being written an octave higher, ex-
hibit a slight degree of excitement, which is increased, from ‘13, by the rapid suc-
cession of modulations ending with the chord of the compounded sharp sixth, a
This excitement seems to increase as we proceed with the second subject from 16
to 24, Here it portrays a conversation between two persons at variance, whilst
the accompaniments of the second violin and tenor express anxiety. From 22, the
first violin seems triumphantly to proceed alone, having, as it were, subdued its
antagonist, the bass, which now joins in the accompaniment of the second violin
and tenor. Here (at 26) commences the third subject, which, even from its rhyth-
mical form alone, is calculated to portray agitation, fear, distress, anguish, palpi-
tation of the heart, and as it were a gasping for breath,
* See Ex. 270(0). +t See Ex. 237 (d)
+ See Ex. 227. § See Ex. 250. ) See Kx. 191.
280 HARMONY AND COMPOSITION.
At 28, where the modulation to E-flat commences, the mind seems to be gra4-
ually wrought up to the extreme of agony bordering on despair; at 30, it appears
to be relieved from those dreadful feelings, and gradually to resume its original
and peaceful state in the soothing and gentle strain of harmony which follows
at 33. , é
The preceding specimens of analyzation will suffice to show how the student
may proceed on similar occasions.
In conclusion, the author makes the few following observations, which he
hopes will be useful to him in his future progress:—
It frequently happens that although the learner sets out with the most deter-
mined resolution to study a work of science with care and attention, yet that
during his progress he unconciously accelerates his pace, and overlooks many of
those nice points of connection which are indispensable to the proper understanding
of the whole. This imprudent haste may often be traced to over-anxiety in the
pursuit of knowledge; to too much confidence in the student in his own quickness
of perception, or to natural impatience. But to whatever cause this error may be
attributed, the pupil cannot be too cautious in avoiding it. If he has been really
desirous of acquiring a perfect knowledge of the work before him, he has no doubt
exercised upon the rules as they progressively presented themselves to him; and if
he has done so, he must have observed,— ’
First: That from the commencement to the end they are so closely inter-
woven, and constitute collectively such a chain of causes and effects, that they
could not be studied in a desultory or disjointed manner.
Secondly: He must have perceived, as he proceeded thus step by step, new
and interesting matter continually "presenting itself to his attention, expanding
his views, and encouraging him to proceed.
Thirdly: That he himself has made discoveries, without even travelling out of
his way in search of them.
Should the learner have thus proceeded in his studies, and “made haste slowly,”
he is advised by all means to make an attempt at composition. All knowledge is
in progression, and itis only by degrees that excellence can be obtained. To
acquire facility in composition much practice is absolutely necessary.
Should it be said that genius and talents are requisite to make a composer, we
answer certainly: to make a great composer these gifts are indispensable; but they
are equally so to make a great poet, painter, or architect, &c. But shall none
compose, write poetry, paint, &c., but those who are thus gifted? No one will
pretend to say that those numerous composers who have lived from the earliest
time to the present day, have all been, or are, in possession of those peculiar gifts!
Shall we not build houses because we have not the genius and means to construct
palaces? Is it then absolutely necessary, in order to compose, that we possess the
genius and imagination of a Gluck, a Handel, a Mozart, or a Beethoven? Shall
none dare to write but those who can produce a grand sinfonia, serious opera, or
oratorio? May not pleasure as well as profit be derived from the composition of
songs, glees, sonatas, rondos, airs with variations, &c.? Letus but make abeginning.
This, however, it must be confessed, has hitherto been the great stumbling-block.
How shall I begin? How shall I set about it? These, it cannot be denied, are
very natural and reasonable questions. If the pupil, however, has carefully
studied ‘the construction of periods and melodies, the necessity of asking such
questions no longer exists; for what beginning can be more simple, or what path
* A German author says: “ Eine Theorie der Kunst ist Schénheit ohne Gefiihle und Phan-
tasie.’ The theory of an art is beauty without feeling and imagination. How true!
HARMONY AND COMPOSITION. 28%
more secure than that which is pointed out to him from Ex. 822, For instance:
he draws an outline of his intended composition, fills it up with fundamental
basses, extracts inverted basses, and constructs a counter melody; to which he
adds the rest of the parts, dissonances, passing and auxiliary notes, &c. All this
is accomplished without difficulty, because the rules are all determined, and
nothing is left to chance. During this process, no peculiar musical genius or feel-
ing, no imagination or nicely-discriminating musical ear is required*; moderate
talents, accompanied with a little patience and reflection, are sufficient to produce
that which will lead and encourage him to higher exertionst.
The student will find, as he proceeds, new matter perpetually springing up, as
it were, spontaneously under his hands; subjects, which at the commencement
appear as mere trifles, may, subsequently, by a little contrivance (but still accord-
ing to rule) be made most interesting.
By way of illustration of the above, and encouragement to the student to
make the attempt at composition, we shall first trace the gradual progress and
subsequent changes of a simple melody and harmony as it emanates from the out-
line, or sketch; and then show by what a simple and easy process the original
materials are afterwards capable of being converted into new matter, almost end-
less in variety and effect.
Let us suppose, for instance, that a melody has been constructed and har-
monized according to the rules commencing from Ex. 322. The inner parts of
the harmony may, perhaps, only with a slight alteration, furnish melodies which
may be freharmonized in a variety of ways, by merely changing each time the
original fundamental bass and inversions.
Secondly: By reharmonizing the original melody and adding a few modified
basses, the inner parts of which will again furnish new melodies.
Thirdly: By harmonizing the original melody according to the rules commenc-
ing from Ex. 167.
Fourthly: By adding modified basses to the air thus harmonized. Let it be
recollected that at each change of harmony a corresponding change of dissonances
and passing notes also takes place.
Hitherto we have only considered what may be effected by a mere change of
harmony; but what shall we say when,
Fifthly: We likewise alter the measure of time and rhythm of the original sub-
ject, or any of those subjects which have arisen from it? Indeed, the change, on
these occasions, is frequently so great, that the original source from which these
harmonies have emanated is no longer to be recognized.
Siathly: By letting the alto and tenor interchange places.
Seventhly and lastly: Extension of periods, and imitation between the parts.
Now that all these endless varieties of effects do arise from a simple outline,
such as has just been described, cannot be denied. Then where is the difficulty
which shall deter the student from making an attempt at composition? The pro-,
cess here pointed out isso simple and, it may be added, interesting, that it only
requires in us the.will, and the object is accomplished. The author repeats once
more, that if the student but makes the attempt, and follows the rules contained
in this work with patience and perseverance, he will not oniy have no cause to be
dissatisfied with his progress, but will discover a source of amusement and
improvement, of which he can form no adequate idea without the trial.
+ In proof of this, it is only necessary to examine the gradual progression of the outline of the
melody from Ex. 322 to 332.
FINIS.
THE
Orchestral Conductor
THEORY OF HIS ART
BY
HECTOR BERLIOZ.
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED By CARL FISCHER
6-10 FourTH AVE., CooPER SQUARE.
Coprricut, 1902, By Cart FiscHEer.
THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
THEORY OF HIS ART.
Bry HECTOR BERLIOZ. :
Music appears to be the most exacting of all the Arts, the cultivation of which
presents the greatest difficulties, for a consummate interpretation of a musical work
so as to permit an appreciation of its real value, a clear view of its physiognomy, or
discernment of its real meaning and true character, is only achieved in relatively
few cases. Of creative artists, the composer is almost the only one who is dependent
upon a multitude of intermediate agents between the public and himself ; intermedi-
ate agents, either intelligent or stupid, devoted or hostile, active or inert, capable —
from first to last —of contributing to the brilliancy of his work, or-of disfiguring it,
misrepresenting it, and even destroying it completely.
Singers have often been accused of forming the most dangerous of these inter-
mediate agents; but in my opinion, without justice. The most formidable, to my
thinking, is the conductor of the orchestra. A bad singer can spoil only his own
part ; while an incapable or malevolent conductor ruins all. Happy indeed may the
composer esteem himself when the conductor into whose hands he has fallen is not
at once incapable and inimical; for nothing can resist the pernicious influence of
this person. The most admirable orchestra is then paralyzed, the most excellent
singers are perplexed and rendered dull; there is no longer any vigor or unity ; under
such direction the noblest daring of the author appears extravagant, enthusiasm
beholds its soaring flight checked, inspiration is violently brought down to earth, the
angel’s wings are broken, the man of genius passes for a madman or an idiot, the
divine statue is precipitated from its pedestal, and dragged in the mud. And what
is worse, the public, and even auditors endowed with the highest musical intelligence,
are reduced to the impossibility (if a new work is rendered, and they are hearing
it for the first time) of recognizing the ravages perpetrated by the orchestral con-
ductor — of discovering the follies, faults, and crimes he commits. If they clearly
perceive certain defects of execution, not he, but his victims, are in such cases made
responsible. If he has caused the chorus-singers to fail in taking up a point ina
finale, if he has allowed a discordant wavering to take place between the choir and
the orchestra, or between the extreme sides of the instrumental body, if he has
absurdly hurried a movement, or allowed it to linger unduly, if he has interrupted
a singer before the end of a phrase, they exclaim: ‘‘ The singers are detestable! The
orchestra has no firmness; the violins have disfigured the principal design; every-
body has been wanting in vigor and animation; the tenor was quite out, he did not
know his part ; the harmony is confused ; the author is no accompanist ; the voices
are ——”? etc. :
Except in listening to great works already known and esteemed, intelligent
hearers can hardly distinguish the true culprit, and allot to him his due share of
blame ; but the number of these is still so limited that their judgment has little
weight ; and the hostile conductor —in presence of the public who would pitilessly
hiss a vocal accident of a good singer — reigns, with all the calm of a bad conscience,
1
2 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
in his baseness and inefficiency. Fortunately, I here attack an exception ; for the
malevolent orchestral conductor — whether capable or not — is very rare.
The orchestral conductor full of goodwill, but incapable, is on the contrary very
common. Without speaking of innumerable mediocrities, directing artists who fre-
quently are much their superiors, an author for example, can scarcely be accused of
conspiring against his own works. Yet how many are there who, fancying they are
able to conduct, innocently injure their best scores !
Beethoven, it is said, more than once ruined the performance of his symphonies ;
which he would conduct, even at the time when his deafness had become almost
complete. The musicians, in order to keep together, agreed at length to follow the
slight indications of time which the concertmeister (first violin-player) gave them ;
and not to attend to Beethoven’s conducting-stick. Moreover, it should be observed,
that conducting a symphony, an overture, or any other composition whose movements
remain continual, vary little, and contain few nice gradations, is child’s play in com-
parison with conducting an opera, or like work, where there are recitatives, airs, and
numerous orchestral designs preceded by pauses of irregular length.
The example of Beethoven, which I have just cited, leads me at once to say that
if the direction- of an orchestra appears to be very difficult for a blind man, it is
indisputably impossible for a deaf one, whatever may have been his technical talent
before losing his sense of hearing.
The orchestral conductor should see and hear; he should be active and vigorous, .
should know the composition and the nature and compass of the instruments, should
be able to read the score, and possess — besides the especial talent of which we shall
presently endeavor to explain the constituent qualities — other indefinable gifts, with-
out which an invisible link cannot establish itself between him and those he directs ;
otherwise the faculty of transmitting to them his feeling is denied him, and power,
empire, and guiding influence completely fail him. He is then no longer a conductor,
a director, but a simple beater of the time, — supposing he knows how to beat it, and
divide it, regularly.
The performers should feel that he feels, comprehends, and is moved: then his
emotion communicates itself to those whom he directs, his inward fire warms them,
his electric glow animates them, his force of impulse excites them ; he throws around
him the vital irradiations of musical art. If he is inert and frozen, on the contrary,
he paralyzes all about him, like those floating masses of the polar seas, the approach
of which is perceived through the sudden cooling of the atmosphere.
His task is a complicated one. He has not only to conduct, in the spirit of the
author’s intentions, a work with which the performers have already become ac-
quainted, but he must also introduce new compositions and help the performers to
master them. He has to criticise the errors and defects of each during the rehear-
sals, and to organize the resources at his disposal in such a way as to make the best
use he can of them with the utmost promptitude; for, in the majority of European
cities nowadays, musical artisanship is so ill distributed, performers so ill paid and
the necessity of study so little understood, that economy of time should be reckoned
among the most imperative requisites of the orchestral conductor’s art.
Let us now see what constitutes the mechanical part of this art.
The power of beating the time, without demanding very high musical attain-
ments, is nevertheless sufficiently difficult to secure ; and very few persons really pos-
sess it. The signs that the conductor should make— although generally very simple
— nevertheless become complicated under certain circumstances, by the division and
even the subdivision of the time of the bar.
THEORY OF HIS ART. 3
The conductor is, above all, bound to possess a clear idea of the principal points
and character of the work of which he is about to superintend the performance or
study ; in order that he may, without hesitation or mistake, at once determine the
time of each movement desired by the composer. If he has not had the opportunity
of receiving his instructions directly from the composer, or if the times have not been
transmitted to him by tradition, he must have recourse to the indications of the
metronome, and study them well; the majority of composers, nowadays, taking the
precaution to write them at the beginning, and in the course, of their pieces. I do not
mean to say by this that it is necessary to imitate the mathematical regularity of the
metronome , all music so performed would become of freezing stiffness, and I even
doubt whether it would be possible to observe so flat a uniformity during a certain
number of bars. But the metronome is none the less excellent to consult in order to
know the original time, and its chief alterations,
If the conductor possess neither the author’s instructions, tradition, nor metro-
nome indications, — which frequently happens in the ancient masterpieces, written at
a period when the metronome was not invented, —-he has no other guide than the
vague terms employed to designate the time to be taken, and his own instinct, his
feeling — more or less distinguishing, more or less just — of the author’s style. We
are compelled to admit that these guides are too often insufficient and delusive. Of
this we have proof in seeing how old operas are given in towns where the traditional
mode of performance no longer exists. In ten different kinds of time, there will
always be at least four taken wrongly. I once heard a chorus of Iphigenia in Tau-
ride performed in a German theatre allegro assai, two in the bar, instead of allegro non
troppo, four in the bar; that is to say, exactly twice too fast. Examples might be
multiplied of such disasters, occasioned either by the ignorance or the carelessness
of conductors of orchestras ; or else by the real difficulty which exists for even the
best-gifted and most careful men to discover the precise meaning of the Italian terms
used as indications of the time to be taken. Of course, no one can be at a loss to
distinguish a Largo from a Presto. If the Presto be two in a bar, a tolerably saga-
cious conductor, from inspection of the passages and melodic designs contained in the
piece, will be able to discern the degree of quickness intended by the author. But if
the Largo be four in a bar, of simple melodic structure, and containing but few notes
in each bar, what means has the hapless conductor of discovering the true time ?
And in how many ways might he not be deceived ? The different degrees of slowness
that might be assigned to the: performance of such a Largo are very numerous; the
individual feeling of the orchestral conductor must then become the sole authority ;
and, after all, it is the author’s feeling, not his, which is in question. Composers
therefore ought not to neglect placing metronome indications in their works ; and
orchestral conductors are bound to study them closely. The neglect of this study on
the part of the latter, is an act of dishonesty.
I will now suppose the conductor to be perfectly well acquainted with the times
of the different movements in the work of which he is about to conduct the perform-
ance or rehearsals ; he wishes to impart to the musicians acting under his orders the
rhythmical feeling within him, to decide the duration of each bar, and to cause the
uniform observance of this duration by all the performers. Now this precision and
this uniformity can only be established in the more or less numerous assemblage of
band and chorus by means of certain signs made by their conductor.
These signs indicate the principle divisions, the accents of the bar, and, in many
cases, the subdivisions, and the half-accents. I need hardly here explain what is
meant by the ‘‘ accents ’’ (accented and unaccented parts of a bar) ; I am presupposing
that I address musicians.
4 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
The orchestral conductor generally uses a small light stick, of about a foot in
length, and rather whitish than of a dark color (it is seen better), which he holds in
his right hand, to make clearly distinct his mode of marking the commencement, the
interior division, and the close of each bar. The bow, employed by some violinist-
conductors (leaders), is less suitable than the stick. It is somewhat flexible, and this
want of rigidity, together with the slight resistance it offers to the air, on account of
its appendage of hair, renders its indications less precise.
The simplest of all times — two in a bar —is beaten simply.
The arm and the stick of the conductor are raised, so that his hand is on a level
2 with his head, he marks the first beat, by dropping the point of his stick
perpendicularly ‘(bending his wrist as much as possible; and not lowering
the whole arm), and the second beat by raising the stick by a contrary
gesture.
The time — one in a bar— being in reality, and particularly for the
conductor, but the time of an extremely rapid two in a bar, should be beaten
1 like the preceding. As the conductor is obliged to raise the point of his
stick, after having lowered it, he necessarily divides this into two portions.
In the time — four in a bar — the first gesture, or down beat, is universally
adopted for marking the first accented part, the commencement of the bar.
The second movement made by the conducting-stick, from right to left,
rising, . indicates the second beat (first unaccented part). A third,
trans Ne versely, from left to right, indicates the third 1
beat (second accented part) ; and a fourth, obliquely, from
down to up, indicates the fourth beat (second unaccented part). The
combination of these four gestures may be figured thus : —
It is of importance that the conductor, in thus deliv- 4
ering his different directions, should not move his arm
much ; and consequently, not allow his stick to pass
over much space; for each of these gestures should y
operate nearly instantaneously ; or at least, take but so 2 5) — 3
it ends by throwing the conductor behind in the time
he is beating, and by giving to his conducting a tardiness
that proves injurious. This defect, moreover, has the result of needlessly fatiguing
the conductor, and of producing exaggerated evolutions, verging on the ridiculous,
which attract the spectators’ attention, and become very disagreeable to witness.
In the time, three in a bar, the first gesture made, from up to
down, is likewise universally adopted for marking the first beat ; but
there are two ways of marking the second. The majority of orches- 2
tral conductors indicate it by a gesture from left to right ; thus :—
Some German Kapel-meisters do the contrary ; and carry the
slight a movement as to be imperceptible. If the move-
ment becomes perceptible, on the contrary, and multi-
plied by the number of times that the gesture is repeated,
1
stick from right to left ; thus :— 1
This way has the disadvantage — when the conductor turns
2 his back to‘the orchestra, as in theatres — of permitting only a small
number of musicians to perceive the very important indication of the
second beat; the body of the conductor then hiding the movement
of his arm. The other method of proceeding is preferable ; since
1 the conductor stretches his arm outwards, withdrawing it from bis
THEORY OF HIS ART. 5
chest ; and his stick, which he takes care to raise slightly above the level of his
shoulder, remains perfectly visible to all eyes. When the conductor faces the
players, it is immaterial whether he marks the second beat to the right, or to the left.
’ However, the third beat of the time, three in a bar, is always marked like the
last of the time, four in a bar; by an oblique movement upwards.
The times,—five and seven in a - 23 3
bar, — would be more comprehensible
for the performers, if instead of indi-
cating them by a particular series of ie
gestures, they were treated as though of 2
the one was composed of three and two
in a bar, and the other composed of 7
four and three. 1 1
Then, these times would be
beaten thus :— Example of seven in a bar : —
+ ms
, “
1 5
These different times, in order to be divided in this way, are assumed to belong to
movements of moderate measure. The advice would not hold good if their measure
were either very quick or very slow.
The time, two in a bar, I have already signified, cannot be beaten otherwise than
as we have before seen—whatever its degree of rapidity. But if, as an exception, it
should be very slow, the conductor ought to subdivide it.
A very rapid four in a bar, on the contrary, should be beaten two in a bar; the
four accustomed gestures of a moderate movement becoming then so hurried as to
present nothing decided to the eye, and serving only to confuse the performer instead
of giving him confidence. Moreover, —and this is of much more consequence, — the
conductor, by uselessly making these four gestures in a quick movement, renders
the pace of the rhythm awkward, and loses the freedom of gesture which a simple
division of the time into its half would leave him.
. Generally speaking, composers are wrong to write in such a case the indication
of the time as four in a bar.. When the movement is very brisk, they should never
write any other than the sign é, and not that of @, which might lead the conductor
into error.
It is exactly the same for the time, three in a bar, fast 2 or 2. Then
+ the conductor must omit the gesture of the second beat, and, by remaining
the period of a beat longer on the first, only raise the stick at the third.
It would be absurd to attempt to beat the three in a bar of one of
Beethoven’s scherzos.
In slow movements the rule for these two times is like that for two
1&2 in a bar. If the movement is very slow, each time must be divided;
6 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
and consequently eight gestures must be made for the time, four in a bar, and eix
for the time, three in a bar, repeating (and shortening) each of the principal gestures
we have before instanced. Example of three in a bar,
Example of four in a bar, very slow:
very slow: The arm should take 3
4 KN no part in the little sup-
*
plementary gesture indi- KA
Sa cating the subdivision of Y 7
_, the bar; merely the wrist
< > 3 causing the stick to move. | Ze
This division of the ae
different times is intended
A to prevent the rhythmical ' &
Y ¥ divergences which might 1
1 easily take place among the performers during
the interval which separates one beat from the
other. The conductor not indicating anything during this period (rendered some-
what considerable by the extreme slowness of the movement), the players are
then entirely left to themselves, without conductor; and as the rhythmical feeling is
not the same with all, it follows that some hurry, while others slacken, and
unity is soon destroyed. The only exception possible to this rule is that of a
first-rate orchestra, composed of performers who are well acquainted with each
other, are accustomed to play together, and know almost by heart the work they are
executing. Even then, the inattention of a single player may occasion an accident.
Why incur its possibility ? I know that certain artists feel their self-love hurt when
thus kept in leading-strings (like children, they say) ; but with a conductor who has
no other view than the excellence of the ultimate result, this consideration can have
no weight. Even in a quartet, it is seldom that the individual feeling of the players
can be left entirely free to follow its own dictates. Ina symphony, that of the con-
ductor must rule. The art of comprehending it, and fulfilling it with unanimity,
constitutes the perfection of execution ; and individual wills — which can never agree
one with another — should never be permitted to manifest themselves.
This being fully understood, it will be seen that subdivision is still more essential
for very slow times ; as those of §, §, 3, 12 etc.
But these times— where the triple rhythm plays so important a part — may be
divided in various ways.
If the movement is brisk or moderate, it is rarely well to indicate other than the
simple beats of these times, according to the procedure adopted for the analogous
simple times.
The times of § allegretto, and of $ allegro, therefore, are to be beaten like those
of two in a bar: —@=or 2=or 2; the time, } allegro, should be beaten like that of
three in a bar — } moderato, or like that of 3 andantino; and the time, 12 moderato
or allegro, like the time, simple four ina bar. But if the movement be adagio, largo
assai, or andante maestoso, either all the quavers, or a crotchet followed by a quaver,
should be beaten, according to the form of the melody, or the predominant design.
_Larghetto Grazioso.
— SO
It is unnecessary, in this three ina bar, to mark all the quavers ; the rhythm of a
crotchet followed by a quaver in each beat suffices.
THEORY OF HIS ART. T
As to the subdivision, the little supplementary gesture for simple times should be
made ; this subdivision will however separate each beat into two unequal portions,
since it is requisite to indicate visibly the value of the crotchet, and that of the
quaver.
If the movement is still slower, there can be no hesitation; the only way to
ensure unity of execution is to beat all the quavers, whatever be the nature of the
written bar. Adagio.
——s— > —F
as
Ad IS
agio ore a ger ay
6 a
t Largo. x . dis Ns }
i b+ t2—* 2. = (gece!
Feb et = 2 Se — 33-43-38 a ==
rf eer ¢ Sef, cor f fbr cer
Taking the three measures shown above in order, the conductor must beat three
quavers down, and three up, for the time of £ :— Je
Three down, three to the right, and three up, for the time
Three down, three to the left, three
OS to the right, and three up, for the time a
A dilemma sometimes presents itself when certain parts—for the sake of contrast
-are given a triple rhythm, while others preserve the dual rhythm.
Wind
Instruments.
Violin.
Se
If the wind-instrument parts in the above example are confided to players who are
good musicians, there will be no need to change the manner of marking the bar, and
the conductor may continue to subdivide it by six, or to divide it simply bytwo. The
majority of players, however, seeming to hesitate at the moment when, by employing
the syncopated form, the triple rhythm clashes with the dual rhythm, require assur-
8 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
ance, which can be given by easy means. The uncertainty occasioned them by the
sudden appearance of the unexcepted rhythm, contradicted by the rest of the orches.
tra, always leads the performers to cast an instinctive glance towards the conductor,
as if seeking his assistance. He should look at them, turning somewhat towards them,
and marking the triple rhythm by very slight gestures, as if the time were really three
in a bar, but in such a way that the violins and other instruments playing in
dual rhythm may not observe the change, which would quite put them out. From
this compromise it results that the new rhythm of three-time, being marked furtively
by the conductor, is executed with steadiness ; while the two-time rhythm, already
firmly established, continues without difficulty, although no longer indicated by the
conductor. On the other hand, nothing, in my opinion can be more blamable, or
more contrary to musical good sense, than the application of this procedure to pas-
sages where two rhythms of opposite nature do not co-exist, and where merely syncopa-
tions are introduced. The conductor, dividing the bar by the number of accents he
finds contained in it, then destroys (for all the auditors who see him) the effect of syn-
copation ; and substitutes a mere change of time for a play of rhythm of the most
bewitching interest. If the accents are marked, instead of the beats, in the following
passage from Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony, we have the subjoined :—
Lee
Andante.
whereas the four previously maintained display the syncopation and make it better
_ a 2
Andante.
eeu es
This voluntary submission to a rhythmical form which the author intended to
thwart is one of the gravest faults in style that a beater of the time can commit.
' There is another dilemma, extremely troublesome for a conductor, and demand-
ing all his presence of mind. It is that presented by the super-addition of different
bars. It is easy to conduct a bar in dual time placed above or beneath another bar in
triple time, if both have the same kind of movement. Their chief divisions are then
equal in duration, and one needs only to divide them in half, marking the two prin-
cipal beats :—
Allo.
ce
py o.
——=
A ¢ ,
a
SSS ft tt eey
8-4 S|
L 3.
oa
LL
But it, in the middle of a piece slow in movement, there is introduced a new form
brisk in movement, and if the composer (either for the sake of facilitating the execu-
tion of the quick movement, or because it was impossible to write otherwise) has
THEORY OF HIS ART. 9
adopted for this new movement the short bar which worresponds with it, there may then
occur two, or even three short bars super-added to a slow bar : —
Allegro.
(ae ee
Andante. Sempre Andante.
=e Bir I T
jes aE ——— 7: 3
= 2 i { & No. 2.
No. t.
0. 3.
Three bars to one.
The conductor’s task is to guide and keep together these different bars of unequal
number and dissimilar movement. He attains this by dividing the beats in the an-
dante bar, No. 1, which pre-
ay cedes the entrance of the
me allegro in §, and by continu-
y Nd ing to divide them; but NE
Lo taking care to mark the di- ee
| >Y vision more decidedly. The , €
yer players of the aillepr6 in $
then comprehend that the
Bar No. 1. two gestures of the conductor =
represent the two beats of iy
their short bar, while the players of the andante ya
take these same gestures merely for a divided heat
of their long bar.
It will be seen that this is really quite simple,
because the division of the short bar, and the subdivisions of the long one, mutually
correspond. The following example, where a slow bar is super-added to the short
ones, without this correspondence existing, is more awkward : —
Bars Nos. 2, 3, and so on.
Habbo
wR. OR. ROR ss
Fae = + i oe ace ere a a |
iS < 1 { a. t Ly
ue Ri Oo
Allo. assai.
Violas.
yay £ | esas
= oy | St ee. fe a
= eel
oe ate eae
Allegretto. Doubly slow,
CY pa = T >» *- __)
ot a SS = ~ }—
1 eo
No. 1. No. 2.
Maintain in the same movement,
SSS aa
10 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
_ T T
tt a a pearl
= toy, 7, — eh a
SSS ee eed
: oS $-3 S$ s2 so 8 oss 3 ss
Here, the three bars allegro-assai preceding the allegretto are beaten in simple two
time, as usual. At the moment when the allegretto begins, the bar of which is double
that of the preceding, and of the one maintained by the violas,
the conductor marks two divided beats for the long bar, by two
equal gestures down, and two others up :—
x The two large gestures divide the long bar in half, and explain
its value to the hautboys, without perplexing the violas, who main-
tain the brisk movement, on account of the little gesture which also
divides in half their short bar.
From bar No. 3, the conductor ceases to divide thus the long bar by 4, on account
,of the triple rhythm of the melody in §, which this gesture interferes with. He then
confines himself to marking the two beats of the long bar; while the violas, already
launched in their rapid rhythm, continue it without difficulty, comprehending exactly
that each stroke of the conductor’s stick marks merely the commencement of their
short bar.
' This last observation shows with what care dividing the beats of a bar should be
avoided when a portion of the instruments or voices has to execute triplets upon these
beats. The division, by cutting in half the second note of the triplet, renders its exe-
cution uncertain. It is even necessary to abstain from this division of the beats of a
bar just before the moment when the rhythmical or melodic design is divided by three,
in order not to give to the players the impression of a rhythm contrary to that which
they are about to hear : —
ba
THEORY OF HIS ART. 11
In this example, the subdivision of the bar into six, or the
division of beats into two, is useful; and offers no incon- Ny
venience during bar No. 1, ~vnen the following gesture is
made : —
But from the beginning of bar No. 2 it is necessary to At
make only the simple gestures : — /\ i
; Ne on account of the triptet on the third beat,
and on account of the one following it which
the double gesture would much interfere with.
In the famous ball-scene of Mozart’s Don Giovanni, the difficulty
of keeping together the three orchestras, written in three different
measures, is less than might be thought. It is sufficient to mark downwards each
beat of the tempo di minuetto : —
Vy
QS Se]
—— =
=e Fara
t
Once entered upon the combination, the little allegro in 3, of which a whole bar rep-
resents one-third, or one beat of that of the minuetto, and the other allegro in 2, of
which a whole bar represents two-thirds, or two beats, correspond with each other and
with the principal theme ; while the whole proceeds without the slightest confusion.
All that is requisite is to make them come in properly.
A gross fault that I have seen committed, consists in enlarging the time of a piece
in common-time, when the author has introduced into it triplets of minims : —
SS]
In such a case, the third minim adds nothing to the duration of the bar, as some
conductors seem to imagine. They may, if they please, and if the movement be slow
or moderate, make these passages by beating the bar with three beats, but the dura-
tion of the whole bar should remain precisely the same. In a case where these trip-
lets occur in a very quick bar in common-time (allegro-assai), the three gestures then
cause confusion, and it is absolutely necessary to make only two, — one beat upon the
first minim, and one upon the third. These gestures, owing to the quickness of the
movement, differ little to the eye, from the two of the bar with two equal beats, and
do not affect the movement of those parts of the orchestra which contain no triplets.
Allo Assai.
L Rs { Oo
Two rather Two equal
beats. unequal beats. beats.
[er F = a —f
t moan © — eat — a —— HF
——”
We will now speak of the conductor’s method of beating in recitatives. Here, as the
singer or the instrumentalist is reciting, and no longer subject to the regular division
12 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
of the bar, it is requisite, while following him attentively, to make the orchestra
strike, simultaneously and with precision, the chords or instrumental passages with
which the recitative is intermingled ; and to make the harmony change at the proper
instant, when the recitative is accompanied either by holding-notes or by a tremolo in
several parts, of which the least apparent, occasionally, is that which the conductor
must most regard, since upon its motion depends the change of chord : —
In this example, the conductor, while following the reciting part, not kept time to,
has especially to attend to the viola part, and to make it move, at the proper moment,
from the F to the E, at the commencement of the second bar ; because otherwise, as
this part is executed by several instrumentalists playing in unison, some of them would
hold the F longer than the rest, and a transient discord would be produced.
Many conductors have the habit, when directing the orchestra in recitatives, of
paying no heed to the written division of the bar, and of marking an up beat before
that whereon a brief orchestral chord occurs, even when this chord comes on an
unaccented part of the bar : —
Recitative.
Orchestra.
Tn a passage such as this, they raise the arm at the rest which commences the bar, .
and lower it at the time of the chord.
I cannot approve of such a method, which nothing justifies, and which may fre-
quently occasion accidents in the execution. Neither do I see why, in recitatives, the
bar should not be divided regularly, and the real beats marked in their place, as in
music beaten in time. I therefore advise —for the preceding example — that the first
beat should be made down, as usual, and the stick carried to the left for striking the
chord upon the second beat ; and so on for analogous cases ; always dividing the bar
regularly. It is very important, moreover, to divide it according to the time previously
indicated by the author, and not to forget, — if this time is allegro or maestoso, and if
the reciting part has been some time reciting unaccompanied, —to give to all the
beats, when the orchestra comes in again, the value of those of an allegro or of a maes-
toso. For when the orchestra plays alone, it does so generally in time ; it plays with-
out measured time only when it accompanies a voice or instrument in recitative.
tn the exceptional case where the recitative is written for the orchestra itself, or for
the chorus, or for a portion of either orchestra or chorus, it being then requisite to
keep together, whether in unison or in harmony, but without regular time, a certain
number of performers, the conductor himself becomes the real reciter, and gives to each
beat of the bar the duration he judges fit. According to the form of the phrase, he
divides and subdivides the beats, now marks the accents, now the semiquavers, if there
are any, and, in short, indicates with his stick the melodic form of the recitative.
It must of course be understood that the performers, knowing their parts almost
THEORY OF HIS ART. 13
by heart, keep their eye constantly upon him, otherwise, neither security nor unity
can. be obtained.
In general, even for timed music, the conductor should require the players he
directs to look towards him as often as possible.
An orchestra which does not watch the conducting-stick has no conductor. Often,
after a pedal-point for instance, the conductor is obliged to refrain from marking the
decisive gesture which is to determine the coming in of the orchestra until he sees the
eyes of all the performers fixed upon him. It is the duty of the conductor, during
rehearsal, to accustom them to look towards him simultaneously at the important
moment. ,
Allegretto, rK ae
If the rule just indicated were not observed in the above bar, or which the first
beat, marking a pedal-point, may be prolonged indefinitely, the passage —
te. ©:
=
could not be uttered with firmness and unity; the players, not watching the conduc-
tor’s stick, could. not know when he decides thesecond beat and resumes the movement
suspended by the pedal-point.
The obligation upon the performers to look at their conductor necessarily implies
an equal obligation on his part to let himself be well seen by them. He should, —
whatever may be the disposal of the orchestra, whether on rows of steps, or on a hori-
zontal plane, — place himself so as to form the centre of all surrounding eyes.
To place himself well in sight, a conductor requires an especial -platform, elevated
in proportion as the number of performers is large and occupies much space. His
desk should not be so high that the portion sustaining the score shall hide his face
for the expression of his countenance has much to do with the influence he exercises
If there is no conductor for an orchestra that does not and will not watch him,
neither is there any if he cannot be well seen.
As to the employment of noises of any kind whatever, produced by the stick of
the conductor upon his desk, or by his foot upon the platform, they call for no other
than unreserved reprehension. It is worse than a bad method; it isabarbarism. In
a theatre, however, when the stage evolutions prevent the chorus-singers from seeing
the conducting-stick, the conductor is compelled — to ensure, after a pause, the taking
up a point by the chorus — to indicate this point by marking the beat which precedes
it by a slight tap of his stick upon the desk. This exceptional circumstance is the
only one which can warrant the employment of an indicating noise, and even then it
is to be regretted that recourse must be had to it.
While speaking of chorus-singers, and of their operations in theatres, it may here
be observed that chorus-masters often allow themselves to beat time at the side-scenes,
without seeing the conductor’s stick, frequently even without hearing the orchestra.
The result is that this time, beaten more or less ill, and not corresponding with that
of the conductor, inevitably induces a rhythmical discordance between the choral and
instrumental bodies, and subverts all unity instead of tending to maintain it.
There is another traditional barbarism which lies within the province of an intelli-
gent and active conductor to abolish. If a choral or instrumental piece is performed
behind the scenes, without accompaniment from the principal orchestra, another con-
14 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
ductor is absolutely essential. If the orchestra accompany this portion, the first con-
ductor, who hears the distant music, is then strictly bound to let himself be guided by
the second, and to follow his time by ear. But if —as frequently happens in modern
music—the sound of the chief orchestra hinders the conductor from hearing that
which is being performed at a distance from him, the intervention of a special conduct-
ing mechanism becomes indispensable, in order to establish instantaneous communica-
tion between him and the distant performers. Many attempts, more or less ingenious,
have been made of this kind, the result of which has not everywhere answered ex-
pectations. That of Covent Garden Theatre, in London, moved by the conductor’s
foot, acts tolerably well. But the electric metronome, set up by Mr. Van Bruge in the
Brussels Theatre, leaves nothing to be desired. It consists of an apparatus of copper
ribbons, leading from a Voltaic battery placed beneath the stage, attached to the con-
ductor’s desk, and terminating in a movable stick fastened at one end on a pivot before
a board at a certain distance from the orchestral conductor. To this latter’s desk is
affixed a key of copper, something like the ivory key of a pianoforte ; it is elastic, and
provided on the interior side with a protuberance of about a quarter of an inch long.
Immediately beneath this protuberance is a little cup, also of copper, filled with quick-
silver. At the instant when the orchestral conductor, desiring to mark any particular
beat of a bar, presses the copper key with the forefinger of his left hand (his right
being occupied in holding, as usual, the conducting-stick) this key is lowered, the pro-
tuberance passes into the cup filled with quicksilver, a slight electric spark is emitted,
and the stick placed at the other extremity of the copper ribbon makes an oscillation
before its board. The communication of the fluid and the movement are quite simul-
taneous, no matter how great a distance is traversed.
The performers being grouped behind the scenes, their eyes fixed upon the stick
of the electric metronome, are thus directly subject to the conductor, who could,
were it needful, conduct, from the middle of the Opera orchestra in Paris, a piece of
music performed at Versailles.
It is merely requisite to agree upon beforehand with the chorus-singers, or with
their conductor (if as an additional precaution, they have one), the way in which the
orchestral conductor beats the time — whether he marks all the principal beats, or
only the first of the bar —since the oscillations of the stick, moved by electricity,
being always from right to left, indicate nothing precise in this respect.
When I first used, at Brussels, the valuable instrument I have just endeavored to
describe, its action presented one objection. Each time that the copper key of my
desk underwent the pressure of my left forefinger, it struck, underneath, another
plate of copper, and, notwithstanding the delicacy of the contact, produced a little
sharp noise, which, during the pauses of the orchestra, attracted the attention of the
audience, to the detriment of the musical effect.
I pointed out the fault to Mr. Van Bruge, who substituted for the lower plate
of copper the little cup filled with quicksilver, previously mentioned. Into this the
protuberance so entered as to establish the electric current without causing the
slightest noise.
Nothing remains now, as regards the use of this mechanism, but the crackling
of the spark at the moment of its emission. This, however, is too slight to be heard
by the public.
The metronome is not expensive to put up ; it costs £16 at the most. Large lyric
theatres, churches, and concert-rooms should long ago have been provided with one.
Yet, save at the Brussels Theatre, it is nowhere to be found. This would appear
incredible, were it not that the carelessness of the majority of directors of institutions
THEORY OF HIS ART. 15
where music forms a feature is well known; as are their instinctive aversion to what-
ever disturbs old-established customs, their indifference to the interests of art, their
parsimony wherever an outlay for music is needed, and the utter ignorance of the
principles of our art among those in whose hands rests the ordering of its destiny.
I have not yet said all on the subject of those dangerous auxiliaries named
chorus-masters. Very few of them are sufficiently versed in the art, to conduct a
musical performance, so that the orchestral conductor can depend upon them. He
cannot therefore watch them too closely when compelled to submit to their coad-
jutorship.
The most to be dreaded are those whom age has deprived of activity and energy.
The maintenance of vivacious times is an impossibility to them. Whatever may be
the degree of quickness indicated at the head of a piece confided to their conducting,
little by little they slacken its pace, until the rhythm is reduced to a certain medium
slowness, that seems to harmonize with the speed at which their blood flows, and
the general feebleness of their organization.
It must in truth be added, that old men are not the only ones with whom com-
posers run this risk. There are men in the prime of life, of a lymphatic tempera-
ment, whose blood seems to circulate moderato. If they have to conduct an allegro
assai, they gradually slacken it to moderato; if, on the contrary, it is a largo or an
andante sostenuto, provided the piece is prolonged, they will, by dint of progressive
animation, attain a moderato long before the end. The moderato is their natural
pace, and they recur to it as infallibly as would a pendulum after having been a
moment hurried or slackened in its oscillations.
These people are the born enemies of all characteristic music, and the greatest
destroyers of style. May Fate preserve the orchestral conductor from their co-op-
eration.
Once, in a large town (which I will not name), there was to be performed be-
hind the scenes a very simple chorus, written in §, allegretto. The aid of the chorus-
master became necessary. He was an old man.
The time in which this chorus was to be taken having been first agreed upon by
the orchestra, our Nestor followed it pretty decently during the first few bars; but,
soon after, the slackening became such that there was no continuing without render-
ing the piece perfectly ridiculous. It was recommenced twice, thrice, four times ;
a full half-hour was occupied in ever-increasingly vexatious efforts, but always with
the same result. The preservation of allegretto time was absolutely impossible to
the worthy man. At last the orchestral conductor, out of all patience, came and
begged him not to conduct at all; he had hit upon an expedient :—He caused the
chorus-singers to simulate a march-movement, raising each foot alternately, without
moving on. This movement, being in exactly the same time as the dual rhythm of
the in a bar, allegretto, the chorus-singers, who were no longer hindered by their
director, at once performed the piece as though they had sung marching; with no
less unity than regularity, and without slackening the time.
I acknowledge, however, that many chorus-masters, or sub-conductors of orches-
tras, are sometimes of real utility, and even indispensable for the maintenance of
unity among very large masses of performers. When these masses are obliged to be
so disposed as ‘hat one portion of the players or chorus-singers turn their back on
the conductor, he needs a certain number of sub-beaters of the time, placed before
those of the performers who cannot see him, and charged with repeating all his
signals. In order that this repetition shall be precise, the sub-conductors must be
careful never to take their eyes off the chief conductor’s stick for a single instant,
16 THE ORCHESTRAL: CONDUCTOR.
If, in order to look at their score, they cease to watch him for only three bars, a
discrepancy arises immediately between their time and his, and all is lost.
In a festival where 1200 performers were assembled under my direction, at
Paris, I had to employ four chorus-masters, stationed at the four corners of the vocal
mass, and two sub-conductors, one of whom directed the wind-instruments, and the
other the instruments of percussion. I had earnestly besought them to look towards
me incessantly ; they did not omit to do so, and our eight sticks, rising and falling
without the slightest discrepancy of rhythm, established amidst our 1200 performers
the most perfect unity ever witnessed.
With one or more electric metronomes, it seems no longer necessary to have
recourse to this means. One might, in fact, thus easily conduct chorus-singers who
turn their back towards the chief conductor ; but attentive and intelligent sub-con-
ductors are always preferable toa machine. They have not only to beat the time,
like the metronomic staff, but they have also to speak to the groups around them,
to call their attention to nice shades of execution, and, after bar-rests, to remind
them when the moment of their re-entry comes.
In a space arranged as a semicircular amphitheatre, the orchestral conduct may
conduct a considetable number of performers alone, all eyes then being able to look
towards him. Neverthless, the employment of a certain number of sub-conductors
appears to me preferable to individual direction, on account of the great distance
between the chief conductor and the extreme points of the vocal and instrumental
body.
The more distant the orchestral conductor is from the performers he directs, the
more his influence over them is diminished.
The best way would be to have several sub-conductors, with several electric
metronomes beating before their eyes the principal beats of the bar.
And now, —should the orchestral conductor give the time. standing or sitting
down ?
If, in theatres where they perform scores of immense length, it is very difficult
to endure the fatigue of remaining on foot the whole evening, it is none the less true
that the orchestral conductor, when seated, loses a portion of his power, and cannot
give free course to his animation, if he possess any.
_ Then, should he conduct reading from a full score, or from a first violin part
(leader’s copy), as is customary in some theatres? It is evident that he should have
before him a full score. Conducting by means of a part containing only the prin-
cipal instrumental cues, the bass and the melody, demands a needless effort of
memory from a conductor ; and moreover, if he happens to tell one of the performers,
whose part he cannot examine, that he is wrong, exposes him to the chance of the
reply : ‘* How do you know?”
The disposal and grouping of the players and chorus-singers come also within the
province of the orchestral conductor; particularly for concerts. It is impossible to
indicate arbitrarily the best method of grouping the performers in a theatre or con-
cert-room; the shape and arrangement of the interior of these places necessarily
influence the course to be taken in such a case. Let us add, that it depends, more-
over, upon the number of performers requiring to be grouped ; and, on some occa-
sions, upon the style of composition adopted by the author whose work is to be
performed.
In general, for concerts, the following disposal of the orchestra seems best :—
An amphitheatre of eight, or at least, five rows is indispensable. The semicircular
form is the best for the amphitheatre. If it is large enough to contain the whole
THEORY OF HIS ART. 17
orchestra, the entire mass of instrumentalists can be disposed of along these rows;
the first violins in front on the right, facing the public ; the second violins in front
on the left ; the violas, in the middle, between the two groups of violins; the flutes
hautboys, clarinets, horns, and bassoons behind the first violins; a double rank of
violoncellos and double-basses behind the second violins; the trumpets, cornets,
trombones, and tubas behind the violas; the rest of the violoncellos and double-
basses behind the wooden wind instruments ; the harps in the foreground, close to the
orchestral conductor; the kettle-drums, and other instruments of percussion behind
or in the centre of the brass instruments; the orchestral conductor, turning his back
to the public, at the base of the orchestra, and near to the foremost desks of the
first and second violins.
There should be a horizontal flooring, or stage, more or less wide, extending in
front of the first rows of the amphitheatre. On this flooring the chorus-singers
should be placed, in form of a fan turned three-quarters towards the public, so that
all shall be able easily to see the motions of the orchestral conductor. The grouping
of the chorus-singers, in consonance with their respestive order of voice, will differ
according as the author has written in three, four, or six parts. At any rate, the
women — sopranos and contraltos —should be in front, seated; the tenors standing
behind the contraltos ; and the basses standing behind the sopranos.
The solo-singers should occupy the centre, and foremost, part of the front stage,
and should always place themselves in such a way as to be able, by slightly turning
the head, to see the conducting-stick.
For the rest, I repeat, these indications can be but approximate; they may be,
for many reasons, modified in various ways.
At the Conservatoire, in Paris, where the amphitheatre is composed of only four
or five rows, not circular, and cannot therefore contain the whole orchestra, the
violins and violas are on the stage; while the basses and wind instruments alone
occupy the rows ; the chorus is seated on the front of the stage, facing the public, and
the women, sopranos and contraltos, turning their backs directly upon the orchestral
conductor, are utterly unable to see his motions. The arrangement is very incon-
venient for this portion of the chorus.
It is of the greatest consequence that the chorus-singers placed on the front of
the stage shall occupy a plane somewhat lower than that of the violins ; otherwise
they would considerably deaden the sound of these instruments.
For the same reason, if there are no other rows for the choir in front of the
orchestra, it is absolutely needful that the women should be seated, and the men,
remain standing up; in order that the voices of the tenors and basses, proceeding
from a more elevated point than those of the sopranos and contraltos, may come
forth freely, and be neither stifled nor intercepted.
When the presence of the chorus-singers in front of the orchestra is not neces-
sary, the conductor must take care to send them away ; since this large number of
human bodies injures the sonority of the instruments. A symphony performed by
an orchestra thus more or less stifled, loses much of its effect.
There are yet other precautions, relative especially to the orchestra, which the
conductor may also take, to avoid certain detects in performance. The instruments
of percussion, placed, as Thave indicated, upon one of the last rows of the orchestra,
have a tendency to modify the rhythm, and slacken the time. A series of strokes on
the drum struck at regular intervals in a quick movement, like the following: —
Allegro. : ‘ =
- + tek Ee I. tm | rE - 1. J. 1 a 1 ie]
fe¢_---- ot ef
6 am
E
1 2 3 4 5
18 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
will sometimes lead to the complete destruction of a fine rhythmical progression, by
checking the onward bound of the rest of the orchestra, and destroying the unity.
Almost always, the drum player, through not observing the original time given by
the conductor, is somewhat behindhand in striking his first stroke. This retard-
ment, multiplied by the number of strokes which follow the first one, soon produces
—as may be imagined—a rhythmical discrepancy of the most fatal effect. ‘The
conductor, —all whose efforts to re-establish unanimity are then in vain — has only
one thing left to do; which is, to insist that the long drum player shall count before-
hand the number of strokes to be given in the passage in question, and that, knowing
his part, he shall no longer look at his copy, but keep his eyes constantly fixed upon
the conducting-stick ; by which means he will follow the time without the slightest
want of precision.
Another retardment, arising from a different cause, frequently takes place in the
trumpet-parts ; it is when they contain a quick flow of passages such as this: —
ak
£.
—— a |
ty 4 Fs — ae a J tf Po iif
) Allegro.
The trumpet-player, instead of taking breath before the first of these three bars,
takes breath at their commencement, during the quaver-rest, A; and, not counting
for anything the short time it has taken him to breathe, gives its whole value to the
quaver-rest, which thus becomes superadded to the value of the first bar. The result
of this is the following :—
4 Allegro.
ee
A
l= eel
e
an effect all the worse because the final accent, struck at the commencement of the
third bar by the rest of the orchestra, comes a third of the time too slow in the trum-
pets, and destroys unity in the striking of the last chord.
To obviate this, the conductor must first previously warn the players against
such inexactness, into which they almost all are led to fall unawares; and then,
while conducting, must cast a glance towards them at the decisive moment, and
anticipate a little, by beating the first beat of the bar where they come in. It is
incredible how difticult it is to prevent trumpet-players from doubling the value of a
quaver-rest thus placed.
When a long accelerando, litile by little, is indicated by the composer, for passing
from an allegro moderato to a presto, the majority of orchestral conductors hurry the
time by jerks, instead of quickening it equally throughout, by an insensible onward
rate. This should be carefully avoided.
The same remark applies to the converse proposition. It is even more difficult
_to slacken a quick time smoothly, and without checks, so as to transform it little by
little into a slow time. Often, from a desire to testify zeal, or from defect of delivery
in his musical feeling, a conductor demands from his players an exaggeration of nice
gradations. He comprehends neither the character nor the style of the piece. The
gradations then become so many blemishes; the accents, yells; the intentions of the
poor composer are totally disfigured and perverted ; while those of the orchestral
conductor — however politely meant they may be —are none the less injurious : like
the caresses of the ass in the fable, who crushed his master while fondling him.
And now let us instance many deplorable abuses that are obtained in almost all
~
THEORY OF HIS ART. 19
the orchestras of Europe — abuses which reduce composers to despair, and which it is
the duty of conductors to abolish as soon as possible.
Performers playing stringed instruments will rarely give themselves the trouble
to play a tremolo; they substitute for this very characteristic effect, a tame repetition
of the note, half, and sometimes three-quarters slower than the one whence results
the tremolo: instead of demisemiquavers, they make triple or double ones; and in
lieu of producing sixty-four notes in a bar in four-time (adagio), they produce only
thirty-two, or even sixteen. The action of the arm necessary for producing a true
tremolo, demands from them too great an effort. This idleness is intolerable.
Many double-bass players permit themselves— from idleness, also, or from a
dread of being unable to achieve certain difficulties —to simplify their part. This
race of simplifiers has existed for forty years; but it cannot endure any longer. In
ancient works, the double-bass parts were extremely simple; therefore there can be
no reason to impoverish them still more: those in modern scores are rather more
difficult, it is true ; but, with very few exceptions, there is nothing in them impossible
of execution; composers, masters of their art, write them with care, and as they
ought to be executed. If it is from idleness that the simplifiers pervert them, the
energetic orchestral conductor is armed with the necessary authority to compel the
fulfilment of their duty. If it is from incapacity, let him dismiss them. It is his
best interest to rid himself of instrumentalists who cannot play their instrument.
Flute-players, accustomed to having their parts written in the upper octave, and
not admitting that their part can be written below that of clarinets or hautboys, fre-
quently transpose entire passages an octave higher. The conductor, if he does not
carefully peruse his score, if he is not thoroughly acquainted with the work he is con-
ducting, or if his ear lacks keenness, will not perceive the strange liberty thus taken.
Nevertheless, multitudes of such instances occur, and care should be taken to banish
them entirely.
It happens everywhere (I do not say in some orchestras only) — that when ten,
fifteen, or twenty violinists have to play the same part in unison, that they do not
count the bars’ rest; each, from idleness, relying on the others doing it. Whence it fol-
lows that scarcely half of them come in again at the right moment; while the rest still
hold their instrument under their left arm, and look about them. Thus the point
is greatly weakened, if not entirely missed. I invoke the attention and vigor of
orchestral conductors to this insufferable habit. It is, however, so rooted that they
will only ensure its extirpation by making a large number of violinists amenable for
the fault of a single player ; by inflicting a fine, for example, upon a whole row, if one
of them misses coming in. Even were this fine no more than half-a-crown, I will
answer for it that each of the violinists would count his rests, and keep watch that his
neighbors did the same, since it might be inflicted five or six times upon the same
individuals in the course of one performance.
An orchestra, the instruments of which are not in tune individually, and with
each other, is a monstrosity ; the conductor, therfore, should take the greatest care
that the musicians tune accurately. But this operation should not be performed in
presence of the public; and, moreover, every instrumental noise—every kind of
preluding between the acts— constitutes a real offence to all civilized auditors. The
pad training of an orchestra, and its musical mediocrity is to be inferred from the
impertinent noise it makes during the periods of quiet at an Opera or Concert.
It is also imperative for a conductor not to allow clarinet-players to use always
the same instrument (the clarinet in Bb), without regard to the author’s indications ;
jast as if the different clarinets — those in D and A, particularly —had not a special
20 THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR.
character of their own, of which the intelligent composer knows the exact value ; and
as if the clarinet in A had not moreover a low semitone more than the clarinet in
Bo—., the Ct, of excellent effect,
c= fl produced by the E, =I which E gives only the D, 6 fl
te o
on the clarinet in Bp.
A habit as vicious, and still more baneful, has crept into many orchestras since
the introduction of horns with cylinders and pistons: it is that of playing in open
sounds; by means of the new mechanism adapted to the instrument, those notes
intended by the composer to be produced in closed sounds, by means of the right hand
within the bell. Moreover, the horn-players nowadays, on account of the facility
afforded by the pistons or cylinders for putting their instrument into different keys,
use only the horn in F whatever may be the key indicated by the author. This cus-
tom gives rise to a host of inconveniences, from which the conductor should use all
his efforts to preserve the works of composers who know how to write.
He should also set his face against the economical fashion adopted by certain
theatres —called lyric — of causing the cymbals and the long drum to be played by
the same performer. The sound of the cymbals when attached to the drum —as
they must be to render this economy feasible — is an ignoble noise, fit only for bands
at tea-gardens. This custom, moreover, leads mediocre composers into the habit of
never employing one of these instruments without the other, and considering their
use as solely confined to forcibly marking the accented parts of the bar. This is an
idea fruitful in noisy platitudes; and one that has brought upon us the ridiculous
excesses beneath which, if a stop be not put to them, dramatic music will sooner or
later sink.
I conclude by expressing sincere regret at beholding choral and orchestral stud-
ies still so badly organized. Everywhere, for grand choral and instrumental compo-
sitions, the system of rehearsals in the mass is maintained. They make all the
chorus-singers study at once, on the one hand; and all the instrumentalists at once,
on the other. Deplorable errors, innumerable mistakes, are thus committed — par-
ticularly in the intermediate parts—errors which the chorus-master and the con-
ductor do not perceive. Once established, these errors degenerate into habits, and
become part and parcel of the execution.
The hapless chorus-singers, moreover, are by far the worst treated of all the per-
formers during their studies, such as they are. Instead of giving them a good con-
ductor, knowing the times of the different movements accurately, and proficient in the
art of singing, to beat the time, and make critical observations : a good pianist, play-
ing from a well-arranged pianoforte score, upon a good piano; and a violinist, to play
in unison or in octave with the voices as each part is learned alone —- instead of these
three indispensable artists, they commit them (in two-thirds of the lyric theatres of
Europe) to the superintendence of a single man, who has no more idea of the art of
conducting than of that of singing, who is generally a pogr musician, selected from
among the worst pianists to be found, or who cannot play the pianoforte at all—some
old superannuated individual, who, seated before a battered out-of-tune instrument,
tries to decipher a dislocated score which he does not know, strikes false chords
-major, when they are minor, or vice-versa, and under the protext of conducting and of
accompanying by himself, employs his right hand in setting the chorus-singers wrong
in their time, and his left hand in setting them wrong in their tune.
VHHOKY Ul HIS ART. 21
One might believe one’s self in the Dark Ages, on witnessing such an exhibition ot
Gothish economy.
A faithful, well-colored, clever interpretation of a modern work, even when con-
fided to artists of a higher order, can only be obtained, I firmly believe, by partial re-
hearsals. Each part of achorus should be studied singly until it is thoroughly known,
before combining it with the others. The same step should be taken with regard to
the orchestra, for a symphony at all complicated. The violins should first be practised
alone ; the violas and basses by themselves; the wooden wind instruments (with a
‘small band of stringed instruments, to fill in the rests, and accustom the wind instru-
ments to the points of re-entrance) and the brass instruments the same; and very
often it is necessary to practise the instruments of percussion alone; and lastly, the
harps, if they be numerous. The studies in combination are then far more profitable,
and more rapid; and there is then good hope of attaining fidelity of interpretation,
now, alas, but too rare.
The performances obtained by the old method of study are merely approaches to
achievement ; beneath which so very many masterpieces have succumbed. The super-
intending conductor, after the butchering of a master, none the less serenely lays down
his stick with a satisfied smile ; and if some few misgivings remain with him as to the
mode in which he has fulfilled his task, shéuld no one venture at the close to dispute
its accomplishment, he murmurs aside: ‘‘ Bah! ve victis !”’
Hector BER.ioz.
A ——
COMPLETE SET OF SELF-INSTRUCTORS
For All Orchestra and Band Instruments
BY
OTTO LANGEY and PAUL DE VILLE.
CARL FISCHER’S REVISED AND ONLY COMPLETE EDITION.
Hitherto, tutors for orchestral or band instruments have been either too expensive
to suit the pockets of musicians, or, being cheaper, been so meagre in the information
contained therein that they were totally unsuited to the educational needs of students.
To meet these objections, the pen of such celebrated writers as O. Langey and
Paul De Ville has been brought into requistion, and as a result produced a series of
works, unique of their kind, remarkable for. their lucidity and surprising for the
arrangement of their contents. They'are progressive in the true sense of the word,
containing studies which, like the steps of a ladder, lead higher and higher as each one
is surmounted until the highest point is attained. Tur ScaLes IN THBSE WORKS ARE
FEATURES NOT TO BE OVERLOOKED, AND NO OTHER WORKS ARE SO COMPLETE IN
THIS PARTICULAR AS THESE.
Each work is concise, comprehensive and up to date, containing no
superfluous matter. The series embraces the following:
Violin, Viola, Cello, 3-String Bass, 4-String Bass,
Clarinet, Piccolo, Flute, Oboe, Bassoon, French Horn,
Eb Cornet, Bb Cornet, ED Alto, Bb Tenor,
Bb Tenor Slide Trombone in Treble Clef, BD Tenor Slide Trombone in
Bass Clef, BD Tenor Valve Trombone in Treble Clef
Bb Tenor Valve Trombone in Bass Clef,
Bp Baritone or Euphonium in Bass Clef, BD Baritone or Euphonium in
, Treble Clef, Saxophone,
Ep Tuba or ED Bass, Drums, (Xylophone, Tympanies and Castanets),
Piano (Foreign fingering), Piano (American fingering),
Organ, Zither, Guitar, Banjo, Mandolin. |
MONARCH BRAND
IMPORTED MUSIC WRITING PAPER.
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surface and is impenetrable to ink. 6 different sizes and 27 different rulings.
Per Quire. Per Ream.
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Works of Educational Value Indispensable to both Teacher and
Student.
C. Fischer’s Editions.
CLARINET.
Klosé, H. Complete Method for
the Clarinet, as used at the Paris
Conservatory. (Ordinary system,
also Albert & Boehm system.)
Newly revised and with numerous
Additions by C. L. Staats.) $3.00
Kroepsch, F. Studies for Clarinet,
progressively arranged.
—Part I. 167 daily exercises (Vel-
ocity and Cadences). 75
—Part II. 188 daily exercises (Vel-
ocity and Cadences). .90
—Part III. 40 Studies for advanced
players (Modulation). 75
—Part IV. 26 Studies for Artists. .90
Clarinetist’s Studio, by Paul De-
Ville. A grand collection of 98
solos for B, Clarinet. Book J, II.
Paper. @ 2.00
Richter, Carl. Classic Favorites.
Containing 20 well known melo-
dies, arranged for Bb Clarinet and
Piano. Book I, II. @ 1.00
CORNET.
Arban’s Celebrated Cornet Method.
(English, German and French.)
The largest, finest and most com-
plete edition of ‘‘ Arban’s Method”’
ever published. 335 Pages Com-
plete. 3.00
Arban’s Celebrated Cornet Method.
Abridged. 139 pages. 1.00
St. Jacome. Complete Tutor for
the Cornet. In two volumes.
Vol. 1. 2.00
Vol. IL. 2.50
Complete. 4.00
Arban’s Art of Phrasing. 1.00
—14 Characteristic Studies. 75
—12 Fantasias and Airs variés. .75
—Daily Respiratory and Lip Exer-
cises and Tone Producer. 15
St. Jacome. 12 characteristic
studies. 1.00
—12 Grand Artistic Studies. 1.20
—25 Brilliant Exercises. 15
Cornetist’s Joy. A Collection of
36 celebrated Cornet Solos, by
Hartmann, Liberati, etc.
—Cornet part. 1.00
—Piano part. 2.00
Happy Hours, by Paul De Ville.
A Grand Collection of 30 popular
and standard operatic melodies.
—Cornet and Piano. 75
—Cornet part. 25
Hoch Album. Containing 16 Ori-
ginal Compositions by Theodore
Hoch. 1.00
TROMBONE.
Bonnisseau’s Complete Method for
Bb Tenor Slide Trombone in bass
or treble clef. (C. Fischer’s new
and revised edition. ) @ 1.50
Dieppo’s Complete Method for
the Slide and Valve Trombone in
bass clef. Revised and enlarged
by Paul de Ville. C. Fischer’s
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The Universal Method for the
Slide and Valve Trombone, in bass
and treble clef, by Paul de Ville.
This work contains the best and
most valuable matter from the
works of the world’s greatest writers
for Trombone, viz :-—Belcke, Bon-
nisseau, Clodomir, Cornette, Diep-
po, Reinhardt, Vobaron, Wagner,
etc. It contains exercises, studies,
etc., in both clefs.
Blume, O. 36 Studies for Trom-
bone, (German and English.)
Book I. 12 Studies in all the Ma-
jor and Minor Keys for Beginners. .60
2.00
—Book II. For advanced Scholars. .60
—Book III. For more experienced
Scholars. .60
Dieppo. 9 progressive studies for
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Reinhardt. 31 Studies for the
Trombone. .60
Vobaron, op. 1. 4 Lessons and 17
Studies. -75
Wagner, A. 27 Etudes for the
Trombone. .60
Dieppo-Vobaron. 3 Operatic Fan-
tasias for Slide or Valve Trombone. .40
Vobaron. 32 Melodies for ‘Trom-
bone. 125
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The Trombone Soloist. C. Fis-
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brated Solos for Trombone in Bass
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E? TUBA OR E) BASS.
Tuba Player’s Vade Mecum.
Tonal Studies. Solos and Extracts
from well-known works of cele-
brated masters. Paper. - 1.50
Violin Methods, Studies, and Solo Books.
METHODS.
Alard, D. Complete Conservatory
Method for the Violin. Original
Edition with English, German and
French text. Newly revised and
enlarged, embracing Alard Op. 10,
10 melodic studies with accompani-
ment of asecond violin. Complete.$3.00
De Beriot’s Celebrated Method for
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cording to the Original. English
and German. Vol. I, II, III. @1.20
—Complete in 1 vol. Boards. 3.00
Dancla, Ch., op. 52. Conservatory
Violin Method. (English, French
and German.) Newly revised and
enlarged by G. Saenger.
Part I. 1.00
—Part II. 1.75
—Complete 3.00
David, F. Violin School. New and
revised edition. . English and Ger-
man text.
—Part I. 1.25
—Part II. 1.75
—Complete. 3.00
Henning. Violin School. English
and German.
—Complete. 1.50
Hofmann, R., op. 31. ViolinSchool.
—Part I. (English and German.)
Schubert, Louis, op. 50. Violin
School on modern principles.
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2 vols, @ .75
Wichtl, op. 10. Young Violinist
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Boards.
Wohlfahrt, op. 38. Easiest begin-
ning.
VIOLIN STUDIES.
Alard, D., op. 10. Ten melodious
studies in first and second position
with accompaniment of a second
1.50
1.25
1.00
violin. 1.50
Blumenstengel, A. Scales and
Exercises of Velocity. Book I.
1st position. 50
—Book II. The first 3 positions. 50
Dancla, Chas., op. 74. School of
Velocity. 50 daily Exercises.
(English, German and French. ) 50
David F. Scale Studies (in one and
two octaves.) 40
Dont J., op. 37. Preparatory Ex-
ercises to the studies of Kreutzer
& Rode.
Gaviniés. 24 Matinées. Revised by
Kross. (English and German.)
Edited by Gustav Saenger.
Fiorillo. 86 Etudes or Caprices,
revised by Kross. (English and
German.) Edited by Gustav Saen-
ger.
Hrimaly, J. Scale Studies, (English
1.00
French and German.)
Kayser, op. 20.
progressive studies.
Kreutzer. 42 studies with addition
of the 12th study augmented with
descending chords. (Singer.)
Kross E., op. 40. The Art of Bow-
ing.