= Qo tidal : a hae ye oe CO RIN EIEE UNIVERSITY I REARS Anonymous Sar s Eo vs + . . « * * 7 : “a o-s 7 . = 7 im ‘we oo ~ * 6 94, yes) Se) ¢ . - * or ; . . 7 42 . > . ra _ y . - Pigs tou . . 7 > ¢ s oe . 72 ** @ . a eo? wale oe =, aa Pe ates oe, > nee a oe, > ++ esas e e e e e e e e e e = ss) @) 6 os ses se) Ss s()s oes 6) SB) 6 os se 6 8) @) 6 os se) s 8) @) 6 os ee 8 lel) @ seh) eo * 8) 8 8) 8 = 812 6 6) 8 8) 6 = 812 6 618 8) 6 2 812 6 618 86 = 812 6 8s 8s * 812 Fe 8 HF FF Ho see? 6 O *ee ee 6 ee ee 6 Ore ee 6 ee ee 6 8 re ie 8 8 2 eS i 7 1 = 7 1 = 7 1 = 7 1 = / or a Py ee eae eo 2 ee ea cele ae \ naan 2 ao od nem ao od fae od fae od reir ik ie ; 4! . TeLCrrer tT Sede $61 Ae eake a eake spaced ot Je ou ee @ oq < @ oq < @ oq < @ oq < 4 @ <4 Jn a | 4 FAST EEtEEE RESET ELaE Pe ® ® ® ® ® ® e » » » » » Ls Ly Ls Ly e | nd id i i i i i 9 a! , 4 ; p ; p ; p ; p rs F f “ ‘ : } f / . o o o o o a ; e Ps ps 2 Ps ps 2 Ps ps 2 Ps a 4 Ps a 4 ’ om : a [ ae a aR ran a Cael ene CEA lg Ser? ee PEP PASS Pm PP Aa Pm Pr Ae, oe 7 rts RECA CCCT CECE CCT CEC t CCT Ceci CCr cect nezneeeon Pest RSSOSe Ss RSEOSA SS RSECSS SS RSSOSR SS RSS OS CECOANSE TAs ene WILLIAM § ORR & Go AMEN CORNER. PATERNOSTHR ROW THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, Arranged after its Organisation ; FORMING A NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS, AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. BY THE LATE BARON CUVIER, COUNCILLOR OF FRANCE, AND MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, TRANSLATED AND ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF SCIENCE. TilE MAMMALIA, BIRDS, AND REPTILES, | THE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS, BY EDWARD BLYTH. BY GEORGE JOHNSTON, M.D. THE FISHES AND RADIATA, THE ARTICULATED ANIMASS, BY ROBERT MUDIE. BY J. 0. WESTWOOD, F.L.S. A NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS BY W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., AND J. 0. WESTWOOD, F.L.S Eliustratey by Three Hundred Engrabings on Wood and Thirty=four on Steel. LEOUNe DOIN: WM. S. ORR AND CO., AMEN CORNER, PATERNOSTER ROW, PREFACE. PERHAPS no book was ever so soon, so generally, and with so little envy, admitted to take its place at the head of that department of knowledge to which it belongs, as the Rucne Anima of the illustrious Baron Cuvier. ‘This is a high, but a just tribute, both to the work and the author ; for it at | once showed that the former is what had long been required, and that the | | | | | | | | latter was as much beloved for the kindness and urbanity of his manners, as | he was admired for the comprchensive range and unprecedented accuracy of | lus views. It must, indeed, be admitted, that, until Cuvier’s great work made its | | | | i | appearance, we had no modern systematic arrangement of animals which | | applied equally to all the Classes, Orders, and Families ;—which brought the | | xtinct species into their proper situations in the living catalogue, and enabled | | | every discoverer of a new animal, or part of an animal, instantly to connect it with its proper tribe or family. Important, however, as are the labours of this great naturalist, they could not possibly extend beyond the limits of what | was known; and as Cuvier was no speculative theorist, but a rigid adherent to nature and fact, he kept his system considerably within the limits of those | who were more speculative, and consequently less accurate. | For students, no work is equal to that of Cuvier, for it is at once compre- | hensive and concise; and though the student may choose a particular de- | partment, and require books more in detail with reference to that department, | he must still have the Rrenz ANIMAL to point out to him the general analo- | gies of the living creation. The present work is a complete Cuvier, as re | gards the essential part of the arrangement; and it is not amere translation, | but in some respects a new book, embodying the original one. Throughout the whole of it, there will be found original remarks; but these are always distinguished from that which belongs to Cuvier, by being inclosed within brackets. This mode of arrangement was thought to be much better than PREFACE. the appending of notes, which always divide the attention of the reader, and weaken the interest of the subject. Many of the classes and orders have been reimyestigated, and many new species added. This is most extensively done in the departments which were intrusted to Mr. Buyru and Mr. West- woop; but it runs more or less throughout the whole; and the publishers flatter themselves that this will be of great service to all students of this highly interesting branch of knowledge. The different sizes of type, which bear some proportion to the comparative importance of the subject, will enable the reader to glean an outline of the system ;—to obtain something more than a bare outline, he must read the entire work. To these remarks which were appended in 1846 to the first edition, the publishers may be permitted to add a few words respecting the present re- print. It was not considered desirable to disturb the illustrious author’s arrangement by the introduction of a more modern system, nor was it thought proper to overlook altogether, im a work professing to give a com- plete view of Animated Nature, the results of modern investigation. ‘The publishers have, therefore, added supplementary articles to such branches as seemed to require it; Dr. Carpenter kindly supplying what was wanting to the Mollusca and Fishes, and Mr. Westwoop performing the same to his own department of the work. In addition to these improvements, the work is now illustrated by thirty plates of Animals, etched by Mr. Tuomas LanpsEsEr, and four plates re- presenting the different races of Mankind; and the publishers present it in its present form in the belief that it will merit public approbation. Amen Corner, Paternoster Row. TABLE OF PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION . TO THE SECOND ADVERTISEMENT EDITION INTRODUCTION ° . . Of Natural History, and of Systems gene rally Of LEving Benes: andl of Organization in general ° Division of Oveanized: Beings into ‘Animal and Vegetable Of the Forms peculiar to the Organic Ele- ments of the Animal Body, and of the principal Combinations of its Chemical Elements Of the Forces which ee in the Animal Body Summary idea of the Functions and Organs of the Bodies of Animals, and of their various degrees of complication . Of the Intellectual Functions of Animals. Of Method, as applied to the Animal King- dom . General Distribution i the Animal King- dom into four great Divisions—Vertebrate Animals, Molluscous Animals, Articulate Animals, Radiate Animals cy VERTEBRATE ANIMALS 0 6 Subdivision into four Classes . . NWAMMALIA b 5 > Division into Orders BiMANA, or MAN Peculiar Conformation of Man Physical and Moral ictal sc of Man Varieties of the Human species é QUADRUMANA Monkey-like Animals Monkeys of America CARNARIA Cheiroptera Insectivora Carnivora MARSUPIATA RODENTIA EDENTATA Ordinary Edentata Monotremata PACHYDERMATA Proboscidea Ordinary Pachydermata 5 é Solidungula Page 10 13 16 19 100 107 122 124 126 128 128 130 133 CONTENTS. RUMINANTIA . . , Without horns . . With horns . . ° CETACEA A . . Herbivora . . . Ordinaria cS c ANALOGIES OF THE TEETH OF MAm- MALIA OVIPAROUS V ERTEBRATES IN GE v RAL . . a AVES f ; 5 Division into Orders . 4 ACCIPITRES . . Diurnal Birds of Prey . Nocturnal Birds of Prey . PASSERINE é . 2 Dentirostres . . . Fissirostres 5 . ° Conirostres : . . Tenuirostres a . : Syndactyli a . . ScaNSORES AFFINITIES OF THE THREE PRECEDING ORDERS . GALLINE a . . GRALLEZ ° . ° . Brevipennes . ° ° Pressirostres : . . Cultrirostres ; . . Longirostres a 4 : Macrodactyli : ; . PALMIPEDES . . . Brachypteres . . . Longipennes . ° ° Totipalmati a . ° Lamellirostres * . REPTILIA : . : CHELONIA . . SAURIA 3 : = . The Crocodiles . . The Lizards . . < The Iguanas . ‘ es The Geckotians : 3 The Chameleons ° . The Scindoidiens . . OPHIDIA G - 3 The Orvets 5 6 The True Serpents FS . The Naked Serpents G é BATRACHIA : . . Page 134 135 136 144 145 145 | vi | PISCES . . . . : ACANTHOPTERYGII 0 . . Percide ce . . Fishes with hard cheeks . . Scienide . a Sparida a 5 e . Menide . 5 ° . | Squamipennes ' . Scomberide . 6 . . | Tenida re i ° . Theutyes a . Labyrinthiform ies r 4 Mugilide 5 . . | Gobiode . 3 . Pectorales pedunculati ° . | Labride : : 2 | | Fistularida f . ‘ | MALAcoPreRYGII Gomi str S | Cyprinide . 7 . . | Esocide . . . ° > | Siluride =. ° a . . Salmonide < . . . | Clupeide : . ‘ , | MALaAcopreryGiI SUBBRACHIATI Gadide : - e ° A Pleuronectide * . . . | Discoboli . a > . 6 MALAcopreryalt APODA . . LOPHOBRANCHIL . . . . | PLECTOGNATHI 7 3 5 ° Gymnodontes ° é a . Sclerodermt . ° ° CHONDROPTERYGIL BRANCHIIS Liners CHONDROPTERYGIT BRANCHITS FIXIS Selachii ° * ° . Cyclostomata . . . ° MOLLUSCA E : = ’ : | Division into Classes . : 2 z | CEPHALOPODES . . . . PTEROPODES . ° 0 ‘ | GASTEROPODES * . Fi PULMONEA . : ci | NUDIBRANCHIATA 7 : | INFEROBRANCHIATA . . | TECTIBRANCHIATA . 6 a | ITETEROPODA . . . . | PECTINIBRANCHIATA . | Trochoides n . . 4 | Capuloides . 2 . . | Buccinoides : ° a TUBRULIBRANCHIATA . . ScurrBRANCHIATA : . . CyYCLOBRANCHIATA < . . ACEPHALES fe . . . | ACEPHALA TESTACEA . . . The Oysters 5 . . . Mytilacee . . . i | Camacea . : 2 . % Cardiacea " : . : | Inclusa : . . a ACEPHALA NUDA . . . | Segregata 4 fc . ‘ | Aggregata . . * @ BRACHIOPODES.. . ‘ CIRRHOPODES . . ° . ARTICULATED ANIMALS . . Div ision into Classes . . ‘ A ELIDES . . . ‘ | Division into Orders , 3 F | ‘{ UBICOLE 3 . . 6 DorsIBRANCHIATA . . . Abranchia . é . . Setigera 5 . . Asetigera ARTICULATED ANIMALS WIT a ARTICU- LATED FEET - . 5 Introduction, by Latreille . . . Divided into Classes. . I CRUSTACEA MALACOSTRACA A. Eyes placed on a footstalk d O DeEcAPODA ° . . S Brachyura 6 2 . 7 Macrura 2 ' . e STOMAPODA . . Unipeltata , 5 5 Bipeltata 5 5 B. Fyes sessile and moreele AMPHIPODA si ° . CR LUST. \CEA ENTOMOSTRACA . BRANCHIOPODA . . . . Lophyropa 5 é . 3 Phyllopa . = s . 4 Peecilopoda . . . : Xyphosura 5 ' ° Siphonostoma . . TRILOBITES . 2 = ARACHNIDA ns . . si PULMONARIA . . . . The Spiders is . . The Pedipalpi G . . ° TRACHEARIEZ : . . A The Pseudo-Scorpiones ‘ The Pycnogonides t . . The Holetra . * . a INSECTA 6 . a MyYRIAPODA . . . Chilognatha . . ° Chilopoda 5 . THYSANOURA z . . : Lepismene 5 . . Podurella . . . = PARASITA . . . . Sucroria 8 . ° . COLEOPTERA 5 . . . PENTAMERA . . . ° Carnivora . . . Brachelytra fe . . i Serricornes ° . Clavicornes : . . . Palpicornes 6 ° s Lamellicornes = 5 HETEROMERA . y . . Melasoma é . . = ‘Taxicornes . . . Stenelytra . . . : £ lides . . . . TreETRAMERA : . ° a The Weevils . . . . Xylophagi é 3 . e Platysoma 4 S . A Longicornes fs é . A Eupoda & é a 5 Cyclica . . . ~ Clavipalpi ' . . . TRIMERA . : Fungicole O Fe % i Aphidiphagi . . . Pselaphi . . ° 5 Page bu3 | 597 | 397 398 401 401 405 | 410 410 410 412 | 416 423 | 424 425 425 426 429 430 434 436 436 441 444 ORTHOPTERA cS Cursoria ' Saltatoria 5 HEMIPTERA S HETEROPTERA Geocorise . Hydrocorise Homoprera ° Cicadariz . Aphidii 5 Gallinsecta 5 NEUROPTERA . Subulicornes . Planipennes . Plicipennes 3 HYMENOPTERA . TEREBRANTIA Securifera 5 Pupivora . ACULEATA . Heterogyna . Fossores 9 Diploptera . Mellifera G LEPIDOPTERA . Diurna a . Crepuscularia Gi Nocturna . RHIPIPTERA : DIPTERA 3 Nemocera 5 Tanystoma ° PISCES.—Professors Agassiz sification of Fishes GANOIDEANS « . PLACOIDEANS . . CTENOIDEANS » . CYCLOIDEANS « . MOLLUSCA . . CEPHALOPODA ° TUNICATA . . CRUSTACEA TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page o ° 556 Tabanides . . 557 Notacantha . . 560 Athericera . . 562 Pupipara 5 5 563 RADIATA fs . . 563 ECHINODERMATA . . 566 PEDICELLATA . . 567 Asterias . . 567 Echinus . . 570 Holothuria . fe 572 APODA © . ‘ 573 NTOZOA . fi 574 NEMATOIDEA . f 577 PARENCHYMATA ° ° 580 Acanthocephala . . 581 Tremadotea . * 582 Tenioidea . . 582 Cestoidea ° . 585 ACALEPHA ° . 591 SIMPLICIA e ‘ 591 Hydrostatica . . 593 POLYPI ° ° 596 CARNOSI ° . 598 GuLATINOSI ° ° 603 ConraLLiFERI . . 605 Tubularia ° . 608 Cellularia ° . 609 Corticati . . 614 INFUSORIA . . 615 RovriFERA 5 = 617 HOoMOGENEA ° . 621 APPENDIX. Page and Miiller’s Clas- , ARACHNIDA . ° 3 661 INSECTA o ° : 6 661 | RADIATA 5 3 ° . . 661 ECHINODERMATA ° S , 661 ACALEPUZ . . . . 661 Bryozoa : 6 . . . 665 ANTHOZOA . . R & 8 667 INFUSIORIA . ° . ° ° 669 HOMOGENEA . . . . 673 Pago 674 675 691 691 695 693 700 705 107 LIST OF PLATES. LORTRAIT OF COVIER—Vignette, Plate I. — GIRAFFE . ° ° ° ° ° Il. — OAUCASIAN RACE ° ° » ° Ill. — MONGOLIAN RACE ° ® ° ° Iv. — AMERICAN RACE * ° ° ° V — NEGRO RACE ° . ® ° ° VI — MONKEYS ° ° ° ° ° ° VII — BABOONS. ° , ° ° t VIII. — LEMURS ° ° ° ° 2 ° IX. — BeARS ° . ° a ° X.— DUGS . ° ° ° ° ° ° XI. — ICGHNEUMONS 9 . “ ° XII.— CATS . ° ° ° e ° ° AIII. — AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. e ° e XIV. — HIPPOPOTAMUS ° ° ° ° ° XV. — RHINOCEROS ° . ° ° ° XVI. — HORSES ° ° ° ° ° ° XVII. — CAMELS ° ° ° ° ° XVIII. — DEER . ° . ° ° ° ° Frontispiece. Page 49 ° 50 61 ° 52 57 e 59 63 ° 83 90 ° 93 95 e v3 130 ° 131 133 ° 135 139 Plate. XIX. xXx. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXY. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIYX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXIII. Listy OF — ANTELOPES e ° — GOATS a - — SHEEP , . . — BRAHMIN BULL e ° — VULTURES ° ° — EAGLES . e ° — OWLS ° ° ° — HUMMING BIRDS . . — PARROTS ° . — OSTRICH ° ° e — DUCKS . . — REPTILES . ° ° — BEETLES. ° - — ORTHOPTEROUS INSECTS -- BUTTERFLIES a ° TI.ATRHS. . . ° . . ° ° e e c e . . ° ° 142 143 164 167 173 207 218 ANIMAL KINGDOM. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Havine been devoted, from my earliest youth, to the study of comparative anatomy, that is to say of the laws of the organization of animals, and of the modifications which this organization undergoes in the various species, and having, for nearly thirty years past, consecrated to that science every moment of which my dutics allowed me to dispose, the constant aim of my labours has been to reduce it to general rules, and to propositions that should contain their most simple expression. My first essays soon led me to perceive that I could only attain this object in proportion as the animals, whose structure I should have to elucidate, were arranged in conformity with that structure, so that under one single name, of class, order, genus, &c., might be embraced all those species which, in their internal as well as exterior conformation, present accordancies either more general or more particular. Now this is what the greater number of naturalists of that epoch had never sought to effect, and what but few of them could have achieved, even had they been willing to try; since a parallel arrangement presup- poses a very extensive knowledge of the structures, of which it ought, in some measure, to be the representation. It is true that Daubenton and Camper had supplied facts,—that Pallas had indicated views ; but the ideas of these well-informed men had not yet exercised upon their contemporaries the influence which they merited. The only general catalogue of animals then in existence, and the only one we possess even now,—the system of Linneus,—had just been disfigured by an unfortunate editor, who did not so much as take the trouble to comprehend the principles of that ingenious classifier, and who, wherever he found any disorder, seems to have tried to render it more inextricable. It is also true that there were very extensive works upon particular classes, which had made known a vast number of new species; but their authors barely con- | sidered the external relations of those species, and no one had employed himself | in co-arranging the classes and orders according to their entire structure: the cha- racters of several classes remained false or incomplete, even in justly celebrated anatomical works; some of the orders were arbitrary; and in scarcely any of these divisions were the genera approximated conformably to nature. 2 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION I was necessitated then,—and the task occupied considerable time,—I was com- pelled to make anatomy and zoology, dissection and classification, proceed beforehand ; to seek, in my first remarks on organization, for better principles of distribution ; to employ these, in order to arrive at new remarks ; and in their turn the latter, to carry the principles of distribution to perfection: in fine, to elicit from the mutual reaction of the two sciences upon each other, a system of zoology adapted to serve as an introduction and a guide in anatomical researches, and a body of anatomical doctrine fitted to develope and explain the zoological system. The first results of this double labour appeared in 1795, in a special memoir upon a new division of the white-blooded animals. A sketch of their application to genera, and to the division of these into sub-genera, formed the object of my Tubleau ELlémentaire des Animaux, printed in 1798, and I improved this work, with the assistance of M. Dumeril, in the tables annexed to the first volume of my Lecons d’ Anatomie Comparée, in 1800. I should, perhaps, have contented myself with perfecting these tables, and proceeded immediately to the publication of my great work on anatomy, if, in the course of my researches, I had not been frequently struck with another defect of the greater number of the general or partial systems of zoology ; I mean, the confusion in which the want of critical precision had left a vast number of species, and even many genera. Not only were the classes and orders not sufficiently conformed to the intrinsical nature of animals, to serve conveniently as the basis to a treatise on comparative anatomy, but the genera themselves, though ordinarily better constituted, offered but inadequate resources in their nomenclature, on account of the species not having been arranged under each of them, conformably to their characters. Thus, in placing the Manati in the genus Morse, the Siren in that of the Eels, Gmelin had rendered any general proposition relative to the organization of these genera impossible ; just as by approximating in the same class and in the same order, and placing side by side, the Cuttle and the fresh-water Polypus, he had made it impossible to predicate anything generally of the class and order which comprised such incongruous beings. I select the above examples from among the most prominent; but there existed an infinitude of such mistakes, less obvious at the first glance, which occasioned incon- veniences not less real. It was not sufficient, then, to have imagined a new distribution of the classes and orders, and to have properly placed the genera; it was also necessary to examine all the species, in order to be assured that they really belonged to the genera in which they had been placed. Having come to this, I found not only species grouped or dispersed contrary to all rea- son, but I remarked that many had not been established in a positive manner, either by the characters which had been assigned to them, or by their figures and descriptions. Here one of them, by means of synonymes, represents several under a single name, and often so different that they should not rank in the same genus: there a single one is doubled, tripled, and successively reappears in several sub-genera, genera, and sometimes different orders. What can be said, for example, of the Trichechus manatus of Gmelin, which, under a single specific name, comprehends three species and two genera,—two genera differing in almost everything? By what name shall we speak of the Velella, which figures PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 3 twice among the Meduse and once among the Holothurie ? How are we to reassemble the Biphore, of which some are there called Dagysa, the greater number Salpa, while several are ranged among the Holothurie ? It did not therefore suffice, in order completely to attain the object aimed at, to review the species: it was necessary to examine their synonymes; or, in other words, to re-model the system of animals. Such an enterprize, from the prodigious developement of the science of late years, could not have been executed completely by any one individual, even granting him the longest life, and no other occupation. Had I been constrained to depend upon myself alone, I should not have been able to prepare even the simple sketch which I now give; but the resources of my position seemed to me to supply what I wanted both of time and talent. Living in the midst of so many able naturalists, drawing from their works as fast as they appeared, freely enjoying the use of the collections they had made, and having myself formed a very considerable one, ex- pressly appropriated to my object, a great part of my labour consisted merely in the employment of so many rich materials. It was not possible, for instance, that much remained for me to do on shells, studied by M. de Lamarck, nor on quadrupeds, described by M. Geoffroy. The numerous and new affinities described by M. de Lacepéde, were so many data for my system of fishes. M. Levaillant, among so many beautiful birds collected from all parts, perceived details of organization which I immediately adapted to my plan. My own researches, employed and fructified by other naturalists, yielded results to me which, in my hands alone, they would not all have produced. So, also, M. de Blainville and M. Oppel, in examining the cabinet which I had formed of anatomical preparations on which I designed to found my divisions of reptiles, anti- cipated—and perhaps better than I should have done—results of which as yet I had but a glimpse, &c., &c. Encouraged by these reflections, I determined to precede my Treatise on Com- parative Anatomy by a kind of abridged system of animals, in which I should present their divisions and subdivisions of all degrees, established in a parallel manner upon their structure, both internal and external; where I would give the indication of well- authenticated species that belonged, with certainty, to each of the subdivisions; and where, to create more interest, I would enter into some details upon such of the species as, from their abundance in our country, the services which they render us, the damage which they occasion to us, the singularity of their manners and economy, their extraordinary forms, their beauty, or their magnitude, are the most remarkable. I hoped by so doing to prove useful to young naturalists, who, for the most part, have but little idea of the confusion and errors of criticism in which the most accredited works abound, and who, particularly in foreign countries, do not sufficiently attend to the study of the true relations of the conformation of beings: I considered myself as rendering a more direct service to those anatomists, who require to know beforehand to which orders they should direct their researches, when they wish to solve by com- parative anatomy some problem of human anatomy or physiology, but whose ordinary occupations do not sufficiently prepare them for fulfilling this condition, which is essen- tial to their success. Nevertheless, I have not professed to extend this twofold view equally to all classes of the animal kingdom ; and the vertebrated animals, as in every sense the most in- B2 4 PREFACE TO TILE FIRST EDITION. teresting, claimed to have the preference. Among the Invertebrata, I have had more particularly to study the naked mollusks and the great zoophytes ; but the innumerable variations of the external forms of shells and corals, the microscopic animals, and the other families which perform a less obvious office in the economy of nature, or whose organization affords but little room for the exercise of the scalpel, did not require to be treated with the same detail. Independently of which, so far as the shells and corals are concerned, I could depend on a work just published by M. de Lamarck, in which will be found all that the most ardent desire for information can require. With respect to insects, so interesting by their external forms, their organization, habits, and by their influence on all living nature, I have had the good fortune to find as- sistance which, in rendering my work infinitely more perfect than it could have been had it emanated solely from my pen, has, at the same time, greatly accelerated its publica- tion. My colleague and friend, M. Latreille, who has studied these animals more profoundly than any other man in Europe, has kindly consented to give, in a single volume, and nearly in the order adopted for the other parts, a summary of his immense researches, and an abridged description of those innumerable genera which entomolo- gists are continually establishing. As for the rest, if in some instances I have given less extent to the exposition of sub-genera and species, this inequality has not occurred in aught that concerns the superior divisions and the indications of affinities, which I have every where founded on equally solid bases, established by equally assiduous researches. I have examined, one by one, all the species of which [ could procure specimens ; I have approximated those which merely differed from each other in size, colour, or in the number of some less important parts, and have formed them into what I designate a sub-genus. Whenever it was possible, I have dissected at least one species of each sub-genus ; and if those be excepted to which the scalpel cannot be applied, there exis s in my work but very few groups of this degree, of which I cannot produce scme considerable portion of the organs. After having determined the names of the species which I had examined, and which had previously been either well figured or well described, I placed in the same sub- genera those which I had not seen, but whose exact figures, or descriptions, sufficiently precise to leave no doubt of their natural relations, J found in authors; but I have passed over in silence that great number of vague indications, on which, in my opinion, naturalists have been too eager to establish species, the adoption of which has mainly contributed to introduce into the catalogue of beings, that confusion which deprives it of so much of its utility. I could have added, almost every where, a vast number of new species; but as I could not refer to figures, it would have been incumbent on me to extend their descrip- tions beyond what space permitted: I have, therefore, preferred depriving my work of this ornament, and have only indicated those, the peculiar conformation of which gives rise to new sub-genera. My sub-genera once established on positive relations, and composed of well-authen- ticated species, it remained only to construct this great scaffolding of genera, tribes, families, orders, classes, and primary divisions, which constitute the entire animal kingdom. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 5 In this I have proceeded, partly by ascending from the inferior to the superior divi- sions, by means of approximation and comparison ; and partly also by descending from the superior to the inferior groups, on the principle of the subordination of characters ; comparing carefully the results of the two methods, verifying one by the other, and always sedulously establishing the correspondence of external and internal structure, which, the one as well as the other, are integral parts of the essence of each animal. Such has been my procedure whenever it was necessary and possible to introduce new arrangements ; but I need not observe that, in very many places, the results to which it would have conducted me had already been so satisfactorily obtained, that I had only to follow the track of my predecessors. Notwithstanding which, even in those cases where no alteration was required, I have verified and confirmed, by new observations, what was previously acknowledged, and what I did not adopt until it had been subjected to a rigorous scrutiny. The public may form some idea of this mode of examination, from the memoirs on the anatomy of mollusks, which have appeared in the Annales du Museum, and of which I am now preparing a separate and augmented collection. I venture to assure the reader that I have bestowed quite as extensive labour upon the vertebrated animals, the anne- lides, the zoophytes, and on many of the insects and crustaceans. I have not deemed it necessary to publish it with the same detail; but all my preparations are exposed in the Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy in the Jardin du Roi, and will serve hercafter for my treatise on anatomy. Another very considerable labour, but the details of which cannot be so readily authenticated, is the critical examination of species. I have verified all the figures alleged by different authors, and as often as possible referred each to its true species, previously to selecting those which I have indicated: it is entirely from this verifica- tion, and never from the classification of preceding systematists, that I have referred to my sub-genera the species that belong to them. Such is the reason why no astonish- ment should be experienced on finding that such and such a genus of Gmelin is now divided, and distributed even in different classes and still higher divisions ; that nume- rous nominal species are reduced to a single one, and that popular names are very differently applied. There is not one of these changes which I am not prepared to “ustify, and of which the reader himself may not obtain the proof, by recurring to the sources which I have indicated. In order to lessen his trouble, I have been careful to select for each class a principal author, generally the richest in good original figures; and I quoted secondary works only where the former are deficient, or where it was useful to establish some com- parison, for the sake of confirming synonymes. My subject could have been made to fill many volumes; but I considered it my duty to condense it, by imagining abridged means of expression. These I have obtained by graduated generalities. By never repeating for a species that which might be said of an entire sub-genus, nor for a genus what might be applied to a whole order, and so on, we arrive at the greatest economy of words. To this my endeavours have been, above all, particularly directed, inasmuch as it was the principal end of my work. It may be remarked, however, that I have not employed many technical terms, and that [ have endeavoured to communicate my ideas without that barbarous array of fictitious words, which, in the works of so many 6 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. so very repulsive. I cannot perceive, however, that I have thereby lost any thing in precision or clearness. I have been compelled, unfortunately, to introduce many new names, although I have endeavoured, as far as possible, to preserve those of my predecessors ; but the numerous sub-genera I have established required these denominations ; for m things so various, the memory is not satisfied with numerical indications. I have selected them, so as either to convey some character, or among the common names which I have latinized, or lastly, after the example of Linnzus, from among those of mytho- logy, which are generally agreeable to the ear, and which we are far from haying exhausted. In naming species, however, I would nevertheless recommend employing the sub- stantive of the genus, and the trivial name only. The names of the sub-genera are designed merely as a relief to the memory, when we would indicate these sub- divisions in particular. Otherwise, as the sub-genera, already very numerous, will in the end become greatly multiplied, in consequence of having substantives continually to retain, we shall be in danger of losing the advantages of that binary nomenclature so happily imagined by Linneus. It is the better to preserve it that I have dismembered as little as possible the great genera of that illustrious reformer of science. Whenever the sub-genera into which I divide them were not to be translated into different families, I have left them together under their former generic appellation. This was not only due to the memory of Linneeus, but was necessary in order to preserve the mutual intelligence of the naturalists of different countries. To facilitate still more the study of this work,—for it is to be studied more than to be glanced over,—I have employed different-sized types in the printing of it, to correspond to the different grades of generalization of the statements contained in it. * * * Thus the eye will distinguish beforehand the relative importance of each group, and the order of each successive idea ; and the printer will second the author with every con- trivance which his art supplies, that may conduce to assist the memory. The habit, necessarily acquired in the study of natural history, of mentally classify- ing a great number of ideas, is one of the advantages of this science, which is seldom spoken of, and which, when it shall have been generally introduced into the system of common education, will perhaps become the principal one: it exercises the student in that part of logic which is termed method, as the study of geometry does in that which is called syllogism, because natural history is the science which requires the most precise methods, as geometry is that which demands the most rigorous reason- ing. Now this art of method, when once well acquired, may be applied with infinite advantage to studies the most foreign to natural history. Every discussion which sup- poses a classification of facts, every research which requires a distribution of matters, is performed after the same manner; and he who had cultivated this science merely for amusement, is surprised at the facilities it affords for disentangling all kinds of affairs. It is not less useful in solitude. Sufficiently extensive to satisfy the most powerful mind, sufficiently various and interesting to calm the most agitated soul, it consoles the unhappy, and tends to allay enmity and hatred. Once elevated to the contem- plation of that harmony of Nature irresistibly regulated by Providence, how weak and PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Zi trivial appear those causes which it has been pleased to leave dependent on the will of man! How astonishing to behold so many fine minds, consuming themselves, so uselessly for their own happiness and that of others, in the pursuit of vain combina- tions, the very traces of which a few years suffice to obliterate ! I avow it proudly, these ideas have been always present to my mind,—the companions of my labours; and if I have endeavoured by every means in my power to advance this peaceful study, it is because, in my opinion, it is more capable than any other of supplying that want of occupation, which has so largely contributed to the troubles of our age ;—but I must return to my subject. There yet remains the task of accounting for the principal changes I have effected in the latest received methods, and to acknowledge the amount of obligation to those naturalists, whose works have furnished or suggested a part of them. To anticipate a remark which will naturally occur to many, I must observe that I have neither pretended nor desired to class animals so as to form a single line, or as to mark their relative superiority. I even consider every attempt of this kind im- practicable. Thus, I do not mean that the mammalia or birds which come last, are the most imperfect of their class; still less do I intend that the last of mammalia are more perfect than the first of birds, or the last of mollusks more perfect than the first of the annelides, or zoophytes ; even restricting the meaning of this vague word perfect to that of ‘‘most completely organized.” I regard my divisions and subdivisions as the merely graduated expression of the resemblance of the beings which enter into each of them; and although in some we observe a sort of passage or gradation from one species into another, which cannot be denied, this disposition is far from being general. The pretended chain of beings, as applied to the whole creation, is but an erroneous application of those partial observations, which are only true when confined to the limits within which they were made; and, in my opinion, it has proved more detrimental to the progress of natural history in modern times, than is easy to imagine. It is in conformity with these views, that I have established my four principal divisions, which have already been made known in a separate memoir. [I still think that it expresses the real relations of animals more exactly than the old arrangement of Vertebrata and Invertebrata, for the simple reason, that the former animals have a much greater mutual resemblance than the latter, and that it was necessary to mark this difference in the extent of their relations. M. Virey, in an article of the Nouveau Dictionnaire d’ Histoire Naturelle, had already discerned in part the basis of the division, and principally that which reposes on the nervous system. The particular approximation of oviparous Vertebrata, inter se, originated from the curious observations of M. Geoffroy on the composition of bony heads, and from those which I have added to them relative to the rest of the skeleton, and to the muscles. In the class of Mammalia, I have brought back the Solipedes to the Pachydermata, and have divided the latter into families on a new plan; the Ruminantia I have placed at the end of the quadrupeds; and the Manati near the Cetacea. The distribution of the Carnaria I have somewhat altered; the Oustitis have been wholly separated from the Monkeys, and a sort of parallelism indicated between the Marsupiata and other digitated quadrupeds, the whole from my own anatomical researches. All that I have 8 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. given on the Quadrumana ana the Bats is based on the recent and profound labours of my friend and colleague M. Geoffroy de St. Hilaire. The researches of my brother, M. Frederic Cuvier, on the teeth of the Curnaria and Rodentia, have proved highly useful to me in forming the sub-genera of these two orders. Notwithstanding the genera of the late M. Illger are but the results of these same studies, and of those of some foreign naturalists, I have adopted his names whenever his genera corresponded with my sub-genera. M. de Lacepede has also discerned and indicated many excellent divisions of this degree, which I have been equally compelled to adopt; but the cha- racters of all the degrees and all the indications of species have been taken from nature, Heries of the Museum. either in the Cabinet of Anatomy or in the ga The same plan was pursued with respect to the Birds. I have examined with the closest attention more than four thousand individuals in the Museum ; I arranged them according to my views in the public gallery more than five years ago, and all that is said of this class has been drawn from that source. ‘Thus, any resemblance which my sub-divisions may bear to some recent descriptions, is on my part purely accidental.* Naturalists, I hope, will approve of the numerous sub-genera which I have deemed it necessary to make among the birds of prey, the Pusserine, and the Shore-birds ; they appear to me to have completely elucidated genera hitherto involved in much confusion. I have marked, as exactly as I could, the accordance of these subdivisions with the genera of MM. de Lacepede, Meyer, Wolf, Temminck, and Savigny, and have referred to each of them all the species of which I could obtain a very positive knowledge. This laborious work will prove of value to those who may hereafter attempt a true history of birds. The splendid works on Ornithology published within a few years, and those chiefly of M. le Vaillant, which are filled with so many interesting observations, together with M. Vieillot’s, have been of much assistance to me in designating the species which they represent. The general division of this class remains as | published it in 1798, in my Tableau ELleémentaire.> I have thought proper to preserve for the Reptiles, the general division of my friend M. Brongniart ; but I have prosecuted very extensive anatomical investigations to arrive M. Oppel, advantage of these preparatory labours ; at the ulterior subdivisions. as I have already stated, has partly taken and whenever my genera finally agreed with his, I have noticed the fact. The work of Daudin, indifferent as it is, has been useful to me for indications of details ; but the particular divisions which I have given in the genera of Monitors and Geckos, are the product of my own observations on a great number of Reptiles recently brought to the Museum by MM. Peron and Geoffroy. My labours on the Fishes will probably be found to exceed those which I have bestowed on the other vertebrated animals. Our Muscum having received a vast number of Fishes since the celebrated work of M. de Lacepede was published, I have been enabled to add many subdivisions to those several species differently, and to multiply * This observation not having been sufficiently understood abroad, J arm obliged to repeat it here, and openly to declare a fact witnessed by thousands in Paris; itis this, that all the birds in the gallery of the Museum 1sll. names, were were named and arranged according to my system, in Those even of my subdivisions to which I had nut ye c This is my date. Inde- pendently of this, my first volume wus printed in the beginning of yen marked by particular signs. of that learned naturalist, also to combine anatomical observations. I have also had 1816. Four volumes are not printed so quickly ax a pamphlet of a few pages. Isay no more. (Note to Edit. 1829). t+ Lonly mention this because an estimable naturalist, M. Viecillot, has, in a recent work, attributed to himself the union of the Picw and Passeves, had printed it in 1798, together with my other arrange~ nents, so as to render them public ia the Museum since 181] and 1813 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 9 better means of verifying the species of Commerson, and of some of other travellers ; and, upon this point, am much indebted toa review of the drawings of Commerson, and of the dried fishes which he brought with him, by M. Dumeril, but which have only been very lately recovered ;—resources to which I have added those presented to me in the fishes brought by Péron from the Indian Ocean and Archipelago, those which I obtained in the Mediterranean, and the collections made on the coast of Coromandel by the late M. Sonnerat, at the Mauritius by M. Matthieu, in the Nile and Red Sea, by M. Geoffroy, &c. I was thus enabled to verify most of the species of Bloch, Russell, and others, and to prepare the skeletons and viscera of nearly ail the sub-genera; so that this part of the work will, I presume, offer much that is new to Icthyologists. As to my division of this class, I confess its inconvenience, but I believe it, never- theless, to be more natural than any preceding one. In publishing it some time ago, I only offered it for what it is worth ; and if any one should discover a better principle of division, and as conformable to the organization, I shall hasten to adopt it. It is admitted that all the works on the general division of the invertebrated animals, are mere modifications of what I proposed in 1795, in the first of my memoirs ; and the time and care which I have devoted to the anatomy of mollusks in general, and principally to the naked mollusks, are well known. The determining of this class, as well as of its divisions and subdivisions, rests upon my own observations; the magni- ficent work of M. Poli had alone anticipated me by descriptions and anatomical researches useful for my design, but confined tv bivalves and multivalves only. I have verified all the facts furnished by that able anatomist, and I believe that I have more justly marked the functions of some organs. Ihave also endeavoured to determine the animals to which belong the principal forms of sheils, and to arrange the latter from that consideration ; but with regard to the ulterior divisions of those shells of which the animals resemble each other, I have examined them only so far as to enable me to describe briefly those admitted by MM. de Lamarck and de Montfort ; even the small number of genera and sub-genera which are properly mine, are principally derived from observa- tions on the animals. In citing examples, I have confined myself to a certain number of the species of Martini, Chemnitz, Lister, and Soldani; and that only because, the volume in which M. Lamarck treats of this portion not having yet appeared, I was compelled to fix the attention of my readers on specific objects. But in the choice and determin- ing of these species, I lay no claim to the same critical accuracy which I have employed for the vertebrated animals and naked mollusks. The excellent observations of MM. Savigny, Lesueur, and Desmarest, on the com- pound Ascidians, approximate this latter family of mollusks to certain orders of zoophytes: this is a curious relation, and a further proof of the impracticability of arranging animals in a single line. I believe that I have extricated the Annelides,—the establishing of which, although not their name, belongs virtually to me,—from the confusion in which they had hitherto been involved, among the Mollusks, the Testacea, and the Zoophytes, and have placed them in their natural order; even their genera have received some elucidation only by my observations, published in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, and else- where. Of the three classes contained in the third volume, I have nothing to remark. 10 ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. M. Latreille, who, with the exception of some anatomical details, founded on my own observations and those of M. Ramdohr, which I have inserted in his text, is its sole author, will take upon himself to explain all that is necessary. As to the Zoophytes, which terminate the Animal Kingdom, I have availed myself, for the Echinoderms, of the recent work of M. de Lamarck; and for the Intestinal Worms, of that of M. Rudolphi, intitled Hntozoa; but I have anatomized all the genera, some of which have been determined by me only. ‘There is an excellent work by M. Tiédemann, on the anatomy of the Echinoderms, which received the prize of the Institute some years ago, and will shortly appear ; it will leave nothing to be desired respecting these curious animals. The Corals and the Infusoria, offering no field for anatomical investigations*, will be briefly disposed of. ‘The new work of M. de Lamarck will supply my deficiencies. With respect to authors, I can only here mention those who have furnished me with general views, or who were the origin of such in my own mind.{ There are many others to whom I am indebted for particular facts, and whose names I have carefully quoted wherever I have made use of them. They will be found on every page of my book. Should I have omitted to do justice to any, it must be attributed to involuntary forgetfulness, and I ask pardon beforehand : there is no property, in my opinion, more sacred than the conceptions of the mind; and the custom, too pre- valent among naturalists, of masking plagiarisms by a change of names, has always appeared to me a crime. The publication of my Comparative Anatomy will now occupy me every moment : the materials are ready ; a vast quantity of preparations and drawings are arranged ; and I shall be careful in dividing the work into parts, each of which will form a whole, so that, should my physical powers prove insufficient for the completion of my design, what I have produced will still form entire suites, and the materials I have collected be in immediate readiness for those who may undertake the continuation of my labours. Jardin du Roi, October, 1816. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. Tue preceding preface explains faithfully the condition in which I found the history of animals when the first edition of this work was published. During the twelve years that have since elapsed, this science has made immense progress, not only from the acquisitions of numerous travellers, as well-instructed as courageous, who have explored every region of the globe, but by the rich collections which various governments have formed and rendered public, and by the learned and « The surprising researches of M. Ehrenberg, now publishing from | M. de Lamarck. time to time, triumphantly refute this alleation.—Ep. t M. de Blainville has recently published general zoological tables, t Ihave just received L'Histoire des Pulypiers correlligencs ficzibles | which I regret came too late for me to profit by, having appeared of M, Lamouroux, which furnishes an excellent supplement to | when my book was nenrly printed. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. 11 splendid works, wherein new species are described and figured, and of which the authors have striven to detect their mutual relations, and to consider them in every point of view.* I have endeavoured to avail myself of these discoveries, as far as my plan permitted, by first studying the innumerable specimens received at the Cabinet du Roi, and com- paring them with those which served as the basis of my first edition, in order thence to deduce new approximations or subdivisions; and then, by searching in all the books I could procure for the genera or sub-genera established by naturalists, and the descriptions of species by which they have supported these numerous com- binations. The determination of synonymes has become much easier now than at the period of my first edition. Both French and foreign naturalists appear to have recognized the necessity of establishing divisions in the vast genera in which such incongruous species were formerly heaped together ; their groups are now precise and well-defined ; their descriptions sufficiently detailed; their figures scrupulously exact to the most minute characters, and often of the greatest beauty as works of art. Scarcely any difficulty remains, therefore, in identifying their species, and nothing hinders them from coming to an understanding with respect to the nomenclature. This, unfortunately, has been the most neglected ; the names of the same genera, and the same species, are multiplied as often as they are mentioned ; and should this discord continue, the same chaos will be produced that previously existed, though arising from another cause. I have used every effort to compare and approximate these redundancies, and, forget- ting even my own trifling interest as an author, have often indicated names which seemed to have been imagined only to escape the avowal of having borrowed my divisions. But thoroughly to execute this undertaking,—this pinag or rectified epitome of the animal kingdom, which becomes every day more necessary,—to discuss the proofs and fix the definitive nomenclature which should be adopted, by basing it on sufficient figures and descriptions, requires more space than I could dispose of, and a time imperatively claimed by other works. In the History of Fishes, which I have commenced pub- lishing, with the assistance of M. Valenciennes, I purpose to give an idea of what appears to me might be effected in all parts of the science. Here, I only profess to offer an abridged summary—a simple sketch ;—well satisfied if I succeed in rendering this accurate in all its details. Various essays of a similar kind have been published on some of the classes, and I have carefully studied them with a view to perfect my own. The Mammalogie of M. Desmarest, that of M. Lesson, the Treatise on the Teeth of Quadrupeds, by M. Frederic Cuvier, the English translation of my first edition, by Mr. Grifhth, enriched by numerous additions, particularly by Hamilton Smith; the new edition of the Manuel d’ Ornithologie of M. Temminck, the Ornithological Fragments of M. Wagler, the History of Reptiles of the late Merrem, and the Dissertation on the same subject by M. Fitsinger, have principally been useful to me for the vertebrated animals. The Histoire des Animaux sans Vertebres of M. de Lamarck, the Malacologie of M. de Blainville, have also been of great service to me for the mollusks. To * Sce my discourse before the Institute on the Progres de Uhistoire naturelle deputs «a paix marrtime, published at the close of the firat volume of my Eloges. 12 ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. these I have added the new views and facts contained in the numerous and learned writings of MM. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, father and son, Savigny, Temminck, Lichtenstein, Kuhl, Wilson, Horsfield, Vigors, Swainson, Gray, Ord, Say, Harlan, Charles Bonaparte, Lamouroux, Mitchell, Lesueur, and many other able and studious men, whose names will be carefully mentioned when I speak of the subjects on which they have treated. The fine collections of engravings which have appeared within the last twelve years, have enabled me to indicate a greater number of species; and I have amply profited by this facility. I must particularly acknowledge what I owe on this score to the [Histoire des Mammifvres of MM. Geoftroy St. Hilaire and Frederic Cuvier, the Planches colori¢es of MM. Temminck and Laugier, the Galerie des Oiseaur of M. Vieillot, the new edition of the Birds of Germany, by MM. Nauman, the Birds of the United States of Messrs. Wilson, Ord, and Charles Bonaparte*, the great works of M. Spix, and of his Highness the Prince Maximilian de Wied, on the Animals of Brazil, and to those of M. de Ferussac on the Mollusks. The plates and zoological descriptions of the travels of MM. Freycinet and Duperrey, supplied in the first by MM. Quoy and Gaymard, in the second by MM. Lesson and Garnot, also present many new objects. The same must be said of the Animals of Java, by Dr. Hors- field. Though on a smaller scale, new figures of rare species are to be found in the Mémoires du Muséum, the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, and other French peri- odicals, in the Zoological Illustrations of Mr. Swainson, and in the Zoological Journal, published by able naturalists in London. ‘The Journal of the Lyceum of New York, and of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, are not less valuable; but in proportion as the taste for natural history becomes extended, and the more numerous the countries in which it is cultivated, the number of its acquisitions increases in geometrical progression, and it becomes more and more difficult to collect all the writings of naturalists, and to complete the table of their results. I rely, therefore, on the indulgence of those whose observations may have escaped me, or whose works I have not sufficiently consulted. My celebrated friend and colleague M. Latreille, having consented, as in the first edition, to take upon himself the important and difficult part of the Crustaceans, Arachnides, and Insects, will himself explain in an advertisement the plan he has followed, so that I need say nothing more on this subject. * * * * * * Jardin du Roi, October, 1828. ® The work of M. Audubon upon the Birds of North America me till after the whole of that part which treats of Birds was which surpasses ull others in muguificence, wus unknown te printed, 13 INTRODUCTION. OF NATURAL HISTORY, AND OF SYSTEMS GENERALLY. As few persons have a just idea of Natural History, it appears necessary to com- mence our work by carefully defining the proposed object of this science, and establish- ing rigorous limits between it and the contiguous sciences. The word Narurg, in our language, and in most others, signifies—sometimes, the qualities which a being derives from birth, in opposition to those which it may owe to art; at other times, the aggregate of beings which compose the universe ; and sometimes, again, the laws which govern these beings. It is particularly in this latter sense that it has become customary to personify Nature, and to employ the name, respectfully, for that of its Author. Physics, or Natural Philosophy, treats of the nature of these three relations, and is either general or particular. General Physics examines, abstractedly, each of the properties of those moveable and extended beings which we call bodies. That depart- ment of them styled Dynamics, considers bodies in mass ; and, procecding from a very small number of experiments, determines mathematically the laws of equilibrium, and those of motion and of its communication. It comprehends in its different divisions the names of Statics, Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Pneumatics, &c., ac- cording to the nature of the bodies of which it examines the motions. Optics considers the particular motions of light; the phenomena of which, requiring experiments for their determination, are becoming more numerous. Chemistry, another branch of General Physics, expounds the laws by which the elementary molecules of bodies act on each other when in close proximity, the com- binations or separations which result from the general tendency of these molecules te unite, and the modifications which different circumstances, capable of separating or approximating them, produce on that tendency. It is a science almost wholly ex- perimental, and which cannot be reduced to calculation. The theory of Heat, and that of Electricity, belong almost equally to Dynamics or Chemistry, according to the point of view in which they are considered. The method which prevails in all the branches of General Physics consists in isolating bodies, reducing them to their utmost simplicity, in bringing each of their properties separately into action, either mentally or by experiment, in observing or calculating the results, in short, in generalizing and correcting the laws of these pro- 14 INTRODUCTION. perties for the purpose of establishing a body of doctrine, and, if possible, of referring the whole to one single law, under the universal expression of which all might be resolved. Particular Physics, or Natural History,—for these terms are synonymous—has for its object to apply specially the laws recognized by the various branches of General Physics, to the numerous and varied beings which exist in nature, in order to explain the phenomena which they severally present. In this extended sense, it would also inciude Astronomy ; but that science, sufh- ciently elucidated by Mechanics, and completely subjected to its laws, employs methods too different from those required by ordinary Natural History, to permit of its cultiva- tion by the students of the latter. Natural History, then, is confined to objects which do not allow of rigorous calculation, or of precise measurement in all their parts. Meteorology, also, is subtracted from it, to be ranged under General Physics ; so that, properly speaking, it considers only inanimate bodies, called minerals, and the various kinds of living beings, in all which we may observe the effects, more or less various, of the laws of motion and chemical attraction, and of all the other causes analyzed by General Physics. Natural History should, in strictness, employ the same modes of procedure as the general sciences; and it does so, in fact, whenever the objects of its study are so little complex as to permit of it. But this is very seldom the case. An essential difference, in effect, between the general sciences and Natural History is, that, in the former, phenomena are examined, the conditions of which are all regulated by the examiner, in order, by their analysis, to arrive at general laws ; while in the latter, they occur under circumstances beyond the control of him who studies them for the purpose of discovering, amid the complication, the effects of general laws already known. It is not permitted for him, as in the case of the experimenter, to subtract successively from each condition, and so reduce the problem to its elements ; but he must take it entire, with all its conditions at once, and can analyze only in thought. Suppose, for example, we attempt to isolate the numerous pheno- mena which compose the life of an animal a little elevated in the scale; a single one being suppressed, the life is wholly annihilated. Dynamics have thus become a science almost purely of calculation ; Chemistry is still a science wholly {chiefly*] of experiment ; and Natural History will long remain, in a great number of its branches, one of pure observation. These three terms sufficiently designate the modes of procedure employed in the three branches of the Natural Sciences ; but in establishing between them very different degrees of certitude, they at the same time indicate the point to which the two latter should tend, in order to approach perfection. Calculation, so to speak, commands Nature; it determines phenomena more exactly than observation can make them known; experiment forces her to unveil ; while obser- vation watches her when deviating from her normal course, and seeks to surprise her. Natural History has, moreover, a principle on which to reason, which is peculiar to it, and which it employs advantageously on many occasions ; it is that of the conditions of existence, commonly termed final causes. As nothing can exist without the concur- rence of those conditions which render its existence possible, the component parts of each * The discovery of the atomic theory has reduced many of its phenomena to calculation,—Ep. INTRODUCTION. lds must be so arranged as to render possible the whole living being, not only with regard to itself, but to its surrounding relations; and the analysis of these conditions fre- quently conducts to general laws, as demonstrable as those which are derived from calculation or experiment. : It is only when all the laws of general physics, and those which result from the condi- tions of existence, are exhausted, that we are reduced to the simple laws of observation. The most effectual mode of observing is by comparison. ‘This consists in suc- cessively studying the same bodies in the different positions in which Nature places them, or in a comparison of different bodies together, until constant relations are recognized between their structures and the phenomena which they manifest. These various bodies are kinds of experiments ready prepared by Nature, who adds to or subtracts from each of them different parts, just as we might wish to do in our laboratories, and shows us herself the results of such additions or retrenchments. It is thus that we succeed in establishing certain laws, which govern these relations, and which are employed like those that have been determined by the general sciences. The incorporation of these laws of observation with the general laws, either directly or by the principle of the conditions of existence, would complete the system of the natural sciences, in rendering sensible in all its parts the mutual influence of every being. This itis to which the efforts of those who cultivate these sciences should tend. All researches of this kind, however, presuppose means of distinguishing with certainty, and causing others to distinguish, the objects investigated ; otherwise we should be incessantly liable to confound the innumerable beings which Nature presents. Natural History, then, should be based on what is called a System of Nature, or a great catalogue, in which all beings bear acknowledged names, may be recognized by distinctive cha- racters, and distributed in divisions and subdivisions themselves named and characterized, in which they may be found. In order that each being may always be recognized in this catalogue, it should carry its character along with it: for which reason the characters should not be taken from properties, or from habits the exercise of which is transient, but should be drawn from the conformation. There is scarcely any being which has a simple character, or can be recognized by an isolated feature of its conformation: the combination of many such traits is almost always necessary to distinguish a being from the neighbouring ones, which have some but not all of them, or have them combined with others of which the first is destitute ; and the more numerous the beings to be discriminated, the more must these traits accumulate: insomuch that, to distinguish from all others an individual being, a complete description of it must enter into its character. It is to avoid this inconvenience that divisions and subdivisions have been invented. A certain number of neighbouring beings only are compared together, and their par- ticular characters need only to express their differences, which, by the supposition itself, are the less important parts of their conformation. Such a reunion is termed a genus. The same inconvenience would recur in distinguishing genera from each other, were it not that the operation is repeated in collecting the neighbouring genera, so as to form an order ; the neighbouring orders to form a class, &c. Intermediate subdivisions may also be established. This scaffolding of divisions, the superior of which contain the inferior, is what is 16 INTRODUCTION called a method. It is, in some respects, a sort of dictionary, in which we proceed from the properties of things to discover their names ; being the reverse of ordinary dic- tionaries, in which we proceed from the names to obtain a knowledge of the properties. When the method, however, is good, it does more than teach us names. If the sub- divisions have not been established arbitrarily, but are based on the true fundamental relations,—on the essential resemblances of beings, the method is the surest means of reducing the properties of these beings to general rules, of expressing them in the fewest words, and of stamping them on the memory. To render it such, an assiduous comparison of beings is employed, directed by the principle of the subordination of characters, which is itself derived from that of the conditions of existence. All the parts of a being having a mutual correlativeness, some traits of conformation exclude others ; while some, on the contrary, nec« itate others : when, therefore, we perceive such or such traits in a being. we can calculate before- hand those which co-exist in it, or those that are incompatible with them. The parts, properties, or the traits of conformation, which have the greatest number of these relations of incompatibility or of co-existence with others, or, in other words, that exercise the most marked influence upon the whole of the being, are what are called important characters, dominant characters; the others are the subordinate characters, all varying, however. in degree. This influence of characters is sometimes determined rationally, by considering the nature of the organ: when this 1s impracticable, recourse must be had to simple observation ; and a sure means of recognizing the important characters, which is derived from their own nature, is, that they are more constant; and that in a long series of different bemgs, approximated according to their degrees of similitude, these characters are the last to vary. From their influence and from their constancy result equally the rule, which should be preferred for distinguishing grand divisions, and in proportion as we descend to the inferior subdivisions, we can also descend to subordinate and variable characters. There can only be one perfect method, which is the natural method. An arrangement is thus named in which beings of the same genus are placed nearer to each other than to those of all other genera; the genera of the same order nearer than to those of other orders, and so in succession. This method is the ideal to which Natural History should tend; for it is evident that, if we can attain it, we shall have the exact and complete expression of all nature. In fact, each being is determined by its resem- blance to others, and its differences from them; and all these relations would be fully given by the arrangement which we have indicated. In a word, the natural method would be the whole science, and each step towards it tends to advance the science to perfection. Life being the most important of all the properties of beings, and the highest of all characters, it is not surprising that it has been made in all ages the most general prin- ciple of distinction; and that natural beings have always been separated into two immense divisions, the living and the inanimate. OF LIVING BEINGS, AND OF ORGANIZATION IN GENERAL. If, in order to obtain a just idea of the essence of life, we consider it in those beings a 5 which its effects are the most simple, we readily perceive that it consists in the INTRODUCTION, 17 faculty which certain corporeal combinations have, of enduring for a time, and under a determinate form, by incessantly attracting into their composition a part of sur- rounding substances, and rendering to the elements portions of their own proper substance. Life, then, is a vortex (tourbillon), more or less rapid, more or less complicated, the direction of which is constant, and which always carries along molecules of the same kind, but into which individual molecules are continually entering, and from which they are constantly departing ; so that the form of a living body is more essential to it than its matter. As long as this movement subsists, the body in which it takes place is living— it lives. When it is permanently arrested, the body dies. After death, the elements which compose it, abandoned to the ordinary chemical affinities, are not slow to separate, from which, more or less quickly, results the dissolution of the body that had been living. It was then by the vital motion that its dissolution was arrested, and that the elements of the body were temporarily combined. All living bodies die after a time, the extreme limit of which is determined for each species; and death appears to be a necessary consequence of life, which, by its own action, insensibly alters the structure of the body wherein its functions are exercised, so as to render its continuance impossible. In fact, the living body undergoes gradual but constant changes during the whole term of its existence. It increases first in dimensions, according to the proportions and within the limits fixed for each species, and for each of its several parts; then it augments in density, in most of its parts :—it is this second kind of change that appears to be the cause of natural death. On examining the various living bodies more closely, a common structure is discerned, which a little reflection soon causes us to adjudge as essential to a vortex, such as the vital motion. Solids, it is evident, are necessary to these bodies for the maintenance of their forms, and fluids for the conservation of motion in them. Their tissue, then, is com- posed of interlacement and network, or of fibres and solid laminz, which inclose the liquids in their interstices: it is in these liquids that the motion is most continual and most extended; the extraneous substances penetrate the intimate tissue of bodies in incorporating with them; they nourish the solids by interposing their molecules, and also detach from them their superfluous molecules: it is in a liquid or gaseous form that the matters to be exhaled traverse the pores of the living body; but, in return, it is the solids which contain these fluids, and by their contraction communicate to them a part of their motion. This mutual action of the solids and fluids, this passage of molecules from one to the other, necessitated considerable affinity in their chemical composition ; and, accord- ingly, the solids of organized bodies are in great part composed of elements easily convertible into liquids or gases. The motion of the fluids, requiring also a continually repeated action on the part of the solids, and communicating one to them, demanded of the latter both flexibility and dilatability; and hence we find this character nearly general in all organized solids. Chis fundamental structure, common tv all living bodies—this areolar tissue, the more Cc 18 INTRODUCTION or less flexible fibres or laminz of which intercept fluids more or less avundant — constitutes what is termed the organization; and, as a consequence of what we nave said, it follows that only organized bodies can enjoy life. Organization, then, results from a great number of dispositions or arrangements, which are all conditions of life; and it is easy to conceive that the general move- ment of the life would be arrested, if its effect be to alter either of these conditions, so as to arrest even one of the partial motions of which it is composed. Every organized body, besides the qualities common to its tissue, has one proper form, not only in general and externally, but also in the detail of the structure of each of its parts ; and it is upon this form, which determines the particular dircction of each of the partial movements that take place in it, that depends the complication of the general movement of its life, which constitutes its species, and renders it what it is. Each part concurs in this general movement by a peculiar action, and experiences from it particular effects ; so that, in every being, the life is a whole, resulting from the mutual action and reaction of all its parts. Life, then, in general, presupposes organization in general, and the life proper to each being presupposes the organization peculiar to that being, just as the movement of a clock presupposes the clock; and, accordingly, we behold life only in beings that are organized and formed to enjoy it; and all the efforts of philo- sophers have not yet been able to discover matter in the act of organization, either of itself or by any extrinsic cause. In fact, life exercising upon the elements which at every instant form part of the living body, and upon those which it attracts to it, an action contrary to that which would be produced without it by the usual chemical affinities, it is inconsistent to suppose that it can itself be produced by these affinities, and yet we know of no other power in nature capable of reuniting previously separated molecules. The birth of organized beings is, therefore, the greatest mystery of the organic | economy and of all nature: we see them developed, but never being formed; nay, more, all those of which we can trace the origin, have at first been attached to a body of the same form as their own, but which was developed before them ;—in one word, to a parent. So long as the offspring has no independent life, but par- ticipates in that of its parent, it is called a germ. The place to which the germ is attached, and the occasional cause which detaches it, and gives it an independent life, vary; but the primitive adherence to a similar being is a rule without exception. The separation of the germ is what is des generation. gnated All organized beings produce similar ones ; otherwise, death being a necessary con- sequence of life, their species would not endure. Organized beings have even the faculty of reproducing, in degrees varying with the species, certain of their parts of which they may have been deprived. This has been named the power of reproduction. The developement of organized beings is more or less rapid, and more or less ex- tended, according as circumstances are differently favourable. Heat, the supply and quality of nourishment, with other causes, exert great influence; and this influence may extend to the whole body in general, or to certain organs in particular :— hence the similitude of offspring to their parents can never be complete. INTRODUCTION. 19 Differences of this kind, between organized beings, are what are termed varieties. There is no proof that all the differences which now distinguish organized beings are such as may have been produced by circumstances. All that has been advanced upon this subject is hypothetical : experience seems to show, on the contrary, that, in the actual state of things, varieties are confined within rather narrow limits; and, so far as we can retrace antiquity, we perceive that these limits were the same as at present. We are then obliged to admit of certain forms, which, since the origin of things, have been perpetuated without exceeding these limits ; and all the beings appertaining to one of these forms constitute what is termed a species. Varieties are accidental subdivisions of species. Generation being the only means of ascertaining the limits to which varieties may extend, species should be defined the reunion of individuals descended one from the other, or from common parents, or from such as resemble them as closely as they resemble each other ; but, although this definition is rigorous, it will be seen that its application to particular individuals may be very difficult when the necessary experi- ments have not been made.* To recapitulate,—absorption, assimilation, exhalation, developement, and generation, are the functions common to all living beings ; birth and death, the universal limits of their existence ; a porous, contractile tissue, containing within its lamine liquids or gases in motion, the general essence of their structure; substances almost all susceptible of being converted into liquids or gases, and combinations capable of easy transformation into one another, the basis of their chemical composition. Fixed forms, and which are perpetuated by generation, distinguish their species, determine the complication of the secondary functions proper to each of them, and assign to them the office they have to fulfil in the grand scheme of the universe. These forms neither produce nor change themselves; the life supposes their existence ; it can exist only in organizations already prepared ; and the most profound meditations, assisted by the most delicate observations, can penetrate no further than the mystery of the pre-existence of germs. DIVISION OF ORGANIZED BEINGS INTO ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES. Living or organized beings have been subdivided, from the earliest times, into ani- mate beings, or those possessing sense and motion, and inanimate beings, which enjoy ascertained), would not produce hybrids capable of transmitting and « That insurmountable difficulties oppose the rigid determination of species, and, consequently, render even the definition of the term impossible, except in a very vague and loose manner, will readily appear on consideration of some of the phenomena presented. The prevalent idea is, that a species consists of the aggregate of individuals descended from one original parentage, which alone are supposed to be capable of producing offspring that are prolific inter se; und that when individuals, not of the same pristine derivation, interbreed, the hybrids are necessarily mules, which are either quite sterile, or at most can only propagate with individuals of unmixed descent. But it so happens, that every possible grade of approxi- mation is manifested, from the most diverse races, to those which are utterly undistinguishable ; while, even in the latter case, urgent ana- logies, notwithstanding, sometimes forcibly indicate a separateness of origin ; as when a scries of analogous races inhabiting distant regions are compared together, some of which are obviously different, others doubtfully so, and some apparently identical. And it remains to be shown whether such intimately allied races as some of theso, even if not descended from a common stock, (which of course gannot be perpetuating the mingled breed. It is true that Cuvier guards against this contingency, in the wording of his definition; and that most naturalists would concur in regarding such miscible races, how- ever dissimilar, as varieties merely of the same; but a question arises, Whether there be not different degrees of fertility in hybrids, corresponding to the amount of affinity, or physiological accordancy, subsisting betwixt the parent races; it being only within a certain sphere of that affinity that they can he produced at all: besides which, as hybrids are seldom exactly intermediate, and in some instances (particularly among multiparous races) have been known to resemble entirely one or the other parent, it may be presumed that this circum- stance would also materially affect their capability of propagation. Experiments are needed to solve this important problem, though there is every reason to suspect that the following proposition will eventu- ally gain the general assent of naturalists, viz., that while considerable dissimilarity does not of necessity imply specifical diversity, the con- verse equally holds, that ubsolute resemblance fails of itself to com stitute specificul identity.—En. eZ 20 INTRODUCTION. neither the one nor the other of these faculties, but are reduced to the simple function of vegetating. Although many plants retract their leaves when touched, and the roots direct themselves constantly towards moisture, the leaves towards air and light, and ‘though some parts of vegetables appear even to exhibit oscillations without any perceptible external cause, still these various movements bear too little resem- blance to those of animals to enable us to recognize in them any proofs of perception or of will. The spontaneity of the movements of animals required essential modifications, even in their simply vegetative organs. Their roots not penetrating the ground, it was necessary that they should be able to place within themselves provisions of food, and to carry its reservoir along with them. Hence is derived the first character of animals, or their alimentary cavity, from which their nutritive fluid penetrates all other parts through pores or vessels, which are a sort of internal roots. The organization of this cavity and of its appurtenances required varying, according to the nature of the aliment, and the operations which it had to undergo before it could furnish juices proper for absorption : whilst the atmosphere and the earth supply to vegetables only juices ready prepared, and which can be absorbed immediately. The animal body, which abounds with functions more numerous and more varied than in the plant, required in consequence to have an organization much more com- plicated ; besides which, its parts not being capable of preserving a fixed relative posi- tion, there were no means by which the motion of their fluids could be produced by external causes, as it required to be independent of heat and of the atmosphere: from this originates the second character of animals, or their circulatory system, which is less essential than the digestive, since it was unnecessary in the more simple animals. The animal functions required organic systems, not needed by vegetables, as that of the muscles for voluntary motion, and that of the nerves for sensibility ; and these two systems, like the rest, acting only through the motions and transformations of the fluids, it was necessary that these should be more numerous in animals, and that the chemical composition of the animal body should be more complicated than that of the plant: and so it is, for an additional substance (azote) enters into it as an essential element, while in plants it is a mere accidental junction with the three other general elements of organization,— oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. This then is the third character of animals. The soil and the atmosphere supply to vegetables water for their nutrition, which is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, air, which contams oxygen and azote, and car- bonic acid, which is a combination of oxygen and carbon. To extract from these aliments their proper composition, it was necesary that they should retain the hydrogen and carbon, exhale the superfluous oxygen, and absorb little or no azote. Such, then, is the process of vegetable life, of which the essential function is the exhalation of oxygen, which is effected through the agency of light. Animals in addition derive nourishment, more or less immediately, from the vegetable itself, of which hydrogen and carbon form the principal constituents. To assimilate them to their own composition, they must get rid of the superfluous hydrogen, and especially of the superabundant carbon, and accumulate more azote; this it 1s wnich is perfurined in respiration, by means of the oxygen of the atmosphere combm.ng with the hydrogen and carbon of the blood, and being exhaled with them under the form ot INTRODUCTION. 21 water and carbonic acid. The azote, whatever part of their body it may penetrate, appears to remain there. The relations of vegetables and animals with the atmosphere are then inverse; the former retain (défont) water and [decompose] carbonic acid, while the latter reproduce them. Respiration is the function essential to the constitution of an animal body ; it is that which in a manner animalizes it; and we shall see that animals exercise their peculiar functions more completely, according as they enjoy greater powers of respira- tion. It is in this difference of relations that the fourth character of animals consists. OF THE FORMS PECULIAR TO THE ORGANIC ELEMENTS OF THE ANIMAL BODY, AND OF THE PRINCIPAL COMBINATIONS OF ITS CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. An arevlar tissue and three chemical elements are essential to every living body, a fourth element being peculiar to that of animals; but this tissue is composed of vari- ously formed meshes, and these elements are united in different combinations. There are three kinds of organic materials, or forms of tissue,—the cellular membrane, the muscular fibre, and the medullary matter ; and to each form belongs a peculiar combination of chemical elements, together with a particular function. The cellular membrane is composed of an infinity of small lamine, fortuitously dis- posed, so as to form little cells that communicate with each other. It is a sort of sponge, which has the same form as the entire body, all other parts of which fill or traverse it. Its property is to contract indefinitely when the causes which sustain its extension cease to operate. It is this force that retains the body in a given form, and within determined limits. When condensed, this substance forms those more or less extended laminz which are called membranes ; the membranes, rolled into cylinders, compose those tubes, more or less ramified, which are termed vessels ; the filaments, named fibres, resolve them- selves into it; and the Jones are nothing but the same, indurated by the accumulation of earthy particles. The cellular substance consists of that combination [isinglass] which bears the name of gelatine, and the character of which is to dissolve in boiling water, and to assume the form, when cold, of a trembling jelly. The medullary matter has not yet been reduced to its organic molecules: it ap- pears to the naked eye as a sort of soft bowzllie [pultaceous mass], consisting of exces- sively small globules; it is not susceptible of any apparent motion, but in it resides the admirable power of transmitting to the me the impressions of the external senses, and of conveying to the muscles the mandates of the will. The brain and the spinal chord are chiefly composed of it; and the nerves, which are distributed to all the sentient organs, are, essentially, but ramifications of the same. The fleshy or muscular fibre is a peculiar sort of filament, the distinctive property of which, during life, is that of contracting when touched or struck, or when it experi- ences, through the medium of the nerves, the action of the will. The muscles, immediate organs of voluntary motion, are merely bundles of fleshy fibres. All the membranes, all the vessels which need to exercise any compression, are furnished with these fibres. They are always intimately connected with nervous threads; but those which subserve the purely vegetative functions contract without 22 INTRODUCTION. the knowledge of the mz, so that the will is inaeed one means of causing the fibres to act, but which is neither general nor exclusive. The fleshy fibre has for its base a particular substance termed fibrine, which is insoluble in boiling water, and of which the nature appears to be to take of itself this filamentous form. The nutritive fluid, or the blood, such as we find in the vessels of the circulation, not only resolves itself principally into the general elements of the animal body,—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote, but it also contains fibrine and gelatine, all but disposed to contract, and to assume the forms of membranes or of filaments peculiar to them ; nought being ever acquired for their manifestation but a little repose. The blood pre- sents also another combination, which occurs in many animal solids and fluids, namely, albumen [or white of egg], the characteristic property of which is to coagulate in boiling water. Besides these, the blood contains almost all the elements which may enter into the composition of the body of each animal, such as the lime and phosphorus, which hardens the bones of vertebrated animals, the iron, which colours the blood itself as well as various other parts, the fat or animal oil, which is deposited in the cellular substance to maintain it, &c. All the fluids and solids of the animal body are composed of chemical elements contained in the blood; and it is only by possessing some ele- ments more or less, or in different proportions, that each is severally distinguished ; whence it becomes apparent that their formation entirely depends on the subtraction of the whole or part of one or more elements of the blood, and, in some few cases, on the addition of some element from elsewhere. The various operations, by which the blood supplies nourishment to the solid or liquid matter of all parts of the body, may take the general name of secretion. This term, however, is often exclusively appropriated to the production of liquids, while that of nutrition is applied more especially to the production and deposition of the matter necessary to the growth and conservation of the solids. Eyery solid organ, as well as fluid, has the composition most appropriate for the office which it has to perform, and it preserves it so long as health continues, because the blood renews it as fast as it becomes changed. The blood itself, by this continual contribution, is altered every moment; but is restored by digestion, which renews its matter; by respiration, which sets free the superfluous carbon and hydrogen; and by perspiration and various other excretions, that relieve it from other superabundant principles. These perpetual changes of chemical composition constitute part of the vital vortex, not less essential than the visible movements and those of translation: the object, in- deed, of these latter is simply to produce the former. OF THE FORCES WHICH ACT IN THE ANIMAL BODY. The muscular fibre is not only the organ of voluntary motion; we have seen that it is also the most powerful of the means employed by nature to effect the move- ments of translation necessary to vegetative life. Thus the fibres of the intestines pro- duce the peristaltic motion, which causes the aliment to pass onward along this canal ; the fibres of the heart and arteries are the agents of the circulation, and, through it, of all the secretions, &c. | | INTRODUCTION. 23 The will causes the fibre to contract through the medium of the nerve; and the involuntary fibres, such as those we have mentioned, are equally animated by the nerves which pervade them ; it is, therefore, probable, that these nerves are the cause of their contraction. All contraction, and, generally speaking, all change of dimension in nature, is produced by a change of chemical composition, though it consists merely in the flowing or ebbing of an imponderable *, such as caloric; it is thus also that the most violent of known movements are occasioned, as combustions, detonations, &c. There is, then, great reason for supposing that it is by an imponderable fluid that the nerve acts upon the fibre ; and the more especially, as it is demonstrated that this action is not mechanical. The medullary matter of the whole nervous system is homogeneous, and must exercise, wherever it is found, the functions appertaining to its nature ; all its ramifi- cations receive a great abundance of blood-vessels. All the animal fluids being derived from the blood by secretion, it cannot be doubted that the same holds with the nervous fluid, nor that the medullary matter secretes [or evolves] it. On the other hand, it is certain that the medullary matter is the sole conductor of the nervous fluid; and that all the other organic elements serve as non-conductors, and arrest it, as glass arrests electricity. The external causes which are capable of producing sensations, or of occasioning contractions in the fibre, are all chemical agents, capable of effecting decompositions, such as light, caloric, the salts, odorous vapours, percussion, compression, &c. Tt would seem, then, that these causes act upon the nervous fluid chemically, and i by changing its composition: which appears the more likely, as their action becomes ' weakened by continuance, as if the nervous fluid needed to resume its primitive com- position in order to be altered anew. The external organs of sense may be compared to sieves, which allow nothing to pass through to the nerve except the species of agent which should affect it in that particular place, but which often accumulates so as to increase the effect. The tongue has its spongy papille, which imbibe saline solutions: the ear a gelatinous pulp, which is intensely agitated by sonorous vibrations; the eye transparent lenses, which concentrate the rays of light, &c. It is probable that what are styled irritants, or the agents which occasion the con- tractions of the fibre, exert this action by producing on the fibre, by the nerve, the same effect which is produced by the will; that is to say, by altering the nervous fluid in the manner necessary to change the dimensions of the fibre on which it has influence ; but the will has nothing to do in this action; the mx is often even without any knowledge of it. The muscles separated from the body are still susceptible of irrita- tion, so long as the portion of the nerve distributed within them preserves its power of acting on them; the will being evidently unccnnected with this phenomenon. The nervous fluid is altered by muscular irritation, as well as by sensation and voluntary motion; and the same necessity occurs for the re-establishment of its primi- | tive composition. The movements of translation necessary to vegetative life are determined by irritants : * “Tmponderable fluid” is the expression in the original.—Ep. 24 INTRODUCTION. the aliment irritates [or excites] the intestine, the blood irritates the heart, &c. These movements are all independent of the will, and in general (while health endures) take place without the cognizance of the mz; the nerves which produce them have even, in several parts, a different distribution from that of the nerves affected by sensations or subject to the will, and the object of the difference appears to be the securing of this independence.* The nervous functions, that is to say, sensitiveness and muscular irritability, are so much the stronger at every point, in proportion as the exciting cause is more abundant ; and as this agent, or the nervous fluid, is produced by secretion [or evolution], its abundance must be in proportion to the quantity of medullary or secretory matter, and the amount of blood received by the latter. In animals that have a circulation, the blood is propelled through the arteries which convey it to its destined parts, by means of their irritability and that of the heart. If these arteries be irritated, they act more vigorously, and propel a greater quantity of blood ; the nervous fluid becomes more abundant, and augments the local sensibility ; this, in its turn, increases the irritability of the arteries, so that this mutual action may be carried to a great extent. It is termed orgasm, and when it becomes painful and permanent, inflammation. The irritation may also originate in the nerve, when it experiences acute sensations. This mutual influence of the nerves and fibres, either in the intestinal system, or in the arterial system, is the real spring of vegetative life in animals. As each external sense is permeable only by particular kinds of sensation, so sach internal organ may be accessible only to such or such agent of irritation. Thus, mercury irritates the salivary glands, cantharides excite the bladder, &c. hese agents are what are termed specifics. The nervous system being homogeneous and continuous, local sensations and irrita- tion debilitate the whole and each function, carried too far, may enfeeble the others. Excess of aliment thus weakens the faculty of thought; while prolonged meditation impairs the energy of digestion, &c. Excessive local irritation will enfecble the whole body, as if all the powers of life were concentrated on a single point. A second irritation produced at another point may diminish, or divert as it is termed, the first ; such is the effect of purgatives, blisters, &c. [denominated counter-irritation]. All rapid as the foregoing enunciation is, it is sufficient to establish the possibility of accounting for all the phenomena of physical life, by the simple admission of a fluid such as we have defined, from the properties which it manifests. * Tn the above sentence, there are distinctly mentioned the three sorts of nerves, the separate functions of which have been con- John Herschel, “ (for which wonderfully constituted organ no other mode of action possessing the least probability has ever been devised), clusively demonstrated by Sir Charles Bell: viz., nerves of volition, | be an electric pile, constantly in action, it may be conceived to dis- to the sensorium the impressions of the sense nd of sympathy, | developed reaches a certain point, along the nerves which communi- or involuntary movement, the reunion of the ramifications of which which transmit the mandates of the will; of sensation, which convey , charge itself at regular intervals, when the tension of the electricity | cate with the heart, and thus to excite the pulsations of that organ. ina plexus of knots, or ganglions, is intimated in the text, those of | Vhis idea is forcibly suggested by a view of that ant apparatus the second class being distinguished by a swelling or ganglion near | the dry pile of Deluc, in which the successive umulations of their base,—Ep. electricity are carried off by a suspended ball, which is kept, by the +The unceasing chemical changes consequent upon vitality must | discharges, ina state of regular pulsation for any length of time. We necessarily develope electricity ; and that the nervous fluid is no other | have witnessed the action of sucha pile, maintained in this for than the electric, may be considered as proved by the identity of their | whole yea the study of the above-named eminent philosopher. phenomena. Indeed, it has long been known that the transmission | The same idea of the cause of the pulsation of the heart appears to of voltaic electricity along the nerves of a recently dead animal, | have occurred to Dr. Arnott, and is mentioned in his uscful and ex- Bulfices to produce the most violent muscular action; but the regula- | cellent work on Physics, to which, however, we are not indebted for tion of that action, its exclusive direction to particular suites of | the suggestion, it having occurred to us independently many yeary wuseles, requires the vital impulse, “If the brain,” remarks Sir | ayo."—Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, p. 343,—ED. INTRODUCTION. 25 SUMMARY IDEA OF THE FUNCTIONS AND ORGANS OF THE BODIES OF ANIMALS, AND OF THEIK VARIOUS DEGREES OF COMPLICATION. After what we have stated respecting the organic elements of the body, its chemical principles, and the forces which act within it, it remains only to give a sum- mary idea in detail of the functions of which life is composed, and of their respective | organs. The functions of the animal body are divided into two classes :— The @nimal functions, or those proper to animals,— that is to say, sensibility and voluntary motion. ‘ The vital, vegetative functions, or those common to animals and vegetables; that is to say, nutrition and generation. Sensibility resides in the nervous system. The most general external sense is that of touch; its seat is in the skin, a mem- brane enveloping the whole body, and traversed all over by nerves, of which the | extreme filaments expand on the surface into papillz, and are protected by the epider- mis, and by other insensible teguments, such as hairs, scales, &c. Taste and smell are merely delicate states of the sense of touch, for which the skin of the tongue and nostrils is particularly organized; the former by means of papille more convex and spongy; the latter, by its extreme delicacy and the multiplication of its ever humid surface. We have already spoken of the eye and ear in general. The organ of gene- ration is endowed with a sixth sense, which is seated in its internal skin; that of the stomach and intestines declares the state of those viscera by peculiar sensations. In fine, sensations more cr less painful may originate in all parts of the body through accidents or diseases. | Many animals have neither ears nor nostrils; several are without eyes, and some are reduced to the single sense of touch, which is never absent. The action received by the external organs is continued through the nerves to the central masses of the nervous system, which, in the higher animals, consists of the brain and spinal chord. The more elevated the nature of the animal, the more volumi- nous is the brain, and the more the sensitive power is concentrated there; in propor- tion as the animal is placed lower in the scale, the medullary masses are dispersed, and in the lowest genera of all, the nervous substance appears to merge altogether, and ' blend in the general matter of the body. That part of the body which contains the brain and the principal organs of sense, is | | called the head. When the animal has received a sensation, and which has induced in it an act of volition, it is by [particular] nerves also that this volition is transmitted to the muscles. | The muscles are bundles of fleshy fibres, the contractions of which produce all the | | movements of the animal body. The extensions of the limbs, and all the lengthenings | of parts, are the effect of muscular contractions, equally with flexions and abbreviations. | The muscles of each animal are disposed in number and direction according to the | | | | | movements which it has to execute ; and when these movements require to be effected with some vigour, the muscles are inserted into hard parts, articulated one over another, and may be considered as so many levers. These parts are called bones in 26 INTRODUCTION. the vertebrated animals, where they are internal, and formed of a gelatinous mass, penetrated with molecules of phosphate of lime. In mollusks, crustaceans, and insects, where they are external, and composed of a calcareous or corneous substance that exudes between the skin and epidermis, they are termed shells, crusts, and scales. The fleshy fibres are attached to the hard parts by means of other fibres of a gela- tinous nature, which seem to be a continuation of the former, constituting what are called tendons. The configuration of the articulating surfaces of the hard parts limits their move- ments, which are further restrained by cords or envelopes attached to the sides of the articulations, and which are termed hgaments. It is from the various dispositions of this bony and muscular apparatus, and from the form and proportions of the members which result therefrom, that animals are capable of executing those innumerable movements which enter into walking, leaping, flight, and swimming. The muscular fibres appropriated to digestion and circulation are independent of the will; they receive nerves, however, but, as we have said, the chief of them exhibit subdivisions and enlargements which appear to have for their object the estrangement of the empire of the me. It is only in paroxysms of the passions and other powerful mental emotions, which break down these barriers, that the empire of the mE becomes perceptible; and even then its effect is almost always to disorder these vegetative functions. It is also ina state of sickness only that these functions are accompanied by sensations. Digestion is ordinarily performed unconsciously. The aliment, divided by the jaws and teeth, or sucked up when liquids con- stitute the food, is swallowed by the muscular movements of the back part of the mouth and throat, and deposited in the first portion of the alimentary canal, usually expanded into one or more stomachs; it there is penetrated with juices proper to dis- solve it. Conducted thence along the rest of the canal, it receives other juices destined to complete its preparation. The parietes of the canal have pores which extract from this alimentary mass its nutritious portion, and the useless residue is rejected as excrement. The canal in which this first act of nutrition is performed, is a continuation of the skin, and is composed of similar layers; even the fibres which encircle it are analogous to those which adhere to the internal surface of the skin, called the fleshy pannicle. Throughout the whole interior of this canal there is a transudation, which has some connexion with the cutaneous perspiration, and which becomes more abundant when the latter is suppressed ; the skin even exercises an absorption very analogous to that of the intestines. It is only in the lowest animals that the execrements are rejected by the mouth, and in which the intestine has the form of a sac without issue. Among those even in which the intestinal canal has two orifices, there are many in which the nutritive juices, absorbed by the coats of the intestine, are immediately diffused over the whole spongy substance of the body: this appears to be the case with the whole class of insects. But, ascending from the arachnides and worms, the nutritive fluids circulate in a system of confined vessels, the ultimate ramifications of which alone dispense its molecules to the parts that are nourished by it; those particular vessels which conyey it are named INTRODUCTION. 27 arteries, and those which bring it back to tne centre of the circulation are termed veins. The circulating vortex is sometimes simple, sometimes double, and even triple (includ- ing that of the vena porta) ; the rapidity of its movements is often aided by the contrac- tions of a certain fleshy apparatus denominated hearts, and which are placed at one or the other centres of circulation, and sometimes at both of them. In the red-blooded vertebrated animals, the nutritive fluid exudes white or transpa- rent from the intestines, and is then termed chyle; it is poured by particular vessels, named lacteals, into the venous system, where it mingles with the blood. Vessels resembling these lacteals, and forming with them what is known as the lymphatic system, also convey to the venous blood the residue of the nutrition of the parts and the products of cutaneous absorption. Before the blood is proper to nourish the several parts, it must experience from the ambient element, by respiration, the modification of which we have already spoken. In animals which have a circulation, a portion of the vessels is destined to carry the blood into organs, where they spread over an extensive surface, that the action of the ambient element might be increased. When this element [or medium] is the air, the surface is hollow, and is called lungs ; when water, it is salient, and termed gills.* There are always motive organs disposed for propelling the ambient element into, or upon, the respiratory organ. In animals which have no circulation, the air is diffused through every part of the body by elastic vessels, named trachee; or water acts upon them, either by pene- trating through vessels, or by simply bathing the surface of the skin. The blood which is respired is qualified for restoring the composition of all the parts, and to effect what is properly called nutrition. It is a great marvel that, with this facility which it has of becoming decomposed at each point, it should leave precisely the species of molecule which is there necessary; but it is this wonder which consti- tutes the whole vegetative life. For the nourishment of the solids, we see no other arrangement than a great subdivision of the extreme arterial ramifications; but for the production of liquids, the apparatus is more complex and various. Sometimes the extremities of the vessels simply spread over large surfaces, whence the produced fluid exudes; sometimes it oozes from the bottom of little cavities. Very often, before these arterial extremities change into veins, they give rise to particular vessels that convey this fluid, which appears to proceed from the exact point of union between the two kinds of vessels; in this case, the blood-vessels and these latter termed especial, form, by their interlacement, the bodies called conglomerate or secretory glands. In animals that have no circulation, and particularly insects, the nutritive fluid bathes all the parts ; each of them draws from it the molecules necessary for its suste- nance : if it be necessary that some liquid be produced, the appropriate vessels float in the nutritive fluid, and imbibe from it, by means of their pores, the constituent elements of that liquid. It is thus that the blood incessantly supports all the parts, and repairs the altera- tions which are the continual and necessary consequence of their functions. The «It may be remarked here, that, in strictness of language, no animals respire water, but the air which is suspended in water, and which has been ascertained to contain more oxygen than that of the free atmosphere. The elements of water, it should be remembered, are chemically combined, while those of air are only mechanically mixed. To obtain oxygen from the one, therefore, decomposition is required ; from the other, no disunion, The only distinction, then, in the respiration of animals is, that some breathe the free air, and are sup- plied with lungs, and others that diffused in water, and have there- fore gills ; but even this difference, however, is more apparent than real, as in all cases the respiratory surface requires to be moist or wet, in order to perform its function, Deprive water of its air by boiling it, anc it cannot support life—Ep, 28 INTRODUCTION. general ideas which we form respecting this process are tolerably clear, although we have no distinct or detailed notion of what passes at each point; and for want of knowing the chemical composition of each part with sufficient precision, we cannot render an exact account of the transformations necessary to produce it. Besides the glands which separate from the blood those fluids which perform some office in the internal economy, there are some which detach others from it that are to be totally rejected, either simply as superfluities, such as the urine, which is produced by the kidneys, or for some use to the animal, as the ink of the cuttle, and the purple matter of various other mollusks, &c. With respect to generation, there is one process or phenomenon infinitely more difficult to conceive than that of the secretions ; it is the production of the germ. We have seen even that it may be regarded as little less than incomprehensible; but, the xistence of the germ once admitted, generation presents no particular difficulty : so lung as it adheres to the parent, it is nourished as if it were one of its organs*; and when it detaches itself, it has its own proper life, which is essentially similar to that of the adult. The germ, the embryo, the foetus, and the new-born animal, have in no instance, however, precisely the same form as the adult, and the difference is sometimes so great, that their assimilation merits the name of metamorphosis. Thus, no one not previously aware of the fact, would suppose that the caterpillar is to become a butterfly. All living beings are more or less metamorphosed in the course of their growth, that is to say, they lose certain parts, and develope others. The antenne, wings, and all the parts of the butterfly were inclosed within the skin of the caterpillar; this skin disappears along with the jaws, feet, and other organs that do not remain in the butterfly. The feet of the frog are imclosed by the skin of the tadpole: and the tad- pole, to become a frog, loses its tail, mouth, and gills. The infant likewise, at birth, loses its placenta and envelope ; at a certain age its thymous gland almost disappears ; and it acquires by degrees its hair, teeth, and beard. The relative size of its organs alters, and its body increases proportionally more than its head, its head more than its internal ear, &c. The place where these germs are found, the assemblage of them, is named the ovary ; the canal through which, when detached, they are carried forward, the oviduct ; the cavity in which, in many species, they are obliged to remain for a longer or shorter period before birth, the matrix or uterus ; the exterior orifice through which they pass into the world, the vulva. When there are sexes, the male sex fecundates; the germs appearing im the female. The fecundating hquor is named semen; the glands which separate it from the blood, testicles ; and, when it is necessary that it should be intro- duced into the body of the female, the intromittent organ is called a penis. RAPID EXPOSITION OF THE INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS. The impression of external objects on the mx, the production of a sensation, of an image, is a mystery impenetrable to our intellect; and materialism an hypothesis, so much the more conjectural, as philosophy can furnish no direct proof of the actual * Germs have been detected in the ovaria of a human fatus.—Ep, INTRODUCTION. 29 existence of matter. But the naturalist should examine what appear to be the mate- rial conditions of sensation; he should trace the ulterior operations of the mind, ascer- tain to what point they reach in each being, and assure himself whether they are not subject to conditions of perfection, dependent on the organization of each species, or on the momentary state of each individual body, For the mr to perceive, there must be an uninterrupted nervous communication between the external sense and the central masses of the medullary system. Hence it is only when a modification is experienced by these masses that the mx perceives : there may also be real sensations, without the external organ being affected, and which originate either in the nervous passage, or in the central mass itself; such are dreams and visions, or certain accidental sensations. By central masses, we mean a part of the nervous system, which is more circum- scribed as the animal is more perfect. In man, it consists exclusively of a limited portion of the brain; but in reptiles, it includes the brain and the whole of the medulla, and each of their parts taken separately ; so that the absence of the entire brain does not prevent sensation. In the inferior classes this extension is still greater. The perception acquired by the meg, produces the image of the sensation ex- perienced. We trace to without the cause of that sensation, and thus acquire the idea of the object which produces it. By a necessary law of our intelligence, all the ideas of material objects are in time and space. The modifications experienced by the medullary masses leave impressions there, which are reproduced, and recall to mind images and ideas; this is memory, a cor- poreal faculty that varies considerably, according to age and health. Ideas that are similar, or which have been acquired at the same time, recall each other; this is the association of tdeas. The order, extent, and promptitude of this asso- ciation constitute the perfection of memory. Each object presents itself to the memory with all its qualities, or with all its accessory ideas. Intellect has the power of separating these accessory ideas of objects, and of com- bining those that are alike in several different objects under one general idea, the prototype of which nowhere really exists, nor presents itself in an isolated form ; this is abstraction. Every sensation being more or less agreeable or disagreeable, experience and re- peated essays show promptly what movements are required to procure the one and avoid the other ; and with respect to this, the intellect abstracts itself from general rules to direct the will. An agreeable sensation being liable to consequences that are not so, and vice versd, the subsequent sensations become associated with the idea of the primitive one, and modify the general rules abstracted by the intellect; this is prudence. From the application of rules to general ideas, result certain formule, which are afterwards adapted easily to particular cases; this is called reasoning—ratiocination. A lively remembrance of primitive and associated sensations, and of the impressions of pleasure and pain that attach to them, constitutes imagination. One privileged being, Man, has the faculty of associating his general ideas with particular images more or less arbitrary, easily impressed upon the memory, and which serve to recall the general ideas which they represent. These associated images are 30 INTRODUCTION. what are called signs; their assemblage is a language. When the language is com- posed of images that relate to the sense of hearing or sound, it is termed speech. When its images relate to that of sight, they are called hieroglyphics. Writing is a suite of images that relate to the sense of sight, by which we represent elementary sounds; and, in combining them, all the images relative to the sense of hearing of which speech is composed: it is, therefore, only a mediate representation of ideas. This faculty of representing general ideas by particular signs or images associated with them, enables us to retain distinctly in the memory, and to recall without con- fusion, an immense number, and furnishes to the reasoning faculty and the imagina- tion innumerable materials, and to individuals the means of communication, which cause the whole species to participate in the experience of each individual; so that no bounds seem to be placed to the acquisition of knowledge: this is the distinctive character of human intelligence.* The most perfect animals are infinitely below man in their intellectual faculties; but it is, nevertheless, certain that their intelligence performs operations of the same kind. They move in consequence of sensations received, are susceptible of durable affections, and acquire by experience a certain knowledge of things, by which they are governed in- dependently of actual pain and pieasure, and by the simple foresight of consequences. When domesticated, they feel their subordination, know that the being who punishes them may refrain from doing so if he will, and when sensible of having done wrong, or behold him angry, they assume a suppliant air. In the society of man they become either corrupted or improved, and are susceptible of emulation and jealousy: they have among themselves a natural language, which, it is true, expresses only their momentary sensations; but man teaches them to understand another, much more complicated, by which he makes known to them his will, and causes them to execute it. In short, we perceive in the higher animals a certain degree of reason, with all its consequences, good and bad, and which appears to be about the same as that of chil- dren before they have learned to speak. In proportion as we descend to the animals more removed from man, these faculties become enfeebled; and, in the lowest classes, we find them reduced to signs, at times equivocal only, of sensibility, that is to say, to a few slight movements to escape from pain. Between these two extremes, the degrees are endless. In a great number of animals, however, there exists a different faculty of intelli- gence, which is named instinct, This prompts them to certain actions necessary to the preservation of the species, but often altogether foreign to the apparent wants of individuals ; frequently, also, very complicated, and which, to be ascribed to intelligence, would suppose a foresight and knowledge in the species that execute them infinitely superior to what can be admitted. ‘These actions, the result of instinct, are not the effect of imitation, for the individuals that perform them have often never seen them performed by others: they are not proportioned to the ordinary intelligence, but become more singular, more wise, more disinterested, in proportion as the animals belong to less elevated classes, and are, in all the rest of their actions, more dull and * Linnmus defined the hunian being to be a“ self-knowing animal,” ) but itis doubtful whether any of them can mentally trace remote which is a bold assumption, taken either wa Ep, causes, amid the complication of phenomena, It is with wan in his + That is to say, they obviously remark cvincidences and sequences; | least civilized state that they should be compared,—Ep, al INTRODUCTION. stupid. They are so truly the property of the species, that all its individuals perform them in the same way, without any improvement. Thus the working bees have always constructed very ingenious edifices, agreeably to the rules of the highest geometry, and destined to lodge and nourish a posterity not even their own. The wasps and the solitary bees also form very complicated nests, in which to deposit their eggs. From this egg issues a grub, which has never seen its parent, which is ignorant of the structure of the prison in which it is confined, but which, once metamorphosed, constructs another precisely similar. In order to have a clear idea of instinct, it is necessary to admit that these animals have innate and perpetual images or sensations in the sensorium, which induce them to act as ordinary and accidental sensations commonly do. It is a sort of dream or vision that ever haunts them, and may be considered, in all that relates to instinct, as a kind of somnambulism. Instinct has been granted to animals as a supplement for intelligence, to concur with it, and with force and fecundity, to the preservation, in a proper degree, of each species. There is no visible mark of instinct in the conformation of the animal; but intelli- gence, so far as has been observed, is in constant proportion to the relative size of the brain, and particularly of its hemispheres.* OF METHOD, AS APPLIED To THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. After what we have said respecting methods in general, there remains to ascertain which are the most influential characters of animals, that should serve as the basis of their primary divisions. animal functions ; both these make the being an animal, but animality. It is evident they should be those which are drawn from the that is to say, from the sensations and movements ; for not only do they establish, in a manner, its degree of Observation confirms this position, by showing that their degrees of developement and complication accord with those of the organs of the vegetative functions. The heart and the organs of the circulation form a kind of centre for the vege- tative functions, as the brain and trunk * One of the most curious phenomena of instinct is the transmission of instilled habits by generation, as in the instance of high-bred pointer and setter dogs, often requiring no training to fit them for their particular modes of indicating game. hereditary in the human species; but innate knowledge, as a substi- tute for individually acquired experience, is peculiar to brutes, which, for the most part, are thrown upon their own resources, before they have had time or opportunities to gain the necessary information to serve as a guide for the regulation of their conduct. All the higher ani- mals, e3 intuitively, to know even where their hidden weapons lie, also where they (and likewise themselves) are most vulnerable, and they endea- vour to use their own peculiar weapons before these are developed. If incapable of resistance, they commonly have recourse to stratagem ; thus a brood of newly-hatched partridges will instantly cower motion- less at sight of an object of distrust, the intent of which must be, that the close similarity of their colour to that of the surface should cause them to be overlooked. victims capable of dangerous resistance, instinctively endeavour always to attack a vital part, so ag to effect their purpose speedily, and witb least huzard to themselves ; but those which prey on feeble and de fenceless animals attack indiscriminately. Many astonishing mani- festations of the instinctive faculty occur respecting the manner in which the food is obtained ; and in the ant and some rodent quadrupeds, which store up grain, the embryo of every seed is destroyed, to pre- tent germination. Propensities are similarly ept the human species, appear to recognize their natural foes Predatory animals, again, which immolate of the nervous system do for the animal The seasonal migrative impulse which recurs in some animals is aroong the most incomprehensible of instinctive phenomena, as it is shown to be, in various cases, independent of food or temperature ; thongh the latter, in particular, exercises some influence on its de- velopement, as does also the state of the sexual organs in spring. The guiding principle of migration is equally mysterious,—that which enables a bird of passage to return periodically to its former haunts, to the si viously occupied ; and the young also to the place of their nativity. ae locality (both in winter and summer), which it had pre- This principle is farther evinced in the return of pigeons, &c. to their accustomed place of abode from indefinite distances, and by a straighter and more direct route than that by which they had been removed. It appears, likewise, to be manifested in somnambulism, and, perhaps, in some other affections of the human body ; but the sexual and parental instincts are those which are chiefly cognizable in civilized man- kind. One curious fact connected with the migrative propensity is, that the same species is sometimes permanently resident in one locality, and migratory in another. Thus the robin, which is stationary in Britain, leaves Germany in the autumn; which would seem to indi- cate that the erratic habit may have originated (in this instance) from necessity, and in course of time have become regular and transinis- sible, independently of external causes. ever, may commouly be distinguished from others of the same genus, by their superior structural powers of locomotion.—Ep, Migratory animals, how- 32 INTRODUCTION. functions. Now, we see these two systems degrade and disappear together. In the lowest of animals, where the nerves cease to be visible, there are no longer distinct fibres, and the organs of digestion are simply excavated in the homogeneous mass of the body. In insects, the vascular system disappears even before the nervous one; but, in general, the dispersion of the medullary masses accompanies that of the muscular agents: a spinal chord, on which the knots or ganglons represent so many brains, corresponds to a body divided into numerous rings, and supported by pairs of members distributed along its length, &c. This correspondence of general forms, which results from the arrangement of the organs of motion, the distribution of the nervous masses, and the energy of the circu- lating system, should serve then for the basis of the primary sections to be made in the animal kingdom. We will afterwards ascertain, in each of these sections, what characters should succeed immediately to these, and form the basis of the primary subdivisions. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM INTO FOUR GREAT DIVISIONS. If the animal kingdom be considered with reference to the principles which we have laid down, and, divesting ourselves of the prejudices founded on the divisions formerly admitted, we regard only the organization and nature of animals, and not their size, utility, the more or less knowledge which we have of them, nor any other accessory circumstances, it will be found that there exist four principal forms, four general plans, if it may be thus expressed, on which all animals appear to have been modelled, and the ulterior divisions of which, under whatever title naturalists may have designated them, are merely slight modifications, founded on the develope- ment or addition of certain parts, which produce no essential change in the plan itself. In the first of these forms, which is that of man, and of the animals which most resemble him, the brain and the principal trunk of the nervous system are inclosed in a bony enyelope, which is formed by the cranium and the vertebre : to the sides of this medial column are attached the ribs, and the bones of the limbs, which compose the framework of the body: the muscles generally cover the bones, the motions of which they produce, and the viscera are contained within the head and trunk. Animals of this form we shall denominate VERTEBRATE ANIMALS (Animalia vertebrata). They have all red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth furnished with two jaws, placed one either before or above the other, distinct organs of sight, hearing, smell, and taste, situated in the cavities of the face; never more than four limbs; the sexes always separated ; and a very similar distribution of the medullary masses, and of the principal branches of the nervous system. On examining each of the parts of this great series of animals more closely, there may always be detected some analogy, even in those species which are most remote from one another; and the gradations of one single plan may be traced from man to the last of fishes. In the second form there is no skeleton; the muscles are attached only to the skin, INTRODUCTION. 33 which constitutes a soft, contractile envelope, im which, in many species, are formed stony plates, called shells, the production and position of which are analogous to that of the mucous body; the nervous system is contained within this general envelope, together with the viscera, and is composed of several scattered masses, connected by nervous filaments, and of which the principal, placed over the cesophagus, bears the name of brain. Of the four senses, the organs of those of taste and vision only can be distinguished; the latter of which are even frequently wanting. A single family alone presents organs of hearing. There is always, however, a complete system of circulation, and particular organs for respiration. Those of digestion and of the secre- tions are little less complicated than in the vertebrated animals. We will distinguish the animals of this second form by the appellation of Mouuvuscous Animats (Animalia mollusca). Although the general plan of their organization is not so uniform, as regards the external configuration of the parts, as that of the vertebrates, there is always an equal degree of resemblance between them in the essential structure and the functions. The third form is that observed in insects, worms, &c. Their nervous system con- sists of two long chords running longitudinally through the abdomen, dilated at inter- vals into knots or ganglions. The first of these knots, placed over the cesophagus, and called brain, is scarcely any larger than those which are along the abdomen, with which it communicates by filaments that encircle the cesophagus like a collar. The envelope of their trunk is divided by transverse folds into a certain number of rings, of which the teguments are sometimes hard, sometimes soft, but to the interior of which the muscles are always attached. The trunk often bears on its sides articulated limbs, but is frequently unfurnished with them. We will bestow on these animals the term ArticutaTe Animats (Animalia articulata). It is among these that the passage is observed from the circulation in closed vessels, to nutrition by imbibition, and the corresponding transition from respiration in cir- cumscribed organs, to that effected by trachez or air-vessels distributed through the body. The organs of taste and vision are the most distinct in them, a single family alone presenting that of hearing. Their jaws, when they have any, are always lateral. Lastly, the fourth form, which embraces all those animals known under the name of Zoophytes, may be designated Raprate Animas (Animalia radiata). In all the preceding, the organs of sense and motion are arranged symmetrically on the two sides of an axis. There is a posterior and an anterior dissimilar face. In this last division, they are disposed as rays round a centre; and this is the case, even when they consist of but two series, for then the two faces are alike.* They approximate to the homogeneity of plants, having no very distinct nervous system, nor organs of particular senses: there can scarcely be perceived, in some of them, the vestiges of a @ M. Agassiz has expressee different opinion. See Radiata.—Ep. 34 INTRODUCTION. circulation ; their respiratory organs are almost always on the surtace of the body; the greater number have only a sac without issue, for the whole intestine; and the lowest families present only a sort of homogeneous pulp, endowed with motion and sensibility.* [ The veins return to the heart the blood which has served to nourish the parts, to- gether with the chyle and lymph with which it has been renewed; but this blood is obliged to pass, either wholly or in part, into the organ of respiration, to regain its arterial nature, previous to being again dispersed over the system by the arteries. In the three first classes, this organ of respiration consists of lungs, that is, an assemblage of cells into which air penetrates. In fishes only, and in some reptiles while young, it consists of gills, or a series of laminze between which water passes. In all the vertebrate animals, the blood which furnishes the liver with the materials of the bile is venous blood, which has circulated partly in the parietes of the intestines, and partly ina peculiar body named the spleen, and which, after being united in a trunk called the vena porta, is again subdivided at the liver. * M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire has described a structure in the bill of ; canals in the horny sheath, subsequently formed, which contain a birds which preseats some approach to a dentary system. Ina fetus of | softer material, and which commence from small foramina in the mar- a Parroquet nearly ready for hatching, he found that the margins of the gin of the bone. In certain other birds (as the Mergunsers) also, the bill were beset with tubercles arranged ina regular order, and having | lateral edges of the bill are provided with horny processes or lamin all the exterior appearance of teeth; these tubereies were not, indeed, | secreted by distinct pulps, and analogous in this respect to the whale- implanted in the jaw-bones, but formed part of the exterior sheath of | boue lamin of the Whales, which are toothless Miamnelia, as are also he bill. Under each tubercle, however, there was a gelatinous pulp, | the ant eaters and Monotremata: it is further remarkable that the analogous to the puips which seerete teeth, but resting on the edye of | rudiments of dentition occur in the fetus of the toothless Whales. the maxillary bones, and every pulp was supplied by vessels and uerves | —Kp. traversing a canal in the substance of the bone. These tubercles form + The lymphatie vessels are also the media of cutaneous transuda- the first marinus of the mandibles, and their remains are indicated by | tion—Ep, VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 37 All these animals have a particular secretion, which is that of urine, and which is elaborated in two large glands attached to the sides of the spine of the back, and called kidneys: the liquid which these glands secrete, accumulates most commonly in a reservoir named the bladder. The sexes are separate, and the female has always one or two ovaries, from which: the eggs are detached at the instant of conception. The male fecundates them witli the seminal fluid; but the mode varies greatly. In most of the genera of the threc first classes, it requires an intromission of the fluid; in some reptiles, and in most oi the fishes, it takes place after the exit of the eggs. SUBDIVISION OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS INTO FOUR CLASSES. We have seen to what extent vertebrate animals resemble each other: they present, however, four great subdivisions or classes, characterized by the kind or power of their movements, which depend themselves on the quantity of respiration, inasmuch as it is from this respiration that the muscular fibres derive the energy of their irritability. The quantity of respiration depends upon two agents: the first is the relative quantity of blood which presents itself in the respiratory organ in a given instant of time; the second, the relative amount of [free] oxygen which enters into the com- position of [or is dispersed through] the ambient fluid. The quantity of the former depends upon the disposition of the organs of respiration and of circulation. The organs of the circulation may be double, so that all the blood which is brought back from the various parts of the body by the veins, is forced to circulate through the respiratory organ before returning by the arteries; or they may be simple, so that a portion only of the blood is obliged to pass through the respiratory organ, the re- mainder returning to the body without having been subjected to respiration. The latter is the case with reptiles. The amount of their respiration, and all the qualities which depend on it, vary according to the quantity of blood which is thrown into the lungs at each pulsation. Fishes have a double circulation, but their organ of respiration is formed to execute its function through the medium of water; and their blood is only acted upon by that small portion of oxygen which is dissolved or mingled in water ; so that the quantity of their respiration is, perhaps, less than that of reptiles. In mammalians, the circulation is double, and the aérial respiration simple, that is, it is performed in the lungs only: their quantity of respiration is, therefore, superior to that of reptiles, on account of the form of their respiratory organ, and to that of fishes, from the nature of their surrounding medium. But the quantity of respiration in birds is even superior to that of quadrupeds, since they have not only a double circulation and an aérial respiration, but also respire by many other cavities besides the lungs, the air penetrating throughout their bodies, and bathing the branches of the aorta, or main artery of the body, as well as those of the pulmonary artery.* Hence result the four kinds of progression to which the four classes of the vertebrate animals are more particularly destined. The quadrupeds, in which the quantity of « In Batrachian reptiles (frogs, newts, &c.), respiration is to 1 effected by which is needed to develope the requisite nervous or vital certain extent performed over the whole outer skin; which, on this | energy, those animals of this group which in the adult state have account, requires to be always muist. Hence, as there can be no | lungs and not gills, but which pass the winter in a torpid state under muscular action without previous respiration, the chemical change | water, are enabled to resuscitate in spring.—Ep. 38 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. respiration is moderate, are generauy tormea to waik and run with precision and vigour; the birds, in which it is greater, have the muscular energy and lightness necessary for flight; the reptiles, where it is diminished, are condemned to creep, and many of them pass a portion of their life in a state of torpor; the fishes, in fine, to execute their movements, require to be supported in a fluid specifically almost as heavy as themselves.* All the circumstances of organization proper to each of these four classes, and especially those which refer to motion and the external senses, have a necessary relation with these essential characters. The class of mammalians, however, has peculiar characters in its viviparous mode of generation, in the manner in which the foetus is nourished in the womb by means of the placenta, and in the mammeze by which they suckle their young. The other classes are, on the contrary, oviparous; and if we place them together, in opposition to the first, there will be perceived numerous resemblances which announce, on their part, a special plan of organization, subordinate to the great general plan of all the vertebrates. THE FIRST CLASS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. MAMMALIA. Mammalians require to be placed at the head of the animal kingdom, not only because this is the class to which we ourselves belong, but also because it is that which enjoys the most numerous faculties, the most delicate sensations, the most varied powers of motion, and in which all the different qualities seem together combined to produce a more perfect degree of intelligence,—the one most fertile in resources, most susceptible of perfection, and least the slave of instinct. As their quantity of respiration is moderate, they are in general designed for walking on the ground, but with vigorous and continued steps. Consequently, all the articula- tions of their skeleton have very precise forms, which rigorously determine their motions. Some of them, however, by means of lengthened limbs and extended membranes, raise themselves in the air; others have the limbs so shortened, that they can employ them with effect only in water; but they do not the more on this account lose the general characters of the class. * To descend to particular cases, however, it would appear that | groups which they approximate in habit,—nought that can be rerarded species may be framed on almost every type, even very subordinate | as an intentional or designed representation of them, as has some- types, for any particular mode of life. Thus, to illustrate briefly, the | times been imagined ; for it ix evident, that if species based on two bats, which are truc mammalians, are modified for aérial progression | different plans of organization are respectively modified to perform like birds ; and the whales, other mammalians, have a fsh-like exterior, | the same office in the economy of nature, they must necessarily re- being designed to live exclusively in water: so there are birds which | semble, to a certain extent, superficially, as a consequence of that are utterly incapable of flight; some, as the ostrich, adapted to scour | adaptation; while there are many cases also in each class which cane the plains, like a qnadruped; others, as the penguins, whose only | not well be represented in some others, as that of the mole among sphere of activity isin the water: the pterodactyle affords an ex- | quadrapeds, which has no counterpart or correspondent group in the ample of a genus of flying reptiles, the fossil remains of which only | class of birds, Habit, or mode of life, has indeed nothing whatever have been discovered. Descending to lower groups, we find among | to do with the ph relations of organisms, which afford the birds, a genus of thrushes (Cinclus), which secks its subsistence under | only legitimate basis of classification ; and those special modifications water; and another of totipalmate water-fowl (Puchypetes), which | to particular habits, whieh, oecurring alike in any class, superinduce neither swims nor dives. Such deviations, however, from the general | a resemblance in superficial characters only, constitute what has been character of their allied genera, have no intrinsical relation to the | well distinguished by the term anulogy, as opposed to uffinity.—Ep. | eee ee MAMMALIANS. 39 They have all the upper jaw fixed to the skull, and the lower composed of two pieces only, articulated by a projecting condyle to a fixed temporal bone; the neck consists of seven vertebree, one single species excepted, which has nine*; the anterior ribs are attached in front, by cartilage, to a sternum formed of a certain number of pieces placed in a row; their fore-limb commences in a blade-bone, which is not articulated, but merely suspended in the flesh, often resting on the sternum by means of an intermediate bone, called a clavicle. This extremity is continued by an arm, a fore-arm, and a hand, the last composed of two ranges of small bones, called a wrist or carpus, of another range of bones termed metacarpus, and of digits or fingers, each of which consists of two or three bones, named phalanges. Excepting the Cetacea, they have all the first part of the hinder extremity fixed to the spine, and forming a girdle or pelvis, which, in youth, consists of three pairs of bones,— the ilium, which is attached to the spine, the pubis, which forms the fore part of the girdle, and the ischium, which constitutes the hind part. At the point of union of these three bones is situate the cavity with which the thigh is articulated, to which, in its turn, is attached the leg, formed of two bones, the tibia and fibula: this extremity is terminated by the foot, which is composed of parts analogous to those of the hand, namely, a tarsus, metatarsus, and digits or toes. The head of mammalians is always articulated by two condyles upon the atlas, or first vertebra. Their brain is composed of two hemispheres, united by a medullary layer termed the corpus callosum, containing two ventricles, and envelopiag the four pairs of tuber- cles named the corpora striata, the thalami nervorum opticorum, or beds of the optic nerves, and the nates and testes. Between the optic beds is a third ventricle, which communicates with a fourth situated under the cerebellum, the crura of which always form a transverse prominence under the medulla oblongata, called the pons Varolit. Their eye, invariably lodged in its orbit, is protected by two lids and a vestige of a third, and has its crystalline fixed by the ciliary process and its simply cellular sclero- tica [or white]. In their ear, there is always found a cavity named the drum, or tymponum, which communicates with the back part of the mouth, by a canal termed the trumpet, or Eustachian tube: the cavity itself is closed externally by a membrane called the membrana tympani, and contains a chain of four little bones, named the hammer, anvil, orbicular, and stirrup bones; a vestibule, on the entrance of which rests the stirrup- bone, and which communicates with three semicircular canals; and, finally, a cochlea, which terminates by one passage in the drum, and by another in the vestibule. Their cranium subdivides into three portions: the anterior is formed by the two frontal and the ethmoidal bones ; the middle, by the parietal bones and the sphenoidal ; * The sloth is alluded to, in which, however, distinct rudiments of ribs are attached to the cighth ard ninth as shown in the above figure (a, ) ; so that, inreality, this constitutes no exception to the nniversal rule.—Ep, ! 40 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. and the posterior, by the occipital. Between the occipital, the parietal, and the sphe- noidal, are interposed the temporal bones, part of which belong properly to the face. In the foetus, the occipital bone divides into four parts ; the sphenoidal into halves, which subdivide into three pairs of lateral wings; the temporal into three, of which one serves to complete the cranium, another to close the labyrinth of the ear, and the third to form the parietes of its drum, &c. These bony portions [centres of ossifica- tion], which are still more numerous in the earliest period of foetal existence, are united more or less promptly, according to the species, and the bones themselves be- come finally consolidated in the adult.* Their face is essentially formed by the two maxillary bones, between which pass the nostrils, and which have the two intermaxillaries in front, and the two palate bones behind ; between them descends a single Jamina of the ethmoidal bone, named the vomer ; at the entrance of the nasal canal are the bones proper to the nose ; to its external parietes adhere the inferior turbinated bones, which occupy its upper and posterior portion, belonging to the ethmoidal. The jugal or cheek bone unites on each side the maxillary to the temporal bone, and often to the frontal; lastly, the lachrymal bone occupies the inner angle of the orbit, and sometimes a part of the cheek. These bones also present more numerous subdivisions in the embryo. Their tongue is always fleshy, and attached to a bone termed the hyoidal, which is composed of several pieces, and suspended from the cranium by ligaments. Their lungs, two in number, divided into lobes, and composed of an infinitude of cells, are always inclosed without adhesion in a cavity formed by the ribs and diaphragm, and lined by the pleura; their organ of voice is always at the upper end of the windpipe ; a fleshy elongation, called the velum palati, establishes a direct com- munication between their larynx and nostrils. Their residence on the surface of the earth exposing them less to the alternations of heat and cold, their body has only a moderate kind of tegument, the hair or fur, and even this is commonly scanty in those of hot climates. The cetaceans, which hve entirely in water, are the only ones that are altogether deprived of it. The abdominal cavity is limed with a membrane called the peritoneum; and their intestinal canal is suspended to a fold of it, termed the mesentery, which contains numerous conglomate glands, in which the lacteal vessels ramify : another production of the peritonzeum, named the epiploon, hangs in front of and under the intestines. The urine, retained for some time in the bladder, is discharged, in the two sexes, with very few exceptions, by orifices in the organs of generation. In all mammalians, generation is essentially viviparous; that is to say, the feetus, immediately after conception, descends [gradually] into the matrix, inclosed in its envelopes, the exterior of which is named chorion, and the interior amnios ; it fixes itself to the parietes of this cavity by one or more plexus of vessels, termed the placenta, which establishes a communication between it and the mother, by which it receives its nourishment, and probably also its oxygenation ; notwithstanding which, * Here it may be remarked that, descending in the series of verte- cessively assuming the conditions of this organ in fishes, reptiles, brates, the same is observable as in asceuding to foetal life in the | birds, the lower and then higher groups of mammalians.—Ep. higher groups; the progress of developement, in this and other re + In some monkeys from Sierra Leone, the most torrid region in the spects, being arrested at different staves of advancement, according | world, the hair is much elongated, but thin and Coarse, as if designed to the class, order, and species: the brain for instance, in man, suc- | to protect them from the solar rays.—Ep, MAMMALIA. 41 the foetus of mammalians, at an early period, has a vessel analogous to that which contains the yolk in the oviparous classes, receiving, in like manner, vessels from the mesentery. It has also another external bladder named the allantoid, which communi- cates with the urinary one by a canal termed the urachus. Conception always requires an effectual coitus, in which the fecundating fluid of the male is thrown into the uterus of the female. The young are nourished for some time after birth by a fluid peculiar to this class (the milk), which is produced by the mamme, at the time of parturition, and for as long a period as the young require it. It is from the mamme that this class derives its name, and, being a character peculiar to it, they distinguish it better than any other that is external.* DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS. The variable characters which establish essential differences among the mammalia are taken from the organs of touch, on which depends their degree of ability or address, and from the organs of manducation, which determine the nature of their food, and are connected together, not only with all that relates to the digestive func- tion, but also with a multitude of other differences extending even to their intelligence. The degree of perfection of the organs of touch is estimated by the number and the mobility of the fingers, and from the greater or less extent to which their extremities are enveloped by the nail or the hoof. A hoof which envelopes all that portion of the toe which touches the ground, blunts its sensibility, and renders the foot incapable of seizing. The opposite extreme is where a nail, formed of a single lamina, covers only one of the faces of the extremity of the finger, and leaves the other possessed of all its delicacy. The nature of the food is known by the grinders, to the form of which the articula- tion of the jaws universally corresponds. For cutting flesh, grinders are required as trenchant as a saw, and jaws fitted like sc’ssors, which have no other motion than a vertical one. For bruising grain or roots, flat-crowned grinders are necessary, and jaws that have a lateral motion: in order that the crowns of these teeth should always be nregular, as in a mill, it is further requisite that their substance should be formed of parts of unequal hardness, so that some may wear away faster than others, Hoofed animals are all necessarily herbivorous, and have flat-crowned grinders, in- asmuch as their feet preclude the possibility of their seizing a living prey. Animals with unguiculated fingers are susceptible of more variety; their food is of all kinds: and, independently of the form of their grinders, they differ greatly from each other in the mobility and delicacy of their fingers. There is one character with respect to this, which has immense influence on their dexterity, and greatly multiplies its powers ; it is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers for the purpose of seizing small objects, constituting what is properly termed a hand; a faculty which to be no nipples, simple pressure alone causing the fluid to exude. In the class of birds, a lacteal fluid is secreted by the crops of the * We shall find, however, in the sequel some doubts on this sub- ject, as regards the family of Afunotremata, [These doubts have since been removed, inasmuch as the lacteal glands have been de parrots and piyeons, which is disgorged into the throats of the young tected, with their secretion ; though, as in the cetaceans, there appear when newly hatched.—Ep.] 42 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS, is carried to its highest perfection m Man, in whom the wnole anterior extremity is free, and capable of prehension. These various combinations, which rigidly determine the nature of the different mammalians, have given rise to the following orders :— Among the unguiculates the first is Man, who, besides being privileged in all other respects, has hands to the anterior extremities only ; his hinder limbs support him in an erect position. In the order next to Man,—that of the Quaprumana, there are hands to the four extremities. Another order, that of the Carwarta, has not the thumb free and opposable to the other fingers. These three orders have each the three sorts of teeth, namely, grinders, canines, and incisors. A fourth, that of the Roprntra, in which the toes differ little from those of the Carnaria, is without the canines, and the incisors are placed in front of the mouth, and adapted to a very peculiar sort of manducation. Then come those animals whose toes are much cramped, and deeply sunk in large nails, which are generally curved; and which have further the imperfection of want- ing the incisors. Some of them are also without canines, and there are others which have no teeth at all. We comprehend them all under the name Eprnvrarta. This distribution of the unguiculated animals would be perfect, and form a very regular series, were it not that New Holland has lately furnished us with a small collateral series, composed of the pouched animals [Marsupiata], the different genera of which are connected together by the aggregate of their organization, althov eh in their teeth, and in the nature of their regimen, some correspond to the Carnaria, others to the Rodentia, and others, again, to the Hdentata. The hoofed animals are less numerous, and have likewise fewer irregularities. The Ruminantia compose an order very distinct, which is characterized by its cloven feet, by the absence of the incisors to the upper jaw, and by having four stomachs, All the other hoofed animals may be left together in a single order, which I shall call Pacnypermarta or Jumenta, the Hlephant excepted, which might constitute a separate one, having some distant relation to that of Rodentia. Lastly, those mammalians remain which have no posterior extremities, and whose fish-like form and aquatic mode of life would induce us to form them into a particular class, if it were not that all the rest of their economy is precisely the same as in that wherein we leave them. These are the warm-blooded fishes of the ancients, or the Ceracea, which, uniting to the vigour of the other mammalians the advantage of being sustained in the watery element, include among them the most gigantic of all animals. (Linnzus reduced all mammalians to three great groups, Uneuicutata, Uneurara, and Murica ; terms which are at least convement for their expressiveness, although the groups they represent intergrade, and in some instances invade each other, if too rigorously accepted. His order Primares, as extended to the Bimana, Quadrumana, and Cheiroptera of Cuvier, receives the approbation of most naturalists ; few regard the last as subordinate to the Carnaria, which is equivalent to Primates. Viewing Man zoologically, opinion is divided respecting the propriety of assigning MAMMALIA. 43 him a separate ordinal station ; his rudimental structure according so nearly with that of the Quadrumana, of which type he presents the modification for ground habits and an upright attitude ; his more highly developed brain is merely a difference in degree. Conceding this much, he would require to be admitted into the same particular group as all other mammalians based on the same newt general plan of structure to that of the entire class; which special type is externally distinguished by pecu- harities in the sexual organs, a system of organs of all others the least subject to be influenced by the general modification in reference to habit. It is thus that, after being necessarily included among the Mammalia, Man must next range with the other handed animals and the Bats, in a particular subdivision, which Linnzus has named Primates. There would appear to be four distinct major groups of Primates :—the Catarrhini, composed of the Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons of the eastern hemisphere; the Platyrrhini, consisting of the anthropoid animals of America; the Strepsirrhini, or Lemurs (including Galeopithecus, and, perhaps, Cheiromys) ; and the Cheiroptera, or Bats, which last, varying most essentially in their dentition, according as they are frugivorous, sanguivorous, or insectivorous, afford a decisive proof that the dentary system alone, like any other single character considered apart from the rest, fails to supply an invariable indication of the affinities of an animal (as has sometimes been stated). We perceive no sufficient reason why the genus Homo should uot range at the head of the Catarrhini, though as a distinct family—Hominide, as opposed to Simiade ; in accordance wherewith, the Primates present a tolerable series, from the summit of the animal kingdom to forms that are rather low in the class of mammalians. An analogous gradation is exhibited by the second grand division, which De Blain- ville has designated Secundates ; it is the Carnaria of Cuvier divested of the Bats. We prefer the latter appellation, as more in unison with the names of the succeeding orders ; and for the same reason would substitute Primaria for Primates. Our ulustrious author, with a view to present some approximation to a linear suc- cession, has arranged the present series inversely, commencing with those least elevated in the scale, or the Jnsectivora. To this we cannot accede, as virtually implying an exploded principle. Considered as a carnivorous group, the Feline animals must be selected as the standard—most characteristic example*—of the order; but in its totality, without reference to especial modifications, the Dog has better claim to be placed at the head. Some curious analogies accordingly present themselves between the respectively highest animals of the two first orders. As a general, perhaps universal rule obtaining in consecutive groups when sufficiently extensive, the summit of the inferior displays a higher organization than the terminal members of the superiort ; and this sometimes in a very remarkable degree, as shown in the present instance. A sort of parallelism may also frequently be observed between such members of two different ordinal types as are of a corresponding degree of eleva- tion in the scale of being: thus, the Shrews present certain characters of the Rodentia, without linking with them. It is on this principle, we suspect, that transitions appear to occur in some instances, from one great type of structure to another; and a key is hereby supplied to the proper understanding of much that seems otherwise inexplicable. + A proposition which Js sanctioned by the acquiescence of Cuvier, * The word type is often employed in this sense: we use it ina | as shown by his remarks on linear arrangement Vide preface, p. « somewsat diferent one, 44 MAMMALIA. We have seen, in the Primaria, that particular plan of conformation so modified as to enable certain species to fly : in the Carnaria, the Seals afford an example of exclusive adaptation to aquatic habits. It could only have been the desire to maintain a sort of continuous succession, as in the former instance, which induced our author to range the Marsupiata next to the Carnaria ; for they are unquestionably the lowest-organized of mammalians, whence their intrusion so high in the system of the class furnishes another proof of the impropriety of allowing undue importance to particular characters. An order which has a better claim to succeed the Carnaria, is that of the fish-hke mammalians, or Cetacea; but, divested of the herbivorous genera ranged in it by Cuvier, which are strict Pachydermata. (It is scarcely necessary to repeat, that modifications which have reference to habit do not necessarily affect the essential relations of organisms). The Pachydermata follow, which, in their turn, must not be regarded as more nearly related to the last, because certain genera of them are analogously adapted for aquatic habits only. We feel compelled to reiterate this general principle, in order to preclude misconception ; the sound inference seems to be, that a tendency to general modification for aquatic habits prevails in this part of the system; which certainly helps to indicate what orders should be placed in contiguity, though still not of necessity, even admitting that many analogous cases may be cited in corroboration of a vague index being thus afforded.* We prefer to arrange the Ruminantia next to the Pachydermata ; then the Edentata, and the Rodentia ; and last of all the Marsupiata, including the Monotremata of Cuvier, the formerly doubtful points concerning which are now, with slight reservation, finally set at rest. It will be perceived that this arrangement is tolerably in accordance with the ordinary cerebral developement, and consequent amount of intelligence, of the eight successive orders. P assing on to the Birds, we commence with a higher intellect (in the Parrots) than is manifested in either of the last three, or, perhaps, four orders ; which agrees with the general proposition stated at p.43.] THE FIRST ORDER OF MAMMALIANS. “ BIMANA, OR MAN. Man forms but one genus, and that genus the only one of its order. As his history is more directly interesting to ourselves, and forms the standard of comparison a which we refer that of other animals, we will treat of it more in detail. We will rapidly sketch whatever Man offers, that is peculiar in each of his organic systems, amidst all that he has in common with other mammalians; we will describe his principal races and their distinctive characters; and finally point out the natural order of the developement of his faculties, both individual and social. © For an instance in point, see our remarks ou certain conformities of structure observable in the two groups of Parrots and Hawks. ee se BIMANA, OR MAN. 45 PECULIAR CONFORMATION OF MAN. The foot of Man is very different from that of Apes: it is large; the leg bears vertically upon it; the heel is expanded beneath; lis toes are short, and but slightly flexible; the great toe, longer and larger than the rest, is placed on the same line with and cannot be opposed to them. This foot, then, is proper for supporting the body, but cannot be used for seizing or climbing*, and as the hands are unfitted for walking, Man is the only animal truly bimanous and biped. The whole body of Man is modified for the vertical position. His feet, as we have already seen, furnish him with a larger base than those of other mammalians; the muscles which re- tain the foot and thigh in the state of extension are more vigorous, whence results the swelling of the calf and buttock; the flexors of the leg are attached higher up, which permits of com- plete extension of the knee, and renders the calf more apparent. The pelvis is larger, which separates the thighs and feet, and gives to the trunk that pyramidal form favourable to equi- librium : the necks of the thigh-bones form an angle with the body of the bone, which increases still more the separation of the feet, and augments the basis of the body. Finally, the head, in this vertical position, is m eauilibrium with the trunk, because its articulation is exactly under the middle of its mass. Were he to desire it, Man could not, with convenience, walk on all fours: his short and nearly inflexible foot, and his long thigh, would bring the knee to the ground; his widely sepa- rated shoulders and his arms, too far extended from the median line, would ill support the fore-part of his body; the great indented muscle which, in quadrupeds, suspends the trunk between the blade-bones as a girth, is smaller in Man than in any one among them; the head is heavier, on account of the magnitude of the braim, and the smallness of the sinuses or cavi- ties of the bones; and yet the means of supporting it are weaker, for he has neither cervical ligament, nor are the vertebra so modified as to prevent their flexure forward; he could therefore only maintain his head in the same line with the spine, and then, his eyes and wnouth bemg directed towards the ground, he could not see before him; the position of these organs is, on the contrary, quite perfect, supposing that he walks erectly. The arteries which supply his brain, not being subdivided as in many quadrupeds, and the blood requisite for so voluminous an organ being carried to it with too much violence, fre- quent apoplexies would be the consequence of a horizontal position. Man, then, is designed to be supported by the feet only. He thus preserves the entire use of his hands for the arts, while his organs of sense are most favorably situated for observa- tion. These hands, which derive such advantages from their liberty, receive as many more from their structure. Their thumb, longer in proportion than in the apes, increases the facility of seizing small objects ; all the fingers, except the annularis [and this to a certain extent], have separate movements, which is not the case in any other animal, not even in the apes. The nails, covering only one side of the extremities of the fingers, form a support to the touch, without in the least depriving it of its delicacy. The arms which support these hands have a solid attachment by their large blade-bone, their strong collar bone, &e. Man, so highly favoured as to dexterity, is not so with regard to strength. Tis swiftness in running is much inferior to that of other animals of his size; having neither projecting jaws, nor salient canine teeth, nor crooked nails, he is destitute of offensive armature; and the sides and upper part of his body being naked, unprovided even with hair, he is absolutely * It is certain, wawever, that by much practice from early youth, | with the anterior extremities imperfect, have illustrated this practi- the foot has been known to acquire an amount of dexterity in manual | cability the most remarkably, The influence of habit in training even operations, which it would not have been supposed capable of by those | the hand to perform its functions, will be appreciated by those who whose feet have been enveloped from the time they first walked in | cannot use their left hand with the same freedom as the right.—Ep. close investments. Individuals, in particular, who have been born 46 MAMMALIA. without defensive weapons: lastly, he is of all animals that which is latest to acquire the power necessary to provide for himself. But this weakness even has been for him another advantage, in obliging him to have re- course to those internal means—to that intelligence which has been awarded to him in so high a degree. No quadruped approaches him in the magnitude and convolutions of the hemispheres of the brain, that is to say, of that part of this organ which is the principal instrument of the intel- lectual operations; the posterior portion of the same organ extends backwards, so as to form a second covering to the cerebellum; even the form of the cranium announces this great size of the brain, as the smallness of the face shows how slightly that portion of the nervous system which influences the external senses predomimates in him. These external senses, however, moderate as they all are in Man, are yet extremely delicate and well balanced. | Mis two eyes are directed forwards ; he does not see on two sides at once, like many quadru- | peds, which produces more unity in the result of his vision, and concentrates his attention more closely on objects of this kmd. The ball and iris of his eye vary but little, which re- strains the activity of his sight to limited distances, and to a determined degree of light. The conch of his ear, possessing but little mobility or extent, does not increase the intensity of sounds, notwithstanding which, of all animals, he best distinguishes their intonation. His nostrils, more complicated than those of apes, are less so than those of all other genera; and yet he appears to be the only animal whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to be affected | by unpleasant odours. Delicacy of smell must influence that of taste; and Man must have a further advantage, m this respect, at least over those animals whose tongues are covered with | scales. Lastly, the nicety of his touch results, both from the delicacy of his teguments and | the absence of all insensible parts, as well as from the the form of his hand, which is | better adapted than that of any other animal for suiting itself to all the small inequalities of surfaces. Man has a particular pre-eminence in his organ of voice: of all mammalians, he can alone articulate sounds; the form of his mouth and the great mobility of his lips being probably the cause of this. Hence results his most invaluable mode of communication; for of all the signs which can be conveniently employed for the transmission of ideas, variations of sound are those which can be perceived at the greatest distance, and in the most varicus di: ections simultaneously. It seems that even the position of the heart and of the great vessels bears reference to the vertical carriage. The heart is placed obliquely on the diaphragm, and its point inclines to the left, thereby occasioning a distribution of the aorta differmg from that of most quadrupeds. The natural food of Man, judgmg from his structure, appears to consist principally of the fruits, roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables. His hands afford every facility for gathering them; Ins short and but moderately strong jaws on the one hand, and his canines being equal only in length to the other teeth, together with his tuberculated molars on the other, would scarcely permit him either to masticate herbage, or to devour flesh, were these | condiments not previously prepared by cooking. Once, however, possessed of fire, and those | arts by which he is aided m seizing animals or killmg them at a distance, every hying being was rendered subservient to his nourishment, thereby giving him the means of an indefinite | | multiplication of his species. Ilis organs of digestion are in conformity with those of manducation; his stomach is simple, his intestinal canal of mean length, his great intestines well marked, his coceum short and thick, and augmented by @ small appendage, and his liver divided only into two lobes and one small one ; his epiploon hangs in front of the intestines, and extends into the pelvis. To complete this abridged statement of the anatomical structure of Man, necessary for this BIMANA, OR MAN. 47 Introduction, we will add, that he has thirty-two vertebra, of which seven belong to the neck, twelve to the back, five to the loins, five to the sacrum, and three to the coecyx. Of his ribs, seven pairs are united to the sternum by elongated cartilages, and are called true ribs; the five followimg pairs are denominated false ones. THis adult cranium consists of eight bones ; an occipital (occipito-basilaire) ; two temporal; two parietal; a frontal; an ethmoidal, and a sphenoidal. The bones of his face are fourteen in number; namely, two maxillaries; two Jugals, each of which jos the temporal to the maxillary bone of its own side by a sort of handle named the zygomatic arch ; two nasal bones ; two palatines, behind the palate; a vomer, between the nostrils ; two turbimated bones of the nose im the nostrils; two lachrymals in the inner angles of the orbits, and the single bone of the lower jaw. Each jaw has sixteen teeth: four cutting incisors in the middle, two pointed canines at the corners, and ten molars with tuberculated crowns, five on each side, in all thirty-two teeth. His blade-bone has at the extremity of its spine or projecting ridge a tuberosity, named the acromion, to which the clavicle or collar-bone is connected, and over its articulation is a point termed the coracoid process, to which certain muscles are attached. The radius turns completely on the cubitus or ulna, owing to the mode of its articulation with the humerus. The wrist has eight bones, four in each range; the tarsus has seven; those of the remaining parts of the hand and foot may be easily counted by the number of digits. Enjoying, by means of his industry, uniform supplies of nourishment, Man is at all times inclined to sexual intercourse, without bemg ever furiously incited. lis generative organ is not supported by a bony axis; the prepuce does not retain it attached to the abdomen ; but it hangs in front of the pubis: numerous and large veins, which effect a rapid transfer of the blood of his testes to the general circulation, appear to contribute to the moderation of his desires. The uterus of woman is a simple oval cavity ; her mammz, only two in number, are situated on the breast, and correspond with the facility she possesses of supporting her child upon her arm... PHYSICAL AND MORAL DEVELOPEMENT OF MAN. The ordinary produce of the human species is but one child at a birth; for in five hundred cases of parturition, there is only one of twins, and more than that number is extremely rare. The period of gestation is nine months. A foetus of one month is ordinarily an inch in height; at two months, it is two inches and a quarter; at three months, five inches; at five months, six or seven inches; at seven months, eleven inches; and at nine mouths, eighteen inches. Those which are born prior to the seventh month usually die. The first or milk teeth begin to appear a few months after birth, commencing with the incisors. The number increases in two years to twenty, which are shed successively from about the seventh year, to be replaced by others. Of the twelve posterior molars, which are permanent, there are four which make their appearance at four years and a half, four at nine years; the last four being frequently not cut until the twentieth year. The foetus grows more rapidly in proportion as it approaches the time of birth. The infant, on the contrary, increases always more and more slowly. It has upwards of a fourth of its height when born, attains the half of it at two years anda half, and the three fourths at nine or ten years. By the eighteenth year the growth almost entirely ceases. Man rarely exceeds sr feet, and seldom remains under five. Woman is ordinarily some inches shorter, Puberty manifests itself by external signs, from the tenth to the twelfth year in girls, and from the twelfth to the sixteenth in boys. It arrives sooner mm warm climates. ither sex very rarely produces before the epoch of this manifestation. Searcely has the body attamed its full growth in height, before it commences to increase in bulk; fat accumulates in the cellular tissue. The different vessels become 48 MAMMALIA. gradually obstructed ; the solids become rigid; and after a life more or less prolonged, more or Man rarely lives beyond a hundred years; and most of the species, either from disease, accidents, less agitated, more or less painful, old age arrives, with decrepitude, decay, and death. or merely old age, perish long before that term. The child needs the assistance of its mother much longer than her milk, whence results an The nearly equal number of individuals of the two sexes, the difficulty of supporting more than one wife, when education intellectual as well as physical, and a durable mutual attachment. wealth does not supply the want of power, intimate that monogamy is the natural condition of our species; and as, wherever this kind of union exists, the sire participates in the education of his offspring, the length of time required for that education allows the birth of others, whence the natural perpetuity of the conjugal state. From the long period of infantile weak- ness results domestic subordination, and, consequently, the order of society at large, as the young persons which compose the new families continue to preserve with their parents those tender relations to which they have so long been accustomed. This disposition to mutual assistance multiples to an almost unlimited exteut those advantages previously derived by isolated Man from his intelligence ; it has assisted him to tame or repulse other animals, to defend himself from the effects of climate, and thus enabled him to cover the earth with his species. In other respects, Man appears to possess nothing resembling instinct, no regular habit of industry produced by innate ideas; all ms knowledge is the result of his sensations, his observations, or of those of lis predecessors. Transmitted by speech, increased by meditation, applied to his necessities and his enjoyments, they have given rise to all the arts. Language and letters, by preserving acquired knowledge, are a source of imdefinite perfection to his species. It is thus that he has acquired ideas, and nade all nature contribute to his wants.* There are very different degrees of developement, however, mm Man. The first hordes, compelled to live by hunting and fishing, or on wild fruits, and being obliged to devote all their time to search for the means of subsistence, and not being able to multiply greatly, because that would have destroyed the game, advanced but slowly ; their arts were limited to the construction of huts and canoes, to covering themselves with skins, and fabricating arrows and nets; they observed such stars only as served to direct them in their journeys, and some natural objects whose properties were of use to them ; they gained the When on of numerous flocks a never-failmg source of subsistence, and some leisure, which they employed dog for a companion, because he had a natural imelination for the same kind of life. they had succeeded in taming 3D the herbivorous animals, they found in the poss in extending the sphere of their acquirements. Some industry was then employed in the construction of dwellings and the making of clothes; the idea of property was admitted, and, consequently, that of barter, together with wealth and difference of conditions, those fruitful sources of the noblest emulation and the vilest passions; but the necessity of searching for fresh pastures, and of obeying the changes of the seasons, still doomed them to a wandering life, and limited their improvement to a very narrow sphere. ‘The multiplication of the human species, and its improvement in the arts and sciences, has «The numerous structural concurrences, all of which are required | necessary consequence of their imperfect means of communication) and we perceive how immensely he is indebted also to these ac to promote the intellectual developement of mankind, are werthy of serious consideration with reference to the unaided faculties of other | cessories. animals. On the other hand, however, a duly developed brain and commensu- For example, if the superior intelligence of Man were not seconded | rate intelligence are required to enable Man to avail himself of the by his admirable hands (so vastly excelling those of the monkey | advantages of his structure, for otherwise he appears doomed t= tribe), by his efficient vocal organ , which are obvious to allas | main stationary like a brute (as in the instance of the ¥’W Hol- mere physica ormations, indeed, but slight modifications of what | landers), even in the midst of civilization. There are »&® casualties, occur in other animals, —if, in short, he were reduced in these re- | as the general insecurity of life or property arisi mM situation or sperts to the condition of the Dog, how effectually would the privation | misgovernment, which ordinarily suffice to ~pel the efforts of ad operate to prevent that progressive advancement which, under exist- | vancement, even of the most intelligent “€es+ ing circumstances, is achieved by the human race only It would accordingly, then, appet, that the characteristic traits But, even grant to Man the use of all his organs, yet deprive him of | of human intellect are mainly (ue to the co-operation of extrinsic .e accumulated experience of his predecessors, and all mental culture | causes, and t© the accessory aids afforded by physical conformation, peyond the result of his incidental experience (which in brutes is a | —Ep, Fig oH SNS Lig Cunier’s Animal Kingdom. Pimann. HUMAN RACE—CAUCASIAN. Fic. 2.—Crrcasstan Branon. vrortrait of a Circassian in the Suite of the Persian Ambassador in 1823, drawn by M. A. Collin. Fig. 4.—Scravoman Brancg. Portrait of the Polish Count Lucas de Buin Opalinskt. Fig. 1.—Inpian Brancn. An Indian Woman of Pondichery, after a portrait by M. Germger m “L’Inde Frangais.” Fie. 3.—Invo-Gurmaneve Branca. A Hindoo of Bramin Caste, Ram Moham Roy, after a portrait painted at Calcutta by M. Belnos. Fie. 5.—Skull of the Circassian. BIMA A, OR MAN, 49 only been carried to a high degree since the invention of agriculture and the division of the By means of agriculture, the manual labour of a portion of society is adequate to the maintenance of the whole, and allows the remamder time for less necessary occupations, at the same time that the hope of acquiring, by industry, a comfortable subsistence for self and posterity, has given a new spring to emulation. The discovery of a representative of property, or a circulating medium, has carried this emulation to the highest degree, by facilitating exchanges, and rendering fortunes more independent and susceptible of bemg increased ; but by a necessary consequence, it has also equally increased the vices of effeminacy and the furies of ambition. In every stage of the developement of society, the natural propensity to reduce all knowledge to general principles, and to search for the causes of each phenomenon, has produced reflecting men, who have added new ideas to those already accumulated ; nearly all of whom, while know- ledge was confined to the few, endeavoured to convert their intellectual superiority into the means of domination, exaggerating their merit in the eyes of others, and disguismg the soil into hereditary possessions. poverty of their knowledge by the propagation of superstitious ideas. An evil more irremediable, is the abuse of physical power; now that Man only can injure Man, he affords the only instance of a species continually at war with itself. Savages dispute their forests, and herdsmen their pastures; and make iruptions, as often as they can, upon the cultivators of the soil, to deprive them of the fruits of their long and painful labours. Even civilized nations, far from being satisfied with thei enjoyments, carry on war for the prerogative of pride, or the monopoly of commerce. ence the necessity of governments to direct the national wars, and to repress or reduce to regular forms the quarrels of individuals. Circumstances, more or less favourable, have restrained the social condition within limited degrees, or have promoted its developement. The glacial climates of the north of both continents, and the impenetrable forests of America, are still inhabited by the savage hunter or fisherman. The immense sandy or salt plains of Central Asia and Africa are covered with a pastoral people, and innumerable herds: these half-civilized hordes assemble at the call of every enthusiastic chief, and overrun the cultivated countrics that surround them, in which they establish themselves but to become enervated, and to be subjected in their turn to the next mvaders. This is the true cause of that despotism, which, in every age, has crushed the industry called forth under the fine chiuates of Persia, India, and China. Mild climates, soils naturally irrigated and rich in vegetables, are the natural cradle of agriculture and civilization ; and when their position is such as to afford shelter from the incursions of barbarians, talents of every kind are mutually excited; such were formerly (the first in Europe,) Italy and Greece; and such is, at present, nearly all that happy portion of the earth’s surface. There are, however, certain intrinsic causes which appear to arrest the progress of particular races, even though situated amidst the most favourable circumstances. VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. Although the human species would appear to be single, since the union of any-of its members pro- duces individuals capable of propagation*, there are, nevertheless, certain hereditary peculiarities of conformation observable, which constitute what are termed races. Three of these in particular appear eminently distinct: the Caucasian, or white, the Mongolian, or yellow, and the Eéhiopian, or negro. The Caucasian, to which we belong, is distinguished by the beauty of the oval which forms the ain that this circumstance affords no proof of spe- | which I have just witnessed, in the class of birds, of a brood of ducks, « It is now ce asmuch as many nearly allied but obviously dis- vifical identity, tiact species produce hybrids that are prolific infer se: an instance of both parents of which were half mallard and half pintail (mas boschas and 4, acutv), See note to p. 19.—Ep,. a 5G MAMMALIA. head: and it is this one which has given rise to tle most civilized nations,—to those which have gene- rally held the rest in subjection: it varies in complexion and in the colour of the hair. The Mongolian is known by his projecting cheek-bones, flat visage, narrow and oblique eyebrows, scanty beard, and olive complexion. Great empires have been established by this race in China and Japan, and its conquests have sometimes extended to this side of the Great Desert ; but its civilization has always remained stationary. The Negro race is confined to the southward of the Atlas chain of mountains: its colour is black, its hair crisped, the cranium compressed, and nose flattened. The projecting muzzle and thick lips evidently approximate it to the Apes: the hordes of which it is composed have always continued barbarous. The name Caucasian has been affixed to the race from which we descend, because tradition and the filiation of nations seem to refer its origin to that group of mountains situate between the Caspian and Black Seas, whence it has apparently extended by radiating all around. The nations of the Caucasus, or the Circassians and Georgians, are even now considered as the handsomest on earth. The principal ramifications of this race may be distinguished by the analogies of language. The Armenian or Syrian branch, spreading southward, produced the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the hitherto untameable Arabs, who, after Mahomet, expected to become masters of the world; the Pheenicians, the Jews, the Abyssinians, which were Arabian colonies, and most pronably the Egyptians. It is from this branch, always inclined to mysticism, that have sprung the mos. widely extended forms of religion. Science and literature have sometimes flourished among its nations, but always in a strange disguise and figurative style. The Indian, German, and Pelasgic branch is much more extended, and was much earlier divided : en its four principal notwithstanding which, the most numerous affinities have been recognized betwe languages—the Sanscrit, the present sacred language of the Hindoos, and the parent of the greater number of the dialects of Hindostan; the ancient language of the Pelasgi, common parent of the Greek, Latin, many vongues that are extinct, and of all those of the south of Europe; the Gothic or Teutonic, from which are derived the languages of the north and north-west of Europe, such as the German, Dutch, English, Danish, Swedish, and their dialects ; and finally, the Sclavonian, from which are descended those of the north-east, the Russian, Polish, Bohemian, and that of the Vandals. It is by this great and venerable branch of the Caucasian stock, that philosophy, the arts and sciences, have been carried to their present state of advancement; and it has continued to be the depository of them for thirty centuries. It was preceded in Europe by the Celts, whose tribes, once very numerous, came by the north, and are now confined to its most western extremities; and by the Cantabrians, who passed from Africa into Spain, and have become confounded with the many nations whose posterity have intermingled in that peninsula. The ancient Persians originate from the same source as the Indians, and their descendants still present a very close resemblance to the nations of Europe. The Scythian and Tartar branch, extending first towards the north and north-east, and always wandering over the immense plains of those countries, returned but to devastate the happier abodes of their more civilized brethren, The Scythians, who, at so remote a period, made irruptions into Upper Asia; the Parthians, who there destroyed the Greek and Roman domination; the Turks, who there subverted that of the Arabs, and subjugated in Europe the unfortunate remnant of the Grecian people, were all offsets from this branch. The Finlanders and Hungarians are tribes of the same division, which have strayed among the Sclavonie and Teutonic nations. Their original country, to the north and eastward of the Caspian Sea, still contains inhabitants who have the same origin, and speak similar languages; but these are mingled with many other petty nations, variously descended, and of different languages. The Tartars remained unmixed longer than the others throughout that extent of country included between the mouth of the Danube to beyond the Irtisch, from which they so long menaced Russia, and where they have finally been subjugated by her. The Mongoles, however, have aungled their blood with that of the nations they conquered, many traces of which may still be found among the inhabitants of Lesser Tartary. It is to the east of this Tartar branch of the Cancasian race that the Mongolian race begins, whence Tts hranches. the Calmucks and Kalkas, still wandering shepherds, t extends to the eastern Cunier’s Animal Kingdom. Biman. | | HUMAN RACE—MONGOLIAN. Fie. 1.—Sourn Hast or Asta Brancw. A Man of the Island | of Corréa, from a Plate in M. Siebold’s Work on Japan. Fie. 2.—Cuinusz. A Chinese of Macao, from a Portrait painted | | by Danloux. | Fic. 3.—Siameuse. Portrait of one of two Twins, exiibited in Hurope in 1530; paimted in Paris. | | Fic. 4.—Jaranuse. After a portrait by M. Siebold. Lig 7 oe Cuuier’s Animal Kingham. imag, HUMAN RACE—AMERICAN. Fie. 2—A Man of the Tribe of the Charrua, inhabiting the country between the Parana and the Unuguay, after a portrait by M. WERNER. Fie. 1.—Portrait of a Young Man of Saliva Tribe, on the Banks of the Sinaruco. Fie. 3.—North American Indian Woman. Fie. 4.—A North American Indian in his War Paint. n BIMANA, OR MAN. lL traverse the great desert. Thrice did their ancestors, under Attila, Genghis, and Tamerlane, spread | far the terror of their name. The Chinese are the most anciently civilized branch, not only of this | race, but of all known nations. Athird branch, the Mantchures, have recently conquered and still | govern China. The Japanese, Coreans, and nearly all the hordes which extend to the north-east otf Siberia, subject to Russia, aie also to be considered, in a great measure, as originating from this race ; and such also is deemed to bw the fact with regard to the original inhabitants of various islands bordering on that archipelago. With the exception of some Chinese literati, the nations of the Mongolian race pertain generally to different sects of Buddism, or the religion of Fo. The origin of this great race appears to have been in the Altai mountains, as that of ours in the Caucasus; but it is impossible to trace with the same certainty the filiation of its different branches. The history of these wandering uations is as fugitive as their establishments ; and that of the Chinese, confined exclusively to their own empire, furnishes little that is satisfactory with respect to their neighbours. The affinities of their languages are also too little known to direct us in this labyrinth. The languages of the north of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, as well as that of Thibet, bear some relation to the Chinese, at least in their monosyllabic structure ; and the people who speak them are not without resemblance to the other Mongoles: but the south of this peninsula is inhabited by Malays, whose forms approach them much nearer to the Indians, and whose race and language are distributed over the coasts of all the islands of the Indian archipelago. The innumerable small islands of the southern ocean are also peopled by a handsome race, who appear to hold a near relation to the Indians, and whose language has much affinity with the Malay: but in the interior of the larger islands, particularly in the milder portions of them, there exists another race of men with black complexions, and negro faces, all extremely barbarous, which are named Alfourous; and on the coasts of New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, are other Negroes nearly similar to those of the eastern coast of | Africa, which are termed Papous; to the latter are generally referred the natives of Van Diemen’s | Land [now rapidly approaching to extermination], and those of New Holland to the Alfourous.* | Neither the Malays nor the Papous are easily referable to either of the three great races; but | can the former be clearly distinguished from their neighbours on both sides, the Caucasian Indians and the Mongolian Chinese? We avow that we cannot discern in them sufficient traits for that purpose. Are the Papous Negroes, which may formerly have strayed into the Indian Ocean? We possess neither figures nor descriptions precise enough to enable us to reply to this question. The inhabitants of the north of both continents, the Samovedes, the Laplanders, and the Esquimaux, are derived, according to some, from the Mongolian race : but others regard them as mere degenerate offsets from the Scythian and Tartar branches of the Caucasian race. The Americans have not yet been referred clearly to either of the races of the eastern continent ; nevertheless, they have no precise or constant character, which can entitle them to be considered as a particular one. Their copper-coloured complexion is not sufficient: their general black hair and scanty beard would induce us to approximate them to the Mongoles, if their defined features, their nose as projecting as ours, their large and open eyes, did not oppose such a theory, and correspond with the features of the European. Their languages are as numberless as their tribes, and no demonstrative analogies have as yet been obtained, either with each other, or with those of the ancient world.t [With all deference, I would suggest that naturalists are much too prone to confound resemblance with identity; as if any reason existed of necessity, for analogous races to differ in the least How many geographical mutual representatives are there, which the analogy of allied degree. llow nearly | races forcibly indicates to be distinct, though undistinguishable on minute comparison ! | | also do many acknowledged species resemble! Bearing these facts in mind, does it not appear that the Americans have as good a claim to be regarded as a primary race, as the Mongolians have to be separated as such from the Caucasians? The arrangement of Blumenbach, who adds the Malayan | and American races to the three admitted by Cuvier, has been more generally adopted: but there would seem to be quite as good reason for admitting others. Vischer, in his Synopsis Mammalium, indicates what he conceives to be seven species of Hemy (reducing the number that had previously + See, on the subject of the Americans, the travels of M. de Hum- voldt, so rich in important information, and the dissertatious of Vater ' aud of Mitchell. * Refer, for the different races which people the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, to the dissertation of MM, Lessoa and Garnot, in the Zuolugie du Moyage de lu Coquille, p. 1113. For the languages of the Asiatic nations, and their affinities, consult the dsia Pulyglotta of M. Klaproth. po? 52 MAMMALtA. been assigned by Bory St. Vincent): and the numerous divisions and subdivisions of that naturalist being tolerably in accordance with the apparent value of the characters presented, whether or not they truly represent the real distinctions, or, in some instances, similarity be confounded with identity (a problem to which philology seems to offer the only key), the outline of his arrangement may be transferred to the present work, where it may chance to prove useful to some observers. His supposed species are as follow :— 1. H. Japeticus, Bory; corresponding to the Caucasian race of Cuvier.—This is distributed under three principal varieties, termed Caucasicus, Arabicus, and Indicus: of these the first is arranged into five subvarieties, named Caucasicus (Orientalis), Pelagius (Meridionalis), Celticus (Occidenialis), Ger- manicus (Borealis), and Sclavonicus (Intermedius), which severally comprehend the Caucasic, Pelasgic, Celtic, Teutonic, and Sclavonic (including the Sarmatic) nations; the second into two subvarieties, Allanticus (Occidentalis), and ddamicus (Orientalis), vespectively containing the Phoenicians, ancient Numidians, and Guanches, or the Punic nations, and the Abyssinians, primitive Egyptians (modern Copts), Jews, Armenians, Arabians, &c., or the Coptic and Semitic nations. 2. H. Neptunianus, Bory.—Ranged under three subdivisions: the first unnamed (Qu. Malayanus ? ) allied to — probably much mingled with —the Indian variety of //. Japeticus, and consisting of the well-known Malays, which people the coasts only of the peninsula of Malacca, the islands of the Indian ocean, Madagascar, &c., never penetrating inland; the second, Oceidentalis, comprising the New Zealanders, and natives of the Society, Friendly, Sandwich, and other islands scattered over the Pacific ocean,—it is suggested, also, (but with due and much required hesitation,) the ancient Mexi- cans and Peruvians: the third, Papuensis, composed of certain inhabitants of part of the north coast of New Guinea, the shores of the islands Waigou, Salwaty, Gammeu, and a few others, is obviously a hybrid race, derived from the intermixture of the Malay and true Papou. Cuvier has remarked the and South Sea Islanders. affinity of language subsisting between the Malay 3. EH. Seythicus, Bory.—The first division of this, unnamed (Qu. Mongolensis ?) consists of the Calmucks and other Tartars; the second, Sinieus (Homo sinicus of Bory), of the Chinese, Japanese, &c.; and the third and last, Myperboreus (Homo hyperboreus, Bory), of the Esquimaux. It corre- sponds to the Mongolian race of Cuvier. 4. H. Americanus, Bory.—“ Species,” the author writes, “ adhue male cognita, forsan tota vel ex parle ad Seythicam reducenda,” of which the latter only is in the least probable. ‘ Autochthones me- rice meridionalis, in stirpes innumeras distributi; e. g. Omague, Guarani, Coroadi, dtures, Otomaqui, Wok Botucudi, Guiace, Cherruce, &c. A second division is designated Patagonus, (being the Lomo Patagonus of Bory,) composed of the large-statured Patagonians. 5. LH. Columbicus, Bory.—The ordinary red Indian of America. 6. H. Athiopic Bory,) inhabiting Caffraria, and part of the coast of Madagascar; Melanoides, (Homo melaninus, Bory), s, Bory.—Divided into the true Negro, not otherwise named; Cagfer, (Homo Caffer, the Papous or indigenous inhabitants of Madagascar, the shores of New Guinea, the islands of New Britain, New Ireland, and many others, also of Van Diemen’s Land; and LHottentotus (Homo Hotten- totus, Bory), the Bush and other Hottentots, which, it may be remarked, have not a few analogies with the nomadic Mongoles. The last appear to have been much reduced and encroached on, till a remnant only is left near the south coast of Africa, just as the Celts are now confined to the exteme west of Europe. 7. Lastly, H. Polynesius, Fischer (47. australaricus, Bory).—The Alfourous, the lowest in the seale of human beings: comprising the inland inhabitants of the Malay peninsula, the islands of the Indian Ocean, Madagascar, New Guinea, New Holland, &c. Such is the arrangement of an able and accomplished naturalist, published in 1829, or the same year in which our author gave to the world his second and last edition of the present work. The most recent authority, which is the third edition of Dr. Prichard’s elaborate “ Researches into the Physical History of Mankind,” contends strenuously for unity of species in the genus Homo: but it may be remarked that much stress is laid on the productiveness of mingled races of mankind, without any new or satisfactory evidence being adduced in proof of the comparative sterility of the hybrid offspring of the more intimately approximate races which have claim to be ranked as species; such as « “4 species imperfectly known, probably or in part refer the p eto | species, want of space compels me to refer the reader to the original ceding one. It comprehends numerous tribes of South Ame work, A cranium of th ‘ savage trihe of Botucudi is figured by Spix * some of which are above named, For the characters of these | in his work on American Q@uudrwnane, Cunier’s Animal Kington. IMAM, HUMAN RACE—ETHIOPIAN, OR NEGRO. Fie. 1.—Hottentot, after Daniels. Fic. 3.—Pertrait of a Negro of the neighbourhood of Timbuctoo. Fie. 2.—A Young Negro of Benguela, to the south of the kmgdom of Angola. Fie. 4.—A Female of the Congo, from the “ Voyage au Brasil’ of Maurice Rugendas. 6 see - > see - > aa os see - > see - > 22587. a *s a ese — Aas — Aas ro a ro ss is Sree Et ss Se ees “@es"s 8 OS OS ees “@es"s 8 ees *@ss ae a tt ee ee ee ee tt ; C°eN tS SNS UE NS UE UNS 6 NS 6 ue OO ae ee ee ee ee ee ee we cee Oe wt cee 4 oe 047 a 766 er or U4 Si Tee Se ee - oo7%.0%: oY (oes is. ov “37%. i: ov Ses is: ore. i: 7v > s.0: 747 bia Se ee Sones wo oe Oe So a oe, OS So sass: see tne) see tne) see tne) see tne) sjeices: see tne) : Pe 4? = * 8 = * 8 = * 8 = * 8 = * 8 = 7 a Ad ed a dl a Pd el od ld ed dl Mo cig «oe *be nes a ve nes a ve nes a ve nes a ve in «ae *- ee eae Hes seat skeet SEL ote lt eachvedsracheslt ashe alssacbeal seahorse: poe Be 7 OO 7 OO 7 ee -a7 owe ? oy o ~ oy o ~ 2 F o ~ oy o ~ oy o ~ - oo 5 coe a Oo ou ° =s0¥ enelet due =oe 5 eeelet seue i Z be 33) Vt - a heh cat ee a ee oe ae — ; —— . oo . — ee . Wasartereateritredenernatgnerestgumcere ed heat cae cae cae cae oe a tie ves” cs, a rs cs, res, rex cs, Fes, rex cs, Fes, rex cs, Fes, a a GsG = 848 O00.0 G16 = 0859 O08 0 GeO = 084 rss 2 ee soe oe foes . Fig. 3 SIMANA. OR MAN. 53 the wild bovine and striped equine animals, &c. &c. The following are the leading varieties of Man, according to the opinion and arguments of Dr. Prichard. “On comparing the principal varieties of form and structure which distinguish the inhabitants of different countries, we find that there are seven classes of nations which may be separated from each other by strongly marked lines. Among their principal characteristics are peculiar forms of the skull, but these are by no means the only difference which require notice and particular description. These seven principal classes are, first, those nations which in the form of their skulls and other physi- cal characters resemble Europeans, including many nations in Asia and somein Africa; secondly, races nearly similar in figure, and in the shape of the head, to the Kalmucks, Mongoles, and Chinese. These two first classes of nations will be designated, for reasons to be explained, Iranian and Turanian nations, in preference to Caucasian and Mongolian. * * * The third class are the native Ame- rican nations, excluding the Esquimaux and some tribes which resemble them more than the majority of inhabitants of the New World. The fourth class comprises only the Hottentot and Bushman race. A fifth class are the Negroes; the sixth, the Papuas, or woolly-haired nations of Polynesia; the seventh, the Alfourou and Australian races. The nations comprised under these departments of man- kind differ so strikingly from each other, that it would be improper to include any two of them in one section, and there is no other division of the human family that is by physical traits so strongly cha- racterized. There are, indeed, some nations that cannot be considered as falling entirely within either of these divisions, but they may be looked upon as approximating to one or another of them.” * The same writer affirms, of the Caucasian race of Cuvier, that “there is no truth in the assertion that the traditions of all these nations deduce their origin from Caucasusf,” and states, of his Indo- Atlantic, or Jranian nations, that “ complexion does not enter among the characters of this type, since it is of all shades, from the white and florid colour of the northern Europeans, to the jet-black of many tribes in Lybia, and southward of Mount Atlas. In many races, as we shall hereafter prove, the type has degenerated. The ancient Celts appear, for example, to have had by no means the same developement of the head as the Greeks, and the Indians display some differences in the configuration of the skull,” &c.t It appears to be conclusively proved that barbarism and insufficient nourishment tend, in a few generations, to deteriorate the physical characters of even the highest races of mankind, by increasing the facial angle, &c.§ ; while the reverse induces proportional improvement. Still there is reason to suspect that the diversities which are thus occasioned are restrained within moderate limits ; and this remarkable fact must be borne in mind (which I believe has not been hitherto stated), that while an artificial mode of life would seem to have produced those acknowledged varieties of species which are noticeable among such of the lower animals as have been domesticated, we observe very dissimilar races of human beings among those whose mannner of living is least artificial of any, and which, further- more, in numerous instances, inhabit the same countries, besides being widely diffused ; thus proving that climate and locality exert less influence than has been imagined. This most difficult subject of inquiry, in fine, is endlessly perplexed, and in several instances rendered quite inextricable, by the occasional blending of two or more diverse races, in every degree of proportion. There are also decisive proofs (afforded by architectural reliques scattered over Siberia and both Americas).of great nations having been utterly exterminated, whose very names have perished: and if civilized, or com- paratively civilized, populous nations have thus become so completely sunk in oblivion, that we infer their former existence only as that of some lost tribes of animals can be recalled, how very many hordes of savages, who erect no memorials, may have been extirpated, and are forgotten irretrievably, Ilence the extreme and apparently insuperable difficulties which, it is probable, will continue to oppose the definitive solution of the intricate and peculiarly interesting problem which we have been considering.] * Vol. i. 246-7. t Id. 259. 1, 262. § Vide id. vol. ii. 349 o4 MAMMALIA. THE SECOND ORDER OF MAMMALIANS. QUADRUMANA. Independently of the anatomical details which distinguish it from Man, and which we have indicated, this family differs from our species in a very obvious character, having the thumbs of the hind feet free and opposable to the other digits, which are as long and flexible as those of the hand: in consequence of this, all the species climb trees with facility, while it is only with pain and difficulty that they can stand and walk upright, their foot then resting on its outer edge only, and their narrow pelvis being unfavourable to an equilibrium. They all have intestines very similar to those of Man*, the eyes directed forward, the mammz on the breast, the penis pendent, the brain with three lobes on each side, the posterior of which covers the cerebellum, and the temporal fossee separated from the orbit by a bony partition. In every thing else, however, they gradually recede from him, in presenting a muzzle more and more the freedom elongated, a tail anda gait more like that of quadrupeds: nevertheless, of their arms, and the complication of their hands, admit of their performing many of the actions of Man, as well as to imitate his gestures. They have long been divided into two genera, the Monkeys and the Lemurs, which, by the multiplication of secondary forms, have now become two small families, between which must be placed a third genus, that of the Ouistitis [or Marmosets], which cannot be referred to either of the others. Tue Monkry-Like ANIMALS (Simia, Linneus). These are all Quadrumana, which have four straight incisors to each jaw, and flat nails to all the extremities,—two characters which approximate them more nearly to Man than the sub- sequent genera. ‘Their molars have also blunt tubercles like ours, and they subsist mainly upon fruits ; but their canmes, being longer than the other teeth, supply them with a weapon which we do not possess, and require a vacant space in the opposite jaw to receive them when the mouth is closed. They may be divided, according to the number of their molars, into two principal sub-genera, which agai subdivide into numerous others. The Monkeys (Singes), properly so called, or those of the ancient continent, [CaTARRHINI, Geof. ],— Have the same number of grinders as Man, but otherwise differ among themselves in the characters which give rise to the following subdivisions. Tus Ourancs (Simia, Brxl., Pithecus, Geof.),— Are the only Apes of the ancient continent which have no callositics on the buttocks; their hyoid bone, liver, and ccecum resemble those of Man. Their nose does not project ; they have no cheek pouches, nor any vestige of a tail. Some of them have arms long enough to reach the ground when standing ; their legs, on the con- trary, are very short. Such are the Ourangs, strictly so called. * Here we must except the genus Semnopithecus, and probably also Colobus—Ep. QUADRUMANA. 55 Tue OuRANG-OUTANG* (Simia satyrus, Lin.) Of all animals, this is reputed to bear the nearest resemblance to Man in the form of its head, the magnitude of its forehead, and volume of brain; but the exaggerated descriptions of some authors respecting this similarity arise partly from the circumstance of only young individuals having been observed, as there is every reason to Delieve that, with age, the muzzle becomes much more prominent [a fact now ascertained]. The body is covered with coarse red hair, the face is bluish, and the hinder thumbs very short compared with the toes. ‘The lips are capable of a singular elongationt, and possess great mobility. Its history has been much confounded with that of the other large Apes, and especially of the Chimpanzee; but, after subjecting it to a rigorous analysis, I have ascertained that it inhabits only the most eastern countries, such as Malacea, Cochin China, and particularly the great island of Borneo, whence it has been sometimes brought by the route of Java, though very rarely. When young, and such as it has been seen in Europe, it is a very mild animal, that is easily rendered tame and attached, and which, by its conformation, is enabled to imitate many of our actions; but its intelligence appears to be lower than has been asserted, not very much surpassing that of the Dog. Camper discovered, and has well dis- cribed, two membranous sacs which communicate with the glottis of this animal, and obstruct its voice; but he is mistaken in supposing that the nails are always absent from the hinder thumbs. There is an ape in Borneo, at present only known by its skeleton, called the Pongo, which so closely resembles the Ourang-outang in all its parts, and by the arrangement of the cavities and sutures of its head, that notwith- standing the great prominence of its muzzle, the smallness of the cranium, and the height of the branches of the lower jaw, we are inclined to consider as an adult, if not of this species of Ourang, at least of another very nearly allied to it. The length of its arms, and of the apophyses of its cervical vertebra, together with the tuberosity of its caleaneum, may enable it to assume the vertical position. It is the largest of known Apes, approaching to the size of Man. [The Pongo has proved to be a second species of Ourang, covered with black, relieved with dark red hair, and which at present is known only to occur in Borneo, where the Red Ourang has not been ascertained to exist. Both attain the same large dimensions, and are distinguished as the Pithecus Wormbii and P. Abelii. They differ somewhat in the configuration of the cranium, and considerably in the profile of the face, as seen in the skull, A third species, also from Borneo, has more recently been determined by Prof. Owen, of which only a singie adult skull has been received; it announces a smaller animal, which has been named P. morio. The adult males of this genus have an immense projecting tuberosity on each cheek.t These Ourangs do not ordinarily assume the upright attitude, to maintain which they are obliged to raise, and throw their long arms backward, in order to preserve a balance ; the outer edges only of their feet are applied to the ground, where they commonly progress by resting on the knuckles, and swinging the body forward between the arms. Their structure is more designed for traversing the forest boughs; and they are said to inhabit the upland forests of the interior of their native countries. The old males are reported to be savage and solitary, and much dreaded by the Alfourou inhabitants of their native region; each appropriating a particular district, into which There is reason to suspect that they are not exclusively vegetable feeders, but subsist it resents intrusion. They are sedentary and inactive animals, possessed of great in part on the eggs and callow young of birds. strength. So excessive is the degradation of the adult from the characters which it exhibits in youth, that our author, in his first edition, arranged the Pongo next to the Baboons, allowing them the precedence. According to M. Geoffroy, “the brain of the young Ourang bears a very close resemblance to that of a child; and the skull, also, might be taken, at an early age, for that of the latter, were it not for the developement of the bones of the face. But it happens, in consequence of its advance in age, that the brain ceases to cularge, while its case continually increases. The latter becomes thickened, but in an unequal degree ; enormous bony ridges appear, and the animalassumes a frightful aspect. When we compare the eflectsof ase in Man and the Ourang, the difference een to be, that in the latter there is a super-developement of the osseous, muscular, and tezumentary systems, It is oniy is more towards the upper part than the lower, while the developement of the brain is entirely arrested.” in the male sex, however, that the cranial ridges appear, the canines, also, of the females being much smaller. M. Geoftroy thus describes the skull cf the Pongo, before its identity as an Ourang had been ascertained :— “what is most remarkable,” he observes, ‘‘is the excessive elongation of the muzzie; and as this con- siderable volume of the muzzle cannot be gained but at the expence of the other adjoining parts, we accord- ingly find that there is scarcely any apparent forehead, that the bony box which coutains the brain is uncommonly small, and that the occipital foramen is situated as far as the posterior part of the head. ‘The immense muzzle, moreover, is remarkable, not only for the enormous thickness of the gums, but also for the extraordinary size of the cauine and incisor teeth with which they are provided; the incisors exceed in magnitude those of a Lion, and the canines do not differ much in dimensions from those of the same animal: the occiput also is elevated at its point, and forms a quadrilateral protuberance, very large and thick, where three bony crests are produced, uot less apparent nor less solid than those of the Lion. Two of Ourang (P. Wormbii), in the menagerie of the Zoological Society, * Ourang is a Malay word, signifying rational being, which is which have continued now for several wonths in a very thriving con- applied to Man, the Ourang-outang, and the Elephant. Qutang hence Ourung-outang. dition, and affurd reasonable grounds for expectation that they will signifies wild, or of the woods: o Noticeable, to a certain extent, in the Houttentot race of man- | live to attain maturity, Most of those previously impurted have been kind —Ep | weak and sickly.—Ep. t There is at present (1838) a young male and female of the Black 56 MAMMALIA. these crests are considerably elevated, and extend laterally to the auricular foramina, Another extends across the vertex, and then assumes a bifurcal form, as in the Lion, above the forehead in two lateral branches, which proceed as far as the external side of the upper edge ef the orbits. These little crests are decisively marked, and form an equilateral triangle with the upper edge of the orbital foramina. The head is formed like the half of a pyramid, and the auricular foramina are placed so considerably aboye the palatine bones, that a line let down from the former to the internal edge of the ossa palatina, would form, with a horizontal line, an angle of twenty-five degrees.” It varies to about thirty degre All the above modifications have immediate reference to the immense size of the canines, which necessitates a proportional developement of the jaws, and the high cranial ridges to furnish attachment to muscles of sufficient power to work them. ‘The Ourangs do not cut their huge permanent teeth until nearly full grown.*] In the other Ourangs, the arms descend only to the knees. They have no forehead, and their cranium retreats immediately from the crest of the eyebrow. The name of Cuimpanzer might be exclusively applied to them. Sim. troglodytes, Lin. [Troglodytes niger of others].—Covered with black or brown hair, scanty in front; [a white marking on the rump]. If the reports of travellers can be relied on, this animal must equal or be superior in size to Man. [The skeleton of an adult female in London is considerably smaller.] It and Congo, lives in troops, constructs huts of branches, arms itself with clubs and stones, and thus repulses Man and Elephants ; pursues and abduets, it is said, negro woment, &c. Naturalists have generally confounded it with the Ourang-outang. In domestication it is very docile, and readily learns to walk, sit, and eat like aman. {It is much more a ground animal than the Ourangs, and runs on its lower extremities without difficulty, holding up the arms. Isof a lively and active disposition. The facial angle of the adult about thirty-five degrees. By the general consent of living naturalists, the Chimpanzee is placed next to Man in the system, preceding the Ourangs, which it exceeds in general approximation to the human form.] inhabits Guinea Trom the foregoing groups are now separated Tue Grapons (Lylobates, Miger),— Which, together with the long arms of the Ourangs, and the receding forehead of the Chimpanzee, possess [all of them] callosities on the buttocks like the true Monkeys; differing, however, from the latter in having no tail or cheek-pouches. All of them inhabit the most eastern part of India, and its archipelago. The Onko Gibbon (Sim. lar, Lin.)—[This name is now by general consent applied to the next spec present one being distinguished asH. Rafflesii, Geof.] Black, with white hairs round the face. (The Lar Gibbon of Linnaeus (7. dar, Geof.)—Black, with white hands and feet, and a white circle round the face. Is identical with H. albimanus, Vig. and Horsf., and probably with JZ. variegatus, Kuhl, which seems to differ only in colour, being brown where the other is black. The Hoolock Gibbon (7. hoolock, Harlan).—Black, marked with white across the forehead. The Coromande! Gibbon UZ. choromandus, Ogilby).—Of a dingy pale brown, with black hair and whiskers. ] The Wou-wou Gibbon (S. agilis, Lin.)—Brown, the circle round the face and lower part of the back fulvous [with also some white around the visage]. The young are of a uniform yellowish white. extreme; it lives in pairs, and its name WWou-wou is d-rived from its ery. The Gray Gibbon (S. /eucisca, Schreb.)—Gray, with dark crown, and white beard and whiskers; the visage black. It lives among the reeds, and climbs up the highest stems of the bamboos, where it balances itself by its long arms. We might separate from the other Gibbons The Siamang (S. syndactyla, RafHes), which has the second and third toes of the hind foot united by a narrow membrane, the whole length of the first phalanx [a character which now and then occurs in some of the others, but in the present species is constant). It is wholly black, with the chin and eyebrows rufous [and the throat bare}; lives in numerous troops, which are conducted by vigilant and courageous chiefs, which, at sunrise and sunset, make the forest resound with frightful cries. Its larynx has a membranous sac connected with it. [All the above are mild and gentle animals in domestication, of extremely delicate constitutions when brought to our climate}. i es, the pale Its agility is The remaining Monkey-like animals of the ancient continent have the liver divided into several * It may be remarked generally, that, with the possession of for- midable canines, Quadrumana cquire a consciousness of their efficacy as weapons, which renders them impatient of that controul, more par- ticularly if based on fe r, to which they had previously been sub- missive. Chastisement then excites their ire rather than affrights them; and if they cannot gratify their rage, they will pine and die. They require, in short, different treatment. An adult male Mandrill, which was long exhibited in London, would perform various feats indicative of intelligence, if bribed to do so by the offer of its tavourite The notion that the species with prominent muzzles are The developement cf brain, in all the Simi, as compared with that of Man, is arrested beverage. therefore less intelligent, requires modification. at a particular stage of advancement; but it does not follow that the growth of the other parts—that is, the developement of the other systems—should cease simultaneously ; on the contrary, this proceeds to a variable extent in different species, and the projection of the muzzle, with its accompaniments, appears to increase in proportion to the stature ultimately attained ; so that the adults of the smaller species are, in this respect, analogous to partially developed speci- mens of the larger, which correspond in disposition until they acquire the strength and armature of which an instinctive knowledge prompts them to re nt affronts, and renders them so highly dangerous to tamper with. The Baboons are even remarkable for penetration and quickne + Very highly improbable. —Ep of apprehension, however short their temper.—Ep. SLs = ZZ ZZ A (cr AE Si . > . y = ee © > > hee ‘ Eons cee > ee ‘ ears ee © > > ee ‘ ears cee > > ee ‘ ears cee > ee ‘ ears ce © L de > st * = * = TOWNS) VS SANT VET SANT SST SNN TD SSP ON NS VRPT ON NS AES SOCCER RRR RECO CORO ee .o# 4 ~ a5. og a5. | ee a5. ee a5. og a5. og a5. og a5. og a5. og a5. ara — —e- Serene Serene Serene Serene Serene Serene Serene Serene cranes . er rr er er re ee ee separ icra ira rece rear ieee rae porch pbc ee boc rrr pe rece ali pln cece en er orc ree Ce ee ee i i ee ea el I TT ee peed dec tac else adic fects De acta lt leaf ti eee elec Neha Pic eet eclectic elec eee Sed net hin teh Ret ah cinta td at he ston Sed et hela ed het hn ela td cet ae th Ret ah ino ld aed che ato Sd et helen be Se ee ee en ee eee ee ee Se ee eee ee ee ed Cae o Cae o Cae o Cae o Cae o Cae o Cae o Cae o Cae - S Se a a a ee ee ee en a ee en ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee oe a es RULRerse CPR eP eee Peer seh e beers lhe re ers eels ers i eleers seers eral ele ers ce Seer ienaie poten areen aie rain pawn ae pen arena einai ern eis enn eee anwar nal pect eclectic acter aetiological eal cece echt el er echt hele nol Popa hbintos each nian chat ahh ntoa ea ath intos eA artah inios eat ahh intoa a ach inode Aat ah inion eet abe nies hc be Ss Sw i Ss SD Sw i sD Sa Sew i sD Sw i sD Sw i SD Sew i nh Sew is ns Sh Sew Bs Ss SD = ee ee re ee ce ae, a a a ee ee re —poeauerse cl pc a pc patie ple ect ac line ope ec a pli pe or eer ali lor cr ala elec tar lenin ar let Darar pian ela leretar reas oe acd ee acd ee acd ee acd ee acd ee acd ee acd ee acd ee a or I 7 ey ey ey ey Cd Cd ey Cd = ioe GENE TESTER NGS KES GENET EES ER SSS KEY GENET ERSER USS EES SENET RSG WSS ERS BEES ex Bea aceasta he aah tection Bay esi as ect henioh Aeon tay Nines pect hee noh tab be SD oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . cre oe ay . naa! ic | Se ne ae ee ee ee eee eee eee ee er es a eee er es re re re er ee el re ee re eee ee eee ee ee ee ee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ld } —poeauerse cl pc a pc patie ple ect ac line ope ec a pli pe or eer ali lor cr ala elec tar lenin ar let Darar pian ela leretar reas Ce ee ee i i ee Seb ebeerstt aeees ote cy ethene ohastuare hla tueed barter avers atresia pclae ail cl Nae fe layla FM aa cl Naa elo aT ep eel cl eae latte Atacand Addins dat bite eed eon Aaah en aaa eet ene eee ent ae Se ee ee en ee eee ee ee Se ne ae ee ee ee eee eee eee ee er es a a ee ee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ld } —poeauerse cl pc a pc patie ple ect ac line ope ec a pli pe or eer ali lor cr ala elec tar lenin ar let Darar pian ela leretar reas Ce ee ee i i ee Cerner hero ner rer eicrie ra her rcrie rote rrrarre ra terre re rater rare rarer rer rereacrrersnnel pect eclectic acter aetiological eal cece echt el er echt hele nol Sed net hin teh Ret ah cinta td at he ston Sed et hela ed het hn ela td cet ae th Ret ah ino ld aed che ato Sd et helen be be Ss Sw i Ss SD Sw i sD Sa Sew i sD Sw i sD Sw i SD Sew i nh Sew is ns Sh Sew Bs Ss SD = ee ee a ee eee ee eee eee cer eee er ee a a da ee eee separ icra ira rece rear ieee rae porch pbc ee boc rrr pe rece ali pln cece en er orc ree Ce ee ee i i ee ea el I TT ee peed dec tac else adic fects De acta lt leaf ti eee elec Neha Pic eet eclectic elec eee Popa hbintos each nian chat ahh ntoa ea ath intos eA artah inios eat ahh intoa a ach inode Aat ah inion eet abe nies hc i Ss a Sew i Sas SD Se Sew i SD Sw i sD Sw i SD Sew i SD Sew i SS Sew is ns Sh Sew Be Ss Sh SDs Seuss oer ee oe oe ee oe ee eee eee QUADRUMANA. 57 lobes; the ccecum thick, short, [except in Semnopithecus, and perhaps Colobus], and without any appendage: the hyoid bone has the form of a shield. Tue Monxeys* (Cercopithecus, Erxl. in part), [G@Guwenons of the French],— Have a moderately prominent muzzle (of sixty degrees); cheek pouches; tail; callosities on the hut- tocks ; the last of the inferior molars with four tubercles like the rest. Very numerous species of them, of various size and colouring, abound in Africa, living in troops, which do much damage to the gardens and cultivated fields. They are easily tamed, [and are lively and active animals. Their hair, unlike that of the preceding groups, is of two kinds, the outer commonly annulated above with two colours, producing a grizzled appearance, which in several imparts a tinge of green. More than twenty species have been ascertained, and doubtless many others remain to be discovered. They vary in the proportional length of the fingers. The larger of them acquire, with their growth, a more projecting muzzle, and are the Cercocebi of some naturalists (a term now falling into disuse): these, in a few instances, manifest an additional relationship to the Baboons, in exhibiting bright colours on the genitals; as exemplified by the Malbrouck Monkey (C. eynosurus), in which the scrotum is vivid ultramarine, and the Vervet (C. pygery- thrus), which has the same part green. Many are prettily variegated, as the Diana Monkey (C. Diana), which has a crescent-shaped white mark on the forehead, and a slender, pointed, white beard; the Mona Monkey (C. mona), &c. One only is of a red colour, the Patas (C. rubra). A few of the more recently discovered of thei may be briefly indicated. Campbell’s Monkey (C. Campbellii, Waterhouse.)—Hair long, and parted on the back, of a grizzled black and yellow colour, nearly uniform blackish grey on the hind parts ; beneath, dingy white; a black line encircling the fore part and sides of the crown of the head. From Sierra Leone. The Bearded Monkey (C. pogonias, Ben.)—Hair very long; greyish, i.e., grizzled black and yellowish white; a spot on each side of the head, another on the crown, and tip of the tail, black; cheeks furnished with an immense tuft of pale hair. Red-eared Monkey (C. erythrotis, Waterh.)—Grey; the tail red, with a dark line along its upper surface ; ears with very long red hairs internally ; throat white ; under parts of the body greyish. From Fernando Po. Next follows a group of smaller species, of mild and confiding disposition; consisting of the Talapoin M. (C. talapoin, Geof., Sim. melarrhina, F. Cuy.), the Moustache M. (S. cephus, Lin.), the Vaulting M. (S. petaurista, Gm.), the Hocheur (S. nictitans, Gm.), &c. A new Monkey appertaining to it is the C. Martini, Waterh.—Of a dark grey, the hairs annulated with yellowish white ; lower portions of limbs, crown of the head, and tail, blackish; hairs near the root of the tail beneath, brown. Inhabits Fernando Po. Several of these smaller kinds are very common in Guinea. Allied to them are the larger green Monkeys; and the series terminates with the Mangabeys, or dusky-coloured white-eyelid Monkeys (C. ethiops, and C. fuliginosus), which display some peculiarities of gait and gesture, and have the most prominent muzzles of any. The following occurs as a note in the original work. ‘“ Pennant has described certain Guenons’’— Doucs rather—“ without thumbst, Sim. polycomos and S. ferruginea, of which Mliger has formed his genus CoLosus, but I have not been able to see them, and for this reason have not introduced them. M. Temminck assures us that the head and teeth resemble those of a Semnopithecus.” This group is now well established, and several species have been added to it; all of them, however, peculiar to Africa, as the members of the last-named genus are to Asia: they differ chiefly from the Doucs in possessing cheek-pouches, having the limbs similarly elongated, and only one sort of hair, as in the Apes. A small rudiment of a thumb exists in some of them. Nine clearly distinct species have been ascertained; and there are probably many others. They resolve into two minor groups; the species composing the first are rather large animals, of a black ground-colour, with very long hair; those of the second division are smaller, with shorter hair, and rufous ground-colour. ‘Their markings readily distinguish them. The Black Colobin (C. satanas, Waterh.)—Quite black, witb very long shaggy hair, obviously designed to pro- tect it from the scorching rays of a vertical sun. This animal is common in Fernando Po, and when captured refuses to take sustenance, pining and moaning constantly and very piteously. Ursine Colobin (C. wrsinus, Ogilby.)—Black, with grey head and white tail. From Sierra Leone. White-thighed Colobin? (C. ? leucomeros, Ogilby.)—Established on some imperfect skins. The thighs white ; head, les, and tail undetermined. From the Gambia. Sim. polycomos, Pennant; termed by him the “ Full-bottomed Monkey.”’—Has a long yellowish-white sort of mane, compared to a full-bottomed wig, and a white tail. Brought from Sierra Leone. C. guereza, Ruppel.—The throat and around the face white; and long flowing white hair on the shoulders and along each side of the body, as if a garment were thrown over it ; end of the tail also white, and largely tufted. From Abyssinia. C. rufoniger, Ogilby.—Black above, deep red beneath; locality unknown. « The word Monkey is a diminutive of Mun.—Ep. + The thumb is very small in the Doucs.—Ep. 58 MAMMALIA. Sim. ferruginea, Pennant ; called by him the “ Bay Monkey.’’—Of a deep bay colour above; checks and under- parts very bright bay. From Sierra Leone. C. Pennantii, Waterh.—Above blackish; beneath dingy yellow; the sides yellowish red, and cheeks white. From Fernando Po, C. Temminckii, Kuhl.—Blackish above; rusty-red beneath and on the cheeks; the sides yellow. Gambia. Is identical with C. obseurus, Ogilby. The skins of these animals are an article of traffic in Western Africa, but are commonly deprived of the head, limbs, and tail. Many Cercopitheci are prepared in the same manner.*] From the Tue Dovcs (Semnopithecus, F. Cuy.)— Differ from the true Monkeys by having an additional small tubercle on the last of the inferior molars. They are the ordinary Monkeys of the East ; and their lengthened limbs and extremely elongated tail [as in Colobus] give them a peculiar air. Their muzzle projects very little more than that of the Gibbons, and, like them, they have callosities on the buttocks; they appear, likewise, to have no cheek-pouches : their larynx is furnished with asac. [The stomach (fig. 3) is singularly complicated, consisting of three divisions ; first, a cardiac pouch, with smooth and simple parietes, slightly bifid at the extremity; secondly, a middle, very wide and sacculated portion; thirdly, a narrow, elongated canal, sacculated at its commencement, and of simple structure towards its termination: their food, accordingly, is supposed to be more herba- ceous than that of other Cafarrhini, which is further intimated by the blunter tubercles of their molars, and the elongation of their intestines and cecum. Their hair is of one kind only, approaching in character to that of Fig. 3. the Gibbons. Their movements are staid aud deliberate, though capable of much agility; and the gravity of their deportment is expressed by their systematic name. Fourt or fifteen species have been determined, of which the most extraordinary is] The Long-nosed or Proboscis Done (Sim. nasica, Schr.; Nasalis larvetus, Geof.) [The S. reewrvus, Vig. and Horsf., is apparently the young.}—It is of large size, and yellowish colour tinted with red; the nose extremely es inhabits Borneo, and lives in at troops, Which long and projecting, in form of a stoping spatula. assemble morning and evening on the branches of the great trees on the banks of the rivers; its cry is Kahau. ated also to occur in Cochin China. The Variegated Doue (S. nemeus, Geot.)—Remarkable for its lively and varied colouring: the body and arms are grey; the hands, thighs, and feet black ; legs of a lively red; the tail, [fore-arm,] and a large triangular spot upon the loins, white; face orange; and there is also a black and red collar, and tufts of yellow hairs on the sides of the head. It inhabits Cochin China, (The genus Lasiopyga of Iliger was founded on a mutilated skin of this animal.) S. entellus, Dufres. [The species most frequently brought alive to Europe.|—Of a light yellowish grey colour, with black hair on the eyebrows and sides of the head, directed forwards. From Upper Bengal, where it is held in superstitious reverence. [Some frequent the Pagodas. Several are black, dusky, or ash-colonred. WS. auratus, Geof., is uniform bright golden yellow, with a black The Simpai (S. melalophus, Cuy.) is of a yery lively red; beneath white: its face is blue; patch on each knee. anda crest of black hairs reaches from one ear to the other. Some have the hair of the head turned wp, forming asort of crest. All are from the islands of the Indian Ocean, and neighbouring regions of Asia.] Tue Macaques (Macacus, Desm.)— Possess, like the Doucs, a fifth tubercle on their last molars, and callosities and cheek-pouches like the true Monkeys. Their limbs are shorter and stouter than in the former; their muzzle is more elongated, and the superciliary ridge more prominent than in either the one or the other. Though docile when young, they become unmanageable with age. They have all a sae which communicates with &) nore complete } The anatomy of this animal is now known to accord with that of «| have availed myself of this opportunity to gi the other Doucy.—En. list of the Colubi than has hitherto been published.— i QUADRUMANA. Oo: the larynx under the thyroid cartilage, and which fills with air when they cry out. Their tail is pendent, and takes no part in their movements ; [it varies in length from a tubercle to longer than the body.] They produce carly, but are not completely adult for four or five years. The period of gesta- tion is seven months ; during the rutting season the external generative organs of the female become excessively distended [as in the Baboons]. Most of them [all] inhabit India [and its Archipelago. At least seven species have been ascertained, the most remarkable of which is] The Maned Macaque or Wanderoo (Sim. Silenus and leonina, Lin.)—Black, with an ash-coloured mane and whitish beard surrounding the head. [Tail moderately long, and slightly tufted.] Inhabits Ceylon. (The Bouneted Macaque (I. sinicus), and the Toque (MM. radiatus), have the hairs on the top of the head dis- posed as radii; these, with the Hare-lipped M. (Af. cynomolgus), have long tails. In the Pig-tailed Macaque (ML. rhesus), this appendage reaches little below the hamstrings: it is shorter, thin, and wrinkled in the Brown Macaque (M. nemestrinus); and in the Black M. (MW. niger, Ben. ; Cynocephalus niger, Desm., and of Cuvier’s last edition), it is reduced to a mere tubercle. The Black Macaque is wholly of that colour, with an erect tuft of hair on the top of its head; its native country Celebes.] Tue Macors (Jnuus, Cuv.) Mere Macaques, which have a small tubercle in place of a tail. [According to this definition, the last-named species should be introduced here: the only known Magot, however, does not well range with the others; its cranium is intermediate to those of the Macaci and Cynocephal’}. The Barbary Magot (Sim. sylvanus, pithecus, and inuus, Lin.)—Completely covered with greenish-brown hair. Of all the tribe, this suffers least in our climates. Originally from Barbary, it is said to have become naturalized on the Rock of Gibraltar.* [This well-known species, in its wild state, is both lively and remarkably intelligent at all ages; but, subjected to the restraint of captivity, becomes sullen and unmanageable as it grows up ; forcibly illustrating what has been stated in a note to the Ourangs.] Tue Bazoons (Cynocephalus, Cuv.),— Together with the teeth, cheek-pouches, and callosities of the preceding, have an elongated muzzle abruptly truncate at the end, where the nostrils are pierced, which gives it a greater resemblance to that of a Dog than of other Monkeys ; their tail varies in length. They are generally large, ferocious, aud dangerous animals, of which the majority [all of them] inhabit Africa. (Some have the tail long and tufted, as the Gelada Baboon (Macacus gelada of Ruppell).—This has the upper parts covered with very long hair, of a pale brown on the head, shoulders, and rump, blackish on the back; a dark medial line extends backwards from the forehead ; the extremities are black. A native of Abyssinia. The others have the hair grizzled or annulated. Such are the Tartarin Baboon (Sim. hamadryas, Lin.), of a slightly bluish ash-colour (grizzled black and white); face flesh-coloured: inhabits Arabia and Ethiopia. The Chacma B. (Sim. porcaria, Boda. ; S. wrsina, Penn; S. sphyngiola, Herm.), which is black, with a yellowish or greenish glaze, particularly on the forehead; the face and hands black, and the adult hasa large mane. From the Cape of Good Hope. The Anubis B. (C. anubis, F. Cuv.), is another huge Cape species, uniformly grizzled black and yellow; the face black, and snout much elongated. The Sphynx B. (Sin. sphynv, Lin., and it would appear from descriptions, also, C. papio, Desm.), is likewise yellowish, more or less tinged with brown; face black; the cheek-tufts fulvous: inhabits Guinea. Lastly, the Babouin (Sim. eynocephalus, F. Cuy.), has a shorter tail, and coat more inclining to greenish; also whitish cheek-tufts, and flesh-coloured visage. ] Tue ManpriLis— Are, of all the Monkey tribe, those which have the longest muzzle (thirty degrees +) ; their tail is very short; they are also extremely brutal and ferocious ; nose as in the others. The Mandrill Baboon (Sim. maimon and mormon, Lin.)—Greyish brown, inclining to olive above; a small citron-yellow beard on the chin; cheeks blue and furrowed. The adult males have the nose red, particularly at the end, where it is scarlet; the genital parts and those about the anus, are of the same colour; the buttocks are of a fine violet. It is difficult to imagine a more hideous and extraordinary animal. 1t nearly attains the size of a Man, and is a terror to the negroes of Guinea. Many details of its history have been mixed up with that of the Chimpanzee, and consequently with that of the Ourang-outang. The Drill (Sim. leucophoa, F. Cuv.)—Yellowish grey, the visage black; in old ones the coat becomes darker ; [the white hairs on the belly are much elongated], and the chin is bright red. (Hideous as the animals of this genus appear, and disgustingly deformed to those who have only seen them in captivity, their adaptation to a peculiar mode of life is of course: as exquisite as that of any other animal, and requires only to be understood to command an amount of admiration, which must lessen to a conaiderable * Pithecus is the Greek name for Monkeys in general; und the one , species, all that Galen has stated respectins the anatomy of his got, although | Pithecus. of which the anatomy is given by Galen was a XM Camper thought it was an Ourang-outang, M de Blainville perceived | + The Ourangs will bear cumparison.—E p. this mistake, und t have proved it by comparing with these two | extent the abhorrence with which we are apt to regard them. It has lately been discovered that they chiefly inhabit barren stony places, where they » which they employ their hands to lift up the numerous loose stones, under most of which one or more of these creatures commonly | lie concealed; their stings they extract with dexterity. Accordingly, we find that the Baboons are expressly | | modified for traversing the ground on all-fours, and are furnished with efficient hands; their eyes are peculiarly | placed, directed downwards along the visage. Want of space necessarily prevents us, generally, from noticing | these highly interesting relations, afforded by the special modifications of structure in reference to habit: but we avail ourselves of the present instance (which is little known*) to call attention to them. | | 60 MAMMALIA. | subsist, for the most part, upon scorpions ; to procur | With the Baboons, the series of CararruIni (Geof.) terminates; and we may observe that the Simiade fall under three principal divisions. First, that of the Apes, (comprising the Chimpanzee, Ourangs, and Gibbons), tail-less genera, which have the liver divided as in Man, an appendage to the cecum, &e. Second, the slender-limbed Monkeys, with sacculated stomachs and longer | intestines (or the Doucs, and most probably the Colobins), all of which have exceedingly long tails. Third, those with shorter and stouter limbs, a simple stomach, and tail varying in length from a tubercle to longer than the body. These last (or the true Monkeys, Macaques, Magots, and Baboons), are all partly insectivorous ; and the habit mentioned of the Baboons, of turning over stones in quest of prey, applies perhaps more or less to all of them, but particularly to the Magot and some Monkeys. In the two first divisions, the coat consists of only one sort of hair; in the last of two sorts, the longer and coarser of which is mostly annulated with two colours. It is remarkable that none of the genera are common to Asia and Africa (one Baboon only extending to Arabia), and, until | very recently, no remains of any had occurred in a fossil state; but the jaw of one said to be allied to the Gibbons has lately been detected in a tertiary deposit, at Sanson, France ; and some bones, adjudged to be those of Macaques, in the tertiary ranges of northern India.] Tue MoNKEY-LIKE ANIMALS OF THE New Wor tp, [PLatyrruinti, Geof.],— | Have four grinders more than the others, thirty-six in all; the tail [with very few excep- | tions] long; no cheek-pouches; the buttocks hairy and without callosities ; nostrils opening | on the sides of the nose, and not underneath ; [the thumbs of the anterior hands no longer opposablef.] All the great Quadrumana of America pertain to this division.{ Their large in- testines are less inflated, and their coecum longer aud more slender than in the preceding | divisions. | The tails of some of them are prehensile, that is to say, their extremity can twist roumda | body with sufficient force to seize it as with a hand.§ Such have been designated Sarasous (Cebus, Erxl.) | | At the head may be placed the Srentors (Mycetes, Uliger),— | Or Howling Monkeys [Alouaties of the French], which are distinguished by a pyramidal head, the | upper jaw of which descends much below the cranium, while the branches of the lower one ascend very high, for the purpose of lodging a bony drum, formed by a vesicular inflation of the hyoid bone, | which communicates with their larynx, and imparts to their voice prodigious volume and a most frightful sound. Hence the appellations which have been bestowed on them. The prehensile portion | of their tail is naked beneath. | (The Rufous Stentor (Sim. seniculus, Bufl., Supp. vii. 25), the Ursine Stentor (S/entor ursinus, Geoff.), and at least five other species, are now tolerably established. They are shaggy animals, averaging the size ofa Fox, of different shades of brown or blackish, the females of some being differently coloured from the males; such is M. barbatus, Spix, pl. 32, of which the male is black and bearded, the female and young pale yellowish-grey. || | They are of an indolent and social disposition, and grave deportment; utter their hideous yells and howling by | night ; subsist on fruits and foliage, and are deemed good eating.] « For the information communicated, we are indebted to Dr. A. § This organ possessing in an eminent degree the sense of touch, I | Smith, the conductor of the South Africun expedition from the Cape | where the character is most developed —Ep. | | colony.—Ep. || Cuvier accordingly suygests, inadvertently, that the M. straminens | + They are but slightly so in many of the Simizde.—Ep. Spix, pl. 31, which is entirely of a straw-yellow colour, may be the t By this is meant, that the Marmosets and Ta ins (Ouistitis of | female of some other; Spix, however, figures a male.—Ep. | our author) are excluded. from the generalization.—Ep. | QUADRUMANA. 61 The Orpinary Sarasous have the head flat, the muzzle but slightly prominent (sixty degrees). In some the anterior thumbs are nearly or quite hidden in the skin, and the prehensile portion of the tail naked beneath. They constitute the genus Coaira (Ateles, Geof.),— {Or the Spider Monkeys, as they are commonly termed, in allusion to their long slender limbs, and sprawling movements. ] The first species, the Chamek (4. subpentadactylus, Geof.), has a slight projection of the thumb, though only for one phalanx, which has no nail. Another, the Mikiri (At. hypowanthus, Pr. Max.; Brachyteles macrotarsus, Spix), has also a very small thumb, and sometimes even a nail. These two species are separated by Spix under the name Brachyteles. They connect Afeles with Lagothrix.* The others, to which alone Spix applies the name Afeles, have no apparent thumb whatever. [Six have been ascertained ; one of them the Sim. paniscus, Lin.] All the above are natives of Guiana and Brazil. Their limbs are very long and slender, and their gait slow and deliberate. They exhibit some remarkabie resemblances to Man in their muscles, and, of all animals, alone have the biceps of the thigh made like his. [Accordingly, they make little use of their fore-hands in progression. Their colours are chiefly or wholly black, or fulvous-grey; face black, or flesh-coloured. They are gentle and confiding, and capable of much attachment. Some attain to as large a stature as the preceding. ] Tue GastromarGuss (Lagothrix, Geof. ; Gastromargas, Spix). Head round, as in the Coaitas ; the thumb developed, as in the Stentors; and tail partly naked, like the one and the other. Such are— The Caparo, Humb. (L. Humbolatii, Geof.; G. olivaceus, Spix), and the Grison (L. canus, Geof.; G. infumatus, Spix.)—Inhabitants of the interior of South America, said to be remarkable gluttons. Their limbs are shorter and stouter than in the Coaitas, and they often raise themselves on their hinder extremities : occur in numerous bands. The other Sapajous, or Tue Capucuins (Cebus, Geof.)— Have a round head, the thumbs distinct, and the tail entirely hairy, though prehensile. The species are still more numerous than those of the Stentors, and almost as difficult to characterize. Some have the hair upon the forehead of a uniform length; as the Sajou (Sim. apella, Lin.), aud the Capuchin, [Auct.] (S. capucina, Lin.): others have the hair of the forehead so disposed as to form aigrettes; as the Horned Capuchin (Sim. fatuellus, Gm., which has a tuft of black hairs on each side of the forehead), the C. cirrhifer, Geof., and the Cebus of the same name of Pr. Max., but which is different—C. eristaius, F. Cuy. There are nu- merous others; but we require many observations, made in the places where these animals inhabit, before we can hope to establish their species otherwise than in an arbitrary manner. [About sixteen are commonly admitted, most of which are of different shades of brown, some very variable. They are of smaller size than the preceding, aud of mild and gentle disposition ; their motions are quick and light, and they are easily tamed. Several exhale a strong odour of musk. | In the Sarminrf, the tail is depressed, and almost ceases to be prehensile; the head is very much flattened; in the interorbital partition of the cranium there is a membranous space. Only one species is known,— The Saimiri (Sim. sciurea, Bulf. xv. 19.)—Size of a Squirrel; of a yellowish grey ; the fore-arms, legs, and the four extremities, of a falvous-yellow; end of the nose black. [A pretty, vivacious little animal, which subsists much on insects, and is also carnivorous. Its tail is sub-prehensile, or capable of coiling slightly throughout its length, and so holding in a moderate degree; but its extremity cannot seize a small object: it is often wound round the body.] The remaining Monkey-like animals of America have the tail not at all prehensile.t Several have that appendage very long and tufted, whence they have been termed Fow-tailed Monkeys: their teeth project forwards more than in the others. hey are Tue Sakis (Pithecia, Desm. and Ilhg.),— [Which are again divisible into three minor groups. Of these, the first is represented by the Yarke Saki (Sim. Pithecia, Lin., P. leucocephala), and three or four others : singular-looking animals, with extremely long hair, except on the head, where, in most of the genus, it is parted. In the Yarke, the head is whitish, and all the other parts brown-black, which adds to the stranzeness of its appearance. The Jacket Saki (Sim. sagulata, Traill), illustrates * The iatter may do so, but certainly not the former, which is in + confusion if applied to the latter exclusively. We would suggest, all other respects a characteristic 4teles.—Kp. therefore, the appellation Samiris, turmed out of the vertimeular.—Ep, f Sagoinus (or, what would be preferable, Sygunus,) of some. This name, however, originally proposed by Lacepcde for the Sagouins, | gouins.—Ep. (Callithria’), among which the Saimiri was included, can only lead to t [t nas a propensity to curl in the Marmosets, if not in the Sa 62 MAMMALIA. the next group, which chiefly differs from the third (Brachyurus, Spix), in possessing a long tail: the hair is comparatively short, and in the Jacket Saki of a rich dark brown, except on the head, where it is longer, erisped, and deep black, as is also its fine bushy beard. Others would appear intermediate, as the P. safanas, Humb. : seemingly allied to which is the Brachyurus israclitus of Spix, and the diminutive P. melanocephala of Humboldt.* These last are represented as mainly frugivorous, and the first to be great destroyers both of wild bees and their They are said to inhabit the very depth of the forest, and to repose during mid-day ; are moderately honey. social, and crepuscular if not nocturnal in their time of action.} There are also some, Tue Sacourns (Callithrix, Geof.),— The tail of which is slender, and the teeth do not project. They were a long time associated with the Saimiri, but the head of the Sagouins is much higher, and their canines considerably shorter. Such are The Masked Sagouin (C. personata, Geof.), the Widow Sagouin (C. dugens, Humb.), [and several other: which have been ascertained to live in pairs, while others, (as the C. melanochir, Pr. Max.), assemble in numerous They are yery carnivorous, though small, and some of bands, and make a loud and unpleasant yelping about sunrise. spring to a considerable distance on birds and other prey, for which they lie in wait ; are also dexterous in seizing flying insects with the hand They have none of the sprightliness of the Saimiri.] Tae Dovrovcovyi (Nocthorus, F. Cuy.; Nyctipithecus, Spix: improperly named ofus by Mliger),— Only differ from the Sagouins by their great nocturnal eyes, and in their ears being partly hidden under the hair. (Three species are now known, of somewhat Lemur-like appearance, but still having no particular relation- ship with the Lemurs. They are almost lethargic by day, which they pass in the darkest recesses of the hollows of trees; but at night are all energy and activity, and subsist on small birds and insects, as well as fruit: they drink little, and appear to live in pairs.] All the foregoing animals are from Guiana or Brazil. Tue Ovistiris (Hapale, Mliger),— Constitute a small genus, similar to the Sakis, and which was long confounded in the great genus Simia. They have, in fact, hke the American Monkey-lke animals in general, the head round, visage flat, nostrils lateral, the buttocks hairy, no check-pouches; and, like the latter divisions of them in particular, the tail not prehensile: but they have only twenty grinders, like those of the old continent. AJ their nails are compressed and pointed, exeept those of the hinder thumbs [a character to which the immediately preceding divisions approx- imate], and their anterior thumbs ‘are so little separated from the other digits, that we hesi- tate to apply the name Quadrumana to them. All are diminutive animals of pleasing forms, and are easily tamed. [Their brain is surprisingly low, almost without convolutions. | M. Geoffroy distinguishes the Ouiséi/is, properly so called, by the name Jacchus. They are the y 5 property » DY J Marmosets (//apale, as restricted ),— Which, for characters, haye the inferior incisors pointed, and placed in a curved line, equalling the canines. Their tail is annulated, and well covered with hair; and their ears are generally tufted. [Seven or eight species are tolerably established, some of which are subject to vary. These pretty little creatures e indeed rapacious, and in confinement will eagerly seize and are gregarious, and very indiscriminate feeders ; ¢ prey on gold fishes, &c. They produce two or three young at a birth.] M. Geoffroy designates as Tamarins (Midas),— Those species which have inferior trenchant incisors placed in an almost straight line, and shorter than the canines. Their tail is also more slender, and not annulated. {These differ more than the others, and are also somewhat variable in colour. At least seven or eight have been ascertained, of which the Pinche (Sim, wdipus, Lin), is the longest Known. ‘Those curious little beings, the Silky Tamarin (MW. rosalia), and the Leoncito, or Lion Monkey of Humboldt (MW. leoninus), fall under this division, * tis probable that all but the members of the first should range in the division Brachyurus, Spix, (provided this be separable,) which name is consequently ill-chosen.—Ep, QUADRUMANA. 63 Allare restlessly active, and extremely rapid in their movements; also remarkably short-tempered, bristling with fury when enraged, and putting on a most formidable appearance, considering their size. They are so cleanly, that any appearance of dirt about their habitations causes them to fret; and are exceedingly sensitive of damp: but, if duly attended to, are easily kept in captivity. The Praryrruint were very properly ranged by Buffon in two great natural divisions, named by him Sapagous and Sagourns; to the latter of which the Ouis/itis are strictly referable, to judge from the aggregate of their contormation. We cannot but think that Cavier has, in this rare instance, attached undue importance to the number of molar teeth, in so decidedly separating the Ouisti¢is from the other small American Quadrumana.] Tue Lemurs, (Lemur, Linn.), [STREPSIRRHINI, Geof. |,— Comprehend, accoramg to Linneus, all the Quadrumana which have [supposed] incisors in either jaw differing in number from four, or at least otherwise directed than in the Monkeys. This negative character could not fail to em- brace very different beings, while it did not unite those whicu should range to- gether. M. Geoffroy has established several better characterized divisions in th’s genus. The four thumbs of these aannals are well developed and oppos- able. and the first bind finger is armed with a raised and pointed claw (fig. 4), all the other nails beig flat. Their cover- ing is woolly; and their teeth begin to exhibit sharp tubercles, catching in each other, as in the Insectivora. [These animals have been described to differ from all other Mammalia in the cireum- stance of their upper canies locking NES ejeaa ces ata ee outside or before the lower: but we have just discovered that their true inferior canmes have always hitherto been mistaken for ad- ditional incisors, which they resemble in general aspect and direction; while the succeeding tooth, which from its size and appearance has been supposed to be the lower canine, 1s in reality the first false molar ; (as will readily appear on opposing the successive teeth of both jaws). In the genus Tarsius, however, the true canine assumes more of its ordinary form ; and the same is observable of the first false molar in Microcebus.* The grinding motion of the lower Jaw is exceedingly reduced. ] Tue Lemurs, properly so called (Lemur, as restricted [Prosemia, Briss.]),— Have six [four] lower incisors, compressed, and slanting forwards [as are also the canines]; four in the upper jaw, which are straight, those intermediate being separated from each other; trenchant [upper] canines; six molars on each side above, and six below}; the ears small. They are very nimble animals, and have been designated Foa-nosed Monkeys, from their pointed heads. They subsist on fruits. Their species are very numerous, and inhabit only the island of Madagascar, where they appear to replace the Monkey-tribe, which, it is said, do not exist there. They differ but slightly among themselves, except in colour. (Thirteen, at least, have been ascertained definitively ; one of the longest known of which is the Macaco of Buffon, or the Ring-tailed Lemar (L. catia, Lin.), which is ash-grey, the tail annulated black and white. Others are black, or rufous, with sometimes white; and one beautiful species, the Rutfed Lemur (LZ. macaco, Lin.), is * An approach to this deviation on the part of the inferior canine is + The latter statement chances to be correct, but, as intended poticeabie in the adult Mandrill.—Ep, would have been erroneous —Eb. TALIA. varied with large patches of black on a pure white ground. They average the size of a large Cat, but have longer limbs; and have all long tails, which are elevated in a sigmoid form, when in motion, and not trailed after them. They are nocturnal or twilight animals, which sleep by day in a ball-like figure, perched on a bough; are gentle in disposition, and easily tamed; but have much less intelligence than the Monkeys, and are without the prying, mischievous propensities of those animals: their ordinary voice is a low grunt, but they often break forth into a hoarse abrupt roar, producing a startling effect ; in their native forests they frequently thus roar in concert.] Tur Inprts (Lichanotus, Mliger)— Haye teeth as in the preceding, except that there are only four [two] lower incisors [the central pro- bably soon falling. Their hinder limbs are extremely long; the head broad, muzzle short, and hands | long.] But one species is known, without tail [this appendage being reduced to a tubercle], three feet in height, black, with the face grey, and white behind (Lemur indri, Lin., Indris brevicaudatus, Geof.), which the inhabitants of Madagascar tame, and train to the chace like a Dog. The Long-tailed Indri (Lemur laniger, Gm.) needs | further examination. | (The latter appears to be very intimately allied to a species, with a naked face, named Propithecus diadema | by Bennett, (Alacromerus typicus, Smith,) the systematic characters of which seem hardly to warrant its separa- | tion from the Indris. Both are natives of Madagascar, and it is doubtful whether the present genus should not | precede the last. The Short-tailed Indri is the most human-like of its tribe. | | | Tue Macavcos (Microcebus, Geot., Galagoides, Smith) — Have the head round; muzzle short and pointed; ears moderate and erect ; the fore-limbs small: four incisors above, the central larger; also four below, with similar projecting canines, as in Lemur; the upper canines are small and pointed; and the first inferior false molar is scarcely larger than the next: the cheek-teeth indicate a partly insectivorous regimen. Their scrotum is disproportionately large. Two small species are known: the Murine Macauco (Lemur murinus, Pen.), which is Bulfon’s Rat of Madagascar ; and the Brown Macauco (Jf. pusillus, Geof. ; also Galago madagascariensis, Geof., G. demidaffii, Fischer, and Ololicnus madagascariensis, Schinz). The Lemur cinereus, Geof. and Desm, (Petit Maki, Butf.), may perhaps con- stitute a third. These little animals have much the aspect, and also the manners, of a large Dormouse, which they further resemble in nestling in the holes of trees, which serve them fora dormitory: during day they sleep rolled up in a ball, and only rouse from their torpor on the approach of twilight, but are then extremely agile and lively. Of their habits in a state of nature we know Little, except that they are arboreal.] Tue Loris (Stenops, INiger)— Ilave the teeth of the Lemurs, except that the points of their grinders are more acute ; the short muzzle of a mastiff; body slender; no tail; Jarge approximating eyes; the tongue rough. They subsist on insects, occasionally on small birds or quadrupeds, and have an excessively slow gait: their mode of life is nocturnal. Sir A. Carlisle has found that the base of the arteries of the limbs is divided into small branches, [anastomosing freely with each other,] as in the true Sloths, [the object of which | appears to be to enable them to sustain a Jong continuance of muscular contraction. The same cha- racter occurs, however, in the Cefacea]. | Only two species are known, both from the East Indies; the Short-limbed Loris (Lemur tardigradus, Lin.), | and the Slender Loris (L. gracilis): the former has been made a separate genus of by Geoffroy, who styles it Nycticebus ; but he is wrong in asserting that it has only two incisors in the upper jaw: the latter is remarkable for the disproportionate elongation of its limbs, and especially of its fore-arms. [These most singular animals are eminently nocturnal and arboreal, being incommoded by daylight; they are also very susceptible of cold, which makes them dull andinanimate. During the day, they sleep clinging to a branch, with the body drawn together, and head sunk upon the chest; at night they prowl among the forest boughs in quest of food. Nothing can escape the scrutiny of their Jarge glaring orbs : they mark their victim, insect or bird, and cautiously and noiselessly make their advances towards it, until it is within the reach of their grasp; they then devour it on | the spot, previously divesting it, if a bird, of its feathers. When rousing from their diurnal slumbers, they delight to clean and lick their full soft fur; and in captivity will then allow themselves to be caressed by those accustomed to feed them: they are remarkable for extreme tenacity of grasp. Tue Porros (Perodicticus, Bennett)— lave comparatively small eyes ; the ears moderate and open: dentition approaching that of the Lemurs ; tail moderate ; limbs equal ; the index finger of the anterior hands (fig. 4) little more than rudimentary. | SS Sa) QUADRUMANA. 65 Geoffroy’s Potto (Lemur potto, Lin.; Galago Gruniensis, Desm.; P. Geoffroyi, Ben.)}—From Sierra Leone; a slow-moving and retiring animal, which seldom makes its appearance but in the night-time, and feeds on vegetables, chiefly the Cassada.] Taz Garacos (Ofolicnus, Mig.)— Mave the tecth and insectivorous regimen of the Loris; the tarsi elongated, which gives to their hinder limbs a dispro- portionate extent ; tail long and tufted ; large membranous ears {which double down when at rest, as in some Bats]; and great eyes, which indicate a nocturnal life. [The index, as well as the thumb of the anterior hand, inclines in some to be op- posable to the other fingers.] Wyo Several species are known, all from Africa; as the Great Galago (Galago crassicaudatus, Geot.), as large asa Rabbit ; and the Senegal Galago (G. Senegalensis, Geof.), the size of a Rat. The latter is known as the Gum animal of Senegal, from its feeding much on that production. [These pretty animals have at night all the activity of birds, hopping from bough to bough, on their hind limbs only. They watch the insects flitting among the leaves, listen to the fluttering of the moth as it darts through the air, Jie in wait for it, and spring with the rapidity of an arrow, seldom missing their prize, which is caught by the hands. They make nests in the branches of trees, and cover a bed with grass and leaves for their little ones : are a favourite article of food in Senegal. A species larger than the others has lately been received alive, O. Garnottii of Ogilby.] Fig. 5.—Hand of Potto. Tus Maumags (Tarsius)— Have the tarsi elongated (fig. 6), and all the other details of form as in the preceding ; but the interval between their molars and incisors is occupied by several shorter teeth [that is, their upper canines are very small; and] the middle upper incisors are elongated, and re- semble canines. [There are but two permanent lower incisors, and the inferior canines present more of the ordinary form and direction.] Their muzzle is very short, and their eyes still larger than in any of the fore- going. [Tail very long, and almost naked.] Are also nocturnal ani- mals, and insectivorous ; inhabiting the Molluccas. [Two species are known, 7. spectrum, Geof., (Lemur tarsius, Shaw; T. fusco- manus, Fischer,) and the 7. bancanus of Horsfield. It is observed by Geoflroy that although the Malmags have the external ears much less developed than in the Galagos, this inferiority is counterbalanced by the far greater volume of the auditory budie of the temporal bones, which are so developed as to touch each other; and thus the sense of hearing is, by another mode, rendered as acute in the former as in the latter. The Malmag has an aversion to light, and retires by day under the roots of trees; feeds chiefly on lizards, and leaps about two feet at a spring; is easily tamed, and capable of some attachment ; holds its prey in its fore-hands, while it rests on its haunches; produces one young at a birth, and lives in pairs.] Travellers should search for certain animals figured by Commerson, and which Geoffroy has engraved (dun. Mus. xix. 10), under the name of Fig. 6.—Foot of the Malmag. CuerroGAes (Cheirogaleus). These figures seem to announce a new genus or subgenus of Quadrumana. [Three species are re- presented in Commerson’s drawing, all of which appear to be now authenticated by specimens. Their proportions are those of the Galagos; dentition as in the Malmags, except that they retain all their inferior incisors ; the head is round, the nose and muzzle short, lips furnished with whiskers, the eyes large and approximate, and the ears short and oval ; the nails of the four extremities are compressed and somewhat claw-like, and the tail is long, bushy, and regularly cylindrical. Three or more species are known, all from the great island of Madagascar. They constitute the division Lichanos of Gray. The singular genus Cheiromys, also, from the same peculiar locality, which is arranged by the author among the Rodentia, would appear to have much better claim to be introduced here, and near F 66 MAMMALIA. to the Galagos. Likewise, Galeopithecus, which Cuvier has placed after the Bats, but wnich is Lemurine in all the essential details of its conformation.*] THE THIRD ORDER OF MAMMALIANS,— CARNARIA t,— Consists of an immense and varied assemblage of unguiculated quadrupeds, which pos- sess, In common with Man and the Quadrumana, the three sorts of teeth, but have no They all subsist on animal food, [some Bats ex- Such as opposable thumb to the fore-feet.t cepted,] and the more exclusively so, as their grinders are more cutting. have them wholly or in part tuberculous, take more or less vegetable nourishment, and The articulation of their lower jaw, directed crosswise, and clasping like a hinge, allows of those in which they are studded with conical points live principally upon insects. no lateral motion, but can only open and shut: [the latter, however, had already been nearly lost in the Lemurs. ] Their brain, though still tolerably convoluted, has no third lobe, and does not cover the cerebellum, any more than in the following families; the orbit is not separated from the temporal fossa in the skeleton§; the skull is narrowed, and the zygomatic arches widened and raised, in order to give more strength and volume to the muscles of the jaws. Their predominant sense is that of smell, and the pituitary membrane The fore-arm is still capable of re- The intestines [save in the frugivorous Bats] are less voluminous, on account of the sub- is generally spread over numerous bony laminz. volving in nearly all of them, though with less facility than in the Quadrumana. stantial nature of the aliment, and to avoid the putrefaction which flesh would undergo in a more extended canal: [besides which, the requisite nutriment is more readily ex- tracted from it. ] As regards the rest, their forms and the details of their organization vary consider- ably, and occasion analogous differences in their habits||, insomuch that it is impossible to arrange their genera in a single line; and we are obliged to form them into several families, which are variously connected by multiplied relations. * Here, at the end of the Quadrumana, may be appended some in- , character of wanting a thumb, only, will not constitute a Culobus. formation, which unfortunately arrived too late for insertion under | —Ep. the generic heads Cercopithecus and Colobus. Lt has just been ascertained, by Mr. Martin, that the ManGaneys (Cercopithecus ethiops and fuliginosus, Auct.) possess the additional tubercle on the last molar, found in the Macaques, Doucs, &c.; name Cercocebus may now be continued to them ex- a definite subordinate group, more nearly related to the true Monkeys than to the Macaques, notwithstanding the structural character adverted to. Their hair, it may be remarked, is not grizzled or annulated, as in both the Macaques and Monkeys. Of the genus Colobus, a perfect skin of C. leneomeros, Ogilby, has been received in Paris, which securely establishes that species. The face is encircled with white hair, very long on the sides; and the tail also is white, as in C. ursinus. Finally, a notice and figure have been just published of a species designated Colobus verus, but which appears to me, both from its con- mulated), to be The negative tour aud the description (which states its hair to be « a thumbless Cercopithecus, allied to C, Cumpbellii, + Written Carnassiers by Cuvier—Ep. t In one genus of Cheiroptera (Dysopes), the binder thumbs of some of the species incline to be opposable; while the last trace of this character in the anterior limbs, would seem to be the freedom of the thumb in the Bats generally, their fingers being all connected by membrane.—E. § At not generally: but itis commonly so in the Mangoustes (Herpestes), and allied genus Cynictis; also in the Felis pluniceps : it is nearly so in the frugivorous Cheiroptera, and, it would seem, in Laphozous among the insectivorous Bats.—Ep. | This is a favourite mode of expression of our author; but we have reason rather to transpose the sequency, or, in other words, to regard the habit as necessitating the particular modifications of struc- ture. powers multiplication, Thus, on consideration, it will appear, that the productive of nature ever exceeding the actual demand for such species have been endowed with to aid as species upon the necessary orgavization successive checks upon CARNARIA. 67 THE FIRST FAMILY OF CARNARIA,— CHEIROPTERA,— Preserves some affinities with the Quadrumana by the pendulous penis*, and mamme which are placed on the breast. Their distinctive character consists in a fold of the skin, which, commencing at the sides of the neck, extends between their four feet and their fingers, sustams them in the air, and even enables such of them to fly as have the hands sufficiently developed for that purpose.t This disposition required strong clavicles, and large scapulars, to impart the requisite solidity to the shoulder; but it was incompatible with the rotation of the fore- arm, which would have diminished the force of the stroke necessary for flight. These animals have all four large canines, but the number of their incisors varies. They have long been distributed into two genera, according to the extent of their organs of flight { [sustaining membrane]; but the first requires numerous subdivisions. Tue Bats (Vespertilio, Lin.)— Have the arms, fore-arms, and fingers excessively elongated, so as to form, with the membrane that occupies their intervals, real wings, the surface of which is equally or more extended than in those of Birds. Hence they fly very high, and with great rapidity. Their pectoral muscles have a thickness pro- portioned to the movements which they have to execute, and the sternum possesses a medial ridge to afford attachinent to them, asin Birds. The thumb is short, and fur- nished with a crooked nail, by which these animals creep and suspend themselves. Their hinder parts are [generally ] weak, and divided into five toes, nearly always of equal length, and armed with trenchant and sharp nails. They have no ccecum to the intestine. Their eyes [except in the frugivorous species] are extremely small, but their ears are often very large, ara] constitute with the wings an enor- mous extent of membrane, almost naked, and so sensible that the Bats guide themselves through all the intricacies of their labyrinths, even after their eyes have been removed, pro- Fig. 7.—Skeleton of Bat, bably by the sole diversity of aérial impres- sions.§ They are nocturnal animals, which, in our climates, pass the winter in a torpid state. During the day they suspend themselves in superfluity, it being clear, speaking generally, that the consumed | other sources. Hence, therefore, the organization should be con must have pre-existed to the consumer; or, to embody the proposi- | sidered as having reference to, rather than as ovcasioning the par- tion in still more general terms, the conditions must have been first | ticuiar habit.—Eb. present, in especial reference to which any species has been or- *« This organ, however, as in the Curnivora, cor tains a bone (though ganized : in conformity with which theorem, it may be remarked, that, | only within the glans,) with its accompanying pair of museles.—Ep. however reciprocal, on a superficial view, may appear the relations of + This character applies to all, with the exception of the Colago the preyer and the prey, a little reflection on the observed facts | (Galevpithecus), a geuus which has Little claim to range in this divi- suffices to intimate that the relative adaptations of the former only | sion.—Ep. are special, those of the latter being comparatively vague and general ; t This term is inapplicable to the paruchute membrane of the indicating that there having been a superabundance which might | Colugo.—Epb. serve as nutriment, in the first instance, and which, in many cases, § L have reason to suspect that the delicate tact alluded to resides was unattainable by ordinary means, particular species have therefore | principally in the fecial membrane, present in only some genera. A been so organized (that is to say, modified upon some more or less specimen of Vesp. Nattereri, which 1 have just been observing, (in sof the supply; , which restricted genus there is no developement of membrane on the general ‘ype or plan of structure,) to avail themsel ily prevent them — face,) has which special adaptation, however, does rot necess verai times, in flying about the room, flapped aguinse a (iu a vast proportion of cases) from also deriving nourishment from glass case i, E. D. 63 MAMMALIA. obscure places. Their ordinary produce is two young at a birth, [one only in the frugivorous species, and many others,] which cling to the mammz of their parent, [have their eyes closed for a while,*] and are of large proportional size. They form a very numerous genus, present- ing many subdivisions. First there require to be separated— Tur Rousserres (Pleropus, Briss.),— Which have cutting incisors to each jaw, and grinders with flat crowns, or rather the latter have originally two longitudinal and parallel projections, separated hy a groove, and which wear away by attrition: accordingly they subsist in great part upon fruits, of which they consume a vast quantity ; they also ably pursue small birds and quadrupeds: [a statement which much requires confirmation. ] They are the largest of the tribe, and their flesh is eaten. The membrane is deeply emarginated between their legs, and they have little or no tail ; their index finger, shorter by half than the middle one, pos- sesses a third phalanx, bearing a short nail (see fig. 9), which are wanting in other Bats ; but the following fingers have each only two phalanges ; [their thumb is proportionally very large]; they have the muzzle simple, the nostrils widely separated, the ears middle-sized and without a tragus, and their tongue studded with points that curve backwards ; their stomach is a very elongated sac, unequally dilated, [and their intestines are much longer than in other Bats.] They have only been discovered in the south of Asia and the Indian Archipelago ; [now, however, also in Japan, Australia, Madagascar, and the south and west of Africa. The species are very numerous, and have been greatly elucidated by the investigations of Temminck and others, who have established most of them on a considerable number of specimens of all ages, and many anatomically. They produce early, and the sexes are separately gregarious, the young also associating apart from their parents as soon as they can provide for themselves.t] They divide into 1. Tailless Roussettes, with four incisors to each jaw; all of which were comprehended by Linneus under his Vespertilio vampyrus. {More than twenty species are known, some of which exceed five feet across. One of the commonest in collections is] The Black-bellied Roussette (Pt. edulis, Geof.)—Of a blackish brown, deeper beneath [the fur crisp and coarse]; nearly four feet im extent [sometimes, according to Temminck, upwards of five feet French, corre- sponding to five feet anda half English]. It inhabits the Moluccas and Isles of Sunda, where they are found during the day suspended in great numbers to the trees. To preserve fruit from their attacks, it is necessary to cover it with nets. Their cry is loud, and resembles that of a Goose. They are taken by means of a bag held to them at the end of a pole; and the natives esteem their flesh a delicacy ; but Europeans dislike it on account of its musky odour. The flesh of the Common Roussette (Pt. vulgaris, Geof.), an inhabitant of the Mauritius, bas been compared to that of the Hare and Partridge. 2. Roussettes with a short tail, and four incisors to each jaw: [also generally less than the smaller species of the preceding. At least six are known, one of which only (Pt. amplevicaudatus), has the tail moderately con- spicuous : the muzzle is comparatively somewhat shorter. These two divisions comprehend all that are now ranged in Pleropus ; and one species only (Pt. macro- cephalus, Ogilby), from the Gambia, presents any marked departure from the general character, in the great size of its head, the superior magnitude and solidity of its Fig. 8.—Head of Pteropus edulis. canines, and separation of the molars: allied to it is P¢. gambianus, Ogilby, from the same locality, and Pt. Whitei, Ben., which has a singular tuft on each side of the neck. The name Epomophorus, Ben., is applied to these three species by Gray.] 3. According to the indicia of M. Geoffroy, we now separate from the Roussettes Tur CepHaxors (Cephalotes, Geof.),— Which lave [nearly] similar grinders, but in which the index finger, short, and consisting of three «Perhaps the frugivorous species form an exception to this. The ! + The same appears to be the case with some of the insectiverous others are naked at birth, but have the limbs strong, and adapted for | Bats of Europe.—Ep. clinging to their parent, CARNARIA. 69 phalanges, like that of the preceding, has no nail. The membranes of their wings, instead of meeting at the flank, are joined to each other at the middle of the back, to which they adhere by a vertical and longitudinal partition [a character which occurs, however, more or less completely, that is, the volar membrane is attached more or less near to the middle of the back, in some of the Roussettes]. They have often only two incisors [when adult, which are inserted in small curved intermaxillaries, that are moveable backwards and forwards]. “M. Isidore Geoffroy, in a monograph of this genus [Pfteropus], forms the Pt. personatus, Tem., and some allied species, into the subgenus Pachysoma, which has four molars less than the others, and the zygomatic arches more projecting: the Pt. minimus or rostratus composes his subgenus Macro- glossus, the muzzle of which is longer and more slender, and there are spaces between the grinders ; it is believed that the tongue is extensile [now known to be slightly so, and of a rather longer and more acuminate form than in the others}. Lastly, he separates the Cephalot of Peron from that of Pallas, and applies to the former the name Hypodermis, on account of the complete dorsal insertion of the membranes of its wings.’”* a (M. Temminck, in his excellent monograph of the Péeroprde, or frugivorous Bats (published in 1835), adopts, as generic, the divisions Pferopus, Pachysoma (Cynopterus, F. Cuv.), Cephaiotes, Geof. (Hypodermis, Is. Geof.), Harpyia, Viger (Cephalotes, Is. Geof.), and Macroglossus.t Six species are known of Pachysuma, which present some other peculiar characters, and vary in size from ten to twenty inches across : the remaining three respectively consist of one known species only, viz., C. Peronii, sometimes two and a half feet in extent,—H. Pallasii (fig. 9), a singular looking animal, from Ti- mour, fourteen inches across, with a claw on its fore-finger (like the Cephalot), and projecting tubular nostrils, —and IM. rostratus, the Kiodote, the smallest of the tribe, rarely measuring a foot in spread of wing, and which is known to subsist chiefly on the fruit of the Clove (Eugenia); its grinders are remarkably diminutive. Between these frugivorous Cheiroplera and the following genera, the lapse is Fig 9 —Harpyia Pallasii. very considerable. ] | The Roussettes having been detached, the genuine Bats remain, all of which [excepting Desmodus] are | insectivorous, and possess three grinders on each side of both jaws, beset with conical points, and preceded by a variable number of false molars. Their index never has a nail, and, a single sub- genus excepted, the membrane always extends between their hind-legs. [The greater number have cheek-pouches, and most, if not all, emit a peculiar low clicking note.] They should be divided into two principal tribes: the first having three bony phalanges to the middle finger of the wing, while the other finger and the index even have only two. To this tribe, which is almost exclusively foreign, belong the following subgenera :— | Tut Motossines (Molossus, Geof. Dysopust, Mlig.) | These have the muzzle simple; the ears broad and short, arising near the angle of the lips, and | uniting with each other upon the muzzle; the tragus short, and not enveloped by the conch. Their | tail occupies the whole length of the interfemoral membrane, and very often extends beyond it. | [Their wings are narrow, aud body large and heavy.] It is seldom that they have more than two in- cisors to each jaw: but, according to M. Temminck, several of them have at first six below, four of which they successively lose. | * This passage occurs in the Appendix to the original work.—Eb. is likewise used in Ornithology, where another appellation must be | + The term Macroglossus, however, has unfortunately been pre- | substituted.—-Ep. occupied in Entomology; for which reason Aiodotus (the common | t This term is more generally accepted.—Ep. name of the species, latinized) muy be proposed iu its stead. Marpyia The Dinops of M. Savi refers to these Molossines with six inferior incisors. There is one of them in Italy (Dinops cestonii, Savi). M. Geoffroy has applied the name Nyctonomus to those which have four inferior incisors. The Molossines were at first dis- covered only in America; but we now know several from both con- tinents. Some of them have the hinder thumb placed farther from the other digits than these are from each other, and capable of separate motion; acharacter on which, in one species where it is very strongly marked, Dr. Horsfield has established his genus Cheiromeles (the ears of which, also, differ in being widely separated]. It is probable that we should also place here the Thyroptera of Spix, which appears to have several cha- racters of the Molossines, and the thumb of which has a little concave palette peculiar to them (fig. 10, a), by which they are enabled to cling more closely. (Several species of this genus agree in possessing this appendage, which is proportionally larger in the young. As a whole, the group of Molossines is extremely distinct and insulated, though consisting of a vast number of species, of which about twenty may be considered established; six or seven of these ap- pertain to the eastern hemisphere. ‘The largest and most curious of them is D. cheiropus, Tem. (Cheiromeles, Horsf., fig. 11), from Siam, which measures nearly two feet across: it is quite naked, with the exception of an abrupt collar of hairs round the neck. Several have the upper lip laterally pendent (fig. 10), whence the name Molossus or Mastiff; and the term Dysopus refers to the toes being more or less tufted with hair. The greater Fig. 11.—Dysopus chelropus. number of species are from Brazil aud Paraguay.] Fig. 10.—Head of Dysopus tenuis. Tue Nocrurss (Noetilio*, Lin. Ed. xii.) Muzzle short, inflated, and split into a double hare-lip, marked with odd-looking warts and grooves ; ears separate ; four incisors above and two below ; tail short, and [possibly in some] free above the inter- femoral membrane ; [limbs much elongated, the hinder very large and stout, and furnished with strong claws ; the volar membranes are attached high upon the back, in some almost meeting dorsally, as in the Cephalot and some Roussettes. ] The most generally known species is from America (Vesp. leporinus, Gm.), of a uniform fulvous. [Others have been found on the same continent: and Celeno, Leach, was founded on an imperfect specimen, which is still extant. The Noctules are allied to the true Bats (Vespertilio); anda group which appears to be somewhat intermediate, but with a more elongated muzzle, is the Emballonura, Kuhl (Proboscidea, Spix), of which four species have been described from South America, and a fifth from Java. Pteronotus, Gray, is probably a Noctule, with a longer tail than usual; and Myopteris, Geoff., and also Aé//o, Leach, do not seem to differ essentially.] Tae Paytiostromes (Phyllostoma, Cuy. and Geoff.) The regular number of incisors is four to each jaw, but some of the lower ones frequently fall, being forced out by the growth of the canines ; [the second false molar is generally elongated]. They are, moreover, distinguished by the membrane, in the form of an upturned leaf, which is placed across the end of the nose. The tragus of their ear (fig. 12) resembles a leaflet, more or less indented. Their tongue, which is very extensile, is terminated by papille, which appear to be arranged so as to form © The division Nvctilio was unaccountably ranged by Linueus among his Glircs, or the Rodentia of our author.—Ep. | Magpie. It has been accused of causing the death of an organ of suction; and their lips also have tubercles symmetrically arranged. They are American animals, which run along the ground with more facility than the other Bats, and have a habit of | sucking the blood of animals. | 2 CARNARIA. 71 | | | 1. Tailless Phyllostomes (Vampyrus, Spix). | The Vampyre [of authors] (Vesp. spectrum, Lin.)—(fig. | 12.) This animal is reddish-brown, and as large as a men and animals by sucking their blood; but the truth appears to be, that it inflicts only very small wounds, which may sometimes prove dangerous from the effects of the climate. [There are several others, certain of which | compose the divisions Madateus and Arctibeus, Leach, | Lophostoma, Orb., (which is very like a Desmodus ex- ternally,) Diphylla, Spix, and Carollia, Gray,—founded on trivial modifications of the form of the nose-leaf, tragus, and interfemoral membrane.] 2. Phyllostomes with the tail enveloped in the interfe- moral membrane. The Javelin Ph. (Vesp. hastatus, Lin.)\— The leaf shaped like the head of a javelin, with its edges entire. [Also various others, some of which constitute Macrophyllum and Brachyphylla, Gray.) 3. Phyllostomes with the tail free above the membrane. Ph. crenulatum, Geof.—The leaf indented on the side. M. Geoffroy distinguishes from the Phyllostomes | those species which have a narrow extensile tongue, | furnished with papille resembling hairs. He de- | signates them GLossopHaGuEs (Glossophaga). All | the species are likewise from America. [These also have been subdivided, according to the presence or absence of a short tail, and other frivolous characters into Phyllophora and Anoura, Gray, Monophyllus, Leach, and Glossophaga, as restricted. Spix applies to one of them (Gl. amplexicaudata, Phyllophora of Gray) the term Sanguisuga crudelissima,— a very cruel blood-sucker.” According to Mr. Bell, the tongue of Phyllostoma, has “a number of wart-like elevations, so arranged as to form a complete circular suctorial disc, when they are brought into con- tact at their sides, which is done by means of a set of muscular fibres, having a tendon attached to each of the warts.’”” The teeth of these animals, however, are decidedly ill-adapted for blood-letting. Tue True Vampyres (Desmodus, Pr. Max., Edostoma, Orb., Stenoderma ?, Geof.) } | This extraordinary genus has two immense, projecting, approximate upper incisors, and similar lancet-shaped superior canines, all of which are excessively sharp-pointed, and arranged to inflict a triple puncture, like that of a Leech; four bilobate inferior incisors, the innermost separated by a wide interval; the lower canines small and not compressed: there are no true molars, but two false ones on the upper jaw, and three on the lower, of a peculiar form, apparently unfitted for mas- tication (fig. 13). The intestine is shorter than in any other known animal; as blood, which probably constitutes their sole food, is so readily assimilated.* They have the general characters of the Phyllostomes ext mally, a small bifid membrane on the nose, no tail or calcaneum, and the interfemoral membrane but little developed. Are also in habitants of South America. wy 1 Vat Nyy i Fig. 13.—Teeth of Desmodus, * In Mespertilo noctula, the intestine is only twice the length of | proceeds almost straight to the anus. It would be interesting to know the body, while in Péeropus it is full seven times. In Desmodus, it | the frst or milk teeth of Desmnodus, is le eel UF MAMMALIA. Two or three species are known, of moderate but not large size.* One was taken in the act of sucking blood from the neck of a Horse, by Mr. Darwin. It is probable that their external similitude to the Phyllostomes has occasioned the latter to be accused of a sanguivorous propensity, for which their structure seems to be at most but partially adapted, while that of the present genus is obviously expressly designed for this mode of life. Compare the figures given of the dentition of the two genera.] In the second grand tribe of Bats, the index has only one bony phalanx, while all the other fingers have two. This tribe also requires to be divided into several subgenera. Tue Mecaperms (Megaderma, Geof.)— Have the nasal membrane more complicated than in the Phyllostomes; the tragus large and most commonly bifurcated; the conch of the ears very ample, and joined together on the top of the head ; the tongue and the lips smooth; interfemoral membrane entire, and there is no tail. They have four incisors below, but none above, and their intermaxillaries remain carti- laginous. [Their wings are remarkably ample, the whole cutaneous system of these animals being excessively de- veloped. Four species are known; two from Africa, the others from the Indian archipelago. One of the former (M. frons, fig. 14) has the body covered with long hair, of most delicately fine texture; it constitutes the division Lavia of Gray.] They are distinguished by the figure of the leaf, like the Phyllostomes. Tue RaINOLPHINES (Lhinolophus, Geof. and Cuv. [Noctilio Bechst.]), vulgarly termed Horse-shoe Bats. These have the nose furnished with very complicated membranes and crests resting on the forehead, and al- together presenting [more or less] the figure of a horse- shoe; their tail is long, and placed in the interfemoral membrane. They have four incisors below, and two small ones above, fixed in a cartilaginous intermaxillary. Two species are very common in France [and found sparingly and locally in Englandt],—Vesp. ferrum-equinum, Lin., or Rh. bifer, Geof., and Vesp. hipposideros, Bechstein, They both inhabit quarries [cathedrals, &c.], where they hang solitarily [?] suspended by the feet, and enveloping the »- selves with their wings, so that no part of their body is visible. [They differ chiefly in size, but in this con- siderably ; the larger measuring 13 inches across, the other 84 inches. More than twenty species are known, all from the eastern hemisphere. They fall under two divisions, of which the extremes are shown in the accompanying representation (fig. 15); but the majority are of intermediate character, like the two which inhabit Europe. Those with membranous crests have the tragus distinct, and sometimes considerably developed; the others have no separated tragus, and compose the divisions Hipposidoros, Gray, (identical with Phillorhina, Bonap.) and Asellia, Gray: Ariteus of the same systematist referring toa member of the former sub-group, which is destitute of tail, and almost of interfemoral membrane ; charac- ters, however, to which other species approxi- mate. They inhabit the darkest caverns, in vast n.altitudes, the sexes and young in separate assemblages. Penetrating to more deeply obscure recesses than any of the others, it is probable that their facial appendages are endowed with exquisite sensibility, for the still further extension of that delicacy of the sense of touch, by which others of this family are enabled to guide themselves when deprived of vision: the dryness of those membranes intimates that they are not olfactory. Certain inguinal glands, more or less distinctly developed in thesa animals, have been erroneously described as mammary teats. Fig. 14.—Megaderma frons. Fig. 15.—Rbinolophus nobilis. R, insignis * There is reason to suspect that the genus Desmodusis much more ) + A British loenlity, where both occur rather uumerously, Is the extensively represented.—Ep. well-kuown cave near Torquay, in Devonshire, cailed Kent's Holo. \ | | CARNARIA. "3 | Tue Nycropuitets (Nyclophilus, Leach)— | | | Are, according to Temminck, somewhat intermediate to the Rhinolphines and the next genus of | Nycterins ; approaching the former in the character of their incisors and canines, and the latter in | that of their molars: the ears are large and pointed; the tragus lanceolate; nasal follicles distinct ; | | the tail moderately long, and enveloped in the membrane. Nyct. Geoffroyi, Leach, is the only known species, from some part of Oceanica. It appears to be allied to the true Bats (Vespertilio), and was included in Barbastellus, Gray, as originally constituted. ] Tae Nycrerrns (Nycteris, Cuy. and Geof.) — bordered by a fold of the skin, which partially covers it; nostrils simple; four incisors without inter- vals above, and six below; ears large and separated ; the tail involved in the inter- | | Have the forehead furrowed by a longitudinal groove, which is even marked upon the cranium, | | femoral membrane [and terminated by a | | bifid cartilage (fig. 16, 2).] They are | African species [for the most part, but one | | inhabits Java. | These animals are remarkable for a power of | inflating the skin, which is only attached to | the body in some few places, by an open cel- lular connexion. There is a small aperture at the bottom of each cheek-pouch, by which this is effected; and the nostrils are so formed as to close when at rest, and to open only at will. By respiring with the mouth closed, the air Higdlg oViead ENyeteris lavanicua! passes through these apertures along the frontal groove to the upper part of the neck, and thence under the skin of the back, chest, and abdomen, which, by a repetition of the process, can be puffed out like a balloon: the intent remains to be explained.] | | | | | Tae Ruinopomes (/thinopoma, Geof.)— Have the frontal depression less marked; the nostrils at the end of the muzzie, with a little lamina above, forming a kind of snout; the ears are joined; and the tail [which is very slender] extends far beyond the interfemoral membrane. | [A few species occur on both continents, one of which is figured in the great French work on Egypt, under the | name Tuphien filet.) Tae Tapurens (Taphozous, Geof.)— | Have also a small rounded indenture on the forehead; but their nostrils have no raised lamina: the head is pyramidal, and there are only two incisors above, very often none, and four trilobate incisors below; their ears are widely separated, and [the tip of ] their tail free above | | the membrane. The males | | have a transverse cavity | under the throat. A little | | prolongation of the mem- brane of their wings forms | a sort of pouch near the carpus.* | One species was discover- | ed in the catacombs of Egypt by M. Geoffroy [and | it is probable that the others | are peculiar to the old con- tinent, though one (Vesp, t Fig. 17.—Mormoops Blainvillil. marsupialis, Muller) is said to be American. T. rufus, Harlan (Wils. Am. Orn., vol. vi. pl. 50) is most likety « | | a | | | laa | | | * Hence the name Saccopterys, applied to this genus by Iliger. | | | Vespertilio. The Egyptian species is represented to have small eyes ; but that figured by Gen. Hardwicke (Lin. Trans., vol. xiv. p. 525) possesses eyes proportionally as large as in a Squirrel, and we have examined skins of y aboye, pure white beneath), in which the same character must have been con- another species (chinchilla-s spicuous.] Tue Mormorzs (Mormoops, Leach)— Have four incisors to each jaw, the superior rather large ; the inferior trilobate: their skull (fig. 17) is singularly raised like a pyramid above the muzzle; and on each side of the nose is a triangular membrane, which extends to the ear. The species M. Blainvillii, Leach, is from Java. [It has since been received, together with two others of the | same form (but considered by Gray as separable), from Jamaica; so that the former locality may be presumed to | be wrongly assigned. ] Tue orpinary Barts [to which this term may be restricted] (Vespertilio, Cuy. and Geof.)— Have no leaf or other distinctive mark on the muzzle, and the ears separated; four incisors above, of which the two middle ones are apart, and six below, sharp-edged, and somewhat notched *: their tail is comprehended in the membrane. This subgenus is the most numerous of all, and universally distributed. There are six or seven species in France [more than double that number. Thirteen have now been met with in England, including the Barbastelle and Oreillard. The sexes and young of several congregate separately. ] *M. Roussean, in a memoir on the anatomy of Vesp. murinus, states, of the two dentitions of this animal, that the first is developed before birth, the second not tillsome time afterwards. The fetal teeth, he remarks, are twenty-two in number; namely, four incisors, two canines, and four molars to the upper jaw, and six incisors, two canines, and four molars to the lower one. The permanent teeth, in the adult, are thirty-eight in number; of which twenty-two should replace the fetal or temporary teeth ; the sixteen others successively The permanent teeth do not wait to appear until their predecessors are shed, whence at a certain epoch forty or fifty teeth, or even more, t we have ob- show themselves, later as their position is further backward. may be counted in the same individual: this last served in the instance of the common Fitcbet Weasel —Ep. + To facilitate the researches of the British naturalist, our known indigenous species may be briefly indicated: it is not unlikely that more remain to be discovered, as but few persons have hitherto be- stowed much attention on these lucifugal animals, The British species fall under two natural divisions. In the first, the tragus is more or less rounded at the tip, short, and a little thickened in its substance ; there are four pairs of false molars to each jaw. Such are The Noctule Bat (/. noectula) - Length of the head and body nearly 3 inches: ex Of a bright reddish-brown; the membrane dusky. tent 13 or 14 inches. the tragus not one-third the length of the ear, arcuated, and termi- muzzle short, broad, and blunt Ears oval-triangular, shorter than the head ; nated in a broad rounded head ; This sp districts Hairy-armed Bat (J. Leisteri).—The fur long, bright chestnut above, and in some is mot un is even numerous its fight is lofty, whence designated altivolans by White. ymmon, brownish grey beneath; under surface of the fying membrane with a broad band of hair ulong the fore-arm. Length of the head and body 2V inches ; extent 114 inches. he ears oval-triangular, shorter than the head; tragus barely one-third the length of the ear, terminating in arounded head, But one specimen is known to have been killed in England. Particoloured Bat (J*. discolor).—Fur reddish-brown above, with Length of the about two- the tips of the hairs white; beneath, sullied white. head and body 2% thirds the length of the head, oval, with a projecting lobe on the inner margin; the tragus of nearly equal breadth throughout, rather It inhabits towns, and Ears inches; extent 1044 inches, more than one-third the length of the ear. comes abroad early in the evening. The only native specimen was taken at Plymouth. Pipistrelle Bat (J”. pipistrelius, erroneously termed /”. murinus by British writers till very lately).—This small species is the commonest of any; it is dark reddish brown, paler beneath, Length to the tail 14 inch ; extent 814 inches. Ears two-thirds the length of the head, oval-triangular, notched on the outer margin; tragus nearly half as long as the ear, almost straight, thickened, obtuse, and rounded at the apex. It runs with eclerity, carrying its head near the ground, from which it rises with ease; and is active during the greater part of the year. The Pygmy Bat (J”, pygmaeus, Leach,) is evidently a young animal, and probably of this species. The next has only two pairs of superior false molars. The Serotine B: lowish-grey beneath. (I. serotinus).—Fur chestnut-brown above, yel- Length of the head and body 2% inches; ex- tent 1214 inches. tragus semicordate, little more than one-third the length of the ear. The Serotine frequents uninhabited houses, the roofs of churches, &e. and sometimes hollow trees; flies steadily and rather slow, and is The enrs oval triangular; shorter than the head ; occasionally taken near London. Inthe second group, the tragus is relatively longer, thin, narrow, and more or less pointed; and there are six pairs of false molars to each jaw. Mouse-coloured Bat (/”. murinus).—The fur reddish-brown above, dull white beneath. Length of the head and body 31 inches ; spread of wing 15 inches. Ears oval, broad at the base, becoming narrower towards the apex, as long as the head; tragus falciform, the inner margin straight, not quite half the length of the ear. This Batis very common in France and Germany, but oaly one instance has been re- corded of its occurrence in Britain. Bechstein’s Bat (J”, Bechsteinii).— Fur reddish-grey above, grevish- white beneath. 2: Dimensions, to the insertion of the tail, Bars oval, rather longer than the hed narrow, falciform, not half the length of the ear. than in the others. New Forest, Hants. Fringe-tailed Bat (7. beneath, 4 inches ; 11 inches acro, ; tragus The thumb longer A woodland species, found occasionally in the brown extent 11] Ears oblong-oval, about as long as the head; tragus narrow-lanceo- Nuattereri).— Fur above, whitish Length, to the tail, nearly 2 inches; inches. | late, nearly two-thirds the length of the ear; interfemoral membrane with tee margin crenate and stitfy ciliated, from the end of the spur | or calcaneum to the tail. country. Notch-eared Bat (/”. emarginatus, Geof., not of Jenyns).—The fur reddish-grey above, ash-coloured beneath. Length of the head and The ears oblong, as Jong as the head, with a notch and a small lobe on the outer margin; tragus awl- shaped, a little curved outward, more than half the length of the ear. One was killed near Dover, Has been met with in several parts of the body two inches; extent 9 inches. Daubenton’s Bat (J, Daubentonii,—emarginutus of Jenyns).—Far | soft, plentiful, brownish-black at the base; the surface greyish-red above, ash-grey beneath. Length of the head and body 2 inches ; extent9 inches. The ears oval, three-fourths the length of the head, very slightly notched on the outer margin, with a fold on the inner margin at the base; tragus narrow-lanceolate, rather obtuse, bending a little inward, half the length of the ear; 1 longer than the body, Has been taken in several localities, and flies rapidly near the ground, or over stagnant water. Whiskered Bat (F. mystacinus) —Fur blackish-chestnut above, | dasky beneath ; the upper lip furnished with a moustache of long fine hair. Length of the head and body 1% inch; extentSiinches. Ears | oblong, bending outward, shorter than the head, notched on the outer | margin; the tragus half the length of the ear, lanceolate, a little ex- | panded at the outer margin near the base. Has also occurred in | different parts of the country. | The above characters are chiefly compiled from Bell’s British Quad- rapeds, where figures and minute descriptions are given of each of them, together with full-sized representations of their heads. It wey | be remarked that only the last Gve are retained in /’espertilio by Mr. | | | Gray, the others being included in his Scofophilus.—Ep. CARNARIA 15 M. Geoffroy also separates from the Bats Tar OreEILLARDS (Plecotus),— Which have the ears longer than the head, and joined above the cranium. as in the Megaderms, Rhinopomes, &e. Their tragus is large and lanceolate, and there is an operculum to their auditory orifice. Fig. 18.—Ears or Plecotus auritus, The common species (Vesp. auritus, Lin.) is still more abundant in France than any of the Bats [and is equally plentiful in England], inhabiting houses, kitchens, &c. Its ears (fig. 18) are nearly as long as its body [more than double the length of the head; yet, when reposing (as shown in fig. 19), they are folded so as to be out of sight. Its peculiar shuflling gait, with the head raised, is different from that of the Bats with short ears; and it may be tamed to hover around with familiarity, and alight upon the hand for insect food. The Pl. brevimanus, Jenyns, is merely the young; but there are several exotic species.} We have also another, discovered by Daubenton, with much shorter ears, [now forming the equivalent division Fig. 19.—Plecotus auritus. BarpastgELe (Barbastellus, Gray )— The ears of which are moderate, united at base; and there is a hollowed naked space on the upper surface of the muzzle, in which the nostrils are situ- ated; but one pair of false molars to each jaw. B. Daubentonii, Bell, (fig. 20,) is the only ascertained species. It is of rare occur- rence in Britain, and measures 103 inches in extent of wing.j Finally, Nycticeus*, Ra fin., [ Scotophilus, Leach, Pipistrellus, Bonap.], with Fig. 20.—Barbastellus Dau e toni ears of medium size, and the simple muzzle of the Bats, has only two incisors to the upper jaw [which are widely separated, and close to the canines.] It docs not otherwise differ from Vespertilio. The known species are from North America, [but others have since been discovered in the ancient continent, as N. Heathii, Horsf., from India, and another from Java. Mr. Gray, indeed, includes most of the European Bats in his Scotophilus ; but Temminck, who rejects Plecotus even, suggests, and J think with reason, that the present also is a superfluous division, based on insufficient characters. The Oreillards and Barbastelles are subordinate to Vespertilio, also Furia, F. Cuv., (furipterus, Bonap.) which has the tail partly cartilaginous, Natalus, Gray, wherein the heel-bone extends the whole length of the interfemoral membrane ; Romicius, Gray, and Miniopterus, Bonap.