ASIA
 

Garnell University Library
Sthara, Nem Bork

CHARLES WILLIAM WASON

COLLECTION
CHINA AND THE CHINESE

THE GIFT OF
CHARLES WILLIAM WASON
CLASS OF 1876
1918
ornell University Library

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K’UNG FU-TZU
From a Rubbing Representing Confucius, on a Slab near

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OR

MISSIONS IN CHINA

4

BY

HARLAN P. BEACH, M.A., F.R.G.S,

REVISED EDITION

NEW YORK

STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS

1905
G
Wise
‘ a yO

8 26 DD,

IFo5~

CoPpYRIcHT, 1898, BY

STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS

 

CopYRicut, 1905, BY
STUDENT VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS

 
PREFACE

Tus little volume has been written as a text-book
for voluntary mission study classes in institutions of
higher learning. Such a use calls for brevity, and at
the same time for possibilities of further reading and
study, a requirement partly met by the readings
suggested for each chapter in the Bibliography. It
also accounts for peculiarities of typography, such as
the Clarendon type headings, which mark the main
divisions of chapters, and the numerals and words
in italics found in the minor divisions. ‘Ten years’
supervision of such classes has shown their value as
aids in preparing teaching outlines and questions, as
well as in helping the student to see at a glance the
subject of a given paragraph.

When it is remembered that this series of text-
books has been used in more than 700 colleges, uni-
versities, etc., of North America and Europe, and by
members of every branch of the Christian Church,
the reader will not expect to find any detailed refer-
ence to the work of individual missionary societies
laboring in China. The main items can be found in
brief form in Appendixes C and D and in the Statis-
tical Table ; for further information the publications
of the various societies must be consulted.

The Romanization of Chinese words calls for ex-
planation. The meaning of the ideographs used in

iii
iv PREFACE
Chinese writing is the same all over the Empire, but
their pronunciation is as varied as are the equivalents
in various European languages of a given Arabic
numeral. Hence literature relating to China is a
hopeless sea of variant spellings of Chinese words, in
many cases the same writer inconsistently employing
various systems. In this volume the Romanization
of Sir Thomas Wade is used throughout, except in
place names that have become very widely known in
an earlier Romanization. The system is a reproduc-
tion of sounds of the Mandarin form of the language,
which is familiar to more than two hundred millions.
If it be objected that Sir Thomas has followed in the
main the Peking form of the Mandarin and that it
would be better to use the Standard System of Ro-
manization, we would reply that. Pekingese is to
China what Parisian is to France, and that as the
Wade system is used increasingly in the best dic-
tionaries and text-books in the langnage, it is desir-
able to abide by it here, even though it is open to
criticism on phonological and other grounds. An
approximately correct key to the system immediately
precedes Chapter I., while in Appendix D a simpler
table of equivalents is given in connection with a list
of all the mission stations in China, as well as of other
Chinese words used in this text-book. So far as the
author knows the literature, this greatly needed aid
to pronouncing Chinese words is more complete than
any other. It is hoped that it will contribute toward
a better conception of Chinese sounds, even if there

is no attempt made to suggest suele proper tone, or
intonation,
CONTENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY - - ~ ‘ . « ‘ ‘
Key to PRONOUNCIATION OF CHINESE WoRDs, 3
I. Tue Wortp or THE CHINESE, . ‘i 3 z

Ii. Curmva’s INHERITANCE FROM THE Past, . ‘ ‘i

Ill. ‘Tae Rear Curaman,” ‘ - J “
IV. RELicIons oF THE CHINESE, . . si ‘
V. PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS, : is . 5
VI. Tse Protrestant Occupation or CHINA, . P
VII. Tue Missionaries at Work, % ‘ g ‘
VIII. Tue New Cuina, . . . j . 7 :

Aprenpix A. Provinciay Divisions, ‘ ‘ .
Aprenpix B. Prominent Events oF THE Historic Dy-
NASTIES, - . * 4 ‘ i ‘3 .
Appenpix C. List or Missionary Societies LaBorine
in CHINA, . ‘ ‘ ‘i x ‘ ‘ é 4
Appenpix D. Pronouncine InpEex or STATIONS AND OF
Cuines—E Worps and NamMEs, . 2 F : :
Aprenpix E. Statistics oF Missions tn CHINA FOR
1904, . apt : : . - opposite page

GunERAL INDEX, - < ‘ ; es 5 ‘

PAGE

xvi

15°
32
52
75
95
109

127

- 161

167

170

177

202
293
ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING
PAGE

K‘une Fu-rzt. From a Ruspinc REPRESENTING Con-

FUCIUS, ON A SLAB NEAR His Grave . . Frontispiece
Imace or Conrucius, Yo Lo Coutncs, Ca‘ane-sHa . 20
Tue Wuire Deer Cottece or Cuu Fu-rz0 . : 20
ExamInaTION Hau AND STALLS aT NANKING, Accoue

MODATING 30,000 CanpIpDATES FoR DEGREES. . 386
Famity ANCESTRAL TABLETS IN A CHINESE HomE . 64
A Group OF CHINESE OFFICIALS ice Ta 7 .  . 654
Buppuist Tempe, SoutH CHINA. A Z - 88

Bronze ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS MADE BY JESUITS 88
Ox.prest CuurcH BuILpING FoR NATIVE CHRISTIANS IN

CHINA . 3 s ‘ , . 104
Pastor OF ABOVE Grime AND His WIFE. ‘ 104
Rev. Henry Buopvcet, D.D. A PIonEER IN Norn

CHINA 106
Rev. Vircin a Hann D. E. F. R. G. 8. A Rien IN

West CHINA : 3 6 7 5 4 F - 106
GreneraL HospiraL, CHUNG-cH‘ING . . . .  . 110
Hore Hosprrat, AMoY . 5 . 3 < . 110
Yen Hatt, St. JoHNn’s CoLuEecE, Srancar s » « dl4
Main Burupine, Su-cHou Universiry . . . . 114
Tue Late Viceroy Li Hune-cHane 5 3 . 136

Prince Su, FornicNers’ FRIEND DURING THE Sime . 136
MemoriaL TO OBERLIN Martyrs IN SHAN-HSI, ERECT-

ED AT ENTRANCE TO OBERLIN COLLEGE CAMPUS 140
TasLet TO THE Memory or Horace Tracy PirKin aT
YALE. . ‘ : , : i 3 : . . 160

Map or Carina ts eo ‘ ' 3 3 . At End
BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER I.

Barnes, I. H. Behind the Great Wall (1896), ch. I.

CunnyncHam, W. G. E. Young People’s History of the
Chinese (1896), ch. II.

Curzon, G. N. Problems of the Far East (1896), ch. VIII.

Davis, J. F. The Chinese (1851), vol. L., ch. V.

Encyclopedia of Missions (1891 and 1904). Article, China.

General Encyclopedias. Article, China.

Gorst, H. E. China (1899), ch. IT.

Grauam, J. M. East of the Barrier (1902), ch

Gray, J.H. China (1878), vol. I., ch. I.; vol. IL. ‘ah XXXII.

Hart, V.C. Western China (1888), chs. VI.-XII

Henry, B.C. Ling-nam (1886). Especially ch. XXvIL.

Hosiz, A. Manchuria (1900), chs. I., V., VII., VIII.

Keane, A. H. Asia (1896), vol. I., pp. 245-361.

Kleine Missions-Bibliothek (1880), vol. III., pt. III., pp. 1-13.

Muu, H. R., Editor. The International Geography (1900),
pp. 521-542.

Morris, T. M. A Winter in North China eae) igh VII.

Nevius, J. L. China and the Chinese (1882), ch

Nouveau Dictionnaire de Géographie Datvoralle (1897).
Article, Chine.

Parker, E. H. China, Her History, Diplomacy, and Com-
merce (1901), ch. I.

Rocxuitt, W. W. The Land of the Lamas (1891), chs. I.,
IL., VIL.

SmitH, A. H. Rex Christus (1903), ch. I.

THoMsoN, J. Through China with a Camera (1898).

Wiuiiams, 8. W. Middle Kingdom (1882), vol. I., chs. I.-III.

Watea neon) A. Journeys in North China (1870), vol. II.,
ch. I

Wuson, J. H. China (1894), chs. ITI.-V.

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER II.

Bovauton, W. History of Ancient Peoples (1897), pt. II.

ch, IT.
Bovuieer, D.C. A Short History of China (1893).
viii BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

Davis, J. F. Sketches of China (1845), ch. IX.
The Chinese (1851), vol. I., ch. VI. .

De Lacourrriz, T. Western Origin of the Early Chinese
Civilization (1894), chs. II., IIL.

Dovetas, R. K. China (1882), ch. I.

Encyclopedia of Missions (1891), vol. I., pp. 251, 252.

Fazer, E. China in the Light of History (1897). .

Chronological Handbook of the History of China (1902).

Frercusson, T. Chinese Researches (1880), pt. I., ch. I.

General Encyclopedias. Article, China. . .

Grzson, J. C. Mission Problems and Mission Methods in
South China (1901), pp. 15-32.

Gorst, H. E. China (1899), chs. IV., V.

Kleine Missions-Bibliothek (1880), vol. III., pt. IIL, pp.
15-27. :

Lzeex, J. The Chinese Classics (1865), vol. III., pt. I., ch. V.

Maccowan, J. History of China (1897).

Martin, W. A. P._ The Lore of Cathay (1901), Book V.

Mayers, W. F. Chinese Reader’s Manual (1874).

Mepuurst, W. H. China: Its State and Prospects (1838),
ch. I.

Moutz, A. E. New China and Old (1892), ch. I.

Parker, E. H. China, Her History, Diplomacy, and Com-
merce (1901), ch. II.

Port, F. L. H. A Sketch of Chinese History (1903).

Witpman, R. China's Open Door (1900), chs. II.—X.

Wiuuams, H. 8., Editor. The Historians’ History of the
World (1904), vol. XXIV., pp. 542-554.

Witxiams, 8. W. Middle Kingdom (1882), vol. II., ch. XVII.

Wiuuiams, 8. W. and F. W. History of China (1897).

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER III.

Batu, J. D._ Things Chinese (1893), pp. 91-101.
Bryson, M.I. Home Life in China (n. d.).
Cocxsurn, G. John Chinaman (1896).
Corqunoun, A. R. China in Transformation (1898), ch. X.
Davis, J. A. Choh Lin (1884), chs. I-—XI,.
Davis, J. F._ Sketches of China (1845), ch. XV.
Doouitriz, J. Social Life of the Chinese (1865).
Dovenas, R. K. China (1882).
Society in China (1894).
rea J. Along River and Road in Fuh-kien (n. d.), chs.

Encyclopzdia of Missions (1891 and 1904). Article, China.
Fietpz, A. M. A Corner of Cathay (1894), errr
Pagoda Shadows (1884).
BIBLIOGRAPHY ix

 

oe AA China| Article, China.

ou + China and the Chinese (1902), lects. I.,
Gari 5. M. East of the Barrier (1902), ch. IT.
Gray, J. H. China (1878).
Henry, B.C. The Cross and the Dragon (1885), ch. III.
Houtcomser, C. The Real Chinaman (1895).

The Real Chinese Question (1900), chs. IT., IV.

Hosiz, A. Three Years in Western China (1889), ch. XIII.
te R. C. Women of the Orient (1877), chs. V.,

KEANE, A. H. Asia (1896), vol. I., pp. 361-383, 482-439.

Maccowan, J. Pictures of Southern China (1897), pp. 316-
320.

McNasz, R.L. The Women of the Middle Kingdom (1903).

Manes, D. Morning Light in Many Lands (1891), chs. X.,

I

Mepuurst, W. H. The Foreigner in Far Cathay (1873),
especially chs. XII., XVIII.

Mission Stories of Many Lands (1885), pp. 173-219.

Movs, A. E. New China and Old (1892), chs. IV., V.

Nes J. L. China and the Chinese (1882), chs. II., XVII.,

Parker, E. H. China, Her History, Diplomacy, and Com-
merce (1901), ch. XIV.
Setsy, T. G. Chinamen at Home (n.d.), especially chs.
Smits, A. H. Chinese Characteristics (1894).
Proverbs and Common Sayings of the Chinese (1888).
Village Life in China (1899).
Wituiams, H. §S., Editor. The Historians’ History of the
World (1904), vol. XXIV., pp. 531-541.
Witurams, 8. W. Middle Kingdom (1882,) vol. I., chs. V.,
VIIL., IX., XIII, XIV.
Wvuiz, A. Notes on Chinese Literature (1867), pp. i—xiii.

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER IV.

Barrows, J. H., Editor. World’s Parliament of Religions
(1893), vol. I., pp. 374-439; vol. II., pp. 1355-1358.

Brau, 8. Buddhism in China (1884.)

Berrany, G. T. The World’s Religions (1891), pp. 102-166.

Carus, P. Lao-Tze’s Tao-Teh-King (1898).

China Mission Hand-Book (1896), pt. I., pp. 1-31.

Davips, T. W. R. Buddhism (1890), chs. VIII., TX.

Doourrr.e, J. Social Life of the Chinese (1865), vol. I.,
chs. VIIL., XI., XIV.
x BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

Doveras, R. K. Confucianism and Taouism (1889).

Du Bossz, H.C. The Dragon, Image, and Demon (1886).

Epxins, J. Early Spread of Religious Ideas (1893), chs. V.-
VIL

Extinwoop, F. F. Oriental Religions and Christianity
(1892), lect. VII. ;

Encyclopedia of Missions (1891 and 1904). Articles, Con-
fucianism, Taoism. ;

Faser, E. The Mind of Mencius (1897). | ons

General Encyclopedias. Articles, Confucius, Confucianism,
Taoism.

Gisson, J. C. Mission Problems and Mission Methods in
South China (1901), chs. TI., IV. : ;
Grant, G. M. Religions of the World in Relation to Chris-

tianity (1894), ch. III.
Gray, J. H. China (1878), vol. I., chs. IV., V.
Henry, B.C. The Cross and the Dragon (1885), chs. IV.—
VII.
Houcomse, C. The Real Chinaman (1895), chs. VI., VII.
Huc, E.R. A Journey through the Chinese Empire (n. d.),
vol. IL., ch. VI.
Jevons, F.B. Introduction to the History of Religion (1896),
see China in Index.
Lucan, J. Chinese Classics, Translated into English (1887),
vols. 'I., II.
Chinese Classics (with Chinese text) (1893), vol. I., the
Prolegomena; vol. II., the Prolegomena.
Religions of China (1881).
Sacred Books of the East, the Texts of Taoism (1891),
especially vol. I., pp. 1-44.
Martin, W. A. P. The Lore of Cathay (1901), Book III.
Maruzson, G. Distinctive Messages of the Old Religions
(1894), ch. III.
Menzigs, A. History of Religion (1895), ch. VIII.
Mourz, A. E. New China and Old (1892), chs. VL, VIII.
cae a L. China and the Chinese (1882), chs. IIL.,
Present Day Tracts—Non-Christian Religions (1887), Chris-
tianity and Confucianism.
Progress for October, 1897, pp. 103-107, 112-150.
Records of the Missionary Conference, Shanghai, 1877, pp.
62-75, 367-387.
Scorr, A. Buddhism and Christianity (1890), lect. VI.
Seusy, T.G. Chinamen at Home (1900), ch. IV.
EUlrE A. = a el (1903), ch. II.
iuiaMs, H. 8., Editor. The Historians’ Histor
World (1904), vol. XXIV., pp. 525-530. a OE ths
Se 8S. W. Middle Kingdom (1882), vol. II., pp. 188—
BIBLIOGRA PHY i

 

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER V.

Arnotp, T. W. The Preaching of Islam (1896), ch. X.

Batu, J. D. Things Chinese (1893), pp. 294-299; 419-430.

Baumearten, P. M. Das Wirken der katholischen Kirche
auf dem Erdenrund (1902), pp. 40-42, 256-261.

China Mission Hand-Book (1896), pt. I., pp. 31-45.

Davis, J. F. The Chinese (1851), vol. I., ch. I.

Doouirtie, J. Social Life of the Chinese (1865), vol. IL.,
pp. 394-403.

Encyclopedia of Missions (1891), vol. I., pp. 264, 265.

Henne C. R. Islam, as a Missionary Religion (1889), ch.

Huc, E. R. Christianity in China (1857).

ie na T. W. M. Christian Missions (1863), sections on

ina.
Martin, W. A. P. A Cycle of Cathay (1896), pt. II., ch. IV.
The Chinese (1881), pp. 287-306.

Miens, L’Asse. Dictionnaire des Missions Catholiques
(1864), p pp. 330-383.

Neanper, A. General History of the Christian Religion and
Church (1871), vol. IV., pp. 45-59.

Nevius, J. L. China and the Chinese (1882), ch. XXVI.

Proter, J. B. Les Missions Catholiques Frangaises au XIX°.
Siécle (1901), vol. III., chs. I-VII.

Records of the Missionary Conference, Shanghai (1890),
pp. 196-202.

Wituams, 8S. W. Middle Kingdom (1882), vol. II., pp. 266-
318.

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER VI.

Berry, D. M. The Sister Martyrs of Ku Cheng (n. d.), ch.
XXII.

Buss, E, M. Concise History of Missions (1897), pt. II.,
ch. V

Butizr, W. F. Charles George Gordon (1889), ch. III.

Centenary Conference on Foreign Missions, London, 1888,
vol. L, pp. 220-238.

China Mission Hand-Book (1896), pt. II.

Coss, H.N. Far Hence (1893), chs. X3.-XXVII.

Crrecan, C. C. Great Missionaries of the Church (1895),
chs. VI., VII.

Encyclopedia of Missions (1891), vol. I, pp. 265-271; (1904
edition), pp. 151, 152.

Faae, J.G. Forty Years in South China (1894), chs. V., XI.

GRAHAM, J. A. Missionary Expansion of the Reformed
Churches (1898), pp. 189-160.
Pe BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

Gutnness, M. G. Story of the China Inland Mission (1894).

GunprErt, H. Die evangelische Mission (1894), pp. 334-355.

Henry, B.C. The Cross and the Dragon (1885), ch. IX.

Hotcomssg, C. The Real Chinese Question (1900), ch. IX.

Horne, C.8. Story of the L. M. S., 1795-1895 (1895), ch. V.

In Lands Afar (1897), pp. 207-264.

Lawrence, E. A. Modern Missions in the East (1894), pp.
57-70.

Lenker, J. N. Lutherans in all Lands (1893), vol. I., pp.
639-644. :

Lzonarp, D. L. A Hundred Years of Missions (1895), pp.
307-332.

Lovert, R. James Gilmour of Mongolia (1893), ch. IT.

Masiz, H.C. In Brightest Asia (1891), chs. V.—XII.

MacCrackeEN and Piper. Leaders of Our Church Universal
(1878). Life XXXVI.

McLean, A. Circuit of the Globe (1897), chs. XITX.-XXTX.

Mouvts, A. E. New China and Old (1892), ch. X.

Nevius, J. L. China and the Chinese (1882), pp. 300-331.

Rep and Gracey. Missions and Missionary Society of the
Methodist Episcopal Church (1895), vol. I, pp. 409-485;
vol. IL., pp. 9-177.

Reports of the Boards of Missions of the Provinces of Canter-
bury and York on the Mission Field (1894), pp. 260-283.

Rogson, W. Griffith John (n. d.).

en R. E. Missions and Modern History (1904), vol. I.,

eh. I.

Stacy, T. H. In the Path of Light Around the World (1895),
chs. VI.-VIII.

Stevens and Marxwicx. The Life of Peter Parker, M. D.
(1896), chs. VIII., IX., XIV., XV.

Townsenp, W. J. Robert Morrison (n. d.), especially ch. X.

bas a P. Modern Heroes of the Mission Field (1881),
ch. IV.

Warnecx, G. Outline of a History of Protestant Missions
(1901), pp. 294-305.

Witurams, F. W. Life and Letters of S. Wells Williams
(1888), especially chs. III.—X.

Wiui1aMs, 8. W._ Middle Kingdom (1882), vol. II., pp. 318-
371, chs. XXII., XXVI.

Youne, R. Modern Missions, Their Trials and Triumphs
(1884), pp. 100-138.

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER VII.

Barinsrivcr, W. F. Around the World Tour of Christian
Missions (1882).
Brown, A. J. New Forces in Old China (1904), pt. IV.
BIBLIOGRAPHY xiii

 

Bryson, M. I. Fred C. Roberts of Tientsin (1895), chs.

VIL-XII.
John Kenneth Mackenzie (n. d.).

Centenary Conference on Foreign Missions, London, 1888,
vol. IL., pp. 266-272, 308-315.

Cotrman, R. The Chinese (1891), chs. VIII.-X.

Cummine, C. F. G. Wanderings in China (1888), chs. VIII.,

| XIL, XXXV., XX XVIII.

Du Bosr, H. C. Preaching in Sinim (1893), chs. IV., V.,
VIII.-XII.

Dupezon, J. The Diseases of China (1877).

Duxegs, E. J. Along River and Road in Fuh-kien (n. d.),
chs. VI., [X., XII, XIII.

Gisson, J. C. Mission Problems and Mission Methods in
South China (1901), chs. VI.-XI.

Hane, B.C. The Cross and the Dragon (1885), chs. XII.-
XXII.

a E. Conquests of the Cross (n. d.), see Index in vol.
IL.

Jounston, J. China and Formosa (1897), ch. XIX.

Lewis, R. E. Educational Conquest of the Far East (1903),
chs. XI.-XIX.

LocxHart, W. The Medical Missionary in China (1861),
chs. VI.-IX.

Lowe, J. Medical Missions (1887), ch. V.

Mears, W.P. Preservation of Health in the Far East (1895).

Mission Press in China (1895).

Nevius, H. 8. C. Life of John Livingstone Nevius (1895),
especially ch. XXXV.

ee J. L. China and the Chinese (1882), chs. XXII.-

Methods of Mission Work (1895).

Records of the Missionary Conference, Shanghai, 1877.

Records of the Missionary Conference, Shanghai, 1890.

Ross, J. Mission Methods in Manchuria (1903).

Seipy, T. G. Chinamen at Home (1900), chs. VII.-IX.

Spottiswoopz,G. A. Missionary Conference of the Anglican
Communion (1894), pp. 213-221.

Srevens and Marxwicx. The Life of Peter Parker, M. D.
(1896), ch. VIII.

Stott, G. Twenty-six Years of Missionary Work in China
(1897).

ea Mrs. F. H. Pastor Hsi, One of China’s Christians
(1903).

Wiuuramson, I. Old Highways in China (n. d.).
xiv BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR CHAPTER VIII.

Braco, H. P. Princely Men of the Heavenly Kingdom
(1903), ch. VI. : ;

Beresrorp, C. The Break-up of China (1899), especially
ch. XXX.

Bisuop, Mrs. J. F. The Yangtze Valley and Beyond (1900),
vol. II., ch. XX XIX. .

BroomuHatt, M. Martyred Missionaries of the China Inland
Mission (1901), especially pp. 3-14.

Brown, A. J. New Forces in Old China (1904), pts. II.-V.

Cuane, Cuin-TunG. China’s Only Hope (1900).

Co.tquHoun, A. R. China in Transformation (1898), ch. XI.

Overland to China (1900), ch. XX.

Epwarps, E. H. Fire and Sword in Shansi (n. d.).

Tae R. a The China Martyrs of 1900 (n. d.), especially
chs. L., A

Fosrrr, J. W. American Diplomacy in the Orient (1903),
pp. 408-438.

Gorst, H. E. China (1899), chs. XXII., XXVI.

Granam, J. M. East of the Barrier (1902), chs. X.—XIII.

Heapuanp, I. T. Chinese Heroes (1902).

Hee C. The Real Chinese Question (1900), chs. VI., ‘

Kertizr, I. C. The Tragedy of Paotingfu (1902).

Mateer, A. H. Siege Days (1903), especially pp. 13-26.

Miner, L. China’s Book of Martyrs (1903), especially In-
troduction.

Port, F. L. H. The Outbreak in China (1903).

SQBMETe J. H. A Flight for Life (1903), especially chs.

Smiru, A. H. China in Convulsion (1901), especially chs.
I-XTIT., XXXTI.-XXXVIII.

Rex Christus (1903), chs. V., VI.

Smytu, G. B., and others. The Crisis in China (1900).
Sprrr, R. E. A Memorial of Horace Tracy Pitkin (1903).
Missionary Principles and Practice (1902), chs. XIII.-
XIX., XXXV.

Missions and Modern History (1904), vol. IL., ch. XI.
Witpman, R. China’s Open Door (1900), ch. XIV.
Wituams, H. S., Editor. The Historians’ History of the

World (1904), vol. XXIV., pp. 558-578.
World-wide Evangelization—Toronto Convention Report
(1902), pp. 325-351.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION OF CHINESE
WORDS

The system of Romanizing Chinese words followed in this
book is that of Sir Thomas Wade as adapted to the Mandarin of
Peking. While it is impossible to accurately pronounce Peking-
ese without the aid of a native, and though it would be useless
to pronounce accurately in China, if the tones were not acquired
—as is still more impossible without a teacher—an approxima-
tion is here offered that the prevalent atrocious pronunciation of
Western lands may be modified and that a correct Chinese pro-
nunciation may be more nearly attained. Only those letters and
combinations of letters occasioning difficulty are given; others
are pronounced as in English. We would repeat that the sug-
gestions here made will only enable the reader to gain an ap-
proximate pronunciation of the Peking Mandarin, the Parisian
of China. Only English equivalents or partial equivalents are
given. Those who would gain a more accurate idea of Chinese
pronunciation are referred to Wade and Hillier’s “* Tzii Erh
Chi.” ‘

ng as in sing.
* 0 as oa in boa-constrictor.
ou as in though,

a@as in father.
ai as in aisle.
ao as ow in now.

* ch as j in jar. *p as b.
ch‘ as in change. p' asp.
é as in perch. rh as rr in burr.
e in eh, en, as in yet, when. ss as in hiss,
ei as ey in whey. *tasd.
*hs as hss in hissing, when the | t‘ as ¢.
first i is omitted. * ts as ds in pada.

7 as in machine, when it stands
alone or at the end of a word.
ias in pin, when before n and ng.

tu as eo in geology.

iao as e ou In me out.

ie as in siesta.

*ih as er in over.

iu as eu in Jehu, when h is omit-

ted.
*j as the first r in regular.
*kasg in game.
Kas k,

 

ts‘ as in cats.

* tz as ds in pads.

tz‘ as ts in cats,

wu as oo in too.

ua as oe o in shoe on.

uai as o ey in two eyes,

wei as way.

ui as ewy in screwy.

* @ as final a in America,

* was French u or German &
* ta as French u plus a in an.
* te as French w plus e in yet.

*Those thus marked have no close English equivalents. © =
nante followed by an aspirate (‘) are ee like he same i English;
the same consonants without the aspirate are more difficult to cor-

xectly pronounce.

xvi
DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

I
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE

Scope of the Text-book.—The first missionaries
to China, men of the Buddhist faith, called the land
Chin-tan, or Dawn. Centuries later, when the rulers
of the T‘ang dynasty had made the Empire the most
polished nation of the world, the Hills of Tang be-
came the popular name for the whole land, a desig-
nation still frequently used in regions south of the
Yang-tzi Kiang. This little volume does not pre-
tend to discuss fully either the land or the people of
China. All that is attempted is to furnish a glimpse
of the hills and men of Tang, and to sketch, in out-
line, the Christian dawn as it is touching mountain
and plain, city and hamlet, throughout this most pop-
ulous empire. It should further be stated that, in-
asmuch as there is so little missionary work attempted
among the sparsely settled Chinese dependencies,
attention will be restricted to missions within China
Proper, Shéng-ching, in sontheru Manchuria, being
regarded as a Chinese province.

‘“*What’s in a Name ?’’—Of ten thousand Chi-
nese hearing the word China, probably not more than
one would have any idea that it referred to his native
country. Their own names for the Empire and the
designations by which it has been known in history
demand a moment’s attention.

1. Harly occidental names applied to this land
seem to have varied according to the direction from

I
2 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

which it was approached. When reached by the
northern land route, it was known to the ancients
as Seres, and to the Middle Ages as Cathay. The
Latin word Seres may have been derived from the
Chinese character for silk, ssi, and seems to have
come into use in the Han dynasty, as it was a name
familiar to the Augustan poets. Cathay, the mediz-
val designation, is from Khitan, a race of Tartar con-
querors, who subjugated the northern provinces dur-
ing the tenth and eleventh centuries, and thus gave
to North China the name Khitdi.

Travellers by the southern sea route knew the Em-
pire, or its people, by the terms Sin, Sinw, Chin,
China, and Tsiniste. The occurrence of the name
China in the Laws of Manu and the Mahabharata
may indicate that the Hindus had intercourse with
the Chinese at an early period, though other peoples
may have been referred to under this name. ‘The
apparently cognate Hebrew word Sinim (Isaiah
xlix. 12) is regarded by many exegetes as referring to
China. It is probable that this group of names finds
its origin in the dynastic appellation of Ts‘in or
Ch‘in, a family which, in 221 B.c., subdued all
China. This sept had been powerful from its rise,
more than six centuries earlier, especially in the
western half of the country.

2. Native appellations are various. Hua Hsia, Flow-
ery Hsia, Tang Shan, Hills of Tang; and Ta Chiing
Kuo, Great Pure Kingdom, are phrases derived from
celebrated dynasties of the past and present, while
the commonest name, Chung Kuo, Middle Kingdom,
points back to the time, more than 3,000 years ago,
when the Chou dynasty called the royal domain—
located in modern Ho-nan —by that name, because
it was in the centre surrounded by its feudal states.
Sst Hai, [all within] the Four Seas, and 7'<ien Hsia,
Beneath the Sky, are very ancient appellations, while
Chin-tan, Dawn, and Tung Tu, Land of the East—
a Mohammedan name—are of comparatively recent
date. Our phrase, the Celestials, comes from 7’ den
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE 3

 

Ch‘ao, Heavenly Dynasty, meaning the kingdom
which is ruled over by the dynasty appointed by
Heaven. Chung Hua Kuo, Middle Flowery King-
dom, does not so much refer to a land of flowers as
to the fact that the Chinese regard themselves as
among the most polished and civilized of nations
(cf. our word flowery in its rhetorical sense).

China’s Place in Asia.—A glance at the map
will show the favorable position occupied by the
Empire. To the north lies comparatively barren and
largely frigid Siberia. To the west and southwest
are the dry regions of Central Asia, Afghanistan,
Baluchistan, Persia, and Arabia. India and south-
eastern Asia are fruitful and populous, but their in-
habitants are subject to the enervating influences of
the tropics, while the Asiatic lands of the Bible are
less favored than is China. Japan and Formosa and
portions of Korea are as fortunately located as she,
but are of very limited extent. Whatis the signifi-
cance of China’s natural advantages as they affect
Asia? With a sea-coast upward of 2,000 miles in
length, with a soil of remarkable fertility, open to the
ocean winds and watered by noble rivers, with a terri-
tory lying almost entirely within the temperate zone,
and containing beneath its surface mineral wealth of
untold value, China has not only been able to maintain
a large population during past millenniums, but in all
probability she is also destined to be in the future
the home of Asia’s most numerous and influential in-
habitants.

Areas with Some Comparisons.—Owing to un-
certainty as to a portion of its boundary and to in-
adequate surveys, areas are only approximate ; conse-
quently the estimates of different authorities greatly
vary.

- According to the ‘‘Statesman’s Year-Book,
1904,” * the area of the Empire—including China

*Unless otherwise stated, the statistics of population and
areas contained in this chapter are taken from this standard
work.
4 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

Proper, and its dependencies, Manchuria, Mongolia,
Tibet, Jungaria, and East Turkestan—is 4,277,170
square miles. It is thus equal to that of the United
States, the provinces of Ontario and Quebec and all of
Mexico to a line a little beyond the Isthmus of Te-
huantepec combined. Applied to the map of Europe
this area would include every country with the excep-
tion of about one-fourth of Russia, while on the map of
Asia it equals all its southern portion from Cochin
China to the Mediterranean, and a strip extending
north to include Turkestan, together with the Japan-
ese Empire on the northeast. It should be remem-
bered that within this last-named region lies the so-
called ‘“‘ Continent” of India, if one would realize the
vast extent of the Chinese Empire.

2. The area of China Proper is not much more
than one-third of the total extent of the Empire,
measuring 1,532,420 square miles. Compared with
familiar standards, it is equal to one and eight-tenths
times that part of the United States lying east of the
Mississippi. Its territory would furnish more than
enough material for twelve United Kingdoms, there
would be unused land after France had been laid
down upon it seven times over, and India without
Burma would extend beyond China’s limits only by a
slight fringe.

An idea of the corresponding latitudes and longi-
tudes bounding China Proper can be gained if we sup-
pose it superimposed on the United States. The city
of Mukden, in the remote northeast, may be placed
on Boston. Its southernmost island will then.lie upon
Yucatan, Havana roughly corresponding in position
with Canton. Its southwestern boundary will almost
touch the Mexican coast to the north of Tampico.
Kansas City will be near the northwestern boundary,
if the extension of the province of Kan-su be neglected,
and the northern frontier will thence pass through
Chicago and Detroit back to Boston again.

Striking Physical Features.— Sloping to the
eastward and to the southeast from the lofty “‘ roof of
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE 5

 

the world ” in Central Asia, the territory is seen to be
alternately furrowed by extensive river systems, and
divided up by mountain-ridges and hills, which cover
the country save in the northeastern quarter, where
there is an immense delta plain, one of the most no-
ticeable features of the Empire.

1. The numerous rivers and many canals of China
form its frequented highways. The two largest of
these rivers—ho is the term commonly used for river
in the north, as kiang (chiang) is in the south—are
the Huang Ho, Yellow River, and the Kiang River,
less properly called the Yang-tzt, or Son of Ocean, as
its incorrectly written form is translated.

The Huang Ho receives its name from the yellow
clay deposit which it takes up in its course through
the loess region of the provinces of Shan-hsi and
Shen-hsi, the same deposit giving its color and name
to the Yellow Seaalso. Asit reaches the Great Plain,
this clay silts up the river-channel until its bed is in
some places almost as high as the surrounding coun-
try. Naturally, in times of unusual freshets, the illy
constructed dikes are broken through, the populous
low-lying plain is overwhelmed with ruin, and occa-
sionally—ten times in the last 2,500 years—the river
opens a new channel to the sea. Its right to the ap-
pellation of ‘‘ China’s Sorrow” will be granted when
it is remembered that every such outbreak means the
wholesale destruction of crops, the melting down of
numberless adobe houses, and an enormous loss of
human life—millions having perished in the over-
flow of 1887, for example. ‘

Far more useful is the Yang-tzi, called “ the girdle
of China,” because of its central position and the
number of provinces through which it passes. Rising
in Tibet, not far from the sources of the Huang Ho,
this mighty river stands first in the world for ar-
rangement of subsidiary streams which make its en-
tire basin accessible from the sea. Ocean steamers
readily reach Han-k‘ou; river steamers can ascend as
far as I-ch‘ang, and small steamers have even passed .
6 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'aANG

 

through the rapids into the heart of Ssti-ch‘uan ;
while native boats navigate it as far as remote Yiin-
nan. The opening up of this river—whose basin,
with its 12,000 miles of navigable waterway, occu-
pies nearly one-half of China Proper—to the trade of
the Occident is an important factor in China’s future
development. These and other smaller yet very im-
portant rivers are her glory, and “no country can
compare with her for natural facilities of inland
navigation.”

2. The lakes of the Empire are unimportant,
though in some sections they are very numerous,
as in Koko-nor, known by the Chinese as the “‘ Sea
of Stars,” because of its many lakelets. They are
usually quite picturesque and support a large aquatic
population, whose tleets of boats thickly dot their
waters. The targest one, Tung-t‘ing Hu, 1s abou
the size of our Great Salt Lake, and lies in the centre
of China, giving its name to the provinces Hu-pei ana
Hu-nan—“ North of the Lake” and “‘ South of the
Lake.” :

3. The various mountain ranges cannot be spoken
of in detail. In general it may be said that starting
from the Central Asian mountain system they trayv-
erse the western and southern provinces, decreasing
in height as they approach the coast. Naturally,
with this difference in elevation the rugged sides and
snowy summits of the western ranges give place to
the wooded tops and carefully cultivated terraces of
the southeastern hills. Roughly speaking, that por-
tion of China lying west of the longitude of Canton
is mountainous, while the region lying east of that
une meridian and south of the Yang-tzt River is

illy.

4. The Great Plain occupies the remaining north-
eastern section of the Empire, and forms its richest

ortion, Extending from a point somewhat north of
eking to a short distance below the Yang-tzi, with
an average breadth of two hundred miles in its north-
ern portion and four hundred miles in its southern,
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE 9

 

it contains an area equal to that of the New Eng-
land and Middle States, together with Maryland and
Virginia. This plain is simply the slowly accumu-
lating delta of the Huang Ho, aided somewhat by the
Yang-tzi. If historical statements can be trusted,
the former river is encroaching upon the Yellow Sea
at the rate of from seventy to one hundred feet per
ear.

The significant fact concerning this plain is the
vast population which it supports, it being estimated
that one hundred and seventy-seven millions live upon
that little strip of country, an average of nearly eight
hundred and fifty per square mile. The states named
above as its equivalent in area, though among the
most densely populated in America, had in 1900 a
little over twenty-four million inhabitants, or an av-
erage of one hundred and thirteen per square mile.
Bengai, the most thickly inhabited province of India,
nas four hundred and ninety-five per square mile,
while the density of Belgium’s population, which
leads in European statistics, is but five hundred and.
eighty-nine per square mile. Thus the Great Plain,
with its mountain spur in eastern Shan-tung, is more
densely settled by far than any other equally large
portion of the world.

5. The fertility of this Plain is largely accounted
for by the loess formation which is characteristic of
the northern provinces, adding fertility to the soil
and grotesqueness to the topography. Though many
competent geologists have styled the loess ‘the
most difficult geological problem,” its appearance
and characteristics are thus accurately described by
Baron von Richthofen : ‘‘ The loess is a solid friable
earth of brownish-yellow color, and when triturated
with water, not unlike loam, but differing from it by
its highly porous and tubular structure ; these tubes
are often lined with a film of lime, and ramify like
the roots of plants. . . . It spreads alike both
over high and low ground, smoothing off the irregu-
larities of the surface, and its thickness often consid-
8 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF TtANG

 

 

 

erably exceeds 1,000 feet. Itis not stratified, and has
a tendency to vertical cleavage. . . . It is very
fertile, and requires little manure.” This last char-
acteristic has made it possible for farmers to raise two
excellent crops year after year on the same plot of
ground for many centuries. In the mountainous
regions of the northern frontiers it furnishes comfort-
able homes to many thousands, who excavate rooms
in the side of loess cliffs, and live more comfortably
in them than do the troglodytes of any other land.

Two serious drawbacks arising from the loess for-
mation are the dust-storms, which occur quite fre-
quently in the winter, and the bad roads, due to the
friable nature of the soil. The writer has journeyed
over highways in northern Shan-hsi that were narrow
canyons nearly fifty feet in depth, formed by the pul-
verization of the soil by cart traffic, the dust being
swept away by the first strong wind or heavy rain.

6. Chinese scenery is as varied as a tropical and a
cold climate, lofty mountains and low-lying hills,
elevated plateaus and monotonous plains rising only
afew feet above the ocean, parched and sterile areas
and fertile districts bathed in moisture, would lead
one to expect. While the gorges of the great rivers
and the scenery of the western highlands are the most
striking scenic features, there is a quiet beauty no
less attractive as one gazes upon the terraced and
carefully cultivated hills of the southeast, and the
matchless mosaic formed by differing crops of the
multitudinous farms of the Great Plain, which serve
as a setting for adobe hamlets embowered in elms,
willows, and the so-called date-trees.

Most striking to the occidental traveller are the
massive walls of China’s more than 1,550 walled cities,
often overgrown in the south with roses and honey-
suckle, and reminding one everywhere of dreams of the
medizval period in European history. Almost equally
impressive are the evidences everywhere present in
the littoral provinces, and to a less degree on the
Yang-tzu, of a “‘ country overburdened with a popu-
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE 9

 

lation which swarms about you wherever you go. The
fields are everywhere full of laborers; in the moun-
tainous districts you will see scores of terraces, rising
above one another to the height of 500 or 1,000 feet,
and the hills cultivated in many places to their very
tops. Pedestrians are everywhere seen in the roads
and by-paths; the rivers and numerous canals are
filled with boats, and a great variety of busy artisans
ply their crafts in the noisy streets of the cities and
villages.”

Climatic Conditions.—1. The ¢emperature varies
greatly, but its average is lower than in any other
country of the same latitude. The isothermal line
of 70° F. as the average for the year, passing north of
Oanton, runs through New Orleans, which is eight
degrees north of it. That of 60° F., passing through
Shanghai, is the same as the isotherm of St. Louis and
San Francisco, while that of Peking passes through
Philadelphia. ‘‘ Canton,” Williams writes, ‘‘is the
coldest place on the globe in its latitude, and the only
place within the tropics where snow falls near the
seashore. One result of this projection of the tem-
perate zone into the tropical is seen in the greater
vigor and size of the people of the three southern
provinces over any races on the same parallel else-
where, and the productions arenot so strictly tropical.”

2. The rainfall in the north does not average much
over sixteen inches, in Canton itis seventy inches
per annum, while in the remote west it is prevailingly
dry. Almost all of the eastern half of the Empire
has a wet season of two months during the summer,
the rest of the year being almost rainless. In the
north the winters are superb. Cloudless skies, except
for the dust-storms, and bracing cold act as a tonic
to the foreigner.

3. Missionaries and other Occidentals find China
fairly healthful. While cholera, small-pox, and
fevers are common, and local diseases, like the leprosy
of the south and the bubonic plague of Hongkong
and Canton affect many natives, foreigners are rarely
10 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

attacked, and with proper precautions may safely
dwell in every province.

Wealth of the Empire.—1. The Chinese are
for the most part agriculturists, and derive their sus-
tenance from a fertile, wisely tilled soil. They can
scarcely be called farmers, as land is occupied in such
small holdings that gardening and fruit-culture are
the result. An incessant use of the hoe, an applica-
tion of every particle of fertilizer obtainable, even to
refuse hair from the barber’s razor, and unstinting
irrigation, when required, insure abundant crops.
All the cereals, most of the vegetables common in
America, a variety of fruits, including some of tropical
character, can be had, while the opium poppy, the
mulberry for silk raising, and the tea-shrub are largely
grown. also.

2. Along the water-courses and on the lakes are
found populations numbering many millions, who
thrive on the aguatic resources of the Empire. Fish
swarm in the seas and rivers, and are found even in
pools, Wild water-fowl are netted or shot ; frogs are
ingeniously caught in large numbers, and the duck-
boats, accompanying along the rivers artificially
hatched ducklings, are a source of great profit.

3. The mineral wealth of China is enormous, but
thus far has hardly been touched, largely because of
superstitious regard for féng-shui—wind and water.
All the common metals, except platina, are found,
but coal and iron are most important. The coal
measures are twenty times more extensive than those
of Great Britain, and are conveniently distributed
throughout the provinces. Not only are these fields
exceptionally rich, but, owing to the thickness of the
seams and their horizontal position, they can be more
readily worked than the mines in any other part of
the world. Professor Keane does not go beyond facts
when he says that “‘ next to agriculture the main re-
source of China lies in the ground itself, which har-
bors supplies of ores and coal sufficient, some day, to
revolutionize the trade of the world.’
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE It

 

4. All the above-mentioned sources of wealth are
made effective by an abundant supply of patient and
willing labor. ‘The English navvy and British sailor
may be unexcelled by any of their class in the world,
the patent-devising Yankee may not find his equal in
other lands, Germany may stand pre-eminent in point
of laborious and exhaustive scholarship, but China
will not yield the palm to any nation in the matter of
ability to labor in field and water and mine under the
most exhausting and unfavorable circumstances ; and
herein lies a secret of the prophecy of her fitness to
survive through all the future.

Chinese View of the World.—1. To the aver-
age Chinese, the world is a synonym for China, as
the names T‘ien Hsia, All beneath the sky, and Sst
Hai, All between the four seas, indicate. Concern-
ing this territory he ought to know very exactly, for
no country has so many carefully written local topo-
graphical works as China possesses. As a matter of
fact, however, owing to lack of facilities for rapid
intercommunication, their love for home, and their
failure to teach geography in schools, even literary
graduates are wofully ignorant of remote provinces.
Since the Jesuit missionaries, in 1708-18, surveyed
the Empire, corrections have not been made in their
maps to correspond with changes in provincial boun-
daries, so that it is impossible for even the most
interested to gain accurate information concerning
the Chinese world. Still, the wild ideas of their own
country, so far as the marvellous is concerned, could
be easily remedied, if such local geography as they
have were taught.

2. Ask a well-read native, living in the interior,
about the extra- Chinese world, and he may give you
the most fantastic answers, derived from Chinese
works on foreign geography written a century or more
ago.

oT he earlier maps are a sight to behold. Beyond
their own frontiers, islands, kingdoms, and continents
are promiscuously distributed, with important omis-
12 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

sions and equally remarkable exaggerations. ‘'The
two Americas and Africa are entirely omitted on
most of them, and England, Holland, and Portugal,
Goa, Lugonia, Bokhara, Germany, France, and India
are arranged along the western side, from north to
south, in a series of islands and headlands. The
southern and eastern sides are similarly garnished by
islands, as Japan, Lewchew, Formosa, Siam, Burma,
Java, the Sulu Islands, and others, while Russia occu-
ies the whole of the northern frontier of their
iddle Kingdom.”

Common tdeas about these countries— where any
ideas at all are present—are equally bizarre. The
earth is an immense stationary plain. ‘‘In some
parts of its surface,” says Williams, “they imagine
its inhabitants to be all dwarfs, who tie themselves
together in bunches for fear of being carried away
by the eagles ; in others they are all women, who con-
ceive by looking at their shadows; and in a third
kingdom all the people have holes in their breasts,
through which they thrust a pole, when carrying one
another from place to place.”

3. Foreigners at close range are not discriminat-
ingly understood by the Chinese. They hold that
opium was forced down their throats at the mouth of
English cannon, and hear from their countrymen in
America of the injustice and persecution often en-
dured by them there. Sailors from Christian nations
roam through Chinese ports in a state of lawless
intoxication, and encourage impure women to walk
the streets in a most brazen-faced manner, so that
native officials of Shanghai, some years ago, entered
at foreign consulates a formal protest against such
open violations of morality. Stereoscopic and other
views of the most obscene character are bought from
foreigners by peep-show men and penetrate hundreds
of miles into the interior.

And when they come in contact with foreigners in
commercial or diplomatic circles, the fame of the
Shanghai horse-races makeg many feel that the for-
THE WORLD OF THE CHINESE 13

 

eign devil has come to establish such races in their
city. A game of cricket or lawn-tennis is a profound
mystery to them; why should men so laboriously
exert themselves, unless it is a new and most profit-
able form of gambling, or a contention for stakes?
A morning constitutional is interpreted as a search
for gold, an excursion for the purpose of planting
little men, or a religious duty, inasmuch as walking-
sticks are carried and are often aimlessly waved in the
air. A foreigner walks arm-in-arm with his wife, ora
party of both sexes dine together, and Chinese ideas
of propriety are shocked beyond measure, especially
if the ladies are in evening dress or possess a wasp-
like waist.

What wonder, then, that the missionary in a new
locality is a living interrogation point in their minds.
He is carefully watched, and it is reported that his
wife has light hair; why does she not use ink, to
cause it to conform to the orthodox color? Howcan
she be so unfilial as to be living in China, when her
rightful mistress, her mother-in-law, is a myriad of
miles away ? Her garments, too, are so odd, and her
husband’s coat has buttons on the middle of the back,
and they have a stove, with no one knows how many
lumps of coal burning init allat once! Rumor says,
moreover, that there are unmarried ladies in the mis-
sion station ; how account for womén having reached
the age of thirty and being single yet? Probably the
reason for this is that they had such bad tempers that
no would-be mother-in-law was found heroic enough
to consent to the marriage; or perhaps a more sinister
reason is suggested, if the male missionary frequently
calls upon them. Even the wonder-working medical
missionary does not escape the tongue of the gossip-
monger. He works great cures—yes, but do you not
know that he also gouges out eyes and digs out
hearts? No marvel that with good Chinese hearts
and eyes to aid them, foreigners can compound magic
medicines and construct heaven-piercing telescopes.
And so on endlessly.
14 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

4. If one would understand the views concerning
their own superiority and the great inferiority of the
other nations, prevalent among even Chinese scholars,
the facts above mentioned must be borne in mind.
Their prejudice against foreigners is quite largely
due to ignorance. Happily, the increase of mission
schools, in which Western geography is taught, the
establishment of higher government institutions for
training in the Western sciences, the increasing num-
ber of readers of Christian and scientific books and
periodicals among the literati, and above all wider
contact between China and the Western Powers—ren-
dered necessary by wars and growing international
complications—are rapidly transforming their crude
and grotesque views, and the consequent prejudices
are disappearing, especially in the coast and Yang-
tzii provinces.
it
CHINA’S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST

Character of Chinese Historical Records.—
1. Credibility. Like most nations whose existence
dates from remote antiquity, China’s early history
fades away through the legendary into the mythical
realm. Yet the Chinese historian does not claim for
these early ages any genuine historicity. He men-
tions them just as modern writers speak of the Ho-
meric legends in writing of Greece, or of Romulus and
Remus in treating of Rome. It must be admitted,
however, that their historians have gone back further
into the mists of antiquity than most Western scholars
care tofollow them. So famous a writer as Chu Hsi,
e.g., begins his history with Fu Hsi, 2852 8.c., while
other native histories commence their chronology
with the sixty-first year of Huang Ti, 2637 B.c.

When once they have reached genuinely historic
times, which can safely be put in the Chou dynasty,
founded earlier than the reign of David and Solomon,
Chinese historians are more trustworthy than those
of most other nations; though some discredit is
thrown upon annals preceding Shih Huang-ti, the
Great Wall builder, two centuries before Christ, ow-
ing to the fact that he ordered a wholesale destruction
of books.

2. The material for compiling Chinese history
comes from four main sources, the Bamboo Books, the
ancient classics, especially the ‘‘ Books of History,”
and the “‘Spring and Autumn Annals,” local annals
and dynastic records. The local annals classify under
twenty-four headings everything that can be known
concerning even the smallest district in the Empire,
as well as each province.

1§
16 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

Dynastic histories are officially prepared by histo-
rians of the right hand, who record the facts of the
reign, and those of the left hand, whose duty it is to
report imperial speeches, charges, etc. Their in-
structions require these state historiographers to ac-
company the Emperor at all times, noting and dating
everything, and at the end of each month these rec-
ords are sealed up and deposited in a desk, whence,
at the end of the year, they are transferred to the
care of the Inner Council. Not until a given dynasty
ceases, and a new line assumes the imperial yellow,
are these records taken from the iron safe and given
to the world. ‘Fearless and faithful annals are thus
provided for, though absolute accuracy is not always
secured, even with such admirable precautions.

3. The Uterary character of these writings is de-
cidedly disappointing. Like the compilers of Prot-
estant church history who prepared the Magdeburg
Centuries, Chinese historians write under categories,
thus producing a monotonous set of formule, so to
speak, with blanks filled in as facts require. Dynastic
historians carefully refrain from any reflections or
comparisons ; they make simple statements only, after
the manner of Confucius in his ‘‘ Spring and Autumn
Annals.” The minuteness and exhaustive prolixity
of their historians may be judged from the fact that
the Bureau of Military History reported that their
account of two rebellions occurring in our own time
fills 360 volumes, while the local history of the city of
Su-chou has forty volumes, and that of the province
of Kuang-tung is in 182 volumes.

China’s Prehistoric Dawn.—If this age is sub-
divided into a mythological and a legendary period,
it is not strictly prehistoric; for doubtless much
that has been written of the legendary period is true
history.

1. The mythological ages cover from 45,000 to
500,000 years. Though this is absurdly long, it is as
nothing compared with the kalpas of India, ‘* whose
highest era, called the Unspeakably Inexpressible,
CHINA’S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 17

 

requires 4,456,448 ciphers following a unit to repre-
sent it.”

Within this period lies Chinese cosmogony with its
theory of a 7az Chi, or Great Extreme—the ultimate
immaterial principle of Chinese philosophers—and of
the dual powers, yin and yang. P‘an Ku first ap-
pears after heaven and earth are separated, and begins
his eighteen thousand years’ task of chiselling out of
formless granite, floating in space, the sun, moon, and
stars. Companions with hin: during these ages are
China’s famous fabulous animals, the dragon, pheenix,
and tortoise, ‘“‘progenitors with himself of the ani-
mal creation.”

After his death, in which every portion of his body
accrues to the benefit of his universe—even to the
parasites, which become men—three great sovereigns
or families of brothers, possessed of monstrous form,
rule the world for from 18,000 to 482,000 years.
Following the Celestial, Terrestrial, and Human
Sovereigns, come two monarchs, one the Nest-having,
who may have invented nests or abodes for his sub-
jects, and the other Fire Producer, a Chinese Pro-
metheus who brought down fire from heaven for
man’s use.

2. The legendary period is universally regarded as
beginning with the monarch Fn Hsi, but its later limit
is questioned, some saying that it ceases with the be-
ginning of the Chon dynasty, 1122 B.c., and others
limiting it by the accession of Yao, 2357 B.c., or by
the year 781 B.c.

Between Fu Hsi’s reign and that of Yao, the Chi-
nese place nearly all the inventions and the formula-
tion of those ethical and governmental theories which
have distinguished the life of China from the earliest
times. Yet it isnot until we reach the reign of Yao
and his successor Shun that we find Confucius and
Mencius making any great use of Chinese history.
If, with Dr. Legge, we regard Yt as the founder of
the Empire—as he was of the Hsia dynasty in 2205
B.c.—we still find ourselves surrounded with legend-

2
18 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

ary mists which do not clear away until Tang, the
Successful, established the succeeding Shang dynasty
in 1766 B.c.—nearly as long before the Christian era
as our Declaration of Independence dates after it.
The reason that may possibly have led Confucius and
Mencius to place their Golden Age earlier than this
in the reigns of Yao and Shun—who were doubtless
real and able rulers, but whose history is deeply tinged
with legendary coloring—is thus stated by Dr. Will-
iams: “‘ Whatever was their real history, those sages
showed great sagacity in going back to those remote
times for models and fixing upon a period neither
fabulous nor certain, one which prevented alike the
cavils of scepticism and the appearance of complete
fabrication.”

3. The residuum of fact underlying the story of
this prehistoric and legendary period proves that
China possessed culture and civilization at a time
when only the Egyptian, the Chaldean, and the Hittite
had risen above the level of surrounding nations.
Forty centuries ago—nearly a thousand years before
the earliest assured event in Greek history, the Dorian
invasion, and a century before Abraham was born—
we find in North China, in the modern province of
Shan-hsi, a people with institutions, government, and
religion, with a fairly well-developed literature and a
knowledge of sciences and arts.

This much is generally agreed to by scholars; but
there is greater diversity of opinion when the ques-
tions are asked, Whence came the Chinese ? om
what source was their culture derived? Whether the
question is answered by the record found in Genesis,
chs. ix.xi., or by the researches of archeologists, the
usual reply to the first query is, that the Chinese
originally came from the region lying below the
Caspian Sea, and entered China from the northwest,
settling along the banks of the Yellow River.

The origin of Chinese culture is a more difficult
problem to solve. The main answers given are, the
plain of Shinar, Egypt or an Egyptian colony,
4s CHINA'S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 19

 

Scythia, India, and a denial of any Western origin.
As some eighty eminent Sinologues, Assyriologists,
and Orientalists assent to the main conclusions elab-
orately argued for by Professor Dr. Terrien de Lacou-
perie, the prevalent verdict may be said to point to
Babylonia and Elam as the springs whence China’s
early culture flowed.

Key Characters in Chinese History.—The
student desirous of understanding China’s past,
must make himself familiar with certain characters
whose names and deeds are well known to every
scholar, and some of which are household names.

1. The ruler practically, though not theoretically,
stands first in order among men. One must know
the accepted history, partly legendary, no doubt, oi
the early ruiers Yao, Shun, and Yi, and of the his
toric kings Wén and Wu, as well as Duke Chow.
These are worthy of double honor, since they are ac-
counted sages as well as rulers. From an occidental
rather than a Chinese stand-point, one must learn the
true position of the much maligned Shih Huang-ti,
of wall-building and literature-destroying fame, who
has been called the Napoleon of China. The second
Tang sovereign, Z“ai Tsung, who after death was
styled the Literary-Martial Emperor, must be known ;
for he “may be regarded as the most accomplished
monarch in the Chinese annals—famed alike for his
wisdom and his nobleness, his conquests and good
government, his temperance, cultivated tastes, and
patronage of literary men.” His dominions, more-
over, extended as far west as the Caspian Sea. Nor
must one be ignorant of the Hmpress Wu, wife of the
son of the famous Tai Tsung, who during the last two
decades of the seventh century made herself famous as
well as infamous; though it is doubtless true that to
support their favorite thesis that women ought not to
meddle with government, native historians have un-
duly blackened her character. No one who has tasted
Marco Polo’s story of Kublai Khan will be in dan~
ger of neglecting that hero of the Yiian dynasty,
20 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF F‘ANG

 

though here again the Chinese do not so much ad-
mire their foreign sovereign as Occidentals are likely
todo. K‘ang Hsi, the second Emperor of the present
dynasty, is more celebrated than almost any other
Asiatic sovereign, rivalling if not surpassing T“ai
Tsung. His record is of the utmost interest to Chi-
nese and foreigner alike. And, of course, no friend
of China will care to be ignorant of the reigning Em-
peror, Kuang Hsti, Succession of Light, and of the
scarcely less famous rulers of the Empire during his
minority, the Hmpress Dowager—one of the most re-
markable of Manchu women—and Li Hung-chang.

2. We do not need to speak of the sages, as most
of them pose also as rulers, and have been already
mentioned. Of the philosophers and noted literary
men, Lao-tzt, the founder of the Taoist sect, is first
in point of time, and though contemporary with Con-
fucius, he was perhaps a keener thinker and a more
enlightened man than his more famous compeer.
«‘ The throneless King” is no empty title for K‘ung
Fu-tzt, Philosopher K‘ung, Latinized into Confucius.
Probably no one has exerted a more extensive in-
fluence among men than this last officially recognized
Chinese sage. His alter ego is Mencius or Méng-tzit,
though he lived nearly two centuries later. He is to
Confucius very much what Plato was to Socrates.
Chu Fu-tzt, who flourished 700 years ago, is perhaps
China’s greatest philosopher and teacher, and it is
his interpretation of the Classics that constitutes
present-day Confucianism. These are the commonly
mentioned names among a host of great philosophers
and teachers, but Western readers will find more to
their taste, perhaps, the works of the heretic Micius,
who laid it down as a duty “to love all equally,” or
those of Chwang-tzt, the great Taoist philosopher,
mystic, and magician, ‘‘ whose writings have been de-
scribed as ‘a storm of dazzling effects.’ ”

The student of Chinese general literature must
become acquainted with China’s Herodotus, Ssdi-ma
Ch‘ien, the scarcely less illustrious Han historian, Pan
 

~

 

THE WHITE DEER COLLEGE OF CHU FU-TZU
CHINA'S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 21

 

Ku, and Ssii-ma Kuang of the Sung dynasty, who
was statesman as well as historian, and the author of
“‘ General Mirror to Aid in Governing.” Nor can one
afford to be ignorant of the heptameters of the fa-
mous T‘ang poets Li Zai-pai and Tu Fu, or of the
one hundred and fifteen volumes of the Sung poet, Su
Tung-p‘o. Jess weariness is experienced as the for-
eigner takes up Ch‘in Shou’s ‘‘ History of the Three
States,” replete as it is with graphic descriptions of
plot and counterplot, battles, sieges, and retreats,
character delineations and episodes, all composed in
a style known to the Chinese vulgar as 7é ao, hot
racket, or most interesting. Dr. £¢, author of the
“Herbal,” must be a familiar name to the medical
missionary, as also that of the Aisculapius of the
Chinese Pantheon, Hua To. Modern Dry-as-dusts
will desire to know Ma Tuan-lin, the author of
“Complete Antiquarian Researches,” in three hun-
dred and forty-eight chapters. ‘‘No book has been
more drawn upon by Europeans for information con-
cerning matters relating to Eastern Asia than this.”
This work, the first to deserve the name of encyclo-
peedia, introduces the occidental student to an illus-
trious line of encyclopedists. Thus, the third em-
peror of the last dynasty, Yung Lo, “ Eternal Joy,”
appointed a commission of two thousand members,
who prepared a manuscript encyclopedia of 22,937
chapters, while the second emperor of the present
dynasty, K‘ang Hsi, appointed another commission,
who, after forty years, finished with volume 5,020
the ‘‘Imperially Ordered Complete Collection of An-
cient and Modern Literature, with Illustrations.”

3. Illustrious women of China gain fame for the
most part by methods decidedly unique. There are
in the Empire more outward evidences of feminine
renown than of the greatness of Chinese statesmen,
warriors, and scholars. These usually take the form
of honorary portais, erected by Imperial rescript in
honor of distinguished women. Dr. Faber estimates
that they may average one to every million women
22 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF TtaNnG

 

during the past 2,500 years, and mentions three chief
reasons for their being so honored by the Emperor :
suicide, committed because of attachment to parents
or husband, or through fear of shame; living as a
widow in mourning to the end of life ; filial devotion,
exhibited by remaining unmarried that she may serve
her parents, or refusing to marry again after her hus-
band’s death, that she may minister to her parents-
in-law, or the cutting out of a portion of her own
flesh to be used as atonic for sick parents or parents-
in-law. Imperial orders bearing on such cases are
frequently appearing in the “‘ Peking Gazette.”

Jf we ask what causes have made those women ta-
mous or notorious, who have become so through the
voice of the people, the high authority just quoted
gives, as the reasons suggested in a large number of
native works consulted, the following categories :
filial danghters, devoted sisters, young women who
had something to say or do in the matter of securing
a husband, famous courtesans, women skilled in in-
trigue, renowned empresses, good wives, bad wives,
good mothers, bad mothers, widows, authoresses,
artists, artisans, supernatural females, and goddesses.

While the foreigner will not care to read the rather
voluminous literature relating to illustrious women,
he will be aided in his understanding of the people
by a knowledge of the reasons leading to the exist-
ence of honorary portals and the slabs mounted on
the backs of stone tortoises erected in their honor ‘in
his district. It will also prove interesting to learn
details about the Empress Wu and the present Em-
press Dowager, Tzt Hsi (plus fourteen other words
contained in her imperially conferred title). Of the
many authoresses who are worth knowing, perhaps
the most influential is Pan Chao, a sister of the Han
historian, Pan Ku. On her brother’s decease, she
was appointed state historiographer, and at her death
was honored by the Emperor with public burial and
the title of Great Lady Ts‘ao. It was she who wrote,
goon after the death of St. Panl, “ the first work in
CHINA'S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 23

 

any language on female education,” and her “ Fe-
male Precepts” has been the basis of many succeed-
ing books on that topic.

Present-day Survivals of China’s Past.—
We must pass on to this topic without naming
China’s great warriors, like the famous generals of
the Three Kingdoms, Ts‘ao Ts‘ao, and especially the
Chinese Mars, Xuan Ti, who reappeared in the heay-
ens half a century ago, a Ja Castor and Pollux, and
gave the battle to the Imperial cause, when their an-
tagonists, the T‘ai P‘ing rebels, were fighting under
the Christian’s God. For this signal service the Em-
veror raised him to the rank of Confucius, and he
nas become the patron deity of the present dynasty.

i. Some of these survivals exist in material form
after the lapse of millenniums. Thus, the Grear
Wall, extending across China’s northern frontier,
existed in some of its detached sections some time
before Shih Huang-ti, in 214 B.c., ordered it to be
added to and consolidated into one mass of stone,
brick and earth, stretching over a distance as great
as that between Philadelphia, Pa., and Lincoln, Neb.
Counting its sinuosities, its length is nearly or quite
1,500 miles. The magnitude of this undertaking
grows upon one, if, like the writer, one walks along
parallel with it for ten days at an average of thirty
miles a day, and then remembers that one has seen
only a fifth of this mountain-scaling rampart of past
ages.

“The Grand Canal, or Yiin Ho, though no longer
either grand or a canal scarcely, was in its day one of
the most useful artificial waterways in the world.
While the famous Mongol Emperor, Kublai, ordi-
narily has the credit of excavating it, it existed in
some of its parts from the Han dynasty, while the
Sui and T‘ang emperors likewise did much toward
its extension and improvement. The design was to
artificially connect lakes and rivers, so that an inland
passage for junks might extend from Peking to
Oanton. Changes of the course of the Yellow River,
24 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

one of its great feeders, the silting up of its bed,
and the introduction of coasting steamers, account
for its present dilapidated and partially useless con-
dition.

Some of the roads and bridges of ancient times
still exist, mostly in North China, though in a sad
state of repair. The excruciating stone road be-
tween Peking and its junk-port, T‘ung Chon, was
centuries ago almost equal to the royal roads of the
Roman Empire. A more conspicuous work of the
ancient road-builders is seen in the great highway,
dating from the third century, A.D., and leading
from Peking to Ssii-ch‘uan, in the remote west. In
the mountain regions this called for a pathway
“which for the difficulties it presents and the art
and labor with which they have been overcome,
does not appear to be inferior to the road over the
Simplon.” ‘At one place on this route, called Li-
nal, a passage has been cut through the rock, and
steps hewn on both sides of the mountain from its
base to the summit.” The narrow roads or paths
over the passes in Fu-chien and Kuang-tung are less
ancient, but hardly less useful. Some have claimed
for China the invention of chain suspension bridges.
They certainly possessed them from ancient times.
Archdeacon Gray describes one in Kuei-chon, built
in A.D. 35.

Other minor survivals of the past are some bells of
the Chou dynasty and the famous stone drums of
Peking, commemorating a royal hunt, 82% B.c. The
so-called inscription of Yi on a mountain-peak in Hu-
nan is ancient in spite of the fact that it may have
been a fabrication of the Han dynasty or of many
centuries later. Copper cash by the thousand are
genuine remains of at least a three thousand years’
coinage. The writer, when in Mongolia, exchanged
a Christian booklet costing less than half a cent for
a coin minted during the reign of King Saul.

2. Far more numerous than these actual specimens
of China’s ancient handiwork are institutions and
CHINA'S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 25

 

inventions of past ages. While it may be true that a
large majority of the three hundred and seventy items
of culture—mentioned by Professor de Lacouperie
as derived from Anterior Asia and Western India
during the 2,500 years of China’s early history—may
have come from those sources, it still remains true
that China has uninterruptedly possessed those eéle-
ments of civilization during the succeeding centu-
ries, though all Asiatic nations, save India, have lost
most of them and lapsed into semi-barbarism, if in-
deed they have not become extinct nations. It
should also be remembered that there is in China
much civilization that is indigenous.

Her government—a vombination of the patriarchal
and imperial form—its codes of laws and scheme of
civil-service examinations, and China’s system of ter-
ritorial divisions, have existed for centuries almost
unchanged, making her people law-abiding and ca-
pable of progress when other nations were in darkness.

As one reads the Hrh Ya, Ready Guide, and notes
the close resemblance of its pictures to objects used
in the arts and trades of to-day, one can hardly
believe that it is the oldest philological work extant,
claiming to be the work of Duke Chou, 1100 B.c.,
though it was largely added to by a disciple of Con-
fucius and again in A.D. 280. Some of thesé ancient
tools and implements are very ingenious and ser-
viceable.

Three of the greatest agencies in the progress of
the race were used in China long before they became
known to Europeans. Thus the invention of the
compass is attributed to Huang Ti, who was said to
have constructed a chariot for indicating the south
and used it to direct his way in afog some 2,600
years B.C. Itis explicitly mentioned in a Chinese
dictionary of A.D. 121, and seems to have been used
by mariners more than fifteen centuries ago. Gun-

owder, according to Grosier, was known at or be-
fore the Christian era, though it is quite probable
that it was not employed as an agent of warfare until
26 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

the twelfth century. Mayers, on the other hand,
contends that it reached China from India or Central
Asia in the fifth century A.D. Full credit may be
given the Chinese for an invention second only in
importance in the realm of thought to the formation
of alphabets, the art of printing. Reproducing cop-
ies of a writing from an engraved block dates from
the sixth century, but “‘the honor of being the first
inventor of movable type undoubtedly belongs toa
Chinese blacksmith named Pi Shéng, who lived about
A.D. 1000, and printed books with them nearly five
hundred years before Gutenberg cut his matrices at
Mainz.” These were porcelain type set in an iron
trame, and could be reset and used indefinitely.

Two of China’s principal manufactures should be
mentioned, as their originality has never been suc-
cessfully contested, those of silk and porcelain.
Aristotle to the contrary, Europe undoubtedly ob-
tained the secret of silk manufacture from China,
even if it were through the links of Greece and Per-
sia. From the earliest historic time, sericulture has
been a highly honored Chinese occupation, with the
Empress as a living and active patroness. Of porce-
lain, James Paton writes: ‘‘It is to the Chinese that
the world owes the manufacture of porcelain ; and in
strict chronological sequence, in antiquity of the
industry, in skill and resource in working raw ma-
terials, and in richness and variety of the finished
pee the Chinese ought to have the first place.

hen the Greeks were making their terra-cotta vases,
the Chinese were manufacturing porcelain ; they had
mastered the secrets of that most difficult of ceramic
tasks 2,000 years before it was accomplished by Euro-
peans.”

3. China’s most precious heirlooms from the past
are her literary treasures. Her spoken language re-
mains in essentially the same simple monosyllabic form
of 4,000 years ago. Its marvellous written characters
put toshame the hieroglyphs of every nation, and serve
a purpose which nothing else could fill, if a nation is
CHINA’S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 27

 

to have a copious and clearly understood vocabulary
expressed by monosyllables. Chinese literature is

voluminous and ancient in spite of its fiery auto da

- 2,100 years ago. Its antiquity, however, only adds

ustre to its strongly ethical character and its fitness

for governmental uses to-day, not only in China, but

in other nations which desire an ethical idealism as

the basis of law. In a later chapter this topic will be

dealt with more fully.

It must not be forgotten that education, which has
been almost deified in China, and which has made her
a nation of scholars from before the Christian era,
has, until this decade, depended almost solely upon a
literature that antedates that of Rome and nearly all
of Grecian literature. This is but one item of many
that might be cited to show that the Chinese Empire
differs from every other existing nation, India not
excepted, in the fact that it is dominated to-day by
the life, the processes, and the ideas of a past which
is mainly antique.

Some Secrets of China’s Protracted Exist-
ence.—A review of Chinese history would be incom-
plete, if no explanation of her unequalled antiquity
were attempted. The Hittites have left scarcely a
trace of their former greatness; Chaldea exists only
as a name and on clay tablets; Egypt of the Exo-
dus remains in brick and mummy and _hieratic

-hieroglyphs; ancient Greece and Rome have left to
the world only their precious pearl-bearing shells ;
even Vedic India has fallen from her lofty height to
the god- and caste-ridden myriads of modern Hin-
duism. China, on the contrary, is to-day stronger,
perhaps, than she has ever been after an unbroken
existence of nearly forty centuries. How account
for this marvellous anomaly ?

1. China has always possessed that fundamental
element of perpetuity, protection from foes without.
The loftiest mountains in the world, and the broad-
est ocean swept by armada-destroying typhoons, the
bulwarks of deserts and barren soil, supplemented by
28 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

the greatest artificial rampart ever raised by man—
these have been an ample defence against China’s
enemies. .
Scarcely less formidable is the barrier of an isolat-
ing monosyllabic language which has made China a
sphinx among her Asiatic neighbors. It has at once
revented the Chinese from learning from others, and
ta practically forced all who came within her boun-
daries to forsake their own tongue and learn hers.
Add to these barriers the hopelessness of attempt-
ing to overcome such vast masses of humanity as are
contained within the Empire, and one can readily see
that the task could not be successfully undertaken by
the sparsely settled regions surrounding China on all
sides save on the populous Indian quarter against
which God thrust upward for miles into the sky His
snow-capped towers and insurmountable battlements.
2. Some national characteristics have doubtless
tended to China’s perpetuity. Ignorance of anything
better beyond her confines would make her satisfied
with her own rich endowment. Physical strength,
hostile to decay, which the Chinese, dwelling in the
temperate zone, have enjoyed to a remarkable degree,
partly accounts for her survival. Industry, neces-
sitated by physical environment and competition, has
left little leisure for discontent and organized plotting
against the powers that be. A contented perseverance
in the midst of difficulties makes the Chinese abide
in their callings as few nations care to do. Love of
home keeps the population from coveting and striving
for the possessions of those more remote, whether
within the Empire or outside its borders. Toa peo-
ple possessed of a notoriously phlegmatic temperament
and of a conservatism amounting to almost uncon-
querable inertia, the above characteristics would
prove both a centripetal and a conserving force of
great strength.
3. The internal resources of the Empire in point
of natural wealth, fairly easy intercommunication,
salubrious climate, and facilities for the cultivation of
CHINA’S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 29

 

the mind, have, until recent centuries, been such that
no inducement has offered to emigrate, nor has any
desire been felt to allow to come within the Empire
outside barbarians who might disturb this desirable
prosperity and tranquillity.

4. Unlike most extinct nations, China has contained
within herself safeguards against internal conflict
and decay. Rebellions and revolutions, which have
wiped out other peoples, have affected China but lit-
tle, since her sages have taught that when a dynasty
so far forgets itself as to disregard the desires of
Heaven, Heaven will smile upon their armed protest
and appoint a new vicegerent who will rule right-
eously. Hence rebellion quickly accomplishes its ob-
ject, and peace reigns again. Ambition for martial
renown has struck the death-blow of many a nation ;
but in China her crowned kings are her canny men,
and ambition finds its highest rewards in the con-
quests of knowledge and the triumph of academic
victory.

Against tendencies to decay are pitted some of the
items already named in paragraph numbered 2, and a
temperance which has been phenomenal until the
nineteenth century had forced upon an unwilling peo-
ple the destructive appetite for opium. A system of
ethics, second only to the Christian system, has been
taught in every school-room for 2,000 years, and in
its important society-preserving elements has been
insisted upon by local officials for an even longer
period. Filial piety, which so many historians and
preachers of the arm-chair type have considered to be
the secret of China’s long existence, may have failed
in many respects, but it has been the means of en-
grafting on the nation a sense of obedience and sub-
ordination that has checked revolt and anarchy.
Hoary old age, before which even the mighty Em-
peror K‘ang Hsi stood in reverence, is an influential
Chinese Ecclesiastes, which cries out to libertines and
spendthrifts, “‘ Vanity of vanities.” High officials
do not encourage a desire for luxury, since they serve
30 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

for a limited time in a given place, and that away
from their own home, so that there is little induce-
ment to live luxuriously. Private wealth must hide
itself, lest it arouse the cupidity of official underlings,
and the almost universal nearness of want makes lux-
urious decay impossible.

5. Government and laws are often responsible for a
nation’s perpetuity or destruction. China’s code is
remarkable in many respects and its paternal theory
makes it popular. Officials are civic fathers and
mothers, while the Emperor, Son of Heaven, prays
and sacrifices to the heavenly powers when his chil-
dren suffer from great calamity. That this govern-
ment should have long survived is quite natural ; for
it supports by its strong sanction the authority of
rulers on the one hand, while on the other it authorizes
resistance to glaring evil in high places. Moreover,
all official positions in the Empire save the Imperial
ones are open to any man in the land—except certain
wisely debarred persons—provided he has the requis-
ite ability. As every family has in its membership
some noted official, Chinese clan-spirit supports the
system.

The laws are, in the main, very equitable, and in
the villages, where the majority of Chinese dwell,
they are largely in the hands of village elders, who
dispense them as befits so nearly a republican form of
administration. The corruption found in city courts
of justice also tends to obedience to law; since law-
suits mean bribery, torture and loss, even if the case
is won.

6. To the Christian who sees the purposes of God
in history, His hand is beneath the Chinese throne
and this wonderful Empire has been continued
through the ages to accomplish His will. That a
nation of such marked strength has existed for 4,000
years is an indication of its future survival, and we
may be sure that God has reserved it for some gra-
cious and world-influencing purpose. It is, then, the
privilege and duty of every child of God to co-operate
CHINA'S INHERITANCE FROM THE PAST 31

 

with Him in helping Sinim to know its Maker and
to accomplish His great designs.

The Dawn of a New Era.—For the reasons
above given, China’s great age has benefited few be-
yond her own subjects. Seated on a throne of selfish
isolation she has ruled ‘‘all within the four seas,”
and cared nothing for the nations without.

But to-day conditions have radically changed.
China’s open ports are filled with the merchantmen of
the world. Railroads are beginning to be built ; tele-
graphs extend to all of her provincial capitals ; her
mineral wealth is coveted by the nations, and has
become an object of importance to her own prosperity.
Contemporaneously with the removal of ignorant
prejudice against foreigners, and the emergence of
her new importance to the world, has come the rude
awakening caused by the imperious knocking at her
doors of the great Kuropean Powers. Port Arthur,
Wei-hai-wei, Kiao-chou Bay, the Yang-tzi valley,
the territory bordering on the possessions of France,
have been invaded and isolation is at an end. Even
anti-foreign Hu-nan has her open ports, and mission-
aries reside within her territory. China’s garnished
house has been swept clean from effective opposition
and prejudice. But who is to enter in through her
open gates—the Church of God with her ministra-
tion of mercy and salvation ? or Western avarice and
land-hunger, occidental vices and materialism? The
latter forces are entering ; shall not Christianity enter
with equal stride as a conserving factor in this period
of national transformation ?
Tit
‘THE REAL CHINAMAN ”

OnE who would understand the Chinese and the
work which the Church and Western civilization are
called upon to do for them, must carefully consider
Chinese character and the social and industrial en-
vironment found in the Empire. So important is
the moral and religious life of the Chinese, that it
will form the topic of a separate chapter.

Numbers and Distribution.—A reference to the
statistics given under the provinces in Appendix A
will reveal these facts in detail. According to ‘‘ The
Statesman’s Year Book, 1904,” the total population
of the Eighteen Provinces is 407,253,029. China
is, therefore, the most populous nation of the world,
containing as it does more than five times the popula-
tion of the United States, and fully one-fourth of the
inhabitants of the globe. Other authorities vary from
300,000,000 and even less to over 400,000,000. The
census of 1812, regarded by authorities as the most
trustworthy of Chinese enumerations, gives a popu-
Jation of 362,447,183.

Reasons for such wide differences of opinion are
found in the facts that the mén pa‘t, or registration
tablets, supposed to be found on every householder’s
door, may be altered according as the registration is
for the object of securing persons for public service
or for purposes of taxation ; or, on the other hand,
for learning how many ‘‘ mouths” may need to be
fed at public expense in time of famine. Moreover,
as a yearly record of population is required by the
government, many officials doubtless save themselves
trouble by adding or subtracting a certain percentage

32
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 33

 

on the basis of the previous reports. In one case tes-
tified to by Dr. Dudgeon, of Peking, a foreign minis-
ter received from the proper board a total population
which had been deliberately reduced by one-third,
because “‘the officials sought to check missionary
zeal by this considerable reduction of the population.
In the following year, as no abatement of missionary
immigration seemed to follow, the [subtracted] fig-
ures were again added to the records.”

A glance at the accompanying map will show where
the population is densest, and where most sparse.
The coast provinces and a belt across the centre of the
Empire along the Yang-tzii are the populous sections,
while in the northwest and southwest are the sparsely
inhabited regions.

Characteristics of the Chinese.—A Chinese
proverb to the effect that the summer insect will not
speak of ice, nor a frog in a well discourse on the
heavens, is forgotten by many writers who study the
Chinese in our laundries, or in Chinese ports, where
contact with the vices of a Western civilization let
loose for a lustful holiday has had a baneful effect on
a much tempted and abused people. Merchants who
live in the treaty ports, travellers along the coast with
no knowledge of the language, and the average
steamer captain with the vicious life of the port
from which to gain his data concerning the Chinese
and missionary effort, are not to be wholly trusted as
pes concerning the natives and missions among
them.

As foreign customs-officials have mainly to do with
the seamy side of Ah Sin’s nature, and as diplomatic
representatives of the Occident consort largely with
the official classes, the missionary has thus far come
into closest contact with the typical Chinese, and
hence is best fitted to pronounce on their character.

1. While the races of China Proper are remarkably
homogeneous, the Miao-tzi excepted, they differ
shysically so much as to deserve separate mention.

The Tibetans are found only in small numbers on

3
34 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

the western border. ‘They are short, squat, and
broad-shouldered in body, with angular faces, wide,
high cheek-bones, small black eyes, and scant beard.”
Physically they are a cross between the Mongols and
the Hindus.

The Mongols, i.e., Brave, are quite abundant along
the northern frontier, especially north of the Great
Wall. They are essentially nomadic and pastoral ex-
cept inside the Wall, where they are found transport-
ing goods on their camel-trains or engaged in trading.
They are generally ‘‘a stout, squat, swarthy, ill-
favored race of men, having high and broad shoul-
ders, short, broad noses, pointed and prominent chins,
long teeth distant from each other, eyes black, ellip-
tical, and unsteady, thick, short legs, with a stature
nearly or quite equal to the European.”

Scattered through the southern and southwestern
provinces are many large communities of Miao-tzi,
or aboriginal tribes, differentiated by the adjectives
“Savage” and ‘‘Subdued.” ‘They are rather
smaller in size and stature, have shorter necks, and
their features are somewhat more angular. . . .
An examination of their languages shows that those
of the Miao-tzii proper have strong affinities with the
Siamese and Annamese, and those known as Lolo ex-
hibit a decided likeness to the Burmese.”

The present rulers of China, the Manchus,t.e., Pure,
though perhaps derived from the same stock as the
Mongols, are hunters and agriculturists in Manchuria,
and in China are distributed in various parts of the
Empire, often in garrisons, as supporters of the reign-
ing dynasty. They “are of a lighter complexion and
somewhat larger than the Chinese, have the same
conformation of the eyelids, but rather more beard,
while their countenances indicate greater intellectual
capacity. . . . They have fair, if not florid, com-
plexions, straight noses and, in a few cases, brown hair
and heavy beards.” Dr. Williams regards them as
“the most improvable race in Central Asia, if not on
the continent.”
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 35

 

“The physical traits of the Chinese may be de-
scribed as being between the light and agile Hindu,
and the muscular, fleshy European. Their form is
well-built and symmetrical; their color is a brunette
or sickly white . . . 3; in the south they are
swarthy but not black. . . . The hair of the
head is lank, black, coarse, and glossy ; beard always
black, thin and deficient ; scanty or no whiskers ; and
very little hair on the body. Eyes invariably black
and apparently oblique. . . . The cheek-bones
are high and the outline of the face remarkably round.
The nose is rathersmall. . . . Lips thicker than
among Europeans. . . . The height of those
living north of the Yang-tzii is about the same as that
of Europeans.” In physical endurance the Chinese
rank very high, and can undergo extreme hardship
in the frigid or torrid zone better than almost any
other nationality. This is the race that constitutes
almost the entire population of China Proper, the
other races being comparatively few in number.

2. In what some ethnologists call emotional charac-
ters, the Chinese rank almost as high as in their phys-
ical excellencies. They are remarkably industrious
when there is sufficient motive, and were it not for
the opium vice, recently contracted, they would rank
high among the nations of the world for temperance,
a trait largely fostered by their use of tea. arly
and almost universal marriage prevents outward in-
dications of sensuality, though in the ports one sees
abundant evidence of it, as also in the catamites of
the inns, and in the Adonises kept by many officials
and men of wealth. The swarm of eunuchs in the
palace and the Emperor’s extensive harem are hap-
pily not duplicated elsewhere, and polygamy does
not extensively prevail. The abnormal develop-
ment of the vocabulary of obscenity is a sure index
of depraved imaginations, though its common use
may be as thoughtless as the oaths of habitual swear-
ers among us. Except within clan and family lines,
the Chinese are not a very sociable people, nor does
36 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

their idea of the privacy of home life permit of
much hospitality outside of those who may legiti-
mately be received as guests. Though naturally peace-
able, guarrels are extremely common and the voca-
tion of peaccmaker is an awkward necessity. Among
women quarrelsomeness frequently results in a rage
which so excites the individual that it brings one-
half the cases among women patients to many mis-
sion dispensaries; while not infrequently do men as
well as women ch‘i ssi liao, i.e., die of anger, as they
say. Bravery is not so characteristic of the Chinese
as of Mongols and Manchus; yet in war, if they have
confidence in their leaders, they well deserve the
name worn on their breasts, Brave. Politeness and
ceremonial are most prominent features in Chinese
intercourse, so that some have called the educated
classes the most dignified and polite people of the
world, the French and Japanese not excepted.
Indeed, life is little else than ceremonial and _ polite-
ness for those in high station, and among the lower
classes it prevails on the required days and in certain
relations of society. Filial piety may be only exter-
nal, but it is omnipresent on state occasions and is a
dominating factor in Chinese life. Conservatism is a
most noticeable trait of their character; yet it has, on
the whole, been of advantage, since almost invariably
it has resulted in their conserving that which is best
for the nation, as they regard it.

3. Intellectually the Chinese rank high among the
races. In cranial capacity the ideal Mongolic type
falls short of the ideal Caucasic by only 100 cubic
centimetres, being from 1,200 to 1,300. It is thus
considerably above the average racial skull capacity.

While in the opinion of some writers, the present
simple and nearly primitive form of the language is
an argument against their intellectual power, it
should be remembered that the strongest reason, per-
haps, for such an arrested development lies in their
possession, at a very early period, of a large body of
worthy literature, the wide use of which has satisfied
poy

     

   

EXAMINATION HALL AND STALLS AT NANKING
Accommodating 30,000 Candidates for Degrees
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 37

 

them. Moreover, no nation using hieroglyphs, not
even Egypt, has begun to elaborate such a form of
writing to the extent and with the ingenuity of the
Chinese, as witness the almost 45,000 characters in
the Imperial Dictionary of K‘ang Hsi. The mere
arrangement in a dictionary of such a mass of ideo-
graphs, so that they can readily be found, though
there is no alphabet to arrange them under, is a
triumph of genius. So, too, are the introduction
of tones, the use of numeratives, the collocation of
synonyms and the use of enclitics to prevent the
ambiguity which necessarily arises in a monosyllabic
tongue, with its extremely limited number of words—
only 420 different syllables or words are used in Peking-
ese. Fancy our utter bewilderment if our thoughts
needed to be expressed through the medium of 420
syllables representing 45,000 words, many of which
are pronounced the same, but written differently, as
rite, right, wright, write, for example. It would be
impossible for us through an alphabet to accomplish
what the Chinese have, when every one of the 105
characters—which on an average have the same
sound, though not the same tone—possesses a form
as perfectly distinct as the four English words in the
illustration above. It is safe to say that no nation
could have more satisfactorily solved the problem of
homophony in a monosyllabic tongue than has China.

A no less certain indication of their intellectual
power is the supreme place and honor given to
education. If it be granted that the subjects on
which they are examined for degrees are antiquated
and that the memory rather than the logical powers
have received cultivation, this does not prove that
they are lacking in intellectuality, but indicates
rather an error in method. A piece of personal testi-
mony may here be in place. The writer taught for
two years in one of our best preparatory schools,
Phillips Academy, Andover, and compared carefully
nearly a dozen picked Chinese students, sent to Amer-
ica by the Educational Commission, with students
38 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

from our best American families. The Chinese sur-
passed in diligence our own young men, but seem-
ingly failed because of their lack of logical power.
As a result, the Faculty regarded them as somewhat
inferior to our students. Later the writer was con-
nected with what is now the North China College,
near Peking. The students there were of about the
same age, but from ordinary Chinese families ; yet
being taught through a perfectly understood medium,
their native tongue, and by missionaries who appre-
ciated fully the intellectual weaknesses of their pupils,
they far outstripped the ordinary American student.
There were two men out of eleven in the last class
with which he had to do, who would have ranked
higher as students, if they had had like access to
Western literature, than anyone in his own class of
more than 130 members at Yale. It is quite gener-
ally admitted that with a right method of instruction
and an enlarged access to the literature of the West,
the Chinese will be close rivals with the New Japan
and with Germany for the first place in the scholar-
ship of the twentieth century. Heredity—for every
Chinese family contains noted scholars within a
generation or two—a genius for patient, scholarly
plodding and a memory which retains, almost without
effort, practically all the data it has ever learned,
may make up in this rivalry for the present lack of
imagination, so essential for working hypotheses, and
of ingenuity, equally necessary in an age when so
much is learned in laboratories.

When asked for the product of Chinese mind, only
a meagre report can be given in the realm of science,
though, as already shown, China antedates the Occi-
dent in some important inventions and arts. Arith-
metic was taught from a very early period and one
Tang dynasty arithmetician offered a reward of a
thousand tels of silver to anyone who could dis-
cover an error in his work on solid mensuration.
Hindu algebra was early known and Chinese scholars
have willingly learned the higher mathematics from
“THE REAL CHINAMAN™ 39

 

Europeans, since they ascribe our advance in the
exact sciences to them. Astronomy has always been
a favorite study also, though beyond the observation
and recording of eclipses and other celestial phenom-
ena and the regulation of the calendar, they have
known little until taught by the Occident. Ag
already seen, they have been lamentably ignorant o*
geography, and in medicine they have held equally
incorrect and ludicrous ideas, though it should be
added that they have made some good use of herbs.
Dr. Martin has tried to show that the Chinese have
anticipated some important modern discoveries, such
as biological evolution, unity of matter and motion,
conservation of energy, and the existence and prop-
erties of elemental ether. Yet it must be said that
any such allusions and discussions are not very clear.

In the arts the Chinese have done little of solid
worth. Drawing and painting are conventional and
are weak in perspective. Music is deficient in its
theory and ear-torturing in execution, especially
when produced by an orchestra or by shrill falsetto
singers. One rather admires Chinese architecture,
with its gracefully curved roofs, modelled perhaps
after the sloping sides of their ancestral tents, and
the towering pagoda, so characteristic of Chinese
scenery. Landscape gardening in a few instances
reaches the point of absolute genius,-especially when
limited space is made to appear ample by the plant-
ing of dark-foliaged tall trees in the foreground and
smaller and lighter foliaged ones toward the back-
ground. In other ways also the landscape gardener
produces living effects, much as our best scene paint-
ers do it artificially.

Sociological Environment of the Chinese.—
Differences in various parts of the Empire make it
impossible to give a faithful picture of this environ-
ment; yet some general ideas may be of value.

1. The home and clan life is scarcely known by
any other foreigners than the missionaries. Like
that in India, this life is spent by the majority in
40 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

villages and not in the 1,553 walled cities of the
Empire, nor in isolated houses, as in Western coun-
try villages. In some cases not a person lives in this
village who does not belong toa given clan, and in
other villages it is quite common for the oldest sur-
viving head of a family to have in the same court-
yard with himself, his sons and grandchildren, his
daughters having been obliged to marry into a family
of a different surname and so living elsewhere. The
power granted by law and custom to these family or
clan heads makes village life in China quite patri-
archal.

A village is a collection of low, one-story adobe,
wooden, or brick houses closely adjoining, sur-
rounded, it may be, with an adobe or mud wall for
defence against brigands, and overshadowed by trees.
Centrally located is the village well, and often near by
is seen the little temple, with its shabby array of
local deities. Unless large, there is scarcely a shop
to be found, as frequently recurring fairs at a larger
adjacent town supply the simple outside wants of the
villagers. From their homes issue at an early hour
the men and boys en route for the fields, where man-
power rather than that of beast is mainly employed.
Thence they return to get the first meal of the day at
eleven o’clock, after which they again go to work, not
coming back until six or seven for supper. The
women meanwhile, if they have not gone to the fields,
have been busy with their children and with cooking,
spinning, weaving, caring for the family wardrobe,
and gossiping or quarrelling. And so the life goes
on, without any knowledge of a Sabbath, and allevi-
ated by only a few holidays, chief among which is the
New Year.

As to food, rice and vegetables are the staff of life in
the central and southern parts of the Empire, while
in the north, wheat flour or millet takes the place
of rice. Chinese cookery is ingenious in its ability
to give flavor to the tasteless rice or boiled wheat
flour by a multitude of inexpensive relishes. Pork
“THE REAL CHINAMAN"” 41

 

and chickens are occasionally eaten, beef is not often
so used, save in the north, while dog-meat, rats, and
cats are indulged in much as horse-flesh is in Paris.
So poor'are many of the people tnat food is eaten by
weight, so many ounces for each person, a practice
alluded to in Scripture asa symbol of famine. To
have all that one desires to eat and a correspondingly
ample figure, are, according to Chinese ideas, infalli-
ble proofs of great happiness.

The sumptuary laws of the Empire are most
minute and rigid; yet, as Hallam has testified con-
cerning Europe, it has not been easy to enforce them
in China. In village life they mainly affect clothing,
though the walking-stick regulation is also com-
monly regarded. Missionaries often offend unwit-
tingly by carrying canes in middle life, or even in
youth, and by constructing houses contrary to their
sumptuary laws, a proceeding far more harmful in
villages than in cities. Blue cotton cloth is the
commonest material for the clothing of both men
and women. In the winter this may be wadded or
lined with sheep-skin. A species of shirt and coat,
drawers and trousers, stockings and shoes are not
very different for the two sexes, though a gentleman
would never appear in public without a long gown
reaching to the ankles. His garments, moreover,
would be of silk or broadcloth, of blue, lavender,
plum-color, or gray. Caps are commonly worn by
men in the winter and doffed in the summer, unless
replaced by a broad-brimmed hat. Ladies are per-
mitted to wear gowns, instead of trousers merely,
and they often dress quite elaborately. Were it not
for their highly rouged faces and goat-like bound
feet, some of them would look very handsome.

_ The great events in family life are, as with us, births,
marriages, and deaths. If the infant is a girl, her
coming is not welcomed and she is often quietly de-
spatched, not so much through heartlessness as because
the family is too poor to support her until marriage-
able, and unwilling to sell her to be a domestic slave
42 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

or for a life of shame. A boy’s advent is a source of
great gladness, as in him are the sinews of family
strength and of service to parental post-mortem
necessities. Marriages do not follow betrothal at
the early age common in India, yet girls often be-
come mothers at too early a period for their off-
spring’s physical good. The ceremonies are natu-
rally joyful to a company who usually pay a good
fee and expect to get their money back through
feasting. As for the bride, this ceremony ushers her
into a life made bitter by bondage to a notoriously ©
stern and capricious mother-in-law. Thousands
commit suicide either just before marriage or after a
few days of service under such a vixen. Death and
its subsequent funeral are, par excellence, the events
of Chinese experience. A wedding is a quiet per-
formance in comparison. For days—forty-nine, if
the family can afford it—priestly howlings, music
from a pandemoniac band, feasting and revelry
reign, and then comes the funeral procession with
its many bearers and beggars, its mourners clothed
in white sackcloth, and the demon-appeasing cere-
monies. ‘This experience plunges a family in debt,
often for years, but through fear of the now power-
ful spirit, no one dares spare in this crisis of filial
piety.

2. In the cities the environment varies somewhat
from the above. A high, often crenellated wall
pierced by great gates, which are surmounted by
watch-towers or defended by a semicircular enceinte,
shuts ont from the traveller’s view everything except
a few flag-poles marking temples and official ya-méns.
Mounting this wall one sees great expanses of tile-
covered roofs, threaded by narrow streets and shaded
by many trees or summer mattings. As one goes
through the main streets, bustle and industry are
everywhere apparent. Itinerant vendors of various
commodities frequent the side-streets, and shout out
the articles sold or indicate them by a variety of
instruments of percussion, so that modest women may
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 3

 

come to their gates and buy. At night the manifold
noises of day fade out into the stridulous quarrelling
of women and the voice of the peacemaker, and soon
after nine o’clock silence reigns, save for the barking
of dogs, the shouts of private watchmen, the rattles
and gongs of the police, and the monotonous cry of
the cake-seller as he visits the opium dens of a sleep-
ing city.

City homes are usually of brick or adobe, and con-
tain within a single large court a number of build-
ings divided up into family rooms. There is thus a
one-story tenement-life problem there, unless the
court is occupied by a large family or part of a clan.
Some of these abodes are luxurious, but the majority
have only beds or brick platforms for sleeping, a few
chairs or tables, one clock perhaps, or several if they
can be afforded, some wall scrolls, red boxes contain-
ing clothing, a few vessels for cooking, and recep-
tacles for flour, rice, etc.

The city is 'ikewise the habitat of two numerous
classes of social parasites. The beggars are often an
organized fraternity, working according to fixed rules
under a beggar king. Howling most lugubriously
in stores or private hall-ways, or following one on
the street, they cannot well be disposed of until the
usual dole is given ; and woe betide the person who
mortally offends one of them, for he can wreak dire
vengeance on his enemy by committing suicide or
seriously injuring himself at the offender’s gate.
The thief isa terror to the unarmed citizen, and as the
police and watchmen announce their whereabouts by
much noise, he is rarely captured, and so proceeds to
dig through walls and terrorize a street by raids,
often repeated many nights in succession. Unfortu-
nately for them, when serious crime of any sort can-
not be ferreted out and a victim to the majesty of the
law is needed, the head thief-catcher usually selects
his victim from their ranks.

Blind beggars, lepers in the south, and cripples of
every degree, also abound in the cities, though they
44 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

can hardly be classed as social parasites. For these
and other unfortunates, asylwms are established in
many populous centres. While foundling institutions
in their best estate somewhat resemble ours, their other
asylums are mainly shelters from which the inmates
go forth by day, sometimes in bands, to beg a pre-
carious living. The financial support of such places
depends largely upon persons who thereby lay up
merit for themselves, or who expect through their
charity to receive an honorary title or literary degree,
and upon levies paid by the salt- merchants. No
native asylum for lunatics exists ; if violent, they are
kept manacled in inner rooms at home, or left lying
by the highway, bound hand and foot. The harm-
lessly insane, whether men or women, are allowed to
roam abroad, sometimes in a nude condition. Gov-
ernment aid is often furnished to the poor in times
of famine, or when rebellion drives villagers into
cities, as lawlessness is thus. diminished. It also
aids many aged persons to earn a livelihood by grant-
ing them the right to vend salt without a license,
thus underselling the holders of the government
salt monopoly. Charity also takes the supposedly
very meritorious form of furnishing coffins for dead
paupers.

3. The government and laws of China are, in the
main, well calculated to secure peace and the ends of
justice; this, however, is true theoretically rather
than in fact. The Emperor, who is the Son of Heaven
and father of his subjects, daily meets his Grand
Cabinet between four and six A.M. Business is passed
down by this Cabinet to the boards of Civil Office,
Revenue, Ceremonies (including religion), War,
Punishment, Works, Admiralty, and Foreign Affairs,
or the Wai-wu Pu. Thence so much of it as is neces-
sary proceeds through a perfect network of greater
and lesser officials to the provinces, districts, and
hamlets of the Empire. Theoretically regarded, the
government is an absolute monarchy; yet because
of the universal knowledge of the principles of gov-

a,
“THE REAL CHINAMAN" 45

 

erning contained in Confucian literature, the influ-
ence of the literati, and the alertness of the Censors,
this power is greatly limited.

Administrators of law, except in small villages—
and often there also—are graduates who have passed
the civil-service examinations, and so constitute an
aristocracy of learning. Special fitness to rule is not
considered. Office is rather the goal toward which,
from the day that the boy began to nien shu tso kuan
—study books to become an official—he has for long
years been struggling through first, second, and most
likely third degree examinations, with their grada-
tions of buttons and much coveted honors. This
ordeal passed, he finds himself in office with a small
salary, many hungry subordinates, and prevalent cor-
ruption through which to pay expenses and become
wealthy. What wonder that, backed by a host of
underlings, known as his “ claws,” taxes speedily
increase, the court, in which he is judge and jury,
becomes the scene of bribery and torture, and the
“hell ”’—prison—to which he sentences obdurate or
poverty-stricken litigants loosens its grasp only to
surrender its victims to the grave. The Chinese soon
learn the moral: Avoid lawsuits, submit to petty
extortion without a murmur, be a man of peace, and
as for vengeance, trust to the proverb, ‘‘ One life as
an official [is sufficient to cia to} seven lives of
beggary [in the future warld].’

eaceitiat Life of the Empire.—1.]W hile caste
is unknown in China, there are gradations in soci-
ety. A native writer has thus described these gra-
dations: ‘‘ First the scholar: because mind is supe-
rior to wealth, and it is the intellect that distin-
guishes man above the lower orders of beings, and
‘enables him to provide food and raiment and shelter
for himself and for other creatures. Second, the
furmer: because the mind cannot act without the
body, and the body cannot exist without food ; so
that farming is essential to the existence of man,
especially in civilized society. Third, the mechanic >
46 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

because, next to food, shelter is a necessity, and the
man who builds a house comes next in honor to the
man who provides food. Fourth, the tradesman :
because, as society increases and its wants are multi-
plied, men to carry on exchange and barter become a
necessity, and so the merchant comes into existence.
His occupation—shaving both sides, the producer
and consumer—tempts him to act dishonestly ; hence
his low grade. Fifth, the soldier stands last and
lowest in the list, because his business is to destroy
and not to build up society. He consumes what
others produce, but produces nothing himself that
can benefit mankind. He is, perhaps, a necessary
eri|

In addition to the above gradations, one should
remember that the descendants of Confucius con-
stitute a species of nobility, and that the Manchus of
rank, especially members of the Imperial clan, are
also held in honor. Neither of the above classes,
nor, much less, the priesthoods of the prevailing
religions, attempt to hold the people in subjugation;
hence the Chinese possess a freedom that is remark-
able.

2. The industries of the Empire are carried on with
a good assortment of tools, but with few machines.
This means that manual labor is everywhere pre-
dominant, though in agriculture and transportation,
beasts are often used, animals of different sorts, or
animals and men or women, sometimes uniting their
forces to draw ploughs or vehicles. In mining, shafts
were sunk only to slight depths until recently, partly
because it was thought that it would incense the
dragon and disturb the terrestrial influences. That
modern mining methods introduced by foreigners do
not bring disaster, is a severe blow that is helping
to destroy superstition.

Wages are naturally low and competition severe.
From six to twelve cents will hire an ordinary laborer
for a day, while artisans can be had for from twelve
to twenty-five cents. As nearly every adult is mar-
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 47

 

ried and has children, economy of the strictest sort
must be practised, and Western machines and means
of transportation are sorely dreaded in consequence.
The ‘‘dried-meat money” of a graduate teacher—
one must not speak of salary to such a personage—is
$100, more or less, per alitium.

3. Trade guilds and unions are more pervasive
than in the Occident, extending even to beggars and
thieves. Anyone caught stealing who does not
belong to the guild is doubly punished; and no
member would think of entering a house that had
been insured by the union against larceny for a suita-
ble premium. Non-unionists in any trade are often
suppressed by the bamboo, while the guild cares for
its own members in life and death, often against the
strong though ineffective opposition of magistrates.
Yet with such combinations of labor and with over-
crowded ‘‘ multitudes ever on the brink of destitution,
China has no lapsed masses in her teeming cities, nor
agrarian outrages in her country districts.

Amusements and Festivals.—l. ‘Climbing a
tree to hunt for fish” describes the attempt to dis-
cuss the amusements of many Chinese whose life is
“fall work and no play.” Still, even the busiest
John occasionally unbends, especially in winter.
Children play at hop-scotch, kick marbles about,
spin a sort of humming spool in the air and use a
thousand and one different games and toys. Women
amuse themselves by playing cards and dominoes,
gossiping, and visiting. Kite-flying, a species of bat-
tledore and shuttlecock, the feet being the battledore,
acrobatic performances and juggling, cricket and
quail-fights, and two forms of chess afford men their
chief amusements. The whole community is fond of
theatrical exhibitions, drawn out for three days and
nights sometimes, Punch-and-Judy shows, and gam-
bling in multitudinous forms. Feasts are restricted to
men, and the itinerant story-teller rarely has others in
his booth. Athletic sports are regarded as a doubt-
ful and difficult way of amusing one’s self, though can-
48 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

didates for military degrees are often very well
trained.

2. Entire absence of a hebdomadal division of time
with its regularly recurring Sabbath of rest, has its
partial compensation in the many festivals of the
Chinese, only the most prominent of which can be
mentioned. New Year is the holiday of the Empire
and the universal birthday, when everyone adds a
year to his age. In preparation for it accounts have
been squared, houses cleaned, new clothes bought or
hired for the day, and doors adorned with mottoes of
happy omen, giving the town the appearance of being
painted red. On the day itself carts or chairs rush
through the narrow streets carrying well-dressed men
intent on ‘‘ worshipping the year” through calls of
ceremony, and for once the sounds of trade and busi-
ness are utterly hushed. Next in importance is the
ch‘ing ming, or festival of tombs, fallimg usually in
April. Ancestral graves are put in order by the
family, who go in pilgrimage thither to offer food,
money, and servants, made of paper, to the shades of
the deceased. White streamers flutter from the
tumuli and burning incense envelops the landscape
with a filmy haze. The dragon boat festival, on the
fifth day of the fifth moon, is the boatmen’s holiday,
when amid the beating of drums and gongs gayly
decked boats are rowed up and down the rivers and
their occupants indulge in racing, while the crowds
along shore cheer and reward the victorious crews.
The seventh moon witnesses the feast of ‘‘.All Souls,”
when clothes, food, and drink are offered to hungry
ghosts, who have no male descendants to minister to
their needs, and also a festival in honor of the Seven
Sisters, or Pleiades, the patron saints of women.
The fifteenth of the eighth month is sacred to the
moon, and on that night all China is ablaze with
every conceivable variety of lantern, moon-cakes are
exchanged between families, and everywhere are fire-
crackers and candles galore. The ninth of the ninth
moon concludes the kite-flying feast. While during
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 49

 

the days preceding the sky has been flecked with
clouds of tailless kites provided with Aolian-harp
strings and the children have looked upon it as sport
merely, graybeards have been doing their best to so
manipulate their kites as to cut the string and cause
all the family ill luck to soar away with the kite.

The Chinese as Painted by Themselves.—
Their proverbs furnish the most trustworthy portrait
of the Chinese, as in the Orient such sayings are
regarded as axiomatic statements of indisputable
truth. In selecting these, we have not “in painting
a snake added legs,” 7.¢., exaggerated traits of com-
mon life ; we have simply “allowed the sick man to
furnish his own perspiration.”

1. Children. The value of boys vs. that of girls is
expressed by the proverb, ‘‘ Highteen Lohan [goddess-
like] daughters are not equal to a boy with a crooked
foot.” Once born, struggle is demanded from

arents, as ‘“‘ A child but a foot long requires three

eet of cloth” for its earth-trousers. Yet they
gladly endure their added cares; for ‘“‘ What fastens
to the heart-strings and pulls on the liver are one’s
sons and daughters.” As children advance in years,
remember the saying, ‘‘If you love your son, give
him plenty of the cudgel ; if you hate him, cram him
with dainties.” Unluckily this discipline is spasmod-
ic as shown by the definition, ‘‘ Cloudy day—leisure
to beat the children.” Discipline persevered in, how-
ever, has its reward ; ‘‘ As the twig is bent, the mul-
berry tree grows.”

2. Looking out into fe. The parent planning
for the boy’s future sees two possibilities, learning
and manual labor. In favor of the scholar’s life, he
recalls the maxim, “ Better not be, than be nothing,”
and also that ‘‘No pleasure equals the pleasure of
study,” since “Thorough acquaintance with the
Four Books and Five Classics procures for the
family emolument from heaven.” If this course is
chosen, his son must not be a pedant, “ Gnawing
sentences and chewing characters ;” much less a B,

4
50 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

A., who is ‘A mere bag of false characters,” since the
superficial scholar is ‘‘ Like asheep dressed in a tiger’s
skin.” ‘To make a man of yourself, you must toil ;
if you don’t, you won’t.”

If the boy is to be a laborer, let him remember that
«« By perseverance one may grind an iron anchor into
a needle,” and that ‘‘ Any kind of life on earth is
better than being under ground.” He must expect
little respite from toil, since ‘‘ No-work is two fairies,”
and “To be entirely at leisure for one day, is to be
for one day an Immortal.” If he labors without
skill, he will be unsuccessful, ‘‘ A blind fowl picking
at random after worms.”

8. Marriage and family life. ‘When scns are
paired and daughters mated, the principal business
of life is accomplished” by parents ; not to so dispose
of a daughter is dangerous, since ‘‘ When a daughter
is grown up, she is like smuggled salt”—liable to be
seized. As ‘* Nine women in ten are jealous,” and as
«Tt is impossible to be more malevolent than a
woman,” the husband manages her on the principle
that ‘‘ Nothing will frighten a wilful wife but a beat-
ing.” Should either party die, <‘A widow does not
stay so more than a month,” and as for the widower,
“A wife is like a wall of mud bricks; take off one
row, and there is another beneath it.” Indeed, if
left childless remarriage is necessary inasmuch as
“There are three things that are unfilial, and to have
no posterity is the greatest of these.” Notwithstand-
ing these facts and the saying that “‘ Nobody’s family
can hang up the sign, Nothing the matter here,” it
is still true that while “‘ Customs vary in every place,
there is no place like home.”

4. Moral mazims. According to the proverb,
“Good men are scarce.” Some are “Lying ma-
chines,” others ‘‘ Black hearts and rotten livers,”
while everyone must confess at night that ‘In pass-
ing over the day in the usual way, there are four
ounces of sin.” Has one beenimpure? ‘Of ten
thousand evils lewdness is the head.” Is he hypo-
“THE REAL CHINAMAN” 51

 

critical? <‘ He has the mouth of a Buddha, the heart
of asnake.” Avoid “The three great evils, lechery,
gambling, and opium-smoking.” Do not say “‘ The
truth is another name for stupidity,” nor excuse your
wrong-doing, if poor, by the proverb, “‘The poorer
one gets, the more devils one meets.”

Remember, rather, that ‘‘The best and strongest
man in the world finds that he cannot escape the two
words, No continuance,” and that “An upright
heart does not fear demons.” ‘‘Good men have fire
three feet above their heads; evil spirits will do well
to avoid it.’ Then ‘Relying upon Heaven, eat
your rice,” and ‘‘ Pray to the gods, asif they were
present.”
IV
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE

WHILE the Chinese commonly speak of ‘‘ The Three
Religions” of the Empire, meaning thereby Confu-
cianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, one must not imagine
that all their religion is included under these names,
nor yet that any person is an adherent of any single
one of these systems to the exclusion of the others.
Each sect has borrowed from the other two, and all
have appropriated much from primitive religions
existing from the earliest times. In discussing the
topic, the order followed is a chronological one,
though Taoism precedes Confucianism solely on the
ground of Lao-tzti’s superiority in age, and not be-
cause it was fully developed before Confucianism had
become well established. Mohammedanism, though
widely held, is reserved for the next chapter.

Nature-worship.—1l. That fetiches are powerful
and prevalent is evidenced by charms of various sorts,
stones,—especially from the holy mountain, Tai Shan,
—sacred trees and fountains, and the employment of
wormwood and sedge, as the rowan-tree and woodbine
were formerly used in England. If convinced that
any object is ding, possessed of some mystic potency,
no amount of reasoning is likely to prevent the pos-
sessor from seeking its assistance, or devoting to it
some paltry offering.

2. Many features of totem worship are noticed in
connection with special trees and animals, but the
clearest case of such reverence is that shown to the
dragon, the grand totem of the Empire, notwith-
standing the fact that he is only an imaginary being.
These creatures—there are three prominent dragons,

52
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 53

 

one of the sky, another of the sea, and a third of the
marshes—may have found in the fossil iguanodon
their prototype. The only truly orthodox species,
that of the sky, ‘‘ has the head of a camel, the horns
of a deer, eyes of a rabbit, ears of a cow, neck of a
snake, belly of a frog, scales of a carp, claws of a
hawk, and palm of a tiger. On each side of the
mouth are whiskers, and its beard contains a bright
pearl; the breath is sometimes changed into water
and sometimes into fire, and its voice is like the
jingling of copper pans.” He is all powerful and
is associated in thought with the Emperor, who sits
on the dragon throne, has as his ensign the dragon
flag, and at death ‘“‘ascends upon the dragon to be a
guest on high.” But the common people are also
deeply influenced by him, as féng shui depends upon
the right relation of celestial and terrestrial influ-
ences presided over by the dragon and the tiger.
Hence they pay him homage in caves, which are his
favorite places of resort, worshipping in lieu of him
a lizard caught in the cave, or images of gods placed
there for the purpose.

Another apparent case of totemism is found in the
cyclical designation of years, twelve animals, the dog,
pig, rat, ox, tiger, etc., being used in rotation five
times to indicate the sixty years of a cycle. <A fre-
quent way of asking one’s age is to inquire to what
animal one belongs. This custom is not totemistic,
however, but is useful in fortune-telling and indicates
that persons born during the year denoting the speci-
fied animal should not be present when certain events
are to transpire, lest some deadly influence should
be visited upon them. Obviously, also, it would be
highly unfortunate for a man born in the year of the
rat to marry a woman belonging to the dog, as in the
Chinese view they would have ‘‘a rat and dog time
of it,” and the husband be worsted. After death a
man’s relation to his animal seems to be truly totem-
istic, as the dead must carry to the lower world a
chest of money to propitiate this animal, in order
54 DAWN ON THE HILE-S OF T‘ANG

 

to prevent it from making him carry the animal
about. ‘

3. Animal worship outside of. totemistic lines is
very prevalent. Aside from the dragon, who domi-
nates the scaly race, two other imaginary creatures,
the lin, a sort of cross between the stag and unicorn
and head of hairy animals, and the féng, or phenix,
pre-eminent among the feathered race, are highly
reverenced. To complete the quinary system of an-
cient Chinese naturalists, the representative of the
shelly tribe, the tortoise, and man, sovereign of naked
animals, must be added ; these also are reverenced.
Other animals worshipped are the following: The
monkey, known as “‘ His Excellency, the Holy King ;”
the fox, worshipped by mandarins as having the seals
of high office under his control, and reverenced by
the people because of his supposed relation to some
diseases ; the tiger, worshipped by gamblers for good
luck under the name, ‘‘ His Excellency, the Grasp-
ing Oash Tiger,” and by mothers in behalf of sick
children ; the dog, worshipped before childbirth by
women who were born in the year belonging to the
dog; the hedgehog, regarded as a living god of
wealth ; and snakes, certain of which are deemed
divine. While not worshipped, the magpie, crow,
cat, hen, swallow, bat, and owl are creatures of good
or ill omen, and are, therefore, to be carefully
watched.

4. The worship of ancestors, forming the back-
bone of Confucianism in its practical outcome, is the
Gibraltar of Chinese belief, before which Christianity
stands almost powerless. Its central position is thus
described by J. Dyer Ball : «¢ Ancestral worship is filial
piety gone mad. True to their practice of retaining
customs and habits for centuries and millenniums, the
Chinese nation has not given up this most ancient
form of worship ; and the original worship of ances-
tors, like the older formations of rocks on the earth’s
surface, is strong as the everlasting hills, and, though
overlaid by other cults, as the primary rocks are by
 

FAMILY ANCESFhAL TABLETS IN A CHINESE HOME

 

A GROUP OF CHINESE OFFICIALS
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 55

 

other strata, it is still at the foundation, nearly all
the other methods of worship being later additions
and accretions. The worshipping of ancestors thus
underlies most of their religion, and many of their
every-day acts and deeds. ‘Social customs, judicial
decisions, appointments to the office of Prime Minis-
ter, and even the succession to the throne are influ-
enced byit.? . . . This worship is the only one
that is entitled to the name of the National Religion
of China, as the dead are the objects of worship of
poor and rich, young and old, throughout the length
and breadth of this immense Empire.”

The basis of Chinese ancestral worship is found in
the belief that a man possesses three souls, which
after death reside in the ancestral tablet, in the tomb
and in Hades respectively. These souls have the
same needs after death as before, the satisfaction of
which rests with survivors, especially the eldest son of
the deceased. ‘To satisfy these needs, clothing, house-
hold articles, money, etc., made of paper, must be
transmitted to the spirit-world through fire, thus be-
coming invisible and so suited to invisible spirits,
while food can be immediately partaken in its essence
by the spirits. The government of the lower world
is the counterpart of that in China, and officials of
Hades are open fo bribery and look upon the out-
ward appearance, just as in earthly ya-méns. This
not only calls for much paper money, but also for the
assistance of a corrupt horde of priests who ‘merci-
lessly fleece survivors. ‘The system presupposes that
disembodied spirits are more powertul than in life,
and if their wants are not fully supplied, they can,
and probably will, bring varied calamities upon their
posterity. Fear thus becomes the all-powerful spur
to filial piety toward dead ancestors.

One must admit that this worship has benefited
China by inculcating a reverence for parents, which
has thence reached upward and caused national respect
for rulers and emperors. It has also made women
honored, especially the wife, so that but one tablet
56 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘aANG

 

being allowed for mother, there is only one wife, even
in polygamous households, the rest being concubines.
Chinese women thus rank higher in domestic posi-
tion than those of any other Asiatic or heathen race.

On the other hand, ancestral worship is China’s
bane, as well as a sin against God. It is a useless ex-
pense—$151,752,000 per annum, according to Dr.
‘Yates’s careful estimate—to a people who sorely need
every dollar. It congests population, instead of ai-
lowing colonization to sparsely settled sections of the
Empire, since one must be buried near the ancestral
hall or among relatives. For the same reason, it sub-
stitutes for love of country in general alove of home,
making the people extremely selfish and provincial.
Early marriages and polygamy are very largely charge-
able to the desire for male offspring to minister
to parents after death. The worship often makes
such exorbitant exactions on the poor that pressing
wants of the living are neglected in consequence.
Individual liberty is apt to be destroyed by the ex-
treme views of parental authority, the son fearing to
espouse Christianity, for example, lest death might
be the penalty for failure to participate in idolatrous
post-mortem ceremonies. Its doctrine of parental
divinities of great power drives out all theories of di-
vine retribution, thus substituting parental likes and
dislikes for eternal principles. And, most serious of
all, dead ancestors are put in the place of the one
Father and Judge of all men.

5. By an extension of the above worship, China
has come by many deified heroes, who commonly be-
come gods through Imperial decree. Happily, those
thus promoted are not personifications of the vices
deified by ancient Greece, Rome, and India, though
they are often men of blameworthy life.

6. In the first mention of religious worship found
in Chinese history, we read of the Emperor Shun,
“‘ Thereafter he sacrificed specially, but-with the or-
dinary forms, to Shang Ti ; sacrificed with purity to
the Six Honored Ones ; offered appropriate sacrifices
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 57

 

to the hills and rivers, and extended his worship to
the host of spirits.” Probably in the earliest times
this Shang Tt, or Supreme Ruler, often called Heaven,
was regarded as a personal, supreme Being. Though
His worship still survives, it can be engaged in only
by the Emperor, who, as Son of Heaven, periodically
offers up solemn sacrifices, especially at the winter
solstice. It is the prevalent opinion of Western
scholars that no idea of personality has been attached
to the names Heaven—T‘ien—and Shang Ti for many
centuries, though a few recent native writers are
shaking off the trammels of Chu Fu-tzt and assert
personality of those terms. So far as Heaven is re-
garded as the material vault of azure, Chinese native
worship reaches its zenith in the impressive Imperial
ceremonies at the Altar of Heaven in Peking.

Taoism.—1. Its founder, Lao-tzti, the Venerable
Philosopher, owes his title quite largely to Confu-
cius’s use of it after their famousinterview in 517 B.c.
His surname was Li, or Plum, his name Erh, or Har,
and his birthplace in the eastern corner of Ho-nan
province. Here Li first saw the light about 604 B.c.,
fifty-three years before the birth of Confucius. After
one has run the gauntlet of legend-mongers, the pos-
sible facts are left that he was Keeper of Archives at
the Imperial Court, was interviewed by Confucius, fore-
saw the inevitable downfall of the Chou dynasty, and
went into retirement in consequence, and later depart-
ed to afar country of the West, stopping on his way
with the keeper of the northwestern pass, at whose
request he dictated the original canon of Taoism, the
Tao-té Ching. He has been likened to the Greek Zeno
and the French Rousseau, and he certainly was a pro-
testant against the evils of his age, like Luther. Emi-
nently practical in some of his views, he was on the
whole a transcendental dreamer, as well as China’s
first great philosopher.

2. The Scripture of Lao-tzii, the Tao-té Ching, or
Canon of Reason and Virtue, contains only 5,320
characters, which can be read in thirty-six minutes.
58 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

It is thus the shortest of Sacred Canons, being less
than half the length of St. Mark’s Gospel. The dif-
ficulty of interpreting the book may be guessed from
the perplexity of translators concerning the equivalent
for Tao, which has been rendered Way, Reason,
Word, Logos, and Nature, and also from the terms in
which the treatise itself speaks of Tao. Professor
Douglas, while regarding Way as the best single equiv-
alent, adds: ‘* But Tao is more than the way. It is
the way, and the way-goer. It is an eternal road ;
along it all beings and things walk ; but no being
made it, for it is being itself; it is everything and
nothing, and the cause and effect of all. All things
originate from Tao, conform to Tao, and to Tao at
last they return.” As nearly as one can describe it,
Tao seems to be ‘‘(1) the Absolute, the totality of
being and things; (2) the phenomenal world and its
order; and (3) the ethical nature of the good man:
and the principle of his action.”

On its practical side the Tao-té Ching promulgates
a politico-ethical system by which Lao-tzii attempts
to reform the Empire by wooing the people back to
@ primitive state of society. Self-abnegation is the
cardinal rule for sovereign and subject alike. <I
have three precious things which I hold fast and
prize, véz., compassion, economy, and humility. Be-
Ing compassionate I can be brave, being economical
I can be liberal, and being humble I can become the
chief of men.” In the amplification following this
quotation, Lao-tzit shows himself to be the Christian
as opposed to the Confucian Moses, and especially in
another injunction “ to recompense injury with kind-
ness,” to which Confucius stoutly objected.

3. Though Lao-tzi was China’s Pythagoras, “the
first great awakener of thought,” later Taoist leaders
degenerated, until Rationalism, as Taoism has been
translated, became the most irrational of beliefs.
Lieh and Chuang, two celebrated Taoist writers of
the fifth and fourth centuries, B.c.—if indeed Lieh
is a historical character—did more than their master
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 59

 

to illustrate and popularize his ideas. The former so
far departed from Lao-tzt’s spirit that he taught
Epicureanism. Chuang, on the other hand, after
popularizing Taoism, came to doubt differences in
motives and the reality of personal existence. Life
was merely a series of phantasmata. Thus after
dreaming that he was a butterfly, the dazed philos-
opher asks, ‘‘ Was the vision that I was a butterfly a
dream or a reality? or am I now a butterfly dream-
ing that [am Chuang-tzi ?” Another Taoist writer,
nameless, though probably of the Sung dynasty, has
given to his sect and to China one of the most widely
read religious books of the Empire, the Kan Ying
P‘ien, or Book of Rewards and Punishments. So far
is it from being imaginative or fanciful that it is
little else than a list of virtues and vices which are
to be cultivated or avoided ; since for great faults
twelve years are deducted from one’s life and a hun-
dred days for small faults. It is thus a system of
moral book-keeping between man and the spirits, the
spirit of the hearth being a sort of detective to check
up the facts.

4, But to other leaders and writers than the above,
Taoism owes tts awful degradation. Before the in-
troduction of Buddhism, it had so captured the Great
Wall Builder that he despatched two expeditions,
consisting of thousands of girls and young men, to
the golden islands of the blest to secure from the
genii the draught of immortality. From that time
onward it gave itself increasingly to magic, the search
for the philosopher’s stone, the elixir vite and pills
of immortality. For high ideals and eternal truths,
it gave its followers senseless shibboleths to ward off
evil spirits, and no less harmful moral falsehoods in
the shape of rituals and sacrifices in honor of a host
of newly created gods and goddesses.

5. If one would know the Taoism of to-day, one
has only to follow men in slate-colored habit, wearing
caps out of the top of which project a knot of hair,
to their temples or communal homes, and note there
60 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

the many gods ranging from Lao-tzt and his compan.
ions in the trinity of The Three Pure Ones, through
the powerful Pearly Emperor, the Bushel Mother of
the North Star, the Chinese Mars, Kuan Ti, the no
less noted God of Literature, the everywhere-present
God of Wealth,—Buddhism also claims him,—down to
the most common and potent deity of all, the cheap
paper kitchen god, found near the hearth of nearly
every family of the Empire. Hardly less than a liv-
ing deity is the pope of Taoism, who has his abode
in the picturesque Lung Hu Shan—Dragon and
Tiger mountains—of Chiang-hsi, whence, by Im-
perial permission, he rules the Taoist world.

Other proofs of the power of this faith are seen in
magic scrawls on houses, gates, and people, in Taoist
fortune-tellers, in Cagliostros not afew, who will fur-
nish purchasers with pills of immortality, and in ten
thousand superstitions, most of them Taoist in origin,
which harass millions “who through fear of death
were all their lifetime subject to bondage.” Spirits
above and spirits below, demons on the right hand
and on the left, fears in life and terrors at death,
drive the superstition-ridden victim to the supposed
saviour, the Taoist priest, whose costly ministrations
leave one to despairingly cry, with Queen Katherine,

‘6 Spirits of peace, where are ye? are ye all gone?
And leave me here in wretchedness behind ye? ”

Confucianism, the Sect of the Lettered.—
Confucius—the Latinized form of K‘ung Fu-tzii, the
Master K‘ung—is the ‘‘ Throneless King” of nearly
twenty-five centuries, and of one-fourth the human
race. No other mere man, Buddha not excepted, has
had so extensive an influence as he, nor set such an
ineffaceable stamp upon a race.

1. Some étems from his life will help the reader to
understand his marvellous power. K‘ung, whose
adult name was Chung-ni, was born in 551 B.c., in a
village near the centre of what is now Shan-tung
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 61

 

province. His father was a military officer dis-
tinguished for bravery and physical strength, figuring
in one story as a Samson raising a closed portcullis,
thus allowing his imprisoned soldiers to escape. He
died when his son was three years old, and his mother,
in spite of straitened circumstances, took charge of his
education. Asa boy he delighted to “ play at the ar-
rangement of vessels and at postures of ceremony.”
At fifteen he “‘ bent his mind to learning,” and be-
came an earnest student and admirer of the great
characters of Chinese history, especially Yao and
Shun. Marrying at nineteen, one son and two daugh-
ters were born to him, whose descendants now consti-
tute a fair-sized city in the home of their great ances-
tor. Poverty caused the young man to fill a number
of petty offices, but at twenty-two he was able to be-
gin his career as teacher, surrounded by a band of ad-
miring and earnest students. A year later his mother
died, and Confucius went into a three years’ mourn-
ing, which he devoted to study and meditation.
Later we see him and his disciples in his native state,
except for short intervals, till 517 B.c., when he fled,
as did his Duke, on account of political disorders.
Sixteen years more elapsed before his great oppor-
tunity came to put into practical execution those
theories of government that he had so enthusiastically
taught his 3,000 followers. Then, at the age of fifty,
he became governor of the town of Chung-tu, a year
later was made Minister of Works for the State, and
also Minister of Crime, and for three years so con-
ducted affairs that we are told, “‘ He strengthened the
ruling house, and weakened the ministers and chiefs.
A transforming government went abroad. Dishon-
esty and dissoluteness were ashamed, and hid their
heads. Loyalty and good faith became the character-
istics of the men, and chastity and docility those of
the women. Strangers flocked to Lu from other
states.” The jealousy of neighboring principalities
soon invaded this Utopia, and a lure of beautiful
courtesans and fine horses, sent by a plotting marquis,
62 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

caused a breach between the Sage and his ruler. Ac-
cordingly he left his beloved Lu to roam among
neighboring states, accompanied by his disciples.
Courted by some, assailed by others, he journeyed on,
a mystery to princelets, who were too small to per-
ceive in him a seer and sage.

In his sixty-fifth year he was recalled to his native
state, where he spent the remaining years of his life
in putting finishing touches to his edition of the an-
cient writings, in digesting the odes and reforming
the music with which they were accompanied, and in
composing his only surviving original work, the
Ch‘un Ch‘iu, or Spring and Autumn Annals.

But the pitcher was soon to break at the fountain.
Confucius had ceased to dream of his great hero,
Duke Chou, and one spring morning, as he walked
before his door, he was heard crooning over another
presage of his end,

«The great mountain must crumble ;
The strong beam must break ;
And the wise man withers away like a plant.”

The last recorded speech and dream of the Sage had
to do with the funeral ceremonies of ancient dynas-
ties, after which he took to his bed, where he died a
few days later, in 479 or 478 B.c. His weeping disci-
ples buried aim beneath the tumulus which to-day
survives as the Mecca of Confucianism, surrounded
by sombre cypresses, regal halls and courts, eulogistic
monuments of marble, and the graves of more than
seventy generations of his posterity. His own gener-
ation knew not Joseph, but later centuries have not
ceased to do him highest reverence.

2. Only a word can be said of Confuctus’s character.
His family life, though somewhat more fortunate than
that of Socrates, was not very commendable, and he
apparently rejoiced when his wife died. His son also
was so sternly and scornfully dealt with by the father
that one can believe that he had failed in the matter of
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 63

 

paternal duty. While the charge of untruthfulness
and insincerity can be supported, he usually had a
high regard for truth and righteousness.

His attitude toward the past, as described by him-
self, is found in the words, “A transmitter and not
a maker, believing in and loving the ancients.” This
meant the restoration of ancient life and ceremonial
in person, family, and state, and to accomplish this
object he gave himself with a perseverance, courage,
and lack of compromise that are phenomenal. He
felt that Heaven had committed to him the right
way, and that he was immortal till his work was
done. The student desirous of getting a comprehen-
sive view of the Sage’s life and character should read
Book VII. of the Analects, where he is seen in the
varied relations of life.

His disciples tell us that “‘ there were four things
from which he was free, foregone conclusions, arbi-
trary determinations, obstinacy, and egoism; that
there were four subjects which he avoided in talking
with them, extraordinary things, feats of strength,
rebellious disorder, and spirits; that there were four
things which he taught them, letters, ethics, leal-
heartedness, and truthfulness ; that there were three
things of which he seldom spoke, profitableness, the
appointments [of Heaven], and perfect virtue; and
that there were three things in regard to which he
thought the greatest caution should be exercised,
fasting [as preliminary to sacrifice], war, and [the
treatment of] disease.” .

3. Confucian literature is popularly said to consist
of Thirteen Canons, the “‘ Four Books” and “ Five
Classics” being most important. The most widely
known of these are the Ss Shu—Four Books. The
Ta Hsieh, or Great Learning, and the Chung Yung,
or Doctrine of the Mean, were taken from the Li Chi
by Chu Hsi to form two of the Shu. The first chap-
ter of the former contains Confucius’s words as handed
down by Tséng, and the remainder is made up of
quotations selected by him and Chu Hsi. The Chung
64 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF TtaANnG

 

Yung, the most philosophic of the Four Books, was
composed by Confucius’s grandson, and its object is
to illustrate the nature of virtue and the character of
the princely man. The Lun Yi, or Analects, is a
collection of reminiscences of the Master, recalled by
various disciples, thus resembling Luther’s ‘‘ Tisch-
reden,” or Boswell’s ‘‘ Life of Johnson.” The fourth
section of the Four Books, and more than half of the
whole collection, is made up of the writings of Méng-
tz, or Mencius, who was a keener philosopher than
his master, though he lived more than a century later,
from 371 to 288 B.c. After his death his disciples
collected his conversations and exhortations and pub-
lished them in this form.

The Wu Ching—Five Classics—are as follows:
Yi Ching, Book of Changes, ranking first or third in
antiquity among the Classics, and sometimes ascribed
even to the legendary Fu Hsi. Though commonly
regarded as a cosmological and ethical treatise, some
modern Orientalists claim that it is in its fundamental
form an Accadian syllabary. The Shu Ching, Book
of History, may have been originally compiled by

onfucius from the historical remains of dynasties
previous to his time, and contains much of a didactic
nature. It is probably first in age of all the Classics,
and contains the ‘‘seeds of all things that are valu-
able in the eyes of the Chinese.” The Shih Ching,
Book of Odes, contains three hundred and eleven
ballads, used by the people of China’s ancient petty
states, which were selected and arranged by Confucius,
who attached great value to them asa means of mould-
ing the national character. The Rituals are three in
number, only one of which, the Li Chi, Record of
Rites, a sort of digest of other collections, is officially
recognized as canonical. M. Callery says of it:
‘Ceremony epitomizes the entire Chinese mind;
and, in my opinion, the Li Chi is per se the most
exact and complete monograph that China has been
able to give of itself to other nations.” The Ch‘un
Chiu, Spring and Autumn [Annals], was prepared
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 65

 

by Confucius, aided by his disciples, as a supplement
to the Shu Ching, in order to continue the history of .
his own state down to the year 480 or 484 B.c. ‘The
above five works, though less known than the more
commonly studied Four Books, are regarded as more
valuable to the state.

4. The teachings of Confucius—more strictly, the
teachings of ancient history, Mencius and Chu Hsi
—are ethical rather than religious, and look to the
state rather than to the individual, though self-cult-
ure is fundamental in his system. This latter point
is evidenced by Confucius’s ‘“‘House that Jack
Built,” found in the Great Learning: ‘‘ The ancients,
wishing to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the
Empire, first ordered well their own states. Wishing
to order well their states, they first regulated their
families. Wishing to regulate their families, they
first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate
their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wish-
ing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be
sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in
their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost
their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay
in the investigation of things.”

The five relations underlying the Confucian state
—existing between prince and minister, father and
son, husband and wife, elder and younger brothers,
and between friends—are thus described in a primer
that has been committed to memory by more boys
than any other in existence: ‘‘ Affection between
father and son ; concord between husband and wife ;
kindness on the part of the elder brother, and defer-
ence on the part of the younger; order between
seniors and juniors; sincerity between friends and
associates ; respect on the part of the ruler, and loy-
alty on that of the minister :—these are the ten right-
eous courses equally binding on allmen.” << The five
regular constituents of our moral nature,” known as
the wu ch‘ang, are benevolence, righteousness, pro-
priety, knowledge, and truth, or faithfulness, while

5
66 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

the five blessings, or happiness, as named in the
Shu Ching, are long life, wealth, tranquillity, desire
for virtue, and a natural death. A study of these re-
lations, virtues, and blessings, together with that of
the chiin-tzu jén, or princely man, and of the individ-
ual as related to the state, will acquaint one with the
prevalent Confucian ideas.

While Confucianism is atheistic in tendency, and
often in fact, it cannot be strictly so called. Heaven
is spoken of as conferring the nature of man. Filial
piety, so characteristic of the system, demands the
worship of spirits of the dead. Imperial worship is
actually paid to Heaven and the Supreme Ruler;
and lest the worship of Heaven and earth should be
considered a worship of natural forces merely, Confu-
cius said, ‘* The ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven
and earth are those by which we serve the Supreme
Ruler.” Yet it must be confessed that while the
materialism of Chu Fu-tzii dominates Chinese scholar-
ship, and the literati can quote Confucius’s reticence
concerning spirits and the future life, it is hopeless to
think of deriving much leverage from Confucianism
as the missionary tries to introduce the idea of God.
The word Reciprocity and the Confucian form of the
Golden Rule, ‘Self what not desire, do not do to
men,” may be helps to teaching Christian ethics, but
the spirit and content of Christianity must be im-
ported de novo.

5. Modern Confucian doctrine is summed up in the
“Sacred Edict,” issued three centuries ago by the
celebrated Emperor K‘ang Hsi, and wrongly supposed
to be read and explained by officials twice each month
to an eagerly listening populace. The sixteen precepts
inculcate filial piety and brotherly submission, gen-
erosity to kindred, cultivation of peace toward neigh-
bors, importance of husbandry, economy, education,
banishment of strange doctrines, explanation of the
laws, propriety and courtesy, diligence in labor, in-
struction of sons and younger brothers in right doing,
protection against false accusation, warning against
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 67

 

aiding deserters, prompt payment of taxes, combina-
tion against thieves and robbers, and the removal of
resentment and angry feelings.

6. The worship of ‘ The Perfect Sage, the Ancient
Teacher Confucius,” is performed in its simplest form
by every school-boy before his tablet, and by officials
in 1,500 provincial temples, where twice each year
38,306 animals are sacrificed and 27,600 pieces of silk
are offered at his shrine. While the most elaborate
temple is found at his Shan-tung home, his worship
reaches its acme in the Confucian Temple at Peking,
where the Emperor goes in state semi-annually to
worship, sacrifice, and pray to the ‘‘ Teacher, in virtue
equal to Heaven and earth, whose doctrines embrace
the past times and the present,” as well as to Mencius
and three other hardly less famous disciples of the
Sage, Yen, Tséng, and Tz Sst.

Buddhism, or Sect of Fo.—The last to enter of
the three great sects, Buddhism satisfied, as the other
two did not, longings of the soul as to the future, and
consequently largely modified Taoism and to some
extent influenced Confucianism.

1. This most popular of Chinese religions may
have been introduced into China about 250 B.C. ;
though, as opinions without sufficient evidence are
valueless, this traditional entrance may be rejected
and the usual date in the seventh decade of the first
Christian century, about the time of St. Paul’s death,
be accepted. Not that Buddhism was then heard of
for the first time—for at the date of our Saviour’s ad-
vent China certainly had become acquainted with the
Buddhist canons and images—but not till then did
the superstitious Emperor Ming dream that a golden
man had flown into the audience hall. A courtier
suggesting that it might point to Buddha, the Em-
peror sent an under-secretary to India to try and get
it. Forty-two chapters of the Buddhist canon and
a standing image of Buddha were obtained, a monas-
tery was prepared near the capital, and translation
of the canon and preaching began. Thereafter for
68 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

seven centuries zealous Buddhist missionaries of India
came and went in a ceaseless stream, ‘‘ joining the
caravans entering the northwestern marts and ships
trading at southern ports.” ; ;

2. The spread of Buddhism was rapid at times, as
during the Sui dynasty when it reached its zenith ;
and at others persecution almost wiped out the faith,
as when, in A.D. 845, 4,600 monasteries and 40,000
smaller religious houses were destroyed, their copper
bells and images made into cash, and 260,000 monks
and nuns forced to return to secular life. To-day,
in spite of K‘ang Hsi’s seventh edict, ‘‘ Discounten-
ance and banish strange doctrines, in order to exalt
the correct doctrine ”—aimed especially at Buddhism
as opposed to Confucianism—Buddhist temples are
on all “the hills and under every green tree,” and
Buddhist monks and nuns greatly outnumber those
of the Taoists.

3. Popular Buddhistic doctrines in China are of
the northern type, as opposed to the cold and cheer-
less faith of Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. While there
are two great divisions and thirteen Buddhist sects in
the Empire, they differ little in popular estimation ;
and as they have borrowed from Confucianism “its
reverence for ancestors and for state, and from Taoism
its demigods and its geomantic superstitions,” men of
every creed rejoice in its banyan-like shade.

Their belief concerning Buddha is almost identical
with that found in Asvaghosha’s “‘ Life of Buddha,”
and thus resembles what is found in Arnold’s *‘ Light
of Asia.”

Theoretically the great Jaws of Buddha are eight :
“Right views,” including the faculty for discerning
the truth; ‘equal and unvarying wisdom,” 7.¢., ab-
sence of evil or pernicious thoughts ; “right speech,”
excluding idle or pernicious language ; “‘ correct con-
duct,” or purity ; “right life,” or that of a religious
mendicant ; ‘“‘ right endeavor,” or the use of proper
expedients ; ‘right recollection,” or repeating from
a true memory Buddha’s law and the formule of wor-
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 69

 

ship; and “right meditation,” or the exercise of a
mental abstraction that leaves the mind vacant for
the entrance of truth. ‘These are the eight roads,
even and level, by which. to avoid the sorrow of re-
peated birth and death.” Practically, however, the
Chinese Buddhist cares more for a work called ‘‘ The
Rules of Merit and Transgression” than for such ab-
stract teachings. Thus he is careful to do good deeds,
the most meritorious of which are to marry, when
rich, a deformed girl to whom betrothed when poor,
to publish a part of the Classics, and to forgive a
debt, each netting him one hundred credits; to de-
stroy the stereotype plates of immoral books, three
hundred credits, and to seek to be pure through life,
credit 1,000. Similarly the pious Buddhist will avoid
loving a wife more than father and mother, being
guilty of usury, cooking beef or dog-meat, digging up
a coffin, and drowning an infant, all of which inflict
one hundred demerits, and will especially avoid pub-
lishing an obscene book, the penalty for which is
measureless.

The doctrine of metempsychosis, which underlies
all Buddhistic teaching, and which was incorporated
from Buddhism into the later Taoism, makes life de-
sirable or undesirable, according to one’s present lot
and one’s balance of merit or demerit. The wheel
of transmigration ceaselessly turning in Hades with
its six ranks or spokes—insects, fish, birds, animals,
poor men, and mandarins—renders the death-bed a
place of curious and awful dread. Yet this is the
firm belief of almost every man, woman, and child in
China—even of the learned Confucianist, who, with
his exaltation of filial piety, sometimes yields before
Buddha’s reason for not eating flesh, viz., that in so
doing one might very likely eat an ancestor, reborn
in animal form.

The Buddhist heaven was a new idea to the Chi-
nese. They care little, however, for the heavens de-
scribed in Sanskrit phrases—the lower ones admitting
of sensuous pleasures, and the superior heavens where
7O DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

happiness consists in thought or pure being ; still less
do they care for the highest heavens, which “ admit of
no thought, nor do they exclude it; the condition
here is purely transcendental.” What millions long
for, and only thousands can reasonably hope to attain,
is the Western Paradise. ‘‘ This happy region is ex-
quisitely adorned with gold and silver and precious
gems. There are pure waters with golden sands, sur-
rounded by pleasant walks, and covered with large

lotus flowers. . . . Again, heavenly music is
ever heard in this abode ; flowers rain down each day
three times. . . . Again, there are in this para-

dise birds of every kind, . . . which during the
six watches raise their notes in concert to sing the
praises of religion. . . . Again, the name of hell
is there an unknown word; there is no birth in ‘an
evil way,’ no fear of such births. . . . And liv-
ing there is a multitude of purified and venerable
persons, difficult to count, innumerable, incalculable.
And therefore all beings ought to make fervent prayer
for that country.”

Over against this ineffable glory must be put the
Buddhist hells, or earth-prisons, which, however, are
not often distinguished one from another in the pop-
ular mind. The ordinary conception is gained from
the hell found in some Buddhist temples, where,
set forth with all the plastic or pictorial arts, are
seen the horrors of the damned, most of whom are
women. The ten kings of hell, infernal lictors, black,
white, and blue devils, the mortar, mill, chopping-
knife, caldron of boiling oil, cylinder, village of wild
dogs, lake of blood, bridge of snakes, hill of knives
—all with their suffering victims—demons sawing
women asunder or pulling out their tongues, men
wandering aimlessly up rugged heights with decapi-
tated head in hand, are all so grewsomely depicted or
sculptured in that chamber of horrors, that even for-
eigners cannot sleep after visiting one because of
troubled dreams.

And what is the Buddhist’s salvation? The Nirvana
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 7.

 

of the books, gained in Buddha’s way ; but straight
is that gate, and only a pitiful few of China’s millions
are seen agonizing to enter in thereat. As for the
rest, if they live a compassionate, benevolent life, and
have a large credit on their moral ledger, a better
transmigration may be expected—a woman be born a
man, if she has been surpassingly saintly, and a poor
man be reborn as a scholar with a sure chance ot
growing rich from the spoils of office. There are
also saviours among the gods who can aid mortals,
thanks to the attempt of Northern Buddhism to meet
an inborn need of every human soul.

4. The Buddhist priesthood is too ignorant and
inactive to merit special mention. Monks and nuns
are scarcely distinguishable, as both sexes have un-
bound feet, loose socks and trousers, yellow robes,
made flowing to allow for spiritual influences, and
clean-shaven pates. Begging alms in the street,
raising funds for temple repairs by various nerve-
moving austerities, and their numerous and noisy
presence at the prolonged wake preceding funerals,
constitute their main extra-temple functions.

5. Temples and pagodas are the architectural con-
tributions of Buddhism to the community, though
Confucianism and Taoism claim the latter as super-
lative instruments for bringing to earth the celestial
influences so essential to geomancy. Except in cities,
temples are always beautifully situated, usually in
some quiet or picturesque spot. Their generous
courts and capacious buildings are the resort of visi-
tors, as well as the dwelling-place of many gods and
of their human attendants.

6. The worship at these temples is largely liturgical
and hence incomprehensible, as the liturgy is in
Sanskrit, which is only imperfectly represented by
Chinese sounds. The portly abbot supported by his
retinue of monks, candles and burning incense, the
monotonous droning of liturgies, the repetition of
merit-bringing phrases and prayers accompanied by
the rattle of rosaries, the measured beating of wooden
72 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

fish-heads, and prostrations in an atmosphere heavy
with pent-up smoke, are the prevailing impressions
brought away by the visitor.

%. The gods 1n whose honor this worship is per-
formed are too numerous to name, since Chinese
Buddhism has adopted a most catholic pantheon of
deities. Prominent among them are the Triad of
Past, Present, and Future Buddhas,—known as the
Three Precious Ones,—Amita and Kuan Yin. The
latter, formerly considered a god, has for centuries
been a goddess, and is the most common object of
veneration among Chinese Buddhists. Her fuller
name means ‘‘ the Sovereign who regards the prayers
of the world,” and she is also known as the “‘ most
merciful, most compassionate.” She is a Buddhist
Saviour who can rescue from earthly ills and demoni-
acal hosts every sort and condition of men, from the
lnnatic, whose prayer makes him sane, to the wisest
mandarin of the Empire. ‘Great Mercy, Great
Pity, save from misery, save from evil—broad, great,
efficacious, responsive Kuan Yin Buddha,” is a cr
that penetrates the throne room on the Isle of P‘n
T‘o and moves the heart of the Queen of Heaven.
‘The Giving Sons Kuan Yin,” resembling most
strikingly the image of the ‘‘ Madonna and Child,”
and two other metamorphoses of her are all greatly
reverenced.

Associated with Kuan Yin in worship is Amitabha,
Amita, or O-mi-t‘o, as he is called in Chinese. He
is the Buddha of “‘ Boundless Light,” so called be-
cause “‘his brightness is boundless, and he can illu-
mine all kingdoms. His life, boundless and shoreless,
extends through many kalpas.” His chief value in
Chinese eyes lies in the fact of his being the ‘ guid-
ing Buddha,” who directs his worshippers to the
greatly desired Western Paradise. Pronounce his
magic name as many times as possible in one breath,
and some 25,000 times a day, concentrate the thought
on Amita like a thread running through beads, call
on his name for seven days with fixed heart, and at
RELIGIONS OF THE CHINESE 73

 

death Amita with his holy throng will appear before
you ; your heart will not be turned upside down, but,
as candidate for the lily-birth, you will be born in the
Pure Land.

Chinese Geomancy.—This is known as féng-
shui—literally wind and water—and is everywhere a
powerful factor in Chinese life. While it may owe
most to the Taoists for its development, it is the
product of superstition-mongers of all the sects.
Though founded on one of the most ancient Classics,
the Yi Ching, it became systematized only in the
twelfth century ; yet in seven hundred years it has
become ‘‘ one of the most gigantic systems of delusion
that ever gained prevalence among men.”

1. The original objects of care giving rise to the
systems were the spirits of departed ancestors. Made
powerful by the act of death, their mediatorship was
greatly sought by the living. Naturally their sepul-
chre-home was of great importance, and only “‘ wind
and water doctors” could properly locate this.

Later, however, the sites of houses, shops, pagodas,
and cities came to be determined by these doctors,
and their science broadened out until it included
“‘cosmogony, natural philosophy, spiritualism, and
biology, so far as they have these sciences.”

2. Spirits of the dead are but media through
whom survivors can influence the real power, which is
nature. Nature is regarded as a living organism,
over which hover invisible hosts of malignant beings
that need to be propitiated. <‘ If a tomb is placed so
that the spirit dwelling therein is comfortable, the
inference is that the deceased will grant those who
supply its wants all that the spirit world can grant.
A tomb located where no star on high or dragon be-
low, no breath of nature or malign configuration of
hills, can disturb the peace of the dead, must there-
fore be lucky, and worth great effort to secure.”

3. “The principles of geomancy depend much on two
supposed currents running through the earth, known
as the dragon. and the tiger; a propitious site has
74 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

these on its left and right. A skilful observer can
detect and describe them, with the help of the com-
pass, direction of the water-courses, shapes of the
male and female ground and their proportions, color
of the soil, and the permutation of the elements.”

4, Evidences of the power of this system are seen
‘almost everywhere. Graves with their armchair con-
figuration in the south, crooked streets, blank walls
and screens to prevent spirits from gaining impetus
through rectilinear motion, pagodas and temples
erected to improve féng-shui, the location of Peking
and of the mausolea of grandees and emperors, theo-
ries about the height of new buildings near older ones,
hostility to two-storied houses of foreigners and spires
of Christian churches, and the prevalent dread of
telegraphs, railroads, and mines, so fearfully inimical
to good luck—these are a few samples of many. In
a word, the universal fear of bad féng-shui is ex-
pressed in their proverb, ‘‘ A real man would rather
die than to have his eyebrows inverted,” 7.e., lose his
luck. And the key to this most enthralling system
of superstition is held in the itching palm of the
Sel geomancer, usually of Buddhistic or Taoist
faith.
V
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS

BEFORE considering the work of modern missions
in the Empire, it will be well to note those movements
that have been in a sense a preparation for the com-
ing of the present-day missionary.

Ancient Moral and Religious Conditions.—
Those already described have had their value in the
way of indicating China’s need. ee had
given to hera code of ethics second only to the Chris-
tian system in the opinion of many. There were also
embedded in the ancient records, like a fly in amber,
intimations of a Supreme Being who ruled in the
affairs of men. When Buddhism in our first century
had crystallized the cloudlike metaphysics and alche-
mistic vaporings of Taoism into a religion, a change
in emphasis as to the ground of virtue appeared.
Right for right’s sake and filial piety were still be-
lieved in, but the Taoist said, ‘“‘ There are in heaven
and on earth spirits whose duty it is to search out the
fau ts of men, and who, according to the lightness or
gravity of their offences, reduce the length of their
lives by periods of a hundred days.” Retribution and
ever-present spirits thus filled the thought of the
duty-doer. Buddhism brought to China the empha-
sis of suffering and its alleviation, its doctrine of
Karma which could be accumulated merit, and the
sunset glory of its Western Paradise. The loveliness
of the unselfish life, the hideous lineaments of Inst
and passion, arch-enemies of the human race, and
the reality of the invisible spiritual world, which
might be one’s own possession, were also India’s gift
to China.

75
76 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

The Secret Sects.—1l. But another source has
been experimentally proven more truly preparatory to
the reception of the gospel message than the best ele-
ments in the established faiths. ‘This isfound in the
beliefs held by many of the proscribed and hence secret
sects. These tenets have proven helpful, not somuch
because they are wholly new—since most of their doc-
trines are a composite of views already current in the
Empire—but because the holders of these doctrines
are such from conviction and so are prepared to endure
much hardship in consequence, while believers in or-
thodox views are usually mere formalists of jellyfish
character. Their number and distribution—it is esti-
mated that there are from 20,000 to 200,000 sect mem-
bers in each province—are also a source of strength to
the Christian movement in that everywhere are found
men who have the courage of their convictions, though
they are not the views of their neighbors, an object
lesson of the greatest value to the would-be Christian.

2. As to the doctrines taught by these sects, some
societies exist for the propagation of political theories,
often of a revolutionary character ; others propitiate
evil powers, and others still hold the symbols of re-
pogees in reverence, as in India. Most of them,

appily, are mainly moral and religious. Thus the
Tsai-li Society is one of the most extensive temper-
ance organizations in the world, its members pled:,ng
themselves to abstain from gambling, tobacco, wine,
and opium, and carrying on a crusade against these
evils by means of most realistic representations,
through clay figures clothed in rags, of the evils of
intemperance. Several sects advocate vegetarianism
“‘as a means of rectifying the heart, accumulating
merit, avoiding calamities in this life and retributive
pains in the next.” Another sect “tries to persuade
men to be chaste, to eliminate all passion, and by
meditation and study to attain a state of perfect
repose and self-control, so that every impulse may
be followed without the least risk of falling into sin.”
The duty of maintaining a patient spirit under injury
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 77

 

and of meeting reviling with silence is the chief teach-
ing of another society. Many a sect member is. seen
who is really seeking truth and trying to relieve needy
and suffering neighbors. The Chin-tan Chiao, or
Pill of Immortality Sect, which in 1891 lost 15,000
members through the false charge of being rebels,
uses terms and prayers that are essentially Christian,
and many of its membership declare after joining the
Christian Church that Chin-tan doctrines closely re-
semble those of Christianity.

3. Mr. James, a Shan-tung missionary, who had
made a special study of the secret sects, thus testified
to the character of sect converts: ‘Some of the best
and most consistent Christians I know were once the
devoted followers of these societies. And in spite of
all the suspicion cast on them by the officials, and the
fact that numbers of their leaders and adherents have
been punished for seditious practices, it is certain that
a large number, perhaps a majority of the most
thoughtful, decent, and earnest seekers after God are
contained in these sects. With such people it is no
political matter, but a strenuous endeavor to do the
utmost in their power to eradicate sinful habits, to
do good, obtain rest for their souls, and immortal life.”

The Jews in China.—Turning from these dim
gropings after God, one would expect to find in
Judaism and Mohammedanism, with their doctrine
of the true God, a more helpful element in preparing
the Chinese mind for Christian ‘teachings. It is a
question, however, whether this is so. The Jewish
leaven has been too small to affect the populous lump,
while Mohammedans bring reproach by their lax
morality on the God whom they worship.

1. Formerly the Jews called their faith the Religion
of India, in allusion, Dr. Martin thinks, to the prin-
cipal land of their sojourn on their way to China ;
later they were known by their heathen neighbors as
the Tiao-chin Chiao, or Sinew Picking Sect, since
they pick out the sinews from the flesh before eating
(Gen. xxxii. 32).
98 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

On a stone in K‘ai-féng Fu, the capital of Ho-nan,
are inscribed these salient facts of their history:
“‘ With respect to the religion of Israel, we find that
our first ancestor was Adam. The founder of the
religion was Abraham ; then came Moses, who estab-
lished the Law and handed down the Sacred Writings.
During the dynasty of Han [B.c. 206-a.D. 264] this
religion entered China. In the second year of Hsiao
Tsung of the Sung dynasty [A.D. 1164], a synagogue
was erected in K‘ai-féng Fu. Those who attempt
to represent God by images or pictures do but vainly
occupy themselves with empty forms. Those who
honor and obey the Sacred Writings know the origin
of all things; and eternal reason and the Sacred
Writings mutually sustain each other in testifying
whence men derived their being. All those who pro-
fess this religion aim at the practice of goodness and
avoid the commission of vice.” This stone of witness
makes no mention of any great influence exerted by
their race in China, though in the fourteenth century
they appear to have been quite numerous and to have
been scattered over the northern portion of the Em-
pire. A Russian author, Professor Vasil’ev, claims
that “they held employments under the Government
and were in possession of large estates, but by the
close of the seventeenth century a great part of them
had been converted to Islam.”

3. Their present condition is pitiable. A mere
remnant confined to K’ai-féng Fu apparently, in
numbers less than 400 in all, unable to read the
Hebrew of their ancient scrolls, their synagogue in
ruins and the religious assembly given up, and cir-
cumcision among the younger generation no longer
performed, Dr. Martin’s words fitly describe their
pres prospects : “‘ A rock rent from the sides of

ount Zion by some great national catastrophe, and
projected into the central plain of China, it has stood
there while the centuries rolled by, sublime in its
antiquity and solitude. It is now on the verge of be-
ing swallowed up by the flood of paganism, and the
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 79

 

spectacle is a mournful one. The Jews themselves
are deeply conscious of their sad situation, and the
shadow of an inevitable destiny seems to be resting
upon them.”

Chinese Mohammedanism.—The Hui-hui
Chiao, ag Chinese Mohammedans call themselves,
variously explain the character hut. Professor Ar-
nold’s belief is that as it may mean either ‘‘ return”
or “submission,” their name signifies ‘‘a return to
God by the straight path, and submission to the will
of the Almighty.” A Chinese Mohammedan author
holds that it is ‘‘once” twice repeated, men being
born once and dying once, and that no doctrine is of
importance that does not deal with the Two Ways of
Birth and Death. Dr. Edkins, on the other hand,
makes it merely the representation by Chinese char-
acters of a Turkish race-name applied to tribes in
Kashgar.

1. Their entrance into China was by caravans in
the north and by sea from the south. The first
mosque in North China was built in 742 at Hsi-an
Fu, Shen-hsi. Making its way:into Kan-su, a khan
was converted about the middle of the tenth century,
and endeavored to force all his subjects to become
believers. Later, Mongol conquests resulted in “a
vast immigration of Mussulmans, Syrians, Arabs, Per-
sians, and others into the Chinese Empire. . . .
A great number of them settled in the country, and
developed into a populous and flourishing community,
gradually losing their racial peculiarities by their
marriage with Chinese women.”

Their traditions say that they first came to Canton
in the sixth year of the Hegira, a.p. 628—known
as the Year of Missions—under the leadership of a
maternal uncle of Mohammed, whose tomb is still an
object of reverence for all Chinese Moslems. In 758
there were added to their number 4,000 Arab soldiers
who came, like the Manchus, to assist in quelling re-
bellion, and who, like them, declined to withdraw
after it was accomplished. This and the immigrae
80 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

tion under the Mongols are the only large accessions
coming in from without.

2. Their increase to some thirty millions—M. de
Thiersant’s estimate, based on data furnished over
twenty years ago by Chinese officials, was twenty mil-
lions for the Empire, while Dr. Jessup’s estimate of
four millions is evidently too low—is a matter of in-
terest to the missionary. If this is the only result of
twelve centuries of propagandism within the Empire,
can Christianity expect any greater conquests ?

Their growth in numbers is not due to any such
missionary zeal as was displayed by the Buddhists or
by Protestant missions, for very httle of it has ever
been shown. It has rather resulted from natural in-
crease of the Mohammedan section of the population,
aided by compromise in objectionable religious views,
the purchase of children of poor parents in time of
famine, and the instruction of even the humblest by
means of metrical primers in Islamic doctrine. That
this growth would have been still larger had they not
been proverbially rebellious, and so subject to constant
decimation—the Panthay rebellion of 1855-74 re-
sulted in the death of more than two millions of their
number—is perfectly evident. With more than half
the population of Kan-su and Yiin-nan Mohammedan,
one can see the possibilities of even a false faith.

3. The present status and practices of Mohamme-
danism will also help to account for its slow increase.
Moslems go by the appellation ‘‘ Mohammedan
thieves,” are regarded by the people as responsible for
most of the counterfeiting, and are in demand when a
deed of blood, such as slanghtering animals or execut-
ing criminals, is to be done. ‘‘ The Chinese recognize
in their physiognomy, especially in the nose, a proof of
the violent temper popularly ascribed to them. Jests
at their expense are common,” and the proverb runs,
“*T said Mohammedans are thieves, but according to
you they are dogs.” So far as the literati are con-<
cerned, their rigid rule that the Koran must not be
translated has kept it from being known to scholars,
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 8r

 

even to those of their own faith. The prohibition of
the flesh of ‘‘ the black beast’ is a serious one to a peo-
ple who, in many cases, must eat pork or refrain from
meat altogether, while the inhibition of wine is not
relished by a temperate people who wish to imbibe on
important occasions.

4, Yet this faith is not without its advantage to
the Christian missionary. The two great features of
Mohammedanism, its proclamation of the one true
God and its denunciation of idolatry, have come to
the ears of many in the Mohammedan provinces of
the north, northwest, south, and southwest. The
nominal observance of Friday as worship-day and
the use of certain theological terms have imparted an
inkling of Christian life and truth to other few of the
people. Yet when all has been said, most mission-
aries of Mohammedan experience would probably pre-
fer to work in a field where they are not found.

Nestorian Christianity.—Though its entrance
into the Empire probably antedates that of Moham-
medanism, it has been reserved until now because of
its higher teachings.

1. Traditions of some importance assert that “ the
Christian faith was carried to China, if not by the
apostle Thomas, by the first teachers of Christian-
ity.” As early as 300 a.p., Arnobius speaks of the
Christian deeds done among the Seres. The heretical
leader, Mani, also very probably visited the country
in the third century.

Yet the entrance of the Nestorians, as early as 505
A.D. perhaps, constitutes the first Chinese Christian
movement of which we possess certain and compar-
atively full evidence. Driven out of the Roman Em-
pire, Nestorian monks penetrated into western China
and thence spread eastward to the ocean.

2. Built into a brick wall, where it had once stood,
outside of the ancient capital of Shen-hsi, Hsi-an Fu,
is the oldest Christian monument in the Empire, and
perhaps the most ancient one in all Asia, the birth-
continent of our faith. A fierce controversy has been

6
82 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF TtaANG

 

waged about that tablet since its discovery in 1625,
but the general opinion is that it is a genuine record
of the Nestorian Church, dating from the Tang
dynasty and the year 781 A.D. .

From its florid and genuinely Chinese periods one
can gather these apparent facts concerning the hey-
day of Chinese Nestorianism. The most virtuous
Olopun came from Syria, and after “beholding the
direction of the wind he braved difficulties and dan-
gers,” arriving in the Empire A.D. 635. The illus-
trious Tai Tsung, who then occupied the throne,
conducted his guest into the interior, ‘‘the sacred
books were translated in the imperial library, the
sovereign investigated the subject in his private apart-
ments ; when, becoming deeply impressed with the
rectitude and truth of the religion, he gave special
orders for its dissemination.” If the record can be
believed, later emperors favored the new faith and
caused Illustrions Churches to be erected in every
province. ‘While this doctrine pervaded every
channel, the State became enriched and tranquillity
abounded. Every city was full of churches and the
royal family enjoyed lustre and happiness.” The
machinations of opposing Buddhists seem to have
come to naught, and the faith spread in spite of all
opposition.

3. If the Nestorian monument truly reflects the
doctrines taught, China must have been much bene-
fited, though in their enunciation there is an evident
accommodation to Chinese beliefs. The great truths
of Christianity, with the exception of the Crucifixion
and the Atonement, were proclaimed, and the Em-
peror T‘ai Tsung himself, on the Incarnation day, is
said to have ‘‘ bestowed celestial incense and ordered
the performance of a service of merit.” Better still,
the lives of the propagators of the Illustrious Religion,
as Nestorianism was called, were apparently consistent
with their assertion, ‘‘ Now without holy men prin-
ciples cannot become expanded ; without principles
holy men cannot become magnified ; but with holy
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 83

 

men and right principles, united as the two parts of
asignet, the world becomes civilized and enlightened.”
4, Later Nestorianism in China ill deserved the
name of Illustrious Religion. An imperial edict of
the year 845 commands 3,000 of its priests to retire
to private life, while Arabian travellers, a century
later, report the death of many Christians in the siege
of Canfu. Marco Polo speaks of them as being both
numerous and respected in the thirteenth century.
Barring that ignis fatuus of medieval history,
Prester John, who bears many Nestorian features,
and who was the fabled Christian priest-king of Asia,
the Nestorian faith can boast of nothing in later cen-
turies. They ‘suffered much, but maintained a
precarious footing in China during the time of the
Yiian dynasty, having been cut off from all help and
intercourse from the mother Church since the rise of
the Moslems. They had ceased long before this pe-
riod to maintain the purity of the faith, however,
and had apparently done nothing to teach and diffuse
the Bible, which the tablet intimates was in part or in
whole translated by Olopun, under the Emperor’s
auspices.” ‘To-day Nestorian churches, books, and
Christians are no longer to be found in China, and
even the noble monument of those apostles of an
earlier and purer faith was found in 1893 to be laid
low, and part of the inscription was defaced, the work
of malicious hands, apparently.
5. The Christian Church in China may perhaps owe
to Nestorianism its first translation of the Word of
God, though it has long since perished. It certainly
has conferred upon the Church these benefits. One
appeals to the Chinese because of its antiquity, viz.,
the historic testimony concerning the early introduc-
tion of Christianity into the Empire. A rubbing of
the Nestorian tablet, or a reduced photograph of the
same hung in Christian chapels and explained to the
people, would do much to remove the charge of its
being a novel and strange doctrine recently foisted
upon a credulous few by designing foreigners. ‘This
84 DAWN ON THE rttLLS OF T‘ANG

 

inscription, with a copy of the contemporaneous edict
of their famous T<ai Tsung, quoted from on the mon-
ument, is a witness from the past of the utmost value
to men who almost worship antiquity. A second ben-
efit coming to the Chinese Church from the vanished
glory of the Illustrious Religion is the warning against
compromise, which is the apparent secret of its utter
decay. As Dr. George Smith has said of Indian Nes-
torianism : ‘‘ Nestorius is the representative of those
who preach a Christ less than divine, and who have,
therefore, ever failed to convert mankind. . ..
This fact of compromise must be remembered when
we proceed to look at the otherwise bright missionary
progress of Nestorian Christianity in Asia, central,
east, and south.” ‘The third one is also a word of
warning. Their aim seemed to be to gain first the
rulers of the land, and they boasted much of imperial
favor, while little was said of work among the com-
mon people. This reversal of Christ’s law, ‘‘ To the
poor the gospel is preached,” may largely account for
their ultimate failure.

A further possible benefit conferred by this faith is
found in the suggestion that the seeds of Christian
truth taught by men of the secret sects may have
been derived from Nestorian teaching. Though not
proven, it is possible that Christian phrases, used by
certain of the sects, and fragments of Nestorian
prayers, are to-day being uttered in secret by their
members in many a city and province of China, thus
perpetuating the real life of these ancient Chinese
Christians, long after their Church has perished.

Catholicism’s First Stadium in China.—1.
Rome’s first great apostle to the Chinese was John of
Montecorvino, who arrived in India in 1291, preached
there successfully for a year, and_ thence proceeded
with a caravan to the court of Kublai Khan. In
spite of Nestorian opposition he had, at the expira-
tion of eleven years, a baptized following of nearly
6,000 persons, a church at Peking with “a steeple
and belfry with three bells that were rung every hour
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 85

 

to summon the new converts to prayer,” and he had
bought one hundred and fifty children, whom he in-
structed in Greek and Latin and composed for them
several devotional books. The story of his missionary
life he thus gave: “It is now twelve years since I
have heard any news from the West. I am become
old and grayheaded, but it is rather through labors
and tribulations than through age. for I am only fifty-
eight years old. I have learned the Tartar language
and literature, into which I have translated the whole
New Testament and the Psalms of David, and have
caused them to be transcribed with the utmost care.
I write and read and preach openly and freely the
testimony of the law of Christ.” If Catholic his-
torians truly depict this hero of the faith, one can
well believe that at his death in 1328. ‘‘ after having
converted more than 30,000 infidels,” ‘* all the in-
habitants of Cambaluc [Peking], without distinction,
mourned for the man of God, and both Christians
and Pagans were present at the funeral ceremonies,
the latter rending their garments in token of grief.”

2. The ladors of his successor, Nicholas, and his
twenty-four Franciscan assistants seem to have been
almost wholly for the Mongol tribes instead of for the
Chinese, over whom the Mongol emperors ried. If
this is correct, it largely accounts for the fas that
after the overthrow of the Mongols by the Minz cy-
nasty, both Nestorians and Catholics sink ou vt
sight, having, it is supposed, “lapsed into ignorau?¢
and thence easily into Mohammedanism and Bua-
dhism.” The Pope’s order to have “the mysteries ot
the Bible represented by pictures in all the churches,
for the purpose of captivating the barbarians,” may
have served a temporary purpose, but such thin soil
was incapable of supporting the plant after the fierce
sun of persecution arose upon it.

3. As one roams over the Mongolian plateau and
sees everywhere evidence of the mighty grasp of Ti-
betan Buddhism, which holds in its sway not only the
oldest son of each family as a priest of Buddha, but
86 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

which dominates every member of the family as well,
one cannot but mourn over a possible “‘ i¢ might have
been” of Christian history. Professor Douglas, in
writing of Kublai Khan, says: ‘‘Had his endeavor to
procure European priests for the instruction of his
people, of which we know through Marco Polo, pros-
pered, the Roman Catholic Church, which did gain
some ground under his successors, might have taken
stronger root in China. Failing this momentary ef-
fort, Kublai probably saw in the organized force of
Tibetan Buddhism the readiest instrument in the civ-
ilization of his countrymen, and that system received
his special countenance.” A similar crisis now con-
fronts Protestant Christianity. Is the future historian
to write against her fair name a similar charge ?

The Second Catholic Entrance.—After Xavier,
the St. Paul of Roman missionaries, had fallen on
sleep beside the sleepless China Sea, his successor,
Valignani, exclaimed in sadness as he gazed on the
mountains of China, “0, mighty fortress! when shall
these impenetrable brazen gates of thine be broken
through?” The key to those gates was placed in the
hands of the Italian Jesuit, Matteo Ricci, and they
were unlocked and stood ajar until one hundred and
fifty years later, when the decree of the Emperor
Yung Chéng closed them again.

1. The hero of the first part of this period was a
man who stands foremost among Catholic mission-
aries ‘‘for skill, perseverance, learning, and tact.”
Ricci came first to the Portuguese settlement of Ma-
cao, but soon gained entrance to China itself by a
proceeding characteristic of the man and of Rome’s
methods in the Empire. He and his companion ap-
plied to the Governor of Kuang-tung for permission
to build on the mainland, since ‘‘ they had at last as-
certained with their own eyes that the Celestial Em-
pire was even superior to its brilliant renown. They
therefore desired to end their days in it, and wished
to obtain a little land to construct a house and a
church where they might pass their time in prayer
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 87

 

and study, in solitude and meditation.” With sim-
ilar duplicity he posed in turn as Buddhist priest, as
scholar, as philosopher, and as official, as seemed
most expedient, but always with his eyes fixed on,
Peking and the occupant of the Dragon Throne. His
indomitable energy finally brought him within Pe-
king’s tunnel-like portals on July 4, 1601. Once in
the capital, his learning, pleasing manners, and ju-
dicious distribution of presents gained him favor
among those in authority and won for the Church
many adherents.

His extremely busy life in Peking was filled with
manifold labors. Visitors, who were never turned
away, and new converts who were to be warmly wel-
comed, thronged his residence. As head of the China
mission with its four stations, an exhausting corre-
spondence must be carried on. His relation to the
Court and high officials and scholars entailed a griev-
ous burden upon him. A still more trying ordeal was
the correspondence arising from inquiriés coming
from all parts of the Empire concerning the doctrines
taught by him and the books which he had published.

His literary labors were extremely important to the
work. Rarely has a foreigner succeeded so well as he
in clothing foreign and Christian ideas in so attractive
a Chinese dress. In the topics chosen he also adapted
himself to th3 taste of the literati. Themes such as
Friendship, Years Past no Longer Ours, Man a So-
journer on Karth, Advantage of Frequent Contem-
plation of Eternity, Future Reward and Punishment,
Prying into Futurity Hastens Calamity, etc., were
pleasingly discussed. His Hsi-kuo Fa, or “‘ Art of
Memory as Practiced in the West,” was especially
popular, the more so since Ricci was himself an ex-
pert in mnemonics. A map of his, which was pre-
pared on a peculiar projection to give the Chinese an
idea that their land was indeed the middle kingdom,
was widely used and did much to remove the disgust
occasioned by ordinary maps in which China appears
only as a little corner of the world. His religious
88 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

writings, the best of which is perhaps the “ Veritable
Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven,” are not aggressively
Christian, and naturally the doctrine of faith in
Christ is but slightly touched upon, while he gives
much space to parallels between Christianity and the
teachings of Confucianism. . .

Decisions as to certain questions, which were main-
ly due to Ricci, kindled a fierce controversy which
was waged for a century by the Jesuits and other
Catholic orders. Colonel Yule thus summarizes them :
«The chief points of controversy were (1) the lawful-
ness and expediency of certain terms employed by the
Jesuits in naming God Almighty, such as Tien,
Heaven, and Shang Ti, Supreme Ruler or Emperor,
instead of T‘ien Chu, Lord of Heaven, and in particu-
lar the erection of inscribed tablets in the churches,
on which these terms were made use of ; (2) in respect
to the ceremonial offerings made in honor of Confu-
ciusand of personal ancestors, which Ricci had recog-
nized as merely civil observances ; (3) the erection of
tablets in honor of ancestors in private houses ; and (4),
more generally, sanction and favor accorded to ancient
Chinese sacred books and philosophical doctrine, as
not really trespassing on Christian faith.” While
Ricci and the other Jesuits favored compromise meas-
ures, and consequently were supported by the Chinese
and even the great Emperor K‘ang Hsi, as well as by
one of the popes, the other orders held to the Chris-
tian view of allegiance to truth rather than to expe-
diency, and with the support of another papal de-
cree, their views finally prevailed.

Catholic writers, usually his opposers, have given
Ricci rather a hard character. One can agree with
them when they write : ‘‘ Being more a politician than
a theologian, he discovered the secret of remaining
peacefully in China. The kings found in him a man
full of complaisance ; the pagans, a minister who ac-
commodated himself to their superstitions ; the man-
darins, a polite courtier skilled in all the trickery of
courts.” An impartial student of his life woul
 

 

BUDDHIST TEMPLE, SOUTH CHINA

 

BRONZE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS MADE BY JESUITS
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 89

 

hardly venture to assent, however, to their assertion
that he was a faithful servant of the devil, ‘“‘ who,
far from destroying, established his reign among the
heathen, and even extended it to the Christians.”

2. Later Catholic leaders of this early period were
men of great ability, though less open to criticism
than the crafty Ricci. The talented and learned Ger-
man Jesuit, Schall, at one time tutor of the Emperor
K‘ang Hsi ; Faber, the miracle-working saint of Shen-
hsi, and Verbiest, of whom a competent witness says,
“‘No foreigner has ever enjoyed so great power and
confidence from the rulers of China as this priest,”
were men who did much for China as well as for their
Church.

But worldly favor speedily changes its ‘‘ Hosanna!”
to “Crucify him!” and Catholicism gradually be-
came much hampered in its work. Persecution in
the provinces affected both missionary and convert ;
and though at court Catholic scholars were tolerated,
it was mainly because of their secular services as as-
tronomers, scientists, surveyors of the Empire, etc.,
that they were held in esteem. Finally, the rivalries
and opposition of popes and priests to one another,
and to the opinion of K‘ang Hsi caused Yung Chéng
to issue his order of 1724, strictly prohibiting the
prapsesten of the Tien Chu Chiao, or Lord of

eaven Sect.

3. A period of eclipse followed, which practically
lasted until the treaties of 1858 inaugurated a new
era. During these thirteen decades persecution, ex-
ile, imprisonment, and death were common experi-
ences, and some of the most heroic and devoted deeds
are recorded of both missionaries and their converts.
At risk of life converts stood by the Church and its
leaders in a way that was a prophecy full of hope for
the time when the Protestant Church was to be sub-
ject to similar trials. In spite of all opposition
400,000 converts were enrolled in the Church in 1846
and eighty foreign missionaries ministered to their
scattered flocks.
go DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

4. Since 1858 Catholic missions have prospered.
Old occasions of much friction have been removed by
the apportionment of the different orders to sections
by themselves, so that Jesuit and Dominican nc longer
need war each upon the other. Diplomacy of Euro-
pean Catholic powers has by means not always be-
yond criticism gained for Catholicism—and hence, by
the “‘most favored nation clause,” for Protestants
also—toleration and protection. Church property,

ractically sequestered during the decades of eclipse,
fas been again restored, often with most astonishing
and dubious enlargement, and lay brothers of keen
business instincts have dealt in property desired by
foreigners in a way that renders some missions self-
supporting. Imposing churches have been built, in
one case with a roof of imperial tiles surreptitiously
secured and painted, so that their real character would
become only slowly apparent, and progress is evident
all along the line.

5. A word about Catholic methods must suffice.
From the outset they have sought to adapt them-
selves to the people and to the popular need. If
curiosity filled the mind of officials and the Court,
curious clocks and other Western novelties were used.
Science being demanded, they were mathematicians,
surveyors, and astronomers. They may have gone too
far in becoming all things to all men, but their idea
is worthy of careful consideration in our day of na-
tional transformation and new needs.

Practical charity has never been forgotten, and the
labors of a consecrated company of Sisters of Charity
must not be forgotten. Orphan asylums and the work
of teaching girls those arts which are needed in the
Christian home, as well as branches of learning that
will be useful, have been of great value to the Church.

The native convert has not been forgotten in his re-
lation to his family and the native Church. The rais-
ing of European vegetables, and arts, such as those of
watch-repairing, electro-plating, etc., have been taught
by the missionaries, thus enabling converts to be self-
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS or

 

supporting. Tidiness and self-respect, as well as de-
votion to the Church, are assiduously inculcated.

Nor is the convert’s wsefulness to the Church forgot-
ten. From the day that the noble Hsii and his daugh-
ter Candida were won by Ricci to the present time,
they have been used. While few have approached
the usefulness of Candida, who built “thirty-nine
churches in different provinces and printed 130
Christian books for her countrymen,” as well as set
blind story-tellers at work telling the Gospel story,
they have been used by the priests for the good of
Mother Church in many ways.

Other features have not been so praiseworthy.
Thus one cannot rejoice with the many Catholic writ-
ers who have told of the great accessions, won by
women mainly, who figure as amateur doctors and
visit homes where children lie at the point of death,
and who, by this pieuse ruse, baptize ‘‘ seven or eight
thousand infants every year.” Nor can one approve
of the activity of the foreign priests in supporting
converts who have law-suits, though this practice se-
cures many accessions.

Pére Ripa has brought against his missionary breth-
ren charges that still largely lay at their door. He
accounts for their lack of wide influence by their
feeble attempts to gain an accurate use of the lan-
guage, their imitation of officials in their dress, their
mode of travel, their haughty isolation from the
common people, and their relegation of preaching and
the main care of converts to the native catechists.

6. Catholicism’s relation to Protestant missionaries
and their work is a blot on the name of the Church,
from which one would gladly turn away. Until com-
paratively recently their policy was simply that of
“let alone,” but at present it is quite otherwise. Be-
ginning first as a system of proselyting among Prot-
estant Chinese, it has proceeded to most active op-

osition, amounting often to bitter persecution of
hinese Christians. Being fearless of law-suits be-
cause of Catholic protection, and unscrupulous as to
92 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

method if only the Church is the gainer, they have
repeatedly attempted to blot out weak Protestant com-
munities. While this has been mainly confined to
three or four provinces, and has probably been little
encouraged by the missionaries themselves, the evil is
a growing one, and must be reckoned with in fore-
casting Protestantism’s future in China. It should
be added that most of the criticisms of missions made
by the Chinese and by anti-missionary foreigners, in-
cluding nearly every item of any validity, are charge-
able to the policy and work of Catholic missions,
though these critics do not discriminate between
Catholics and Protestants in their accusations.

%. While it is believed that the above strictures
would be agreed to by any impartial writer cognizant
of the facts, the other side of the case should be borne
in mind. Drs. Milne and Medhurst, early Protestant
missionaries of catholicity and candor, thus testify to
the merits of these first modern occupants of the
field.

Dr. Milne wrote: ‘The learning, personal virt-
ues, and ardent zeal of some of them, deserve to be
imitated by all future missionaries ; will be equalled
by few, and, perhaps, rarely exceeded by any. Their
steadfastness and triumph in the midst of persecu-
tions, even to blood and death, in all imaginable
forms, show that the questionable Christianity which
they taught is to be ascribed to the effect of educa-
tion, not design, and affords good reason to believe
that they have long since joined the army of mar-
tyrs, and are now wearing the crown of those who
spared not their lives unto the death, but overcame
by the blood of the Lamb and the word of His testi-
mony. It is not to be doubted that many sinners
were, through their labors, turned from sin to holi-
ness, and they will finally have due praise from God
as fellow-workers in His Kingdom.”

Dr. Medhurst further testified: <‘Some idea of
their doctrines may be gathered from the books
which they have published in the Chinese language.
PREPARATION AND BEGINNINGS 93

 

Many of these are written in a lucid and elegant
style, and discuss the points at issue between Chris-
tians and Confucians in a masterly and conclusive
manner. Their doctrinal and devotional works are
clear on the Trinity and the Incarnation, while the
perfections of the Deity, the corruption of human
nature, and redemption by Christ are fully stated ;
and though some unscriptural notions are now and
then introduced, yet, all things considered, it is
quite possible for humble and patient learners to dis-
cover by such teaching their sinful condition, and
trace out the way of salvation through a Redeemer.
It must not be forgotten, also, that the Catholics
translated the major part of the New Testament into
Chinese, and though there is no evidence of its hav-
ing been published, yet large portions of the gospels
and epistles were inserted in the lessons printed for
the congregations. As it regards the sciences, the
Catholics have done much to develop them to the
Chinese ; and a native who had been instructed by
them lately published a treatise on astronomy and
geography which has been highly esteemed and
widely circulated. The Romish missionaries have
not been remiss in preparing works for the elucida-
tion of the Chinese language to Europeans.” He
might also have added that nearly all of value that
was known concerning China in the Occident until
the nineteenth century came from Catholic sources.

With any disadvantage to the cause of Protestant
missions arising from the presence of Catholic Chris-
tians, it certainly means considerable for the King-
dom of God that in sixteen of the provinces, includ-
ing hostile Hu-nan, as well as in Manchuria and
Mongolia, are European missionaries and Catholic
converts, numbering 720,540, according to statistics
of 1901.

The Greek Church in China.—The bare fact
only needs to be mentioned that this communion
gained an entrance in 1685 into Peking, where it has
since had its chief seat. A treaty made with Russia
94 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

four years later permitted the establishment of a
college for Greek priests. It has had some scholars
of note, like the Archimandrite Palladius, but their
literary work has been confined mainly to Chinese
and Russian, and so has done little for modern mis-
sions. Considerable assistance has, however, been
derived from their Chinese versions by Protestant
Bible translators. Since the Boxer Uprising and the
martyrdom of many Russian Church Christians, new
activity has been shown in the work. Thus far it has
been confined to Mongolia, especially in the city of
Urga, and to the province of Chih-li.
vi
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA

ALL the religious movements, detailed in the pre-
vious chapter, were to a greater or less degree pre-
paratory for the work of Protestantism. Yet, as has
been suggested, every one of them, the work of Rome
not excepted, had also sown many tares in the field,
which have proven a greater embarrassment in many
cases than the good seed has been of help. The be-
ginning of the Protestant enterprise was accordingly
beset with difficulties. The edict of 1724 was still
in force, and the few Catholic missionaries in the
country were mainly in hiding.

Protestantism’s Pioneer.—Notwithstanding the
extensive work of Catholicism in the Empire and its
inculcation of most of the great truths of Revela-
tion, Dr. Williams, in his sketch of Robert Morrison,
regards him, rather than Rome, as having laid the
foundations of the Church of Christ in China.

1. This last and boot-tree maker of Newcastle-upon-
Tyne journeyed from England to China via America,
and during his early career lived with the Americans
at Canton. Morrison had been planning to go to
Timbuctoo, but in being sent to China God had an-
swered his prayer that He ‘‘ would station him in that
part of the missionary field where the difficulties
were the greatest, and, to all human appearance, the
most insurmountable.” He arrived not only with a
letter from our Secretary of State to the United
States consul, but also with a preparation unusually
complete for that day. He had whetted his memory
to attack Chinese by a use of the 119th Psalm and
other mnemonic tests, and had further prepared him-

95
96 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

self for his future field by the acquisition of a theo-
logical education and a fair acquaintance with medi-
cine and astronomy, and he had transcribed two
manuscripts, one a Chinese translation of the New
Testament as far as Hebrews—probably by a Catholic
missionary—the other a Latin and Chinese diction-
ary. He had also begun in London and continued
on shipboard the study of the spoken language under
a Cantonese teacher named Yang.

2. His twenty-seven years of Chinese service are
thus summarized in the inscription upon his tomb in
the resting-place for the Protestant dead at Macao:
“‘Sacred to the memory of Robert Morrison, D.D.,
the first Protestant missionary to China, where, after
a service of twenty-seven years cheerfully spent in
extending the Kingdom of the Blessed Redeemer,
during which period he compiled and published a
Dictionary of the Chinese Language, founded the
Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca, and for several
years labored alone on a Chinese version of the Holy
Scriptures, which he was spared to see completed
and widely circulated among those for whom it was
destined, he sweetly slept in Jesus. He was born at
Morpeth, in Northumberland, January 5, 1782, was
sent to China by the London Missionary Society in
1807, was for twenty-five years Chinese translator in
the employ of the East India Company, and died at
Canton August 1, 1834.”

One must read many things between the lines of
this inscription. His service under the Company,
besides being a necessity, if he would remain in the
Empire instead of laboring on its fringe, as did his
early associates, was also the means of securing a
liberal salary with which he greatly aided other mis-
sionary schemes, the Malacca Anglo-Chinese College
in particular. The difficulty of obtaining a teacher
was so great that when he secured a Pekingese of the
Catholic faith, this man carried about poison with
which to commit suicide, if his countrymen detected
him in his unlawful employment. Weary and as-
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA 97

 

siduous private labors secured Morrison his first con-
vert, Tsai Ako, in 1814, but as he was never suffered
to preach in public, he won only a few during his
entire career. Schemes of various sorts, calculated
to benefit foreigners and the Chinese, found in him
their cordial supporter, though it must be confessed
that a few of these were somewhat visionary. While
Morrison possessed none of those charms which made
Ricci so acceptable to the Chinese, unlike the latter,
he never stooped to compromise, but laboriously laid
those strong and deep foundations that have ever
since characterized the work of Protestant missions.
In a word, he was to China very much what Carey
was to India.

War and Missions.—The Protestant beginnings
had been made, but missions at Morrison’s death were
greatly hampered. How were these restrictions to
be removed ? The answer can partly be found in
the Hebrew statement, ‘‘ The Lord is a man of war,”
and though these wars were in some cases without
justification, He cavsed good to spring from the evil
doing of men.

1. The Opium War, as it is called, grew out of
what the Chinese regarded as an undoubted right
and duty, while the English could with some justice
take the stringent measures employed by them. The
destruction by the Chinese of 20,283 chests of opi-
um, brought to their shores in foreign bottoms, and
their haughty and unwise conduct accompanying
this action, led to a war lasting from July 5, 1841, to
September 15, 1842, when the Nanking treaty was
ratified.

While much can be said in defence of Britain’s
action, and though Queen Victoria’s order recites
that ‘‘satisfaction and reparation for the late inju-
rious proceedings of certain officers of the Emperor
of China against certain of our officers and subjects
shall be demanded of the Chinese Government,”
still, when the broad issue at stake is considered,
which was the attempt by the Emperor to root out

7
98 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

a vice fatal to his people, one can hardly escape the
conviction that the war was at once “‘ unjust” and
“immoral.” Whatever may be the reader’s opinion,
the Chinese have always looked upon it as a stigma
upon the British name and a valid objection against
Christianity.

The second article of the treaty granted the right
of residence in Canton, Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo,
and Shanghai—a right eagerly embraced by waiting
missionary boards—and Hongkong became British
territory. Two years later France and America con-
cluded treaties with China, which included the right
to erect houses of worship in the ports. The French
treaty led the way in procuring the revocation of the
persecuting edicts of 1724 and later, and the issue of
a decree of toleration. These provisions were partly
a dead letter, however, until 1860. Dr. Williams says
of the outcome of this war which opened up part of
China to the world: “‘ Looked at in any point of view,
political, commercial, moral, or intellectual, it will al-
ways be considered as one of the turning-points in
the history of mankind, involving the welfare of all
nations in its wide-reaching consequences.”

2. Though missionaries could now enter strategic
cities, it was reserved for a native rebellion to adver-
tise in a general, though unfortunate way, the lead-
ing features of Christianity. The leader of this Tai
P‘ing—Great Peace—Rebellion was a student named
Hung Usiu-ch‘tian, who had met Liang, one of
Milne’s converts, and read several tracts composed
by that venerable Chinese Christian. These books,
sickness and a series of cataleptic visions, and some
instruction from missionaries, notably an American,
I. J. Roberts, finally resulted in Hung’s beginning a
quiet movement of instruction and religious reform.

o large a following soon gathered about him that
ambition was aroused and he headed a rebellion
which rapidly spread until it had reached from the
South to within little more than one hundred miles of
Peking. Some of China’s fairest provinces were laid
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA 99

 

waste, for nearly fifteen years the evils of internal
strife scourged the Empire, and fully 20,000,000 of
Chinese perished. It was finally crushed out in 1865
by the Imperialists, aided most powerfully by “ Chi-
nese Gordon” and his Ever Victorious Army, which
owed its origin and early strength to an American
named Ward.

This rebellion will appear most significant when it
is remembered that it was a movement managed by
Chinese, the leaders of whom were the student,
Hung, and two of his converts who were school-
teachers. Its progress from 1844 to 1851—when it
became a rebellion—was promising for Christianity.
Hung established communities called Churches of
God. “A strictly moral conduct and the keeping
of the Sabbath were enjoined on the congregations ;
all idolatrous practises and the use of opium were for-
bidden ; proffers of union from leaders of the Great
Triad Society, pledged to the restoration of a native
Chinese dynasty, were rejected.” As the movement
which Hung and his followers, later called T‘ien Kuo
—Kingdom of Heaven—developed, however, its
leader became emboldened, and gave forth revelations
and decrees as from ‘“‘the Heavenly Father” and
“‘the Heavenly Elder Brother.” Gradually the proc-
lamation of salvation by repentance and faith in
Jesus, which had given his preaching such power at
the first, was abandoned, and worldly ambition and
blasphemy greatly increased. Were it not for this
fact, the early religious organization of his army and
kingdom would have done credit to Cromwell. While
the T‘ai P‘ings are execrated for their deeds of
blood, they carried throughout the eastern provinces
Christian phrases and some corrupted Christian
ideas. The rebellion had shown that a Christian
basis could underlie a great movement, and it had
brought China’s future great statesman, Li Hung-
chang, into vital touch with the saintly Major Gor-
don, whose influence upon him and other high offi
cials has never been forgotten.
100 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

3. The second war with Great Britain occurred
during the T‘ai P‘ing Rebellion, and was known as
the “Arrow War,” because a lorcha bearing that
name and flying the British flag—apparently unlaw-
fully—had been seized by the Chinese and the flag
hauled down. This conflict, which began in 1857,
when Canton was captured, was not finally concluded
until in 1860 war was carried to the very gates of
Peking. The treaties, which were then made with
England, Russia, France, and the United States,

ermitted residence and trade in six additional cities
in China and one in Shéng-ching. ‘It conceded
the right to travel with passports throughout the
eighteen provinces, and contained also a special
clause giving protection to foreigners and natives in
the propagation and adoption of the Christian relig-
ion. . . . The moral effect of this war was
very great. The superiority of Western nations, at
least in this one art, could no longer be questioned,
and a much more favorable impression was made by
the moderation, magnanimity, and clemency of the
victors than by their military power.” Previous to
this time, William Burns was the only one who syste-
matically disregarded the limitation of evangelization
to the five ports; henceforth every missionary was
free to roam at will throughout the land.

Missionary work could not be permanent if it
could only be carried on through itineration, and ex-
cept in the ports and at Peking this was all that the
treaties allowed. The additional right of residence
was gained through the French treaty, which, in
Article VI. of the Chinese text, though not in the
French original, which was the final authority, con-
tained this provision: ‘It is, in addition, permitted
to French missionaries to rent and purchase land in
all the provinces, and to erect buildings thereon at
pleasure.” Strange to say, the Chinese have never
made serious objection to this most questionable

iece of diplomacy, probably because the clause was
in their own version of the treaty, and so was ac-
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA I0r

 

cepted consciously by them. The advantage coming
to French Catholic missionaries accrued as well to Prot-
estant missionaries of other treaty-making Powers,
because of the clause extending to all Powers the ad-
vantages granted to the most favored nation ; hence
every missionary legally possesses the right to secure
residences and erect mission buildings where de-
sired.

A new obstacle to missions soon arose from the fact
that it was understood that missionaries should first
secure the consent of the officials before purchasing
property, and that often caused delay or failure.
Though the French minister in 1865 obtained a con- *
vention making this permission unnecessary, it was
not until the French and United States ministers re-
vived the clause thirty years later that it became
practically operative.

4, Wars and rumors of war have effected other
helpful features in mission work. Thus the mas-
sacre at Tientsin of twenty French and Russian sub-
jects in 1870, largely as the result of fancied abuses
in the orphanage of the Sisters of Charity, led to a
concentration of the naval forces of the Powers in
the North. War was finally averted, but it gave rise
to the first Chinese state paper discussing the diffi-
culties connected with Christian missions, and some
of the evils of Catholic mission policy were con-
demned, with the result that the missionaries of that
confession have partly given up their questionable
practices. A further result of this threatened war
was the use of unexpended military appropriations
in establishing the Chinese Educational Commission,
under the leadership of a Chinese graduate of Yale,
Yung Wing. Though the young men sent to America
for education were recalled before they were fully
prepared for national service, many bright students,
some of whom are in influential positions in China
to-day, have personal acquaintance with Christian
institutions, and a few of them are earnest Chrise
tians.
102 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

The threatening attitude of Great Britain because
of the murder of Margary in 1875 caused the officials
to realize the sacredness of the individual life, and
most of them are anxious, as never before that event,
to protect the missionaries from all violence.

The French war of 1883-85 in Tong-king and
southern China did more than any other thing to
cause the Chinese to distinguish between the Catho-
lic missionaries and the Protestants, a distinction of
great importance to Protestantism.

Riots—more than a score of which have occurred
in recent years, attended by the death of a few mis-
sionaries—have so aroused foreign powers, that in-
creasing vigilance is exercised in the official protec-
tion of foreigners. Germany’s vigorous action in
1897 because of the murder of German Catholic
missionaries, and especially her seizure of Kiao-chou,
only increases this solicitude for the missionary’s
safety. (For the Boxer Uprising, see Chapter VIIL.)

Missionary Progress to 1898.—While Chinese
missionaries have never vitally depended upon the
mailed hand of war to lead them into fields of useful-
ness, their opportunities and efficiency have, never-
theless, very largely expanded with the power and
influence of the secular arm. Hence epochs of mis-
sionary progress correspond partially with the events
just outlined.

1. The first stage was preparatory in character,
and extended from Morrison’s arrival in 1807 to the
Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

Preparatory efforts within the Empire were these :
The publication of a dictionary and grammar; the
translation of the entire Bible, published in 1818;
the composition of several valuable tracts, notable
among which is the very popular and useful one by
Milne, entitled ‘‘ The Two Friends” ; the opening of
China to medical missions by Dr. Peter Parker, who
was her first great medical missionary ; the establish-
ment of the American Board’s Mission Press by S.
Wells Williams ; and the founding of the Chinese
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA 103

 

Repository, which to the present time, though under
a different name, has done so much to acquaint the
Christian world with China.

Most of the workers during ‘this period labored
outside China Proper, in the Malay Peninsula and on.
adjacent islands, where Chinese colonists were found
in great numbers, and where access to them was pos-
sible. Preaching, tract and Scripture - distribution,
the preparation of books and periodicals in English
and Chinese, and education, of a primary character
mostly, though the Anglo-Chinese College, founded
at Malacca in 1818, did excellent work, were the
lines followed. Giitzlaff and Medhurst were espe-
cially zealous in their efforts to distribute books and
preach along the coast. The former reached Tien-
tsin even, while Medhurst went as far as Shan-tung.
Williams desired to enter Japan through some ship-
wrecked Japanese. Though this was not possible,
some of them were converted, and he prepared in
their tongue a translation of Genesis and Matthew.

By 1842 these results were evident : Three British
societies and four American organizations had some
twenty representatives in the Empire and in the
Chinese colonies adjacent. Macao, Canton, Hong-
kong and Amoy had had for a longer or shorter time
resident missionaries, and six converts constituted
the entire Protestant Chinese church.

2. From 1842 to 1860 constitutes the years of en-
trance, though very little could yet be done outside
the treaty ports.

The field of labor included _the populous cities of
Canton, Amoy, Fu-chou, Ningpo, and Shanghai.
While the vices of the West came in with commerce,
these cities were entrepéts of extensive districts, and
hence were strategic. Hongkong, being under Brit-
ish control, was also a very important centre of mis-
sionary effort at this time.

The nature of the work was now somewhat broader.
Revised translations of the Bible, and new and bet-
ter Christian literature were steps forward. Though
104 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘\ANG

 

evangelization was nominally permitted, it was a
difficult process. One of the missionaries, Dr. Ash-
more, says of it: ‘* We were mobbed in the fu city,
mobbed in the district cities, mobbed in the large
towns. We got so used to being pelted with mud
and gravel and bits-of broken pottery that things
seemed strange if we escaped the regular dose.
oe We went out from our homes bedewed with
the tears and benedictions of dear ones, and we
came back plastered over, metaphorically speaking,
with curses and objurgations from top to bottom.
a It went badly with our chapels that we
rented. They were often assailed ; roofs were broken
up, doors were battered in, and furniture was carried
off. There was nothing else to do but to keep at it.
Driven out of one place, we betook ourselves to an-
other, according to instructions. But we did not
leave the country as the literati desired, and we did
not intend to. We wore them out, as an anvil some-
times wears out a hammer.”

Converts of such troublous times were naturally
men of strong convictions, and though usually igno-
rant, they bravely endured the anathemas and petty
persecutions of neighbors and nearest friends. Iso-
lated and ostracized, they clung with tenacious grip
to the truth, and the grace of God did not fail them.

The missionaries were for the same reason men
and women of great strength of character, and were
perforce of the heroic mould. During these years
Protestantism’s fiercest battles over the ‘Term
Question ” were waged. In lieu of any clear concep-
tion and name for God among the Chinese, the mis-
sionaries, like the Romanists of early days, strenu-
ously advocated the use of whichever of the terms,
Shang Ti, T‘ien Chu, Shén, etc., seemed to them
least. open to objection and most honoring to Je-
hovah. Though this controversy practically died
away soon after, it was long a dangerous topic to in-
troduce in a missionary gathering.

Tangible results were not numerous. Though the
 

 

PASTOR OF ABOVE CHURCH AND HIS WIFE
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA 105

 

word of truth had sounded forth from the missionary
centres into the four populous littoral provinces of
Kuang-tung, Fu-chien, Ché-chiang, and Chiang-su,
and though the boards had increased from seven to
nineteen, with some 160 missionaries, each of them
could on an average point to only six converts as the
reward of his self-denying toil. Judged by other
than statistical standards, these years were very fruit-
ful in many directions.

3. Seventeen years intervened between 1860 and
the first great missionary conference of China, which
met at Shanghai in 1877. They were years of devel-
opment and wider entrance into new fields. Carstairs
Douglas could report at the conference that Chih-h,
Shan-tung, An-hui, Chiang-hsi, Hu-pei, and Shéng-
ching, or Southern Manchuria, had been occupied ;
but of the nine provinces still unentered, only the
merest Protestant beginning had been made, and dark-
ness still reigned, except for the flickering and smok-
ing lights of Catholicism.

Some of the advances noted are the wide develop-
ment of educational and medical work, the practical
inauguration of woman’s work, which had only been
begun in the previous period, the establishment of
several strong churches in place of the isolation of
believers in the earlier days, and above all the estab-
lishment of the China Inland Mission in 1865. Its
emphasis of inland occupation and new fields was of
the utmost importance to the Empire, though natu-
rally pioneering and evangelistic work are not statis-
tically so successful as older and more diversified
labors.

Some of the statistics of the 1877 conference are
worth repeating. Missionaries resided at ninety-one
centres, had organized three hundred and twelve
churches, and Chinese communicants numbered 13,-
035. In all, twenty-nine societies—twelve American,
fifteen British, and two Continental—were on the field,
with four hundred and seventy-three missionaries, in-
cluding seven unconnected.
106 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

4. Thirteen years more elapsed before the mis-
sionaries again gathered at the Second Shanghai Con-
ference of 1890. The communion of missionaries of
different denominations and sections, and the free in-
terchange of views in 1877, were most helpful. Two
key-words of that gathering were systematic co-opera-
tion and the earnest appeal for more laborers. In
both these directions gratifying progress was made.

Two additional features of the period should like-
wise be mentioned. amines, particularly that of
1877-78, gave foreigners and the missionaries, both
Catholic and Protestant, who were their almoners, an
opportunity to show their love to those who had hith-
erto been their enemies. In the years 1877-78 it is
estimated that from ‘‘nine and a half to thirteen
millions” perished, mainly in the three northern
provinces of Shan-tung, Shan-hsi, and Shen-hsi. For-
eigners contributed nearly half a million dollars
toward their relief, and of those personally engaged
in distributing aid four died from exposure and
overwork. Naturally distrust and opposition gave
way before the good-will, affection, and gratitude
evoked by this charitable beneficence. But while
doors were thus opened and many were won thereby,
it gave to the Church some who entered it for mo-
tives of gratitude or cupidity, and hence gave rise to
aform of the old “ rice Christian” problem. Primarily
for this reason, but largely as a result.of the enlarge-
ment of the native church, the question of self-sup-
port came to the front during this period.

The 1890 statistics revealed these facts among
many others : The twenty-nine societies of 1877 had
become forty-two, and the missionaries numbered
1,296, an increase of nearly three-fold. A striking
advance in the number of women missionaries was
noted. ‘‘In 1877 they formed little over one-eighth
of the whole force ; in 1890 they were nearly one-
fourth the entire number, showing the rapid devel-
opment in the work of women for women.” Native
communicants numbered 37,287, an increase of about
eUIY) YON Ul 901g V SUIY SAMA Ul JoDUOIg VW
‘dd ‘1g9d01d AUNAH ‘ATL ‘so Wad Cd “LAVA “OD TIDUIA “ATE

 
THE PROTESTANT OCCUPATION OF CHINA 107

 

one hundred per cent. for each four years since 1877.
Among the natives 522 organized churches existed,
and 1,657 Chinese were engaged in Christian work.
Education was fitting for Christian usefulness 16,836
Chinese children and youths.

5. The eight years following the last conference
were largely lived in the inspiration and strength
arising from that gathering. The Union Bible in
three different literary styles, which was decided on
then, “after forty years of separation,” and which
caused the delegates to rise and sing the Doxology
when the report was presented, proceeded rapidly, as
did the work of the Committee to prepare an anno-
tated Bible. The four appeals issued by that body
came like a bugle-call to all Christendom, and met
with a fair response. Though their request for 1,000
men within five years was not quite responded to,
in that only 481 of the 1,153 missionaries who entered
the Empire during that period were males, God saw
what was needed, and the appeal of the women was
more than met, 672 having reached China. The
fuller discussion of methods by persons from so many
centres gave rise to much more thoughtful work, and
the deepening of the spiritual life had never before
received such emphasis as within those eight years.

Other characteristics of this period are these: The
missionary entrance into Hu-nan, the last and most
hostile province of the Empire ; the various attempts
to snuff out by mob violence Chinese missions; the
sifting of the Church by the fires of a persecution
which led to the death of not a few missionaries, but
which also wonderfully enlarged its membership ; the
necessity laid upon congregations unwilling t) do
their duty in the matter of self-support, because of
the financial depression in the home lands, thus lead-
ing to greater independence ; the possession of the
field by two organizations that had previously only
been initiated, viz., the Young People’s Societies and
the National organization of the Young Men’s Chris-
tian Association among students; the Chinese En-
108 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

deavor Conventions, and four conferences held by
Mr. J. R. Mott and others in the fall of 1896, attended
by 2,883 delegates, among whom were 999 Chinese
students ; the presentation to the Empress Dowager
in 1894 by the Christian women of China of a mag-
nificent copy of the New Testament, one of the most
costly single volumes ever printed; the consequent
purchase by the Emperor of copies of the Scripture
and many other religious and scientific books; the
presentation to the Hmperor in November, 1895, of
a Protestant Memorial, in connection with which a
full discussion of Protestant missionaries’ aims and
methods was had with the Tsung-li Ya-mén; and
the use of the Bible in one case as the basis of a ques-
tion asked in one of the government examinations.
Such events were a clear foreshadowing of that period
prophesied by Dr. Martin, “when the Church of
Christ shall be favored by the Imperial power as the
best, if not the only hope of national regeneration.”
(For the last stage of missionary progress in China,
namely, from 1898 to the present time, see the clos-
ing chapter of this volume.)
Vil
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK

MIssIONARIES soon find the need of versatility,
since one must be all things to all men as occasion
requires. Even sex distinctions are often overlooked,
and the woman preaches to men as well as to her sis-
ters. In general, however, women devote themselves
to educational work and evangelism of the house-to-
house and less public sort, while a small proportion of
them are physicians or devote themselves to the prep-
aration of literature. In the brief summary follow-
ing, it is understood that women adapt the methods
mentioned to their special constituency, rather than
adopt entirely different methods.

The Human Agent in Missions.—As much
depends upon him, humanly speaking, it is manifest
that self-culture must occupy much of his time.

1. The possibilities of error in a monosyllabic lan-
guage, with its important tonal distinctions, are so
great and vital that missionaries in no other country
need to be so conscientious and thorough as those in
China in their language study. One can readily pre-
pare himself to be misunderstood in a few months ;
few, except physicians, can so far master Chinese as
to do satisfactory work in less than a year or a year
and a half, and none will be so foolish as to ever
cease delving at the language.

2. Meanwhile the missionary can be useful in
other ways. If stationed with colleagues, he can re-
lieve them of many secular details, such as the care
of the premises, the station treasurership in some
cases, and after a few months he can have general
charge of the station book-room. He can also be

109
IIo DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

useful in drawing a crowd for native preachers, if
he sings or is willing to be a “sign-board,” which
in new regions is tantamount to being a menagerie
for the curious, gaping crowd. But he can be some-
thing more ; for with the help of one’s teacher a brief
sermonette can be prepared and memorized, and this
may be repeated indefinitely and added to from day
to day.

3. i still more vital matter is preparation of heart,
which is of the utmost importance in a spiritual work
of such difficulty. The hours spent in Bible study,
meditation, and prayer will be found a most profitable
investment. Daily conduct must be watched with
the utmost care, since the Chinese have been trained
to imitate their teachers, and native Christians follow
the national habit.

4, During these early months the missionary will
devote as much time to the study of the people as to
the language, perhaps. Books will aid in this, but a
loquacious teacher or trusted Christian, and constant
observation and inquiry, will do more still.

Efforts for China’s Physical Alleviation.—
1. Medicine has been the wedge used to open
doors of hundreds of unfriendly homes. From the
first moment of his arrival, tho physician is most
useful, and though the natives may not realize the
priceless worth of the gospel message, release from
pain, and from many diseases which Chinese prac-
titioners cannot heal, is appreciated most gratefully.
An iron will is needed to make physicians take time
to learn anything more than the vocabulary required
by professional demands; for this reason and because
of heavy clinics, doctors are always tempted to leave
to others the ministration to soul-needs.

While dispensaries are far more common than hos-
pitals, the latter are apt to yield more encouraging
spiritual results. Leisure to learn through oral in-
struction the gist of the gospel is there afforded, and
hundreds have also embraced the opportunity to learn
to read, through the medium of Christian tracts,
 

HOPE HOSPITAL, AMOY
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK I1r

 

which are carried later to their homes as a silent
leaven.

The Chinese have a proverb that a woman cannot
avoid the doctor and her husband ; yet in spite of
this unwilling consent, women physicians are gladly
welcomed by Chinese women for themselves and
children. Very many invitations to visit homes come
from this source.

2. Famine relief, as we have seen, is a conciliating
agency of great value. Seldom are missionaries called
upon to distribute aid in the afflicted districts, but
frequently refugees from local famines come to the
mission compound. This is a favorable opportunity
for gaining friends, but it involves one in many per-
plexities arising from their willingness to continue in
dependence upon the foreigner, and ‘‘rice Chris-
tians ” are apt to be the fruitage of such efforts.

3. Reforms of a thousand kinds await the Church
of the future in China; but seductive as is their ap-
peal to the missionary, only two thus far have x-
ceived much attention. The opium curse, which so
threatens China’s life, fills the great cities with
thin-faced, wretchedly ragged victims. Naturally
opium refuges have been extensively opened, in spite
of the fact that so few, who are enabled to give up
the drug, persist in their determination after leaving
the refuge.

Far more hopeful is the attempt to induce women
of the Church to abandon the cruel custom of /foot-
binding. While comparatively few of them have
been willing to unbind their own feet and thus un-
dergo once more an agony little less severe than that
of their childhood, very many have unbound those of
their daughters. Persistent agitation has led to the
formation of native anti-foot-binding societies, and
officials and Chinese Christian scholars have written
some literature upon its evils.

4. Defectives have scarcely been touched thus far
by Protestant missionaries. Mr. Murray in Peking
has elaborated a system for teaching the blind to read,
112 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

and the extreme ease of learning the art has caused
it to be adapted for sight readers. He has, also, a
sort of blind asylum there, and a few other schools
have been opened in other parts of China. A very
small beginning has been made in Shan-tung in the
direction of instructing deaf mutes, but they are so
few compared with the many blind that little em-
phasis is laid upon this effort. Thus far only a single
insane asylum has been attempted, though it has
been strongly agitated by the missionaries in the
South.

An excellent foundling asylum is conducted at
Hongkong by the Berlin ladies, and other less exten-
sive ones are found here and there among the other
missions.

Educational Work.—While evangelistic “work
almost always precedes any other variety of effort,
and though it always has the pre-eminence, educa-
tion in one form or another soon becomes a strategic
necessity which most boards recognize.

1. Day-schools, usually for pupils of one sex—
though sometimes mixed schools are opened for very
young children—are the commonest sort of educa-
tional institutions. Boys and girls, mainly from poor
Christian families, whose parents could not afford to
have them go to an ordinary school, make very rapid
progress in their studies, thanks to a rational system
of instruction and to heredity. Reading, writing,
and a beginning in Western learning are imparted,
but the staple of instruction is the Bible. Hundreds
of pupils in day-schools memorize the gospels, and
many the entire New Testament. Better still, they
are taught to look upon it as a divine seed, and in
many a child’s heart it has germinated and brought
forth fruit in heathen court-yards.

In some of these schools the pupils need to be in-
duced to come by the gift of a few cash, picture-
cards, etc., but in older communities Christians so
much appreciate them, that their partial or entire
support is often obtained. Native teachers, many of
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK 113

 

them trained in mission schools of a higher grade,
are usually in charge, though foreign supervision is
always helpful.

2. Boarding-schools are attended by a compara-
tively few picked students; but the close contact
with the missionaries, and with a community of
Christians isolated from the heathen mass, has been
an inestimable benefit to the leaders of the Church,
who would otherwise have had no definite conception
of what Christianity can effect in associated life.
This advantage more than offsets the objection that
a hot-house atmosphere, which unfits them for sterner
experiences of service, is the penalty of such schools.
These institutions are especially valuable for the
young women, the future wives and mothers of the
Christian community, who there learn lessons in
home-making that will prove invaluable.

The studies pursued in such schools are disap-
pointingly limited in range in the opinion of the
newly arrived foreigner; yet in many cases they are
such as are best adapted to the peculiar needs of the
Chinese. Ancient and modern languages—except
English along the coast and in the cities—are not
worth learning, as dense ignorance on more vital
topics exists, and the study of their own Classics is
indispensable as an element of Chinese culture, and
as a mental discipline is almost as valuable as Greek
and Latin to the student of the West.

3. Comparatively few genuine colleges exist. Yet
the pressing need of the near future is that of a body
of well-trained natives who can enter the vast fields
opening to the civil engineer, the mining expert, the
electrician, and the topographical engineer. Astron-
omy and mathematics, which have previously been
desired, must also be taught. It can be said with
perfect truth that thus far the missionaries have been
China’s best, and almost only, instructors, and in
the higher institutions students are being trained
who receive a moral education second to that im-
parted in no Western college, and a mental develop-
II4 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

ment that compares favorably with that of our stu-
dents.

The Chinese are settling for themselves the mooted
question of English study. The new demand for a
knowledge of our language has drawn to mission col-
leges young men of a higher social standing than
have ordinarily been reached, and they have gladly
paid the required fees. Asa mere matter of acquir-
ing knowledge, more accurate information could be
gained through Chinese, and in a far less time than
is necessary when English is the medium of instruc-
tion. But the question of keeping up with the
progress in the sciences is a most serious one, if
Chinese text-books and periodicals are the sole de-
pendences. Moreover, English is the only possibil-
ity of communicating with most Western merchants
and promoters of various sorts, and as pidgin English
is wofully meagre, a full-fledged variety is a neces-
sity. Thus far the chief difficulty connected with
its study has been the fact that English-speaking
compradores, etc., are in such demand that students
are drafted off as soon as they get a fair command of
the tongue, and often fall before the temptation to
“squeeze” the foreigner. With few honorable ex-
ceptions, such men are of little use to the native
church thereafter.

Another charge until recently urged against English
and Western education in general is that so much
time is required for such studies that the student
cannot acquire his own classical language, thus fail-
ing to have influence as a writer over the power-
ful literary element of the Empire. Yet, if Western
ideas are modified enough to permit the memoriza-
tion of the Classics, in part at least, and of study
aloud, so that tones can be corrected by the teacher,
it is quite possible for the student, aided by modern
ideas of education, to gain much knowledge from
the West, as well as Chinese culture, in the same
number of years required for taking the Chinese
degrees.
 

 

MAIN BUILDING, SU-CHOW UNIVERSITY
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK II5

 

4. Industrial education has its advocates in some
missions, both as a means of discipline and as a prep-
aration for usefulness and self-support in later life.
Tt has its value, also, in ennobling the native concep-
tion of labor and in living down the current convic-
tion that the moment the scholar’s gown is donned
the finger-nails may grow and no manual labor be
undertaken—a curse of China’s present situation.
The growing demand for technical schools will also
aid in this direction.

5. Education for Christian service is an endeavor
that even those boards approve of which do not en-
courage a general educational work. Station-classes
for men and women—separate, of course—bring to-
gether for a few weeks or months, usually in the
winter season, when people are least busy, a company
of interested Christians or inquirers anxious to be
fitted for usefulness in their homes. It is a rare priv-
ilege to have in charge such a class. Some are
stupid, but all are eager learners ; for, as they often
say, ‘‘ This is heaven,” and such heavenly privileges
are never undervalued or misimproved. Hundreds
every year gain information and inspiration in these
classes that enable them to stand alone in the midst
of persecution, and become a savor of life unto life
among unbelieving multitudes.

The few theological schools established attempt to
do more thoroughly for chosen young men of the
Church what station-classes accomplish for the uned-
ucated many in more advanced life. Though For-
mosa missions must now be considered as belonging
to Japan, Dr. Mackay’s class of theological students
received there a training as nearly ideal as can be
found for Chinese helpers. On the Chinese main-
land seminary students are most thoroughly edu-
cated in all that pertains to the work of evangeliza-
tion and the regular ministry, and in these institutions
are men some of whom have mastered the contents
and drunk in the spirit of the Bible as no seminary
students of the Occident have done.
116 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

Literature in Chinese Missions.—As no other
missionary country honors literature so highly as
China, so literary work has had a correspondingly
large amount of attention given it.

1. The preparation of literature of every variety,
Bibles, religious treatises, educational works, and
periodicals both secular and religious, has fallen al-
most entirely on the shoulders of missionaries, as did,
in the earlier days, the writing of philological works.
Many have become authors who have no gifts in that
direction, but it is probably true that no country has
had so large a number of competent translators and
authors as China. Bible translators, like Morrison,
Medhurst, Bridgman, Blodget, Burdon, and Scher-
eschewsky, and the present Committees working on
revised versions, are men to be grateful for, even if
some of the earlier generation aimed at perspicuity
and elegance of diction, rather than at rigid faithful-
ness in translating the sometimes ambiguous, and to
the Chinese, distasteful statements of the Scripture
writers. Milne was the forerunner of authors like
Burns, Martin, and Griffith John, who could so sink
themselves in the Chinese environment and “ get
their stomachs so full” of choice and attractive forms
of expression, that the Chinese read on in spite of
themselves, after once tasting the “ flavor” of their
writings. Mateer, Sheffield, Hunter, and other mis-
sionaries have rendered a hardly less important ser-
vice in text-book preparation than those in govern-
ment employ, like Edkins, and Fryer ; while Faber
and Legge have done invaluable work in making
Chinese writings accessible to the Western reader.
Yates, Allen, and Richard are a few missionaries
among many who have made the periodical literature
of China an agency of illumination and regeneration.

2. The manufacture of books is an effort which
mission presses have undertaken in spite of the fact
that this meant competition with thousands of native
presses, the entire outfit of almost any one of which
might be packed in a hand-satchel. The experiment
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK 117

 

of Pi, made nearly 900 years ago, has become effec-
_ tive in the elegant movable type of to-day, and
though the mission-press compositor may be bewil-
dered at first as he stands, like a man in a museum,
in the midst of the 6,000 and more compartments of
his gigantic type-cases, he can far outstrip the block-
cutter, both in speed of composition and beauty of
type. Native firms have adopted the idea of photo-
engraving and reproduce at a low price volumes for-
merly inaccessible, as well as pirate recent missionary
productions, thus underselling the works of foreign
presses, Though the production of mission presses is
very large, yet this is but a foretaste of the demands
to be aid upon them and upon authors in the awak-
ening that is now beginning.

3. Practically every Protestant missionary and na-
tive Christian worker in China aids in the distribu-
tion of this ltterature. Inquirers are taught to read
through books ; schools and training-classes cannot
exist without them ; and they are the best and almost
only agency through which to reach the gentry and
officials of the Empire, from local Nicodemuses, to
the occupant of the Dragon Throne. Missionaries
and colporteurs sell books or judiciously loan or give
them away in chapels and tea-shops, at fairs and near
the gates of government examination-halls. Books
are a legitimate excuse for the foreigner’s presence in
a hostile district, and the native Book-lending Socie-
ties of the South gain an entrance for Christian truth
by their means into country schools and the homes of
grandees.

Evangelistic Work.—Highly as the missionary
esteems efforts for the bodily and mental well-being
of men, he never forgets that his primary object is to

reach the gospel of an all-powerful Saviour, and a
oving Fatherin heaven. This is the thread of scarlet
that runs through the web of his royal weaving.

1. Perhaps the most profitable efforts on the China
field are those in which the missionary labors with in-
dividuals, as did Jesus at the Samaritan well. When
118 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

masses are addressed, one cannot tell whether the
strange message is understood ; but let one sit down
and talk with a man, as toa brother, and not only
are misunderstandings cleared away, but a personal
relation of friendliness and respect is established. It
is this private work that gives one an opportunity
with men of the higher classes, and in general it is
so profitable that Romanists confine themselves almost
entirely to it, encouraging converts to bring such in-
quirers to them.

Timid women of the better classes can often be
reached through visits at the missionary lady’s home.
It is a curious, new world to the visitor, and in a life
with very few outings it forms the staple of conver-
sation in her home for monthsafter. Christian wom-
en also grow much in their spiritual life through
personal visits at the mission compound. Mothers’
meetings are a more public form of the same beanti-
ful and helpful service. Colored Scripture pictures
are very useful in such a connection, and many have
been placed in the homes of women otherwise inac-
cessible to Christianity.

2. If most of the work thus far described resembles
that done in missions at home, chapel preaching pre-
sents some unique features. These buildings are
usually rented shops, located on a frequented city
street, and open to all comers. Though the place is
a cheerless one, and provided with rude, backless seats
and only doubtful means of warmth in the winter, a
respectable audience, or even a crowd, soon gathers
to gaze at the “‘foreign devil,” or to hear singing
ih is so unorthodox, because not falsetto in char-
acter.

The singing over, and politeness having overcome
their prejudices, they are now seated. In new dis-
tricts it will hardly do to offer prayer, as this method
of proceeding might be mistaken for a magic incanta-
tion to entrap them, and so cause a stampede. Few
can hope to hold an audience if a long passage of
Scripture is read. Beginning immediately, there-
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK 119

 

fore, the missionary, by conversation or in simple ad-
dress, attempts to bring before his auditors the great
facts of God, sin, and salvation. Interruptions are
numerous : peanut-venders may shout their wares ;
old friends recognize each other across the room, and
start an animated conversation ; an opium-smoker
attempts to create a disturbance ; an intermittent
procession of smokers circulate about the stove or in-
cense-spiral to light their pipes ; a passing mandarin
or a street brawl calls out the entire audience to “ be-
hold the hot racket,” etc., etc. But they soon return,
and comers and goers keep the chapel supplied all day
long. Preaching alternates with tea-drinking, con-
versations with groups, reading, and the sale of books
and Scriptures, and instruction of any inquirers
present. So few have ever heard the gospel before,
and so rarely come again, that this agency is useful
in scattering broadcast an inkling of the truth, rather
than in direct conversion.

3. Itineration requires some nerve and great pow-
ers of adaptation. Journeying on foot, by wheelbar-
row, cart, sedan-chair, or boat, a walled-city is visited,
usually on a day wien a fair is being held. Armed
with books and Scriptures, the itinerant takes up his
position on the side of the narrow, crowded street,
and amid the bedlam of shouting sellers of all kinds
of commodities he speaks his message as he is able.
Very rarely is one stoned out of the city, and work
can be continued till nightfall, if lungs and throat
permit. The curious crowd tenders an evening re-
ception at the inn, but this is compensated for at its
close, when not infrequently an awakened searcher
after Truth remains to continue till midnight, per-
bape, @ conversation that angels might rejoice to

ear.

In villages this itineration is much less taxing and
more fruitful. Seated beside the village well, or
standing on the steps of the dingy temple, groups of
farmers just in from the fields, and often women—
who rarely appear in public in the cities—gather
120 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

round to look on and to hear the stranger’s words.
A talk-sermon, general friendliness, catechisms or
tracts bought, and perhaps a few simple characters
written on the hard earth of the highway or thresh-
ing-floor to testify to the truth of the gospel, are the
means used by the Spirit to regenerate lives.

Where such itineration is systematic, and progress
can be made, as in the field of the American Presby-
terians and English Baptists in Shan-tung, this work
is exceedingly valuable. The German missionaries
in Kuang-tung are also great believers in country
work, as contrasted with the more unfavorable efforts
made in Chinese cities. The late Dr. Nevius was the
leading advocate of the fully developed village-circuit
system, and it can be found described in his ‘‘ Methods
of Mission Work.” Ina word, his plan is to interest vil-
lages through itineration, and as soon as inquirers ap-
pear, make the ablest of them the leader of the group.
These meet periodically for the study of a graduated
series of lessons and for worship. These leaders are
themselves instructed through station-classes at the
missionaries’ home. Rev. A. G. Jones’s modification
of this system is, however, more productive of per-
manent desirable results, perhaps.

The Native Church.—This is the natural ont-
come of mission schools, Christian literature, and an
oral proclamation of the gospel. Upon its purity and
activity depends the future of Christianity in China.

1. A traveller visiting one of these churches would
see little peculiar about them. To be sure it may be
only a “‘church in the house” of some Chinese
Aquila and Priscilla, but that is surely apostolic.
Then if in a church building, the sexes may be sep-
arated by a ‘‘ middle wall of partition,” and creeping
babies and unquiet dogs may be much in evidence.
He would note the hearty singing, albeit discordant,
the kneeling audience engaged in prayer, and would
remark the exceedingly simple and scriptural form of
the sermon, if he could understand it. At the con-
clusion of the service he would see evidences of
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK 121

 

apostolicity in the mutual affection or regard shown ;
and if he followed inquirers to waiting-rooms and
saw the kindliness exhibited and the desire to instruct
them in Christian truth and life by the “ church-
friends ”—members—he would believe in missions.

2. A well-regulated Chinese Sunday-school is ap
inspiration. Bright-faced boys, demure girls with
“willow gait” and flower-bedecked jet black hair, a
few youths and maidens, middle-aged and gray-haired
men and women, are keenly enjoying the singing,
the lesson-study, in preparation for which consider-
able time has been spent, and the blackboard work, or
lesson review. Few methods have excited greater in-
terest than those of modern Sunday-schools of the
West, adapted to conditions in China.

3. Though young peoples’ societies, both of the
Young Men’s Christian Association and Endeavor
type, are very useful, they are somewhat hampered
by the prevalent opinions concerning the inferiority
of youth and the relation of the sexes. While mixed
young peoples’ societies are a success in some mis-
sions, a better effect is usually produced on the com-
munity if the sexes meet by themselves. The feel-
ing of personal responsibility for the religious life of
other Christians and for the salvation of neighbors
has been a new and much-needed element introduced
by these organizations.

The Association has been especially helpful, and in
some cases has changed the members from useless
hangers-on in the church to being inventive and
active unpaid fishers of men. New methods have
been so useful that they have overcome in some dis-
tricts the prejudice against youthfulness. In places
where students are gathered in some numbers, it has
been most successful. The conventions arising from
these young peoples’ societies have given the native
Christians a greater sense of solidarity than any
other fact perhaps.

4, The condition of the churches is further apos
tolic in that some of their saints are of the seamy sort,
122 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

just asin Corinth. This makes discipline a matter
of much importance and anxiety to the missionary.
The mutual suspicion and fear of petty revenge which
has before conversion filled their life, operates to
make them conceal evils until an explosion occurs,
and then in the midst of mutual recriminations facts
are hard to ferret out. In older communities, where
a substratum of faithful Christians is present, these
evils are few and do not bring serious reproach on
the Church. Polygamy in some cases has caused much
trouble, and in others opium-smokers and “rice
Christians” have been the source of mischief. Im-
urity, strange to say, has occasioned remarkably few
apses from the faith. One of the great needs of the
Chinese Christian is that of a stronger conviction of
the unity of the Church of Christ, and of the fact
that all suffer in the sin of one.

5. As already intimated, sel/-support is a perplex-
ing problem in the present missionary situation.
Church members are few in most congregations ;
almost all of them are from the poorest class in society
and find it difficult to make ends meet since they
must keep the Sabbath, and thus suffer in the keen
competition of populous China; and they live in a
climate and on soil which are less friendly than those
of Burma, where such wonders in self-support have
been seen. For these and other reasons, most mis-
sionaries have asked their boards to assume the ex-
penses, or most of them, until the church should be-
come strong enough to bear them.

Some of the evils of this policy are thus stated by
Dr. Nevius: ‘‘ It weakens and may break up new sta-
tions by removing from them their most intelligent
and influential members in order to use them as
evangelists elsewhere; it presents Christianity too
much as an alien system, supplied by foreign funds
and propagated for the foreigner’s benefit; it has a
tendency to attract applicants for baptism influenced
by mercenary motives, and to retain in the church
persons who seek mainly worldly advantages ; it in-
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK 123

 

volves the necessity of a large amount of money and
of a great deal of machinery and supervision ; it cre-
ates dissatisfaction and discussion in the native
Church, arising from supposed partiality in the dis-
tribution of favors; by appealing largely to temporal
rather than to spiritual motives, it vitiates the char-
acter of Christianity and diminishes its power; the
worldly or mercenary element, which at first promotes
a rapid and abnormal growth, is very apt to be the
cause at no distant period of an equally rapid decline
and disintegration.” Though his advocacy of a sys-
tem to avoid these evils has great favor in America,
Chinese missionaries, while acknowledging the evils
mentioned, are far from regarding his system of pre-
vention as successful, mainly because it is too super-
ficial. Ina word, this problem admits of no one solu-
tion, and all boards are endeavoring to create a spirit
of independence as rapidly as possible.

6. Closely allied with the problem just mentioned,
is that of self-propagation by the older established
churches that may have already come to the position
of self-support. A strong Christian Association or
Endeavor Society can do much in this direction, es-
pecially if the former is made up of the members of
a single church. Another method that has been
adopted in a few cases is to have the church appoint
members to itinerate during the less busy season, pay-
ing their light travelling expenses where necessary.
In the Nevius system, the infant church exists for
others as well as for itself, and the work of teaching
neighbors proceeds from the very beginning. In
southeastern China, both self-support and self-prop-
agation have advanced quite satisfactorily, as it has
in many stations of the China Island Mission.

% Writers in Christian lands have bewailed as an
even greater evil threatening the mission churches
the existence of denominationalism. Whatever may
be true of Japan, this has not proven a serious evil
thus far in China, except within limited areas, and
in the case of two or three boards. As a matter of
124 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

fact, very many Christians do not even know the
name of the denomination to which they belong.
Chang-lao Hui, Kung-li Hui, Chien-tu Hui, etc.,
mean about as much to them as to the reader. They
do know that they belong to the Yeh-su Chiao, Je-
sus Sect, as opposed to the Tien Chu Chiao, or Lord
of Heaven Sect—Catholics—but beyond this many
have not gone in denominationalism. It is true that
some time and money may be unwisely expended in
carrying on two higher educational institutions, for
instance, when one would do for several boards in
that locality ; but as a rule comity is carefully re-
garded and most stations exist in a field of their own
with Christians of no other denomination near.
Each year more attention is being paid to economy of
men and means, and denominationalism causes al-
most no harm in the Empire.

Occasional Efforts.—Under this head may be
placed items which do not constitute the programme of
most boards, or which are only occasionally operative.

1. Conventions and conferences are growing in num-
ber and are being recognized as a profitable invest-
ment of mission funds. Spiritual power and wise
direction of effort are consequent upon these gather-
ings, and they mark distinct epochs in the history of
Chinese missions. As India and Japan have begun
the system of annual conferences for the promotion
of the spiritual life, so the decennial conferences at
Shanghai for the discussion of methods and adminis-
trative details, are being supplemented by more fre-
quent sectional gatherings for spiritual purposes.
Perhaps no fact promises more of blessing in the
future than this assembling together of the mission-
aries of China. Local conferences are also useful.

2. Hiforts for the literati of the Empire are in-
creasingly important with the entry of China into
the wider world-brotherhood. It is a difficult task,
and one from which little good has resulted, beyond
that of removing ignorance and creating friendli-
ness. High officials cannot be Christians and hold
THE MISSIONARIES AT WORK 125

 

office, since their position requires idolatrous acts
of worship, and at present almost necessitates dis-
honest actions, unless officials were men of indepen-
dent fortunes.

Lectures are thus far only slightly useful and will
probably continue to be so, until literary men cease
to fear one another and are willing to come in num-
bers to such meetings. Private interviews and visit-
ation are far more effective in imparting a knowledge
of Christianity and Western progress.

Museums in connection with private work are un-
doubtedly helpful and have been successfully used in
three or four centres. With the coming of Western
manufactures and industrial reforms, advocates of
this sort of service confidently expect the leaders of
China to take an increasing interest in such collec-
tions of products of Occidental skill.

Far more promising is the attempt to interest the
higher classes through specially prepared literature.
The backbone of Hu-nan’s opposition to Christianity
has been injured, if not broken, by this weapon, and the
Emperor himself seems to be open to this method of
approach. Periodicals and the translation of such
volumes as Mackenzie’s ‘‘ Nineteenth Century ” have
already furnished material for discussion in sporadic
and short-lived reform clubs.

Additional Agencies.—In the Statistical Table
no place has been given to organizations which do
not commission special foreign agents to do their
work in the Empire, but which do a most important
work for the people.

1. First among these efforts may be placed the aid
furnished by the Tract Societies of the West, which
nobly co-operate with the Tract Societies of China.
The main societies working in the Empire are the
North China Tract Society, with Peking as its head-
quarters, the Chinese Tract Society of Shanghai,
the Central China Religious Tract Society of Han-
k‘ou, and the Kiangsi-Hunan Tract Press. Aided
by the American Tract Society and the Religious
126 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

Tract Society of London, they are yearly issuing
myriads of tracts adapted to the dialects of the regions
occupied, besides periodicals of great value in mis-
sion work. Most of these sell their product to the
natives at a greatly reduced price, or even donate
them where thought desirable.

The Society for the Diffusion of Christian and
General Knowledge, commonly known as the Dif-
fusion Society, has a somewhat different object in
view. Its publications are intended for general
enlightenment and for the higher classes not reached
by ordinary efforts. The books and periodicals are
accordingly more apologetic and scientific in charac-
ter than those of the Tract Societies, and are usually
sold at cost price.

Book-lending Societies among the native Christians
are intended to make these publications accessible to
hitherto unreached classes, such as school-teachers,
local officials, and gentry. Calls and conversation
lead to the loan of books, and this gives opportunity
to call again, extend the acquaintance, and make
clear what is misunderstood.

2. The mission presses have been most potent
agencies for good, from the first one established by
Drs. Morrison and Milne of the London Mission
down to the latest one set up. They have not only
furnished valuable books, but have tanght China
how to print in modern style and by more economical
methods. The two largest, and among the most
important mission presses of the world, are those of
the American Presbyterians at Shanghai and of the
American Methodists at Fu-chou. Others are the
Church Missionary Society’s at Ningpo, the English
Presbyterians’ at Swatau, the National Bible Society
of Scotland’s at Han-k‘ou, and the Methodist Central
China Press at Kiukiang.
VIII
NEW CHINA

As was shown in Chapter VI., war has been the
great awakener of China. At what moment the
Empire reached the stage when the name ‘“‘ New
China” was first rightly applicable it is hard to say.
Most writers would probably agree that the present
movement began as the result of the war with Japan
of 1894-95. With other foreign aggressions following
shortly afterward, the momentum speedily increased,
and after the Boxer Uprising it was under full head-
way.

Causes of Recent Changes.—1. An under-
lying and often forgotten cause of the revolution
which is quietly taking place in China is found in a
fundamental characteristic of the Chinese race,
which may be called retardative conservatism. While
this trait is common enough among all classes, it is
found in its flower in the officials and other literati.
Reforming and progressive members being excepted,
the mission of this influential element in society has
been to keep down the pace of progress, and when
innovations are decided upon, to delay their realiza-
tion to the last moment. That the Chinese should
be thus conservative is most natural. For millenni-
ums they were far in advance of the rest of the world
in all, outside the realm of esthetics and religion, that
makes life worth living. It was not their wish that
the Occident should intrude itself upon the Orient,
still less that the barbarian should force his wares
and his wars upon a self-satisfied and peace-loving
people. Change in every form was very distasteful,

127
128 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

and the innovator was most heartily hated for daring
to disturb the equilibrium of the Middle Kingdom
and its age-old inertia. No Westerner can realize the
contempt with which in many cases the foreign bar-
barian 1s still regarded, even when he is smilingly
received by most polite scholars and officials. When
retardative conservatism faced the marshalling of the
Occident after the close of China’s war with Japan,
it furnished the final cause for resistance to threat-
ened as well as actual changes in the Empire’s tra-
ditional status, and this resistance merely hastened
the dreaded transformation.

2. Political Causes.—Following the Chinese order
‘‘from the near to the remote,” there was a political
situation at home which furthered the cause of
progress. Whenever difficult conditions confront the
people, they are apt to criticise their Manchu rulers
as the cause of it all, even when the Throne is in no
way responsible. Though the secret sects and a
small body of reformers are the parties that voice
such a feeling of restiveness under the foreign press-
ure, the number of malcontents among the common
people was constantly increasing. When, in addition
to this chronic dislike of Manchu domination, there
was the added conviction that neither the Emperor
nor the Empress Dowager was competent to stem the
tide of foreign diplomacy and the new industrialism,
the anti-dynastic spirit grew, and it would probably
have manifested itself in some semi-revolutionary
outbreak with the consequent changes thereby in-
volved, even if there had been no Boxer fulminate to
produce the explosion of 1900.

International politics, however, were far more in-
fluential than domestic political discontent in giving
birth to New China. ‘The most favored nation”
clause of early treaties, giving to every power the
same advantages secured by any one of them, was
the most fruitful cause of irritation, Western syn-
dicates, realizing the value of railway and mining
concessions particularly, sent their representatives to
Se ee

NEW CHINA 129

 

China to secure these privileges. When those from
one nation succeeded, the syndicates of another coun-
try brought pressure to bear upon their minister to
secure for them an equivalent prize, urging the
treaty clause as their clinching argument. Peking
was thus the scene of an unrighteous scramble for
most that was valuable in the Empire.

A more serious irritant than the above was the
movement looking toward the partition of the Em-
pire, or at least the establishment of spheres of in-
fluence. This agitation was the natural outcome of
Japan’s victory in her war with China. So easy a
conquest by a Power which was then supposed to be
of inferior ability dispelled the opinion, held until
that time by Occidentals, that China had great
potential strength and that only through diplomacy
could advantages be won for the West. By the
treaty of peace of April 17, 1895, the Liao-tung
Peninsula,—including Port Arthur,—the Pescadores,
and Formosa, were ceded to Japan, and an indemnity
of 200,000,000 taels was exacted, China’s appeal for
aid in meeting the indemnity resulted in such re-
monstrances on the part of Russia, Germany, and
France that Japan was restrained from taking pos-
session of Liao-tung. Immediately Russia showed
her true character, as did the other two Powers,
whose plea was that if Japan retained Liao-tung, she
would be a menace to China’s territorial integrity.
Russia demanded the right of extending railways to
Vladivostok and to Port Arthur, and subsequently
she brought in a considerable military force to pro-
tect the new interests. France claimed the right to
extend the Tong-king railway into Kuang-hsi, and
Germany demanded mining and financial privileges.
A little later, on November 1, 1897, two German
Catholic missionaries were murdered in Shan-tung,
and this led to the German occupation of K.iao-chou
(Chiao-chou) Bay and the insistence upon a number
of advantages affecting the occupation of Chiao-chou
and the exploitation of mines and railways. Well
130 DAWN ON THE GILLS OF T‘ANG

 

might the ‘‘ North China Daily News” say, a month
later, “The action of the Germans in Shan-tung is
obviously a prelude to the partition of China”; for
on March 8, 1898, Russia peremptorily demanded,
and on the 27th obtained, Port Arthur, including
Ta-lien Wan and 800 square miles of adjacent terri-
tory. This necessitated Great Britain’s securing an-
other strategic point south of Port Arthur, at Wei-
hai-wei in Shan-tung, which was accomplished six
days after Russian demands were agreed to by China.
Twenty days later France demanded possession of
Knuang-chou Wan and obtained it May 2, 1898.
Shortly thereafter Japan secured concessions in five
important trade centres of the Empire, and by 1899
there was not in all China’s long coast line a single
harbor in which she could mobilize her own ships
without the consent of the hated foreigner. This
triumph of diplomacy and outrageous wrong natu-
vuly incensed the Throne and still further increased
the unrest of the people who placed the responsibil-
ity for this unblushing robbery upon the Court.

3. The Industrial Situation.—China is in many
provinces densely populated. Her masses must earn
their bread against much competition ; and if em-
ployment is taken away, their perennial and deep
poverty instantly creates serious conditions. In a
number of centres, as Shanghai and Hanyang, for-
cign mills, iron-works, etc, furnish new employ-
arts, but this is at the expense of many house
industries. The machine of the West to the unedu-
cated Celestial seems to be the foe of his own tools;
and when railways and steam craft appear, a single
train or steamer does the work of hundreds or thonu-
sands of carters, barrow men, and boatmen. It was
wholly natural that with such imperfect and short-
sighted views the populace, in districts where steam
and machines were most in evidence and where no
compensating industries came into existence, should
rise against the new peril. It was this fear of loss of
life, resulting from inability to become quickly ad
NEW CHINA 131

—

justed to the new régime, that impelled the Tung
Chou boatmen and carters to lead on the mob which
destroyed the railway between Peking and the cities
of Tientsin and Pao-ting Fu in the summer of 1900.
While in the end the Empire will greatly profit by
the inventions of the Occident, the period of transi-
tion, especially if machines are introduced too rapidly
and unwisely, is one that must disturb the peace of
China. Thus far there has been little shifting of
the population from hamlets and villages to centres
of the new industries, but when that time comes
new elements will enter into the Chinese industrial
problem.

4. Educational Complications.—Previous to the
Empress Dowager’s coup d’état of 1898, the Emperor
had come to believe that China’s greatest hope in the
midst of the gathering Occidental storm was to be
expected from the introduction of Western learning.
Decrees relating to the new education were issued
which were too revolutionary ; but if they had been
moderate, they would have thrown into consterna-
tion the literati and the civil mandarins. It should
be remembered that for long centuries the Chinese
official has secured his position on a civil service
basis. No high office is likely to come to one who is
not a third degree graduate, and that degree calls for
an average of twenty years’ arduous study, though
many do not receive it until they are over fifty years
of age. The new educational régime was to be
mainly based upon Western science and _ history,
while the Chinese Classics, which had been the staple
of the old education, were given little place. This
meant that thousands of aspirants for office, who had
spent years of patient study to reach the coveted
honors, would be disqualified through their igno-
rance of the knowledge of the West. On the other
hand, mere striplings, most of whom had acquired
the modern learning in mission schools and colleges,
were far more likely than they to pass the new exam-
inations. Before the educational decrees had had
132 DAWN ON THE GILLS OF T'ANG

 

time to become effective, the Empress Dowager had
rescinded them ; but the new learning had begun to
creep into the examination papers, with the certainty
that a still larger introduction of such questions
would follow. As the literati are the real ralers of
China, and because their future honors and official
cmolument were imperiled, another element was in-
troduced into the already complex problem of neces-
sitated progress in the person of these retardative
literati.

5. Religious Factors.—Other causes having some-
thing to do with the anti-foreign sentiment among
officials and with the Boxer Uprising of 1900 were
religious. Christianity of the Roman, Greek, and
Protestant types brought to the Empire religious
ideas and practices which were diametrically opposed
to ancient beliefs in very many particulars. A divi-
sive factor everywhere, just as was St. Paul (Acts xvii.
6, 18, 32, etc.), the converts were frequently the
objects of petty or serious persecution. This was
contrary to the treaties, and hence the missionaries
of all three confessions protested against the wrong.
Protestant leaders rarely pressed suits and then only
in important cases. The Romanists were more ready
to aid in litigation, and this encouraged many of the
baser sort with litigious tendencies to affiliate with
Catholics. But whether Protestant or Catholic, the
common result of appearing at law courts was to
involve officials in disgrace or in criticism—some-
times with loss of position—or else to secure verdicts
that usually brought suffering to the guilty and en-
tailed a heritage of hatred for the missionary who
had aided in securing punishment. The Imperial
decree of March 15, 1899, still further augmented
official dislike of Roman missionaries. It ordered in
Section 1: ‘‘In the different degrees of the eccle-
siastical hierarchy, bishops being in rank and dignity
the equals of viceroys and governors, it is agreed to
authorize them to demand to see viceroys and gov-
ernors. . . . Vicars-general and archdeacons will
NEW CHINA 133

—

 

be auth.-rized to see provincial treasurers and judges,
and tao-t‘ais. ther priests will be authorized to
see prefects of the first and second class, independ-
ent prefects, sub-prefects, and other functionaries.”
There was thus established in a sense an tmperium
tx imverto. While the decree vastly increased Cath-
olicism’s power, its assumption was attended with
the gravest dangers, and it made the priesthood still
mvure unpopular with officials and people. The
brotestants wisely refused to accept any such privi-
leges.

Another factor entering into the situation was
Chinese religion. Christianity in every form, but
Protestantism more insistently, holds strong views
concerning ancestor worship, in most cases condemn-
ing it. As this cult is the most cherished feature of
Chinese religion, it was natural that Christian oppo-
sition to it should be employed as an argument
against foreigners and their teachings. There was
another peculiarity of Chinese Christians which had
a more practical bearing upon the community and
religious life. Local temples are ordinarily erected
by public subscription ; repairs for the same are sim-
ilarly secured, Theatrical exhibitions, which are
partly for the benefit of the gods,—the stage is often
a permanent building standing opposite the god-
room of the temple,—are likewise dependent upon
the contributions of the community. The Chinese
Christians felt in conscience bound not to aid in
what they regarded as furthering idolatry and false
religion, and this brought a larger burden upon
the others in the community, occasioning further ill-
feeling.

Among the influential men of the Empire, animos-
ity had been aroused against Christianity on the
ground that eee was the only orthodox doc-
trine, and that Christianity was injuring its standing
in the nation. Thus Chang Chih-tung, one of China’s
foremost viceroys, in a volume published by the
Tsung-li Ya-mén ang zead to the number of a million
134° BAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'A£NG

weet

 

copies during the three years preceding the Boxer
Uprising, says: “‘ Confucianism is in danger! “
A knowledge of the benefits to be derived from Con..
fucianism cannot be obtained simply by a few years
of hard study. If only this limited time is given to
Chinese learning and Western education is introduced,
the former will soon decline; in fact the Canons of
our Holy Religion will soon perish. The thought
makes us tremble. . . . And we are still more
apprehensive when we consider the fact that in Chins
to-day there are a great many aimless people ;
who speak blasphemously of Confucius.” In the
Emperor’s rescript concerning this book we find,
after the paragraph ordering viceroys, governors, and
others to read and circulate it, the following, ‘‘ And
these High Officials are enjoined to use their sincere
endeavors to encourage and exhort the people to hold
in reverence the Confucian Religion and suppress
all baseless rumors.” The significance of such state-
ments may be seen from this paragraph from the pen
of one of China’s best-known missionaries, Arthur H.
Smith, D.D.: “They have the loftiest moral code
which the human mind unaided by divine revelation
has ever produced, and its crystalline precepts have
been the rich inheritance of every successive present
from every successive past. The certainty that this
is the best system of human thought as regards the
relations of man to man is as much a part of the
thinking of every educated Chinese as his vertebrae
are a part of his skeleton ; and the same may be said
of the uneducated Chinese, when the word feeling is
substituted for thinking.”

When the Boxer movement began to gather force,
designing priests among their number raised the
watch-cry, “The Gods in danger!” And many of
them uttered it with a venom begotten from the Em-
peror’s edict, in which he ordered that minor temples
of the Buddhist and Taoist faith should be converted
into schools for instructing the people in Western
learning, which meant for them loss of occupation
NEW CHINA 135

 

and prestige. While intelligent Chinese were not
influenced by such a cry, it served as an incentive to
persecution and pillage among the masses. \

Admitting the fact that religion was one cause of
the anti-foreign uprising of 1900 and that in conse-
quence it aided in bringing in the new China of to-
day, the evils of that awful year are not chargeable to
religion to avy large extent, nor to the Protestant
missionary. Hven if we include the work of the
missionary printing presses and of the Diffusion
Society, whose publications were widely read and
entered the palace even, this charge against missions
was not the central cause of enmity. It was his con-
nection with foreigners and not with their religion
that occasioned hatred of the native Christian, as was
evidenced by the slogan of 1900, ‘‘Hstablish the
Empire by the extermination of theforeign!” Their
charges against Christians were summarized in the
common accusation, “‘ He follows foreign countries.”
As the Occidental was called ‘foreign hairy one,” so
the native Christian was a ‘secondary hairy one.”
And this designation was applied not only to Chris-
tians but also to: “‘the man who ironed a foreigner’s
shirt, or helped him survey a railroad, or served him
as a teacher, though he might be a Buddhist of the
Buddhists, a Confucianist of the Confucianists.”

6. The Reformers.— The living and indigenous
agents of recent progress, who had carefully noted
the actual effect and probable outcome of the factors
already mentioned, were the reformers. In the
month of May, 1898, the Emperor began to give
evidence of his realization of the need for decisive
action, if China was to maintain an independent ex-
istence. During the months intervening before
September of the same year, a constant succession of
decrees startled the Empire and especially the reac-
tionaries. These men had everything to lose, if the
Imperial will dominated, and naturally they pursued
a Fabian policy most exasperating to the Emperor.
Consequently he turned to the younger men, notably
136 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

K‘ang Yii-wei, a native of a village near Canton, who
had acquired such a reputation that he was com-
monly known as “‘K‘ang, the Modern Sage and
Reformer.” It was currently reported that he had a
following consisting of more than half the members
of the Han-lin Academy, the censors, and the literati
of the capital, as well as a multitude of secretaries
of the various boards. With the advice of this
coterie of men and influenced by the many books
that the Emperor had himself read, the reform
movement proceeded most rapidly, so far as its for-
mulation and authorization were concerned.

But even if the officials had desired to obey the
revolutionary edicts, it would have been most dif-
ficult to accomplish a complete reorganization of
China, governmental, educational, and industrial, in
the brief period of a few months. Delays, necessary
but often inimical to the Imperial program. greatiy
incensed the Emperor, until finally a relatively un.
important circumstance brought on she coup a’état.
Wang Chao, a third class Secretary of the Board of
Rites, sent in a memoriai iv. which he is reported
“to have advocated the avolition of the queue and '
the changing of the Chinese national dress to that of
Western lands: the embracing of the Christian re-
figion as that of the State, with a national parlia-
ment in prospect ; and a journey by the Emperor and
Empress Dowager to the Mikado, that they might see
for themselves the pitiful condition of China as com-
pared with Japan.” The two Presidents of the Board
were so shocked by his revolutionary ideas that they
vehemently-expostulated and finally joined with other
influential officials in denouncing Wang. The Em-
peror, learning of the affair and considering it a
direct blow at a recent decree authorizing subordi-
nate officials to send up memorials, took steps to have
the officers of the Board of Rites punished. This
action and the subsequent dismissal of such men
as Li Hung-chang from the Foreign Office, led to
an appeal to the Empress Dowager to resume the
 

PRINCE SU, FOREIGNERS’ FRIEND DURING THE SIEGE
NEW CHINA 137

 

pases ee) ey

authority that she had so lately turned over to her
ward, the Emperor. A speedy decision and a merci-
less course of action followed the request, and on
September 22, Kuang Hsiti left the Throne for vir-
tual confinement. The reformers, who had been his
eyes and brain and hands, were summarily dealt
with, though through the kindness of his Imperial
Master K‘ang Yii-wei escaped with his life. On that
same fateful day K‘ang’s brother and five other noble
and patriotic young men were beheaded while pro-
testing that though the grass might be cut, the
<oots still remained and would shoot forth again in
a more favorable time. Dr. Arthur Smith rightly
says of that momentous hour: “In the New China
the day in the calendar which corresponds to the
twenty-eighth of September, 1898, will be observed
as a sacred Commemoration Day for the Six Martyrs,
who willingly gave their lives for the liberties of their
country.” Subsequent events have proved that they
did not die in vain, and that the new era owes more
to them and their much-beloved Emperor than to
any other indigenous force working for the Empire’s
regeneration.

The Climax of 1900.—1. While many of the
Occidental acts of aggression above spoken of fol-
lowed the resumption of power by the Empress Dow-
ager in 1898, the hour of open opposition to foreigners
might not have been so early reached had it not been
for the Boxers. Though this society had probably
existed for over a century, its renewed activity dates
from the summer of 1896, when it made itself
known in the province of Shan-tung under the name
of I Ho Chéian, literally Righteous—or Public—
Harmony Fists. As the last word is part of a
phrase meaning ‘to box and wrestle,” they came to
be known as Boxers. Other names for the society
are Ta Tao Hui, “‘ Great Sword Society,” I Ho T‘uan,
«‘ Public Harmony Volunteers,” and the later official
name, I Ho Yung, ‘‘ Public Harmony Braves.”

The strength of the Boxer movement from 1898 on-
138 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

ward was due to famine, flood, the incursion of the
Germans upon Shan-tung territory, the attitude of
German Catholic and Protestant missionaries, and
the presence of railroad engineers. Yti Hsien, gov-
ernor of the province of Shan-tung, where they were
most numerous, aided them secretly as well as pub-
licly, until foreign remonstrauce at Peking led to
his dismissal. His successor dealt with the Boxers in
so determined a way that they crossed the border into
the Imperial province of Chih-li. The time was
auspicious, and they went from strength to strength.
The Boxer cause appealed to a variety of people. It
was in this province that railroads and Western min-
ing methods had been most extensively introduced,
and hence the populace was ready to heed their cry
for the expulsion of the machine-bringing foreign
devil. It was at Peking and the ports that the syn-
dicate promoters hung like vultures about the cor-
rupt body politic, striving to gain from bribe-taking
officials rich spoils of every sort, regardless of the
wishes and interests of humbler members of so-
ciety.

Yet it was the supernatural element that gave the
Boxers their strongest hold upon the people. Re-
ligiously they had combined certain features of Bud-
dhism and Taoism into an attractive whole. Many
of the divinities of these faiths were “deified heroes
of extinct dynasties, whose spirits were supposed to
animate the believer to such an extent that he could
do the very deeds which had been wrought ages
ago. . . . At the temples of the various divin-
ities, or in the presence of their pictures, the initiated
made their prostrations and invoked the aid of the
gods. . . . The mind was probably fixed upon
the Being toward whom the worship was directed,
and the ultimate object was to become possessed by
the spirit of that Being. In the process of achieving
that end the devotee was seized with what was vari-
ously described as spasms, catalepsy, or epilepsy, and
often passed into something resembling a state of
NEW CHINA 139

 

trance or hypnotism. At certain stages of this ex-
perience, they seemed to be literally madmen, daring
everything and fearing nothing, as was often proved
later when they came into collision with foreign
troops. When the trance period had been passed
through successfully, the worshipper was held to be
quite “invulnerable.” Their chief claim was that
these and other evidences of power were traceable to
direct assistance from the ‘‘ Spirits,” which to the
number of countless myriads thronged to the aid of
the faithful. The Spirits were embodied in mere
lads, who formed a notable feature of their proces-
sions, as they marched before their bloodthirsty elders
amid banners inscribed with the motto, ‘Spirits and
Fists Mutually Assist.”

2 “The Great Tribulation.”—What wonder is it
that the Empress Dowager, pressed upon by the
foreign Powers and criticised by her Manchu-hating
subjects, should see in this rapidly growing organiza-
tion a possible ally to the Throne and to the Imperial
forces, whose united ranks might drive the objects of
common hatred into the ocean whence they came.
It is reported that she arrived at this decision after
an exhibition of their reputed invulnerability had sat-
isfied her representatives in Peking. Her covert ap-
probation of the Boxers only fanned the flames, as
did secret edicts, one of which, promulgated Nov. 21,
1899, closed with the words, “‘ Let no one think of
making peace, but let each strive to preserve from
destruction or spoliation his ancestral ome and
graves from the ruthless hands of the invader.” Of
this invader she says earlier in the same edict: ‘‘ Our
Empire is now laboring under great difficulties, which
are becoming daily more serious. The various Pow-
ers cast upon us looks of tiger-like voracity, hustling
each other in their endeavors to be the first to seize
upon our innermost territories, They think that
China, having neither money nor troops, would never
venture to go to war with them. . . . Never
should the word ‘ peace’ fall from the mouths of our
140 DAWN ON THE ILLS OF T‘ANG

 

high officials, nor should they even allow it for a mo
ment to rest within their breasts.”

The die was cast. On the last day of 1899, Rev.
8. P. Brooks became the proto-martyr in the carnival
of destruction which before the summer was over had
brought the martyr’s crown to 135 missionaries and
fifty-three of their innocent children, 188 Protestants
in all. In addition forty-four Romanist missionaries
willingly laid down their lives, nine of them being nuns
and the remainder priests and bishops. The number
of martyred Chinese Christians is not known, though
it is believed that including Catholics and Protestants
many thousands yielded their lives to Boxer cruelty
and hate. Of these, 400 out of the 700 Greek Cath-
olics of Peking were bold confessors of their faith.
What a holocaust of horror the foregoing statements
suggest may be learned from the pages of an already
large martyrology, in which are: chronicled the un-
speakable sufferings of both missionaries and their
faithful converts.

One hundred and fifty-nine of the foreigners and
their children suffered death in the Province of
Shan-hsi and over the Mongolian border, seventeen
in the Imperial province of Chih-li, eleven in Ché-
chiang, and one in Shan-tung. Of these, 100 were
British, and fifty-six were Swedish, while thirty-two
were from the United States. The society which
suffered most heavily was the China Inland Mission
with seventy-nine martyrs, and this was followed by
the Christian and Missionary Alliance with thirty-
six, the American Board with eighteen, the English
Baptists with sixteen, and the Shao-yang Mission
with thirteen. Jive other societies lost less than ten
each.

3. The Stege in Peking.—The feature of this
epoch-making year best known to the world is the
gallant stand made by missionaries, legationers, and
other foreigners of Peking, and a large company of
Catholic and Protestant Christians in and near the
British Legation. This little handful of men and
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NEW CHINA 141

 

women, defended by 450 marines, successfully re-
sisted for a period of fifty-five days the joint assault
of Boxers and Imperial troops. Their remarkable
preservation here and at Pei Tang, Northern Cathe-
dral—where the sufferings and dangers of the Cath-
olics besieged were more prolonged and much greater
than at the British Legation—can only be accounted
for by a distinct supernatural Power working in their
behalf. During these terrible days the attention of
the civilized world was intently fixed upon the diplo-
matic and missionary representatives of fourteen
nations, about whose safety nothing more was known
than came through a few cipher telegrams and the
rumors of awful deaths. And it is doubtless true
that never had there been such a continuous and im-
portunate volume of prayer offered up for any body
of men than was offered in their behalf. If unbe-
lievers smile and explain away all divine interven-
tion, cold civilians and colorless diplomatic corre-
spondence looked upon the Siege in the spirit of M.
Pichon, who reported to the President of France:
“Tt is a wonder the besieged were able to resist and
be saved. A series of extraordinary events, the
origin of which was less the will of men than the
occurrence of circumstances which could not be fore-
seen, was the only thing which prevented the general
massacre to which they seemed doudemned. ae
Our salvation, therefore, resulted from a chain of
events which cannot be explained by logical reason
and rational considerations.”

The part taken by the native Christians in the
Siege was a most creditable and important one, as is
suggested by this sentence from a letter written by
United States Minister Conger to the missionaries
upon the conclusion of the Siege, ‘‘ Without your
intelligent and successful planning and the uncom-
plaining execution of the Chinese, I believe our sat-
vation would have been impossible.” The hardest
tasks were not shirked by the Christians, nor the
most dangerous commissions. In some cases they
142 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

served as amateur soldiers to the admiration of the
trained marines. Two of the Christians, Chéng and
Yao, risked their lives as messengers to Tientsin and
were successful in bringing back most valuable in-
formation. Mr. Chéng gave half of the $1,000 re-
ceived for his services to found a scholarship in the
Methodist University.

4, Terms of Peace.—The termination of the Siege
in Peking on August 14, was followed by the flight
of the Court to Hsi-an Fu, the ancient capital of the
Empire, the looting of Peking by foreigners, the
restoration of order, the execution o. a few of the
guilty officials, among whom was the archfiend,
Yu Hsien, at whose bidding as Governor of the prov-
ince of Shan-hsi forty-five foreign missionaries were
hewn down at his own door, and the private settle-
ment of old grudges by Chinese diplomacy, or by
Christian principle.

After these preliminaries ensued a prolonged inter-
national duel in which the Western Powers sought
to reach a settlement with the Empress Dowager.
She took advantage of the lack of harmony among
the foreigners, and so it was only on September %,
1901, that the unseemly wrangle was brought to an
end. The protocol finally agreed upon gave the
Western Powers an indemnity of 450,000,000 taels,
payable in thirty-nine annual instalments. Serious
as this condition is both from the viewpoint of the
poverty of the people and the fact that until 1940
the collection of the fine will give officials an annual
opportunity to fleece the people under cover of for-
eign compulsion, other more humiliating conditions
were demanded. Thus China could not import fire-
arms for two years, nor permit official examinations
to be held for five years in cities where foreigners
had been attacked ; an important part of the Im-
perial capital must be added to the already spacious
legation area, and the whole was to be fortified and
guarded by foreign soldiery; the Ta-ku forts com-
manding the river entrance to the capital must Le
NEW CHINA 143

 

razed, and the railway from there to Peking must be
under foreign troops; magistrates, even viceroys,
were to be dismissed and disgraced, if they did not
prevent anti-foreign outbreaks and sternly punish
their leaders ; the reception of foreign ministers was
to conform to Western usage; and the T'sung-li Ya-
mén was to give place to a new ministry of foreign
affairs, the Wai-wu Pu, which should be elevated
from the lowest rank to the highest among the De-
partments. Truly China was forced to drink a most
bitter cup, but the cup was no bitterer than the con-
sequent feeling of antipathy or even haired.

Effects of China’s Sanguinary Awakening.
—l. The first results of the Boxer Uprising showed
themselves almost as soon as the foreign forces had
entered Peking. Even before opposition had been
overcome soldiers of Christian nations committed the
most flagrant acts of greed and lust to the ruin of
native purse and womanly honor, and this continued
in less degree until their withdrawal. The wrang-
ling over the peace terms, added to exhibitions of
unrighteousness earlier shown by syndicates in their
struggle for concessions, proved to official China that
the Westerners’ supposed moral superiority to the
Chinese was a doubtful quantity.

But there were advantages coming from foreign
occupation. ‘* The dirtiest city in the world ” soon
began to take on anewaspect. Peking streets ceased
for a time to be parallel ditches of foul liquid filth ;
at night kerosene street lamps made it possible for
the people to venture out of doors, even though these
lights shot their beams through the character for
“‘old age” which adorns their glass sides; a police
system, which was more effective than anything
hitherto known, might have been a helpful object-
lesson for the future had foreigners lived obedient to
it; the macadamizing of certain streets soon began ;
the railway entered the Southern City where the
“‘ fire-wheel-cart” drew up before the gate directly
south of the Palace; and foreign industries, called
144 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

into being by the new régime, filled the minds of
the employed with visions of wealth. Subsequently
the new era of railroads, mine exploitation, manu-
factures, and an enlarged commerce, extended to
other provinces in the Empire. Coincident with
these changes there arose a mental ferment and a
thirst for Western learning that has influenced the
educated classes as strongly as material changes have
affected the populace.

2. The New Officials. — Officials are known as
“¢ fathers and mothers of the people,” and the phrase
is sufficiently accurate to indicate their importance
to the New China. Under the old order these
“fathers end mothers ” had been inaccessible, super-
cilious, self-sufficient, obstructive. Western learn-
ing had found in the vast majority of them its
bitterest opponent. To-day all this is changed—
externally, if not in reality. Even in China’s most
anti-foreign province, the writer exchanged calls and
mutual courtesies with the Governor—a man who
became a few weeks later President of the Board
of Revenue at Peking—and that in less than four
years after the Outbreak. Since missionaries are
widely distributed over the Empire and know the
language, as few non-missionaries do, these officials
often seek from them information and advice to aid
them in remaking the Old China. They read omniv-
orously all the products of the modern press; and
the Diffusion Society especially has sold them a pro-
digious number of books on science, history, and re-
ligion—the latter in less quantities. The vastly larger
body of literati, who are officials in embryo, are
even more friendly toward missionaries and often
take the initiative in cultivating friendship. The
literati movement, which is to be carried on by the
Young Men’s Christian Association with an initial
force of ten men, and which has other workers of
many years’ standing, promises to be one of the most
strategic factors in national regeneration,

Yet one must not forget the other side of the
NEW CHINA 145

 

shield. That stipulation of the protocol which holds
officials responsible for outrages against foreigners
occasions much friction and ill-feeling. In some
parts of the Empire the authorities regard it neces-
sary to safeguard themselves by keeping strict watch
upon their foreign wards to the detriment of the
missionary cause. It really amounts to espionage ;
and where this is not true, the omnipresent escort of
one or more soldiers is hardly congruous with the
missionary’s peaceful object, to say nothing of the
other inconveniences of constant attendance. Litiga-
tion on the part of unprincipled nominal converts
causes official dismay and anxiety, especially where
the Catholic right of equality between missionaries
and mandarins is insisted upon and used against the
latter.

3. The new people are emboldened by the examples
of the officials to show a friendliness to progress
which was not common a decade ago. In centres
where the Government has opened schools of the new
order, they are speedily filled with boys and youths
who look upon such institutions as the certain avenue
to wealth or scholastic advancement. English is
particularly desired, since it most quickly leads to
lucrative positions in post offices, telegraph and rail-
way offices, and in commercial houses.

A larger body of the people seek positions not requir-
ing Western education. Cotton mills, silk filatures,
soap factories, flour and rice mills employing West-
ern machinery, iron and steel works, modern mining
plants, the railway system, and the multitudinous
fleet of whzezing tugs that thread China’s waterways,
cause multitudes to rejoice in the improved con-
ditions of labor and the larger wage. Great as is the
theoretical animosity occasioned by these inventions,
they are being introduced so gradually in most
quarters that few outbreaks have thus far been
occasioned.

With this better understanding of the practical
value of Western knowledge and civilization has come
146 DAWN ON THE HrLLs OF T‘ANG

 

a higher regard for foreigners. One now hears only
rarely the old terms of opprobrinm. Thus in ex.
tended journeys in various parts of China lasting
through three months of 1904, the writer did not
once hear the epithets, ‘‘devil,” “foreign devil,”
“long-haired one,” etc., whereas years ago one rarely
went among the people for a single day, when they
were not freely used. This means that the mission-
aries have an access to the people such as they never
enjoyed before, and are able to exert a correspond-
ingly greater influence upon the masses.

4, The New Christians.—While the awful persecu-
tion of 1900 seemed at the time most calamitous to
the native Church, statistics of growth * for the four
years following that date prove that a vastly larger
number of people are open to the Gospel than before
the Boxer persecution. In some localities, it is true,
the memory of what was suffered by the Christians
prevents the ready hearing of the message and still
more the open profession of Christianity. This is
particularly true in Shan-hsi, where one hears such
statements as the following: ‘‘ We must wait. We
believe, but this is a religion that may bring death
to its followers. We saw the Christians burning, and
some of them burned for hours before they died. It
is so terrible that we cannot face it. We must wait.”

The testing of converts occasioned by the Uprising
was a misfortune in one sense, but it was an even
greater good. Many of them dared not face the hor-
rible deaths that could be avoided by recantation and
hence denied their Lord,—as an even larger propor-
tion of an average church in America would also
most probably have done. For months after the
missionaries returned to their posts, the painful proc-
ess of excommunication, suspension, and discipline
filled their hearts with sadness, despite the fact that
so large a majority had proved their sincerity by
their death or by enduring patiently most bitter

* See comparisons in detail in the statistical table in back of
this book.
NEW CHINA 147

 

persecution. Yet in groups of Christians, some of
whose members had proved weak and false, the
Christlike bearing and noble deaths of others made
an indelible and powerful impression upon the com-
munity. Moreover, the sufferings so commonly en-
dured have made ordinary opposition seem to the
survivors as nothing in comparison ; the necessity
laid upon them for months to maintain the Christian
life and worship without the aid of foreign pastors
developed an independence that would otherwise
have been uncultivated ; and, better than all, God
had proved His preciousness to them in so conclusive
a manner, that He can never be to the persecuted
, remnant anything other than a blessed and power-
ful reality.

The Christians stand in a peculiarly important
relation to the New China. They contain a major
portion of those who are best educated in Western
science, and consequently they are in great demand
as teachers in educational institutions of the Govern-
ment, as interpreters for governors and other high
officials, and as assistants in offices of trust where
integrity is desired. In cases not a few they are
given carte blanche as to the exercise of their religion
and even in its propagation. They are also the
leaders in establishing local schools of Western learn-
ing, and are ambitious to have their children—girls
as well as boys—educated and of service to the
Church and to society. Their attitude and influence
in the community to-day as compared with conditions
ten years ago ‘differ as heaven and earth.” As
China’s greatest need is character, it is in the Chris-
tians of the Empire that one sees her greatest hope.

5. Present Religious Status.—It may be said that
the past ten years have seen a slightly greater interest
in indigenous religions than had hitherto obtained.
While one would hardly agree with the extreme state-
ment that Chang Chih-tung’s book, “‘ China’s Only
Hope,” had ‘‘made more history in a shorter time
than any other modern piece of literature, that it
148 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'‘ANG

 

astonished a kingdom, convulsed an Empire, and
brought on a war,” it is nevertheless true, as previ-
ously pointed out, that it has had a large influence
upon the modern trend of Chinese thought. In
nothing is this more important than in the emphasis
that he lays upon religion of the Confucian type.
And it is likewise true that the popular religions,
Buddhism and Taoism, have received more attention
since they were at the fore in the Boxer Uprising.
This does not mean that any or all of China’s faiths
exercise much practical influence upon individual
conduct, nor can the Chinese yet be reckoned in the
same class of seekers after religion so common in
India and Japan.

Friendliness to Christianity is growing rapidly.
While the profession of our religion is still a prac-
tical preventive to high office, and though in the
government institutions it is debarred, men in subor-
dinate offices are not infrequently Christians, and
literati do not hesitate to read Christian books and
discuss their teachings. Tsén Ch‘un-hstian, re-
garded by many Chinese as the foremost statesman
of the Empire, said to the missionaries when leaving
his post as Governor of Ssti-ch‘uan: ‘‘ The officials
of China are gradually acquiring a knowledge of
the great principles of the religions of Europe and
America. And the Churches are also laboring night
and day to readjust their methods and to make
known their aims in their propagation of religion.
Consequently Chinese and foreigners are coming more
and more into cordial relations. This fills me with
joy and hopefulness. . . . My hope is that the
teachers of both countries at Britain and Amer-
ica] will spread the Gospel more widely than ever,
that hatred may be banished and disputes dispelled,
and that the influences of the Gospel may create
boundless happiness for my people of China. And I
shall not be the only one to thank you for coming to
the front in this good work. . . . May the Gospel
prosper!” 'The Empress Dowager has frequently
NEW CHIN. 149

 

——

donversed with missionary ladies who went to the
Palace as interpreters for Mrs. Conger, wife of thc
United States Minister, and for two of them she has
conceived a high regard which manifests itself in Im-
perial presents and in other ways. It may be that
the sumptuous copy of the New Testament presented
to Her Majesty on her sixtieth birthday is at last
having its influence, just as ordinary copies of the
Scriptures were said to have had in the case of the
Emperor years ago.

The improved relations between the missionary
body and the officials is well illustrated by the follow-
ing extract, found in the report for 1904 of the Dif-
fusion Society: ‘‘A very remarkable proof of the in-
creasing confidence in the missionary is afforded by
what happened in Shan-tung this year. The mis-
sionaries there invited the officials, the leaders of
Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism and other re-
ligious sects, to a conference to consider how to re-
vive religion in China. To the surprise of many,
over thirty mandarins and about a hundred of the
leaders of all religions attended and took a very active
and friendly part in the whole discussion, without a
single note of discord. One of the gentry, a non-
Christian, advocated that, as missionaries were experts
in religion, they should be asked to superintend this
work in the new government schools! The mission-
aries in Shan-tung, too, were invited to elect three
of their members, of age, experience, and influence, to
meet the Governor of the province, now Acting-Vice-
roy of Nanking, and to consider the best methods
of preventing misunderstandings between Christian
missions and the authorities. The Governor, who is
one of the most intelligent and friendly mandarins
in the Empire, also said that he would be glad to
have copies of the New Testament to present to his
subordinates so that they may better understand the
aim of Christians.”

China’s Pressing Needs.—1. General enlighten-
inent is imperative, if China is to make large prog-
150 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

ress. The masses are superstitious and under the
spell of the dead ; consequently they oppose those who
come to bring them the spiritual fruits of Christian-
ity. Moreover, ignorance and superstition stand in
the way of mine exploitation, China’s great national
asset, as the people fear the wrath of the dragon if
they intrude upon his realm, and so they suffer ma-
terial loss. Ignorance of economic laws imposes
heavy and unnecessary burdens upon millions, as
witness their advocacy of the tool in opposition to
the machine. Ignorance of sanitary laws and of
medicine costs the nation millions of lives every
ear.

- 2. To remedy this lack of general knowledge, the
rulers suggest education of the modern sort, and
surely there is an imperative need for this. For
some time now the Empress Dowager has been em-
phasizing the importance of schools and colleges,
and in a multitude of large cities they have sprung
up like mushrooms. Those of primary grade are
often free, and even in some of the normal and coi-
legiate institutions, tuition is nominal or entirely re-
mitted, while the expense of board is partly borne by
the provincial authorities. Technical, military, and
naval schools also attract the youth of China by the
certainty of future lucrative employment, even when
the expense of education is not wholly met by the
Government.

While knowledge is thus brought within reach of
many, the teaching force and regulations are far from
satisfactory. In a recent volume, written by a mem-
ber of the Han-lin and endorsed by several of the
highest officials, is found this statement: ‘‘ There is
an Imperial University, but it only provides officials
who offer the usual sacrifices. There are no students
there. For example, concerning the sciences of
acoustics, light, chemistry, and electricity, there are
Directors of Education who do not know what the
names mean. ‘To think that we have been a civilized
state for 4,000 years and heve reached this pass!”
NEW CHINA 151

 

Another weakness of China’s higher institutions is
the requirement, insisted upon in most colleges,
against the protest of the foreign Ministers at Pe-
king, that students shall pay homage to Confucius, a
ceremony most objectionable to Christians. This is
likely to cause some of the best foreign educators to
hold aloof from government colleges, as the with-
drawal of President Hayes from the Shan-tung Uni-
versity proved; and it will surely prevent Christian
students from entering them, unless the quasi-idola-
trous ceremonies are made optional, as in the Pao-
ting Fu College.

The educational demand constitutes Christianity’s
great opportunity. Hitherto nearly all the Western
education of the Empire has been received in Chris-
tian schools and colleges — according to Arthur
Smith ninety-nine hundredths of the modern schools
were missionary—and they thus started under the
new régime with a presumption in their favor.
Moreover, the missionaries are more disinterested
friends of China and of her advancement than any
other class of men from the West. They are men of
known integrity, and while they teach Christianity,
many a Confucian official sends his sons to Christian
schools for the reason that the moral restraints im-
posed upon the students are valued most highly.
Then, too, the men on their faculties are scholars
and masters of the English language, which just now
is a great desideratum.

But it will be argued that at present the educa-
tional system of China is following after Japanese
models, and that as Japan is an Oriental nation whose
example is wéll worth imitating, education would
better be left to Japan. In support of such a position
one might quote the remarks of the Japanese Consul-
General at Shanghai, made in 1904, that Japan had
gent seventy professors to China at the request of
the Chinese Government and that others have been
invited by the Chinese Government without the ap-
pointment of the Japanese. The Consul-General
152 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

also remarked that some 5,000 Chinese students were
then pursuing their studies in Japan. Since that
time there has been a slight reaction against depend-
ence upon Japanese instruction. Chinese students
complain that Japan’s use of China’s written lan-
guage does not prove satisfactory because the order
of words is often different ; and when that is not the
case, familiar characters are used in unusual senses
and in a way to mislead. A further objection to being
under Japanese tuition, either in Japan or in China,
is that they are learning from a learner—copying a
copy, and that in one most important direction, the
learning of English, Japanese mispronunciation and
false idiom make the study almost useless. In con-
sequence many students have returned to China,
either to go thence to Occidental countries for further
education, or else to place themselves under foreign
tuition. Aside from these considerations, it isto be
remembered that Japanese educators now in China
and those likely to come thither for a similar purpose
are not only not Christians, but they are advocates of
the entire exclusion of Christianity from schools and
colleges. The moral element in education is thus
likely to be left out, and an Empire which already
has the name of being atheistic will become still more
devoid of religion.

Just at present the most widely used agents in re-
moving ignorance are the press and those behind it.
An idea of the character of works issued by secular
publishers may be gained from a paper presented be-
fore the China Student Club in May, 1904. In it
Mr, Darroch analyzes the production of Shanghai
native presses of recent date. Am ng the 1,100
publications noted are 60 volumes on the science of
education, 90 histories, 40 books on geography, 60 on
government, 40 on law, 30 on political economy, 70
on mathematics, 50 on literature, 40 on philosophy,
70 on health, 120 on the art of war, 20 on astronomy,
and 30 books of travel. These are bought by the
more highly educated, and the sume is true of many
NEW CHINA 153

 

of the publications of the Diffusion Society. Other
publications of the latter and many of those sold by
the various tract societies are intended for the en-
lightenment of Christians and of those whose edu-
cation is limited. In no country at the present
moment has literature the opportunity that it enjoys
in China.

3. China’s greatest need is that of a new heart.
As China’s missionary Nestor, Griffith John, so truly
says: ‘“What the Chinese need above all else, and
what they must have if they are ever to attain to real
greatness, is moral and spiritual life. But where is
this life to be found? Surely not in Confucianism.
Confucius was a good man and one of the world’s
greatest sages, but this life it is not in his power to
give. Christ alone is the bestower of this life, and
Christ alone can save China.” In a similar vein
Dr. Arthur Smith writes: ‘China has many needs.
She needs new intellectual life of every description in
every fibre of the body politic. But she needs still
more a new moral and physical life, without which a
merely intellectual renaissance will be full of deadly
perils. Every renovating force from within has long
been exhausted and more than exhausted. Her
religions, her nature worship, her hero worship, her
ethical traditions, are lifeless and spent. Commerce,
science, diplomacy, culture, civilization, she must
have in ever-increasing measure; but apart from
Christianity they are a Pandora box of potential
evils. Aside from Christianity there is no visible
hope for China. With it, after age-long slumbers
she will awake to a new life in a new world.”

The Golden Opportunity.—1l. The foregoing
chapters have shown what a rich prize China ts.
Mineral, agricultural, industrial wealth are hers to a
degree, that is true of no other land. Her people
have an enduring and expansive power that has stood
the test of more than four thousand years of honor-
able history, and their activity and efficiency outside
of China make them more to be dreaded than any
154 DAWN ON THE GILLS OF T‘ANG

 

other race or dozen races of to-day. If Chinese
religions are powerless to regenerate life and develop
strong characters, they are at least highly ethical and
pure and thus furnish a foundation upon which to
build that is vastly better than is found in India, the
cradle of two of Asia’s great religions. And that the
Chinese are capable of deep spirituality and of un-
dying devotion to their newly found Saviour, such
saints as Pastor Hsi and the Méng brothers, and the
martyred host of the year 1900 abundantly testify.
What nuggets of pure gold the Church may find in
Chinese mines, the most widely known woman
traveller of the world, Mrs. Isabella Bird Bishop,
thus describes: ‘‘ These converts live pure and hon-
est lives, they are teachable, greedy of Bible knowl-
edge, generous and self-denying for Christian pur-
poses, and so anxious to preserve the purity of their
brotherhood that it would be impossible for such
abuses as disfigured the Church at Corinth to find a
place in the infant churches of China. Above all,
every true convert becomes a missionary, and it is in
this spirit of propagandism that the hope of the
future lies. After eight and a half years of journey-
ings among Asiatic peoples, I say unhesitatingly that
the raw material out of which the Holy Ghost fash.
ions the Chinese convert, and ofttimes the Chinese
martyr, is the best stuff in Asia.” And there are
possibilities of 400,000,000 such Christians in China’s
open and inviting provinces to-day ! ,

2. If the Church is regardless of this golden op-
portunity, other forces certainly are not. Inventions,
commerce, politics, immorality, are pressing in to
capture the most numerous and virile race of the
world. Though mission boards may lag behind at
this time when the Empire is in a state of flux,
ready to receive the moulding influence of foreign
hands and minds, keen Japan, with less than 50,000,-
000 people to further her designs, is carrying on a
most active propaganda in all that will make her
ancient neighbor vastly more materialistic than she
NEW CHINA 155

 

now is. Nor does she forget religion. In the capital
of the Imperial Province, the writer found a Japan-
ese missionary sent thither by his fellow-Christians
to aid in forwarding the Christian cause in China;
and in the heart of the Empire he visited a provincial
capital where three representatives of Buddhism sent
by their Japanese oo-religionists had established a
mission.

3. To save China from herself and from external
influences hostile to her best life and truest develop-
ment, a host of strong missionaries ts needed. The
Chinese language is so difficult, the adaptability to
native customs and ideas that are so essential to suc-
cess is so hard to cultivate, the absence of quick re-
ligious responsiveness is so discouraging, the oppo-
sition of friends of the inquirers is so powerful, the
multitudes needing Christian ministry are so over-
whelmingly numerous, that the strongest, wisest,
most versatile, and most spiritual young man or
woman need have no fear but that every talent will
have opportunity for fullest exercise. But what, then,
of those Christians who do not possess these qualities
in high degree ? They too, are sorely needed. Some
of the most fruitful workers in China are persons
whose Chinese is halting and imperfect, but whose
life speaks eloquently of the love of God evidenced by
love for His needy children. If they are not wise
they are wondrously winsome. In general, those
who question their ability to satisfy the demands of
China service should remember the developing power
of a great work. One of the Empire’s wisest mis-
sionaries, Dr. Gibson, says on this point: ‘‘On the
foreign field the missionary for the most part stands
almost alone. At the best he is one of a very small
body who are jointly responsible for all the varied
departments of service which the time calls for. It
is theirs also to watch the course of events, to recog-
nize the signs of the times, to make new departures
and start out new lines of work as necessity arises.
Each man, therefore, feels called upon to bring out
156 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

the very best and utmost that is in him; and many
men have discovered on the foreign field, to their own
surprise and to the surprise of others, powers and
capacities, both mental and spiritual, of whose ex-
istence they were not previously aware.”

4, That the foregoing estimate of the present and
prospective greatness of China and of the import-
ance of hastening to her aid is not extreme, a few
opinions of those who are competent to speak are
quoted as samples of a great volume of corroborative
evidence. Long ago, on his lonely island of exile,
Napoleon gave his estimate of the coming importance
of the Empire in the pregnant sentence, ‘“‘ When
China is moved, it will change the face of the globe.”
An English authority of our own times, Sir Lepel
Griffin, counted the Chinese in the list of “the
three mighties ” of the world’s future, when he wrote
of them, “‘ This mysterious race, . . . with the
Anglo-Saxons and the Russians, will divide the earth
a hundred years hence.” In a similar strain the
great Church historian, Neander, said years ago of
their relation to the Kingdom of God, “It is a great
step toward the Christianization of our planet, if
Christianity gains an entrance into China.” And
Dr. Smith, who knows the Empire and its inhabit-
ants as does no other foreigner perhaps, writes after
working there for more than a generation: “On
account of its mass, its homogeneity, its high intel-
lectual and moral qualities, its past history, its pres-
ent and prospective relations to the whole world, the
conversion of the Chinese people to Christianity is
the most important aggressive enterprise now laid
upon the Church of Christ. . . . Money, labor,
prayer, lavished upon the redemption of the great
Chinese Empire in the end will yield ampler returns
than can be looked for in any other land.”

Statistics and Their Prophecy.—The forego-
ing considerations, which are so full of encourage-
ment, are re-enforced by data derived from the work
of the four years following the Boxer Uprising. De-
NEW CHINA 157

spite the fact that thousands of Christians were killed
and that a large number were untrue to their Chris-
tian profession, the rate of increase of the native
Church has been remarkable.

1. Leading statistical items found in Appendix E
are the following: Total number of missionaries at
the beginning of 1904, 3,107, of whom 1,374 were
men and 1,733 were women—a gain of thirteen per
cent. since 1900 ; native workers of both sexes, 8,313,
a gain of thirty per cent.; communicants, 131,404,
as against 112,808 in 1900—a gain of seventeen per
cent.; number of stations occupied by missionaries,
including duplicates, 765—the actual number, not
counting any twice, was 405—a gain of seventeen per
cent.; outstations 3,666—a gain of forty-eight per
cent.; day-school scholars had increased twenty-two
per cent. to 43,275; institutions higher than day-
schools had increased sixty-two per cent. to 275 with
7,283 students. There were seventy-two boards hav-
ing their own foreign workers in the field, besides
other important societies organized in the Empire
itself but having no paid workers. While America has
the largest number of societies and of missionaries,
the latter number is misleading, since the large ma-
jority of members of the China Inland Mission are
British, thus giving Great Britain the primacy. The
province having the largest number of resident
stations is Kuang-tung; Fu-chien, Chiang-hsi, and
Ché-chiang follow, all with over thirty such sta-
tions.

2. Some generalizations are to be noted. The
greatest percentage of gain was in school work, and
higher education was here in the lead. The large in-
crease in outstations, where native initiative predom-
inates, suggests the increasing interest taken by the
native Church in self-propagation. These nearly
4,000 centers of light are the elements of great hope-
fulness. The greatest percentage of increase in
the missionary force is among ordained missionaries,
which indicates the emergence of the Church from

 
158 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T'ANG

 

the early stages of its history into the more fully or-
ganized condition which requires a fully equipped
ministry. Ifthe present rate of increase holds for the
next decade, there will be in 1914, exactly a century
after Protestantism’s pioneer, Robert Morrison, bap-
tized his first convert, 194,269 communicants, and
with the adherents a total Christian community of
322,808. This, however, will be greatly surpassed,
and at least half a million Protestant Christians may
be expected at that date, of whom 325,000 will be
communicants.

New China’s Summons.—These Are already in
the mind, but it may be well to reiterate them.

1. Obviously we hear the call of the multitudes,
Dr. Paton, the Saint John of the New Hebrides, la-
bored with his colleagues in a hostile territory, speak-
ing different dialects, and rightly has the interest of
the world been given to his apostolic story. Hawaii
is a part of Christian America to-day, because the
missionaries of the American Board gave their lives
to her evangelization. The Fijis are the Paradise of
the Pacific, for the reason that English Wesleyans
were willing to dwell by cannibal ovens, that they
might hold up in the midst of demoniacal orgies the
banner of the Cross. But numerically considered,
these island populations are but as the dust of the
balance compared with China’s myriads. Chinese
missionaries have, within two miles of their home, a
larger, and often a more approachable, constituency
than the African missionary can reach by threading
scores of miles of malarious trails. The letters of our
Bibles have been marshalled, processions of various
ingenious sorts have passed before the spectator’s
imagination, and in other ways attempts have been
made to impress upon the Christian these vast popu-
lations, but all in vain. They are a multitude that
no man can number, and if anyone longs to preach to
the masses, China is certainly the best field.

2. But on Sinim’s shores one hears more than the
ery of mere numbers; they are multitudes who are
NEW CHINA 159

 

sufferina and dying. More millions go to bed hungry
each night in China than in any other land; more
bodies endure torture under the hands of Chinese
quacks than under the tender mercies of practition-
ers of any other race; more women suffer from the
limitations of their sex in China than in any other
heathen nation; more men pay the penalty of their
vices there than anywhere else; more brides commit
suicide, and more young men sell themselves to be put
to death in China than can be found in any other clime,
simply because the sweetness of life is gall, and exist-
ence is misery.

3. This summons is one of pressing emergency. The
Chinese character for world and for generation is made
up of three tens. While we of the West speak of a
generation as thirty-three years in duration, this lin-
guistic fossil of past millenniums asserts that in three
brief decades the Chinese world comes to birth, lives
its cheerless life, and crumbles into dust. Students
meet for an hour to study the needs of China; when
this hour is over, 1,409 Chinese have ceased to breathe.
Missionary receipts are so insufficient that a board
postpones entering China until another year; that
twelve months’ delay has removed from the possibility
of ministration 12,342,840 who sorely needed help.
The Church of God may sleep on for thirty years more,
but when it awakes, China’s four hundred millions
have passed beyond her power to save them. If China
is not evangelized in our generation, then the Church
can never perform her duty to one-fourth of the
human race, unto which she has been commanded to
minister.

4. The call of China’s new day is one to heroism.
To be sure, the missionary lives in comparative com-
fort and among a people who are usually law-abiding.
But count the names on China’s roll of martyrs; add
to the list those whose minds have been shattered be-
cause they have lived in the midst of hostile rnmors
and open opposition; remember that the statement
of one veteran there is true of many others—‘‘ I never
160 DAWN ON THE HILLS OF T‘ANG

 

address a Chinese crowd without feeling that I am
standing on the edge of a volcano.”

5. Itis a call to privilege also. While all service is
this, there are diversities of glory. ‘The Chinese mis-
sionary is permitted to labor among one of the most
remarkable races in history, and one of the most po-
tent in its possible influence upon the life of our
times. He has to do with the reconstructive forces
of the China that is to be while the nation is in its
plastic state, ready to receive the impress of foreign
minds and hearts. It is also a privilege to take the
place of another person whom the Government might
summon to aid in reconstruction—were the mission-
ary not there—but who would not care for the moral
and spiritual welfare of men.

6. The present-day call is one to men and women
of deepest consecration. A frequent Hebrew word for
consecration means ‘‘ with full hands.” The sort
most needed in the Chinese missionary is precisely
this. Come to the Empire with a practical prepara-
tion of various sorts; bring with you the social qualities
of a Ricci, without his defects; store the mind with
learning of varied scope, to meet the intellectual
needs of the day; come with a love that is undying
for those who would perhaps put you to death, if
they dared; come above all as a manifest child of
God, endued with all those spiritual graces which
spring from the Holy Spirit and which are daily re-
newed in a consecrated closet. Let every power be
laid upon the altar, and self be sunk in Christ-like
service.
__ IN MEM( -
HORACE TRACY PITKIN’

BORN IN 1869 AT PHILADELPHIA
GRADUATED f
IN 1888 AT EXETER ACADEMY 5

AT YALE COLLEGE IN 1892
5), AND AT UNION THEOLOGICAL.
; SEMINARY IN 1896
| THREE YEARS MISSIONARY
IN CHINA
KILLED AT HIS POST
IN PAO TING FU
BY THE BOXERS IJULY 1900.

WHOSOLS ER SHALE LOSE FIs LIFE
GFOR MY SKE AND THE GOSPLI'S: #
TH SAME SHALL SAVE 1

 

TABLET TO THE MEMORY OF HORACE TRACY PITKIN AT YALE
APPENDIX A

Provincial Divisions.—China Proper is often called by the
Chinese The Eighteen Provinces, but Shéng-ching, in southern
Manchuria, may be considered as the nineteenth province.
Formosa, since the recent war, belongs to Japan, and the only
other considerable island, Hai-nan, constitutes part of Kuang-
tung province. A few leading points concerning each of them
are given below. For convenience in consulting the map, the
order in which they are taken up is that of the thirteen which form
boundary provinces—beginning at the northeast and passing
southward, westward, northward, and eastward to the starting-
point—and later the six interior provinces are described.

1. Shéng-ching =Affluent Capital (55,985 square miles, the size
of Ilinois ; population, 5,000,000, or 89 per square mile, according
to Bevélkerung der Erde, No. IX.). Though the most populous
part of the original realm of the Manchus, this section of Man-
churia has always been essentially Chinese, and at the present time
is being rapidly colonized by natives of the two provinces to the
south ofit. Itis one of the most fruitful mission fields of China,
in spite of the strong opposition of Catholics. Mukden, the
capital, gives its name to the province and stands second among
the cities of the Empire in official rank. Itis the chief centre of
Protestant missionary work and is one of the pleasantest cities
of residence in China. The southern tongue of this province
contains Port Arthur, recently won from Russia by Japan.

2. Chih-li=Direct Rule (including part north of the Wall,
115,800 square miles, size of New England States, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey; population, 20,937,000, or 172 per square rile).
The name arises from the fact that ‘‘from this province the
supreme power which governs the Empire proceeds,” Peking,
the capital—regarded by travellers as the most interesting and
unique city of Asia—lying within its boundaries, Mohawme-
dans are quite numerous in this province, especially in the north,
where in Peking alone 20,000 families are said to reside. Most
of the territory is very flat and low-lying and consequently much
of the land along the rivers is subject to yearly devastation.
Tientsin, its great port, was the residence of the far-famed Li
Hung-chang, who had for many years been China’s virtual ruler,
It is also an important seat of Western educational institutions.

3. Shan-tung=East of the Hills (55,970 square miles, size
of Illinois; population, 38,247,900, or 683 per square mile),

161
162 APPENDIX A

 

Shan-tung has a maritime border equal to more than half its cir-
cuit, which includes Wei-hai-wei and Kiao-chou Bay, recently
taken possession of by England and Germany respectively. This
is the Holy Land of China, as within its borders were born her
two greatest philosophers and sages, Confucius and Mencius. Its
sacred T‘ai Shan, a mountain famous in Chinese history for 4,000
years, is still annually visited by thousands of pilgrims. A
French missionary mentions one such party consisting of old
ladies from seventy-eight to ninety years of age who had travelled
300 miles to secure a happy transmigration for their souls,
Shan-tung is also a very fruitful mission field.

4. Chiang-su=River Thyme, wu name derived from the first
syllables of its capital Chiang-nan—known to the West as Nan-
king—and of its richest city, Su-chou (38,600 square miles,
size of Oklahoma; population, 13,980,235, or 362 per square
mile), Like the two preceding provinces, Chiang-su forms part of
the Great Plain. It has few hills and is more abundantly watered
than any other province. It contains one of the former capitals
of the Empire, Nanking, meaning Southern Capital, as Peking
signifies Northern Capital. Shanghai, its great semi-foreign
city, ranks first among Chinese ports. Another famous place is
Su-chou, reckoned by the Chinese as the luckiest place in which
to be born, because it has the handsomest people. Chiang-su
was the main centre of the great T‘ai P‘ing rebellion, Nanking
being the rebel capital from 1853 to 1864.

5. Ché-chiang=Tidal-bore River, a stream that gives its nume
to the province (36,670 square miles, size of Indiana; popula-
tion, 11,580,692, or 316 per square mile). It is hilly throughout
and is celebrated for its tea and silk. The capital, Hang-chou,
occupies a most picturesque site looking toward the sea, and is so
beautiful that with its sister city, Su-chou, it has given rise to
the common proverb, ‘t Above there is Paradise, below are Su
and Hang.” Were it not for its furious tides and famous bore
it would monopolize the eastern trade of China. It is one of the
strongholds of Mohammedanism in the Empire. Ché-chiang’s
climate is most healthful, its fruit and forest trees valuable, its
manufactures varied and excellent, and its inhabitants compar-
able in wealth, refinement, and learning with those of other
provinces.

6. Fu-chien=Happily Established (46,320 square miles, some-
what smaller than New York State; population, 22,876,540, or
494 per square mile), Though the smallest in the Empire since
the island of Formosa has been added to Japan, this province is
the most densely settled, Shan-tung and Ho-nan excepted. ‘In
the general features of its surface, the islands on the coasts, and
its position with reference to the ocean it resembles the region
east of New Hampshire.” A German writer calls Fu-chien
‘‘the Chinese Switzerland.” Fu-chou, its capital, and Amoy
are important places, both from a commercial and missionary
APPENDIX A 163

 

point of view. Since the Ku-ch‘éng (Ku-t‘ien) massacre of
1895, missionary work in this province has marVvellously pros-
pered, proving anew that ‘‘the blood of ‘martyrs is the seed of
the Church.”

7. Kuang-tung= Broad East (99,970 square miles=New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania; population, 31,865,251, or 319 per
square mile). The above area includes the island of Hai-nan.
From this province, the birthplace of Chinese Protestant mis-
sions, most of our early knowledge of China was derived, as it
was the only one open to foreign trade; and from it have come
to America almost all of our Chinese fellow-citizens. Its capital,
Kuang-chou Fu (Canton), is probably the most populous city in
the land and its inhabitants have been called the Yankees of
China. Hongkong and Macao on this coast are well-known pos-
sessions of Great Britain and Portugal, while thirty miles south-
west from Macao, on the island of St. John, Rome’s most famous
missionary, Francis Xavier, died in 1552.

8. Kuang-hsi == Broad West (77,200 square miles, size of
North and South Carolina combined; population, 5,142,330, or
67 per square mile). This most sparsely settled province has,
like Hu-nan, strenuously resisted the coming of missionaries.
Few foreigners have visited the country, as its people are poor
and its products not very desirable. Several half-subdued tribes
live within its boundaries, who, though under their own gover-
nors, are subject to Chinese supervision. On the southwest,
near Annam, are many descendants of Lao tribes who appear to
have come under Chinese authority because of greater security
to life and property.

9. Yiin-nan = Cloudy South, 7.e., south of the Yiin-ling—
Cloudy Mountains (146,680 square miles, size of New England,
Pennsylvania and Virginia combined; population, 12,324,574, or
84 per square mile). The greater part of Yiin-nan consists of
a plateau elevated a mile above the sea and containing many
valley plains. It is richer in minerals of various sorts than any
other province, and its copper mines bid fair to prove of value,
now that Japanese engineers have been employed to teach the
people modern mining methods. It also supplies to China much
of its medicine, including besides ‘‘ herbs and roots, fossil shells,
bones, teeth and various products of the animal kingdom.” Colo-
nel Yule says of this section of the Empire that it is an ‘* Hth-
nological Garden of tribes of various races and in every stage
of uncivilization.” From 1855 to 1873 much of the province
was under the rule of the Panthays, a Mohammedan tribe.

10. Ssi-ch‘uan = Four Streams (218,480 square miles, some-
what larger than the two Dakotas and Missouri; population,
68,724,890, or 314 per square mile). This province, containing
a greater area and population than any other in the Empire,
derives its name from four important rivers which flow south
into the Yang-tzii. Its western portion is a succession of moun-
164 APPENDIX A

 

tain-ranges, sparsely settled and unproductive, and inhabited by
barbarous tribes. The triangular eastern portion teems with
life and is one of the most prosperous sections of the Empire,
save in times of unusual drought or flood, when robbery, riots,
and even cannibalism add to the general wretchedness. Its
brine wells and the natural gas used to evaporate the salt are
famous, and have made perhaps the greatest demand on Chinese
perseverance and ingenuity. Its abounding clouds and mists and
the large quantities of silk and wax exported are other distin-
guishing features. Catholic missions have flourished here for
many decades and recent Protestant effort has proved very suc-
cessful, in spite of occasional outbreaks and the destruction of
mission property.

11. Kan-su = Voluntary Reverence—derived, like Chiang-su,
from the names of two leading cities (125,450 square miles,
somewhat larger than New Mexico; population, 10,385,376, or 82
per square mile), Kan-su is second in size and next to the low-
est in sparseness of population among the provinces. Except in
the eastern part, it is little else than ‘‘a howling wilderness of
sand or snow.” As its central portion commands the passage
into Central Asia, it is of great strategic importance to the Em-
pire. This province was seriously affected by the great Moham-
medan rebellion led by Yakub Beg and quelled by General Tso in
1877. Williams thus writes of this conquest : ‘+ During the early
years of the campaign it appears that the soldiers were made to
till the ground as well as construct fortifications. The history
of the advance of this ‘ agricultural army’ would, if thoroughly
known, constitute one of the most remarkable achievements in
the annals of any modern country.”

12. Shen-hsi = Western Defiles (75,270 square miles, size of
Nebraska; population, 8,450,182, or 111 per square mile). This
purely agricultural province is remarkable because of containing
Hei-an Fu, the capital of the Empire for more than 2,000 years.
It is in that city that the famous Nestorian Christian Tablet was
erected. It ranks next to Peking in importance, and the valley
of the Wei River, in which it stands, has been more closely con-
nected with the fortunes of the Chinese race than any other por-
tion of China.

13. Shan-hsit =West of the Fills (81,830 square miles, size of
Kansas; population, 12,200,456, or 149 per square mile). More
than half this area is a plateau, elevated more than a mile above
sea-level, and constituting a vast coal-field. Iron of great purity
is also very abundant, so that here are probably found the most
remarkable coal and iron regions of the worid It has been
estimated that, at the present rate of consumption, Shan-hsi
could supply coal to the entire globe for thousands of years. It
is further remarkable as being the original seat of the Chinese
people, and for sending out into the Empire, and even into
Japan and America, a multitude of shrewd bankers, The people
APPENDIX A 165

 

in general, however, are great opium-eaters and are poor. Fam-
ine is frequent, owing to lack of moisture. In the north rises
the sacred mountain of the Buddhists, Wu-t‘ai Shan, a popular
resort for the Mongols of the north and west. Mission work is
actively prosecuted in the southern half of the province.

14. Ho-nan =South of the River, ¢.e., the Yellow River
(67,940 square miles, size of Missouri; population, 35,316,800,
or 520 per square mile). Leaving the provinces lying on China’s
boundary, we take up those of the interior. Some of the most
fertile parts of the Great Plain lie within Ho-nan, and for that
reason and because of its central position, it was anciently
known as the Middle Flowery Land and later as the Middle
Kingdom. This is historic territory, and from the earliest times
has been the scene of feudal and imperial strife and of literary
triumphs as well. On this plain communication is largely de-
pendent on the wheelbarrow, some of them with sails, to which
Milton refers in the lines:

“The barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chineses drive
With sails and wind their cany waggons light.”

15. An-hui = Peace and Plenty—coming from the names of
two principal cities (54,810 square miles, larger than Wisconsin;
population, 23,670,314, or 432 per square mile). Though its
southern half contains most productive soil and a great quantity
of tea is produced, the province suffered so unspeakably during
the T‘ai P‘ing rebellion that years will still be required before it
regains its former prosperity. Baron von Richtofen writes:
‘The exuberant fertility of the soil in the lower portions of
the province is not excelled by anything I have scen in temper-

ate climates. . . . I have walked for miles through fields
of hemp, the stalks of which were from eleven to thirteen feet
high.”

16. Chiang-hsi = West of the River (69,480 square miles,
comewhat larger than the State of Missouri; population, 26,532,-
125, or 382 per square mile). This mountainous province is said
to resemble in sections the north counties of England. Within
its borders were the great porcelain manufactories of the Sung
dynasty, which as recently as 1850 employed a million workmen
and still supply all the fine ware used in the country. The Vale
of the White Deer, on the western side of Lake P‘o-yang, is a
favorite place of pilgrimage for Chinese literati, as in this vale
Chu Hsi, the great philosopher and commentator on Confucius,
lived and taught in the twelfth century.

17. Hu-pei= North of Lake [Tung-t‘ing] (71,410 square miles,
size of North Dakota; population, 35,280,685, or 492 per square
mile). A plain constitutes a large part of this province, and an-
other noticeable feature is the Han River, flowing from its noith-
western boundary to the Yang-tzi. At this junction lies a trio of
166 APPENDIX A

 

cities, Han-k‘ou, Wu-ch‘ang and Han-yang, which are of great im-
portance commercially and otherwise. It is to Han-k‘ou that the
first great trunk line railroad has been constructed from Peking.
Some of the most magnificent scenery in the world is found in the
Yang-tzii gorges between I-ch‘ang and the Ssi-ch‘uan border.
In some portions the narrowed river runs over rapids, through
canyons, the walls of which rise to a height of more than a thou-
sand feet. While its southwestern prefecture has an illiterate
population, it was so powerful a factor in early and feudal his-
tory that native scholars regard it very highly.

18. Hu-nan=South of Lake [Tung-t‘ing ] (83,380 square miles,
somewhat larger than Kentucky and Tennessee combined; popu- :
lation, 22,169,673, or 266 per square mile). Mainly a country
of hills, which segregate the people into small communities, its
population has a reputation for violence and rudeness, especially
the boat people and the inhabitants of the southern portion. On
the other hand, Hu-nan has an enviable reputation for its men of
letters, and the inhabitants in many sections are more prosperous
than those of other provinces. A vast anthracite and bituminous
coal-field, as extensive as that of Pennsylvania, is a source of
prospective wealth. This province has been the hot-bed of anti-
foreign sentiment, and the instigator, through its scurrilous
publications, of the anti-Christian riots. Only recently have
missionaries been allowed to labor there, and already some have
sealed their testimony with their blood.

19. Kuet-chou = Noble Province (67,160 square miles, size of
the two Virginias; population, 7,650,282, or 114 per square mile).
In spite of its name, this province ‘is on the whole the poorest
of the eighteen in the character of its inhabitants, amount of its
products, and development of its resources.” Malaria, caused
by stagnant water and impure wells, and the rude races of
Miao-tzii have brought Kuei-chou into disrepute. Yet it claims
to possess the largest quicksilver deposits in the world, and pro-
duces an abundance of coarse silk.
APPENDIX B

Prominent Events of the Historic Dynasties.—Instead
of attempting to thread the wearisome mazes of Chinese history,
only a few outstanding facts concerning the principal dynasties
will be given.

1. Though the first two of the historical dynasties do not
wholly deserve the name, there are facts connected with the
earlier one that should be mentioned. Yi the Great, the
founder of the Hsia dynasty, is the hero of an early Chinese
flood—probably an unprecedented overflow of the Yellow River.
While we need not believe that ‘“‘ Yii was 9.2 cubits high,” nor
that ‘“‘at that time heaven rained down gold three days,” we
must believe that he possessed rare skill as a hydraulic engineer.
With him came a change in the principle of succession to the
throne, which thenceforth was to be hereditary within the reign-
ing family. Then also arose the feudal state—Yii divided his
realm into nine principalities—which existed during three dynas-
ties until 255 B.c. This system was much like that prevailing
in Europe during the Middle Ages.

2. The third dynasty, and the longest on the throne, the
Chou, not only boasted of its great men, King Wu, its founder,
Duke Chou, and China’s three great philosophers, Lao-tzi,
Confucius, and Mencius, but it was the time when new emphasis
was laid on the five relations of society, when fines leading to
bribery became common, when the seal character was invented,
and when the state of morals sunk from bad to worse in spite
of the persistent efforts of the Empire’s greatest reformers.
During this period the Tartars began those predatory incursions
that were later to prove so serious a menace.

8. Succeeding the Chou came the Ch‘in dynasty. The feudal
state of Ch‘in had been prominent for centuries, and toward
the close of the preceding dynasty, when seven principalities
contended for the supremacy, Ch‘in was victorious. Though
the family occupied the throne for less than fifty years, it was at
this time that the Great Wall was completed, the books burned
and scholars slaughtered or exiled, and the feudal states fused
into a truly imperial mass. The Empire under this dynasty
included nearly all the territory now known as China Proper.

4. An honored designation of the Chinese to-day is Sons or
Men of Han, a name derived from the Han dynasty, which,
with the Eastern and Later Han, reigned two centuries before

167
168 APPENDIX B

 

the Christian era, and somewhat longer after it. This is the
formative period of Chinese polity and institutions, the time
when the development of commerce, arts, and literature—espe-
cially history and philosophy—advanced with rapid strides, and
when good government, based on a penal code, was established.
The system of competitive examinations for office began with
the founder of the Han, and this is another reason why this
dynasty has been the most popular in Chinese history. Buddhism
was officially introduced into the Empire during the reign of the
sixteenth Han emperor.

5. The period of the San Kuo, or three warring states of the
third century, has been made very famous, not because of its
intrinsic importance, but by reason of a notable historical novel,
‘* The History of the Three States,” which, like Scott’s writings,
‘“‘has impressed the events and actors of those days upon the
popular mind more than any history in the language.”

6. During the 300 years following a.p. 620, occurs one of the
most illustrious periods in China’s remarkable past. The T*ang
dynasty is distinguished for having seen the introduction of
Nestorian Christianity and Mohammedanism, for being the
Golden Age of Chinese poetry; and for its territorial expansion,
so that Korea became a national possession on the east, and Per-
sia, in the remote west, asked assistance of the Middle Kingdom.
Southern China dates its civilization and incorporation into the
Chinese rule from the days of the glorious Tangs.

7. When Europe was experiencing its darkest midnight, in
the decades preceding the dread millennial year, the splendors of
the Sung dynasty burst upon the Orient. If the Tang writers
had been poets, those of Sung might be called philosophers and
representatives of China’s Augustan Age of Literature; at least
it was at this time that Chu Hsi flourished, and a host of other
authors who had begun to inquire into the nature and use of
things. One result of such inquiry and discussion was the un-
successful trial of socialistic principles. ‘+ It is under the Sung
dynasty that the language ‘is supposed to reach its acme, to have
become complete in all its formal and material equipment, hav-
ing everything needful to make it an effective instrument for ex-
pressing the national mind;’ and works on philosophy of great
and permanent value were produced.” For more than a hundred
years preceding their dethronement the Sung emperors were
harassed beyond measure by the incursions of the Chins, the
ancestors of the present Manchu dynasty. They at one time
held the territory north of the Yellow River, and even penetrated
to the banks of the Yang-tzii.

8. A little more than 600 years ago, after an independent ex-
istence of more than 3,000 years, the Yiian or Mongol dynasty
brought the Chinese under their first foreign domination. + That
vivacious gossip and prince of travellers, Marco Polo,” has made
this dynasty most fully known in his story of the famous Kublai
APPENDIX B 169

_

Knan, who deepened and lengthened the Grand Canal. Professor
Douglas thus writes concerning Kublai: ‘¢ Never in the history
of China was the nation more illustrious, nor its power more
widcly felt, than under his sovereignty. . . . At this time
his authority was acknowledged from the Frozen Sea almost to
the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of Hindustan,
Arabia, and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the Mongol
princes, as far as the Dnieper, declared themselves his vassals,
and brought regularly their tribute.”

9. With the overthrow of the Mongols, the throne once more
reverted to the Chinese, and the Ming or Bright dynasty ruled
the Empire for nearly three centuries. The first Ming emperor,
the son of a laboring man, soon won all hearts by catering to the
higher classes through the promotion of literature and the estab-
lishment of libraries in great cities, and by a lavish distribution
of salt to the poorer classes. The temporary occupation of Nan-
king as the capital, repairs on the Great Wall, the coming of the
Portuguese, and the arrival of the Jesuit missionaries were
events of importance in this dynasty, as also the framing of a
code of laws that has been the basis of subsequent administra-
tion. Northern border invasions increased in violence in the
latter part of this period, and internal rebellion led to the capture
of Peking by a rebel leader, and the suicide of the Emperor.
In despair, a Chinese general in the northeast besought the assist-
ance of the Manchus, with the result that the rebellion was
quelled, and the further result that the Manchu camel refused
to leave the tent into which he had been encouraged to thrust his
nose.

10. Thus it happened that the present Ta Ching or Pure
dynasty came from Manchuria, on the northeast, into China,
and have remained its foreign rulers for more than two hundred
and fifty vears, since 1644. Under the nine Ch‘ing emperors
China has gradually emerged from her haughty seclusion of
ages, and is perforce taking her place in the great family of
nations. Some of the important events marking the reigns of
this dynasty are the early educational work and the imperial
surveys of the Catholic missionaries, the splendid literary monu-
ments left by the famous Emperor, K‘ang Hsi, the extension of
power in the west and northwest, the wars with Russia, England,
and France, and with Mohammedan rebels, the pseudo-Christian
T‘ai P‘ing rebellion, and the inroads since 1897 of Western
Powers. The most marked characteristic of last century’s his-
tory, so far as the Kingdom of Gad is concerned, is the begin-
ning and rapid spread of Protestant missions throughout the
Eighteen Provinces and Manchuria.

 
APPENDIX C
LIST OF MISSIONARY SOCIETIES LABORING IN CHINA

Tue following list is alphabetical only in the sense that the
black-faced initials, chosen to represent the longer society names,
are alphabetically arranged. The full name of the society fol-
lows the initials, and in the case of Continental organizations,
both the original name and a translation of the same are given.
Societies auxiliary, or closely related, to those mentioned in this
list are entered under those to which they are so related unless
they are wholly independent. The nationality and date of en-
trance on work in China are indicated within marks of paren-
thesis.

AA American Advent Mission Society (United States, 1897).
Has workers in An-hui and Chiang-su provinces.
ABCFM American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions (United States, 1830).
Has workers in Chib-li, Fu-chien, Hongkong, Kuang-
tung, Shan-hsi, and Shan-tung provinces.
ABMU American Baptist Missionary Union (United States,
1843),
Has workers in Ché-chiang, Hu-pei, Kuang-tung,
and Ssii-ch‘uan provinces.
ABS American Bible Society (United States, 1876).
Has workers in Chiang-su, Chih-li, Hu-pei, Kuang-
tung, and Ssii-ch‘uan provinces.
AEPM Allgemeiner evangelisch-protestantischer Missions-
verein, ‘‘General Evangelical Protestant Mis-
sionary Society ” (Germany, 1885).
Has workers in Shan-tung province.
AFFM American Friends’ Board of Foreign Missions (United
States, 1890),
Has workers in Chiang-su province.
ANCM American Norwegian (Lutheran) China Mission (United
States, 1899).
Has workers in Ho-nan and Hu-pei provinces.
B Evangelische Missions-Gesellschaft, Basel, ‘‘Evan-
gelical Missionary Society, Basel” (German;
headquarters in Switzerland, 1852).
Has workers in Hongkong and in Kuang-tung prov-
ince.

170
APPENDIX C 17I

 

BCMS

BF

BYFBS

BFSS

BMS

Bul

BZM

CA

CBM
ccc

CEZMS

CIM

Bible Christian Home and Foreign Missionary Society
(Great Britain, 1885),
Has workers in Yiin-nan province.
Berliner Frauenverein fiir China, ‘* Berlin Ladies’
Society for China”; also called Berlin Found-
ling House (Germany, 1850).
Has workers in Hongkong.

British and Foreign Bible Society (Great Britain).

Has workers in Chiang-hsi, Chiang-su, Chih-li, Hong-
kong, Kuang-hsi, Kuang-tung, Manchuria, Shan-
tung, Ssti-ch‘uan, and Yiin-nan provinces.

British and Foreign Sailors’ Society (Great Britain,

895).

Has workers in Chiang-su province.

Baptist Missionary Society (Great Britain, 1859).

Has workers in Chiang-su, Shan-hsi, Shan-tung, and
Shen-hsi provinces.

Gesellschaft zur Beférderung der evangelischen Mis-
sionen unter den Heiden, ‘‘ [Berlin] Society for
the Promoting of Evangelical Missions among
the Heathen” (Germany, 1882).

Has workers in Kuang-tung and Shan-tung provinces.

Baptist Zenana Mission (Great Britain, 1893).

Has workers in Shan-hsi, Shen-hsi, and Shan-tung
provinces.

Christian and Missionary Alliance (United States, 1890).

Has workers in An-hui, Chiang-su, Hu-nan, Hu-pei,
Kan-su, and Kuang-hsi provinces.

Mission to the Chinese Blind (Great Britain, 1888).

Has workers in Chih-li province.

Canton Christian College (United States),

Has workers in Kuang-tung province.

Church of England Zenana Missionary Society (Great
Britain, 1884).

Has workers in Fu-chien province.

China Inland Mission (International, 1865).

Finnish Free Church Mission (1890).
German China Alliance Mission (1889).
Norwegian Mission in China (1894).
Scandinavian China Alliance Mission (1891).
Swedish Holiness Union (1890).

Swedish Mission in China (1887).

Has workers in An-hui, Ché-chiang, Chiang-hsi,
Chiang-su, Chib-li, Ho-nan, Hu-nan, Hu-pei, Kan-
su, Kuei-chou, Shan-hsi, Shan-tung, Shen-hsi,
Ssi-ch‘uan, and Yiin-nan; also in Burma.
APPENDIX C

 

172
cM Christian Missions, commonly called ‘‘ Brethren”
(Great Britain, 1885).
Northwest Kiangsi Mission.
Has workers in Ché-chiang, Chiang-hsi, Chih-li, Hu-
pei, and Shan-tung provinces.
cms Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East
(Great Britain, 1844).
Has workers in Ché-chiang, Chiang-su, Fu-chien,
Hongkong, Hu-nan, Kuang-hsi, Kuang-tung, and
Ssi-ch‘uan provinces.
cP Board of Missions and Church Erection, Cumberland
Presbyterian Church (United States, 1898).
Has workers in Hu-nan province.
Cc8FM Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committee (Great
Britain, 1878).
Church of Scotland Women’s Association for
Foreign Missions.
Has workers in Hu-pei province.
DBMC Deutsche Blindenmission in China, in Hildesheim,
‘¢German Blind Mission ” (Germany).
Has workers in Kuang-tung province.
DM Danske Missionsselskab, ‘‘ Danish Missionary Society ”
(Denmark, 1896).
Has workers in Manchuria.
FCMS Foreign Christian Missionary Society (United States,
1886).
Has workers in An-hui, Chiang-su, and Ssii-ch‘uan
provinces.
FFMA Friends’ Foreign Mission Association (Great Britain,
1886).
Has workers in Ssii-ch‘uan province,
FMS Finska Missions-Sillskapet, ‘* Finnish Missionary So-
ciety” (Finland, 1901).
Has workers in Hu-nan (?) province.
HSK Hauges Synodes Kinamissionsmode, ‘‘ Hauges Synod’s
China Mission” (United States, 1892).
Has workers in Ho-nan and Hu-pei provinces.
IBM Independent Baptist Missionary Movement, also called
Gospel Mission (United States, 1892),
Has workers in An-hui, Chiang-hsi, and Shan-tung
provinces.
Independent.
These workers are in An-hui, Ché-chiang, Chiang-
hsi, Chiang-su, and Fu-chien provinces.
KRI John G. Kerr Refuge for the Insane (United States).
Has workers in Kuang-tung province,
LBM Lutheran Brethren Mission.

Has workers in Hu-pei province.
APPENDIX C 173

 

LMS

MCC

ME

MES

MNC

MPW

NBS

NLE

NM

Pcc

PCE

PCI

London Missionary Society (Great Britain, 1807).

Has workers in Chiang-su, Chih-li, Fu-chien, Hong-
kong, Hu-nan, Hu-pei, Kuang-tung, and Ssi-
ch‘uan provinces.

Missionary Society of the Methodist Church [in Canada]
(Canada, 1891).
Woman’s Missionary Society of the Methodist
Church in Canada:

Has workers in Ssii-ch‘uan.

Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church
(United States, 1847).

Methodist Publishing House, supported jointly by
ME and MES,

Has workers in An-hui, Chiang-hsi, Chiang-su,
Chih-li, Fu-chien, Hu-pei (native workers), Shan-
tung, and Ssii-ch‘uan provinces.

Board of Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
South (United States, 1848).
Methodist Publishing House, supported jointly by
ME and MES,
Woman’s Foreign Missionary Society of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church, South.

Has workers in Ché-chiang and Chiang-su provinces.

Methodist New Connexion Missionary Society (Great
Britain, 1859).

Has workers in Chih-li and Shan-tung provinces.
Woman’s Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist
Protestant Church (United States, 1900).

Has workers in Hu-nan province.

National Bible Society of Scotland (Great Britain,
1863).

Has workers in Chiang-su, Chih-li, Fu-chien, Hu-
pei, and Ssii-ch‘uan provinces.

Norske lutherske Kinamissionsforbund, ‘‘ Norwegian
Lutheran China Alliance’? (Norway, 1894).

Has workers in Hu-pei province.

Norske Missionsselskab, ‘* Norwegian Missionary So-
ciety ” (Norway).

Has workers in Hu-nan province.

Foreign Missions Committee of the Presbyterian
Church in Canada (Canada, 1888).

Has workers in Ho-nan and Kuang-tung provinces.
Foreign Missions Committee of the Presbyterian
Church of England (Great Britaix, 1847).

Has workers in Fu-chien and Kuang-tung provinces,

Foreign Mission of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland
(Great Britain, 1869).
Has workers in Chih-li province and in Manchuria.
174

APPENDIX C

 

PE

PN

PNZ

PS

RCA

RCUS

RM

RP

SAFM

SAM

SBC

SBM

scM

Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Prot-
estant Episcopal Church in the United States
of America; known in China as The American
Church Mission (United States, 1835).

Has workers in An-hui, Chiang-hsi (native workers),
Chiang-su, Hu-nan (native workers), and Hu-pei
provinces.

Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church
in the U. 8. A. (United States, 1844),

Has workers in An-hui, Ché-chiang, Chiang-su,
Chih-li, Hu-nan, Kuang-tung, and Shan-tung prov-
inces.,

Presbyterian Church of New Zealand Mission (New
Zealand).

Has workers in Kuang-tung province.

Executive Committee of Foreign Missions of the Pres-
byterian Church in the United States (Southern)
(United States, 1867).

Has workers in Ché-chiang and Chiang-su provinces.

Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church
in America (United States, 1842).

Has workers in Fu-chien province.

Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions of the
Reformed Church in the United States (United
States).

Has workers in Hu-nan province.

Rheinische Missionsgesellschaft, ‘* Rhenish Missionary
Society ” (Germany, 1847).

Has workers in Kuang-tung province.

Synod of Reformed Presbyterian Church in North
America (United States, 1897).

Has workers in Kuang-tung province.

Scandinavian American Christian Free Mission (United
States, 1888).

Has workers in Kuang-tung province.

Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America
(United States, 1891).

Has workers in Kan-su and Shen-hsi provinces.

Foreign Mission Board, Southern Baptist Convention
(United States, 1845).

Has workers in Chiang-su, Kuang-hsi, Kuang-tung,
and Shan-tung provinces,

Sallskapet Svenska Baptist Missionen, ‘* Swedish Bap-
tist Missionary Society ” (Sweden, 1891).

Has workers in Shan-tung province,

South Chih-li Mission (United States).

Has workers in Chih-li and Shan-tung provinces.
APPENDIX C 175

 

SDA

SDB

SEMC

SMF

SPC

UFS

UMFC

Mission Board of Seventh-day Adventists (United
States, 1888).
Has workers in Hongkong and in Fu-chien, Ho-nan
and Kuang-tung provinces.
Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Society (United States,
1847).
Has workers in Ciiung-su province.
Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant of America
(United States, 1890).
Has workers in Hu-pei province.
Svenska Missionsférbundet, ‘‘ Swedish Missionary
Society” (Sweden, 1890).
Has workers in Hu-pei province.
Church of England Mission, Diocese of North China;
affiliated with Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel (Great Britain, 1874).
Has workers in Chih-li and Shan-tung provinces and
in Manchuria.
Woman’s Missionary Association of the United Breth-
ren in Christ (United States, 1889).
Has workers in Kuang-tung province.
Home and Foreign Missionary Society of the United
Evangelical Church (United States, 1900).
Has workers in Hu-nan province.
United Free Church of Scotland Foreign Missions
(Great Britain, 1863).
Has workers in Manchuria.
United Methodist Free Churches, Home and Foreign
Missions (Great Britain, 1864).
Has workers in Ché-chiang province.

Unconnected.

USsCcE

WMS

wi

YFMB

These workers are in Chiang-su, Shan-hsi, and Shan-
tung provinces,
United Society of Christian Endeavor for China (In-
ternational).
Has workers in Chiang-su province.
Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (Great Brit-
ain, 1851). ;
Has workers in Hongkong and in Hu-nan, Hu-pei,
Kuang-hsi, and Kuang-tung provinces.
Woman’s Union Missionary Society of America for
Foreign Lands (United States, 1881).
Has workers in Chiang-su province.
Yale Foreign Missionary Society (United States, 1903).
Has workers in Hu-nan province.
196 APPENDIX C

 

YMCA Foreign Department, International Committee of
Young Men’s Christian Associations (North
America, 1895).
Has workers in Chiang-su, Chih-li, Hu-pei, and Fu-
chien provinces, and in Hongkong.
YWCA World’s Young Women’s Christian Association (Inter.
national, 1904).
Has workers in Chiang-su province.

Associations formed in China for special work, composed of
missionaries connected with other missionary societies are also
given here.

Central China Religious Tract Society (1876).

China Baptist Publication Society.

China Missionary Alliance (1901).

Chinese Tract Society (1878).

Christian Vernacular Society of Shanghai (1890).

Educational Association of China (1877).

Kiangsi-Hunan Tract Press.

Medical Missionary Society (1886).

Methodist Publishing House (1902).

North China Tract Society (1882).

Seaman’s Mission, Shanghai.

Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge

among the Chinese (1887).
APPENDIX D

PRONOUNCING INDEX OF STATIONS AND OF
CHINESE WORDS AND NAMES

The Mission Stations.—In order to unify the various sys-
tems of Romanization used by the different societies, that of
Sir Thomas Wade, employed in the body of this book, is used
here and on the accompanying map. A few exceptions are
made in the case of well-known names, like Canton, Peking,
Hongkong, etc., and in towns where the differences between
the local pronunciation and that of Mandarin are exceedingly
marked, such cases being almost wholly confined to the dialect
regions of Fu-chien and Kuang-tung. In order to enable those
who know only the Romanization of their own society, the
spelling familiar to them will be found in its proper alphabetical
order with w cross-reference to the Wade spelling (printed in
Clarendon type), where particulars concerning the work may be
found, After the name of the station, a closely allied spelling
is sometimes given. The letters following a place name have
these meanings: F. indicates a city of Fu rank; T., a T‘ing
city; C., a Chou city; H., a Hsien city. After this follows
within parentheses the pronunciation, then the capital letter and
numeral indicating the square on the map where the station is
found, and immediately following the name of its province.
Beneath this appear the Clarendon initial letters indicating the
society or societies having work in that place,—the significance of
the initials may be learned from the Society list of Appendix C,—
the year in which the society began operations, enclosed w thin
parentheses, and the missionary force laboring there. The data
for the missionary force have been obtained from the ‘‘ Directory
of Protestant Missionaries in China, Japan, and Corea, for the
Year 1904,” published at Hongkong. While some errors have
been detected and corrected by the author, it is believed that
even though other errors remain, it is as satisfactory a stute-
ment as to the force on the field at the beginning of 1904 as can
be secured,

Key to the Pronunciation here Used.—Immediately pre-
ceding Chapter I of this volume, an approximately correctkey of
the Wade system of Chinese Romanization is given. Experience
with study classes shows that a more popular, even if less cor-
rect, system of pronunciation should be furnished. Accord-

177
178 APPENDIX D

 

ingly, after the Chinese words and proper names found in this
Index follows within parentheses the indication of this easier
system of pronunciation. The powers of the various letters
within parentheses are given below. Any letters not found in
the list have their usual English sound.

a& as in mate. er as in over. ow as in now.

a ‘¢ *¢ father. g ‘* ** game. ss ‘* * hiss.

a ** an, i * 4 Jee. ts “ gate.

ds ** ** pads. i * pin, a  “ mud.

e % & me, Oo “ * old. ui‘ French u,

& “© \ men. oo * *& too. or German ii.
A

Amoy=Sha-mén T. (Shi-miin). E5. Fu-chien. ae
LMS (1844) 4 men, 3 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
NBS 1 man.
PCE (1850) 5 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 4 other women.
RCA (1842) 5,men (1 physician), 3 Paves) 5 other women.
An-ch‘ing F. (An-ching) E3. -hui.
CIM (1869) 3 men, 2 wives.
PE (1894) 3 men qa physician). :
AN-HUI (An-whé). This pe ovince has workers of the following societies
AA, CA, CIM, FCMS, IBM, INDEPENDENT, ME, PE, PN.
An-jén=An-ren (An-riin) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1889) 5 unmarried women.
An-k‘ing, sge An-ch'ing Fu, An-hui.
An-lu F. (An-loo) D3. Hu-pei.
WMS 1 man, 1 wife.
An-shun F., An-shuen (An-shoon) C4. Kuei-chou.
CIM (1888) 1 man, 1, wife, 2 other women.
An-tung H., ‘An-tong (An-doong) E38. Chiang-su.
cIM 1893), 3 women.
An-tung H. (An-doong) same as Sha-ho-tzti Fl. Manchuria.
DM 1 man, 1 wife.
A-shih Ho, Ashiho (A-sher How), 130 miles north of Kirin. Manchuria.
UFS (1892) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.

B

Bhamo, Chinese Hsin-chieh (Shin-jéth) A5. Burma.
CIM (1875) 1 man, 1 wife.

Cc

Canton=Kuang-chou F. (Gooang-j6) D5. Kuang-tung.
ABCFM (1830) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
ABS 1 man.
BFBS 1 man, 1 wife.
Bul (1867) 5 men, 2 wives.
CMS (1898) 4 unmarried women.
KRI 1 male physician.
LMS (1807) 3 men, 2 wives, 2 other women.
PN (1844) 9 men ( 2 physicians), 7 wives, 8 other women (2 physicians).
PNZ 2 men, 2 wives.
SAFM (1899) 1 man, 2 unmarried women.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 179

 

SBC (1845) 4 men (1 physician), 4 wives, 3 other women.
SDA 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
UBW (1889) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman (physician).
WMS 7 men (2 physicians), 4 wives, 1 other woman.
Chang-chia K‘ou (Jang-jéa Ko), see Kalgan, Chib-li.
coe Chib-tung (Jang Jer-doong), name of a famous viceroy and author.
errs F. (Jang-jd) E5. Fu-chien.
S (1886) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife, 2 other women.
RCA (1895) 2 unmarried women.
Chang-lao Hui (Jang-low Hooa) = Presbyterians.
Ch‘ang-li H. (Chang-lé) E2. Chih-li.
ME 3 men (1 physician). 3 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
Chang-p‘u H., Changpu (Jang-poo) E5. Fu-chien.
PCE yer) 3 men (2 physicians), 3 wives, 3 other women.
Ch‘ang-sha F., Chang-sha (Chiing-shi) D4. Hu-nan.
CA 3 men, 3 wives, 1 other woman.
CIM Saet) 3 men (2 physicians), 2 wives, 4 other women.
NM 5 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.
UE 2 men, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
WMS 1 man, 1 wife.
YFMS (1905) 2 men, 1 wife (physician).
Ch‘ang-shan H. (Chang-shin) E4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1878) 2 women.
Change (J ang eboo) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1895) 1 man, 1 wife.
Ch‘ang-shu H. (Chang-s 100) F3. Chiang-su.
MES (1890) 1 man, 1 wife.
Chang-té F., Chang-teh (Jéing-dti) D2. Ho-nan.
PCC (1896) < oe ad physician), 6 4 wives, 5 other women (1 physician).
Ch‘ang-té F., Chang Te (Ching-d: i) D4. Hu-nan.
CA 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
CIM (1898) 3 men.
CP 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
Chao-ch‘éng H. (Jow-chting) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1901) 2 men.
Ch‘ao-chou (Chow-j5) E5. Kuang-tung.
ABMU ( (1894) 1 man, 1 wife.
PCE (1890) 2 men, (1 physician), 1 wife, 2 other women.
Chao-Tong, see Chao-t' ung F., Yiin-nan.
Chao-t‘ung F. (Jow-toong) Ba. Yiin-nan.
BCMS (1888) 3 men, 2 wive
Ching Fang, H. (Chow-yang) Fi. Chih-li.
PCI (1902) 1 man.
Chau Chau F., see Ch‘ao-chou F., Kuang-tung.
CHE-CHIANG (Ju-jéang). This 7 province has workers of the following so-
cieties: ABMU, CIM, CMS, INDEPENDENT, MES, PN, PS, UMFC.
Chefoo=Chih-fu (Ser-foo) F2. Shan-tung.
BFBS 1 man, 1
CIM (1879) 10 men a. physician), 9 wives, 19 other women.
PN (1862) 5 men, 4 wives, 5 other women (1 physician).
SPGC (1874) 2 men, 1 wife.
UNCONNECTED 1 man, 1 unmarried woman.
Chén (jtin), in place names it means a mart.
Chén-chia-kou, Chen-kia-keo (Juin-jé4-gd). Shen-hsi.
CIM (1900) 1 man, 1 wife.
Chee chine F., Chen-kiang (Jiin-jéing) E3. Chiang-su.
CIM (1889) 1 man (1 physician), 1 wife, 4 other women.
ME 1 man, 1 wife, 4 other women (2 physicians).
NBS 1 man.
PS (1883) 2 men, 2 wives.
Ch‘én-chou F., Ch'én-cheo (Chtin-j6) E3. Ho-nan.
CIM (1895) 2 women.
Ch‘én-chou F. {einj0) D4. Hu-nan.
CIM (1898) 1 man.
CP 1 man (physician), 1 wife.
180 APPENDIX D

 

MPW 1 unmarried woman.

PN (1904) 2 men (physician), 1 1 wife.

RCUS 1 man (physician), 1 wife.
Chéng (Jing), a Chinese surname.
Ch‘éng (ebtng) in place names it means a town.
chen -ku H. (Chiing-goo) C3. Shen-hsi.

(1887) g men, 2 wives.

chidng-tu F. Ch‘ ‘en-tu, Chengtu (Chiing-doo) B3. Sst-ch‘uan.

BFBS 1 ae 1 wife.
CIM (1881) 3 men, 2 wives, 2 other women.
MCC (1891) 4 men (2 physicians), 3 wives, 8 other women (2 physicians).
ME 5 men, (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.
Chéng-yang-kuan T., Cheng-iang-kuan (Jing-yaing-gooin) E3. An-hui.
CIM (1887) 1 man.
‘hén-yiian F., Chen-tien (Chiin-yiiin) C4. Kuei-chon.
CIM (1904) 2 men, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Chén-yiian H., Chen-tien (Jiin-yian) C2. Kan-su.
CIM (1897) 3 unmarried women.
Cheo-kia-k‘eo, see Chou-chia-k* ou, Shan-tung.
Chi C. (Jé) %i2. Chih-li.
LMS (1888) 5 men (2 physicians), 5 wives.
Chi C. (Jé) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1891) 1 ae 1 wife.
Chia-hsing F. (Jaa-shin: ng) F3. Ché-chiang.
PS (1895) 3 men (J physician), 3 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
Chi-an F. (Jé-an) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1891) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Chiang (ping = a river.
Chian, (Jéing) D2. Shan-hsi.
CL Gis 8).
chiaug-shing H. (Jéing-jing) C4. Sst-ch‘uan.
(1902) 1 man, 1 wife.
Chiang Chiu, see Chang-chou F., Fu-chien.
CHIANG-HSI (Jéang-shé).. This province has workers of the following so-
cieties: BFBS, CIM, cM, IBM, INDEPENDENT, ME, PE (native workers).
CHIANG-SU (Jeting-soo). This province has workers of the following societies:
A, BS, BFSS, BMS, CA, CIM, CMS, FCMS, INDEPEN-
DENT, LMS, ME, MES, NBS, PE, PN, PS, SBC, SDB, UNCONNECTED,
USCE, WU, YMCA, YWCA.
Chiang-yin H. (Jéang-yin) F3, Chiang-su.
PS (1895) 4 men (physician), 4 wives, 1 other woman.
UNCONNECTED 1 man, 1 wife.
Chiao C. Kiao (Jéow) F2. Shan-tung.
SBM (1891) 3 men, 3 wives.
Chia- ee F. (Jea-ding) B4. Ssii-ch‘uan,
894) 3 men, 3 wives.
CIM asses 2 men, 1 wife.
MCC (1892) 5 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
eee C. (Jéi-ying) E5. Kuang-tung.
(1880) 2 men, 2 wives.
B (1883) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Ch‘i-cheo, see Ch‘ih-chou F., An-hui.
Chieh C. (Jééh) D3. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1895) 1 magn, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Chieh-hsiu H. (Jeéh-sheoo) ‘D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1891) 3 unmarried women.
Chieh-yang H. (Jéé-yang) E5. Kuang-tung.
ABMU (1896) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 unmarried women, both physicians.
Ch'ien C. (Chéén) C3. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1894) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Chisnecnaee F. (Jéén-ching) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1899) 2 men.
Chicneciane H. (Jéén-chang) E4. Chiang-hsi.
1 man, 1 wife.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 181

 

Chien-ning F. (Jéén-ning) E4. Fu-chien.

CEZMS 3 unmarried women.

CIM (1874) 4 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Chien-p‘ing H. (Jéén-ping) E38. An-hui.

CIM (1894) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Chien-tu Hui (Jéén-doo Hooa)= Episcopalians.
Chien-yang H. (Jéén-yang) E4. Fu-chien.

CMS (1891) 3 unmarried women.

Ch‘ien-yang H. (Chéén-yaing) C3. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1897) 2 unmarried women.

Chi-fu, see Chefoo, Shan-tung.
Ch‘ih-chou F. (Cher-j6) £3. An-hui.

CIM (1874) 1 man, 1 wife. |
CHIH-LI (Jer-lé). This province has workers of the following societies;

ABCFM, ABS, BFBS, CBM, CIM, CM, LMS, ME, MNC, NBS, PCI, PN,

SCM, SPGC, YMCA.

Chi-mo H. (Jé-mdii) F2.  Shan-tung.
Bal (1900) 2 men, 1 wife.

Ch‘in (Chin), dynastic name.

Ch'in C, (Chin) C3. Kan-su.

CIM (1878) 2 men, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Chi-nan F. (Jé-nin) F2. Shan-tung.

PN (1872) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman (1 physician).
Chinchew, see Ch‘iian-chou F., Fu-chien.

Chin-chou F., Chinchow (Jin-js) F1. Manchuria.

PCI (1891) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
boar, (Jing) C2. Kan-su.

CIM (1895) 1 man, 1 wife, 3 other women.
Ch‘ing-chiang H. (p‘u) (Ching-jéang) E3. Chiang-su.

CIM (1869) 3 unmarried women.

PS (1887) 4 men (1 physician), 4 wives.

Ching chow, F. (Ching-j6) 2. Sbantung.

BMS (1877) 7 men (1 physician), 7 wives.

BZM (1893) 4 unmarried women.

Ching-hua (Jing-hooa) via Chén-chiang F.

UNCONNECTED 1 man, 1 wife.

Ching-kiang, Chin-kiang, see Chén-chiang F., Chiang-su.
Ch‘ing ming (ching ming), name of Chinese festival.
Ching-ning C. (Jing-ning) C2. Kan-su.

CIM (1897) 2 men. ‘ :

Ching-shih (Jing-sher) via Li-chou (in Northern Hu-nan).

F 3 men, 1 wife.

Ching-tzii Kuan (Jing-dsti Gooin) D3. Ho-nan.
CIM (1896) 1 man, 1 wife.
Chin-hua F. (Jin-hood) F4. Ché-chiang.
ABMU (1883) 2 men (physician), 1 wife, 3 other women.
CIM (1875) 1 man, 1 wife.
Chi-ning C. (Jé-ning) E2. Shan-tung.
IBM 2 men, 1 wife.
PN (1892) 6 men (1 physician), 3 wives.
Chinkiang, see Chén-chiang F., Chiang-su.
Ch‘in Shou (Chin Sh6), a Chinese author.
Chin-tan (Jin-dan), dawn.
Chin-tan Chiao (Jin-din Jéow), name of Chinese sect.
Chin-yiin H. (Jin-yiin) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1898) 2 unmarried women.

Ch‘i ssti liao (ché ssti léow), “died from anger.”
Chiu-chiang F. (Jéoo-jéing) E4. Chiang-hsi.

BFBS 1 man, 1 wife. _

CIM (1889) 2 men, 2 wives.

CM 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.

INDEPENDENT 4 unmarried women.

ME 3 men, 3 wives, 5 other women.

Cb‘iung C. (Chéoong) B3._ Ssti-ch‘uan.

CIM (1902) 2 men, 1 wife.
182 * APPENDIX D

 

Chiung-chou F. (Jéoong-js) D5, 6. Kuang-tung.
PN (1885) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 3 other women.
hong-k'ing, see Chung-ch‘ing F., Ssii-ch‘uan. tr faves
Chou (J6), name of a celebrated dynasty. Also name of a division of a
province smaller than fu or t'ing, and of its capital city.
Chou-chia K‘ou (J6-jé& Ko) E3. Ho-nan.
CIM (1884) 2 men, 2 wives.
Chou-p‘ing H. (Jo-ping) E2. Shan-tung.
BMS (1889) 8 men (1 physician), 7 wives.
BZM (1894) 2 unmarried women.
Chowchowfu, see Ch‘ao-chou F. J
Ch‘u C. Chu Cheo (Choo) E3.  An-hui. _
FCMS (1889) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Chit H. (Chii) C3. Ssti-ch‘uan.
CIM (1898) 1 man, 1 wife, 3 other women.
Ch‘iian-chou F. (Chiiin-j6) E5. Fu-chien. we
PCE (1866) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 5 other women (1 physician).
Chuang-tzti (Jooang-dst), a Taoist writer.
Chu-chi H. Chu-Ki (Joo-jé) F4. Ché-chiang.
CMS (1894) 2 men, 1 wife.
Chii-ching F. (Jii-jing) B4. Ytin-nan.
CIM (1889) 2 men, 2 wives, 2 other women. .
Ch‘u-chou F. Ch'u-cheo (Choo-jd) E4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1875) 2 men, 1 woman.
Ch‘ii-chou F. (Chii-j6) E4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1872) 1 man, 1 wife. ; :
Chu Iu-tzti (Joo Foo-dsii), a celebrated Confucian authority.
Chu Hsi (Joo Shé), same as above. ;
Ch‘un Ch‘iu (Choon Chéoo), one of the ‘‘ Five Classics.”
Chang-chting F. (Joong-ching) C4. Ssii-ch‘uan.
mai

n.
CIM (1877) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.
FFMA (1890) 8 men (1 physician), 7 wives, 3 other women.
LMS (1888) 4 men (2 physicians), 2 wives.
ME 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 4 other women.
NBS 1 man, 1 wife.
Chung Hua Kuo (Joong Hood Goodti), ‘Middle Flowery Kingdom.”
Chungking, see Chung-ch'‘ing F., Ssti-ch‘uan.
Chung Kuo (Joong Goodii), ‘* Middle Kingdom.”
Chung-ni (Joong né), personal name of Confucius.
Chung-tu (Joong-doo), name of a town.
Civane vane H. (Choong-yang) D4. Hu-pei.
WMS 2 men.
Chung Yung iioeee Yoong), one of the ‘Four Books.”
Chiin-tzii_jén (jiin-dsii riin), ‘‘the princely man.”
Ch‘ii-wu H. (Chii-woo) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1885) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Cieng-bau. Ciong Bau E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS (1897) 3 unmarried women.

D

Dang-seng E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS (1893) 2 unmarried women.
Dong-si via Shanghai.
INDEPENDENT 1 man, 1 wife.

E

Engchhun, see Yung-ch‘un C., Fu-chien.
Erh (Ur),>Ear, Lao-tzii’s surname.
Erh Ya (Ur Ya), ‘Ready Guide.”
PRONOUNCING INDEX 183

 

F

Fa-k‘u-mén (Fa-koo-mtin) Fl. Manchuria.
PCI (1899) 1 man.
Fan-ch‘éng H. (Fan-chting) D3. Hu-pei.
HSK (1893) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 2 other women.
LBM 1 man, 1 wife.
SEMC (1890) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Féng (fing) =pheenix.
er H. (Fiing-jin) Dl. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1902) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Flag hang F., Féng-siang (Fiing-shéing) C3. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1898) 1 man, 1 wife.
Féng-hua H. (Fting-hooé) F4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1866) 2 men.
Peng haos Ch‘éng (Fing-hooang Chiing) Fl. Manchuria.
DM (1899) 2 men, 1 wife.
Féng-shui (fiing-shooi)=wind and water; Chinese geomancy.
Fo (Féi)=Buddha.
Foochow, see Fu-chou F., Fu-chien.
Fu (foo), name of a portion of a province and of its capital.
Fu-ch‘iang H., Fu-k'iang (Foo-chéing) C3. Kan-su.
CIM (1899) 1 man. F
FU-CHIEN (Foo-jéén). This province has workers of the following societies:
ABCFM, CEZMS, CMS, INDEPENDENT, LMS, ME, NBS, PCE, RCA,
SDA (native workers), YMCA.
Fu-ch‘ing H. (Foo-ching) E4. Fu-chien.
CMS 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 5 other women (1 physician).
ME 4 unmarried women (1 physician).
Fu-chou F., Fu-cheo (Foo-j) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1899) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Fu-chou F. (Foo-jd) £4. Fu-chien.
ABCFM (1847) 5 men (1 physician), 5 wives, 10 unmarried women (2 phy=

sicians).

CEZMS (1884) 11 unmarried women (1 physician).

CMS (1850) 8 men (2 physicians), 5 wives, 11 other women.

INDEPENDENT 3 unmarried women (2 physicians).

ME (1847) 8 men, 8 wives, 14 other women (2 physicians).

-Chow, see Fu-chou F.

Fu Hsi (Foo Shé), China’s earliest monarch.
Fu-kou H., Fu-keo (Foo-gé) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1903) 1 unmarried woman.
Fuk-wing D5. Kuang-tung.

1 man, 1 unmarried woman.

Fumui D5. Kuang-tung.

BnlI (1885) 1 man, 1 wife.

-ning F., Fuh-Ning (Foo-ning) F4. Fu-chien.

CMS (1882) 4 men (2 physicians), 2 wives, 3 other women.
Fu-shun H., Fu-shuen (Foo-shoon) C4. Ssi-ch‘uan.

CIM (1902) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Futschukp‘ai, see Fu-tsuk-phai, Kuang-tung.
Fu-tsuk-phai D5. Kuang-tung.

B (1879) 2 men, 1 wife.

H

Hai-ch‘éng H. (Hi-chiing) F1. Manchuria.

UFS (1876) 1 man, 1 wife.
Hai-nan (Hi-nén), island off the coast of Kuang-tung.
Hai-tan (Hi-dan) E4. Fu-chien.

CMS 2 unmarried women.

- Han (Han), name of river and of dynasty.

Han-ch‘éng H. (Han-chiing) D2. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1897) 2 men, 1 wife, 4 other women.
Han-ch‘uan H. (Hin-chooin) D3. Hu-pei.

‘WMS 1 man, 1 wife.
184 APPENDIX D

 

Han-chung F., Han-cheong (Hiin-joong) C3. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1879) 3 men, 2 wives. :
Hangchau, see Hang-chou F., Ché-chiang. 7
Hang-chou F., Hang-cheo (Hang-j6) F3. Ché-chiang.
ABMU (1899) 2 men, 2 wives.
CIM (1866) 1 man. : .
CMS (1864) 8 men (2 physicians), 5 wives, 8 other women.
PW (1859) 3 men, 3 wives, 2 other women.
PS (1867) 3 men, 2 wives, 4 other women.
Hangchow, see Hang-chou F., Ché-chiang.
Han-k‘ou H. (Han-k6) D3. Hu-pei.
ANCM (1891) 1 woman.
CIM (1889) 1 man, 1 wife. :
LMS (1861) 6 men (2 physicians), 4 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
S 1 man, 1 wife.
PE (1868) 5 men, 3 wives, 2 other women. aoe
WMS 6 men (2 y ysicians), 4 wives, 3 other women (1 physician).

Hankow, see Han-k‘ou H., Hu-pei.. 7 :

Han-lin (Han-lin), Forest of Pencils, the highest literary body of China.

Han-tan H. (Han-din) D2. Chib-li.

SCM 1 man.
Han-yang F. (Han-ying) D3. Hu-pei.
ABMU (1893) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 unmarried woman.
AB man.
WMS 2 men, 2 wives, 4 other women.
Héng-chou F., Héng Chow (Htng-jo) D4. Hu-nan.
PN (1902) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
LMS 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.

Hiau Kan, see Hsiao-kan H., Hu-pei.

Hing-hua, see Hsing-hua F., Fu-chien.

Hing-Hwa, see Hsing-hua F., Fu-chien.

Ho (hot) =river.

Ho C. (Hét) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1886) 2 unmarried women.

Ho-ching H., Ho-tsin (Héiti-jing) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1893) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.

Hoh-cheo, see Ho C., Shan-hsi.

Hok-Chiang, see Fu-ch‘ing H., Fu-chien.

Ho-k‘ou. Ho-k‘eo (H6t-k6) E4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1878) 3 unmarried women.
Hokschuha, see Hok-su-ha, Kuang-tung.
Hok-su-ha E5. Kuang-tung.

B (1886) 3 men, 2 wives, :

HO-NAN (Hdit-nan). This province has workers of the following societies:
ANCM, CIM, HSK, PCC, SDA.

Ho-nan F. (Héii-nin) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1902) 2 men.

HONGKONG, a British colony off the coast of Kuang-tung. It has workers
of the following societies: ABCFM, B, BF, BFBS, CMS, LMS, RM, SDA,
WMS, YMCA.

Hongkong=Hsiang-chiang (Shéang-jéing) D5. British Colony.

‘ ABCFM (1883) 1 man (physician), 1 wife.

B (1852) 3 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.

BF 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.

BFBS 1 man.

CMS (1862) 6 men, 3 wives, 6 other women.

LMS (1843) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 4 other women (1 physician).

RM 2 men, 1 wife.

SDA (1888) 1 man, 1 wife.

WMS 1 man, 1 wife.

YMCA (1899) 2 men, 2 wives.

Hong-tong, see Hone sing H., Shan-hsi.

Honyen=Ho-yiian H. (Hoti-yiiin) D5. Kuang-tung.
B 2 men, 1 wife.

Hoschuwan, see Ho-su-wan, Kuang-tung.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 185

 

Ho-su-wan DE5. Kuang-tung.
B (1885) 1 man, 1 wife.

Hsi (shé)=west.

Hsi C. ( ne) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1885)

Hsia (S oa name of dynasty.

Hsiai-cheo, see Chieh C., Shan-hsi.

Hsi-an F. (Shé-an) C3. "Shen-hsi.
BMS 2 men i physician), 1 wife.

CIM (1893) 4 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
Hsiang-ch‘éng H. (Shéang-chting) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1892) 1 man, 1 wife.

Hsiang-t‘an H. (Shéang-tan) D4. Hu-nan.

PN (1900) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.
Hsiang-yang F. (Shéang-yang) D3. Hu-pei.

SEMC 3 men (1 physician), 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Hsiao-i H. (Shéow-é) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1887) 2 men, 1 wife.

Hsiao-kan H. (Shéow-gan) D3.. Hu-pei.
LMS (1880) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Hsiao-shih H. (Shéow-sher) C4. Ssii-ch‘uan.
(1899) 2 men, 1 wife.
Hsien (shéén), name of a provincial division smaller than a fu, t‘ing, or chou,
and of its capital
Hsien-chiti H. (Sheén-jii) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1893) 1 man, 1 wife.

Hsien-yu H. (Shéén-yoo) E4. Fu-chien.

CEZMS 3 unmarried wanda.

ME 2 unmarried wome
Hsi-hsiang H. (She-sheang) C3. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1895) 2 unmarried women.

Hsi-hua H. (Shé-wha) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1899) 2 unmarried women. a 7 2
Hsi-kuo Fa (Shé-gooditi Fa), name of Ricci’s treatise on mnemonics,
Hsin-an H. (Shin-ain) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1899) 1 man, 1 wife, 3 otker women.
Hsin-ch‘ang H. (Shin-ching) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1870) 1 man, 1 wife.

Hanehane (Shin-chang) D4. Chiang-hsi.

CM 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Hsin-ch‘éng H. (Shin-chiing) F3. Ché-chiang.

PS (1892) 2 men, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Hsin-féng H. (Shin-fting) D4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1899) 2 men, 1 wife.

Miata REE F, es C3, oo
man, 1 wi
Hanetae e eect EA. Fu-chien.

CMS (1894) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women.

ME (1864) 3 men, 2 wives, 3 ot 1er women.
Bene ne aaas H. (Shing-ping) C3. Shen-hsi.

3 men, ife.
Han hsing ? . (Shin-s hing) D5. Kuang-tung.

CMS 1 man, 1 wife, 3 wt er women.

Hsi-ning F. (Shé-ning) B2. Kan-su.
(1885) 2 men, 1 wife.
Hsin-min-t‘un (Shin-min-toon) F1. Manchuria.

PCI (1899) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
Hsin-tien-tzu (Shin-déén-dsti) C3. Ssti-ch‘uan.

CIM (1892) 3 women unmarried.

Hsin-yang C. (Shin-yang) D3. Ho-nan.

ANCM (1899) 2 em, 2 wives, 2 other women.

SDA 1 man
Heaneseh H. (Buin yeh) D3. Ho-nan.

HSK 1 man, 1 wife.
a en T. (Shéoo-yén) Fl. Manchuria.
(1898) 1 man, 1 wife.
186 APPENDIX D

 

Haiti (Shii), name of distinguished Catholic convert.

Hsiian-hua, ieee F. sane Os) Di. Chib-li,
CIM (1902) 1 man, 1 wif

Hsii-ch‘ien (Shi-eheen) E3. Chiang-su.

PS (1894 3 men a pavngian), 3 wives.
Hsii-chou F. (Shii-j3) E3. Chiang-su.

PS (1897 "3 men (1 physician), 3 wives.
Hsti-chou F. (Shii-j6) B4. Ssti-ch‘uan.

ABMU (1 889) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives.

CIM (1888) 2 men, 1 wife.

Hu (hoo)=lake.

Hua Hsia (Hood Shéa), ‘‘ Flowery Usia,’’ a name of China.

Huai-ch‘ing F. (Hooi-ching) D2. Ho-nan.

PCC 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
uai-lu H., Huai-luh (Hooi-loo) D2. Chih-li.
CIM (1 887) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Huai-ytian (Hooi-yiiin) £3. An-hui.
PN 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.
anes H. (Hooiing) F2. "Shan-tung. P
eh? men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women.

Hite peeng clan celle River.

Huang-kang-shah uang-kang H. (Hooang-gang-sher) D3. Hu-pei,

men.

Huang Ti (Hooing Dé)= Yellow Ruler, a title of emperors.

Huan rae yen H., plane ien (Hooang-yén) F4. Ché-chiang.

(1896) 1 man.

Hus T‘o (Hooa Tit), a famous Chinese physician.

Huchau, see Hu-chou F., Ché-chiang.

Hu-chou F. (Hoo-j6) F3. Ché-chiang.

ABMU (1888) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
MES (1900) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.

Huei-cheo, see Hui-chou F., An-hui.

Huen-iien, see Hun-yiian C, Shan-hsi.

Hui-an ae (Hooé-an) E4, 5. Fu-chien.

LMS 1 man (physician), 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Hui-chou F. (Hooé-j6) E4. An-hui.

CIM (1875) 1 man, 1 woman.
Hui-hui Chiao (popularly Hooa-hooa, Jéow)=Mohammedanism.
Hu-k‘ou H. (Hoo-k6) E4. Chiang-hsi.

CM 1 man, 1 wife.

HU-NAN (Hoo-nan). This province has workers of the following societies:
CA, CIM, CMS, CP, FMS. (?), LMS, MPW, NM, PE (native workers),
PN, RCUS, UE, WMS, YFMS’

oe Hsiu-ch‘iian (Hoong Shéoo-chiiin), the leader of the T‘ai P‘ing rebels.

a, H. (Hoong-doong) D2. Shan-hsi.
(1886) 2 men, 1 wife.
Hun-yiian C. (Hoon. yiiin) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1898) 2 men.

HU-PEI (Hoo-ba). This province has workers of the following societies:
ABMU, ABS, ANCM, CA, *CIM, CM, CSFM, HSK, LBM, LMS, ME (native
workers), NBS, NLK, PE, SEMC, SMF, WMs, YMCA.

Hwai-yuen, see Huai-yiian H., An-hui.

Hwang-Hien, see Huang H., Shan-tung.

I

Iang-cheo, see Yang-chou F., Chiang-su.
Tang Hsien, oe Yang H., Shen-hsi.
lang-k‘eo, Oh YY ang-| ‘ou, Chiang-hsi.
I-ch‘an; ching) D3. Hu-pei.
CIM 1805) 1 man, 1 wife.
CSFM (1878) 4 men (2 physicians), 4 wives, 4 other women.
PE (1889) 2 men, 1 unmarried woman.
SMF (1894) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 187

 

I-ch‘éng H. (E-chiing) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1902) 1 , 1 wife.
I-chou F. (E-j6) E2, Shan-tung.
PN (1891) 3 mex (i oe sician), 2 wives, 3 other women (1 physician).
Ichow Fu, see I-chou F., Shan-tung.
Ten-ch‘eng, see Yen-ch‘éng H., Ho-nan.
Ten-cheo, see Yen-chou F., Ché-chiang.
Ten-t'ai, see Chefoo, Shan-tung.
I Ho Ch‘ian (EF Hoa Chiiin), Public Harmony Fists, a name of the Boxers.
I Ho T‘uan (Ef Hoa Toodn), Public Harmony Volunteers, a name applied
to the ae
I Ho Yung (E Ho% Yoong), Public Harmony Braves, a name of the Boxers.
Ing-cheo, see Ying-chou F., An-hui.
Ing-cheo, see Ying C., Shan-hsi.
Se E4, _ Fu-chien.
1 man (physician), 2 unmarried women.
Ing-hok, see Yung-fu H., Fu-chien.
Inp-kia-uei, see Yin-chia-wei, Shen-hsi.
Ing-shan, see Ying-shan H., Ssti-ch‘uan.
Toh-iang, see Yiieh-yang H., Shan-hsi.
Iong-bing, see Yen-p‘ing F., Fu-chien.
Jong-k‘ang, see Yung-k‘ang H., Ché-chiang.
Iong-ning, see 2 aagening ., Ho-nan.
long-sin, a oe sin H., Chiang-hsi.
I-shih H. (f-sher) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (18! 2 men, 1 wife, 4 other women.
T-yang H. yang) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1890) 4 unmarried women.

J

Jao-chou F, (Row-js) E4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1898) 1 man.
Jé nao (ri now)="‘hot racket,” stirring, interesting.
areata (Roo-ning) D3. Ho-nan.

ANCM (1899) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 1 other woman.

K

Kachek D6. Kuang-tung. :
PN 190 3 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
i H. (Ki) C3. Ssit-ch‘uan.
CIM (1902) 2 men.
K‘ai-féng F. (Ki-fing) D3. Ho-nan.
CIM (1901) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
K‘ai-ytian H. (Ki-yiiin) F1. Manchuria.
UFS (1896) 3 aoe (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women.

ae e -li. u
ABCFM (1865) 2 men, 2 wives.
BFBS 1 man, 1 wife.
SAM 1 man, 1 wife.
Kan-chou F., Kan-cheo (Gin-js) D4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1899) 4 men, 2 wives.
K‘ang Hsi (Kang Shé), a famous Chinese emperor.
Kang-pui D5. Kuang-tung.
RM 1 man, 1 wife.
K‘ang Yii-wei (Kang Yii-w4), a famous reformer of to-day. . Lad
KAN-SU (Gan-soo). This province has workers of the following societies:
CA, CIM, SAM.
Kan Ying Ptien (Gin Ying Péén), a famous Taoist book.
Kao-yu C., Kao-iu eGovewes) E3. Chiang-su.
CIM (1889) 2 unmarried women.
Kashing, see Chia-hsing F., Ché-chiang.
Kayin, ‘Kayintschu, see Chia-ying C., Kuang-tung.
188 APPENDIX D

 

Keng-tao, Keng-tau (Giing-dow) E4. Fu-chien.
CMS (1896) 3 unmarried women.
Khi-tschung. Khitshhung D5. Kuang-tung.
B (1879) 1 man, 1 wife. :
Kiahing, see Chia-hsing F., Ché-chiang.
Kiai-hsiu, see Chieh-hsiu H., Shan-hsi.
Kiang (Géing)=Chiang (Jéang)=river.
Kiang-cheo, see Chiang C., Shan-hsi.
Kiang-tsin, see Chiang-ching H., Ssii-ch‘uan.
Kiangyin, see Chiang-yin H., Chiang-su.
Kiao-chou, Kiao-chow, see Chiao C., Shan-tung.
Kiating, see Chia-ting F., Ssii-ch‘uan. .
Kiaying, see Chia-ying C., Kuang-tung.
Kiehyang, see Chieh-yang H., Huang ung. . .
Kien-ch‘ang, see Chien-ch‘ang F. and H., Chiang-hsi.
Ki‘en-cheo, see Ch‘ien C., Shen-hsi. ;
K'ien-iang, see Ch‘ien-yang H., Shen-hsi.
Kien-ning, see Chien-ning F., Fu-chien,
Kien-p‘ing, see Chien-p‘ing ., An-hui.
Kien-yang, see Chien-yang H., Fu-chien.
Kib-an, see Chi-an F’., Chiang-hsi.
Kib-cheo, see Chi C., Shan-hsi.
King-cheo, see Ching C., Kan-su.
King-tsi-kuan, see Ching-tzii Kuan, Ho-nan.
Kin-hua, see Chin-hua F., Ché-chiang.
Kinwha, see Chin-hua F., Ché-chiang.
K'‘iong-cheo, see Ch‘iung C., Ssti-ch‘uan.
Kirin=Chi-lin (Jé-lin), extreme northeast corner of map. Manchuria.
PCI (1894) 3 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
Kityang, Kit Yang, see Chieh-yang H., Kuang-tung.
Kiu-kiang, see Chiu-chiang F., Chiang-hsi.
Kiungchow, see Chiung-chou F., Kuang-tung.
Ko-sang-che=Kao-shan-shih (?) E4. Fu-chien.
CMS 3 unmarried women.
Kowloon=Chiu-lung (Jéoo-loong) D5. Kuang-tung.
CMS 2 unmarried women.
DBMC 2 unmarried women.
Kuan H. (Goodn) B3. Sstt-ch‘uan.
CIM (1889) 2 men, 1 wife. :
Kuan-ch‘éng-tzt (Gooan-chiing-dsii), extreme northeast corner of map. Man-

churia.
PCI (1891) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 3 other women (2 physicians).

Hue C., Kuang-cheu (Gooing) £3. Ho-nan.

Cc ee lman. |
Kuang-chi H. (Gooung-jé) E3. Hu-pei.

WMS 1 man, 1 wife. 7
Kuang-chou Wan (Goodng-j6 Wan), 2 bay in the south of Kuang-tung.
Kuang-féng H. (Gooung-fiing) E4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1889) 1 unmarried woman.

KUANG-HS jRoperie rhe, This province has workers of the following
societies: BFBS, CA, CMS, SBC, WMS.

Kuang-hsin F., Kuang-sin (Gooaing-shin) E4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1901) 2 unmarried women.

Kuang Hsii (Gooiing Shii), present Emperor of China.

Kuang-ning H., Kwangning (Gooiing-ning) Fl. Shéng-ching.
PCI (1895) 1 man, 1 wife.

Kuang-p‘ing F. (Gooaing-ping) E2. Chih-li.

SCM 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Kuang-té C., Kuang-teh (Gooang-di) E3. An-hui.
CIM (1890) 1 man, 1 wife.

KUANG-TUNG (Gooin peooney This province has workers of the follow-
argent ABCFM, AB » ABS, B, BFBS, BnI, CCC, CMS, DBMC,
KRI, LMS, PCC, PCE, PN, PNZ, RM, RP, SAFM, SBC, SDA, UBW, WMS.

Kuant Gunn H., Kuang-iien (Gooang-yiiin) C3. Ssi-ch‘uan.

CIM (1889) 2 unmarried women.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 189

Kuan Ti (Goodin Dé), the Chinese God of War.
Kuan Yin (Gooain Yin), a popular goddess.
K‘ii-cheo, see Ch‘ii-chou F., Ché-chiang.
Ku-chéng, see Ku-t'ien H., Fu-chien.
Ku-ch‘éng H., Kuh-ch‘éng (Goo-chiing) D3. Hu-pei.
CIM (1903) 1 man, 1 wife.
Kuei-chi H., Kuei-k'i (Good-ché) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1878) 4 unmarried women.
KUEI-CHOU (Good4-j6). This province has workers of the CIM only.
Kuei-chou F., Kuei-cheo (Gooad-j6) D3. Ssii-ch‘uan.
CIM (1903) 2 men.
Kuei-lin F. (Gooa-lin) D4. Kuang-hsi.
CMS (1899) __ men, 1 wife.
Kuei-yang F., Kuei-iang (Gooa-yiing) C4. Kuei-chou.
CIM (1877) 2 men, 2 wives, 2 other women.
K‘i Hsien, see Ch'ti H., Ssti-ch‘uan.
K'th-tsing, see Ch‘ii-ching F., Yiin-nan.
K‘th-u, see Ch‘ii-wu H., Shan-hsi.
Ku-ling (Goo-ling) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1898) 1 man, 1 wife. !
INDEPENDENT 1 man, 1 wife.
K‘ung (Koong), surname of Confucius. 7
K‘un; ee (Koong Foo-dsii), the Chinese words which were Latinized as
‘onfucius.
Kung-li Hui (Goong-lé Hood) =Congregatiorialists.
Ku-t'ien H. (Goo-téén) E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS (1889) 4 unmarried women.
CMS (1887) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
ME 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 4 other women.

L

Lai-an H. (Li-an) E3.  An-hui.

CIM (1899) 2 men, 1 wife.
Lai-chou F., Laichow (Li-j6) E2. Shan-tung.

SBC 2 men, 2 wives, 2 other women.
Lan-ch‘i H., Lan-k‘i (Lan-ché) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1894) 2 unmarried women.
Lan-chou F., Lan-cheo (Lin-j6) B2. Kan-su.

CIM (1885) 7 men (1 physician), 3 wives.
Lan-t‘ien H. (Lan-téén) C3. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1895) 1 man, 1 wife. 2
Lao-ho-k‘ou, Lao-ho-k‘eo (Low-héi-k5) D3. Hu-pei.

CIM (1887) 1 man, 1 wife, 3 other women.

NLK (1894) 13 men, 3 wives, 9 other women.
Lao-ling, see Lé-ling H., Shan-tung. -
Lao-tzti (Low-dstt)=old philosopher, the founder of the Taoist sect.
Lé-ling H. (Lii-ling) E2. Shan-tung.

MNC (1866) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives. a Od
Li (Lé), an exceedingly common Chinese surname signifying plum.
Liang-chou F., Liang-cheo (Léang-j) B2. Kan-su.

IM (1888) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.

dane shan H. Lesne Shae) C3. Ssii-ch‘uan.

CIM (1902) 1 man, 1 wife.
Liao-tung (Léow-doong), peninsula in Manchuria.
Liao-yang C. (Léow-yiing) Fl. Manchuria. ps

UFS (1882) 3 men yeician, 2 wives, 3 other women (1 physician).
Li Chi (Lé Jé), one of the Five Classics.
Li-ch‘iian H., Li-tsiien (Lé-chiian) C3. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1903) 1 man, 1 wife.
Lieh (Lééh), a Taoist writer.
Lien C. (Léén-j6) D5.. Kuang-tung. fos

PN 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman (physician).
Lien-chiang H. (Léén-jéang) E4. Fu-chien.

CMS (1897) 5 unmarried women.
190 APPENDIX D

 

Lieng-kong, see Lien-chiang H., Fu-chien. |
Li Hung-chang (Lé Hoong-jang), a famous viceroy, recently deceased.
Lilong D5. uang-tung.
B eee) 2 men, 2 wives.
Lin (lin), a fabulous animal.
Li-nai (Lé-ni), name of a pass. . ‘ F
Lin-chiang F., Lin-kiang (Lin-jéing) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1898) 3 men.
Ling (ling), spiritual.
Li T'ai-pai (Lé Ti-bi), a T'ang dynasty poet.
Liu-an C. (Léoo-in) E3. An-hui.
CIM (1890) 1 man, 1 wife.
Lo-han (Léi-han), godlike.
Lokong E5. Kuang-tung.

B 2 men.

Long-cheo, see Lung C., Shen-hsi. 2
Long-chii-ts‘ai, see Lung-chii-sai, Shen-hsi.
Longheu D5. Kuang-tung.

B (1882) 1 man, 1 wife. :
Long-ts‘iien, see Lung-ch‘iian H. Ché-chiang.
Long-ts‘iien, see Lung-ch‘iian, H., Chiang-hsi. |
Lo-nguong, Lo-ngwong, see Lo-yiian H., Fu-chien.
Lo-ytian H. (Loti-yiiin) F4. Fu-chien.

CEZMS (1893) 3 unmarried women.

CMS (1889) 1 man, 1 wife.

Lu (Loo), surname, name of a state, etc.
Lu C., Lu-cheo (Loo) 04. Ssii-ch‘uan.

CIM (1890) 3 men, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Lu-an F. (Loo-iin) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1889) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Lu-ch‘éng H. (Loo-chiing) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1889) 2 unmarried women.
Lu-ch‘iao, Lu-k‘iao (Loo-chéow) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1900) 2 unmarried woman.

Lu-chou F., Lu Cheo (Loo-j5) E3. An-hui.

FCMS (1894) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives.

uh-an, see Liu-an C., An-hui.
Luh Hoh, see Lu-ho, Chiang-su.
Lu-ho (Loo-hatt) E3. Chiang-su.

AFFM 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife (physician), 2 other women.
Lukhang D5. Kuang-tung.

BnI (1897) 2 men, 2 wives.

Lung C. (Loong) C2. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1893) 2 men, 1 wife.

Lung-ch‘tian H. (Loong-chii‘dn) E4, Ché-chiang.

CIM (1894) 2 men.

Lung-ch‘iian H. (Loong-chiiin) D4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1904) 1 man.
ie a na (Loong-jii-ji) D3. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1903) 2 men.

Lung Hu Shan Gisong Hoo Shan), name of a mountain.
Lun Yi (Loon Yii), one of the ‘Four Books.”

M

Macao D5 (Portuguese possession). Kuang-tung.
C 6 men, 3 wives, 1 other woman.
PCC 1 man.
MANCHURIA has little work outside the southern province of Shéng-ching
Chong ace). It has workers of the following societies: BFBS, DM, PCI,
¥

Ma Tuan-lin (Ma Dooan-lin), a noted Chinese antiquary.
Mei H. (Ma) C3. Shen-hsi. #
CIM (1893) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
PRONOUNCING INDEX IQl

 

Méng-tztt (Miing-dsi), Latinized as Mencius.
Mén p‘ai (miin pi)=door tablet.
Miao-tzti (Méow-dsii), name of aborigines.
Miao-yii-ts‘ao (Méow-yii-ts‘ow), near Kuei-chou F. D3. Ssti-ch‘uan.
CIM 1 unmarried woman.
Mien C., Mien-Cheo (Méén) B3. Ssiti-ch‘uan.
CMS (1894) 16 men, (1 physician), 13 wives, 9 other women.
Mien H, (Méén) C3. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1904) 1 man, 1 wife.
Min C. (Min) B3. su.
CA 1 man, 1 wife, 3 other women.
Min-ch‘ing H. (Min-ching) E4. Fu-chien.
ME 3 unmarried women (1 physician).
Ming (Ming), name of a dynasty.
Mingchiang, see Min-ch'ing H., Fu-chien.
Moilim(=Mei-lin.?) E5. Kuang-tung.
B (1889) 2 men, 2 women.
Mo-kan-shan (Mot-gin-shin) F3. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1901).
Moukden, see Mukden, Manchuria.
Mukden Fl. Manchuria.
BFBS 2 men, 1 wife.
PCI (1889) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman. me
UFS (1875) 6 men (2 physicians), 5 wives, 4 other women (2 physicians).

N

Nan (nén)=south.
Nan C., Nan-cheo (Nan) D4. Hu-nan.
CIM (1904) 2 men.
Nan-ch‘ang F. (Nan-ching) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1898) 2 men, 1 wife.
CM 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
ME 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 2 other women.
Nan-féng H. (Nan-fiing) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1903) 2 men, 1 wife.
Nang-wa (Nang-wa) E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS ee 3 unmarried women.
Nan-k‘ang F. (Nan-kang) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1887) 1 man, 1 wife. ;
Nanking, Nan-king=Nan-ching F. (Nan-jing) E3. Chiang-su.
(1897) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
AFFM (1890) 5 women (1 physician).
FCMS (1887) 4 men (1 physician), 4 wives, 4 other women.
ME (1867) 6 men (2 physicians), 5 wives, 3 other women.
PN (1876) 3 men, 3 wives, 3 other women.
YMCA (1898) 1 man, 1 wife.
Nan-ling H. (Nan-ling) E3. An-hui.
CA 3 unmarried women.
Nan-pu H. (Nan-boo) C3. Ssit-ch‘uan.
CIM (1902) 3 unmarried Women.
Ngan-king, see An-ch‘ing F., An-hui.
Negan-luh, see An-lu F., Hu-pei.
Ngucheng, see Fu-ch‘ing H., Fu-chien.
Nien-hang-li E5. Kuang-tung.
B (1866) 3 men, 1 wife.
Nien pot a kuan (néén shoo dsdii gooin)=“‘study books to become an
official.”
Ning-hai H. (Ning-hi) F4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1868) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Ning-hai C. (Ning-hi) F2. Shan-tung.
CIM (1896) 2 women.
Ning-kuo F., Ning-kueh (Ning-goodti) E3. An-hui
CIM (1874) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
192 APPENDIX D

 

Ning-po F, (Ning-bott) F4. Ché-chiang. =’ .

A M0 (1843) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 3 unmarried women.

CIM (1857) 1 man, 1 wife.

M 7 unmarried women. !

CMS (1848) 6 men (1 physician), 5 wives, 7 other women.

PN (1845) 4 men, 4 wives, 3 other women.

UMFC (1864) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women.
Ning-taik, see Ning-té H., Fu-chien.
Ning-té H. (Ning-dti) F4. Fu-chien.

CMS (1896) 2 men, 5 unmarried women. .
Niu-ch‘uang, Niu Ch'wang (Néoo-chooding) F1. Manchuria.

PCI (1869) 2 men (1 physician) 1 wife.

SPGC (1892) 1 man, 1 wife.
Nodoa C6. Puane fag

PN (1892) 4 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman.
Nyenhangli, see Nien-hang-li, Kuang-tung.

oO
O-mi-t‘o (Ot-mé-tdii)=Amita (Buddha).
P

Pa C., Pa-cheo (Ba) C3. Ssti-ch‘uan.

CIM (1887) 3 unmarried women.
Pagote Anchorage E4. Fuchien, :

CFM (1890) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.

Pak-hoi, see Pei-hai, Kuang-tung.
Pa-k‘ou (Ba-k6) El. Chih-li.

CM 4 men, 2 wives. cs
Pan Chao (Ban Jow), a famous woman historian.
P‘ang-chuang (Pang-jooing) E2. Shan-tung. .

ABCFM (1880) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 2 unmarried women.
ra (Pang-hi) C4. Kuei-chou.

CIM (1897). ee ahs
Pan Ku (Ban Goo), historian of the Han dynasty.
P‘an Ku (Pan Goo), mythical artificer of the universe.
Pao-ch‘ing F., Pao-k'ing (Bow-ching) D4. Hu-nan.

CIM (1903) 2 men.

WMS 2 men.
Pao-ning F. (Bow-ning) C3. Ssti-ch‘uan.

CIM (1886) 3 men (1 physician), 1 wife, 3 other women.
Pao-ting F. (Bow-ding) E2. Chih-li.

ABCFM (1873) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 unmarried woman.

PN (1893) 5 men (1 physician), 4 wives, 4 other women (1 physician),
Pao-t‘ou, Pao-t‘eo (Bow-t6) Cl. Mongolia.

“CIM (1903) 1 man, 1 wife.
Pei (ba)=north.
Pei-hai (Ba-hi) C5. Kuang-tung.

CMS (1886) 6 men (3 physicians), 3 wives, 5 other women.
Pei T'ang (Ba Tang), name of Catholic cathedral in Peking.
Peking=Pei-ching (Ba-jing) El, 2. Chih-li.

ABCFM (1862) 2 men, 2 wives, 5 other women.

CBM (1888) 1 man, 1 wife. :

LMS (1861) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).

ME (1869) 7 men (2 P ysicians), 6 wives, 6 other women (1 physician).

PN (1863) 6 men (1 physician), 6 wives, 5 other women (1 physician).

SPGC (1863) 2 men, 4 unmarried women.
Phyangthong, E5. Kuang-tung.

B 2 men, 1 wife.
Pting-i H. (Ping-é) B4. Yiin-nan.

CIM (1904) 1 man.
Pin aoe - (Ping-léang) C2. Kan-su.

CIM (1895) 1 man, 1 wife, 3 other women.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 193

 

P‘ing-nan H. (Ping-nin) E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS 2 unmarried women (1 physician).
Pting-tu C. (Ping-doo) E2. Shan-tung.
SBC (1885) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
P‘ing-yang H., P‘ing-iang (Ping-yang) F4. Ché-chiang.
cIM (1874) 1 man, 1 wife.
Pting-yang F., P‘ing-iang (Ping-yang) D2. Shan-hsi.
Cc (1879) 2 men, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Pting-yao H., P‘ing-iao (Ping-yow) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1888) 2 men, 2 wives.
P‘ing-yin H. (Ping-yin) E2. Shan-tung.
SPGC (1879) 1 man, 1 wife.
Pi Shéng (Be Shing), inventor of movable type.
Po C. (Bou) E3. An-hui.
IBM 1 man.
Port Arthur F2. Manchuria.
DM (1896) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Pu-chou F., Pu-cheo (Boo-j5) D3. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1903) 2 unmarried women.
P‘u T‘o (Poo Toit), name of a sacred island.

R

Rao-cheo, see Jao-chou F., Chiang-hsi.
Running Fu, see Ju-ning F., Ho-nan.

s

Samho-pa, see San-ho, Kuang-tung. !
eae Chuang, Sang-kia-chuang (Sang-jéi Jocing) C3. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1894) 1 unmarried woman.
Sang-yong E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS (1894) 3 unmarried women.
San-ho (San-hoti) Ed. Kuang-tung.
PCE (1895) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
San Kuo (Sin Goodi)=Three Kingdoms.
San-shui H. (Sin-shood) C2. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1897) 1 man, 1 wife.
San-yiian H. (Sin-yiiin) C3. Shen-hsi.
BMS 1 man.
Sa-yong E4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS (1893) 2 unmarried women.
Schakkok D5. Kuang-tung.
BnI 1 man, 1 wife.
Sha-ho-tzit (Sh&-hoti-dstt), see An-tung H. Manchuria.
Shai-k‘i-tien, see Shé-ch‘i Tien, Ho-nan.
Shan (shin) =mountain.
Shang (Shang), a dynastic name. .
Shang-ch‘ing, Shang-ts‘ing (Shing-ching) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1893) 2 unmarried women.
Shanghai H. (Shing-hi) F3. Chiang-su.
ABS (1876) 3 men, 2 wives.
BFBS 3 men, 1 wife. :
’ BFSS (1895) 1 man, 1 wife. bese 2
BMS 1 man in connection with Diffusion Society.
CA 1 man, 1 wife.
CIM (1854) 8 men, 7 wives, 8 other women.
CMS (1845) 5 men, 4 wives, 3 other women. :
CP 1 man in connection with Diffusion Society, 1 wife.
FCMS (1891) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
LMS (1843) 3 men, 3 wives, 2 other women.
INDEPENDENT 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
104 APPENDIX D

 

ME 2 men, 2 wives.

MES (1848) 5 men, 4 wives, 9 other women.

PE (1853) 13 men ‘3 physicians), 9 wives, 10 other women (3 physicians).
PN aaa 9 men, 6 wives, 5 other women.

PS 1 man, 1 woman.

SBC (1847) 3 men, 3 wives, 2 other women.

SDB (1847) 2 men, 2 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
USCE 1 man, 1 wife.

WMS 1 man in connection with Diffusion Society, 1 wife.
WU (1881) 6 unmarried women (4 physicians).

YMCA (1898) 5 men, 5 wives, 1 other woman.

YWCA (1903) 1 unmarried woman.

Shang ‘Ti (Shang Dé)=Supreme Ruler, a leading Chinese deity; God.

SHAN-HSI (Shin-she). This province ‘has workers of the following societies:
ABCFM, BMS, BZM, CIM, UNCONNECTED.

SAHAN-TUNG (Shin-doong). This province has workers of the following
societies: ABCFM, AEPM, BFBS, BMS, BnI, BZM, CIM, CM, IBM, ME,
MNC, PN, SBC, SBM, SCM, SPGC, UNCONNECTED.

Shao- or Shaou-Hing, see Shao-hsing F., Ché-chiang.

Shao-hsing F., Shaohsing (Show-shing) F3. Ché-chiang.

ABMU (1869) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives.
CIM (1866) 2 men, 1 wife, 2 other women.
CMS (1870) 1 man, 1 wife, 3 other women.
INDEPENDENT 1 man.

Shao-wu F. (Show-woo) E4. Fu-chien.

ABCFM (1877) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife, 3 other women.

Shao-yang (Show-yang), a city giving its name to an English Mission
which was blotted out by the Boxers.

Sha-shih, Shashi (Sha-sher) D3. Hu-pei.

SMF (1896) 3 men, 2 wives.

Shasi, see Sha-shih, Hu-pei.

Shé-chi Tien (Shii-ché Déén) D3. Ho-nan.
CIM (1886) 1 physician, 1 wife.

Shén (Shin), one name for God ; god, gods.

Shéng Ching (Shing Jing) = Holy’ Banon, Bible. Shéng-ching, Manchuria’s
southern division.

SHEN-HSI (Shen-shé in Chinese is pronounced just as is Shan-hsi, except
that the tone of the first word differs). This province has workers of the
following societies: BMS, BZM, CIM, SAM.

Shih Ching (Sher Jes one of the “Five Classics.

Shih Huang-ti (Sher Whing-dé), a builder of the Gist Wall.

Shih-tao H. (Sher-dow) F2. Shan-tung.

CM 1 man, 1 wife.
Shiu-hing, see Hsin-hsing H., Kuang-tung.
Shui-chou F., Shui-cheo-fu (Shooa-ja) 4. Chiang-hsi.
CM 2 men, 1 wife.
Shun (Shoon), a famous early emperor.
Shun-ch‘ing F., Shuen-k‘ing (Shoon-ching) C3. Sst-ch‘uan.
CIM (1896 i man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Shun-té F., Shun-teh (Shoon-di) D2. Chih-li.
CIM (1 888) 1 man, 1 woman.
PN (1893) 1 man (1 physician), 1 wife, 1 other woman (physician).

Shu, Shu Ching (Shoo, Shoo Jing) =" Book of History.”

Shii-ting, see Sui-ting F., Eu eh ua

Si-an, see Hsi-an F., Shen-!

Siang Hsien, see Hsiang-ch‘ bag H., Ho-nan.

Siangtan, see Hsiang-t‘an H., u-nan.

Siao-shi, ‘see Hsiao-shih, Ssii-ch‘uan.

Sieng-iu, see Hsien-yu t., Fu-chien.

Sien-kii, see Hsien-chii H., poe ane.

Sih-cheo, see Hsi C., Shan-hs

Si-hsiang, see Hsi-hsiang H., Shen-hsi.

Si-hua, see Hsi-hua H., ‘Ho-nan.

Sin-an, see Hsin-an H., Ho-nan.

Sin-ch‘ang, see Hsin-ch‘ang H., Ché-chiang.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 195

 

Sin-féng, see Hsin-féng H., Chiang-hsi.
Si-ngan, see Hsi-an F., Shen-hsi.
Singiu, see Hsien-yu H., Fu-chien.
Si-ning, see Hsi-ning F., Kan-su.
Sin-tien-tsi, see Hsin-tien-tzii, Ssii-ch‘uan. .
Sinyong, see Hsin-yang C., Ho-nan.
Sio-ke, Sio-Khe E5. Fu-chien.
RCA (1887) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman.
Song-iang, see Sung-yang H., Ché-chiang.
Soochow, see Su-chou F., Chiang-su.
So-p‘ing F., Bebe ‘ing (Sdu-ping D1. Shan-hbsi.
CIM (1895
pe A
CH‘UAN (Ssti-choodin). This province has workers of the following so-
cieties: ABMU, ABS, BFBS, CIM, CMS, FCMS (native workers), FFMA,
LMS, MCC, ME, NBS, SDK.
Ssii Hai (Ssii Hi) =“ Four Seas,’’ name of China.
Ssii-ma Ch‘ien (Ssti-ma, Chéén), China’s Herodotus.
Ssi-ma Kuang (Ssti-ma Gooding), a Sung Dynasty historian.
Ssti Shu (Ssti Shoo) =‘‘ Four Books.”
Suabue 5. Kuang: ikea
PCE (1893) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Sii-cheo, see Hsti-chou K., Ssii-ch‘uan.
Suchien, see Hsii-ch‘ien, ‘Chiang-su.
Su-chou F. (Soo-j6) F3.’ Chiang-su. ae
pe ee 8 men (2 physicians), 8 wives, 6 other women (1 physician).
men.
PN (1871) 3 men, 3 wives, 4 other women (2 physicians).
PS (1872) 4 men ‘a physician), 4 wives, 4 other women.
SBC (1875) 2:men, 2 wives.
Sui (Sooé), name of a dynasty.
Sui_C. (Sooé) D3. Hu-pei.
S 2 men, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Suifu, Suichaufu, see Hsti-chou F., y Chlangreu,
Suiling, oe Sui-ning H., Ssti-ch‘ua:
Sui-ning H. (Sooé-n' zg)" C3. Scheer,
ME 1 man, 1w
Sui-ting F. (Soo8-ding) C3. Ssit-ch‘uan.
CIM (1899) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 4 other women.
Sui-yang, see Sui C., Hu-pei.
Sung (Soong), name of a dynasty.
Sung-chiang F. (Soong-jéding) fee Chiang-su.
(1884) 2 men, 1 wife, 3 other women.
Sung-yang H. (Soong-yang 4. Ché-chiang.
cIM (1896) 1 man, 1 wife.
Su Tung-p‘o (Soo Doong- poi), a poet of the Sung Dynasty.
Swatau=(Shan-t‘ou, Shan-tow) E5. Kuang-tung.
ABMU (1842) 6 men (1 physician), 6 wes 4 other women (1 physician),
PCE (1856) 6 men (2 physicians), 5 wives, 5 other women (2 phy-
sicians).
Swatow, see Swatau. Kuang-tung.
Syu-yin=Syn yin D4. Kuang-tung.
Bal (1893) 2 men 2 wives.

T

Ta-chien-lu T., Ta-tsien-lu (D4-jéén-loo) B3. Ssti-ch‘uan.

CIM (1897) 3 men, 1 wife.
Ta Ch‘ing Kuo (Da Ching Gwéti)="‘Great Pure Kingdom,” a name of China,
T‘ai-an F. (Ti-an) E2. Shan-tung.

a 3 men, 3 wives, 3 other women.

man, ‘1 ess 2 other women (1 physician).

SPGC (1878) 1 m

T‘ai Chi (Ti J aa Gren Extreme,” a philosophical term.
196 APPENDIX D

 

T‘ai-chou F., T’ai-cheo (Ti-j6) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1867) 3 men (1 ease 2 wives.

CMS (1892) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman.
T‘ai-ho H. (Ti-héi) E3. An-hui.

CIM (1892) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.

T‘ai-k‘ang H. (Ti-kang) F3. Ho-nan.
CIM (1895) 1 man, 1 wife.
T’ai-ku H. (Ti-goo) D2. Shan-hsi.

ABCFM (1883) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Tai-ming F., Ta-ming (Di-ming) E2. Chih-li.

SCM 5 men, 2 wives, 10 other women.
Tai-ngan Fu, see T‘ai-an F., Shan-tung. 7
T‘ai P‘ing (Ti Ping)=Great Peace; name of the T‘ai P'ing rebels.
T‘ai-p‘ing H. (Ti-ping) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1898) 1 man, 1 wife.
Taping (Di-ping) D5. Kuang-tung.

1 man, 1 wife. >

T‘ai-p‘ing-tien (Ti-ping-déén) D3. Hu-pei.

HSK 1 man, 1 wife. .
T‘ai Shan (Ti Shin)=a most sacred mountain.
T‘ai Tsung (Ti Dsoong), the second T‘ang emperor.
T‘ai-yiian F., T‘ai-yuen (Ti-yiian) D2. Shan-hsi.

BMS (1878) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives.

Tak Hing Chau, see Té-ch'ing C., Heats tng: , 7 Joie
Ta-ku (Da-goo), location of forts at mouth of the Pei Ho in Chib-li.
Ta-ku-shan H. (Ta-goo-shin) F2. Manchuria.

DM (1896) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.

Ta-ku-t‘ang (D4-goo-ting) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1873) 1 man, 1 woman.
Ta-li F. (Da-lé) B4. Ytin-nan.

CIM (1881) 3 men (1 Riyeleian), 7 j s z

Teuen Wan (D4-léén Wan), a peninsula in Manchuria, part of Liao-
ung.
T‘ang-shan, Tong-shan (Tang-shin) E2. Chih-li.

MNC (1884) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.

T'ang (Tang)=name of a dynasty and of an emperor.
T'ang Shan (Tang Shan)=Hills of T’ang.
Ta-ning H. (Da-ning) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1885) 2 unmarried women.
Tantong D5. Kuang-tung.
RM 1 man, 1 wife.
Tao (Dow)= Reason, etc.; see page 58.
T‘ao-chou T., Tao-cheo (‘Pow-ja) B3. Kan-su.
CA 3 men, 1 wife.
Taoism (Dowism). | 2
Tao-t'ai (dow-ti), an intendant of circuit.
Tao-té Ching tae Sos Jing), name of Taoist Scriptures.
He ise Hui (Da Dow Hooa), Great Sword Society, a name applied to the
oxers.
Ta-t‘ong, see Ta-t‘ung, An-hui. _
Ta-t‘ung (Da-toong), £3. An-bui.

CA 1 man, 1 wife.

Ta-t‘ung F., Ta-t‘ong (Da-toong) D1. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1886) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.

Té-an H. (Di-in) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CM 2 men, 1 wife.
Té-an F. (Di-in) D3. Ht-pei.
S 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Té-ch‘ing C. (Dii-ching) D5. Kuang-tung.

RP (1897) 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women (1 physician).
Té-ngan F., see Té-an F., Hu-pei.
Teh-ngan-hsien, see Té-an H., Chiang-hsi.
Heng chee F., Tengchow (Ding-jo) Fe. Shan-tung.

PN (1861) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women.

SBC (1860) 3 men, 3 wives, 2 other women.
PRONOUNCING INDEX 197

 

Thong-thau-ha D5. Kuang-tung.

man.
Tiao-chin Chiao (Téow-jin Jéow)=name of the Jews.
T‘ien Ch‘ao (Téén Chow)=Heavenly Dynasty.
Tien Chu Chiao (Téén Joo Jéow)=Catholics.
Tien Hsia (Téén Shéd)=name of China.
Tien Kuo oe Goodi), T’ai P‘ings’ name of their dynasty.
Ttien-t‘ai H. (Téén-ti) F4. Ché-chiang.
_CIM (1898) 1 man, 1 wife.
Tientsin=T‘ien-ching F. (Téén-jing) E2. Chih-li.
ABCFM (1860) 2 men, 2 wives, 1 unmarried woman.
ABS 1 man, 1 wife.
BFBS 1 man, 1 wife.
CIM (1888) 1 man, 1 wife.
LMS (1861) 4 men, (1 physician), 4 wives.
ME 4 men, 3 wives, 4 other women (2 physicians).
MNC (1859) 2 men, 2 wives.

NBS 1 man.

SPGC (1890) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.

YMCA (1895) 2 men, 2 wives. J
Ting (ting), name of a provincial division smaller than a fu, and also of its

capital.

Tong-an, see T‘ung-an H., Fu-chien.
Tong-cheo, see T‘ung-chou F., Shen-hsi.
T‘ong-chi, see T’ung-chih, Kan-su.
Tong-Chuan, see Tung-ch‘uan F., Yiin-nan.
Tong-hsiang, see Tung-hsiang H., Chiang-hsi.
T’ong-lu, see T‘ung-lu H1., Ché-chiang.
Tsai Ako (probably Dsi Agoi), Morrison’s first convert.
Tsai-li (Dsi-lé), name of a secret sect.
Ts‘ao (Tsow), title of the woman historian Pan Chao.
Ts‘ang C. (Tsing) E2. Chih-li. :

LM Gav) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Ts‘ao-chou F. (Tsow-j5) E2. Shan-tung.

SCM 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Tsao-shih (Dsow-sher) D3. Hu-pei.

LMS 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
Tschi-chin D4. uang-tung.

BnI (1898) 1 man, 1 wife.
Tschong-hang-kang, see Tsong-hang-kung, Kuang-tung.
Tschongtshun, see Tsong-shun, Kuang-tung.
Tschu-tong-au D5. Kuang-tung.

Bul (1891) 2 men, 1 wife. 7
Tsé-chou F. (Dsti-j6) D2. Shan-hsi.

UNCONNECTED 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Ts‘én Ch‘un-hsiian (Tstin Choon-Shiiin), a famous governor and states-

man of the present day.
Tséng (Dsting), a Chinese surname.
Tsen-i, see Tsun-i F., Ssti-ch‘uan.
Tsicheo, see Tzii C., Ssti-ch‘uan.
Tsimo, see Chi-mo H., Shan-tung.
Ts‘in (Tsin), an_early name of China.
Ts‘in-cheo, see Ch‘in-C., Kan-su. .
Ts‘ing-kiang-p‘u, see Ch‘ing-chiang H., Chiang-su.
Tsing-ning, see Ching-ning C., Kan-su.
Tsingtau=Ch'in-t‘ou (Chin-ts) F2. Shan-tung.

AEPM (1898) 3 men (1 physician), 1 wife.

BnI (1898) 3 men, 3 wives, 2 other women.

PN (1898) 1 man, 1 wife. 7
Tsin-tiin, see Chin-yin H., Ché-chiang
Tsong-hang-kung D5._ Kuang-tung.

B (1883) 2 men, 1 wife.
Tsong-shun E5. Kuang-tung.

B (1864) 3 men, 2 wives. 2
Tso-ylin H., Tso-iiin (Tsoti-yiin) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1895) 2 men.
198 APPENDIX D

 

Tsung-li Ya-mén (Dsoong-lé Ya-miin), former name of the Foreign Office.
Tsun-i F. (Dsoon-é) C4. Kuei-chou.
CIM (1902) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman. 7
Tu-chia-p‘u (Doo-jé4-poo) in northwestern Chiang-hsi.
CM 1 man, 1 wife.
Tu Fu (Doo Foo), name of a T‘ang Dynasty poet.
Tung (doong)= Last. Se
Tung’ C., Tung-cho (Toong) F:2. _Chih-li. 2
ABCFM (1867) 7 men (1 physician), 6 wives, 4 other women.
LMS | man, 1 wife (in the Unio’ vollege of ABCFM, LMS, PN).
Tung-an H. (Doong-a4n) E2. Chih-li,
LMS (1897) 1 man, 1 wife. .
T‘ung-an H. (Toong-an) E5. Fu-chien.
RCA (1895) 2 unmarried women.
T‘ung-chih H. (Toong-jer) C2. Kan-su.
CIM (1899) 1 man. | 7
T‘ung-chou F. (Toong-j6) D2, 3. Shen-hsi.
CL (1891) 3 men, 1 wife, 2 other women.
T'ung-ch‘uan F., Tung-chuan (Toong-chooiin) C3. Ssti-ch‘uan.
FF (1900) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women (1 physician).
Tung-ch‘uan F. (Doong-chooin) B4. Ytin-naa.
BCMS (1892) 2 men, 2 wives. ‘ 7
Tung-hsiang H. (Doong-shéing) E4. Chiang-hsi.
IM (1903) 2 unmarried women.
Tung-kuan H. (Doong-gooaén) D5. Kuang-tung.
M 5 men (2 physicians), 4 wives.
Tungkun, see Tung-kuan H., Kuang-tung.
Tung-lu H. (Toong-loo) F3, 4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1900) 1 man. F
Tung-t'ing Hu (Doong-ting Hoo), name of China’s largest lake.
Tung T‘u (Doong Too}, a Mohammedan name for China.
Tu-shan C., Tuh-shan (Doo-shin) C4. Kuei-chou.
CIM (1893) 2 men, 1 wife.
Tzu C. (Dsti) C4. Ssti-ch‘uan.
E 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
Tz‘t-ho (Tsti-h6t) D3. ‘u-pei.
Hi 1 man, 1 wife.
Tzti Hsi (Dzi Shé), part of the Empress Dowager’s title.

U

Uan Hsien, see Wan-H., Ssti-ch‘uan.
en-cheo, see Wén-chou F., Ché-chiang.
en-cheo, see Yiian-chou F., Chiang-hsi.
en-cheo, see Yiian-chou F., Hu-nan.
h-shan, see Yi-shan H., Chiang-hsi.
-hu, see Wu-hu H., An-hui.
in-ch‘eng, see Yiin-ch‘éng, Shan-hsi.
in-ho, see Yiin-ho H., Ché-chiang.
in-nan Fu, see Yiin-nan F., Yiin-nan.

U-kong, see Wu-kung H., Shen-hsi.
ngkung, see Yung-kung m., Kuang-tung.
-u, see Yi-wu, Shan-hsi.

Ww

Wai-wu Pu (Wi-woo Boo), the Board of Foreign Affairs.

Wan H. (Wan) C3. Ssit-ch‘uan.
CIM 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.

Wan-chi=Wan-ch'ih (Wan-cher). An-hui.
CA 3 unmarried women.

Wang Chao (Wang Jow), a secretary of the Board of Rites, referred to in
Chapter VIII,
PRONOUNCING INDEX 199

 

we H. ey E2.  Chih-li.

CM
Wei H. (Wa) E E2, Shan-tung.
PN (1882) 7 men (physician), 7 wives, 3 other women (1 physician).
Wei-hai-wei (W4-hi-wa) F2. Shan-tung.
CM 4 men (1 physician), 4 wives.
SPGC 2 men, 2 wives.
Weihien, Wei Hien, see Wei H., Shan-tung.
Wei-hui F. (Wa-whi) D2. Ho-nan.
PCC 4 men ( ce 4 wives.
Wén-chou F., mchow (Win-jd) F4. Ché-chiang.
CIM (1867) 2 men, 1 wife, 3 other women.
UMEFC (1877) 5 men (1 hysician), 4 wives.
Wén-téng H. ( i dung) 2. Shan-tung.
CM a 1 wife.
Wong-buang F4. Fu-chien.
CEZMS (1893) 3 unmarried women.
Wu (Woo), a Chinese surname.
Wu-ch‘ang F. Kwyporobane) D3. Hu-pei.
CA 1 man, 1
ar {867 2 mee (1 physician), 2 wives, 2 other women (1 phy-

an).
PE (1868) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 4 other women (1 physician).
SMF (1890) 5 men, 3 wives, 3 other women.
WMS 2 men, 2 wives, 3 other women (1 physician).
Wu-ch‘éng (Woo-chiing). Chiang-hsi.
CM 2 men, 2 ess 7 other women.
Wu Ching (Woo eS a Five Classics.”
Wu-ching-fu (Woo-jing-foo) E5. Kuang-tung.
PCE (1865) 4 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 3 other women.
Wu-chou F. (Woo-js) D5. Kuang-hsi.
BFBS 1 man, 1 wife.
CA 15 men, 6 wives, 6 other women.
SBC 1 man (physician), 1 wife, 1 other woman.
WMS 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife.
Wu-hsi H. (Woo-shé) F3. Chiang-su.
PE 2 men, 1 wife.
Wu-hstieh (Woo-shiieh) E4. Hu-pei.
WMS 2 men, 2 wives.
Wu-hu H. (Woo-hoo) E3. An-hui.
1 man, 1 wife.
on 5 men, 3 wives, 1 other woman.
IM (1894) 1 man, 1 wife.
FoMS (1890) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
DEPENDENT 1 unmarried woman.
ME 2 men ( a phy sieiet)s 2 wives, 1 other woman.
Wukinfu, see -ching-fu, Fu-chien.
Wu-kung H. (Woo-goong) C3. Shen-hsi.
CIM (1903) 2 unmarried women.
Wusih, see Wu-hsi H. meanest
Wusueh, see Wu-hsiich, Hu-pe
Wu-ting F.. (Woo-ding) E2. Then hing.
MNC 1 man, 1 wife.

Y

Ya-chou F., Yachow (Y4-j6) B3. Ssii-chu‘an.
ABMU (1894) 2 men (1 physician).
Ya-mén hye malt), name of an official residence and office.
at ang).
H. (Yang) C3. Shen-hsi.

voor ( (1896) 2 unmarried women.
Yang-chiang T. (Yang-jéang) D5. Kuang-tung,

PN (1893) 3 men (1 physician), 2 wives.
360 ; APPENDIX D

 

Yang-chou F. (Yang-j5) E3. Chiang-su. : .
CIM (1868) 2 men, 2 wives, 15 other women including students.
ME 1 man. 5
SBC (1891) 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.

Yang-k‘ou (Yang-ko) E4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1890) 3 unmarried women. . .
Yang-tzii Kiang=Chiang (Yang-dsti Géang or Jéing), China’s largest river.
Yao (Yow), name of emperor.

Yeh-su Chiao (Yéh-soo Jéow), name of Protestants.

Yen-ch‘éng H. (Yén-chting) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1902) 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.
Yen-chou F. (Yén-j6) E4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1902) 1 man.

Yen-p‘ing F. (Yén-ping) E4. Fu-chien.

ME 1 man, 1 wife, 2 other women.

Yeung Kong, see Yang-chiang H., Kuang-tung.

Yi Ching (Yé Jing), one of the ‘' Five Classics.”

Yin-chia-wei (Yin-jé4-w4) C3. Shen-hsi.

CIM (1895) 3 unmarried women.

Yin-fa D4. Kuang-tung.

BnuI 1 man, 1 wife.

Ying C. (Ying) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1897). : 2
Ying-chou F. (Ying-j6) E3. An-hui.

CIM (1897) 2 men.
eee H. (Ying-shin) C3. Ssti-ch‘uan.

CIM (1898) 3 unmarried women.

Ying-Tak, see Ying-té H., Kuang-tung.

Ying-té H. (Ying-di) D5. Kuang-tung.

SBC 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives, 1 other woman.
Yo-chou F. (Y6ti-jo) D4. Hu-nan.

RCUS 3 men (1 physician), 3 wives, 2 other women.
Yu (Yi), a famous early monarch.

Yiian (Ytiin), a dynastic name.

Ytian-chou F. (Yiiin-j5) D4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1903) 1 man, 1 wife.

Yiian-chou F. (Yiiin-jd) C4. Hu-nan.

CIM (1903) 3 men.

Ytieh-yang H. (Yiieh-yang) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1896) 1 man.

Yu Hsien (YU Shéén), a governor who greatly aided the Boxers.

Yuin-cheo, see Yung-chou F., Hu-nan.

Yiin-ch‘éng (Ytin-chting) D2. Shan-hsi.

CIM (1888) 2 men, 1 wife.

Yung Chéng (Yoong Jting), name of an emperor.

Yung-chou F. (Yoong-j6) D4. Hu-nan.

CMS 1 man.

Yung-ch‘un C. (Yoong-choon) E4. Fu-chien.

PCE (1894) 2 men (1 physician), 1 wife, 3 other women,
Yung-fu H. (Yoong-foo) E4. Fu-chien.

ABCFM 1 man, I wife, 2 other women (1 physician).
Yung-hsin H. (Yoong-shin) D4. Chiang-hsi.

CIM (1899) 3 unmarried women.

Yung-k‘ang H. (Yoong-kang) F4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1882) 1 man, 1 wife, 1 other woman.
Yung-kung m. (Yoong-goong) E5. Kuang-tung.

ABMU (1892) 1 man, 1 wife.

Yung Lo (Yoong Loi), name of an emperor.

Yung-ning H. (Yoong-ning) D3. Ho-nan.

CIM (1900) 2 unmarried women.

Yung-p‘ing F. (Yoong-ping) E2. _Chib-li.

MNC 2 men (1 physician), 2 wives.

Yun Ho (Yin H6u), name of the Grand Canal.

Yiin-ho H. (Yiin-hou) E4. Ché-chiang.

CIM (1895) 3 unmarried women.
PRONOUNCING INDEX son

 

YUN-NAN (Yiin-nin). This province has workers of the following societies:
BCMS, BFBS, CIM. .
Ytin-nan F. (Yiin-n4n) B4. Ytin-nan.
BCMS (1885) 1 physician, 1 wife.
CIM (1882) 4 men, 2 wives, 1 other woman.
Yii-shan H. (Yii-shain) E4. Chiang-hsi.
CIM (1877) 3 unmarried women.
Yii-wu (Yti-woo) D2. Shan-hsi.
CIM (1896) 2 men, 1 wife.
APPENDIX E—Statistics of Missions in China for 1904

 

a

Foreign missionaries,

     

 

 
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

    
   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

including physicians. ¢ Stations. Native constituency. Educational. Medical.
o
s “ :
gq § 3 3 R a : 3
= . d/zie| 4 [é j B | ¢ gH) oe
vv Zz ; e gS a be a Pea-] aie o + 3 g 7
NAMES OF SOCIETIES. 3 é. g E : 8 z 5 5a 2 $8 3 ; g 2 3 ee ¢ P A A
5 am 8 i a 4 ‘a as 3 5S 7 a 3 2S q ag be 5.
= ~ oe = 2 a. & a a2 S ae ae 3 a a = Ba og | og a3
eae =a s & ld¢ 9 ‘a. | os ‘a 25 ge 8 a 5 e | FE | 2 2
as eo 3 3 3 Eo -e Bo aS § ag Lf a = = cs las | ad 2E
5 | 3 | 2/3) 8 |e] 2 Jee] 32 £2 ee | 63 : s | 8 182| 82/42) 88
ee ao ‘a 5 ‘a | 6S 2 5% | 2S g ¢ 34 £ i a 3 ta) 32) 88 2m
gk 3.4 3] 2] 2 |se] S [Sf] 22 g 88 g& > a *% B Jee] sel] oa ee
~ a o/b | = lo Zz |e o 5 < a A a x a ie |e |e a
American Societies.
American Advent Mission Society................- AA 1904 1897 2 exe 2 4 28 6 277 _— 650 6 249 a = Penn ees =
American Baptist Missionary Union............ ABMU 1903 1843 31 7 30 16 267 14 223 4,121 10,582 4,064 43 682 10 299 7 4 —_— _
American Bible Society....................-52. ABS 1904 1876 2 6 4]; — 66 6 — — == — oe ore — — ees fe aes [ne =
American Board of Foreign Missions.......... ABCFM | ’03-04 1830 32 9 39 19 458 16 276 7,674 10,859 3,003 164 3,094 22 770 10 6} 14 56,547
Canton Christian College....................005- ccc 1905 1887 1 5 3 _ 3 1 = = — _ — _— 1 65 1 _ 1 ne
Christian and Missionary Alliance................. CA 1904 1889 19 8 17 | 18 52 16 7 422 71 5 50 | 2 = — — — eae
Christian Missionary Society .................. FCMS 1904 1886 33 9 13) 6 75 9 15 745 a 510 11 230 | 2 90 4 1 3 27 844
Cumberland Presbyterian Board.................. CP 1904 1897 2 1 3/ 2 6 2 — 18 30 25 x 3B/ oo a 1 dina! 1 5.000
Friends’ Board of Foreign Missions............. AFFM 1904 1890 3 1 st ee, 19. 2 | 4 120 600 111 3 58 | 1 40 1 2 2 4,287
Gospel Mission, Independent Baptist............. IBM 2 1892 4 = 3] 3 ee 3 -- 20 = ea oe = = — a ms = =
Hauges Synod China Mission.................--- HSK 1904 1894 4 1 5 3 57 4 16 183 —_— a 25 560 | 1 7 1 _ 1 1,784
Kerr Refuge for the Insane....................-. KRI 1903 _— = 1 —| 1 1 1 _ = c=, = et ll = — 1 ones 1 a
Methodist Board of Missions.................--05 ME | 1903 1847 49 | 13 | 46) 74] 1,344 | 21) 236 | 924,117 15,370 | 13.473 | 305 | 6.201 , 27 | 1,934 | 13] 18] 20 87,669
Methodist Board, South.................0.0000. MES | 1904 1848 15 5 | 14| 16 182 6| 12 1,482 1,258 2,525 29 842 8 623 3 1 4 34,501
Methodist Church, Canada...................0-: MCC | ’03-04 1891 13 1 8) — ax 2 | 15 3 = = 2 40 ae aS 6 == 2 =e
Methodist Protestant Woman’s Society.......... MPW 1 1900 wes — a= == = at — peers ae = a= tes 2S = oo an a= es
Norwegian Lutheran China Mission............ ANCM 2 1899 4 1 5 4 3 1 36 240 — 4 66 = = 1 = a oes
Presbyterian Board of Missions, North............. PN | ’02-04 1845 79 | 25 | 81) 56 589 | 26 | 368 | 13,063 2,350 5,389 203 | 3,449 17 565 | 20] 15] 26] 116,357
Presbyterian Church, Canada............-.------ PCC 1903 1888 13 2 13 | 6 24 4 73 236 | 214 = 3 18 — a 3 2 3 ‘941
Presbyterian Church, South...............---0005- PS | 1904 1867 22 6 | 24| 19 5z | 10! 43 728 551 1,053 7 170 7 161 6 3] 10 47,512
Protestant Episcopal Missionary Society............ PE | 1904 1845 24 8| 20| 18 100 | 59 | 5 1,606 4,439 — 51 | 1,124 2 140 4 3} 11 65,227
Reformed Church in the United States.......... RCUS 1905 1899 4 1 4 4 6 2 | 1 100 ae 50 4 90 —— —_ Dope ce 2 ‘2
Reformed Church of America, Foreign Board..... RCA 1903 1842 5 1 5 10 87 4 | 43 1,447 | _ = 13 250 8 409 2 = 4 12,485
Reformed Presbyterian Church Mission........++--- RP | 04-05 1898 3 1 3 3 oe 1 = 23 0C~«*: = = mae ra om — 1} 2 = pies
Scandinavian American Free Mission............ SAFM 2 1888 1 —|— 2 15 1] 2 100 | = = 3 100 et —_ —|/-| — =
Seventh-day Adventists Mission ................ SDA 1904 1887 4 2 5 3 6 7 es 29 cn es 1 cae a =< 2| 2 3 oo
Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Society.......... SDB 1904 1847 1 2 a). 8 12 2 1 66 30 80 3 180 74 pet Bh et 1 1 932
South Chih-li Mission ............... 0.000 eee eee SCM 2 — 1 8 4 11 5 |
Southern Baptist Convention........... ae 1845 24 3 25 | 15 93 12 82 3,740 | — 2,142 | 43 1,055 1 30 5 1 3 5,140
Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant 1890 5} — 3) 2 10 24 4 100 150 — | 4 a 1 50 1 = 1 2,647
United Brethren in Christ Woman’s Association.. UBW 1904 1889 3 1 4 1 25 2 5 Wiz | 189 85 6 187 1 20 1 1 1 15,181
United Evangelical Church Society................ U 1904 1900 5 — 2! 1 4 2 2 15 —_— _ 2 24 = = = = <= =
United Society of Christian Endeavor........... USCE 1904 as 1 ae 1 | a = a
Woman’s Union Missionary Society............... WU 1904 1881 = — Sati 3B 2 1 1 90 | 50 120 | 3 80 1 32 ae ee 1 45,000
Yale Foreign Missionary Society.............. YFMS 1905 1903 2 1 Bo) ee oe 1 ao | 1 1 ao =
Young Men’s Christian Ass’n, North America. . YMCA 1905 1895 1 13 12 1 aoe 6 a = aks es —
Young Women’s Christian Ass’n, North America. YWCA 1904 1903 —— ae as 1 eis ; oa as om =a = = ae —|- is la
British Societies. |
Baptist Missionary Society .............e0eee-0- BMS | 03-04 1874 30| —| 20) — 74 6 310 4,161 _— 707 _ 1,181 = = 6; 2] ill 16,965
Baptist Zenana Mission ...............eee eee eee BZM 1904 1893 — _— —_ 8 24 4 173 — 563 pees | 32 194 3 72 ah tS == pais
Bivie Christian Missionary Society.............. BCMS 1904 1886 et 5 3 6 2 2 59 186 205 | 2 100 1 8 eo 1 3,000
British and Foreign Bible Society .............. BFBS 1904 a 4 11 9 pe 258 12 a mas ah aS
British and Foreign Sailors’ Society ............ BFSS 1904 1895 = 1 1 — = a a = oe a co = = —}|—| ~—| — Le
Christian Missions sic: cici.s06a shin Sesiesis oo eis aie ace svererorees eure "04-05 1885 a 27 20 | 17 eas 16 6 a a eas 4 50 — a 2 =
Church Missionary Society... ........-.0-2 eee e eee CMS | 03-04 1845 48 32 64 | 52 445 37 — 6,202 16,656 — 263 5,557 19 100 9| 3 14 157,049
Church of England Zenana Missionary Society..CEZMS | 03-04 1880 ae | — 43 129 12 _— — — 5 533 | 15 381 —)| 8 3 12,932
Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Com........ CSFM 1904 1878 2 2 4 4 35 1 11 961 255 _— 8 188 1 21 2; 1 it 7,850
Friends’ Foreign Mission Association............ FFMA 1904 1886 9 ae 9 4 50 5 17 56 753 263 13 309 1 17 1) 1 1 4
London Missionary Society... .... +--+. eye nese LMS | 1904 1807 37 | 20 | 42] 20 420 | 17 290 | 12,786 10,435 1,733 25: 6,165 13 —] 16) 5| 20 _—
Methodist New Connexion Missionary Society....MNC | 1904 1860 7 3 9; — 128 5 189 2,220 1,350 37 73 415 1 14 4) 2 22,074
Mission to the Chinese Blind.................... CBI 2 1888 1 ae 1 = pies = sae = ae bas 2 22 = > —-|— pore
National Bible Society of Scotland............... NBS 1904 1863 1 6 3 ee 361 6 ae ae Saat a = eos —: —-|-— = ms
Presbyterian Church of England Mission ee 1904 1847 18} 11 | 19} 25 350 9 189 5,847 11,000 290 93 1,35 13 540 | 10, 4 9 21,495
Presbyterian Church of Ireland Mission............ 5 1869 43 4 9 5 195 9 93 53,401 a pact 32 375 2 = 5 | 2 5 12,761
Society for Prepaeation of Gospel N. China Mission. SPGC 103-04 1862 13 4 10 8 18 7 10 572 368 ee 12 ed = me 1) — 6 ‘00
United Free Church of Scotland Mission.......... UFS | 1903 1874 15 1/ 14) 9 323 8 79 6,538 = 1,285 | 42 460 2 47 5| 8 9 12,239
United Methodist Free Churches Missions........ UMFC 1904 1864 6 2 5 1 181 3 38 3,152 5,983 — | 23 643 2 363 2; — 5 1,840
Wesleyan Missionary Society........... nex ew ane WMS | 1905 1852 45 5 | 29) 19 289 | 88 57 4,481 966 769 56 1,890 6 153 8, 5 9 31,000
Continental Societies. |
Basel Missionary Society..............eseeeeeeeerene B 1903 1842 29 2 19 — 173 15 109 5,295 3,656 _— | 85 1,886 1 65 Lh 1 3,791
Berlin Ladies’ Society for China................... BE 2 1850 1 — 1 2 3 1 at a= a — | ae an 1 100 - = 1 en
Berlin Missionary Society..............2ceeeeeees Bal 1903 1882 20 4 20 2 196 12 100 3,261 1,484 a | tans 1,192 = ae 5 eet | wie a
Danish Missionary Society 1904 1895 7) — 7 1 5 5 1 64 49 3 | 1 3 _ _ B= _—
Finnish Missionary Society 1904 1901 2 1) — 4 1 2 4 32 —| 1 29 _ = eS | S| eS
General Evang. Protestant P Maaouary Society...AEPM | 03-04 1898 3 2 2 1 15 2 3 = om aa) 3 69 1 78 2) = 2 9,241
German Blind Mission...............0.0.0005. DBMC 1904 a = a a 2 3 1 as = fee ae = sak: 1 20 a = pay
Norwegian Lutheran China Alliance.............. NLK 2 1894 = 13 3 9 any 1 = 20 et = 2 40 = ay 1h ee 1 pa
Norwegian Missionary Society............ee0.000- NM 1904 1902 5 1 3 1 = 3 _— 13 2 aos 3 Zo = oss 1) 1 2 one
Rhenish Missionary Society............+eeeee-0-- RM 1904 1847 12 4 11 1 28 8 14 931 373 _ 26 552 1 11 2 =— 2 24,486
Swedish Baptist Missionary Society.............. SBM 2 1891 3 2 3 os cat 1 oe as = —_ pack ae 2 — - - ak =
Swedish Missionary Society ...........ceeeeeeeee SMF 1904 1890 12 = 9 4 36 5 15 432 oS —_— 10 234 1 8 2 es 1 2,875
International and Other Societies. |
China Inland Mission................eeeeeeeeeee CIM 1903 1854 26 | 276 | 158 | 226 945 | 200 417 10,143 a =) | 68 | 948 _ _ 12/ 1 85 —_
Independent Workers.............. SYeis?34- ora NS joler Tignes wed 1904 aes 1 5 4! 10 es 8 es pe — | =i —_ Sy eer ee Ss =
Lutheran Brethren Mission......... Sievehavess wee eaaue LBM 2 ee 1 = 1 sees sos 1 ane == ae =| = cae as ans | cel pave
Presbyterian Church, New Zealand............... PNZ 1904 1901 2/ — |) ee 6 1 3 41 80 Es 2 24 as of oe eee fe a
Unconnected Workers...........scecccececccerrsees 1904 — i 1 2) 1 — 2 feck os ae _, ss a eas Se ee sea
Total Men Women
Missiona- Missiona- |Missiona-
Totals. ries. Ties. Ties.
Totals of 37 American Societies..........-.-- 1,338 573 765 413 | 142 | 403 | 333 | 3,613 | 251 | 1,441 69,764 46,983 23.289 944 | 18,814 186 ; 5,235 | 97 | 65 115 533 ,259
Totals of 20 British Societies............ : 875 384 491 255 | 129 | 273 | 218 | 3,286 | 247 | 1.561 50,436 48,515 5,289 955 | 19,484 83 | 1,766 70 | 29 108 306,652
Totals of 12 Continental Societies. 224 122 102 94 28 79 23 463 55 244 10,020 51594 3 13 4,005 6 282 10, 1 10 40,393
Totals of 3 International and Other Societies.| 717 313 404 31 | 282 | 167 | 237 951 | 212 420 10,184 80 = 70 972 = —] 12) 0° 1, 8 =
Grand Total for the Year 1904..........-. 3,107 193 1,733 93 | 581 | 922 | 811 | 8,313 | 765 | 3,666 | 131,404 ror,172_ | 32,572 | 2,100 12 275 | 7.283 | 189 96 | 318 | 880,304
Grand Total January 1, 1900............. 2,785 388 1,507 10 | 578 | 772 | 825 0388 653 | 2,476 | 112,508 91,864 — | 1,810 sear 170 | 5150 | 162 | 79 259 | 691,732
Percentage of Increase from 1900-1904.... 13 "17 10 .30 | —| .20} — 17 48 17 .10 ont +15 22 62 41 | .17 | .22 | .23 27
STATISTICS ARRANGED BY PROVINCES. |
Statistics under this head are incomplete.
Several Societies report their work for Empire
as a whole, not by Provinces.
No. of
‘ No. of Towns With
Provinces. Societies. | Resident
Missionaries.
An-hui.. 8 20 96 51 45 26 | 425) 28] 17 128 | 27 48 705 aes aa
Chée-chiang 8 32 217 88 129 48 | 440 64 65 842 47 305 4,359 21 877 12 21 18 Bear
Chiang-hst 5 34 134 46 88 4| 142) 31] 57] 143] 44 5 240 5 206 1; 2! 8 13 845
Chiang-su 23 15 375 150 225 98 | 452 | 110 | 115 561 | 50 14 3.546 100 | 1.243 | 16) 14) 32] 181/147
Chib-li 15 20 221 99 122 | 59| 440 | 76] 4 541 | 32 | 27 3,506 44] “Suz | 15° 11 16| 46.456
Fu-chien 10 35 269 80 189 58 | 22] 62 | 127] 2,287 | 54) 451 10,955 6) | 2451] 15, 20 42] 4 63°314
Ho-nan 5 20 90 36 54 20 | 416 | 30] 2 1 24 97 ee oer, 8 3) °9 3'9046
apne eo] ow |] 8] lS] Sl eB] a] 8 7 i] ph 2B] tS
u-pei 0 62 | 437 144 510 a es ‘
Kan-su.- 3 12 52 24 28 4| 420] 13] 15 15] 13 2 ¢ = oe By ee Pe ee ee Bees
Kuang-hsi .- 5 2 41 20 21 14/ 6] 13] 8 39 | 14 11 736 71 211 1 —}| 2; —| 2 1,140
me ee 24 46 416 196 220 | 151 | 445 | 141 | 79] 1,258 | 109 | 625 | 29,047 25,153 | °2,932 28 | coco} 33 16, 28| 167,595
cee 5 18 a7 40 47 | as| | 32] as] as2| 22] amt | or 54 88 Gh gel ed el ae an
anchuria. . 33 171 91 154 1,288
eae t | 8 | ah | a] ast | ok] Sb] 2] BS] BY B | vost] heh | acon | a8 i] ge] a) 2) aby ee
n-tung...- ay 1 i , 4,629 4,057
Shen-bsi....+05-0.- 4 28 80 35 45 | 5| #30| 22] 23] 82] 25| ' 92 954 = 310 Ar ag oe ced ce, ee
Ssi-ch‘uan........ 12 30 243 115 128 51 | 464] 73 | 55 380 | 54 185 3,467 6,868 2,353 6 197 | 19 4) 18 13,039
tim-nan.......... 3 6 3 20 16 8} 412] 10 6 9 8 2 77 186 205 1 8 2; — 1 ‘000

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

 

Temporarily without workers in China. Four or more will sail for China shortly.
Foreign force from ‘‘ Directory of Protestant Missions 1904.’’ Other statistics from ‘‘Geography and Atlas
of Protestant Missions,’’ data for January 1, 1900.

majority are unordained.
5No recent report. Statistics confused because of connection with United Free Church of Scotland.

3 This number includes probationers who are regarded as communicants.
‘This number is not accurate, as a few societies do not report ordained men and laymen separately.

T S4¢ararea aarkars

4 et Pn * Y. °F PE EE Se Re OCC OR Ee Se OO oF

i
IX E—Statistics of Missions in China for 1904

 

iin

 

 

missionaries,
g physicians.

 

 

‘
§ =
8 E
3 g
a | 3
0 6
5 | %
S |
y =
== 2

7 30
6 4
9 39
5 3
8 17
9 13
1 3
1 1
= 3
1 5
1 ee
13 46
5 14
1 8
1 5
25 81
2 13
6 24
8 20
1 4
1 5
1 3
2 5
2 2
8 4
3 25
x 3
1 4
— 2
1 2 |
13 12
_ 20
— 5
11 9
1 1
27 20
32 64
2 4
_ 9
20 42
3 9
_— 1
6 3
11 19
4 9
4 10
1 14
2 5
5 29
2 19
_ 1
4 20
_ 7
_ 1
2 2
13 3
1 3
4 11
2 3
_ 9
276 | 158
5 4
_ 1
_ 2
1 2
142 | 403
129 | 273
28 79
282 | 167
581 | 922
578 | 772
— | .20
425 28
440 64
442 31
452 | 110
440 7
22 62
416 30
5 28
437 62
420 13
46 13
445 | 141
43 6
7 32
474 25
439 92
430 22
464 73
412 10

y
3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

from ‘“‘ Geography and Atlas

majority are unordained.

Statistics confused because of connection with United Free Church of Scotland.

g Stations. Native constituency. Educational. Medical.
3 as
a
= i 4
° n a . oO
2 = {2 a 8 5 b 2 a
ke 5 2 5 ~ om i")
8 e428 | es 2 38 3 8 2 # |o.|8.|4 5 Ss
a “4 13 a§ 5 Fg g a a 2 a [a2] 82] 5. Be 5
2.| 8 |4 8 g Pye Sai 3 a a 3 [2e|/ed)°o8|] 33 2
ES] = 16s] S38 g = ag 8 g 4 2 3) Fs] oe g
¢ a) So 3 ag i3 a = ~ es as 3a 2 >
ee ° om aun 2 a6 o be a G2) §2 $3 6 5
es] 2 | 52) 23 eg a $4 e 3 Z S$ |22|22|2¢| 8 ¢
aris |etiee | 2 s° | Be} | B | B | 2 [ee] 58) 88) SF. | 8
3} z |e 6 5 < a [a] & q ao |e |e | ae To
4 28 2 6 277 _— 650 6 249 — —}]—| -—| - —|—
16 267 14 223 4,121 10,582 4,064 43 2 10 299 7 B= are io
19] 458 | 16} 276] 7,674 | 10,859 | 3,003 | 164) 3,098 | 22| 770) 10) 6 4| 56547] —
pad eels ae a ae Ee pies 1 1) — 1 —-|-—
18 52 | 16 7 422 71 — 5 50 | 2 Se Sf a pay Bh Gace
6 75 9 15 745 a 510 11 230 | 21 90 4 1 3 27,844 | —
2 6 2 _— 18 30 25 1 mb) — — 1| — 1 5,000 | —
Z 19, 2 4 120 600 ll 3 58 | 1 40 1 2 2 4,287 | —
3) sr] 4) 16 183 = = 25 560 1 @ | ase 1,784 | —
1 = — — _— — =) — 1| — 1 —|}]—
74.1 1,344 | 21) 236 | 324,117 15,370 | 13,473 | 305 | 6,201 | 27 | 1,934 | 13] 18] 20 87,669 | —
16 18 6) 12 1,482 1,258 2,525 29 842 8 623 3 1 4 34,501 1
= = 2 | 16 3 —_ _ 2 40 _ —_— 6 — 2 — a
4 3/ 1 36 2 = 6} — ae soi
56 589 | 26 368 | 13,063 2,350 5,389 203 | 3,449} 17 565 | 20] 15] 26] 116,357 5
6 24 4 73 286 | 214 = 18 — = 3 2 3 194 —
19 5z | 10 43 728 | 551 1,053 7 170 7 161 6 3] 10 47,512 2
18 100 }| 59 5 1,606 | 4,439 — 51 | 1,124 2 140 4 3] 11 65,227 | —
4 6 2 1 100 | — 50 4 90 — — 2; — 2 1,200 | —
10 87 4 43 1,447 | — — 13 250 8 409 2| — 4 12/485 | —
3 — 1 _— 23 | — — — aes — _ 1 2| — —|—
2 15 1 2 100 | — _ 3 100 = Se Atal ek cee cad oe
3 6 7 — 29 — _— 1 — _— — 2) 2 3 _— 1
a 12 2 1 66 | 30 80 3 180 74 —-{— 1 1 932 | —
5 —_— _ —_— —_— —_ — eae
15 93 12 82 3,740 a 2,142 43 1,055 1 30 5 1 3 5,140 | —
2 10 2 4 100 150 — 4 — 1 50 1/ — 1 2.647 | —
1 25 2 5 117 189 85 6 187 1 20 az! oa! oi 15,181 | —
1 4 2 2 15 = _— 2 24 - Sf = —-|-—
5 20 1 1 90 | 50 120 3 80 1 32 el 2 1 45,000 | —
— _ 1 _ —_ | ‘eae — anes sie —_— — | — _ aac
1 — 6 — _— — _— — = _— —}f-) -| - _— 1
1 — 1 — — — _— _— — _— SS Se er -|—-
= 74 6 310 4,161 — 707 — | 1,181 = — 6 2/11 16,965 1
8 24 4 173 a 563 — 32 194 3 Ca Ree eee (ieee | Ace Feds
3 6 2 2 59 186 205 | 2 100 1 8 bess 1 3,000 | —
_ 258 | 12 — — —}|]-)| -| - —|]—
17 —]| 16 6 = = — 4 so} —| —| 2 —| —
52 445 | 37 — 6,202 16,656 _ 263 | 5,557 19 100 9; 3 14| 157,049 2
43 129 12 —= _— _ 5 533 15 381 |] — | 3 3 12,932 1
4 35 1 11 961 255 — 8 188 1 21 2 1|/ ou 7,350 | —
4 50 5 17 56 753 263 13 309 1 17 1, 1 1 1,439 | —
20 420 | 17 290 | 12,786 10,435 1,733 252 | 6,165 13 —/! 16!) 5] 20 — 2
_ 128 5 189 2,220 1,350 37 73 415 1 14 a 2 22,074 | —
— —|— = _— — — 2 22 — ae BSA et _—
—]| 361 6 — — = — — — = se es a) —|—-—
25 350 9 189 5,847 11,000 290 93 | 1,350 13 540] 10; 4 9 21,495 | —
5 195 9 93 | 37401 — — 32 375 2 — 5| 2 5 12:761 | —
8 18 7 107 572 368 _— 12 v7 — _— 1) — 6 :00 =
9 323 8 79 6,538 = 1,285 42 460 2 47 5] 3 9 12,239 | —
1 181 3 38 31152 5,983 — 23 643 2 363 2; — 5 1,840 | —
19 289 | 88 57 4.481 966 769 56 | 1,890 6 153 8) 5 9 31,000 1
|
_— 173 | 15 109 5,295 3,656 _ 85 | 1,886 1 65 1) — 1 3,791 | —
2 3 1 = ae oe, = = = 1 100 — — 1 —|—
2 196 | 12 100 3,261 1,484 = —| 1,192 = SSS eS) soot (iecmes
1 5 5 * 49 3 | : 3 = = Be here ee idl
_— 4 1 32 =| 29 = Sef es 5s ahh ae =
1 15 2 3 rca ee 4 3 69 1 78 2;— 2 9,241 1
2 3 1 = — = —_— _— pe 1 20 =) = _ — _
9 — 1 — 20 — _ 2 40 = = dh | 1 Sa
lt 3 _— 13 = 3 — _ — 1; 1 2 _
1 28 8 14 931 373 = 26 552 1 11 a as 2 24,486 | —
—= am 1 _— — a _ _ — come: = ss — Id eo —_—
4 36 5 15 432 es _ 10 234 1 8 2; — 1 2,875 | —
226 945 | 200 417 | 10,143 — = 68 | 948 = —] 12) 1] 8 as 1
Oy ee es = Sait] Sade “eee Se | ee eee Se
_— 6 1 3 41 80 = 2 24 = So) Sr) Oe =
1 = 2 — — — = — — = ap Sa et es ==
333 | 3,613 | 251 | 1,441 | 60.764 | 46,983 | 23.280 | 944 | 18,814, 186, 5.235 | 97 65 115) 533,250} 10
218 | 3,286 | 247 | 1\561 | 50.436 48,515 5,269 | 955 | 19/484 83 | 1,766 | 70 | 29 108 | 306,652 | 7
23] "463 | 55 | ‘244 | 10.020 5,594 3} 131 | 4'005 282 7 10, 1 10); 40,393 7 1
237 | 951 | 212) 420] 10,184 a 70 972 is Serpe tei | bse ~y,
811 | 8,31 765 | 3,666 | 131,404 101,172 32,572 | 2,100 | 43,275 275 | 7283 | 189 | 96 318 880,304 | 19
825 67388 653 | 2,476 112,808 91,804 oe 1,819 35,412 170 | 5,150 | 162 | 79 250 691,732 | —
aoe 130 | .17 48 17 .10 — “15 22 .62 41 17 | .22 | +23 27 —
|
17 128 | 27 48 1,532 688 705 30 538 — — 4, — 9 31,491 | —
65| 842] 47 305 | 12.307 10,207 4,359 112 | 2,124 21 877 | 12 2) 18 81.664 2
57 143 | 44 54 1,703 529 240 12 116 5 206 Pe Bel 13,845 | —
115] 561 | 50 14 4,727 4,649 3,546 104 | 2.730 100 | 1,248} 16 14 32] 181.147 9
46| 541] 32 277 8,468 7.833 3,506 114 | 7/931 44 dz 1 15° IL 16 46.456 2
127 | 2,287 | 54| 451 | 29,924 35,494 | 10,955 674 | 121593 6o | 2,451} 15, 20° 42] 163.514 1
24 100 | 24 97 1,019 214 _— 10 130 — _ 8 3, 9 3.946 | —
15 60 | 34 12 6 206 175 18 279 1 wb on 3 12 7,800 |} —
47 451 | 75 144 9,801 4,783 510 100 | 2,079 10 235 | 15 8; 20 37,864 2
15 15] 13 2 89 _— — 2 o7 | — te Sa od Set! oe
8 39 | 14 11 736 71 211 7 15u 1 = 2 12 1,140 | —
791 1,258 ]109| 625 | 29,047 25,153 *2,932 468 | 12,720 28 cco | 33° 16 | 28] 167,595 1
6 18 6 8 123 is =e 4 60 a eee i ae f ase
15| 382] 24 171 9,914 154 1,288 70 463 4 47 1 5 | 14 25,000 | —
29 115 | 35 75 1,551 — 28 1 177 1 22 4| —]| 45 —|—
59 | 646] 41 | 1,024 | 14,226 4,629 4,057 218 | 3,629 10 319 | 17 9 | 23 91,528 2
23 82] 25 92 954 — 310 15 378 1 10 2; — 6 eo ae
551] 380] 54 185 3,467 6,868 2,353 58 | 1,561 6 197 | 19 4] 18 13,039 | —
6 9 8 2 77 186 205 2 100 1 8 2| — 1 3,000 | —
3 This number includes probationers who are regarded as communicants.
‘This number is not accurate, as a few societies do not report ordained men and laymen separately. The
GENERAL INDEX

Aboriginal tribes of China, 34.

ne and China as mission fields,
Agricultural wealth of China, 10.
Alphabet lacking in China, 37.
American Presbyterian Press, 126.
American Tract Society, 125.

Amita Buddha, 72.

Amusements of the Chinese, 47.
‘Analects,’ 64.

Ancestral worship, 54-56; its cost, 56.
Anger a supposed cause of death, 36.
Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca,

103.
An-hui briefly described, 165.
Animals: cyclical, 53; worship of, 54.
Annals, local, 15.
Antiquity of China, 15.
Appeal of 1890 for re-enforcements,

Aquatic resources of Ce, 10.
Architecture, Chinese, 39
ay of China with comparisons,

3,4
: ‘Arrow War,” 100, 101.
Arts in China,
ashnore s account of early work,

see native, 44.
theistic character of Confucianism,

Athlatios in China, 13, 47.

Bamboo Books, 15.

Baptism of infants by Catholics, 91.

Beggars, 43.

Bible translation: by Nestorians,
83; by John of Montecorvino, 85;
by unknown Catholics, 96; by
Morrison, 96; revised translations,
103, 107; some prominent trans-
iators, 116.

Bishop, Mrs. J. B.,

Christians, 154.

“Blessings, Five,” 66.

Blind taught, 111, 112.

Boarding-schoola, 113.

Boards laboring inChina, missionary,
170-176 and ‘Appendix E.

Boards of Chinese Government, 44.

Book-lending Societies, 117, 126.

on Chinese

 

‘*Book of Changes,” 64.

‘*Book of History,’’ 64.

‘*Book of Odes,”’ 64.

‘‘Book of Rewards and Punish-
ments,”

Boxers and their uprising in 1900,
137-143.

Boys desired, 42.

Bravery of Chinese, 36.

Brooks, Rev. S. P., proto-martyr of
1899, 140.

Buddha, 68.

Buddhism in China, 67-73, 75.

Burning of the books, 27.

Burns, William, 100.

Catholicism, Greek, in China, 93, 94.

Catholicism, Roman, in China: its
first entrance, 84-86; second en-
trance, 86-93; Catholic methods,
90, 91; friction with Protestants,
91, 92; value of their work, 92, 93;
its lawsuits, 132; its missionaries
ain official rank, 132, 133; in the
a 140.

Causes of China’s long existence,

. ‘Celestials,” significance of the term,

Census-taking i in China, 32, 33.
Central China Religious
Society, 125, 176.
Ceremonial in Chinese life, 36.
Chang Chih-tung’s “China’s Only
Hope,” 133, 134, 147, 148.
Chapels and chapel preaching, 118,

119.
Characteristics of the Chinese, 33-39.
Shatentens of Chinese history, great,

Tract

Gee against Christians, 135.
ea leeds of, 44; of Catholics,

fe chia briefly described, 162.
ee briefly described, 165.
hiang-su briefly devant bed eer
hih-li briefly described, 1

hildren in proverbs, 49.

China: place in Asia, 3; areas with
comparisons, 3, 4; its rivers, 5, 6;
lakes, 6; mountains, 6; Great

229889 -

 

203
204

Plain, 6, 7; loess deposits, 7, 8;
scenery, 8, a climate, 9, 10; its
wealth, 10,1

China Inland Mission founded, 105.

Ch'in dynasty, 167.

Chinese: their origin, 18; number and
distribution, 32, 33; national
characteristics, 28; physical char-
acteristics, 33-35; emotional char-
acteristics, 35, 36; intellectual
abilities, 36-39; home and clan
life, 39-42; their cities and city
life; 42-44; their government and
laws, 25, 30, 44, 45; their in-
dustrial life, "45-47; amusements
and festivals, 47-49; their prov-
erbs, 49-51; their religions, ch. IV;
Chinese students in Japan, 152

Chinese religions and the uprising,
133-135.

Chinese Tract Society, 125, 176.

Chinese view of the world and of
Occidentals, 11, 14.

Ch'in Shou, author of ‘‘History ‘of
the Three States,” 21.

Chou, a Chinese ruler and sage, 19,

25.

Chou dynasty, 17, 167.

Christianity: and the new régime,
132, 133; its educational oppor-
tunity, 151.

Christians: in siege, 141, 142; since
then, 146, 147; character of, 154.
Chuang-tzti, famous Taoist philoso-

pher, 20, 58, 59.

Chu Hsi, or Chu Fu-tzi, famous
philosopher, 15, 20, 63, 66.
“‘Churches_ of God, >of the T'ai
P'ings, 99.

Cireuit” system of Dr. Nevius and
Mr. Jones,

Cities and their life, 42-44,
- Civilization of China: in_ earliest
times, 18; its sources, 18, 19, 25.
Classics, neglect of stud; of, 114, 131.
Climatic conditions in hina, 9, 10.

Clothing of Chinese, 41.

Colleges, 113, 114.

Colportage, 117.

Compass, China’s invention, 25.

Competition intense in China, 130.

‘*Complete Antiquarian Re-
searches,” 21.

Concessions for mines, etc,, 128, 129.

Conferences: of missionaries, 105,
i. 107; with officials on religion,

 

an eaters character oh 60-67,
75; and the crisis, 133,

Confucius, see K‘ung Raia

Consecration needed in China, 160.

Conservatism of Chinese, 36; re-
tardative, 127, 132.

Converts: of Catholicism, 90, 91; of

 

GENERAL INDEX

Protestantism, 104; tested by per-
secution, 146, 154,

Co-operation in mission work, 124.

Cosmogony of the Chinese, 1 17.

Cost of ancestral worship, 56.

Coup a@’état of 1898, 136.

Daily life of Chinese, 40.

Darroch, Mr., on recent Chinese
publications, 152.

Day-schools, 112, 113.

Deaf mutes taught, 112.

Death in China, 42; life after, 55.

Defectives aided by missions, 111,

Demon worship of Taoism, 60.
Denominationalism in China, 123,

24.
Dependencies of China, 4.
Diffusion Society, 126, 176.
Diplomacy and ‘atholic missions, ae
Discipline in native Church, 122,
Diseases of China, 9, 10.
‘Doctrine of the Mean, ” 63, 64.
Dragon, China’s totem, 52, 53.

Education: honored in China, 37,
38; and the new régime, 131, 132,
144, 145, 147, 150, 151, 152.

Education, missionary: work under
Morrison and his associates, 1, 96,
103; later work, 112-116.

Effect of persecutions, 146, 147.

Emergency appeal of China, 159.

Emperor Kuang Hsii: buys the
Scriptures, 108; on Confucianism,
134; reforming edicts, 135; and
coup d’ état, 136, 137.

Emperor’s relation to Heaven and
his people, 30.

Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi, 20, 22,
ae 131, 132, 136, 139, 142, ‘149,

pees edists, 21.
English language desired by Chinese,
114, 145, 151, 152.
anys applied to foreigners, 146.
h Ya, ancient philological work,

Bsp — e of pus Seance 145.
ics of China, 2
eee aoe for individuals,
17, 118; in chapels, 118, 119;
through itineration, 119, 1 20.

Famine relief, 111.

Farmers in China, 45.

“Fathers and mothers of the people”
—officials, 144.

Féng-shui: effect on mine exploita-
tion, 10, 46; described, 73, 74

Festivals, Chinese, 48, 49.

Fetiches, 52.
GENERAL INDEX

205

 

ee jens and China compared,

Filial devotion honored, 22, 29, 36.
Fire Producer, China’s Prometheus,

17.

‘*Pive Classics,” 64, 65.

Food of Chinese, 40, 41.

Foot-binding, 111.

Forces opposed to China’s uplifting,
154, 155

Foreign occupation helpful and

armful, 143, 144.

Foreigners: Chinese view of, 12-14;
hated in 1900, 135; more highly
regarded since then, 146.

Formosa ceded to Japan, 129.

Foundling asylum, 112,

‘*Four Books,” 63, 64.

France makes claims on China, 129,

130.
French War of 1883, 85, 102.
Fu-chien briefly described, 162, 163.
ce oot first historic monarch, 15,

Geographical ignorance of China’s
masses, 11, 12.

Geomancy, 73, 74.

German missionaries murdered in
1897, 129.

Germany's treatment of China, 129,

Gibson, Dr., on pennant of
missionaries, 155,

God: His hand in China’ s history, 30,
31; names for, in China, 88, 104.

Gods of Buddhism, 72, Z

Golden Age of China, 1 8.

“Golden Rule’’ of Confucius, 66.

Sevens and laws of China, 25,

0,
Grand Ck 23.
oe Britain occupies Wei-hai-wei,

“drent Learning,’’ 63.

Great Plain of China, 6, 7.

Great Wall of China, 23.

Greek Church, 132, 142.

Griffin, Sir L., on China’s impor-
tance, 156.

Growth of Protestant Christianity
since 1904, 157.

Guilds and ies 47.

Gunpowder, early use in China, 25.

Giitzlaff, 103.

Han cymaetye 167, 168.
Heaven=God, 57.
Heaven of the Buddhists, 69, 70.
Hells of the Buddhists, 70.
Heredity as an aid to cpholarshin, 38.
Heroes deified and worshipped, 56.
Heroism, appeal | Hh in China, 159.
“Hills of T'ang,” 1, 2.

 

Histeny of China: see chs. II., VI.,

VIII., and Appendix B; records of
China, 15, 16; how dynastic his-
tories are written, 16.

veieiany of the Three States,” 21,

Home and clan life, 39-43, 50.

Home, Chinese love for, 28.

Ho-nan briefly described, 165.

Hospitality of the Chinese, 36.

Hsi, Pastor, 154.

Hsia dynasty, 17, 167.

Huang Ho, 5.

Hua T'o, China’s A‘sculapius, 21.

Hui-bui Chiao, name elas, 79.

Hu-nan briefly described, 16

Hung Hsiu-ch'iian, leader Tai
Pings, 98, 99.

Hu-pei briefly described, 165, 166.

Hypnotism of Boxers, 138.

Ignorance China’s enemy, 150.
Ho Ch'iian, name of Boxers, 137.
ee Dictionary of K‘ang Hsi,

Industrial education, 115.

Industrial life of China, 45-47; and
the crisis of 1900, 130, 131; new
industries developed, 145

Industry, Chinese, 35.

Infancy in China, 41, 42.

Infentade of girls, reasons for, 41,

2.
Insane: Chinese lunatics, 44; asylum,
Intellectual powers of the Chinese,
36-39

International politics and recent
changes, 128-130.

Invulnerability of Boxers, 139.

Tron works at Han-yang, 130.

Isolation of China at an end, 31.

Itineration, 119, 120.

vApenre education deficient, 151,
152

Jesuits in China: surveys by, 11;
Ricci and his successors, 86-89.

Jews in China, 77-79.

John, Griffith, on China’s a 153.

John’ of Montecorvino, 84, 85.

K'‘ang Hsi, famous emperor of
present dynasty, 20, 21, 29, 37, 66,

88, 89.
K'ang Yii-wei, arch-reformer, 136.

164.

tee briefly described
Press, 125,

Kiangsi-Hunan Tract
Kiao-chou occupied by Germany

129.
Kite-flying, 48, 49.
206

GENERAL INDEX

 

Kuang-chou Wan occupied by
France, 130.

Kuang-hsi briefly described, 163.

Kuang Hsii, present Emperor, 20.
See Emperor Kuang

Kuang-tung briefly deantibed. 163.

Kuan Ti, a general, now deified, 23.

Kuan Yin, China’s great goddess, 72.

Kublai Khan, 19, 86, 169.

Kuei-chou briefly described, 166.

K‘ung Fu-tzi, or Confucius: China’s
most famous philosopher, 20; his
descendants, 46; leading events of
his life, 60-62; ‘his character, 62,
63; literature of his system, 63-65;
his teachings, 6: worship,
67; this worship an obstacle to
education, 151.

Labor supply of China, 11.

Lakes of China, 6.

Landscape gardening, 39.

Language of China, 26, 28, 36, 37.

Language study of missionaries, 119.

Lao-tzti, founder of Taoist sect, 20,
57; China’s Pythagoras, 58.

Laws of China, 30, 41.

Lawsuits and missions, 132.

Lectures for literary men, rei

Legendary period of China, 1
i, Dr., author of the etal, 7? 21,

Lieh, an early Taoist writer, 58.

Li Hung-chang, most famous viceroy
of our times, 20.

Lin, mythological animal, 54.

Li T‘ai-pai, T'ang dynasty poet, 21.

Literary work of missions: Ricci, 87,
88; Protestant work, 116,117, 125:

Literati and their influence, 132;
work for them, 124, 125, 144.

Literature, Chinese, 26, 27, 63-65.

Literature relating to China, see
Bibliography, pages vii-xiv.

Loess formation, 7,8.

Lunatics in China, 44.

Macedonian call, China’s, 158-160.

Manchus: described, 34; their rule
disliked, 128, 1

Maps, early Gilnese. 11,12.

Margary’ § murder and missions, 102.

Marriage in China, 42, 50.

Martyrs of 1900, 140.

a orn Chinese antiquarian,

Mechanics, estimate of, 45, 46.

Medhurst, 103; me estimate of
Catholicism, 92, 9:

Medical work: siprieed cause of
cures, 13; Dr. Parker its Chinese
pene 102; its value and variety,

0

Mencius, see Méng-tait.

 

Méng brothers, 154.

Méng-tzt, or Mencius, a famous
philosopher: relation to Confucius,
20; his writings, 64.

Mén p'‘ai, registration tablets, 32.

My erepey Chane of Chinese Bud-
dhism, 6!

Methods’ of “work: epee, 90, 91;
Protestant, ch. VII.

Miao-tzt, or aboriginal tribes, 34.

Micius, a heretical philoso her, 20.

ae Kingdom, significance of

rase,

Millions, ‘appeal of China’ 8, 158.

Milne’s ‘‘Two Friends,’ 102; his
estimate of Catholic work, 92.

Mineral wealth of China, 10.

Mines, 46

Ming dynasty, 169.

Missionaries: how regarded, 13, 14;
character of early, 104; at work,
ch. VII.; advice sought by officials,
ae strong missionaries needed,
155.

Missions from Japan, 155.
Mohammedanism, Chinese, 79-81.
Mongols, 34; their dynasty, 168, 169.
Moral maxims, 50, 51.

Morrison, Robert, 95-97.

Mountains of China, 6.

Museums useful in missions, 125.
Music in China, 39.

Mythological history of China, 16,17.

Names: given China, 1-3; for God
used by missionaries, 8s, 104.
Napoleon’s estimate of Chi a, 156.
National characteristics at China, 28.
Native Church, 120, 124.
Nature worship, 52-57.
Neander on China’s importance, 156.
Needs, pressing, of China, 149-153.
Nestorian Christianity, 81-84.
Nestorian monument at Hsi-an Fu,
81, 82, 83.
Nevius system, 120; his views on
self-support, 122, 123
hina, 153.

New heart needed b
New Hebrides and China’ 3 evangel-

ization, 158.
New Testament given Empress
Dowager, 108, 149.
New Year, China’s great day, 48.
ie early Franciscan mission-

Nobility in China, 46.
North China Tract Society, 125, 176.

eer ho cere br after Uprising,
144, 145, 148
“Opium War, > ov 68,
Opportunity in China, 153-156,
Outbreak, Boxer, 137-143.
GENERAL INDEX

207

 

Pagodas, 71.

Pan Chao, ‘celebrated woman his-
torian, 22, 23.

Pan oe Han dynasty historian, 20.

P‘an Ku, Chinese Creator, 17.

Parker, Dr., first great medical mis-
sionary, To2.

Partition of China agitated, 129.

Peace terms in 1901, 142, 143.

Pearly Emperor of Taoists, 60.
eking: early Catholic work i in, 85,
87; during Siege, 140-142; after
Siege, 143.

People, the new, 145, 146.

Persecuted Buddhism, 68.

Persecution of Protestants, 107.

Personal work, 117, 118.

Pheenix, the, 54.

Physical features of China, 4-9.

Physicians, famous Chinese, 21.

Pichon, M., quoted on Siege, 141.

Pictures useful in sea perks 118.

Pill of Immortality Sect, 7

Pi pene inventor of Eel type,

Barocas of Chinese, 36.

Political causes of recent changes,
128-130.

Poor aided by Government, 44.

Population of China: vast numbers
on Great Plain, 7; censuses, 32, 33.

Porcelain, early manufacture of, 26.

Port Arthur occupied by Russia,
129, 130.

Powers: the, in China, a1; and peace
terms in 1901, 142,

Preaching to Chinese, Lid.

ao of heart of missionary,

Presses: mission, 116, 117, 126, 153;
native, 152.

Prester John, 8

Priesthood of Buddhism, 71.

Priests and Boxerism, 134, 135.

Exnting, an early Chinese invention,

Prisons, Chinese, 45.

Privilege of working for China, 160.

Progress, stages of missionary, to
1898, 102-108.

Pronunciation of Chinese words and
names, page xvi. and Appendix D.

ae work in China, see chs.

Protocol of 1901, 142, 143, 145.
Proverbs, Chinese. 33, 45, 47, 49-51.
Providence of God in Siege, 141.
Provinces of China described, 161-

Quarrels in China, 36.

Railway destroyed in 1900, 131.
Rainfall,

 

Repellers not long-lived in China,

29, 30.
‘*Record of Rites,’’ 64.
Reformers of to-day, 135-137.
Reforms aided by, jmissionaries, 111.
‘‘Relations, Five,”
Religions of the Chinese, see ch. IV.
Religious causes of recent changes,
132-135, 138, 139; religious status
in 1904, 147-149.
ae Tract Society of London,

Residence, right of foreign, 98, 100,

Ricci, Catholicism’s most famous
Chinese missionary, 86-89.

Riots and missions, 102.

Roads of China, 24.

Roberts, I. gis teaches T‘ai P‘ing
leader, 98.

‘*Rules of Merit and Transgression’’
of Buddhism,

Russia’s treatment of China, 129,

cca Edict” of K‘ang Hsi, 66,
Safeguards against national decay,

Salvation of Buddhism, 70, 71.

San Kuo period, 168.

Scenery of China, 8, 9.

Scholar’s place in society, 45.
Schools of new order, 145.
Sciences in China, 38, 39.

Sects, the secret, 76, 77.
Self-propagation of native Church,

Self-support, native, 112, 122, 123.
Sensuality of the Chinese, 35.
Seres, why used by Romans, 2:
Sexes, Chinese view of relations be-
tween, in foreign society, 13.
Shang Ti, Imperial Ruler, God, 57.
Shan-hsi briefly described, 164, 165.
Shan-tung briefly described, 161,

162.
Sheng shine. brief description of,

Shen-hsi briefly described, 164.

Shih Huang-ti, Great Wall builder,
19, 59.

Shun, famous early monarch, 17, 18,

Siege i in Peking, 140-142.
Silk manufacture in ancient China,
26.

Sin, proverbs concerning, 50, 51.

Sinim, meaning, 2.

ee “Martyrs” of the Reformers,
13

aor domestic, 41.
Smith, A. H.: view of Confucianism,
134; the ‘‘Six Martyrs,” 137;
208

GENERAL INDEX

 

quoted concerning Christian

schools, 151; on China’s great need,

153; China as a mission field, 156.
Sociability deficient in the Chinese,

Societies laboring in China, mission-
ary, 170-176 and Appendix E.

Society for the Diffusion of Christian
and General Knowledge, 125, 149,
153, 176.

Society, grades of Chinese, 45, 46.

Pagans environment in China,

Soldiers, estimate of, 46.
Sovereigns, the three great, 17.
Spirits of the dead, 73.

Sports of foreigners, how regarded,

12, 13.
aera. and Autumn Annals,” 16,
eens a uan briefly described, 163,
Seema Ch'ien, China’s Herodotus,

Sst-ma Kuang, Sung dynasty his-
torian, 21.

Station classes, 115.

Stations occupied by missionaries,
Appendix D.

Statistics: of Catholics, 93; of
Protestants in 1877, 105; in 1890,
106, 107; in 1904, inferences there-
from, 156-158; detailed, Appendix

Students: the Chinese as, 37, 38;
native view of scholars, 45;
proverbs relating to, 49, 50.

Study, of the people necessary, 110.

Suffering Chinese, appeal of, 159.

Suicide honorable in women, 22.

Sunday-schools, 121.

Sung dynasty, 168.

Survivals of China’s Bast) 23-27.

Suspension bridges, 2

Su Tung-p‘o, Sung dynasty poet, 21.

Syndicate, Western, and the crisis of
1900, 128, 129.

Ta Ch‘ing Kuo, meaning, 2; the
dynasty, 169.

T‘ai Chi, or ‘‘Great Extreme,” 17.

T‘ai P'ing Rebellion, 98, 99.

T'ai Tsung, one of China’s most
famous monarchs, 19, 82.

T'ang dynasty, 1, 19, 38, 82, 168.

T’ang, founder of the Shang dy-
nasty, 18.

Taoism, 57-60, 75.

Tao-té Ching, Taoism’s Bible, 57, 58.

Taxation and census figures, 32.

Teaa help to temperance, 35.

Teacher’s salary, 47.

Teaching. ability of Chinese deficient,

 

Temperance of the Chinese, 35.

Temperatures in China, 9.

Temples: of ‘Buddhism, 71; to be-
come schools, 134, 135,

Tenement problem i in China, 43,

‘‘Term question,” 88, 104

Pigemiest _ oeeaintions
Crisis,

Theological schools, 115.

Thieves, 43.

Tibetans, 33, 34.

Tientsin Massacre, 101.

Tools vs. machines, 130.

Totem worship, 52, 53.

Tract Societies, important work of,
108, 125, 126, 1

Trade guilds, 47.

Tradesmen, estimate of, 46.

Treaty of 1860, its importance, 98.

Teas Ako, first Protestant convert,
97. s

Tsai-li, a secret sect, 76.

Ts‘ao Ts‘ao, famous general of the
Three Kingdoms, 23

Tsén Ch‘un-hsitian’s view of mission-
aries, 148.

Tséng, disciple of Confucius, 63.

Tu Fu, T'ang dynasty poet, 21.

T‘ung Chou men lead mob to destroy
railway, 131.

Tung-t'ing Lake, 6.

Type, Pi invents movable, 117.

T2a Hsi, etc., Empress Dowager’ s
title, 22.

‘and the

Verbiest, famous Catholic mission-

ary,
Versatility of the missionary, 119.
Villages of China, 40; work
missionaries in, 119, 120.

of

Wade’s system of Romanization,
page xvi.

Wages of the masses, 46, 47.

Wai-wu Pu,

Walled cities of China, 8, 40.

Wee Chao and the coup d’état,

War: and Chinese missions, 97-102;
with Japan, 127, 128, 129.

Warriors famous in ‘Ghine, 23.

Wealth, God of, 60.

Wealth’ of China: Serultarel 10;
aquatic, 10; mineral, 10; labor
supply, 11; result upon China of
its wealth, 28,

Wén,a Chinese ape cand sage, 19.

Western science coming in, 131.

‘Widowhood honored, 22.

Wives, estimate of, 50.

Woman’s work: fully inaugurated,
105, 109; medical women, 111;
work for women of higher class,

. ?
GENERAL INDEX 209

 

Women of China, illustrious, 21-23. | Young Men’s Christian Association:

Worship of Buddhism, 71, 72. conferences, 108; value of work,
Writing, Chinese, 37. 121; its literati work, 144.
Wu, a Chinese ruler and sage, 19. Young People’s Societies, 107, 108,
Wu, Empress, famous ruler of sev- 121.

enth century, 19. Yu, an early monet ae founder of

Miiaw detect Mor 68, 169
‘errr toe wlan lynasty, i
Xavier’s death on China’s shores, 86. Yung Lo, emperor of Yast ‘dynasty,
Yang-tzi, 5, 6, 7. Yung Wing’s Educational Com-
Yao, famous early monarch, 17, 18, mission, 101. :

19. Yiin-nan briefly described, 163.
   

A B

  

 

 

Explanatory
MISSIONARY MAP Pt 4
Provincial Capitals
1 OF Department Capitals

T‘ing District Capitals
C H I N A Chou District Capitals
Hsien District Capitals

Market Towns, Villages, etc. o

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POPULATIONS AND DENSITIES OF THE
CHINESE PROVINCES

Below is given the popylation of each of the Provin-
ces and Manchuria according to the estimates of
“The Statesman’s Year book, 1905;’ The figures with-
in parentheses tollowing the millfons give the num-
ber ot inhabitants per square mile

An hui 23,670,314 (432) Kuang-hsi 5,142;330 (67) ||29
Cheé-chiang 11,580,692 (316) _Kuang-tung31,865,251(319)
Chiang-hsi 26,532,125 (382) Kuei-chou 7,650,282(114)
Chiang-su 13,980,235 (362) Manchuria 8,500,000. (23)
Chih-li 20,937,000 7) Shan-hsi 12,200,456 (149)
Fu-chien —_ 22,876,540 (494) Shan-tung 38,247,900 (683)
Ho-nan —35,316,800(520) Shen-hsi _8,450,182(I11)
Hu-nan 22,169,673 ae Ssii-ch‘uan 68,724,890 (314)
Hu-pei 35,280,685 (492) Yiin-nan 12,324.574 (84)
Kan-su _10,385,376 (82)

 

GREENWICH ns E 120 ¥F

Copyright, 1905, by The Student Volunteex. Moveisent for Foreign Missions