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Cornell University Lib

land, its resources, industries and

 
MARYLAND

*

ITS

RESOURCES, INDUSTRIES AND INSTITUTIONS

PREPARED FOR THE

BOARD OF WORLD'S FAIR MANAGERS

OF MARYLAND

BY

MEMBERS OF JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

AND OTHERS

 

BALTIMORE

1893
&
A. 5 419%

i
PRESS OF
THE SUN JOB PRINTING OFFICE, BALTIMORE, MD.

 

ILLUSTRATIONS BY
aA. HOEN & CO., BALTIMORE, MD.

pe

 
BOARD OF

WORLD’S FAIR MANAGERS

OF MARYLAND.

Hon. Frank Brown, Governor.

Hon. F. C. Latrross, Baltimore.

Hon. Murray VANDIVER, Harford Co.
Davip Hurzisr, Baltimore.

Frank 8. Haupsieron, Baltimore.
Frank R. Scorr, Elkton.

Mrs. Wu. REED, Baltimore.

J. OLNEY Norris, Baltimore.
Frank N. Hosgn, Baltimore.

H. H. Dasureii, Princess Anne.

James T. Perkins, Pr. George’s Co.

Joun R. Buanp, Baltimore.

PRESIDENT:

Hon. Frank Brown,
Governor of Maryland.

SECRETARY :

J. OLNEY Norris.

TREASURER:

FRANK S. HAMBLETON.

VICE-PRESIDENT :

Hon. F. C. Latrosg,
Mayor of Baltimore.

RECORDING SECRETARY :

Wm. H. Love.

EXECUTIVE COMMISSIONER :
Geo. L. McCanan.
CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY,
CHAPTER I.
Historical SKETCH, . : Wma. Hanp Browne.
CHAPTER II.
PHYSICAL FEATURES, 3 W. B. CLARK.
Topography.
Climate.

GEOLOGY,

MINES AND

Medical Climatology —C. W. Chancellor, M. D.
Water Supply.
Water Power.

CHAPTER III.

: G. H. Wititams and W. B. CLARK.
General Review.
Piedmont Plateau.
Appalachian Region.
Coastal Plain.
Resumé.

CHAPTER IV.

MINERALS, ‘ : ‘ G. H. WiiuiaMs.
General.

Coal.

Iron.—W. Keyser, Esq.
Copper.—R. Brent Keyser, Esq.
Chrome.—Wm. Glenn, Esq.
Gold.

Granite.

Sandstone.

Slate.

Marble and Limestone.

Cement, Serpentine, Soapstone.
Clay and other Minerals.

CHAPTER V.

AGRICULTURE, 3 - ‘ ‘ 5 M. Wauitney.

Retrospect.

Agricultural Regions.
Staple Crops.

Truck Farming and Fruits.
Dairy Farming.

Soils.

Stock Raising.

Pace.
i-vi

11

55

89

154
CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

Natura. History, F B. Soutmrs and G. LEFEVRE.

Flora of Maryland. — Prot: B. Sellars,
Terrestrial Animals.—Q. Lefevre, Esq.

CHAPTER VIL.

FisH AND FISHERIES, % ‘ ‘ ‘ Z ¢ ‘ W. K. Brooks.

Shad. '
Bay Mackerel,

Menhaden.

Terrapins and Crabs.

CHAPTER VIII.

TuE Oyster, s W. K. Brooxs.

The Oyster Industry. —H. Mck. ieneiar, Bsq.

CHAPTER IX.

CoMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION, ‘ : % ‘ 2 : J. H. HoLuANDER.

CHAPTER X.

MANUFACTURES, ‘ . ‘ ‘ , ; ‘ ; J. H. HOLLANDER.

CHAPTER XI.

CITIES AND PusBLic BUILDINGS, . : ‘ ‘ J. H. HoLLanper.

Annapolis.—Dr. D. R. Randall,
Cumberland.—Hon. Lloyd Lowndes.
Hagerstown.—Albert Small, Esq.
Frederick.—F. M. Kinsey, Esq.

CHAPTER XII.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, 3 ‘ ‘ & 3 ‘ J. H. HoLuanpDEr.

CHAPTER XIII.

CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS, 2 : : 2 C. W. Bump.

CHAPTER XIV.

EpvucaTION, . 3 : . ‘ : ; : B. C. STEINER.

CHAPTER XY.

PoPruULATION, : < * ‘ . ‘ : ‘i . J.C. Ross.

CHAPTER XVI.

CHARITIES AND CORRECTION, . s é - é ‘ D. I. Green.

218

289

264

318

339

359

380

393

411

432

448
INTRODUCTORY.

MARYLAND, situated between the parallels of 37° 53’ and 39° 44’
north latitude, and the meridians of 75° 04’ and 79° 33+’ west longitude
(the exact western boundary being yet undetermined), is one of the
upper tier of Southern States. Its boundaries are: Mason and Dixon’s
line on the north; the State of Delaware and the Atlantic ocean on the
east; on the south, a line drawn westward from the ocean to the western
bank of the Potomac river, thence following the western bank of that
river to its source; and on the west, a line drawn due north from this
source to Mason and Dixon’s line. Its gross area is 12,210 square miles,
of which 9,860 square miles are land surface; the included portion of the
Chesapeake Bay, 1,203 square miles; Assateague Bay on the Atlantic
coast, 93 square miles; with 1,054 square miles of smaller estuaries and
rivers.

The Chesapeake Bay ascends to within a few miles of its northern
boundary, dividing the State into what are known as the Eastern and
Western Shores. |

The rivers, excluding mere estuaries of the bay, are the Potomac,
Patuxent, Patapsco, Gunpowder, Susquehanna, Elk, Sassafras, Chester,
Choptank, Nanticoke, Wicomico and Pocomoke, all emptying into the
Chesapeake Bay. Beside these, the coast-line of the bay is deeply
indented with a multitude of creeks, coves, and other estuaries, pene-
trating the land in all directions, usually bearing the names of rivers,
and often navigable to some distance by vessels of light draft. Perhaps
nowhere else in the world is there a coast-line proportionately so exten-
sive, or any country offering such facilities for water transportation as
tide-water Maryland. Along the ocean frontier runs a narrow reef of
sand, inclosing and sheltering Synepuxent and Assateague Bays, and
giving inland navigation along the whole Atlantic coast of the State.

Maryland is divided into twenty-three counties, of which Garrett,
Alleghany, Washington, Frederick, Carroll, Baltimore, Harford and Cecil
li INTRODUCTORY.

form the northern tier; Howard, Montgomery, Anne Arundel, Prince
George’s, Calvert, Charles and St. Mary’s lie on the west; and Kent, Queen
Anne’s, Talbot, Caroline, Dorchester, Wicomico, Somerset and Worcester,
on the east side of the bay. Of these twenty-three there are but seven
which do not lie on navigable waters.

Maryland presents a great variety of configuration, soil and climate.
The four most westerly counties extend through the systems of mountain
ranges known as the Alleghany and the Blue Ridge; east of these is the
Piedmont region, gently inclining towards tide-water, and on both sides
of the bay lies the Coastal Plain. The physical and climatic character-
istics of these regions are set forth in a subsequent chapter.

Maryland having originally been a part of Virginia, it was, for many
years after its settlement, generally confounded with that colony in the
English mind, while those who professed to be better informed, main-
tained that it was a large island off the Virginia coast. During the rule
of the first Proprietary, however, several brief accounts were published,
designed to enlighten the public as to the true geographical position of
Maryland, its soil, climate, natural productions and government. At that
time scarce any part of the province was known except a small portion
of the bay shore, and even as late as 1670, Augustine Herrman, who made
a map of Maryland, conceived the mountains about Cumberland to be
the central ridge between the two oceans, and thought it probable that
they might be rich in precious metals, inasmuch as Mexico lay near their
western slope.

The first of these accounts, or Maryland Books, bears the title, “A
Relation of the Successful Beginnings of the Lord Baltemore’s Plantation
in Maryland,” and was written by one of the first colonists, probably
Father White, in May, 1634, two months after the settlement. The
author, of course, only knows the country about St. Mary’s and the
shores of the Potomac; but he is enthusiastic over the delightful
climate, the fertility of the soil, the abundance of water and fresh
springs, the infinite plenty of game, fish and wild fruits, and the’
friendliness of the Indians.

Of this Relation, a revised and enlarged edition was published in
1635, accompanied by a map in which the shores of the bay and some of
the principal rivers are pretty fairly laid down, and the interior country
sketched from imagination. Mountains of formidable size are dotted
INTRODUCTORY. iii

liberally over both the Western and Eastern Shores; but the wildest
and most alpine peaks are reserved for what are now the counties of
Talbot, Queen Anne and Caroline. But a good deal has been learned in
a year; and we have here an enumeration of the valuable natural
productions of Maryland—medicinal plants, timber, wild fruits and
grapes, game, wild fowl and fish. Of minerals the writer reports iron
ore, brick clay, fine potters’ clay, and marl. The soil is exceedingly
fertile and fit for any crop; “and in fine there is scarce any fruit that
grows in England, France, Spain or Italy, but has been tried and prospers

well.” Of the innocence and uniform friendliness of the Indians he has
also much to report.

These, and a brief tract or two, were all the published sources of
special information about Maryland until 1666, when George Alsop’s
“Character of the Province of Maryland” appeared. Alsop had spent
four years in the province as an indented laborer, and, according to his
own account, was so charmed with its manifold excellences and
attractions, that he could not rest until he made them more widely
known. He felt that no ordinary style would do justice to such a
subject, and therefore invented one for the occasion. Those who wish to
see how beautiful the world is, and how bounteous Nature, should visit
Maryland, for he is well assured that there is no place “under the
heavenly altitude, or that has footing or room upon the circular globe of
this world, that can parallel this fertile and pleasant piece of ground in
its multiplicity; or, rather Nature’s extravagancy of a super-abounding
plenty.” Condescending to particulars, he tells us that the woods teem
with wild animals, some valued for their fur, and others for their flesh ;
and among them may be included the innumerable herds of unclaimed
hogs running wild in the woods. Sheep, however, cannot be profitably
bred, because of the wolves. Wild-fowl cover the water “in millionous
multitudes.”

The principal commodities of the country are tobacco, furs, and
pork, the former being the staple export, requiring “shipping to the
number of twenty sail and upward” in November and December to carry
it away; beside which it is the universal currency.

The conditions of labor are light, field-hands working but five and
a-half days in the week in summer, and in the two hottest months they
are allowed “an ancient and customary privilege to repose themselves
iv INTRODUCTORY.

three hours in the day.” In the winter months they have only to cut
wood for fuel, and may hunt as much as they please, every hand being
provided with a gun and ammunition.

Alsop’s characterization of the Marylanders is worth quoting. They
are, he says, “generally conveniently confident, reservedly subtile, quick
in apprehending, but slow in resolving; and where they spy profit sailing
towards them with the wings of a prosperous gale, there they become
much familiar. The women differ something on this point, though not
much. They are extreme bashful at the first view, but after a continuance
of time hath brought them acquainted, then they become discreetly
familiar, and are much more talkative than men. All complimental
courtships drest up in critical rarities are mere strangers tu them; plain
wit comes nearest their genius; so that he that intends to court a Mary-
land girle must have something more than the tautologies of a long-
winded speech to carry on his designs.”

Alsop’s little book was, it seems, the last of the publications specially
designed to give general information about Maryland. The extension of
the colony and of its trade, the establishment of commercial houses in
England whose chief dealings were with the province, the visits of
travellers and factors, the increase of correspondence, made Maryland no
longer an unknown land.

Settlements gradually spread back from the bay coast to the uplands,
and wheat and maize began to take their places beside the universal
tobacco. When in the last century the western section of Maryland was
opened up, the great deposits of iron and coal came to the front as a new
field for industry and source of wealth, while the piedmont and mountain
regions became the homes of a hardy and industrious population, differing
in many respects from that of the tidewater settlements. And as the
pioneers and fantassins keep in the front of an advancing army, so
the westward march of civilization was preceded by the backwoodsmen,
an interesting example of a vanished type. These adventurous spirits,
like Michael and Thomas Cresap, built their log-cabins in the primitive
forest, where they cultivated small patches of land, but lived mostly on
the produce of their rifles. Living near the Indians, they adopted many
of their customs; dressed in deerskin hunting-shirts, with leggings and
moccasins, carried tomahawk and knife beside the unerring rifle, and
were unmatched in all the arts and stratagems of woodcraft.
INTRODUCTORY. v

For the portrait of Maryland under this new aspect, we must go to
the journals of tourists and correspondence of letter-writers, to files of
old newspapers and bundles of musty ‘manuscripts, and paint our picture
with colors taken from many palettes.

The present century has been more remarkable for the utilization of
existing material sources of wealth than for the discovery of new; but
it has witnessed so extraordinary a development and expansion of the
resources and industries of the State, that again the book of Maryland
has to be written.

The occurrence of the Columbian Exposition of 1893, at which the
various States proposed to display to each other, and to the world, the
extent of their resources and the evidences of their material progress,
seemed a fitting occasion for the preparation of such a book; and
accordingly the Board of Managers, consisting of the Hon. Frank Brown,
Governor of the State; the Hon. F. C. Latrobe, Mayor of Baltimore;
Hon. Murray Vandiver, Mrs. William Reed, Messrs. David Hutzler, F. S.
Hambleton, F. R. Scott, J. Olney Norris, Frank N. Hoen, H. H. Dashiell,
James T. Perkins and J. R. Bland, toward the close of October, 1892,
approached the Faculty of Johns Hopkins University with the request
that they would prepare a work setting forth the resources, industries
and institutions of the State.

The design having been explained, and the Trustees of the Univer-
sity having given their sanction, certain of the Faculty undertook to
prepare the text and furnish the necessary charts, maps, &c.

An editorial committee was then appointed, consisting of Professor
G. H. Williams, chairman, Professors H. B. Adams and W. K. Brooks,
Drs. Wm. Hand Browne and W. B. Clark, and Messrs. Milton Whitney
and Nicholas Murray. Mr. J. H. Hollander was made corresponding
secretary. Prof. Williams undertook the general charge of the chapters
treating of physical features, geology, mines and minerals, and agricul-
ture; Prof. Brooks of those dealing with natural history, fish and
fisheries, the oyster and the oyster industry; Prof. Adams of those on
commerce, manufactures, cities, political and religious institutions,
education, populations, and charities and correction, and Dr. Browne
contributed the historical sketch, and had editorial supervision of the
whole.
vi INTRODUCTORY.

The work thus apportioned was allotted to such members of the
University as were best qualified to deal with the special subjects, and
the name of each contributor will be found affixed to his contribution in
the Table of Contents. Important assistance was also obtained from
gentlemen not connected with the University, the chapter on Education
being contributed by Dr. Bernard C. Steiner, Librarian of the Enoch
Pratt Free Library, and that on Population, by J.C. Rose, Esq., of the
Baltimore Bar. The article on Medical Climatology was furnished by Dr.
C. W. Chancellor, Secretary to the State Board of Health, those on the
iron and copper industries by W. Keyser and R. Brent Keyser, Esgqs.,
those on chrome and limestone by W. Glenn and D. Baker, Esqs., and
that on the flora of Maryland by Prof. B. Sollers. The editors are also
indebted to Dr. A. W. Clement, V.S., and Mr. Lee Clark, for information
on the subject of stock-raising.

In addition, valuable assistance has been received from the following
gentlemen: Hon. Lloyd Lowndes and Mr. F. M. Offutt, of Cumberland ;
Mr. Albert Small, of Hagerstown; Dr. D. R. Randall, of Annapolis; Major
E. T. Goldsborough and Mr. F. M. Kinsey, of Frederick; Messrs. F. R.
Jones, J. G. Schonfarber, W. T. Brigham, L. H. Neudecker, W. M. Byrne
and E. H. Sanborn, of Baltimore; Mr. E. C. Carrington, of Easton; Mr. J.
A. Chapman, jr., of Chestertown; Rev. J. K. Holmes, of Crisfield; Mr. A.
C. Bryan, of Rising Sun; Mr. H. T. Weld, of Mt. Savage ; and Mr. Raymond
Henderson, of Hancock.

In the collection of data the editors have had occasion to consult or
correspond with a large number of persons, and their inquiries have
invariably met with a ready and courteous response. To all these friends
they now tender their acknowledgments. Thanks are also due to the
officers of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for kindly permitting the
use of selections from their extensive collection of photographic views
of scenery on the line of their road.
MARYLAND.

 

CHAPTER I.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

The foundation of Maryland is primarily due to George Calvert,
first Baron of Baltimore. When that nobleman, who had been a trusted
councillor of James I, and had held the office of Principal Secretary of
State, became a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, he retired from
public life and determined to spend the remainder of his days in the
New World. He already held by charter a considerable part of the
Island of Newfoundland, called the province of Avalon; and to it he
removed with his family in 1628. But after a about a year’s sojourn in
this bleak region, the extreme severity of the long winters, and the
evident impossibility of making Avalon more than a fishing station,
determined Baltimore to seek a home in some more genial clime; and
he asked the King, Charles I, fora grant of land north of the Potomac,
within the territory that had previously been granted to the Virginia
Company, but which now, by the legal forfeiture of their charter, was
again in the King’s hands.

His request was granted, and the charter for his new province made
out; but before it had passed the great seal, Baltimore died, and the
charter was issued in 1632, to his son, Cecilius Calvert, second Baron of
Baltimore, who named his province Maryland, in compliment to the
Queen, Henrietta Maria.

The territory thus conveyed was considerably more extensive than
that covered by the present State of Maryland, being bounded on the
north by the fortieth parallel of north latitude, on the east by the Dela-
ware Bay and River, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by a line
drawn from the mouth of the Potomac River eastward to the ocean, and
on the west by the farther or right-hand bank of the Potomac to its
most distant source, and thence due north to the fortieth parallel.

The privileges conveyed by the charter were the most complete
ever granted by an English sovereign to a subject: the Proprietary was
2 MARYLAND.

invested with palatinate authority, under which were included all royal
powers, both of peace and war. The province was entirely self-governed,
all laws being made by the Proprietary and the freemen, and these laws
required no confirmation from the King or Parliament. By an express
clause the King renounced for himself and his successors forever, all
right of taxation in Maryland. All that was required of the colonists
was that they should be British subjects, and that the Proprietary should
acknowledge the King of England as his sovereign, paying him, in lieu
of all services or taxes, two Indian arrows yearly, and the fifth of all
gold or silver that might be found.

After securing his charter, Cecilius at once set about his prepara-
tions for colonisation, and fitted out two small vessels, the Ark and Dove,
in which the first band of colonists set sail on November 20, 1633.
These consisted of about twenty gentlemen of good families, all or most
of whom were Catholics, and about two hundred laborers, craftsmen,
and servants, most of them Protestants. Baltimore’s younger brother,
Leonard Calvert, was governor and head of the expedition, assisted by
two councillors, Jerome Hawley and Thomas Cornwaleys. Careful
instructions for their guidance were drawn up by Baltimore, in which,
among other things, he charged them to observe strict impartiality,
and to give the Protestants no cause of offence.

The Ark and Dove, after a tedious and stormy passage, during which
they touched at several of the West India islands, reached at last their
destination, and the colonists landed upon an island at the mouth of the
Potomac, where they celebrated divine service and planted a cross on
March 25, 1634.

The natives received them in the most friendly manner, and were
quite willing that they should settle among them. So they bought from
the King of the Yaocomicos a tract of land a few miles up the Potomac,
where there was a good harbor, and there laid out the plan of a city,
which they called St. Mary’s.

Although the settlement of Maryland could be only an advantage to
Virginia, yet a powerful party in the latter colony were bitterly hostile
to it. One of the leaders of this party was William Claiborne, who had
established a trading-post on Kent Island, in the Chesapeake Bay,
where, as the agent of a London firm of merchants, he dealt with the
Indians for beaver skins. Baltimore was desirous of making a friend of
Claiborne, and instructed Leonard, while notifying him that his island
was within the province of Maryland, to make amicable overtures to
him. Claiborne, however, preferred to remain an enemy.

A vessel of Claiborne’s having been seized by the Maryland authori-
ties for trading in Maryland waters without a license, he despatched a
shallop with an armed party to St. Mary’s to make reprisals. Calvert
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 3

sent out a force in two pinnaces to meet them, and a battle was fought
on the Pocomoke river, in which there was some bloodshed on both
sides, and Claiborne’s vessel surrendéred. Claiborne soon after went to
England, and his London principals sent out an agent who took possession
of their property on Kent Island and acknowledged the jurisdiction of
Maryland. Some disaffection still remaining on the island, Governor
Calvert sailed there with a small force, when all the residents peacefully
subinitted and were confirmed in their holdings of land.

Of the first meeting of the Maryland Assembly we have no record,
but that of the second, in 1637-8, has been preserved. It consisted of
all the freemen of the colony, present either in person or by proxies.
This plan, however, proving inconvenient, was soon changed, and two
burgesses were elected by every hundred, forming a lower house, while
the Governor and Council, appointed by the Proprietary, constituted an
upper house. The clause in the charter giving Baltimore the right to
propose laws was waived by him, and the initiative in legislation left
to the Assembly, he reserving the power of assent or dissent.

The missionaries sent out by the Jesuits with the first colonists were
diligent in spreading Christianity among the Indians, who gladly listened
to their teachings and embraced the faith; even the Tayac, or “emperor,”
as they called him, of Pascataway, who was a sovereign over several
tribes, asking to be baptized and married according to the Christian
rite; and he afterwards brought his young daughter to be educated at
St. Mary’s.

The peace which Maryland enjoyed for some years was disturbed by
the civil war in England. Although Baltimore took no part in the war,
he was known to be a friend of the King; and although Maryland had
no direct interest in the controversy, much partisan feeling was aroused.
In January, 1644, one Richard Ingle, commander of a merchant ship, was
in St. Mary’s, and being a violent partisan of Parliament, and a loose and
loud talker of open treason, made himself so obnoxious that he was
arrested, though presently released and suffered to sail away unmolested.
But in the autumn of the same year he came back with an armed ship
and a force of men, seized St. Mary’s and overthrew the government.
For two years the Province remained in the hands of Ingle and his men,
joined by such of the baser sort as were lured by the prospect of plunder;
and they pillaged and destroyed at their pleasure for about two years.
No blood, however, seems to have been shed. Governor Calvert at
length obtained some help from Virginia, and, returning with a force,
regained his authority without a blow, and the Province was once more
at peace. Not long after, on June 9, 1647, this justand humane Governor
died, leaving a memory still dear to Marylanders.
4 MARYLAND.

In 1648, Baltimore sent out as governor William Stone, a Protestant
and a friend of the parliamentary party; and at the same time recon-
structed the Council, so as to give the Protestants a majority.

He also sent out a new great seal for the province. This seal bore a
coat-of-arms, quartered, the first and fourth quarterings consisting of six
pales, or vertical bars, alternately gold and black, crossed by a bend or
diagonal stripe, on which the colors are
reversed; and the second and third quar-
terings being themselves quartered red
and white, and charged with a Greek
cross, “counterchanged” (that is, red on
the white ground and white on the red),
with its limbs terminating in trefoils.
The pales of gold and black are the orig-
inal Calvert arms, and the crosses are the
bearings of the Crossland family, Alicia
Crossland having been George Calvert’s
mother. Above the shield isa palatine’s
cap, resembling an earl’s coronet, and denoting the Proprietary’s pala-
tinate jurisdiction, and this is surmounted by a helmet bearing a ducal
crown, from which spring two small banners, gold and black. As
supporters he added a ploughman and a fisherman, and beneath was a
scroll bearing the Calvert motto, “ Matti Maschii Parole Femine.”
Surrounding the whole was the legend, “ Scuto bonae voluwntatis tuae
coronasti nos.” (Ps. v. 12). This beautiful device still remains the
seal and symbol of Maryland. Gold and black are the Maryland colors,
and the escutcheon is displayed on the Maryland flag.

Baltimore’s instructions to his first colonists, as we have said, forbade
any discrimination on account of religious differences, or any disputes on
matters of faith. In 1649 this policy was made law and placed on the
statute-book in the famous “ Toleration Act,” as it is called. In this act
the calling others by reproachful names on account of religious differ-
ences was forbidden under penalties, and “the better to preserve love
and amity,” it is enacted that “no person professing to believe in Jesus
Christ shall be in any way molested or discountenanced for or in respect
of his religion, nor in the free exercise thereof.” This act remained the
law of the land until the Puritan supremacy in 1652.

The Puritans came into Maryland in this way: In 1643 the Vir-
ginia Assembly passed a law expelling all non-conformists from the
colony, upon which many came over to Maryland, where they were
kindly received by the Proprietary, and wide and fertile lands in Anne
Arundel county allotted them, which they joyfully accepted, and settling

 
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 5

about the Severn river, at or near the site of the present city of Annap-
olis, called their new home Providence.

After the execution of Charles I,»the Virginia Assembly proclaimed
his son, Charles IJ, as lawful King, in defiance of the statute which
made such a declaration high treason. So Parliament sent out commis-
sioners with a force to reduce to submission “the plantations within the
Chesapeake Bay,” thus including Maryland, where no opposition to Par-
liament existed. Under this authority Governor Stone was displaced,
and William Fuller, a Puritan of Providence, with a body of commis-.
sioners, was put in possession of the government. These repealed the
Toleration Act of 1649, and substituted an act visiting with penalties all
adherents of “popery and prelacy,” as well as Quakers, Baptists and
other miscellaneous sects.

Cromwell was now all-powerful in England, and, disapproving of
their doings, wrote to the Virginia commissioners commanding them to
leave Maryland undisturbed. Baltimore then ordered Stone to take the
government again. As Fuller refused to surrender it, Stone marched
against him with the men of St. Mary’s, and a battle was fought on the
shore of the Severn on March 24, 1655, in which Stone’s party were
defeated and he himself wounded. The prisoners taken were con-
demned to death, and four of them were shot.

News of these violent proceedings reached Cromwell, and the whole
matter was referred for final settlement to the Commissioners of Planta-
tions, whose decision was favorable to Baltimore. Bennett and Mat-
thews, the Virginia commissioners, then surrendered Maryland to the
Proprietary, who re established his government with Josias Fendall as
Governor.

Fendall had not been long in office when he entered into a plot to
render himself independent of the Proprietary, and, indeed, to annul
Baltimore’s authority altogether; so he was superseded, and Baltimore’s
brother, Philip Calvert, appointed governor in his stead. The govern-
ment was now established in the form which it retained until the Revo-
lution. The Proprietary, in person or by deputy, was the chief execu-
tive, assisted by the Council. The Legislature sat in two Houses, the
Governor and Council forming the Upper House, and the elected repre-
sentatives of the freemen the Lower House. All legislation originated
with the Assembly, subject to the Proprietary’s assent. The form was,
therefore, that of a liberal constitutional monarchy, with popular repre-
sentation.

In 1651 Charles Calvert, only son of Cecilius, was sent out as gov-
ernor. He was liked by the people, and the Province steadily grew and
prospered under his administration. A firm treaty of peace was made
with the Susquehannoughs, a warlike nation of Indians at the head of
6 MARYLAND.

the bay, and the native tribes of Maryland were taken under the protec-
tion of the government. Peace reigned throughout the province; and
the only serious grievance of the colonists was the over-production of
tobacco, which the government in vain tried to check. Money was
excessively scarce ; and the great staple, tobacco, was the general circu-
lating medium for a hundred years or more.

Cecilius Calvert died in 1675, and Charles, third Baron of Baltimore,
succeeded to his title and dominions. During his administration
occurred a transaction which was to result in the loss to Maryland of a
large part of her territory. The facts in brief are these: William Penn,
to whose father’s estate the crown owed a large sum, obtained from
King Charles IJ, in lieu of payment, the grant of a tract of land west of
the Delaware River and north of Maryland. There was nothing in this
grant that encroached upon Maryland’s territory, for the fortieth paral-
lel was named in both charters as the southern boundary of the one
and the northern boundary of the other. Penn, however, was extremely
anxious to carry his southern boundary to the head of the Bay; and
after many fruitless attempts to induce Baltimore to agree to a change
of the boundary line to his advantage, refused to join him in fixing it,
and so the line was left undetermined. He also obtained from the Duke
of York (afterwards James II), a grant of the land bounding on the west
side of the Delaware Bay, south to Cape Henlopen, land which the Duke
had no power to convey, as it was already included in the Maryland
charter. Of this also Penn kept a firm hold.

The Protestant revolution, as it was called, which dethroned James
and gave the crown to William and Mary, strongly stirred men’s minds,
even in distant Maryland; and there were always ambitious and unscru-
pulous persons in the province ready to fan any spark of popular discon-
tent toa blaze. Baltimore had sent out orders to have the new sover-
eigns proclaimed, but the messenger unfortunately died on the way, and
the delay thence resulting was used to alarm the ignorant and timid.
Although the Protestants outnumbered the Catholics eleven or twelve to
one, the credulous people were easily persuaded that a plot was on foot
to bring down a force of hostile Indians, who, joining with the Catholics,
were to make ageneral massacre of the Protestants. The terrified people
hastily took up arms in various places, and the leaders of the sedition,
headed by John Coode, a man of infamous character, placed themselves
at their head and seized the government. This done, they wrote
to King William, assuring him that they had acted from motives of the
purest patriotism, and tu preserve the Protestants from destruction, and
begging him to take the government into his own hand.

Accordingly William, without waiting for a legal investigation,
assumed the government, and in 1692 sent out Sir Lionel Copley as the
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 7

first royal governor. The Proprietary’s property and personal revenues
were not confiscated, but the whole proprietary government was
superseded. :

One of the first acts of the new government was to make the Church
of England the established church of the province. Hitherto all wor-
ship had been free, and all the churches had been supported by volun-
tary contributions, but now all taxables had to contribute, to the extent
of forty pounds of tobacco per poll, to maintain the establishment.
Protestant Dissenters and Quakers were allowed their separate meeting-
houses, if they paid the tax.

The period of royal government was not marked by any momentous
incident. During the administration of Francis Nicholson the seat of
government was removed from St. Mary’s to Annapolis (1694), and a
beginning was made toward a system of free schools by the foundation
of King William School, at the latter city.

Charles, the third Lord Baltimore, died in 1715, and his title and
estates went to his eldest son, Benedict Leonard, who had become a
Protestant. He, however, died the same year, and his son Charles, a
minor, and also a Protestant, succeeded. As the charter had never been
rescinded, but only held in abeyance because of the Proprietary’s faith,
that reason now no longer existed; and on the petition of Charles’s
guardian, the province was restored to him in 1716.

Little of moment occurred in the following years. In 1730 the town
of Baltimore was laid out by commissioners appointed under an Act of
Assembly, who bought a tract of sixty acres on the northwest branch of
the Patapsco at forty shillings per acre, and laid it out in lots of about
an acre each. The growth of the town was slow, and at the end of
twenty years it had hardly more than as many houses. Annapolis, made
the government seat by Governor Nicholson, was erected into a city
in 1708. Frederick was laid out in 1745.

At this time the population of Maryland numbered about 94,000
whites. The annual export of tobacco was 28,000 hhds. and of wheat
about 150,000 bushels.

In 1751 Charles, the Proprietary, died, and was succeeded by his
only son, Frederick, sixth and last Baron of Baltimore, who sent out
Horatio Sharpe as Governor.

In the final struggle between Great Britain and France for the posses-
sion of Canada, Maryland suffered severely by invasions of the French
and Indians, and after Braddock’s defeat in 1756, it seemed as if her
western counties would be depopulated; but Governor Sharpe displayed
great energy in the defence, and the transference of the seat of war to
the St. Lawrence and the lakes removed the most imminent danger.
8 MARYLAND.

The stamp tax, imposed in 1765, met with violent opposition in
Maryland, as it did everywhere, the stamp distributor being compelled
to fly the province, and the stamps were shipped back to England, as no
one would use them.

About this time the long-standing dispute about the northern bound-
ary was finally settled, and two eminent English mathematicians,
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, were engaged by the Proprietaries
of Maryland and Pennsylvania to run the line between the provinces and
mark it by suitable monuments. They began their labors in 1763 and
continued them for four years. The line thus run is the famous Mason
and Dixon’s line, dividing the Northern from the Southern States.

Frederick, the sixth and last Baron of Baltimore, died in 1771, leaving
the province to his illegitimate son, Henry Harford, a minor.

If the oppostion to the stamp tax had been fierce, that to the tea
tax, first laid in 1767, was still fiercer, and associations were formed
througout the province to prevent the introduction of tea. A firm of
Annapolis merchants having, in defiance of the public sentiment,
imported a consignment of that commodity, popular indignation rose so
high that a town meeting was held, and the owner of the brig that had
brought it, to avert further mischief, publicly burned his vessel, the
Peggy Stewart, with its obnoxious cargo, in the sight of a large con-
course of spectators, on October 19, 1774.

The associations were felt to embody the spirit of resistance to the
tyrannous pretensions of England, but something more organic was seen
to be necessary, if the struggle was to be carried on with any hope of
success, and delegates were chosen to a Convention which met in Annap-
olis. This Convention became the depositary or organ of the sovereign
power of the people of Maryland. It appointed the deputies to the Con-
tinental Congress, and instructed them from time to time. As it was too
large to remain in permanent session, a portion of its members were
appointed a Council of Safety, which sat in Annapolis, and was the
executive organ of the Convention, assisted by committees of correspond-
ence in the counties.

The Council of Safety soon began military preparations, organizing
the militia and providing them with military stores and equipments.
After the battle of Lexington the Convention prepared a declaration and
pledge, declaring the purpose of the people to resist force by force, and
warlike preparations went on rapidly. The militia was drilled and kept
in readiness; minute-men were enlisted, and Maryland’s contingent,
known as the Maryland Line, placed at the disposition of Congress.

Governor Eden, finding that his presence in the colony was worse
than useless, left the Province on June 24, 1776, and the last phantom of
proprietary government vanished. Maryland was now a self-governed
HISTORICAL SKETCH. ‘ 9

republic; and the Convention emphasized the fact by issuing a formal
Declaration of Independence on the third of July.

The Convention had always recognized itself to be a merely pro-
visional government, uniting functions and powers which in a free State
should be kept distinct. It therefore drew up a Bill of Rights and Con-
stitution to be submitted to the people, and then abdicated its authority
by a simple adjournment, leaving the direction of affairs in the hands
of the Council of Safety; and thus the wisest and most patriotic body
that ever governed Maryland ceased to exist.

The Constitution provided for a government consisting of a Gov-
ernor and Council, a legislative body consisting of a Senate and House
of Delegates, and other inferior executive officers. It was adopted by
the people, and ratified at the elections. Thomas Johnson, the first
elected Governor, was inaugurated in March, 1777, and the Council of
Safety dissolved itself. Maryland thus became a sovereign and inde-
pendent State, but she did not enter the Confederation until 1781, when
she came in as the thirteenth and last State.

During the War of the Revolution no military operations of impor-
tance took place on the soil of Maryland, though the Maryland troops
fought with distinguished valor in many engagements, especially those
at Long Island, Camden, Cowpens, Guilford, and Eutaw Springs. Balti-
more was threatened early in the war with a naval attack, but the
Baltimoreans had fitted out an armed ship, the Defence, and on her
approach the enemy retired without doing any injury.

After the successful close of the war, General Washington resigned
his commission to Congress in the Senate Chamber of the State-house, at
Annapolis, on December 22, 1783.

In 1791 Maryland ceded to the United States the present District of
Columbia to be the permanent seat of the Federal Government.

In the war of 1812 with Great Britain, Maryland bore a distinguished
part. The number of privateers that sailed from Baltimore, and their
efficiency in crippling British commerce, drew upon her the especial
wrath of the enemy, whose cruisers depredated the towns and settle-
ments on the shores of the Bay. In August, 1814, an expedition under
General Ross, marching through Maryland to the attack of Washington,
was met at Bladensburg by a force, chiefly of Marylanders and Virgin-
ians, and the Americans sustained a severe defeat and retreated, leaving
the way open to Washington, which was plundered and the public
buildings burned.

In the following month a formidable force was sent to attack Balti-
more by land and water. The approach to the city was defended by
Fort McHenry and several hastily constructed batteries, and on the land
side by earthworks. Part of the enemy’s forces were disembarked at
10 MARYLAND.

North Point at the mouth of the Patapsco, but on the march toward the
city they were met by a detachment of Maryland forces under General
Stricker, and a skirmish followed on September 12, in which General
Ross, the British commander, was killed; the Marylanders retiring in
good order. This was called the battle of North Point; and the Battle
Monument, as it is called in Baltimore, preserves the names of those who
fell in defence of the city.

The British forces continued their march until they reached the
defenders’ lines, when they halted, awaiting the co-operation of the
fleet. This was checked in its advance by Fort McHenry at the mouth
of the harbor, which was fiercely bombarded for a day and night without
effect, and an attempt to land men in boats was repulsed with heavy loss
by the batteries. As the combined attack on the city was thus frus-
trated, the plan was abandoned. The patriotic song, “The Star-spangled
Banner,” was written on this occasion by Mr. Francis Scott Key, a
Marylander, who had gone on board the British Admiral’s ship with a
flag of truce, and was detained on board during the bombardment.
Peace with Great Britain was concluded in December.

For nearly fifty years after the peace, the history of Maryland isa
story of peaceful prosperity. Canals and railroads were constructed,
developing the internal resources of the State, the most important being
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, work on which was begun in 1828.

The outbreak of the war between the States in 1861 found the people
of Maryland divided in sentiment, though the greater number strongly
sympathized with the sister States of the South. A Massachusetts
regiment marching through Baltimore on its way to Washington was
pelted with stones by a mob, and fired into the people, several persons
being killed on both sides. The city and State, however, were soon
under control of the Federal forces.

No considerable battle was fought on Maryland soil during the war,
except that of Sharpsburg, in Washington county, on September 16 and
17, 1862, and she was thus spared the devastation which follows the
track of hostile armies.

With the restoration of peace and civil government, Maryland again
entered upon a career of prosperity, the material results of which will
appear in the following pages. The emancipation of the slaves altered,
of course, many of the conditions of industry; but as she had been less
dependent on slave labor than the more Southern States, its cessation did
not leave her paralysed. The agricultural interests suffered for a time;
but on the whole the change has been beneficial. The greater efficiency
of hired labor, and its comparative scarcity, has driven the farmers to
more scientific and economical farming, to the abandonment of old
routine and traditional methods and crops, and to the higher cultivation
of smaller areas, as will be explained in a future chapter.
CHAPTER II.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.

The prosperity of a country is, to a large degree, dependent upon its
physical surroundings. Their character determines the pursuits of its
inhabitants, and thus, indirectly, their social, political and financial
welfare. The residents of a mountainous district have their peculiar
occupations, while those of the lowland find their employment in other
ways. If the region borders the sea or inland bodies of water still other
means of livelihood are sought by its people. The climate, whether hot
or cold, humid or dry, variable or constant, likewise affects the develop-
ment of the region. It becomes important, therefore, to know something
of the physical features of a country or a State if one would understand
its past history or indicate the lines of future prosperity.

When we come to examine the physical features of the State of
Maryland we find the greatest diversity in surface configuration and
climate. From its eastern to its western borders may be found a
succession of districts suitable, from their physical surroundings, for the
most diverse employments. Maryland possesses portions of all the
characteristic divisions of the eastern United States. There is no State
in the country which has a greater variety in its natural surroundings.

In the succeeding pages of this chapter the Physical Features will
be considered under the four following headings, viz: Topography,
Climate, Water Supply and Water Power.

TOPOGRAPHY.

The topography, or surface configuration of the State, will be best
understood after a brief account of the leading features of the eastern
United States, since Maryland is only a portion of a larger and definite
topographic region. An examination of a relief map of the United States
shows a gradual elevation east of the Mississippi Valley to the great
mountainous area bordering the eastern side of the continent, beyond
which the country slopes at first rapidly, then gradually, to the Atlantic
coast.

The mountainous area is known under the name of the Appalachian
Region, while the hilly country which stretches along its eastern base
has been called the Piedmont Plateau. To the east of the latter and
12 MARYLAND.

occupying the region bordering the Atlantic coast is a low, level area
which has been termed the Coastal Plain.

A brief characterization of these leading topographic divisions of
the eastern United States will precede a more detailed description of the
Maryland area.*

The Coastal Plain, as a continuous tract, begins in New Jersey on
the south shore of Raritan Bay, where it has a width of about 20 miles,
and extends thence southward, constantly broadening, until, in Georgia,
it reaches fully 150 miles. North of New Jersey it is continued in the
islands of Long Island, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket, and other land
areas bordering the New England coast.

The Coastal Plain is characterized by broad, level stretches of slight
elevation, cut by the larger rivers that flow across the area from the
Piedmont Plateau, and the smaller rivers and tributaries that have their
sources within it. All the streams have sluggish currents, and the
drainage of the land is imperfect. Throughout, the country is deeply
indented with tidal estuaries and bays, the heads of which often reach
quite to the border of the Piedmont Plateau, and at many points admit
the entrance of the largest ocean-going vessels.

The deeper channels are generally the continuation of the leading
rivers which suddenly change in character as they enter the Coastal Plain,
with great loss in the velocity of their currents. The name “ fall-line”
has been given to this boundary on that account. The inland border of
the Coastal Plain thus marks the head of navigation, and has likewise
conditioned, from the earliest times, the leading highways of trade
which connect the North and the South. Along this line have grown
up the larger cities of the Atlantic seaboard. Trenton, Philadelphia,.
Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, Petersburg, Columbia, Augusta,
together with other less populous centres, are thus situated..

To the west of the Coastal Plain, aud extending to the base of the
mountainous area, is a region of somewhat greater elevation than that
which has just been described. It is known under the name of the
Piedmont Plateau.

To the north, in New England, it is less clearly defined than along
the Middle and South Atlantic slope, where it occurs as a broken, hilly
country, with undulating sufface, but with few ranges of mountains of
conspicuous altitude or great extent. It broadens from New York south-
ward, reaching its greatest width in North Carolina, where it extends
quite 300 miles from the base of the Appalachian Mountains. Through-

 

*See Whitney, J. D., United States. Physical Geography and Geology. Encyclopeedia Britannica.
vol. XXIII, pp. 791-802.

McGee, W. J., Three Formations of the Middle Atlantic Slope. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 35,
pp. 120-1.
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 13

out most of the Piedmont Plateau the streams flow with rapid currents,
and the country is fully drained.

The area of high land, known as,the Appalachian Region, extends
from Cape Gaspé, in Canada, southward to Alabama, a distance of 1,300
miles. To the south of New York it is divided into three more or less
clearly defined regions.

The eastern district is composed of ranges of mountains called in
Pennsylvania the South Mountains, but known in Maryland, Virginia
and North Carolina under the name of the Blue Ridge. South of Vir-
ginia the eastern belt increases in width, and somewhat changes its
character, and in North Carolina contains the highest points in the
whole Appalachian system. On the western border of the Blue Ridge
lies the Great Valley, which, in Pennsylvania, is about 10 miles in
width, but broadens southward, attaining in Virginia, for a distance of
300 miles, a nearly uniform width of 20 miles. It forms one of the
richest agricultural belts within the Appalachian Region.

The central district is known as the Appalachian Region proper, and
is characterized by parallel ranges throughout the whole length of the
mountainous area. The continuity of the ranges is frequently inter-
rupted from structural and other causes, but sharp ridges and deep
valleys everywhere abound.

The western district is characterized by undulating ranges which
rise from a high plateau that gradually decreases in elevation westward,
until it merges into the rolling country of the Mississippi Valley.
Along the eastern side of this western area of highland are the Alleghany
Mountains. They continue as parallel ranges throughout the region,
which is commonly known as the Alleghany District.

After this review of the leading topographic features of the Eastern
United States, let us turn our attention to a consideration of the Mary-
land area.

The three regions which have been outlined above, viz: The Coastal
Plain, the Piedmont Plateau and the Appalachian Region, are all
typically represented within the limits of the State of Maryland, and
have conditioned, to a marked extent, its economic development.

THE COASTAL PLAIN.

The Coastal Plain forms the eastern portion of the State, and com-
prises the area between the Atlantic Ocean, and a line passing N. E. to
8. W., from Wilmington to Washington, through Baltimore. This region
includes very nearly 5,000 square miles, or, approximately, one-half the
area of the State. It is about 100 miles broad in its widest part.

The Coastal Plain is characterized by broad, level-topped stretches
of country which extend, with gradually increasing elevations, from the
14 MARYLAND.

coastal border, where the land is but slightly raised above sea level, to
its western edge, where heights of 300 feet and more are found. As the
region is cut quite to the border of the Piedmont Plateau with tidal
estuaries, the topography becomes more and more pronounced in passing
inland from the coast. The Chesapeake Bay extends nearly across its
full length from north to south, while the larger rivers and their tribu-
taries deeply indent the region in all directions, making the coast-line
in Maryland one of the longest in the country.

The Coastal Plain in Maryland may be divided into a lower eastern
and a higher western division, separated by the Chesapeake Bay. The
former is known under the name of Eastern Maryland (or Eastern Shore),
while the latter is commonly referred to as Southern Maryland.

The eastern division includes the counties of Worcester, Somerset,
Wicomico, Dorchester, Caroline, Talbot, Queen Anne, Kent, and part of
Cecil. To this region most of the State of Delaware also properly
belongs. Nowhere, except in the extreme north, does it reach 100 feet
in elevation, while most of the country is below 25 feet in height. Both
on the Atlantic coast and the shore of the Chesapeake, it is deeply
indented by bays and estuaries.

The drainage of the region is simple, the streams flowing from
the watershed directly to the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay upon the
east, and to the Chesapeake Bay upon the west. The position of the
watershed, along the extreme eastern edge of the area, is very striking.
In Worcester county, for much of the distance, it is only a few miles
from the coast. As a result, the streams which flow to the east are
small in comparison to those which drain to the west. Among the more
important rivers which reach the Chesapeake Bay are the Pocomoke,
Nanticoke, Choptank and Chester, which all have their headwaters
within the State of Delaware, and flow in a general southwest direction
in sinuous channels.

The western division includes the counties of St. Mary’s, Calvert,
Charles, Prince George’s, Anne Arundel, and portions of Baltimore,
Harford and Cecil. In elevation it stands in striking contrast to the
eastern division, since it frequently exceeds 100 feet in height, even
along its eastern margin. In lower St. Mary’s county the land reaches
an elevation of 100 feet not far from the bay shore, which is gradually
increased until, near the border of Charles county, it slightly exceeds
180 feet. In southern Calvert county an elevation of 140 feet is
found to the west of Cove Point, and this gradually increases to the
northward, until near the southern boundary of Anne Arundel county,
the land rises above 180 feet. Farther to the northwest, in Charles,
Prince George’s and Anne Arundel counties, the land increases gradually
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 15

in height, reaching 280 feet to the east of Washington, and this is con-
tinned with slight decrease to the northeastward toward Baltimore.

The western division is traversed by several rivers which flow from
the Piedmont Plateau. Among the more important are the Potomac,
Patuxent, Patapsco, Gunpowder and Susquehanna. ‘The course of the
Potomac is very striking. After flowing in a nearly southeast direction,
across the hard rocks of the Piedmont Plateau, it is, apparently, abruptly
turned aside by the soft materials of the Coastal Plain, and takes a
course for forty miles nearly at right angles to that which it has for-
merly held. It turns again as abruptly to the southeast, and flows in
that direction to the Chesapeake Bay.

The local drainage of the western division is similar to that hitherto
described for the eastern. The streams throughout southern Maryland
flow chiefly to the westward. The water-shed of the region lying
between the Chesapeake Bay and the Patuxent River is situated buta
short distance from the shores of the latter, most of the natural drain-
age of Calvert county reaching the Patuxent River. A still more
striking instance of this is seen in St. Mary’s, Charles and Prince
George’s counties, where the streams nearly all flow to the Potomac
River, the water-shed of the region approaching very close to the valley
of the Patuxent. The same peculiarity of drainage is found to the
southward, in Virginia and the Carolinas.

THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU.

The Piedmont Plateau borders the Coastal Plain upon the west, and
extends to the base of the Catoctin Mountains. It includes, approxi-
mately, 2,500 square miles, or about one-fourth of the area of the State.
It is nearly forty miles in width in the southern portion of the region,
but gradually broadens toward the north, until it reaches 65 miles. It
includes all, or the greater part of Montgomery, Howard, Baltimore,
Harford, Carroll and Frederick counties. The country is broken by low,
undulating hills, which gradually increase in elevation to the westward.

The Piedmont Plateau in Maryland, is divided very nearly in its
central portion by an area of highland known as Parr’s Ridge, into an
eastern and western district. In the character of the rocks these
divisions afford sharp distinctions, which are not without their effect
upon the relief of the land.

The eastern division has, on account of its crystalline rocks and
their complicated structure,a diversified topography. Along the eastern
margin the land attains, at several points, heights exceeding 400 feet,
reaching at Catonsville 525 feet above sea level. ‘To the west the
country gradually increases in elevation, until it culminates in Parr’s
Ridge, which exceeds 850 feet in Carroll county.
16 MARYLAND.

The drainage of the eastern district is to the east and southeast.
On its northern and southern boundaries it is traversed by the Susque-
hanna and Potomac rivers, which have their sources without the area,
while the smaller streams, which lie between them, either drain directly
to the Chesapeake Bay, or into the two main rivers. Among the larger
of the intermediate streams are the Patuxent, Patapsco and Gunpowder
rivers, whose headwaters are situated upon Parr’s Ridge. The Patapsco,
especially, flows in a deep rocky gorge until it reaches the Relay, where
it debouches into the Coastal Plain. All these streams have rapid
currents as far as the eastern border of the Piedmont Plateau, and even
in the case of the largest, are not navigable.

The broad, fertile limestone valleys are a striking feature in this
area, and are represented to the north of Baltimore in the Green Spring
and Dulaney’s valleys. On account of the complicated character of the
stratigraphy, the valleys take different directions, and are of different
form and extent.

The western division extends ‘from Parr’s Ridge to the Catoctin
Mountains. Along its western side is the broad limestone valley in
which Frederick is situated, and through which flows the Monocacy
River from north to south, entering the Potomac River at the boundary
line between Montgomery and Frederick counties. The valley, near
Frederick, has an elevation of 250 feet above tide, which changes slowly
to the eastward toward Parr’s Ridge, and very rapidly to the westward
toward the Catoctin Mountains. Situated on the eastern side of the
valley, just above the mouth of the Monocacy River, and breaking the
regularity of this surface outline is Sugar Loaf Mountain, which rises
rapidly to a height of 1,250 feet.

With the exception of a few streams which flow into the Potomac
directly, the entire drainage of the western district is accomplished by
the Monocacy River and its numerous tributaries, which flow in nearly
parallel west and east courses, from Parr’s Ridge and the Catoctin Moun-
tains. As the deepest portion of the valley lies considerably to the west
of the centre of the district, the streams upon the east are longer and of
greater volume than those upon the west. The water-ways at a distance
from the main valley, flow in well-marked channels, which are
frequently deeply cut into the land.

THE APPALACHIAN REGION.

The Appalachian Region forms the western portion of Maryland,
bordering the Piedmont Plateau. It comprises about 2,000 square miles,
or, approximately, one-fifth the area of the State. It includes the
western portion of Frederick, and all of Washington, Alleghany and
Garrett counties. It consists of a series of parallel mountain ranges
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 17

with deep valleys, which are cut nearly at right angles by the Potomac
River. Many of the ranges exceed 2,000 feet, while some reach 3,000 feet
and more, in the western portion of the mountainous area.

The Appalachian Region is divided into three distinct districts, an
eastern (Blue Ridge and Great Valley), a central (Appalachian Mountains
proper) and western (Alleghany Mountains), which are separated from
one another upon clearly defined structural differences.

The eastern division comprises the area between the Catoctin and
the North Mountains, and has a width of about 25 miles from east to
west. Along the eastern border of this region the Catoctin Mountains
extend from north to south, reaching the Potomac river at Point of
Rocks. They attain an altitude of 1,800 feet. Succeeding this range
upon the west is the Middletown Valley, with an elevation of 500 feet
at Middletown. Running through its centre from north to south is the
Catoctin Creek, which receives the drainage from the western flanks of
the Catoctin Mountains and the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge. The
Blue Ridge Mountains are a continuation of the South Mountains of
Pennsylvania, and extend as a sharply defined range from the northern
boundary of the State to the Potomac river, which they reach at
Weverton. Their crest forms the boundary between Frederick and
Washington counties. The Blue Ridge reaches an elevation of about
2,400 feet at Quirank. The Blue Ridge of Virginia is not the direct
continuation of the mountains so named in Maryland, but of a smaller
range, the Elk Ridge Mountains, that adjoin them upon the west. They
are pierced by the Potomac river at Harper’s Ferry.

Occupying the greater part of this eastern district, and reaching to
its western border, is the Hagerstown Valley, a portion of the Great
Valley of the Appalachian Region hitherto described. It reaches an
altitude of about 500 feet at Hagerstown, but gradually becomes lower
toward the south in the vicinity of the Potomac river. The Antietam
River and its tributaries occupy the eastern side of the valley, and the
Conococheague River and its tributaries the western. The central portion
of the valley is accordingly somewhat higher than its sides.

The central division, which comprises the Appalachian Mountains
proper, is bounded by the North Mountain upon the east and Will’s
Mountain, near Cumberland, upon the west. Prof. H. D. Rogers describes
this district as follows in his report of the First Geological Survey of
Pennsylvania: “It is a complex chain of long, narrow, very level
mountain ridges, separated by long, narrow, parallel valleys. These
ridges sometimes end abruptly in swelling knobs, and sometimes taper
off in long slender points. Their slopes are singularly uniform, being
in many cases unvaried by ravine or gully for many miles; in other
instances they are trenched at equal intervals with great regularity.

2
18 MARYLAND.

Their crests are, for the most part, sharp, and they preserve an extra-
ordinarily equable elevation, being only here and there interrupted by
notches or gaps, which sometimes descend to the water level, so as to give
passage to the rivers [Potomac]. .... The ridges are variously arranged
in groups with long, narrow crests, some of which preserve a remarkable
straightness for great distances, while others bend with a prolonged and
regular sweep. In many instances two narrow contiguous parallel moun-
tain crests unite at their extremities and enclose a narrow oval valley,
which, with its sharp mountain sides, bears not unfrequently a marked
resemblance to a long, slender, sharp-pointed canoe.” Among the more
important of the ranges in Maryland west of North Mountain are
Tonoloway Hill, Sideling Hill, Town Hill, Green Ridge, Warrior Ridge
and Martin’s Ridge, the two latter reaching 2,000 feet and upwards in
elevation. They are arranged in groups of three parallel and closely
adjoining ridges on the east and west, with more distant ranges in the
middle of the district.

The drainage is altogether to the southward into the Potomac. The
deeper valleys in the eastern portion of the region have an elevation of
about 500 feet in the vicinity of the Potomac, but they gradually became
higher toward the west. Evett’s Creek, at its mouth, near Cumberland,
has an elevation of about 600 feet above sea level.

The western division occupies the extreme western portion of Mary-
land, and includes the Alleghany Mountains in its eastern half. They
gradually merge into a high plateau, with gently undulating mountains
rising from the surface, which continue beyond the western borders
of the State. The leading ranges of this district are Dan’s Mountain,
Savage Mountain, Meadow Mountain, Negro Mountain, Winding Ridge
and Laurel Hill. Heights of 3,000 feet and more are reached in Savage
and Negro Mountains.

The partially-adjusted streams give much variety to the topography.
They flow in part to the southward into the Potomac, but in Garrett
county the greater number drain to the northward through the Youghio-
gheny River into the Monongahela.

This separation of the drainage has particular interest, since it
marks the water-shed between the streams which flow into the Potomac
and thus reach the sea by the eastern slope of the Appalachian Moun-
tains, and those which flow to the Gulf by way of the Ohio and
Mississippi Rivers.

CLIMATE.

The climate of Maryland is greatly diversified by reason of the
complexity of its surface configuration, the presence of the sea upon its
eastern borders, the great area of highland which occupies the western
division, and the bays and estuaries which deeply indent the land in all
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 19

directions in the Chesapeake region. On account of these disturbing
conditions, the same parallels of latitude show very great variations in
the character of the climate. .

Although the climate in general is what is known as continental, it
is greatly modified in the eastern portion of the State by the ocean and
the Chesapeake Bay, and in the extreme southeast becomes almost
oceanic or insular, surrounded as the land is on nearly all sides by water.

A description of the climate of the State has been rendered possible
as a result of the extended observations of the Maryland State Weather
Service, which was organized two years ago, under the joint auspices of
the Johns Hopkins University, the Maryland Agricultural College and
the United States Weather Bureau, and was recognized by the Legisla-
ture of the State at its last session. Over fifty stations have been
established in the several counties, so that every important variation
which takes place within the limits of the State may be observed.
Many records of temperature and rainfall were kept at isolated points
throughout the State before the organization of the State Service, and
these, together with the fuller and more accurate observations which
have been taken during the last two years, afford the data upon which
the conclusions of this chapter will be based.

The climate of the State will be considered under the following
heads, viz:—Temperature, Precipitation, Humidity, Winds, Barometric
Pressure, Medical Climatology.

TEMPERATURE.

The great diversity in the physical features of Maryland, with its
consequent effect upon the climate, renders a characterization of the
temperature of the State,asa whole, quite impossible: The difference
between the coastal portions and the mountainous regions is so great
that the monthly, seasonal and annual means for the State do not of
necessity indicate the temperature for any single locality, although
they are of interest in making comparisons with other areas. The
following table of mean temperatures of the State is made up from
all the localities which are mentioned in the later lists, and includes
all the authentic observations :

TABLE OF MEAN TEMPERATURE FOR MARYLAND.

 

 

Montouy MEAN.

 

SEASONAL MEAN. | 3

 

|
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‘Annual eis

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February.
September.
Autumn.

; Summer.

|

March.
April
May.
June
July.
August.
Spr ing.
Winter.

 

 

January.
, October.
| November.

 

| December.
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20 MARYLAND.

Upon an examination of the table it will be observed that the coldest
month is January, with an average mean temperature of 32.8°, while the
warmest month is July, with an average mean temperature of 75.8°, a
difference of 43°. The greatest changes in mean temperature take place
in the Spring and Autumn months, while those in Summer and Winter
are very slight.

Since the temperature is modified to a marked degree by altitude
and proximity to the sea, the State of Maryland will naturally fall into
the four following divisions, the topographic features of which have
been already described, viz:

Hastern Maryland :

Southern Maryland | =Coastat Fae

Northern Central Maryland= Piedmont Plateau.

Western Maryland=Appatachian Region.

An examination of the following tables will show the differences in
temperature which are found in the several districts. Since Eastern
Maryland extends much farther north than Southern Maryland its mean
temperature is lower, although it is generally warmer at the same
latitude :

TABLE OF MEAN TEMPERATURE FOR THE FOUR CLIMATIC DIVISIONS OF MARYLAND.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

| ‘ é
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ba 2 ‘ Ps 2\e]4 &

Curmatic Divisions. e/a} qa] 4 ais g 3|8)|3
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Eastern Maryland.................... 34 .8/36.1/40.5 52.6/62.1:72.8175.8)74. ae ne -5155 3187.3
Southern Maryland.................. 35 3/87. 4142.3 53.4/68.9 74.1177. 7/75. 768. ‘i 6)46 5187.6
|

Northern Central Maryland.......... 30.7\33.9/88.2 50.9)63.5,72 .8)75.7|72.465.8 54. 2/42.81384.0
Western Maryland. ......... ... .. 30.9. 9.249.017.2784...

SEASONS. SEASONAL CHANGES.

Curmatic Divistons. 5 2 Z 8 eb 24 : Fl 2 ci
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Eastern Maryland............... 51.7 | 74.5 | 55.8 | 36.1 | 54.5 | 15.6 | 22.8 L18.7 -19.7
Southern Maryland.............. 53.1 | 75.5 | 57.2 | 36.9 | 55.6 | 16.2 | 22.4 118.3 |-909.3
Northern Central Maryland..... | 50.6 | 73.5 | 54.3 | 33.1 | 53.0 | 17.5 | 22.9 |-19.9 91.9
Western Maryland............. 49.4] 72.7 | 52.7 | 81.7 | 52.0] 17.7 | 23.3 20. La.

 

 

 

 

 

 
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 21

It will be observed that the mean annual temperature of the western
division is 52°, while that of the southern is 55.6°, a difference of 3.6°.
The mean annual temperature has a much greater range, however, when
the extremities of the State are compared. An examination of Plate VI
will show the isothermal line of 50° passing through Garrett and
Alleghany counties and bending down along the high ridge of the Pied-
mont Plateau into Carroll and Baltimore counties, while the isothermal
line of 58° crosses Worcester and Somerset counties to the Virginia shore
of the Chesapeake. There is thus a difference of over 8° in the annual
means between the northern and western, and the southern portions of
the State.

The seasonal isothermal lines upon the charts indicate a still wider
range in mean temperature between the western and southeastern portions
of the State. In spring it ranges from 56° to 44°, a difference of 12°; in
summer from 77° to 69°, a difference of 8°; in autumn from 60° to 50°,
a difference of 10°; and in winter from 40° to 27°, a difference of 13°.

On Plate I will be found a graphic representation of the annual
range of temperature in the four climatic divisions. The vertical lines
represent the months, and the horizontal the degrees of temperature,
while the curved lines indicate the climatic divisions. Each intersection
of a vertical line by a curved line marks the mean temperature for the
month. The rapid changes in spring and autumn, and the relatively
slight changes in summer and winter, are clearly brought out by this
means.

Eastern Maryland. This portion of the State has been hitherto
designated as the eastern division of the Coastal Plain, and its low level
surface described. Deeply indented by tidal estuaries and bordered by
the ocean, its temperature is much modified by the surrounding water.

The southern portion of the area has a mean annual temperature of
58°, the highest in the State. In passing to the northward the tempera-
ture changes at first rapidly, the isothermal lines of 57° and 56° following
at short intervals. The greater portion of the eastern division, however,
is found between the isothermal lines of 56° and 54°, while in the extreme
north the temperature again changes rapidly, the isothermal lines of 53°
and 52° following each other at short intervals. The extreme range in
the mean annual temperature is thus found to be 6°.

The mean seasonal variations between the southern and northern
portions of the region are also distinctly marked. As in the case of the
annual means, the isothermal lines do not succeed each other in all
instances at regular intervals.

The mean temperature for spring ranges from 50° in the north to 56°
in the south. An examination of Plate II will show, however, that the
greater portion of the region is found between the means of 51° and 53°.
22, MARYLAND.

In summer there is very little range in mean temperature between the
northern and southern portions of the district. The entire region lies
between the isothermals of 74° and 76°.

In autumn the range in mean temperature is the same as in spring,
amounting to 6°. Although the extremes are found between 541° and 60°,
the greater portion of the region lies between 55° and 57°.

The greatest difference in mean temperature is found in winter. The
variation is then 9°, and the mean temperature ranges from 31° in the
north to 40° in the south. There is a much more gradual change than at
other seasons, the isothermals being found approximately equidistant
from one another.

Reference to the tables will show the names and number of the
stations in Eastern Maryland, together with the local monthly and
seasonal variations in mean temperature which occur.

Southern Maryland. The southetn portion of the State has been
already described as the western division of the Coastal Plain. The
surface of the land is somewhat higher and more broken than in Eastern
Maryland, but is still low and flat. On account of this general uniformity
throughout the area, together with its limited extent from north to south,
the variations in mean temperature are not very striking. The annual
means seldom exceed that of Baltimore, which is 55.6°, by more than 2°,
while Leonardtown and several other places have almost the same average
temperature. At a few points, owing to local causes, the mean annual
temperature is even lower.

With the exception of the winter temperature, the mean seasonal
temperatures show very slight variations, seldom reaching more than two
degrees. In spring the region is crossed by the isothermal lines of 53°
and 54°, in summer of 75°, 76° and 77°, in autumn of 57°, 58°, 59° and 60°,
the two latter, however, only touching the southern portion of St. Mary’s
county. In winter, on the other hand, variations of four or five degrees
are found, the isothermal lines of 36°, 37°, 38°, 39° and 40° succeeding
one another at very nearly equal intervals.

The interior portion of the country is warmer during the spring,
summer and autumn months, but cooler during the winter.

The names and number of the stations in Southern Maryland are given
in the following tables.

Northern-Central Maryland. The hilly country which borders the
Coastal Plain upon the east, has been already described under the name
of the Piedmont Plateau. It is here referred to under the name of
Northern-Central Maryland. The rapid streams, and rmmoderate though
complex relief of the land, have been mentioned as characteristic
features of the area.
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 23

The mean annual temperature of the region ranges from 50° to 55°.
The coldest portions are found along the higher land of the Piedmont
belt, which culminates in Parr’s Ridges The Frederick valley is consid-
erably warmer, corresponding in this respect to the eastern slope in
Montgomery and Howard counties.

The mean seasonal temperatures have the same general relations to
the topography as the annual temperatures. The high, central portion of
the Piedmont area is at all seasons several degrees colder than the eastern
slope or the Frederick valley. The spring means vary from 48° to 58°,
the summer from 69° to 75°, the autumn from 52° to 57°, and the winter
from 29° to 36°, which indicates a slightly greater range in temperature
in the winter and summer than in the spring and autumn.

The names and number of stations will be found in the tables which
follow.

Western Maryland. The portion of the State which is here con-
sidered under the name of Western Maryland, has been previously
described as the Appalachian Region. It consists of parallel ranges of
mountains, with deep valleys, which drain chiefly into the Potomac River.
The mountains reach 3,000 feet and more in altitude, and in the west
rise from a high plateau, which declines gradually beyond the limits of
the State.

As might be anticipated, there is on this account a general lowering
of the temperature throughout the entire district.

So far as conclusions can be drawn from the records of temperature,
which are not altogether satisfactory, the valleys are warmer than the
mountains. This is best seen in the Hagerstown valley, where the
isothermals invariably bend to the westward. In the smaller valleys
few continuous observations have been taken, while, practically, none are
recorded from the mountains, with which comparisons may be made.

There is a slight decrease in the mean annual temperature in passing
from the eastern to the western portions of the region. The range is
from 50° to 53°, making a difference of 3°.

This is shown more distinctly in the case of the seasonal means,
particularly in the spring and winter. In the spring the mean tempera-
ture varies from 44° to 52°; in summer, from 70° to 75°; in autumn,
from 50° to 54°; in winter, from 27° to 34°, which shows a greater varia-
tion in spring and winter than in summer and autumn.

The names and number of the stations are shown in the accompany-

ing tables:
MARYLAND.

24

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

26

‘NIHLNOW—SAMNLVETANAT, NVAY AO TITAVY,
27

 

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

 

 

 

 

 
   

 
  
 
 
 

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‘papnpu0g— pH 1puqUag UMOYQMOAT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘ATHINOJ—SaUNLVaAdNaAT, NVA AO ATAV YT,
MARYLAND.

28

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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29

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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SUPAUMASAO “qysue'T & Fi : : SNOLLV.LS
“Saolugdd “SNOSVHS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“IVONNY ANV TYNOSVAQ—SHRHOLVARINAT, NVA] AO a1avy,
MARYLAND.

30

'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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SUMAUASAO “qySue'T a e : : SNOLLVLS
‘saolugg ‘SNOSVaAQG

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“IVONNY CONV 'IVNOSVAQ—SdAYALVATINAL, NVa] 40 FTAVY,
31

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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‘Sadoluad “SNOSVAG

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“IVONNY GNV IVNOSVAQG—SHUALVURINAT, NVA AO ATAV EG,
MARYLAND.

32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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‘SUPAUASALO “qySuary e e : - “SNOILVLS
‘Saqolugdg “*SNOSVaS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“IVONNY GNV TIVNOSVAQ—SHdNLVYAdNAT, NVA AO ATAVY,
33

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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‘SUPAUASAO “qySuerT & 5 : 4 ‘INOLLVILS
‘SadOrluadd “SNOSVAG

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“IVONNY ONV TVYNOSVEQ—SUAAALVUAMINAT, NVAJ AO WIAVY,
34 MARYLAND.

PRECIPITATION.

The atmospheric precipitation in Maryland occurs both as rain and
snow. There is no portion of the State in which either is entirely
wanting, although the snowfall is far less in the eastern and southern
districts than in the northern and western. The snowfall never fails
completely even in the warmest winters, although it may be reduced to
insignificant proportions.

The precipitation is more or less equally distributed throughout the
months, when the means for a long term of years are taken into con-
sideration, although wet and dry periods characterize the seasons of a
single year, causing marked variations from the normal. A certain con-
stant increase in the mean precipitation is found to occur in the spring
and late summer, with a corresponding decrease in the autumn and
winter. ;

The western portion of the State has a less amount of annual precipi-
tation than the eastern. A heavy rainfall characterizes the region which
lies to the east of the Catoctin Mountains, the easterly winds, as they
reach the highlands, precipitating their moisture in the Frederick valley
and over the western slope of the Piedmont Plateau. The eastern slope
of the Piedmont Plateau has again less precipitation.

The western portion of the Coastal Plain has a much drier climate
than the eastern, although numerous local exceptions appear. For exam-
ple, the western shores of the Chesapeake have relatively much greater
precipitation than the eastern, which makes the average precipitation for
Southern Maryland exceed that for Eastern Maryland. The central and
western portion of Eastern Maryland has a much greater rainfall than
the area bordering the Atlantic.

The precipitation generally accompanies the areas of low pressure
which traverse the country from west to east, and pass to the north of
Maryland. It commonly occurs on their eastern front during the preva-
lence of easterly winds.

In the following table will be found the mean monthly, seasonal and
annual precipitation for the State as a whole, and the four climatic
divisions of the same, which have been previously characterized.

TABLE OF MEAN PRECIPITATION FOR MARYLAND.

 

 

 

 

 

et ae 8 al ee x
Be) 8 ee || oe | ee ae
S 3) a : 3 3s | 2 3 g
pie | #8 lei &l 2] &) el ele) ses | 3
3 o < a | 3 3 5 ® 9 ° o
5 | ic aq < A 5 5 <q n °} a a
Maryland... 3.31 | 3.07 | 2.92 | 8.75 | 4.21 | 8.72 | 4.11 | 3.77 | 3.67 | 2.75 | 3.22 | 2.69

 

 
Graphical Representation of Mean Temperatures in the Four Climatic Divisions of Maryland.

JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN.
80 80

75 75

70 ue
65 65
60 60
55 55
50 50
45 45
40

40

35 35

 

30 30
JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN.

WESTERN MARYLAND —____ EASTERN MARYLAND
Reese ae ets NORTHERN-CENTRAL MARYLAND SOUTHERN MARYLAND
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 385

TABLE OF MEAN PRECIPITATION FOR MARYLAND—CONTINUED.

 

 

 

. SEASONS
. a ‘
| 3 igi & :
eS s a) = =
 # &@ | 4 | -
MALIA: .ccamncia ccmioamesie Gate oe ate | 12.88 11.60 9.64 | 9.31 42.48

 

 

TABLE OF MEAN PRECIPITATION IN THE FOUR CLIMATIC DIVISIONS
OF MARYLAND.

 

 

 

 

           

      

 

     

 

 

 

 

é 8 ele
BIE | el/Zigia:s
Ciimatic Drvistons. Si/2/3]a ¢!.|2/8/24 a é
SIS iE\B\Fla lei fleleial3
2\é\s|</2/4/2\<12|s/2/é
Eastern Maryland............. 2.2655 3 51 3.29l4.o6l4.o4 4.2018. 1914. 7918. 78/3. 393. 04/2 .'70|2.67
Southern Maryland................65% 3.20)8.51/4.20/4.11,4. 40/3. 70/4. 42/3.84'3. 802. 86/4.11|2.60
Northern Central Maryland..... ..... 3.50/83. 10/4. 39/3. 62/4.06'3. 48/4. 45/3. 98/4. 03:2. 74:3.25/3.13
Western Maryland.................6.. 3. 48/3. AER. 35p. 82/2385
SEASONS.
Crimatic DIvisrons. ‘ K a a
h S g 3
[ 8 z 5 a é
wn th < | - a
Eastern Maryland... cisccsssae veces eceenes 12.39 11.74 9.13 9.40 42.66
Southern Maryland .............65 cee e eee eee 12.71 11.96 | 10.77 9.31 44.75
Northern Central Maryland........ eer ere 12.07 11.91 | 10.02 9.73 43.73
Western Maryland ..........-.-. 2.2. ee eeees 19.33 10.78 8.63 8.81 38.55

 

 

 

On the succeeding pages are given the stations at which the longest
records of precipitation have been kept. They vary from one to over
fifty years. At Fort McHenry, in Baltimore Harbor, there is an almost
continuous record since 1836. In Baltimore City the earliest data were
collected in 1817, but there have been numerous breaks in the record.

The variations in annual rainfall are quite marked in some instances.
The lowest recorded annual rainfall in Baltimore, for example, was in
1819, when there were 28.75 inches; the greatest was in 1846, when there
were 62.04 inches, while the mean annual rainfall is 44.34 inches. At Fort
McHenry the lowest annual rainfall reported is 22.43 inches, in 1870; the
highest, 66.38 inches, in 1889. Records have also been kept at other
places for a considerable period, and similar striking variations in the
annual precipitation are found.
MARYLAND.

36

 

 
  

        

 

 

 

 

 

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37

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  
 
 

  
   

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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38 MARYLAND.

HUMIDITY.

The capacity of the atmosphere to hold moisture varies, but vapor of
water is always present in greater or less amounts. When the atmosphere
is near saturation the air is moist, but when it is capable of taking more
water it becomes dry in proportion to the amount which can thus be
taken. If the saturated state is taken as the standard of comparison, or 100,
then the relative amount of moisture can be indicated by percentage.

Observations have been recorded at comparatively few points, so that
reliable means are difficult to obtain. The following table gives the
relative humidity of a few stations during the year 1892:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ml - | 2 n 2
STATIONS. | g1sia]o @' 8/368 g ‘
3 a @:..| ft : o red 5S io O 2 oO H
lea lel el ele) a | yey ele! 6] 84 8
es; oO 5 5 o o ,
jo |B l(AlaA le lHAjalaialol/alyainr
Baltimores.as. seks | Grovendsardaiadek:s | 79 78 73| 65 | 69 | 77 | 72 | 78 | 72 | 67 | 76 | 74 73
Barron Creek Springs.......... | 85 | 87 | 84 | 72 72 | 80] 78 | 82/78) 71 | 77) 84 79
McDonough sce .ss2cccnes we ce ees 80 80 | 74) 69 66 | 75 | 73 | 82, 80 | 72) 76 | 70 | 75
Washington, D.C............... | 74 | 73 | 70 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 76 | 73) '74| 68 | 70 | 74° 72

 

 

From 1871 to 1892 the mean relative humidity in Baltimore has been
as follows:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pla | 8 5 3/3 4g
1871 to 1892. a |e 12 = : BAB je) ei Bg
ajo S(SB 1S la ye|Pl alesis gis
3S oO: ny 3 3 Oo oO o Pid
5 | & [a ABS l alin lola Alk
Telrad ceiea couple hes sala 70 | 65 64 | 61 | 65 | 68 | 68 | 70 74 68] 70 68 67.6
WINDS.

The prevailing winds in Maryland are northwest. During the summer
months they are more from the south, varying from southwest to south-
east in the eastern and central portions of the State; while in the winter
months they are more from the northwest and west. In the mountainous
regions in Western Maryland the winds are more constantly from the
northwest and west throughout the year.

Continuous records have been kept at only a few points sufficiently
long to establish reliable means. Those obtained at Baltimore during the
last 22 years are the best. They are given below:
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 39

MEAN DIRECTION OF WIND AT BALTIMORE DURING THE PAST 22 YEARS.

 

FOLLOWED BY RAIN or SNow.

 

Most Likely.

Monta. | DIRECTION. ; -
| Least Likely.
i

VANUATY seiccive vise gens
February.wieccsxs: 23

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September ............
October casicsinarees ves ;

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4444425445244

December. ... .. ..../
Annual Mean.... .... |

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Other stations, at which less complete records have been kept, indicate
the same general conclusion, except that the westerly direction of the
wind veers more and more to the southerly in passing from the inland
mountainous region toward the coast.

Along the shore line of the State during the warmer months there are
inflowing currents of air, or sea breezes, which moderate the temperature
of the land for some distance from the coast. They generally blow from
mid-day till sundown, and are due to the heated atmosphere over the
land rising and thus causing the cooler air over the water to flow in to

* ‘
take its place.
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE.

The variations in barometric pressure are not very great in the more
populous portions of the State. Since none of the larger towns are
situated at a height of even 1,000 feet above sea level, the variations in the
mercury column due to elevation would not, at ordinary temperatures,
exceed one inch. Even the highest ranges of the western portion of the
State would show a difference of but little over three inches. In
recording barometric observations, however, it is customary to make cor-
rections by reducing the readings to a common datum, which is that of
sea level. The most important variations in the barometric pressure are
due to the passage of areas of low pressure, few of which, however, take
their track directly across the State. Most of them pass to the north of
the confines of Maryland. Their coming is generally accompanied by
rainfall ; and are preceded by a rise and followed by a fall in temperature.
Barometric observations have been taken continuously at only afew points
in the State, and no important general conclusions can be drawn from the
40 MARYLAND.

records. The mean monthly barometric readings for Baltimore from
1871 to 1892 are given in the following table:

 

Year.

January
February.
March
April
May.

June

July
August.
September.
October
November.
December

 

 

 

|
30.06 | 30.14 29.99 20.09 29.98 30.00 20.00 30.00 30.01 6008) 30.19 50.14 30.03

 

THE MEDICAL CLIMATOLOGY OF MARYLAND.

It would be inappropriate here to enter upon the general con-
sideration of the influence exerted by different localities and climates over
the health of individuals, as this would of itself require a volume.
Every one has remarked the striking difference which is observable in
various classes of the community, according to the quality of the air they
breathe and the nature of their callings. What can be more marked
than the contrasts in appearance between the inhabitants of a malarious
country and the inhabitants of a mountainous country; between those
who take active exercise in the open air and the pallid countenances and
deficient muscular energy exhibited by the inhabitants of a metropolis,
who, during the greater part of the day, inhale the close and vitiated
atmosphere of work-shops and counting-houses ?

It is not merely the breathing of a warm or cold air, a dry or damp
one, which requires to be considered in a remedial point of view, but also
the action of these states of the atmosphere upon the surface of the
body, and consequently upon the internal organs. Every medical man is
aware of the close relation existing between the skin and kidneys, and
how the functions of these respective organs are influenced or modified
by external circumstances, such as temperature and climate. In winter,
or in a cold climate, an increased flow of the renal secretion takes place,
and there is a corresponding diminution in the amount of insensible if not
free perspiration ; whereas in summer or in warm climates the reverse
occurs. When, therefore, we consider the variableness of the climate, we
at once perceive a cause for the great prevalence in this country of many
diseases which resist the action of medicine, but are removed or alleviated
by change of climate. Anything which lowers the vital powers of the
system, as dissipation, fatigue, hunger or improper food, renders the body
more liable to be affected by deleterious external agencies. Anxiety, dis-
appointment and other depressing moral influences act in the same way,
and are more frequently instrumental in the production of disease than is
generally supposed. Hence traveling, change of air and scenery tend
materially to prevent or counteract the operation of the above-mentioned
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 41

causes by the greater facility and inducement offered for being more out
of doors. The cheering influence upon the mind of clear skies and sun-
shine in winter; the interest excited by scenery of a novel and magnificent
character, are calculated to divert the mind from unpleasant or gloomy
ideas, and thereby aid in the removal of many diseases, such as are
induced by or connected with circumstances of a mental nature.

A fair prospect and a pure atmosphere are the points of importance,—
“qualis aer talis spiritus; et cujusmodi spiritus humores,’—the former
regales the mind, the latter refreshes the body. Plato recommended that
no traveller should lodge in a place that is not governed by proper sani-
tary laws. Neither the traveller nor the invalid will always meet in this
country with the sanitary regulations which are most conducive to health ;
but he may, at all events, find the spirit if not the letter of the sage’s
advice by adopting a residence in selected localities of the State of Mary-
land. In the high lands he may realize a delightful summer climate; in
the low lands a healthful winter home.

The natural divisions of the State, which we shall consider seriatim,
are as below: Western Maryland, which extends from the Susquehanna
river to the top of the Alleghany Mountains; Southern Maryland, which
lies between the Chesapeake bay and the Potomac river; the Eastern
Shore, which embraces all that part of the State east of the Susquehanna
river and the bay. No other State in the Union, perhaps, presents such
facilities for change of climate within its own borders. The alternations
from the mountain top to the sea shore, and vice versa, are so various and
complete as to awaken, with each change, new sensations of health and
pleasure, and to “ purge all infections from our air.”

We know that temperature is diminished by elevation; but we know
also that the relation which these forces bear to each other is not a fixed
quantity. Thus it requires an elevation of 330 feet in the torrid zone to
effect a decrease in temperature equal to 1° of Fahrenheit’s scale,whereas, in
this latitude an elevation of 250 feet exerts the same influence. On this
basis, allowing for the fact that the thermometer, after the first part of
the ascent, records a marked diminution of temperature for very small
increments of elevation, we may safely assert that there is a difference of
fully 15° in the mean winter temperature of Ocean City, in Worcester
county, and Oakland, in Garrett county. This difference, however, does
not obtain in regard to the mean summer temperature of these respective
localities, for the reason that maritime climates are usually free from
excessive changes of temperature. The seasons near the seashore are not
marked by sudden vicissitudes; but are, on the contrary, slow in their
successions, while their temperature is never free from moisture.
42 MARYLAND.

WESTERN MARYLAND.

A brief sketch of the climatological peculiarities of Western Mary-
land will serve to supply a desideratum to the pleasure-seeker, as well as
the valetudinarian in search of a cool and invigorating summer residence.
The leading characteristic of this section of the State, apart from its
exhilarating atmosphere, is the magnificent scenery. Regarded from
many outlooks, this feature is well-nigh immeasurable. Its rivers and
rivulets, as well as its mountains and valleys, are of the most imposing
order. Its climate, diverse as it must necessarily be, is marked by
extremes of temperature, the winter season being exceedingly cold, and
that of summer correspondingly hot at midday, but refreshingly cool in
the evening and early morning.

In the lower or eastern counties of this section of the State, the
climate, although very diverse, is much milder than that of the Alle-
ghanies. The winters are less severe and the summers are quite cool, the
heat being alleviated by refreshing breezes, which cross, in their course,
the waters of Chesapeake bay, from which they abstract a good deal of
moisture, and mitigate both the heat of summer and the rigors of winter.

The early frosts, which occasionally do so much damage, are here com-
paratively harmless. The snow, likewise, disappears much sooner in the
spring, and the average depth is considerably less than in the counties
further west. But the charm of this particular section, nestling in the
foot-hills of the Blue Ridge mountain, consists in its genial summer and
autumn climate, and its proximity to the metropolis of the State, which
renders it invaluable, as a convenient and healthful resort, for the over-
worked denizens of the city.

The class of patients to whom the climate of Western Maryland may
be recommended, are those chiefly to whose sluggish vital energies an
invigorating atmosphere would be likely to yield an impulse; in whom
the blood-making powers are deficient, and whose physical systems have
been reduced, either by actual disease or the wear and tear of prolonged
work.

SOUTHERN MARYLAND.

The climate of Southern Maryland is mild, equable and moist. It is
protected, in a measure, from the evil effects of high winds by the rising
ground to the north and west. The general condition of the atmosphere,
together with the natural arrangement of the surface of the ground,
affords abundant opportunity for out-door exercise. In a therapeutic
point of view, the climate in the winter season is sedative, without being
absolutely relaxing; while, in the hot months, its excellent facilities for
bathing will prove decidedly refreshing to visitors coming from warmer
inland places.
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 43

Asa matter of course, patients requiring a bracing climate, with a
dry atmosphere, should not be sent to Southern Maryland. Invalids of a
low nervous type, suffering from atonic dyspepsia, as well as persons of a
scrofulous, or otherwise debilitated constitution, should avoid the locality.
In affections of the mucous membrane lining the air passages, characterised
by lack of secretion, this climate may be recommended; but in other
varieties of bronchial trouble, where there is copious secretion and a
general relaxation of the system, it should be avoided. In advanced cases
of pulmonary consumption, and, indeed, in cases which have passed the
threshold of the disease, Southern Maryland would not be a desirable
residence. In a good many cases of chronic bronchitis, simulating
phthisis, improvement to health may be expected, and, in some, complete
restoration from a state of great debility and seeming danger, has been
noticed.

Southern Maryland is remarkably exempt from typhoid fever and
diphtheria, as compared with the western counties of the State. Malaria,
at one time so prevalent, is of much less frequent occurrence than
formerly, and will possibly be still further eradicated when improved
water supplies and drainage have been introduced. In many places the
rising grounds are clothed with plantations of pine and cedar. These
pine woods give a peculiar character to certain localities, as at Pine
Point, a well-known bathing shore on the Potomac river. When south
and southwest winds are very gentle the sky is often clear for many days
together during the winter. On these occasions the warmth and softness
of the air are truly delightful; and, when taken in conjunction with the
beautiful water scenery, the calm blue bay, the broad Potomac, the green
meadows, the balsamic pine and other evergreens common to this section,
one is almost tempted to forget that it is a winter landscape he is con-
templating.

THE EASTERN SHORE OF MARYLAND.

This peninsula has been recommended for several years as a valuable
resort for invalids afflicted with pulmonary consumption and other
affections of the lungs. Its reputation in this respect has extended widely
and rapidly, and the “Shore” has become, in addition to being a tempo-
rary resort of those who seek to avoid a cold winter and spring elsewhere,
the permanent habitation of others who have taken up their abode in the
villas and villages which adorn the gently undulating surface of the
country. The Eastern Shore has a peculiar climate within a general
climate. The latter, that is to say the climate on the southern coast, is
mild, equable and humid; the former, that of the inland and bay coun-
ties, while partaking of the general characteristics of the southern coast,
is less marked in its general features, and is especially less moist, and in
some respects more healthful.
44 MARYLAND.

As a winter resort for invalids of a phthisical tendency, the Eastern
Shore is undoubtedly possessed of peculiar advantages, provided the change
to it be made at a sufficiently early stage of the disorder, and that the
invalid be content to submit to a proper course of hygienic discipline.
An invalid who is recovering from an attack of inflammation of the
lungs, or from severe pleurisy, without tubercle, could not select a better
winter resort; and in the sensitive condition of the respiratory organs
which is left by an attack of bronchitis, or in a case of chronic bronchitis,
this climate will be found to be remarkably serviceable. An asthmatic
invalid, meaning by this a person affected with the pure spasmodic form,
is either exactly suited by the climate, or not suited at all. The trial is
the only test.

In most of the forms of heart-trouble a residence on the Eastern
Shore is conducive to comfort, and the avoidance of those mischances to
which the patient thus afflicted is peculiarly liable. In some instances,
however, it proves unsuitable. The distinction should not be difficult to
make beforehand. When the patient suffers from over-impulse of the
heart, difficulty in breathing on slight exertion, with a sense of obstructive
oppression in the chest, particularly if the complexion be florid and the
skin hard and dry, the climate of this section will agree well. But when
the patient is pallid and flabby, frequently faintish and always feeble,
the skin soft, cool and often moist, with cool perspiration; when, in
short, the heart is constantly too weak, without any active irritation in
the lungs, and with a low state of the general vital power, as a rule, this
climate will not agree.

In chronic affections of the digestive mucous membrane, the Eastern
Shore proves either exceedingly beneficial, or quite the reverse, according
to the nature of the case. Neuralgia, when it depends on chronic irrita-
tion of some mucous or muscular surface, is benefited by a residence
here. When, on the other hand, it is the relic of a former malarial
agency, this climate may awaken the old susceptibility of the faulty
nerve. Pure rheumatism, whether acute or chronic, is often benefited.
Uncomplicated affections of the liver, affections far more rare than is
generally supposed, are not suited by this climate; but there are certain
forms of functional derangement of the liver for which a residence here
proves very advantageous.

DISEASES INFLUENCED BY CLIMATE.

In a study of the diseases for which change of climate is advisable,
it is only with chronic maladies, or with the sequele of acute disorders,
such as typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, dysentery, &c., that we
have to deal; for in such cases only can change of climate be resorted to
as a medium of cure. Certainly there are cases in which change of air is
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 4

a

prophylactic to disease, as in cholera, yellow fever, and maladies of that
class, but as such diseases are epidemic and not endemic in this State,
their discussion is foreign to the present article.

The diseases in which the various climates of Maryland are both
beneficial and curative may be classed as follows: Chlorosis, anemia,
general debility, nervous affections, asthma, bronchial and laryngeal
affections, affections of the urinary and uterine organs, cutaneous diseases,
dyspepsia, with its varied complications, hypochondriasis, diseases of the
liver and kidneys, rheumatism, malaria, and the world’s terrible scourge,
consumption, or tuberculous deposit in the lungs, from which, in this
country alone, more than 100,000 human beings annually die. Let us
now make a reswmé of the above diseases.

Chlorusis and Anemia are nearly allied, and are characterized by the
same vitiated state of the blood—a state generally produced by insuffi-
cient or improper food, bad ventilation, want of exercise, or, on the part
of females, some disorder of the menstruation. In all cases of this class
nothing equals change of air; from the mountains to the low lands, or
from the low lands to the mountains, as the case may be.

In case of General Debility or Nervous Affections, we have the
authority of Dr. Harvey for saying that, though in most cases of nervous
disease certain special remedial agents may be necessary, still, beyond
every thing else, change of air and change of scenery, accompanied as
they must be with changed thought and altered nervous action, will be
found the true remedial agents. Such cases will be well suited by the
climate of Western Maryland.

In Asthma, change of air is generally followed by the most marked
benefit; frequently the removal of a mile or two produces very con-
siderable relief. Most of the cases of asthma need to be judged by their
peculiar characteristics, as a great deal depends upon temperament; and
where one case improves under a dry and elastic climate, in another all
the symptoms are aggravated thereby. In most of these cases the
patient finds out for himself what suits him best. In Maryland he can
be suited with almost every variety and character of climate that could
be desired in such cases—the mild and moist air of the seashore, the
elastic, dry air of the mountain, the modified urban air, and the medium
suburban air.

Bronchial Throat Ajffections are amongst the most benefited by
change of air, but it is only in their chronic forms that this curative
agent will be of benefit. In cases of bronchial affection, with low
muscular power and considerable cough, we can recommend the moder-
ately elevated districts; but when the temperament is nervous, and more
humidity is required, the eastern shore is to be preferred.
46 MARYLAND.

In diseases of the Uterine and Urinary Organs, it is generally con-
sidered that climate has more or less influence. In the Diseases of
Women and girls, such as hysteria, chorea, and affections of the men-
strual function, change of climate is a great curative agent. In certain
cases where the catamenia are delayed beyond the ordinary time, removal
to the eastern shore will be attended, in most cases, with marked benefit.

Dyspepsia. There is no disorder in which change of air and scenery,
joined with cheerful company and moderate excitement, exerts a more
beneficial influence than in the various forms of dyspepsia, arising, as
these cases generally do, from want of exercise, close confinement,‘anxiety,
care, or inattention to the general laws of health. A change of air, how-
ever slight, if only combined with change of habit, food and water,
must be beneficial. In such cases it matters but little what the change
may be, so long as there is a change. The mountain resorts are to be
preferred during the summer months, and the Eastern Shore at all other
times. Dyspeptic patients visiting or residing in Maryland need not, in
general, be limited to one place. Although, as advised by Sir James
Clark, the climate most suited to their complaint should be selected as
their headquarters, they may visit, at any time, the principal cities and
resorts in the State; and if this is done with judgment, the successive
changes will prove beneficial to their health. Hypochondriasis is closely
allied with, and dependent upon, dyspepsia, and the indications here are
change from place to place, society, mental endeavor to conquer real or
imaginary trouble, exercise, regular habits, early hours, bathing and
cleanliness.

Pulmonary Consumption. This disease, above all others, is the one
for which change of climate is continually sought. So much has been
written and said of this disease that to go further than call attention to
its etiology and prophylaxis would be superfluous. Riverius made the
observation as long ago as 1668 that “contagion is the chiefest cause of
consumption,” but no general acceptance of this theory ever obtained
until very recently. Of the hereditary transmission of the disease there
can be no doubt, but heredity does not account for a majority of the
cases. Improper food, imperfect ventilation, the introduction of foreign
and extraneous substances, such as irritating particles of dust, into the
cells of the lungs, are often factors in the causation of the disease.
Taking the nature and causes of the disease into consideration, it is quite
evident that in no class of disease is change of climate of less value than
inthis. What we really want is improved vital power, good food and pure
air. If softening has not taken place, then change of climate may be
beneficial. Where shall the patient be sent? is the important question.
With the exception of the Himalaya Mountains, in India, and the Kirghis
Steppe, of Asia, which is an area of land below the level of the sea, no
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 47

place in the world enjoys such complete immunity from pulmonary con-
sumption as the Eastern Shore of Maryland, and by timely seeking this
healing climate many persons may be permanently cured or greatly
relieved. As a winter resort, or as an all-the-year-round home for
invalids, few localities can offer greater attractions.

Malaria. Removal from the malarious district is important if not
absolutely essential to the recovery of suffering from this protean
malady. The disease is not confined to any particular locality or climate.
It extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, from the St. Lawrence
river to the Gulf of Mexico. The question of the relative healthfulness
of different sections of Maryland, as regards malaria, cannot be accurately
determined, inasmuch as we have no system for the collection of vital
and mortuary statistics; but personal observation and inquiry, combined
with data collected from physicians and local health authorities all over
the State, would seem to indicate that, whatever the condition of the
Eastern Shore may have been in former years, when malaria is reputed
to have engulfed all of human kind that toiled upon its surface, it is, at
this time, remarkably exempt from diseases of all kinds, and especially
malaria. This exemption is owing, no doubt, ina great measure, to the
drying of the soil by drainage and cultivation, to the growth of large
fields of clover, which exhale peroxide of hydrogen, to the destruction
of mill-dams; but above all to improved water supplies in many districts.
Wells have been bored very generally, from 300 to 500 feet deep, from
which excellent water is procured, and by using it the health of the inhab-
itants has greatly improved, which would seem to indicate that the subsoil
water formerly used for drinking purposes had a great deal to do with
_ the causation of malaria in that section of the State.

WATER SUPPLY.

Most of the larger cities and towns of the State are supplied with
public water systems, in some instances constructed at private, in others
at municipal, expense. Where water works have not been built the
supply is obtained from shallow or driven wells and from springs.

Annapolis. The Annapolis water works were built by a stock
company, in 1865-66. The supply is obtained from a stream about four
miles distant from the town, and is pumped into two receiving reser-
voirs, with a capacity of 9,000,000 gallons. The water reaches the
different parts of the city by gravity, through cast-iron mains, aggregat-
ing about nine miles in length. The capital stock has a par value of
$61,450. In 1879 the company issued $35,000 of bonds for the cost of
laying new pipe. A1l but $8,000 of these bonds have been redeemed.

Baltimore. The water supply of Baltimore, built at municipal
expense, is one of the largest and in many respects one of the finest in
48 MARYLAND.

the country. It is constructed on the gravity system combined with
pumping to the distributing reservoirs. The supply is obtained from
two streains which flow down the eastern slope of the Piedmont Plateau,
viz:—the Jones’ Falls and the Gunpowder River. Dams have been built
across the streams, forming in the first instance, Lake Roland, 225 feet
above tide, and in the second, Loch Raven, 170 feet above tide. Lake
Koland covers 116 acres, and has an estimated capacity of 400,000,000
gallons. Loch Raven covers 252 acres, and has an estimated capacity of
510,000,000 gallons. The two systems of Jones’ Falls and Gunpowder
River are capable of furnishing daily a supply of about 165,000,000
gallons of water.

The Lake Roland supply is carried to the Hampden Reservoir, 217
feet above tide water, with a capacity of 46,000,000 gallons, to the Druid
Lake, in Druid Hill Park, of an equal elevation, with a capacity of
493,000,000 gallons, to the High Service Reservoir, with a capacity of
26,000,000 gallons, and to the Mount Royal Reservoir, with a capacity of
30,000,000 gallons.

The Loch Raven supply is carried to Lake Montebello, with a
capacity of 510,000,000 gallons, thence to Clifton Lake, with a capacity
of 265,000,000 gallons, and to Guilford Reservoir, of 41,000,000. The
ageregate storage capacity is, therefore, including the conduits,
2,346,000,000 gallons.

The Lake Roland Conduit is 3.8 miles in length, and is built in oval
form, of stone and brick masonry. It is 64 feet high and 5 feet wide.

The Loch Raven Conduit to Lake Montebello, is 517 feet less than
7 miles in length, and is built in circular form, 12 feet in diameter, for 2
miles arched with brick, and for 5 miles hewn in the solid rock.

The distributing pipes run for over 300 miles beneath the streets of
the city.

The cost of the entire system has been estimated at about $10,000,000.

Catonsville. The water-works at Catonsville were built by a joint
stock company in 1886-87. The supply is obtained from artesian wells
and the Patapsco River. The water is pumped to a stand pipe of 185,000
gallons capacity. The daily capacity of the works is estimated at 500,000
gallons. The length of the mains is about 8 miles.

Centreville. The Centreville water-works were built in 1889. The
source of the water is a small stream near the town. The system of
water supply is that of gravity, combined with pumping. The cost of
the works was about $10,000.

Chestertown. The works were built in 1885 by a joint stock com-
pany. The supply is obtained from springs which flow into a receiving
reservoir from which the water is pumped into a distributing reservoir,
the capacity of the latter being about 240,000 gallons. From this reser-
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 49

voir the water is distributed by gravity through the mains, which
aggregate about 4 milesin length. The daily consumption is estimated
at about 50,000 gallons. The cost of, construction of the works was
$25,000.

Cumberland. The Cumberland water-works were built by the city
in 1870-71, and enlarged in 1873. The supply of water is obtained from
the Potomac river by direct pumping. The estimated daily capacity is
about 2,000,000 gallons. The water is distributed by mains varying
from 12 to 3 inches in diameter. They extend for nearly 30 miles
through the streets of the city. The construction of the works cost
$150,000.

Haston. The Easton water works were built by a joint stock com-
pany in 1886. The supply is obtained from six artesian wells 4 inches
in diameter and 110 feet in depth. The water is pumped into a stand-
pipe 12 feet in diameter and 100 feet in height. There isalsoa reservoir,
holding 136,000 gallons, which receives its supply from a source inde-
pendent of the artesian wells. The water of the reservoir is reserved
for extinguishing fires. The distribution of the water throughout
the town is accomplished by means of iron pipes 8 inches, 6 inches
and 4 inches in diameter. They run beneath the streets for a distance of
64 miles. There are also 40 fire plugs. The capital stock of the com-
pany is valued at $40,000.

Frederick City. The Frederick water works were built by the
corporation by bonded debt. The supply is carried from artesian wells,
springs and a mountain stream—the Tuscarora—by natural gravity, to a
receiving reservoir, which is situated about one mile from the town.
The capacity of the reservoir is about 2,000,000 gallons. The water is
distributed to the town by gravity, through cast-iron pipes.

Frostburg. The Frostburg water-works were built by a joint stock
company. The supply is obtained from springs and artesian wells.
From the receiving reservoir the water is distributed to the town in
pipes 4 to 6 inches in diameter. The length of the mains is about 4
miles. The daily consumption is estimated at about 40,000 gallons.

Hagerstown. The supply of water is obtained from Beaver Creek,
eight miles from the town, and from artesian wells. The water is
carried by gravity to a receiving reservoir with a capacity of 20,000,000
gallons. From the latter it is distributed through 18 miles of mains to
the different parts of the city. The daily consumption is estimated at
500,000 gallons. The cost of the works was $150,000.

Havre de Grace. The Havre de Grace plant was constructed at
private expense. The water is pumped directly from the Susquehanna
river into the mains and reservoir, which has a capacity of about
3,000,000 gallons. The daily capacity of the pumps is estimated at
50 MARYLAND.

268,000 gallons. The water is distributed throughout the town by mains
4and 6 inches in diameter. The capital stock of the company is valued
at $15,000, and it has a bonded indebtedness of $15,000.

Mechanicstown. The Mechanicstown water-works were built by a
joint stock company. The supply is obtained from mountain streams
and conducted by gravity to the receiving reservoir, which hasa capacity
of 50,000 gallons From the reservoir the water is distributed to the
town through 24 miles of mains. The cost of construction of the works
was $10,000.

Salisbury. The Salisbury water works were constructed at private
expense. The supply is obtained by pumping from 15 driven wells, in
which the water rises to within 3 feet of the surface. In addition to
these, there is a flowing artesian well. The water is pumped directly
into the mains, or to a stand pipe 12 feet in diameter and 100 feet high,
which has a capacity of 84,000 gallons. The works cost about $30,000.

Union Bridge. The Union Bridge water works were built by a
stock company in 1886-87. The supply is obtained from springs to the
east of the town, the water being pumped to a receiving reservoir with a
capacity of 425,000 gallons. The daily capacity of these pumps is
250,000 gallons. The distributing mains are composed of 4, 6 and 8-inch
iron pipe, and aggregate about 24 miles in length. The daily consump-
tion is about 40,000 gallons. The works cost $18,000.

Westminster. The Westminster water works were built in 1883 by
a stock company. The supply is obtained from 3 springs one mile to
the southeast of the town, the water being conducted by gravity into a
collecting reservoir of 500,000 gallons capacity. From this point it is
pumped into a distributing reservoir 180 feet above the lowest portions
of the town, and three-quarters of a mile to the east of the same. The
latter reservoir has a capacity of 1,000,000 gallons. The daily capacity
of the pumps is 118,000 gallons. The water mains consist of cast-iron
pipe 4 to 8 inches in diameter, and with a length of about five miles.
The consumption is about 15,000 gallons daily. The construction of the
works cost $25,000.

Water works have also been projected in Towson, Cambridge and
Upper Marlboro.

WATER POWER.

Much valuable water power is available in the State of Maryland,
but only a small part of it has been utilized down to the present time.
Some of the most valuable powers are situated at a distance from rail-
road or water communications, so that no attempt has been made to use
them while the readily-accessible localities have not been developed to
their full capacity.
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 51

According to the tenth census report, Maryland held the 20th place
among the States in the total amount of water power employed, and
12th in the amount used per square mile. The total water power utilized
in 1880, when the last estimates were made, was equal to 18,043 horse-
power, a little less than had been employed 10 years earlier, in 1870,
while the amount of steam power had nearly trebled in the same period.

Very detailed investigations of the water power of Maryland were
conducted in connection with the tenth census, and as much of the data
is of such a character as to be of lasting value, extensive use will be
made of it. The results recorded will, in many instances, be incorporated
in the present statement. The water power of Maryland will be con-
sidered under the three topographic divisions hitherto explained :—
1. The Coastal Plain. 2. The Piedmont Plateau. 3. The Appalachian
Region.

The Coastal Plain. The streams of the Coastal Plain do not afford,
at any point, great power on account of their sluggish, uniform currents.
With the exception of the Potomac and the Susquehanna, which are
tidal to the east of the “fall-line,” there are no large rivers. The smaller
streams, however, afford sufficient power to drive numerous grist and
saw mills, which are scattered throughout the eastern and southern
counties. In a few instances larger works have been established, but
the country is essentially an agricultural not a manufacturing region.

The Piedmont Plateau. The best water-power of the State is found
in the region of the Piedmont Plateau. The Potomac and Susquehanna
Rivers here flow with rapid currents, and with their greatest volume
before becoming tidal, while less variability is manifested than in their
upper courses. The smaller streams, too, have wider drainage basins,
and are less subject to sudden changes. :

The Potomac River, in crossing the Piedmont Plateau, falls 230 feet,
which isits height at Point of Rocks, to tideat Georgetown. The distance
is 47 miles, so that the average fall per mile is about 5inches. There are
several points at which the fall is much greater, viz. at Great Falls, 14
miles above Georgetown, where, in the distance of 14 miles, the river
descends 80 to 90 feet. This would make the average fall, for the
remainder of the distance, less than 3 inches in the mile.

Ascending the river, the first available power is five miles above
Georgetown, at Little Falls, where a dam (No. 1) has been constructed
for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, formerly an important water-way
across the State. The estimated power herein the low season of dry years
is about 2,600 horse-power. It has been employed to some extent at
Georgetown.

The next site above is at Great Falls, fourteen miles above George-
town. ‘The water here pours over a rocky channel, and the facilities for
52 MARYLAND.

puilding are ample on either bank. In the principal fall there is a
descent of 35 or 40 feet in 100 to 150 yards, which is increased to 80 or 90
feet in a mile and a-half. The drainage area above the Great Falls
is estimated at 11,476 square miles, and the available power in a low
season is estimated at 20,700 horse-power, which is wholly unemployed
at the present time. The water supply for the cities of Washington and
Georgetown is taken from above the falls.

The next site is just below the mouth of Seneca Creek, about seven
miles farther up the river, where another dam (No. 2) has been
constructed for the canal.

From this latter site to Point of Rocks the river has no pronounced
fall. The current is moderately rapid, but no dams have been con-
structed.

The only tributary of importance entering the Potomac from the
north throughout this distance is the Monocacy River, which rises to the
north of the northern boundary of Maryland and drains an area of
somewhat over 1,000 square miles. The stream takes its course through
a broad, low valley, and is asa rule sluggish. Its flow, although not so
variable as the tributaries of the Potomac in the Appalachian Region, is
still liable to considerable fluctuation, and freshets of some violence at
times occur. Several grist and saw-mills have been built along the
main stream and its tributaries.

The first stream north of the Potomac which is worthy of special
mention is the Patuxent River, which west of the “fall-line” drains an
area of about 200 square miles. The stream has a variable, and in dry
seasons, a very small flow. Several sites have been improved and a few
factories and mills built.

The next stream of importance above the Patuxent is the Patapsco,
which west of the “fall-line” drains an area of about 300 square miles. It
is the most important manufacturing stream in the State, and over 3,000
horse-power is utilized. No other stream in the State, with the excep-
tion of the Potomac, offers so many advantages or so many sites for
power.

Two tributaries of the Patapsco which enter that stream on the
northern side, below the “ fall-line,” viz., Gwynn’s Falls and Jones’ Falls,
have been employed to a limited extent. Since Jones’ Falls has been
used by the City of Baltimore as a part of its public water supply, the
mills that formerly utilized the power of the stream have been aban-
doned, or steam has been substituted.

The only other stream of importance before reaching the Susque-
hanna is the Gunpowder River, which divides, a short distance from its
mouth, into Big and Little Gunpowder Creeks. The former drains an
area of about 275 square miles, but the lower part of the stream is not
PHYSICAL FEATURES. 53

available for power, as one of the reservoirs to supply the City of Balti-
more has been located upon it, and all the water rights below have
been purchased by the city. Above the reservoir, considerable power
has been utilized in the past, several small grist, saw, paper, woolen and
other mills having been established. Upon the Little Gunpowder Creek,
small powers have been improved, but the stream is not large.

The Susquehanna River flows 12 miles in Maryland from the State
line to its mouth, during which distance it descends 69 feet, or an
average of 5.75 feet per mile. There are few valuable sites, however.
A canal which was built some years ago from Peach Bottom to Port
Deposit, both for transportation and water-power, afforded several sites
which were for a time utilized. The available horse-power produced at
Port Deposit in a total fall of 80 feet in the canal was estimated in 1880
to be 94,000 horse-power in the low season of dry years.

To the east of the Susquehanna are several small streams on which
the water powers have been utilized to some extent. Among the more
important are Principio, Northeast and Big Elk Creeks. Several small
cotton, woolen, grist, saw and paper mills have been established.

The Appalachian Region. With the exception of western Garrett
County, all the drainage of the Appalachian Region reaches the Potomac
River. Ascending that stream, from Point of Rocks, the first important
site is at Weverton, 57 miles from Georgetown, at the point where the
river finds its passage through the Blue Ridge Mountains. The power
available here, in the low season of dry years, is estimated to be 5,100
horse-power.

A few miles further up the Potomac, at Harper’s Ferry, just above
the point where that stream is joined by the Shenandoah, there is, prob-
ably, the most favorable site on the river. The facilities for transporta-
tion are excellent, building materials are abundant, and there seems no
reason why a large and fine power could not be utilized here. The
power is estimated, in the low season of dry years, to be 2,900 horse-
power. At this point is situated a dam (No. 3), connected with the
canal. The fall, from the dam to the mouth of the Shenandoah, is
about 22 feet.

About 8 miles above Harper’s Ferry the Potomac receives the
Antietam River from the north. It drains a rolling and fertile
country of about 340 square miles, but its declivity is uniform and

‘uninterrupted by falls and rapids. The stream is utilized, to a con-
siderable extent, together with its tributaries, to run grist, flour and
paper-mills. The flow of the stream is very variable, however.

Between the mouth of the Antietam River and Williamsport there
are two sites upon the Potomac, one a mile below Shepardstown, which
54 MARYLAND.

has an estimated power, in the low season of dry years, of 920 horse-
power, and a second, some 10 to 15 miles above, of 1,725 horse-power.

The Conococheague River, which joins the Potomac near Williams-
port, drains an area of about 500 square miles. It resembles the
Antietam, on the eastern side of the Great Valley, in all essential
respects, and, like it, is utilized for grist and paper mills, none of which
are very large.

There are several good sites on the Potomac between Williamsport
and the junction of the north and south branches of that stream, but
practically no attempt has been made to improve them. No tributaries
of importance enter the Potomac from the north throughout this distance.

The north fork, which, throughout much of its course, forms the
present dividing line between Maryland and West Virginia, drains an area
of about 1,300 square miles. The flow of the stream, however, is very
variable, and at Cumberland its maximum discharge is over 700 times
its minimum, which is nearly fatal to the extensive use of water power.
This great variability is explained by the absence of lakes, the steepness
of the mountain slopes and the narrowness of the valleys. Some of the
tributaries of the north fork partake of its general characteristics, while
others are said to be quite constant in flow; but on the whole their power
is of little importance.

Most of western Garrett county drains to the northward by the
Youghiogheny River into the Monongahela. The flow of the streams is
for the most part variable, and very little attempt has been made to
utilize the power.

With some striking exceptions which have been noted in the pre-
ceding sketch, the greater portion of the developed water power of the
State is found in the Piedmont Plateau. The Potomac has some excel-
lent sites in the eastern portion of the Appalachian Region, but farther
to the west they become unimportant.

Altogether there is a vast amount of undeveloped water power in
the State, and in many instances the sites are most favorably located.
CHAPTER III.

GEOLOGY.

It is the object of this and the following chapter to present a general
description of the Geology of Maryland, together with an account of the
distribution, development and possibilities of such mineral resources as exist
within her boundaries. Toaccomplish this purpose the origin, character and
succession of the various rock formations will first be passed in review.
This will be illustrated by a colored geological map and section, showing
the areal extent and relative position of each deposit. In the next chapter
the distribution of substances of economic value will then be traced
through the different geological horizons, and this will be succeeded by
an account of the industries which have originated through the develop-
ment of minerals occurring within the State. In some cases such industries
still depend mainly upon raw material obtained in Maryland, while in
others, like iron, copper and chrome, the industries remain active in the
State, although the local supply of material is now practically exhausted.
In this portion of the work much assistance has been rendered by several
gentlemen whose long experience and expert knowledge of the subjects
treated, render their contributions of lasting value.

GENERAL REVIEW OF GEOLOGY.

The State of Maryland is so situated as to display, in spite of its com-
paratively small size (less than 10,000 square miles), a remarkably perfect
sequence of all the geological formations. The most ancient rocks
which go to make up the earth’s crust, as well as those still in the process
of deposition, are here to be found, while between these wide limits there is
hardly an important geological epoch which is not represented. It is
doubtful whether another State of the Union contains a fuller history of
the earth’s past.

To make the completeness of this record in Maryland somewhat more
intelligible, let us consider for a moment the basis on which geologists are
able to determine the succession of deposits. As our globe slowly cooled
from a state of igneous fusion the first rocks must have been formed by
the solidification at the surface of the molten mass, while as yet the
oceans and many other of the more volatile substances existed in the dense
56 MARYLAND.

cloudy atmosphere. Whether or not any portion of this first cooling crust
now remains where it is accessible to man, isa matter of doubt. True it
is, however, that ages must have elapsed before the crust had so far cooled
as to allow the concentration of the oceans upon it; and ages more must
have passed before this hot and chemically surcharged ocean had so far
cooled and purified itself as to allow of the development of life within it.
We get a still further conception of the vast lapses of time which these
early rocks imply when we discover that, even after the waters had
become suited for living things,a great proportion of the development
and differentiation of organic types went on in beings which have left no
trace. Hardly a more remarkable fact confronts us in geology than the
variety and complexity of types in the earliest rocks which contain any
trace of life at all. This fact, which is all the more remarkable for being
attested by the best of evidence from all parts of the earth’s surface, com-
pels us to assign to the history of life before its first permanent record was
deposited, a longer period than all that has since elapsed. These earliest
forms were either too small and soft to allow of preservation, or else they
have been obliterated in the subsequent alteration of the rocks containing
them.

All the rocks which are older than the earliest fossil-bearing strata
are referred to the first great division of geologic history, called Archaean
Time.

When, however, life does once appear, it is, with all its variety, well-
nigh the same inall the older rocks. In the most widely separated locali-
ties the same types recur in rocks of the same age, and this it is that fur-
nishes us with the key to the succession of deposits. From the time when
the oldest fossil-bearing stratum was deposited until now, the story of
life-progress and development is told by rocks with enough clearness not
to be misunderstood. Local differences of condition have probably always
prevailed, as they do now, but the same types of organisms have always
lived at the same time over the entire globe, so that their remains serve as
sufficient criteria for the correlation of the strata which contain them.
The sequence of life-forms, once made out, gives us, for the whole earth,
the means of fixing the order of deposits, even when this is most pro-
foundly disarranged by foldings of the strata in mountains, or by other
earth movements.

Geologists distinguish three principal divisions in the history of life,
as read in the record of the rocks. During the earliest of these great
time-divisions archaic forms of life flourished—uncouth fishes, mollusks,
crustaceans and tree-ferns—very unlike those now extant. On this
account this is known as the period of most ancient life, or the
Paleozoic Time. To this succeeded a vast lapse of ages, when enormous
reptiles predominated, associated with other life-types more like those
GEOLOGY. 57

which now inhabit the globe. To this division is given the name of
middle life, or Mesozoic Time. Finally, living things began to assume
the form and appearance with which ye are familiar; so that this last
grand time-division, which includes the present, is designated as the
period of recent life, or Cenozoic Time.

Each of these three grand divisions of geologic time is, in its turn,
subdivided into shorter periods, called ages, each characterized by its
own peculiar types of life. And the different ages are themselves
separated into periods and epochs, which vary more or less in character
according to the regions where they are developed. Hence each of these
periods and epochs is usually designated by a local name.

In Maryland we have not merely representations of all the great
time-divisions of geology, but of each of the subordinate ages as well;
while many of the best characterized periods and epochs may also be
distinguished. This may be best appreciated by referring to the accom-
panying geological map (in pocket at end of the volume). An examina-
tion of the legend of this map shows that there are distinguished eight
pre-Paleozoic, thirteen Paleozoic and eight post-Paleozoic formations.
The number of separate horizons is in reality much greater than this, as
will be shown in the succeeding descriptions; but upon a map of this
scale (eight miles to the inch), it has been necessary to unite the less
important or less developed formations with those which cover considera-
ble areas or which show very marked lithological differences.

As has been pointed out in the topographical description of the State
in the preceding chapter, Maryland’s territory falls naturally into three
sharply contrasted provinces; an eastern Coastal Plain surrounding the
Chesapeake, a central Plateau and a western region of Mountains. These
main topographical divisions are capable of further differentiation into
topographic belts, which also differ in geological composition and structure.
Thus the Coastal Plain is divisible into a lower eastern, and a higher
western portion, usually known as the “ Eastern Shore” and “Southern
Maryland.” The central plateau is also twofold, being divided into an
eastern and western slope by its median watershed, known as Parr’s Ridge.
The mountains of Maryland are a narrow strip across the great Appala-
chian System, which as Whitney has shown, are divisible through their
whole extent from New York to Alabama into three parallel belts. On
the east is the Blue Ridge and Great Valley, in the centre the narrow,
sharply parallel ridges of the Appalachians proper, and on the west the
broad plateau and gentle folds of the Alleghanies which merge gradually
into the plains of Ohio.

These seven subordinate topographical divisions of Maryland are each
composed of a distinct series of geological formations. This may be
readily perceived by examining the geological map and section. The dis-
58 MARYLAND.

tinction of formations is least pronounced in the two divisions of the
Coastal Plain, although the NNE-SSW trend of the nearly horizontal beds
produces a predominance of the mesozoic and early tertiary beds in the
western, and of the late tertiary in the eastern section. In the Piedmont
Plateau, as the area between the Coastal Plain and mountains is called,
the two-fold character of the province, geologically, is very marked. On
the eastern side of the central water-shed (Parr’s Ridge) we have a sequence
of highly crystalline rocks, in large part igneous in their origin, which
represent the remains of a vast Archaean continent whose detritus furnished
most of the materials of which the Paleozoic sediments were made. On
the western side of the median ridge the rocks are only partly crystalline,
and represent the greatly folded and metamorphosed beds of early
Paleozoic time. Along the western edge of this plateau, beyond the
Monocacy river, is the Frederick Valley, composed of the blue Paleozoic
limestone (Trenton), in part overlain by the red sandstone of Mesozoic age
(Newark). The three-fold division of the mountain system corresponds
approximately to a three-fold division in the sequence of Paleozoic strata.
The Blue Ridge and great valley are made up of Cambrian and Lower
Silurian beds, in places so displaced and eroded as to expose the Archaean
floor in which they rest. The Appalachians proper are made up of sharply
folded Upper Silurian and Devonian strata, each easily recognized by its
characteristic life-forms; while the Alleghany Plateau is mainly composed
of the more gently folded late Devonian and Carboniferous deposits
carrying the priceless coal seams of the Cumberland basin.

Such in brief is the distribution of geological formations and their
connection with the easily recognized types of surface configuration occur-
ring within the State. The sequence is of remarkable completeness, and
of great interest on account of the types of country and of soil which the
various horizons produce. An attempt will now be made to trace out
somewhat more in detail the geological history of each of our three great
provinces—plateau, mountains and coast plain—beginning with the most
ancient. Those who desire to follow out this history will find a constant
reference to the geological map of service.

THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU.

General Description. For the adequate comprehension of the crys-
talline rocks occurring within the limits of Maryland, some broader
knowledge is necessary of the geology of that great Piedmont belt of
which it isa fragment. A brief general characterization of this province
must therefore precede the more detailed descriptions of the local geology
about Baltimore.

Along the eastern flank of the Appalachian and Green Mountain
uplifts there is a belt of highly crystalline or semi-crystalline rocks
GEOLOGY. 59

which extends from Alabama to Maine, and even farther north. This
zone attains its maximum width (300 miles or more) in the Carolinas.
Toward the north it narrows and is nearly buried beneath the Trias in
New Jersey; beyond New York, however, it suddenly broadens, so as to
embrace the larger part of New England. Within this whole province
the rocks are so crystalline as to make fossils rare, while their structure
presents some of the most puzzling problems in American geology. Many
theories have obtained regarding the age and origin of the strata, but it is
only within very recent years that elaborate and detailed work has begun
satisfactorily to solve the mystery. In New England the entire sequence
of Paleozoic sediments is found in more or less completely metamor-
phosed form, with occasional areas of more ancient crystalline rocks
(Archaean) protruding through them, while they are cut by a variety of
eruptive masses.

South of New York the crystalline belt acquires a more homogeneous
character, both structurally and topographically, which fact, together with
its position at the eastern foot of the Appalachian system, has occasioned
its designation as the Piedmont Plateau.

Topographically the Piedmont plateau may be considered to begin in
Maryland* as the eastern base of Catoctin mountain, a sharply defined
ridge of nearly uniform height (1,500 ft.) extending from Point of Rocks
on the Potomac, northward to the Pennsylvania line just west of Emmits-
burg. East of the Catoctin ridge nearly three thousand square miles of
surface are exposed within the State before the overlap of clays and
gravels belonging to the formations of the Coastal Plain are encountered.
Geologically, however, the western boundary of the Piedmont belt in
Maryland must be drawn considerably farther east, if, as is usual, we wish
to confine this term to rocks of undetermined age. ,

We may roughly outline the Piedmont region proper in Maryland as
a trapezium, bounded on the north by the State line, on the east by the
Baltimore and Ohio railroad from Wilmington to Washington, on the
south by the Potomac, and on the west by the Monocacy river. The
surface of this area is nearly level, but it slopes very gently from a
median water-shed, known as Parr’s Ridge. The region has been so
recently elevated that its streams are still excavating narrow precipitous
channels.

The rocks composing the Maryland portion of the Piedmont Plateau
are divisible into two distinct classes. The members of one of these
classes are all completely crystalline, and, whatever was their origin, they
now retain no certain evidence of clastic structure. These rocks are con-
fined to the eastern portion of the plateau province and disappear beneath

 

*See ‘*The Petrography and Structure of the Piedmont Plateau in Maryland,’’ by George H.
Williams. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol 2, pp. 301-322 and map, 1891.
60 MARYLAND.

the overlying deposits of unconsolidated sand, gravel and clay, which
compose the Coastal Plain.

The second class of Piedmont rocks are semi-crystalline, and, while
they have been subjected to a certain amount of metamorphism and
alteration, they still plainly show that they were once sediments of an
ordinary type. While as yet no fossils have been found in them, they are
not more altered than similar formations which in other localities have
yielded fossils, so that there is every reason to suppose that their age will
subsequently be definitely determined on palaeontological evidence. While
these semi-crystalline rocks are principally confined to the western half of
the Plateau region, there are isolated areas of them within the holocrystal-
line belt, which appear to be much younger, but which have been pro-
tected from removal by being folded in among the gneisses.

The line separating these two divisions of the Piedmont plateau,
which we shall hereafter designate as the semi-crystalline (western) and
holocrystalline (eastern) areas, is not coincident with the crest of Parr’s
Ridge, but lies on its eastern flank. Commencing in the south near Great
Falls on the Potomac, it passes slightly west of Rockville and of Hood’s
Mills, then through Westminster on the Western Maryland railroad, and
thence by a north-northeastward course to the Pennsylvania line. Further
eastward there is a large area of the semi-crystalline schists in Harford
county, surrounding the Peach Bottom and Delta roofing slates. ‘These
appear to be infolded in the gneisses, and are probably connected with the
area near Finksburg by a narrow tongue passing the Northern Central
railroad at Whitehall.

The most striking feature in the structure of the Piedmont Plateau is
its radiating or fan-like structure, and the fact that the vertical strata
forming the axis of this fan follow a direction neither parallel to, nor
coincident with, the boundary between the crystalline and semi-crystalline
rocks. (See section on the geological map.) These two lines start from
the same point on the Potomac (Great Falls), but diverge more and more
toward the north. The fan, therefore, while its axis is throughout com-
posed of semi-crystalline rocks, has its western flank made up of the least
crystalline, and its eastern flank of the most crystalline portion of the
Piedmont region.

Eastern Division. The various rock formations composing the
eastern or holocrystalline division of the Piedmont Plateau, cross Mary-
land from the southeast corner of Pennsylvania and the north end of
Delaware in a general southwest direction. Their course is, however, not
a straight one through the State, but forms a double curve, whose south
side is convex on the east and concave on the west. This curve corresponds
to the great westerly bend in the course of the triassic sandstone and
folded Paleozoic beds of eastern Pennsylvania. It is, of course, inuch
‘YALSAHOT! MO1S9 JDYOD YFAIY ODSdVLVd ‘“AHdYYDOdOL NVALYId LNOWGAld

 
GEOLOGY. 61

less distinct in the highly crystalline rocks of the eastern Piedmont
region, but that its presence can be traced at all amid the varied and
complex structures of these very ancient rocks, is welcome evidence that
at least the final impress was imparted to their strike by the great
Appalachian folding. The convex or eastern branch of this curve may
be most distinctly traced on our map in the belts of marble north of
Baltimore, which, near Towson, turn from a southwest direction to a trend
directly west through the Green Spring valley. Toward the southwest,
these same marble belts turn again to the south-southwest, as do all the
other rocks with which they are associated, and this course they hold into
Virginia.

There is abundant evidence that these structural features of the
eastern Piedmont region are not, however, the only ones which belong to
these rocks, but that their present metamorphism and complexity must be
accounted for by assuming that they have been subjected to several
successive periods of disturbance.

The rocks composing the holocrystalline portion of the Piedmont
Plateau in Maryland are petrographically divisible into six distinct types.
Three of these are of undoubtedly eruptive origin, and may be designated
according to their chemical and mineralogical composition, as gabbro,
peridotite or pyroxenite and granite. The three remaining types—gneiss,
marble and quartz-schist—are completely crystalline, and therefore
exhibit no certain traces of clastic structure.

The prevailing rock over the entire holocrystalline area is the gneiss.
It enters the State from the north in a very wide band, completely
surrounding the Delta Peach Bottom slate area, but its breadth rapidly
contracts toward the Potomac. The remarkably irregular forms of the
marble areas, which are intercalated in the gneiss complex, show how
intricate the stratigraphy of the latter really is. Much of its apparent
simplicity is due to the obliteration of its true bedding through secondary
foliation.

On the geological map which accompanies this volume, there are
five distinctions made between the highly crystalline rocks which
compose the eastern part of the Piedmont Plateau. The quartz-schist,
with its characteristic muscovite layers and stretched black tourmalines,
is included with the prevailing gneiss, of which it forms one of many
varieties. This schist is nearly free from feldspar, and is therefore hard
and resistant. It forms a prominent elevation along the south side of the
Green Spring and Mine Bank limestone valleys, known as “Setter’s
Ridge,” and occurs at many other localities in Baltimore and Howard
counties, generally in intimate association with the white marble.

The Maryland gneisses themselves embrace a great variety of types,
which range from granitoid aggregates of feldspar and quartz, on the one
62 MARYLAND.

hand, to nearly pure mica or hornblende schists on the other. All of
these also show considerable structural variation in their coarseness of
grain, the perfection of their parallel arrangement, etc.

The gneiss is sometimes quite constant in character for considerable
distances, but more usually it consists of a succession of differently con-
stituted layers.

In spite of a frequent persistence of strike and dip, the gneiss every-
where shows that it has been subjected to intense and repeated dynamic
action. This is apparent in the large features of its structure, in its
greatly crumpled, gnarled and twisted character, and in the profound
metamorphism, amounting to almost complete recrystallization, which has
gone on within it. No certain traces of clastic origin have ever been
detected in the Baltimore gneisses, although their sedimentary character
may be inferred from their rapid alternations of beds of different com-
position, and from the nature of other rocks intercalated in them, like the
marbles and quartz-schists. In the continuation of the same rocks south-
ward to the neighborhood of Washington evidences of a conglomeratic
character have also been observed.

The color of the more massive gneisses varies from white to a dark
grey or blue. The more micaceous and hornblendic varieties are dark
brown or green. The mineral composition and structure is quite normal
for gneisses.

Superficial exposures of the gneiss are very rarely fresh. This wide-
spread decay extends also for a considerable distance below the surface,
at least in an incipient form, as may be seen from the very rapid dis-
integration in road and railway cuttings, of rock hard enough to be
blasted out.

The marbles of the eastern plateau region are the only highly
crystalline rocks of sedimentary origin which are separated on the
geological map from the gneisses. They differ from all the other marbles
and limestones of Maryland in being much more coarsely and perfectly
crystalline. In chemical composition they vary from nearly pure calcium
carbonate to a dolomite with 40 per cent. and over of magnesium
carbonate. They have lost all evidence of an originally clastic structure
through recrystallization, and they now have their impurities crystallized
into silicates, like mica (phlogopite), tremolite, tourmaline, pyrite, scapolite,
etc., which are frequently arranged in more or less parallel layers
representing old bedding planes.

These highly crystalline marbles are of the same age as the gneisses,
and are infolded with them. In consequence of their greater solubility,
they have been easily removed, and now occupy depressions like the
Green Spring, Worthington, Mine Bank, Dulany’s and other valleys which
are sharply bounded by the surrounding ridges of gneiss. .
GEOLOGY. 63

The three types of eruptive rocks, which are distinguished on the
geological map in the eastern plateau region, have all broken through and
have more or less modified the gneisses, and are hence younger than these
rocks. The intense dynamic action, which has produced such complete
recrystallization in the banded complex, has likewise greatly meta-
morphosed the eruptive rocks, and yet not enough to obliterate their
original character. Each type exhibits several chemical or structural
facies dependent on the original differentiation of the magma or upon
conditions of solidification, and to these must be added other varieties
due to subsequent metamorphism.

The oldest, as well as the most extensive of the three eruptive rocks
which so abundantly intrude the gneiss complex is the gabbro. Of this
there are three main areas in Maryland—the Stony forest area of Harford
and Cecil counties; the great belt or sheet which extends from north of
Conowingo, on the Susquehanna river, in a south-southwest direction to
Baltimore city, and the irregular intrusive area which is inainly devel-
oped to the west of Baltimore, but extends thence as far south as Laurel.

For detailed information regarding this rock and the products of its
metamorphism, reference must be made to the text and plates of two
memoirs devoted to its description.* It isa rather fine-grained granular
aggregate of hypersthene, diallage, plagioclase (bytownite) and magnetite,
with varying amounts of apatite and brown compact hornblende. It is
usually, when unaltered, massive, dark in color, and heavy.

Some varieties are of a pale buff color, but are rich in magnesia, thus
forming transitions to the peridotites and pyroxenites; other modifica-
tions are rich in alumina, producing highly feldspathic rocks, while others
have an excess of silica in the form of blue quartz.

The action of pressure, which has caused the recrystallization of the
gneiss and marble, is also very marked in the gabbro. It has caused its
iron constituent, pyroxene, to change to another green mineral called
hornblende. This has, in some cases, left the rock as massive as at first,
and in other cases it has rendered it schistose. This resulting rock is
called gabbro-diorite. The change has always been most complete where
the mass of gabbro was smallest, as in narrow bands which frequently
connect larger areas. This change is well shown along the Belair Road
near Baltimore.

The next eruptive rocks in point of age are the basic magnesian
silicates, peridotite or pyroxenite, and their alteration products, serpentine
and steatite. All these are represented with a single color on the map.
These are intimately associated with the gabbros, but occur most abund-

 

*** The Gabbros and associated Hornblende Rocks occurring near Baltimore, Md.,’’ by George H.
Williams. Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey, No. 28, Washington, 1886.

‘* The Gabbros and associated Rocks of Delaware,’’ by F. D. Chester. Ibid, No. 59, Washington,
1890.
64 MARYLAND.

antly toward the western edge of the crystalline region. They do not
occur in as large masses as the other eruptive rocks, but occupy numerous
small areas like the “Bare Hills,” “Soldier’s Delight,” and many others
which it is unnecessary to enumerate. In Montgomery County the
serpentine is also developed in the semi-crystalline schists of the western
plateau district.

The two main types of these rocks in their unaltered condition
consist of pure pyroxene (pyroxenite or websterite) or of pyroxene in
association with olivine (peridotite or iherzolite). These rocks have
already been so thoroughly described by the writer in another place that
no repetition is necessary here.*

These two types of eruptive rocks, pyroxenite and peridotite, are
peculiarly subject to alteration, which is not, however, decomposition.
Briefly it is this: the pyroxene, when it occurs alone, tends to pass into
secondary hornblende, and this in turn gives rise to talc. This is the
origin of the extensive beds of steatite in eastern Maryland and Virginia.
The talc is always mixed with more or less pale fibrous hornblende
(tremolite) and chlorite.

When, as in the peridotite, olivine accompanies the pyroxene,
especially if it is bronzite, the rock tends to form serpentine instead of
tale. The serpentine also contains secondary hornblende formed from
the diallage.

The youngest intrusive rocks which break through the gneiss are the
granites. They form large masses at Port Deposit and Havre de Grace,
on the Susquehanna River; also near Joppa and to the north of Towson ;
at Woodstock and Sykesville; at and south of Ellicott City, and at several
localities near Washington. The granites are so like the the surrounding
gneisses in chemical, as well as in mineralogical composition, that where
they have been greatly foliated through dynamic action, it becomes a
matter of no small difficulty to distinguish them.

These rocks are as a rule, biotite-granites, of medium grain and
remarkably compact and homogeneous texture. They sometimes carry a
considerable quantity of muscovite (Guilford), and are noticeable for the
large and constant proportion of allanite which they contain. This
mineral is surrounded by a parallel growth of the isomorphous epidote, as
described by Dr. W. H. Hobbs+

Variations in the structure of the granites are due to the develop-
ment of porphyritic crystals, as at Ellicott City and along the road from
Meredith’s Bridge on the Gunpowder River to Cockeysville. Other

 

*«* The Non-feldspathic Intrusive Rocks of Maryland and the Course of Their Alteration,’’ by
George H. Williams, American Geologist, July, 1890.

+On the Paragenesis of allanite and epidote as rock-forming minerals. Am. Jour. Science, 3 ser.,
vol. 38, pp. 223-228. Sept., 1889.
GEOLOGY. 65

structural facies are due to secondary features, like foliation, produced by
dynamic agencies.

The gneisses of the Baltimore region are penetrated with a great
abundance of dykes, veins and “eyes” of the coarse-grained granite,
known as pegmatite. The other crystalline rocks of the region, although
to a less extent, contain the same material.

Within the Eastern Plateau region the pegmatite appears to have
been produced in two ways. At least we seem compelled by direct
evidence to assume that certain occurrences of it are true eruptive dykes,
genetically related to the normal eruptive granites already described.
For other occurrences an aqueous origin, by segregation, appears more
probable, although the proof is not as good as in the former cases.

The only other type of eruptive rock occurring in the eastern division
of the Piedmont Plateau in Maryland is a long dyke of unaltered diabase,
which preserves all the features of the normal triassic diabase occurring
further west, and which is therefore referred to this age.

The area of semi-crystalline slates and schist extending from Delta
in Harford County to Finksburg, belong geologically to the western
division of the Piedmont Plateau, and will therefore be considered with
the similar rocks of this region in the succeeding section.

Western Division. As has been already stated in the general
description of the Piedmont Plateau (page 65), the western slope of
Parr’s Ridge, as far as the Monocacy River, is composed of little crystal-
line or semi-crystalline rocks of sedimentary origin. These rocks are
almost unaltered along their western margin, where they present the same
characters as the sandstones, slates and limestones of the Blue Ridge and
Frederick Valley, where their age has been determined by fossils. As they
approach the axis of the “fan,” however, which has been shown above
(page 65) to be one of the principal features in the structure of the Pied-
mont Plateau (see geological section on the map), these schists become
more crystalline. Here they stand nearly vertical, and it is here that the
dynamic action has been at a maximum, as is shown by the greatly
contorted condition of the schists and by the abundant development of
new minerals within them. The slates have become roofing-slates or
chlorite and hydromica (sericite) schists, often full of ottrelite, rutile,
biotite and other new constituents. The limestones have become com-
pact, hard, fine-grained marbles. The geological position of these rocks
has not yet been positively proved by fossils, and they are, therefore,
designated on the geological ap by a different color. Nevertheless,
there is no reasonable doubt that they are Cambrian sandstones, Trenton
limestones, and Hudson River shales in a more or less completely meta-
morphosed form.

5
66 MARYLAND.

If we follow the succession of strata eastward from Catoctin Mountain,
which bounds the Piedmont Plateau upon the west, we find, above the hard
Caimmbrian sandstone, a little limestone, which, however, is immediately
buried beneath the overlap of red sandstone. This blue limestone, whose
fossils show it to be of Lower Silurian (Trenton) age, soon, however,
emerges from beneath the overlying and unconformable Triassic (Newark)
sandstone as a series of considerably folded beds, which are succeeded on
the east and apparently overlain by carbonaceous and hardly altered
shales. These are like those which occupy a similar position above the
same limestone farther westward. Still beyond, there follow with the
same easterly dip, the thick beds of sandstone which compose Sugarloaf
mountain. These thin out toward the north to a few insignificant sand-
stone patches, while toward the south they soon disappear beneath the
Newark transgression. The Sugarloaf sandstone passes, on its eastern
side, upward by a gradual transition through shaly layers into sandy
slates, and these again into the succession of sericite and chlorite schists,
which compose the mass of the semi-crystalline area. Beneath the sand-
stone the shales are more disturbed, and, as there is here no such transi-
tion, this surface represents a fault or thrust. The massive sandstone
strata of Sugarloaf Mountain form a monocline with a rather gentle dip
toward the east. The overlying sandy slates have the same inclination,
and appear to be but little altered. When, however, these rocks are
followed across their strike toward the east, they are seen to become more
and more contorted, cleaved and faulted. '

Closely folded and puckered layers are frequent, and the secondary
cleavage approaches nearer and nearer to the vertical. This succession is
well displayed along the main stem of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad,
between Araby and Hood’s Mills. The alteration and recrystallization of
these rocks, attendant upon the increasing disturbance to which they have
been subjected, becomes so great that it is not always easy to locate
exactly the line of contact between them and the underlying and more
ancient crystallines of the eastern Piedmont region.

The deposit of red sandstone and shale, together with the limestone
breccia (“Potomac marble” or “calico rock”), which covers a portion of
the Frederick valley, lying along the east base of Catoctin Mountain, and
spreading over a much wider area toward the north, represents an era
geologically much more recent than any we have thus far considered.
The strip of these red rocks, which here cross Maryland, represents a
formation laid down in estuaries after the Appalachians had been elevated.
Through all Paleozoic time, the sediments of which these mountains are
formed, were accumulating. At the end of this time they were folded
into a lofty range, at whose base the sandstone was deposited. The fossils
and stratigraphical relations of this sandstone, known as the “Newark
“AUUBA S.WAdUVH LY 3DYOD YFAIY OVNOLOd “AHdVEDOdOL yoaiu 31a

 
GEOLOGY. 67

formation,” show its geological position to be at the end of the first age
of Mesozoic time or the Triassic. Its features are remarkably persistent
along the whole Atlantic border. It occurs on the east side of the Bay of
Fundy, it fills the valley of the Connecticut river, it runs in a wide band
from southern New York, across northern New Jersey and Pennsylvania,
into Maryland, south of which it reappears in large, disconnected areas in
Virginia and the Carolinas. The formation is throughout a red sand-
stone with intercalated layers of shale, and intersected by dykes of a
trappean volcanic rock (diabase), which also frequently forms inter-
bedded sheets or flows. In Maryland the red sandstone dips at a gentle
angle toward the mountain, and its beds, therefore, lie nearly perpen-
dicular to the strata of limestone below them, which dip steeply to the
east. This is technically known as an “unconformity,” and indicates that
the sandstone is younger than the action of the violent forces which have
disturbed the older rocks. A somewhat exceptional member of the
Newark sandstone in Maryland is the highly-colored conglomerate or
breccia, composed of bluish pebbles of limestone, connected by a red
cement, and known as Potomac marble. This rock is well exposed at
Washington Junction, near the Potomac river, and near Frederick. The
igneous rocks, of the age of the Newark sandstone in Maryland, form a
continuous area, of considerable extent, near the Pennsylvania line,
north of Emmitsburg, whence two long dykes extend southward. (See
geological map.) The western of these is the most important. It can be
traced entirely across the State, as a low but clearly-defined elevation,
known as “Ironstone Ridge.” It cuts the sandstone, but for a consider-
able distance it lies outside of the sandstone now remaining, and intersects
the older limestone, shale, and sandstone. The rock is compact, hard,
and black; it is very heavy, but contains no iron of economic value. It
weathers into a light red clay soil.

THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION.

The section made by Maryland across the Appalachian systei,
between the Frederick valley and the western line of Garrett county,
presents an almost complete and unbroken sequence of the sediments
which accumulated during the entire duration of Paleozoic time. The
oldest of these sediments are toward the east and the youngest toward
the west, although the more or less abrupt folds into which they were
thrown when they were raised into a mountain-chain have since been so
cut off by erosion as to show a repeated succession of strata. (See
geological section on map).

The beds of sediments (limestones, sandstones and shales) which
form the Appalachians, were deposited in a wide, long trough which
once extended over the region now o3cupied by these mountains. This
68 MARYLAND.

trough was undergoing gradual depression through the whole of Paleo-
zoic time, until about 40,000 feet of conformable beds had accumulated
in it, mainly as the debris of a continental mass lying to the east. This
vast accumulation was, at the end of the coal age, so compressed as to be
forced up into a lofty range of mountains. The present Appalachians
are merely the remnants of this range worn down by waste through
many successive periods. The compressive force which raised these
mountains acted from the east toward the west, hence the most intense
disturbance is always observable on the eastern side of the range, and
this dies away gradually into the central plains. A second result of this
action from the east is that all the folds are tipped toward the west, and
all the great faults show a thrust in the same direction.

As has been already pointed out, the mountain system of Maryland
is divisible into three distinct portions, an eastern range of faults—the
Blue Ridge; a middle range of steep folds—the Appalachians proper.
and a western plateau of gentle folds—the Alleghanies. The prevailing’
strata in these three divisions are likewise distinct, being oldest in the
eastern, intermediate in the central, and youngest in the western region.

The Blue Ridge and Great Valley. This division in Maryland
extends from the Frederick valley to the foot of North Mountain. It is
composed of the oldest Paleozoic strata, embracing the Cambrian and
Lower Silurian or Ordivician deposits. On the geological map these are
subdivided into only three horizons—Cambrian, Trenton and Hudson
River.

The oldest, or Cambrian, consists mainly of hard sandstone, which
forms the summits of the Blue and Catoctin mountains. Mr. Arthur
Keith, of the United States Geological Survey, has made five minor
divisions in the Cambrian rocks of the Blue Ridge of Maryland*, as
follows:

5. Cambrian Limestone: blue-banded and mottled limestone, with thin
beds of sandy shale and limestone conglomerate; Cambrian

fossils.
4. Anttetam Sandstone: fine grained white sandstone, with scolithus
and Lower Cambrian fossils..........00. cece eee e eens 250 ft.
3. Harper’s Ferry Shales: Grey sandy shales, with same sandstone beds,
scolithus and Lower Cambrian fossils........... 1,200 to 1,500 ft.
2. Weaverton Sandstone: Gray massive sandstone, often coarse and
TeldSpathie gu. poe Gael emde aay wala oles ned 1,000 to 1,200 ft.
1. Loudon Shales, grey and black slaty shales ................. 400 feet.

This sequence grades upward through its top member into the lower
Silurian limestone (Trenton-Chazy) of the Cumberland Valley. The sand-
stones are cut by a number of great faults along which they have been

 

* American Geologist, vol. X., Dec. 1892, p. 365.
‘J9GIY 3NIG JHL 4O LSIYD JHL WOU LSAM DONIXOOT ‘ARTIVA ONVIYSEWND 3HL

 
GEOLOGY. 69

thrust forcibly toward the west, and thus often overlie rocks which are
in reality younger than themselves. This fact has made the deciphering
of the structure of this part of the Blue Ridge difficult, and it has only
recently been finally settled through the discovery of Lower Cambrian
Fossils by Mr. C. D. Walcott, of the U. S. Geological Survey.*

From all the central portion of the Blue Ridge in Maryland the
sandstones and shales have been removed, and the older crystalline rocks
upon which they rest are revealed. These consist in part of ancient
volcanic rocks and in part of granites. The volcanic rocks are of two
types, one corresponding to the acid lavas (rhyolite) and the other to the
basic (basalt) of recent volcanic regions. These rocks are even better
developed in the extension of the Blue Ridge into Pennsylvania, where
they have been recently studied by the writer.t Both the volcanic rocks
and the granites, which are confined to the Middletown Valley and to
the region between Harper’s Ferry and Weaverton, have been consider-
ably altered by the intense pressure to which they have been subjected.
This has so completely foliated them that until recently they have been
regarded as sedimentary slates.

The broad and fertile Cumberland or Hagerstown valley, which
stretches from the Blue Ridge to North Mountain, belongs geologically
to the former. It is mainly composed of the blue Silurian limestone,
which also underlies the Frederick Valley, although none of the over-
lying red sandstone of triassic age occurs here. On the other hand there
are long, narrow areas of shale infolded with the limestone, which
belong to the next younger or Hudson River division of the Silurian age.

As has been already indicated, the rocks of the western or semi-
crystalline portion of the Piedmont Plateau, east of the Blue Ridge as
far as the eastern flank of Parr’s Ridge, are the same as those forming
the Blue Mountain and Great Valley, but in a more or less altered condi-
tion. The limestones of the Hagerstown or Frederick valleys are the
same, as has been shown by their fossils.{| The Sugar-loaf sandstone is
the same as that of Catoctin Mountain, while the slates above the lime-
stone, which are largely metamorphosed into phyllites, are of Hudson
River age. This horizon contains the great roofing-slate quarries along
the northwest edge of the Great Valley in eastern Pennsylvania and
New Jersey; but in southeastern Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia
the roofing slates occur in the more eastern metamorphic belt, as at
Peach Bottom, Delta, Ijamsville, Quantico and Arvon. At the latter
place, near the James River, Va., Mr. N. H. Darton has recently found
well preserved crinoids of Hudson River age.§

 

* American Journal of Science, 3d ser., Vol. 44, Dec., 1892; p. 469.
+American Journal of Science, 3d ser., Vol. 44, Dec., 1892; p. 482.
+C. R. Keyes, Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 8&3.

§ American Journal of Science, 3d ser., Vol. 44, July, 1892; p. 50.
70 MARYLAND.

The Appalachians Proper. ‘his province of the Appalachian
system includes the central portion of the mountains, which in Mary-
land lies where the State is narrowest, between the western edge of the
great valley (North Mountain), and Dan’s Mountain west of Cumber-
land. Throughout its entire extent this province exhibits in the most
characteristic manner the typical Appalachian structure as made out by
Rogers. It is traversed by narrow and remarkably parallel ridges which
succeed one another en échelon, and which owe their existence to the
regular folds into which the strata have been thrown.

Within Maryland’s territory the province of the Appalachians
proper is divisible into three belts: the two outer ones being quite
closely folded, while the middle arc is compos3ed of beds whose undula-
tions are comparatively gentle.

The most easterly of these three divisions may be called the North
Mountain belt. It is about fifteen miles wide, and extends from the
western edge of the Hagerstown Valley to the western slope of Tonolo-
way Hill. Within this distance the strata are so closely folded that
almost all the Silurian and Devonian beds are brought repeatedly to
the surface. The portion of North Mountain itself which lies within
the limits of Maryland is a great anticlinal of Medina Sandstone (No.
1V), whose central portion has been removed toward the north, exposing
the soft Hudson River shales in Blair’s Valley between its two sand-
stone flanks. Toward the south, however, the anticlinal so rapidly
narrows, that most of the overlying beds, Clinton (V), Helderberg (VJ),
Oriskany (VII), and Hamilton (VIII), are crowded nearly against the
great fault separating the valley from the mountain, before the Potomac
is reached.

On the west side of North Mountain succeeds the synclinal valley of
Licking Creek, composed mainly of Hamilton-Chemuing shales (No.
VII), but exposing also the overlying Catskill sandstone (No. IX) in its
southern portion. Into this Hamilton-Chemuing area projects from the
north the anticlinal loop of older strata, which surrounds the narrow
valley of Trenton limestone in Fulton County, Pa., Known as the
McConnellsburgh limestone cove. On the west side of this anticlinal
loop, which wholly disappears before reaching the Potomac, the
Hainilton-Chemuing strata are less disturbed, and compose most of the
surface as far as a point just west of Hancock, where the anticlinal
fold of Tonoloway Hill commences. East of Hancock the Hamilton-
Chemuing beds (No. VIII), are, in part, overlain by two thin strips of the
younger Catskill sandstone. Tonoloway Hill forms the western member
of the North Mountain belt. It is an anticlinal ridge of Clinton-Niagara
(No. V), flanked on each side by narrow bands of Helderberg limestone
(No. VI) and Oriskany sandstone (No. VII). The ridge soon dies out as
“MOOONVH 4O LSAMHLNOS SATIN © ‘dOL GNNOY LY INOLSGNVS VNITVS JHL NI G104 “SYNLONYLS NVIHOVWdd¥

 
GEOLOGY. 71

a loop in Fulton County, Pa. At Round Top, where the Potomac River
cuts into Tonoloway Hill, three miles southwest of Hancock, the folds
of the Helderberg limestone, and the underlying layer of red sandstone
(Salina), are exhibited in a perfection rarely excelled anywhere in the
mountains,

The middle of the three belts of the Appalachian province proper
in Maryland lies between Tonoloway Hill and Warrior’s Ridge, which
rises on the west side of Town Creek. It embraces the three ridges
known as Sideling and Town Hills and Polish Mountain, with their
intervening valleys. The strata in this belt are almost altogether
Devonian, and their comparatively gentle undulations offer a contrast
to the sharper folds on both the east and west sides. The surface within
this belt is, for the most part, composed of Hamilton-Chemuing strata,
frequently capped by remnants of the Catskill sandstone. Along the
crest of Sideling Hilla strip of the still younger subcarboniferous sand-
stone (No. X) is left. The only older rocks are found in the narrow anti-
clinal loop of Oriskany and Helderberg, which projects northward across
the Potomac, opposite the mouth of the South Branch.

The third of the belts of the Appalachian province proper in Mary-
land is closely folded like that on the east. It occupies the area between
Flintstone and Dan’s Mountain, and consists of three parallel and sharply
anticlinal ridges—Warrior’s, Martin’s and Will’s Mountains—whose axes
consist in each case cf hard Medina sandstone (No. IV). These folds soon
die out toward the south; but the sandstone remains at the surface longer
in the western ridge (Will’s Mountain) than in the middle one, and longer
in the middle one (Martin’s Ridge) than in the one farthest east. Hence
each range grows longer as we pass westward, while the younger strata
from Clinton to Chemuing (Nos. V-VIIJ) encircle their southern ends and
fill the intervening valleys. (See map.)

Each of these three folds is steepest on its western side, as is the
rule of Appalachian structure. Indeed, it is hard to find a more instruc-
tive or typical section in this whole range than is seen in passing from
the Hamilton shales on the east side of the city of Cumberland, through
the “Narrows” and across the valley of Will’s Creek toward Dan’s
Mountain. The sequence of Upper Silnrian and Devonian strata is
crossed three times, first with moderate dip up the gentle flank of Will’s
Mountain on the east, then closely compressed, plunging with nearly
vertical dip down its steep western flank, and finally climbing again with
more gentle dip the eastern slope of the front range of the Alleghanies.
(See geological section on map.)

The Alleghany Plateau. The whole of Maryland west of Will’s
Creek belongs to the great plateau of the Alleghanies, which gently
undulates across West Virginia and Pennsylvania into the plains of
12 MARYLAND.

Ohio. Maryland’s portion of this plateau is a triangle which includes
Garrett, and the western part of Alleghany county. From Will’s Creek
the country rises rapidly to the summit of Dan’s Mountain (2,100 ft.), west
of which it maintains a relatively high elevation to the western line of
the State. The rocks are the youngest of the Paleozoic series—Upper
Devonian and Carboniferous. They are sandstones, conglomerates and
shales, with very little limestone, and carry near their top the seams of
coal which give to this geological horizon its name, and make it, the
world over, of paramount importance. These strata in western Mary-
land are bent into very gentle folds, and as the middle beds (Pottsville,
No. XII) are the hardest, these have most successfully resisted the
forces of erosion, and stand out in bold ridges. Between these are
alternately flat anticlinal valleys of older rocks and synclinal valleys
of younger ones, as is shown in the geological section.

There are two series of these ridges in western Maryland, which
converge toward the south. Members of the eastern series trend south-
west, while those belonging to the western series trend nearly south.
To the first series belong Dan’s, Great Backbone or Savage, and Meadow
mountains; to the second series, Negro Mountain, Winding Ridge and
Laurel Hill. The two innermost members of these converging sets,
Negro and Meadow Mountains, as will readily be seen by reference to
the map, unite above Oakland, and surround, as with a wall, the flat
synclinal trough of carboniferous rocks around Grantville. On both
sides of this basin are rugged upland valleys of hard sandstones—Cat-
skill (No. IX) and Chemung (No. VIII). Since these rocks are all older
than the mountain-forming conglomerate, they represent two flat anti-
clinal arches, whose former coverings have been worn away. South of
the Grantville coal basin, these two valleys unite, forming the high-
lands, upon which stand Deer Park and Oakland. The great anticlinal
V of upper Devonian strata in Garrett! County, is flanked by the two
central ridges of the two converging series—Great Backbone or Savage
Mountain on the east and Winding Ridge on the west. These, like the
ridges surrounding the central coal-basin, are capped and protected by
the hard, resistant Pottsville conglomerate (No. XII), and each forms the
rim of an external coal-basin. East of Savage Mountain is the George’s
Creek coal field, while west of Winding Ridge is the carboniferous basin
of the Youghiogheny River. Geologically these are alike, and symmetri-
cally arranged, but, economically, they are of very unequal importance,
The Grantville and Youghiogheny coal basins are relatively small exten-
sions of the vast Appalachian coal field, which reaches its maximum
development farther west. Although the continuation of these areas
northward into Penusylvania becomes valuable, they carry in Maryland
only the lower productive and barren coal measures which, unfortunately,
 

APPALACHIAN STRUCTURE. VERTICAL ORISKANY AND HELDERBERG STRATA NORTHWEST OF CUMBERLAND.
GEOLOGY. 73

have not yet proved capable of being worked with profit in our State.
Hence no mining operations are carried on in the two Garrett county
coal basins. .

The smaller coal area in western Alleghany County, on the other
hand, lying between Savage and Dan’s Mountains, contains extensive
remnants of a former covering of the upper productive coal-measures
(No. XV). These here carry a great 14-foot vein of semi-bituminous
coal, and thus reach their highest development as regards quality and
value. Thus this smallest in extent of Maryland’s three coal fields
becomes one of her greatest sources of wealth, as is explained more
fully beyond, in the account of the coal industry.

THE COASTAL PLAIN.

The area of lowland which borders the Piedmont Plateau upon the
east passes with constantly decreasing elevation seaward, and has been
already described under the name of the Coastal Plain. It is made up
of geological formations of younger date than those found in the central
and western portions of the State, and furthermore have been only
slightly changed since they were deposited. Laid down upon the
edge of the crystalline belt, when the sea stood near the eastern border
of the Piedmont Plateau, these later sediments form a series of thin
sheets, which are inclined slightly to the eastward,so that successively
later formations are encountered in passing from the interior of the
country toward the coast.

Oscillation of the sea floor, bearing its accumulated sediments, went
on during the period of Coastal Plain deposition, and as a result the
formations present along their western margins much complexity. At
such points it is not uncommon to find intermediate members of the
series lacking, so that the discrimination of the different horizons in the
absence of fossils is often attended with great uncertainty.

The Coastal Plain sediments deposited after a long break in time
between the red sandstones of the Triassic age, hitherto considered, and
the lowermost of the series now to be described, complete the sequence
of geological formations found represented in Maryland. From the time
deposition opened in the coastal region to the present, constant sedimen-
tation has apparently been going on, although at times unconformities
appear along the landward margins of the different formations which,
as already mentioned, indicate marked changes of level in proximity to
the coast.
“SNOILVNYOS SNOFJOVLAYD YaddN ONY YIMO7T ONIMOHS ‘AVEESNVIdVSSHOD 4O QVIH LV ‘NIVLNNOW S.NIGINVW NO NOILOAS

 

 
GEOLOGY. 75

different localities, at a corresponding position in the series, both sand
and clay are found. Highly colored and variegated clays (iron ore clays
of Tyson*) abound, however, in the upper portion of the formation, and
have yielded large amounts of nodular carbonate of iron. Extensive
diggings have been opened in the region to the southwest of Baltimore,
and the ores extracted have been used in the furnaces of the vicinity.

The clays have also great value for pottery and brick-making, and a
large part of the local materials so used come from this formation.

Beds of sand are found underlying the clays at Federal Hill and
other points, while even larger deposits occur in the upper portion of the
series on the Patuxent and Severn Rivers. At the latter locality the
sands are of such thickness and purity as to be of considerable economic
importance, and extensive diggings have been opened.

The width of outcrop of the Lower Cretaceous is about 15 miles in
the centre of the State. Its marginal contact with the crystalline rocks
is a jagged, irregular line, at times broken, while detached, isolated
masses frequently lie to the west of the main area. Its eastern border
is more regular than its western, but due to the unequal erosion of the
country is more or less sinuous, reaching farthest eastward along the
channels of the streams. The Lower Cretaceous extends from north-
east to southwest across the State, the main body of the formation
being found in Cecil, Harford, Baltimore, Anne Arundel and Prince
George’s counties. Upon the eastern shore of the Chesapeake it reaches
into Kent county and along the Potomac into Charles county.

The fossils found in the deposits, although not as numerous or distinc-
tive as might be desired, yet indicate beyond doubt the Cretaceous age of
the formation. They consist chiefly of the bones of dinosaurian reptiles
and leaf impressions. The former, found in Prince George’s county,
have been described by Professor O. C. Marsh,t of Yale University. The
leaf impressions, many of which come from Federal Hill, Baltimore,
have been studied by palaeobotanists, and an elaborate monograph has
been published by Professor William Fontaine,{ of the University of
Virginia.

The Upper Cretaceous (Scverr). The Upper Cretaceous, the exist-
ence of which in the series of geological formations found represented
on the western shore of the Chesapeake had not been recognized
previously, was investigated by the writer in 1888 and described shortly
after in the Johns Hopkins University Circulars. <A further account of
the same was published shortly after by Uhler.|| Darton,§ in 1891, called

 

* First Rept. State Agricul. Chemist of Md., 1860, pp. 30, 42.
+Amer. Jour. Sci., 8d ser., vol. 35, 1888; pp. 89-94.

tU.S. Geol. Survey Monograph, vol. xv.

§ Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 69, pp. 20, 21.

| Maryland Acad. Sci., Trans., v a I, pp. 11-32.

"Geol. Soc. America, Bull., vol. 2, pp. 431-450.
‘MAAIY OVNOLOd JHL 4O ANVA HLNOS JHL NO ‘'W99ND VINODV JO HLNOW 3HL YVAN ‘3N3004 40 NOILOAS

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PRAIA

 
GEOLOGY. 77

Among the fossils recognized from the Maryland Cretaceous are
Terebratula Harlant, Ostrea sp., Gryphaea vesicularis, Exogyra costata,
Pinna laqueata, Cibota rostellata, Cucyllaea vulgaris, Cucullaea tip-
pana, Pectunculus Mortoni, Trigonia Mortoni, Nucula percrassa,
Perrisonata protexta, Crassatella vadosa, Crassatella transversa,
Veniella Conradi, Cardium eufaulense, Cardium multiradiatum,
Cardium perelongatum, Cyprimeria densata, Panopaea decisa, Dosinia
erecta, Tellimera eborea, Amauropsis punctata, Margaritata abyssima,
Turritella vertebroides, Turritella trilirata, Actaeon cretacea, Baculites
ovatus, Ammonites lobatus.

Many of the forms are highly characteristic for the Upper Cretaceous,
but whether the Geposits in Maryland represent all or only a portion of
the more complete series represented in New Jersey and in the Gulf
cannot be definitely determined. The fossils hitherto found seem to
indicate the absence of the upper portion of the series as developed in
New Jersey.

The Eocene (Pamunkey). The third of the geological formations
found represented in the Coastal Plain of Maryland is the Eocene,
which extends along the eastern border of the United States from
New Jersey to Texas, although its continuity is broken at several points,
on both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The area of the Eocene found
represented in Maryland is a part of an almost continuous outcrop
extending from central Delaware to southern Virginia. On account
of the distinctive character of the deposits, both lithologically and
paleoutologically, they have been called the Pamunkey formation by
Darton* from their typical development on the Pamunkey River, in
Virginia.

The remarkable green-sands and numerous fossils found in this
formation early attracted the attention of geologists. Although the
valuable contributions of Finch} and Say{in 1824 included references to
the Maryland Tertiary, the first really important geological inferences,
drawn from a study of the organic remains, were made by Conrad§ in
the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for
1890. Many articles by the same author upon the Maryland Tertiary
followed in subsequent years, and to-day the contributions of Conrad
remain the most exhaustive that we have upon the Eocene of the State.
The more recent articles of Tyson||, Uhler§, Darton**, Heilprin}t+ and the

 

*Geol. Soc. America Bull., Vol. 2, 1890, p. 439.

+ Amer. Jour. Sci, vol. 7, 1824, pp. 31-48.

+ Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci., Jour., vol. 4, 1824, pp. 124-155.

§ Ibid.. vol. 6, 1830, pp. 205-217.

| First Rept. Agricul. Chemist of Ma.

© Maryland Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 1, pp. 11-32, 45-72.

** Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 2, 1891, pp. 440-442, 450.

+t Contributions to the Tertiary Geology and Paleontology of the United States, 1884, pp. 10-14.
LYOW VIIFLINYNL JO STISHS JHL HLIM C3714 TYVW JNIOO39 GALVUNANI 4O SASSVAW

 
GEOLOGY. 79

granite are frequent types. Associated with these materials are the
shells of Foraminifera and other calcareous organisms. The minute
grains of glauconite occur generally as casts of these shells. It is sup-
posed by Murray and Renard* that if “the organic matter enclosed in the
shell, and in the mud itself, transforms the ironin the mud into sulphide,
which may be oxidized into hydrate, sulphur being at the same time
liberated, this sulphur would become oxidized into sulphuric acid, which
would decompose the fine clay, setting free colloid silica, alumina being
removed in solution; thus we have colloid silica and hydrate oxide of
iron in a state suitable for their combination.” The potash which is
necessary to complete the composition of glauconite is held to be derived
from the decomposition of the fragments of crystalline rocks or their
common minerals, orthoclase and white mica.

Green-sand has considerable economic importance as a fertilizer, but
has never been employed to any extent in Maryland. In New Jersey, on
the other hand, the green-sand marls have been extensively used, and the
great fertility of much of the farming land in the eastern and southern
portions of the State may be directly traced to it.

No widespread division of the series into different horizons is indi-
cated upon lithological grounds, as the variations in composition are
apparently due to subsequent chemical changes rather than to original
deposition. There are a few local beds of clay and some gravels, but the
deposits are chiefly green-sands, either in an unaltered or weathered state.
It is likewise impossible with our present imperfect knowledge of the
Eocene fauna to attempt to establish definite horizons upon the basis of
the fossils, as even the geological range of the best known forms has not
been as yet fully determined.

Among the more common species found in the Maryland Eocene are:
Ostrea compressirostra, Cucullea gigantea, Cucullea transversa, Pec-
tunculus stamineus, Crassatella aleformis, Crassatella palmuta, Cras-
satella capricranium, Cardita regia, Cardita planicosta, Dosintopsis
Meekii, Cytherea ovata, Pholadomya marylandica, Glycimeris elongata,
Pholas petrosa, Monodonta Glandula, Turritella humerosa, Turritella
Mortoni.

Of these Cucullea gigantea is chiefly confined to the basal strata,
although in individual cases, as reported by Uhler and Darton, it has
been found in the upper portions of the series. Twurritella Mortoni, on
the other hand, is infrequent in the lowest beds, and in the sections on
the Potomac and its tributaries is found above those layers in which the
Cucullea gigantea is most numerous.

Hitherto few Eocene fossils have been obtained from the deposits of
the eastern shore of the Chesapeake. At the head of the creeks tributary

 

* Challenger Expedition Reports, Deep Sea Deposits, 1822, p. 389.
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GEOLOGY. 81

The Miocene consists of sands, clays, marls and diatomaceous beds.
The latter, composed chiefly of the shekls of microscopic plant forms
called diatoms, are in the main confined to the lower portion of the
formation, and afford fine sections at Pope’s Creek, on the Potomac, at
the mouth of Lyon’s Creek, a tributary of the Patuxent, and at Herring
bay, on the western shore of the Chesapeake. At these points the light
colored bluffs are very striking objects in the landscape. The pure
diatomaceous earth reaches a thickness of about 30 feet; although the
remains of diatoms are found scattered in greater or less numbers
throughout much of the overlying strata. The beds of diatomaceous earth
at Pope’s Creek extend for two or three miles along the face of the bluffs
until they finally disappear at water level. The diatomaceous earth can
be traced from the Eastern Shore of Maryland across the State to the
Potomac River. It is also found extending into Southern Virginia. From
its occurrence beneath Richmond it has been called “Richmond earth.”
It was also referred to for a time in the literature of the subject as “ Ber-
muda earth” from its supposed occurrence on the Island of Bermuda;
but the specimens upon which this reference was based were ultimately
shown to come from Bermuda Hundred, on the James River. The
diatomaceous earth has also been frequently described under the names of
“ Infusorial earth,” “Tripoli” and “ Silica.” The deposits of diatomaceous
earth have considerable economic value, and several companies have been
formed to work them at Pope’s Creek and on the Patuxent.

The greater portion of the Miocene is composed of sands and clays
of various colors, mingled with which are frequently vast numbers of
shells of calcareous organisms. Extensive beds of marl thus formed are
found outcropping at many points. Sometimes the shelly materials
form so large a portion of the deposit as to produce almost pure calca-
reous layers, which, in a partially comminuted state may become cemented
into hard lime-stone ledges. The deposits are at times very carbonaceous
and dark in color. Near the mouth of the Patuxent River a bed of
lignite several feet in thickness is exposed at water level.

From a study of the miocene deposits and fossils of the western
shore of the Chesapeake, Mr. G. D. Harris*, of the U.S. Geological Survey,
finds seven clearly defined zones and three distinct faunas, to which he
has given the following names, beginning with the oldest: 1, the Plum
Point fauna; 2, the Jones’ Wharf fauna; 3, the St. Mary’s fauna.

1. The Plum Point fauna is characterized by the presence of Pecten
Humphreysi, Area subrostrata, Byssoarca marylandica, Pectunculus
parilis, Astarte varians, Astarte exaltata, Crassatella melina, Lucina
FPoremani, Cardium leptopleura, Corbula elevata, Isocardia Markoei,
Venus staminea, Venus latilirata, Pleurotoma marylandica, Pleuro-

 

* Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 45, 1893; pp. 21-31.
6
82 MARYLAND.

toma bellacrenata, Scala pachypleura, Turritella indenta, Turritella
exaltata, Solarium trilineatum.

2. The Jones’ Wharf fauna is characterized by the presence of
Mytiloconcha incurva, Arca elevata, Carditamera producta, Astarte
obruta, Crassatella turgidula, Mysia acclinis, Cytherea marylandica,
Mya producta, Panopaea americana, Turritella terebriformis, Callios-
toma Wagneri.

3. The St. Mary’s fauna is characterized by the presence of Arca
idonea, Astarte perplana, Venus alveata, Mactra ponderosa, Mactra
subnasuta, Solen ensiformis, Tebebra simplex, Conus diluvianus, Pleu-
rotoma communis, Fusus parilis, Fusus rusticus, Bulliopsis integra,
Nassa peralta, Murex acuticostata, Scala expansa, Turritella variabilis.

The Pliocene (Lafayette). Widely covering the deposits of the
Coastal Plain hitherto described is a formation composed of gravel, sands
and clays, which thus far has afforded no fossils in the State of Mary-
land to indicate its geologic age. From the fact that the deposits
rest unconformably upon the underlying Miocene, and are in turn
unconformably overlain by the Pleistocene, they have been consid-
ered to represent the Pliocene. Where they are exposed as a superficial
covering at the higher levels the strata exhibit much more extensive
changes than the Pleistocene, so that much time must have elapsed
after the former were laid down before the deposition of the latter.
Upon physical grounds then, and not biological, the determination of
the Pliocene deposits has been based. To Professor W. J. McGee, of the
U. 8. Geological Survey, is due the credit of having first introduced this
method in the study of the formations of the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

Before the investigations of Professor McGee, the Pliocene, as an
independent formation, had not been recognized. The similarity of the
coarser sediments especially to the shore deposits of the Lower Creta-
ceous and the Pleistocene did not, in the absence of fossils, admit of their
discrimination until the methods based on the study of the physical and
genetic relations of the various beds had been employed.

The similarity of the deposits in Maryland to those described by
Professor Hilgard in Mississippi, under the name of the Lafayette forma-
tion, led to the adoption of the same name for the strata of the Atlantic
coast.

The characteristic features of the formation are found fully described
by Professor McGee in the Twelfth Annual Report of the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey.

The Pliocene has been more fully investigated in the South Atlantic
and Gulf States than in the North, where it is not known to extend with
certainty beyond the limits of the Chesapeake area.
GEOLOGY. 83

Within the State of Maryland the strata cover the higher levels
upon the western shore of the Chesapeake, but have not been hitherto
described from the eastern counties. Toward the ancient coast line,
bordering the Piedmont Plateau, are deposits of coarse gravel, through
which is scattered a light colored sandy loam, the whole at times
cemented by hydrous iron oxide into a more or less compact conglom-
erate.

The deposits are very irregularly stratified, and often change rapidly
within narrow limits. A typical section is described by Darton * from
Good Hope Hill, east of Washington, where “the high terrace is capped
for some distance by beds of large pebbles and sand with a buff loam
matrix.” The eastward extension of the formation shows a lessening of
the coarser elements and a larger admixture of loam. As the distance
from the coast line increased constantly less and less of the coarser
materials could be transported.

Throughout the southern counties the coarser pebbles of the coast
are largely replaced by sand. The thickness of the deposits is estimated
to reach about 25 feet in Maryland, which becomes considerably increased
to the southward.

The Pleistocene (Columbia). Superficially overlying the other
deposits of the Coastal Plain is the Pleistocene, which, with marked
variations in thickness, composition and structure, extends from the
glacial accumulations of central New Jersey southward through the
south Atlantic and Gulf States to the Mexican boundary.

The deposits of the Pleistocene, from their characteristic develop-
ment in the District of Columbia, have been called the Columbia
formation by Professor McGee.t Maryland also presents a typical
representation of Pleistocene strata; and three distinct phases have been
recognized. They are as follows: The fluvial phase, the inter fluvial
phase, and the low-level phase.

The fluvial phase is found in its fullest development along the
leading waterways and their larger tributaries. It consists of a lower
horizon of coarse materials, pebbles and boulders, passing upward into a
brownish loam that at times becomes orange yellow in color.

The relative thicknesses of the two divisions varies with their
distance from the river channels; the gravels with their pebbles and
boulders being most prominent in close proximity to the ancient water-
ways, while the loams increase in thickness in passing in either direction
to a distance from the same. Within the limits of Maryland the fluvial
phase is found best developed in proximity to the channels of the
Potomac, Patapsco and Susquehanna Rivers, reaching elevations of 150,

 

*Geol. Soc. America, Bull, vol. 2, 1891; p. 445.
+ Report of the Health Officer of the District of Columbia for 1884, °85 and °86; p. 20.
84+ MARYLAND.

200 and nearly 300 feet in the respective valleys. These deposits are
evidence of the depression of the continent, relatively to the sea, to the
heights given. That greater elevation is reached by the deposits north-
ward shows greater relative depression in that direction.

Toward the south the fluvial phase becomes much less pronounced,
the loam gradually giving place to sand and silt, while the cvuarser
materials form a much less important element in the series.

The loam is much employed in Maryland for brick-making, and
numerous industries have been established in the vicinity of Baltimore.

The inter-luvial phase is found typically represented in the country
which lies between the waterways, and is characterized by materials of
local origin and produced largely by wave action. The small streams on
the borders of the plateau country added to the materials of strictly local
origin, but as a whole the inter-fluvial phase is far less important than
the fluvial. Over much of the region the deposits are of little thickness,
and quite disappear in some areas. Frequent gradations into the
fluvial phase are to be found toward the leading water ways or at
points where the shore currents had transported materials derived from
the rivers to a distance from the same.

To the south of Maryland the inter-fluvial phase becomes more and
more pronounced, until in the south Atlantic States it greatly surpasses
the fluvial phase in extent.

The low-level phase is developed throughout the area that is removed
from the Pleistocene coast line, and excellent sections of it are found
along the shores of the Chesapeake Bay, where it buries to sea-level
much of the region in the more southern of the Eastern Shore counties,

The deposits consist of sands, clays and loams, which are often
clearly stratified, while their fossils show the distinctly marine condi-
tions surrounding their origin. The fine silts and clays indicate a much
slower and much less disturbed type of sedimentation than that found
in either the fluvial or interfluvial phase. The deposits must have been
scattered as a coating of greater or less thickness over Southern and
Eastern Maryland and far beyond its present coastal limits.

Fossils have been found at several localities in the low-level
deposits, but the most important locality in Maryland is at Cornfield
Harbor, near the southern point of St. Mary’s county. Among the many
species found the most characteristic are Ostrea virginica, Mytilus
hamatus, Venus mercenaria, Mya arenaria, Pholas costataand Fulgur
canaliculatum.

All the forms are living to-day, some on the neighboring coasts,
while others are limited to more distant regions.
Lg

ed
La

SECTION ON ENSOR STREET,

 
GEOLOGY. 85

RESUME OF MARYLAND’S GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

Before entirely dismissing the subject of Maryland’s geology, it
will be worth while to pass briefly in review what have been the prob-
able nature and sequence of events in her long history.

In the earliest days of the earth’s existence of which we can take
definite cognizance, when as yet the oldest strata which contain evidence
of life had not been laid down, the continent of North America was but
roughly outlined. There was above the ocean level a great V of crystal-
line rock, whose apex was at the Adirondack Mountains, in Northern
New York, while its two arms stretched, one toward Alaska and the
other through Labrador. Upon this great skeleton the continent has
since been gradually built up by the accumulation of sediments along
its borders. But in these early days there were doubtless other con-
tinental areas above the sea, which furnished the source of much of
this sedimentary material, but which bave themselves more or less
completely disappeared. We must draw our knowledge of these old
masses from the nature of the rocks composing their scanty remains,
and from their relations to the oldest fossil-bearing strata.

When we consider the vast thickness of sediments which accumu-
lated during the whole lapse of Paleozoic time, in the great sea trough
of what are now the Appalachian Mountains, we are compelled to
assume a great continental or mountain mass lying along the south-
eastern edge of the continent and extending out into what is now the
ocean. What the limits of this mass were toward the east we have no
means of knowing, but there is no need of assuming that it reached to
the now abyssal depths of the Atlantic. That it must have been lofty,
like a great range of mountains, is shown by the rapidity with which it
furnished coarse sediments to the inland sea which stretched along its
western edge. The great crystalline plateau, which extends from New
York to Alabama, along the eastern base of the present mountains, with
a breadth of 300 miles in the Carolinas, is its worn-down remnant.

Within Maryland’s territory the area which can be referred to this
old Pre-Cambrian continent is that which has above been described
as the eastern or holocrystalline part of the Piedmont Plateau.
Toward the east it has sunk downward, and is now buried beneath the
Coastal Plain deposits; toward the west it stretches as the floor to sup-
port the Paleozoic strata of the Appalachians, reappearing in the granite
and volcanic rocks of the South Mountain.

In the earliest times that we can clearly recognize, these ancient
rocks had already been greatly crumpled, altered and metamorphosed
by the intrusion of igneous masses, but they furnished a firm floor for
the inter-continental sea which then occupied the middle of our country.
86 MARYLAND.

At our latitude the oldest shore line was somewhere east of the Fred-
erick Valley, from which westward were spread out the beds of coarse
sandstone now forming Sugar Loaf, Catoctin and Blue Mountains. After
this the sea rapidly deepened, as is seen by the different kind of sedi-
ments deposited (Trenton limestone and Hudson river shales), as well as
from the fact that the sea itself stretched much farther toward the east.
This latter fact is attested by the isolated troughs of Hudson river shale
at Peach Bottom and Quantico, Va., below which little or no Cambrian
sandstone occurs.

At the end of the Hudson river epoch occurred the first great moun-
tain-making movement of Paleozoic times. It marked the termination
of the lower Silurian period and raised the Green Mountains in New
England. Although less pronounced toward the south, its influence was
profoundly felt at least as far as Maryland, where it closely folded and
metamorphosed the slates and limestones of the western Piedmont
region.

After the Green Mountain uplift, the shore-line of the inland sea
was pushed considerably westward, and it is doubtful whether it ever
again reached a point east of the Blue Ridge, as this barrier was doubt-
less raised in part, at least, by the Green Mountain disturbance. Through
Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous times comparative quiet
reigned. While subject to continual oscillations, the sea floor was in the
main sinking, although the high land at its border was so rapidly
supplying it with sediment, that the shore-line steadily receded west-
ward.

During the long lapse of Paleozoic time there was also a growth of
continental areas in the interior, so that the Appalachian trough was
being narrowed from both sides. Finally, near the end of this great
time-division, it had become so nearly filled up that large swamps of
coal plants flourished, from which the great coal seams of Maryland,
Pennsylvania and West Virginia have since been formed. At the close
of the coal period occurred the greatest mountain upheaval that eastern
America has ever known. The vast trough of sediments, which had
accumulated to a depth of nearly eight miles, was folded into a series
of wrinkles so gigantic that the former sea was transformed into a
lofty mountain chain—at first much higher than it is to-day.

From its first appearance above the waves this mountain range has
been continually preyed upon by wind, rain, frost and rivers, until a
large proportion of its bulk is now stretched out along our coastal plain.
Its growth was doubtless gradual—at least not the product of a sudden
revolution—but the end of the coal period may be safely assigned as the
time of its maximum elevation, thus forming a fitting close to the first
grand division of life’s existence on our planet.
GEOLOGY. 87

By the elevation of the Appalachian trough into the Appalachian
mountain range the sea was fairly crowded out of the interior of our
continent, at least on its eastern side. Near the close of the first division
of Mesozoic time, known as the Triassic age, however, extensive estuaries
existed along the eastern edge of the mountains, and in these a great
thickness of red sandstone was laid down, cut by and interbedded with
flows of a basic lava (diabase). This formation, which we call the
Newark, crosses Maryland in a wide, irregular strip through the Frederick
valley, and records the earliest deposit which was formed by the washing
away of the newly-formed mountains.

At about the close of the Triassic period there was a decided conti-
nental elevation which continued throughout Jurassic time. The
continent stood along its eastern border so high that the Jurassic strata
were doubtless deposited far to the eastward of the coast line of later
geological epochs, and are buried to-day beneath the entire series of
Coastal Plain sediments. During all this time the land area of central
and western Maryland lost greatly as the result of erosion.

With the opening of the Lower Cretaceous there was a marked
depression of the continent which brought the sea to and beyond the
present eastern border of the Piedmont Plateau. Broad reaches of
shallow and brackish water bordered the coasts, and powerful currents
distributed the materials brought to the sea by the rivers. At the close
of the Lower Cretaceous, the continent emerged and the landward
portion of the sediments that had just been deposited were exposed for
a time to denudation.

The streams which were now initiated became, at a much more
recent date, superimposed upon the underlying crystalline rocks of the
Piedmont Plateau. They are strikingly at variance with the structural
and lithological characteristics of those rocks, as is shown by the fact
that they do not follow the line of the more readily-eroded limestone
valleys, but suddenly turn from them across the harder materials. But
submergence followed in the Upper Cretaceous, and in quiet marine
waters the materials carried from the land were slowly deposited.

At the close of the Cretaceous period the land was again elevated, and
the deposits just laid down were cut into by the streams that formed upon
the new land surface. But the constant oscillations of the continent
continued bringing at the opening of the Eocene another submergence,
followed by emergence at its close, while the deposits were laid down
over the surface of both lower and upper Cretaceous strata. Twice more
in Tertiary time is there submergence in the coastal area, followed by
emergence—first during the Neocene, and again in Pliocene time. During
the latter period the sea encroached far upon the Piedmont plateau, while
the outlines of the present topography were largely carved out. After the
88 MARYLAND.

emergence following the Pliocene the continent became again depressed in
Pleistocene time, but not to the extent that it had been during the pre-
vious period. In the emergence that followed, which carried the land
area considerably higher than at present, the continent was more elevated
in the north than in the south, as shown by the height of the Pleistocene
terraces in the valleys of the Potomac, Patapsco and Susquehanna Rivers.
During this period of emergence the channel of the Chesapeake was
carved out only to be filled at quite recent date by another submergence.
CHAPTER IV.

MINES AND MINERALS.

DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL STATISTICS.

Before presenting the particulars in regard to each of the more
important of Maryland’s industries which depend on the production of
mineral substances obtained, either at present or formerly, within the
borders of the State, it will be advisable to give briefly the general
facts of importance relating to the nature, distribution and production
of these substances.

The minerals of any economic value which are known to exist
within Maryland’s territory, may be divided into three classes:

1st. Those which are now produced with profit, or which are sus-
ceptible of future development. In this class may be enumerated—
Coal.

Iron ore.

Gold.

Building stone: Granite rocks, marble, sandstone, slate and, possibly,
serpentine.

Decorative stone: Marble, serpentine and porphyry.

Limestone, for burning and flux.

Hydraulic Cement.

Clay: Brick and potter’s clay ; fire clay.

Sand: Building and molding sand.

Porcelain materials: Flint, feldspar, kaolin.

Soapstone. °

Mineral water.

2nd. Mineral products, formerly produced in Maryland, but which
are not at the present time actively worked. As such may be men-
tioned—

Copper ore.

Chrome ore.

Ochre, mineral paint.

Diatomaceous earth (infusorial earth ; tripoli).
Magnesium carbonate.

Asbestos, chrysotile.
90 MARYLAND.

3d. Minerals known to occur in Maryland, but not in quantities
sufficient to warrant their production. To this class belong—
Lead ore (galena).

Zine ore (zine blende).

Mica. :

Amber.

Plumbago (graphite, black-lead).
Manganese.

Antimony.

The distribution of Maryland’s mineral resources through the State
may be best followed by reference to the geological map. In the crys-
talline rocks of the Piedmont Region, between the Monocacy and the
Chesapeake, we find the most varied, if not the most valuable list.
Here occur the most important building stones: the slates of Delta and
Jjamsville; the granites of Port Deposit, Woodstock and Guilford; the
gneiss of Baltimore; the marble of Cockeysville and Texas; the sand-
stone of Deer Creek; and the serpentine of Broad Creek and Bare Hills.
In these oldest rocks occur also all the ores of gold, copper, chrome, lead
and zinc. Much of the best iron ore also belongs here, while all the
flint, feldspar, kaolin and mica in the State must be sought for in this
horizon.

These older or pre-paleozoic rocks again appear in the centre of the
Blue Ridge, where they make the Middletown valley, and here they
yield traces of copper, antimony and iron, while some of the red porphy-
ries occurring a little farther north would appear to be well worthy of
the attention of architects as decorative stones.

The long sequence of paleozoic strata which stretches from the Fred-
erick valley westward across the State, furnishes much good sandstone
and limestone, two horizons of valuable cement rock, and at its top it
carries what is now left by man and the eroding agencies of Nature of
the wonderful Cumberland Coal basin and its 14-foot vein of solid coal.
This same basin contains also deposits of fire-clay and iron.

As we trace the sequence of formations through the more recently
formed portions of the State (post-paleozoic strata of the map), we find
them not devoid of mineral deposits of economic value. The variegated
limestone breccia, known as “ Potomac Marble,” and the best brown sand-
stone for building purposes found in Maryland, both belong to the oldest
of these post-paleozoic strata—the triassic belt of the Frederick valley
and southern Montgomery county. The series of still unconsolidated
beds which represents the lapse of time from the lower Cretaceous period
to the present, and which composes all of eastern and southern Maryland,
besides furnishing valuable lands for various agricultural interests, con-
MINES AND MINERALS. 91

tains our principal supply of brick, potter’s and fire-clay; of sand, marl
and diatomaceous earth; and much of our best iron ore.

According to the returns of the Eleventh United States Census, the
mineral production of Maryland during 1889 reached a total of $5,157,687.
This placed the State twenty-sixth in the list of States of the Union when
arranged in order of the relative value of their total mineral products.
The census values for Maryland’s products during 1889 are arranged as
follows:

Quantity. Value.
Coa) GMO TONS huuccaseneles ounce eee ternes ke 2,939,715 $2,517,474
Bricks (HUMBER i asgu: ved uews hee eee ea 1,250,000 — 1,000,000
Granite (cubic feet)...... 0.2.0. cece eee eee 3,371,032 447,489
Cement (barrels) cscs yesecyeek the Suewes see ae ca. 200,000 180,000
LAMES TONG ss aseee es Saewaceatana mane tanh eter Aak 164,860
Marble (cnbic feet)......... 00.0000 ees ee ee eee eee 333,305 139,816
ple (SUMATES) xs siex ew cea wedee swew pest exes ee xa ca. 22,000 110,008
LON ORE 3 3s acescicln She use dar he age aoe wip dc aura ae Ne eg Be 29,380 68,240
Potter’s clay (short tons)......... 0.0.0.0. 000 00a ee 13,870 52,920
Flint (Short toms) v4 .c.k sae ae awe dee Hous daceale 8,632 46,828
pandstone. (Cubic 16eh).. 61 .is0s ser gcen tegen dedoue 508 325 10,605
Ochre: (Short (ONS iis aews severe tides ease eee ea es 616 12,000
(FON (irOg CUMECE) jb .a a scea Ge beau soak aan omay 501 10,369
Mineral water (gallons)...... 0.2.0.0... 002 ce ee eee 74,160 12,057
Infusorial earth (short: tons).ss is ecses case sues 3,050 10,700
Soapstone (short tons)..... cc... cece eee e eee eee 432 4,321
UMSPGCiNGd 4 ia sunaiss ove Iotdetree seme eae 359,300

The attempt to compile a correspondingly complete table for the
three succeeding years has not been successful. The data obtained are,
however, sufficient to show that there has been no very marked change
in the total production. Coal has increased, while ochre and infusorial
earth have ceased altogether. Mineral water has shown great fluctua-
tions, but almost all the other mineral products have remained about the
same. All the details which it has been possible to obtain concerning
the various products during 1890, 1891 and 1892, will be given under each
of the various mineral industries, which it is now proposed to consider in
succession, somewhat from the standpoint of their history and develop-
ment.

COAL.*

The coal deposits of Maryland belong to that greatest of all the coal
areas of the United States, the Alleghany field. This is 875 miles long
and from 30 to 180 broad, covering large portions of Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Alabama. In the

 

*See ‘‘ The Coal Region of America,’’ by Jas. McFarlane, Ph. D., 3d Ed., 1875.
92 MARYLAND.

northeastern portion of this area the rocks containing the coal have been
thrown into a series of folds which increase in their sharpness toward
the east. The increased disturbance has produced a more or less com-
plete loss of volatile portions of the coal, and the production of varieties
which are richer in carbon. Three principal types are distinguished.
Since most of the coal of the Alleghany field lies in rock strata which
have been but little disturbed, it contains a high proportion of volatile
gases and less than 70 per cent. of carbon, and is especially valuable for
the manufacture of coke and gas. This is called bitwminouws coal. Along
the northern and eastern edge of the Alleghany field in Pennsylvania,
Maryland and West Virginia, the coal lies in more disturbed strata and
contains from 70 to 84 per cent. of carbon. This is known as semi-
bituminous coal, and is superior to any other for generating steam. In
Eastern Pennsylvania, where the coal-bearing strata are much more
disturbed, the amount of carbon exceeds 84 per cent., and the coal is of
the hard, glistening variety called anthracite. This, on account of its
cleanliness, is especially fitted for domestic use.

The only area of semi-bituminous coal in the United States is that
lying on the northern and eastern sides of the great Alleghany field.
The productive area in Maryland belongs entirely to it, and represents its
best development. The Blossburg, Towanda and Broadtop regions of
Pennsylvania lie in its northern portion, while its southern extension
composes the Elk Garden and Upper Potomac basins of West Virginia.
The two other coal basins of Maryland mentioned in the geological
sketch and shown on the map, are southern prolongations of the great
bituminous region of Somerset County, Pa., and have never as yet been
economically developed.

The single semi-bituminous coal basin of Maryland is of compara-
tively small size, but constitutes by far the most important of the State’s
mineral resources. It is commonly called the Cumberland basin, and
sometimes also the Frostburg or George’s Creek basin. It is situated in
an elevated trough, just west of the city of Cumberland, between two
parallel ridges known as Dan’s and Savage Mountains. Its length is
about twenty miles, and its breadth from summit to summit four and
one-half miles. The principal coal bed in the Cumberland basin, known
as the “ Big” or “14-foot Vein,” lies near the top of the series, and has
up to the present time been almost exclusively worked. It once proba-
bly covered the entire basin, but its extent was greatly reduced by the
natural processes of erosion before any mining operations were begun.
In a report made to the Consolidated Coal Company in 1869, Prof. James
T. Hodge estimated the area covered by the Big Vein when its value was
first appreciated, as 17,282 acres, or twenty-seven square miles. From
this nearly sixty-six million tons of coal have now been shipped, which,
MINES AND MINERALS. 93

with the wasteful methods of mining, has reduced the area to about
7,000 acres.

Although almost all of the Cumberland Coal is now obtained from
the so-called 14-foot vein, this name is liable to give an erroneous
impression of the thickness of coal actually available. At the lower
end of the basin it has this thickness, but it thins somewhat toward the
north, and there are few mines that can work over ten feet of coal.
The upper and lower parts of the seam are more or less mixed with thin
layers of slate, which seriously diminish its value close to the walls.

In quality the Maryland coal is unsurpassed. It is a true semi-
bituminous coal, with from 72 to 83 per cent. of carbon. This has been
proved by numerous experiments to be the coal of maximum efficiency,
yielding the highest temperature for a definite quantity of combustible.*
The fine portions of the coal cement in burning to a continuous mass,
making the “hollow fire” so much desired in blacksmithing. The
greatest value of the Cumberland coal is, however, for generating steam,
and it is therefore preferred for locomotives, ocean steamers, and in
manufacturing establishments. It finds a ready market in New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore and along the entire Atlantic Coast.

The history of the development of the coal industry in Maryland is
one of great interest, since, in addition to the wealth it has added to the
State, it has also been so instrumental in promoting its commercial and
transportation facilities. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Balti-
more and Ohio Railroad, in particular, found in the Cumberland coal
fields a strong stimulus to their construction.

Scharf, in his History of Maryland, states that coal was first discovered
in the Cumberland basin in 1804. The earliest report on the coal veins of
the Cumberland basin was made by the engineers of the Chesapeake
and Ohio Canal Company.t

They are also mentioned in Aiken’s account of the geology between
Baltimore and the Ohio River,{ and are described by Alexander and
Ducatel, in their report to the Governor of Maryland, on the projected
survey of the State,§ dated December, 1833.

In his annual reports as State geologist for 1836|| and 1840,] Prof.
Julius H. Ducatel describes the Cumberland or Frostburg coal region, and
considers the best means of developing it. In 1837 Prof. Philip T. Tyson
also published an account of the geological position of the same region.**

 

*Walter R. Johnson, Report on the Relative Efficiency of Ditferent Coals. Government Printing
Office, 1844.

+ Collection of Reports and Letters of the Engineers of the C. & O. Canal Company.

+ American Journal of Science, Ist series, vol. 26, p. 219, 1834.

§ Ibid., vol. 27, p. 28, 1835.

| Description of the Frostburg Coalfield An. Rep. for 1836, pp. 48-56.

§Mineral Wealth of Allegany County, and considerations on the best means of developing it. An.
Rep. for 1840, pp. 21-36.

**Trans. Md. Acad. of Science and Literature, Vol. I, 1837.
o-+ MARYLAND.

Meantime many reports were made by experts to various companies
which had secured coal lands in this basin and which were desirous of
developing them so soon as transportation facilities were available.

The George’s Creek Coal and Iron Co. was incorporated April 4, 1836,
by J. H. Alexander and P. T. Tyson, and in the same year published an
elaborate report containing their charter and a description of their
property situated just north of Lonaconing, with maps and sections. A
second report appeared in 1839.

Since its first inception this oldest of the Maryland coal companies
has maintained its independence and still continues a prosperous exist-
ence. Its present president, Mr. J. J. Alexander, is a son of its originator,
and assumed office in 1887, exactly half a century after the organization
of the company. This company now owns 16,000 acres of land, and has
two principal mines, known as the “Dug Hill” and “Pine Hill.” It is
now developing the coal of the seams below the “big vein.” It has a
plant of highly improved machinery and a possible output of 2,500 tons
per diem. An illustrated account of this company’s property and work
appeared in the Cumberland Daily News of October 7, 1892

Not long after the organization of the George’s Creek Company,
the Maryland Mining Company was started with lands east of
Frostburg containing the Eckhart Mines. G. W. Hughes made a report
on this property in 1836, and Prof. Benjamin Silliman, of Yale. College,
another in 1838. This company constructed a railroad from its mines
along Braddock’s Run to Cumberland in 1846, and was finally merged
into the Cumberland Coal and Iron Company. This became one of the
largest coal companies of the Cumberland basin, and with a capital of
$5,000,000, united with the Consolidated Coal Company in 1870.

About 1839, the Maryland and New York Coal and Iron Company
was chartered, having property near Mt. Savage. This afterward became
the Jt. Savage Lron and Coal Company, which constructed the
first railroad from the Cumberland basin to Cumberland in 1844. In
1864 the Consolidated Coal Company was formed by the union of this
Mt. Savage Iron Company, the Frostburg Coal Company and what were
known as the Aspinwall and Cunard Coal lands. A. J. Center was its
first president. Its union in 1870 with the Cumberland Coal and
Iron Company, made it the largest coal company in Maryland.

In 1837 the Boston and New York Coal Company was chartered,
but the coal on their property was found to be in so disturbed and
irregular a position that it has never been developed. Between 1836 and
1840, Duff Green organized several companies, the Union (1836), Potomac
and Allegany (1839) and Union Potomac (1840), which, however, never
became important.
MINES AND MINERALS. 95

The Franklin Coal Company, which first shipped coal in 1853,
united in 1880 with the Pheniz Mining and Manufacturing Company
(formerly the Preston Coal and Iron Company, 1855), to form the Mary-
land Union Coal Company, and this was again reorganized in 1890 as the
Franklin Consolidated Coal Company.

The Black, Sheridan and Wilson Company (incorporated 1891), of
Baltimore, now control the Potomac Coal Company (chartered 1863), the
Union Mining Company (formed in 1870, from the Mount Savage Fire-
brick and Iron Company (1840) and the Union Mine), and the Barton and
George’s Creek Valley Coal Company, started in 1887.

Beside these important corporations, which have their headquarters
at Baltimore, four of the great coal companies of the Cumberland basin
have their principal offices in New York. These are the American, Mary-
land and New Central Coal Company and the Borden Mining Company.
The first of these was organized in 1857, with the properties of the
original Parker Vein Company and the Jackson Mine. The Maryland
Company was formed in 1870 with the property of the old Central Coal
Mining and Manufacturing Company. The Borden Mining Company was
started in 1848 with the old Clifton Property, near Frostburg; while the
New Central Coal Company was organized at a later date.

The Hampshire and Baltimore Coal Company, with mines at the
south end of the Cumberland basin, and also on the opposite side of the
Potomac, was, at one time, a large producer. These mines were prac-
tically exhausted in March, 1884, when their shipment ceased.

In his annual report for the year ending December 31, 1891, to the
Governor of Maryland, F. J. McMahon, Inspector of Mines for Allegany
and Garrett counties, states that the social and economic conditions of the
Maryland coal fields are highly satisfactory. He says:

“It is gratifying to be able to say that our region is second to none,
and taken as a whole, our miners are as thrifty and intelligent a class of
workmen as can be found in any coal region in the world. They earn-
estly endeavor to comfortably maintain their families and give to their
children the benefit of that system of education which the State so lib-
erally provides. It is also a noticeable fact that more literature finds its
way into the hands of the miners of this region than in any other coal
field in the country, and they are well contented, and perfect harmony
exists between them and their employers.

“The shipments of coal from this region for the year ending Decem-
ber 31, 1892, was three million sixty-three thousand nine hundred and
nine tons, a decrease of three hundred and fifty-six thousand eight hun-
dred and fifty tons as compared with the corresponding period of 1891.
This decrease is said to be due to the desire of our companies to avoid
competing with the low prices made early in the year by other companies
96 MARYLAND.

outside of this region. It must be remembered that our coal is the
highest quality of any shipped to the seaboard, therefore our operators
have a standard price on their coal, and it would be doing an injustice
not only to themselves, but to their employes if they sold at a figure
less than that received at the present time, as they pay their miners at
the rate of fifty cents per ton.

“This decrease is also explained by some of our shippers as due to
the lack of motive power and cars to ship our coal. Again it is said the
cars are detained at the seaboard owing to the scarcity of vessels, and as
far as can be ascertained the latter explanation is the more correct one.”

The location of all the coal mines now in active operation in Mary-
land are given in this report as follows:

Frostpure Rre@ion—(North end of Cumberland Basin) Consolidation

Coal Company.

1. Allegany Mine, two miles northeast of Frostburg, on the C. & P.
Railroad.

2. Eckhart Mine, east of Frostburg, on the Eckhart Branch C. & P.
Railroad.

3. Hoffman Mine, two and a-half miles southeast of Frostburg, on
the Eckhart Branch C. & P. Railroad.

4. Old Consolidation Mine, one mile west of Frostburg, operated
for local use.

5. New Shaft, two miles south of Frostburg, on the C. & P. Railroad.

6. Ocean Mine, four and a-half miles southwest of Frostburg, on
the C. & P. Railroad.

Borden Mining Company.

1. Borden Mine, two and a-quarter miles west of Frostburg, on a
branch of the C. & P. Railroad.

Barton and George’s Creek Valley Coal Company.

1. New Mine and Carlos, 34 miles west of Frostburg on a branch of
C.& P.R. R.

Union Mining Company.

1. Union Mine, 4 mile northeast of Frostburg, on the C.& P. R. R.

Big Vein Coal Company.

1. Big Vein Mine, 2 miles west of Frostburg, on the C. & P. R. R.

Anthony Coal Company.

1. Mine 3 mile north of Frostburg, on the C. & P. R. R.
Lonaconine Recion. (Middle of Cumberland Basin.)

Maryland Coal Company.

1. Appleton Mine, 14 miles northwest of Lonaconing, on the G. C.
& C. R. R.
2. Kingsland Mine, west of Lonaconing.
MINES AND MINERALS. 97

3. New Detmold and Pattend, 1 mile west of Lonaconing, on the
G.C.&C.R.R.
The George’s Creek Coal and Iron Company.
1. Pine Hill Mine, 2 miles northeast of Lonaconing, on C. & P.R. R.
2. Buck Hill and Cutter Mines, 1} miles north of Lonaconing, on
the C.& P. R.R.
3. Dug Hill Mine, east of Lonaconing, on the C.& P. R. R.
The New Central Coal Company.
1. Koontz Mine, 24 miles north of Lonaconing, on G. C. & C. R. R.
The American Coal Company.
1. Jackson Mine, with six openings, one mile south of Lonaconing,
on the G.C.& C. BR. R.
2. Caledonia Mine, with two openings, west side of Barton.
fue Barron-Pirpmont Reaton (South end of the Cumberland Basin).
The Potomac Coal Company.
1. Potomac Mine, with three openings, one mile east of Barton, on
the C. & R. R.
The Swanton Mining Company.
1. Swanton Mine, west side of Barton, on the C. & P. R. R.
The Franklin Consolidated Coal Company.
1. Phenix Mine, two miles west of Barton, on the C. & P. RB. R.
2. Franklin Mine, with four openings, one mile north of Western-
port.
The Piedmont and Cumberland Coal Company.
1. Mine, with two openings, } mile east of Westernport, on the
C&P. RR.
G. C. Patterson's Mine, # mile west of Bloomington, on the B. &
O. k. R. works, a four-foot vein.
The total production of the Maryland coal mines during 1892 and
its comparison with that of 1891, is given in the following table:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CoMPARED WITH 1891.
ToraL, |————————~———_—___No. or MEN
NAME OF COMPANY OR MINE. INCREASE. | DECREASE.
EMPLOYED.
TONS. TONS. TONS.
Consolidation Coal Company................-ee 2 eee ee 938,695 REIS OF seas 1,120
American Coal Company..............eeeee eee audios 886,194 |  ...... 67,437 390
George’s Creek Coal and Iron Company .....-....... 300,635 | oo... 56,292 426
Maryland Coal Company.............sceseeeeceee eee 286,216 | wo... 120,248 401
Borden Mining Company -c.s sen weaes serge ces aewcgnes BonO00 | as uae 44,702 300
Barton and George’s Creek Valley Coal Company..... 201,989 a : 279
New Central Coal Company 201,428 | ...... 5,885 265
Union Mine..............065 177,304 |... 2.028 225
Potomac Coal Company...........cceeceecee cee ee eens 140,497 |  ....e. 44,209 769
Franklin Consolidated Coal Company.........--.++++ T7000 | saeeelas 4,152 125
Big Vein Coal Company (Marylan@)..............0008 66,984 4,152 | oo... 100
Piedmont-Cumberland Coal Company............+.++ 13,498 tite 28,941 65
Anthony Mining Company............... cscs eee ees 11,163 1,438 } oe... 25
Swanton Mining Company..................0 0. ee eee 5,708 | wee. 27,326 50

 

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100 MARYLAND.

The development of the Cumberland Coal basin is most closely con-
nected with the extension of transportation facilities from the seaboard
at Baltimore and Washington to this region. The National Road was
opened between Cumberland and Frostburg about 1836. The Chesapeake
and Ohio Canal had been chartered in 1825, and the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad Company in 1827. There was much rivalry between these cor-
porations, as they were to pursue the same routes. The railroad was the
first to reach Cumberland, being opened to that place November 5th,
1842, although it did not reach Piedmont until 1851. Coal was at first
hauled by wagon from Mt. Savage to Cumberland, but in 1844 the Mt.
Savage railroad was constructed along Jennings Run. This road was
subsequently extended to Frostburg in 1850, and to Lonaconing in 1857,
to connect with the road which the George’s Creek Coal and Iron Com-
pany had constructed from Westernport (Piedmont) to that place in 1854.
This entire line from Westernport to Cumberland came into possession
of the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1872, and is now known as the
“Cumberland and Pennsylvania.” In 1846 the Maryland Mining Com-
pany constructed a road from Cumberland to their Eckhart Mines, east
of Frostburg, along Braddock’s Run. This subsequently became the
Cumberland Coal and Iron Company’s road, when the Maryland Mining
Company was merged into this corporation.

The first shipments of coal were made over the Chesapeake and
Ohio Canal, when this was completed to Cumberland, in 1850.

The George’s Creek Coal and Iron Company constructed a road from
Lonaconing to Cumberland in 1880 along Braddock’s Run and begun the
shipment of coal by it in 1881.

THE IRON INDUSTRY.

In reviewing the history of iron manufacture in Maryland we are
forced to recognize the fact that we are dealing with an ancien régime.
The places which once knew the furnaces, forges and rolling-mills in
Maryland will probably know them no more. The conditions have so
changed that their day of usefulness has passed, and we are on the
threshold of a new order of things.

The substitution of steel for the higher grades of iron in many
forms, the discovery of extensive deposits of rich ores in other sections
of our country, particularly in Michigan, Minnesota and the Southern
States, coupled with the wonderful extension and cheapening of trans-
portation, have resulted, within the past few years, in such improvements
in the methods of producing iron and steel and in cheapening their cost,
as have driven out the charcoal furnace and bloomary, and, under the
principal of the survival of the fittest, have left no place for the lean ores
ot Maryland and the antiquated methods of other days. Present indica-
MINES AND MINERALS. 101

tions all warrant the belief that we have entered upon an era when
extensive plants, operated by aggregated capital, and looking for their
supplies to other ore fields than those ofs Maryland, will take the places
of their more numerous and modest predecessors and far outstrip them
in the amount and value of their output.

The iron industry of Maryland was developed early in colonial
days, and continued, until a recent date, to be an important factor in
the prosperity of the State. The history of its growth presents an inter-
esting picture of the gradual unfolding of the mineral resources of the
State. The comparatively short period which has elapsed since the
cumbersome water-wheel furnace and forge gave place to such furnaces
and mills as those of the Maryland Steel Company at Sparrow’s Point,
and since the old four-horse wagon with its dusky teamster found a
substitute in the latest type of modern locomotive, covers the period
of the greatest development in material prosperity witnessed by this or
any other community.

Beside her many natural advantages of climate, soil, minerals, water-
ways and forests, Maryland early experienced the benefit of having,
among her colonists, many enterprising and industrious folk, drawn
largely from the British Isles, who, immediately upon their arrival,
turned their attention to the advancement of the natural resources with
which they were surrounded. The settlement of the province was made
in 1634, and, as early as 1718, we have the record of 3 tons 7 cwt. of bar
iron being sent to England, upon which a duty of £6 19s. 1d. was levied.
An Act of the General Assembly, passed in 1719, for the encouragement
of iron manufacture, sets forth: “That there are very great conveniences
for the carrying on of iron works within this Province, which have not
hitherto been embraced for want of proper encouragement to some first-
class undertakers.” In 1840, Alexander, in his report on the manufacture
of iron, addressed to the Governor of Maryland, says that Maryland had
no iron industry but a bloomary or two until 1724. That iron for com-
mercial purposes was produced to some extent before this date, is evi-
denced by the passage of an act in 1681, imposing a duty on the export
of iron. In 1648, mention is made of the fact that pig iron was then
worth £12 per ton, and that the facility with which iron could be mined,
and the cheapness with which fuel could be obtained on the numerous
watercourses, enabled those engaged in its manufacture to earn high
wages. This fact doubtless attracted many to the shores of the Patapsco,
stimulated, speculation in lands and exercised some influence upon the
location of the future City of Baltimore. Beds of carbonate and oxide
ores extend from the vicinity of Washington, in a north-easterly direc-
tion across the State, being found in the counties of Prince George,
Howard, Baltimore, Harford and Cecil; and it was within this ore belt
102 MARYLAND.

that the furnaces and forges of colonial days were located. These lean
ores, noted for the purity of the iron they produced, have, until a recent
date, been extensively used in the manufacture of high grade charcoal
pig iron, employed in making car wheels and malleable castings. John-
son, in his history of Cecil county, says: “The first iron works in Mary-
land were probably erected in Cecil county, at the head of the Chesapeake
Bay. Ina deed dated 1716, in which Robert Dutton conveys lands on
the Main Falls, the North East Iron Works are mentioned among the
appurtenances.” Swank, in his history of the “Manufacture of Iron in all
Ages,” gives much valuable and accurate information concerning the early
iron works of Maryland, and especially of the Principio Company. This
treatise has been largely used in the preparation of this section.

About the time of the passage of the Act of 1719, before alluded to,
Joseph Farmer, an ironmaster of England, came to Maryland on behalf
of himself and others, and in 1722 organized the Principio Company and
commenced the erection of a furnace in Cecil County, near the mouth of
Principio Creek, which empties into the Chesapeake Bay, six miles from
the town of North East. Alexander says that a part of the hearth of
this old furnace was still standing in 1840. This company was composed
of English gentlemen of wealth, and familiar with iron manufacture in
the old country. At an early date in the history of this enterprise,
probably in 1725, Augustine and Lawrence Washington, of Virginia, the
father and half brother of the future President of the United States,
became interested in this company. This concern soon outranked all
others in America in the manufacture of pig and bar iron, being the
proprietor of three furnaces and two forges in Maryland, and of the
Accokeek furnace in Virginia. The original works built at Principio and
at North East, in Cecil County, on the line of the Philadelphia, Wilming-
ton and Baltimore Railroad, are still producing iron, after having passed
through many vicissitudes and into the hands of many owners. The
old stone stack has given way to a first-class modern furnace, complete
in all its appointments, and the old forge, to a rolling mill containing all
the effective and labor-saving appliances of modern skill. Beside these
two properties, the Principio Company built the Kingsbury Furnace in
1744, on Herring Run, at the head of Back River, and in 1751, purchased
from Doctor Charles Carroll, of Annapolis, the Lancashire furnace,
located near the Kingsbury, both in Baltimore County. In 1761, the
Governor and Council of Maryland reported to the Commissioners of
the Board of Trade and Plantations in England, that there were eighteen
furnaces and ten forges in that State, which made 2,500 tons of pig iron
per year.

On the breaking out of the Revolutionary War in 1776, the Principio
Company had no actual control over any of its American property,
MINES AND MINERALS. 103

although Thomas Russell operated the furnaces and forges and supplied
bar iron and cannon balls to the Continental Army. In 1780, the General
Assembly of Maryland passed an act to seize and confiscate all British
property within the State, and all the property of the Principio Com-
pany, with two exceptions, was sold. The works at North East were
retained by Thomas Russell, who had cast in his fortune with the patriotic
cause, and fora like cause the interest of the Washingtons could not be
confiscated. At this time one of the Washingtons, probably the son of
George Washington’s half-brother Augustine, owned a one-twelfth inter-
est in the Principio Company.

The Principio Furnace was purchased by Samuel Hughes and others,
who, during the war of 1812, manufactured cannon, cannon-balls and
hardware. Guns as large as thirty-two pounders were made for the gov-
ernment, some of them hauled as far as Pittsburgh by teams. An expe-
dition from Cockburn’s fleet, toward the close of the war, destroyed
these works and spiked and otherwise rendered the guns on hand unfit
for service. About forty years ago a whole pig of iron was found near
the site of the first Principio furnace, plainly stamped “ Principio, 1727.”
Over twenty years ago several pigs of iron stamped “ Principio, 1750,”
were discovered in the bed of the Patapsco River. Mr. Henry Whiteley
not long since published a very interesting historical essay on the Prin-
cipio Company. Mr. John English, who died in 1734, came out from
England in the interest of this company as its manager. He built the
first furnace and forge in Maryland, and was one of the most intelligent,
enterprising and successful of American iron manufacturers. His corres-
pondence with the home company is still in existence, preserved by the
Maryland Historical Society. In 1836 the Principio Furnace was sold
under foreclosure to its present owners, the Messrs. Whittaker, and the
forge at North East, after many changes and transfers, became the prop-
erty of the present McCullough Iron Company.

Thomas Russell, a grandson of the original person of that name
interested in the Principio Company, built a furnace in 1802 at North
East, which was in operation only a few years.

The Baltimore Company, which was incorporated in 1723, built a fur-
nace at the mouth of Gwynn’s Falls the same year, on lands belonging
to John Moale. This was the second blast furnace built in Maryland.
In 1765 a one-fifth interest in this property was sold for $5,200. Bishop
says that during the revolutionary war there were seventeen or eighteen
forges in operation in Maryland, in addition to furnaces and other iron
works, showing to what extent the development had taken place in
colonial days. These furnaces and forges were built mostly on tribu-
taries of the Chesapeake Bay. They were all of the same type, using
104 MARYLAND.

charcoal for fuel with cold blast and applying the power to the blow
cylinders by waterwheels.

The life of an ironmaster in these early days, when the conveniences
of travel were few and local events claimed a much greater share of
attention than at present, when the newspaper was rarely seen, if seen at
all, and daily life in the country was limited to the immediate surround-
ings, was not entirely devoid of interest and of a certain charm. ‘The
vicinity of the furnace or forge (they were generally located together),
was always the scene of activity and bustle, the store and post-office were
generally an appendage of the iron works and the rendezvous of all the
gossips and politicians of the neighborhood.

The Bush Furnace, in Harford county, was built about 1760. It
was owned in 1776 by John Lee Webster and operated in 1850 by Richard
Green, who died in 1861, when Wm. F. Pannell became the owner and
changed the name to the Harford Furnace. Pannell carried on business
successfully until 1870, when he sold the property to Clement Dietrich
of Cincinnati, who added a large factory for the manufacture of pyro-
ligneous acid. Dietrich’s operations were very disastrous, involving the
loss of several hundred thousand dollars. The property has since gone
to ruin. The ores were obtained from the neighborhood or brought
from Baltimore county.

In 1769 Zaccheus Onion operated a furnace and forge built by his
grandfather, about one mile from the town of Joppa, then one of the
most important places in Maryland ; and in 1762 Robert Evans and others
built the Unicorn Forge, in Queen Anne’s county, near the town of
Maysbury.

In 1768 the Hockly Forge, on the Patapsco, was owned by Robert
Croxall, and in 1774 was operated by the Baltimore Company, with Wm.
Hammond as manager.

The remains of a furnace, forge and puddling mill built in colonial
days is still to be seen on the Mt. Peru estate, near Jericho, on the Little
Gunpowder Falls. Whittaker’s Furnace, near the Gunpowder, was built
in 1810, and used as a shovel factory. It was subsequently purchased
by Horace Abbott, who converted it into a forge for making shafts for
steamboats.

In early days John Ridgely built two furnaces, one known as the
Nottingham, on White Marsh Run, which was permanently out of blast
in 1815. The second, on the Great Gunpowder, produced small cannon
and swivel in 1776. This property was purchased by the City of Balti-
more for the Gunpowder water supply. Ridgely also built a furnace
north of Towson, near the Pott Spring estate, which was in operation
until about 1850.
MINES AND MINERALS. 105

The Joppa Iron Works, built by J. W.& E. B. Patterson, were in
their day one of the most extensive in Maryland. Situated at the head
of the Big Gunpowder, they were in succe$sful operation up to the time
of the civil war. They consisted of a large rolling mill, nail factory and
a forge, and produced large quantities of bar iron and nails, enjoying a
great reputation in the market. The ruins of these works are still
standing.

In 1800 the Dorseys built the Avalon Works on the Falls of the
Patapsco. These extensive works were operated by Evan T. Ellicott &
Company for a number of years, and sold in 1850 to John McCrone & Co.,
who afterwards sold them to J. H. Hand. In 1848 rails were made for
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company at these works. The mills
produced all descriptions of merchant iron—sheets, hoops and nails.
The Ellicotts had a large warehouse at the corner of Light and Balder-
ston streets, where the product of these works was stored and sold.
They were operated with varying success until July, 1868, when a cloud-
burst caused a most disastrous flood in the Patapsco valley, sweeping
away mills and dams, with great loss of life and property. The Avalon
Works, which had just been remodeled and provided with new
machinery, were in full operation. The operatives barely escaped
with their lives. The works were never rebuilt.

Edward Dorsey owned a furnace and forge at Elk Ridge Landing on
the Patapsco. In 1835 Messrs. Ellicott & Bro. made cast iron water pipe
at this furnace for the Croton Water Works of New York. The furnace
was rebuilt in 1855, but has been out of blast since 1874.

Early in the present century Thomas and Richard Snowden owned
the Patuxent Furnace and Forge in Prince George’s county. They sold
the property to Evan T. Ellicott & Company, who built an additional
furnace and rolling mill for making muck bars for the Avalon Works.
These works were last operated by Messrs. Lemmon & Glenn, and have
long since been abandoned.

In 1802 Thomas Russell and Daniel Sheredine built a furnace at
North East, which only remained in blast until 1806. The Marley
Furnace. built by William Goodwin and Edward Dorsey on an arm of
Curtis Bay, mentioned in 1781 as the Curtis Creek Furnace, was in opera-
tion as late as 1851, when it was finally abandoned. Its picturesque
remains are still to be seen.

In 1810 a rolling mill was built on the Big Elk, Cecil county, about
five miles north of Elkton. It was operated for several years by Parke
Brothers, producing boiler plate iron from blooms and muck bars. The
firm of Parke, Smith & Company succeeded to the business in 1858 and
altered the mill into a sheet mill. The concern was driven out of the
business by the active competition of mills more favorably located.
106 MARYLAND.

In Frederick County were several early enterprises, the particulars
of which have been presented by Alexander. Old Hampton Furnace on
Thorn’s Creek, two miles west of Emmittsburg, was built in 1770. Legh
Furnace, at the head of Little Pipe Creek in Carroll County, near West-
minster, was built about the same time; both were soon abandoned.

In 1774 James Johnson & Company built the Catoctin Furnace in
Frederick County, and produced pig iron from neighboring ores and
charcoal. It was rebuilt in 1787 nearer the ore banks on Hunting Creek.
These works furnished guns and projectiles to the Continental Army.
These same parties built the Bush Creek Forge with a rolling and slit-
ting mill; abandoned in 1810.

In 1793 Thomas and Baker Johnson became the owners of Catoctin
Furnace, and Baker Johnson sole owner in 1803. From 1811 to 1822, this
property was operated by Willoughby and Thomas Mayberry, when it
was sold to John McPherson Brien and John McPherson, who in 1843
sold to Peregrine Fitzhugh. This latter owner, under different co-part-
nerships, manufactured iron until 1857, when becoming embarrassed,
the property fell into the hands of John Kunkle, who willed it to his
sons John B. and Jacob M. Kunkle, and in 1866, John B. became sole
owner. During the decade 1860 to 1870, covering the period of the civil
war, these works enjoyed a period of great prosperity, and large addi-
tions were made to the landed estate. The ore banks were extensively
opened, and in 1882 an anthracite stack was built, 12x44 feet, 6,000 tons
capacity. The ores used were brown hematite and magnetite. Financial
disaster, which seems to have pursued this concern for over a century,
again overtook it, and at Colonel Kunkle’s death in 1885, his estate
being heavily embarrassed, this property was sold to meet the demands
of his creditors. His heirs formed a joint stock company and operated
the furnace for a short time, but meeting with no success, sold the works
to the present owners, “The Catoctin Iron Company, of Frederick
County.” For reasons stated hereafter, it is doubtful if the manufac-
ture of iron will ever be resumed at Catoctin, although it is possible
the extensive ore banks may be worked to supply furnaces more favor-
ably located.

In 1787 the Johnson Furnace was built on a small stream a mile
above the mouth of the Monocacy, and in 1783 Roger Johnson built a
forge on Big Bennett’s Creek, which he called Bloomsbury, which was
abandoned in 1880.

The Fulderia Furnace, about three miles south of Frederick, built
soon after the Revolution, made only one blast.

Alexander mentions a number of iron works in early days in Wash-
ington County. The earliest and most successful was the Mount Etna
Furnace, on a branch of the Antietam near Hagerstown, built by Samuel
MINES AND MINERALS. 107

and Daniel Hughes, in 1770. This concern was in successful operation
for many years, and cast the first Maryland cannon during the war of
the revolution. The same parties built a forge about a mile and a-half
below the furnace.

In 1775 Henderson & Ross built a furnace at the mouth of the Antie-
tam. It was rebuilt and operated in 1845 by McPherson & Brien, pro-
ducing pig-iron and blooms. After the civil war P. A. Ahl & Bro.
restored the furnace and produced pig-iron from coke for a few years,
but it is now abandoned.

In 1770 James Johnson built the Green Spring Furnace and also a
forge near Licking Creek.

The development of iron ores belonging to the coal measures of
Western Maryland was undertaken over sixty years ago. In 1828 a
furnace and forges were built on Bear Creek and abandoned in 1834. In
1837 a furnace was built at Lonaconing for the George’s Creek Coal and
Iron Company, using coke. Owens says that this was at the time the
most successful coke furnace in the United States. About thesame time
the Wellburgh Furnace was built, but was never a financial success.

In 1840 two large furnaces were built by the Mt. Savage Iron Com-
pany nine miles northwest of Cumberland. The Mt. Savage Rolling Mill,
built in 1848, rolled the first heavy rail made in the United States.
This was of the inverted U pattern, and the Vulcan Furnace, eight miles
below Cumberland, had a short and unsuccessful career. In 1846 the
Lena Furnace was built at Cumberland, first using coke, and afterwards
charcoal. The Bowery Furnace, built at Frostburg by the Cumberland
Coal and Iron Company, in 1868, was rebuilt in 1873, and remained in
blast several years; it has since been abandoned.

The Lonaconing Furnace, built at Knoxville in 1837, went finally
out of blast in 1874.

The Canton Forge, located at Canton, was operated by Peter
Cooper in 1828-1829. He sold the property in 1836 to Horace Abbott,
who carried on business there for some years with a partner named
Lawrence, making a great reputation for heavy forgings for steam-
boat work and large machinery. In 1851 Mr. Abbott commenced
the manufacture of plates in a modest way, gradually extending and
enlarging his works, till in 1856, they consisted of two large plate mills
capable of making a large output of boiler and plate iron. His son-in-
law, Mr. John S. Gilman, joined him, and under the firm name of H.
Abbott & Son, they did a prosperous business. In 1859 the third large
plate mill was erected, which, after the breaking out of the war in 1861,
was utilized almost exclusively in the manufacture of armor-plates for
government vessels. The armor of the Ericsson monitor was made at
these works. The business was carried on till 1865, when H. Abbott &
108 MARYLAND.

Son sold the property to an association of capitalists, who were incor-
porated under the title of “The Abbott Iron Company,” with Mr.
Horace Abbott as President, and John S. Gilman, Treasurer, with a
capital of $500,000. In 1865 a rail mill was erected and the company’s
business greatly enlarged. After some years the gradual substitution of
steel and iron having made serious inroads on the business of the com-
pany, as it was not prepared to manufacture steel, and the price of steel
rails having declined as low as the cost of making muck bars, the com-
pany closed their business in 1878-’9.

Andrew Ellicott built, in 1842, a furnace and muck bar mill on
Locust Point, which were abandoned in 1850. The first successful hot
blast stove erected in the United States was built here. Edward Grubb,
father of the late Minister to Spain, went to England and, in order to
get an opportunity to inspect the stove then in use, donned a working
man’s clothes and hired as a filler. In this way he succeeded in obtaining
plans, and upon his return to America had the castings made at York,
Pa., intending to erect the ovens at the Codorus Furnace; but Mr. Ellicott
purchased the castings, and, sending his manager with six mule teams to:
York, hauled the castings to Locust Point. This farnace made a good
quality of cast steel in brick ovens—the first made in Maryland.

J.H. & B. H. Ellicott carried on in Baltimore the City Block Bar
Mill near the draw-bridge, from 1840 to 1855, and Trego, Thompson &
Company started a forge, at the foot of Caroline street, in 1853. In 1856
this was enlarged into a steam forge and rolling mill, with a capacity
of about 75 tons of finished iron per week. They also made hammered
railroad axles and steamboat shafting. They suspended operations in
1876.

In 1843 Peter Morrell and Mr. Numsen built the first Cedar Point
furnace at Canton; number two was built in 1846. These were charcoal
furnaces, 8 feet bosh by 30 feet high. They were sold in 1863 to Horace
L. Brooke, who subsequently sold the property to the Philadelphia,
Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad Company for coal docks.

The Muirkirk Furnace, named after a furnace in Scotland, was built
in 1847 by the Ellicotts. It was the first charcoal furnace in the country
to use a hot blast in the top of the stack, and to take the gas to make
steam. In 1855 W. C. Coffin & Company, of Boston, leased it to George
Cary, of Baltimore, but in 1860 operated it themselves. In 1863 it came
into the possession of its present owner, Mr. Charles E. Coffin. It is still
in operation, the only survivor of the rural charcoal furnaces in the
State. The iron has been principally used by the Government, it being
guaranteed to stand 30,000 pounds to the square inch in the pig, many
tests giving 40,000 pounds. The ore is obtained from the neighborhood,
the flux used being oyster shells obtained in Baltimore. The excellent
MINES AND MINERALS. 109

quality of the iron accounts for the furnace being still in operation,
successfully competing with the cheap charcoal irons of the west and
south. °

The first Ashland furnace, near Cockeysville, in Baltimore County,
was built in 1837 by Christopher Geiger, who afterwards disposed of it
to Philip A. and Samuel Small, of York, Pa., and Joseph W. and Edward
Patterson, of Baltimore, who operated it under the firm name of Patter-
son, Small & Co. The second stack was erected in 1848. The fuel used
was anthracite coal and hematite ores. The ores were largely from the
Oregon Ore Bank, three miles distant. Oregon Furnace was built in
1849 by Richard Green, of Harford County, Md., at Oregon, contiguous to
the ore bank leased by him from Miss Charlotte C. D. Owings, which
adjoined that held by Patterson, Small & Co. This was the chief ore
used at this point for the manufacture of pig iron. The fuel was anthra-
cite coal, which was hauled from Cockeysville, Md. Difficulty having
arisen between Patterson, Small & Co. and Mr. Green, in reference to
priority and right of ore leases under Miss Owings, which culminated in
armed resistance as well as in expensive litigation, a consolidation of
interest was agreed upon, and the Ashland Iron Company incorporated,
Mr. Green being appointed manager, and remained such until his death
in 1861. Oregon furnace was run but a few years, as pig iron could
be made more economically at Ashland. This iron was made mostly
from hematite ores obtained from Oregon and Timonium, in Baltimore
county; from Green Spring Valley; from Hanover, Pa., etc., and
magnetic ore, from near Whitehall, was also used. The weekly product
was from 150 to 200 tons of foundry and forge pig iron of excellent
quality. The fuel used was anthracite coal. Limestone was obtained
from their quarry in York, Pa., and from Texas, in Baltimore county.
A third furnace was erected at Ashland in 1864.

The Elba charcoal furnace near Sykesville, Carroll county, built in
1848 by Griffiths, Cate & Belknap, was bought by Isaac Tyson, Jr., in
1849. The ore was mainly supplied from a fissure vein extending as far
as Finksburg, on the Western Maryland Railroad, and was mixed with
ores from the neighborhood of Baltimore, and with hematite from near
Mount Airy. The iron was used principally for car wheels. The
furnace was blown out in 1868, just before the great flood of that year,
which wrecked the property. At one time anthracite was used in con-
nection with charcoal, without serious detriment to the quality of the
iron.

The Locust Point Rolling Mill, Messrs. Coates & Brother, built in
1862 with a capacity of 5,000 tons, is now manufacturing tin plates.

The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company built in 1870 at Cumber-
land a rail mill with fifteen double puddling furnaces and fifteen heating
110 MARYLAND.

furnaces, three trains of rolls, three hammers, and in 1873 a bar mill for
making bar iron, bolts, rivets, spikes and fish plates. The capacity of the
two mills was 40,000 tons. The manufacture of rails was abandoned in
1882. Since then the mill has been leased to the Cambria Iron Company,
who now use it for rolling steel billets.

The Cumberland Steel works were built in 1873, with four steel ham-
mers and twenty-four crucibles. These works are no longer in operation.

The Canton Iron Works, built by Anderson Brothers & Company, at
Canton in 1878, manufactured bar iron. They were abandoned in 1883.

Other less important ventures were the Naseongo Furnace, built by
Mark Richards in 1830, near Snow Hill, Wicomico county, and only
operated a short time during the war; a rolling mill, erected by Samuel
T. Ellicott, just above Ellicott City in 1830, but dismantled in 1840; the
Locust Grove Furnace on Stemmer’s Run, built in early days and operated
until 1869; the Savage Furnace, near Laurel, abandoned in 1874 and now
in ruins; the Laurel Furnace, built at Locust Point in 1846,and the La
Grange Furnace and Bloomary, built in 1836, are now abandoned. The
latter was im operation until 1874.

The only furnaces now manufacturing Maryland iron are Muirkirk
and the Stickney Iron Company, at Canton. The McCullogh Iron Com-
pany coutinues to operate two old rolling mills, the Octorora, at Rol-
landsville near Port Deposit, built in 1829, and the mill at North East,
built in 1847 and rebuilt in 1875. Their third mill, the West Amweil
Works at Elkton, is now abandoned.

It is doubtful whether any of these can long continue to compete
with the great iron and steel plants using foreign ores, or those from
distant parts of this country.

A new regime has entered in by the inauguration of the great works
at Sparrow’s Point, built by the Maryland Steel Company, destined in
the future not only to be great producers of iron and steel, but to add
another to Maryland’s industries which will be of equal if not para-
mount importance—the construction of iron vessels. Although a half
decade has scarcely passed, these works have assumed great proportions.

The property owned by the Maryland Steel Company, consisting of
about one thousand acres, was purchased by the Pennsylvania Steel Com-
pany early in 1887. Preliminary surveys were at once made, and a plant
for the manufacture of red bricks to be used in the construction of the
works was established in July of the same year.

The foundations of the blast-furnace plant were commenced in
August of that year, and the first furnace was completed and blown in
in October, 1889. Three others have since been completed. The furnaces
are each eighty-five feet high, twenty-two feet in diameter at the bosh
MINES AND MINERALS. 111

and have a daily capacity of from 225 to 300 tons when working on the
usual mixtures of foreign ores.

The Baltimore and Sparrow’s Point Railroad, connecting these works
with the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroads, was com-
menced in March, 1888, and opened for passenger and freight traffic in
January, 1889.

The construction of the Bessemer plant and rolling mill was com-
menced in May, 1889. The first heat of Bessemer steel, and the first
Bessemer steel ever made in Maryland, was made at 4.17 P. M., August
Ist, 1891, and the first rail was rolled six days later. The capacity of the
Bessemer Department as it now stands, is from 1,800 to 2,000 tons per
day, and the rolling mills about 1,500 tons per day.

The construction of the foundry, machinery, boiler and pattern
shops was carried on contemporaneously with the rolling mills.

The construction of the buildings and slips of the Marine Depart-
ment was begun in March, 1890. ‘The first boat, the tug Pennwood, 107
feet long by 21 feet beam, was launched at 1 P.M., May 30th, 1891. Since
that time there have been completed five other boats: The Douglas H.
Thomas, 122 feet 9 inches long by 21 feet beam; the Lancaster, 213 feet
long by 32 feet beam: the Alabama, 305 feet long, 43 feet beam; the
Germania, 80 feet 6 inches long, 17 feet beam; the #rances, 85 feet 6
inches long, 17 feet beam.

Three other boats are now in course of construction—a steamer 293
feet long, 42 feet beam; and two tug-boats, one of which is 85 feet 6
inches long by 17 feet beam, and the other 111 feet 7 inches long by 22
feet beam.

Additional shops and apparatus are being constantly added to this
department, which is now one of the most complete in the world.

The steel plates, shapes and castings used in the construction of
vessels at this shipyard are at the present time manufactured by the
Pennsylvania Steel Company at Steelton, Pa. It is, however, the ultimate
intention of this company to manufacture all this material at its own
plant.

The pig iron is smelted chiefly from Cuban ores from the Jurugua
mines, which are controlled by the Pennsylvania Steel Company and
Bethlehem Jron Company. These are mixed to a greater or less extent
with ores from Spain and Algeria.

The coke used in the blast furnaces is obtained partly from the
Connellsville region, partly from the Mountain region about Galitzin,
Pa., and partly from West Virginia.

Bituminous coal is brought from Pennsylvania and West Virginia,
and the limestone used in smelting from Texas, Baltimore County.
112 MARYLAND.

Fourteen hundred men are employed in the steel works and machine
shops, which number would be increased to seventeen hundred if the
plant were in full operation. Seven hundred men are employed in the
marine devartment.

COPPER.

There are in Maryland three veins of copper ore, which, before
the opening of the Lake Superior copper region, about 1844, and
later of the Montana and Arizona mines, were considered of no mean
promise, and did actually make Maryland for a time one of the copper-
producing States. The first of these veins runs along the Linganore
hills, in Frederick county, from New London northward to a point
beyond Libertytown. On this vein are the New London mine, near the
town of that name, containing rich purple ore in seams and pockets
through a slate vein; the Dollyhide Mine, containing purple ore in con-
siderable quantities between the slate and limestone, and the Liberty
mine of rich gray ore in seams and bunches through limestone, these
two latter mines being near the town of Liberty. About 20 miles east
of these are three other mines on a distinctly marked vein running
northeasterly from near Sykesville, on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad,
through Carrollcounty, to and beyond Finksburg, on the Western Mary-
land Railroad. These are the Springfield mine, on the Patterson estate,
near Sykesville, the Mineral Hill mine, about five miles northeast of
it, and the Patapsco mine, near Finksburg, about five miles further to
the northeast. These mines are all in a slate formation, and formerly
produced sulphurets of high grade.

The third deposit is in the Bare Hills, near Mount Washington, on
the Northern Central Railroad, where the Bare Hill mine is located in the
hornblende gneiss, producing a good sulphuret ore. There were also small
quantities of ore taken from various prospect holes and outcroppings, but
these are the only mines that were ever worked as such. They are now all
closed down and, with the exception of the Mineral Hill and the Bare
Hill, apparently forever. These two, while not running now, have consid-
erable promise of ore; but the low price of copper, the smallness of the
deposits and the cost of equipping them with modern machinery, has for
some years prevented them from being worked.

That Maryland was early explored for mineral wealth is shown by a
report on the Province, made in December, 1748, by the Governor and
Council to the London Board of Trade, which, among other items, states
that “there are in the Province great shews of copper in many places, but
of the several attempts that have been made to discover veins of that
metal none has yet been made that quitted cost.”

It must have been shortly after this that a party of English miners
opened the Liberty and Mineral Hill mines. They built a small smelting
MINES AND MINERALS. 113

furnace on the Deer Park tract of land near the latter mine, where they
smelted the ores from both mines, and must have produced considerable
quantities of copper, as was shown by the,large amount of rich slags and
residues left at the furnace, which, nearly a century later, were hauled to
Baltimore and profitably reworked. At the breaking out of the Revolu-
tionary war these Englishmen went to England, intending, tradition
says, to return as soon as “the insurrection was suppressed.” From this
time little regular mining was done until 1835, when Isaac Tyson, Jr.,
leased and opened the New London mine, which he worked from time to
time until he sold it in 1855, shortly after which it was abandoned.
About 1838 he reopened the old Liberty mine and erected a small furnace
near by in which the ores were smelted. In 1845 he obtained control of
the neighboring Dollyhide mine (so called, it is said, from an Indian name),
which had previously been spasmodically worked on a small scale, and
ran this mine until 1855, when he sold it to the Dollyhide Mining Com-
pany. This company was shortly afterwards drowned out while sinking
a shaft near a swamp, and the mine abandoned, the machinery being sold
and removed to the Springfield mine. This Springfield mine was also
opened by Mr. Tyson in 1849, primarily for iron ore, but it developed into
a copper mine, and for many years produced freely and profitably. The
Springfield Copper Company was organized, the machinery from the
Dollyhide mine set up, and until 1869 the mine was quite prominent as a
producer of copper and as a popular local speculative mining stock. It
was sunk to a depth of 1,400 feet on an incline, and was still producing at
the time the original twenty-one year lease expired. A renewal of the
lease could not be arranged with the owners of the property, and the
mine was then robbed of its pillars and caved in beyond recovery.

In 1849 Mr. Tyson re-opened the Mineral Hill mine, his attention
having been attracted to it by the rich slags from the pre-revolutionary
furnace near by, and worked it successfully until 1861, and then trans-
ferred it to the Mineral Hill Mining Company, which company his heirs
still control. This mine was worked almost continuously until two or
three years ago, and even now has not been abandoned, but only tempora-
tily closed. The Liberty mine, after being worked by Mr. Tyson until 1864,
was transferred to the Liberty Mining Company and purchased by New
York parties, who bonded the property and spent large sums of money
upon it. Owing to difficulties among the owners, it was sold out under
a mortgage in 1876, the new owners organizing the Maryland Copper
Mining Company, which worked the mine until 1885. It was then
abandoned.

The Patapsco mine, near Finksburg, was opened by E. Remington
and some Philadelphia parties in 1849, under the name of the Patapsco
Mining Company. Shortly afterwards they discovered traces of cobalt

8

’
114 MARYLAND.

and nickel, and reorganized their company, with an increased capital, as
the Patapsco Copper and Cobalt Mining Company. They built furnaces
for the treatment of the ores, but in 1858 closed down without ever
starting them, having lost much money in their operations. In 1860 the
mine was bought by Baltimore parties, who organized the Maryland
Copper Company, and ran the mine vigorously until 1865, when it was
abandoned.

The only other copper mine is the Bare Hill, or Vernon mine. It was
opened by Thomas Petherick about 1845, but soon abandoned by him and
taken up by a Mr. Davis, who sold it to Isaac Tyson, Jr. Petherick had
taken it from the owners under a Cornish lease for twenty-one years, the
lease being the same that has been used for centuries in England. When
Davis’s lease expired, Mr. Tyson endeavored to hold the property under this
Cornish lease, which he had bought from Petherick, but after a long and
hard-fought lawsuit, the decision was rendered that this form of lease was
not binding, owing to technical points in its construction, and the property
went back to the original owners. It is said that this decision caused
great anxiety in Cornwall, where so many valuable mines were being
worked under leases of this kind. After passing through several hands,
the property came into the control of the Bare Hill Mining Company,
and later into the hands of the Vernon Mining Company, and is now
owned by Baltimore parties, who have strong hopes that the mine will
again be worked. This mine has produced considerable quantities of
ore, and has, it is asserted, made money for its owners at times when
copper commanded better prices. It has been worked to a depth of 800
feet on an incline, and when it was closed in 1889, showed considerable
copper at the bottom of this shaft.

It will thus be seen, that while the mines of Maryland commanded
attention in their day, they have never contained such large masses of
mineral as make the western mines profitable. The copper occurs in
small quantities, and, while of excellent quality, it has generally cost
more than it was worth. While not commercially important, they have

-produced much that was curious and interesting to the geologist.
Carrollite (or cuban, with cobalt in place of iron) is Known only from
the Springfield and Patapsco Mines, while remingtonite, a rose-colored
hydrous cobalt carbonate, occurs at the latter as its sole locality.
Native gold, in thin flakes, occurs on foliated magnetite at Mineral Hill,
and pyrite, bornite, siegenite and malachite, may be mentioned as occur-
ring in small quantities.

The records of the copper mines in Maryland show that the parties
in interest went through their due share of sanguine hope and realized
woe. The machinery fifty years ago was crude, assays were unreliable,
ready money was scarce, and most of the mines had to be worked in a
MINES AND MINERALS. 115

semi-rural way, the miners farming during good weather and mining
during bad. While, therefore, the product was insignificant as compared
with that of the Western mines of to-day; it doubtless represented, in its
day, no mean engineering and financiering ability.

Coming now to the smelting and working of copper in Maryland, we
find the situation more encouraging. The smelting furnaces at Mineral
Hill and Liberty have been mentioned, the former as being in operation
prior to 1776 and the latter about 1840. In 1780 John Evans is said to
have rolled copper at his mill on Big Elk, in Cecil County. He had
an iron rolling and slitting mill, and rolled copper as occasion demanded.
It is not said where he got his supply of copper, but it was probably
from England.

In 1804 Levi Hollingsworth, one of the Cecil county family of that
name, is said to have started a rolling mill, and, in 1810, he pro-
duced 100 tons. This is somewhat traditional, but it is Known that
about this time he went to England and studied thoroughly the rolling
and refining of copper, and in 1814 built the Gunpowder Copper Works
on the Gunpowder River, eleven miles north of Baltimore. Much of the
machinery he brought from England with him, and the works were quite
extensive, costing nearly $100,000. There were two sets of sheet rolls,
two refining furnaces, and later, a cupola furnace for treating the slag, the
power being furnished by a water-wheel. The organization was some-
what bucolic, the men becoming farmers when business was slack, and
rolling being apparently abandoned while the crops required attention.
The copper itself came mostly in the form of bars or pigs of copper from
Chili. These contained about 96 per cent. copper, and were refined on
the premises in the refining furnaces. Mr. Hollingsworth ran these
works successfully until his death, in 1822, when the McKims, of Balti-
more, took charge, in connection with the Hollingsworth family, and ran
them until 1837. Then they were reorganized and operated as Hollings-
worth & Co., and at the commencement of the war in 1861 were shut
down. During this time a large amount of copper was produced and
several large contracts filled, the roofing of the original dome of the
Capitol of Washington being of Gunpowder copper. In 1833, Griffith, in
a description of Baltimore, mentions these works as being quite exten-
sive. He also mentions as one of the sights of the city the copper mill
on Smith’s wharf, belonging to Isaac McKim, which was notable for
being driven by “a stupendous steam engine.” This mill was started
about 1827, principally for making sheathing copper for ships’ bottoms,
and ran continuously until 1845. The Ellicott Iron Works, near Ellicott
City, also at times rolled copper.

In 1845 the Baltimore and Cuba Smelting and Mining Company was
incorporated with Haslett McKim as President and David Keener as
116 MARYLAND.

Agent. The company was originally organized to mine and smelt the
ores from the Elodie Mines of Don Bartholomeo Trenard near Santiago
de Cuba, he being one of the original promoters of the scheme. A tract
of land was purchased on Locust Point, Little Cuba street still remaining
as a landmark to indicate the spot, and the erection of furnaces com-
menced at once. Trenard was made agent of the company in Cuba, and
sent out to open the mines and commence the shipment of ore. Early in
1846 the works were ready, but the expected ore did not arrive, and a
commission sent to Cuba reported so unfavorably upon the Trenard mines
that all connection with him was broken off. At this time Baltimore was
largely engaged in trade with the West Indies and the west coast of South
America, and the company commenced operations with ores purchased
from Cuba and Chili, supplemented with small parcels from Maryland
and the neighboring States.

In 1849 a rolling mill was built to enable the company to put part of
its product upon the market in a more finished form, and in 1850 a yellow-
metal mill was added. In 1849 Dr. Keener left the service of the
company and became connected with the rival works just about starting
at Canton, on the opposite side of the harbor. The company had not
been successful; the failure of the Trenard mines had left it without a
regular supply of ore, and the buying of large cargoes of Chilian ore, with
the attendant loss of interest and risk of the market during the passage
around Cape Horn, had, as a rule, resulted in loss. The management had
much to contend with in getting men competent to organize a business
which required so much expert knowledge, and after a year of apparent
prosperity the deficit became larger until 1851, when it was determined
to wind up the concern. The furnaces were demolished, part of the
land sold, and finally in 1854 the works themselves were sold. In dis-
mantling the works a very large amount of copper was discovered in the
furnace bottoms and also in the slags which had been thrown out. Much
of this was shipped to England, and the amount realized was so great
that the company was encouraged to re-commence operations. The sale
of the works was cancelled, additional capital called in, and in 1855 the
works commenced with an enlarged plant. Then came a year or two of
rising market and large profits followed by a year of heavy losses. About
this time the company became interested in a process for treating sulphu-
ret ores by leaching them with water and then precipitating the copper
with iron. Experiments were made at a mine in Virginia, but without
success and with considerable loss. About 1860 Clinton Levering became
President, and in 1864 the rival works at Canton were absorbed, both
being thereafter run by the Baltimore and Cuba Smelting and Mining
Company. This rival concern was the Baltimore Copper Smelting Com-
pany, organized in 1850, with Dr. Keener as agent and George Brown as
MINES AND MINERALS. 117

President. Works were built at Canton, where the present copper works
now stand, a favorable contract made with a copper mine in Chili, and
the company had a prosperous existence until it was finally sold, as stated
above, to the Baltimore and Cuba Smelting and Mining Company. Mr.
Levering was shortly thereafter succeeded as President by Henry Martin.

In 1868 the works at Locust Point were removed to Canton, the prop-
erty being sold to the Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Company, and the company
reorganized as the Baltimore Copper Company. The changed condition
of affairs after the war, the uncertain supply of ore and other causes
brought the company into financial straits, and the prohibitive tariff of
1869 was the finishing stroke. In 1870 William Keyser became president
in order to wind up the affairs of the company, John W. Garrett and
Johns Hopkins being at that time virtually the sole owners.

About this time ores from California, Arizona and Montana began to
come upon the market, and the firm of Pope, Cole & Company was
formed to operate the works at Canton, George A. Pope and George B.
Cole, of the Gunpowder Copper Works, being the general partners, and
Johns Hopkins, John W. Garrett, William Keyser, John S. Gilman and G.
W. Ward the special partners. The concern now ran altogether upon
western ores and did a large and constantly increasing business. In
earlier days a sulphuric acid plant had been added in accordance with
some crude idea of utilizing the sulphur in the South American ores.
This idea had been abandoned and acid was now made from brimstone
and sold on the market. The combination of sulphuric acid and copper
naturally led to the manufacture of sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol,
which became a large branch of the business.

The old Gunpowder Copper Works, at the close of the war, had been
incorporated into a company and had started operations again. In 1866
the property was sold to the City of Baltimore in connection with the city
water supply. The company then leased the works from the city and
ran them until 1883, when, owing to lack of water sufficient to furnish
power and the general wearing out of the antiquated machinery, the
plant was abandoned and a new and modern rolling mill built at Canton,
adjoining the copper works. The name of the company was changed to
the Baltimore Copper Rolling Company. In 1885 the firm of Pope &
Cole, consisting of the general partners of Pope, Cole & Company,
became embarrassed and carried down with it the latter firm. In 1887
the Baltimore Copper Rolling Company was changed into the Baltimore
Copper Smelting & Rolling Company, with William Keyser as president,
and with an increased capital purchased the business and remaining
assets of Pope, Cole & Company. Since that time the business has been
actively carried on by this concern. After several years of experiment-
ing an electrolytic plant for the purification of copper by electrolysis
118 MARYLAND.

was added. This process had long been a successful laboratory experi-
ment, but it was not until 1890 that it was made a commercial success.

In 1891 the Baltimore Electric Refining Company was organized and
a large plant erected about half a mile east of the copper works, and the
next year the capacity of the works was doubled. The present plant of
the Baltimore Copper Smelting and Rolling Company consists of the
copper smelting works, the blue vitriol works, the copper rolling mills,
the electrolytic department and the acid works, each run as a separate
department. The smelting works consist of calcining furnaces, eighteen
reverberatory furnaces, six refining furnaces, two cupola furnaces, a crush-
ing plant and the other necessary adjuncts. The blue vitriol works is
one of the largest in the country, supplying last year all the sulphate of
copper used by the Western Union Telegraph Company, in addition to
large quantities to Paris green makers and others. The rolling mill is
especially adapted to the rolling of thin copper sheets, principally for
bath-tub manufacturers, and produces about 100,000 pounds per month.
The electrolytic departinent is worked under what is knownas the Pierce
system, the current being furnished by two Edison 80 K. W. dynamos.
The acid works are now restricted to making acid for the blue vitriol
and electric works, none being made for sale. The Baltimore Electric
Refining Company’s works are operated under the Hayden system; they
consist of a rolling mill for rolling the anode plates, a large depositing
house, the current being furnished by six Edison and three Westinghouse
direct-coupled 80 K. W. dynamos, four refining furnaces, a slimes-house
for treating the residues and refining the bullion, and the necessary ware-
houses, repair shops, etc.

These two companies, being virtually under one management, form
one of the largest copper works in existence, and the B. C. W. casting
copper is recognized as a standard brand, both at home and abroad. The
electrolytic copper, which is used for rolling and especially for electric
wires, has also made for itself a good name during the short time it has
been on the market and is now largely used for trolley wires, a field
which promises to push to the utmost for several years to come the
capacity of the company to supply the demand. Both these works are
now running entirely on copper material from the Anaconda mines at
Butte, Montana, and have for several years past handled almost the
entire product of these mines put upon the American market, all that is
not consumed in America being shipped from Baltimore to the various
European ports. ;

This is briefly the history of copper mining, smelting and manufac-
turing in Maryland. The deposits of copper are not such as ever to make
the mining of it practicable, and the smelting industry, like every other
manufacturing business, is subject to change of processes and conditions,
MINES AND MINERALS. 119

which render it impossible to foretell its future. We have seen that the
original operations were based upon supplies of ore from the mines on
the eastern seaboard and imported ores from Cuba and the west coast of
South America. The former supply failed from scarcity of mineral, and
the latter was cut off by the war tariff. The works then languished, all
except two on the Atlantic seaboard going entirely out of business, until
the supplies of ore began to come in from the far West, seeking smelters
where labor and fuel were cheap and where the market for finished
product was convenient. This western copper first came in the form of
raw ore and later, as labor, fuel and supplies became cheaper in the
West, in the form of matte or regulus, which had been through the
preliminary processes and contained a higher percentage of copper and a
less percentage of waste material upon which freights were to be paid.
The rapid settlement of the mining districts of the West, the increased
railway facilities and the cheapening of all that enters into the smelting
and refining of copper, including the introduction of revolving calciners
and the Bessemer converter in place of the reverberatory furnace of the
Welsh process, has gone on so rapidly that now refined copper is being
shipped from mines from which only a few years ago ore was sent East
in its raw condition. All this renders the future of smelting on the
seacoast difficult to foretell. The great Welsh smelters are even now
feeling the altered condition of affairs, and a change in the copper
smelting situation in this country is only a question of a few years.
What the effect will be upon the Baltimore works is naturally an
interesting question. That there will be a change no one familiar with
the business can doubt, but we are certainly justified in the hope that it
will tend more and more to increase the copper industry here. Baltimore
is peculiarly well adapted to this industry. The mild climate obviates
the necessity for substantial and expensively heated buildings, an especial
item in electrolytic works; living is cheap, the coal from the Cumberland
region is one of the best for smelting purposes, the city is the nearest
seaport to the West, and this is an item both in the receipt of raw
material and in the distribution of the finished product; the facilities
for distribution to New York and northern points are excellent; in fact,
the cost of delivering copper to points in New York is very little more
than if delivered from works in the immediate vicinity; the frequent
sailings and cheap rates to foreign ports of steamers carrying large
quantities of grain and cattle and needing heavy freight for ballast, make
it an advantageous point for distributing abroad, and the United States
is each year becoming more and more the source of the European
copper supply. So whether the raw material still comes from the West,
or should part of it, under a more moderate tariff, again come from
South America, Baltimore has good promise of becoming what several
120 MARYLAND.

years ago the London Times, in an article on the copper situation in
America, predicted that it would become, the Swansea, the copper-
smelting seaport of the United States.

CHROME.

The chrome industry is one of the most unique and characteristic
in Baltimore. It originated in the early discovery of chrome ore in the
serpentine of Maryland, and has ever since maintained its prestige as one
of the sources of the world’s supply of the chromates of potassium and
sodium, which have many applications in the arts. The following is the
substance of an historical account of the Maryland chrome industry,
kindly prepared by Mr. William Glenn:

In 1827 chrome ore was first discovered in America on land belonging
to Mr. Isaac Tyson, in what are known as the Bare Hills, six miles north
of Baltimore. Mr. Tyson’s son, Isaac Tyson, Jr., then in business with
his father, was persuaded by an English workman to attempt the manu-
tacture of “chrome yellow” from this material, and this was done in a
factory on what is now Columbia avenue, in Baltimore, in 1828. In the
year of the discovery of the Bare Hill ore, Mr. Isaac Tyson, Jr., who
seems to have possessed a very keen power of obsérvation as wellas a
considerable knowledge of chemistry, recognized in a dull black stone,
which he saw supporting a cider barrel in Belair market, more of the
same valuable material. Inquiry disclosed the fact that this had been
brought from near Jarrettsville, in Harford county, where much more
like it was to be found. Mr. Tyson at once examined the locality, and
finding it covered with boulders worth $100 per ton in Liverpool, pur-
chased a considerable area.

Finding that the chrome ore was always confined to serpentine, Mr.
Tyson began a systematic examination of the serpentine areas of Mary-
land, which could be easily traced by the barren character of the soil
which they produce. <A narrow belt of serpentine extends across Mont-
gomery county, and while chrome ore is occasionally found in it (as, for
instance, at Etchison P. O.), nothing of economic importance has ever
been discovered in Maryland south of the areas known as “Soldier’s
Delight” and “Bare Hills.” Northeastward, however, the deposits
become much richer. The region near Jarretisville was productive, and
thence the serpentine was traced to the State line in Cecil county.
Near Rock Springs the serpentine turns and follows the State line east-
ward for fifteen miles. On the Wood farm, half a mile north of the
State line and five miles north of Rising Sun in Cecil county, Mr. Tyson
discovered in 1838 a chromite deposit which proved to be the richest ever
found in America. This property was at once purchased by Mr. Tyson
andthe mine opened. At the surface it was 30 feet long and 6 feet wide,
MINES AND MINERALS. 121

and the ore so pure that each 10 cubic feet produced a ton of chrome ore
averaging 54 per cent. of chromic oxide. The ore was hauled 12 miles by
wagon to Port Deposit and shipped thente by water to Baltimore and
Liverpool. Ata depth of 20 feet the vein narrowed somewhat, but
immediately broadened out again to a length of 120 feet and a width of
from 10 to 30 feet. The Wood Mine was worked almost continuously
from 1828 to 1881, except between the years 1868 and 1873. During that
time it produced over 100,000 tons of ore and reached a depth of 600
feet. It is not yet exhausted, but the policy of its owners is to reserve
their ores while they can be elsewhere purchased at a cheap rate.
Another well-known chrome mine in this region is exactly on the State
boundary at Rock Springs, and is called the Line Pit. So much of this
deposit as lay within the limits of Maryland was owned by Mr. Tyson,
while he worked the Pennsylvania portion on a royalty.

Other chrome openings near the Line Pit were known as the “Jenkins
Mine,” “Low Mine,” “Wet Pit,” and “Brown Mine.” This region has
proved one of the best in the country for fine specimens of rare minerals.
As a mineral locality it is usually given as “Texas, Pa.’’*

During his exploration of the serpentine belt Mr. Tyson also noticed
deposits of chromite sand ; and to control the entire supply of this ore, he
either bought or leased these also, and worked them to some extent with
his mines.

Between 1828 and 1850 Baltimore supplied most of the chrome ore
consumed by the world; the remainder came from the serpentine
deposits and platinum washings of the Urals. The ore was at first
shipped to England, the principal consumers being J. & J. White, of Glas-
gow, whose decendants are still the chief manufacturers of chromic acid
salts. In 1844 Mr. Tyson established the Baltimore Chrome Works, which
are still successfully operated by his sons.

After 1850 the foreign demand for Baltimore ore declined gradually
till 1860, since which time almost none has been shipped abroad. The
reason for this was the discovery, in 1848, of great deposits of chromite
near Brusa, 57 miles southwest of Constantinople, by Prof. J. Lawrence
Smith, who was employed by the Turkish Government to examine the
mineral resources of that country. Other deposits were also discovered
by him fifteen miles further south, and near Antioch. These regions now
supply the world’s demand.

After the discovery of the magnitude of Wood Pit, and of the
bountiful supply of sand chrome to be found within the Baltimore
region, Isaac Tyson, Jr., began to fear that the sources of supply could
not much longer be restricted to his ownership. In such an event, he

 

*P. Frazer, 2d Geological Survey of Penn., vol. CCC, Lancaster county, 1880; pp. 176 and 192.
122 MARYLAND.

realized that he would be compelled to manufacture his ores or to sacri-
fice them in competition.

The method of manufacture previously in use was to heat a mixture
of chrome ore and potassium nitrate upon the working hearth of a rever-
beratory furnace. The potash salt yielded oxygen to the chromic oxide
present, forming chromic acid, which, in turn, united with the base, pro-
ducing potash chromate. The process was wasteful and exceedingly
costly. Afterwards, the process was somewhat cheapened by substitution
of potassium carbonate for the more costly nitrate; oxygen was taken from
heated air in the furnace. But not until 1845, when Stromeyer introduced
his process, was the manufacture of chromic acid placed upon a safe
mercantile basis. In this process pulverized chromic iron is mixed with
potassium carbonate and freshly slaked lime, and the mixture is heated
in a reverberatory furnace. After chromic oxide is set free in the charge,
it is freely oxidized because of the spongy condition of the lime-laden
charge.

Among the first steps of Isaac Tyson, Jr., was to apply, in 1846, to
Yale College for a chemist for his chrome works. In response, a young
man named W. P. Blake, who was then a student in the chemical labora-
tory, was sent. For awhile Mr. Blake did excellent service in the new
factory, but he was not willing to remain.

Mr. (now Professor) Blake was the first chemist to be employed in
technology upon this continent; while the Baltimore works were the
first to appreciate the value of chemistry. After the departure of Mr.
Blake, another chemist was secured from the first laboratory ever insti-
tuted for the teaching of chemistry, that founded at Giessen by Liebig.
In succession came another chemist, from the same laboratory, and this
gentleman is yet employed in the works.

Between 1880 and 1890 the American production of chrome ore has
varied between 1,500 and 3,000 tons. The total eastern product in 1886
was 100 tons only. Chrome ore was discovered in California in 1873,
and since 1886 this State has been the only one to produce this mineral.
From two to four thousand tons of Turkish chrome ore are now annually
imported into the United States, most of which is manufactured in
Baltimore.

GOLD.

It has long been known that the abundant veins of quartz which pen-
etrate the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau in Georgia, North
Carolina, Virginia and Maryland frequently carry gold. In 1836 Professor
W. B. Rogers, then State Geologist of Virginia, devoted considerable space
in his annual report to a description of the auriferous rocks.*

 

*Geology of the Virginias (reprint) p. 74, 1884.
MINES AND MINERALS. 123

The first gold ever found in Maryland was discovered in 1849 on the
farm of Samuel Ellicott, a farmer living near Sandy Spring, on the north-
ern edge of Montgomery county. Spécimens from this place were
exhibited to the American Philosophical Society by Mr. Justice in that
year and described in their proceedings.* Professor Ebenezer Emmons
reported on this locality, and gave assays made by the United States Mint
of $610, $787 and $168 per ton. Considerable gold is said to have been
taken from this locality by parties who paid Mr. Ellicott a royalty of ten
per cent.

Most of the Maryland gold mines are, however, situated near the
southern edge of Montgomery county, near the Great Falls of the
Potomac.+ Many claims have recently been developed in this region.
The Maryland mine is the oldest in this region, and was opened in 1867.
It showed some wonderfully rich specimens, but the gold was so
unevenly distributed that it proved only a source of loss to its owners,
and was soon abandoned. About 1876 the Montgomery mine was opened
on Rock Run and equipped with stamp mill, furnace and other machinery.
This company obtained several thousand dollars’ worth of gold, but the
mine was soonabandoned. It has, however, been recently again developed
by a new organization called the Potomac Mining Company.

The most extensive gold deposits occur on what is known as the Harri-
son Farm, about a mile south of the Montgomery mine, where the metal
was first discovered in 1888 by Mr. Kirk, a Georgia miner. Hight veins had
been opened on this property in 1890, ranging from $12 to $30 per ton,
and had produced a total of $12,000 worth of bullion. The Allerton-
Ream mine, 2} miles east of the Harrison, is near the Potomac, above
Great Falls. Several other sinaller veins have also been opened in this
neighborhood. The Alton mine, Henry Watson manager, is owned in
Chicago, and is being fitted out with a 20-stamp mill; the Eagle (opera-
tions suspended for the present) has a 10-stamp mill; the Irma, Mr. W.
T.S. Kirk, manager, has a 10-stamp mill; the Kirk Mining and Milling
Company has a Wiswell mill, with bumping tables and a concentrator.
It is owned in Chicago.

Reports are frequent of the discovery of gold in Maryland, north of
Montgomery County, as for instance, near Hood’s Mill in Howard County,
and near Westminster in Carroll County. These finds have not yet, how-
ever, proved of any value. It will be noticed, by reference to the
geological map, that all of these gold localities lie close to the boundary
between the holocrystalline and semi-crystalline portions of the Pied-
mont Plateau. The quartz veins, which carry the metal, occupy old

 

*Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. V, p. 85, 1849.

+ See Notes on the Gold Deposits of Montgomery County, Maryland, by 8. F, Emmons, Trans. Am.
Inst. Mining Engineers, February, 1890.
124 MARYLAND.

lines of earth movement (faulting and crushing), and the adjoining rock
is usually much decomposed. The gold, according to the observations
of Emmons, occurs either in pure quartz, or in association with pyrite,
or in the pyrite. It is also sometimes accompanied by lead (galena),
silver and telluride of bismuth (tetradymite). According to the Eleventh
United States Census, the production of gold in Maryland in 1889 was
501 ounces, worth $10,369, and in 1890, 817 ounces, valued at $16,885.

GRANITIC ROCKS.

Maryland contains large areas of highly crystalline feldspathic rocks,
which are already extensively applied as building stones and for other
constructive purposes. The quality of these stones is so good that this
industry seems capable of a much larger development than it has
heretofore attained. A large proportion of the eastern Piedmont region
is composed of the material here under consideration. (See geological
map). The most acid or quartzose varieties of these rocks are known as
granite and gneiss. Since these differ from one another only in the
latter having a more or less pronounced parallel structure, it is not
always possible to distinguish sharply between them, especially as true
granites often have such a structure secondarily developed in them by
pressure.

The regions in Maryland now productive of acid feldspathic rocks are
Port Deposit, in Cecil county, the vicinity of Baltimore and Woodstock
in Baltimore county, and Ellicott City and Guilford in Howard county.
Other districts in Howard and Montgomery counties and in the District
of Columbia contain some good stone, but it is quarried only for local use.

According to the returns of the 10th and 11th U. S. Census, the
granite produced in Maryland increased 100 per cent. between 1880 and
1890 (from $224,009 to $447,489). In the latter year Maryland ranked as
the eleventh State in the Union in granite production. She had twenty-
three quarries in operation, yielding 3,371,032 cubic feet, valued at a total
of $447,489, and giving employment to 846 men.

The Foliated Granite of Port Deposit. The rock which is so largely
exposed and so extensively quarried along the north bank of the Susque-
hanna River, near Port Deposit, is a gray biotite granite-gneiss, 7. é., it is
a granite with its dark-colored constituents arranged in parallel directions
so as closely to resemble a gneiss. Inasmuch, however, as this structure
has been in all probability secondarily produced in the rock by intense
pressure, the common designation of this stone as “granite” is by no
means incorrect. The history of this largest of all Maryland’s stone
industries is in brief as follows: In the years 1816-17 the Port Deposit
Bridge Company constructed a road and toll bridge across the Susque-
hanna River, the eastern approach to which was in what is now the
MINES AND MINERALS. 125

corporate limits of the town of Port Deposit, Cecil county. Much of the
granite used in the masonry of this bridge was quarried on the spot, and
the quarry thus opened was worked in a small way by Simon Freize, who
had supplied the granite for the bridge. About 1829-30 the business
passed into the hands of Samuel Magredy and Cornelius Smith, who
enlarged their operations and opened up a considerable trade with Balti-
mcre and elsewhere. Smith retiring, Magredy was left alone in the
business until his death in 1844, when E. Wilmer, his son-in-law, suc-
ceeded him. Other quarries were opened by other parties and worked
with more or less success; and the business is now carried on by Benja-
min Kepner and McClenahan & Brother.

Before the development of this industry by Magredy the value of the
stone had been known, and large quantities used for making the artificial
island on which was built the now abandoned Fort Wood, opposite
Fortress Monroe. This granite has been used in the construction of
Fortress Monroe, Forts Carroll and McHenry, Baltimore, Fort Delaware,
the sea-wall at St. Augustine, Fla., navy yard and dry dock at Ports-
mouth, Va., Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., and in the foundation of
the Treasury Building at Washington. Also in the construction of the
great bridges over the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace, Md.; in the
Chestnut Street, Girard Avenue, Callowhill and South Street bridges
over the Schuylkill, Philadelphia ; in all the principal bridges of Balti-
more; in the construction of the new water works crib at Chicago; also
for the entire plant of the Maryland Steel Company’s works at Sparrow’s
Point, Maryland. To this list might be added a large nuinber of public
and private buildings in Baltimore and Philadelphia.

The output from McClenahan «& Bro.’s quarries for the years 1891 and
1892 is as follows:

 

 

 

 

 

 

——— 1891 a ———1892-——__,

Tons. Value. Tons. Value.
Rough Granite....... 51,400 $ 70,928 37,725 $ 50,412
Dressed Granite...... 4,600 80,650 10,152 112,336
Paving Blocks....... 2,500 10,000 8,096 14,534
Other purposes...... 2,000 6,388 16,750 17,513

60,500 $167,966 67,728 $194,895

In a test of the comparative resistance of various building materials
to a crushing strain made by Bvt. Maj.-Gen. Q. A. Gilmore, U.S. Engineer,
the Port Deposit granite sustained a pressure of 18,125 pounds per square
inch, as may be seen in his report.

The output of the other quarry at Port Deposit for the past three
years does not exceed 10,000 tons per annum, valued at $2.50 per ton.

The Woodstock Region. The best quality of granite in Maryland
occurs in the southwest corner of Baltimore county, near Woodstock.
The stone is here remarkably homogeneous in grain and color, which
126 MARYLAND.

renders it especially valuable for architectural purposes. The history of
this granite region is given as follows by Mr. Attwood Blunt, who has
long been associated with it:

“In the neighborhood of Granite, Baltimore county, Md. (formerly
Waltersville), about one and one-half miles from Woodstock, is a territory
not exceeding two miles in length by about one mile in breadth, on
which granite boulders occur. These boulders first attracted attention,
and were worked by several enterprising men from New Hampshire,
who commenced their operations here about the years 1832-33. Among
them were the names Sweatt, Riddle, Putney, Holbrook, followed by
many others, among whom were the Emorys, Gaults and Eatons. The
principal demand was at first by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad for
stone stringers, dressed to correspond to the flange and tread of the car
wheels, and also ashlar, &c., for their bridge and culvert work.

“Although prospecting has been carried on ever since, only two ledge
quarries have been discovered, viz: the “ Waltersville” and “Fox Rock.”
The former is the principal one, and was at first called the “ Branch.”
This rock developed into a fine ledge, surpassing all the granite around
in quantity, quality and easy access, so that all the boulders in which
Sweatt, Putney and Riddle were interested were at once abandoned.
After working it for a year or two Putney and Riddle obtained a lease of
this quarry for twenty years in August, 1835, from the owner, Captain
Alexander Walters, to whose family this quarry has belonged for more
than a century. It is called in the lease, and is still known as the
Waltersville quarry, although the name of the village of Waltersville was
changed to Granite about 1873-74, when the first postoffice at the place
was established. The lessees went to work vigorously, and besides many
other improvements, built a railroad two miles long to connect with the
B.& O. at Putney and Riddle’s bridge, about one mile east of Wood-
stock. Their first contract of importance was furnishing stone for the
Baltimore Custom House. They, however, continued the business only
afew years. Extravagance and mismanagement caused failure, and they
were succeeded by Edward Green and Joshua B. Sumwalt, under the
firm-name of Green & Sumwalt. The senior partner dying about the
year 1849, he was succeeded by his son Frederick, and the firm became
Sumwalt & Green, who conducted the business until 1865, when Attwood
Blunt, whose wife owned the property, took charge and continued the
business until 1871, when the quarry was leased to Ansley Gill and James
McMahon. After a lapse of about sixteen years, the firm was dissolved
by the death of McMahon. Mr. Gill continued the business alone for a
short while, when he associated with him Wm. H. Johnson, of Balti-
more, and they soon after formed with Geo. Mann, Hugh Hanna, Messrs.
Grey & Sons, of Philadelphia, and Mr. Hamilton, of Baltimore, a joint
MINES AND MINERALS. 127

stock company, calling it the Guilford and Waltersville Granite Co. This
company is now conducting the business. In Baltimore fully three-
fourths of the stone for fine granite work, has been procured from this
quarry, and in Washington it has also been largely used. Many years
ago this stone was extensively used in the Capitol, Patent Office and
Post. Office buildings. The interior granite work of the Post Office
affordsas fine a sample of its working qualities as any other work in
Washington, unless surpassed by the more recent work on the new Con-
gressional Library Building, the interior court of which has been built
of this stone within the past three years.

Shortly after the Waltersville quarry was opened the “Fox Rock”
quarry, which is also a ledge quarry, was also opened (1836) and worked
by Emery & Gault. But after constructing a railroad to connect with the
B. & O. at Woodstock, and bridging the Patapsco there and working the
quarry about ten years, they abandoned it, and it remained idle for
sometime. The bridge and railroad went to decay and have never been
rebuilt, although work was resumed in a small way, first by Alvin Eaton
about 1869, who continued until it was sold to the Woodstock College.
Shortly afterwards the quarry alone was sold by the college to
several persons, including the Messrs. William A. and Matthew Gault, of
Baltimore, who formed the Woodstock Granite Co. The quality of this
granite is excellent. It has been largely used in Baltimore, notably in
the B. & O. Central Building, corner Baltimore and Calvert streets, all
the granite of which came from the Fox Rock quarry, except a few of
the larger blocks, which were obtained from Waltersville. All the
granite in the Fidelity Trust and Deposit Building, corner Lexington
and Charles Streets, was also furnished by the Fox Rock quarry.

Until within the past fifteen to eighteen years the methods of quar-
rying and handling stone at these quarries were exceedingly primitive,
and consequently slow, costly and inadequate. No steam power had
been used except for pumping, and the output from the Waltersville
ranged from 30,000 to 50,000 cubic feet per annum. Butrecently modern
appliances have been adopted, particularly at the Waltersville, where a
very costly and efficient plant has been built up and steam is used for
pumping, hoisting, drilling and sawing the stone, and a steam motor
used for transporting freight cars to and from the B. & O., instead of
horses as formerly. This quarry can furnish stone of almost any required
size, and it would be a comparatively easy matter to quarry out a mono-
lith equal in size to the famous ‘ Cleopatra’s needle.’ ”’

Ellicott City. Near Ellicott City, on both the Baltimore and
Howard County sides of the Patapsco River, granite is extensively
developed, extending far to the southward, and as far east as IIchester.
The quarries on the Baltimore County side of the river show this rock
128 MARYLAND.

as a fine grained grey mass, with a decided foliation or gneissic struc-
ture. On the opposite side of the river, in Ellicott City itself, it is
more homogeneous and granitic. Here it also has a porphyritic struc-
ture, in consequence of large flesh-colored crystals of feldspar being more
or less regularly disseminated through it. The most perfect varieties of
this granite-porphyry present a striking and beautiful appearance.

The principal Ellicott City quarry was opened in 1872 by Charles J.
Werner, and since his death in 1888, has been operated by his sons. In
1890 the Werner Brothers purchased a second quarry, which had before
been operated by Robert Wilson. Thestone occurring so abundantly here
was, however, extensively employed at a much earlier date for local use,
and even furnished the material of which the Baltimore Cathedral was
constructed. Ammendale College, in Prince George’s County, and many
substantial structures in Ellicott City, are built of it. The production
of this stone in 1892 amounted to 28,100 cubic feet, valued at $22,500.

Other granite of excellent quality, and of a somewhat finer grain
and lighter color than that occurring near Woodstock, is found at Guil-
ford, in Howard County, but it has not yet received the development it
deserves. A red granite, reported from this locality, turned out to be
only a superficial staining of the grey stone and of no economic value.

W.F. Weller opened a granite quarry on the Baltimore and Ohio
railroad, near Sykesville, and made there, for about eighteen months,
Belgian paving blocks. This work was, however, discontinued over a
year ago.

In Montgomery County there is also some good granite not yet
developed, notably an almost pure white, fine-grained variety at Brook-
ville, and darker varieties near Derwood station on the Metropolitan
branch of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and near Triadelphia.

Gneiss near Baltimore. The more solid varieties of the gneiss
occurring in and near the city of Baltimore are extensively quarried for
building and foundation stone. This stone is of a dark grey color, and
occurs in parallel layers, which present more or less of a contrast. Build-
ings constructed of this stone, of which there are many in Baltimore,
present an agreeable effect.

The oldest and most important quarries of gneiss are those on the
east side of Jones’s Falls, opposite Druid Hill Park. Other openings in
the same rock have been made on Gwynn’s Falls, Herring Run, Edmond-
son Avenue, near McDonogh, and at other places.

The great gneiss quarries on Jones’s Falls, north of Boundary Avenue,
in Baltimore, were in active operation very early in the century. They
are mentioned as early as 1811 as a locality for specimens of certain
minerals, of which they have ever since remained a noteworthy source.
MINES AND MINERALS. 129

A quarry was opened two years ago (1891) in a very granitoid gneiss,
occurring beside the railroad, just at McDonogh Station, on the Western
Maryland Railroad. Itis leased by the McDonogh School to George F.
Nardin, who operates it. Of this stone the station houses at Mount Hope
and Dolfield’s, above Owings’ Mills, have been built. It is also used for
road ballast, Belgian blocks, sills, steps, etc.

A few of the other crystalline siliceous rocks occurring in the
Piedmont region of Maryland have received some application as build-
ing stones, although this is in all cases very limited.

Gabbro. The black trappean rocks, described on p. 39 as abundant
in Harford, Baltimore and Howard counties, weather into a deep red soil,
in which rounded boulders of the unaltered rock occur. These are
locally known as “niggerhead,” and as they have to be cleared out of the
fields, they are extensively employed in building stone walls, foundations,
etc. They are now rarely used for the construction of whole buildings,
although in the case of the railway station at Arlington and a church at
Woodbury this has been done. The rock is so extremely hard and
tough that it cannot be economically quarried or dressed; it is, therefore,
always used in the form of natural boulders. Asa material for maca-
damizing roads it is said to have no superior.

Amphibole Schist. On the property belonging to the Alms House in
Westminster, Carroll county, a quarry has been opened in a compact,
finely crinkled amphibole schist, somewhat resembling an impure soap-
stone, which has been used, with good effect, as a building stone. It was
first employed in the construction of the Keyser Memorial Church at
Reistertown. It is of a pleasing grayish green color, even texture, and
is easily worked. It has since been used for the residence of the president
of Western Maryland College at Westminster.

SANDSTONE.

Sandstone is a name given to beds of sand, like those now being
formed along the seashore, which have been consolidated into rock by the
deposition of some cementing material between their grains. The sand
itself is usually in large part quartz, mixed with varying proportions of
other mineral fragments. The color and durability of a sandstone
depends in great measure on the nature of its cement, and according to
what this is, sandstones are classified as siliceous, calcareous, ferrugi-
nous, etc.

Sandstones occur in all geological deposits of sedimentary origin, and
are consequently of all ages. There are many sandstone horizons in
Maryland, as may be seen by reference to the geological map. Many of
these are well suited to furnish valuable building stones, but as yet only

one locality has furnished this material for more than local use.
9
130 MARYLAND.

Seneca Red Sandstone. This is at present the only Maryland sand-
stone which possesses a recognized reputation in the market. The
formation from which it is obtained is of triassic age and is exten-
sively developed along the eastern edge of the United States. It furnishes
most of the red and brown freestone so extensively used for house fronts
in New York and other large cities. There are extensive quarries in this
formation in Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Jersey. A belt of
this rock enters Maryland between Emmitsburg and Union Bridge,
rapidly narrowing toward Point of Rocks, while another area occupies
the southwestern part of Montgomery County (see geological map). The
only extensive quarries of this sandstone in Maryland are situated at the
mouth of Seneca Creek, in Montgomery County, on the Chesapeake and
Ohio Canal.

The Seneca sandstone has been quarried ina more or less systematic
way since 1774, when it was used in the construction of two locks on the
old Potomac Canal, built round the Great Falls of the Potomac. In 1832
it was used in the locks of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and also in
an aqueduct on the same canal near the mouth of Seneca Creek.

About this time, or soon after, the quarries became the property of
Mr. Robert Peter, who continued to develop them, furnishing, in 1847,
the stone of which the Smithsonian Institution is built. In 1867 Mr.
Peter sold the quarries to Mr. H. H. Dodge, who organized the original
Potomac Red Sandstone Company. This company greatly developed the
quarries and marketed a large amount of the stone, principally in
Washington. In 1874 the company became involved in litigation and
the quarries were closed for nine years. In 1883, however, the company
was reorganized, and the work pushed rapidly forward down to June,
1889, at which time the canal, upon which the company depended for
transportation, was washed out and the quarries lay idle for a period of
two years. Jn 1891 Mr. George Mann, of Baltimore, purchased the prop-
erty and founded the present organization, “The Seneca Stone Com-
pany,” which has since worked the quarries.

Since the present company took charge of the quarries a force of
sixty men has been kept busy, but the work has been mainly develop-
ment.

The production since the present company has worked the quarries
has been as follows:

Cu. Ft. Cost of Production. Value.
139 caranteeeAcdewurcaa eer 1,717.5 $ 3,497 32 $ 3,269 84*
1899 sercee aden e os aw soe 20,208.9 10,301 51 25,168 81

The stone has always been a favorite one with builders, not. only
because of its great strength and durability, but also because of the ease

 

*From March 15 to September 1.
MINES AND MINERALS. 131

with which it is worked and its beautiful colors. When first quarried
the stone is comparatively soft and susceptible of very delicate carving.
It, however, soon hardens on exposure.

Before the Seneca stone was adopted for the Smithsonian Buildings
it was subjected to thorough tests by Prof. David Dale Owen and Dr.
Page. It has also been since tested and reported on by Prof. James
Hall, and by Mr. Adolph Cluss, engineer, of Washington, all of whose
reports have been most favorable. Its strength was determined by the
engineers of the U. 8. Army as 10,762 pounds resistance to the square
inch. Mr. G. P. Merril, head of the department of lithology in the
U. 8. National Museum, ‘does not hesitate to pronounce it one of the
best of our Triassic sandstones. On blocks of the stone in the aqueduct
of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, which have been constantly per-
meated by water every season for fifty years, the tool marks are still
fresh, and no signs of scaling are visible other than those produced by
too close contact at the joints.”*

Besides the Smithsonian Buildings, a number of important struc-
tures have beer: constructed of this stone in Washington and Baltimore.

Several other sandstone horizous in Maryland are quarried locally,
and some of these furnish material of such good quality that they may
become important sources of building stone. These sandstone deposits
belong to the series of Paleozoic sediments (see p. 44 and map), the most
important being, Cambrian (I), Medina (IV), and Oriskany (VII).

Micaceous Sandstone of Deer Creek. On the south side of the
infolded area of semi-crystalline schists surrounding the Peach Bottom
slate area, in Harford county, isa strip of very hard and massive sand-
stone, which has been greatly metamorphosed by the dynamic action to
which it has been subjected. This narrow band forms a pronounced
ridge, which has been cut through at its highest point by Deer Creek,
exposing the hard sandstone in precipitous walls over 350 feet in
height. This spot has long been known for its romantic beauty. The
Baltimore & Lehigh Railroad now passes through the gorge, where there
is a station known as “The Rocks.” The stone is a nearly pure quartz
sandstone, in places plainly conglomeratic, and contains more or less
white mica (muscovite), chlorite and kyanite, which are products of
secondary crystallization due to metamorphism. The whole occurrence
presents a striking resemblance to Wills Mountain, Buckingham county,
Va., described by W. B. Rogers. The geological age of this Harford
county sandstone is not definitely known, but from its relation to the
Peach Bottom slates it seems probable that it is highly altered Cambrian.

 

* Stones for Building and Decorations, 1891, p. 262.
+Geology of the Virginias, 1884.
132 MARYLAND.

The fire-proof qualities of this micaceous sandstone have long been
recognized, and it has been frequently employed for hearth-stones and
furnaces. Quite recently a company has been organized to develop it as
a building stone, basing their claims for its success on the inexhaustible
supply, hardness, durability, white color and fire-proof qualities. This
corporation is called the “Maryland Granite Company,” although their
stone is neither in character, origin nor appearance even remotely
related to granite. Their capital is $200,000, and they are erecting
improved machinery for the extraction and shipment of the product.

Cambrian Sandstone. The Cambrian sandstone, which forms the
base of the Paleozoic series, occurs in an unaltered condition in Sugar-
Loaf, Catoctin and Blue Mountains. It is quarried for local use by rail-
roads, canals and road commissioners, and toa small extent for building.
At the south end of Sugar Loaf Mountain, near Dickerson Station, it was
employed for bridges, aqueducts and culverts by the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad and by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. On the farm of Mr.
Belt, near this place, a beautiful white sandstone has been opened which
seems worthy of further development. The Western Maryland Railroad
has used this sandstone in Catoctin Mountain above Mechanicstown.

Medina and Oriskany Sandstone. The only other sandstone quar-
ries in Maryland that deserve mention are near Cumberland, in Alleghany
county. Will’s Mountain, to the west of the city, is composed of compact
white Medina sandstone, overlying the lower red Medina. The white
sandstone is 500 feet thick. It was obtained from detached boulders, for
steps, curbs and architectural trimmings, but was not regularly quarried
until 1891, when Messrs. Beale Brothers opened the stone in the Cumber-
land Narrows above the railroad. Their production during 1892 was:

Building Stone. ............ 1,860 cubic yards $1,860.00
Gannister.....:.6se0ec8ueees 4,692 tons 1,642.00
Ba WAGE: dststhante2 ig ates oi ele eee ane 660 cubic yards 330.00

Prof. C. F. Chandler states that this rock contains 98.35 per cent. of
silica. Another sandstone which has been quarried at Cumberland,
belongs to the Oriskany horizon. This is of a yellow color, and while
often soft and pliable, yields hard and compact layers which are suitable
for building stone. The Methodist Episcopal church in Cumberland is
constructed of this stone, and it shows admirable resistance to atmos-
pheric action.

Archaean Quartz-Schist. In Baltimore County a foliated quartz-schist
occurs along the edge of the marble belts, (p. 37). Itisa hard resistant
rock and therefore forms prominent ridges. Though it belongs to the
most ancient part of Maryland and forms one of the holocrystalline
series, it was probably once a sandstone. It is divided by parallel layers
MINES AND MINERALS. 133

of mica into thin slabs, which are covered with curiously broken and
stretched black tourmaline crystals.* It is quarried along the southern
edge of the Green Spring valley, and employed for foundation or flagstones.

SLATE,

One of the best known roofing-slate regions in the United States is
that called the Peach Bottom district in Lancaster and York counties,
Pa., and Harford county, Md. The slate belt forms a narrow zone which
begins a short distance east of the Susquehanna River in Lancaster
county and passes in a southwest direction through the southeastern
corner of York county, terminating near Pylesville, on the Baltimore
and Lehigh Railroad, Maryland. The age of these slates has been
determined, upon fossil evidence, to be that of the Hudson River horizon
of the Lower Silurian.t They form a narrow, overturned synclinal fold
in the centre of the tongue of semi-crystalline rocks which extends from
Pennsylvania at the Susquehanna River to the neighborhood of Finks-
burg, Carroll county. (See geological map.)

The slates of the Peach Bottom region were worked as early as
Revolutionary times, and show almost no change after an exposure of
one hundred years. One old mine was formerly operated in Lancaster
county, Pa., but at present almost all the active quarries are in Harford
county, Md. They are for the most part owned by persons who superin-
tend them and who reside at, or near Delta, Pa. The slate companies are
so constantly changing hands and undergoing reorganization that it is
impossible to give any connected account of their history. In 1880 Prof.
Persifor Frazer gave quite an extended account of these quarries in his
report on the geology of Lancaster county.{| He enumerates eight
quarries as then in operation in Maryland. The 10th U.S. census gives
the slate production of Maryland for the year ending May 31, 1880, as
12,280 squares, valued at $56,700.§ In this production the State was fifth,
being exceeded only by Pennsylvania, Vermont, New York and Maine.
The statistics of the 11th U.S. census place Maryland’s slate production
for the year 1889, from five quarries, at 23,029 squares, with total value
of $110,009. In this she was exceeded only by Pennsylvania, Vermont,
Maine, New York and Virginia.||

At the present time there are in operation in the Peach Bottom belt

in Harford county six quarries.
The Peerless Slate Company, E. M. Aiken, president, have large

quarries near the Baltimore and Lehigh Railroad. Cambria, Md., is their

 

* See Guide Book ‘‘ Baltimore,’’ issued for the Am. Institute of Mining Engineers, Feb. 1892.
tTrans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng. Vol. XII, p. 355, 1883.

Second Geol. Surv. Summary Final Report. Vol. I, p. 617, 1892.
{Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, Report CCC, Lancaster Co., 1880, pp. 182-190.
§Mineral Resources of the U. S., by Albert Williams. U.8&. Geol. Surv., Washington, 1883, p. 452.
| Mineral Industries of thc U. 8. at the 11th census, by D. T. Day, Washington, 1892, p. 662.
134 MARYLAND.

shipping point, and Delta, Pa., their office. Their product is shipped all
over the United States, and for the past three years has been as follows:

Squares. Value. Mantey bess &e. Total.
180 can ke: 5,225 $24,446 $3,138 $27,584
TSO ssieeieicens saat ees 7,293 35,916 3,169 39,085
1892 secs aiece oaied 7,433 36,600 3,183 39,783

The Excelsior Slate Company, R. L. Jones, president, now operate the
property formerly owned by W. A. McLaughlin and known as the Eureka
quarry. The present corporation commenced operations August, 1891,
and from that time until the end of 1892 they produced 6,322 squares of
slate, valued at $31,658.

The York and Peach Bottom Slate Company, A. 8S. Edy, president,
produced about 8,000 squares of slate per annum. They were succeeded
November, 1892, by Herr & Bennett, who are now operating these
quarries.

The Cambria Slate Company, owned by V.G. Stubbs & Son, produced
1,100 squares of slate in 1891 and 920 squares in 1892.

The Harford Peach Bottom Slate Company, J. Humphrey, president,
and the Proctor Brothers’ Slate Company, are the other owners of Harford
county quarries, but their production has not been ascertained.

Another deposit of roofing-slate occurs near Ijamsville, on the Main
Stem of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, in Frederick county. Quarries
were opened there over sixty years ago, but were never extensively
worked. This property has recently been purchased by Edward Pels,
of Baltimore, who intends to develop it more extensively in the near
future.

MARBLE AND LIMESTONE.

The deposits of marble and limestone, which are abundant in the
central and western portions of Maryland, differ widely in geological age
and lithological character. Asa result of this they have naturally been
applied to a variety of different uses. The most important of these are
as follows: Building stone, decorative stone, flux, commercial lime for
plaster and agricultural purposes, hydraulic cement, and an ingredient of
asphalt paving blocks.

There is no limestone in eastern Maryland, nor in any of the State’s
geological formations younger than the trias. The oldest limestones are
the most coarsely and perfectly crystalline, being white marbles; those
of the western or semi-crystalline portion of the Piedmont Plateau, are
fine-grained, compact, and often variegated marbles, while those of the
valleys farther west are but little altered, blue, fossiliferous limestones.

Building Stone. The most valuable of Maryland’s limestone deposits
are the highly crystalline marbles of Baltimore County. Reference to
MINES AND MINERALS. 135

the geological map will show that these rocks have an extensive develop-
ment in a series of narrow belts to the north and west of Baltimore.
The only locality, however, which is economically important, is the
broad belt which extends from Lake Roland northward to Cockeysville,
and which is traversed by the Northern Central Railroad. Marble is
extensively quarried at Texas and to the west of Cockeysville, near the
northern portion of this belt. At the first of these places it is obtained
for burning or for flux, while the other, well known as the Beaver Dam
Marble Quarries, has long been successfully operated for building stone.
The marble at these two localities, so near each other and in the same
geological formation, presents some marked differences. Chemically the
Texas marble is a nearly pure carbonate of lime, while that from
Cockeysville is a dolomite. The long series of analyses which are con-
stantly being made of the Texas rock by the Maryland Steel Company,
where it is used as a flux, show that it does not average over five per
cent. of carbonate of magnesia; a number of analyses of the Beaver
Dam product, on the other hand, give the average amount of this sub-
stance as high as forty per cent. This discrepancy is as remarkable
as it is unexpected. Another contrast is shown by the marbles of these
two localities in their relative coarseness of crystallization. The Texas
stone is coarsely crystalline, often so markedly so as to procure for it
the special designation “alum stone.” This renders it nearly worthless
for building purposes, since its crushing strength is very small. The
Beaver Dam rock is compact, hard, fine-grained and proportionately
strong. There is also some of the finer-grained rock at Texas, where an
attempt is now being made to develop it for a building stone.

The quarries now operated by the Beaver Dam Marble Company,
near Cockeysville, Baltimore County, have been worked for over seventy-
five years. The marble used in the construction of the Washington
Monument in Baltimore was taken from this locality as early as 1819.
Oneof the first owners of this marble property was John Baker, who did
much toward developing it. At his death it passed into the hands of his
son-in-law, James B. Connelly, who left it to his sons, Messrs. J. B. and
T. F. Connelly. It was acquired by its present owners, the Beaver Dam
Company, of which Mr. Hugh Sisson is president, about fifteen years ayo.
The product of this locality, where there are two or three quarries, is a
finely saccharoidal dolomite of great compactness and durability. It
contains occasicnal accessory minerals which represent old impurities
which have crystallized as silicates. The most common of these is a
copper-colored mica in small scales (phlogopite), which occurs in
horizontal bands representing the original bedding of the rock. Other
minerals, like quartz, tremolite, etc., present occasional defects in the
136 MARYLAND.

stone and obstructions to working it. They are popularly known as
“flint.”

The company employs about 200 men and has a large plant of the
most improved machinery. The marble occurs in nearly horizontal beds
and in quarrying, channelling machines are used to saw out the blocks.
By means of diamond drills and wedges these blocks are then lifted free.
In this manner blocks twenty-eight by ten by three feet have been
quarried entire.*

Such blocks are, however, too large to be transported, and are usually
broken up. The largest single pieces shipped from the quarries were 108
columns each twenty-six feet long, which were used in the Capitol at
Washington. The greater portion of the stone is now dressed before
shipping, as the company has a large saw-mill at the quarry.

The U.S. Government tests, made by Lieut.-Col. Q. A. Gilmore, show
that for durability and strength it is unequalled, its compressive strength
being 22,416 pounds to the square inch, which is greater than that of any
other marble or limestone, while its absorption of water is so slight as to
be practically nothing. It is of fine-grained texture and of a clear white
color, and is quite free from discoloring agents. This fact, together with
its non-absorbent qualities, establishes the durability and permanency
of its color.

The stone has been quite popular with architects and builders and
has been very largely used, especially in the cities of Baltimore, Wash-
ington and Philadelphia. Perhaps the most practical test which has
been made of the strength of this marble was its use as material for the
Washington Monument, Washington, D. C., the highest stone structure
in the world. In this monument 163,724 cubic feet of Cockeysville
marble were used, at a total cost of $221,275.02. As an instance of the
superiority of this marble, it might be mentioned that in the Metropoli-
tan Club, of New York, 40,000 cubic feet of this stone were used, all of
the very finest quality. The Peabody Institute, in Baltimore, shows the
stone to good advantage. Among other buildings in which it has been
used may be mentioned: U. 8. Postoffice, at Washington; Maryland Club,
Rialto Building, City Hall, Eutaw Place Baptist Church, Brown Memo-
rial Church, etc., in Baltimore; Drexel and Penn Mutual Insurance
Buildings, in Philadelphia; the spires of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, in New

York, ete.
The output for the years 1889-91 was as follows:
Cubic Feet. Value.
1880 eeu paniwatieee ee en's 277,000 $119,675.00
L890 ueia cease savleal eo eties 280,000 130,000.00
1891 6 ice eed tee red eeweres ee oes 220,000 106,000.00

 

* Merrill: The collection of building and ornamental stones in the U. 8. Nationa! Museum, }. 378.
MINES AND MINERALS. 137

Beside the marble furnished for building purposes, large amounts are
used for doorsteps, lintels, facings, flags, rubble, ballast, etc.

In June, 1892, Messrs. L. B. McCabe & Bro. took charge of a quarry
located at Texas, which had before been worked only for rough stone to
be burnt into lime, and proceeded to develop it for building stone. Since
then a force of thirty-five men, with improved machinery, has been
employed, mostly in preparatory work, in the course of which some 3,000
tons (value $15,000) of rough stone have been taken out and used in the
Belt Line tunnel. The stone is to be used in the construction of the
North Avenue viaduct. Stones of large dimensions can be easily obtained,
and have already been quarried here 32 feet 2 inches by 3 feet 10 inches
without a flaw or crack. The marble is a little coarser grained than
that obtained at Cockeysville, and is easily worked.

Other limestones quarried in Maryland for building stones have only
a local use. The blue Trenton limestone of the Cumberland Valley is
used in Hagerstown to some extent, where the Protestant Episcopal and
Methodist Episcopal] churches are good examples. In other localities in
Harford, Carroll and Frederick counties, where good limestone occurs, it
is often seen in buildings.

Decorative Stones. The marbles of Maryland have never yet been
applied to any extent for the purpose of interior decoration, although
some of the finer grained and compact varieties from Carroll and Fred-
erick counties compare favorably in their quality, texture and beautiful
veining with well-known marbles from Vermont and Tennessee. In the
Wakefield valley, west of Westminster, a beautifully mottled red and
white marble occurs; others with a black and white, grey and white, or
blue and white veining occur near New Windsor and Union Bridge.
These stones would seem to be deserving of more attention than they
have heretofore received.

Another stone which may be classified as a limestone on account of
the high percentage of lime which it contains, is the conglomerate or
breccia of triassic age found in the Frederick valley. It is known as
“Calico rock” or “ Potomac marble,” and has received one noteworthy
application as a decorative stone in the old Hall of Representatives in
the Capitol, where it forms a series of beautiful columns. This stone
was first brought into notice by Benj. H. Latrobe, who observed it in the
Loudon Hills, Virginia. It occurs well exposed at Washington Junction,
Frederick county, and extends northward along the base of Catoctin
Mountain as far as Frederick and beyond. It consists of large angular
and sub-angular fragments, mostly of the Trenton limestone, although
many other rocks like quartz, slate, granite, porphyry, etc., also occur,
imbedded ina red ferruginous cement. The unequal hardness of its
somponents and the readiness with which they become detached from
138 MARYLAND.

the cement makes the working and polishing of the stone difficult, and
has interfered with its general application.

A quarry of very compact, even-grained and pure cream white marble
was opened just below Edgemont Station, in Washington county, on the
east side of the Hagerstown valley, but it has never been adequately
developed. The quality of this stone seems to be very good.

flux. Limestone and marble is largely obtained in Maryland as
flux for blast furnaces. The largest industry of this sort is at Texas,
Baltimore county, where the Standard Lime and Stone Company of
Buckeystown, Frederick county (Daniel Baker, President), have a large
quarry, from which they ship on an average 400 tons daily to the
Maryland Steel Company, at Sparrow’s Point. The Catoctin Iron
Furnace, in Frederick county, formerly obtained its flux from extensive
limestone quarries at Cavetown, on the Western Maryland Railroad, on
the opposite side of the Blue Ridge.

Quicklime for commercial and agricultural purposes. Before trans-
portation facilities had become as numerous and cheap in Maryland as
they are now, the numerous limestone deposits were largely quarried for
burning to supply a local demand. The demand is at present, however,
more economically supplied by a concentration of this industry, and the
old quarries and kilns scattered so widely over the country are for the
most part abandoned. The most extensive lime burning in Maryland is
done at Texas, Baltimore county, where Mr. Parks, the principal ope-
rator, estimates the average yearly production of the twenty kilns at
200,000 bushels, having a value of $28,000. Most of this is building
lime. A good deal of lime was formerly burned at Loch Raven for white-
washing purposes, and sent to the Baltimore market. This has, how-
ever, recently declined, and in 1892 not more than 5,000 bushels were
produced.

The burning of limestone for agricultural purposes is still carried
on to a considerable extent in the Frederick valley. The stone is,
however, too much covered with overlying soil, to be economically
worked. The best deposits are nearly exhausted. Some of the largest
companies of this region have transferred their operations to more
favorably located deposits situated outside the State. Mr. Daniel Baker,
President of the Standard Lime and Stone Company, makes the following
statement: “The largest limestone deposits of the State of Maryland
have been worked to their most profitable point, and beyond; sufficient
remains, inaccessible for quarrying, to make a large area of land valuable
for farming purposes.”

The limestone quarries, near Westminster and New Windsor, as well
as those near Cavetown, still furnish some stone for burning.
MINES AND MINERALS. 139

CEMENT.

Hydraulic cement is manufactured at three points within the State
of Maryland. The two oldest and most productive of these—Cumber-
land and Hancock—obtain their material from the Silurian limestone
beds called Lower Helderberg (‘‘ Water-lime group” of New York State),
while the third has its quarries in the older Trenton limestone beds of
the Cumberland valley, near Sharpsburg.

Hydraulic cement was first manufactured at Cumberland in 1836, and
its production is now carried on by the Cumberland Hydraulic Cement and
Manufacturing Company. Their quarries are on the south bank of Wills’
Creek, where the Helderberg rocks are finely exposed, and where a series
of natural folds in the beds allow of the easy and convenient working of
the rock. The product has an excellent reputation for quality, strength
and durability, and is largely employed in government and railroad
works. It is used pure, as concrete, mortar or grout. The production of
these works has varied greatly. According to the 10th U. S. census it
was in 1880 only 4,000 barrels, while in 1890 it was 137,540, in 1891
124,194, and in 1892 157,038 barrels.

The Potomac Cement Company of Cumberland has recently constructed
a mill with a capacity of 500 barrels per day. A large body of cement
rock of first-rate quality near the city has not as yet been developed.

The hydraulic cement works near Hancock, Md., are now operated
by Bridges & Henderson. The rock is the same as that quarried at
Cumberland, and it is here also folded so as to be conveniently and
economically obtained. The works and quarries are on the Chesapeake
& Ohio Canal at a place called Round Top, about three miles southwest
of Hancock.

This deposit of cement rock was first discovered by Mr. A. B.
McFarlan in 1837. This gentleman was then engaged in the construction
of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and recognized the valuable quality
of this material for the work in hand. It was used in the construc-
tion of aqueducts along this part of the canal, and afterward in the
Capitol extension in Washington.

From their discovery till 1862 the Round Top cement works were
operated by Mr. George Shafer. At this time they were purchased by
Bridges & Henderson, who still manage them. They employ seventy-five
men and have a capacity of 300 barrels daily. Their product is shipped
in barrels, bags and sacks, containing 300, 100 and 50 pounds respectively.
During the past three years it has averaged 60,000 barrels per annum.

The only manufacturers of cement from the Trenton limestone in
Maryland are the Antietam Cement Company, whose headquarters are
at Hagerstown. This rock is, however, extensively employed for this
purpose farther north in Pennsylvania and near Shepherdstown, W. Va.
140 MARYLAND.

This company commenced operations in 1888. Their quarries are on the
Chespeake and Ohio Canal, a few hundred yards from the bridge of the
Norfolk and Western Railroad over the canal and river. They therefore
belong to the Shepherdstown cement region. This company now sells
about 20,000 barrels annually.

ASPHALT BLOCKS.

One of the uses to which Maryland limestone has been applied in
the last few years is in the manufacture of asphalt blocks for street
paving. These blocks are composed of crushed and pulverized lime-
stone, Trinidad asphalt, and a residuum of petroleum, heated separately,
thoroughly mixed and combined under heavy pressure. Hard limestone
is crushed and pulverized until it will all pass through a screen of 4-inch
mesh, about one-third of the whole being reduced to powder. This stone
is then heated to about 260° Fahrenheit, and is thoroughly mixed with
10 per cent. of its own weight of Trinidad asphaltum, heated to 280°
Fahrenheit. The limestone dust combines with the liquid asphalt, form-
ing a bituminous and calcareous cement, with which all the larger
particles of stone are coated. The material is finally delivered to the
press at a sufficiently high temperature to cause all the particles to
adhere one to another when subjected to the heavy presssure, thereby
producing a practically homogeneous and solid block. The pressure
applied to each block is not less than one hundred tons. The blocks
are transferred from the press to a bath of cold water, from which they
are taken and piled into stock for use.

These blocks are used for street and sidewalk pavements, and have
important advantages in that they are durable, comparatively noiseless,
non-absorbent, smooth, do not become slippery when wet, and are con-
siderably cheaper than granite blocks.

They have been laid and are used extensively throughout the
country, but especially in Washington and Baltimore. There are about
300,000 square yards of street pavement of this kind in Washington and
about 200,000 square yards in Baltimore, as well as a large amount of
private work.

The factory of this company, known as the Maryland Pavement
Company, was erected at Fulton Station, Baltimore, in 1882, and for the
first five years manufactured about one and a half million blocks each
year, and since then about three million blocks per year. The com-
pany owns quarries near Westminster Md., from which they took in
1892 about 15,000 tons of limestone. In addition to this they used a
large quantity of limestone from other quarries in the State.
MINES AND MINERALS. 141

SERPENTINE.

This rock, which from the earliest times has been highly prized for
architectural and decorative purposes, is essentially a hydrous silicate of
magnesia and iron. It is, moreover, always the product of alteration of
other minerals, but itself possesses the two valuable properties of beauty
and permanence. Serpentine is classified commercially with marble,
because serpentine deposits often occur in, or associated with marble.
The two rocks are, however, in composition, appearance and generally in
origin, quite distinct. The serpentine, which occurs in large masses
suitable for quarrying, is very impure. It contains many other minerals
in varying proportions, which produce, in the stones of different locali-
ties, a wide range of hardness, color and general appearance. Serpentine
is employed sometimes as a building stone and sometimes is polished for
interior decoration

An extensive development of lenticular serpentine beds stretches
along the east flank of the Appalachians, from Vermont to North Caro-
lina. It is quarried at many points. In southeastern Pennsylvania,
especially in Chester county, serpentine is obtained for building and is
extensively employed in Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington for
this purpose. The serpentine at present obtained in Maryland is used
only for decorative purposes.

The principal quarry of the State is on Broad Creek, near Dublin, in
Harford county. The rock is here of remarkable hardness and beauty.
Blocks ana slabs of large size can be sawn out, and are capable of a fine
lustrous polish. Its color isa rich emerald green, semi-transparent, and
clouded with darker streaks by included magnetite. It is of the variety
sometimes called precious serpentine. The product of this quarry is
called verd antique, although in the strict sense, this is not correct. A
full geological and chemical report was made on this stone in 1875 by
Prof. F. A. Genth, of the University of Pennsylvania, for the Green
Serpentine Marble Company of Harford county. In 1880 extensive
preparations were made for developing the quarry and introducing the
stone. In spite of its durability and beauty, these have, however, been
only partially successful because of the hardness of the material and the
expense of extracting and polishing it. Still it has been used for the
interior decoration of several large buildings in New York, Philadelphia,
Washington, Wilmington, St. Augustine, and elsewhere. This property
has changed hands a number of times within the past ten years. The
Serpentine Company of Harford county, with headquarters at Wilming-
ton, Del., operated it between 1888 and 1890, but at present it is inactive.

There are several other deposits of serpentine which may become
productive, though, at the present time, only preliminary examinations
of them have been made. Near Rock Spring, in the northern part of
142 MARYLAND.

Cecil county, there is a deposit of semi-transparent or precious serpen-
tine. A quarry was opened, not long since, near Cambria, in the Peach
Bottom slate region, in the northern part of Harford county, while the
stone is abundant near Cooptown and Jarrettsville, in the same county.
Just north of Baltimore city, on the Falls road, near Cold Spring avenue,
serpentine is quarried for road ballast, and a few miles beyond, at the
Bare Hills, near Lake Roland, it has recently been explored, to a con-
siderable extent, with the intention of producing it for decorative
purposes. The Lake Chrome and Mineral Company have a quarry there,
with machinery for cutting and polishing it. Just to the west of their
property Mr. McCoglan has also made three borings, with a circular
drill, which have furnished cores of satisfactory stone to a depth of 100
feet. Near the Northern Central Railroad, at Whitehall, some Chicago
parties have recently made some openings for the purpose of ascertaining
the quality of the serpentine there.

Serpentine is also abundant at the “Soldier’s Delight,” west of
Owings’ Mills, and through Montgomery county, but it has as yet been
only explored in these regions with reference to chrome ore.

SOAPSTONE.

Soapstone is a compact variety of talc, a hydrous magnesia silicate,
which has many applications in the arts. It is produced in New Hamp-
shire, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, Vermont and Maryland.
According to the statistics of the eleventh census, Maryland’s production
was in 1889, 432 short tons, valued at $4,321.

The only productive quarry in Maryland was opened in the fifties,
in Carroll county, one and one-half miles northwest of Marriottsville.
The stone is of a good quality and was sawed into slabs by the old
company for the manufacture of bath-tubs. It did not pay, however,
and in 1860 was abandoned.

In 1885 the present “Maryland Soapstone Company” commenced to
operate this quarry with the intention of also sawing the stone. As it
was found that this could not be done with profit, the product is now for
the most part ground and sold to manufacturers of fire-proof and acid-
proof paints. Some slabs are, however, sawed out for fire-brick and
hearthstones. The product of this quarry in 1892 was 372 short tons,
valued at $1,860.

Other occurrences of soapstone are known to exist, but they are as
yet undeveloped. At Indian Hill, two miles northwest of Washington,
such a bed occurs and others near Tennallytown, and on the Woodley
Lane road.* A soapstone quarry was also opened on the property of the
Serpentine Company, of Harford county, but it has never been developed.

 

*G. P. Merrill: Handbook of building-stones in the National Museum, 1889, p. 358.
MINES AND MINERALS. 143

CLAY-WORKING INDUSTRIES OF MARYLAND.

Clays constitute an interesting and important feature of the economic
geology of Maryland, and form the basis df industrial operations of con-
siderable magnitude, embracing the manufacture of building brick, terra-
cotta and tile-work, fire-brick and pottery. The workable deposits of
clays suitable for building brick extend over a large area of the State,
but are of more particular interest in the eastern section, where the
existence of the principal markets has induced the most extensive
development. As Baltimore is the chief city and the centre of the most
populous section of the State, it naturally is also the centre of the largest
brick-making industry, this being made more readily possible by the
presence of an abundance of building-brick clay of superior quality in
the city and its immediate suburbs. Building bricks are manufactured
at numerous other points in Maryland, but as the industry has reached
its largest development in Baltimore and vicinity, a consideration of the
conditions there existing will suffice for the State at large. Brick-
making has been an industry of consequence in Baltimore nearly as long
as the city has existed, and several of the present firms have been in
business since the early years of this century. There are about forty
yards now in operation, and their annual output of brick of all kinds
averages 150,000,000. The larger portion of this product enters into
local consumption, although there is a considerable trade with cities
further south on the coast.

The clays from which Baltimore bricks are made belong to the
Columbia formation, which appears in the northeastern section of the
city, between northwest harbor and Middle Branch and southeast of Mt.
Clare, and the Potomac formation, which is most prominent in the south-
west section and beyond, especially about Orangeville and on the hills
north of Camden Junction. The Columbia formation presents its usual
characteristics, consisting of yellow to brown loam or clay, grading
downward into gravel or boulders. The bricks made from this clay in
Baltimore resemble the bricks made from the Columbia clays in Eastern
Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Southwest of Baltimore the Potomac
clays outcrop and are prominent in a broad belt across the State. The
beds of Potomac clay in the southwestern part of the city were the first
to be worked, and the exhaustion of the beds within the city proper is
gradually moving the industry into the suburbs. A ridge of iron-ore
clay. a short distance outside of the city, is being largely worked at
present with excellent results. This clay is very strong, stiff and close,
and it carries good deal of carbonate of iron in nodules and lumps. The
iron ore is picked out and sold to the few old charcoal iron furnaces in
the vicinity that continue their dependence upon this ore. The bricks
made from this iron-ore clay are exceedingly heavy, tough and close
144 MARYLAND.

grained, and but slightly porous. Owing to the weight and stiffness
of this clay the manufacturers of these bricks assert that it costs
more to make them than any other bricks of corresponding quality
made from other clays. Experiments have been made with common
rough red bricks made from this iron-ore Potomac clay to determine
their utility for paving purposes. Although no record has been kept it is
stated that these bricks have given satisfactory results in this service.
Bricks made from this clay have been used in large quantities for the
lining of the Belt Line tunnel, which passes underneath Baltimore.

The brick-yards about Baltimore are well equipped with modern
methods and appliances, most of the brick being made by machinery.
Bituminous coal is used for firing the kilns.

The manufacture of fire-brick has been one of the characteristic
industries of Maryland for fifty years, and the brick made from the
carboniferous fire-clays of Alleghany county, in the western part of the
State, still rank as the best in this country. The oldest fire-brick concern
in Allegany county, that at Mount Savage, was organized in 1841, and
was the first of its kind in the United States. Originally the works at
this point embraced two blast furnaces and a rolling-mill, the immediate
vicinity furnishing all the requisite raw material for these industries; but
the furnaces and mill were abandoned years ago, while the manufacture
of fire-brick has developed into a large industry. The town of Mount
Savage lies nine miles west of Cumberland, at the foot of Savage
Mountain, which is owned by the Union Mining Company, the principal
fire-brick manufacturers in this locality. The bed of fire-clay lies at the
bottom of the coal measures of this basin. Above the clay lies an
eight-inch bed of coal, beneath is a bed of shale, three to four inches in
thickness, underneath which comes the conglomerate rock marking the
boundary of this basin. The clay bed ranges from eight to twenty feet
in thickness, and is divided into two varieties designated as the hard and
soft. The hard clay is of a gray color, shading almost to black; it ig
non-plastic unless ground to an impalpable powder, and disintegrates but
little under exposure to the weather. The soft clay is very plastic, much
lighter in color, and crumbles rapidly under atmospheric influence. A
peculiar feature of this deposit is the intimate intermixture of the two
varieties of clay in the same bed.

The composition of the Mount Savage clay shows considerable varia~
tion, the following analysis from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology being fairly representative :

SIUC ie ie 5 aS viadecerdh Seidaa ie nein eb eS sassiat esau neresenare ets 50.457
AV AIMITIA? oto solani duel. sipave- ost sae avnane dtecieseaees tants 35.904
Protoxide of Tron........ ccc eee cee eee eee 1.504
TALIS 4 scasins saree al aslantisigse sissy. vaieleicea wtatereunap sealed Se 183
MagneSidviis.ccs snes odasaenase cade ode akeowes 018
POtash. .cias2s0 soi sdieewen isis sec en SeeeGadien 3 Trace
MINES AND MINERALS. 145

An average of several analyses by different chemists shows the
following result :

Siliaswsscsveeesececagiae Ghee 4a gett et tenses 55.75
ATUMING 2.35. ds5 oe scan & Gases ndaione nara awe a 33.23
UMNPUPISIES,. ion waceuale tioideog sadsaedwinawanseoes 2.06
WAGERS. giaineuostbaieuen Maveicicliay igh Bia Sea ead nonaan cane 10.37

The impurities in this clay are fewer and smaller in amount than in
most other fire-clays., Nodules of iron ore occasionally appear in the
bottom of the bed, but they are easily detected and removed. The two
most valuable characteristics of the Mount Savage clay are its freedom
from potash, which is one of the most objectionable constituents in
fire-clay, and the large proportion of silica to alumina, which causes the
brick to swell slightly, instead of shrinking, during hard burning.

The mines from which the clay is taken are high up on the side of
Savage Mountain, about three and a quarter miles from the factory, with
which they are connected by an inclined plane a mile and a quarter long
and by a tram road. The output averages 5,000 tons of clay per month,
anda stock of 30,000 to 40,000 tons is kept weathering in the yards at the
works. The brick plant embraces two complete factories and two gas-
fired kilns, each of a capacity of 500,000 bricks. The bricks are all made
by hand, and include every shape and size that is required. Bricks made
from the fire-clays of this region are used very largely for blast furnace,
hot-blast stove linings, and other uses in iron works. In addition to the
extensive works at Mount Savage there are several other fire-brick plants
in Allegany county, at Ellerslie, Frostburg and elsewhere, which depend
upon the same seam of clay. In the eastern part of the State, in Baltimore
and vicinity and at North East, Cecil county, there are several fire-brick
factories. The source of the materials used is largely local, although the
Mount Savage and other clays are also employed. The total amount of
production of these factories amounts to about $100,000 annually. The
same works produce in considerable amounts clay retorts, blocks and
tiles, stove linings, chimney tops, drain pipe and fire cement. The
largest producers of fire-bricks is the Baltimore Retort and Fire-Brick
Company, with an annual output of 800,000.

The clay beds of Baltimore and vicinity furnish a portion of the raw
material for the manufacture of pottery, which has assumed considerable
proportions in that city. While the local beds yield clay of sufficient
fineness and freedom from iron ore to make it suitable for coarser grades
of pottery, more distant sources of supply are drawn upon to furnish
material for the finer grades of wares that are manufactured in Baltimore.
The three substances used in porcelain manufacture are flint (vein quartz),
feldspar and fine clay. Flint is obtained from Harford, Carroll and
Howard counties, soda feldspar from Cecil county and potash feldspar

10
146 MARYLAND.

from Delaware county, Pa. For the finer grades of ware, imported china
clays are used. The oldest of the Baltimore potteries has been in opera-
tion for nearly fifty years. There are now five concerns engaged in the
manufacture of various grades of pottery, employing about 1,000 hands
and yielding an annual product valued at about $1,000,000. The wares
manufactured cover a wide range from heavy plumbers’ goods to the finer
grades of toilet and table ware. The industry is developing rapidly, and
it promises to give Baltimore a world-wide reputation as a pottery manu-
facturing centre. Among the more important pottery factories are the
Chesapeake Potttery, operated by Haynes, Bennett & Co., and the Edwin
Bennett Pottery. The finer products of these establishments have attained
a high reputation.

MINOR MINERAL PRODUCTS.

There are several other mineral substances of more or less economic
value which are either at present obtained in Maryland, or which have
been previously worked here with varying results, according to the
demand. None of these ever have, or probably ever will give rise to
mineral industries of great magnitude, a fact which is in some cases due
to the insufficient supply of material, while in other cases it is due to
the very limited use of the substances in question.

Porcelain Materials. Three prime requisites in the manufacture of
porcelain are flint (vein quartz), feldspar, and china clay (kaolin). All
these substances are found in Maryland, and they are all, but especially
the first, obtained and shipped to the potteries of Trenton, N. J., and
Baltimore. Large amounts of a pure granular or vitreous quartz occur
as vein-filling through all the rocks of the highly crystalline belt in
Maryland. It is especially abundant in Cecil, Harford, Baltimore, Car-
roll, Howard and Montgomery counties. At particular localities where
the conditions are most favorable, this quartz is quarried and finely
ground in mills constructed for the purpose. It is bolted as fine as flour
and then shipped in sacks to the potters. This flint industry is most
active in Harford county. The largest deposit is near Castleton, near the
Susquehanna River, where a vein of pure quartz occurs wide enough to
permit three parallel drifts being made into it, and where the supply
seems to be large enough to meet all requirements. Other flint quarries
and flint mills are situated near Deer Creek, in the same county, and
another large one was actively worked a short time since about two and
a-half miles north of Marriottsville, in Carroll county. According to the
returns of the tenth U.S. census, Maryland was, in 1880, the foremost
producer of flint among the States of the Union. Her product was in
that year, 4,026 tons from five quarries in two counties, valued at
$30,109. In 1889 her product was 8,632 tons, valued at $46,828.
MINES AND MINERALS. 147

The best feldspar and kaolin produced in the United States for por-
celain is obtained within a radius of fifteen miles from the common
corner of Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland. A good soda-feldspar
occurs near Rising Sun, in Cecil county, Maryland. Silas J. Lane reports
a good feldspar quarry at Rock Springs, Cecil county, from which in
1892 he took 500 tons, valued at $3.00 per ton. Kaolin also occurs on the
same farm, but these substances seem at present not to be so extensively
produced as in Delaware county, Pa. and in Delaware. During 1880
Cecil county produced 250 tons of kaolin, valued at $1,750.

A considerable quantity of glass-sand has been produced in Anne
Arundel county (tenth census says 17,125 tons in 1880, worth $34,250), and
the same substance is now obtained by pulverizing the white Medina
sandstone near Cumberland.

Ochre or Mineral Paint. Mineral paint has from time to time been
produced to a considerable extent from the brown iron ore deposits of
Maryland. The most important producer has been the Catoctin iron
mine, south of Mechanicstown, in Frederick county. This mine is
reported to have yielded as much as 7,000 tons of ochre in one year,
though this is probably a mistake. It is at present entirely inactive.
Messrs. J. T. Whitehurst & Co., of Baltimore, have for three years been
operating ochre mines in Carroll and Howard counties, in which they
employ an average of thirty men.

Asbestos. Within the most crystalline rocks of Maryland several
deposits of asbestos occur, most of which, however, is not true asbestos,
although it passes under that name, but the fibrous variety of serpen-
tine known as chrysotile. These deposits are, in both quality and quantity
of the product, inferior and unimportant. In 1880 one mine in Harford
county and three mines in Baltimore county produced a total of forty
tons, valued at $1,000; but the discovery of extensive deposits in other
regions has now entirely stopped any operations for this mineral in
Maryland.

Lead and Zine. Small traces of galena and zinc blende were early
noticed near the quarries on Jones’s Falls, in Baltimore. Much more
decided indications of these metals occur in connection with the crystal-
line limestone belts in the western part of Carroll and eastern part
of Frederick counties. Tyson, in his second annual report as State
Agricultural Chemist in 1862, mentions argentiferous galena as having
been discovered near Unionville, and at the Dollyhide copper mine, near
Liberty, both in Frederick county. In 1881 Prof. Persifor Frazer, in a
report on some copper deposits in limestone one and one-half miles south
of New Windsor, in Carroll connty, mentions galena, zinc blende and
manganese oxide as also occurring in the openings made for copper.*

 

*Trans. Am, Inst. Min. Eng. Vol. IX, p. 33, 1881.
148 MARYLAND.

The writer has also observed frequent traces of lead and zinc in the
limestone quarried near Linwood, a short distance further west. In
1890 a deposit of galena long known to exist in the limestone on the
farm of Miss Elizabeth Cox, some three miles southwest of Union Bridge,
was opened at three places, and called the Mountain View Lead Mine.
Operations on a small scale were carried on here for some time, but were
subsequently discontinued. Tyson mentions (1862) the fact that oxide
of zinc constantly accumulated in the upper part of the Catoctin
furnaces, indicating the presence of this element either in the iron-ores
or limestone used as a flux. Thisis interesting in connection with the
recent discovery of franklinite associated with the specular iron-ore near
Catoctin. In spite, however, of the frequent traces of lead and zinc
through central Maryland, it may be confidently asserted that neither of
these metals occurs in any amounts that will ever repay mining.
This will be realized when it is considered with what extensive and
rich deposits in the west any product must be brought into competition.

Manganese, Antimony, Molybdenum. Although traces of these
metals also have been detected in Maryland, they are even more insigni-
ficant than those of lead and zinc. Manganese was once mined a short
distance west of Brookville, in Montgomery county, but the deposit was
not sufficiently extensive to be profitable. Frazer also mentions the
same substance as occurring with copper, near New Windsor. Specimens
of the pure sulphide of antimony have been obtained in the Middletown
valley, but nothing is known of its occurrence or extent. The earliest
record of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum), found on this conti-
nent was made in 1811, at the Jones’s Fall Gneiss Quarries.

Mica and Graphite. In the coarse-grained granite dykes which
abound in many parts of the eastern Piedmont region, good-sized plates
of light-colored mica (muscovite) occur. Attempts have been made to
secure commercially valuable amounts of this in both Harford and
Howard counties, but they have not been successful. No outcrops have
as yet been noticed in Maryland which promise to compete with the
mica mines of North Carolina.

Traces of graphite have been found near Pylesville, in Harford
county, at the edge of the Peach Bottom slate belt. Similar deposits
occur further northward, in Pennsylvania, where they have been mined
to some extent.

Diatomaceous Harth (Infusoriat Harth). Diatomaceous earth,
known to the trade as infusorial earth, has been produced-in larger
quantities in Maryland than elsewhere in the United States. In 1889,
according to the Eleventh Census Report upon Mineral Industries, Mary-
land produced 3,040 tons out of the 3,466 tons worked that year. Of
this amount 3,000 tons came from the Dunkirk district of the Patuxent
MINES AND MINERALS. 149

region, in Calvert county, and 50 tons from Pope’s Creek, in Charles
county. The value of the product was estimated at $10,700.

The first diggings were opened on the*Patuxent River in 1882. The
material was first brought to Baltimore, where it was separated by a
process of washing into different grades of polishing powder. Upon
further investigation it was found to make an excellent non-conducting
cover for steam pipes. It was, however, difficult to introduce the
material into the market, and in 1884 the works passed into the
hands of a New York company. In 1887 an excellent deposit was opened
at Pope’s Creek, and a considerable quantity was taken out prior to 1889.
Since that time neither of the localities has been extensively worked.

The deposit of diatomaceous earth is found near the base of the
Miocene and extends across the State from northeast to southwest. It is
best exposed at Herring Bay, on the Patuxent River, and at Pope’s Creek.
It frequently reaches 30 feet in thickness and is of unknown extent.

An analysis of a specimen from Pope’s Creek, made by P. de P.
Rickets, of New York, is a follows:

SiliGa:.: ceiannupaiewinnies, Aad: Tues isle: Maweeesdatew ke aes 81.53
AlGminlas vc.i0.ancccd ase he een aad ananer aces he ears duu ae ceed 3.43
Provoxi Geof WON sierss setae: sows wAweaes AN wok b's pre atiew ely a 8.33
TMG) hs cache sebbhele Aiesies oes cdins Hacdiawa dso Sums nese ose 2.61
Magnesia, soda potash, sulphur and organic matter......... 5.63
MoistUDGiccc eerie 225i 5 cars eieweeeaiseewe se dees eel ae eaoeine 3.47

100.00

Sand. There is little statistical information to be obtained as to the
economic importance of the sand deposits of the State. Beds of sand of
greater or less volume are found in all the formations of the Coastal
Plain, and are employed locally for building purposes. In recent years
the sandy sediment on the bed of the Potomac has been dredged and
used extensively in Washington.

At the head of the Severn River, in Anne Arundel county, extensive
diggings have been opened in the Lower Cretaceous, and a very pure grade
of glass sand taken out. It is transported on small schooners, which are
able at high tide to reach the head of the river.

In 1880 the tenth census report gives the output at 17,125 tons,
valued at $34,250.

At Cumberland the Medina sandstone, which occurs in the vicinity,
is ground up and employed for glass-making, the largest glass works in
the State being situated there.

Marl. The Eocene and Miocene formations of Maryland are rich in
marl deposits. Those of the Eocene are green-sands not unlike the famous
green-sand marls of New Jersey, which have been so extensively employed
as fertilizers in the eastern and southern portions of that State. The
150 MARYLAND.

best Eocene marls in Maryland are found in Prince George’s and Charles
counties. The Miocene marls are also very abundant in the more south-
ern and eastern portions of the State. An examination of the geological
map will show the area of their distribution. In the volume upon the
Mineral Resources of the United States for 1888 the following statement
is made in regard to their uses: “Especially adapted to grasses and
cereals, and used to some extent on tubers.” <A popular way of using it
is in the form of a compost with barn-yard manure.

The proportions of compost are variable, but generally one-third, by
bulk, of marl to two-thirds manure. From 10 to 20 tons, and in some
cases more, are used per acre. The method of application varies with the
crop for which it is used; with some it is broadcast, with others drilled
in, and, with tubers, it is placed in the hill.

The total product of marl in the United States from New Jersey,
Virginia, North Carolina, Alabama and Arkansas in 1890 was 153,670
torfs, valued at $69,880, of which the greater proportion was from New
Jersey.

Very littie utilization of the marl has been thus far made in Mary-
land. It could be employed by the farmers of the eastern and southern
counties to good advantage.

MINERAL WATERS.

Although the mineral waters of Maryland have not in the past
attracted attention, there are several kinds which are being placed at the
present time, with greater or less success, upon the markets, and two, at
least, which are being exported in considerable quantities. Several of the
waters are represented as having valuable medicinal properties, while
others are sold simply as table waters, chiefly in Baltimore city. Most
of the mineral waters come from the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont
Plateau, only a few having been reported up to the present time from
the Appalachian region and the Coastal Plain.

According to the eleventh census report, based upon information
obtained in 1890, Maryland ranks thirteenth among the States in the num-
ber of springs reported, and twenty-first in the volume of production. The
amount utilized in that year from the Maryland springs is stated to be
74,160 gallons, of a market value of $12,057. Since 1890 the waters from
several new springs have come into the market, so that the importance
of Maryland in the production of mineral waters has been very much
increased.

Mineral Waters of the Appalachian Region. A thermal spring of
saline mineral water is situated at Flintstone, Alleghany county, on the
Old National Turnpike, twelve miles to the east of Cumberland. In the
eleventh census report on Mineral Industries it is classed as calcic in the
MINES AND MINERALS. 151

group of sulphated waters under saline springs. It is stated to have 174
grains of mineral matter to the gallon. Only small quantities of the water
have reached the market up to the present time, but attempts are being
made to bring it to the notice of the public.

There are numerous cold chalybeate springs scattered throughout
Western Maryland, but there has been as yet very little attempt to intro-
duce the waters or to develop the properties upon which they are
situated.

Mineral Waters of the Piedmont Plateau. Among the several
springs situated in the Piedmont Plateau which produce marketable
waters, some have a small percentage of mineral matter in solution, and
are advertised mainly as pure table waters, while in the case of others
the proportion of mineral matter is larger, and various medicinal uses
are claimed for them.

Among the various springs are the following:

The Chattolanee Spring is situated in Green Spring Valley, in
Baltimore county. The water has been employed in Baltimore to some
extent for table uses.

Analysis of the Water.
Grains per gallon.

 

 

Sodium Chloride.... .............600e elaine sp Pipantsnh, sso 0.2232
Potassium Sulphate........ Higinioiice| géseect arate Mefe clge sie stare OR 0.1908
Calcium: Sulphatescs se eyaseye4ss dap odacgeeieees graesbess 0.0043
Sodiuin Carbonate ::+ 2 sssecescegscavsaneds, emieeluaciiey es os 0.0773
Calcium Carbonate ........... .. SEPA Re Re aeakeses oes 3.5522
Magnesium Carbonate. .......... 2. ccc cece eee eee eee eee 1.2665
Oxidé 6f Iron awd Alumina. s..ccccaceankeer stad dpa iae os 0.0466
Sil CAec.c c-25 Seed thdal babe cuddnas nedties alae ee eemouadaneeateS 0.5424
5.9033

Organic and Volatile Matter.........--.- 0. ec eee eee cease 0.7291
Ota Linn Diy aicncuee Hanae a os aos Aeneas Sa oaths 6.63824

The Roland Spring is situated on Roland avenue, just north of the
city of Baltimore. The water has only recently been put upon the
market, but is already sold to a considerable extent.

Analysis of the Water.
Grains per gallon.

 

Solids, VOlatile.ccnsn sce Actes esas aeins Deane sted Seek e 2.
Solidsamineral occ. «cacagiiondanoues biaase eureka Acede dont 6.50
TOtal jin shgd ones sani ess gl aa Meenas wane Ones 8.50

The Strontia Spring is situated in the Green Spring valley, in
Baltimore county. The water is sold somewhat widely outside the limits
of the State.
152 MARYLAND.

Analysis of the Water.

Nitrate of Potassium............
Nitrate of Sodium...............

Chloride of Magnesium... ......
Chloride of Calcium....... winsiesar

Sulphate of Strontium ..........
Bicarbonate of Strontium.......
Bicarbonate of Iron .............

In 100,000 parts.

PRAM Aer AS oleic ae 8 4.66

Phosphoric Acid, Iodine, Ammonia and Organic Matter ... Traces

 

74.76

In addition to the solid substances in solution, carbonic acid, oxyzen

and nitrogen occur.

The Lystra Spring is situated in the Green Spring valley, Baltimore
county. For this water also there is a considerable demand.

Analysis of the Water.

Grains Per Gallon.

 

Bicarbonate of Magnesia. .......... cece cece reece eee eee 18.468
Bicarbonate Of Time, .ciccespen ye voce ga or pe ay nek engee een eeE 14.951
Bicarbonate of Tron..cis4cacasis Gens os sande reidwiins Ss 1.111
Sulphate of Limes. gsncecossew ser dede ves ssaeueee Sean dew es 5.400
Sulphate of Soda: wos. wexcos sa eeae seats pi weawmerghde se cscs 1.377
Sulphate Of Potasbiccccs canst neti e: WENA ame Re cee 501
ChlOride-Of SOM, «ss ji535 weGin end 05 Sede Weie re nscecoais ta eee 588°
AIUMINA.. 22022252 yond Raderanl sth Reese d acne aie Gauad ek 2.700
SUHCIGAA CIO: tis: napa (oh eet had oA Masa erste nee ewe aah 1.000
Phosphoric Acid and Lithia, oo... ... cece cece ee eens Traces

46.096

In addition to the solid substances in solution, carbonic acid, oxygen

and nitrogen occur.

The Bentley Springs are situated in northern Baltimore county.

Analysis of the Water.

Grains Per Gallon.

 

Carbonate of Lime................... 640
Carbonate of Magnesia............... .680
Carbonate of Soda......-.... eee ee eee A461
Carbonate of Iron..................4. -890
Chloride of Sodium...........-...... 270
Sulphate of Lime...........-........5 3845
Silicic Acid. .................08- 2. 485
Alumina and Loss...........-...+ e005 025
8.750

Organic Matter........... cee ese ceee 910
MT Ota: evens, Scie esepiecdvags due fe eee eins wate 4.660

Grains Per Gallon.

 

Carbonate of Lime................., 3380
Carbonate of Soda.................. .3700
Carbonate of Magnesia.............. .2650
Sulphate of Lime................... 8040
Chloride of Sodium................ .1910
DUCE ACHE 3.5. aise sn02 es wae eee 8280
Iron, Alumina and Loss............ 0200

1.8160
Organic Matter..................00. -3690

 

Totals wes ee das se cctaede veesa cd 2.1850
MINES AND MINERALS, 153

There are several other mineral springs in the Piedmont region,
around which summer resorts have sprung up. At Glencoe, Baltimore
county, isa spring of considerable volume; with water similar to that of
the Chattolanee Spring. At Cowentown, Cecil county, near the border
of the Coastal Plain, a spring of mineral water is recorded in the
Eleventh Census Report. A sulphur spring is also found in Carroll
county, near Westminster. Many other mineral springs are found
scattered over the Piedmont region, but little beyond local use has been
made of them up to the present time.

Mineral Watcrs of the Coastal Plain. Very few springs of mineral
water, of more that local reputation, are reported from the Coastal Plain.

Barron Creek Springs, in Wicomico county, was at one time a resort
of some note, but is now quite abandoned.

A flowing artesian well, at Cambridge, Dorchester county, furnishes
a mineral water, which is much used by the citizens, and is somewhat
widely known.

Several other springs, which have only a local value, are reported
from the eastern and southern counties. Among them is a sulphur
spring situated at St. Michael’s, Talbot county.
CHAPTER V.

AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK.

AGRICULTURE.

The history of the development of agriculture in these older States,
for at least two hundred years after their colonization, is intimately
connected with the development of the social and political life and with
the industrial and commercial prosperity, elsewhere treated in this
volume. Grass, wheat, tobacco and corn have been, from the first, staple
crops.

The development of agriculture in Maryland, during the present
century and until about fifteen or twenty years ago, does not differ
essentially from that of other neighboring States, but within this latter
period the agricultural lines have been changing for causes and in such
directions as will be developed in the course of this chapter.

There has been a very general and widespread depression in agricul-
ture, which reached its greatest extent about ten or fifteen years ago.
The prices of the old staple crops fell below the actual cost of produc-
tion, at least in the poorer agricultural regions of the State, and yet
these crops continued to be everywhere grown, partly from force of
habit and tradition, and partly because it was not known what other
crops could take their place. Already the beneficial effect of this great
depression is being felt, and there are signs that the State is entering
upon an era of unexampled agricultural prosperity.

It will be well, therefore, to consider carefully the principal causes
which led to this general depression, which has really proved a stimulus
to better, more healthy and more stable conditions, and to sketch briefly
the present condition of agriculture in the State and the direction it
seems to be taking.

RETROSPECT.

The depression spoken of has been largely due to the wonderful
revolution and advance which has completely changed the social and
commercial conditions of the world. Agriculture, with its long seasons
and slow methods, has not yet adapted itself to these changed conditions.
Before the introduction of cheap and rapid transportation by means
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 155

of steam cars and steamships, manufacturing industries were distributed
in small shops throughout the rural communities, and the larger cities,
forming both the trade and industrial centres, grew up along the coast
or on the water courses, where the free access to the ocean offered an
easy and a cheap means of bringing in food for the workers and of
disposing of the manufactured goods. The city dwellers had to depend
for their staple products upon what could be raised within a few days’
hauling distance of the town; while the producers within this surround-
ing area had to supply all the staple articles of food, and were sure to
find a ready market for their products,as there was little competition
from abroad. If these conditions had continued, Baltimore could never
have grown to its present size, and there are a dozen towns and cities in
this State which might have rivaled Baltimore except for the double
advantage she has always had of water-power for manufacturing pur-
poses, and of free communication by water with other countries and
with a large portion of the State through the numerous water-ways
leading out from the bay.

With the introduction of steam, however, these conditions have
been entirely changed, and these limiting causes have been largely over-
come. The city is no longer dependent for its food supply upon what
can be raised in its immediate vicinity, nor is a country entirely depen-
dent upon what can be raised within its own borders. Large areas have
been opened up for the production of staple crops, and the amount
annually produced has been enormously increased. Wheat can be raised
and transported from the far West, and rice from the far East, cheaper
than they can be produced here at home. Before the war both rice and
cotton were grown in this State, to a limited extent, for home consump-
tion, but it would scarcely pay to raise the former now, and it would
certainly not pay to raise the latter. The prices of all our old staple
crops have fallen below what many estimate to be the actual cost of
production in many parts of the State where the soils are light and the
yield per acre is low.

This revolution has similarly affected all industries. The small
manufacturers in the rural towns have found that their goods could be
more cheaply manufactured by the larger concerns in the city, and they
have been driven to the wall or have merged into the larger concerns.
It seems hard and discouraging to the small manufacturers, but the
country, as a whole, has never known such industrial prosperity as at
present. Formerly one manutacturer might put out a variety of pro-
ducts; now there are great’ manufactories where nails and spikes alone
are produced, others where railroad iron is turned out, others where
boiler plates are rolled, others where engines are constructed, and others
again where iron battle-ships are put together. No one manufacturer
156 MARYLAND.

attempts now, as formerly, to meet all the demands of industrial life,
but makes a specialty of one narrow line which the state of the market,
his surroundings, or his natural inclinations lead him into.

There is need of the same business methods and the same business
enterprise in agriculture as in the industrial arts, and our farmers are
gradually learning this. They see that they cannot be guided so much
by what their fathers did in the past as by what they see is needful for
the present and for the prospective state of the market. We can no
longer afford to grow the same variety of crops in all parts of the State.
There are a great variety of soils in the State, and these different soils
are best adapted to different crops and to different agricultural produc-
tions. The adaptation of these soils to crop production must be well
understood; the state and demands of the market must be carefully
studied, considering at all times the possibility of being able to create
new or larger demands; the peculiar locality and surroundings must be
considered, such as nearness of the market and the ease and cost of trans-
portation. The chief energies of the farm must be given to the one line
suggested by the adaptation of the soil, the state of the market and the
personal bent of the producer, whether it be the production of staple
crops, of fruit, of truck, of stock, or the dairy interests. Wheat used to
be raised on nearly all farms as a matter of course, whether it yielded
ten bushels per acre or forty. Lands which produce less than fifteen
bushels of wheat per acre are not now considered productive, and they
cannot compete with the grain-producing area of the West. These light
lands, which formerly were considered nearly worthless for agricultural
purposes, have now the highest market value for the production of early
truck and of fruit, and the acreage of wheat, corn and tobacco has very
greatly diminished in the past ten years.

Agriculture is very slow and its methods must needs be conservative.
It takes about a year for the results of an experiment or the change of a
method to be Known, and much longer than this for any change or
improvement, based on this experiment or on the changing conditions of
the market, to be generally felt. With its slow methods it is usually
about twenty-five years behind any marked industrial advance, and it is
only now adjusting itself to the remarkable advances of recent years.

Together with the decline in market value of the staple crops, and
partly as a result of this and partly as a result of the late war, there has
been a decline in the value of agricultural lands. In Southern Maryland,
and on the Eastern Shore particularly, many of the planters suffered
serious losses, as in all the Southern States, as a result of the late war,
and many farms bear heavy mortgages. Farmers who purchased land
only a few years ago when crop prices were higher, and gave mortgages
for part of the purchase money, with every reason to suppose that they
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 157

would be able to pay them off, have, with the unexpected decline in
market values, been unable to bear this burden and meet their current
expenses, and the mortgages have beensincreased from time to time,
until the property has been thrown on the market. Many large and once
valuable estates have thus run down and been abandoned, and fine lands,
adapted to varied agriculture, can be purchased for a fifth or even a tenth
part of their value twenty years ago. While these conditions are
undoubtedly discouraging to many of the present owners of lands in the
' State, they offer great advantages to any one having an unincumbered
property with even a small working capital, who understands the adapt-
ation of the soil, and who has sufficient business habits and methods to
watch and take advantage of the market.

There are two principal factors in addition to personal inclinations
which should determine what particular agricultural line should be
taken up. These are the adaptation of the land, and the state and near-
ness of the market, with the ease and cost of transportation. For
stock raising, obviously a locality must be selected where the soil is
sufficiently strong to grow grass for hay and to maintain good pasturage.
The milk trade which supplies the Baltimore market cannot well be
located at any considerable distance from the city, and it must be in
those directions where the land is sufficiently strong to produce pastur-
age or other forage for the stock, and near a line of railroad. These
conditions at once prevent a large portion of the State from competing
in this milk trade. Much the same may be said of the market gardens,
which must be near the city so that the young and tender vegetables
may be hauled to market by the producer’s teams. Truck farming has a
rmouch wider area, but this is limited, as we shall see, to those light sandy
soils which force the crop to an early maturity and so get the advantage
of the early market prices. Wheat must be confined to those lands
which produce from eighteen to forty bushels per acre, and tobacco to
such lands as will give the color and texture required by the present
market demands.

THE AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF THE STATE.

The State may be divided into four principal agricultural regions,
each having peculiar advantages of soil, climatic conditions, nearness of
the market and means of transportation. For convenience in treatment,
however, two of these can be classed together.

Western Maryland comprises that part of the State west of the
Catoctin Mountains, including Garrett, Alleghany and Washington
counties and part of Frederick county. This region is quite mountain-
ous, and much of the land is in native forest growth. Someof the finest
and most fertile grass and wheat lands, however, are in this region.
158 MARYLAND.

The Trenton limestone, the Helderberg limestone and the Catskill
red sandstone are valued in the order given, the Trenton limestone lands
being the heaviest and the finest in the State. The Cambrian sandstone
along the northern slopes of the North Mountain has recently become
famous for the quality and color of the peaches, and peach growing has
become a very large and important industry over this limited area, where
there is the proper exposure to insure the crop against danger of frost.
The “mountain peaches” come into the market later than the crop from
the southern and eastern section of the State, and bring an excellent
price. There are probably other localities and other formations further
west which are as well adapted to peaches; and this industry will
undoubtedly spread.

The mountains and the very rolling lands are, for the most part,
covered witha native growth of forest trees, and with a native pasturage
which adapts it to grazing purposes. The valley lands are usually very
fertile and adapted to the finer kinds of grasses and to wheat and corn.
There are excellent railroad facilities, and, what is equally important,
there are good roads, or material within reach to make good roads. The
soils will be described in detail in another section of this chapter. The
fattening of cattle for market is an important industry in this region,
and has assumed large proportions in Washington county.

Northern Central Maryland consists of Cecil, Harford, Baltimore,
Carroll, Howard and Montgomery counties and part of Frederick county.
It is located mainly within the Piedmont Plateau, or the area of the
crystalline and semi-crystalline rocks. It has much the same agricul-
tural features as the valley lands of Western Maryland. The country is
gently undulating, giving admirable surface drainage to the lands. The
variety of rocks gives a great variety of soil formations in this region,
but a number of them have very nearly the same agricultural value, and
the region, as a whole, is remarkably uniform. The soils, asa rule, are
strong and fertile; they have good body and good surface and under-
drainage, and are capable of a high state of cultivation. They are well
adapted to grass, wheat and corn, aad these have long been the staple
crops. The lands are admirably suited to stock raising and the fattening
of cattle, and large numbers are annually fattened for market. Where
the distance from the market and facilities for transportation admit, this
locality is favorable to dairy farming, and the milk trade of Baltimore
is entirely within this area. These same remarks may apply to market
gardening as distinguished from truck farming. In recent years cornand
tomatoes have been raised in large quantities for canning, and especially
in Harford county. A number of lines of railroad cross the area, the
facilities for transportation are excellent, and the roads are equally good.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 159

Southern Maryland includes Anne Arundel, Calvert, St. Mary’s,
Charles and Prince George’s counties. It occupies a peninsula formed
by the Chesapeake Bay and the Potomacw River. The country is gently
undulating, and has good surface and under drainage. There are good
wheat and grass lands‘in this part of the State, principally formed from
the diatomaceous earth in the Chesapeake formation. Many of these,
which were formerly good wheat lands, are. run down from causes
already mentioned. Much of the land is heavily mortgaged, there is a
lack of working capital, farm labor is scarce and inefficient, wages are
high, and it takes two or three times as much land to produce a bushel
of wheat as on the heavier limestone soils of Western Maryland.

Most of the land in Southern Maryland is far too light in texture for
grass and wheat, but it is admirably adapted to truck farming and to
fruits of different kinds, especially to peaches and strawberries. Truck
and fruit raising is already a very important industry and one growing
in importance, as the market demands are being increased and enlarged
and transportation facilities extended.

Tobacco has been a staple crop in Southern Maryland since the
earliest colonial days. The best quality of tobacco, which will be
described in another place, is raised on the lighter wheat lands, which
are heavier than the earliest truck soils. The quality of the tobacco has
deteriorated in recent years. Labor is scarce and less care is taken than
formerly in the cultivation and preparation of the crop for market.
The area of tobacco culture in the United States and abroad has been
enormously increased, so that this grade of tobacco meets with wide
competition, and the market demands themselves have changed, so that
the industry is not what it formerly was. Efforts are being made to
introduce other varieties of tobacco which will meet higher market
demands, and if these efforts be successful a stimulus will be given to
tobacco culture in districts where all the conditions are adapted to
producing a mild, fine-textured and light-colored leaf.

This region will undoubtedly, within a short time, be almost entirely
devoted to tobacco, fruit and truck farming, for the soils are well suited
to these crops and there can be no competition in any part of the State
except portions of the Eastern Shore. The lack of railroad facilities has
prevented this region from developing as it will as soon as they are
provided. There are two or three lines of railroad within this area, and
several more are contemplated or in actual process of construction.
Numerous rivers and creeks make up into the land, providing cheap
and easy communication with Baltimore by water, and in some of the
lower counties there is no place over five miles from a good steamboat

landing.
160 MARYLAND.

The Eastern Shore includes all that portion of the State east of the
Chesapeake Bay except Cecil county, which is included, agriculturally,
in Northern Central Maryland. It comprises Kent, Queen Anne, Talbot,
Dorchester, Caroline, Wicomico, Somerset and Worcester counties. The
country, as a rule, is very level and flat, the elevations rarely exceeding
fifty feet. There are heavy soils in this locality admirably adapted to
wheat and corn, which have always been staple crops; there are other
soils, lighter in texture, well suited to fruit, especially peaches, and other
very light, sandy lands suitable for fruit and early truck. None of the
other agricultural regions in the State have as fine facilities for transpor-
tation as this Eastern Shore. Several lines of railroad branch out through
it in all directions, and there are so many rivers and creeks that cheap
and easy water transportation is not more than a few miles distant from
any locality. The roads are generally excellent, especially on the heavier
wheat and corn lands. The climate is mild and temperate, as the ocean
is on one side and the bay on the other. Living is cheap, as it is all
along the south Atlantic coast where fish and oysters are abundant, and
the winters are so mild that little provision has to be made for them.
This region has been noted from the earliest colonial times for the
hospitality of the people, and the social life of the Eastern Shore, cut off
in a way from the rest of the State, has been unique.

THE PRINCIPAL CROPS OF THE STATE.

Grass, wheat, corn and tobacco have always been the staple crops,
and they will continue so to be in certain sections where the land is
sufficiently strong and fertile to return large yields per acre, or where
the soil is well adapted to produce the quality or texture of crop required
by the present market demands.

In speaking of the causes of the recent depression in agriculture, it
was stated that before the introduction of cheap and rapid means of
transportation these staple crops were very generally grown on all farms,
whether the yield was large or small. The custom of generations had
developed a traditional routine which scarce any one departed from.
There was a ready market in the cities and no one dreamed of competi-
tion from the far West. Land which would produce a yield of only 10
bushels per acre of wheat was considered poor, and the management was
referred to as poor farming. It was supposed that the same methods of
cultivation under which yields of 20, 30 or 40 bushels per acre of wheat
were produced in other portions of the State, or in England, should give
the same results on these light lands. There was no consideration of the
difference in climatic conditions nor of the important effect of the
physical texture and structure and the adaptation of the soils. No
wonder farmers were discouraged when the same treatment under which
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 161

forty bushels of wheat per acre were produced on the limestone soils,
failed completely, on these lighter sandy lands, to produce any material
increase. .

One of the most encouraging signs in regard to the development of
agriculture in this State at the present time is that farmers are leaving
this beaten track, and are giving up the cultivation of these staple crops
for others which they find they can produce as well, or better, than they
can be produced elsewhere, and they are even creating market demands
for products which were formerly not cared for or considered as luxuries.

The returns for the 11th Census show that there has been a very
marked falling off in the acreage of wheat, corn and tobacco in the past
decade, and this is a very encouraging sign, accompanied as it is by a
very remarkable increase in the value of truck produced.

The following table gives a summary of the cereal productions in
Maryland:

1]
MARYLAND.

162

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 
 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“dNVTAYVIT NI NOWDONGOYT TWaAdas Ao AMVWWAS
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 163

In commenting on these results in the Census Bulletin it is stated
that “in Maryland the total area in cereals in 1889 was 1,239,428 acres,
as compared with 1,378,276 acres in 1879, a decrease of 138,848 acres, or
10.07 per cent. There was a decrease of 78,111 acres in the area of corn,
of 58,569 acres of that in wheat, of 2,725 acres in buckwheat, and of 1,932
acres in oats. On the other hand, there was an increase in the areas in
rye and barley of 1,897 acres and 592 acres respectively.” Properly to
understand and appreciate the significance of this decrease in the area
devoted to these staple crops, and the lesson it teaches of the direction
agriculture is taking, it will be well to consider these results in some
detail.

The following tables, compiled from these results and those of the
10th Census, give the acreage and average yield of wheat and corn per
acre for the different counties in the State, arranged in the order of the
yield per acre in 1879. It is hardly proper to compare the yields of but
two years, as the difference in the season may be amply sufficient to
produce marked differences in the yields per acre. There are, indeed,
two factors which would tend to influence the yield per acre in these
returns—the climatic conditions and the very marked decrease in the
acreage. It will be seen that the decrease in acreage has been decided
in those regions having the lighter soils, which are not well adapted to
the production of wheat, and it is probable that in general the lands
least adapted to wheat or corn are those where the cultivation of these
crops has soonest been replaced by that of other crops better adapted to
the lands. The result of this natural selection would be an apparent
increase of the yield per acre. Due allowance must be made for the
effect of the season or crop production.

The following table will give an idea of the climatic conditions for
the two census years under consideration. The data covers all the crop
season of the staple crops:
164 MARYLAND.

METEOROLOGICAL DATA FOR BALTIMORE, MARYLAND. (UNITED STATES
WEATHER BUREAU.)

Wheat Season,

 

 

 

  
 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TEMPERATURE. RAINFALL.
1878-9. | 1888-9. [Difference] 1878-9. | 1888-9. |Difference
September 69.4 64.0 — 5.4 0.82 4.90 + 4.08
October......... 58.3 51.4 — 6.9 4.41 2.99 — 1.42
November 46.9 46.8 —0.1 3.55 3.04 — 0.51
December........ 35.3 35.9 + 0.6 5.61 3.26 — 2.35
January ---...... ae 81.38 37.6 + 6.3 2.59 4.22 + 1.63
February ae 32.1 29.4 — 2.7 1.55 2.53 + 0.98
Mareb . 22: ashes 43.7 42.8 — 0.9 1.65 5.71 + 4.06
Aprils «sas aioe 52.7 54.0 + 1.3 3.69 8.70 + 5.01
Ming wesc save 65.7 65.0 —0.7 2.74 6.82 + 4.08
DOGO sia a nck naisdey 0a ae wore gist sine 73.3 10.7 — 2.6 3.92 6.17 + 2.25
WANG, pee keiuacks thee nkned cedure PRESS 78.8 5.7 — 3.1 3.16 11.038 + 7.87
ROTA gS aascd oti ford Daud smyaeecaee eaacer ascealehoyer Soatl ance cuentas e.g bell aosseud-SpbaelGew ltebdxcravaieetie i 33.69 59.37 +25.68
AVOTAZC.. 0.0000 cesecrevecensascates 53.4 52.1 — 1.3 3.06 5.39 + 2.33
| 1878-9 | 1888-9. Difference.
Vleay Gaps. s ewee wn iey 2 ener 0GKs- 4 HERR ERS te aT Oe ee eee ee eeeY 106 83 — 23
COUR yO ays vissiesasang srscers: sare eigiacs Sd aiaya ac oiars aegis “os ty cae olane Wie stale shave Eigse See 101 137 + 36
Rainy Gay Sic pace tase ve sa dicen BA os 16S acon Has aewia oan outs 106 158 + 52
Corn and Tobacco Seuson.
TEMPERATURE. RAINFALL.
1879. 1889. |Difference} 1879. 1889. |Difference
52.7 54.0 + 1.3 3.69 8.70 + 5.01
65.7 65.0 — 0.7 2.74 6.82 + 4.08
73.3 70.7 — 2.6 3.92 6.17 + 2.25
78.8 75.7 — 3.1 3.16 11.03 + 7.87
74.6 73.8 — 0.8 6.71 1.40 — 5.31
64.1 73.5 + 9.4 2.72 4.59 + 1,87
IT Ost a osess ss aster seasesle obs omteuchs oe eat ses is Set [ties shoe | reed aver Sal iebe nen evi 22.94 38.71 415.77
AVOLA RC sa:s sieeccieain  wataisinelns eee ge 68 2 68.8 0.6 3.82 6.45 + 2.63
1879. 1889. Difference.
COAT GAYS crass cia sie wieiareya sachin tie ae Bare pre Aa ossMialeee ela weetigie'g wigs sieli ase 72 44 — 28
Cloud ya 78 jax-terase esis en nuncctsienis 2a Wee dice mua steintete/ isd co hiaiere aalecaselaeeeas 41 62 + 21
RAID daySs ssa saneweaatae seat neha MaRS Ne wES CHINE Mees asics Hels 53 90 + 37

 

 

 

 

It will be seen that the mean temperature was considerably lower in
the wheat season of 1888-9 than in that of 1878-9. There were over 25
inches, or 76 per cent. more rainfall in 1888-9, and 52 more rainy days, or
50 per cent. more than in the earlier period.

In the corn and tobacco seasons, from April to September, inclusive,
the mean temperature was about the same in each season, but it was
very differently distributed. There were nearly 16 inches, or 69 per cent.
more rainfall in the season of 1889 than in that of 1879, and this rain fell
on 37 more days, giving uniformly wetter conditions. The tobacco crop
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 165

of 1889 was exceptionally small, and of poor quality on account of this
excessive rainfall. .
These climatic conditions must be borne in mind in connection with
the data which follows.
Wheat. The accompanying table gives the acreage and average
yield of wheat per acre in each county in the State, compiled from the
tenth and eleventh census :

ACREAGE AND AVERAGE YIELD OF WHEAT PER ACRE.
(Compiled from the Tenth and Eleventh Census.)

 

 

 
  

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Per Cent. ;
1879. 1889, Difference 1879. 1889. |Difference
Acres. Acres. 1889. Bushels. | Bushels.| Bushels.
TRL, ec con Shak ee acc ened aS tEee pa oes 569,296 | 510,727 | — 10.3 14.06 16.35 + 2.29
SOUTHERN MARYLAND.
CHATIER ce cnceatte sinter ances es A 15,042 8,571 | — 42.9 veel 9.6 + 2.5
Calvert. 6,581 8,527 | — 46.4 7.6 7.0 — 0.6
St. Mary’s.... 2 18,554 12,444 | — 82.9 8.3 10.7 + 2.4
Anne ArUnG Clas seseeiceigsiawnrsresmascnes s3 10,854 6,237 | — 42.5 9.0 10.9 + 1,9
Prince GQeOrse’ 8 aje:s:seare di visjavascceia:d core seine ae 14,181 8,250 | — 41.8 9.0 8.9 —0.1
ANOTARC = :..5. sis: cto sien ais 9 Siesta bce wallis's dade steele geen — 41.3 8.2 9.4 + 1.2
EASTERN SHORE.
"Woretslety;xsscundseeeas week yuas ainstare 5,821 « 3,661 | — 37.1 had: 9.6 + 2.5
WICOUNCcasae ckbsre acdiwckieedees denen 3,720 2,008 | — 46.0 7.2 10.2 + 3.0
Dorchester 25,979 16,952 | — 35.1 7.6 12.3 + 5.3
Caroline ius sewincietes 18,336 19,617! + 6.5 10.2 14.8 + 4.6
Somerset...... 8,082 6,050 | — 25.1 10.3 14.7 + 4.4
Queen Anne 41,223 49,313 | + 19.6 18.5 16.9 + 3.4
TRIBE, oacinaeed oancanes 33,129 83,289 | + 0.4 14.1 19.9 +58
BO cata 4e50s eds ne eSseas Sees aeuRe 37,581 33,754 | — 101 14.8 17.2 + 2.4
AVCIA RCs: ven: cavaeedseseeexe cers eased ones [Sas ase Se — 15.8 10.6 14.4 + 3.9
NorRTHERN AND WESTERN MaRYLAND.
ANC BRADY sccidniste seca dest aawn Hoes 7,549 5,086 | — 32.6 8.9 i + 2.8
Garrett.......... 4,122 2,652 | — 87.8 10.7 11.8 + 1.1
Baltimore........... 28,629 26,369 | — 7.8 18.7 17.4 + 3.7
Carroll scisica ws ene 04 wakeays 40,077 44,704 | + 11.5 14.4 17.7 + 3.3
COCI ie inh a nie asssts ox wieiasrnieeward : 29,875 28,812 | — 5.2 15.7 19.1 + 3.4
HOWATO® si:coxcsirericent eiara ated eer sax 18,445 | 17,628 | — 44 16.5 TA. + 0.6
PR ArtOr eo essipisisises ate tasnig giesers 25,143 = 20,071 | — 20.1 16.7 18.1 +£1.4
Montgomery 35,678, 30,237.| — 14.9 16.9 16.8 —1.1
Fired erick se: syice-satesuncsagid 83,767 76,4297) — 8.7 16.9 16.1 — 0.8
Wasbin pt OD sie:e sees stieacrecsisse see nid 8 09 ase dieincs 56,923 | 55,648 | — 2.2 18.0 17.5 — 0.5
Average a gvencncvesevtemendin wescelonaseamte ne oe attanes — 12.2 14.8 16.2 + 1.3

 

 

The counties in the agricultural regions of the State are grouped
together, and they are arranged in the order of the yield per acre in
1879, rather than in the last census year, because this was under the old
regime when wheat was a staple crop in all parts of the State, and also
because the climatic conditions of that season are believed to have been
more nearly normal than in the last census year. The three most
striking things about this table are the very great reduction in the
acreage of wheat, the yield per acre, and the increased yield in 1889 over
1879. In adjusting itself to the new conditions and demands of the
166 MARYLAND.

market, it is natural that the cultivation of wheat will be given up first
on those lands which are least productive, and we find this to be the
fact. There has been a decrease of over 40 per cent. in the acreage of
wheat in Southern Maryland. On the Eastern Shore there has been a
reduction of 15.8 per cent., and this has been almost entirely in the four
southern counties of Worcester, Wicomico, Dorchester and Somerset,
which we shall see later are largely covered by typical truck lands
similar to those of Southern Maryland. In Northern and Western Mary-
land there has been a reduction in acreage of about 12 per cent., and this
has been principally in the coal regions of the extreme western part of
the State. The reduction in acreage in Harford and Montgomery coun-
ties is probably due to other causes than the character of the land, and
in the former it is probably largely due to the extensive canning indus-
tries and to the pasturage and fattening of cattle. None of the other
counties show a very marked reduction in acreage, and Carroll county
shows a considerable increase. It will be seen later, when speaking of
the soils in these different agricultural regions in detail, that the pre-
vailing soils in Southern Maryland, and in at least four or five counties
of the Eastern Shore, are not suited to wheat, but that they are admir-
ably adapted to fruit and truck, and this notable decrease in the acreage
of wheat shows that they are being turned to uses in which they are far
more profitable and more valuable.

In regard to the average yields per acre, given in the table, it will be
remarked that they are seemingly very low. It must be remembered,
however, that these averages are for entire counties, and include all
varieties of soils, methods of cultivation and manuring. As before
remarked and as will be shown later, the lands devoted to wheat cul-
ture, especially in Southern Maryland, in several counties of the Eastern
Shore, and in the extreme western counties of the State, include large areas
ill-adapted to the cultivation of wheat. This reduces the average yield
peracre; and it isas harmful to the farmer himself to misuse his land by
a cropping to which it is not adapted as it is to other producers whose
lands are especially adapted to this crop, for it depresses the market
value without benefiting the producer. It is from such lands as these
which produce small yields per acre that so much is said of the hard
times and the low prices of wheat, and it is such areas as these in which
the acreage of wheat should be reduced and the lands applied to the
raising of crops for which they are better suited.

It is hardly fair, therefore, to judge of these agricultural regions by
the average yield per acre of wheat, because, after all, it does not
interest a prospective settler to know what the average yield is or what
a neighbor’s yield is as much as to know what can reasonably be
expected by his own methods of cultivation and manuring. It would be
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 167

fairer to judge by what a good farmer can expect, and for this these
averages can, in nearly all cases, be about doubled. For example, the
wheat lands in Anne Arundel and Prince George’s counties, around
Davidsonville, West River and Marlboro districts, produce eighteen
bushels per acre with ease. On the good wheat lands in Queen Anne,
Talbot and Kent counties,on the Eastern Shore, and in all the counties
of northern central Maryland, together with Frederick and Washington
counties, from twenty to thirty bushels per acre can be produced with
ease, and as much as thirty to forty bushels can be depended on with
the very best lands and with good farming. Yields as low as any of
those given in the table would be considered very poor farming in any
of the respective counties, and it would be safe to say that a good
farmer could depend on twice this yield per acre on the better class of
wheat lands in these different localities. Farmers in this locality cannot
afford to grow wheat as a staple crop on lands which produce less than
fifteen bushels per acre.

In comparing the yield per acre in the two census years, there are the
two factors to be considered, the decrease in the acreage, which, by
weeding out the lands least adapted to wheat culture, would tend to
increase the average yield, and the difference in the climatic conditions
of the two seasons. It will be remembered that the season of 1888-89
was decidedly wetter than that of 1878-79, and there were about 50 per
cent. more rainy days. The increased precipitation and generally more
moist conditions, unless altogether too wet, would be favorable and would
tend to increase the yield on the lighter soils, but might depress the
yield on the heavier soils. It will be seen from the table that, as a rule,
the greatest increase of yield per acre in 1889 over 1879 was in those
counties where the yields were smallest, and, as we shall see, where the
lands are generally lighter in texture.

On the whole there is seen to have been a remarkable decrease in
the acreage of wheat, especially in those counties where the yield is low,
and where, as will be seen later, the soils are too light in texture to give
profitable yields per acre of wheat. The staple crops of the fertile lime-
stone lands of Western Maryland, of the prevailing lands in Northern
Central Maryland and the heavier lands on the Eastern Shore, will always
be grass, wheat and corn, because these lands are sufficiently strong to
give large yields of these crops per acre; but still there are many other
crops admirably adapted to these lands and to the peculiar market
advantages of this locality, the cultivation of which could be profitably
extended.

Indian Corn. There has been a very marked reduction in the
acreage of corn as well as in that of wheat, and this has been general
throughout all of the counties, as will be seen by the accompanying table.
168 MARYLAND.

ACREAGE AND AVERAGE YIELD OF INDIAN CORN PER ACRE.
(Compiled from the Tenth and Eleventh Census.)

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Per Cent. :
1879. 1889. Difference 1879. 1889, |Difference
Acres. Acres. 1889. Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels.
SEALE S eiineit cutis dems arden tie oui eejeenvieinatee de 664,928 | 586,817} — 11.7 24.01 25.44 + 1,42
SOUTHERN MARYLAND.
St. Mary’6. ic0c46 seereesqes veveraeaaie 23,368 20,680 | — 11.7 15.5 15.4 — 0.1
Charles.... aba 25,922 19,900 | — 19.4 15.9 14.1 — 18
Calvert Sjaissa Oi teRes Boek ree ete eecceroicia 38 10,848 7,830 | — 24.8 19.5 18.2 — 18
Prince George’s...........cceeeeeee --.| 28,897 23,836 | — 17.5 227 24.7 + 2.0
ANNE ATUMCE] ois ssid esses siareie'e de ca na evens 29,674 24,561 | — 17.2 23.4 20.7 — 27
AVEPEE 6 iis nbs ctcvie § hapiow aint hewiguiny aeeekne eA aan earn S — 18.1 19.4 18.6 — 0.38
Eastern SHORE. :
Wicomico 41,214 36,452 | — 11.5 10.8 7.8 — 3.0
Worcester 44,588 42,204 | — 5.3 12.7 10.6 — 21
Dorchester 39,380 27,551 | — 30.0 16.4 13.3 — 3.1
Caroline........... 30,590 | 21,864 | — 30.1 16.7 17.4 + 0.7
BOMCISO bison causa dees oF eawa e eae Bs 22,594 19,108 | — 15.4 17.2 13.3 — 3.9
Queen Anne 38,653 34,639 | — 10.4 24.2 20.7 -— 3.5
KOM Retina watyesd sbGhsntiesapbtied sratenasae sivlareu-ou 29,937 27,7381 | — 7.4 26 4 28.4 + 2.0
Wal DOte:is cccisccressscccace sisrats o(¥isiais wtents a0 aver 26,053 20,183 | — %2.6 26.5 27.2 + 0.7
SVT APC oi o slsteus way ¢ eae <iine.c aed seeie|s aaa is abe. aves seen od — 16.7 18.9 17.3 — 13
NORTHERN AND WESTERN MARYLAND.
(are tUasioys wes dasaisa ce meaaa nbd eevedas 3,714 3,290 | — 11.4 23.5 28.3 + 47
AMNO@hANY 6605 5015 -cecis or eeialeis vs ..-{ 8,661 6,513 | — 24.8 239 20.3 — 3.6
TEGAN: Sus vceeiw wens see apna coer es 17,915 18,377 | + 2.5 28.2 34.2 + 6.0
COO 454 REA RRA ONL eES ae 31,983 33,624 | + 5.1 28.5 37.5 + 9.0
Montgomery..........0000cc cece cece eee 35,287 | 32,840] — 6.9 28.9 36.3 + 74
Baltimore irs ce carne asics cibas tes aae Mak oh 39,483 82,825 | — 14.2 30.5 37.3 + 6.8
COC cso iat eet te sie acy aie: 3 25,764 23,905 | — 7.2 32.9 34.8 + 1.9
Washington.. 2 31,920 82,832 | + 2.9 33.5 30.0 — 385
Frederick.... 52,002 51,782 | — 0.4 34.1 38.4 + 4.3
Harford...... 26,506 23,890 |* —- 9.9 38.3 37.9 — 0.4
AV CLERC lic ic cwesns aiienare a VANS aed Dale se ma caer | pees wie ees — 6.4 380.2 33.5 + 3.3

 

 

The total acreage of corn is considerably larger than that of wheat,
but it is somewhat differently distributed. There is a much larger
acreage of corn than of wheat in southern Maryland and in the lower
counties of the Eastern Shore, but there is generally a lower acreage in
the wheat-producing counties of the Eastern Shore and in northern and
western Maryland. Thus in 1879 there were 3,720 acres in wheat and
44,588 acres in corn in Worcester county, while in Washington county,
where the heavy limestone lands prevail, there were 56,923 acres in
wheat and only 31,910 acres in corn, considerably less than in Wicomico
county. There are several reasons for this. In the first place, the fine
wheat lands are too valuable for wheat and grass to put in corn, and
wheat does not do so well after corn; the heaviest wheat and grass lands
are not the best for corn; there is a great deal of land in southern
Maryland and in the lower counties on the Eastern Shore which will
produce corn much better than it will wheat; and on account of the
lower yield per acre it takes a larger acreage to provide grain and fodder
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 169

for the stock, especially as there is comparatively little hay or pasturage
where these light lands prevail.

The decrease in acreage has also been somewhat greater. In the
counties showing a small average yield per acre of wheat there is a
relatively small acreage, and the notable decrease of from 35 to 45 per
cent. in acreage in these counties did not count for much in the State, as
a whole. With corn, however, this is not so, for Wicomico and Worcester
counties are shown to have the lowest average yield per acre, but there
is only one other county which has a larger acreage. The acreage of
corn in southern Maryland is about the same as in that of the finer
wheat-producing counties, although the average yield is only about
one-half or two-thirds as much per acre. While there is not, therefore, as
much apparent decrease in acreage in the different counties, yet the more
even distribution in the acreage makes the actual decrease of area in corn
a little more than that in wheat.

Tobacco. This has been a staple crop in Maryland from the very
earliest colonial days, and has contributed more than any other factor
to the growth, prosperity and commercial importance of this State. For
upwards of two hundred years Maryland and Virginia produced nearly
all the tobacco which was consumed in Europe. Very stringent laws
prohibited the growing of tobacco in many of the European countrics
to secure a revenue through the importation of tobacco from this country.

For a time Virginia obtained some revenue directly through an
export tax. The cultivation of tobacco increased so rapidly in the two
colonies that an effort was made to maintain the value of the crop by
legislative enactments, as the rapidly increasing production tended to
lower the price. In 1619, 20,000 pounds of Virginia tobacco were
exported; in the next year this exportation had increased to 40,000
pounds; in 1621, 55,000 pounds, and in 1622, 60,000 pounds. In 1639 such
a quantity was produced that half the crop was ordered to be burnt to
reduce the amount to 1,500,000 pounds. The following year the value was
fixed by law at 12 pence per pound, and in 1641 this was increased to 20
pence. In 1664, however, Virginia gave up this attempt to determine the
value of the product, as Maryland would not agree to the necessary
restrictions to keep up the price, and the production rapidly increased,
while the price fell as low as 10 shillings per hundred-weight in 1662.
As early as 1638 tobacco was the universal tender for all debts, public
and private ; and so continued for about 100 years, during most of which
time it fluctuated between 1d. and 2d. per pound. The Legislature of
1732 fixed the price of inspected tobacco at 12 shillings 6 pence per
hundred-weight. At this time about 30,000 hogsheads were produced in
the State annually.
170 MARYLAND.

The production of tobacco has varied greatly, from timé to time, for
various causes. In 1790 the total exportation from the United States
amounted to 118,460 hogsheads, which was not exceeded in any one year
until 1840, when 119,484 hogsheads were exported; but at the same time
the total value of the crops often amounted to as much in years when
only half this amount was produced.

In 1825 the crop in Maryland amounted to 15,924 hogsheads, in 1846
it was 41,029, and in 1860 there was the largest crop which has ever been
produced in Maryland—51,247 hogsheads. In 1865 the yield was 25,479
hogsheads; in 1879 it was 46,521; in 1890, on account of the very
unfavorable season, the yield was 14,027 hogsheads, but in 1891 the yield
had increased again to 27,336 hogsheads. In 1892 the yield was about
21,000 hogsheads, of excellent color and quality. Of this France alone
contracted for about 13,000 hogsheads.

Tobacco, until the late war, was produced in all the counties of the
Eastern Shore. Since the abolition of slavery, however, the cultivation
of tobacco has been given up entirely on that shore, and in 1889 only one
acre, yielding fifty pounds, was reported in the Census, although in 1849
over 8,000,000 pounds had been raised in Queen Anne’s county alone.
The production of tobacco in Maryland is at present confined almost
exclusively to the southern counties, although a small amount is pro-
duced in some other localities, especially in Montgomery, Howard and
Frederick. During the present century, and especially within very recent
years, the total production of tobacco in the United State and in foreign
countries, has been enormously increased. It has extended to all but one
or two States in this country, and large quantities are produced abroad.
This great increase of production has been accompanied, of course, by a -
falling off in the price per pound, and the common grades of tobacco
bring very low prices at present. The market demands, however, are
constantly changing, and the farmers are introducing those grades which
command the highest prices.

The Maryland tobacco is strictly an export tobacco, and goes princi-
pally to Holland, France and Germany. France alone usually contracts
for about 10,000 or 13,000 hogsheads of Maryland tobacco. It is very
mild, has a sweet flavor and free burning qualities, making it specially
suited for pipe smoking. Fora long time Maryland, Virginia and Ohio
were the only States which produced the light grades of tobacco suitable
for pipe smoking, but other tobaccos have of late years come into com-
petition with them. On account of this competition, a series of very
unfavorable seasons for tobacco, the deterioration of the tobacco lands,
and less perfect inethods of cultivation, manuring and handling, the
crop has brought very low prices of late years, and many farmers are
turning their attention to other crops.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK.

171

The accompanying table shows the acreage and yield per acre of
tobacco in the two census years, compiled from the returns of the Tenth

and Eleventh Census.

ACREAGE AND AVERAGE YIELD OF TOBACCO PER ACRE.
(Compiled from the Tenth and Eleventh Census.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

| | Der
1a0g, | assy, (Fer Cent | taps, 1889. [Difference
Acres | Acres. 1889. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
Statessaya.csacdear We coeere me eckorn 38,174 17,966 — 52.9] 688 2 687.7 |— 4.5
|
SouTHERN MARYLAND. |
St. Mary’s 5,528 | 2,904 | — 47.4 801.2 847.1 | — 45.9
Anne Arundel 6,271 | 3,750 i =e 0.2 708.1 561.5 | — 146.6
Cal verte sios tie sae eee 6,848 3,683 | — 46.2 567.5 483.7 | — 83.8
Charles............ is 7913 3651) — 53.8) 630.2 551.8 |— 98.4
Prince George’s.......s..sseeee Wo ee Sete 9,637 5,822 | — 44.7 682.2 603.1 | — 79.1
NORTHERN AND WESTERN MARYLAND.
12 11| — 8.3 800.1 1240.9 | + 440.8
43 | 1| — 97.6 | 1872.9 1100.0 | — 272.9
52 | 154; +196.1 | 1309.3 1066.5 | — 242.8
162 | 60. — 62.9 846.7 916.6 | + 69.9
208 | 115} — 44.7) 667.9 | 797.2 | + 129.3
: 429 | 162, — 62.2 864.4 759.8 | — 104.6
1,053 | 460 — 56.3 \ 765.4 729.6 | — 35.8

 

 

 

Notr.—No tobacco was returned from the Eastern Shore in 1889, except one acre from Wicomico,
yielding fifty pounds.
No tobacco was reported from Alleghany, Garrett and Washington counties in 1889.

It will be seen that the production of tobacco is, at present, nearly
confined to the five Southern Maryland counties. There has been a
reduction of over 50 per cent. in the acreage of tobacco, which is pretty
evenly distributed in all sections of the State. This decrease in the
acreage of tobacco is undoubtedly accompanied by an increased acreage
of fruit and truck. It will be seen later, in describing the tobacco soils,
that efforts are being made to introduce other varieties of tobacco, and
with the great diversity of soil formations in the State, there is no
reason why a different tobacco should not be successfully produced which
would meet the higher demands of the market.

It will be seen also, in describing the tobacco soils, that the tobacco
plant is extremely sensitive to climatic conditions, and for this reason, as
well as on account of the notable reduction of over 50 per cent. in the
area planted, it would not be proper to draw any close comparisons
between the yields per acre in the two census years, especially as both
seasons were extremely unfavorable to this crop.

Truck and Fruit. It has been stated that the area devoted to the
cultivation of the staple crops, grass, wheat, tobacco and corn, has nota-
bly decreased in the past decade, and this is largely due to, or is at least
compensated for, by a notable increase in the acreage of fruit and truck.
This is the direction agriculture is taking at present.
172 MARYLAND.

It is difficult to obtain figures which will show this change exactly,
as the census returns of grass are not yet compiled, and the truck returns
have been on a different basis from that formerly taken. The value of
market-garden products sold in 1879 is given in the tenth census, at
$873,968, and over 60 per cent. of this is credited to Baltimore county,
and is probably market gardening proper as distinguished from truck
farming, as these two industries are separated and defined in the eleventh
census. In the eleventh census the value of the products of truck farm-
ing alone for the Baltimore district, exclusive of market gardening, is
$3,784,696 with $2,413,648 additional accredited to the peninsula com-
prising Delaware and the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and
Virginia. The Baltimore district includes all Maryland, except the
Eastern Shore, also West Virginia, and a few counties of Virginia not in
the peninsula and Norfolk districts. Mr. J. H. Hale, special census agent,
writes that most of this truck came from Maryland, and but little from
West Virginia and the few counties of Virginia that send their products
to the Baltimore market. There can be no direct comparison between
the results of the two census years, but these figures will serve to indi-
cate to what vast proportions this interest of truck farming is growing.

In 1889 the value of the products of truck farming, exclusive of
market gardening, peaches and small fruit, for Maryland alone must have
been at least $4,000,000, although the season of 1889 was an unfavorable
one for these crops. In this same year the statistician of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture estimated the total value of the wheat crop of
the State at $4,998,124, and of the corn crop at $6,495,031, so that in point
of value the truck compares favorably with either of these staples, and
with market gardening and fruit it far exceeds these other interests, and
in point of fact it is constantly and rapidly increasing in volume and in
value, while the wheat and corn acreage is decreasing. Very large areas
of land well suited to truck have not yet been taken up on account of a
lack of transportation facilities.

Then again, this truck was produced on not over 50,000 acres, but to
produce the wheat and corn crops Mr. Dodge estimates that 546,064 and
733,239 acres respectively were required. The average value of the
truck land is about $98 per acre, as given in the Census Bulletin, No. 41.
The average value of corn and wheat lands in the State can hardly
exceed $20 or $30 per acre.

The distinction made between market gardening and truck farming
in the eleventh census is thus stated by Mr. J. H. Hale:

“The production of fruits and vegetables for market has always
been prosecuted with great success, in earlier days as a branch of general
farming, and more recently as a specialty known as market gardening.
The business is usually carried on with a few highly-enriched and
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 173

thoroughly-cultivated acres of ground and a rotation of crops, so grown
that there may be a daily supply throughout a considerable portion of
the year. The farms are usually within,a reasonable driving distance of
cities and towns, and the products are generally sold to the retailers, and
in many cases, especially in the larger towns, directly to the consumer.

“Truck farming, although it also consists in the production of green
vegetables for market, is distinguished from market gardening by the
fact that, while the market gardener lives near a market and delivers his
products with his own teams, usually producing a general variety of
vegetables, the truck farmer lives remote from market, is dependent
upon transportation companies and commission men for the delivery and
sale of his products, and usually devotes himself to such specialties as
are best suited to soil and climate.

“Of the vegetables grown by the truck farmers the leading classes are
as follows: Watermelons, cabbage, peas, asparagus, melons other than
watermelons, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, spinach, Irish potatoes, celery
and string beans, ranking in acreage in the order named; beets, cucum-
bers, cauliflower, carrots, egg-plants, kale, lettuce, lima beans, parsnips,
radishes, rhubarb, squashes, sweet corn and turnips are also grown as
truck-farm crops, but only toa limited extent as compared to the first
named. These, and other vegetables not here mentioned, being grown
mostly by market garderers than by truck farmers.”

The following table gives the acreage and the net income per acre
of the leading classes of vegetables on truck farms in the Baltimore and
peninsula districts. This does not take into account the vegetables
grown in market gardens near local markets, nor where the crop is grown
in large quantities, as field crops, as is frequently the case with potatoes:

NUMBER OF ACRES AND NET INCOME PER ACRE ON LEADING VARIETIES OF

VEGETABLES.
Eleventh Census, Bulletin No. 41.

 

 

 

  
 
 
  
 
 

   

 

 

 

BALTIMORE DISTRICT. 7 PENINSULA DISTRICT.
Acres. | Dollars. Acres. | Dollars.

Peas ssiciis cite snaeee ee sete 18S 5,170 29.50 Sweet. Potatoes .6 i rsce es oxen 4,860 48.60
Cabbage ..... .sccessseseeees 4,165 96.50 | Cabbage ........ .eeeee eee 3,275 95.00
Tomatoes. ..........c0ceeeeeee 3,780 34.00 POQis caeswincedivancesees ayes 8,224 26.00
Sweet Potatoes............6.. 3, 150 52.10 ASPOTALUG i: sia sve vin cea saws 2,640 84.00
Trish Potatoes.......-.. sees 2,860 68.50 | Watermelons................ 2,469 43.00
ASPATAPUS 5. :icanis eerecsan es 2,270 87.75 BOC oc caw gece cee eee 2,128 32.60
SPINGOCH: sissieie davies vaseveteise-wiereinvers 1,980 37.60 Trish Potatoes. .............. 1,295 G7 .25
Watermelons........ ‘i 620 42.00 | String Beans ...............- 615 32.00
String Beans .. 585 QETO. | RAG. areata sspears ocala saree aie 590 50.00
Cucumbers . 360 27.50 TOMSUIOES «canis ieewsrecieces 416 43.00
Kale... 261 47.00 Cucumbers.. en us 318 26.00
Celery . 198 87.75 Celery ..... aie 97 66.00
Beets ........ 2 134 80.60 Beets cane a ven a 67 80.00
Miscellaneous .............06. AAGOES | acs an pacercice Miscellaneous 1.20 ccssaca anos Dg lQD: : lfersete is sre ees

LOLA; soso wsiainsiow eases « 37,181 Total sess. a staan eka weitere 25,714

 

 

 

 

 

 
174 MARYLAND.

To produce this truck a very intense system of cultivation is prac-
ticed, and the expenses are very great, while much of the success, after
all, depends upon the season and the condition of the markets. It
frequently happens that a crop bringing a good price when marketed,
would not have paid for the expense of transportation if put on the
market a day or two later. The truck planters, therefore, aim to get
their products to market at the earliest possible moment.

First-class truck land varies in value from $50 per acre to $200 per
acre, or even more, depending upon the kind and condition of the soil,
and particularly upon the location and ease of transportation. Land
immediately on the water is worth several times as much as similar
land two or three miles from the water or railroads, on account of the
difficulty and expense of transporting the tender and bulky crop, and the
damage done in the hauling and handling. Many of the very finest
truck lands in Southern Maryland are lying out as barren wastes, and
can be purchased for a merely nominal sum of from $1 to $5 per acre, on
account of the present lack of transportation facilities. When this
country is opened up and developed by railroad lines, which will foster
this interest, thousands of acres of the very finest truck and fruit lands
will be available, and the southern portion of the State will be one vast
market garden.

The labor on these truck farms is scarce, and wages are necessarily
high. The work is both continuous and exacting. Good laborers get
from $12 to $20 per month, with rations and a house. Skilled laborers
get more. Women get from 50 cents to 75 cents per day, and men from
75 cents toa dollar. The labor cost, on the leading varieties of veget-
ables, as given in the Census Bulletin (No. 41), in the two districts under
consideration, ranges from about $10 to $30 per acre. The cost of seeds
and plants ranges from 50 cents to $10 per acre, depending upon the
kind of vegetable. The fertilizer cost is from $10 to $50 per acre,
while the average net income per acre is estimated at from $30 to $100.
Certainly this is beyond all comparison more profitable than wheat or
corn, besides the possibility of creating new or larger demands. Trans-
portation facilities are constantly inproving and enlarging, and the use
of refrigerator cars, holding as much as four tons of ice, has made it
possible to transport vegetables to almost any distance in a fresh and
healthy condition; new markets for early truck and fruit are opening up
in the West and as far north as Canada. What may be done by the
introduction of new vegetables may be seen in the case of the tomato.
As late as 1830, the tomato was grown only as a curiosity, and as an
ornamental plant in gardens. It was hardly known as an edible plant,
and, indeed was by many considered poisonous. It is now one of our
principal crops, and is a staple article of food in nearly all families the
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 175

year round. It is used in its fresh state during its long season, and there
is an enormous industry in canning it for winter use. The market
demands have been increased by forcing the plants to an early maturity,
and by improved transportation facility. Only five or ten years ago
tomatoes, in the early spring before the local crop was ripe, were a
luxury, which few could afford; now successive crops are brought here
in abundance from the South, and they become a staple article of food
almost as soon as the winter is over. In our own State they are forced
under glass, or on the light truck soils, to an early maturity, when they
still bring a good price, while the later crops, from the heavier soils of
the State, are extensively canned for winter use. Much the same may be
said of strawberries, of lettuce, celery, asparagus, and many other crops
which were considered luxuries a few years ago, but which now are
staple articles of food during a comparatively long season, even in
families of moderate means.

It will be seen presently in describing the soils of the State that
much of the success of truck farming is due to the character of the soil.
Light sandy lands are most valuable for this industry, because when
properly treated the crop ripens much earlier than on the heavier lands
and, in consequence, demands a much higher market value. The aim of
the truck planter is to get the crop to market at the earliest possible
date, or else to delay it until the crops from the other parts of the State
have given out. On the heavier lands of Northern-Central and Western
Maryland, most of these vegetables may be grown with great success,
and, as a rule, the plants are much larger and yield more per acre, but
the crop is later in coming to maturity. It reaches the market from one
to three weeks later than the crop from the lighter truck lands, and it
must come into competition with similar crops from all parts of the
State. As a consequence, there is usually a glut in the market and the
crop frequently does not pay for the expense of transportation. The
whole business of truck farming is comparatively new, having existed
as a separate industry only since 1860.

Where the crop cannot be sold with profit in the fresh state, it may
be canned and preserved for winter use, and this canning industry has
grown of late years to enormous proportions, and has given a great stim-
ulus to truck farming. Maryland has been the leading State, and
Harford the leading county for this industry until 1891, when from
various causes, and partly on account of variable seasons, New Jersey
took the lead, to yield it again, however, in 1892.

The largest yield of tomatoes was in 1888, when 968,733 cases were
put up in this State alone, each case holding two dozen cans. In that
same year there were over a million cases of corn put up in the State,
176 MARYLAND.

although this figure is far in excess of the production in subsequent
years.

In Harford county there has been a larger area planted in tomatoes
for canning purposes than in any similar extent of territory in the
United States, and this industry has replaced, to a large extent, the culti-
vation of the old staples, wheat and corn. Tomatoes and corn are the
principal crops in these northern counties; in the southern counties and
on the Eastern Shore, peas, beans, strawberries, peaches and cherries are
extensively raised for canning.

A greater part of the tomato crop, and nearly all the corn crop is
packed by local canning houses, although when the peach crop is short,
many of the city packers turn their attention to tomatoes. As a rule,
the other vegetables and fruits are shipped to the cities for canning.

As there is no particular purpose in having the crop intended for
canning mature early, the yield and quality of the crop is of more impor-
tance, and the soils are selected with reference to these particulars. The
lighter soils of the gneiss and gabbro formations are selected for this
purpose because they are easier worked and the crops mature better than
on the heavier lands.

The bulk of the pea crop is grown in Anne Arundel county. In 1892
365,000 bushels of peas were canned from this one county, as estimated
by the Canned Goods Exchange, and this is a low estimate, for it does
not include the product of the local canning factories.

The production of fruits did not exist in this State as a separate
industry before 1830. At this time there were only a few peach orchards
adjacent to Baltimore City, and the cultivation of strawberries was
confined to small areas in market gardens. About this time, however, a
Mr. Cassidy came from Philadelphia and bought three hundred acres of
land in Cecil county and put out the first large peach orchard in the
State, except those in Anne Arundel county supplying the local Balti-
more market. Mr. Cassidy sold his crops in Philadelphia for excellent
prices, and this stimulated the growing of peaches on the Eastern Shore,
and the industry spread with great rapidity. By 1840 the peach crop
exceeded the market demands, and there was a glut in the market, the
crop bringing the lowest prices which have ever prevailed. This demor-
alized the peach growers, and many orchards were subsequently rooted
up. About this time, however, the canning interest sprang up, and not
only relieved the market at that time but it has constantly and steadily
increased the demand.

The peach interest is at present confined to the Eastern Shore,
Southern Maryland and to the mountains in the far western part of the
State, which latter has been treated of in another place.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 177

There are few peaches now grown in Cecil county, where the industry
was introduced into the State, or in the northern central counties, as
peaches do not do well on these heavy gabbro and gneiss soils.

The peach interest has been steadily moving southward on the
peuinsula for some years back. About forty years ago the “peach
yellows” seriously crippled the peach industry in New Jersey, and this
disease has been gradually spreading southward, and has destroyed many
of the orchards in Delaware and in the northern counties on the Hastern
Shore, but it is not felt at all in the southern counties of the peninsula.

The Eastern Shore counties rank in the importance of the peach
industry about as follows: Kent, Queen Anne, Caroline, Dorchester,
Talbot, Wicomico, Somerset and Worcester; but the industry is rapidly
extending in the lower counties, and it is believed that before long this
will be the great peach-producing area. In southern Maryland the
industry is very extensive in Anne Arundel, Calvert and St. Mary’s
counties.

It is impossible to get exact figures of the total peach crop, as the
crop is shipped in such various ways. The most trustworthy estimates,
however, place the average crop of the peninsula, including Delaware and
the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and Virginia, at 2,000,000 bushels,
although it has at times reached double this amount, and has been almost
a failure in other years. The mountain peach industry has an advantage
over the lowland crop in that the mountain crop is seldom, if ever, a
failure, while the lowland crop is very frequently injured by late frost.
The two crops do not conflict, as the mountain peaches come in after the
lowland crop is over and bring an excellent price.

Before 1830 strawberries were confined to small patches in market
gardens near the cities. Between 1830 and 1840 a Mr. Crisp came over
from Kent Island and put out a large strawberry bed in Anne Arundel
county, not farfrom Baltimore. He shipped the berries to Philadelphia
and got an excellent price for them; and these were probably the first
berries shipped from the State. The interest thus started spread rapidly,
and it is estimated that in 1892 no less than 1,000,000 quarts of straw-
berries were shipped to northern and western markets from Anne Arundel
county alone, besides a large quantity cousumed in the Baltimore market.
The introduction of the refrigerator car has widened the market for
strawberries enormously. Four tons of ice are put into these cars, and
the berries can then be shipped to Canada and opened in almost as good
condition as when they left home; and the cry of “Ann Aranel” straw-
berries is about as familiar and as welcome in Montreal as it ever has
been in the Baltimore markets.

The crop is shipped direct by the producer to New York, Boston,
Canada, Pittsburg, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and to all points reached by a

12
178 MARYLAND.

single railroad system, where the cars can be billed through and run on
a fast freight schedule. In this way they can be sent by fast freight
about as quickly and usually for about half the cost as when sent by
express.

It is interesting to note the way the direction of shipments changes
as the season passes. Early crops come to the Baltimore market, or
pass through it from the South, in successive crops from Florida, South
and North Carolina and Virginia, and then, when our own crop is passed,
berries are shipped here from New York and other northern points; so
the crop goes up the coast and back once in a season, and the interme-
diate points have both a northern and southern trade.

The strawberry interest is greatest in Anne Arundel county, although
it has lately assumed large proportions in Baltimore and some of the
other northern counties. It has been taken up with great interest in all
the Eastern Shore counties, especially in Wicomico, Caroline and Som-
erset. The admirable railroad and water facilities on the Eastern Shore,
together with the peculiar nature of the land, adapt this region particu-
larly to the fruit and truck interest.

Pears have not been grown to any very great extent as a special
industry in this State, but of late years the interest has been increasing.
This is the case especially on the Eastern Shore, where pears are replac-
ing peaches to a very considerable extent in the northern counties. It is
said that the blight, which has been very destructive in other parts of
the State, gives little trouble on the Eastern Shore, and that where it
does occur it yields readily to treatment.

Wild blackberries grow very abundantly in southern Maryland and
on the Eastern Shore, and this is even now a very important industry in
the State. The first attempt at planting the improved varieties was in
Anne Arundel county, about 1855, shortly after the introduction of
the Lorton berries had aroused an interest in the culture. The
cultivation of blackberries is an important industry in Anne Arundel and
Baltimore counties, and in Caroline, Wicomico and the upper Eastern
Shore counties.

Raspberries are cultivated quite extensively in Anne Arundel county,
principally for canning and preserving.

The canning industry has greatly increased the demand for fruits
‘and vegetables and has increased the value of the crops. Thirty years
ago fresh berries usually sold in Baltimore for about one cent per quart.
They now bring five or ten cents per quart, and even more. Peaches
retailed at about ten cents per peck, but now average about thirty cents.
Peas brought about forty cents per bushel, and now bring, on an average,
about $1.20 per bushel.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 179

Dairying. The production of milk and butter on the farm for home
consumption and, to a limited extent, for near markets, has always been
successful in certain sections of the State; but, like truck farming,
dairying has only existed as a separate industry within recent years, and
it has grown very rapidly on account of improvements in dairy methods
and of the great extension of markets by the improved transportation
facilities. The dairy interest entered this State from Pennsylvania,
butter being at first the principal product. Within very recent years the
milk trade has replaced the butter to a very large extent, as new markets
have been opened, or rather as means of transportation have been
improved. The principal markets for milk are Baltimore, Washington
and Philadelphia, in the order named, and the milk trade is carried on
within a radius of about twenty-five miles of these centres. Harford,
Baltimore and Montgomery counties are the largest milk-producing
counties in the State, on account of their location near Baltimore and
their excellent transportation facilities. Frederick, Carroll and Cecil
counties come next in order in the extent of the milk trade. This
interest has grown to very large proportions. The milk trade is practi-
cally confined to those portions of the State where hay and pasturage or
other good forage can be produced, and it is further limited by distance
from the markets and by the means of transportation.

The second advance in the development of the dairy interest in the
State was in the introduction of creameries for the disposition of milk
which was too far from the markets to be sold as such. The first
creamery was established in the State about 1884, and they have rapidly
increased until there are at present between fifty and sixty establish-
ments in different parts of the State. There are a few co-operative
creameries where the owners of the cows also own or have an interest in
the factory and divide the expenses and the profits of the business.
Most of the creameries, however, are proprietary affairs owned by an
individual or a company, where milk is bought outright for a certain
sum per 100 pounds.

The creameries are not confined to butter-making alone, but in
certain times of the year and in certain conditions of the market cream
and ice-cream are sold in large quantities. Some of the skim-milk is
made into cheese, but it is usually considered a waste product and is fed
to hogs. The manufacture of cheese has never been much of an industry
in the State.

There is still much farm dairying and much butter is made on the
farms, but large sections have changed to the production of milk, and
farmers are selling more and more of their milk to the creameries rather
than manufacture it themselves into butter. The rapid growth of the
creamery interest has resulted from improved dairy methods, by which
180 MARYLAND.

dairying has been made independent of an ice supply, which was
regarded as essential twenty years ago.

The chief obstacle in the dairy interest, and one which is universally
felt, is garlic. It is impossible to eradicate this from the pastures.
Certain chemical methods have very recently been introduced in Holland
by which the taint of garlic in the milk has been removed, and these
may, perhaps, obviate this disadvantage.

The creamery industry is quite extensive in Howard, Montgomery,
Frederick and Carroll counties, with Mt. Airey as a centre of the district.
It is also an important industry in Cecil and Kent counties, and a few
creameries are scattered as far south as Talbot county on the Eastern
Shore.

The dairy stock is, for the most part, the native stock of the country
with a strong infusion of Jersey blood. The Holstein-Friesian have been
favorites with some for milk production for several years, and there are
several fine herds in different parts of the State. Guernseys have been
introduced within recent years and have been gradually increasing in
numbers and favor. In the western counties farmers still cling to the
Durham or Short-horn as the foundation stock.

Fattening Cattle. Another very important industry of a special
line, which has attained very large proportions in this State, is the fatten-
ing of store cattle for market. The following information and account
of this industry has been obtained mainly from Hon. David Seibert, of
Washington county, Mr. Robert H. Miller, of Montgomery county, director
of the Agricultural Experiment Station, and Mr. 8. A. Williams, of Har-
ford county.

Store cattle are purchased about the month of September, the number
depending upon the size of the farm, the amount and condition of the
pasturage and the amount of corn fodder and of other similar products
which are available to feed them on. Usually from 10 to 100 head of
cattle are purchased according to these conditions. Cattle weighing from
1,000 to 1,200 pounds are desired for this purpose, and those which come
from Virginia and West Virginia are preferred. The cattle are at once
turned cut to pasture. and often they are not otherwise fed until they are
sold the following year. When the winter is severe, however, the cattle
are fed fcr two months on short or soft-ear corn, which is not considered
marketable, and with corn-fodder, hay and straw. When the inferior
corn is exhausted good ear-corn is often crushed with one-fifth oats, or
light mill-feed bran is mixed with the crushed corn, and fed at the rate
of three gallons to each animal per day. The pastures, however, are the
main dependence, and usually the farm is stocked with reference to the
extent and condition of the pasture. When sold, the smaller and lighter
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 181

cattle are sent to the Washington, Baltimore or Philadelphia markets,
while the tops or best ones are purchased for the Liverpool market.

The price of store cattle and of fattened cattle varies greatly with
the season and the state of the market. The prices for store cattle range
from about $3 to $4 per 100 pounds gross weight. The selling price
varies from about $4 to $5.25. The cattle are usually kept from eight to
ten months, and they gain on an average from 300 to 450 pounds in that
time, or about fifty poundsa month. This increase in weight and the
advance in the selling price are supposed to cover the expenses of feeding
and keeping the cattle, and a good deal of rough food is utilized in this
way which would otherwise be wasted, and the lands are improved as
they get the benefit of a large amount of manure produced. ~-

This industry is confined principally to the northern central and
western Maryland regions, where there is an abundance of grain, wheat,
straw, corn and corn fodder. The interest is rather declining in northern
central Maryland, as the margin is narrower between the buying and
selling prices and other interests have taken the place of the old staples
of grass, wheat and corn. It is increasing, however, in western Maryland,
especially in Washington county, where the farmers are stocking their
farms to the fullest capacity, realizing the benefit to the lands of having
the stock in the increased production of the staple crops through the
utilization of the rough food on the place and returning it to the land
again in the form of manure.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL SOIL FORMATIONS OF THE STATE,

‘here is a greater number of geological formations in Maryland
than in any other State, and consequently a very great variety of soils.
To understand the variety of interests presented by this diversity of
soils, and to know what crops are best adapted to the lands, we must
understand these different soil formations and their relation to the
growth and development of plants. It will be necessary to review
very briefly the generally accepted views in regard to plant nutrition,
so that ‘we can understand why certain crops are best adapted to
these different lands. We must try to understand why it is that a
yield of thirty or forty bushels of wheat per acre can be obtained from
the heavy limestone soils of western Maryland as readily as five or ten
bushels from the light sandy truck lands of southern Maryland, or why
truck will ripen much earlier on these light sandy lands than it does on
the heavier wheat lands; for it is only when we understand these rela-
tions of soils to the life, growth and development of plants that we
may hope to understand the adaptation of our different soils and the
treatment best suited to maintain their fertility, or to increase their
productiveness.
182 MARYLAND.

Much of this work on the Maryland soils has been done by the U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, and will appear later in the form of a bulle-
tin. It is published here by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture.
Credit should also be given the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station for co-operation in the work for a period of about two years.

The Prevailing Views of Plant Nutrition. The prevailing views
in regard to the nutrition of plants may be briefly stated. Before Liebig’s
time the mineral matter which composes the ashes of plants was
generally believed to be an accidental impurity and not in any way essen-
tial to the life or growth of the plant; but since Liebig’s doctrine ot the
mineral theory of plant growth it has been proved that plants require
certain mineral substances for their life and normal growth. The most
common and most abundant of these mineral substances are phosphoric
acid, potash, lime, alumina, magnesia, iron, silica, sulphuric acid and the
like. These mineral substances are necessary to build up the vegetable
tissues, and to form the various organic substances which are contained
in the cells, and they are required also for various physiological actions
which take place in the growth of the plant; for example, potash is
required in the transfer of starch and of other food materials from one
part of the plant to another. These mineral matters are ordinarily
obtained from the soil. Different plants require different amounts of
this mineral matter. Thus, 100 pounds of pine wood contain less than
half a pound of ashes or mineral matters obtained from the soil, all the
rest of its substance being obtained directly or indirectly from the atmos-
phere. The tobacco plant, on the contrary, which is the grossest feeder
we have among agricultural plants, contains from 15 to 25 pounds of
mineral matter derived from the soil in one hundred pounds of the
plants.

It has been proved, that of the mineral substances entering into the
composition of plants, all are present in abundance and in an available
form for plants to feed on in nearly all soils, with the exception of phos-
phoric acid, potash and lime, and possibly also magnesia and sulphuric
acid. Soils rarely contain less than one ton of phosphoric acid and of
potash per acre one foot deep, and usually from two to twenty tons of
each, and when we consider that the roots of plants usually go very
much deeper than twelve inches and that the surface of the ground is
constantly wearing away a little, it will be seen that there is a very large
amount of plant food in the soil for crops.

Nitrogen is another very important plant food, entering largely into
the composition of organic matters. Strictly speaking, this is not of
mineral origin, for the direct source of supply is the organic matter of
the soil. It was probably originally derived from the atmosphere, but
it has not yet been satisfactorily explained how the free nitrogen gas of
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 1838

the atmosphere is converted into the organic matter of the soil, except
that it has recently been shown to be principally through the agency of
bacteria. °

It was thought by Liebig and his immediate followers, that a com-
parison of the analyses of a soil and plant would show what was lacking
in the soil for a large crop production. A plant having a large amount
of lime in its composition, for example, would require a highly cal-
careous soil, while a plant having a large amount of nitrogen would
require a soil especially rich in nitrogenous matters.

A large amount of work has been based upon this belief in the
analysis of soils and plants, and tables have been prepared for calculat-
ing the exhaustion of soils by crops and their enrichment by manures.
It has been clearly demonstrated, however, that there is no such simple
relation between the ordinary chemical composition of plants and soils,
as was at first supposed.

It has been shown that the amount of food material taken up from
the soil by a single crop is relatively so small that its loss cannot be
detected with any certainty by a subsequent chemical analysis of the
soil, while the addition of no more than 20 pounds of potash or of phos-
phoric acid or of some nitrogenous compound, may insure a good crop
where otherwise it would have been a failure. This quantity of plant
food is relatively so small that if it were uniformly mixed with the soil
it could not be detected by an ordinary chemical analysis. Further-
more, it has been shown repeatedly that very barren soils, or soils
“worn out” and “exhausted,” may have as much plant food, as shown
by the ordinary chemical analysis, as other soils which are known to be
exceedingly fertile.

It is no wonder that, as these facts become apparent, there should be
a revulsion of feeling, and that these soil investigations should be dis-
credited. Fortunately the investigations have not stopped here.

This plant food is derived from the disintegration of the mineral
matters in the soil, such as the feldspar, mica, &c., and in the decomposi-
tion of these minerals new compounds are being constantly formed.
For instance clay, which in its pure form is a silicate of alumina con-
taining a little combined water, and the silicate of potash, which is a
form of potash readily available to plants, are being formed from the
decomposition of some of the feldspars and micas, while these decom-
position products themselves may act on other constituents on the soil,
forming new compounds, which are more or less readily available to
plants. There are probably, therefore, constant and continual changes in
the chemical composition of the soil ingredients. It is commonly held,
nowadays, that only a small part of the plant food in the soil is in such
a form of chemical combination as to be readily available to plants, and
184 MARYLAND.

that it does not accumulate in the soil in an available form, but if it is
not taken up at once by plants it quickly reverts to a rocky or insoluble
form in which it is no longer available.

It is further believed that plants differ in their capacities for extract-
ing food from soils. It is a common expression that rye will thrive
where wheat would starve. It does not follow, by any means, that a
plant containing a relatively large amount of nitrogen in its composition
does best on a highly nitrogenous soil, or that it requires a special
nitrogenous manuring, for, as a rule, the highly nitrogenous leguminous
plants, such as peas, respond more readily to phosphoric acid or to potash
than they do to nitrogen. Other plants, requiring relatively large quan-
tities of phosphoric acid or of potash or of lime, seem to be able to
gather these ingredients with comparative ease from the soil, and
respond more readily to an application of other plant food of which
they contain relatively very little in their composition.

These two facts then are commonly held: that only a relatively small
amount of plant food in the soil is in a form which is readily available
to plants, and a soil is “worn out” or “exhausted” when the store of
available plant food is used up or depleted, when means must be taken
by rest, fertilization or by green manuring to increase this available food
supply; and that plants vary in their powers of gathering food from the
soil. Starting from this it was suggested that the direct question should
be put to the soil to find out what was lacking for a maximum produc-
tion; and with this object extensive series of field experiments with
fertilizers have been carried out in all parts of this country and abroad.

It was at first thought, and is still held by some, that this method of
field experiments with fertilizers would show what the different classes
of plants require for their best development, and that from these results
special fertilizers could be prepared for wheat, corn, cotton or for any
other crop. Professor Atwater carried out a very extensive series of field
experiments of this kind with the co-operation of farmers in all parts of
the country. His results show, however, that even in such a compara-
tively small area as the State of Connecticut the corn crop required very
different fertilizers on different farms; on one farm only phosphoric acid
showed any marked effect in increasing the crop,on another farm potash,
on another farm nitrogen, and on still another farm all three of these
elements were required to give any marked increase in the crop.

These results are not at all uncommon nor exceptional. It is a very
common experience that the same kind of plant requires different treat-
ment and responds to different kinds of fertilizers on different soils; and
further that they respond more readily to different fertilizers in different
seasons. None of the various schemes which have been suggested for
determining the amount of available plant food in the soil have given
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 185

much definite information of more than local interest in regard to the
special requirements of plants or the soil.

The results of these field experiments, which have been carried on
in some places for fifty years, are very uncertain and conflicting, and
while they are doubtless of value in showing the general needs of a
particular field, the results cannot be used with safety in the cultivation
of the same crop on a different kind of soil.

It is as easy to produce forty bushels of wheat per acre on some of
our heavy limestone lands as it is to produce five or ten bushels on some
of the light truck lands of southern Maryland.

The conditions are so entirely different in these two types of soil
that it is not to be expected that the same method of cultivation and of
manuring which gave a yield of forty bushels'on the limestone land
would give an equally large yield on the tiuck soil; and it would be still
more absurd to suppose that the methods used in the moist climate of
England would give the same yield on these light truck lands. It is a
source of great disappointment to many farmers to find a certain brand
of fertilizer, a certain kind of treatment, or a certain rotation of crops
which has been eminently successful on the heavy soils of western
Maryland, or under the peculiar conditions prevailing in England, does not
give the same results on the lighter soils of southern Maryland.

The time has passed for blindly following rules of manuring, crop-
ping or of rotation simply because they have been successfully followed
for generations in England. The conditions have altogether changed, and
the successful farmer must specialize his work as the mechanic does, and
raise only such crops as suit his conditions and surroundings.

The light fruit and truck lands of southern Maryland have been
shown by a chemical analysis* to contain as much plant food as the
fertile grass and wheat lands of northern central and western Maryland.
So far as the total amount of plant food is concerned, the truck lands
seem to have as much as many of the stronger types of land, but less
available plant food.

Plants require relatively so little of the vast supply of food material
in the soil, that if the low yield of wheat on these truck soils were due
solely to a lack of available plant food it would be very easy to add to
the soil as much plant food as would be required by a large crop; and it
would be reasonable to expect in this case, as the plant would be
independent of the soil for its food supply, that a large crop of wheat
could thus be raised, but this is not so. For even if all the elements of
plant food required by a large wheat crop were added to the truck soil in

 

*The chemical analysis is being made of samples of all the principal soil formations of Maryland by
Prof. R. L. Packard, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, at the Johns Hopkins University; and
when this careful chemical work has been completed it will be published in a bulletin.
186 MARYLAND.

the most available form, there would be no certainty whatever that the
yield would be very materially increased.

Let us inquire, then, what are the conditions which determine the
peculiar fitness of the different soils in the State for certain crops, and
see if we have these under any control, so that by changing these
conditions we can influence the yield or quality of our crops.

This matter has been treated quite fully in Bulletin No. 4 of the
Weather Bureau of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and in the
Monthly Report of the Maryland State Weather Service, vol. 2, No. 10,
January, 1893, both of which have been freely used in the preparation of
this matter.

In a green-house, where all the conditions of plant growth are under
nearly perfect control, the same kind of soil may be used to grow almost
any kind of plant, whether it be oranges, bananas, pineapples, roses,
geraniums, tomatoes, cabbages, lettuce or radishes. The same kind of
soil may be used, but each kind of plant will require certain conditions
of moisture and heat, and when these conditions are changed the
development of the plant may be largely controlled. If a geranium be
wanted for a simple foliage plant it can be kept from blooming and
developed to a very large size with a great number of leaves by keeping
the soil moderately warm and moist. If it be desired to have the plant
bloom profusely the soil must be kept drier and cooler. Thus the
development of the plant is under nearly perfect control, and it is very
customary for florists to force their plants to any kind of development
by the simple control of moisture and heat; to make large and leafy
plants of them, or to keep them smaller by checking this excessive
growth of foliage and make them put all their substance into a profusion
of flowers and fruit.

We see the same effects in nature. In very heavy, wet soils and in
wet seasons plants are inclined to grow very large, and they do not put on
as much fruit as they should, considering the size of the plant and the
amount of food-material they have gathered from the soil and air.
Under these conditions tobacco plants are large and rank, the leaves are
coarse and sappy and do not cure well or take on good color; on drier
soils and in drier seasons the leaves have a finer texture and a brighter
color. The cotton plant shows this influence of the wetness or dryness
of the soil and of the season to a very marked extent, and wheat shows
it, although to a less extent. Indeed, it is well known that the “season,”
that is, the conditions of moisture and heat, have far more effect upon
the crop than fertilizers usually have. The effect of fertilizers them-
selves is very largely dependent upon the season. We find, then, that in
nature as in the green-house the development of plants and the yield of
crops is very largely dependent upon the conditions of moisture and
heat under which they are grown.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 187

We have a large number of distinct types of soils in Maryland,
ranging in texture and in agricultural value from the very light, sandy
soils of the pine barrens and of the ,truck lands to the very heavy
limestone soils of western Maryland. The light, sandy soils are so open
and porous that water readily descends through them after a rain. The
heavy limestone soils, on the other hand, are so close in texture and so
retentive of moisture that the rainfall passes down through them very
slowly. The rainfall does not do the crops any good until it enters the
soil. Even assuming that we have the same amount and distribution of
rainfall over the whole State, the soils are so different in their retentive
powers that some will maintain much more of this rainfall for the crop
than others.

For example, the limestone soil will maintain, on an average, from
18 to 20 per cent. of water, or about 400 tons of water per acre one foot
deep; while the light truck soils will maintain only about a quarter of
this amount, that is, about 5 or 6 per cent. of moisture, or say 100 tons of
water per acre. The limestone soil to the depth of one foot maintains an
amount corresponding to 4 inches of rainfall, while the light, sandy
truck land maintains an equivalent of only 1 inch of rainfall. Now the
difference in the effect on a crop of a season when there are 4 inches of
rainfall a month, and when there is only 1 inch of rainfall a month, is
very great. For if we have an average of 4+ inches of well-distributed
rainfall a month a good wheat crop is assured on the limestone soils,
but if we have an average of only 1 inch of rainfall a month the crop will
bea failure. As a matter of fact we have, on an average, about 4 inches
of rainfall a month in Maryland, and this is sufficient for a good wheat
crop on the limestone soils, but, as we have seen, the light, sandy truck
lands are so porous that they let this water down very freely, and only
maintain for the crop an amount equal to about 1 inch of the rainfall.
The effect is nearly the same asif the soil were uniform in both cases,
and 4 inches of rain had fallen on the crop on the limestone soil, but
only one inch had fallen on the other crop.

Now we have seen that if there should be as much difference as this
in the amvuunt of water supplied to plants in a green-house, that those
plants which received the most water would develop into large, leafy
plants, which would be late in coming to maturity, while the plants
receiving the less amount of water would be smaller, but there would be *
a greater tendency to fruit,and the plants would mature much earlier.
This is precisely the effect on the two soils under consideration. When
wheat is sown on the sandy truck soil it does not tiller well, but throws
up one or two stalks which attain hardly any size before each takes on a
seed head and the plant ripens. The conditions have not been favorable
for the development of a sufficient amount of foliage to gather enough
188 MARYLAND.

plant food from the soil and atmosphere for a large crop, but the plant
has been forced to maturity before it has attained sufficient size. The
crop is large in proportion to the amount of food material which has
been gathered by the plant, but there is relatively so little of this that it
gives a very small yield per acre. On the heavy limestone soil, on the
other hand, the crop grows slowly, gets a good root development, tillers
well, and produces a mass of foliage which gathers a quantity of food
material from the soil and air.

The conditions in these light, sandy soils, while unfavorable as a
rule to wheat and grass, are distinctly favorable for forcing crops to an
early development, and this is what gives them their great value for
early truck. By forcing these vegetables to an early maturity the crop
is put on the market two or three weeks earlier than is possible
on the heavier soils of the State, and it gets the benefit of a high mar-
ket price; while the same crop grown ona limestone soil would be so late
in coming to maturity that it would have to compete with all other parts
of the State, and there would likely be a glut in the market and the
crop would bring a very low price.

A number of samples of soils were taken in the truck area of southern
Maryland which show the relation of the texture of the soils to the local
distribution of plants.

The following table gives the mechanical analysis of the sub-soils,
showing the amount of the different grades of sand, silt and clay:

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF TRUCK AND WHEAT SUBSOILS FROM SOUTHERN

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

MARYLAND.
472. | 467. 478. | 480.
|
DIAMETER. CONVENTIONAL NAMES. | 7 Peas, | Stron
EarlyTruck, Truck and | Tomatoes, Wheat end
Marley. Small Fruit.| Cabbage, Grass
| Wheat. .
mm.
2-1 Hine gravels sacs osacs eter ae eae ens sos 28 0.49 0.76 2.05 0.00
1-.5 Coarse sand.........eeeee as 4.96 8.55 3.31 0.38
-5- 25 | Medium sand ats 40.19 35.04 541 | 1.07
25-.1 Fine sand sie scsi. sos eine ae fees 27.59 19.26 2.89 0.78
-1-.05 Very fine sand nia 12.10 8.42 6.06 | 8.41
-05-.01 | Silt..........-- ead 7.74 11.38 40.15 | 48.08
-01-.005 | Fine silt.............06. sui 2.23 4.138 | 18.14 | 18.81
2005-2 000). § Clay: ss ace seme noes news. ¢ Kea gees eees 4.40 | 10.59 | 23.84 ; 30.21
Metblasel s chan sent vumnye ewe oesyat 99.70 | 98.18 | 96.85 | 92.80
Organic matter, water, lose.......... .60 cece eee renee 0.20 | 1.87 3.15 7.20
de Approximate
Surface number
aD: Bat Clay. area. of grains per
gram.
" Per Cent. Sq. cm.
472, | Warly tiack;, Marl@y'sec.0 sacs cc o:s:sdwusia sie aiid cies ave eS eins bi 4.40 615 1,950,000,000
467 | Truck and small fruit............... .....0005, Sei 10.59 1,244 4,767,000,000
478 | Peas, tomatoes, cabbage, wheat. .............. aioe 23.84 2,242 10,923, 000,000
480 | Strong wheat and grass land...............ce eee ee eee eee 30.21 3,479 14,457,000,000

 

 

 

 

 
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 7 189

472 represents the very early truck lands of Marley, which will be
described in another place. The other soils were taken about three or
four miles from Marley, and are from the same farm and only a few
hundred feet apart, so that all the soils are under practically the same
meteorological conditions and have practically the same amount of rain-
fall.

480 is a strong grass and wheat land from a ridge having an elevation
of about 160 feet. It would be classed anywhere as a strong wheat soil
and very good grass land.

478 came from a level plateau or terrace just under the ridge, and
was evidently formed of the same material. It is a much lighter soil
than that on the top of the ridge, but it is still a good wheat land. It is
too heavy for sweet potatoes and cantaloupes, and it is too heavy for
early truck. It is considered a good tomato, corn and cabbage land,
although the crops do not ripen as early as on the lighter soils. Peas do
well on this land, but they cannot be grown two years in succession, for
the large amount of nitrogenous matter in the roots and vines makes the
soil very close and heavy, and the second year there is a large amount of
pea vines, but a very small crop of peas is obtained from them. Wheat
is nearly always sown after the peas, then grass, followed by corn, and
then peas again. Some such rotation as this is necessary to keep the
land open and in good condition.

467 is well suited to truck and small fruits. It is a coarse, sandy
soil,and matures the crops very much earlier than either of those just
mentioned. It is not as light in texture nor as early as the truck lands
at Marley.

472 is a typical sandy truck land from Marley. The crop matures
on this land from one to three weeks earlier than on the other soils
mentioned, and while the yield per acre is not as large, the crop brings a
very much higher market price.

The productiveness of these lands increases with the amount of clay
they contain and with the number of grains of sand and clay per
gram. These are the very conditions which determine the relation of
the soils to water and the ainount of moisture they maintain. It cannot
be doubted that the peculiar adaptation of these soils to the different
kinds of crops is due to the texture of the land and to the relation of the
soils to water.

The strong clay soil (480) is not lacking in any particular plant food
which would be required by a crop of sweet potatoes or of cantaloupes.
It probably contains the elements of plant food needed by a crop of
tomatoes, but the tomato vines would be large and bushy—they would
be late in coming to maturity, and the yield would be very small in
proportion to the size of the plants. All kinds of truck would be late in
190 MARYLAND.

coming to maturity. These are signs that the soil is too moist and has
retained too much of the rainfall for the best and earliest development of
these crops. These conditions are favorable to grass and wheat, for both
these crops require a long and slow period of growth so that they can put
on a large amount of foliage before it is time to ripen a crop.

The light truck land, on the contrary, will not grow a large crop of
grass or wheat because the conditions are not favorable to the slow
growth required by these plants to produce foliage to gather food
material from the soil and air, as previously explained, for the crop.

If these truck soils were systematically irrigated, and the crops on
them were supplied, either naturally or artificially, with more water
than the soils themselves can maintain under existing climatic condi-
tions, good crops of grass or wheat could be grown. The very conditions
which make them unfit for grass and wheat, however, give them their
peculiar value for early truck, as the crops are forced to maturity much
earlier than they can be produced on the heavier soils of the State.
With exactly the same rainfall these light truck lands will maintain
about five or six per cent. of water, while the heavier grass or wheat
land (480) will maintain about fourteen to sixteen per cent. of water.

It seems probable, from this and other evidence, that if the physical
conditions of moisture and heat are favorable to the proper development
of crops, that plants can, in general, get all the food they need from any
soil.

The relative amount of moisture which these soils can maintain will
depend not only upon how many grains there are in one gram, but upon
the way in which these grains are arranged, as well as upon the amount
and condition of the organic matter in the soil. It is a well Known fact
that the continued use of lime on stiff heavy clay lands makes them
looser and more loamy, and less retentive of moisture. Indeed, lime is
very injurious to light sandy lands unless there is sufficient organic matter
“for the lime to act on.” For if the lime is used on such lands when
there is an insufficient supply of organic matter, the soils are made still
less retentive of moisture. If there is sufficient organic matter, however,
in the soil, or supplied artificially, for the lime to act on, it makes even
these light soils closer in texture and more retentive of moisture. This
is the reason why lime is so universally beneficial to all classes of soils;
but with the heavy, impervious clay soils it must be used alone, while
with the light sandy soils it must be used in connection with organic
matter.

In the deterioration of lands, when soils become “worn out” or
“ exhausted,” the texture of the soil changes so as to change the rela-
tion of the soil to water, and the soil may thereafter be able to maintain
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 191

either more or less water than formerly, which will make the conditions
unfavorable for the crop.

The development of the crop shows very plainly that the conditions
of moisture in the soil have changed, for the plants are either inclined
to excessive growth of foliage, or they ripen up while the plants are still
small, as the case may be.

Fertilizers have a very marked effect on the texture of soils, and it
is possible, through their use, to change the arrangement of the grains
of sand and clay, and so make the soil more or less retentive of moisture.
We thus have in our manures and fertilizers very powerful means of
maintaining or of changing the texture of the soil through the arrange-
ments of the soil grains, thereby changing the conditions of moisture
and heat, which they can maintain for the crop. This physical effect of
fertilizers is probably of the very greatest importance.

The following table gives a list of the most important soil forma-
tions in Maryland, with their location, the crops best adapted to them,
the average content of sand, silt and clay showing the texture of the
lands, the surface area of the grains and the approximate number of
grains in one gram.

The relative agricultural value of these lands for the staple crops is
about as given in the table; the Trenton limestone being the finest type
of grass and wheat land, and the Lafayette being the poorest in the
State. The agricultural value for these staple crops increases with the
percentage of clay.
MARYLAND.

192

 

 

 

   
  

 

 
  
 

 

 

 
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

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AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 193

A number of the important soil formations of the State have not
been studied in sufficient detail to enable them to be arranged in the
above table, but these will be described further on.

The soils in the table have been arranged according to the percent-
age of clay in the subsoil, for this clay, as we have seen, practically
determines the texture of the land, the relation of the soils to the rain-
fall, and the amount of water which the soils can maintain for the
crops. When thus arranged according to their content of clay, the soils
are in the order of their relative agricultural value for the staple crops;
that is, the more clay the lands contain the more valuable they are for
grass and wheat, provided the grains of sand and clay are well arranged.
Another interesting thing is that the figures here given for the percent-
age of clay also represent very nearly the yield of wheat per acre which
could be expected from these lands under good treatment. For instance,
the same care and treatment which would be necessary to obtain a yield
of forty to forty-five bushels per acre from the Trenton limestone, around
Frederick or Hagerstown, would give about thirty bushels per acre on
the gabbro, from ten to twenty bushels on the tobacco and wheat lands
of southern Maryland, and from three to five bushels per acre on the
light truck lands and pine barrens. Provided, therefore, that the grains
of sand and clay are well arranged in the soil, the yield of wheat per
acre under good treatment, and under the prevailing climatic conditions
is very nearly expressed by the percentage of clay.

It is interesting also to note that the percentage of clay, as given in
the table, represents very nearly the actual value of these lands for
wheat, the land being worth about one dollar per acre for every per cent.
of clay. The Trenton limestone lands are worth from $40 to $60 per
acre, except where they are very favorably situated near towns and on
first-class turnpikes, when they may be worth much more than this. If
the Trenton limestone is worth on the average about $45 per acre, the
gabbro soil would be worth about $30 or $35 per acre, the tobacco and
wheat lands of southern Maryland would be worth from $15 to $25 per
acre, and the early truck lands and pine barrens from $1 to $5 per acre
for this staple crop. As a matter of fact, these are about the present
market values of these lands for these staple crops.

The area and distribution of these lands can be seen on the accompa-
nying geological and agricultural map of the State.

THE PRINCIPAL SOIL FORMATIONS OF THE STATE.

The principal soils of the State have been classified according to
their agricultural value or adaptation for the old staple crops—grass,
wheat, corn and tobacco—and according to their geological origin. There
are obviously many considerations which help to determine the real

13
194 MARYLAND.

market value of lands, apart from their adaptation to crops. For
example, the distance to market, the ease and cost of transportation, and
the condition of the roads over which the products have to be hauled
have much to do with the market value of lands. These factors have
not been considered in the classification. It must be remembered also
that the soils are arranged in the order of their value for the old staple
crops, and that the present agricultural values of these lands when
devoted to the crops for which they are especially adapted are very
different. For example, the truck soils, which come near the bottom of
the list in their value for grass and wheat, have a market value for early
truck much greater than the heavy limestone grass lands, where facili-
ties are available for transportation of the truck to market.

SOILS OF WESTERN AND NORTHERN CENTRAL MARYLAND.

The Trenton limestone forms the strongest and most fertile lands in
the State, such as the fertile valleys around Hagerstown and Frederick.
The limestone areas in the Piedmont Plateau and the marble areas north
of Baltimore have soils which are very similar in texture to the Trenton
limestone soils, and agriculturally may be classed with them.

The subsoil of the Trenton limestone formation contains about 45
per cent. of clay, and has about 22,000,000,000 grains of sand and clay in one
gram, giving a very close texture and making the land very retentive of
moisture. The grains have about 5,000 square centimetres of surface
area in one gram (153 grains), and this gives a very large extent of surface
for water to act on in dissolving food material from the soil and for roots
to feed on.

The limestone soils are not especially rich in lime, but, on the con-
trary, are usually deficient in this substance. The soils are the impur-
ities which were originally contained in the limestone rock, which have
been left behind as the lime has been dissolved and carried off by water.
There is, of course, a very small amount of impurities in the limestone
rock, and after the large amount of lime has been dissolved the impurities
settle, and, as a consequence, the limestone soils are nearly always valley
lands, with ridges on either side formed of rocks which were much less
soluble than the limestone. Another important fact is that the lime is
in the form of a carbonate, which is readily soluble in water containing
carbonic acid gas in solution, whereas the lime, in most ordinary soils, is
in the form of sulphate or silicate, either of which is much less soluble
in water than the carbonate; so it happens that, strange as it may seem,
these limestone soils are frequently deficient in lime, and there is no
class of soils in the State which is more benefited by an application of
lime than these same soils, resulting from the disintegration of the lime-
stone rocks. It is frequently the practice, in these limestone regions, to
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 195

get out the rock, and burn it in kilns, and spread it directly on the land
from which it came.

The limestone lands are underlain by a stiff, heavy yellow or red
clay subsoil, sufficiently close in texture and retentive of moisture to
maintain an abundant supply of moisture for the crop in all ordinary
seasons. Nevertheless they have good surface and under drainage, and
they are, for these reasons, admirably adapted to grass, and they form
the finest type of grass land in the State.

There are in the Cumberland valley a number of different grades of
soil. Along the rivers the subsoils are very heavy, stiff clay, with from
six to eight inches of somewhat lighter loam soil on top. On the ridges,
between the rivers, the lands are lighter, the stiff yellow clay is found at
a greater depth, and the lands are not as strong nor as fertile. Farmers
recognize this fact, and value the land according to its texture. The
heavier lands, wherever this stiff yellow or red clay comes within eight
or ten inches of the surface, are more valuable for grass; the lighter
lands are rather better for wheat, and the still lighter loams, where this
clay is from twelve to eighteen inches below the surface, are better for
corn; the heavier lands are more valuable for general farming, and they
can stand more ill-usage and harder farming. The lighter loams, that is
where the stiff clay is from twelve to eighteen inches below the surface,
require more care and attention and more fertilization to maintain their
fertility. These lands are worth from $40 to $60 per acre, depending,
partly, upon the texture and condition of the land and partly, of course,
upon their position, nearness to the markets, and condition of the roads
over which the crops have to be hauled. Lands situated directly on a
first-class turnpike, and within easy hauling distance of a railroad station,
may be worth much more than the figures given. Until very recently,
these limestone soils were considered the most valuable in the State, and
they readily brought from $60 to $200 an acre, and more, for grass, wheat
and stock raising. At that time our light truck lands had merely a
nominal value of from $1 to $5 per acre. With the changed condition of
agriculture due to the greatly improved transportation facilities, grass,
wheat and stock can be more cheaply raised in the West, and the value
of these limestone lands has declined, while the value of the light truck
lands has risen to a value which is comparable only with the former
value of the limestone lands.

These limestone lands are admirably adapted, however, to the higher
class of farming, in the production of the staple crops, stock raising, the
fattening of cattle and the dairy interest. With good treatment thirty to
forty bushels of wheat can be raised to the acre, and even more than this,
and it is the very finest type of land for hay and pasturage. It may well
196 MARYLAND.

serve as a standard with which to compare the other soil formations of
the State.

Next to the Trenton limestone, the soils derived from the disintegra-
tion of the Helderberg or mountain limestone are the strongest and most
fertile grass and wheat lands in the State. There is only a small area of
these lands in several narrow strips crossing the State, in Washington and
Alleghany counties. The lands are rather high and rolling, and have
excellent surface drainage; they are admirably adapted to grass and
wheat.

These lands have about 40 per cent. of clay in the sub-soil, which is
only slightly less than the heaviest Trenton limestone lands, and which
is more adapted to corn than the lighter loam soils of the Trenton forma-
tion. This soil is nearly as close in texture and as retentive of moisture
as the Trenton limestone, and there is not much difference in the yield
of crops or in the general agricultural value of the lands.

The soils derived from the disintegration of the Catskill red sand-
stone in Garrett and Alleghany counties and from the triassic red
sandstone forming the “red lands” of Carroll and Frederick counties, are
so nearly alike in texture and in agricultural value that they may be
described together. It has been estimated that there are about three
hundred and twenty square miles of each of these formations in the State.
The color of each is very characteristic, dark Indian red, with only a
difference of a shade in the two soils. These lands have about 35 per
cent. of clay in the sub-soil, which gives them good body and makes them
very retentive of moisture and well adapted to grass, wheat and corn. In
favorable seasons they are as productive as the Trenton limestone soils,
put the crops are not as certain, for they are affected by unfavorable
seasons.

The triassic red sandstone soils occur next to the limestone soils of
the Frederick valley, and a close comparison is therefore possible between
the two kinds of soil. In favorable seasons the yield of wheat on the
“red lands” is about the same as on the adjacent limestone lands, but the
crop is much more influenced by unfavorable seasons, and the soil itself
will not stand the hard usage, and requires more careful treatment and
rather more fertilization than the limestone lands; so while it is very
productive it is not considered quite as safe nor as certain as the lime-
stone soil. Like the limestone lands it is greatly benefited by an
application of lime.

The soils derived from the disintegration of gabbro, forming the “red
lands” of Cecil, Harford and Baltimore counties, of gneiss, forming the
“gray lands” and ‘mica lands” of Cecil, Harford, Baltimore, Carroll,
Howard and Montgomery counties, and of phillite, forming the wheat and
corn lands of Harford, Carroll, Frederick, Howard and Montgomery
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 197

counties, are so similar in their texture and in their agricultural value
that they may be described together.

These lands have about thirty per tent. of clay in the subsoil, and
they are sufficiently retentive of moisture to make excellent wheat and
corn lands and very fair grass lands. They may be considered in every
way good average soils for general agriculture, being adapted to grass,
wheat, corn and grazing and stock feeding and to the raising of vegetables
for canning. They are too heavy in texture to compete with the light
truck lands of southern Maryland in the production of vegetables for the
early markets.

The “red lands” of the gabbro formation are rather stronger than the
others, and as a consequence they are usually somewhat harder to work
and require more labor to keep them in a good state of tilth. The gneiss
lands are, a8 a rule, somewhat lighter in texture than the gabbro, and are
better suited for the raising of corn and tomatoes for canning, which is
such an extensive industry in Harford and the adjacent counties.

The average yield of wheat on these lands under good treatment is
from twenty to thirty bushels per acre, aJthough larger yields have been
reported. The price of wheat has fallen so low in recent years that these
yields per acre are hardly large enough to make the cultivation of this
crop very profitable. While it is still a staple crop in these-northern-
central counties, it is being replaced to quite a large extent by other
interests, especially the raising of tomatoes and corn for canning and by
other special agricultural lines. While grass and the cereals will always
be staple crops in this region, the lands are so well adapted to generai
agriculture, and the location is so favorable as regards the nearness of
markets and transportation facilities that other special interests will
undoubtedly be developed which will be much more profitable than the
old staple crops. Agriculture is very conservative and its methods are
slow, and it takes a long while for it to adjust itself to changed conditions
in the industrial and commercial lines, but there are evidences to show
that the farmers here are beginning to specialize and adjust their products
to the demands or conditions of the market.

These are the most important soil formations of northern-central
and western Maryland which have been carefully studied. There are
other soils having either little agricultural value or which are adapted to
special crops, which have not yet been sufficiently investigated. These
may be briefly described.

In western Maryland there is a narrow belt of Cambrian sandstone
devoted to the cultivation of mountain peaches, an interest which has
recently grown to very large proportions. The soil is fine-grained,
containing probably about thirty per cent. of clay. It is filled, however,
with fragments of rock which are flat and look like pieces of shale. The
198 MARYLAND.

situation has much to do with the quality and color of the peaches. The
most favorable situation is up on the mountain side where there is
perfect surface drainage and a northern exposure, and a soil so stony that
it is difficult to take a sample of any considerable depth. With this
exposure the trees are insured against damage by early frost. In the
adjacent valley, and with a southern exposure on the mountain side,
vegetation is liable to be started by a warm spell in the winter and be
suddenly checked and the fruit buds killed by frost in the spring. With
the proper exposure, however, vegetation does not start until well into
the spring, when danger of frost is over. There are, undoubtedly, other
soils in the western part of the State as well adapted to peaches, and this
industry will certainly spread. The soils appear almost identical with
some of those derived from the Hudson River shales and from several of
the mountain formations further west ; and with the proper exposure as
good results are being obtained further west as in this now celebrated
region of the Cambrian sandstone around Pen-Mar, Edgemont and
Smithsburg.

The very fertile soils of the Middletown valley have not been care-
fully studied, as the geology of this region has only very recently been
worked out, giving a basis for the soil investigations.

There is a considerable area of the Hamilton and Chemung shales in
western Maryland, but the rocks have not thoroughly disintegrated,
and the soil is full of pieces of the shale, making it hard to work and
rather unproductive for the staple crops. ‘There are about 125 square
miles of this formation, having the widest exposure about Hancock and
on either side of the Polish Mountain. The Clinton and Niagara shales
give very similar soils, but they occur only in very narrow ridges. These
lands have about 40 per cent. of clay in the subsoil, which would give
them a close texture and make them very strong and fertile lands but
for the very large amount of boulders and fragments of shale making the
land hard to cultivate. The lands are mostly in forest growth, or sup-
port but a scanty vegetation. They have good body, however, and are
capable of being improved.

The Hudson river shales, in Washington county, are not naturally
good wheat lands. They yield about 15 bushels of wheat to the acre
under ordinary treatment, but they can be easily improved and made to
yield more than this. The lands are rather light in texture, and they are
not as strong nor as safe as the adjacent limestone lands, and they are
probably much better adapted to fruit than to wheat, except for the
danger from frost, which is liable to kill the buds. Lime is considered
very beneficial to these lands. Many of the lands are filled with frag-
ments of shale, and appear very similar in texture to the Cambrian sand-
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 199

stone, and they would probably make as good peach lands if the same
exposure could be obtained.

The soils of the coal measures in the extreme western part of the
State have not been worked out because there is no detailed geological
work to base the soil work upon. These soils are derived from the disin-
tegration of sandstones, shales and limestones, but the boundaries of
these different formations have never been determined.

The other formations in western Maryland are mountainous, and
occur only in narrow strips, and have little agricultural interest. In
northern-central Maryland there are small areas derived from the disin-
tegration of granite, which are altogether similar in texture and agricul-
tural value to the gneiss soils.

The soils derived from the disintegration of serpentine are generally
barren, but why they are so ) as not been determined.

There are several narrow belts of soil derived from quartzite, which
are of very limited extent and have not been studied.

In addition to these there are the light truck lands on the river
necks, but these will be fully described in another place.

SOILS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND.

The strongest and most fertile soils of southern Maryland are in the
diatomaceous horizon of the Chesapeake formation. This gives rise to
three grades of soil—the lighter lands, having from 12 to 18 per cent. of
clay in the subsoils, form the finest tobacco lands of southern Maryland ;
where the subsoils contain from 18 to 25 per cent. of clay they are well
adapted to wheat; and where they contain from 25 to 35 per cent. of
clay they are sufficiently strong for good grass lands. There has been
no attempt as yet to determine the limit of these different soils, nor is it
known exactly what the distribution depends on; whether they repre-
sent distinct horizons in the Chesapeake formation or whether it is due
merely to local causes acting since the sedimentary material was
deposited is not known.

The subsoil has a very characteristic yellow or reddish color. In
many places the pure white diatomaceous earth can be seen underlying
these lands at a depth of 2 or 3 feet, the yellow subsoil having been
formed from the diatomaceous material by weathering. The yellow sub-
soil contains, as a rule, from 25 to 35 per cent. of clay, and where this
comes within 8 or 10 inches of the surface it makes the soils very reten-
tive of moisture and well adapted to grass and wheat. Where this sub-
soil is more than 12 inches from the surface and is overlain by a lighter
loam, the lands are rather too light for grass, but are still well adapted to
wheat. Where the loam is still lighter in texture, and has not over 18
200 MARYLAND.

per cent. of clay, it is too light for the profitable production of wheat,
but is well adapted to tobacco.

The wheat lands of southern Maryland are lighter in texture than
the wheat and grass lands of northern Maryland, and the average yield
per acre is much less. It is said that these wheat lands have deteriorated
in recent years for the lack of proper preparation and treatment of the
land due to the scarcity and high price of labor, to the small yield and
low price of wheat and to the fact that much of the land has been
heavily mortgaged for the last twenty-five years.

It used to be the rule to apply lime every five years, and to depend
on this and on clover to keep up the wheat land, but this rule is being
neglected. There is little money to spend in fertilization; lime is more
rarely used, if at all, and the lands are becoming clover-sick.

Wheat and tobacco are commonly grown on the same land, in rota-
tion periods of two or three years. The best lands for wheat, however,
are the heaviest clay lands, while the finest quality of tobacco is produced
on the lighter loans. The heavy clay lands produce a larger yield of
tobacco per acre, but the plant has a coarse, thick leaf, which is sappy,
cures green and will not take on color. The finest grade of tobacco is
produced on the lighter loam soils, which are rather too light for the
profitable production of wheat. Tobacco produces a small yield per acre
on these soils, but the leaf has a fine texture, and in curing it takes a
good color and brings a much better price in the market. Asa rule, the
lighter the soil in texture, the finer the quality of tobacco produced, and
the higher price it will bring per pound, but the less yield there will be
per acre; so that there is a limit to the profitable production of the very
finest grades on the very lightest lands, as the price is not sufficient to
cover the small yield per acre.

The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of the sub-
soils of tobacco lands from a number of localities in southern Maryland:
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 201

MECHANICAL ANALYSES OF SUBSOILS FROM SOUTHERN MARYLAND, RATHER
LIGHT FOR WHEAT, BUT THE FINEST TOBACCO LANDS.

266. 255. | 164. 260. 262. 162.

 

 

DIAMETER. CONVENTIONAL NAMES.
Chaney-) Marl- | North |Notting|Chaney-) Marl-
ville. | boro. | Key:. | ham. | ville. | boro.
num.
2-1 Gravel...... 1.40 1.53 0.58 0.48 0.00 0.09

1-.5 Coarse sand 2.94 5.67 0.50 3.05 0.07 0.13
.5+,25 Medium sand see 113 12,25 1.35 | 12.08 1.56 0.58
-25-.1 Pine Gan sac scare vay eyenexnss see] 13.42 8.39 | 10.65] 12.09 13.51 4.90
-1-.05 Very fine sand seee{ 19.82 | 14.95 | 87.70] 19.17] 37.73] 26.78
-05-.01 Silt 17.59 28.86 22.00 23.09 18.82 33.12
.01-.005 | Fine silt. 5.44 7.84 7.81 8.74 6.18 8.24
-005-.000L | Clay 10.72 | 14.55 | 16.02} 18.42] 18.79] 21.81

  
  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DOtale sid vaae a ees sare ses ta aasiethee 97.06 | 95.04 | 96.72; 97.12] 96.67] 95.65

Organic matter, water loss.............. cece eee ee 2.94 4.96 | 3.28 2.88 4.33 4.33
Approximate

Surface number
No. Loca.iry. Clay. Aree, of grains per
gram.
Per Cent. Sq. em.

266 | Chameyville....-.cucseccsencsevcsesceees pans RaeRa dee RaERY 10 72 1.370 4,891,000,000
QDS. UP PCr MAPIBORG:.? — cays-eseyoresasa ch suscoiaciaseeslpie Wtyexave ae teed a Glaveini she's 14.55 1.902 6, 786,000,000
164 \| NOrth: ey Sisns eins s opies cas siree G Mine sakG Stakes ea cees teeny 16.C2 2.016 7,338, 000,000
QO! |) NO CTE DATs. scsisea ere: sais cvarmrara ulsteie, ike aovenc aha ind: Newa etucatave Ure ave 3 18.42 2.126 8,263,000, 000
262: | Chan eyville: isis caas 6 co's s soma ne tee Means Hey eGEA eee 18 79 2.197 8,530,000,000
162: 1 Uipper Mal borO' sicainiis.ccsse ais saivio aausci a Sixieie eatane caress iw geeiacecas wise 21.81 2.638 10,065,000,000

 

 

The finest quality of tobacco is produced on the soils shown to have
the smallest amount of clay and the smallest number of grains per gram
in this table, while the heavier soils are much better for wheat and give
a larger yield of tobacco per acre, but the quality of the tobacco is not so
good, and it does not bring as good a market price. With the exception
of 162, none of these soils would be considered very good wheat lands
with the ordinary conditions of cultivation and manuring. They would
be considered rather too light for the economical production of wheat.
These lands are valued for wheat in proportion to the amount of clay
contained in the subsoils, as shown in the table, but for tobacco the
values are just reversed.

The strongest and best wheat lands appear to be confined to the diato-
maceous earth horizon of the Neocene formation. The white diatomaceous
earth can be found a few feet below the surface at all, or nearly all, the
localities represented in the accompanying tables. The yellow clay of
the wheat land appears to have been formed by the weathering of this
earth, as in a number of railroad cuts and river bluffs they are seen to
merge together; and in all cases where air has had access to the diatoma-
ceous earth through cracks and root holes,a thin layer of the yellow
clay has been formed. Diatoms are still found in most of these samples
of the subsoils of the wheat and tobacco lands.
202 MARYLAND.

There are two classes of wheat lands. On the ridges and high
plateaus, where washing has not occurred to any extent, the lands are
rather light and loamy, the loam being usually from two to four feet
thick and overlying the heavier clay. These lands are better for corn
than the heavier lands, but are not so good for wheat, and are too light in
texture for grass. Where the underlying clay is exposed, as in the gently
rolling lands, it makes a much stronger and better wheat soil and a good
grass land. The accompanying table gives the mechanical analyses of
the subsoils from a number of localities representing very fairly the
wheat lands of southern Maryland:

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SUBSOILS OF WHEAT LANDS FROM SOUTHERN

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MARYLAND.
250. | 248. | 245. | 180. | 155. | 246. | 141. | 252. | 184.
lg 2 a
° e Fa
em la | 8 s |4_ |S
DIAMETER. CONVENTIONAL NAMES. Ae « | 6 | ss a
2 | Se | Se ‘ 2 a | ge : ad
SS/SBEl/RB] g = |G@E | Sm] & 9
solEs |Fal] 8 a | os | FA] & ©
eeaj,ag | ae 3 Ss BO| a | a oO
Ba) S4/8e| & Q” | Bei a
CH | so os 53 tA so. a *
qd - OD a = s o
ale le 2 le|& |e") =e | 6
5 |A |A | mw] PX ja a | &
mm.
21 Gravel: oc seins + td. sik see 0.00} 0.00} 0.82} 0.00} 0.00) 0.00] 0.00} 0.00} 0.00
1-.5 Coarse sand ..-.....seeeeeeeeee 0.07} 0.22! 0.28] 0.00} 0.40} 0.56} 0.23) 0.25] 0.46
25.25 Medium sand.... .........-54- 0.98 | 2.76| 0.98} 0.48) 0.57/31.26| 1.71] 0.39} 661
.25-.1 Fine Gandaye swe siseis su aieaigelee oe 12.22 | 12.85] 1.74] 38.06 | 22.64) 4.62] 6.08! 10.65) 12.19
1-.05 - | 29.58 | 47.18 | 52.74 | 50.32 | 30.55 | 30.70 | 30.82 | 29.05 | 9,15
.05-.01 22.19 | 12.89 | 16.91 | 14.19 | 13.98 ] 26.16 | 20.92 | 22.45 | 30.89
-01-.005 -|10.13| 4.07) 3.85] 6.78) 4.08] 9.44] 11.21) 6.56} 13.22
.005-.0001 | Clay..... see cece cece cece eeeeee 19.14 | 19.19 | 19.57 | 20.28 | 21.98 | 22.53 | 23.78 | 23.92 | 24.45
DT Ota es asco ge cteie tases e 95.31 | 99.11 | 95.82 | 95.11 | 94.20 | 95.27 | 94.75 | 96.27] 96.97
Organic matter, water, loss..........6-.. ee ee 4.69) 0.89) 4.18) 4.89) 5.80| 4.73] 5.25] 3.73] 3.03
Approximate
No. LocaLiry. Clay. Suriaes number
f area, of grains per
gram.
Per Cevit. Sq. em.
250 | Chaneyville.... ..csccsececrececcecaee Mc eer i waters 19.14 2,453 8,918,000,000
248 | Davidsonville, P. H. Israel...... 19.19 2,097 8,452,000,000
25 | Davidsonville.... ..-.-----..6-- 19.57 2,214 8,917,000,000
180:|, Plann Points: ccc ge eua rnck gtwrncude ay aieey = cami eae vents 20.28 2,380 9,35'7,000,000
155 | Upper Marlboro ........ 0... cece ee cen cee eeeeee 21.98 2,493 10,2-8,000,000
246 | 1g mile west of Davidsonville 22.53 2,732 10,456,000,000
141 | Davidsonville, loam, T. 8 Iglehart........ gue 23.78 2,853, 11,161,000,000
D5 Oi VOM RAVENS specs cusses od oye: 5. aie Grieseqeaatene et -eveteaenats Gra essdes. seus eine days 23,92 2,681 10,933,000,000
P84 “Pope's Creek: aaoc x seeacdewaw eave sd stbe ahve clacie’s amine whaee aes, 24.45 2,847 11,202,000,000

 

 

These lauds make fairly good wheat lands, but this is about the
limit of profitable wheat production, and a soil having less than 20 per
cent. of clay, or approximately 9,000,000,000 grains per gram, is too light
in texture and not sufficiently retentive of moisture for the economical
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 203

production of wheat under the prevailing climatic conditions. This
represents, however, merely the skeleton structure of the soil, and this
could be so filled in and modified as té make it more retentive of mois-
ture; but experience has shown that a soil lighter than this has not
sufficient body to warrant the expense of converting it into a good wheat
land. The soils are too light for grass. They are valued as wheat lands
in about the order in which they are given in the table, except that it
would seem that 245 should have been given a higher place in the table,
as it is considered a very fertile wheat land; but this may have been due
to the sampling.

The samples in the accompanying table are of strong wheat and
grass lands of southern Maryland. They are considered the very finest
type of wheat lands in that locality :

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SUBSOILS OF STRONG WHEAT AND GRASS LANDS
FROM SOUTHERN MARYLAND.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

| 142. 247. 179.
DIAMETER. CONVENTIONAL NAMEs. mat
Davidsonville, | Davidsonville, | Herring
Clay. James Iglehart.| Bay.
mm. 0.00 0.00 0.00
2-1 HANG GRAN lias: cadaceceieterara. dance scan aediane Wawiinia deed 0.00 0.27 0.00
1-.5 COSTS SAN iw-rxesns wand name Chios BoE Maes ea ey 0.29 0.64 0.50
25-25 Medigti. 6000. vccexercacensead b esiaantaceletttn se Sota 2.48 3.20 3.50
Sl) TG Gata deans sverrecenes Cisne gi tens usta ve nes | 23.56 22.58 36.28
-1-.05 Very finersand iis scaincwai's vs oa anaeter 2 ame aplovs 6 \ 29.23 26.25 19.04
-05-.01 Silt Gece cco detue vies duetastun eared views oe-xie ¢ | 6.36 10.42 6.78
012005) |) Pine Silt .cisvccins cia su sex tates eonsine. a acee eis asta ; 82.45 32.40 32.42
{00510001 Il Cl8y savide seicictat vcsavetatwsn alinca cnet tacten | ee en ee
TO tal weiss news sere sees sees SARs aa 94.32 95.76 98.52
Organic matter, water, 1l0s8. i. .susssous ca eve sawe seme wees xe 5.68 424 1,48
| ' Approximate.
| Surface | number
No. Locauiry. | Clay. | Kees, toh eraiit net
! | | : gram.
! Per Cent | Sq. em. |
142 Davidsonville, clay, T. 8. Iglehart ......... eee ceee eee ee ee! 32.45 1 3,604 | 15, 148,000,000
247 Duavidsonville, James Iglehart as 32.40 | 3,537 14,903,000,000
179 Herring: Bays cicc ces sa cc esas as acelatelahe ciete cs ia beisiet ares areas Se 32.42 | 3,389 14,453,000,000

 

These samples were taken from very rolling lands where the loam, if
it had ever accumulated, had been removed by washing, leaving exposed
the yellow clay which seems to underlie all the wheat lands.

There is a very marked relation between the agricultural value of
these lands and the texture and general appearance of the soils. If the
soils are in a fair state of cultivation, in which the arrangement of the
grains can be assumed to be sensibly the same, the agricultural value
increases quite regularly with the percentage of clay and the approximate
number of grains per gram. The yield increases, however, in nearly all
204 MARYLAND.

cases and with most crops, at the expense of the quality of the crop pro-
duced. In the case of tobacco and truck, as the quality or time of
maturity is of more importance than the quantity of crop produced, the
lands are valued, within certain limits, as the soil is lighter in texture and
contains less clay and fewer grains per gram. It is not a matter of the
chemical composition of the soil nor of the amount of available plant food
in the soil which determines this local distribution of crops, but it is a
matter of the texture of the soil, and especially of the relation of the soils
to water and the amount of water which they can maintain for the crop
under existing climatic conditions.

Lime has been considered the very best fertilizer for these wheat
lands; but lime with plenty of organic matter in the soil “for the lime to
act on,” ctherwise it will “burn out the land;” so that where the lime is
applied, as it should be every few years, clover or some green manuring is
considered a necessary adjunct. This combination of lime or organic
matter would tend to make the soils more retentive of moisture.

The Marlboro, Davidsonville and West River districts have been
famous for the excellent condition in which the lands have been main-
tained, and for the good farming which has prevailed. The value of the
lands has, however, depreciated in recent years ; labor is scarce and many
of the farms are heavily mortgaged, so that good farming lands can be
purchased very cheaply.

The farmers in this locality suffered severely as a result of the late
war, and they have been unable to bear up under the burden of their
debt. They have not yet adjusted themselves to these new and changed
conditions of agriculture, nor adapted their farming to the present market
demands.

A nuinber of efforts have been made to introduce a different variety
of tobacco into southern Maryland, as the type which has been raised
there so successfully in the past meets with such wide competition in the
increased production of this same grade of tobacco in other parts of the
world. Efforts have been made to introduce the fine bright tobacco of
North Carolina, but the soils selected for the experiments have been much
heavier in texture, as shown by the mechanical analysis, than soils adapted
to this grade of tobacco in the South. There are other soils, however,
almost identical in texture with those in the South to be found in the
Columbia and Lafayette formations which are probably well adapted to
the production of these bright tobaccos. Experiments are to be tried on
these lighter soils.

The accompanying table gives the analyses of the sub-soils from four
localities of the fertile river terraces of southern Maryland:
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK, 205

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SUBSOILS OF WHEAT LANDS.
River Terrace.

 

 

 

  
  
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* 199, 201, 208. 205.
DIAMETER. CONVENTIONAL NAMES.
A Opposite
Benedict. | St. Mary’s. | St. Mary’s. St. Mary’s.

mm.

21 Fine gravel...csessees 0.38 0.44 2.01 0.41
1-.5 COATES S000) « enss nance veex caae oe oe 2.72 1.05 5,24 0.42
.5-.25 Medium sand.............-...... a3 11.64 2.67 1.75 1.64

.25-.1 BOG -BAOs evens) mony anss tees sa te 7.23 5.03 2.17 3.45
-1-.05 Very flme sand............... sie 6.74 9.75 2.45 9.48
.05-.01 SLL Grcs sercreiarete sta: stesaraiavejaval siareranqna ese ae 33.92 34.82 37.21 41.88
-01-.005 | Fine silt. ee 10.62 14.52 15.52 11.98
.005-.0001 | Clay..... 23.45 25.03 29.27 26.24
Total. casas cca cee nwen meee wane eee 96.70 93.31 95.62 95.50
Organic matter, water, 10SS........ eee eee eee ee eee eee 3.30 6.69 4.38 4.50
Approximate

Surface number
No. Locaxirry. Clay: Area. | of grains per

gram.

Per Cent. Sy. em.

199 | Benedict..........-.ee eee Na a ieada Meee Hae alata OLE Sisiys 23.45 2,765 10,737,000,000
SUL | BaIGE WORY Bas calc de n cae emma oes 4 koko FS eR ed Sua ort be as oe 25.03 2,889 11,936,000,000
205 | Opposite Saint Mary’s......... cc cc ecee cece eee cee e eee eees 26.24 3,188 12, 205,000,000
203! || Saint: Mary ins seeweaon a> sige aon wma liane anes wtelasieaide = Reis 29.27 38,509 13,578,000,000

 

 

 

 

 

 

The river terraces border the Potomac and Patuxent rivers and their
tributaries in the lower part of the peninsula, and are considered very
strong wheat lands. They are classed geologically with the Columbia
formation; but, as will be seen from the mechanical analyses, and as
shown from the agricultural value of the lands, they are very much
stronger soils than those of the same formation on the bay shore, which
form the early truck lands between Baltimore and Annapolis. The
terraces have an elevation of from twenty to sixty feet above tide, and
are about half a mile wide, with the Lafayette formation rising beyond
this into the pine barrens of the higher lands further inland. The
terrace lands have good body, and are capable of a very high state of
cultivation, and many of them are maintained in excellent condition.
Some of the land around St. Mary’s has been under cultivation for two
hundred years without apparent deterioration, although there is nothing
at all peculiar in the appearance of the land to indicate any unusual con-
ditions. The soil is about six or eight inches deep, but neither the soil
nor subsoil appears to have more organic matter than is usual in the lands
of southern Maryland, nor do they appear different from the same class
of lands elsewhere. They have been taken care of, and have been very
intelligently handled.

There is a narrow strip of coarse, sandy soils bordering the Chegsa-
peake Bay, from Baltimore down to South River, entirely devoted to the
206 MARYLAND.

production of early truck and vegetables for the Baltimore and the
larger northern and western markets. This same character of soil is
found on the Eastern Shore and along the Atlantic coast as far south as
Florida, and it is very generally devoted to truck farming.

The sandy soils and subsoils of the early truck lands between Balti-
more and Annapolis contain from four to ten per cent. of clay. Other
things being equal, the lighter the soil, and the less clay it contains, the
earlier the crop. Soils having over seven per cent. of clay are rather
heavy for the earliest truck, but are well suited to tomatoes, cabbage,
small fruits and peaches. Geologically, these light soils belong to the
Columbia formation. A large part of this area is still lying out as a
barren and unproductive waste for lack of proper facilities for transporta-
tion. This matter of cheap and quick transportation is so great a factor
in the trucking interest, owing to the bulky and perishable nature of the
market truck and small fruits, that lands directly on the water courses, or
on the railroads, have a value many times greater than similar lands
situated only a mile or two distant.

Peas, tomatoes, cabbage, sweet potatoes, watermelons, canteloupes,
strawberries, raspberries and peaches may be grown, and are grown, with
more or less success, on nearly all kinds of soil; but this area of sandy
land in southern Maryland will produce these crops from one to three
weeks earlier than the heavier wheat and grass lands in other parts of the
State. This puts the truck into the Baltimore and northern markets
much earlier than it can be produced on the heavier soils of the State,
and insures the early truck farmers from competition from the State at
large, and they get very fair prices, as their crops are sold before the
market prices fall with the glut of summer vegetables. The trucking
business requires a very heavy outlay for manuring and for labor, and
everything depends upon the crop getting to market at the earliest
possible date, to take advantage of the high prices; and no pains or
expense is spared to force the maturity of the plant and hasten the
ripening of the crop.

The early truck lands are much too light for the profitable production
of wheat or corn, or of any of the staple crops whose period of growth
extends into or through the summer months, not because the soils are
deficient in plant food, but because they are so coarse and open in texture
that they are unable to maintain a sufficient water supply for these crops
during the hot spells which are liable to occur. It is not that these
light, sandy lands produce as much yield per acre of the different kinds
of market truck as the heavier lands that they are utilized for trucking,
but that they ripen the crops earlier and so get advantage of the higher
prices. There are, therefore, peculiar conditions desired in an early
truck land, just the opposite conditions, indeed, from those required for
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 207

a good grass or wheat soil. The soil, or rather subsoil, of the truck lands
should be very light in texture, containing not over ten per cent. of clay,
and for the very earliest truck not over six per cent. If they have more
than this the land is too retentive of moisture, and the growing period
is prolonged and the ripening of the crop is delayed. In the truck land
with less than six per cent. of clay the soil is drier and probably cooler,
and these are conditions which would hasten the maturity of the crop.

Other things being equal, the more clay a soil contains the more
retentive of moisture it will be, and the greater the amount of moisture
which will be maintained in the soil for the crop. The fine particles
of clay not only make the spaces within the soil exceedingly small, so
that the rainfall must pass downward very slowly through the soil, but
by increasing the area of the water-surface it increases the power the soil
has of drawing water to the plant to supply the loss from evaporation
and to replace that which has been used by the plant. Ina heavy clay
soil this supply ef water may be so abundant as to prolong the growth of
the plant and increase the size and yield per acre, but may greatly retard
the ripening of the crop and make the texture coarse.

The average yield of wheat in Washington county is given by the
census as eighteen bushels per acre, and this is principally from a
limestone soil having over forty per cent. of clay. Wheat can not be
economically produced on the light truck lands. It is not that the soils
of Washington county contain necessarily more plant food than the truck
lands of southern Maryland, but that having more clay the soils are
stiffer and are more retentive of moisture, and they can maintain a more
abundant supply of water for the crop.

These limestone soils are too retentive of moisture for early truck.
In an average season they would maintain such an abundant supply of
water that, although large crops would be assured, the crops would be
late in coming to maturity, and would come into competition with crops
from all parts of the State. The light character of the land, therefore,
gives the early truck planter a monopoly of the market.

The mechanical analyses of the subsoils from a number of localities
are given in the accompanying table, with the surface area and the
approximate number of grains per gram, with such notes as may be
necessary on the agricultural value of these lands:
208 MARYLAND.

MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF TRUCK SUBSOILS FROM SOUTHERN MARYLAND.
Marley Neck.

 

 

 

 
    
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

471. 472. 591. 469. 473. 590.
DIAMETER.| CONVENTIONAL NaMEs. 1 mile Albert 2 miles
Marley | Marley | north of | Glen- Ham- north of
P.O. P.O. Marley | burnie. mond Marley
P.O. . P.O.
mm,
21 Fine gravel... 0.28 0.49 0.39 3.47 0.44 0.91
1-.5 Coarse sand 5.42 4.96 5.52 12.05 6.46 5.45
25.25 Medium sand. 41.45 40.19 36.53 44.06 36.73 28.73
.25-.1 Fine sand . 26.73 27.59 24.91 18.02 19.54 22.81
«1-.05 Very fine sand 12.46 12.10 11.79 9.50 10.28 13.44
.05=.01 Silt..... 7.22 7.74 9.89 5.73 13.42 14.77
-01-.005 | Fine sil 2G 2.21 2.23 4.51 1.37 5.61 4.29
-005-.0001 | Clay......... eee ee ae wae 4.07 4.40 5.4L 5.46 U14 9.16
LORD ois cies stiles stamens 99.84 99.70 98.95 99.75 99.62 99.56
Organic matter, water, loss........... a 0.16 0.30 1.05 0.25 0.38 0.44
Approximate
Surface number
No. Locatirty. Clay. aaa of grains per
gram.
Per Cent. Sq. em.
ATL. | MAP yPis'Oiisioars ose x ceiasa aiornte & osiniiadw.c uae dae esstesaaienetitaes 4.07 583 1,809,000,000
402: |ccaras UO isiaas verse ceed seats hve ees Sadi Si Sees seES eee 4.40 615 1,955, 000,000
591 | lmile north of Marley P. O.......... cc ce ee eee eee ne cee 5.41 796 2,458,000, 000
de) COR UPN dare te amen ea eiaw tune Ube asa eke 28 name. 5.46 654 2,406,000,000
ATS | Albert: Ham MONG ss ws. esses sisss see bsacaieisne wie, saie ied She a asdndi es asetie eraser 714 987 8,215,000,000
590 | 2 miles north of Marley P. O.......... cece cece cece cence eee 9.16 1,173 4,078,000,000

 

 

 

 

These soils from Marley Neck represent fairly well the early truck
lands along the bay shore. Those lands having less than 6 per cent. of
clay, as shown by the table, are considered very typical early truck lands;
soils having 6 per cent. of clay are considered rather heavy for the very
early truck, but are excellent for small fruits. Tomatoes, for example,
will ripen a week earlier on land having 4 to 5 per cent. of clay than on
lands having 8 or 9 per cent. of clay. Tomatoes and cabbage do better
and yield more per acre on the heavier lands; but they are not so early,
and consequently do not bring as good prices as the crops from the lighter
soils. Time is everything to the early truck plants; and these light lands
have some peculiar property which adapts them to this early truck and
matures the crops earlier than on any other soils of the State. The loam
soils are much better adapted to the small fruits and peaches than the
very light lands.

These truck lands appear to be remarkably uniform in texture, and
the slight differences which appear in the percentage of clay and in the
approximate number of grains per gram are very sharply defined in the
agricultural value and importance of the land. The soils having the
lowest percentage of clay and the Jeast number of grains per gram are,
with the exception of those directly on the Bay shore at the end of the
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 209

river necks, invariably regarded as the earliest truck lands, and one can
readily tell from the general appearance and texture of the soil to what
class of land the sample belongs. The light soils mature the crop
earlier, but the heavier loam soils produce a larger yield per acre and
generally a better development, and would be considered naturally
stronger soils.

These soils are too light for the profitable production of the staple
crops, as the yield per acre would be extremely small and they could not
compete with the stronger and heavier soils from other parts of the State
and of the country. Their peculiar value lies in the fact that they can
produce during the spring and early summer small fruits and vegetables
earlier than they can be produced in other parts of the State, so that
they have the advantage of good market prices. The reason of this is
undoubtedly due to the physical structure of these soils, especially to the
relation of the soils to water. It cannot be due directly to the amount
of available plant food they contain, for no addition of mere plant food
would make these soils as strong and productive as a limestone soil
unless the whole texture of the land was changed.

A few years ago these light, sandy lands had hardly any market
value, as they would not produce any of the staple crops economically.
Since the introduction of truck farming, however, these have become the
most valuable lands in the State. Lands situated close to the river or
along a line of railroad where good transportation facilities are offered
are worth from $50 to $200 per acre, and even more; but where these
transportation facilities are lacking the very finest truck lands are still
lying idle, and can be purchased for a merely nominal sum of from $1 to
$5 per acre. As the country is developed and transportation facilities
are offered, and when methods of packing and transportation are
improved, these lands will become of great value.

The Lafayette formation, covering a large area in southern Mary-
land, forming what are known as the pine barrens, have, as a rule, very
coarse, sandy soils, containing less than five per cent. of clay in the
subsoil. These lands are so coarse and open in texture that they have
little agricultural value under existing conditions. They are, however,
admirably adapted to very early truck, and when the country is opened
up and transportation facilities are provided these will be among the
most valuable lands in the State. Many of these lands also have the
same texture as the fine, bright tobacco lands of North Carolina, and they
are adapted to some of the fancy grades of the bright tobacco.

Of the other soil formations in southern Maryland the Eocene and
Cretaceous formations have about the same texture and agricultural
value. They contain from eight to fifteen per cent. of clay in the subsoil
and are well adapted to fruit, truck and tobacco. There is comparatively

14
210 MARYLAND.

a small area of these formations in this part of the State, and they are,
therefore, of very little agricultural importance.

Several lines of railroad are projected through this region, and when
proper transportation facilities are provided, the whole of southern
Maryland is admirably adapted to fruit, truck, tobacco and the dairy
interests, where the lands are sufficiently strong to maintain pastures and
raise forage for stock.

The Potomac formation, crossing the State from Washington through
Baltimore to the Delaware line, is of little present agricultural value.
The prevailing soils are stiff clays of variegated colors. They contain
from forty to fifty per cent. of clay and should be very strong and fertile
lands, as productive as the Trenton limestone soils. As it is, they have
little agricultural value, and much of the land is lying out as a barren
waste. The reason for this is probably to be found in the arrangement
of the grains of sand and clay, as the clays have the effect of being
puddled and are nearly impervious to water. By proper treatment these
lands can undoubtedly be improved and be made highly productive.
The requirements in the improvement of these lands are that they should
be properly under-drained and then such methods, fertilizers and crops
be used as would tend to make the soils more loamy so that moisture
can circulate through them more freely.

SOILS OF THE EASTERN SHORE.

The geology of the Eastern Shore has not been worked out in
sufficient detail to give a basis for these soil investigations. The bound-
aries of several of the formations have not been determined, and some
of the formations have not even been identified, so that very little work
has been done as yet on the soils. .

There are four principal soil formations in this region. The strong
and fertile wheat and corn lands of Queen Anne and Talbot counties,
which are probably formed directly of the Chesapeake formation,
are similar to the strongest wheat lands of southern Maryland, which
have already been described. These lands have a stiff yellow clay sub-
soil, with about the same texture as the gabbro, gneiss and phillite lands
of northern-central Maryland. The lands are very level, but have good
underdrainage. The fields are large and perfectly level, making the
cultivation extremely easy. Wheat is grown on the heaviest lands, and
corn and fruit are grown on the lighter loam soils. There is a prevailing
impression that grass cannot be grown on these lands, and there is cer-
tainly very little permanent pasture or sod land. This is probably due
to the fact that wheat has been raised on these lands continuously.
Wheat and corn have been the staple crops in the past on these heavy
lands. There are some pastures, however, which have been unbroken
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 211

for twenty or thirty years, and they are as strong and as fine now as any of
the grass lands of northern Maryland could maintain. This shows the
possibility of these soils, if attention could be generally directed in the
proper channel.

The Eocene soils of Kent county have not been studied as yet.

In Dorchester and the lower counties of the Eastern Shore, the
wheat lands are of a different character from those in Queen Anne and
Talbot. The subsoil is a white or grayish clay, and is very close, and
very retentive of moisture. These lands need underdrainage. They
should have a very high agricultural value, but, as a matter of fact, they
are too close and too retentive of moisture for wheat. Before the war,
when there was an abundance of labor, these lands were kept in admir-
able condition, and they were exceedingly fertile. There are still some
farms kept up to the very highest condition of cultivation, and these
show that the lands, when properly cared for, are admirably adapted to
wheat and grass.

It has not been determined whether the white clay, forming the
subsoil of these wheat lands, belongs to the Chesapeake formation, or,
as seems rather more probable, to a later formation, probably the
Lafayette, or possibly a horizon of the Columbia.

There are large areas of light sandy lands of the Columbia forma-
tion overlying the stiff clays, varying in depth from a few inches toa
number of feet. These form the early truck and fruit lands of the
Eastern Shore. They appear to be identical with the early truck lands
of the Columbia formation of southern Maryland, which have been
already described. The areas of this formation have not been outlined.
These light sandy lands occur in Kent county, cover nearly the whole of
Caroline county, and there are wide areas in Dorchester, Wicomico,
Somerset and Worcester. These lands are admirably adapted to early
truck and fruit, but, as has been shown, this interest has only existed as
a separate industry within recent years, and there are large tracts of
these lands which have not yet been developed, but which are lying out
as barren wastes. The admirable railroad and water facilities for ship-
ping truck, however, make it certain that the present rapid development
of the trucking and fruit interest will continue, and that these lands will
be taken up in ashort time, and applied to the purposes for which they are
so well adapted.
212 MARYLAND.

LIVE STOCK.

The principal agricultural regions of the State have been already
described in some detail, and it remains now only to speak of some
special features which have a bearing on the breeding and raising of
live stock.

Two elements of paramount importance in stock-raising are an
abundance of food and a plentiful supply of good water. These two
conditions are found in the northern and western parts of the State,
where the lands are admirably suited to grass, wheat and corn. The blue
grass on the limestone soils in several of the counties is particularly
tender and succulent, and is considered by many to be even more
nutritious than that of Kentucky. Cecil county is especially noted for
the excellency of its timothy, and in all these counties mixed hay of a
good quality is produced, as well as an excellent quality of grain and
straw and fodder in great abundance. Skim milk can be obtained in the
neighborhood of the creameries for feeding hogs.

These lands, which have a rolling surface, are abundantly watered,
as it is rare to find a field of considerable size which has not a spring
or a stream of pure water. Such streams, flowing through pastures, add
greatly to the value of the land for stock-raising.

The proximity to the ocean and bay makes the climate of the State
more uniform and exempts it from the extremes of temperature so
common in the far West, while the hills and mountains mitigate the
severity of blizzards.

The southern part of the State is less abundant in pasturage and
water and is not so well adapted to general stock-raising; though there
are regions more favored in these respects, and years ago Southern
Maryland was famous for the attention given to breeding fast horses.
This was especially the case before the late war. There were then no
railroads and all local traveling was done by riding or driving. Fox
hunting, races and tournaments were the principal amusements, and the
young men especially took great pride in their horses. Horse-breeding
was not then as now pursued as a gainful business, but as a luxury or
necessity. Under the changed agricultural conditions this interest has
greatly declined. Nevertheless, more than one owner of valuable stock
has lately selected these southern counties to establish stables. While
the country is flat, and hills are rarely seen, it is very well wooded and
the woods afford protection to the stock in winter; while, from the
neighborhood of the bay and ocean, the climate has an almost insular
mildness. The innumerable estuaries, river-mouths and salt marshes,
which extend all along the Southern Atlantic and Gulf coasts, are very
favorable for cattle-ranges, though the lack of pasturage and running
streams operates as a disadvantage.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 213

Statistics. The census statistics of cattle, sheep and hogs for 1890
have not yet been issued; but the following statistics of horses, mules
and asses are taken from Bulletin No. 103,sissued August 19,1891. These
statistics are confined to farms of over three acres, thus excluding the
animals in towns and cities as well as those on smaller holdings:

On June 1, 1890, there were on these farms 130,395 horses, 14,064
mules and 97 asses. In 1860 the number of horses was 93,406. The
decrease in horses on farms from 1860 to 1870 amounted to 3.97 per cent.,
being much less than in many of the other Southern States. From 1870
to 1880 there was an increase of 31.33 per cent., and from 1880 to 1890 an
increase of 10.70 per cent. There were 9,829 mules and asses in 1860 and
about the same number in 1870; and in these there was an increase from
1870 to 1880 of 27.78 per cent., and from 1880 to 1870 of 12.74 per cent.
There were foaled in 1889 11,855 horses, 209 mules and 32 asses, and in
the same year 7,296 horses, 831 mules and 26 asses were sold and 6,088
horses, mules and asses died.

Breeds of Horses. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that
greater progress has been made during the past. fifteen years in the
improvement of horses, and in the past twenty or twenty-five years in
the improvement of all kinds of stock, than had been made in the
previous century. Nevertheless, impartial judges see that with this
great improvement in recent years there have been some heavy losses
which are to be deplored. With horses, speed has been the great end and
object of improved breeding. A horse that can make a mile, or even
a half or a quarter of a mile dash in the shortest time wins the premium
and the applause of the multitude. The constitution and the endurance
of the animals are altogether secondary considerations, and these most
valuable qualities have been greatly impaired in the development of the
modern race-horses. With cows, likewise, the improvement has been,
until recently, in the line of great yields of butter for relatively short
periods with high feeding. This reached its height in the recent Jersey
craze, when these animals brought immense prices, but were so delicate
and sensitive that they had to be tended as carefully as one would care
fora child. When the fancy for Jersey cattle declined many breeders
were financially crippled, but it has had good results for the live stock
interest, as this has taken a healthier turn now, and constitution,
endurance and general utility are more carefully considered. With cattle
the tide is already turning toward the development of the most generally
useful and valuable qualities. With horses the tide has hardly yet
turned, and speed is still bred for with very little regard to constitution
or endurance.

Maryland was famousfor its horses in colonial days, and, indeed, until
about fifty years ago. This was due to the social life of the times, espec-
214 MARYLAND.

ially in southern Maryland and the Eastern Shore, where slavery pre
vailed,and where the people were dependent for their exercise, pleasure
and social intercourse upon their horses. Besides this, liberal premiums
were offered by our people from pure love of the animal and the interest
in its development. With the changed conditions of agriculture, how-
ever, this interest declined, and when the scientific improvement of live
stock was introduced fifteen or twenty years ago the high quality of
animals once found here was almost a thing of the past. It is a history
common to all the Southern States where the peculiar conditions incident
to slavery prevailed; and nearly all the older States which have felt the
recent changes in agricultural conditions have experienced this period of
depression, to which they are only now adjusting themselves. It is true
that the live stock interest is in a healthier state, and very marked
improvements have been made in recent years as a direct result of the
depression fifteen or twenty years ago.

Thoroughbreds (Running Horses). The breeding of thoroughbreds
in the State has, with a few exceptions, been spasmodic and without any
particularly good results. This failure has been justly attributed to the
lack of scientific methods with the breeders themselves. The excellent
results which a few breeders are attaining illustrate the value of the most
advanced methods. One establishment in this State for the breeding,
rearing and training of thoroughbreds was started only a few years ago,
but has already attracted the attention of the racing fraternity, at least,
throughout the Eastern States. The stock at this farm ranks with the
very best in the country, and the successes attained from early develop-
ment have not been excelled even by California, which has so long
boasted of its early developments. The horses on this farm are valued
at nearly a quarter of a million of dollars; the purses won in a single
season have exceeeded $100,000. The expenses incident to the breeding
and training on such a large scale are very great, but the profits accruing
have made the enterprise very remunerative.

Standardbred or Light Harness Horses. It isin this class that the
greatest improvements have been attained. Indeed, more horses of this
class can be found to-day on the road than were to be found ten years
ago in the training stables. This industry of the breeding of trotters
and pacers has been remarkable in its recent devel~pment, and it is not
confined to any part of the State. A single county now produces more
standardbred horses than were produced in the whole State a few years
ago, and there are only a few counties in the State where the breeding
of this class of horses is not established as a business. So general and
widespread has the industry become that a breeders’ association was
established about three years ago, and this association is able to give
from their own stables a race meeting each fall, lasting several days.
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 215

Many of the larger stock farms have private tracks where the animals are
trained. The market for these horses has extended into all parts of the
United States, and the growing demand for fast light-harness horses
abroad has been the means of extending the market to foreign countries.

Stallions of unblemished ancestry are to be found in abundance in
the State, and even if they are not bred to mares of equally high
pedigree, yet good results are obtained in the general improvement of
the progeny; and the importation of brood mares of good breeds is tend-
ing further to raise the quality of this class of horses.

Coach Horses. Unfortunately very little attention has so far been
paid to the breeding of this very useful and profitable class. The stal-
lions of this class now in the State are of the “French Coach” and
“Cleveland Bay” variety. One or two good stallions have recently been
imported into the State, and good results are expected within the next
few years. The appreciation and demand for this breed is increasing
every year.

Draught Horses. Much more attention has been paid to this class
of horses, largely through the influence of a public-spirited citizen of
Baltimore, whose importations of Percherons of fine quality have led to
a more thorough appreciation of this class. A number of Clyde stallions
have also been imported, and these have given a good class, though a
limited number, of grade animals.

General Utility Horses. The main dependence of an agricultural
region is the general utility horse, which can be used for all kinds of
work. It seemsrather strange that with the natural advantages of the
State, our farmers have been slow in giving proper attention to this class
of animals. The mare that works in th» plow all the week and pulis
the family to church on Sunday is bred to this or that horse either
because the fee is small or because he had once trotted a fast mile. The
results of such breeding are far from satisfactory. This is beginning to
receive the attention it deserves, and certainly there is no more impor-
tant subject for the farmer to consider.

While there may be some grounds for pride in the fact that the
trotter bas been developed in this country to a degree of speed never
dreamed of a few years ago, we must not forget that he is scarcely more
of what may be termed a general utility horse than is a thoroughbred.
The trotter is bred for speed, and to such a degree has this specialization
been carried, that unfortunately the qualities of endurance, conforma-
tion and action have been neglected and impared to a very great extent.
Even our farmers have been imbued with this craze for speed. Asa rule,
and under the average conditions of farm life, there is no more chance
of obtaining a great winner than there is of drawing a capital prize ina
lottery. Our farmers are now beginning to perceive this, and that for
216 MARYLAND.

sure and substantial profits in breeding, the animals must have bone,
muscle, power and constitution, combined with a moderate amount of
speed, and with sufficient nervous energy to enable them to stand long
trips with some weight behind them.

The Hackney horse seems to fill this want very well, and there is
cause of congratulation that a worthy son of the great Confidence
has been added to the list of breeding stallions in the State. It is to be
hoped that more of this class of horses may be introduced into the State,
for it is believed that by judicious crossing of trotting and thoroughbred
mares, a good class of light and heavy-harness roadsters may be obtained.

Mules. Although there is a steady and a growing demand for these
valuable animals, at good prices, they are rarely foaled in this State, but
are usually brought from the West. The reason for this is on account of
the scarcity and high price of jacks, a good Spanish jack being worth
from $1,500 to $3,000.

Cattle. Fifteen years ago some of the finest herds of Jersey cattle
in the country were owned in Maryland, and about that time there was
an exhibit of Jersey cattle at the State Fair, which was probably as fine
as could have been found elsewhere in the country. The craze for
Jerseys, born of the fictitious values, broke suddenly, and many breeders
lost heavily. The herds were broken up, and have been scattered through
the State and elsewhere. This has been followed by a much healthier
condition, and a system of grading has resulted from this decline in
value of the thoroughbred Jerseys, much to the advantage of the State at
large. The breeders now consider the endurance and constitution of the
animals, rather than their performances under artificial conditions for
limited and very short periods of time.

The introduction of the Holstein-Friesian cattle was made upon this
more stable basis, and a large number of these cattle are found in
different parts of the State and they are looked upon with great and
increasing favor. A few herds of thoroughbred Herefords are owned in
Baltimore county and on the Eastern Shore. In the western part of the
State some Durhams of excellent quality are bred. It was considered,
by many experts, that, at one time, the finest herd of Durham cattle in
the world was owned in Maryland, but the death of the owner caused the
herd to be broken up, and the good effects of the sale are apparent in the
improved breeding of the stock in that section of the State. Short-Horns
are still bred in the western counties, mainly because oxen are used for
hauling, and because large animals are desired for beef.

Sheep. The sheep interest has always been in a very healthy condi-
tion in this State. Probably a majority of the farms support flocks of
sheep, and the interest is growing. The Southdowns have been a favorite
AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. 217

breed, and the fine flock at Druid Hill Park, in Baltimore, has done much
to awaken an interest in the improved breeds.

Sheep require very little care, and have to be housed and fed, at
most, not over two months in the year; the remainder of the time they
run at large in the pasture fields and in the corn and stubble fields, after
the crops are removed. They yield a handsome return for the small
amount of care and expense they are to the farmer.

Hogs. Previous to 1875 the Chester-White, crossed with the White-
China, was the favorite breed of hogs; but about that time the scientific
breeding of Berkshires was begun, and this is undoubtedly at present the
favorite breed of hogs. For years Maryland possessed what was prob-
ably the finest herd of Berkshires in the United States or England. The
herd still contains its finest blood, although it is considerably reduced in
numbers. There are a number of herds of this breed in the State, many
of them of the finest blood, as also a few herds of Poland-China, Small-
Yorkshires, and some Jersey-Reds.
CHAPTER VI.

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE FLORA OF MARYLAND.

Any attempt to give an account of the flora of Maryland must of
necessity prove unsatisfactory. No botanical survey of the area included
within her limits has ever been made, and in the absence of the
information which such a survey would afford, much that would be of
great interest and utility must be omitted and general statements must
take the place of exact details. It is not probable that many plants new
to botany would be brought to light, since there are no such sharp botanical
lines between neighboring States as would lead us to expect plants in one
not found in others close at hand; but many plants known elsewhere,
but not previously reported in Maryland, would doubtless be found, and
the distribution of the different genera and species would be ascertained,
together with their relations to soil and climate. Not only has there
been no genera: survey, but little has been published of the work done
by individuals. Dr. William E. A. Aikin prepared a catalogue of the
“ Pheenogamous Plants and Ferns” growing in the vicinity of Baltimore,
which was published in the Transactions of the Maryland Academy of
Science and Literature in 1837, but has long been out of print. Mr.
Howard Shriver published a list of plants collected near Cumberland,
and the present writer published, in 1888, a preliminary check list for
the vicinity of Baltimore, in which the work of Dr. Aikin was freely used.

BOTANICAL REGIONS.

The State of Maryland has three distinct geological regions which
will serve also as the botanical divisions: the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont
Plateau and the Appalachian Mountains. A somewhat irregular line
from Havre de Grace through Baltimore to Washington divides the ten
thousand square miles of land area into two nearly equal portions.
The Coastal Plain lying to the east of this line is characterized by a
comparatively level surface of little elevation, the fresh water streams
having a more or less sluggish current and a tendency to spread out into
inarshes. It is divided into two portions by the Chesapeake bay, and
each portion is much sub-divided by rivers or rather arms of the bay, up
which tides advance. Many plants find here alone the conditions
NATURAL HISTORY. 219

necessary to their existence. Shore plants, plants growing in deep water,
salt marsh plants, and plants requiring wet sandy soil, may be mentioned
as peculiar to this region. The Piedmont Plateau extends from the
Coastal Plain to the base of the Catoctin Mountains, and has an elevation
of from two to nine hundred feet above sea level. The surface is
rolling or hilly, and the streams have generally a more rapid current.
This section is less peculiar in its vegetation. Rich woods and meadows
covered with a rank herbaceous growth are characteristic. The western
portion of the State consists of mountains and intervening valleys. The
streams to the east of Little Savage Mountain flow into the Potomac,
while those to the west seek the waters of the Ohio. The plants peculiar
to this region are principally such as find their way thus far south only
along the mountains ; though many plants found sparsely in the Piedmont
Region are here much more numerous and grow more luxuriantly, giving
the general aspect of vegetation a character of its own. A striking
feature of this part of the State are the Glades, upland meadows,
believed to be the basins of former shallow mountain lakes. The State
Geologist in 1841 thus describes them: “These are natural meadows of
variable extent, with a deep mould for soil, apparently in its origin
produced by the decomposition of a red, shaly sandstone, to which time
has added a rich accumulation of decayed and decaying vegetable matter.
This soil throws up a spontaneous growth of succulent grasses and plants
that afford the finest and most abundant pasturage for cattle during a
long portion of the year, and in the months of June and July present to
the eye of a traveler who crosses them a delightful parterre composed of
flowers of all hues, over which the botanist would be rejoiced to roam
among old and, perhaps, new acquaintances. The whole extent of these
glades within the limits of Allegany county may be estimated at about
twelve thousand acres, the greatest portion of which, east of the
Yohogany, is located towards the summit of the dividing mountains.
They are not connected with each other, and their outlines are very
irregular, spurs and ridges intersecting them and knolls sometimes rising
up from amidst them.”

This great variety in land surface has given rise to a great variety in
vegetation. Some plants are to be found only on certain rock formations
to which they have become specially adapted. An example of this is
found in Talinum teretifolium, Pursh. This plant grows on almost
naked serpentine rocks, which become at times extreinely dry. Its
cylindrical leaves enable it to store up water as a supply in time of
need, and it continues blossoming and ripening its seed during the
severest drought. Several specimens were placed in a tin pan, without
earth and unwatered, to experiment upon its endurance in this respect.
They continued to bloom from day to day for the space of two weeks,
when the experiment was interrupted.
220 MARYLAND.

CLIMATE.

The mean temperature of Baltimore for the past twenty-one years
was 55.3°, the extreme range during that period being from—6° on January
1, 1881, to 102° on July 18, 1887. The winters differ much in severity,
giving rise to a longer or shorter flowering season. December, January
and February are generally without flowers, except witch-hazel, which
blooms in December, and winter is occasionally prolonged to the end of
March. The mildest winter of which there is any exact record was that
of 1889-90. The mean temperatures for five months were: November,
48°; December, 46°; January, 44°; February, 434°; March, 42°. The
ranges for the same months were: November, 70° to 28°; December,
73° to 23°; January, 73° to 20°; February, 74° to 23°; March, 77° to 12°.
In this extraordinary season fall ended, as regards flowers, about the first
week of January, while spring began the last week of December, the
seasons completely overlapping. Twenty-six species were found blooming
between December 25 and February 16, viz:

I. Summer or fall plants in bloom much later than usual :
Aster prenanthoides, Muhl. Dec. 25, Jan. 3.
Lepidium Virginicum, L. (Peppergrass). Dec. 25.
Achillea Millefolium, L. (Yarrow). Jan. 3.
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L. (Ox-eye Daisy). Dec. 25,
Jan. 3.

II. Spring plants in bloom much earlier than usual :

Hepatica triloba, Chaix. Dec. 25, Jan. 5, Feb. 16.

Cerastium vulgatum, L. (Mouse-ear Chickweed). Dec. 25,
Feb. 16.

Symplocarpus foetidus, Salisb. (Skunk Cabbage). Dec..25.

Corylus Americana, Walt. (Wild Hazel-nut). Jan. 3, Feb. 16.

Antennaria plantaginifolia, Hook. (Plaintain leaved everlast-
ing). Jan. 3, Feb. 16.

Acer dasycarpum, Ehrh. (White Maple). Jan. 4.

Viola palmata, L. var. cucullata, Gray. (Common Blue Violets).
Jan. 4.

Nasturtium officinale, R. Br. (Water-cress). Jan. 4.

Houstonia cerulea, L. (Bluets). Jan. 4, Feb. 16.

Alnus serrulata, Willd. (Alder). Jan. 5, Feb. 16.

Acer rubrum, L. (Red Maple). Feb. 16.

Ulmus Americana, L. (American Elin). Feb. 16.

Luzula campestre, DC. (Wood Rush). Feb. 16.

Salix Babylonica, Tourn. (Weeping Willow). Feb. 16.

Poa flexuosa, Muhl. (Spear Grass). Feb. 16.
NATURAL HISTORY. 221

iI. Plants blooming usually in spring, summer and fall:
Stellaria media, Smith. (Common Chickweed). All dates.
Poa annua, L. (Low Spear-grass). All dates.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench. (Shepherd’s Purse). All
dates.
Malva rotundifolia, L. (Common Mallow). Dec. 25, Jan. 5.
Taraxacuin officinale, Weber. (Dandelion). Dec. 25, Jan. 5.
Draba verna, L. (Whitlow Grass). All dates.
Lamium amplexicaule, L. Jan. 4.

The seven last mentioned are hardy, naturalized plants from Europe,
and two of them, Stellaria media and Draba verna, may often be found
in bloom after a few warm days during the winter months.

The rose, Pyrus Japonica and English daisy were blooming in parks
and gardens in the last week of December. The peach trees bloomed in
February, and suffered severely from the cold weather of March. On
the whole, the season was very unfavorable for fruit.

FORESTS AND FOREST TREES.

The first settlers of Maryland found a land having a great abundance
of grass on the plains and in the open fields, but for the most part thickly
wooded. “Fine groves of trees appear,” says Father White, “not choked
with briers or bushes and undergrowth, but growing at intervals as if
planted by the hand of man, so that you can drive a four-horse carriage
wherever you choose through the midst of the trees.” The many hicko-
ries, the oaks, “so straight and tall that beams sixty feet long and two
and a half feet wide can be made of them,” the cypress trees growing to
a height of eighty feet before they have any branches, and with trunks
that three men with arms extended could barely reach round, excited the
wonder of the colonists. As late as 1841, Prof. J. T. Ducatel, State Geol-
ogist, describes the aspect of the country from the mountain tops in
Allegany, then the westernmost county of the State, as “at first grand
and imposing, but the eye is soon gratified, as it rests upon apparently
interminable forest.” “The crests and flanks of the mountains are
covered principally with pines and chestnuts. The yellow and spruce
pines are most abundant of that species of timber in this section of the
county; the white pine occurring only in few places. On the bottom
lands are found nearly all the most valuable forest trees; oaks, walnut,
poplar, locust, hickory, the Maynolia acuminata, or cucumber tree as it is
here called, and the maples, among which is the sugar maples, which
beautifully overshadows extensive camps, whence the smaller farmers of
the county, and indeed most of the inhabitants, are supplied with sugar.
The lime tree (Tilia glabra), here called linn, is also conspicuous amidst
the larger trees of these forests. Among the flowering shubbery are
222 MARYLAND.

particularly noticed the mountain laurel (Rhododendron maximum),
calico bush (Kalmia latifolia) and the wild honeysuckle (Azalea viscosa)
of large size, bearing a cluster of white flowers that emit a delicious
fragrance.”

The agricultural development of the land, and the demands of com-
merce, have affected the flora to a very great extent, but Maryland may
still be considered as well wooded. Trees deserve especial attention,
not only because they are most conspicuous, among the most beautiful,
and the most useful of veyetable growths, but because of their great
importance in distributing the rainfall and in modifying the climate.
While on the one hand the healthfulness of a country in our latitude
may be increased by clearing away part of the originally almost unbroken
forest, on the other hand, destructive torrents, and equally destructive
droughts are the consequences of too great denudation of trees.

Maryland, it is believed, is still in most parts, on the safe side, and,
if proper attention be paid to the preservation of forests in those regions
which are not adapted to agriculture, this will continue to be the case.
The continually increasing demand for wood, and the destructive manner
of obtaining what is merchantable, so generally employed, as well as the
ravages of fires, due to accident or carelessness, render it advisable to take
precautionary measures. This may the more easily be done, since forest
culture, or forest preservation, in the many hilly or mountainous regions
which can be turned to no other use, would be sure to pay handsomely
in time, owing to the increased price which forest products are certain
to bring in the future. The natural forests of the country cannot long
withstand the destruction now going on, and the application of scientific
principles to forest growing in this State, would not only render much
otherwise useless land wealth-producing itself, but would be a means of
preserving the agricultural lands against the evils resulting from a
deficiency of trees.

In number of species, and probably in number of individuals, the
oaks rank first among our native trees. The white oak (Quercusalba, L.),
post oak (Q. stellata, Wang.) and swamp white oak (Q. bicolor, Willd.),
resemble each other in general appearance, and in their hard and durable
wood, which is used in making agricultural implements and carriages,
for railroad ties and fence posts.

The laurel oak (Q. imbricaria, Michx.) is used for shingles; the pin
oak (Q. palustris, Du Roi) for planks; the bark of Spanish oak (Q. falcata,
Michx.), of chestnut oak {Q. Prinus, L.) and of black oak (Q. coccinea,
Wang., var. tinctoria) is used in tanning; the wood of black oak is used
by coopers and carriage-makers; all the above, together with water oak
(Q. aquatica, Walter), black jack (Q. nigra, L.), willow oak (Q. Phellos, L.)
and black scrub oak (Q. ilicifolia, Wang.) make good fuel.
NATURAL HISTORY. 223

Of four or five species of hickory, the shag-bark (Carya alba, Nutt.)
furnishes the most valuable wood, tough, elastic and durable. Pines fit
for lumber have become scarce, but specimens of white (Pinus Strobus, L.)
and yellow pine (P. mitis, Michx.) may still be found. Pitch pine (P.
rigida, Mill.) and Jersey scrub pine (Pinops, Ait.) are plentiful, but valuable
only as fuel.

From the wood of the cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata, L.) pumps
and bowls are made; the yellow poplar (Liriodendron Tulipifera, L.), a
local name brought down from early colonial days for the tree elsewhere
known as tulip tree, white (Acer dasycarpum, Ehrh.), red (A. rubrum, L.),
and sugar maple (A. saccharinum, Wang.) common locust (Robinia Pseuda-
cacia, L.), chestnut (Castanea sativa, Mill., var Americana), beech (Fagus
ferruginea, Ait.), white ash (Fraxinus Americana, L.), white (Juglans cinerea,
L.) and black walnut (J. nigra, L.) and wild cherry {Prunus serotina, Ehrh.)
furnish valuable woods for finishing the interiors of houses, for aking
furniture and for cabinet work. From dogwood (Cornus florida, L.)
handles of tools; from sour guin (Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh.) and American
elm (Ulmus Americana, L.) hubs of wheels; from sycamore (Platanus
occidentalis, L.) meat-blocks, and from hop-hornbeam (Ostrya Virginica,
Willd.) mallets and mauls are made. Red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana,
L.) is used to make moth-proof chests and for fine posts.

The native fruits growing on trees are not very numerous, yet some
of them do not seem to have received the attention from pomologists
which they deserve. The European settlers finding the fruits of their
old homes to thrive in their new abode did not deem it necessary to
develop and improve the wild fruits about them. The persimmon
attracted the attention of Captain John Smith, who speaks of three sorts
of plums, the red and the white, like English hedge plums, “but the
other, which they call Putchamins, grow as high as a Palmata. The
fruit is like a medlar; it is first green, then yellow, and red when it is
ripe. If it be not ripe it will draw a man’s mouth awrie with much
torment, but when it is ripe it is as delicious as an Apricock.” The
persimmon growing wild is subject to much variation in the size and
quality of its fruit. A judicious selection and cuitivation of one of the
almost seedless varieties often found in a state of nature would doubtless
repay the care bestowed upon it. The serviceberry (Amelanchior
Canadensis, T. and G.) is another fruit that is worthy of cultivation.
The Chicasa plum has been improved and is sometimes cultivated.
Elderberries are used in making wine, and in some places the dried
berries are made into pies. The sugar maple is extensively used in
making maple sugar. The wild nuts most prized are black walnuts,
chestnuts, chinquapins, hickory nuts (the shellbark being the best) and
224 MARYLAND.

wild hazelnuts. The white walnut is little used in Maryland, except for
pickling, the black being considered much superior.

To the massing of trees in forests the landscape owes much of its
attractiveness, and there are few more beautiful objects in animated
nature than an individual tree which a favorable environment has
allowed to attain its perfect development and symmetry. Each species
has its own particular form and its own peculiar beauty, no less, though
different, in our temperate zone than in the tropics, and only less noticed
because more familiar. Humboldt considers it an undertaking worthy
of a great artist to study the character of the different vegetable groups
“on the grand theatre of tropical nature.” The delicate shades of our
early spring, the deeper hues of summer, the gorgeous tints of autumn,
and the sober colors of bare trunks and limbs of winter offer a no less
attractive variety to the painter or the lover of beauty. The red maple,
the dogwood and the red-bud give to the forests of early spring a
contrast of colors, which adds much to its charms.

CLIMBERS.

Intimately associated with trees are the larger climbers, which
depend upon them for support. The most important of these are four
species of grape: Vitis Labrusca, L., V. rotundifolia, Michx., the northern
and the southern fox-grape, V. sstivalis, Michx. and V. cordifolia Michx.,
both locally known as chicken-grapes. Both the northern and southern
fox-grape have been cultivated ; the former has given rise to the Isabella,
the Catawba and the Concord, while the latter is the origin of the
Scuppernong grape. The climbing bittersweet (Celastrus scandens, L.)
Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx.), often confounded
with poison-oak (Rhus Toxicodendron, L.), and trumpet creeper (Tecoma
radicans, Juss.) should be mentioned for their beauty, and poison-oak
should be known to be avoided. It may be easily distinguished from the
beautiful and harmless Virginia creeper by its three leaflets. Its near
relative, the poison sumach, (Rhus venenata, DC.),a swamp shrub from
six to eighteen feet in height, enjoys with it the odious distinction of
being the only plants growing in Maryland which are poisonous to the
touch. Among the lesser climbers are: Virgin’s bower (Clematis Vir-
giniana, L.), moonseed (Menispermum Canadense, L.), climbing hempweed
(Mikania scandens, L.), several species of morning-glory, and wild yam
(Dioscorea villosa, L.). The greenbrier, of which there are three species
common, renders in many places the shrubbery along streams difficult of
passage.
NATURAL GAISTORY. 225

NATIVE SMALL FRUITS.

‘The wild strawberry, blackberry, dewberry and raspberry are every-
where plentiful. Three species of huckleberry, as many of blueberry
and one of cranberry are found. The fruits are extensively used in the
country districts, and dewberries, blackberries and huckleberries (by
which name blueberries also are commonly known) are sent in consid-
erable quantities to the Baltimore markets. They are for the most part
free to any person who will take the trouble to gather them, and afford a
welcome addition to the table, or to the income, of many persons
throughout the State.

WEEDS.

When the forests are cleared away for the purposes of agriculture,
new conditions are created and new plants make their appearance. Not
only are the trees destroyed, but the plants that found a congenial home
in their shade, perish, and others spring up which had previously kept
aloof because of their love of sunshine. If a dozen square yards be
cleared in the midst of a forest the flora of this small surface will
quickly change. Even the fall of a tree will change the vegetation of
the space opened to the sunlight. The plants that avail themselves first
of the new condition differ according to soil and situation. In the
western part of the State the great willow herb (Epilobium angustifolium,
L.) is one of the first comers; in the rich woodlands of the Piedmont
Region fireweed (Erechthites hieracifolia, Ref.) and wild lettuce (Lactuca
Canadensis, L.) are characteristic. In the sandy portion of the Coastal
Plain the trees are often succeeded, if the clearing be not promptly
cultivated, by chinquapin bushes or dwarf oak. After a few years of
careful cultivation these first weeds retire to the borders of the forest,
the fence corners and other uncultivated spots. These are for the most
part native plants, and are not generally the most troublesome weeds.
The farmer’s greatest difficulty is with weeds of foreign extraction, which
have been intentionally or unintentionally brought into the country by
the white man. Many of these are dependent upon man both for their
dispersion and for the conditions necessary to their growth. They infest
the yard, the garden, the grainfield, the meadow and the pasture, but do
not spread generally in uncultivated regions. Some are brought into the
country mingled with the seed of useful plants, others among the ballast
of vessels. Over fifty species of foreign plants may be found growing
upon the ballast heaps at Canton, some of which will doubtless spread to
the neighboring fields and become established. During the colonial
period, when foreign vessels unloaded in every navigable river and creek,
many more centres of dispersion existed than at present, and hence the

numerous “advents from Europe” which have become naturalized.
15
226 MARYLAND.

Among the most troublesome foreigners in fields are Viper’s bugloss
(Echium vulgare, L.), Canada thistle (Cnicus arvensis, Hoffm.), ox-eye
daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L.), wild carrot (Daucus carota, L.),
lainb’s quarter (Chenopodium album, L.), and bitter dock (Rumex
obtusifolium, L.), from Europe. Among yard and garden pests may be
mentioned common mallow (Malva rotundifolia, L.), curled dock (Rumex
crispus, L.), common plantain (Plantago major, L.), ribgrass (Plantago
lanceolata, L.), common purslane (Portulaca oleracea, L.) and burdock
(Arctium lappa, L.), from Europe, pigweed (Amarantus retroflexus, L.) and
Sida spinosa, L., from the tropics, and velvet-leaf (Abutilon Avicenne
Gaertn.), from India. Corn cockle (Lychnis Githago, Lam.), is a native of
Europe, and is especially troublesome in wheat fields, because it ripens
its seeds at harvest time. The seeds are too near the grain in weight to
be separated by fanning, and are therefore likely to be replanted with
wheat in the fall.

Among troublesome native weeds are ragweed and great ragweed
(Ambrosia artemisiefolia, L. and A. trifida, L.), the latter very rank in
rich river bottoms, several species of Erigeron known as horseweed,
daisy fleabane, etc., Aster ericoides, L., beggar-ticks (Bidens frondosa, L.),
and Spanish needles (Bidens bipinnata, L.), the last two especially in
corn fields.

THE LARGER ORDERS.

The Composite family (Composite), is more largely represented in
genera and species than any other, and probably also in individuals. In
autumn especially they predominate, and Asters, Solidagos, Eupatoriums
of many species, with many other genera, everywhere abound. The
grasses (Graminez), are not far behind Composite in species, but they
do not occupy so conspicuous a place in the landscape except when in
cultivation. The sedges (Cyperacez) come next, owing to the numerous
species of Carex. This genus has a far greater number of species than
any other growing in Maryland. It alone comprises two-thirds of the
species of Cyperacee. The Pulse (Leguminose), the Rose (Rosacez) and
mint (Labiate), families are far more numerous in species than any except
the three orders already mentioned. The Heath (Ericacez), the Figwort
(Scrophulariacez), the Mustard (Cruciferee), the Fern (Filices), the Parsley
(Umbellifere), the Oak (Cupulifere), the Orchis (Orchidacew), the Lily
(Liliacez), the Crowfoot (Ranunculacee), the Pink (Caryophyllacee) and
the Buckwheat (Polygonacee) families rank next in this respect.

SPECIALLY ATTRACTIVE FLOWERS OF SPRING, SUMMER AND AUTUMN.

In the early spring the most beautiful flowers are found quite near
the ground, which, in favored spots, they fairly carpet. Trailing arbutus
NATURAL HISTORY. 227

(Epigea repens, L.); hepatica (Hepatica triloba, Chaix); spring beauty
(Claytonia Virginica, L.); bluets (Houstonia cerulea, L.); violets of a dozen
species, blue, white and yellow, obolaria (Obolaria Virginica, L.); dog-
toothed violets (Erythronium Americanum, Ker.); wild ginger (Asarum
Canadense, L.); dentarias (Dentaria heterophylla, Nutt. and D. laciniata,
Muhl.); rue anemone (Anemonella thalictroides, Spach.); bishop’s cap
(Mitella diphylla, L.); Dutchman’s breeches (Dicentra Cucullaria, DC.), a
name which one feels ashamed to apply to this most delicate and beautiful
little flower; wind flower (Anemone nemorosa, L.), and wild pink (Silene
Pennsylvanica, Michx.), are all low-growing plants flowering in early
spring. Mertensia (Mertensia Virginica, D C.); wild columbine (Aquilegia
Canadensis, L.); wild cranesbill (Geranium maculatum, L.); azalea, or wild
honeysuckle (Rhododendron nudiflorum, Torr.), as it is sometimes called;
polemonium (P. reptans, L.); Indian cucumber root (Medeola Virginiana,
L.), and spiderwort (Tradescantia Virginica, L.), bring us to the end of
spring.

Among summer flowers worthy of special mention, are the fringe-
tree (Chionanthus Virginica, L.); swamp honeysuckle (Rhododendron
viscosum, Torr.) ; staggerbush (Andromeda Mariana, L.); goat’s rue
(Tephrosia Virginiana, Pers.); wild roses, pyrolas and chimaphilas, part-
ridge-berry (Mitchella repens, L.), growing in such profusion in some
places as to cover the ground and to scent the air for some distance;
nine-bark (Physocarpus opulifolius, Maxim.); goat’s beard (Spireea Aruncus,
L.), numerous species of Desmodium and Lespedeza, the most plentiful
wood flowers in midsummer; the American laurel (Kalmia angustifolia,
L.), forming thickets on hillsides and densely covered with blossoms;
meadow beauty (Rhexia Virginica and R. Mariana, L.); great laurel
(Rhododendron maximum, L.), most beautiful of mountain flowers ;
kosteletzkya (K. Virginica, Gray); sabbatias (S. angularis, S. stellaris and
S. chloroides, Pursh); sweet-pepper bush (Clethra alnifolia, L.); magnolia
(M. glauca, L.); monarda (M. didyma, L.), etc.

The autumn flora is largely composed of Composite, but the
gerardias, gentians and lobelias will also attract attention. The fringed
gentian (Gentiana crinita, Froel.), is probably the most beautiful of fall
flowers. The golden-rods (Solidago), take the lead among the Composite.
The dogwood, the holly (Ilex opaca, Ait. and I. verticillata, Gray), and
other trees or shrubs are covered with red berries, which are attractive
to the eye of man and to the palate of many birds. :

PLANTS OF PECULIAR HABITS.

Three genera are found within our own limits which have the most
peculiar of habits, that of capturing insects. Two of these, sundew
(Drosera) and bladderwort (Utricularia) feed upon the prey captured.
228 MARYLAND.

This is probably the case with the pitcher-plant also, but the fact has
not been so clearly demonstrated. Sarracenia (pitcher-plant) and Drosera
grow upon the borders of marshes. Utricularia is a water or marsh
plant. Sarracenia ¢aptures its prey in the so-called pitchers, which are
constantly kept half full of water, into which insects fall and being
unable to escape perish. The pitchers appear to be formed by a union
of the outer margins of the leaves, but upon closer examination they are
found to be specially modified petioles. A rosette of such leaves
surrounds each flower-stalk at its base. The flower-stalk of sundew is
provided with a circle of leaves around the margins of which are rows
of tentacles. At the extremity of each tentacle is a small drop of a
mucilaginous substance, which has somewhat the. appearance of a drop
of honey and glistens in the sun like dew. Upon the approach of a
small insect so as tu touch one of these tentacles it is held by the sticky
substance, and the remaining tentacles are one after the other bent over
and fasten it more securely. Finally the leaf folds over it transversely
and remains in this position until all the substance of the insect that is
required by the plant is absorbed, when lieaf and tentacles resume their
normal position.

Bladderworts, at least those that are insectivorous, float in the water
and are provided with bladders on the dissected leaves. The bladders
are constructed on the principles of an eel-pot, easy to enter and almost
impossible of egress. In these bladders small aquatic creatures are
captured in large numbers and afford nourishment to the plant.

Eel grass or wild celery (Vallisneria spiralis) isa plant which grows
in several feet of water in the tide regions. It is fastened by its roots at
the bottom of the water, and the sterile flowers are borne on short stalks
which remain submerged. The fertile flowers are borne on long stalks
spirally coiled, so that they may be lengthened or shortened by loosening
or tightening the coil. At the time of blooming the sterile flowers break
from their stalks, float to the surface and shed their pollen upon the
water, which brings it into contact with the pistils of the fertile flowers,
whose stalks are lengthened so that they are always kept at the surface
by the loosening or tightening of the coll as the tide rises or falls.
When fertilization has been secured, the coil tightens permanently and
the seeds are ripened under water. The root of this plant is the favorite
food of the canvas-back and is said to give its flesh the delicate flavor
for which this duck is so highly prized in this region.

Utricularia inflata, one of the bladderworts above mentioned, has the
further peculiarity of raising the flower stalk above the water on five or
six inflated leaf petioles arranged like a tripod. On these stalks are
borne several pretty yellow flowers, for which reason they have been
given the not inappropriate name of water-candles.
NATURAL HISTORY. 229

Among parasitic plants are sweet pine-sap (Schweinitzia odorata, E11.)
parasitic on the roots of herbs, found near Baltimore and Cumberland;
Indian pipe (Monotropa uniflora, L.) on roots, pine-sap (Monotropa
Hypopitys, Bart.) on the roots of beech trees, dodder (Cuscuta) on the
bark of herbs and trees, and American misletoe (Phoradendron flavescens,
Nutt.) with us principally on the sour gum (Nyssa).

SHORE AND WATER PLANTS.

In the waters of the bay and navigable rivers are found many species
of water plants growing in some situations in such numbers as to impede
the passage of boats. They are principally Potamogetons of different
species and Anacharis. Water chinquapin (Nelumbo lutea, Pers.), the
largest flowered of our native plants, is found in some of the rivers
emptying into the Potomac. Water lily (Nymphea odorata, Ait.), yellow
pond-lily (Nuphar advena, Ait. f.), water-shield (Brasenia peltata, Pursh),
ditch-grass (Ruppia maritima, L.), and horned pond-weed (Zannichellia
palustris, L.) grow in shallow water or in ponds.

The shores of the bay in many places are eaten into by the waves,
causing masses of earth to fall, which are gradually removed by the
water, leaving the bank again exposed to the encroachments of the
waves. That this process is not everywhere more destructive is due to
the protection afforded by plants which love a situation where their
roots are daily covered by water. These are mainly certain grasses and
sedges. Where a mass of sod has been formed by the densely matted
roots of these plants, the waves beat upon them in vain, and the destruc- .
tion of land at such points ceases. If part of the sod be washed away by
a more than commonly violent storm, the damage is repaired by the
vigorous growth of the next season. By their aid not only is the shore
protected in exposed places, but in sheltered places the land reclaims
what has been taken from it at unprotected exposed points. At the point
beyond which the highest tide seldom reaches, highwater shrub (Iva
frutescens, L.) and groundsel-tree (Baccharis halimifolia, L.) are found.
In some places the waters throw back what they have taken from the
land elsewhere in sand heaps, which are seized by the roots of plants,
held firmly against wind and water, and gradually converted into tillable
land. Many instances of these contests between waves and plants (for
the land itself is passive) may be found on the shores of the bay and its
tributaries. In passing over such new-made land from the new to the
old shore, the vegetation is found arrayedinranks. The shore-protecting
or land-reclaiming plants are in advance, the land in their rear being
given up to other plants to which it has become by their action adapted,
and these following the advance guard will surrender the soil behind
them, or landward, in succession to others.
230 MARYLAND.

Several orders deserve special treatment by reason of their more
general utility or beauty. The Orchid, the Grass and the Fern families
have been selected. Orchids are usually associated with the tropics, and
ferns are also found in greater luxuriance and variety in warm climates.
The grass family is probably the most generally useful of all orders of
plants. Their usefulness is by no means limited to the food material
they supply to man and beast.

ORCHIDS (ORCHIDACEZ).

Thirty species of the Orchid family have been reported in Maryland.
They are all terrestrial, and twelve of the seventeen genera described in
Gray’s Manual are represented. The most conspicuous are the lJady’s
slippers, of which we have four species: Cypripedium acaule, Ait., C.
pubescens, Willd., C. parviflorum, Salisb., and C. spectabile, Swartz. The
first, the purple lady’s slipper, grows plentifully in pine woods, the
second, large yellow lady’s slipper, is less plentiful and much more
attractive, the third, small yellow lady’s slipper, is still more rare, and
the fourth, showy white lady’s slipper, is the most beautiful, and among
the rarest of our plants. Calopogon pulchella, R. Br.and Pogonia ophio-
glossoides, Muhl., rank next to the last mentioned in beauty. VPogonia
verticillata, Nutt., has a rather large flower, which is rendered incon-
spicuous by its want of bright color. The genus Habenaria is represented
by ten species; H. ciliaris, R. Br., yellow-fringed orchis, H. blephariglottis,
Torr., white-fringed orchid, and H. peramcena, Gray, of violet-purple color,
have attractive flower clusters. The others are not striking, except H.
orbiculata, Torr. whose leaves, (eight inches in diameter), spread flat upon
the ground, with shining upper and silvery under surface, render the plant
a conspicuous object in wooded regions among the mountains. Goodyera
pubescens, R. Br., is every where plentiful, and G. repens, R. Br., is not scarce
inthe mountains. Of the species of Spiranthes, ladies’ tresses, 8. gracilis,
Big., is found in dry situations, 8. cernua, Richard, in wet places inland,
and 8. preecox, Watson, in wet grassy places near the shore of tide-water.
Liparis liliifolia, Richard, is not rare in rich woods. Orchis spectabilis,
L., is quite plentiful. Microstylis ophioglossvides, Nutt., is small, deli-
cate and graceful. The species of Corallorhiza, Tipularia discolor, Nutt.
and Aplectrum hyemale, Nutt., are inconspicuous by reason of dull colors,
and the last two are more easily found in fall or winter by the leaf,
which is absent in the flowering season.

GRASSES (GRAMINEZ).

Of grasses growing spontaneously in Maryland, there are about fifty
genera, and considerably upward of a hundred species. It is needless to
speak of the importance to man of the cultivated species as food, both
NATURAL HISTORY. 231

for himself and for his domestic animals. Agriculture very largely con-
sists in the raising of grasses, wheat, rye, oats and Indian corn for the
grain, and timothy, orchard grass, redtop, and others for hay. Many
grasses growing without cultivation also afford excellent cattle food,
in either a green or dried condition. Tiere are found species peculiar to
every situation, on sterile or rich soil, damp or dry, in meadows or forests.
To discuss fully the agricultural aspects alone of the grasses would
require a volume. A few only can be mentioned for the special points
of interest that they possess.

Reed (Phragmites communis, Trin.) is the tallest of our grasses,
reaching a height of twelve feet. Its large terminal panicle renders it
one of the most beautiful. Of no value as food for animals, it has been
utilized elsewhere in many ways; the reeds for thatching and as shafts
for arrows, the panicle as a dye. It is described as “one of nature’s
most valuable colonists, and is largely concerned in the gradual conver-
sion of swamps and fens, stagnant pools and other unwholesome spots
where water accumulates, into dry land.” This process may be seen in
operation within a few miles of Baltimore.

Indian rice (Zizania aquatica, L.) is another tall grass, growing on
the swampy borders of streams and in shallow water. Of this plant
Captain John Smith says: “Mattoume groweth as our bents do in
meddows. The seede is not much unlike to rie, though much smaller.
This they (the Indians) use for a dainty bread, buttered witb deare suet.”
According to Vasey, it is still gathered by the Indians in Minnesota and
the northwest for food. Reed-birds resort to it in great numbers when
the seeds are ripe, and many are killed by gunners, who stand in boats
which they push slowly through the grass. This sport is extensively
practised on the Patapsco, near Baltimore. The bobolink as he migrates
northward in spring, is little noticed by sportsmen, but when he returns
in the fall, in sober plumage, and is fattened on Indian rice, he becomes
under the name of reed-bird a much prized game.

Sea sand-grass (Ammophila arundinacea, Host.) is one of the most
remarkable of grasses. Its services to man on sandy seashores have
been incalculably valuable. Many square miles of agricultural land
have been preserved by it, in England, Scotland and Holland, from
destruction by the drifting sand. “It is common on the sea coast,” says
the author of “British Grasses,” “establishing itself among the loose
drifting sand, its extensive creeping roots have an amazing power in
binding together the loose material of its home, and thus forming out of
useless drifting sand a firm bank against the encroachments of the sea.
So well was its value appreciated in the olden times that acts of
Parliament were issued, first in Scotland and then in England also,
forbidding any person to molest or injure the sea matweed on pain of
232 MARYLAND.

heavy fines and penalties.” “The town of Provincetown, once called
Cape Cod, where the pilgrims first landed, and its harbor, still called the
harbor of Cape Cod, one of the best and most important in the United
States, sufficient in depths for ships of the largest size and in extent to
anchor three thousand vessels at once,” says Flint, “owe their preser-
vation to this grass.” Though its services, happily, are not needed on a
large scale in Maryland,a knowledge of what it has done elsewhere
cannot but give us an increased respect for this member of our flora.
Bermuda grass (Cynodon Dactylon, Pers.), with its low or prostrate,
diffusely branching stems, which root freely at the joints, is our most
common binder of sand. The shores are protected against waves by
salt reed-grass (Spartina juncea, Willd.), salt marsh-grass (S. stricta, Roth.),
spike grass (Distichlis maritima, Raf.), Panicum proliferum, Lam., and’
by several sedges, principally of the genus Scirpus (bulrush).

The small cane (Arundinaria macrosperma, Michx., var. suffruticosa,
Munro) is found in great abundance in certain limited areas of sandy
marsh land in inland situations. The canebrakes are not numerous, but
where one occurs the plants grow close together in such numbers as to
exclude other vegetation. The leaves remain through the milder winters,
the plant being destroyed only by very severe weather. A succession of
mild winters enables it to attain a much greater size than usual.

Among grasses whose value as food for cattle is well recognized are
sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum, L.), which gives to new-
mown hay its delicious fragrance, Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis, I..),
meadow fescue (Festuca elatior, L.) and rye-grass (Lolium perenne, J..).
Many other grasses are eaten by cattle at some stage of their growth.

Some of the grasses that are troublesome in cultivated grounds, and,
therefore, known as weeds, are crab grass (Panicum sanguinale, I..),
barnyard grass (Panicum crus-galli, L.), foxtail (Setaria glauca, Beauv.),
in corn-fields, green fox-tail (S. viridis, Beauv.), bur grass (Cenchrus
tribuloides, L.), dropseed (Muhlenbergia diffusa, Schreber), wire grass
(Eleusine Indica, Gaertn.) and cheat (Bromus secalinus, L.), among wheat.

Several species of Andropogon, the sedge of old sedge-fields, poverty-
grass (Aristida dichotoma, Michx.), Panicum depauperatum, Muhl., wild
oat grass (Danthonia spicata, Beauv.) and Festuca tenella, Willd, are
indicative of very sterile soil.

In dry situations are found Aira caryophyllea, L., Deschampsia
flexuosa, Trin., Danthonia sericea, Nutt., Triodia cuprea, Jacq. The
principal grasses of sandy fields are: Paspalum setaceum, Michx.;
Panicum filiforme, L.; Aristida gracilis, Ell.; Sporobolus asper, Kunth;
Eragrostis capillaris, Nees, and Uniola gracilis, Michx.; Paspalum laeve,
Michx.; P. Floridanum, Michx.; Panicum crusgalli, L., var. hispidum ;
Leersia Virginica, Willd.; L. oryzoides, Swartz; Erianthus saccharoides,
NATURAL HISTORY. 233

Michx.; Phalaris arundinacea, L.; Trisetum palustre, Torr.; Glyceria Can-
adensis, Trin.; and G. obtusa, Trin, grow in wet or marshy places. The
most common wood grasses are: Stipa avenacea, L.; Muhblenhbergia
sylvatica, T. and G.; M. Willdenovii, Trin.; Brachyelytrum aristatum,
Beauv.; Elymus striatus, Willd. var. villosus, Gray; and Asprella Hystrix,
Willd.

FERNS (FILICES).

In that part of the United States which lies east of the’ Mississippi,
aud north of Tennessee and North Carolina, the region of Gray’s Manual,
there are found twenty-one genera and sixty-two species of ferns. Of
these, seventeen genera and thirty species are known to occur in Mary-
land. The greater number are found in shaded situations, many upon
rocks, some in damp thickets, others in swamps, and but one, and that
the rarest, cliff-brake (Pellea atropurpurea, Link.) in dry exposed places
upon the mortar of old walls or on calcareous rocks.

On rocks principally in woods may be found the common polypody
(Polypodium vulgare, L.) in great abundance. The fronds remain green
during the winter, as do those of Aspidium marginale, Swartz, and A.
acrostichoides, Swartz (the Christmas fern), which grow abundantly in
rocky woods, but are not confined to rocks.

Cheilanthes vestita, Swartz, Asplenium montanum, Willd., A. Tri-
chomanes, L., Woodsia obtusa, Torr. and Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh.,
grow on shaded cliffs, by preference from the clefts in the rock. The
walking fern (Camptosorus rhizophyllus, Link.), grows on mossy rocks.
In woods among rocks are also found Adiantum pedatum, L., (maiden-
hair), and Asplenium ebeneum, Ait. In rich, damp situations in woods
may be found Asplenium angustifolium, Michx., A. Filix-foemina, Bernh.,
Phegopteris hexagonoptera, Fée., Aspidinm spinulosum, Swartz, var. in-
termedium, D. C. Eaton, A. Goldianum, Hook., and Dicksonia pilosiuscula,
Willd. Asplenium thelypteroides, Michx. is generally found in shaded
spots. Pteris aquilina, L., and Osmunda Claytoniana, L., prefer damp
places, but are able to exist in quite dry situations.

Lygodium palmatum, Swartz, (climbing fern), the most beautiful of
our ferns, grows in moist thickets and climbs by twining. Onoclea sensi-
bilis, L.,and Aspidium Noveboracense, Swartz, are found in most thickets
or meadows.

In swamps or on their borders, grow Woodwardia Virginica, Smith,
W. angustifolia, Smith, Aspidium Thelypteris, Swartz, A. cristatum,
Swartz, Osmunda regalis, L., and O. cinnamomea, I.
234 . MARYLAND.

MEDICINAL PLANTS.

The following is a list of medicinal plants growing in Maryland,
classified according to parts used:

Roots. Polygala senega, L.; Saponaria officinalis, L.; Taraxacum
officinale, Weber; Chichorium Intybus, L.; Inula Helenium, L.; Arctium
Lappa, L.; Asclepias tuberosa, L.; Apocynum cannabinum, L.; Euphorbia
Tpecacuanhe, L.; E. corollata, L.; Angelica atropurpurea, L.; Ipomaa
pandurata, Meyer; Phytolacca decandra, L.; Heuchera Americana, L. ;
Rumex crispus, L.; Hydrangea arborescens, L.; Apocynum androsemi-
folium, L.; Baptisia tinctoria, R. Br.; Ceanothus Americanus, L.

Rhizomes. Aspidium marginale, Willd.; Acorus Calamus, L.;
Triticum repens, L.; Veratrum viride, Ait. ; Symplocarpus foetidus, Salis. ;
Chamelirium luteum, Gray; Iris versicolor, L.; Aletris farinosa, L.;
Cypripedium pubescens, Willd.; Polygonatum biflorum, Ell.; P. gigan-
teum, Dietrich; Dioscorea villosa, L.; Sanguinaria Canadensis, L.;
Geranium maculatum, L.; Nymphea odorata, Ait.; Podophyllum
peltatum, L.; Asclepias Cornuti, Decsne ; Aralia nudicaulis, L.; Aristolochia
Serpentaria, L.; Spigelia Marilandica, L.; Asclepias incarnata, L. ; Caulo-
phyllum thalictroides, Michx.; Collinsonia Canadensis, L.; Cimicifuga
racemosa, Nutt.; Gillenia trifoliata, Mcench; Triosteum perfoliatum, L. ;
Aralia racemosa, L.; Asarum Canadense, L.; Menispermum Canadense, L.

Tubers and bulbs. Arisema triphyllum, Torr.; Dicentra Cana-
densis, D C.

Woods and twigs. Solanum Dulcamara, L.; Sassafras officinale, Nees.

Barks. Cornus florida, L.; Liriodendron Tulipifera, L.; Magnolia
glauca, L.; Ilex verticillata, Gray; Prunus serotina, Ehr.; Salix alba, L. ;
Hamamelis Virginiana, L.; Viburnum prunifolium, L.; Quercus alba,
L.; Quercus coccinea var. tinctoria, Gray; Rubus villosus, Ait.; Rubus
Canadensis, L.; Fraxinus Americana, L.; Juglans cinerea, L.; Xanthoxy-
lum Americanum, Mill.; Myrica cerifera, L.; Ulmus fulva, Michx.;
Sassafras officinale, Nees.

Leaves and leaflets. Epigea repens, L.; Kalmia latifolia, L.; Cassia
Marilandica, L.; Datura Stramonium, L.; Hamamelis Virginiana, L.;
Castanea sativa, Mill., var. Americana; Ilex opaca, Ait.; Chimaphila
umbellata, Nutt.; Gaultheria procumbens, L.; Myrica asplenifolia, Endl. ;
Rhus Toxicodendron, L.

Herbs. Adiantum pedatum, L.; Ranunculus bulbosus, L.; Chelido-
nium majus, L.; Capsella Bursa pastoris, Monch; Helianthemum
Canadense, Michx.; Hypericum perforatum, L.; Agrimonia Eupatoria,
L.; Potentilla Canadensis, L.; Ginothera biennis, L.; Epilobium angusti-
folium, L.; Viola tricolor, L.; Drosera rotundifolia, L.; Eupatorium
perfoliatum, L.; Erigeron Philadelphicus, L.; Erigeron annuus, Pers. ;
Erigeron strigosus, Muhl; Erigeron Canadensis, L.; Solidago odora, Ait. ;
NATURAL HISTORY. 235

Helenium autumnale, L.; Anthemis cotula, L.; Achillea Millefolium, L.;
Gnaphalium polycephalum, Michx.; Lobelia inflata, L.; Epiphegus
Virginiana, Barton; Scrophularia nodoga, L., var. Marilandica, Gray ;
Chelone glabra, L.; Mentha piperita, L.; M. viridis, L.; Lycopus Virgini-
cus, l..; Cunila Mariana, L.; Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers.; Melissa offi-
cinalis, L.; Monarda punctata, L.; Nepeta Cataria, L.; N. Glechoma
Benth., Scutellaria lateriflora, L.; Leonorus Cardiaca, L.; Plantago lan-
ceolata, L.; P. major, L.; Mitchella repens, L.; Galium Aparine, L.;
Sabbatia angularis, Pursh.

Leafy Tops. Juniperus Virginiana, L.

Flowers and Petals. Tilia Americana, L.; Malva sylvestris, L.;
Sainbucus Canadensis, L.

Fruits. Morus rubra, L.; Humulus Lupulus, L.; Rosa canina, L.;
Rhus glabra, L.; Cannabis sativa, L.; Diospyros Virginiana, L.; Cheno-
podium ambrosioides, L., var. anthelminticum, Gray; Arctium Lappa, L.

Seeds. Delphinium Consolida, L.; Datura Stramonium, L.

THE TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS OF MARYLAND.

As the natural formation of Maryland possesses such varied charac-
teristics, presenting, as it does, a gradual transition from the mountains
of the western part of the State to the low-lying and swampy shores of
the Chesapeake, we naturally find a diversified and interesting fauna.
The Chesapeake, which has so bountifully endowed the State with
valuable industrial resources, and given the Maryland kitchen an unri-
valled renown, furnishes in its water-fowl the most interesting and
characteristic feature of the terrestrial fauna.

Our ducks are the same birds that are seen on Hudson’s Bay and the
northern lakes. Following the edge of winter along the Atlantic coast,
they appear in the Chesapeake in great numbers. The great beds of
wild celery in the shallow waters of the bay and its tributaries are their
favorite feeding grounds, and it is here that their flesh acquires its
greatest delicacy and best flavor. The canvas-back, prized alike by the
bon-vivant and the sportsman, is the most sought after and widely
known of all our ducks. Among other ducks which make the waters of
Maryland their winter home, may be mentioned red-heads, bald-pates,
mallards, black-heads and teal. All these are found in great numbers,
and are highly valued for the table.

Swans, and geese of several species, also abound, and although they
are wild and difficult to approach, yet they afford most excellent shoot-
ing. There are various ways of shooting ducks on the Chesapeake and
its adjacent waters. Sportsmen, as a rule, shoot from “blinds” and use
decoys, while the market gunners prefer the “sink-boat,” a sort of float-
ing blind, or the nefarious and unlawful “night-reflector.” A “blind” is
236 MARYLAND.

any sort of artificial concealment placed somewhere within a hundred
yards of the shore—further than this the law forbids. It is generally
stationed in comparatively shallow water, and the place selected is
preferably one where wild celery is growing on the bottom, for then it is
sure to be a feeding ground for the ducks. The wooden decoys are
anchored in front of the “blind” at a distance of about thirty yards, and
are well calculated to deceive any passing flock or “bunch” of ducks.
Often the “blind” is “baited” by scattering in its vicinity a quantity of
corn or some other kind of grain. The ducks are sure to find this, and
will come to the spot to feed as long as the grain lasts. On the Chesa-
peake ducks are often shot in great numbers from points, bars or bridges
as they fly over.

Another method of shooting ducks, which is occasionally practised,
is called “toling.” A spot is selected where the bottom slopes off
somewhat abruptly, for the birds will not approach near to the shore
except by swimming. The gunner, on observing ducks “bedded” some
distance from the shore, conceals himself, and causes a well-trained dog,
which should be of a red-dirt color, to gambol before him, by throwing
the animal chips of wood or bits of bread, which he catches in his
mouth. The ducks, attracted by the antics of the dog and overcome by
curiosity, cautiously approach the spot, and frequently pay the penalty
for their temerity. A bright red cloth waved on the-end of a pole will
often have the same effect. The practise of “toling ” was undoubtedly
derived from the Indians, who imitated a habit of the fox. This
cunning animal has been observed to resort to a similar ruse to attract
and capture young ducks.

The ducking shores of the Chesapeake, which are often used as
fishing shores in summer, are as a rule owned by wealthy citizens. Some
are leased to clubs, but most are private property and very carefully
guarded.

The reed-bird, which is accounted such a delicacy throughout the
country, is found in great abundance in Maryland. This familiar bird
has various names, being known as the bobolink, meadow-wink or skunk
blackbird in the Northern States, and the reed-bird in the Middle States,
while in the South it is called the rice-bird, from its habit of feeding
on wild rice. In the West Indies, where this bird spends its winters, it is
known as the butter-bird. The name “ortolan,” which is often applied
by restaurateurs to the reed-bird as well as to the rail, is a curious
inisnomer. The ortolan is a European bird, and belongs to an entirely
different family, that of the finches and sparrows. In the spring the
reed-bird passes north to breed, spreading over the Middle and Northern
States. It is then that the males assume their gay dress of black, white
and buff, and fill the meadows with their wild delirious song. Early in
NATURAL HISTORY. 237

the fall they begin to moult, and finally assume the sombre plumage’of
the feinales. The birds now start on their southern journey, feeding and
growing fat on wild oats and rice as they go, and thronging the marshes
in immense flocks in company with the blackbirds. In the months of
autumn the swamps along the Chesapeake and its estuaries are literally
alive with these little birds, which are shot in great numbers for the
market. The partridge, called quail in the North and West, but univer-
sally known as “bobwhite,” is met with all over Maryland. It is the
characteristic game bird of this country, and in the eyes of the sportsman
is a paragon of game qualities. The law of the State wisely allows the
birds to be shot only from November 1 to February 1, but in the open
season good partridge shooting can be had, especially in the lower
counties,

Among other game birds which are to be found in Maryland, are
wood-cock, ruffed grouse, kuown here and further south as the “ phea-
sant,” snipe, plover, and the sora or Carolina rail. The wild turkey is
occasionally shot in the mountainous counties.

Almost every family of North American birds is represented in the
State by numerous species. In addition to the birds already referred to,
may be mentioned thrushes, wrens, warblers, swallows, sparrows, black-
birds, fly-catchers, the whip-poor-will and night hawk, the chimney-
swift, the ruby-throated humming bird, the Kingfisher, American
cuckoos, woodpeckers, numerous varieties of owls and hawks, the wild
dove, and the American vulture, or turkey buzzard. The common
American crow is very abundant; the “roosts” of this bird are of
enormous extent, frequently covering several acres. The “ Baltimore
oriole” is dear to the heart of every Marylander. Gayly attired in
orange and black, it is familiarly associated in the minds of Marylanders
with the gold and black colors of this State. It is not nearly so
numerous as it used to be, and several years ago, when it was in danger
of being exterminated at the hands of curiosity-hunters, stringent laws
were passed for its protection. Shooting, catching or killing of this
beautiful little bird is absolutely prohibited, and even destruction or
molestation of its nests is a punishable offense.

Of maminals quite a large number are to be found in Maryland.
The mountains contain deer, and the black bear is occasionally seen in
the westernmost counties. Ground-hogs, commonly known as “ wood-
chucks,” rabbits, weasels, skunk, several varieties of mice, minks, otters,
musk-rats, moles, opossums and four species of squirrels abound. The
wildcat, or “catamount,” is still common in the least settled regions.

Various kinds of harmless snakes are innumerable, especially the
common black snake, which often grows to a length of five or six feet.
Two venomous snakes occur, the copperhead, in the half cultivated
238 MARYLAND.

districts, and the rattlesnake in the mountainous. The latter, despite
all efforts to exterminate it, breeds with remarkable rapidity. In the
summer it comes down into the valleys, where it is much dreaded. But
being sluggish and timid, and giving its warning rattle when approached,
it is much less to be feared than the more active and malicious copper-
head, which attacks without warning. The black snake is its worst
enemy, and always comes off victorious.

In this meagre account of the terrestrial fauna an attempt has
been made to give prominence to the more characteristic and inter-
esting animals of the State, as well as to convey some idea of the variety
and numbers of the more important animals.
CHAPTER VIL.

FISH AND FISHERIES,

THE FISHERIES OF MARYLAND.

No other State in the Union has, in proportion to its area, a coast line
so extensive as that of Maryland, and more persons are supported in
Maryland by capturing and preparing the products of the water than in
any other State.

The fisheries are our most characteristic industry, and while it is
said that there is one State in which the capital invested in the fisheries
and the cash value of their product are greater, we are by far the fore-
most State in our opportunities for improving and extending our fisheries,

The most valuable and important marine productions of Maryland
are of such a nature that they may be multiplied indefinitely by man, and
in this our State stands pre-eminent and offers unrivalled opportunities
for the investment of capital and for the wise application of a knowledge
of nature. While Maryland may well be proud of the bounties which
nature has lavished upon her, she has even greater reason to boast of the
opportunities which nature has given her for increasing these bounties
by human industry and intelligence.

It is not our purpose to write a natural history of the State, and the
space must be devoted to a few of the most important and characteristic
inhabitants of our waters, and toa simple untechnical account of their
life, showing their capacity for improvement by human influences. We
shall deal little with statistics of the past, as our chief interest is in
the possibilities of the future.

THE SHAD.

The first place must be given to that most delicate and delicious
food fish, the shad, as this will lead us at once into a field where man’s
dominion over nature is already established ; for we shall show that the
shad is already, in a certain sense, a domestic animal and that our
fisheries to-day owe their existence to the intelligence and knowledge of
nature, which have enabled man to keep up the supply by artificial
means.
240 MARYLAND.

The fully grown shad is an inhabitant of the open ocean, but each
spring these fishes visit our shores, enter our inlets and bays, and make
their way up to the fresh water, where they deposit their eggs.

The supply for the market is caught during the spring migration,
when the fishes enter our inland waters heavy and fat after their winter
feast upon the abundant food which they find in the ocean. As they
spend most of the year gathering up and converting into the substance
of their own bodies the minute marine organisms which would other-
wise be of no value to man, and as their instincts compel them to bring
back to our very doors this great addition to our food supply, and thus
to put at our service a vast fertile area of the ocean, which, without their
aid, would be beyond our control and of no service to man, their
economic importance is very great.

In the year 1880 the fisheries census, and special investigations
under the direction of the U.S. Fish Commission, showed that there
had been a most rapid and alarming decline in the value of the shad
fisheries in the rivers, bays and sounds of our Atlantic coast, and that
there was reason to tear that in a few years the shad would cease to be
of any value as a fish supply.

The fishermen fully recognized the danger and were loud in their
demands for laws to restrict other fishermen who, they held, were causing
the decline by improper ways of fishing.

The fishermen of the interior complained of the fishermen further
down along the shores of the salt-water bays and sounds, where the
fishes were captured in pounds and weirs, far away from their spawning
grounds. They believed that legislation alone could save the fisheries,
and that if these obstructions were prohibited by law, and all the shad
were permitted to reach fresh water before they were captured, enough
eggs would be deposited to keep up the supply, but that the destruction
of such numbers in salt water must necessarily result in extermination.

This seemed to fresh-water fishermen to be good logic, but the salt-
water fishermen took a different view of the matter. They wanted more
legislation themselves, but of a different sort, and they claimed that
what was needed was protection for the shad upon the spawning
grounds. They said that they themselves furnished most of the shad
tor the market; that without them the cities could not be supplied, and
that enough shad escaped their nets and reached fresh water to supply
all the eggs that were needed, if they could be left to lay their eggs in
peace.

There seemed to be good sense in this view also, and as in the end-
less controversies between the oyster dredgers and the oyster tongmen,
it was difficult for a disinterested outsider to tell who was right. ‘The
only thing which seemed clear was that the shad were growing scarce,
FISH AND FISHERIES. 241

and that if the Legislature did not do something to protect them, they
would soon be exterminated.

In 1888 more shad were caught ip salt water than were caught
altogether in 1880, and yet the shad fisheries are now increasing in value
from year to year, and this change has been brought about, not by the
enactment of laws to restrict the fishery, but by the production of more
fishes.

In 1880 the U. 8. Fish Commission began, systematically and upon a
large scale, the work of collecting the eggs from the bodies of the shad
which were captured for the market in the nets of the fishermen. These
eggs were artificially fertilized and the young were kept for a short time
in hatching jars, and the waste of eggs was thus prevented. This work
has been prosecuted steadily ever since, and the results, up to the end of
the season of 1888, are given in the following table:

In Salt and Percentage of in-
Brackish Water. In Rivers. Total. crease over 1880.
W880 schon aired hoes 2,549,544 1,591,424 4,140,968 ..... .....
PSB Dic ott netotecee toads 3,267,497 1,906,484 5,172,931 25 per cent.
V886 wicca te e-is 3,098,768 2,485,000 5,584,368 384
LBB Giscnatevicina saws a 3,813,714 2,901,661 6,715,405 62 »
USSS3 ssid iawiee swine. 5,010,101 2,650,373 7,660,474 85

The money value to the fishermen of the excess in 1888 over the
total catch of 1880 was more than $700,000. We have no record for 1889
or 1890, but in the latter year the fisheries were more profitable than
they have been for many years, and our markets were stocked with an
abundance of fine shad, which were sold at prices which ten years before
would not have been thought possible. The percentage of increase in
1889 and 1890 has been much greater than it was in any of the years
given in the table, and this result is not due to any change in the method
of fishing. It is exclusively due to the increase in the supply.

The conditions are now more unfavorable than ever to natural
reproduction, and it can be proved that if no shad had been produced by
man, while the other factors had remained as they now are, the fisheries
would be completely ruined and abandoned.

The mature fishes are now excluded by dams and other obstructions
from the most valuable spawning-grounds, and the area which is now
available is restricted to the lower reaches of the rivers, where there is
little proper food for the young, and where the bottoms are so continually
and assiduously swept by drift nets and seines that each fish is surely
captured soon after its arrival. The number of eggs which are naturally
deposited is now very small, for while the spawning-grounds have
increased from 1,600,000 to 2,600,000, the take in salt water has increased
from 2,500,000 to 5,000,000, and the shores of our bays and sounds are

now so lined by fyke nets and pounds that the number of shad which
16
242 MARYLAND.

reach the spawning-grounds at all is proportionately much less than it
was in 1880, and more shad are now taken each year in salt water, where
spawning is impossible, than were taken altogether in 1880.

This fact, rightly considered, means that the shad is now an artificial
product, like the crops of grain and fruit which are harvested on our
farms and orchards.

If more shad than the natural supply were taken in 1880 in all
waters, and if still greater numbers are now taken each year in deep
water, before they reach the spawning-ground, it follows that we are now
entirely dependent upon the artificial supply.

No animal on earth or in the ocean large enough to be valuable as
human food can long survive the attacks of an enemy who brings against
it the resources, the destructive weapons, and the intelligence of civil-
ized man. Fortunately, the resources which render man the most irre-
sistible of enemies, also enable him to become a producer as well as a
destroyer; and while the fear of him and the dread of him is upon
every beast of the earth and upon every fowl of the air, and upon all
that moveth upon the earth, and upon all the fishes of the sea; while
they are all delivered into his hands, and are powerless to resist him; he
alone is able to make good his ravages by agriculture, and by domesti-
cation, by the selection and improvement of animals and plants, and by
artificial propagation.

In some respects the shad is the most remarkable of domesticated
animals, for it is the only one which man has as yet learned to rear and
to send out into the ocean in great flocks and herds to pasture upon
its abundance, and to come back again, fat and nutritious, to the place
from which it was sent out.

From this point of view the maintenance of the shad fishery by
man, by the use of artificial means, is one of the most notable triumphs
of human intelligence over nature.

As the shad is a marine fish which does its eating at sea, and as its
visits to fresh water are only for the purpose of reproduction, the
numbers which make their way up our rivers are out of all proportion
to the capacity of the streams for furnishing them with food.

When they visit our coast in the spring they enter the mouths of
the rivers in great schools, and travel up them to a most surprising
distance; the total length of the journey from the sea to the spawning
ground and back again, which is made almost or quite without food,
often exceeding a thousand miles.

Many of them, and among these the largest fishes, go on and on
until they meet with some insurmountable obstacle, such as a waterfall
or dam, or until they reach the sources of the river. Before dams were
built in the Susquehanna river, many of the shad which entered the
FISH AND FISHERIES. 243

Chesapeake Bay at the Capes continued their long fasting journey across
Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania into the State of New York, and
travelled through more than five hundred miles of inland waters before
they reached their journey’s end.

Near the New York line fragments of Indian pottery, stamped with
the impression of the shad’s backbone, have been found, and the numbers
of stone net-sinkers which have beet picked up in the Wyoming valley
show that the Indians had known and used these shad fisheries long
before the first white settlers found them there at work with their rude
seines.

In the early part of this century, before the construction of canals
and the dams which supply them with water, there were forty perma-
nent fishing stations in the northern half of Pennsylvania, beyond the
forks of the Susquehanna at Northumberland, and some of them were
worth from $1,000.00 to $1,200.00 a year to their owners, at a time when
a dollar represented very much more value then it does to-day.

At one of these fisheries at Fish Island, near Wilkes-Barre, there isa
record, which seems to be trustworthy, of the capture of ten thousand
shad at a single haul. Most of these shad were salted and sold to the
farmers, who came from fifty miles around to barter their farm products
and the salt from central New York for their winter’s supply of fish.

Dams across the river have cut off this valuable fishery from more
than two hundred miles of the course of the Susquehanna river, and the
profitable fisheries now reach for only a few miles above the boundary
of Maryland.

The impulse which directs this wonderful journey and brings back
from the ocean a marine fish like the shad and guides it on its long path
through the rivers and far up into the interior of the country is most
wonderful. To it the value of the shad to man is due; but our interest
in itas a phenomenon of nature is quite independent of its economic
importance, and we now have, through the researches of the naturalists
of the United States Fish Commission, and especially those of Marshal
McDonald, the commissioner, an insight into its causes, and while much
still remains to be explained, we can now give a satisfactory explana-
tion of most of the facts.

The subject has given rise to much speculation, but this has usually
been based upon such scanty and erroneous information that it has little
value. Each fish has generally been believed to go back to its own
birth-place, and to enter our water on a definite journey to some specific
little shoal or to the sandy shore of a particular stream.

This may be true of some migratory fishes, but there is evidence that
it is not true of the shad. When young shad from the Atlantic were
first placed in the Sacramento river they were expected to find their way
244 MARYLAND.

back into this river on their return as mature fish from the Pacific ocean.
While many of them did return to this river, others made their appear-
ance in considerable numbers in other rivers in which no young ones had
ever been placed, and they have continued to spread further and further
northward each year on the Pacific coast, until they are now found in
every river between the Sacramento and Puget Sound, although there are
no native shad in the Pacific.

In our own waters a fishery which is very productive one year may
yield very few shad another year, and a stream which they enter in great
numbers one season may be almost completely passed by another season.
When the harvest of.shad is unusually abundant in the Potomac river it
is below the average in the Susquehanna, and a season of exceptional
abundance in the Susquehanna river is a season of comparative scarcity
in the Potomac.

These facts prove that the shad is not brought back to its birthplace
by any unerring instinct of locality, but that the exact source of its
migration is determined by external influences; and there has been much
speculation as to the character of these influences.

It has been suggested that the fishes are urged by an instinct which
causes them to swim against the current, and that when they feel the
outflow from the mouth of a river they turn in and are thus led up and
up the stream; but the outward current is so slight in the wide mouths
of the bays and sounds of our southern coast that it is completely lost in
the ebb and fiow of the tide.

It has also been suggested that the shad are led by their fondness
for fresh water; but the return to the sea of both the old shad and the
young ones is part of the migration. The tendency to seek fresh water
is undoubtedly connected in some way with the reproductive instinct,
but we cannot believe that it is in itself enough to map out a definite
path ; and while the shad do not usually seek fresh water until the season
for reproduction, there is one instructive exception to this rule, for the
shad enter the St. John’s river, in Florida, in November, or several
months before the spawning season, which is not very much earlier in
that river than it is on the tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay.

McDonald has made a careful study of the habits of migrating fishes
in connection with the temperature of the water, and he has shown that
when they enter the Chesapeake Bay its water is warmer than that of
the ocean and that of the rivers, and that they remain in this deep,
warm water until the rivers are gradually heated toa still higher tem-
perature, when they enter these and swim upwards as the water grows
warmer before them.

He has also brought together many other facts to show that the
temperature of the water is an important factor in determining the

migration.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 245

As a rule, the opening of the shad fishing in the spring becomes
later and later as we pass northwards along our coast ; but there are many
exceptions to this rule, for the season is earlier in a small river which
arises in the warm low land, than it is farther south in a larger river
which has its source in the high and cool mountain springs of the
interior.

The shad usually make their appearance in the bay in February,
although the height of the fishing season is in April and May, and in our
northern tributaries even later. The male fish appear first, and they go
up the river ahead of the females. When the temperature of a river
rises gradually with the advance of the season, the period of migration
is long, but if the whole course of the river is warmed by warm rains at
its sources, they crowd into it tumultuously in great schools, and the
season is very short.

These facts, and many others, have led McDonald to believe that
while the purpose of the migration is the perpetuation of the species,
its directing influence is the temperature of the water; and there can be
no doubt that, so far as the first stages of the journey are concerned, this
is the correct explanation, although the fish is no doubt urged to con-
tinue its journey further and further up by an instinctive desire to reach
the spawning grounds.

The favorite spawning grounds, known to the fishermen as “shad-
wallows,” are the sandy flats near the shores of the streams, or the sand
bars in their course. The fishes run up into them in pairs, in the early
evening, after sunset, and the eggs are thrown out into the water while
the fish are swimming about, but they soon sink to the bottom and
develop very rapidly. The average number of eggs is about twenty-five
thousand, but a hundred thousand have been obtained from a single large
shad.

The young fishes remain in the rivers until late in the fall, feeding
upon small crustacea, insect larve, the young of other fishes, and prob-
ably upon all the minute active animals of our fresh water, and they
grow to a length of two or three inches by November, when they leave
our waters for the ocean.

As the mature shad usually takes no food in inland waters, it is not
fished for with hook and line, but as it is unsuspicious and absorbed in
the completion of its journey, it is easily captured by nets and traps of
all sorts,and most of the devices known to fishermen are utilized to
capture it.

Before the shad enter our own bay our markets are supplied from
our southern waters, and the fisheries of Albemarle Sound are remark-
able for the gigantic size of the seines. These are sometimes more than
a mile in length, and they gather in at one sweep all the fishes from a
246 MARYLAND.

thousand to twelve hundred acres. They are spread by steam boats, and
their contents are dragged up on to the shore by steam engines. One
seine of this sort gives employment to some seventy-five people, and has
taken in one season, near the head of Albemarle Sound, fifty-two
thousand shad, nine hundred thousand herring, and more than twenty-
five thousand pounds of other fish.

Shad are caught in our waters by haul seines and in pounds, as well
as by gill nets, or nets of fine twine, with meshes large enough to admit
the head of the shad, and to entangle it by the gills. The gill nets used
in shad fishing are usually small. They are sometimes stretched between
stakes planted in the mud, when they are known as “stake nets,” or
they are stretched and allowed to drift with the tide, when they are
known as “ drift nets.”

In the Susquehanna river these drift nets are used at night, and are
set with a lantern at each end, and mounted upon a float. While they
are drifting the fishermen in the boats “run” the nets, or pass the net
line through their fingers from end to end. The presence of a fish is
easily discovered in this way, and the part of the net which holds it is
raised, the fish is removed, and the net is dropped, again to drift as
before. It is necessary to remove the shad as quickly as possible, for
almost as soon as they are caught they are seized, and rapidly devoured,
as they hang in the net, by the eels which swarm in this river. The
shad fishing ends with the upward migration, for they are so worn and
thin with their journey and with their long fast, that they are not fit for
food as they descend the river.

Two species of river herrings enter our inland waters in incredible
numbers at about the same time with the shad, and their habits are so
much like those of the shad, and the methods of capturing them so
similar that it is not necessary to enter into details. They lay their eggs
near the mouths of the rivers, and do not usually make long journeys
into the interior like the shad.

They are abundant all along our coast, but the Chesapeake Bay and
the North Carolina sounds are the centre of their distribution. Much
greater numbers of them than of the shad are taken in our own waters,
but the value of the product in money is much less.

Pennant, in his “ Arctic Zoology,” says that they run up the rivers
and shallow streams of Carolina in such numbers that the inhabitants
fling them ashore by shovelsfull, and the passengers trample them under
foot fording the rivers. Even at the present day their numbers are very
great, and eleven million have been gathered in the Potomac in a single
season, and three hundred thousand were landed in 1879 in Albemarle
Sound at a single haul of the seine.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 247

THE MENHADEN.

As this fish is not sold in our markets nor used directly by our people
as food, landsmen are hardly aware of dts existence, although it is by far
the most abundant fish of the Atlantic coast of the United States and, in
many ways, one of the most important. We all know that when we eat
beef or mutton we are indirectly eating grass, and it is equally true that
our bay mackerel and blue fish and all our best and most valued food
fishes are only menhaden in another shape.

As food for predaceous fishes the menhaden is a very important
inhabitant of our waters, and its commercial value is by no means slight,
for nearly $300,000 is invested in the menhaden fishery in our waters,
and in a single year the Chesapeake Bay has supplied 92,000,000 pounds of
menhaden, which yielded 214,000 gallons of oil, worth $85,000; 10,500 tons
of guano, worth $210,000; 212,000 tons of compost, worth $19,000, or an
annual product worth more than $300,000.

As this fish is very abundant along our coast from Cape Cod to
Florida, it has many local names.

Its Latin name Brevoortia tyrannus was given to it in 1802 by B. H.
Latrobe, who was the first to recognize it as a distinct species and to give
a description of it. As it is a toothless, helpless fish, preyed upon
unrelentingly by all the fierce inhabitants of the deep, and hunted and
slaughtered by the blue fish and the bonito, in mere sport, until the
ocean for miles is smoothed with the oil fromm the mangled bodies of
menhaden, we ask what can have led Mr. Latrobe to give the name
tyrannus, a name which suggests only aggressive violence, to an inoffen-
sive fish which feeds only upon the microscopic animals and plants of
the water. and is absolutely helpless before its innumerable enemies.

The story is most interesting. In southern waters a parasitic
crustacean is very frequently found inside the mouth of the menhaden,
clinging to its tongue or gill arches, and this animal was also discovered
and described by Latrobe and named by him Oniseus pregustitator, after
the tasters or pregustitatores, who were forced by the Roman emperors
or tyranni to taste all the food prepared for them as a precaution against
poisoning.

Among the many local names for the menhaden we find “bug fish ”
and “bug head,” names which obviously have the same derivation.

In our waters it is usually known as the “alewife,” in North Carolina
the most familiar name is “fat back,’ on the coast of New York and New
Jersey it is usually called the “moss-bunker,” while in New England it is
called the “pogy ” (Maine) or the “ poggie” (Mass.) The name menhaden
is also in general use along our entire coast, and there is a long list of
local names, among which are the following: “ Bony fish,” “hard head,”
248 MARYLAND.

“white fish,” “ bunker,” “old wife,” “skipaugh,” “pohague,” “green tail,”
and “yellow-tailed shad.”

The menhaden is a small fish, seldom weighing a pound, and closely
related to the herring and the shad.

They are hatched and pass their winter in some unknown region of
the ocean, and they visit our shores from Florida to Cape Cod in the
warm months in innumerable multitudes, which enter the bays and
sounds and make their way up to the tidal rivers until they meet the
fresh water.

They make their appearance in the Chesapeake Bay in the early
spring and rapidly become more and more abundant, crowding into the
sounds and inlets until the water is fairly alive with them. They herd
together like sheep, sometimes swimming round in a circle and some-
times advancing, but always crowding together so closely that a school of
menhaden looks at a short distance like a solid body. The statement
that the fishes in one of these great schools are packed as closely as
sardines in a box is hardly an exaggeration.

They remain in our waters or near our coast so long as the weather
is warm, but as winter approaches they gradually work their way out
into the ocean and disappear, so that few are found in the bay after the
end of November.

While of some value as food for man, it is not sold in the markets of
Maryland, and its commercial importance is due to the fact that a
valuable oil can be extracted from its flesh by pressure, while the solid
remainder is an important constituent of manufactured fertilizers.

It is said that more than a billion of these fishes has been taken in a
single year on the eastern coast of the United States, and the total
annual product of menhaden oil is considerably greater than the total
product of all the American whale fisheries. The oil is used to make
paint, to tan leather, and, in fact, for most purposes which are served by
linseed oil and whale oil, and it is asserted that much so-called whale oil
is actually menhaden oil.

The menhaden is also very valuable as bait for all sorts of marine
fishes, and it is preferred to all other bait by the cod, mackerel and
halibut fishermen. As some of the most valuable sea fisheries of the
Atlantic are under the control of the British Provinces, and as the
menhaden is not found north of our own coast, this fish has been made
the subject of treaties between our country and Great Britain, and it has
held a prominent place in the diplomatic correspondence between our
Government and the Dominion of Canada.

There are about sixty establishments for the manufacture of men-
haden oil and fertilizers, or “fish factories,” as they are called, on the
Chesapeake Bay; but as all our navigable waters are free to fishermen
: FISH AND FISHERIES. 249

from all parts of the United States, and as the Maryland factories are, in
part, supplied from Virginia waters and from the open ocean, it is
impossible to treat the subject with reference to State lines.

In shallow water many menhaden are caught in small seines, which
are dragged on to the shore; but the chief supply for the factories is
taken in the open water in very large seines, which are called purse seines,
as they are so constructed that the lower edges may be drawn together
like a bag or a purse, under the school of fishes, after this has been
surrounded by the seine. As the menhaden usually sinks into deep
water when alarmed, the whole school may be lost if the purse fails to
close quickly and effectively as soon as it is set. Success in fishing
depends upon the efficiency of the purse-string; and as the net is often
more than a quarter of a mile long and very heavy, and as it incloses
more than an acre of water, and may contain many tons of fish, great
ingenuity and skill are required to devise, and to use in small boats at
sea, Some means which may always be relied upon to draw together the
loose edges of this long net at the proper instant, when it is far down
under the water and out of sight. There are many ways of doing this,
but the most effective one, when the water is deep enough, is to draw the
purse line by means of a heavy weight, which is dropped into the water
at the proper time, to pull the bag shut as it falls.

An ordinary purse net for deep water is a quarter of a mile long and
seventy or eighty feet wide, so that it may hang down below the school
of fishes, or, if the water is shallow, may rest on the bottom. Its upper
edge is buoyed up by large cork floats, while its lower edge is weighted
down by the heavy metal rings through which the purse line is strung.
No net which could be used is strong enough to hold the weight of a
school of menhaden, for a quarter of a million fishes are occasionally
taken at one haul. They are not lifted out of the water, but are simply
surrounded, and kept in captivity until they can be dipped up and
landed with smaller nets; but even while they are alive and swimming
in the water, their resistance, added to the weight of the great net, is an
enormous load, and purse net fishing for menhaden can be carried on
only by large parties of fishermen.

The net is set from large row boats, but larger vessels such as sloops,
schooners and small steam vessels are used in the business, to carry the
fishermen and their boats to the fishing grounds, and to receive the
fish and transport them to the factory.

The large vessel is the home of the fishermen, and as it cruises
about sharp watch is kept from the masthead for the schools of fishes,
which, on bright warm days, swim so close to the surface and so densely
packed that the surface ripple they produce is visible at a great distance,
250 MARYLAND.

and is easily distinguishable, by a practised eye, from the ripple caused
by schools of other species.

As soon as the fish are “sighted,” one or two of the fishermen put
off in small boats to keep watch of them, to study their movements, and
to act as “drivers,” and to keep them from escaping from the net, as
this closes around them.

In the mean time two of the large seine boats, with half of the
long seine loaded into the stern of each, are pulled as rapidly as possible
after the “driver,” who guides them, by signals, to the proper place for
casting the net. This is done quickly as the two seine boats are rowed
away from each other, around the school, which is headed off by the
“ drivers.”

As soon as the boats meet, certain fishermen, to whom this duty has
been assigned, close up the bottom of the net, by means of the purse
line, while others begin to pull in the net, and to restrict the fishes to a
smaller area.

As soon as they begin this work the large vessel joins them, and,
after the fishes are well herded in the centre of the net, this is made
fast to the side of the large vessel, and the fishes are baled out with
hand nets, or, on the steam vessels, by means of a great dipper of strong
netting, which is worked from the yardarm, by means of a hoisting
engine.

This steam dipper scoops up several barrels of fishes each time it dips
in among them, and it pours them into the hold of the vessel, which is
thus rapidly filled with a great silvery mass of shining fishes.

This work must be prosecuted as rapidly as possible, for while the
fish do not exert much pressure on the net, so long as they are alive and
swimming in the water, they sink as they are killed by the crowding,
and as they accuinulate at the bottom of the bag they are sometimes
heavy enough to drag the whole net from its fastenings and to carry it
with them to the bottom.

As soon as the vessel is loaded it carries the fish to the factory,
where they are unloaded by a steam hoisting apparatus, which pours
them into a great reservoir in the upper story, from which they are
drawn off into “cooking tanks,” which are placed below the reservoir.
A cooking tank holds some fifty barrels or more of fish, and in it they
are exposed for half an hour or more to the influence of compressed
steam, until they are sufficiently cooked to facilitate the extraction of
the oil. Most of the oil is separated from the flesh by the action of the
steam, and the rest is forced out by the action of the hydraulic presses.

The commercial importance of the menhaden is great, but its chief
value to our people is due to the fact that it is the food of some of our
best food fishes.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 251

In his “ History of Useful Aquatic Animals,” G. Brown Goode esti-
mates the number of menhaden which are destroyed annually on our
coast by predaceous animals at a milliom million of millions, and he says
that “it is not hard to surmise the menhaden’s place in nature; swarm-
ing our waters in countless myriads, swimming in closely-packed,
unwieldy masses, helpless as flocks of sheep, near to the surface and at
the mercy of every enemy, destitute of means of offense and defense,
their mission is unmistakably to be eaten.”

THE BAY MACKEREL OR SPANISH MACKEREL.

This fish, which is often called the Spanish mackerel, is known to our
own people as the bay mackerel; and as the Chesapeake Bay furnishes
more than 80 per cent. of the two million pounds which are sent to the
markets annually, our name for the fish is an eminently proper one.

To the bay mackerel has been awarded, by general consent, the first
place among the choice food fishes of the United States, and very extrav-
agant prices are often paid forit. A wholesale rate of $1.00 a pound is
not unusual for the first which reach the market in the spring.

It is a summer fish, and it is most abundant during the hot months.
The fishing season in the Chesapeake Bay is from about the end of May
until the first of September, although a few specimens find their way to
the market in every month in the year.

It is a fierce predaceous fish, which, moving in great schools, follows
the menhaden from the open ocean into our waters in the early summer
and remains here until the first cool weather. In the hot months it
is so abundant that its capture becomes the chief occupation of the
fishermen.

For many years naturalists supposed that it laid its eggs out in some
unknown region of the open ocean in the winter; and it was not until
1880 that Earle discovered that the Chesapeake Bay is its chief breeding
ground and that it lays its eggs in the summer.

Each female fish lays an enormous number of eggs, from half a
million to a million or more. They are so small that a cubic inch
contains twenty thousand of them, and they float at the surface of the
water and are driven about by the wind and tide until they hatch, and
even after hatching the little fish, which when born is less than a tenth
of an inch long, floats for some hours, belly uppermost and almost*motion-
less and helpless, buoyed up by the unconsumed yolk of the egg. As
this is gradually assimilated, the little fish grows stronger, and in a few
hours it becomes quite active and makes its way down from the surface
to deeper water, although it remains throughout life a surface fish, seldom
descending to any great depth.
252 MARYLAND.

Nothing is known as to the history of these little fishes for their
first winter, although mackerel five or six inches long, and probably in
their second season, are sometimes found in the bay.

While this fish has long been known and prized as a luxury, it is
only within the last fifteen or twenty years that its great abundance in
our waters in the sammer months has been discovered. The pound nets,
which now catch most of the mackerel, were not used in the bay until
1875, and previously to this date little fishing for commercial purposes
was carried on in the summer.

It is stated that many of our fishermen had never seen this fish
before 1875, and that no purchasers for them could be found in the
market of Wilmington, N.C., in 1879. It is said that several thousand
pounds which were sent to the dealers in Wilmington in that year were
thrown away, as they were thought to be unfit for food.

The bay mackerel are very fierce and powerful fishes, and when they
are feeding in summer among the menhaden, in the lower part of the
bay, the energy of their movements as they rush here and there among
the menhaden is so great that they throw themselves entirely out of the
water, and describe long, graceful curves through theair. When leaping
out of the water mackerel may be identified at a great distance as they
turn in the air and enter the water head first, bending their bodies and
describing graceful curves, while most of our other leaping fishes either
drop backwards or fall into the water with a splash.

They enter our waters in the early summer, and leave them again in
the fall in enormous schools, but after they have entered the bay they
scatter and pursue their prey more independently, although they confine
themselves to the open water, and seldom enter or even approach the
mouths of the rivers. They shun fresh water, and as most of the large
rivers enter the bay on its western side they are much more abundant
and make their way much further up on the eastern than on the western
side.

Their habits and their distribution in our waters are, in these respects,
exactly opposite to those of the shad, which come in from the ocean in
search of fresh water, and follow the western shore of the bay.

The bay mackerel is a “game” fish, and a fierce fighter for life and
liberty, and trolling for mackerel is a most exciting sport. Its activity
is so great that it will pursue and snap at a hook dragged at the end of a
long line from a steamboat moving at the rate of seven or eight milesan
hour. The small schooners which are employed in mid-summer carry-
ing watermelons from the South to our northern cities, keep their troll-
ing lines out as they coast along our low, sandy seashore, and they
usually catch enough mackerel and blue-fish to keep their crews supplied
with fresh fish.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 253

As the mackerel is a voracious fish, any conspicuous object to attract
its attention will serve as bait, and the fishermen usually use a perforated
cylinder of white bone or ivory, about three inches long and two-thirds
of an inch in diameter. This is strung on the line or on a wire just
above the hooks, and when it is dragged through the crests of the waves,
at the end of a long line, it resembles a living animal enough to deceive
the mackerel. .

Another favorite bait for mackerel and blue-fish is a cylinder of lead,
cast around a wire, and covered with the skin of an eel, turned wrong
side out. These are called “squids,” and the fish is supposed to mistake
them for these animals; but as they will chase and snap at any small
object which is drawn rapidly through the water near the surface,
there is no reason to suppose that they mistake the lead for any specific
animal.

The chief supply of bay mackerel for our market is caught with gill
nets, or is trapped in pounds.

An ordinary gill net is a long loose-meshed net, with floats and
sinkers, which is set for a few hours across the path of fishes which run
against it, and becoming entangled in the meshes, are held captive until
the net is drawn.

Unsuspicious fish which follow regular paths, such as the shad, are
caught in abundance in this simple way, but the mackerel has no path,
and when in its hunting excursions after other fishes, it meets with an
obstruction in its way, it is much more likely to jump over it, or to dart
off in another direction than to run its nose into the meshes of a gill net,
and in order to catch them it is necessary to use two or three nets and to
arrange them in such a way that they shall form a trap so that the fish
shall strike and become entangled in one of them as it darts away from
the others.

Two parties of fishermen with two boats and two nets usually fish
together, and divide the fish equally. One net is set perpendicular
to the line of the shore, to turn the fishes out into the deep water.
Across the outer end of this a second net is placed, so that it forms the
top bar of a capital letter T, with its ends very much turned down, to
intercept the fishes which have been turned aside by the leading net.

There are many ways of setting the second net. It may be placed
in a circle open in the line of the first net, or it may form a triangle or
three sides of a square, or it may be arranged irregularly, or two nets
may be used to form the trap, but the purpose to be accomplished is the
same in all cases. After the nets have been set upon a good fishing
ground they are left fora few hours while the owners busy themselves
in line fishing until it is time to take them up.
254 MARYLAND.

A pound net is a fixed permanent net, set in essentially the same
way, but constructed on a much larger scale, and so arranged that the
fishes are not entangled as they are by the gill net, but are conducted
into a large trap, or pound, in deep water, where they swim about in
captivity until they are caught and removed by the fishermen.

A gill net must be raised within a few hours after it is set, as the
entangled fishes soon die. As the fishes in the pound are not entangled
in the net they are not exposed to this danger, and they may be left in
the pound for days without injury, although a restless, active fish, like
the bay mackerel, which does not tamely submit to captivity, but is
untiring in its efforts to escape, is apt to find the way out of the pound
if left too long.

The pound is a large enclosure of a very complicated pattern, shut in
by a fence, which is formed of strong netting stretched upon piles, or
posts, which are firmly planted on the bottom. The lower edge of the
wall of netting rests on the bottom, while its upper edge is high enough
above the surface of the water to keep the fish from escaping by
jumping over it at high water.

A straight wall of netting runs out from the shore and turns the
fishes which run against it out into the deep water, where it ends just
inside the opening into the first or big heart. This opening is about
twenty-five feet wide, and it is so large that the fishes enter it fearlessly
and swim about until they are stopped by the wall of the heart, when,
in their efforts to escape into deep water, they are gradually guided by
the walls into the inner heart, and from this, through a narrow opening
only a yard wide, into the pound.

This is a rectangular trap, about fifty feet wide, with its bottom, as
well as its sides, covered with netting. The bottom is weighted around
its edge by sinkers of lead, and it is kept stretched and flat by means of
lines, which pass through metal rings at the bottoms of the posts, and
are then made fast above water. The netting is so arranged that it may
be detached from the posts by the fishermen in their boats, and gradu-
ally raised to the surface until all the fishes are drawn together and
penned in one corner, where they may be dipped out of the water with
hand nets.

The length and size of the pound net depends somewhat upon the
depth of the water; and, if the bottom slopes very gradually, a second or
even a third is built outside the first. In connection with the pound, a
pocket or bag of netting, fifteen or twenty feet square, is constructed as
a receptacle for fishes which are to be kept alive for a future inarket.
Besides the bay mackerel, which are the most valuable product of
the pound net fishing, great numbers of tailors or blue fish, and of trout,
sheepshead, porgies and other food fishes are taken.
FISH AND FISHERIES, 255

The average product for the season of a well constructed pound in a
good locality, is said to consist of about 100,000 trout, 40,000 blue fish
or tailors, 30,000 bay mackerel, 3,000 porgies, 1,000 sheepsheads, and
10,000 mixed fishes, and of these the bay inackerel represent about thirty
per cent. of the money value, which is altogether about $4,000 to each
pound for the season.

While most of the fishes for our city markets are now caught in
pounds, their use in our waters is quite modern, and when in 1875 a
New Jersey fisherman erected a pound in the lower part of the bay,
it was torn down by the fishermen, but not before they had learned how
to arrange and construct a pound, and had seen enough to convince them
of the great profit to be derived from them.

THE CRAB.

During the warm season, or between April and October, crabs are
found, in indescribable abundance, in all the bays and sounds, from the
Chesapeake Bay southwards, as well as upon the outer ocean beach, and
as they are perfectly at home in water fresh enough to drink as well as
in that of the sea, they make their way into all the inlets and rivers
and creeks of tide-waters.

In many places they are so numerous that there is no market for
them, and even in the Chesapeake Bay it is not unusual to see thousands
dragged on to the shore and left to die or to make their way back into
the water, by fishermen who have shaken them out of their seines and
abandoned them. Further south the fishermen in the channels find their
work so much obstructed by the crabs that they trample upon them, or
crush them with clubs, to keep them from returning to the water to clog
their nets again. In hard storms they are sometimes cast up on to the
outer beach in windrows which stretch along the sand for miles, and
the abundance of crabs is, perhaps, the most notable characteristic of
our coast.

The simplest way to catch hard crabs is to dip them up from
shallow water with a small circular net fastened to an iron ring at the
end of a long handle; and when crabs abound on shores which are
favorable for wading, in water which is not too muddy, a bushel of
them may readily be gathered in this way between tides.

For taking them in deeper water a coarse net, stretched on a barrel
hoop, and weighted in the centre, is baited and sunk to the bottom with
cords, which are sometimes tied to the end of a handle, for raising it
again to the surface.

These methods are used by fishermen to catch the crabs with which
they bait their fish-hooks, and by summer visitors, who enjoy the novelty
of “crabbing,” but the men who make a business of catching hard crabs
256 MARYLAND.

for the market or for the crab-catching establishments, usually make
use of baited lines, as they are thus enabled to reach the crabs in the
channels at a distance from the shore.

The crabs are so abundant that competition for food is fierce among
them, so that they are always hungry and ready to seize voraciously
upon almost any sort of animal food, living or dead. Nothing comes
amiss, and pieces of beef, pork and fish are used for bait, as are also
pieces of the bodies of the crabs themselves.

As soon as it seizes the bait with its claws the crab tries to carry it
off out of the reach of other crabs, and a pull on the line only excites it
to cling the closer to the bait, so no hooks are needed, and the crab line
is simply a string with the bait tied to one end of it.

Crab fishing requires no experience or skill, and the baited line is
tossed into the water to settle to the bottom or to drift with the tide, until
a tug at the line shows that a crab has seized it, or until there is reason
to suppose that one has found it, for if unmolested by others, it does not
try to carry it away, but begins at once to eat it and it may give no
perceptible tug at the line until this is pulled in, when the big claws
close firmly on the bait, and do not loose their hold until the crab
reaches the surface of the water, and not always even then, for often it
holds on until it is landed by the line, although it usually abandons the
bait and sinks quickly out of sight as soon as it reaches the surface and
finds itself in danger.

A hand-net is therefore pushed under it to cut off its retreat, just
before it reaches the surface, and as it has by this time usually awakened
to a sense of its peril, and as it shows great agility in dodging or scramb-
ling out of the net, it must be landed quickly and skillfully.

As the bait is soon torn to pieces, tough substances are best, and
tripe and tendinous pieces of beef or the tough lateral fins of rays and
skates are favorites with the fishermen, although the crab itself is not
fastidious, and finds the flesh of other crabs very tempting. As crab
flesh is very soft and is soon swept away by the tide, or pulled to pieces
by the crabs, or sucked off by small fishes, it is not much used, although
the crushed claw of a crab is an effective bait.

The outfit of the men who make a business of catching crabs for
the canning establishments and for the crab pens, is of the rudest
description, and few fishermen are able to carry on their work with such
a small capital, as all that is needed is a line and bait, a landing net,
which may be made by stretching a piece of the ragged end of an old
seine over a piece of barrel hoop bent like a lacrosse racquet, and a rude
boat, sometimes made like a rough trough, of.a few boards nailed
together, but more usually dug out of a log.
-

FISH AND FISHERIES. 257

A few fishermen have the beautiful canoes for which our waters are
famous, shaped by skillful workmen into lines as graceful as those of a
cruiser, but usually the “kinew” is like that of a savage, hacked and
burned out of a single long narrow log, roughly sharpened at the ends.

Besides the “kinew” and paddle, the outfit consists of a ragged
homemade landing-net, and some five or six hundred feet of small rope,
to serve aS a bottom line, with small lines a foot or so long tied to it
at about every two feet.

Pieces of bait are tied to the short lines, and the long line is stretched
along the bottom with a float to mark its position, and a stone or anchor
of some sort at each end to keep it in place.

The fisherman in his boat visits the line once or twice a day, and
pulling up one end passes it over his boat, and drops it to the bottom
again; and then, working his way along to the other end, he catches the
crabs with his hand-net as they come to the surface, and drops them into
his boat, replacing the bait with a new one, if necessary.

The number of crabs which are captured with this simple outfit is
astonishing. A fair day’s work is about a thousand, and a single
fisherman sometimes catches as many as three thousand at one time
from a single bottom line. The price which they get for their crabs is
very small indeed, but in the vicinity of the canning establishments,
where they find a market for all they catch, the fishermen earn good
wages and find steady employment for a great part of the year.

The abundance of the crabs in our waters is well illustrated by the
fact that we were told, in 1884, by fishermen in the lower part of the
Chesapeake Bay, that they were earning from $1.50 to $2.00 a day
catching crabs to sell at one cent a dozen or ten cents a bushel; and
these men seldom went to their work before sunrise or fished longer
than till noon. In fact, most of them were home for the day at ten in
the morning.

Of the four million pounds of crabs which are annually sent to the
market from our waters, considerably much more than half are captured
in this simple, easy way.

As each crab is soft for only a few hours, and as they take no food at
this time, and hide themselves under the sand or among the grass of the
marshes, when they are about to shed their old shells, the soft crabs are
very much less abundant and much harder to find than the hard crabs,
and as there is a steady demand for all which can be got to the city
markets, the price for soft crabs is always high, although it varies
greatly, according to the locality. The crab is very delicate and easily
killed while soft, and it is difficult to transport alive and in good
order to distant markets, especially in the hot weather, which is the time
of abundance.

17
258 MARYLAND.

Where there is no city market or summer resort within reach, the
fishermen who supply the local demand receive from ten to fifteen cents
a dozen, while in the vicinity of cities and seaside hotels, or at con-
venient points for shipment, the price sometimes rises to $1.00 a dozen
or even more, although from forty-five to fifty cents is perhaps about
the average.

The habits of the crab at the time of shedding the old shell are
such that they cannot be captured at this time by any of the wholesale
methods which are so effective with the hard crabs. Soft crabs do not
swim or leave the bottom, so they are not taken in the seines of the
fishermen. As the hard crab itself fully appreciates the delicacy of a
soft one, they hide from each other as well as from other enemies, and for
this reason each one must be sought for separately by the fisherman,
and as they do no eating while soft they cannot be tempted by bait.

The local markets are almost entirely supplied by children, who
wade through the shallow water of the marshes and flats at low tide,
feeling with their bare toes for the crabs, which they pick up with their
hands.

When the water is clear enough for the faint outline on the sand
which marks the place of the buried crab to be visible, soft crabs are
taken in considerable numbers by fishermen who push themselves along
by the handles of their nets in small boats over the shoals and sand
banks, looking for the marks and dipping up the crabs with their nets.
While enough soft crabs for local use may be obtained in these ways, the
city markets demand a more constant and abundant supply, and this has
led to the establishment of the business of keeping the hard crabs in
captivity, in floating pens, until they shed their shells.

Experienced fishermen can tell, even before the crab has been taken
from the water, whether it will soon shed its shell, and if this is the
case it is saved for sale to the owners of the crab pens, who are, of
course, able to pay more for it than for an ordinary hard crab. The
female crab sheds her shell within a few days after her eggs are hatched,
and as the empty egg-shells are of a dirty brown color, while the
unhatched eggs are clear and yellow, a female crab which is likely to
shed soon can usually be recognized in this way at a glance. The fisher-
men are able to judge also from the brilliancy of the colors, a crab that
has just shed its shell being much more vividly colored than one which
has a new shell growing under the old one. By these and other indica-
tions, which are known only to the fishermen, the crabs which are to
shed soon may be picked out with great accuracy, and if there is any
doubt it can be set at rest by breaking off the tip of one of the small
claws, to show whether or not there is a new shell under the old one.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 259

The crabs which are thus selected are placed in the “shedding pen,”
which is a floating box of laths and loose boards constructed in such a
way that the water passes freely through it while the crabs are securely
caged. The pen is supported at the sides by two floats of heavy timber,
so placed that the upper edge of the pen is raised above the surface of
the water enough to keep the crabs from climbing out. The pens are
anchored or fastened to stakes in the smooth water of sheltered coves or
harbors, at points where they can be guarded and visited at short inter-
vals to fish out the soft crabs.

These are packed in large trays and are placed in such a position
that the water which is contained in the gill chambers shall not run out
of them, or, as the fishermen say, “out of the mouth,’ for while they
will live for a long time out of water if the gills are kept wet, both soft
crabs and hard crabs die quickly if they become dry.

The fishermen receive about a cent a piece for the crabs which are
put into the pens, and the average price received by the dealers is prob-
ably about thirty or forty cents a dozen.

Soft crabs do not become hard out of the water, but remain soft as
long as they can be kept alive, although the shell hardens rapidly under
natural conditions.

It is so easy to transport hard crabs alive, and they bear the journey so
well that there is no part of our State where they cannot be obtained;
and as there is, therefore, little demand for canned crabs, few of our
people, except those who are directly interested, know of the existence of
the crab-canning industry, although it presents a field for the profitable
employment of capital which is capable of great extension, and puts
within the reach of distant and less fortunate people the superabundance
of our waters.

As soon as the living crabs are received at the canning establishment
they are loaded into wooden cars of open slat-work, which, when filled,
are pushed into a steaming apparatus, when the steam is turned on, and
the crabs exposed to it until they are cooked enough to cause the meat to
separate readily from the shell. The shells are then broken open and
the flesh is picked out to be packed in cans, while the refuse and the
pieces of shell, with the exception of the upper shell, are utilized asa
fertilizer.

After each can has been filled with the flesh and closed up it is again
cooked for an hour or two in a bath of boiling water. It is then opened
to permit the vapor to escape, and is then sealed up again and cooked
once more in boiling water.

If these operations are carried on with care and good judgment the
contents of the cans may be kept for an indefinite time without any bad
260 MARYLAND.

effect, and canned crabs from the Chesapeake Bay now find their way to
the most distant quarter of the globe.

When the crabs are opened after the first steaming the upper shells
are carefully removed and thoroughly cleaned, and when the vans are
packed for shipment a sufficient number of these shells is put into each
package to permit its contents to be served in the shell after the manner
which all Marylanders know to be the only true and legitimate way of
placing “deviled” crabs upon the table.

The supply of crabs in our waters does not as yet show any signs of
exhaustion, but the history of the lobster fisheries proves that the
extension of the canning industry and the increased demand for crabs
which this will produce, must ultimately exhaust the supply. Measures
for the preservation and protection of the crabs must some time be
adopted, but fortunately it is not at all difficult to state what these means
should be.

The mother crab carries her eggs about with her until they are
hatched, and they are well protected by the hard shell of the brood
chamber, and are also guarded from danger by the mother crab, whose
maternal instincts are well developed. <A few crabs with eggs ready to
hatch are found early in the spring and late in the fall, but most of the
eggs are hatched in the hot months of July and August, and if, when
protection becomes necessary, the taking of hard crabs for the market
and for the canning establishments were prohibited in these months,
enough eggs would be hatched each summer to prevent any great
decrease in their numbers until the consumption of crabs become very
much greater than itisnow. As most of the female crabs migrate into
the deep water at the lower end of the bay in mid-summer, their preser-
vation by a closed season will require that Maryland and Virginia shall
act for this purpose in concert.

The proprietors of the canning establishments assert that this matter
may safely be left to their own far-sighted interest in the permanent
maintenance of the business, and that they do not make use of the
female crabs with eggs. Observation shows, however, that hundreds of
crabs with eggs are loaded into the cars and run into the steaming
apparatus and cooked every day, and while it is possible that their
flesh is not put into the cans, but is thrown away, the effect is, of
course, the same.

As the female crab does not shed her shell until the eggs are hatched,
the capture of soft crabs and of those which are ready to become soft can
have little effect upon their numbers; and as the extension of the
business of keeping them in “shedding pens” will increase the market
supply of soft crabs, advantage alone will result to the community.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 261

THE DIAMOND-BACK TERRAPIN.

This small but expensive anima] fills such a prominent place among
the luxuries for which our State is famous that a few words upon the
way our market is supplied will not be out of place, although only a
small part of our supply comes from our own waters.

The diamond-backed terrapin, Malacoclemmys palustris, is found
along our entire eastern coast from southern New England to Texas,
wherever there are salt marshes, but it is most abundant in the low half-
submerged country which fringes most of the sounds and tidal rivers
from the Chesapeake Bay southward.

At one time these animals were so abundant that they could be seen
sunning themselves on the sand-bars and sand-flats upon every warm day.
Holbrook says they are so prolific that their numbers appear undimin-
ished, notwithstanding their great destruction, but at present they are
by no means abundant, and no one who does not devote himself to their
pursuit is at all likely to meet with a single specimen.

The streams along the salt marshes of Maryland still furnish a few,
but the supply for our market comes for the most part from southern
waters—from the vicinity of Norfolk and from the eastern shore of
Virginia and from still further south.

The habits of the diamond-back are much like those of our familiar
pond terrapins. They are at home both on land and in the water, and
during the summer months they are active and alert, wandering in search
of their food, which consists of fish, crabs, marsh plants and alga,
and in fact of most of the animal and vegetable food which the marshes
afford.

Early in the summer the female comes up at night on to a sandy
shore or bar above the water and scoops out a shallow nest for her eggs,
and the newly hatched young live for a time on land. As soon as cold
weather approaches, the terrapin buries itself in the mud beyond the
reach of frosts and sleeps until spring. Duting its active life in summer
it cannot stay under water very long without coming to the top for fresh
air, and it drowns like any other breathing animal when it is kept under
water, but in its winter sleep breathing almost ceases, and the animals
often bury themselves in the mud under water.

The methods of catching them vary according to the season. In
summer a few are gathered by men and boys, who wade through the
marshes and shallow waters, catching them in their hands or dipping
them up with hand nets. At the present day the return is too scanty to
support a child, and this method of catching terrapins is only the occupa-
tion of idle hours, for we must not estimate the earnings of these summer
fishermen by the price which the city dealers charge their customers.
There is no demand for terrapins in the summer, and those which are
262 MARYLAND.

caught in this way are sold at once to dealers who are able to wait until.
winter for a market, and the prices paid to the captors range from less
than a dollar a dozen to as much, perhaps, in very favorable cases, as ten
dollars a dozen.

Notwithstanding its proverbial indolence, the terrapin when at home
in or near the water is a most active animal, wary and skillful at hiding
and escaping, and the demand has led to many improved methods of
catching them.

In North Carolina dogs are trained to hunt along the shores of the
creeks for the tracks of terrapins which have come out of the water and
to follow the trails into the marshes until they find the animals. ‘The
hunters also visit the sandy shores and bars at night with torches during
the breeding season, and capture the terrapins as they come up to make
their nests.

Terrapins are often caught by fishermen in their seines, and traps also
are used, made after the fashion of a lobster pot, of coarse netting
stretched over hoops, with a funnel-shaped opening at each end. These
traps are baited with pieces of fish, and are set in favorable spots, but as
a terrapin caught in a trap under water would drown, they are placed in
shallow water or are fastened to stakes in such a way that part of the
trap is above water to furnish a breathing space.

Those which are sent to market in the winter find a ready sale at
high prices, and there are many ways of finding them in their burrows in
the mud.

At Beaufort, North Carolina, the dry grass of the marshes is lighted
after the terrapins have hid themselves for the winter, and as the ground
grows warm they are awakened and come out of their burrows, when
they are captured without difficulty.

Most of the supply is captured by means of terrapin “drags,” con-
structed somewhat like a naturalist’s dredge. In summer the animals
are much too active to permit themselves to be caught in this way, but
as colder weather sets in they become more helpless, and the drag is
then an effective collector. It consists of a coarse bag, with large meshes
which permit the mud to flow through them and to be washed away,
and of a frame which forms the mouth of the bag and keeps it open.
The lower side of this frame is a heavy bar of iron three or four feet
long, set with large strong iron teeth, which rake the mud and scoop up
the buried terrapins.

In the far south, where the winter’s sleep is not perfect, they gather,
in cold weather, in the mud at the bottoms of deep holes in the creeks,
and they are captured in large seines, made for the purpose, four or five
hundred feet long and eighteen or twenty wide, with coarse meshes.
FISH AND FISHERIES. 263

One end of it is made fast to a stake, and it is then set, from a boat,
in a circle, and the two ends are then brought together and rapidly drawn
in to the boat. During the whole process the fishermen rap upon the
sides or bottom of the boat with oars or sticks, as it is said that this
noise causes the terrapins to rise from the bottom, and prevents them
from diving under the net.

The terrapins which are gathered in the summer are kept in pounds,
or inclosed pens, until winter, and are fed with fish andcrabs. The high
price and the gradual disappearance of the terrapins have led to efforts
to rear them in inclosed pens, from the eggs, but these pens must be so
large, to afford all the conditions which are necessary, that the protec-
tion of the eggs and young animals from their enemies is very difficult,
and, as they grow so slowly that they are not ready for market for some
six years, few persons have attempted to rear them.

Our waters contain many species of terrapins which, while they are
not esteemed by our people, are elsewhere used as food, and it is an open
secret that some of them are sometimes served as the real diamond-
backs.

Small green turtles, or chicken turtles, as they are called, are quite
frequently taken by fishermen in their nets, in the lower counties of
Maryland, for while this animal is an inhabitant of the sea, it delights
in the mouths of rivers, and often works its way inland to a great dis-
tance. It is a delicious article of food, but its occurrence in our waters
is too irregular and infrequent to give it an established place among our
resources.
CHAPTER VIII.

THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY.

THE OYSTER.

We must give to the oyster a prominent place in the list of our
natural resources. The vast number of oysters which the Chesapeake
Bay has furnished in the past is ample proof of its fertility, but it is
difficult to give any definite statement as to the value of the oyster beds
in past years, although there is good reason for believing that since the
business of packing oysters for shipment to the interior was established,
in 1834, nearly four hundred million bushels of oysters have been taken
from our waters.

This inconceivably vast amount of delicate, nutritious food has been
yielded by our waters without any aid from man. It is a harvest which
no man has sown; a free gift from bounteous nature.

The fact that our waters have withstood this enormous draft upon
them, and have continued for more than half a century to meet our
constantly increasing demands, is most conclusive evidence of their fer-
tility and value, and the citizens of Maryland and Virginia might well
point with pride to the boundless resources of our magnificent bay.

Four hundred million bushels of oysters is a vast quantity, and it
testifies to the immeasurable value of our waters; but every one who has
studied the subject, either on its scientific side or in the light of the
experience of other countries, knows that the harvest of oysters from
our bay has never, even at its best, made any approach to what it might
have been if we had aided the bounty of nature by human industry and
intelligence. The four hundred million bushels is the wild crop which
has been supplied by nature, without any aid from man, and it compares
with what we might have obtained from our waters in about the same
way that the nuts and berries which are gathered in our swamps and
forests compare with the harvest from our cultivated fields and gardens
and orchards.

When we have learned to make wise use of our opportunities, and
when the oyster-beds of the bay have been brought to perfection, a
harvest” of four hundred million bushels in half a century will not be
regarded as evidence of fertility.
es

 

THE OYSTER INDUSTRY.

1. Packing and Canning Oysters. 2. Raw Shucking. 3. Converting Oyster Shells into Lime.
4. Processing Oysters. 5. Steamed Oyster Shuckers. 6. Weighing and Canning.
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 265

It will take many years of labor to bring the whole bay under
thorough cultivation, and it will require a great army of industrious and
skillful farmers, and great sums of money; but the expense and labor
will be much less than an equal area of land above water requires; and
while it may be far away, the time will surely come when the oyster
harvest each year will be fully equal to the total harvest of the last
fifty years, and it will be obtained without depleting or exhausting the
beds, and without exposing the laborers to hardships or unusual risks.

This is not the baseless speculation of an idle fancy. Our opportu-
nities for rearing oysters are unparalleled in any other part of the world,
and in other countries much less valuable grounds have by cultivation
been made to yield oysters at a rate per acre which, in our own great
beds, would carry our annual harvest very far beyond the sum of all the
oysters which have ever been used by the packers of Maryland and
Virginia.

This is capable of proof by evidence from other countries, but it
may be proved with equal conclusiveness, by the natural history of the
oyster.

The Chesapeake Bay is one of the rich agricultural regions of the
earth, and its fertility can be compared only with that of the valleys of
the Nile and the Ganges and other great rivers. It owes its fertility to
the same causes which have enabled the Nile valley to support a dense
human population for untold ages without any loss of fertility, but it is
adapted for producing only one crop, the oyster.

All human food is vegetable in its origin, and whether we eat plants
and their products directly, or use beef, mutton, fish, fowls or eggs for
food, we are carried back to the vegetable kingdom; for if there were
no plants all animals would starve at once. Every one knows that this
is absolutely true of all terrestrial animals, and all naturalists know that
it is equally true of sea food. The blue-fish preys on smaller fishes;
many of these on still smaller ones; these, in their turn, on minute crea-
tures; these upon still smaller animals, and these pasture on the micro-
scopic plants which swarm at the surface of the ocean. However long
the chain may be, all animals, those of the water as well as those of the
land, depend upon plants for food, although most of the vegetable life of
the ocean is of such a character that its existence is known to naturalists
alone.

If there were no plants all animals would starve, and no animal is a
direct food producer, for it can furnish nothing except what it has got
from plants. Now, for the purpose of animal life, a small plant is as
effective as a large one, for however small it may be it still has the
power, which is possessed by no animal, to gather up the inorganic
matter of the earth, and to turn it into vegetable matter fit for the
266 MARYLAND.

nourishment of animals. Microscopic plants can do this work as well as
great forests of lofty trees, provided they are numerous enough; and size
counts for nothing.

Every one knows that the sea is rich in animal life; that it contains
great banks covered with cod and haddock, miles and miles of water
crowded full of mackerel and herring; and great monsters of the deep,
such as the whales and sharks. To the superficial observer the vegeta-
tion of the sea appears to be very scanty, and, except for a fringe of sea-
weeds along the shore, the great ocean seems, so far as plant life is
concerned, to be a barren desert. If it be true that all animals depend on
plants for their food, the vegetation of the ocean seems totally inade-
quate for the support of its animal life.

The microscope shows that its surface swarms with minute plants,
most of them of strange forms, totally unlike any which are familiar,
and having nothing in common with the well-known trees and herbs and
grasses of the land, except the power to change inorganic matter into
food which is fit for animals.

Most of these plants are so small that they are absolutely invisible to
the unaided eye, and even when they are gathered together in a mass, it
looks like slimy, discolored water and presents no traces of structure.
They seem too insignificant to play any important part in the economy of
nature, but the great monsters of the deep, beside which the elephant
and the ox and the elk are small animals, owe their existence to these
microscopic plants.

Their vegetative power is wonderful past all expression. Among land
plants, corn, which yields seed about a hundredfold in a single season, is
the emblem of fertility, but it can be shown that a single marine plant,
very much smaller than a grain of mustard seed, would fill the whole
ocean solid in less than a week, if all its descendants were to live.

This stupendous fact is almost incredible, but it is capable of rigorous
demonstration, and it must be clearly grasped before we can understand
the life of the ocean. As countless minute animals are constantly
pasturing upon them, the multiplication of these plants is kept in check,
but in calm weather it is no rare thing to find great tracts of water many
miles in extent packed so full of them that the whole surface is converted
into a slimy mass, which breaks the waves and smooths the surface like
oil. The so-called “black water” of the Arctic and Antarctic oceans, the
home and feeding ground of the whale, has been shown by microscopic
examination to consist of a mass of these plauts crowded together until
the whole ocean is discolored by them. Through these seas of “black
water” roam the right whales, the largest animals on earth, gulping at
each mouthful hundreds of gallons of the little mollusca and crustacea
which feed on the plants.
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 267

In tropical seas ships sometimes sail for days through great floating
islands of this surface vegetation, and the Red Sea owes its name to the
coloration of its water by great swarms of microscopic plants which are of
a reddish tinge. The plant life of the ocean is ample for the support of
all its animal life, just as the vegetation of the land gives a maintenance
to all terrestrial animals.

The source of the food of animals is the vegetable world. What is
the source of the food of plants?

Most of it consists of mineral matter, derived from the crust of the
earth; but before this can be used by plants it must be dissolved in
water. The solid rocks cannot maintain life until they have been ground
down and dissolved, and, in the form of frost and rain, water is continually
breaking down and wearing away the hard rocks and carrying the frag-
ments down to lower levels to form the fertile land of the hillsides and
valleys and meadows. As the roots of the plants penetrate this loose
material they gather up the mineral food which is dissolved by the rain
and convert it into their own substance, and as their leaves fall and their
trunks decay, the decaying vegetable matter gradually builds up the
leaf-mnould and meadow-loam which are so well adapted for supporting
vegetable life. Each year, however, the heavy rains wash great quantities
of this light, rich soil into the rivers, which at times of flood cut into
their banks and carry the arable laud, which has been built up so slowly,
down to lower levels, until at last it finds its way to the ocean and is lost,
so far as its use to man is concerned.

In a long, flat river-valley it may be arrested for a time, so that man
may make use of it, but its final destination is the ocean, and as this has
already been enriched by the washings through untold ages, all that is
most valuable for the support of life is now dissolved in its waters, or
deposited upon its bottom, where man can make no use of it.

We love to dream of the shipwrecked treasures which lie among the
bones of the sailors on the sea-bottom; of the galleons sunk and lost
with their precious cargoes of bullion and jewels from the treasure-
chambers of the Incas and the palaces of Asia; but all these, and all the
“gems of purest ray serene, the dark, unfathom’d caves of ocean bear”:
all the thousands of tons of gold and silver which, as chemists tell us,
the sea holds dissolved in its waters—all these are as nothing when com-
pared with these precious washings from the land of all that fits it for
supporting life.

Man will some time assert his dominion over the fishes of the sea,
and will learn to send out flocks and herds of domesticated marine
animals to pasture and fatten upon the vegetable life of the ocean and to
make its vast wealth of food available, but at present we are able to do
little more than to snatch a slight tribute from the stream of nutritive
268 MARYLAND.

material which is flowing down into the ocean, as it comes to temporary
rest in the valleys of our great rivers.

Every one knows the part which these great river-valleys have
played in human civilization. In the valley of the Nile, of the Tigris,
and of the Ganges we find the most dense populations; here were the
great cities of the past ; here agriculture and architecture were developed,
and here art, literature and science had their birth.

We owe to the great river-valleys, where the natural fertility of the
soil has lightened the struggle for bread and has afforded leisure for
higher matters, all that is most distinctive of civilized man.

The Chesapeake Bay is a great river-valley; not as large as that of
the Nile or Ganges, but of enough consequence to play an important part
in human affairs, and to support in comfort and prosperity a population
as great as that of many famous states. It receives the drainage of a
vast area of fertile land stretching over the meadows and hillsides of
nearly one-third of New York, and nearly all of the great agricultural
States of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. The most valuable part
of the soil of this great tract of farming land, more than forty million
acres in area, ultimately finds its way to the bay, in whose quiet waters
it makes a long halt on its journey to the ocean, and it is deposited, all
over the bay, in the form of fine, light, black sediment, known as oyster-
mud.

This is just as valuable to man, and just asefit to nourish plants, as
the mud which settles every year on the wheat fields and rice fields of
Egypt. Itisa natural fertilizer of inestimable importance, and it is so
rich in organic matter that it putrefies in a few hours when exposed to
the sun. In the shallow waters of the bay, under the influence of the
warm sunlight, it produces a most luxuriant vegetation; but with few
exceptions, the plants which grow upon it are microscopic and invisible,
and their very existence is unknown to all except a few naturalists.
They are not confined like land plants to the surface of the soil, and
while they are found in great abundance on the surface of the mud, they
are not restricted to it, for their food is diffused in solution through the
whole body of water, and the mud itself is so light that it is in a state
of semi-suspension, and the little plants have ample room among its
particles.

On land, the plant-producing area is a surface, but the total plant-
producing acreage of the bay is many times greater than the superficial
area of its bottom.

As the little plants are bathed on all sides by food, they do not have
to go through the slow process of sucking it up through roots and stems,
and they grow and multiply at a rate which has no parallel in ordinary
familiar plants, and would quickly choke up the whole bay if they
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 269

were not held in check; but their excessive increase is prevented by
countless minute animals which feast upon them and turn the plant sub-
stance into animal matter, to become,in their turn food for larger
animals. Asa matter of fact, they are not very abundant, but there is
no difficulty in finding them in any part of the bay, by straining the
water through a fine cloth. In this way we obtain a fine sedimeut, which
is shown by the. microscope to consist almost entirely of them.

The variety of these microscopic plants and animals is very great,
and a series of large volumes would be needed to describe the microscopic
flora and fauna of the bay. Most of them occur in other waters as well,
but many are peculiar to the bay, which is an exceptionally favored spot
for their growth.

The exploration of this invisible world with a microscope is an
unfailing delight to the naturalist, but at first sight it seems to have no
particular bearing on human life. The ability to turn inorganic mineral
matter into food for animals and for man does not depend on size, and in
this respect the microscopic flora of the bay is as efficient as corn or pota-
toes, but infinitely more active and energetic.

In the oyster we have an animal, most nutritious and palatable, especi-
ally adapted for living in the soft mud of bays and estuaries, and for
gathering up the microscopic inhabitants and turning them into food for
man.

The fitness of the oyster for this peculiar work—for bringing back to
us the mineral wealth which the rivers steal from our hillsides and
meadows—is so complete and admirable, so marvellous and instructive,
that it cannot be comprehended in its complete significance, without a
thorough knowledge of the anatomy and embryology of the oyster.

The inestimable value of our inheritance in the black mud of the
bay has been pointed out, and it now remains to show that the oyster is
an animal which has been especially evolved for life in this mud, and
that through its aid we may make our inheritance available. A thorough
knowledge of the oyster will teach much more than this. It will show
the capacity of the oyster for cultivation, and it will also show why its
cultivation is necessary, and why our resources can never be fully
developed by oysters ina state of nature. We have never enjoyed the
hundredth part of our advantage, nor can we ever do so if we continue to
rely upon nature alone; and this fact, which has been proved again and
again by statistics, is perfectly clear to any one who knows what an
oyster is, and what are its relations to the world around it. As its world
is chiefly microscopic, no one can penetrate into the secrets of its
structure and history without training in the technical methods of the
laboratory ; and business contact with the oyster cannot possibly, with
any amount of experience, give any real insight into its habits and mode
of life.
270 MARYLAND.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER.

The most prominent fact in the organization of the oyster is its
shell. Its body is shut in between two long concave stony doors, which
are made of limestone, and are fastened together at one end, somewhat
in the same way that the covers of a long, narrow check-book are bound
together at the back. One of these shells, the flat one, is on the right
side of the body, and the other, which is much deeper, on the left.
When oysters are fastened to each other or to rocks, the left shell is
attached, and the oyster lies on its left side. When it is at home and
undisturbed its shell is open, so that the water circulates within it, but
when disturbed it shuts its shell with a snap, and is able to keep it
firmly closed for a long time. The snapping drives out the water,
together with any irritating substances which may find their way in, and
on the natural beds the oysters snap their shells shut, from time to time,
for this purpose. The snapping is popularly called feeding, but it is
nothing of the kind. It serves to drive food out instead of taking it in,
and so long as the shell is open a gentle current of water is drawn in by
a delicate piece of microscopic machinery, which will be explained later
on. The food of the oyster consists of invisible organisms which float
in the water and are drawn in with it.

The apparatus for opening and closing the shell is very interesting.
If you were to open a check-book, and were to wedge a piece of rubber
between the leaves, close to the back, it would furm a spring, which
would be squeezed by closing the book, and would open it again when
released. A book with such a spring would be open at all times, except
when forcibly closed. Wedged in between the two shells of the oyster,
at their narrow ends, is an elastic pad, the hinge-ligament, which acts in
exactly the same way. When the shell is forcibly closed the ligament
is squeezed, and it expands when it is released and thus throws the free
edges of the shells apart. The ligament is not alive. It is formed, like
the shell itself, as an excretion from the living tissues of the oyster, and
its action is not under the control of the animal. It keeps the shell
open at all times, unless it is counteracted, and for this reason an oyster
at rest and undisturbed, or a dead oyster, always has its shell open.

The active work of squeezing the passive ligament and closing the
shell is done by a large, powerful muscle, made up of a bundle of con-
tractile fibres which run across the body between the shells, and are
fastened to their inner surfaces over the dark-colored spots which are
always to be seen on empty oyster shells. The muscle is known to
oyster-openers as the heart, and they assure you that when this is cut,
the vital point, the seat of the oyster’s life, is reached and that a wound
here causes instant death. This is of course an error, and cutting the
muscle causes the shell to open simply because it destroys the animal’s
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THE ANATOMY OF THE OYSTER.
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 271

power to close it; but a fresh oyster on the half-shell is no more dead
than an ox which has been hamstrung. Any one who has struggled with
an oyster-knife to force open an obstinate thick-shelled specimen, knows
the great strength of this little muscle. It is said that when fishermen
are caught by the feet or hands between the shells of the giant clam of
the Pacific, they never escape alive, but are held, as if by a vise, until
the tide rises and drowns them; but firmly as the muscle of the oyster
holds the shell together, a little skill is all that is needed to overcome it.

The work of closing the shell is done by the muscle, but we must
go very much farther in the study of the oyster in order to find why it
closes. It is opened by the mechanical properties of the ligament, but
the cause of its closure cannot be the mechanical properties of the
muscle, for these are just the same whether it is active or at rest. Careful
investigation shows the existence of a wonderful apparatus, consisting of
the muscle which does the work, of nerves which connect the muscle
with the brain, of other nerves which run to the more exposed parts of
the oyster’s body, and of sense organs which are connected with the ends
of these sensory nerves, and these serve to put the animal into commu-
nication with the external world. Though very much simpler, the
mechanism is essentially like that of our own bodies. The oyster’s shell
is lined by a fleshy mantle, which is fringed by a border of dark-colored
sensory tentacles, which are partially exposed when the shell is opened.
The approach of danger is perceived by these organs, which transmit a
sensation of danger along the sensory nerves to the brain, and this in
turn sends a nervous discharge along another set of nerves to the muscle,
and this shortens under the stimulus and pulls the shells together and
holds them fast.

The muscle is attached to the shell at some distance from the hinge,
in order that it may have leverage and work to advantage; and it must
therefore be able to move as the shell grows, for in an oyster three inches
long its area of attachment is outside what was the extreme border of
the shell when this was only an inch long. The muscle travels by the
addition of new fibres on its outer surface, together with the absorption
and removal of those on its inner border. As it moves, the old impres-
sion on the shell is gradually covered up by new deposits of lime, and in
an empty shell it may be traced for some distance up towards the hinge,
when it gradually becomes more faintly marked, as the layers of new
shell grow thicker. A very good idea of the way the shell grows and
keeps pace with the growth of the body, may be gained by the careful
examination of the muscular impression on its inner surface. Every fool
knows why a snail has a house, but the king could not tell how an oyster
makes his shell. We can now give a satisfactory answer to what will not,
272 MARYLAND.

I hope, be thought a fool’s question: “Canst tell how an oyster makes
his shell?”

The shell, on each side of the body, is lined by a thin, delicate,
fleshy fold, the mantle; which may be compared to the outer leaf on
each side of the check-book, next the cover. It lies close against the
inside of the shell, and forms a delicate living lining to protect the body
and the gills, and it is also the gland which makes the shell.

At all times, while the animal is alive, it is laying dcwn new layers
of pearl over its whole inner surface, and as each successive layer is a
little larger in area than the one before, the shell increases in size as well
as in thickness, and the hinge, where there are many layers, is very
thick, while the edge, which is new, is quite thinand sharp. Each layer
is very thin, hardly thicker than a sheet of tissue paper, but the deposi-
tion of layer on layer gradually results in a solid box of stone.

Shells which grow on rough, irregular surfaces conform to their
shape as perfectly as if they had been moulded into the ridges and fur-
rows, like soft clay. An oyster growing in the neck of a bottle takes the
smooth, regular curve of the glass, and on the claw of a crab an oyster
shell sometimes follows all the angles and ridges and spines, asif it were
made of wax instead of inflexible stone. Its apparent plasticity and the
mouldings of its surface are due to the flexibility of the soft edge of the
mantle. When the oyster is at rest this protrudes a little beyond the
edge of the shell, so that each new layer is a little larger in area than the
last one. The soft mantle readily conforms to the shape of the body to
which the oyster is fastened, and however irregular this may be, the new
shell takes its shape and closely adheres toit, because the new deposits
are laid down directly upon it.

You will see from this account the error of the current belief that
an old oyster cannot fasten itself. Since the adhesion takes place around
the growing edge, an oyster may fasten itself at any time, and clusters of
oysters are often found with their shells soldered together near their
tips. This can of course only occur after they are well grown.

Oysters are able to close up broken places in their shells, and most
molluscs sometimes absorb and rebuild parts of the shell. If any foreign
body gets in between the shell and the mantle, shelly matter is deposited
upon it. The pearls of the pearl oyster are formed in this way. Some
small particle, such as a grain of sand, works its way in, and formsa
nucleus which is gradually covered by layer after layer of pearl. The
brilliant lustre, as well as that of mother-of-pearl, which is nothing but
polished shell, is due to the interference of light caused by the laminated
structure.

A series of microscopic specimens of stages in the growth of the shell
may be obtained, and made to exhibit the whole history of the process,
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 273

if we put into the shells of a number of oysters thin glass circles, such
as are used to cover microscopic specimens, and then return the oysters
to the water and leave them undistugbed until new shell begins to be
formed on the glasses. These may then be taken out and studied under
the microscope.

At the end of twenty-four hours the glass will be found to be covered
by a transparent, faintly brown film of thin gummy deposit, which
exhibits no evidences of structure, and contains no visible particles of
lime, although it effervesces when treated with acids, thus showing that
it contains particles too small to be visible with a microscope. The
gummy film is poured out from the wall of the mantle, and in forty-eight
hours it forms a tough leathery membrane fastening the glass cover to
the inside of the shell. At about this time the invisible particles of
lime begin to aggregate and to form little flat crystals, hexagonal in out-
line, and about ;3,, of an inch long. The crystals grow and unite into
little bundles of groups, and new ones appear between the old ones,
until, at the end of six days, the film has completely lost its leathery
character and has become stony, from the great amount of lime present
in it. In three or four weeks tle glass cover is completely built into the
shell and can no longer be seen, and its place is only to be traced by its
form, which is perfectly preserved upon the inner surface of the shell.
When broken out it is found to be coated with a thick plate of white
shell, which is beautifully smooth and pearly upon the side nearest the
glass.

Microscopic examination of this plate shows that it is made up of an
immense number of minute crystals, packed and crowded together into a
solid mass, without any regular arrangement. These observations show
that the new layers are thrown off in the form of a gummy excretion
from the mantle, with the lime in solution, and that the particles unite
with each other and form crystals while the gum is hardening.

The oyster obtains the lime for its shell from the water, and while
the amount dissolved in each gallon is very small, it extracts enough to
provide for the slow growth of the shell. It is very important that the
shell be built up as rapidly as possible, for the oyster has many enemies
continually on the watch for thin-shelled specimens. In the lower part
of the bay we may lean over a wharf and watch the sheepshead moy-
ing up and down with their noses close to the piles, crushing the shells
of the young oysters between their strong jaws and sucking out the soft
bodies; the juices from the bodies of the little oysters stream down from
the corners of their mouths, to be swept away by the tide.

The sooner a young oyster can make a shell thick enough to resist
such attacks the better, not only for the oyster but for us also; for once

past this dangerous stage of development, there is a prospect that it may :
18
274 MARYLAND.

live to complete its growth; although it is true that the fully grown
oyster has many enemies which either crush the shell or pull it apart, or
bore holes through it in order to reach the delicate flesh within. At all
times in its life its chance of survival is greatest when the supply of
lime is so abundant that it is able to construct rapidly a thick, massive
shell. The rate of growth of any animal must be regulated by the
supply of that necessary ingredient of its food which is least abundant,
as may be illustrated in many ways. To run a locomotive the engineer
must have fuel and water and oil. He needs very little oil, but that
little he must have. After this is gone, an unlimited supply of fuel and
water will not help him. He must have oil or stop. So, too, if he have
plenty of oil and fuel, but only a little water, he must stop as soon as the
water fails. In general, the amount of work he can do is determined by
his supply of that of which he has least. If food in general is abundant
while there is a scarcity of one necessary article, growth can take place
only so fast as the scarce article can be procured. A superfluity of other
things is of no value, for it cannot be utilized.

There are many reasons for believing that the growth of oysters is
limited by the supply of lime; and that all the other necessary ingre-
dients of their food are so abundant that an increase in the supply of
lime would cause more rapid growth, greater safety from enemies, and an
increase in the number of oysters. All kinds of shelled molluscs grow
more rapidly, and reach a greater size, and have stronger and thicker
shells in coral seas, where the supply of lime is unlimited, than in other
waters. In some parts of the Bahamas the large pink-lipped conch, the
shell which we often see for sale in the fruit stores of Baltimore, is so
abundant that whole islands, large enough to be inhabited, are entirely
made up of the broken fragments of these beautiful shells, which have
been pounded to pieces and heaped up by the waves.

The fresh-water mussels of our western rivers are very large in lime-
stone regions, and so abundant that the bottom is almost paved with
them, while in another river, perhaps only a few miles away, but flowing
through a country where there is little lime, they are few and very
small, with thin, fragile shells.

If you turn over the old bones which are sometimes found in the
woods and fields, you will nearly always find a number of snails which
have been drawn to them for the sake of the lime.

In order that the oyster may grow rapidly, and may be securely
protected from its enemies, it must have lime. The lime in the water of
the bay is derived in great part from the springs of the interior, which,
flowing through limestone regions, carry some of it away in solution,
and this is finally carried down the rivers and into the bay. Some of it
is no doubt derived from deposits of rock in the bed of the ocean, and
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 275

some from the soil along the shores. Now, the geologist will tell you
that all the limestone rock has at one time been part of the bodies
of living animals. Limestone is either old reefs of fossil coral, or beds
of extinct shells, or the skeletons of other animals and plants which
lived in remote ages and stored up the lime from the ocean at a time
when it was more abundant than it isnow. The oyster gets the greater
part of its lime from these sources in this roundabout way, but a very
considerable portion is obtained in a much more direct way, by the
decomposition of old oyster shells.

We save up egg shells to feed laying hens, but we waste our oyster
shells in every possible way, and treat them as if they were of no value.
Some are burned for lime, some are used for making roads and wharves,
some are used for filling in low land, some are dumped in great piles at
convenient spots in the bay, where they sink far down into the mud and
are lost.

There is another far more important reason why they should be
returned to the beds, but their value as food for the oyster is very great,
and this alone should lead us to return them to the beds. On the oyster-
beds an old shell is soon honeycombed by boring sponges and other
animals, and as soon as the sea-water is thus admitted to its interior, it is
rapidly dissolved and diffused. Ina few years nothing is left. It has all
gone back into a form which makes it available as oyster food, and it soon
begins its transformation into new oyster shells. In this way the oysters
obtain some of their lime directly without being compelled to draw on
the inland beds of ancient fossils, and if all the shells could be returned
to the beds, this source of supply would be greatly increased.

The difference between the right and the left shells of the oyster has
a very profound significance, for in science nothing is trivial or unim-
portant. Most of the near relations of the oyster, like the clam and the
fresh-water mussel, have the two sides of the body, and the two shells,
alike. These animals are not fastened nor stationary like the oyster.
They move from place to place in search of food, and their line of
locomotion lies in the plane which divides the body into halves. They
are erect and bilaterally symmetrical like other locomotor animals, such
as the horse, the fish, the butterfly and the crab. The full-grown oyster
has no locomotor power and it lies on its left side, but in the early part
of its life it is very active, and is then bilaterally symmetrical like the
clam. When it ceases its wanderings and settles down for life, it topples
over, falls on its left side, and fastens itself by its left shell, which soon
grows deep and spoon-shaped, while the right becomes a flat, movable
lid. The body, which was originally symmetrical, becomes distorted or
twisted to fit the difference in the shells; and naturalists see in the fact
that the locomotor relations of the oyster are symmetrical through life,
276 MARYLAND.

while the oyster loses its symmetry as soon as it settles down, one of the
proofs that it is descended from locomotor ancestors. There are many
other proofs that this has been its history, and that it has, in compara-
tively modern times, learned to fasten itself to rocks above the soft mud
of our bays and estuaries, in order to avail itself of the rich vegetation;
that it has lost its symmetry in order to fit it for this mode of life. The
oyster is a very ancient animal, and its sedentary habits belong to the
modern part of its history; although this change took place very long
ago, so far as human chronology goes, and fossil oysters are found in
many parts of the world.

In order to understand the anatomy of the oyster, a clear conception
of the structure and significance of its gill is most important. In all the
bivalve molluscs the gills are very complicated, and they dominate over
the whole structure of the body in such a way that an anatomical sketch
of the animal is of necessity little more than an account of the gills. A
thorough knowledge of the oyster-gill will not only throw light on the
purpose and use of all its other organs; it will at the same time help us
to understand the great value of the animal as a means for making the
microscopic inhabitants of our waters useful, and it will also show how
well it is adapted for cultivation, and why it is impossible for natural
oysters to stock the whole bay without aid from man.

The labor which is necessary before we can have a clear, accurate
picture of them, of their complicated structure, their relations to other
parts of the body, their use and their origin, is considerable, but it is
well worth while, for the gills give us the key to the whole significance
of the oyster; but this requires close attention to all the details of a
long, complicated and minute description, which from the nature of the
case cannot be stated briefly, although it may all be put in simple
language.

A gill is, of course, a breathing organ, for aerating the blood by
exposing it to the oxygen in the water; and the oyster has a heart for
driving to the various organs of the body the blood which has been
purified in the gills. It is easy to see and study the oyster’s heart, but in
order to do so the animal must be opened with great care, by cutting the
muscle with a thin sharp blade, as near the shell as possible. If this is
done, a small semi-transparent space will be seen close to the inner edge
of the muscle. The thin membrane which covers the space is the peri-
cardium, or the chamber which holds the heart, and through its trans-
parent wall this may be seen slowly pulsating, for an oyster is not killed
by opening its shell, and its heart continues to beat for hours, or, under
favorable conditions, for days. If the pericardium be gently lifted and
cut with sharp scissors, the heart, with its blood-vessels, will be exposed.
It consists of twc chambers, the auricle, which receives the pure blood
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 277

from the gilis, and a ventricle, which drives it through arteries to the
various organs of the body.

While the gill of an oyster is a breathing organ, like the gill of a
fish or crab or conch, this is only one of its many uses. The fish and the
crab and the conch have other organs for supplying the gills with a
stream of fresh water, but the gills of the oyster, besides purifying the
blood, keep up a circulation of water for themselves. They are also
organs for gathering up food from the water, and after it has been
gathered they become organs for carrying it to the mouth. They are
also reproductive organs, adapted for securing the fertilization of the
eggs, and thus providing for the propagation of the species. In the
European oyster and in the mussel they are also brood-chambers, in
which the young are held and protected and nourished during their
early stages of growth, until they are large enough to care for
themselves.

An organ which is at once a gill,a pump for supplying the gills with
water, a food-collector, an organ for carrying the food into the mouth, a
reproductive organ, and a nursing-chamber, must, of course, be compli-
cated. The oyster’s gill does all these things, and does them all well.
It is not a jack-of-all-trades, but a machine which is beautifully adapted
for carrying them all on at the same time, in such a way that each use
helps the other uses instead of hindering them. This is the more
remarkable since an ordinary mollusc, such as the conch, has distinct
organs for all these purposes, although the oyster’s gill does everything
just as well and just as readily as the various organs of the conch.

There are four gills in the oyster, two on each side of the body.
They are long, flat, thin, leaf-like organs, placed side by side, and nearly
filling the mantle chamber in which they hang. Each gill is made up
of two leaves, so that there are in all eight gill-leaves.

If you gum together the ends of a folded sheet of foolscap paper, so
as to make a flat pocket, this, when held vertically, with the opening
above, will‘form a pretty good model of a single gill.

The closed portions of the four gills hang down into the mantle-
chamber, side by side, but their upper edges are fastened to each other
and to the inside of the mantle in such a way that they form a folded
partition, something like a double W, which divides the mantle-chamber
into two parts: a lower chamber, in which the gills hang, known as the
gill-chamber, and an open chamber, into which the pockets open. This
chamber is known as the cloaca, the Latin word for a sewer, or channel
for waste water, and the fitness of the name will soon be seen.

The partition between the two chambers is formed somewhat in this
way. The upper edge of the outer leaf of the outer gill is united, along
its whole length, to the inner surface of the mantle. The upper edge of
278 MARYLAND.

the inner leaf of the outer gill is united to the same edge of the outer leaf
of the inner gill. The upper edges of the inner leaves of the two inner
gills are united to each other on the middle line of the body.

If you were to make four pockets out of four sheets of paper, and
were then to gum two of them together along their free edges, you would
make a double pocket, which might be opened out so that a section
through it would be like a W. This would serve as a model of the two
gills on one side of the body, and two more sheets, treated in the same
way, would make a model of the other two gills. Now gum two W’s
together, side by side, and the double W will be a model of the four gills.
Now open a very large book-cover, just far enough to gum the upper
outer edge of one W to the inside of the cover, and the opposite edge of
the other W to the other, and you will have a rough model of the coarse
anatomy of the oyster’s gills. The space between the covers is the
mantle-chamber, divided by the gills into a lower portion or gill-cham-
ber, in which the gills hang, and an upper cloacal chamber, into which
the pockets open.

So far we have spoken of the gills as if the pockets reached, without
interruption, from end to end, but this is not the case. Each pocket is
divided up, by a series of vertical partitions, into a number of small
cavities—the water tubes, each of which ends blindly below and opens
above into the cloaca.

To represent them in our model we must gum the two leaves of
each pocket together from top to bottom along a series of vertical lines
about an inch apart. Our model is very much larger than the actual gill,
of course.

The spaces between the partitions which are thus formed will
represent the water tubes, closed below and opening above into the
cloaca, and our model will now illustrate the anatomy of the gill, so far
as it can be made out without a microscope.

We must now consider the minute anatomy. If asmall piece of one
of the gills be cut out and spread flat upon a glass slide, so that its sur-
face may be examined under a microscope, it will be found to be
thickly covered with parallel ridges running from top to bottom, like
the lines on the sheet of paper, each ridge being separated from the next
one by a deep furrow. In the bottoms of the furrows there are many
minute openings—the water pores, which pass through the wall of the
gill into the water tubes, and thus form the channels of communication
between the two divisions of the mantle-chamber.

The ridges themselves are hollow, or, rather, each one contains a
minute blood-vessel, which runs throughout its entire length, so that
each wall of each gill is practically a grating of parallel, vertical blood-
vessels, in which the blood is purified by contact with the water which

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THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 279

fills the gills and the chamber in which they hang. The purified blood
is then forced into larger vessels, which carry it to the heart, by which it
is pumped to all parts of the body, to be again returned to the gills after
it has become impure.

The gills are therefore easily intelligible, so far as they are simply
organs of respiration; they hang in the water which fills the mantle-
chamber, and their walls are filled with blood-vessels in which the blood
comes into close contact with the water.

The way in which the current of fresh water is kept up to bathe the
gills continually with a new supply is more complicated.

When one of the ridges on the surface of the gill is examined with a
high power of the microscope, it is found to be fringed on each side by a
row of fine hairs, each one less than sic inch long, and so fine that they
are invisible under a low magnifying power. They project from the
sides of the ridges, over the furrows between them, and therefore over-
hang the water pores in the bottoms of the furrows.

In a fragment cut from a fresh gill, each one of these hairs is con-
stantly swaying back and forth, with a motion like that of an oar in
rowing, quick and strong one way, and slower the other way. They all
move in time, but they do not keep stroke, for each one comes to rest an
instant before the one on the other side; so that waves of motion are
continually running from one end of each ridge to the other, like the
waves which you have seen running over a field of ripe grain, as each
stalk bends before the wind and then recovers.

What would happen if a boat’s crew were to row with all their
strength, with the boat tied to a wharf? As they could not pull the
boat through the water, they would push the water past the boat. This
is exactly what these microscopic hairs do. They set up a current in the
water. Each one is so small that its individual effect is inconceivably
minute, but the innumerable multitude causes a vigorous circulation,
avd each one is set in such a position that it drives the water before it
from the gill-chamber into one of the water pores, and so into one of
the water tubes inside the gill; and as these are filled they overflow into
the cloaca and fill that. If the mantle were closed, all the water would
soon be pumped out of the gill-chamber into the cloaca, but you remem-
ber that an oyster at rest always has the mantle open. As fast as the
gill-chamber is emptied by the hairs, fresh water streams in from outside
to be, in its turn, driven through the water pores into the water tubes,
and through them into the cloaca, where it is driven out between the
open shells and away from the oyster. .

So much for the gills as organs for maintaining a current of water.
We come now to the way in which they procure food.
280 MARYLAND.

The food of the oyster consists of microscopic organisms, minute
animals and plants, which swim in the water. They are pretty abundant
in all water, but those who do not work with the microscope have very
erroneous ideas on the subject. When a professional exhibitor shows
you, under the microscope, what he calls a drop of pure water, it is
nothing of the sort. It is either a collection made by filtering several
barrels of water, or else it is a drop squeezed from a piece of decayed
moss, or from some other substance in which they have lived and multi-
plied.

Sea water is like fresh water in this respect, and an oyster must
strain many gallons of water to get its daily bread; but the gills, with
their hundreds of thousands of microscopic water pores, are most efficient
strainers.

The surface of the gills is covered by an adhesive excretion for
entangling the microscopic organisms contained in the water, and as this
circulates over and through the gills, they stick fast like flies on fly-
paper. The hairs which drive the water through the gills, push the
slime, with the food which has become entangled in it, towards the
mouth, which is well up towards the hinge; for it is hardly necessary to
say that what the oystermen call the mouth is only the opening between
the halves of the mantle.

On each side of the mouth there isa pair of fleshy organs called
the lips, although they are more like mustaches than lips, for they hang
down on each side of the mouth. One on the right is joined to one on
the left, above the mouth, while the other two are joined below it, so
that the mouth itself lies in a deep groove or slit between the lips.

The ends of the gills fit into this groove, and as the hairs slide the
food forward, it slips at last between the lips and slides into the mouth,
which is always open. As this process is going on whenever the oyster
is breathing, the supply of food is continuous, and while it consists, for
the most part, of invisible organisms, the oyster’s stomach is usually
well filled. Itis not necessary to describe the oyster’s stomach and
intestine, and dark-colored liver, as these will be understood from the
figure. The chief purpose of this anatomical sketch is to show the won-
derful way in which the gills of the oyster fit it for gathering up the
microscopic life of our bay, and for turning it into valuable human food.
Looked at from this point of view, the minute anatomy of the animal
becomes eminently practical, as it enables us to understand its true rela-
tion to man.

In view of the very exceptional fertility of the bay, and its bound-
less capacity for producing microscopic vegetation, the immense import-
ance of ananimated strainer perfectly adapted for filtering very great
quantities of water, for gathering up the microscopic life which it con-
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 281

tains, for digesting and assimilating it, and for converting it into food of
the most attractive and nutritious character, cannot be overestimated ;
but after we have studied the embryology of the oyster, we shall under-
stand why the natural oysters alone can never utilize all the resources of
our waters. We shall see why it is that the oyster is so well fitted for
domestication and cultivation, and why the cultivation of oysters will
render the Chesapeake Bay incomparably more valuable than it has ever
been, even before our natural beds began to deteriorate.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE OYSTER.

The body of an oyster is not a simple, unorganized lump of flesh, but
a complicated organism, made up of many parts, each one so related to
the other parts that we must study the whole animal before we can
understand the admirable adjustment of each organ to its use.

The oyster is unintelligible until we have studied the organs which
compose it, and the organs themselves are unintelligible unless they are
studied as constituent parts of the whole.

The oyster is a unit, a complete individual whole, made up of units
of a lower order, the organs, in somewhat the same way that a regiment
of soldiers isa unit, made up of units of a lower order, the companies.

A description of the organs of the oyster does not, however, by any
means complete the analysis of its body, for when any part is studied
under a microscope, after it has been properly prepared, it is found to be
made up of units of a still lower order, just as each company is made
up of individual soldiers, or as the ten dimes which make a dollar are
themselves made up of cents.

Every part consists of cells, which are united into organs, in nearly
the same way that these are united to form the oyster; and in order that
its development from the egg may be intelligible, this fact must be held
clearly in mind.

Each cell is a minute portion of living matter, with an individuality
of its own, like the individualities of the soldiers which form the
regiment.

The properties of each organ are due, in part, to the way in which
the cells are arranged, and in part to the properties of the cells them-
selves, for the cells which enter into one organ may be quite different
from those which enter into another.

Each of the cells which form the glandular surface of the mantle is
itself a gland, and is quite different from a muscle cell,so that, in a
certain sense, the activity of the mantle in forming the shell is the sum
of the activities of its cells, just.as the evolutions of a regiment are the
sum of the actions of the soldiers, but a regiment can do many things
282 . MARYLAND.

which would be beyond the power of an unorganized mob, and the
formation of the shell is due to the activity of the mantle as a whole.

In an adult oyster we have gland cells in the mantle, muscle cells in
the muscles, nerve cells in the nervous system, ciliated cells in the gills,
and so on; but if we study the animal at earlier and earlier stages, we
find that these distinctions disappear, until, in ultimate analysis, all the
cells are alike so far as the microscope can tell us.

They are simply minute, definitely limited masses of living matter,
with the power to grow when furnished with food; and after their size
has thus increased, they have the power to multiply by splitting up into
smaller and more numerous cells, which in their turn grow and multiply
in the same way.

They at first exhibit no traces whatever of the uses to which they
are to be put, but as they grow older they gradually become specialized
in various directions and are built up into the tissues and organs of the
body, losing at the same time their sharp distinctness and fusing with
each other.

Just as certain cells become gland cells, others muscle cells, and so
on, certain cells of the adult body become set apart as reproductive cells,
eggs in the female and male cells in the male.

The egg cells grow until they become very much larger than any of
the ordinary cells of the body; at the same time their outlines become
sharply defined, and they become dark-colored and granular. The gran-
ular appearance is due to the fact that as they approach maturity they
become filled with food, which is stored away in them as a provision for
the time when they are to be cast off from the body of the oyster, to
lead an independent existence.

The male cells are very much smaller than the eggs, they contain
little food, and when they are mature each of them is furnished with a
long cilium or vibrating hair, by means of which the cell is able to swim
in the water, while the egg is motionless and sinks to the bottom as soon
as it is set free.

When the reproductive elements are fully ripe they are discharged
from the body into the cloacal chamber of the mantle. The male cells
are swept out into the ocean by the current produced by the gill cilia.
As they contain no food supply, their power to live independently is very
limited, and all soon die except those which come into contact with eggs.

In the American oyster the eggs are swept out into the water in the
same way. The eggs of the European oyster are much larger and
heavier, and they fall into the water tubes of the gills and lodge there,
Here they are exposed to the current of water which circulates through
the gills, and this current brings with it some of the male cells which
swim in the water around the oyster-bed. As soon as one of them comes
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THE ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE OYSTER
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 283

into contact with an egg it fuses with it and loses its individuality and
is lost in the substance of the egg, which is thus fertilized and at once
begins its development into a new oyster.

There is no such provision for securing the fertilization of the eggs
of the American oyster. They are thrown out into the water, like the
male cells, to be fertilized by accident, and while many of them meet
with male cells, innumerable multitudes sink to the bottom and are lost.
It is fortunate for other animals that this is the case, for our oyster is so
prolific that if all the eggs were to be fertilized and were to live and to
grow to maturity, they would fill up the entire bay in a single
season.

Far from being an exaggeration, this statement is much short of the
truth. An average Maryland oyster of good size lays about sixteen
million eggs, and if half of these were to develop into female oysters,
we should have, from a single female, eight million female descendants
in the first generation, and in the second, eight million times eight
million or 64,000,000,000,000. In the third generation we should have
eight million times this or 512,000,000,000,000,000,000. In the fourth,
4,096,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. In the fifth, 33,000,000,000,000,000,-
000,000,000,000,000,000 female oysters, and as many males, or, in all,
66,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Now, if each oyster fill eight cubic inches of space, it would take
8,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 to make a mass as large as the
earth, and the fifth generation of descendants from a single female
oyster would make more than eight worlds, even if each female laid
only one brood of eggs. As the oyster lives for many years, and lays
eggs each year, the possible rate of increase is very much greater than
that shown by the figures.

The waste of oyster eggs through lack of fertilization is simply
inconceivable; but it is possible to fertilize them artificially by mixing
the eggs and the male cells in a small quantity of water, where they are
certain to come into contact with each other. In this way about 98 per
cent. of the eggs nay be saved and made to produce young oysters, and the
wiiter has had at one time ina small tumbler of water a number of active
and healthy oysters, greater, many times, than the whole human popula-
‘tion of Maryland

If severa: oysters are opened during the breeding season, which
varies according to locality and climate, as will hereafter be shown, a
few will be tound with the reproductive organ greatly distended and of
a uniform opaque-white color. These are oysters which are spawning
or ready to spawn, that is, to discharge their eggs. Sometimes the
ovaries are so gorged that the ripe egys ooze from the openinys of the
284 MARYLAND.

oviducts before the mass is quite at the point of being discharged. If
the point of a knife be pushed into the swollen ovary, a milk-white fluid
will flow out of the cut. Mixing a little of this with sea water, and
placing it on a slide underneath a cover, a lens of 100 diameters will
show, if the specimen is a female, that the white fluid is almost entirely
made up of irregular, pear-shaped, ovarian eggs, each of which contains
a large, circular, transparent, germinative vesicle, surrounded by a layer
of a granular, slightly opaque yolk. Perfectly ripe eggs will be seen to
be clean, sharply defined, and separate from each other. If the specimen
be male, a glance through the microscope shows something quite different
from the fluid of a female. There are no large bodies like the eggs, but
the fluid is filled with innumerable numbers of minute granules, which
are so small that they are barely visible when magnified 100 diameters.
They are not uniformly distributed, but are much more numerous at
some points than at others, and for this reason the fluid has a cloudy or
curdled appearance. By selecting a place where the granules are few
and pretty well scattered, very careful watching will show that each of
them has a lively, dancing motion; and examination with a power of
500 diameters will show that each of them is tadpole-shaped, and con-
sists of a small, oval, sharply-defined “head,” and a long, delicate
“tail,” by the lashing of which the dancing is produced. These are the
male cells, whose union with the eggs of the female is necessary
to the fertilization of the latter and the consequent hatching of living
oysters.

The number of male cells which a single male will yield is great
beyond all power of expression, but the number of eggs which an average
female will furnish may be estimated with sufficient exactness. An
unusually large American oyster will yield nearly a cubic inch of eggs,
and if these were all in absolute contact with each other, and there were
no portions of the ovaries or other organs mixed with them, the cubic
inch would contain 500, or 125,000,000. Dividing this by two, to allow
for foreign matter, inter-spaces and errors of measurement, we have
about 60,000,000 as the possible number of eggs from a single very large
oyster.

It has been shown that by mixing eggs extracted from a female with
male cells it is an easy matter to secure their union in a watch-crystal or
in a glass beaker.

The body of the oyster, like that of all animals, except the very
simplest, is made up of organs; such as the heart, digestive organs, gills
and reproductive organs, and these organs are at some period in the life
of the oyster made up of microscopic cells. Each of these consists of a
layer of protoplasm around a central nucleus, which, in the egg, is a
large, circular, transparent body, known as the germinative vesicle.
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 285

Each cell of the body is able to absorb food, to grow, and to multiply by
division, and thus to contribute to the growth of the organ of which it
forms a part. The ovarian eggs are simply the cells of an organ of the
body, the ovary, and, so far as the microscope shows, they differ from the
ordinary cells only in being much larger and more distinct from each
other; and they have the power, when detached from the body, of
growing and dividing up into cells, which shall shape themselves into a
new organism like that from whose body the eggs came. Most of the
steps in this wonderful process may be watched under the microscope,
and, owing to the ease with which the eggs of the oyster may be
obtained, this is a very good egg to study.

About fifteen minutes after the eggs are fertilized they will be found
to be covered with male cells. In about an hour the egg will be found
to have changed its shape and appearance. It is now nearly spherical,
and the germinative vesicle is no longer visible. The male cells may
or may not still be visible upon the outer surface. In a short time a
little transparent point makes its appearance on the surface of the egg,
increases in size, and soon forms a little, projecting, transparent knob—
the pole-cell.

Recent investigations tend to show that while these changes are
taking place, one of the male cells penetrates the protoplasm of the egg
and unites with the germinative vesicle, which does not disappear, but
divides into two parts, one of which is pushed out of the egg and becomes
the pole-cell, while the other remains behind and becomes the
nucleus of the developing egg, but changes its appearance so that it is
no longer conspicuous. The egg now becomes pear-shaped, with the
pole-cell at the broad end of the pear, and this end soon divides into
two parts, so that the egg is now made of one large mass and two slightly
smaller ones, with the pole-cell between them.

The later history of the egg shows that at this early stage it is not
perfectly homogeneous, but that the protoplasm which is to give rise to
certain organs of the body has separated from that which is to give rise
to others.

If the egg were split vertically we should have what is to become
one-half of the body in one part and the other half in the other. The
single spherule at the small end of the pear is to give rise to the cells of
the digestive tract of the adult, and to those organs which are derived
from it, while the two spheres at the large end are to form the cells of
the outer wall of the body and the organs which are derived from it,
such as the gills, the lips and the mantle, and they are also to give rise to
the shell. The upper portion of the egg soon divides up into smaller
and smaller spherules, until we have a layer of small cells wrapped
around the greater part of the surface of a single large spherule. This
286 MARYLAND.

spherule now divides into a layer of cells, and at the same time the
egg, or rather the embryo, becomes flattened from above downward and
assumes the shape of a flat, oval disk. In a sectional view it is seen to
be made up of two layers of cells; an upper layer of small transparent
cells, which are to form the outer wall of the body, and which have been
formed by the division of the spherules which occupy the upper end of
the egg; and a lower layer of much larger, more opaque cells, which are
to become the walls of the stomach, and which have been formed by the
division of the large spherule.

This layer is seen, in a section, to be pushed in a little toward the
upper layer, so that the lower surface of the disk-shaped embryo is not
flat, but very slightly concave. This concavity is destined to grow deeper
until its edges almost meet, and it is the rudimentary digestive cavity.
A very short time after this stage has been reached, and usually within
from two to four hours after the eggs were fertilized, the embryo under-
goes a great change of shape.

A circular tuft of long hairs, or cilia, now makes its appearance at
what is thus marked as the interior end of the body, and as soon as these
‘hairs are formed they begin to swing backward and forward in such a
way as to constitute a swimming organ, which rows the little animal up
from the bottom to the surface of the water, where it swims around very
actively by the aid of its cilia. This stage of development, which is of
short duration, is of great importance in rearing the young oysters, for it
is the time when they can best be siphoned off into a separate vessel and
freed from the danger of being killed by the decay of any eggs which
may fail to develop. On one surface of the body at this stage there is a
well-marked groove, and when a specimen is found in a proper position
for examination, the opening into the digestive tract is found at the
bottom of this groove. The embryo now consists of a central cavity, the
digestive cavity, which opens externally by a small orifice, the primitive
mouth, and which is surrounded at all points, except at the mouth, by a
wall which is distinct from the outer wall of the body. Around the
primitive mouth these two layers are continuous with each other.

Soon asmall irregular plate makes its appearance on each side of
' the body. These little plates are the two valves of the shell, and in the
oyster they are separated from each other from the first, and make their
appearance independently.

Soon after they make their appearance the embryos cease to crowd
to the surface of the water, and sink to various depths, although they
continue to swim actively in all directions, and may still be found, occa-
sionally, close to the surface. The region of the body which carries the
cilia now becomes sharply defined, as a circular, projecting pad, the
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 287

velum, and this is present and is the organ of locomotion, at a much
later stage of development.

The two shells grow rapidly and seon become quite regular in out-
line, but for some time they are much smaller than the body, which
projects from between their edges, around their whole circumference,
except along a short area, the area of the hinge, upon the dorsal surface,
where the two valves are in contact.

The two shells continue to grow at their edges, and soon become
large enough to cover up and project a little beyond the surface of the
body, and at the same time muscular fibres make their appearance.
They are so arranged that they can draw the edge of the body and the
velum in between the edges of the shell. In this way that surface of
the body which lines the shell becomes converted into the two lobes of
the mantle, and between them a mantle cavity is formed, into which the
velum can be drawn when the animal is at rest. While these changes
have been going on over the outer surface of the body, other important
internal modifications have taken place.

Soon the outer wall of the body becomes pushed inward, to form the
mouth. The digestive cavity now becomes greatly enlarged, and cilia
make their appearance upon its walls; the mouth becomes connected
with the chamber which is thus formed, and which becomes the stomach,
and minute particles of food are drawn in by the cilia, and can now be
seen inside the stomach, where the vibration of the cilia keep them in
constant motion. Up to this time the animal has developed without
growing, and is scarcely larger than the unfertilized egg, but it now
begins to increase in size.

Soon after the mouth has become connected with the stomach this
becomes united to the body wall at another point a little behind the
mouth, and a second opening, the anus, is formed. The tract which
connects the anus with the stomach lengthens and forms the intestine,
and soon after, the sides of the stomach become folded off to form the
two halves of the liver, and various muscular fibres now make their
appearance within the body.

Such is the scientific history of the oyster-embryo. The practical
utility of the knowledge, however, to the most of us, is that the Ameri-
can oyster lays a vast number of eggs, but that they are exposed to
dangers so constant and innumerable, that under ordinary conditions few
ever come to life, or at any rate succeed in living long enough to anchor
themselves and take on the protection of shells. This is only another
example of a fact well known to naturalists. The number of eggs laid,
or even of individuals born, has very little to do with the abundance of
a species, which is determined mainly by the external conditions to
which it is exposed.
288 MARYLAND.

The young American oyster leads a peculiarly precarious life, since
it is first thrown out an unfertilized egg, and the chance that it will
immediately meet with a male cell must be very slight; yet if it does
not it will perish, for the sea-water soon destroys unimpregnated eggs.
Having by good chance become fertilized by meeting a male cell, the
next period of great danger is the short time during which the embryos
swarm to the surface of the water. They are so perfectly defenseless,
and so crowded together close to the surface, that a small fish, swimming
along with open mouth, might easily swallow, in a few mouthfuls, a
number equal to a year’s catch. They are also exposed to the weather,
and a sudden cold wind or fall in temperature, such as occurred several
times during our experiments, killed every embryo. The number which
are destroyed by cold rains and winds must be very great indeed. As
soon as they are safely past this stage, and scatter and swim at various
depths, their risks from accidents and enemies are greatly diminished.
Up to this point, which is reached in from twenty-four hours to six days,
there is no difficulty in rearing them in an aquarium, provided uniform
warm temperature be preserved.

Although we failed to keep the young oysters alive until they were
large enough to handle and plant, our experiments showed the possibility
of rearing them in unlimited numbers, so soon as some practical method
of preserving them alive during their infancy should be discovered.

The mature oyster is a sedentary animal with no power of locomo-
tion. It lies on its side, soldered to the bottom by the outside of the
deep spoon-shaped left shell, for which the flat right shell forms a
movable lid. Its gills are very complicated organs, adapted for drawing
into the fixed shell a steady current of water, and they pour into the
open mouth of the anima] a constant stream of food, so that eating goes
on as uninterruptedly as breathing, and is just as much beyond the
control of the animal. The adult oyster makes no efforts to obtain its
food, it has no way to escape from danger, and after its shell is entered it
is perfectly helpless and at the mercy of the smallest enemy. So far as
active aggressive life goes it is almost as inert and inanimate as a plant,
and its life is purely vegetative. This is the adult oyster. The young
oyster is very different. It is an active animal, swimming from place to
place. Its gills are not leaf-like, and they do not divide the mantle-
chamber into two parts. They are nothing but breathing organs, and
are simple, finger-like tentacles which hang down into the water. There
is no gill-current as there is in the adult, and the young oyster must find
its own food by swimming through the water. Its two shells are also
exactly alike, and therefore quite different from those of the adult.

The egg therefore tends, at first, to build up an animal which differs
greatly from the adult, in structure as well as in habits, and naturalists
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 289

believe that our modern oysters are the descendants of an ancient form
which was not sedentary, and the egg at first exhibits a decided tendency
to build up this ancestor rather than an oyster.

Some may ask how we know that the remote ancestors of the oyster
were different from modern oysters. This is a fair question, and we shall
try to give an outline of the reasons for this opinion, and perhaps an
illustration may help us.

When a Baltimorean visits New York or Savannah or Boston or
Chicago, he finds that while the people of these cities talk the same
language, it is with a difference. They all talk what they call English,
but when an Englishman comes among us he tells us that it is not
English; and it is quite clear toan American who visits England that the
people there do not know how to talk United States, although the differ-
ences are trivial ones, of accent and idiom, and do not in the least hinder
conversation.

If, however, we cross the narrow strip of water which separates
England from the German empire, we find a strange language, which at
first seems totally unfamiliar and unintelligible, but as our ears become
more accustomed to the strange sounds we find many which are not as
unintelligible as they seemed at first.

When a German talks of his’ vater, his mutter, his bruder, his
schwester, when he asks us to share his brod und butter, or offers us a
glas wasser ora glas bier, we need no dictionary to tell us what he means.

We know that the Americans and the English of to-day are descended
from common ancestors, only a few generations back, from whom we
have inherited their common language; and we know from literature
that this was not exactly the same as modern English or modern Amer-
ican, and history also tells us that still further back, Anglo-Saxon and
modern German had a common starting point. Philologists therefore
make use of the resemblances between languages to trace out their
origin; and whenever they find that two or three languages have a
common plan, a fundamental similarity of grammatical structure, they
believe that they are divergent modifications from a common starting-
point. In some cases printed language has preserved an actual history of
the process, but in other cases, where there is no such history, the student
of comparative grammar forms his conclusions by comparison; and,
even where the primitive language is lost, he is able to reconstruct it in
part, for he knows that it must have been characterized by all the
features which its derivatives have in common.

Now, animals exhibit resemblances of very much the same character
as those between languages; and when we find that several representatives
of a great group are constructed upon the same fundamental plan, we

infer, just as the philologist does, that they are the divergent descendants
19
290 MARYLAND.

of a common ancestor, from whom they have inherited the features
which they have in common.

The philologist is sometimes able to verify his conclusion by the
proofs which have been preserved in books and inscriptions, and he
regards this as evidence that, in other cases where no such record is
preserved, his results are equally trustworthy. ~

Occasionally the student of comparative anatomy, like the student
of comparative grammar, finds a fossil form which unites in itself the
characteristics of several widely separated descendants, and he is thus
enabled to test and to verify the conclusions which he has reached by
comparative study.

In this way, through the study of details too numerous and minute
to be described here, it can be shown that the oyster is descended from
a mollusc which was furnished with locomotor organs and sense organs,
and which wandered about in search of food, and had altogether a much
wider and more varied life than that of the oyster. Its gills were very
simple and were nothing but breathing organs, and the many uses which
they serve were provided for by distinct organs.

Very long ago, aS we measure time, but quite late in the history of
the mollusca, as the continental areas were elevated and became covered
with terrestrial vegetation, and fringed by bays and sounds of brackish
water, the oyster gradually became modified in such a way as to fit it for
life in these estuaries. Its locomotor organs and its organs for discover-
ing and capturing food were gradually lost, as it learned to feed upon the
microscopic life of the mud-flats. The gills then gradually became modi-
fied and fitted for maintaining the circulation of water, and for filtering
out the minute food particles it contains.

Food is most abundant on the muddy bottom; but in estuaries this is
so deep and soft that a locomotor animal would sink and smother in it,
so the oyster has gradually become converted into a fixture, and has
learned to fasten itself when young to something firm enough to keep it
out of the soft mud, but near enough to it to be within easy reach of the
vast supply of food which it affords. Asa fixed animal does not need to
have the two sides of its body balanced, the fixed oyster has become
one-sided, and has thus been still better fitted for its peculiar mode of
life.

These changes, while they are on the whole advantageous, since they
enable the oysters to avail themselves of inexhaustible supplies of food,
are not without disadvantage. ‘he oyster has become so perfectly
adapted fora life on those hard bodies which occur in the soft mud of
estuaries, that it cannot live anywhere else, and the young oysters which
do not find a proper home soon die. In shallow bays and sounds hard
substances are rare and far apart, and many young oysters must perish
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 291

from inability to find a proper resting place. To meet this danger the
oyster’s birth-rate has been enormously increased, so that among its
innumerable descendants some few may be able to find proper homes,
and may grow up to maturity in their turn.

THE ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF OYSTERS.

If the Chesapeake Bay is as rich in food for oysters as we have asserted,
and if the oyster multiplies at such a very high rate of increase, how
can our oyster supply be in any danger, or how can there be any need for
aid from man in order to maintain and develop the oyster-beds? At first
sight it does not seem possible that an animal which is protected from
enemies by a strong stony shell, and which is capable of giving rise to
several million eggs each season, can be in any danger of extermination;
and it seems as if the oyster ought to be able to hold its own in the
struggle for existence, and to increase and multiply in spite of adverse
circumstances.

We should rather expect to find the whole bottom of the bay paved
with oysters; and for many years, the statement that there is any need for
measures to prevent the destruction of our natural beds and the total
extermination of our oysters has been met with ridicule, and it has been
flatly contradicted by persons whose qualifications for expressing an
opinion would seem to be very great.

The history of the oyster-beds of Europe, and of those in many of
the Northern States, should have been enough to warn us, years ago, of
the need for the protection and development of our own beds, but our
people have been too confident of the inexhaustible vitality of our own
beds to heed the warning. So long as the consumption of oysters was
restricted to regions in the immediate vicinity of the bay, the number of
oysters which could be taken from each bed and put upon the market
each season was so small that it could be furnished without taxing the
beds; but more than ten years ago, November, 1879, the writer called
attention to the fact that the perfection of our facilities for packing and
transporting oysters had produced such a great demand, that the danger
of destroying our best beds was growing greater every day, and was keep-
ing pace with the growth of our population and the improvements in
transportation. For the instruction of those who believe that the supply
is sufficient for all demands, facts were cited from the history of other
countries.

No one who is familiar with the history of the oyster-beds of other
parts of the world can be surprised at the deterioration of our own beds.
Everywhere, in France, in Germany, in England, and in all northern coast
states, history tells the same story. In all waters where oysters are
found at all they are usually found in abundance, and in all these places
292 ‘ MARYLAND.

the residents supposed that their natural beds were inexhaustible until
they suddenly found that they were exhausted. The immense area
covered by our own beds has enabled them to withstand the attacks of
the oystermen for a much longer time, but all who are familiar with the
subject have long been aware that our present system can have only one
result—extermination.

In view of these facts, no one who appreciates the magnitude of the
oyster industry of the Chesapeake Bay can doubt that the protection of
our beds is a matter of vital importance, for it is quite clear that we
cannot trust to the natural fecundity of the oyster.

‘It is well known to naturalists that the number of individuals
which reach maturity in any species of animal or plant does not depend
on the number which are born. The common tapeworm lays hundreds
of millions of eggs in a very short time, yet it is comparatively rare.
The number of children born to each pair of human beings during their
lifetime of sixty of seventy years can be counted on the fingers, yet man
is the most abundant of the large mammals. The abundance of a species
is mainly determined by the external conditions of life, and the number
of individuals which are born has very little to do with it.

In the case of the oyster, the adult is well protected against the
attacks of most of the enemies which are found in our waters, by its
shell; and as its food is very abundant and is brought to it in an unfail-
ing supply by the water, it is pretty sure of a long life after it has
reached its adult form; but the life of the young oyster is very preca-
rious: that of the young American oyster peculiarly so, since it is
exposed to many enemies and accidents at the time when it is most
helpless. The oyster of Northern Europe lays from one to two million
eggs, while our oyster lays about ten times as many; but the protection
which is afforded to the young European oyster by the shell of the parent
more than balances the greater birth-rate of our oyster.

The most critical time in the life of the American oyster is undoubt-
edly the time when the egg is discharged into the water to be fertilized,
for the chance that each egg which floats out into the bay to shift for
itself will immediately meet with a male cell is very slight, and infinite
numbers of eggs are lost from this cause. The next period of great
danger comes as the little embryos begin to swim and crowd to the
surface of the water. They are so totally defenceless and are so close
together that a little fish swimming along with open mouth may swal-
low thousands in a few mouthfuls, and we have found that at this time a
sudden fall of temperature is fatal to them, and a cold rain may destroy
millions. As soon as they are safely past this stage and have scattered
and begin to swim at various depths, their danger from accidents and
enemies is greatly diminished, and their chance of reaching maturity
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 293

increases rapidly. Experiments which we carried on many years ago show
that there is no difficulty in rearing them up to this point in captivity,
and that in a very small aquarium millions of them may be safely car-
ried past the most precarious part of their lives and freed from their
greatest dangers.

Although the mortality at their early stages is so excessive, the
number of young oysters which pass through them in safety without
artificial help is very great, and if there were no other dangers or uncer-
tainties there would be no need of measures for their protection. As
they swim to and fro in the water they are carried to great distances by
the tides and currents, and they reach all parts of the region of water
within several miles of the parent bed. In a favorable season, any plant,
or bush, or piece of driftwood which floats near an oyster-bed becomes
covered with small oysters, although the nearest bed may be miles away;
and the fact that young oysters may be thus collected in any part of our
bay shows that they are distributed everywhere, and we might expect the
adults to have an equally general distribution. This is by no means the
case, and nothing can be farther from the truth than the idea that the
pottom of the oyster area is uniformly covered with oysters or ever has
been, although it is quite true that oysters may be reared artificially over
nearly the whole of it. The idea that it is only necessary to throw a
dredge overboard anywhere in the oyster area, and to drag it along the
bottom for a short distance in order to bring it up full, is totally
erroneous. Such a condition of things is quite within the reach of the
cultivator, but it never exists under natural influences alone. In this
country, as well as in Europe, the oysters are restricted to particular spots
called “banks,” or “beds,” or “rocks,” which are as well defined and
almost as sharply limited as the tracts of woodland in a farming country
—they are so well marked that they may be laid down on a chart, or they
may be staked out with buoys; and even in the best dredging grounds
they occupy such an inconsiderable part of the bottom that no one would
have much chance of finding oysters by promiscuous dredging, in igno-
rance of their location. Although the young are distributed every year
py the tides and currents over all parts of the bottom, the dredge seldom
brings up even a single oyster outside the limits of the beds, under
natural conditions.

The restriction of the oysters to certain points does not depend on
the supply of food, for this is everywhere abundant, nor to any great
degree upon the character of the water. It is almost entirely due to the
nature of the bottom.

The full-grown oyster is able to live and flourish in soft mud so long as
it is not buried too deeply for the open edge of the shell to reach above
the mud and draw a constant supply of water to its gills; but the oyster
294 MARYLAND.

embryo would be ingulfed and smothered at once if it were to fall on
such a bottom, and in order to have the least chance of survival it must
find some solid substance upon which to fasten itself, to preserve it from
sinking in the soft mud, or from being buried under it as it shifts with
wind and tide. In the deposits which form the soft bottom of sounds
and estuaries solid bodies of any sort rarely occur; and the so-called
“rocks” of the Chesapeake are not ledges or reefs, but accumulations of
oyster shells.

Examination of a Coast Survey chart of any part of the Chesapeake
Bay or of any of its tributaries will show that there is usually a mid-
channel, or line of deep water, where the bottom is generally soft and
where no oysters are met with, and on each side of this an area where
the bottom is hard, running from the edge of the channel to the shore.
This hard strip is the oyster area. It varies in width from a few yards
to several miles, and the depth of the water varies upon it from a few
feet to five or six fathoms, or even more. But there is usually a sudden
fall at the edge of the channel, where the oysters stop, and we pass to
soft bottom. The oyster bottom is pretty continuous, except opposite
the mouth of a tributary, where it is cut across by a deep, muddy channel.
The solid oyster rocks are usually situated along the outer edge of this
plateau, although in many cases they are found over its whole width
nearly up to low-tide mark, or beyond. As we pass south along the bays
and sounds of Virginia and North Carolina, we find that the hard borders
of the channel come nearer and nearer to the surface, until in the lower
part of North Carolina there is on each side of the channel a wide strip
of hard bottom, which is bare at low tide and covered with oysters up to
high-water mark, although the oysters are most abundant and largest at
edge of the deep water, where they form a well-defined reef. Jn our
own waters there is usually a strip along the shore where no oysters are
found, as the depth of water is not great enough to protect them in
winter. The whole of the hard belt is not uniformly covered with
oysters, but it is divided up into separate oyster rocks, between which
comparatively few can be found.

The boundaries of a natural rock which has not been changed by
dredging are usually well defined, and few oysters are to be found beyond
its limits. The oysters are crowded together so closely that they cannot
lie flat, but grow vertically upwards, side by side. They are long and
narrow, are fastened together in clusters,and are known as “coon” oysters.

When such a bed is carefully examined it will be found that most of
the rock is made up of empty shells; and a little examination will show
that the crowding is so great that the growth of one oyster prevents
adjacent ones from opening their shells, and thus crowds them out and
exterminates them. Examination shows, too, that nearly every one of
       

£Co Lithocousti

 

YOUNG OYSTERS ATTACHED TO A SHOE AND A BOULDER
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 295

the living oysters is fastened to the open or free end of a dead shell
which has thus been crowded to death; and it is not at all unusual to
find a pile of five or six shells thus united, showing that number two had
fastened, when small, to the open end of number one, thus raising itself
a little above the crowd. After number one was killed number two
continued to grow, and number three fastened itself to its shell, and so
on. Usually the oysters upon such a bed are small, but in some places
shells twelve or fourteen inches long are met with. The most significant
characteristic of a bed of this kind is the sharpness of its boundaries.
In regions where the oysters are never disturbed by man it is not unusual
to find a hard bottom, which extends along the edge of the shore for
miles, and is divided up into a number of oyster rocks, where the oysters
are so thick that most of them are crowded out and die long before they
are full-grown, and between these beds are areas where not a single
oyster can be found. The intervening area is perfectly adapted for the
oyster, and when a few bushels of shells are scattered upon it they are
soon covered with youns, and in a year or two a new oyster rock is estab-
lished upon them, but when they are left to themselves the rocks remain
sharply defined. What is the reason for this sharp limitation of a natural
bed? Those who know the oyster only in its adult condition may believe
that it is due to the absence of power of locomotion, and may hold that
the young oysters grew up among the old ones, just as young oak trees
grow up where the acorns fall from the branches. This cannot be the
true explanation, for the young oysters are swimming animals, and they
are discharged into the water in countless numbers, to be swept away to
creat distances by the currents. As they are too small to be seen at this
time without a microscope, it is impossible to trace their wanderings
directly, but is possible to show indirectly that they are carried to great
distances, and that the water for miles around the natural bed is full of
them. They serve as food for other marine animals, and when the
contents of the stomachs of these animals are carefully examined with
a microscope, the shells of the little oysters are often found in abund-
ance. While examining the contents of the stomach of lingula in this
way we have found hundreds of the shells of the young oysters in the
swimming stage of growth, although the specimens of lingula were
captured several miles from the nearest oyster-bed. As lingula is a fixed
animal the oysters must have been brought to the spot where the speci-
mens were found; and as lingula has no means of capturing its food, and
subsists upon what is swept within its reach by the water, the presence
of so many inside its stomach shows that the water must have contained
great numbers of them.

It is clear, then, that the sharp limitation of the area of a natural
oyster-bed is not due to the absence in the young of the power to reach
296 MARYLAND.

distant points. There is another proof of this, which is familiar to all
oystermen—the possibility of establishing new beds without trans-
planting any oysters.

We once observed an illustration of this. On part of a large mud-flat
which was bare at low tide there were no oysters, although there was a
natural bed upon the same flats, about half a mile away.

A wharf was built from high-tide mark across the flat out to the
edge of the channel, and the shells of all the oysters used in the house
were thrown on to the mud alongside the wharf. In the third summer
the flat in the vicinity of the wharf had become converted into an oyster-
bed, with a few medium-sized oysters and very great numbers of young,
and the bottom, which had been rather soft, had become quite hard; in
fact, the spot presented all the characteristics of a natural bed. Changes
of this sort are a matter of familiar experience, and it is plain that
something else besides the absence in the oyster of locomotor power
determines the size and position of a bed.

Now what is this something else ?

If the planting of dead shells will build up a new bed, may we not
conclude that a natural bed tends to retain its position and size because
the shells are there?

This conclusion may not seem to be very important, but we hope to
show that it is really of fundamental importance, and is essential to a
correct conception of the oyster problem.

Why should the presence of shells, which are dead and have no
power to multiply, have anything to do with the perpetuation of a bed?

We have already called attention to the fact that oysters are found
on the hard bottom on each side of the channel, while they are not
found in the soft mud of the channel itself, and it may at first seem as if
there were some direct connection between a hard bottom and the
presence of oysters, but the fact that no oysters are found upon the hard,
firm sand of the ocean beach shows that this is not the case. As a matter
of fact, they thrive best upon a soft bottom. They feed upon the floating
organic matter which is brought to them by the water, and this food is
most abundant where the water flows in a strong current over soft organic
mud. When the bottom is hard there is little food, and this little is not
favorably placed for diffusion by the water, while the water which flows
over soft mud is rich in food.

The young oysters which settle upon or near a soft bottom are
therefore most favorably placed for procuring food, but the young oyster
is very small—so small that a layer of mud as deep as the thickness of a
sheet of paper would smother and destroy it. Hence the young oysters
have the habit of fastening themselves to solid bodies, such as shells,
Lithocaustic Baltimore

 

YOUNG OYSTERS FASTENED TO SOLID BODIES.
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 297

rocks or piles, or floating bushes, and they are thus enabled to profit by
the soft bottoms without danger.

Owing to the peculiar shape of an oyster shell, some portions usually
project above the mud long after most of it is buried, and its rough
surface furnishes an excellent basis for attachment. It forms one of the
very best supports for the young, and a little swimming oyster is
especially fortunate if it finds a clean shell to adhere to when it is ready
to settle down for life. Then, too, the decaying and crumbling shells are
gradually dissolved in the sea water, and thus furnish the lime which
the growing oyster needs to build up its own shell. As long as the shell
is soft and thin, the danger from enemies is very great, and this danger
is greatly diminished as soon as the shell becomes thick enough to resist
attack. It is, therefore, very necessary that the shell should be built up
as rapidly as possible; and an abundant supply of food in general will be
of no advantage unless the supply of lime is great enough for the growth
of the shell to keep pace with the growth of the body. All sea water
contains lime in solution, but the percentage is, of course, greatest near
the sources of supply. It is well known that on coral reefs, which are
entirely made of lime, all kinds of shelled molluscs flourish in unusual
abundance, and have very strong and massive shells; and our common
land and fresh-water snails are much larger and more abundant in a
limestone region than in one where the supply of lime is scanty. In
such regions it is not unusual to find the snails gathered around old
decaying bones, to which they have resorted to obtain a supply of lime
for their shells.

From all these causes combined it results that a young oyster which
settles upon a natural oyster-bed has a much better chance of survival
than one which settles anywhere else; and a natural bed thus tends to
perpetuate itself and to persist as a definite, wel 1-defined area; but there
is still another reason. As the flood-tide rushes up the channels it stirs
up the fine mud which has been deposited in the deep water. The mud
is swept up on to the shallows along the shore, and if these are level,
much of the sediment settles there. If, however, the flat is covered by
groups of oysters, the ebbing tide does not flow off in an even sheet, but
is broken up into thousands of small channels, through which the
sediment flows down, to be swept out to sea.

The oyster-bed thus tends to keep itself clean; and for these various
reasons it follows that the more firmly established an oyster-bed is, the
better is its chance of perpetuation, since the young spat finds more
favorable conditions where there are oysters, or at least shells, already,
than it finds anywhere else.

Now, what is the practical importance of this description of a
natural bed?
298 MARYLAND.

It is this: Since a natural bed tends to remain permanent, because
of the presence of oyster shells, the shelling of bottoms where there are
no oysters furnishes us with a means for establishing new beds or for
increasing the area of the old ones.

The oyster dredgers state, with perfect truth, that by breaking up
the crowded clusters of oysters and by scattering the shells, the use of
the dredge tends to enlarge the oyster-beds. The sketch which we have
just given shows the truth of this assertion; but this is a very rough and
crude way of accomplishing this end, and we shall now give a description
of the means which have been employed in different places to accom-
plish the same result more efficiently and methodically.

Within recent years, much attention has been viven to the possi-
bility of increasing the supply of oysters by artificial means.

The oyster is well known to be enormously prolific, a single one
giving birth in one season to many million young, and it is obvious that
the annual supply would be enormously increased if all the young which
are born could be reared to maturity.

Unfortunately, this is not the case, and under a state of nature mil-
lions of oysters are born for each one which grows to maturity. Mobius
has shown that in Europe each oyster which is born has only one chance
in one million one hundred and forty-five thousand uf reaching maturity ;
we have shown that the chances of each American oyster are very much
less. :

One of the most important discoveries of the last fifty years is, that
it is quite possible to save many of these oysters by artificial means;
and experiments which have been carried on in France, as well as in
many parts of our own country, prove that this can be done, successfully
and economically, on a very large scale.

Soon after it is born the young oyster fastens itself to some solid
body. It is at first so small that it is smothered and killed at once if it
falls upon a muddy or slimy bottom, and its only chance for life is in
the discovery of some perfectly clean, hard body upon which to fasten.
Many young oysters are killed by accidents or enemies after they have
fastened themselves, but by far the greater number perish through
failure to find proper places for attachment; and the whole secret of
oyster culture is to furnish proper bodies for the attachment of the
young.

Many methods of doing this have been devised and employed, and
the possibility of in this way increasing the area and value of the
natural beds, and of building up new beds or restoring old ones, has been
proved.

At present no spat-collector seems to be better adapted for use in our
waters upon hard bottoms than oyster shells, and they are now the
cheapest collectors that can be used.
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 299

In order to serve this purpose the shells must be perfectly clean;
and as the old dead shells, which have lain for a long time upon the
oyster-beds are torn to pieces by the, boring sponge, and covered with
mud and slime, hydrioids, sea-weed and sponges, they are much less
effective than those which are placed in the water just before the spawn-
ing season.

In regions where there is no danger from frost, or where the young
growth is to be planted in deeper water before winter, the shells may be
deposited at or even above low-water mark, and in the sounds of North
Carolina, oysters thrive even at high-tide mark. The shells should be
deposited in the early summer—in June, July and August—in localities
where there is enough current to sweep the swimming young past them.
A hard bottom is to be preferred, but this method may be employed
with great advantage upon any soft bottoms which are near the surface.
In this case the shells should not be uniformly distributed, but placed in
piles or ridges. If these ridges are properly arranged with reference to
the direction of the current, they will produce secondary currents, and
will thus cause the soft mud to flow off between them. In this way any
bottom which is bare or nearly bare at low tide, and which is exposed to
the winds and waves, may in time be swept nearly clear of mud. Each
time the tide comes in the mud is stirred up and suspended in the water,
and as the tide ebbs this suspended matter is swept into the channels
between the obstructions and is carried away. Shells are very effective
as spat collectors. Shell wharves built out into deep water, so as to
catch and turn the passing current, are often found to be covered with
young oysters at all stages of growth and in good condition for planting.

The month of June is usually the best time for shelling the bottom.
The early part of the month for warm seasons and shallow water, and
the end of the month for cold springs, or for deep water. The quantity
of shells varies according to circumstances, but in most cases 1,000
bushels to the acre are not too many.

In shallow waters, where the shells are uncovered at low tide, they
may be examined, to pick out for distribution upon the planting grounds,
those which have young oysters upon them; but in deeper waters the
shells must be picked up with tongs or dredges, or they may be strung
upon wires and sunk in deep water on suitable frames.

The chief objection to the use of shells is that the method is a
wasteful one. It is not unusual for fifty ora hundred young oysters to
fasten upon one shell, and as the shells are too strong to be broken
without injuring the young oysters, these cannot be detached, and most
of them are soon crowded out and killed by the growth of the others.
The use of tiles, has therefore, been introduced in France to avoid this
loss.
300 MARYLAND. :

As tiles can be employed without difficulty in deep water, they are
well adapted for use in our bay. Those which are used in France are
much like a common drain-pipe sawed in two longitudinally. They
cannot be obtained in our markets at present, although they could be
made very cheaply if there were any demand for them. Each tile is
about eighteen inches or two feet long, six or eight inches wide, concave
on one side and convex on the other. The shape of the tile is impor-
tant, as nearly all the oysters fasten themselves upon the concave
surface. They adhere so firmly that it is difficult to detach them without
injury, and to avoid this the French oyster-breeders coat the tiles with a
thin whitewash, which can be scaled off with the young oysters when
these are large enough to be distributed upon the planting grounds.

The aim of all methods of oyster culture is to increase the number of
oysters, by furnishing proper substances for collecting the swimming
embryos at the time when they are ready to attach themselves. In our
waters, clean oyster shells are, in nearly all cases, the best substance to
use for the purpose, and there is hardly a spot anywhere in the bay which
might not be converted into an oyster-bed by this simple method of
cultivation, which has been shown, in all parts of the world where it has
been tried, to yield a very great return for the capital and labor employed.

There are few parts of the world which offer advantages for the
prosecution of this industry equal to those afforded by the bay, and there
is no other place where these advantages are presented on such a great
area of bottom. Our oyster grounds, of course, vary in value, according
to local conditions, and oyster culture is much more easy and profitable
in some places than in others; but, in course of time, even the soft,
muddy bottoms of the deepest channels may be brought under cultivation,
and there is scarcely a foot of the bottom where oysters cannot be reared.
The number of oysters which the bay might be made to furnish annually
is almost too great for computation, but we may very safely assert that
it is greater than the total number which have been taken from our
waters in the past.

All that is needed to make this great source of wealth available to
our people, is permission to engage in oyster culture. When the citizens
of Maryland demand the right to enter into this industry, and to reclaim
their property, which is now going to waste, a new era of prosperity will
be introduced, and the oyster area will be developed with great rapidity.

We have shown that, upon undredged natural beds, solid substances
become so thickly covered with young oysters that they have no room to
grow, so that most of them are soon crowded out and killed.

All localities are not equally favorable for the collection of spat, and
in the best places the amount which can be collected each season is very
much greater than the amount which is needed for stocking the bottom.
 

Fip.2. TILES COVERED WITH YOUNG OYSTER
THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 301

This excess can be profitably used as “seed” for stocking bottoms in
shallow, landlocked bays, rivers, and other places which are less fitted
for the collection of spat. While oyster-planting, as the sowing of these
“seed” oysters is called, does not result in the production of new oysters,
it is a very profitable industry, and it admits of great development.

The profits are smaller and the labor greater than those of oyster
culture in deep water, but oyster-planting requires little capital, and the
shores of the bay abound in proper spots for the prosecution of this
industry, the importance of which has long been recognized by our people.

There are many bottoms where there are no natural oysters, simply
because there is nothing upon the ground for the spat to catch upon, or
because they are not places to which the spat is carried; and there are
other bottoms which are so soft that a very young and small oyster would
be buried in the mud and killed, although larger ones are able to live and
thrive in the mud. In all these places oyster-planting may be carried on
with profit, for while it is true that the total number of oysters which
are born is not increased by planting, the number which reach maturity
is greatly increased; for the young oysters fasten themselves so close
together and in such great numbers that the growth of one involves, under
natural conditions, the crowding out and destruction of hundreds of
others, which might have been saved by scattering them over unoccupied
ground.

Planting also adds very greatly to the value of oysters, as they grow
more rapidly and are of better quality when thus scattered than they are
upon the natural beds. The culture of oysters in the deeper waters of the
bay, and the establishment of new oyster-beds by collecting the floating
spat upon clean shells and other proper substances, is very much more
important than the encouragement of oyster-planting; but it is easy to
see the very great advantages which we should derive from a thorough
system of planting. Deep-water cultivation cannot be undertaken to
advantage on a small scale, and it requires both capital and expensive
appliances; but oyster-planting can be carried on without any great
expense, and as success in it depends to a great degree upon constant,
intelligent supervision, small cultivators will always have the advantage
of those who attempt more extensive operations.

The most serious obstacle to the development of a great planting
industry in Maryland is the absence of all respect for private property
in oysters. In enclosed or artificial ponds oysters would be much more
safe from theft than in open water. Under our present system oysters
are often sacrificed or sold at unremunerative prices, because there is no
way to keep them in good condition until they can be sold to advantage.
A system of ponds after the French pattern, for the temporary storage
of oysters, would be a very profitable piece of property in the vicinity
302 MARYLAND.

of any large centre of the packing business; and the experience of the
French planters shows that the construction of storage ponds where the
oysters may be kept in good order, and where they will continue to grow
and to increase in value, isa very simple matter.

This industry has also the great advantage that it does not need
legislative protection. It can be put into practice at once by any one
who owns land which is suitable for the purpose; and our State contains
hundreds of acres of low, marshy land which is now private property,
although it is of little or no value to its owners. Small streams and
inlets which are not navigable, and which lie within the limits of private
land, may be converted into ponds like the French claires at very slight
expense; and with no more labor than what is required for ordinary
agriculture they could be made much more profitable than the best
farming land.

THE OYSTER. INDUSTRY.

One-fifth of the State of Maryland is covered by the waters of the
Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. This bay is the largest in the
United States ; and, running from north to south, it @ivides Maryland
into an eastern and a western portion. On the one side the waters of the
bay encroach on the land, breaking the “ Eastern Shore” up into many
bays, creeks and inlets; while the “ Western Shore” makes a compara-
tively straight line on the map.

The Marylander, however, does not regret the great tract of land
thus stolen from him by the waters, but recognizes in it his most
valuable inheritance. The waters covering this extensive area of 2,300
square miles bear on their surface, and contain hidden in their depthsa
great store of good food, which forms a very important addition to the
list of land products. Ducks, geese and other birds are shot along the
shores; while the many varieties of fish, the crabs, the terrapins and the
oysters offer conclusive proof as to the richness of life in the bay itself.

Of all the inhabitants of the Chesapeake, the oyster is undoubtedly
the most valuable to the State. On either side of the deep channel run-
ning the length of the bay, and at certain points in this channel there
are to be found, with areas varying much in size, what are known as
oyster “ banks,” “beds,” or “ rocks.” ‘These beds, as a rule, lie below low
water mark, in water less than forty feet deep. Further out in the
channel the bottom is usually too soft and muddy for oysters, hence they
appropriate the firmer ground of the shallows. In the bays, creeks and
river mouths, where the water varies in depth from two or three to thirty
feet, large beds have become established; while in the bay proper still
larger beds have arisen. The bed extending along the shore of Anne
Arundel county has been estimated to cover over twenty-eight square
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miles. Besides this great bed there are at least half a dozen, each of
half the size; while many others cover areas varying from two hundred
to ten or twelve acres. The total area occupied by oyster beds has been
estimated to be about one hundred and ninety-three square miles.

Long before white men came to America the Indians knew of
oysters and valued them highly. Tribes living along shore near the
beds depended largely on the oyster for their food supply. At certain
times during the year large parties were accustomed to collect, and after
gathering enough oysters to hold high carnival. The same practice was
common to tribes living on clams and other shell-fish, and our more
modern clam-bake is simply a survival of this old Indian custom. All
along the coast there are at certain points huge piles of shells now over-
grown with grass, which were heaped up at these annual feasts. The
Indians got their oysters by wading out and picking up those near the
shore, or by diving in deep water for them. When the white man came
he soon introduced more efficient methods. Tongs, and later, dredges,
were invented, and with the aid of these devices large numbers of
oysters could be obtained ina short time. At first, and for a long time,
the oyster trade was of very little importance. People living near
natural beds easily obtained all they needed for home use; but of course
in towns there early grew up a distinct class of oystermen, who made a
business of supplying consumers with oysters in the shell. As towns
sprang up along the Chesapeake, and as Baltimore became larger, the
demand for oysters increased, and the class of men who depended on the
oyster trade for a living grew larger and larger. During the early part
of the present century the natural beds of the more northern States
became exhausted by overworking, and a new phase of the industry
arose. Men came from Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New
Jersey and Delaware to the Chesapeake and bought young oysters to
transplant to beds prepared for them. These transplanted oysters throve
in their new homes and found a ready market, and in this way the
Chesapeake became a source of supply for the markets of the States just
mentioned. About 1834 a Connecticut man established in Baltimore the
first packing-house. Oysters were brought up from down the bay and
packed raw, to be sent as far as Pittsburg in wagons. This branch
of the business received a great impetus as the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad extended further and further west. It has steadily increased
up to the present time. Alongside of the packing trade there arose an
important industry in the canning and exportation of steamed oysters,
which to-day furnishes hundreds of inland places with a supply of this
most delicious of all mollusks. The development of these various
phases of the oyster industry, the increased facilities for transportation,
and the steady demand have made the immense natural beds of the
304 MARYLAND.

Chesapeake the very centre of the oyster world. While beds in other
waters have given way before the inroads of man, those of the Chesa-
peake, principally on account of their size and comparative immunity
from natural enemies, still hold out, and even support foreign beds with
seed oysters.

There are in Maryland waters two principal methods of obtaining
oysters from the beds. The first method, known as tonging, is confined
to beds in shallow water; while the second, that of dredging—called by
the oystermen “ drudging ”—is used principally in deep water. Most of
the boats used in tonging are small, only one, two, or three men being
needed to man a boat.

The Chesapeake canoe is the most characteristic tonging boat. This
is a peculiar model, formed from three dug-out logs joined together.
It is pointed at both ends, has a round bottom, no deck, and sails with
one or two “leg-of-mutton” sails and generally a jib. It is quite a sea-
worthy boat, from eighteen to twenty-five feet long, and will stand a
good deal of rough handling. Another very common tonging boat is the
batteau, which is flat-bottomed, built of boards, and usually sails with
one sail anda jib. The batteau is of about the same size as the canoe,
and these two, with one other kind, the “bug-eye”—sometimes called
“buck-eye”—make up a tonging fleet. There are various interpretations
of the name of this latter craft, of which, perhaps, that given by one of
the officers of the oyster navy may be interesting. He maintains that the
term arose from the ease with which the boat is handled; some such
phase as “turned in a bug’s eye,” being gradually abbreviated to the
term “bug-eye.” The bug-eye is a larger boat than the canoe, being
from twenty-five to sixty feet long, and is built of planks instead of
being dug out of logs. It is sharp at both ends, but, unlike a canoe, is
decked over. While a canoe carries two or at most three men, the
bug-eye being so much larger may carry five or six, and thus accomplish
more work. Across a tonging boat is placed a platform to be used in
culling. Most canoes and batteaux carry two pairs of tongs, while the
bug-eyes carry twice as many.

A pair of oyster tongs is essentially a pair of very heavily toothed
rakes, attached to long wooden handles so pivoted that when they are
brought together the teeth bite into each other. Above the teeth—
of which there are eight or ten—there is an iron basket-work arrange-
ment to hold what the teeth tear off. The handles of tongs vary in length
from seven to twenty-two feet, according to the depth of water in which
they are used. No oysters under two and a half inches long are lawfully
marketable; hence the necesssity of “culling,” which consists in sepa-
rating the larger oysters from undersized ones and empty shells which
come up in the tongs. The small oysters are returned to the water.
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THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 305

Watching a couple of men tonging in a canoe, you will see that they
divide the labor between them, one tonging while the other culls. The
tonger, seizing the handles of his tongs, allows the heavy irons to slip
down into the water until the handles stand up vertically before him.
Now by spreading the handles apart he opens the teeth, and after
closing and opening them again several times, until he feels that he has
a good hold on a bunch of oysters, he slowly raises the tongs and dumps
the catch on the culling-board. As soon as the board is full, the culler
picks up his hammer and begins rapidly to break up the clusters of
oysters, throwing the small ones overboard and the large ones into the
boat. After a time tonger and culler change places. When there are
three men in the boat, two tong while the third culls until the others
give him more oysters than he can handle, when one of the tongers
helps him.

A fleet of tongers at work isa very pretty and quite a lively sight.
Almost any clear day during the winter, if it be not too windy, tongers
may be seen busy from nine o’clock in the morning until five in the
evening.

The little boats are anchored over the bed for acres around, bobbing
up and down on the waves, their sails down and their crews busily
engaged with the tongs. The splash of the tongs, the chipping of the
culler’s hammer, an occasional call from boat to boat, or a snatch of a
song, with the active motions of the men, combine to form a cheerful
and lively scene. But there is a dark side to the picture. The freezing
water splashed up by the tongs, the handling of cold, wet oysters, the
severe muscular exertion of tonging and culling, all tend to make this
occupation one of great hardship. Only the hardiest can stand such a
rough life, and it has been said that “the death rate among oystermen as
compared with other trades is very high;” “ the injury to health from
exposure is such that few reach old age.” The risks and hardships
involved in this occupation have a very bad influence on the men as a
whole. Most of them have no higher aim than to get through the
winter months, during which tonging is allowed, with as little work as
possible. Being forced to stay in when the weather is bad, they take
holiday at all other times they can. The necessity of earning money
enough to live on is the only thing that keeps these people at work.
Reckless of the future, they only live for the moment, and most tongers
spend their earnings as soon as they get them. Hence they are proverb-
ially poor. Some of the men, however, work with great regularity, and
make a good living. During the summer months the law forbids oyster-
ing, and then many of the tongers becume fishermen, others catch crabs,
while some work on farms. Many own their own little houses, and

20
306 MARYLAND.

during the off months do no work except the little required to keep their
gardens cultivated.

Before considering dredging, a method of tonging occasionally used
should be mentioned—the taking of oysters with the “nippers.”
“ Nippers” are very much simplified tongs. They are merely two small
rakes with four or five long teeth each, fitted to handles which work
like those of the tongs. This instrument is used in calm water, where
the man in the boat can see the largest oysters on the bottom, and pick
them up one by one. The method is slow and difficult, and is not much
used.

The dredgers may be divided into two main classes; “dredgers”
proper, and “scrapers;” the only difference between the two being in the
size of the boats and dredges used. There is no special dredging vessel,
just as there is no special form of tonging boat. Any sloop or schooner
from five to seventy-five tons may be rigged up as a dredger. The
“oyster pungy,” however, is perhaps peculiar, and best adapted to the
needs of the dredger.

This isa schooner of about ten tons, with a deep Keel, steep sides,
and a flush deck. The last point is an advantage to the dredger, for
when a boat with a bulwark is used, this must be cut away on either
side, at the place where the dredge comes up. Fixed firmly to the deck
in this position there is an iron windlass, working by a crank, attached
to which is a long rope with the dredge fastened to the end. The dredge
is a heavy iron framework, to which is hung a bag made of iron rings.
Across the frame, at the mouth of the bag, there isa strong blade. In
the larger dredges this blade bears heavy teeth, while in smaller ones,
known as “scrapers,” the teeth are absent, a sharp edge taking their
place.

Scraping is done with the smaller boats of this class; generally
under ten tons, carrying about five men, and confining their operations to
comparatively shallow water. These boats seldom make any extended
trips, usually returning to port after a day’s work. The larger schooners
on the other hand carry twice as many men, and when starting off for a
trip take enough provisions for several days.

Dredging, like tonging, is anything but a pleasant, easy occupation ;
and the crew, white and colored, crowded in a small cabin reeking with
smoke, living on the coarsest fare, and exposed to rain and snow, cold
and ice, have a very hard time of it. When they reach the beds in deep
water they drop the dredge overboard, and at the saine time let the rope
run out behind by which the big iron bag is dragged along over the bed.
As the teeth of the blade across the mouth of the dredge catch the
ayster-shells, they tear off whole bunches and the bag is soon full.
After a time the vessel comes up somewhat into the wind, and the men
 

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THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 307

wind up the rope on the windlass, bringing the dredge alongside, and
gradually the heavy load is pulled up on deck and dumped. Since the
dredge, besides its own weight, holds one.and a-half to two and a-half
bushels of oysters, this, as may well be imagined, is no light task, but a
most back-breaking operation. As soon as the load is dumped all hands
“eull off,” the catch being thrown into the hold. Soon the dredges are
overboard again, and the schooner is off on another tack. The vessel
continues in this way tacking back and forth for the rest of the day,
always returning to the bed if carried beyond. The present laws require
the catch to be culled over the bed where caught, as the undergrown
oysters would soon be smothered if they should fall into the mud sur-
rounding the bed. Dredgers work in fleets of from two or three sail to
as many as sixty or more, and have their favorite beds; so that, in
sailing down the bay in the season, one sees fleets of such boats at
intervals along the shore from Baltimore to Crisfield. As with the
tongers, only the toughest and hardiest of men dare risk the hardships
of this life, which is even more laborious and trying than that of the
tongers. The past winter has furnished us with many examples of this.
Just after Christmas all the coves, bays, rivers and creeks were frozen
over with a covering of from three to four inches of ice, and hundreds
of tongers were held fast in port; most of the scrapers were also shut
off from work, the dredgers being the only class able to do much work,
because their ground lay in deep water. There was much suffering
among the tongers and scrapers from lack of employment at their busiest
season. The dredgers, though not prevented from work, did not fare
much better. Ropes, decks, ironwork, and the clothes of the men were
covered with frozen spray, and the usually hard work was rendered inany
times harder and more dangerous. In good weather, when the boats are
loaded, they can often take advantage of a fair breeze and make port,
which is Baltimore for most of them, in two or three days. During
January of this winter, however, in addition to all the usual hindrances
and hardships, the loaded boats were compelled to pay high prices—as
much as one hundred dollars a day—for a tow through the fields of ice,
which blocked the channel, and there was great risk that the cargo
would freeze in the hold.

Between the tongers and dredgers there is a long-standing feud,
causing the State no little trouble. The tongers claim the beds in
shallow water for themselves, to the exclusion of the dredgers, who
object to any such restriction, and accordingly whenever they can
outwit the State police force they run over into the tongers’ territory.
Within a comparatively recent period it was no unusual thing to see two
or three hundred dredgers at once violating the State’s laws. Every
captain had one or more repeating rifles, and was a veritable pirate, with
308 MARYLAND.

a crew completely under control and ready to face the officers of the law.
Several severe engagements took place, in which the police were treated
very roughly. At present there is little disturbance among the oyster-
men, but occasional outbreaks show clearly the need of more efficient
control of a class of men who do not hesitate to defy the law and
consider themselves the judges of their own rights. It is only by
constant vigilance that the oyster navy, commissioned by the State in
1868, manages to keep things comparatively quiet. The oyster navy
consists of fifteen boats—two steamers, each carrying a small cannon and
twelve repeating rifles, and thirteen sail, likewise well armed. The
sailboats are stationed all along the shores of the bay, each having its
particular beat, while the two steamers, besides keeping these local boats
to their duty, have important general work of their own. They must
enforce the culling laws, examine licenses—for each Maryland dredger or
scraper is numbered, and without the proper license none may work—
keep all foreign vessels off Maryland grounds, prevent dredgers from
encroaching on tongers, and see to it that the crews of dredging boats
are not abused by their captains. This last duty is one made neces-
sary by the brutal character of many of the captains, and by the
great ignorance and consequent servility of the crews. Besides these
unpleasant duties, however, the navy does much in a more direct way to
ameliorate the condition of the oystermen. During the cold weather,
when dredgers are often kept out of port by the ice, or prevented by the
same reason from going to work, the steamers of the navy break a way
for them and tow them through the ice. Destitute oystermen are also
sure to find a friend in the navy, and thus in many ways this force,
primarily intended to enforce the laws, exerts a kindly, fostering
influence. Such an influence, as it gains in strength, will make the navy
more efficient and more influential in promoting a better spirit in the
oystermen.

When an oyster boat is loaded, she makes all haste to port, and there
sells out to some packing establishment, canning house or commission
merchant. Most of the oysters taken are brought directly to Baltimore,
but a large number are sold further down the bay at the various towns
along the shores. Approaching an oyster town from the water, one is
immediately struck with the immense size of the shell heaps near the
wharves, and the peculiar long, low, wooden buildings, running out over
the water, with a fleet of sailboats near by. The number of oyster shells
in such a town is prodigious; they are seen everywhere, and there are
two or three places, like Crisfield, built on a foundation of shells.

In the winter months, during the oyster season, a visit to such a place
is very interesting; especially if, as was the case this last winter, the ice
has imprisoned three or four hundred tongers, dredgers and scrapers along
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THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 309

the wharves. Unless the freeze is a long one, though the fleet is laid up,
the packing houses can work without interruption, for they always keep
a supply of oysters on hand. The packing establishment is a collection
of low, wooden houses, built at the water’s edge, so that the boats may
unload easily. On one side is placed a large wooden shed for receiving
the oysters as the boats bring them in. This shed opens into a long, low
room, where the oysters are removed from their shells by the process
knownas “shucking,” and passed on into the packing-house. The oysters
are raised from the boat’s hold by horse-power, and wheeled in barrows
to the storage shed, where great piles of oysters—1,200 to 4,000 bushels—
are heaped up to serve as a supply for the next room. The shucking
room is the most interesting part of the whole establishment. From
end to end run two, three or four rows of tables, with broad aisles
between. At one side of the room is a stove, and at one end is a window,
opening into the packing-house. Usually the rooms are well lighted by
numerous large windows, and are quite comfortable places on a cold day.
The wooden tables are long, heavy affairs, and the shuckers stand in lines
in front of them, each in a separate stall, with a pile of oysters on the
table to the left, while a bucket is placed on the right, and on the floora
pile of oyster shells.

Men and women, boys and girls work side by side, standing in their
stalls all day long, and, as a rule, working pretty steadily, often under
the eye of an overseer. The process of “shucking” is extremely inter-
esting to watch, but very difficult to imitate without much practice.
There are two methods used in shucking; one with the hammer and
knife, while with the other only the knife is used. In this latter process,
known as “stabbing,” the shucker picks up an oyster with his left hand,
deftly inserts a thin-bladed knife between the shells, then with a turn of
the wrist and a twist of his knife he lands the oyster in the bucket on
his right, and throws the shells down on the floor beside him. The
whole operation is so quickly yet so accurately done that the observer is
confused and mystified.. It is only after close watching that one sees in
these apparently careless motions a series of distinct separate acts, so
nicely co-ordinated, that a good shucker works with the precision of a
machine. In the right hand is held the knife with a thin, pliant blade,
while on the other hand there is usually worn a padded glove with the
fingers cut off. An oyster is seized and held down on the table by the
left hand, with the broad end, popularly known as the mouth, directed to
the right. Next the knife-blade is skillfully slipped between the shells,
and with one quick motion the oyster is cut off from the lower shell.
The left hand now picks up the upper shell with the oyster attached, at
the same time turning it over. This motion is almost simultaneous with
the last, which separates the oyster from the lower valve, a turn of the
310 MARYLAND.

left wrist helping the knife and bringing the oyster uppermost at the same
time. The knife is now caught so as to leave the right forefinger free,
and as the blade slips, in the last motion, under the oyster, the forefinger
is laid upon it to hold it to the blade. Finally, by almost a single motion,
the oyster is tossed into the bucket from the knife, while the left hand
throws the shell to the floor. In this way most workers open about
twenty oysters a minute, and soon wear a groove in the table, where they
hold the rough shell in the first motion. The other method of shucking—
with the hammer—is quite different, and not so rapid. The hammer
breaks the mouth of the shell, which is held in the left hand, and then
it is an easy matter to insert the knife, which is taken up on laying down
the hammer. Now the oyster is picked up by the left hand and held,
while the knife cuts it from the upper shell, and at the same time
flings this off.

By the next motion the lower shell is removed and cast aside, the
oyster landing in the bucket. Formerly, instead of hammers, knives,
with heavy handles, were made, by which the shell was broken along
the edge; the knife was then reversed and used in cutting, as just
described. In some establishments each shucker has two buckets, one
for large, choice oysters, and the other for average sizes. As the piles of
shells grow around the shuckers, they are wheeled outside and dumped,
thus giving rise to the huge shell heaps seen all along the water-front of
an oyster town. The workers are kept supplied with oysters wheeled in
from the storage bins. The work is not apparently as hard as that of the
oystermen, but is still fatiguing and laborious, and the shuckers are
frequently compelled to stop work to warm their hands, which would
otherwise soon become numbed from handling cold oysters. The
shuckers are perhaps a better class than either the dredgers or tongers.
Many shuckers work pretty regularly, earning from $2.50 to $3.50 a day,
own their own little houses, and get along fairly well. The majority,
however, are poorly clothed, dirty, shiftless, and ignorant, simply work-
ing because compelled to do so; never aiming to better their condition.
On the Eastern Shore almost all the employés are negroes, and it would
be hard to find a more picturesquely shabby crowd. In spite of their
poverty and generally miserable condition, it is a real pleasure to see these
people at work. There seems to be a sort of fascination for them in the
act of shucking. As the work goes on, some one with a powerful voice
starts a negro hymn, and soon the whole room-full is singing with the
energy and fire of a camp-meeting. Singing seems to be a sort of com-
pensation to the poor shuckers, for their hard work and impoverished
state.

As soon as a shucker fills his bucket, he takes it to the window
which opens into the packing house. In the packing room, just under
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THE OYSTER AND THE OYSTER INDUSTRY. 311

this window, stands a large strainer, or colander of tin, as big around as a
tub. A man, whose special business it is, takes the bucket of oysters
from the shucker, and empties the contents on the strainer. Fresh
water is then run on to wash off small pieces of shell and dirt, together
with the natural liquor of the oysters. The oysters are scooped up into
a quart measure, and poured into large tubs of fresh water. A gallon of
such oysters is known as a “gallon dry measure”; and, as the shuckers
are paid by ‘dry measure,” it is to their interest to lose all the liquor
they can in shucking, A record is kept of every gallon handed through
the window; in some places the shuckers receiving a check for each
gallon as it is brought in. At the end of the day twenty cents is paid
for every gallon shucked, some of the workers making as much as $3.75.
After a good washing in the tubs, in which, in warm weather, large cakes
of ice are floating, the oysters are packed.

In towns down the bay the fresh oysters are simply fastened up in
barrels, half-barrels or kegs, and shipped by rail, the barrels having ice
in them.

In Baltimore wooden buckets and tin cans, packed in large cases
surrounded with ice, are chiefly used. When emptied by consumers, the
buckets and cans are usually returned to the packer.

Another method of shipment for distant points is found in the
steamed-oyster trade. Oysters are unloaded from the boats into little
cars of iron wicker-work, holding two or three bushels each, which run
out on the wharf near the steaming-house. When loaded, three of these
cars at a time are run into a long steam-box, in which they are shut up
and subjected toa high temperature for three or four minutes. When
sufficiently steamed the oysters are shucked, it being an easy matter to
remove them from the shells when dead and gaping open. They are
then put up in cans of various sizes, heated again, soldered up, and
finally heated a third time for a few minutes. After cooling, the cans
are labeled, packed and shipped all over the country.

The large canning and packing establishments in Baltimore often
have kilns connected with them, in which the shells are burnt to lime.
Fertilizing companies also burn great quantities of shells for the lime.
Besides this, shells are of use as ballast in boats, to fill in low land, etc.,
etc. The very important use of shells in forming new oyster beds is not
practiced in Maryland, since there is no such thing as artificial cultiva-
tion here.

The following extracts from the report of the United States Commis-
sioner uf Fish and Fisheries, Colonel Marshall McDonald, will give an
idea of the magnitude of Maryland’s greatest industry :

“The returns indicate that in 1891, 32,104 persons were directly
engaged in the industry; that the capital invested was $6,697,302, and
312 MARYLAND.

that the value to the fishermen of the oysters taken was $5,295,866.
Comparing these figures with the aggregate for the entire fishing interests
of the Coastal States of the United States, it is seen that the oyster
industry of Maryland gave employment to nearly one-fourth of the
persons engaged; represented nearly one-sixth of the capital invested,
and yielded more than one-seventh of the money returned.”

“Of the 32,104 persons directly engaged in the industry, 11,293 were
factory hands,” employed in the canning and packing houses. The
28,811 remaining were chiefly tongers and dredgers. There were, roughly
speaking, about 7,000 boats, tongers, dredgers and scrapers; 5,000 of
which were tongers. The total catch for 1891 is stated to have been
9,945,058 bushels, of which the dredgers took 5,475,725 bushels, while
the tongers are represented by 4,469,333 bushels.

From this short sketch of the most valuable interest of the State, it
is readily seen that if Nature unaided is so bountiful, when once modern
methods of artificial cultivation shall have been adopted, there will be a
vast increase in the production and a rich source of revenue to the State.
The ignorance and indifference of the oystermen to all but their own
immediate interests have hitherto had influence enough to thwart all
attempts at the introduction of improved methods, and a system of
regulations to prevent the depletion of the beds, such as other States
have adopted with the best results; but the eyes of the public are being
opened to the real state of affairs, and the magnitude of the interests
at stake, and there is good reason to hope that this great field of industry
and source of wealth will not much longer be mismanaged and destroyed.
CHAPTER IX.

COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION.

The history of Maryland commerce is as old as Maryland itself. It
begins two hundred and fifty years back, with a condition of absolute
dependence upon English shipping, and this dependence it was the
avowed policy of the mother country to establish and maintain. During
the early years of the Province, an English Order in Council provided
that “no tobacco or other production of the colonies should thenceforth
be carried into any foreign parts until they were first landed in England
and the duties paid.” The Navigation Act of 1651 further restricted
trade to English built ships, and for the next hundred years an uninter-
rupted series of restrictive measures combined to confirm the commercial
vassalage of Maryland. Agents were established by English merchants
at many of the old river towns of the Province, whither tobacco, securely
packed in hogsheads, was rolled from adjacent plantations—weighed,
paid for, and stowed aboard English bottoms waiting at the landing. In
1761 Maryland trade engaged one hundred and twenty vessels, with an
aggregate tonnage of 8,000 tons, of which only some thirty vessels, of a
total burthen of 1,300 tons, were owned in the Province. With the
events and consequences of the Revolutionary War, the situation under-
went radical changes. Commercial restrictions were thrown off, and
trade in the great staples of the State stimulated. Natural advantages
of location began to assert themselves; local accumulations of capital
led to independent purchase and direct shipment, and Maryland ports
rapidly assumed commercial prominence.

Between the close of the Revolutionary War and the outbreak of the
War of 1812, there was an extraordinary expansion of Baltimore trade.
Continental wars not only increased the demand for Maryland staples,
but largely diverted the West India trade to this safer port. The rise
and perfection of the “Baltimore Clipper” aided the opportunity, and
during the whole period of which we are speaking, Baltimore enjoyed
the chief part of European and West Indian commerce, together with no
inconsiderable share of the world’s carrying trade. The volume of
Maryland exports increased from $2,239,691 in 1791, to $5,811,380 in 1795,
to $9,151,939 in 1804, and to $14,298,984 in 1807. During the war of 1812,
314 MARYLAND.

the commerce of the State was largely suspended, but thereafter it
developed with renewed vigor.

Baltimore was the natural market for the agricultural products of
the interior and western country. Active communication had long been
maintained with this vast region; in early days by pack-horses, later by
long wagon trains that traversed the great northern turnpikes as far as
the Ohio River. The introduction of steamboats upon the navigable
waters of the West displaced this means of transportation. Improved
systems of communication had been established by New York and
Pennsylvania, and a deflection of trade to these centres was threatened.
Public-spirited citizens immediately began an agitation to supply the
need, and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company was incorporated in
1824 for the purpose of constructing a canal from tidewater on the
Potomac to the Olio River. Several years later, when estimates of the
enormous cost of the canal rendered its immediate completion improb-
able, a supplementary project was proposed—a railroad from Baltimore
across the mountains to the Ohio. In February, 1827, the first railroad
charter granted in the United States was given by the General Assembly
of Maryland to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The work of actual
construction was begun in the following year. In 1853 the road was
completed to the Ohio River, and in 1857 direct connection was secured
with St. Louis. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was opened in 1850 for
through navigation from Georgetown to Cumberland. These great
arteries form an organic part of the commercial history of Maryland.
They opened up a vast undeveloped region, and secured for the
metropolis of the State a large measure of the advantages suggested by
its natural location as a seaboard market and distributing depot for the
West.

Both trade and commerce suffered severely from the Civil War.
Communication with the South was completely cut off, and Western
trade temporarily diverted to other channels. But the causes of pros-
perity were suspended, not destroyed, and as the prostrate industrial life
of the country revived, the trade centres of the State emerged into
enhanced importance. The vigor and activity of those early days has
never waned. The commercial prosperity of Maryland is historical in
its growth, the product of unexampled natural advantages, and perma-
nent in its stability and strength.

BALTIMORE.

Baltimore is located at the head of navigation, on the Patapsco River,
thirteen miles above its entrance into the Chesapeake Bay, and one
hundred and seventy miles from the Atlantic Ocean, at Cape Henry. The
Patapsco River, from the city to the bay, is really anarm of that magnifi-
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 315

cent estuary, as the fluvial waters under this name terminate near the
southwestern boundaries of the city, from whence to its junction with
the bay, it forms a spacious tidal basin, averaging two miles in width,
with from 18 to 22 feet natural depth at mean low water. This location,
one hundred and seventy miles inland, connected with the Atlantic by
the wide and deep waters of the Chesapeake Bay, marked Baltimore in
the early days of the State as a natural point of transfer for the commerce
between the interior of the continent and foreign countries. From the
long-ago days, when swift privateers roamed the seas, and the “ Baltimore
Clipper” was the admiration of the nautical world, until now, Baltimore
has held a foremost place among Atlantic sea-ports. More, perhaps, to
natural location, than to any other single cause, is this due. The Patapsco
River offers bold water on both sides for many miles of frontage, as does
the Chesapeake Bay to its mouth. Elevated rolling lands slope down on
either hand to sandy beaches. The fluctuations of the water level, due
to the tidal movement (only about eighteen inches), are so slight that in
either bay or river, navigation is unhindered by the impeding currents so
often found at other ports. For the same reason no swinging or floating
stagings are necessary for the lading or discharge of cargoes or passengers,
nor expensive closed docks to keep vessels afloat at varying stages of the
tide. For seven miles on one side, and for over three miles on the other,
railways are in operation, by which every foot of water front can be
connected, at small cost, with any or all of the railway systems of the
country. In a word, no city on the Atlantic coast offers, by reason of
natural situation, facilities fur the extension of commercial business
superior to those presented by Baltimore.

Ship Channel. In the days when the commerce of the world was
borne by sailing vessels, and a ship of eight hundred tons was considered
a large one, the natural depth of water in the Patapsco was ample for all
the requirements of a commerce which spanned the Atlantic, embraced
both shores of the western hemisphere, and covered the waters of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans with the sails of Maryland ships. As, how-
ever, in answer to the demands of commerce and the requirements of the
most economic methods of ocean transport, the size and tonnage of
vessels steadily increased, until the coasting schooner exceeded in
tonnage the old Liverpool liners and Indiamen, and steamships of 4,000
tons burthen were classed among the smaller transports, it became
evident that if Baltimore was to maintain her commercial importance
the depth of water in the channels of the river must be increased by
dredging.

The first efforts in this direction were began forty years ago, the city,
State and federal governments acting in conjunction, and looked to the
opening of a channel twenty-one feet deep at the mouth of the river,
316 MARYLAND.

where the natural depth was not over eighteen feet at low water. With
large contributions from the city, added to the appropriations by the
government, this work of improvement has been steadily pushed forward
with ever increasing demands for increase of width and depth of waterway,
to meet increasing size and tonnage of vessels. The ship channel leading
to this port has now a least width of six hundred feet and a depth of
twenty-seven feet at mean low water, sufficient, at least for the present,
for the largest ocean steamers. It may safely be asserted that should
the necessity arise, additional width and depth will promptly be provided,
if necessary, by the city alone, whose contributions, heretofore, have
materially hastened the completion of the work.

Harbors. At the entrance to Baltimore harbor, the Patapsco River
divides into the northwest, southwest and middle branches. The north-
west branch pierces two and a half miles into the very heart of the
business portion of the city, affording miles of water front, within easy
reach of the main thoroughfares of the eastern’ and central sections.
The southwest and middle branches envelope the sonthern and south-
western sections, giving a long expanse of water front, in close proximity
to the lines of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The main harbor, or
that on the northwest branch, is surrounded by the older portions of the
city, and contains grain elevators, steamship piers, railroad terminals,
dry dock, floating docks and marine railways. This harbor has a water
front measured on the pier head line of six and a half miles, an area of
six hundred and thirty acres, and while leaving ample fairways for the
movement of vessels, furnishes ninety-six acres of anchorage grounds,
on which the least depth of water is nineteen feet. The whole of the
lower portion of the harbor, covering the elevators and steamship piers,
has a depth of twenty-seven feet at mean low water. The harbor along
the southwest and middle branches has, within the city limits, and
measured on the pier head line, a water front of five and a half miles,
and nearly as much more on the opposite banks, in the county. It
covers an area of thirteen hundred acres, and has channels of seventeen
feet depth at mean low water. The total water front within the city
limits, if fully improved, would furnish at least fifty miles of wharf
room, allowing docks of one hundred and fifty feet in width. In
addition to these commercial facilities within the city, there are nearly
ten miles of water front on the Patapsco, below the city, with railroads
in operation near it, on both sides of the river.

As the harbor of Baltimore is the receptacle for most of the drainage
of the city and an extensive area of back country, a large amount of
dredging is annually required to maintain the specified depths of water
in the various sections of the harbor. This work is done entirely by the
city, under the immediate direction of an unpaid Commission, known as
JYOWILIVE (LNIOd LSNDO1'°8 ‘SYOLVASTS GVOUTIVY “O 8 8

—

 

 

 

 
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 317

the Harbor Board, who also are conservators of the laws regulating the
construction and repair of wharves, and of all laws touching the general
preservation and maintenance of the harbor and the navigation of the
river and harbor.

Port Charges. There are, strictly speaking, no port charges at
Baltimore, except clearance, register and license fees, paid to the Federal
Government through the Collector of the Port. These are the same at
all ports of entry in the United States. What are ordinarily classed as
port charges—that is, cost of wharfage, stevedoring, tonnage, etc.,—
fluctuate from time to time, but always within reasonable limits. There
is, however, no charge for wharfage at elevators when grain is taken on,
and it is generally conceded that all incidental expenses of this kind are
lower in Baltimore than at any other Atlantic port.

Baltimore has not, however, become a great exporting centre and
distributing point by means of natural advantages alone. Local enterprise
and ready capital have provided ample means of communication and
unsurpassed facilities for the receipt and distribution of commodities to
the world’s markets. It is to the consideration of these that we now
naturally turn.

STEAMSHIP LINES.

Some twenty regular lines of steamers are engaged in trade between
Baltimore and important European and South American ports, in addition
to a large number of “tramp steamers” and several lines of sailing
vessels.

Of the regular steamship lines, the North German Lloyd has a service
of fine vessels between Baltimore, and Bremen and Southampton. Sailings
are weekly, and the passage is ordinarily made in twelve days. Passenger
travel has assumed large proportions on this line. The Allan Line,
between Baltimore and Liverpool, calling at Halifax, makes sailings
fortnightly, and in the summer season with more frequency. The fleet
consists of five vessels, fitted with all conveniences for passenger traffic.
The Johnston Line trades between this port and Liverpool and London,
and is particularly active in cattle, grain, cotton and lumber transportation.
The Lord Line has a bi-monthly service from Baltimore to Belfast and
Dublin. The Donaldson Line offers facilities to shippers to Glasgow;
thence to Scotland, Ireland and the northern parts of England. The
Atlantic Transport Line runs a large fleet of steamships between
Baltimore, and London and Swansea. The Neptune Line plies between
Baltimore and Rotterdam, as does also the Royal Netherlands Line, with
fortnightly sailings. The Bristol Channel Line sails monthly to Bristol,
and the Empire Line at similar intervals to Leith, Scotland. The Blue
318 MARYLAND.

Cross Line plies weekly between Baltimore and Havre. The Puritan Line
despatches steamers every ten days to Antwerp. The Pinkney-Furness
Line carries freight to various European ports; the Hooper Line, to
Liverpool, and the Hamburg-American Packet Company, to Hamburg.
The Earn Line has a series of vessels between Baltimore and Santiago-de-
Cuba, Cuba, with occasional voyages to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The
Hammonia Line carries freight from Baltimore to various Brazilian
ports.

The coast trade of Baltimore with northern and southern ports
has assumed large proportions and engages several important lines
of steamers equipped for passenger as well as freight traffic. The
Merchants’ and Miners’ Transportation Company maintain nine large
steamships with regular sailings to Norfolk, Boston, Savannah, and
Providence. The Bay Line has a series of fine steamers running nightly
to Norfolk, where important connections are made with the South. The
New York and Baltimore Transportation Company operate between
Baltimore and New York, and the Ericsson Line between Baltimore and
Philadelphia, by way of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. The
Richmond and York River Line has a fleet which runs to West Point
and Richmond, where connections are made with the Richmond and
Danville Railroad.

Trade with the bay and river ports of Maryland employs a whole
fleet of vessels. The principal companies engaged in this traffic are the
Eastern Shore Steamboat Company, Weems ‘Transportation Line, Mary-
land Steamboat Company, Chester River Steamboat Company, Sassafras
River Steamboat Company, Choptank Steamboat Company, Wheeler
Transportation Line, Maryland and Virginia Steamboat Company, Tol-
chester Steamboat Company and others. There are in all about fifty bay
steamers, ranging in tonnage from 250 to 800 tons, many with excellent
passenger facilities in addition to freight accommodations. During the
busy summer season they make daily trips, while in the winter months,
when the business is lighter, four trips per week suffice. In addition,
innumerable schooners, pungies, and bugeyes run throughout the year,
pringing a vast assortment of produce to Baltimore markets.

RAILROADS.

The advantages of inland location have been emphasized and
developed for Baltimore by the construction of direct lines of railroads,
placing the city in proximity, nearer by many miles than Northern
and Eastern rivals, to the great productive sections of the country. By
the shortest rail line, Baltimore is thus ninety-six miles nearer points
in the South than Philadelphia, one hundred and eighty nearer than
New York and four hundred and thirteen nearer than Boston. With
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 319

respect to Cincinnati, its advantages over these cities are respectively
seventy-four, one hundred and sixty-four and three hundred and thirty-
two miles, and in regard to other Western points they are even more
decided. The railroad facilities of Baltimore include five distinct
standard-gauge railroads and one narrow-gauge road, now being changed
to standard-gauge. The vantage ground upon which they place the
commercial interests of the city have been vividly described as follows:

“Baltimore stands with her face to the south, and with one hand
prepared to gather the products of nearly half of the United States and
to send them forward to other nations, and in return with the left hand
to bestow the peculiar products of the soil of Maryland and her sister
States upon those States whose climate will not allow the growth of such
luxuries. One iron finger runs almost due north, through the rich
farming lands of central Pennsylvania and southwestern New York,
until if touches the great lakes, with their ships loaded with grain.
Another stretches out into manufacturing Pittsburg, 328 miles distant,
the coal, coke, lumber, iron and other mineral lands of southwestern
Pennsylvania, western Maryland, West Virginia and Ohio, and away to
Chicago, 830 miles, the central point for the grain, hay, cattle and other
farm products of the great northwest, and the flour of St. Paul and
Minneapolis, 1,296 miles from the seaboard. The third finger beckons
to the stock-raisers of Kentucky and Tennessee, the active men of St.
Louis, 931 miles to the west, and of Kansas City, 1,213 miles away, and
bids them to turn towards Baltimore the rapidly-increasing shipments of
cattle and cereals from the empire of the southwest. The index finger
very appropriately follows the lines of the Appalachian system of
mountains, which, ranging from the southwest to the northeast, give an
outlet to Baltimore by the natural rift at Harper’s Ferry, whose immense
water-power, gradually being utilized, must bear tribute to this city.
Down through the beautiful, fertile and well-watered Shenandoah
Valley of Virginia the finger points, gathering in the profits from the
farm lands of the valley proper, the wood and minerals of the mountain
slopes, the coal and iron of the southwestern Virginia and southern West
Virginia hills with the cattle of their plains, piercing the pine and hard-
wood regions of western North Carolina and South Carolina, east Kentucky
and Tennessee, and finally touching the flourishing manufacturing and
industrial centres of the new south, Birmingham, Anniston, Ensley and
other towns and cities of Alabama, which have grown with the develop-
ment of its natural resources. The broad thumb covers a fertile section
embracing Richmond, Norfolk, Atlanta, Savannah and Charleston, and
some of the finest traveling country on the Atlantic slope, extending
from Norfolk to Florida.”
320 MARYLAND.

A few words of detail may be added to this summary:

The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is so intimately connected with the
commercial development of Baltimore as naturally to attract the first
consideration. Historically, the first railroad in the United States, it has
become, by extension and incorporation, one of the great trunk lines of
the country, forming an organic system of more than 3,000 miles. In one
direction, it extends to Philadelphia, thence by direct connection to New
York; in another, it penetrates the vast regions of the West, Southwest
and Northwest, through the States of Maryland, Pennsylvania, West
Virginia, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, to the waters of the Mississippi.
Connections at such important centres as Philadelphia, Washington,
Pittsburg, Wheeling, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis give direct access
to all sections of the country. The local tide-water terminals of the
system are situated in the main at Locust Point, and are planned on an
extensive scale. Several acres of ground are occupied by tracks and
freight houses, while a large water frontage and immense piers render
possible the transfer of freight from ocean steamers to cars, or vice versa,
with the utmost facility and economy. Two enormous grain elevators
for export delivery, located here, have a capacity of 1,500,000 and 1,800,000
bushels respectively. A third, for local traffic, situated near Camden
Station, has a capacity of 200,000 bushels. Massive piers are fitted for
immigrant traffic, and make it almost possible for the new arrival to step
from steamer to train. On the east side of the harbor are found
additional piers and large shifting yards. The central station of the
road is conveniently located on Camden near Howard street. Exit from
the city to eastern points has, up to the present time, involved ferriage
across the Patapsco River from Locust Point. This will be obviated by
the Belt Line tunnel, which pierces the heart of the city to its outskirts.
Plans have also been completed for the erection of a handsome central
passenger depot at Lombard and Liberty streets.

The Northern Central Railway serves to connect Baltimore with the
great Pennsylvania system, and, at the same time, affords a direct outlet
to the North. It penetrates the rich agricultural section of central
Pennsylvania and southwestern New York up to the great lakes, thus
pouring into Baltimore an enormous volume of corn and wheat for
export. Direct connection with the coal region of Pennsylvania brings
to the city a heavy tonnage of anthracite and bituminous coal. The
tide-water terminals of the road are located at Canton, and occupy
several acres of ground, with an extensive water front. Grain elevators
of large capacity, merchandise piers, immense docks and warehouses are
also situated here and provide admirable facilities for handling and
transferring ocean freight. The city terminals of the city are the Calvert
Street, President Street and Union stations. The general offices of the
FYOWILIVE NOLNVYD 98 ‘SYHOLVASTI S:ANYdWOD GVONTIVY VINVYATASNNAGd

 

 

 

 

 
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 321

road are located within a block of the main passenger station on Calvert
street. Close by are the chief inland freight stations, covering several
blocks. Two associated branches of the Pennsylvania system, the
Baltimore and Potomac, and the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Balti-
more, connect Baltimore respectively with Washington, and with
Philadelphia, New York and the East.

The Western Maryland Railroad is essentially a Baltimore road. Its
construction was made possible by municipal aid, and at the present
time it renders a large area of Western Maryland and the rich counties
of Southern Pennsylvania almost exclusively tributary to Baltimore.
The main line of the road extends west from Baltimore, through West-
minster to Hagerstown, then on to Williamsport on the line of the
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, to Cherry Run, West Virginia. Branches
extend to Gettysburg, Waynesboro’, Shippensburg, York and Chambersburg,
Pennsylvania. Direct connection with the Philadelphia and Reading
Railroad gives access on the one hand to Philadelphia and the coal
1egions of Pennsylvania, and with the Norfolk and Western on the other,
to the industrial centres of the South. The terminals of the road are
conveniently located in the eastern section of the city, with passenger
stations at Hillen, Union, Pennsylvania avenue and Fulton avenue
stations. The road holds a franchise from the city of Baltimore for an
extension through the city along Jones’ Falls to Locust Point, and the
erection of tidewater terminals. A

The Baltimore and Lehigh Railroad, originally a narrow-gauge road,
extends from Baltimore, through Baltimore and Harford counties and
Southern Pennsylvania, to York, Pennsylvania, a distance of seventy-five
miles. The region it penetrates is rich in agricultural and mineral
wealth, and capable of marked industrial development. A change to
standard gauge and the extension of the road to tidewater, to Colgate’s
Creek, with the erection of necessary terminals, are measures now in
course of completion. The passenger station of the road is on North
avenue.

The Annapolis and Baltimore Short Line Railroad, designated more
familiarly as “The Short Liue,”’ is a local road, thirty-three miles in
length, extending from Baltimore to the capital of the State, and passing
through a rich trucking section. The road employs the local terminals
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.

FOREIGN TRADE.

Baltimore has been active in foreign trade from its very foundation.
Before 1786 vessels entered and cleared at Annapolis and Joppa, but an
independent custom house was established in that year, and duties upon

local imports were thereafter collected here. In the century which has
21
322 MARYLAND.

since elapsed Baltimore has become the third largest exporting centre in
the country, being surpassed only by New York and New Orleans, the
latter holding second rank by virtue of its immense cotton trade. The
exports of the five leading cities in 1892 were as follows:

New York. .....-.. ccc cece nee Suidiin PEREGO sag a decor saad socentaners $377, 722,983
IN 6w? OTICATS ec ci cranmrmaidind Sar hd Gade Lup eae Mian Rita wha Nhe 107,684,127
BaltimORern jclceetetawewy 2hiccs ee taedaaen tier eed sala tne 93,126,389
Boston. coe. cskeiew bay sees Sti atyee Sib) wEkaeees Deka nae Maes 88,806,672
PHiUladel pia: hy wjcns ga va « pate Hak pee wee sa iets eee 60,315,880

The remarkable development of Baltimore’s foreign trade is even
more clearly indicated by a statement of its import and export values
during the last ten calendar years :

 

 

 

Year. Imports. Exports. Year. Imports. Exports.
1881... .............-] $16,278,946 | $55,779,461 || 1887... .......... $13,055,880 | $49,545,970
1882s sccvuns os cor as 14,658,006 | 48,500,798 || 1888 .............. 12,098,629 | 45,099,334
TSB3 scissors oe tea ee 12,308,392 | 50,085,814 }| 1889 ........ Sawin 15,409,234 | 62,077,610
VB QS ais. casioes Sob eanseni 12,090,261 | 43,488,457 || 1890 .............. 15,339,312 | 72,120,083
1885............. ..| 11,198,695 | 34,748,264 || 1801 .... «2.20... 18,270,000 | 79,475,175
PSB seciatine. senile itis 11,785,113 | 46,810,870 |) 1892 .............. 14,258,575 | 93,126,389

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The chief articles of export are corn, wheat, flour, cattle, tobacco,
provisions and copper. Importing activity centres about coffee, pine-
apples, cocoanuts, bananas, chemicals, tin plate and iron ore. The
amounts, values and direction of imports and exports for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1892, as compared with those of the preceding year, are
given in the following tables:
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION.

EXPORTS.

*

July 1, 90, to June 30, ’91.

323

July 1, 91, to June 30, °92.

 

 

    
    
 
   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit of
ARTICLES. Quantity.
Quantity. Values. Quantity. Values.
Cattleiosssiccnrconiiean aed cs ciel ann dae sanardet 17,118 6,450,270 63,436 5,272,208
Breadstuffs—
38,753, 967 8,824,476 27,858,840 22,262,308
2,360,768 12) 310,787 3) 251, 612 16,997,379
4,389,183 2) 547, 850 18, 625, 755 9} 664, TAY
430 "280 123/937 45,087
alsnnas tied Cees lesis, vedwaees 1,161,901 1,182,073
era aNad cae net[eeeeee cee ee ee 3,092,819 92,760
oe 16,834 58,916 47,265 143) 841
r ys
Tallow ....... -| Pounds.. 22,729,701 1,123,941 27,843,389 1,396,163
Beef, canned.. -| Pounds.. 33,279,638 3,044,404 28,100,260 3,040,413
Beef, £16 s.eis:eiis bead ca scolar ecdaans Pounds.... 8,012,360 637,470 5,795,750 550,581
Beef, salted@.......ccoseveee Pounds.... 8,145,225 469,391 6,539,512 400,545
BA COD ies sccse'astesnenvere one ticles Pounds.... 15,652,270 1,197,266 8,524,530 695,977
Haims). ios). saaseie 3 sia-ateins Sammie 4 Pounds.. 5,578,126 540,202 3,623,052 368,467
Butter sisie ca svaceicinvaiar aisce navies so Pounds.. 95,205 11,966 68,728 8,506
POrk g2 a cess 4 cores aeras vy Pounds.. 10,350,301 568, 803 9,203,630 555,653
CH ECBO ia sia ie: itvs sisi nes ak otars jesse’ sie Pounds.. 748,925 91, TW4 193,004 28,526
Lard warned canine’ sw ate Pounds. . 63,904,789 4,702,446 67, 528) 540 5,349,898
Fruit, canned.............. POUD AB (assists age fabevessiare syenges asics 18,068) | acd siacrs so0se gare 27,753
Apples, dried......... -| Pounds.. 602,207 28,415 3,878,365 338,504
Vegetables, canned... sof POUNGB 6 ssne sa] sie swiae sie sei eie sie O15 028! encase on uae 73,917
Oysters, canned..... of OURS: wio5sie nici asia sargai saves sroiesese 42 B90). iss. saree comin’ tess 53,305
j GIUCOBE iia says a einsis on cares ie Pounds 6,624,247 157,930 2,967,639 81, 3664
ils—
QHO w:s dansaeuseds tose shares 4,863,748 633,819 7,627,921 771,646
BIBD g.:2-c8 seis 145,790 OO, VA | asacarsastice-avenge stelete 2) cglahewhe ah tyorereasdawe
Muminating 14,708,753 739,369 10,599,399 417,810
Lubricating. 821,274 107,194 1,091,105 139,545
Cottonseed ..... 196, 600 82,935 1,610,495 495,462
é Lard 5 icisieces sleds edie 2 psi ewe ote 262; 419 129,427 145,281 76,918
ottons—
*Sea Island...............- 413,094 TAO BTS! levcieutee ere waren |< tiech ected se ce
FO ther COLO: 06.0. viveciaee wie 87,193,597 8,649,075 | $138,592,509 11,933,192
Cloth, uncolored 203,468 36,421 é 80,777
sf Cloth, colored............+ 20,500 2,978 66,415 9,554
obacco—
GAL ars siasiciaves ais ieee uate ate 48,861,557 3,803,979 55,905,439 4,152,003
ee i aus tenes are catinadataqaceraToncayi aad Pounds.. ce oe 8,233,421 139,580
HOSTS oui 3 vinapee nears aie ass DVT RL' ess eelarscaigus Yale deere ede sale
deode—
Timothy sos6 ees5 cees yee ve 2,318,756 108,485 2,022,392 92,804
8 CLOVER is escsis cca iors sisres eines ois 9,507,872 688,280 7,873,963 643,227
undries—
Starch sacideisingi toca 4,630,860 207,213 7,286,460 230,689
Oil cake 58,531,380 840,838 69,304,801 1,027,877
Rosin 182,275 542,185 111,342 195,100
Leather 37,769 18,468 9,758 8,824
Copper ma 17,618 3,467,587 19,989 2,718, 767
Paraffine wax......... 3, 198,959 143,73 2,781,509 155,028
Bark SXtrac bis sic. svweyeediescalllnw ssoracsciaraiaxcinci oie clhase> Goa OUsEe He 155,798" | deate-y everscnetess oie 128,664
Coal, bituminous 106,366 282,753 92,385 251,642
wooeeet ingots ...........-+ 3,367, 628 426,849 11,806,294 1,467,288
‘iskey—
Rye. : Maemen ing Atnahio asa as 17,691 22,767 101,319 88,472
Bourbon ........ see. eeeeee Gallons ....... 23,182 22,372 523,016 424,511
an ae 36,413 1,109,449
STL ia sate staves a esata 59,370
414,029 Joo 2997151
*Number of bales of Sea Island cotton, 1,133.
+Number of bales of other cotton, 176,712.

tNumber of bales of other cotton, 281, 299,
324

MARYLAND.

IMPORTS.

 

July 1, ’90, to June 30, ’91.

July 1, 91, to June 30, ’92.

 

 

 

 

  
 

 
 

 

 

 

     
  
 
  
 
  
 
  
  
  

   

 

 

 

 

A Unit of
RTICLES. Quantity.
Quantity. Values. Quantity. Values.
474,544 1,061,587 421,712 1,177,833
6,665 280,381 16,249 412,295
53 1,923 51 1,682
Steel hoops..........0.0065 POUNAS: s esac cise Heng oe soos coal xiov gaan s ap veil yesie ele else eee |e ee oe eee
Steel ingots............656. Pounds 2S 4,943,130 37,288 34,789 3,099
Taggers iron.. Pounds.. ..... 610,114 15,121 3,098,334 73,587
Tin-plates .............006- Pounds 144,224,644 5,987,412 52,004,521 1,466,901
Chemicals—
Lime, chloride of........... Pounds........ 5,061,386 69,632 8,063,145 136,047
Potash, muriate of......... Pounds 18,657,186 204,622 13,840,848 207,109
Soda, nitrate..............4 Pounds 12,304,801 209,279 13,498,603 151,093
Soda, caustic...........0068 Pounds. 2,743,349 76,153 2,866,806 84,291
Soda, ash..........eeee sees Pounds 51,455,852 748,591 57,463,288 715, 824
Salt CAKES iis ies exes sisiarale ene Tons 6,33 70,796 6,076 73,588
Sulphur, crude............. LODE coc wend na 9,339 247,324 9,981 263,298
Fruits and Nuts—
QOL BIB je ac cower can ts 162,082
AV °0GS | scree aides ate olarivs 5 196,967
TD6:G1% | oars siecce cases 201,331
BOOTS: | tes cans caee.s 10,748
14 748) Vide wrote dees 36,623
Pounds 28,366,682 5,446,578 17,793,448 3,608,610
.| Pounds 774,981 20,282 1,534,062 29,782
.| Pounds. . 8,507,354 151,882 7,072,750 115,072
Pounds. . 27,387,716 43,420 23,242,477 31,346
Pounds.... 341,846 32,822 423,960 31,784
Pounds.... 134,406 34,877 162,580 33,444
Pounds.... 198,706 32,854 180,600 29,823
SUR s6 ssw ete eevee aaa Pounds.... 42,271,097 1,319,603 15,599,263 485,331
DUONG SOS cas saw basa stem Oe waray Gallons 7,289 LO;O0F | eiais-rerare tardies ofeisrers auras caw nee
Textiles—
Cloth, cotton.............. Sq. Yards...... 117,186 16,717 167,877 21,101
Cloth, wooletcacsswesen seen Pounds........ 130,938 138,832 151,534 150,118
Wool dress goods.......... Sq. Yards.. 561,002 180,656 215,677 44,386
BUT LAP Stores ina lbse avaig nisie's: ord ois Gs YArdeessc ic slasere neve vnne BL O41. jen worden chenes 102,348
Manufacture of flax........ 87,908 |... ..seeeeeee 136,431
Sundries—
DUAUO ad viaes oneness tne ee 48,775 1,087 16,280
Cement.... 163,589 61,461,278 205,844
Asphaltum .. aos{ POUNGS......00[c cree cececscnferesenrcsecace 700 | 816
TICOPICE TOO fin cece ces ast 115,850 11,702,700 196,290
LAs 6 0G sie sue be c5s ater tcrrere ois evell, POUNGS) vic ccc save james s sees Aaah ltemaneaens Nigel Sse eea sree toed te Hea anne mane cye
FUE DEUCE occ: 2-e:s:aiecese ace esnidiele 5,465 2,987 | 14,932
China, white... ........... 133,820 [.... cseeeeeee 138,160
China, decorated........... 171,595 |......-. ee eee | 129,742
Toys and dolls............. 188,279 hss sx is-x Side a : 275,201
Tobacco— |
ToC AL aisiaieieictsa-gea isinis aseracnnerpeovaee 333,005 51,200 352,804 | 78,748
CiSaTs’ vas esis axsineie & see 4,275 16,581 3,960 | 18,564
Liquors— |
Malt liquor (bottled)....... 17,515 17,083 15,931 | 16,046
Wine in casks ............. 28,761 23,744 24,832 20,946
Wine in bottles............ 2,993 10,621 2,522 | 16,317
Brandy ........ .. é 4,577 9,742 2,795 | 7,525
American Whiskey cit Grad lOM8t5 torcvacdee:silin sie see ae Sais, aveenss | tine BRT ets allie armies hoes SG lacie: eikaee ben bia spare aie
Spirits, distilled Gallons ... 15,134 21,061 66,905 114,606
Spirits, all others.......... Gallons ....... 5,455 2,806 10,010 | 4,095

 
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION.

DIRECTION.

325

 

COUNTRIES.

VaLueEs or Imports.

VALUES OF Exports.

 

 

  
   
   
  
  
  
 
 
   
  

 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

July 1, 1890, | July 1, 1891, || July 1, 1890, | July 1, 1891,
to to to to
June 30, 1891.|June 30, 1892.||\June 30, 1891./June 30, 1892.
Azores or Madeira Islands ...............266- 282
Austria Hungary .........005 reeeee 24,346
Other African PossesslOUs «144 exes sseweaxnes|a ves ena eae ou ee
Bel SVU ED seis cite warns ois Sele. 0ie.50 Wa weie'siee’s 81,789 5 5,934,458
Biagio sey oe da Saisie. os 4 dase ¥Sas-2 bes 5,452,031 3,606,093 8,696,565 2,387,016
Britisb West Indies.......-.......-..- ; 86,48 34,813
«East Indies
“Guiana
WH news enn <x
OU aiesse sets oanie Wad ee Ree Oe mE KOR
Canary Islands........ ...escee sevens
11S «bisa ¢ Novia 3 seus die oumlarsioye asiais seers Ss
..S, CO tas x nee evn ae reas meee dace
Dutch West Indies..............0.200-
Danish West Indies...............045.
Denmark’, .wiacscexavsind cose as ara Sew ee
England 8,857,275 4,143,999 32,776,226 5
BIB CG ei iran tones sau see Baws bawea eR 101,403 91,08L 3,734,660 11,522,851
French Possessions in Africa..........sseeee bese eee seen eee s2O4 |loic scieeinvea cena o| ecient s waite ne aa
ECAC WE ABC ii cs 62k oe imedk cde wna sew da weawesemesenels eG fanes rene 43,376 58,329
Germany’ siecie sivisign “aisiave op citinieceise Bete atid 1,497, 989 1,754,374 8,766,793 15,492,283
ee eave Caawhinden Hae GEA ReeaMERE 6 3,5
ONE KOUg s ssccis <aiesss ara wielsiat see iaraie e's
Liberia wow : ice Acasa ae dk ee ale meee ie
TEGLY cue soee Sas oes Eure RRA eee
Treland
Japan
Mexicdees os
DRO C 0 os oa ce a de ce on Sw Bend nie gs iw
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick... ..
New Foundland and Labrador.........
POPUP al ccs soar esa Neves ya cad sl sos se
PUCLtOVRACO visits 2% ore Wait wioieiniesinisiele'oid ale
Russia on the Baltic Rta. cvs ssaeecuss
« Black Sea.. ....ssse00s
Sais nia: Sfaitatn’ sins [et 40S tBPE SSLGaNy cnleaRace VRS a ; ‘
COb ADs case cars ae nin dle choles aidia diss atergiene 132,036 141,254 ‘
Sweden and NOMvay. es snsaew sicesanes 39,806 31,731 12,500 242,078
SVUCOANG ses rwds vane vere eas eee es
Turkey i In ASTD. is:3.0. sieves nates sencasd Jase race
os Europe. .
Druguay.icecescscs
Venerela. onc axa nacre tekeveweraiads

Hawaiian Islands .

 

 

 

20,555,687

18,418,253

 

 

64,349,787

 

98, 796,856

 

 
326 MARYLAND.

Grain. For many years Baltimore has been an important grain
exporting port, and at the present time its cereal trade is exceeded by
only one port on the Atlantic coast. The natural location of the city
with respect to the interior makes it the nearest point of export to central
Ohio and the central valley of the Mississippi. This involves a much
shorter haul, and naturally results in a decided preference for Baltimore
over other seaboard cities, by grain shippers from the southern and
middle West. The annual receipts average about 30,000,000 bushels,
although in 1892 the enormous aggregate of 50,794,541 was reached. The
bulk of this is drawn from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Iowa,
Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska. During the winter months, when the
great lakes and the Erie Canal are closed, the area under tribute is
extended far into the Northwest. The heaviest exports are to Great
Britain, Germany, Holland, Denmark and Belgium. Seven storage
elevators and five floating transfer elevators provide ample facilities for
the prompt receipt and rapid distribution of grain. The storage elevators
have a capacity of 5,850,000 bushels. The transfer elevators can transfer
21,000 bushels per hour. The storage and delivery charges for a period
of ten days are one and one-quarter cents per bushel for grain received
from cars, and one and one-half cents when received from vessels. An
efficient inspection department, with a chief inspector at its head,
inspects and grades all grain arriving at public store-houses. The
administration of the department is vested in a bureau of inspection,
composed of the president of the Corn and Flour Exchange and the
chairman of the wheat and corn committees. The inspection charges
are twenty-five cents per car, and five cents per hundred bushels when
received by vessel and delivered according to grade. The supply of flour
is drawn from the West—Illinois, Indiana and Minnesota—and, in a less
degree, from city mills. Of the 3,732,150 barrels forming the aggregate
receipts for 1892, 3,055,458 barrels came by rail and 499,989 from city
mills. Exportations are principally to Brazil, Great Britain and the
West Indies. The development of the trade is seen in the following
table:
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION.

s

RECEIPTS OF GRAIN.

327

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLOVER
Yuars, | WHEAT. CORN. OATS. RYE. BARLEY. | MALT. |AND TIMO-| TOTAL, | FLOUR
bus. bus. bus. bus. bus. bus. (THY SEED. bus. bbls.
bus. |
1892 | 17,571,332) 20,631,527) 2,185,676 | 922,685) 375,766).... ... .| 107,555 | 50,794,541) 3,732,150
1891 | 18,743,394} 6,928 096} 1,687,112 | 1,206,813) 149,149] 150,389 89,942 | 28,954,895) 3,099,599
1890 6,378,638) 21,093,894) 2,556,630 | 469,880] 288,036] 484,141) 258,880 | 31,530,049) 3,588,937
1889 6,889,432) 18,354,018} 1,969,916 | 260,800) 628,395].......... 117,196 | 28,219,257] 3,189,572
1888 7,004,443) 6,943,839, 2,110,028 | 200,863 | +446,751).......... 120,251 | 16,825,675} 3,015,648
1887 | 13,150,486) 9,126,699} 1,810,280} 111,648] 493,479) 333,929] 111,482 | 25,138,003) 3,161,263
1886 | 12,310,534) 15,099,869) 1,809,258 | 247,454; 422,869) 205,587 |..........- 30,095,571] 1,928,194
1885 8,414,114) 15,948,828] 1,801,794 | 293,296] 424,946] 266,100]....... .. 27,149,078] 1,589,063
1884 | 17,756,630; 7,093,051} 1,660,902) 608,639] 980,141) 218,695].......... 27,718,058] 1,200,345
1883 | 17,146,432! 11,779,638) 1,192,462] 207,483; 308,899] 131,407].......... 30,765, 821| 1,158,380
1882 | 17,898,569] 3,401,308! 1,041,743 22,770,461| 1,227,264
1881 | 20,933,255) 15,486,884) 935,616 37,867,054) 1,248,257
1880 | 36,414,393) 16,590,291] 1,172,487 54,722,872) 1,378,587
1879 | 34,634,426] 23,162,986] 1,616,927 i 59,827,977) 1,833,232
1878 | 22,017,120) 17,907,108; 1,052,046 350,000 - 41,035,905) 1,412,652
1877 7,331,540) 21,212,399] 831,182 os + -| 29,491,810) 1,171,248
1876 8,945,247) 24,684,230} 810,212 -| 29,551,849] 1,389,538
1875 4,409,670, 9,567,141) 977,514 -| 15,028,854] 1,391,843
1874 6,889,834 9,355,467] 1,139,216 17,003,065} 1,560,997
1873 2,810,917, 8,330,449) 1,255,072 12,496,957) 1,312,612
1872 2,456,100) 9,045,465) 1,959,161 13,551,664 1,175,967
1871 4,076,017! 5,785,921) 1,833,409 11,784,303)..........

 

 

 

+Includes Malt.

EXPORTS OF GRAIN.

 

 

  

 

CLOVER

YEARS WHEAT. CORN. OATS. RYE. BARLEY. |AND TIMO-. TOTAL. FLOUR.

‘ bus. bus. bus. bus. bus. |THY SEED. bus. bbls.

bus.

1892 | 16,661,559 | 18,995,907 172,271 740,670 26,785 | 107,463 | 36,704,455 | 3,661,623
1891 | 16,074,292 4,096,234 546 COG DUT ts pers oes 224,064 | 21,191,713 | 2,703,715
1890 | 4,817,614 | 18,854,951 617,053 41,900 17,847 | 229,958 | 24,579,323 | 2,624,282
1889 , 4,507,165 | 16,617,177 THUS les ewan sas hl eer oes 21,256,362 | 2,332,805
1888 | 4,161,129 4,419,977 DjOT0! | |arsie ewias aces 42 | 187,453 8,724,271 | 2,417,874
1887 | 10,717,353 7,158,432 DAD! LN aise acts 84 85,844 | 18,048,979 | 3,081,246
1886 | 10,575,2N0 | 14,076,379 A1GO ties stersicvasi 10 Vemotas arcs 24,652,899 | 1,662,504
1885 | 4,575,262 | 18,752,196 33,620 33,728 BD faerd zane ae 18,394,881 | 1,093,098
1884 16,511,340 4,493,759 900 BOT OBO! is isnises gap sell esa sve leceeaes 21,908,979 437,713
1883 15,375,093 | 10,012,247 4,038 BY Bol casoos-cinsvelt wie tees Be 25,478,909 441,477
1882 17,564,407 1,371,823 GB. 262 > | sessac savas sie lave elecara ateastal|lareiaqocete aie'ste 18,942,492 463,878
1881 19,676,640 | 12,735,083 TO,035 > | ssciracctscvns teal sated eedacciesstelll eae scored 32,421,758 413,923

7 144,34! 9827, 41 4
1878 19,610,791 | 16,958,458 590,150
176 1650861 | 20,053"724 | 436'004

1876 1,659,861 953, ai A
1875 2,046,430 6,989,607 453,000
1874 3,556,848 5,959,757 9,580,267 474,758
1878 1,158,097 6,003,618 7,161,715 359,566

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
328 MARYLAND.

Cattle. Baltimore is steadily increasing in importance as a cattle
market. It is in close proximity to the rich grazing fields of Virginia
and Tennessee; Western stock is confined for a briefer time than when
shipped to more northern ports; ample facilities are provided in well
equipped stock-yards, and the steamship lines from this port are especially
fitted for cattle transportation. The receipts at the Union Stock Yards
for 1892 were: Cattle, 100,035; sheep, 283,420; hogs, 546,338. The first
shipment of cattle to foreign ports took place in 1878. Since that time
the trade has assumed large proportions, its development being indicated
by the following figures:

 

 

Year. Number. Value.
ABO sre sans Soon cicoeka Some Re ee Oana een 2,675 $ 267,500
LSSO ri pc nwasiawad oe aaeavatca nto kone aes 10,758 949,858
MSS Mee eases ceva tect eee hacen eae adele dah es 3,272 367,445
IS8 2 wiieie sed 6.3.2 ey 28s en eaubatod pee aes 3,824 473,835
HIBSR aahpaites ta area des red aN aoa 16,356 1,618,626
ABS Aiios Me nin eae ea ece ds wri oil ae keine 15,393 1,747,095
ASSH ae oe ciace a ass istics state as 18,236 2,038,900
LSS 6 iccetaly tended enact Radhendeee. Bhé 12,493 1,307,410
NBS cence east xie:sasgie sities Saas 16,404 1,658,433
TOS8 ec. sre iven eee ete pemicaiewan ea? . 28,286 1,903,512
1889). ovation cae gdedinges eines gee ses 59,357 5,050,930
TBE (eit nian Nariel ts ch Sateen eaaaaee Se 90,847 7,481,340
ISO Tetest oserdcven ues: deed aadhvia eels. che oak via 66,230 5,518,703
1892, to October 1........5....0. ..-. 78,092 6,515,758
Obl gece Secale Rakin 417,223 $36,889,345

Tobacco. Baltimore has always been the principal market for all
tobacco grown in Maryland. But little of this is used for domestic
consumption, the bulk being exported to Holland, Germany, France and
Northern Europe. Baltimore is also the distributing point for much of the
tobacco grown in Eastern Ohio, part of which is consumed in this country,
part exported to Europe. Since early provincial days a system of official
inspection has prevailed, designed for the protection of seller and
purchaser. Three warehouses for this purpose are in operation in
Baltimore. The transactions for 1892 are indicated in the following
statement :

 

 

Stock on hand January 1, 1892......0 6. wee eee eee eee eee 3,788 hhds.
INSPECTIONS.
Maryland) a 023s noeaaai ein iaadt Bede awabommaatars oe 24,811
Deduct re-inspections.. ......6. 0. cece eee eee eee 2,356
22,455
Oh1G no eave es od Seareeylon Eee SS rea a 6,
Deduct re-inspections............6206) cee eee 461
6,059
Virginia and Kentucky. ..... 2. see.) ee eeeee 61
——— 28,575
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 329

 

 

Amount brought forward........... cc cece eee eee ee aes 36,458
SHIPMENTS OF MARYLAND AND OHIO TO
Brenmieli) se-24 sy seeeta nas Meee hones AW tad aebne a bone - 3,804
LOWMAN isn ceniue is inec isco g ain banana ee hataue adapt 12,469
ANTWERP acancy Baton Ga Bead aeeensaines GcaeeeG lew 97
HAMDUP i .6825)e6e2-amoiemmetemuagei Pano g weredioes 97
OM PTANG i.0- Grrkwine tale Je o> gisigieaslniie wand ea, Beanlecnas os 50
FYANCC inane weenie, emseaaes sagilag AveaGaavans veces os 12,089
North of Europe via New York..... ......-..eeeeeaee 87
Taken for home consumption and by Baltimore manu-
facturers and re-packers... ........... seeeeee 2,247
Shipments of Virginia and Kentucky of Baltimore
TSP CEO Ms peso -Adeay caniael aout aie aah cw AR cae ep 30
: 31,670
Stock December 31, 1892. ............. cece cece cee teens 4,788
STOCK DIVIDED.
Md Ohio. Va., Ky
First hand ss:ccsas iy eycasceeancre sas 63 203
SHIppersas weuesks recs oehasepa dae 2,837 218
Manufacturers............... 200.005 482 932 53
Otel cess ane aane nace wey be 3,382 1,353 53

Cotton. The cotton receipts of Baltimore, though considerable, are
hardly of the magnitude to be expected from so favorable a point of
export. Local storage and compressing facilities are excellent; ocean
freights are cheaper, and higher prices are obtained here than at more
southern parts. With the extension and development of southern
transportation facilities, it is probable that this trade will undergo
marked expansion. The movements for the year ending August 31,
1892, compared with those of the preceding year, are as follows:

 

 

1892. 1891.
Gross receipts, bales...... 0 ....... 0222 ee eee 386,205 281,570
Add stock carried OVE? vs. sca cake cay see award 5,500 200
TOt@lwciasge: ceaken ee Geedexesaas a4 aes 391,705 281,770

DISTRIBUTION.

1892. 1891.
Exported, Great Britain..................06- 128,962 78,742
s CODMHED canearotencd dead: Serears 154,678 93,374
“ PAN CC od aveians Sa eee Yoana sed 7,611 18,774
Coastwise and spinners’ takings ............. 89,266 90,380
Destroyed: by firey 2 sss secs gareeuiecneyeds wes 1,288 rei aiie
Stock on hand, August 31.................. : 9,900 5,500

The chief articles of export in addition to the above are: provisions,
copper, oils, lumber, oil cake, seeds and whiskey. The principal items
included under the head of provisions are lard, beef (canned and fresh),
tallow, bacon and pork. For the fiscal year 1892, these items formed a
total amount of 146,996,099 pounds, valued at $11,188,685. Extensive
330 MARYLAND.

copper mines and works in Montana and Arizona are controlled by Balti-
more interests, and the entire output is marketed in Baltimore. Nearly
twenty thousand tons of the matte, valued at $2,713,767, were exported in
1892, in addition to 11,806,294 pounds of ingots, valued at $1,467,288.
Among exported oils, petroleum, lubricating and cottonseed are the most
important. Olio to the value of $771,646 was sent abroad in 1892. In
addition to the enormous quantity of lumber received for local consump-
tion—some seventy million feet in 1892—exports in boards, staves and
logs during the year aggregated one and a half million dollars. Oil cake
added a value of $1,027,877; ears. and clover seed, $736,031, and
whiskey, $512,983.

Coffee. For almost a save Baltimore has been a leading centre
for the importation and distribution of coffee. The supremacy of the
Baltimore clipper led to the early development of the trade, and it has
since been maintained by long established firms. For a series of years
the volume of imports decreased with the keen competition of other
seaboard cities, but the normal tendency has more recently begun to
assert itself. During 1892, trade was larger and more profitable than for
some years past. The volume of imports aggregated 183,458 bags as
against 166,689 in 1891, showing an increase of 16,769 bags. Aside from
the benefits arising from intimate acquaintance with the trade, Balti-
more possesses certain definite advantages as a favorable point of import.
These consist in advantageous location, involving lower rates for interior
shipment, ample facilities for receipt and distribution, and extraordi-
narily low terminal charges. This latter point is especially deserving of
emphasis,—careful estimates showing an advantage of nearly fifty per
cent. in favor of Baltimore as against other Atlantic seaports.

Fruit, etc. <A fleet of vessels is engaged in the fruit trade between
Baltimore and the West Indies. Pineapples, cocoanut and bananas are
largely imported for home consumption and general distribution. In
1892 imports under this head aggregated $607,746, as against $541,077 in
1891. Baltimore is one of the largest manufacturing centres of fertilizers
in the country, and hence a heavy importer of chemicals—soda ash,
brimstone, muriate of potash, nitrate of soda, etc. The volume of
imports is further swelled by iron ore, 421,712 tons (1892); tin plate,
52,004,521 pounds (1892); sugar, 15,599,263 pounds (1892).

The extent of Baltimore commerce is further shown in the following
statement of the tonnage movement and number of immigrants landed
at the port for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1892:
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION.

TONNAGE MOVEMENT.

331

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

Sail. Steam Total.
Nationality.
No. Tons No | Tons No. ‘Tons.
i
American, foreign trade...............0. 166 52,638 9 2,701 175 55,339
British gece eciehece it sie vin ecie ous 20 6,551 581 | 846,719 551 853,270
Darn is Desersis ie ces eeig x sis jaye aeeecrameaapyevericatzia abel! ye smod sees 1 1,198 1 1,198
DUC CH: soi cisis cassape stsnavdaesa sevens, 91d siel9- seer canerecdea| Grant Desens 5 | 10,009 5 10,009
Gerians acai au aslax acts ww a cae 2 sane eo) 1 271 59 | 162,320 60 162,591
Tipline ecco ion tee cate 13 9,248 1 1324 14 10,572
NOtwegialsans seods ceeds tees svonreses 6 2 1,501 44 23,829 46 25,330
SPANisDcwiiasce, nessdenrerd tase ceases aka, Semu vale [Pema seule 3 5,059 3 5,059
TOUEL IOP TS9 occ uccse een eens coins 202 653 | 1,053,159 855 | #1,123,368
me DBO Thins aveiteis seagate eigeies tal ajeats at 203 414 627,761 617 706,755
Entered coastwise 1892............00..{ ccceeeee 1,153 | 1,192,137
“ BOE SA BG Teg cig ate ae lore agar apc taoe oe op 1,215 | 1,150,882
|

 

 

 

 

 

#59 per cent. increase.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLEARED.
Sail. Steam. Total.
Nationality. = aoe re
0. of 0.0 . 0. of r
Vessels. Tons Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons.
American, foreign trade .......-......65 147 51,817 7714 154 52,531
Biitislingsdenanvconesad Grid bonens Stasi 18 6,205 627 | 1,004,474 645 | 1,010,679
De ee o| ats) an | ad's
German sos sscaocn cae sacs 1 271 UF 239,052 98 239,323
Wtalaterc sic ci cae ais meee se 2 DSTA ||) ace siescocsign “Waive wo yeicds 2 1,121
Norwegian 3 2021 44) 24,824 4 261345
SPANISH sisiiig esac simuieery’ gercaie oeawmayees 41] eset ete | wae 5 8,217 5 8,217
Total for 1892 171 61,435 804 | 1,822,500 975 | *1,883,935
te 1891 185 55,677 523 | 849,538 708 905,215
Cleared coastwise 1892........ccccccce| coceecee | ceeccree | ceneeeee | coeeeeee 1,909 | 1,524,602
“ AQOL f Crerecde cael eastedee| adeudewia | Numer Naaman s 1,930 | 1,501,158

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

*53 per cent.

. Increase.
332 MARYLAND.

 

 

 

  
 
 
 

 

IMMIGRATION.
Nationality. Male. Female. Total.

Argentine Republic
Austria 2,922 1,486 4,408
Belgium 1
Bohemia 1,101 1,021 2,122
British: West IMGs op. csscsin eaicsiaie 6 le sco s ciasnib ig mn acere Soecesd SavaNO 5 12
Denar siccaiiees asd weasel shai awins aaa se otemaine ye ae ive te Ss 164 113 277
Fong aide csjeterore cysiepacersicrais-osaie-sinss. tishel dins, ata ene vinta gerade ache 187 125 312
Piva COsaids 6 cactcie vans 45.605 BV Mery HWS 5 Ve Pee REE sews Seimse areas. 13 11 ‘
Germ ative ay caccak taiguitdoun sak eds vmctgsla meets Han seas nate 17,080 16,667 33,747
FRU BBG Weise as Bie oS Sue sGis ASAE enie Gena nye HRGin ke Weiter ane bene 1,864 734 2,598
Treland wing ¢ vite sans 2 BaV Re Peles KES s F LOSE SHEN FREI MORas horse 51 66 117
Tt Ye. te sestcsiese tierce atte TOS Risy Meigs ae cemecenes * De, seicteetee vee 2
Netherlands. sicicins ecaeucacc’s avieeteiaicoaeen sea es 60 47 107
Norway.. as 25 19 44
Poland.. 517 153 670
Portugal. 2 | saga ewes 2
Roumania . Bes . 10 6 16
Russia........ sbawueins aenearsaats sehdurse Meme e ere BRST 6,644 4,366 11,010
SeoOUland se. a6 sheresnazesoeowieaas neaa's verse eke nie cee eAE ees 5 2 %
PWS COT ae soic avecacsintovicangse esha alucta ie Auto soins Deeuw hac kcbobla si nsivhea vidi na's 172 181 303
Switzerland............... coy Soa Ra Red ORE MaraG Coes eels ee 11 15 26
Parke y tim AGUPOPe seavcis xncavsiacs ah gig essvaresareie’siniw eiacenalemreia seat wlossiane 6 4 8 12

Total sisciasciscarsiee sma xaniced sy Sai cemny dee deaveaneinn nebees 30,845 24,978 55,823
Passengers not immigrants...........ccseeeseeee reece eee celece settee eeeelecases anes ene 1,500

Grand tOtal, 1802 cone caur a cman seis qoute x7 coe Hedy eases <el ie ares aa. bee x Sele tees odhees < ex 57,823

Grand totals VSO es sideescre serie wipsieenesve sess ww 5ie-5)a, wih alo signee a « fsccvinabs: Mie Zavala lots inte otGdrs a oe Riga 3 42,004

 

 

 

 

 

CUMBERLAND.

Some idea of the causes of Cumberland’s immense trade, and advan-
tages as a distributive point, may be better comprehended after a brief
description of its railroads and the country through which they form
channels for the outlet of the products of the farm, forest and mines.
For what may be known as local distribution, it has several distinct
roads. The Cumberland and Pennsylvania Railroad with its branches
runs up through the mining region, and taps the towns of Eckhart, Mt.
Savage, Frostburg, Lonaconing and Piedmont, whose aggregate popula-
tion is over 15,000 souls, all living within twenty-eight miles of Cumber-
land. The George’s Creek and Cumberland Railroad reaches Lonaconing
by another route. The Piedmont and Cumberland, an extension of the
West Virginia Central and Pittsburg, parallels the Baltimore and Ohio
through one of the most fertile of Allegany county’s agricultural districts,
and at Piedmont connects with the parent line. This opens up for one
hundred and twenty-two miles the vast timber lands and gas coal regions
of West Virginia. For the shipment of merchandise and coal to the
large eastern and western markets, there are the main stem of the
Baltimore and Ohio, the Pittsburg and Connellsville, and the Pennsyl-
vania Railroads, which last road obtains an entrance to the city over the
tracks of the State line branch of the George’s Creek and Cumberland
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 333

Road. Added to this, the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, which has its
western terminus in this city, affords direct connection with tidewater at
Georgetown, D. C. °

With all these facilities the expeditious handling of freight is, com-
paratively speaking, an easy matter. With Cumberland as an entrepot,
immense quantities of merchandise are received and distributed over the
different lines mentioned. The express business for the months of
October, November and December of 1892 shows over a million and a half
of pounds received and forwarded. The United States Express Company
handled 733,457, the Adams Express Company 437,976, and the Cumber-
land and Pennsylvania Express Company 532,000 pounds.

The freight handled, exclusive of coal, for the same period by the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad amounted to 135,195,708 pounds; that
handled by the Cumberland and Pennsylvania was 53,420,000 pounds; by
the West Virginia Central, over the Piedmont and Cumberland, 92,703,436
pounds; by the Pennsylvania Railroad, to and from Cumberland, 68,435,433
pounds. To recapitulate, the tonnage of the express and freight business
done in Cumberland during the months of October, November and
December of 1892 was as follows:

 

United States Dpress veacas ve a¢dae sen das eee emndeedee 736,457
AGAMB! scctiilc soaes sae ss Re Roue e ye YM ee See eee e esd Balsa 437,978
OC, Se Pig cocatcratena ys td pe Reet oeanaw i HeEBek ee 532,000

SD Ot als sas ieseaie ee a 1,706,438

The freight handled, exclusive of coal, for the same period, was—

Baltimoreand Obi0ss.200ssasavigiauacsseu noe coee nee cease 138,271,094
Cumberland and Pennsylvania.... ..........02- 0s ee eee 58,420,000
West Virginia Central......... ps WeneeNy Eda scedaanee 92,708,436
Pennsylvania Railroad. .........-. 6. ee ieee eee eee eee 68,435,433

Ota siciewadiea ds daa eeddnbbe dishes eDeedate meine 352,829,963
Total pounds of express matter................---5.005 1,706,433
Total pounds of freight matter.......-...6. cheer eres 352,829,963

fra ie ade alee, ae ono ee kat _.. 354,536,396

From the trade for the last three months of 1892, some conception of
the annual business carried on may be formed. This tonnage, it must be
remembered, is wholly made up of merchandise; coal, the most important
article of distribution, does not enter into it at all. The statistics of the
Cumberland coal trade, which are published annually, report an output
from the twenty-nine companies engaged in mining, of over four mil-
lions of tons for 1892, and the employment of every railroad entering
Cumberland in their removal to the seaboard.
334 MARYLAND.

The number of tons mined, and the tonnage delivered by the
different railroads to Cumberland, and there distributed, was as follows:

FROM— To B.&O.R.R.C.&0O.Can. Penna.R.R. Local. Total.
Cumberland & Pennsylvania R. R.... 1,848,905 93,705 214,011 83,089 1,784,710
Eckhart Branch R. R................. 312,452 170,116 ........ 36,755 519,323
George’s Creek & Cumberland R. R... 208,112 ...... 568,003 28,202 804,317
West Virginia Central Railway....... 345,987 3,080 423,472 198,675 971,214

 

2,210,456 266,901 1,205,486 346,721 4,029,564

The successful handling and disposition of this vast amount of
freight places Cumberland in the front rank of cities of its size as an
admirable distributive point.

The West Virginia Central Railway is about to build an extension
from Cumberland to Hagerstown, at which point it will connect with
the Western Maryland Railroad, and will afford Cumberland another
artery of commerce. Surveys have been made for another road to reach
the rich agricultural communities or upper villages of the South Branch,
and an extension of the electric railway of Cumberland through the
entire mining portion of the county is also among near possibilities, a
company having already been chartered and organized for this purpose.

HAGERSTOWN.

Any consideration of the trade and commerce of Hagerstown involves
in large measure the trade of Washington county, of which it is the
geographic as well as business centre. Before the construction and
development of railroad systems, in the days of the “ Conestoga Wagon ”
with its “bell team,’ wheat, the staple product of the county, was
ground in local mills. For many years the county stood well in the lead
in production of this cereal, and its numerous available streams placed
ample mill power within easy reach of every section. The county seat
being the banking centre, farmer and miller went there for the purchase
and sale of the commodity, and the National road was the highway to
market. The early development of a fine system of macadamized
roads, radiating hence to every section of the country and affording easy
transportation, in winter especially, tended still further to such concen-
tration. When the railway development came, natural conditions led to
the same centering and radiation, so that now there is no village or point
within the county more than three or four miles distant from a railroad
station.

The Cumberland Valley Railroad, running from Harrisburg, Penn-
sylvania, to Winchester, Virginia, crosses the whole width of the State
here, a distance of twelve miles, and brings into close connection the
whole of the Pennsylvania system. The Shenandoah division of the
Norfolk and Western, beginning here, extends to Roanoke, Virginia, and
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 835

by its local connection with the Cumberland Valley, puts the city upon
the great inside highway from New York to New Orleans and Memphis
in the southwest, and to all Florida points in the southeast. A road is
now being constructed from here to Cumberland which will connect, at
this point, the Cumberland Valley and the West Virginia Central, thus
making a direct route to the seaboard for the immense coal and timber
products of West Virginia. The Washington County branch of the
Baltimore and Ohio, running southward twenty-four miles through the
county, connects it closely with that great thoroughfare.

The Western Maryland, striking the county at its northeast corner,
traverses the greater part of its extent westward to its connection at
Cherry Run, West Virginia, with the main line of the Baltimore and
Ohio. It touches the Potomac at Williamsport, and by its branch from
the mountain foot at Edgemont, thence to Shippensburg, Pennsylvania,
connects with the Reading road, thus giving the advantage of close
association with that extended system. There is thus secured to every
smaller town, and to every section of the county, direct and frequent
access to Hagerstown, and her distributive trade finds actual and active
competition for transportation to every quarter, north, south, east and
west. With twenty-eight passenger and express trains daily each way,
it is not surprising that a large traffic has been developed in dairy
products, fruit and poultry, for the markets of New York, Philadelphia,
Baltimore, Washington and Pittsburg are all within less than twelve
hours from the city.

Another phase of development, not immediately connected with
Hagerstown, yet in part the outcome of its business enterprise and
capital, and in large measure under the control of its citizens, is the peach
industry. Along the slopes and foot hills of the mountains on either
side, thousands of acres are now planted in peaches, and growing yearly
in value. The crop of 1892, under the very adverse conditions attending
it, exceeded a half million bushels, the whole of which was marketed in
the eastern markets to private consumers, and not for canning, the
quality being to growers of far greater moment than quantity. Under
fair conditions it is expected that the crop of this year will greatly
exceed a million bushels. As further indicating somewhat of the
character and amount of its trade, may be noted these facts: The whole-
sale grocery and notion trade, reaching from Baltimore to Wheeling,
from Harrisburg to Roanoke, amounts annually to over $1,000,000; the
sale and shipment of beef, cattle, sheep and hogs, exceeds $600,000; of
horses, $250,000; of hay, $100,000; of hardwoods, cut and in bulk, all
exported, $175,000. Retail trade is represented in part by the annual
sales of dry goods, $400,000; clothing, ready made, $150,000; custom
made, a like amount; shoes and hats, $200,000; groceries, $500,000;
336 MARYLAND.

leather and its products, $75,000; hardware, $150,000; agricultural imple-
ments, a large part of which, steam engines, threshers, clover hullers,
etc., are made here, $150,000; fertilizers, $125,000 ; confectionery, $100,000.

In the march of improvement the latest mill machinery has been
introduced, and the manufacture and shipment of flour has also in large
part centered here. From the four large roller mills and elevators in or
controlled from the city, there is shipped as flour the product of about
300,000 bushels of wheat annually; the shipments of corn aggregate
100,000 bushels more. A large part, however, of the corn grown in the
county is used in fattening cattle during the fall and winter, all being
shipped from this point to Eastern markets, whence a part is exported
directly to Liverpool.

THE EASTERN SHORE.

The Peninsula, comprising the Eastern Shores of Maryland and
Virginia, and the State of Delaware, is about one hundred and seventy
miles in length from north to south, and about sixty-five miles in width
from east to west at its widest part. It is bounded on the east by the
Delaware River and Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south and
west by the Chesapeake Bay. It is so penetrated on all sides by numer-
ous navigable rivers, creeks and inlets, that it has been said that there
are few farms, towns, or dwellings on the Eastern Shore of Maryland
more than five miles from navigable water. This fact, with the smooth
level roads, renders the matter of transportation by water a simple ques-
tion. At the same time the absence of mountains and high hills, and
the rarity of stone and rock, render the construction of railroads inex-
pensive. The railroads of the peninsula are, with two exceptions, so
closely connected in organization, that no intelligible account of the
railroads on the Eastern Shore of Maryland is possible without reference
to those of Delaware and the Eastern Shore of Virginia.

The Peninsula is traversed from north to south by a line of railroad,
a part of which is controlled by the Pennsylvania Railroad system. The
Delaware Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad begins near Wilmington,
Delaware, and runs through the State of Delaware, nearly parallel with
the Maryland line, to Delmar (ninety-five miles). From this point the
New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk Road runs through Maryland and
Virginia to Cape Charles City, a distance of ninety-five miles (thirty-
seven miles in Maryland). At Cape Charles City, connection is made by
ferry with Norfolk, (twenty miles). These two roads make a continuous
first-class road running from the extreme north to the extreme south of
the Peninsula; and through trains make the run from Cape Charles City
to Philadelphia in six and a half hours.
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 337

These roads are practically operated as a part of the Pennsylvania
system. Connected with them, are a number of sinaller tributary roads,
also owned or controlled and operated*by the Pennsylvania Railroad.
Beginning on the Chesapeake side and with the most northerly, the
Queen Anne and Kent Railroad runs from Centreville, the county town
of Queen Anne’s county, northeasterly through Queen Anne’s and Kent
counties to Massey’s (twenty-five miles), connecting at that point with
the Baltimore and Delaware Bay Railroad, and also with a branch of the
Delaware Division, Pennsylvania Railroad, running from Townsend, in
Delaware, to Massey’s (nine miles). The Delaware and Chesapeake
Railroad begins at Oxford, in Talbot county, and runs northeasterly
through Talbot and Caroline counties to Clayton, Delaware (fifty-four
miles, of which forty are in Maryland). The Cambridge and Seaford
Road, running from Cambridge, in Dorchester county, northeasterly to
Seaford, Delaware (twenty-seven miles, about twenty-two miles in Mary-
land), connecting at Seaford with the Delaware Division. The Crisfield
Branch of the New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk Railroad begins at
Crisfield, in Wicomico county, runs northeast to Peninsula Junction
(seventeen miles) in the same county, connecting at that point with the
New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk Railroad. On the Atlantic side, the
Delaware, Maryland and Virginia Road begins at Franklin City, on
Chincoteague Sound, in Virginia, near the Maryland line, and runs
northerly, parallel with the Atlantic, to the Maryland line, and through
Delaware, connecting with the Delaware Division at Harrington (seventy-
eight miles, thirty-five miles in Maryland). These roads furnish
excellent facilities for the transportation of freight and passengers to
Philadelphia and points on the Pennsylvania system, all of them having
two trains daily each way.

The Peninsula is traversed from east to west by the Baltimore and
Delaware Bay Railroad, as yet unfinished. It beginsat Bombay Hook on
the Delaware Bay, at which point it connects with the New Jersey
Central by ferry, and runs ina westerly direction, crossing and connecting
with the Delaware Division at Clayton, and when finished will extend to
Rock Hall, in Kent county, Maryland. It has been finished from Bombay
Hook to Chestertown (forty-two miles), with a branch to Nicholson (nine
miles—thirty-three miles in Maryland). It has been graded to within
about four miles of Rock Hall, and will probably be finished in the
course of this year. Rock Hall is immediately opposite the Patapsco
river, and the nearest harbor on the Eastern Shore to Baltimore. From
this point connection will be made by ferry with Baltimore (about
eighteen miles). At present the road is operated from Clayton to Ches-
tertown only. It is owned by parties interested in the New Jersey

Central Railroad.
22
338 MARYLAND.

The Baltimore and Eastern Shore Railroad begins at Ocean City, a
summer resort on the Atlantic coast, and runs northwesterly through
Maryland to Claiborne, on Eastern Bay, a tributary of the Chesapeake
(eighty-seven miles). From this point connection is made by boat with
Baltimore (forty-two miles). This road is in the hands of a receiver, but
is now in process of reorganization. The plan of reorganization includes
the extension of the road from Easton, north through Talbot and Queen
Anne’s county, and Kent county to Centreville, Chestertown and Rock
Hall, connecting at that point by ferry with Baltimore.

The number of manufactures or industrial enterprises on the Eastern
Shore is limited. The people are engaged chiefly in farming, fishing and
oystering. The country is naturally very fertile. It is level or rolling,
has no large hills and no stone, and it is easily cultivated. Its agricul-
tural products are chiefly wheat, corn and the other cereals and fruit.
Large quantities of peaches, pears and other fruit are raised. Though
possessing exceptional facilities for the raising of stock, this industry
does not exist to any great extent. Attention has recently been called to
the advantages of the Eastern Shore as a health resort, and there is
already some travel to the locality for this reason. The freight carried
by the roads consists, in addition to passenger business, of products of
the farms and water. Large quantities of grain, fruit, oysters, fish and
game are shipped to the North and West over these railroads, the return
freight being chiefly coal, lumber and the usual requirements of a farm-
ing and fishing population.
CHAPTER X.

MANUFACTURES.

The history of colonial Maryland is essentially that of an agricultural
community. Throughout the seventeenth and far into the eighteenth
centuries “ tobacco is king.” It not only dominated all economic activi-
ties, but even entered into the details of social and political life. The
commercial policy of England fostered its cultivation, as tending to
preserve in her possessions an exclusive market for British manufac-
tures. This fact, aided somewhat later by actual measures of repression,
served to prevent any general industrial activity in provincial Maryland.
Yet the natural advantages of mineral wealth and motive power could
not be entirely suppressed. Jron-works were opened along the Patapsco
river as early as 1715, and the regular exportation of pig-iron began in
1717. Thrifty German settlers, a little later, introduced the beginnings of
wool and flax spinning, and the manufacture of linen and woolen goods.
Numerous flour mills were attracted by the excellent sites along Jones’
Falls, Gwynn’s Falls and the Patapsco river, and this industry more
perhaps than any other single cause, contributed to the early growth of
Baltimore. , ,

In 1769 a non-importation association was organized, and extended
throughout the province. The discredit thus thrown upon the whole
line of British manufactures, culminated five years later ina system of
practical non-intercourse with Great Britain, and for a term of years the
colonists were thrown largely upon their own resources. Varied branches
of manufacture sprang up, and the province tended rapidly to become
self-supporting. In 1778 we find in active operation linen, woolen, card
and nail factories, paper and slitting mills and bleach-yards. The first
sugar refinery was established in Baltimore in 1784, and five years later
the manufacture of glass was introduced. <A considerable number of
flour mills, iron furnaces, cotton mills and tanneries were in successful
operation in different parts of the State.

The industrial development of Maryland during the next half century
is gradual, but substantial. Commerce and shipping, rather than manu-
factures, engage general attention; yet Baltimore steadily becomes a
340 MARYLAND.

leading centre for sugar refining, cotton duck manufacture, flour milling
and metal production. In other directions progress is less marked,
but everywhere the substructure is laid for the activity of later times.
The new era may be said to have begun with the industrial revival
following the close of the late war, and has ever since proceeded with
rapid strides and over a widening area.

In industrial opportunity Baltimore is unsurpassed among American
cities, and younger centres invite development in every section of the
State. Geographical position and railroad connection afford special
opportunities in the procurement of raw materials and the distribution
of products. Interior situation confers great advantages upon the harbors
of the State as favorable ports of entry. Healthful climate, cheap living,
low rents, skilled labor, tax exemptions, favored sites, water frontage,
motive power, are among the special attractions that invite manufacturing
industries of all kinds.

BALTIMORE.

In these days of forced urban development, it is common for every
new manufacturing town to claim extraordinary advantages as an
industrial centre. Far-sighted men, however, recognize that the struggle
for existence is nowhere fought out more relentlessly than in the
commercial world; and that those cities which have attained industrial
prominence by slow development and by force of natural advantages are
far more inviting, other things being equal, than those which have been
forced into temporary importance by artificial methods.

INDUSTRIAL ADVANTAGES.

The advantages which Baltimore offers as a manufacturing centre
consist in natural location, in peculiar economic conditions, and in the
liberal policy of its municipal administration. Reference has already
been made to the advantages conferred by favored geographical situation
and the establishment of direct lines of communication. In the case of
Baltimore, closer proximity by several hundred miles to the great cotton
belt of the South, to the grain-growing sections of the West, and to the
wood, coal and iron wealth of the interior, affords cheap and easy access
to the supplies required for industries of every kind. The labor supply
is steady and efficient. As compared with New York and Philadelphia or
Boston, skilled mechanics receive from twenty-five cents to one dollar a
day less in building and iron industries, and seventy-five cents to one
dollar and a-half less as compared with Chicago, St. Louis and Minne-
apolis. Unskilled labor is available at from one dollar to one dollar and
a-half per day. This difference in labor cost does not involve lower
efficiency or poorer living. In no other city of similar size in the
MANUFACTURES. 341

country are the laboring classes better off. The proximity of a rich and
productive country, the cheapness of water transportation, and the
economy of domestic distribution through public markets, combine to
render the cost of living in Baltimore less than in cities of much smaller
size. The cheapness of house rents in Baltimore is notorious. Neat and
comfortable dwellings in respectable neighborhoods may be rented at
fifteen and eighteen dollars a month, and houses in more favored sections
with many conveniences can be had for twenty-five dollars a month.
Handsome dwellings, desirably located and fitted with all modern
appointments, may be rented for forty dollars a month. The supply of
water available for manufacturing purposes is unlimited and furnished
at anominal rate. Desirable manufacturing sites can be obtained with
or without water frontage, and plants as erected are exempted by special
ordinance from municipal taxation.

INDUSTRIES.

The manufacturing interests of Baltimore include almost every
important industry. The city is the largest manufacturing centre in the
United States of ready-made clothing, oyster canning and fruit packing,
shirts and overalls, fertilizers, straw goods and cotton duck, while its
operations in other directions are absolutely even of greater magnitude.
The statistics of important industries as returned by the Eleventh
Census are as follows:

 

 

  

L*
oa |
5m : sGEHeE sale |Miscellan-| Goods
{NDUSTRIES: e 3 2 ad Wages {number of Materials eous, |Manutaet:

a= 8|Employed.| Paid. Hands | used. Bx pensed | ured

2 aq pare Pp ‘ P
Brass Casting ...........eees eee 7 |$ 1,689,428 | 663,056 1,187 |$ 785,852 |$ 30,745 |$ 1,903,850
Clothing ........ ... eee} 125 | 11,897,563 | 4,178,971 18,094 | 8,120,981 | 408,258 | 15,082,924
Fertilizers.....-..... seee| 25 | 4,163,347 | 399,741 638 | 2,566,577 | 197,316 | 3,957,345
Iron Foundries..........++ ....| 65 | 5,041,767 | 1,837,450 3,436 | 1,789,085 | 235,833 | 4,7187184
Oyster and Fruit Canning........ 40 | 3,226,416 | 1,886,851 8,990 | 5,369,261 ) 141,023 | 8,516,799
Liquors, distilled................- 5 | 1,421,225 94,824 146 | 683,861 | 1,029,220 | 2,085,560
Liquors, malt.............0.0eee 27 | 4,924,988 | 582,759 690 | 1,508,482 | 963,062 | 3,825,174
Drugs and Medicines ... ....... 20 975,725 | 246,028 698 | _ 779,251 | 290,599 | 1,947,950
Slaughtering and Meat Packing..) 14 | 1,153,856 | 225,112 421 | 38,668,147 75,282 | 4,311,412
Tobaced i. cess cecae saeeiiea eee 350 | 4,208,451 | 1,240,093 8,242 | 2,522,336 | 1,260,387 | 5,906,333

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PERCENTAGES OF INCREASE.

Number of establishments reported. ..... cee cece eee cece cence rene ceeee 35.22
Capital invested. s is.« veckuranaxo ee

Number of hands employed
Wages paid..........eeeeeereeeeeceee

Cost of materials used.......-.0eeeee eee

Value of product at WOrK..... cece ececsecere cece ete e sent eeteneneeeeenes

 

 

*Compiled from Census Bulletin, No. 269.
342 MARYLAND.

The following additional statistics are published through the
courtesy of Superintendent Robert P. Porter, of the Census Office. They
are preliminary in character, and subject to revision and correction
before final publication :

 

 

 

IL.

ett

34 |

nee z Miscellan- Average Cost Value

INDUSTRIES. eas i eous mee Wages. | of of
|28 q Expenses. ponds Pe Products.
Oo .

ZG
Boots and shoes(b)..........sseeeeee 49 |S 938,514 |$ 38,605 |$ 1,334 /$ 571,666 |$ 808,388 |$ 1,711,367
Brick and tiles... ese tages sae «+» 26 | 1,941,089 | 187,786 | 1,820 | 547,067 ; 146,407 | 1.055,508
Confectionery ..........-.-000 00s --| 98 | 908,474 98,582 854 | 278,632 | 1,198,219 | 1,861,599
Clay and pottery products ax, 10] 492,057 8,804 617 | 261,713 | 116,010 500,625
Flouring and grist mills........ --| 11 | 1,008,048 | 153,609 240 | 172,548 | 2,775,120 | 3,285,721
Furniture(c)..... Sire. wes ng sisiae dig biecs ne 26 | 1,222,444 76,038 | 1,371 | 647,786 | 1,031,735 | 2,056,419
Hats & caps, not including woolhats.| 18 | 724,457 86,672 843 | 305,072 | 607,580 | 1,261,523
Leather, : aes and curried...... .. 12 | 203,788 11,586 205 90,185 | 335,798 455,818

   

Lumber(j) 31 | 1,789,101 | 121,118) 1.243 | 752,976 | 1,819,479 | 3,105,288
Millinery and lace goods. 6 59,075 5,482 167 53,088 68,940 155,500
Paints and oils(d)......... 3 12 | 469,857 17,944 17 64,752 200,041 344,230
PLADOS(E)). oisigcs.a sie sawed eager stee sens ate 4 | 1,063,987 | 128,460 737 | 582,160 | 406,592 | 1,291,165
Musical instruments(k) apes ree) OE 32,243 3,596 50 33,979 26,948 81,961
Printing and publishing (f).........| 127 | 1,696,184 | 336,489 | 1,802 | 1,117,208 | 729,848 | 2,826,356
Shirts, factory products....... -.-| i8 | 418,400 44,225) 1, 311 345,407 | 596,993 | 1,191,918
Shipbailding occ. sacs come ce ulede 19 | 1,256,422 91,343 O75 616,410 | 692,740 116401317
STCEl(Giers'c ce asian hemeEe ORO Ha 3 ae 11 | 648,908 30,596 820 | 156,104 | 473,271 749,207
Marble and stone work(h)..........+ 55 | 1,164,457 | 169,892 731 | 461,805 | 644,541 | 1,571,945
Lithographing and engraving... 4] 183,800 22,810 197 | 125,766 98,331 316,352

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(a) Does not include the value of hired property.

(>) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘“‘boots and shoe uppers” and ‘‘boots and shoes,
factory product.”

(ec) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘‘ furniture, chairs,” and ‘furniture, factory
product.”

(d) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘‘ paints,”’ and “oil, lubricating.”

(e) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘‘ musical instruments, pianos and materials.”

(f) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘‘ printing and publishing, book and job,” and
“ printing and publishing, newspapers.”

(g) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘iron and steel;'"’ ‘iron and steel, architect-
ural;” ‘‘iron and steel, bolts;” ‘iron and steel, nails and spikes.”

(hk) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘‘marble and stone work” and “‘ monuments
and tomb stones.”

(j) Includes returns classified by the Census Office, as ‘lumber, planing mill products,” “ lumber
from logs or bolts.”

(%) Includes returns classified by the Census Office,” as ‘musical instruments and materials not
specified’? and ‘‘ musical instruments, organs and materials.”

Banking. The industrial development of any city is largely depend-
ent upon the character and operations of its financial institutions.
Baltimore banks are thoroughly in accordance with the growth and
progress of the city and offer abundant facilities for mercantile trans-
actions. The aggregate loans and discounts of the several national banks
have increased nearly one hundred per cent. within a period of twenty
years. The operations of State banks, banking and trust companies,
contribute to make the result even more remarkable; and the wisdom
and fidelity with which these institutions are managed is shown by the
MANUFACTURES. 343

fact that no chartered bank has failed in Baltimore within a period of
sixty years. The development and resources of these institutions is
indicated in the following statement of the operations of the national
banks of Baltimore and of the increase in bank clearances within a term

of years:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Number. Capital. Surplus. and eens Deposits.
Pe oes taeada een eben ecole 13 $10,891,985 00 $2,679,883 57 | $17,069,159 92 | 313,215,291 03
TB8O sis aivtepe sieisiae sits Sees 5 15 10,890,180 00 3,316,851 43 | 23,808,488 16 | 20,884,184 47
TROD excises <i vied cake Pee ou 19 12,313,260 00 4,975,346 75 81,727,650 32 29,748,822 45
ASOD ak caheve cage aabaavind dd 22 13,243,312 00 | 5,874,626 69 | 31,964,550 51 | 28,174,838 45
BANK CLEARANCES.
NB BGs, ceactisieisrase:arpcais epeus Gus eneiaye my crayae 3$616,303,898 35 ES GOS se.ax5-ave-ouslaeeteusy-cterava,cade enn sielvece $753,095,193 24

TSB Ys aed dosh oct Marler ans cana, 659,346,471 55 BONY ad apace enc cesp renee oaks 735,714,652 00
IBBEH Aaa caactnamen sient eudeh anin 620,587,729 65 TROD tos Gtenaiearconiaaveve eased 769,355,890 00
BBO asians hd ad patie aa Recor ha 650,583,571 15

Clothing. The industrial development of Baltimore is exemplified
in the growth of its clothing manufactures. Beginning some forty
years ago, the trade assumed large proportions for a period, then
suffered severely from the loss of southern and western business during
the war, and finally entered upon a course of growth and expansion that
has continued uninterrupted to the present day. The census of 1890
returned one hundred and twenty-five establishments engaged in whole-
sale manufacture, at least forty of which are organized for production
upon a large scale. The products vary in character from the highest
grades of merchant clothing, to the cheapest and plainest wares.
Distribution is general, though the chief makets are in the south and
southwest.

Canned Goods. All the world over Baltimore is famed as a great
centre for the canning of oysters and the packing and preserving of
vegetables and fruits. Some of the largest establishments in the country
are located here and Baltimore brands command a wide market. The
local oyster pack in 1892 aggregated five and one-half million bushels,
although as a result of superior distributive facilities, almost the entire
product of Chesapeake Bay is marketed here. Crisfield, Cambridge,
Oxford, St. Michael’s and Annapolis follow Baltimore in about the order
named, as important oyster canning centres. During the summer months
most of the canning establishments engage in vegetable and fruit
packing. Immense quantities of corn, tomatoes and green peas, drawn
largely from adjacent counties and the Eastern Shore, are so consumed.
berries, peaches and pine-apples, of which more than a half million
dozen were imported in 1892, form the favorite fruits. Distribution, as
344 MARYLAND.

before stated, is very general, reaching throughout this country, and
into every quarter of the globe. The packing industry has also made
Baltimore an important centre for the manufacture of tin cans, about
fifty million pieces being annually produced.

Tobacco. The proximity to Virginia, North Carolina and the yreat
tobacco regions of the country, together with a large domestic produc-
tion, has made Baltimore a leading centre for manufactured tobacco. In
smoking tobacco, its production exceeds that of any other city in the
United States, and it is a large producer of cigars and cigarettes. Distri-
bution is largely in the Western and Northwestern states, and throughout
the South. The extent of the industry is shown in the following statistics
for the year ending December, 1892:

Number of Cigar Factories in district............ 2.0... 808
a Tobacco Factories in district........... 0... 24
eS Snuff Factories in district..... 2 2... 2. 2... 6
et Pounds of Tobacco manufactured........ .. 9,872,270
s . Snuff manufactured.............. 1,759,848
i. a Fine Cut manufactured.......... 532,641
“ : Leaf worked for cigars.......... 2,072,270
e Leaf worked for Cigarettes....... 158,823
tf Cigars manufactured......... 0.0... cc eee eee 109,046,916
as Cigarettes manufactured ........ .......08- 31,742,976
5 Pounds of Sumatra Leaf imported at the rate

of $2.00 per pound... ..... .... eee ee eee 61,406
es Pounds Havana Leaf imported at the rate of

35 cents per pound............... eee eee 249,368
+ Pounds Leaf Tobacco exported............. 54,306,880
& “Stems Tobacco exported......  ..... 10,068,634

Tron Foundries. Under the head of foundries and machine shops
are classed a large number of extensive establishments engaged in the
manufacture of structural iron, heating apparatus, machine tools, stoves,
elevators, guns, power-transmission machinery, steam engines and safes.
The operations of these firms extend over a wide territory, and their
products enjoy a high reputation. One firm makes a specialty of heating
apparatus and gas works, and has erected wholly or in part, gas plants
in New York, Chicago, Brooklyn, St. Paul, Norfolk, Rochester, as well as
in Cuba and South America. <A second is extensively engaged in the
manufacture of special machinery, and possesses unusual facilities for
the manufacture of machine-moulded gearing. A third devotes particu-
lar attention to elevators and hoisting machinery, and a fourth to safes
and vaults. Many other firms are engaged in the general manufacture of
ornamental and other iron work for architectural purposes, and in the
preparation of special machinery. Baltimore has been the pioneer in
the manufacture of the loom for weaving cotton duck, to which her
reputation for the superiority of cotton products is largely due. Other
MANUFACTURES. 345

important forms of machinery have been devised and developed here,
notably the linotype machine. _

Fertilizers. Baltimore is in advance of all American cities in the
manufacture of fertilizers. In 1832 the first guano was imported from
Peru for local use; soon after the manufacture of a fertilizer from
crushed bone was begun, the product being sold to farmers of the adjacent
counties. Maryland furnishes a great amount of burnt lime for agricul-
tural purposes; its soil also contains large deposits of marl. But most
of the raw materials used in this manufacture come from external
sources. The phosphate rock from South Carolina is the most important
source of phosphoric acid. The necessary nitrogen or ammonia is
derived from tankage, ground-crackling and similar refuse from the
great slaughter houses of the West, other sources being bones, fish
scraps and bone black. Large quantities of natural guano are brought
to Baltimore from the great deposits at Navassa Island. The potash
used in fertilizers is obtained almost entirely from Europe, its most
important source being the mineral kainite, largely imported from
Germany.

Ship-Butiding. Jn the earlier years of the century Baltimore was
renowned for her ship-yards, and “ Baltimore clippers” were famed all
over the world. As the sailing vessels were replaced to a great extent by
steamers, iron taking the place of wood in the construction, this industry
for a while declined; but she is now rapidly regaining her position as a
ship-building centre. During the past year, sixty-one vessels of an
aggregate net tonnage of 17,277 tons were launched from local
ship-yards. The largest establishment is located on a tract of land
adjoining Fort McHenry. The two steam ferry boats, Robert Garrett
and Hrastus Wiman, plying between New York and Staten Island, and
the new ice boat Annapolis represent the work of this establishment.
The United States gunboat Petrel was turned out in 1889, and in the
following year the oil-tank steamer Maverick was completed, the first
vessel of the kind built on this side of the Atlantic. The United States
cruisers Detroit and Montgomery are the most important products of the
establishment. The activity of the Marine Department of the Maryland
Steel Company is described in another place. A number of other ship-
yards for construction and repair work are in successful operation.

Flour Mills. Baltimore flour mills are among the most productive
on the Atlantic seaboard. Six large mills are in operation, two of which
are in the city, and four in suburban towns. Although some of these
date from almost the foundation of Baltimore, the modern process of
crushing and sifting, known as the roller system, has been introduced,
and flour of the highest grade is turned out. The local supply of wheat
is drawn from Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania and
346 MARYLAND.

Delaware, and the output is used for home consumption, for export to
Brazil and the West Indies, and for distribution throughout the South.
The mills combined have a daily capacity of nearly three thousand
barrels. Baltimore enjoys peculiar advantages as a milling centre. Not
only is Maryland and Virginia wheat rich in all properties necessary for
producing flour of the highest grade, but the immense volume of grain
poured in from the West permits the choice of the finest varieties from
every wheat-growing State.

Liquors. A number of breweries are in active operation, which not
only provide for the home consumption, but supply a wide external
market. Baltimore beer may now be found in all sections of the country,
and it is estimated that the trade is increasing at the rate of about ten
per cent. perannum. The flourishing condition of the industry, and the
possibility of its further extension, have in the last few years attracted
foreign capital, and large investments have been made. Several entirely
new plants of model design and equipment have been recently erected.
A number of distilleries are also operated, the product selling largely in
the South and the Southwest, as well as at home; and thisindustry has
considerably increased in the last few years.

Lumber. Railroads and steamship lines bring annually to Baltimore
large quantities of woods from the West and South; hard woods and
white pines from West Virginia, Wisconsin, Michigan, Arkansas, Indiana
and Ohio; yellow pine from Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia and
Pennsylvania. The total receipts for local consumption aggregated in
1892 about ninety million feet. The value of timber exported during
the fiscal year 1891-1892 was $1,467,970. Some twenty-five wholesale
and thirty retail dealers are engaged in the trade, together with fifteen
manufacturers of packing boxes, and eleven planing mills, sash, door and
blind factories. The activity of all these establishments has been
stimulated by the great increase in building during the past few years.
The larger manufacturers and wholesale dealers control independent
mills in the South and West, from which direct shipments are made.

Furniture. Every conceivable variety of furniture, from the simplest
office-fixture to the most elaborate drawing-room equipment, is manu-
factured in Baltimore. The expansion of this industry is due partly to
the natural location of the city and the cheapness of raw materials,
partly to the efficiency of the labor supply. Large quantities of oak, maple,
walnut, poplar, pine, ash, cherry, rosewood and mahogany are annually
consumed. These supplies are drawn from the West, and to an increasing
extent from the South. Distribution takes place over a wide area. Of
the middling and cheaper grades, the South takes the largest quantity,
while the higher grades are sent to every part of the country. The
home demand for expensive goods in mahogany and rosewood forms a
MANUFACTURES. 347

considerable item, while the remaining proportion of hardwoods is
consumed largely in the adjacent States.

Drugs. In this line of business Baltimore is the leading market of
the South, both for manufacture and distribution. Raw chemicals, such
as muriatic, nitric and sulphuric acids, sulphate of ammonia, saltpetre
and bichromate of potash, are extensively produced. A great part of the
output is used in the home market in the manufacture of fertilizers and
drugs; the remainder is taken by the Southern and Middle States. A
large market has also been created for patent or proprietary medicines
of local manufacture.

Brass Casting. Brass founding and finishing forms one of Balti-
more’s most successful industries. The goods produced are of two
general classes, the first consisting of steam, water and gas fixtures and
plumber’s supplies; the second, of church bells and shimes. The long
establishment and successful operation of this industry has created a
supply of skilled and intelligent labor. Particularly in the production
of church bells has Baltimore attained prominence. One of the works
covers six acres of ground, and is, probably, the largest establishment of
its kind in the world. The peal of Baltimore bells may be heard in
places as far removed as China, Burmah, India, Japan, Liberia, Turkey,
Egypt, Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica, England, Bulgaria, Mexico, throughout
Canada and the British Provinces, and in every State of the Union.

Shoes. The shoe and leather interests of Baltimore fall naturally
into two classes, distributive or jobbing establishments and productive or
manufacturing industries. As a distributing centre for boots and shoes,
this is one of the largest and closest markets in the country. The
sources of supply are New England, home manufactures and toa slight
extent, New York and Pennsylvania. Sales are made largely in the
South. A review of the market for the five years ending in 1891 shows
an. increased distribution of thirty per cent.; this, in face of growing
competition and erection of new factories in all parts of the country.

Copper Refining. For many years Baltimore has been the leading
centre in the United States for copper refining. Inexhaustible mines in
Arizona and Montana are controlled and managed by local interests, and
their entire product is shipped to Baltimore either for treatment in the
extensive works located at Canton or for shipment abroad. The principal
business of the works at Canton is the refining of the ore destined for.
consumption in this country. This is brought direct from the smelter in
Montana to the reducing plant—twenty-five hundred miles by rail—in
bulk, without transfer, in the form of matte of sixty per cent. copper,
and is here treated in reverberatory furnaces, converted into refined ingot
copper, and sold for use in every State in the Union. It goes into all
forms of brass and bronze castings. In 1891, over thirty-two million
348 MARYLAND.

pounds of this refined copper, known the world over as the “Baltimore
Brand,” were turned out. Besides the pure copper, a large quantity of
copper sulphate or blue vitriol is produced, the sulphuric acid used in
the manufacture being also made here.

Bricks and Tiles. This industry has already been spoken of under
the subject of Clay, in the chapter treating of mineral products. Balti-
more pressed bricks have for many years enjoyed high reputation, and
shipments are now made to every part of the country. The Baltimore
clays are also suitable for terra cotta and roofing tile manufactures.
Large plants equipped with improved machinery produce a superior
article for roofing purposes, and supply points throughout the north,
west and south. Finer goods designed for house decoration rival the
imported ware in both elegance of design and in perfection of finish.

Potteries. There are in Baltimore five potteries, with twenty or
more large kilns, employing about seven hundred and fifty men and
women in making and decorating their wares. Baltimore products have
attained a high reputation for artistic design and superior workmanship
throughout the United States. Local clays are sufficiently fine and free
from iron to be suited for the manufacture of the coarser grades of
stoneware and pottery, while the three requsites for porcelain manufac-
ture, flint (vein quartz), feldspar, and a fine clay, all occur in excellent
quality within the limits of Maryland and the adjoining portions of
Pennsylvania and Delaware. Flint is largely quarried in Harford,
Carroll and Howard counties; a useful soda feldspar is obtained near
Rising Sun, Cecil county, and the best potash feldspar from Brandywine
Summit, Delaware county, Pennsylvania. A few of the finer china clays
come from Cornwall, England. Maryland coal is also unsurpassed for
firing pottery kilns. .

Straw Hats. Baltimore has been identified with the manufacture of
hats for more than a century. Down to the outbreak of the civil war, the
city was a leading centre in the production of fur hats, and though there
was a considerable falling off in this industry at the time, the close of
the war was followed by the rise of a new enterprise—the manufacture
of straw hats; and the younger industry soon exceeded the older, both in
number of establishments and amount of production: Baltimore has
continued to enlarge and increase this trade, and is at present the leading
city in the United States in the manufacture of the best class of straw
hats. Nine manufacturing establishments are in active operation, with
an aggregate capital of about six hundred thousand dollars. They give
employment to about five hundred skilled male and seven hundred and
fifty female operatives, and the annual product is estimated at upwards
of three million dollars.
MANUFACTURES. 349

Cottun Duck. Baltimore is the largest manufacturing centre of
cotton duck in the world, turning out about two-thirds of the entire
amount produced in the United States., The village of Woodberry has
been built up largely through this industry, and is its chief site. In
addition to local plants, two or three more distant mills contribute to the
Baltimore trade. The annual product aggregates some two million yards,
giving employment to about five hundred people. Large quantities of
yarn and twine are also produced. These goods are in demand in every
quarter of the world.

Shirts and Overalls. In the manufacture of shirts, drawers, overalls
and white goods in general, Baltimore is probably the most important
centre in the country. The industry has largely developed from modest
beginnings and attained importance by the excellence of its products.
One extensive establishment is devoted exclusively to the manufacture
of night-shirts. A number of factories are engaged in the production of
shirts and overalls and in the manufacture of drawers and cotton goods,

Confectionery. Baltimore confectionery has a wide reputation for
purity and superiority of composition. Most of the establishments so
engaged conduct in addition, a flourishing distributive trade in Mediter-
ranean and West Indian imports. It is estimated that the total volume
of business annually transacted in both of these lines aggregates some
five million dollars.

Other Industries. An immense jobbing trade in dry goods and
notions is transacted by Baltimore establishments, largely with northern
and adjacent States. Heavy importations are made, and the volume of
business transacted in 1892 was estimated as exceeding thirty-five
million dollars. Much of the stone, marble, granite and slate quarried
in Maryland is made up or marketed in Baltimore. As the mineral
resources of the State are being more fully developed, this industry is
steadily increasing, and local marbles more generally used. Crockery
and queensware are handled by a number of long-established firms.
Supplies are largely imported, and Baltimore possesses great advantages
asa port of entry for merchandise of this kind. Baltimore pianos and
musical instruments in general, are widely and favorably known. One
establishment employs some seven hundred men in the manufacture of
pianos, famous for their delicacy and excellence. The demands of local
boot and shoe factories have stimulated a large trade in leather; heavy
shipments are also made to northern and eastern markets. Extensive
tanneries in Maryland and Virginia are controlled by the larger dealers.
Paints and oils are largely produced and distributed. Well-known
brands of ready-mixed paints are prepared here, and the closely allied
goods, window glass and paint brushes, are successfully manufactured.
Baltimore is the leading distributing point of hardware and tinware
350 MARYLAND.

throughout the South. House furnishing goods are also manufactured.
The supply of wooden and willow-ware is now almost entirely provided
by local factories instead of being drawn as hitherto from the Eastern
states. The oldest lithographic establishment in the United States has
its parent plant in Baltimore. Several establishments are now in opera-
tion, producing work of the highest grade. Baltimore contributes more
than one-half of the entire production of curled hair in the United
_ States, and continues to increase her output in this direction. The city
is also an important point of distribution for millinery throughout the
South and West.

Although the industrial activity of Baltimore is largely concentrated,
flourishing manufactures are in operation in such suburban towns as
Wetheredsville, Alberton, Granite, Laurel, Phoenix and Mount Washing-
ton, and the present tendency seems towards the more general location
of manufacturing establishments in the outskirts of the city.

Sparrow’s Point. The great works of the Maryland Steel Company
at Sparrow’s Point, on the north branch of the Patapsco, have been
already described in the chapter on Mines and Minerals.

Curtis Bay. An active industrial settlement has sprung up at Curtis
Bay, on the north side of the Patapsco River, a few miles below the city.
It embraces about fifteen hundred acres of land with an extensive water
front. The water has an average depth of twenty-five feet, permitting
vessels of large draught to discharge their cargoes in bulk. Important
and varied industries, either established by local capital or attracted
from without by the natural advantages and enterprising management of
the place, have led to an extraordinary development within the last few
years. A large sugar refinery has been erected, and is expected to bring
back to Baltimore its early prestige in this industry. Extensive car
works are in operation, employing some five hundred men and turning
out fifteen new freight cars daily. Nut and bolt factories, an iron
foundry, machine shops and a barrel factory are also in operation. A
large rolling-mill is in process of erection. Several hundred neat and
substantial brick houses have been erected to meet the demands of the
growing population, while churches and schools give the locality all the
pest characteristics of a flourishing industrial centre. The Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad has, by means of a branch line, a tidewater terminus
at Curtis Bay, thus securing direct connection with the railroads of the
county. The settlement is also connected with Baltimore by an electric
railway.

Canton. Canton is the oldest and one of the most important
industrial sections of the city, the corporation to which its present
development is due, having been chartered in 1828. The property
includes about twenty-three hundred acres of land, with an estimated
‘GW ULNIOd S.MOYYVdS “NAD ddNY¥YyX JHL ONIQVOINN

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MANUFACTURES. 351

water front of thirty-two thousand feet and a water depth varying from
sixteen to twenty-eight feet. It is divided by graded and paved streets
into lots suitable for manufacturing and building purposes. The tide-
water terminals of the Northern Central Railway, comprising elevators,
piers and docks, are located here, securing immediate connection with
the entire Pennsylvania system. Canton is also traversed by the tracks
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad; the Baltimore and Lehigh and the
Western Maryland Railroads have access to the property. The industries
located here are numerous and varied, including many of those to which
reference has already been made. It is in particular the centre of the
oyster canning and fruit packing trade, and is the seat of the extensive
copper refineries and pottery works already described. Saw and planing
mills, iron foundries, brick yards, chemical works, fertilizer inanufactories
and distilleries are in successful operation. It has been said that one of
the most striking industrial advantages of Baltimore consists in the
admirable sites it offers for manufacturing purposes. Nowhere is this
better seen than in Canton. <A large amount of property is here available
for industrial enterprise, possessing extensive water frontage and ample
railroad facilities.

Woodberry. Woodberry isa busy manufacturing section in the north
of the city, at the base of Prospect Hill, Druid Hill Park. It is the
chief site of the manufacture of cotton duck, of which, as before stated,
Baltimore is the largest single producing centre in the world. Extensive
iron foundries and machine shops are also located here, covering in all
some ten acres of ground. The loom for weaving cotton duck, the
turbine water-wheel and cable railway machinery have been developed
here. At present from four to five hundred skilled workmen are engaged
in the manufacture of all varieties of special machinery. The Northern
Central Railway passes directly through the settlement.

COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATIONS.

The important commercial organizations of Baltimore are as follows:

Board of Trade, Chamber of Commerce.

Merchants and Manufacturers’ Association, Hopkins Place and German
street.

Corn and Flour Exchange, Chamber of Commerce.

Produce Exchange, 105 South street.

Provision Exchange, Chamber of Commerce.

Builders’ Exchange, 19 West Saratoga street.

Canned Goods’ Exchange, 413 Water street.

Brick Manufacturers’ Exchange, 19 West Saratoga street.

Lumber Exchange, 19 West Saratoga street.

Real Estate Exchange, 203 East Fayette street.
352 MARYLAND.

Coal Exchange, 18 West Saratoga street.

Brewer’s Exchange, North and Lexington streets.

Tobacco Board of Trade, 419 Exchange Place.

Shoe and Leather Board of Trade, Hopkins Place and German street.

Furniture Board of Trade, 110 East Lexington street.

Taxpayers’ Association, 203 East Fayette street.

Old Town Merchants’ and Manufacturers’ Association, Gay and Exeter
streets.

West Baltimore Business Men’s Association, 208 St. Paul street.

Southwest Baltimore Business Men’s Association, 110 St. Paul street.

East Baltimore Business Men’s Association.

Stock Exchange, German near South street.

CUMBERLAND.

Cumberland has been frequently alluded to as the “Pittsburgh of
Maryland.” It would certainly be difficult to find a city more favorably
situated for manufacturing purposes. Within easy distance are moun-
tains full of the richest red and brown hematite ores. Alleghany county,
of which Cumberland is the county seat, contains a fourteen-foot vein of
bituminous coal, the quantity of which is almost inexhaustible. It can
be delivered in Cumberland at a dollar and fifteen cents per ton. The
smaller veins of this coal make excellent coke. Just across the river in
West Virginia is found the gas-coal, and along the borders of Penn-
sylvania is the bituminous coal, so that the worker in metal is enabled
to furnish to all purchasers any quantity of iron, from the ingot to the
finished tool steel. The Cambria Jron Company have a branch mill in
this city, employing two hundred and fifty men. In addition to this are
the Cumberland Steel and Tin Plate Company, Shafting and Machine
Works, three foundries, one Car Spring Works, and three machine shops,
together with the constructon and repair shops of the railroads centering
here. Negotiations are now pending for the establishment of other
works which will consume the entire output of the Cumberland Steel
Company.

Next in importance to Cumberland’s advantages as a site for manu-
facturing purposes, are its large lumber interests. The vast forests of soft
and hard wood in Western Maryland and Northern West Virginia are
largely owned or controlled by home capital, which is now organizing
and establishing mills along the lines of the railways centering at
Cumberland. The yards and factories in active operation in the city
consume and dispose of millions of feet of timber monthly. In the
establishment and prosecution of the industries of this kind home
capital has been, for the most part, engaged; there are in prosperous
existence one wood pulp paper-mill, with a capacity of ten tons per day
MANUFACTURES. 353

of finished product, three large planing-mills, three building companies,
two sash blind factories, three large lumber-yards, one coffin factory, and
a number of other smaller concerns.

One of the most profitable industries is that of glass-making, which
is represented by two factories, employing a large number of hands
engaged in turning out table and prescription ware of a high order. One
of these companies organized in 1883 with a capital of fifteen thousand
dollars. After having paid ninety per cent. in dividends, and having
doubled its capacity at a cost of eighteen thousand dollars, it had, in
1890, seventy thousand dollars over and above all liabilities, and its net
earnings for the year 1892 amounted to over eighteen thousand dollars.
Beside cheap fuel, Cumberland enjoys the advantage of the Medina
sandstone, an almost pure silica, with less than one-half per cent. of
sesquioxide of iron.

The Cumberland Hydraulic Cement, used for building and other
purposes, takes its name from a vein of that material which crops out in
the very heart of the city. The production of this cement employs
three mills, turning out a thousand barrels daily. Clay for the manu-
facture of building brick is abundant, and four large yards are in
operation. Outside the city are the mines and works of the Union
Mining Company, where the celebrated Mount Savage fire brick is
made. The immense fire-clay mines are inexhaustible. At Ellerslie, a
few miles distant, are located the Standard Savage Fire-Brick Works.
These two corporations furnish employment to several hundreds of men.
The city’s flouring mills, of which there are three, all using the roller
process, turn out 150,000 barrels annually. There are three distilleries
and four breweries, the superiority of whose product is largely due to
the pure mountain spring water that is used in the manufacture. In
addition to these industries, Cumberland has three large tanneries, six
cigar factories, one ice factory, two bookbinderies, two marble-yards,
two soap factories, one steam laundry and six newspapers, two of which
are dailies.

Cumberland’s industries, according to a private census taken in
October, 1892, furnish employment to 1,043 skilled mechanics and
laborers. I1t is estimated that this will be more than doubled within the
next three years, as the extensive improvements contemplated, and now
in process of construction, by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at the
southern end of the city, will afford employment to twelve hundred
men. The company has purchased ninety acres of land, upon which
repair and construction shops will be erected and tracks laid to accom-
modate three thousand cars. Three of these new tracks have recently
been laid, and two hundred men are now actively engaged in extending
the work.

23
354 MARYLAND.

The geographical situation of Cumberland renders it peculiarly
adapted for industrial development. It fronts on the north branch of
the Potomac River, and is bisected by Will’s Creek, the banks of which
abound in sites for mills and factories. These natural advantages have
been greatly enhanced by the artificial aids of the Chesapeake and Ohio
Canal, which forms an outlet to the sea by water, and the convergence of
no less than seven railroads at Cumberland, affording abundant facilities
for the shipment of products manufactured within its gates to the
markets of the United States.

HAGERSTOWN.

The manufacturing industries of Hagerstown include, in all, over
one hundred establishments, furnishing employment to an average of
over twelve hundred and fifty mechanics.

Of the leading industries, a few may be noted. In the manufacture
of gloves, one factory employs an average of one hundred and fifty
hands, almost wholly young women, producing an average of over
$75,000 per annum, in that special line of products, the largest output
of any factory in the country. In the manufacture of bicycles, great
development has occurred within the last few years, two large factories,
employing three hundred workmen, with an annual product of $250,000,
being now engaged in the industry. One silk mill gives employment to
one hundred and sixty operatives, and has a product yearly, of over
$200,000. There are two knitting mills, one of underwear, employing
one hundred hands, with a product of $75,000, and one of hosiery,
employing eighty hands, with a product of $70,000. One shirt factory,
employing sixty hands, yields a product of $50,000. Another factory
gives steady work to forty skilled mechanics in building pipe and cabinet
organs, and is rapidly increasing its reputation and output. The value
of the anuual product of bricks, all used here, and falling short of the
demand, exceeds $250,000. In the manufacture of furniture, one factory
makes extension-tables exclusively, another is general in its product.
Together they employ over one hundred workmen and produce wares of
over $100,000 in value. Other manufactures of wood include mills making
wheel and carriage stock, employing over one hundred and fifty work-
men, and handling more than $150,000 of finished products. One firm
annually exports over $125,000 of hardwood in bulk and dimension
lumber. One paper mill has an annual product of twelve hundred tons
of white paper, and sells in addition, fifteen hundred tons each year. Of
the wholesale trade in confectionery, exceeding $100,000, more than half
is manufactured here. The available banking capital of the city exceeds
one and a half millions.
MANUFACTURES. 355

FREDERICK.

Frederick has long enjoyed the reputation of being the county seat
of the third largest agricultural county in the country. More recently
the city has advanced rapidly in industrial progress, and now offers
unusual advantages for the establishment of small industries. The
population of the city is at present, in round numbers, about ten
thousand.

Frederick is the home of the Louis McMurray Packing Company,
the Frederick City Packing Company, the Union Knitting Mills, the
Palmetto Fibre Company, the latter a large and very important enterprise
engaged in the manufacture of all kinds of brushes from the Palmetto
fibre of the Southern States; the Frederick Elevator Company, operating
a grain elevator of fifty thousand bushels capacity, which receives and
ships the grain raised by the farmers of the rich Frederick and Middle-
town valleys; the Hygeia Ice Company, manufacturers of artificial ice
on a large scale; the Frederick Spoke Works, manufacturing wagon spokes
and similar products from native hickory; a factory of straw hats,
and numerous minor industries that contribute to the enterprise and the
general prosperity of the county. Many of these industries were estab-
lished in 1890 under the stimulus of the Frederick City Manufacturing
Company.

In the adjacent county, the point of most rapid growth and impor-
tance at present is Brunswick, two years ago a sleepy little hamlet of
two hundred souls, now a flourishing town of two thousand inhabitants.
The change has been largely brought about by the establishment at that
point of the large freight-distributing yards of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad Company. Middletown, Mechanicstown, Emmitsburg and
Liberty are also flourishing towns, toward which the same spirit of
enterprise has reached. The construction of a railroad through the
Middietown valley, connecting the principal points with Frederick on
the main line of the Baltimore and Ohio and Western Maryland Railroads,
is now being agitated, with every prospect of eventual consummation.
Frederick’s present railroad tacilities consist in a connection with the
main line of the Western Maryland, the Frederick Division of the
Pennsylvania Railroad, which extends from Columbia, Pennsylvania, to
Frederick, connecting at Columbia with the main line of the great
Pennsylvania system. A short special branch of three miles also
connects the city with the main line of the Baltimore and Ohio at
Frederick Junction. The city is thus brought within two hours and a
half of Baltimore, five hours of Philadelphia, and seven hours of New
York, while all western connections are readily accessible.
356 MARYLAND.

OTHER MANUFACTURING CENTRES.

Annapolis. With allits historic opportunities and natural advantages,
Annapolis has not progressed commercially as have other cities of the
sameage. Still it possesses respectable business industries. The shipping
of oysters to the North and West has, for many years, been a profitable
business. A glass factory is also in operation. A marine railway is
located in the suburbs of the city, and carries on a flourishing business.
The Farmers’ National Bank and the Annapolis Savings Institution offer
all necessary banking facilities. Four printing establishments supply
the requirements of the public, and furnish the daily and weekly news.
Annapolis is the terminus of two railroads, the Annapolis, Washington
and Baltimore Railroad, and the Annapolis and Baltimore Short Line.

Cambridge. Cambridge ranks as the third largest oyster centre in
the State. The boats engaged in the trade represent a capital of three
hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The annual catch aggregates four
hundred and thirty-five thousand bushels, creating a fund of two hundred
and eighty thousand dollars paid to four thousand men engaged in the
business. The oysters are packed and shipped by several packing
establishments to all parts of the country. Daily communication is
afforded with Baltimore and river points by two lines of steamboats, and
with Philadelphia and the north by the Cambridge and Seaford branch
of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Cambridge also contains a large manu-
facturing company, several lumber mills, two shirt factories, two brick
kilns, three ship-yards and two phosphate factories. The town has a
taxable basis of $1,800,000 and two national banks. Besides these
industries, Cambridge is largely engaged in the catching and shipping of
crabs, herring, shad and other products of the water. In the season, it is
a centre for the shipment of much of the farm produce of the adjacent
country.

Havre-de-Grace. The natural location of Havre-de-Grace, near the
mouth of the Susquehanna river, has made it the centre of the important
shad and herring fisheries in the vicinity. The cutting and storing of
ice engages many of its residents during the winter months, and ducking
is, in favorable seasons, a source of considerable revenue. A steam
flouring mill, canning establishments, a fertilizer factory and saw and
planing mills are in successful operation. Situated in close proximity
to Baltimore and Philadelphia, in the midst of a rich agricultural
country with ample railroad facilities, Havre-de-Grace possesses many
opportunities for industrial development.

Easton. Vigorous efforts have been made within the last few years
to develop the manufactures of Easton. Healthy climate, cheap land
and living, low rents and abundant transportation facilities, are all favor-
able to this movement. Already manufactures of commercial fertilizers,
MANUFACTURES. 367

flour mills, brick and tile yards and canneries are in successful operation.
Smaller but flourishing industries are manufactories of shirts, washing
machines, brooms, carriages, chairs, an@ window sash, and a number of
well equipped machine shops and foundries. A creamery is in flourish-
ing condition, and a large ice factory and another packing house will be
built this summer. Two railroads and two steamboat lines afford quick
communication with Philadelphia, Baltimore and Norfolk. While still
retaining its character as a county seat, Easton is fast becoming a
manufacturing town.

Salisbury. Salisbury, advantageously situated at the head of navi-
gation on the Wicomico river, at the junction of the Eastern Shore and
Wicomico and Pocomoke Railroads, is the centre of a large and valuable
trade in lumber, having regular communication with Baltimore and
Washington, and thence with all markets Eastand North. It is estimated
that the annual manufacture of planed lumber aggregates eight million
feet, a considerable part of which is consumed by local factories in
making peach baskets and strawberry boxes and crates. In addition
to this, about eight million feet of Virginia boards are annually used in
the manufacture of oil cases. The surrounding country is well adapted
to the cultivation of berries and truck farming, and a large part of this
product is shipped from Salisbury. Altogether the town is one of the
most flourishing and enterprising on the Peninsula, and the annual volume
of its business has been estimated as exceeding one million dollars.

Chestertown. The characteristics of Chestertown as a town and
place of residence have been described elsewhere. Kent county, of
which it is the county seat, is one of the most productive sections of the
State, and upon its products the trade of the town is largely dependent.
The advantages which Chestertown offers to industrial enterprise have,
however, been by no means neglected. One establishment is engaged
in the manufacture of straw board, and turns out sixteen tons of the
completed product daily. Another manufactures peach baskets, which
are used throughout Maryland, Delaware and New Jersey. Other indus-
tries are canneries, a drying-house, brick-yard, creamery, ice factory,
planing-mill, fertilizer factories, flour mill and iron foundries. The
town enjoys excellent steamboat and railroad facilities.

Elkton. Elkton, the county seat of Cecil county, has undergone
marked industrial development within the last few years. The erection
of extensive pulp mills for the manufacture of paper has of itself given
a material impulse to its prosperity. A large plant for the manufacture
of fertilizers, extensive machine shops and the growth of fruit and
vegetable canning, indicate the importance and the industrial possi-
bilities of the town. Its contiguity to the large manufacturing centres,
Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, and its ample facilities for
358 MARYLAND.

transportation by railroad or water, are highly favorable to its growth.
Barge and boat-yards have been recently established at Elk Landing,
near the town. These are controlled by Pennsylvania capitalists, and
have been removed from that State on account of the greater advantages
of Elkton.

Port Deposit is an important point for trade in stone and granite.
The quarries in the neighborhood give employment to some two hundred
men. Stoves and tin cans are also manufactured. Crisfield is one of the
great oyster centres of the State. Large quantities of fish and soft crabs
are marketed here, and a considerable part of the produce of the
surrounding country. Hllicott City is the site of a considerable part of
the milling industry already described. Belair is the county seat of
Harford county and contains a number of large canneries and other
manufacturing establishments. Scattered throughout the State are many
hundreds of local manufactures—oyster canneries, fruit packing estab-
lishments, planing mills, ice factories, iron foundries, flour mills and
ship-yards.
CHAPTER XI.

CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

CITIES.

Maryland has always been an essentially agricultural, rather than a

manufacturing state.

Peculiar causes led to the early commercial devel-

opment of Baltimore, and this pre-eminence has since been maintained.
The State as a whole is accordingly characterized rather by a relatively
large number of agricultural and tidewater settlements, than of great

industrial centres.

The population of the thirty-three cities, towns and

villages having one thousand or more inhabitants as returned by the
census of 1890, in the order of their rank, is as follows:

 

 

 

    
 
   

 

 

 

POPULATION. INCREASE.
Cirizs, TOWNS AND VILLAGES. COUNTIES.

1890. 1880. | Number, | Per cent.
BAeOIMORE CEUY io c08s xialtes ete ee eelinrn nerves aeea add eae 434,439 | 332,313 | 102,126 30.73
CUMBERLAND CITY. .... see ee eeee eee AVEB ANY 6 iisa ees vcarse 12,729 10,693 03 19.04
HAGERSTOWN CITY .... oe. cee e ee eeee Washington........... 10,118 6,627 3,491 52.68
FREDERICK CITY....... 0 ce eeeee ee eeee Bredeérick is iene sacices 8,193 HOD le vesav: weelnehs pexe xs
ANNAPOLIS CITY ......eceeeee eee eees Anne Arundel......... 7,604 6,642 962 14.48
CAMBRIDGE TOWN ......e cece cece cece Dorchester iis icicic sees y 4,192 2,262 1,930 85.82
FROSTBURG TOWN .......-000005 Allegany BO0d lav adess eee Oj BOE Nis iiste estos gee
HAVRE DE GRACE CITY.......5+ Harford 3,244 2,816 428 15.20
EASTON TOWN......ee005 seeeee Talbot 2,939 8009 | sia ssearscarerstsal eaversete Jew
SALISBURY TOWN..... Wicomico 2,905 2,581 324 12.55,
WESTMINSTER TOWN.. Carroll 2,908 2,507 396 15.80
CHESTERTOWN TOWN ... Kent. 2,632 2,359 273 11.57
SPARROW POINT TOWN........-- -| Baltimor 5000 Viacea scecsesasy a RQiDOT Peswsinade de
ELKTON TOWN.....-eeeeeeeeeee -| Cecil 2,318 1,752 566 32.31
CATONSVILLE VILLAGE.......46 Baltimore 2,115 1,712 403 23.54
Laurel. tO WD sconces cctierscaaveiae «e109 -| Prince George 1,984 1,206 778 64.51
Port Deposit, towits< ex «v<iixsveseuees Cecil 1,908 TARO os ein ca oul vm oe ha onin ve
Pocomoke city town.........eeee eee Worcester......-..e00e 1,866 1,425 441 30.95
Rockville: tows «secs sccesie overs eee Montgomery .......... 1,568 688 880 127.91
Gristield: tow siie cc sins ee Sie ae giae we Somerset.............. 1,565 986 579 58.72
Westernport village .| Allegany ..........0565 1,526 1,468 58 3.95
Hyattsville town .............0. .| Prince George......... 1,509 288 1,221 423.96
Ellicott City town............6 Baltimore and Howard. 1,488 BT ino vine oreunsacy acsnahnlins
Snow Bill tow sx. s sce cvescemnw wana WOrtebter cs cacicanws ve 1,483, 1,276 207 16.22
Belair tOwWDiaes:s sav o uschom ans x awl sieves Hartord sie vsacsinsecien es NA1G Hoi sie ore cies 1416. |eccces osc cies
Saint Michael town............. TMD OG og. seas oia Sy sisve sista oe 1,829 1,175 154 18.11
Centerville town ... Queen Anne.. 1,309 1,196 113 9.45
Williamsport town. -| Washington.. 1,277 HBOS ili ge'saraneiceiels advan wanes
Northeast town...............0. CGO ca vaveexad wise ss 1,249 988 261 26.42
Sharpsburg town............... Washington ........... 1,168 3200 | nw aviewsmells sae varews
Chesapeake City town........ OO os sen sicne ues cece’ 1,155 B02 i) anyerviararesestlisareacsia uae
QFOrd OWN s sie i isie's ste vin atersca's dal “Tal bOtis nin snccasia cance 1,135 689 446 64.73
Oakland town........... Kia ea ewensie AIT ie cass rancocsaea ¥ 1,046 910 186 14.95

 

 

 

 

 

 
360 MARYLAND.

In the following pages reference is made only to the fifteen having
a population of two thousand or more.

BALTIMORE.

Baltimore, the principal city of Maryland, is situated on the
Patapsco river, at the head of navigation, about fourteen miles from the
Chesapeake Bay, in 39° 17’ north latitude, and 76° 37’ west longitude
from the meridian of Greenwich. Its distance from the Atlantic by the
Chesapeake Bay is two hundred and four miles. The nearest neighboring
city is Washington, distant thirty-nine miles by rail.

A small stream called Jones’s Falls divides the city into east and west
Baltimore, and empties into the Patapsco, which is here a considerable
estuary of the Bay, and indenting the land with its middle branch and
southwest branch, as they are called, enables vessels to ascend to the
heart of the business quarters of the city, where the principal harbor is
prolonged into a small interior harbor called the basin. That part of the
city which lies south of the basin, and projects into the Patapsco into
the form of an irregular peninsula, at the extremity of which Fort
McHenry is built, is called South Baltimore. The entire area of the city
is thirty-one and a half square miles.

The land rises regularly from the water’s edge northward in a series
of undulations which throw the whole surface of the city into a succes-
sion of gently rising hills, the sides of which slope toward the Patapsco
or toward the tortuous course of the Falls. These elevations toward the
north, northwest and northeast of the city reach a considerable height,
commanding fine views of the city and river. Beyond the city limits the
same undulating and gently-rising country continues for many miles, and
indeed to the northern boundary of the State. The hill-sides, to a
considerable extent covered with natural woodland, and sloping down to
small dells drained by rivulets, are dotted with villas and handsome
cottages. No city affords more varied and attractive sites for suburban
and rural residences; and the moderate price of land enables even
persons of very limited means to have country homes amid scenery of
exquisite beauty, within an hour’s or even a few minutes’ ride from the
city.

It was the possession of its fine harbor with its extraordinarily
extensive water front that enabled Baltimore so rapidly to outstrip her
older colonial rivals, and to seize and keep the commercial supremacy.
Founded, as has been related in a previous chapter, in 1730, in 1775
Baltimore numbered 6,755 inhabitants; in 1790, 13,500; and in 1890
(according to the police census of that year), 455,427. Of these, 77,033, or
about one-sixth, were negroes and mulattoes.
 

 

 

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WASHINGTON MONUMENT, BALTIMORE, MD.
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 361

Government. The municipal government of Baltimore is vested in a
Mayor, elected biennially, and a City Council of two branches. The first
branch is composed of twenty-two memVers, one from each ward, elected
annually, and the ‘second branch of eleven members, one froin every two
wards, elected biennially. The principal departments are: A Tax
Department, the head of which is a City Collector, with an Appeal Tax
Court to correct and adjust assessments; a Register’s office and a Comp-
troller’s office; a Department of Finance, consisting of the Mayor and
two (unsalaried) citizens of his appointment, which has charge of the
public debt and other matters of municipal finance; a Law Department,
consisting of a City Counsellor, a City Solicitor, an Examiner of Titles,
and a City Attorney, who advise the executive in legal matters, and have
charge of municipal litigation; and a City Commissioner, who controls
the paving, sewerage, &c. In addition there are Boards of Commissioners
for Police, Water-Supply, Public Schools, the Harbor, Fires, Parks, &c.,
whose duties are indicated by their titles.

City Halil. The bureaus and offices of the city government are in
the City Hall, an imposing structure of white Maryland marble, covering
an area of over 30,000 square feet. The architectural style is the Italian
Renaissance. The design is a central mass with lateral wings, inclosing
courts which give light to the interior rooms. From the centre rises a
dome, supported by columns resting on a marble base, and surmounted
by a lantern and finial 236 feet from the ground. The principal approach
is on Holliday street by a marble portico. The building occupies an
entire block, thus presenting a facade to each street, and from whatever
point viewed the effect is pleasing and impressive. A circumstance
connected with its erection is unusual in the history ‘of similar public
buildings. Not only were all the expenses of building and finishing |
covered by the original appropriation, but a balance of $228,865 remained
unexpended and was returned to the City Treasury.

Fire Department. This is controlled by a Board of Fire Commis-
sioners of six members, with the Mayor as a member ez-officio. It is
equipped with fifteen engine companies, nine hook-and-ladder companies,
seven chemical engines, and a fire-boat for harbor use. The permanent
force consists of two hundred and thirty-three men, besides fifty call-
men, who are summoned when required. A salvage corps for the rescue
and protection of endangered property co-operates with the fire depart-
ment, but it is an independent organization supported by the local Board
of Underwriters.

Police. The police of the city is controlled by a board of commis-
sioners of three members, appointed by the State Legislature. The active
force consists of a Marshal, Deputy Marshal, with the necessary subalterns,
and six hundred and forty patrolmen. The city is divided into seven
362 MARYLAND.

police districts, each with its station-house. An alarm telegraph «ud
telephone system connects the whole and extends over the whole city,
and patrol wagons can instantly be summoned in case of accident or other
emergency. The suburban districts are patrolled by a mounted force,
and a steam patrol boat protects the harbor.

Water Supply. This has been fully described in a previous chapter.
It will be sufficient here to recapitulate that it is derived from two
sources—the Gunpowder river and Jones’s Falls. The water is stored in
five artificial lakes—Loch Raven and Lakes Montebello and Clifton for
the Gunpowder system, and Lake Roland and Druid Lake with the
Hampden High Service, and Mount Royal reservoir for the Jones’s Falls
system. These with the conduits and distributing mains have an aggre-
gate storage capacity of about 38,000,000,000 gallons, and a daily supply
capacity of 165,000,000 gallons.

Health Department. The chief executive officer of this department
is the Commissioner of Health, appointed annually by the Mayor, and
invested with powers to deal with everything that concerns or imperils
the health of the city. In connection with this department is the city
morgue, at the foot of President street.

Courts. The courts of Baltimore have been described elsewhere.
The courthouses are three ancient structures on Calvert and St. Paul
streets, south of Lexington; but as these are about to be superseded by a
fine modern structure, suitable to the needs of the city, we shall not
occupy our space with the description of obsolete relics that have out-
lived their usefulness and will soon disappear.

Post-office. This is a new and handsome building, erected by the
federal government and completed in 1890. It occupies a large part of
the block between Lexington and Fayette streets, immediately west of
the City Hall. Itis built of Maine granite, and the design is a hollow
parallelogram, the facade being broken by a centre position flanked by
two towers. The basement is used for the reception and storage of mail
matter. The proper work of the post-office occupies the first floor, while
on the second floor are located the offices of various federal officials.
The third floor is occupied by the federal courts.

Custom House. The Collector of Customs, with his staff, has for
many years been housed in the old Merchants’ Exchange building at the
corner of Gay and Lombard streets. It is entirely inadequate to the
needs of the city, and very ugly; and it is to be hoped that before long
it will be replaced by a more creditable structure.

Parks. There is nothing of which Baltimoreans have juster reason
to be proud than of their beautiful parks and public squares. The
largest of these, Druid Hill Park, to the north-west of the city, contains
700 acres, and had been, before its purchase by the city, the country seat
 

 

 

 

 

 

CITY HALL, BALTIMORE, MD
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 363

of a family whose good taste had, for generations, preserved its natural
beauties. In these it probably stands alone among American city parks.
The diversity of hill and dale, deep woodlands threaded by winding
paths, dense thickets, the coverts of deer, bright stretches and slopes of
green sward, crystal streams and springs, lakes and ponds, present
pictures of exquisite beauty, changing at every moment.

The city has carefully preserved these natural beauties, and enhanced
them by judicious treatment. Drives, bridle-paths and foot-paths, enable
the thousands who visit it daily to enjoy all its charms, whether their
tastes lead them to mingle with the lively throngs always to be found in
the vicinity of the “Mansion House” or the lake, or to seek the
meditative solitude and silence of the woods. Lines of cars convey
visitors to it from every part of the city, and it is a favorite resort of all
classes of society.

The Earl of Meath, who visited this country in 1890, and devoted
especial attention to the parks of American cities, published an article
on the subject in the Vew Review (Vol. II), in which he says that “as a
lovely specimen of the forest park, Druid Hill was the finest among
those that I visited in the United States.”

The main entrance is on Madison avenue. To the right is Druid
Lake, with a driveway of a mile and a-half running around it. In other
parts are lakes and ponds for boating and skating and for the propagation
of fish. In a special inclosed pond are a pair of sea lions. Groves are
arranged with shelters for picnics and with playgrounds for children, and
there are grounds kept in order for base ball, tennis and other outdoor
sports. Near these are the public buildings—the Mansion House, with
spacious verandas, dining and lunch-rooms, and the Maryland House,
transported from the Centennial Exposition of 1876, with collections
illustrating the fauna and other natural productions of the State. Near
these buildings is a small zoological collection and an aviary.

A fine herd of deer roam at large in the woods, a flock of Southdown
sheep pasture in the fields under charge of a shepherd in authentic
costume, and a stable and a paddock are allotted to a pair of dromedaries
of the finest breed, presented by the King of Italy to the late John W.
Garrett. The park is supported by a tax of nine per cent. on the gross
receipts of the street car companies.

If Druid Hill illustrates the forest park, a handsome specimen of the
artificial, or garden park, is presented by Patterson Park, a favorite resort
of the inhabitants of the eastern section of thecity. This is entered from
the avenue of the same name by an imposing marble gateway, on pass-
ing which the visitor’s attention is arrested by a large fountain with a
basin fifty feet in diameter. In all directions lie beds of flowers and
shrubs, presenting a charming picture. A conservatory contains a fine
364 MARYLAND.

collection of rare and exotic plants, palms, etc., and a lake in the south-
east corner is usually gay with small boats. In this park may still be
seen a part of the earthworks thrown up by the citizens in 1814, when
Baltimore was threatened by the British forces, as related in the first
chapter of this work.

On that part of the peninsula before described which lies beyond
and to the south of the basin, is Federal Hill Park, an elevated plateau,
eighty-five feet above the water. On this plateau, during the late war,
rather formidable earth-works were constructed by the federal forces, and
mounted with heavy guns directed upon the city, which it overlooks. It
was, fortunately, never thought necessary to use them; and after the
restoration of peace, “ grim-visaged war smoothed his wrinkled front” in
this particular locality, the ramparts were levelled, and the surface
adorned with trees, shrubs and flower-beds. The crest of the plateau
commands an interesting view of the city and harbor.

South of this plateau is Riverside Park, overlooking the Patapsco
river, the fort and the bay as far as North Point. In Northwest Balti-
more is Harlem Park, distinguished for the beauty of its gardening.

Squares. The squares, or ornamented spaces in the residence
sections of the city, are too numerous to describe in a work like this.
We mmay single out for mention the largest and most beautiful, Eutaw
Place, a series of squares extending from Lanvale street to North
avenue, laid out in grass and flower-beds, diversified by shrubbery and
fountains. Mount Vernon Place and Washington Place are the four
squares at the base of the Washington Monument. They are adorned
with flowers, trees and fountains. The visitor’s eye is especially attracted
by the beautiful bronze statuary, which are the chief ornaments of these
squares. A colossal lion by Barye, four allegorical groups by the same
master, and a noble figure by Dubois, representing a youthful warrior in
Gaulish costume, seated and leaning upon his sword, entitled “ Military
Courage,” adorn the western square, and are the gift of W. T. Walters,
Esq. The northern square has a statue of Chief Justice Roger Brooke
Taney, and the eastern one of George Peabody, both of heroic size.
Fronting on the square are the Mt. Vernon Church, the Peabody Institute
and many tasteful private residences.

Monuments. Baltimore is often called “the Monumental City”;
but this designation arose not so much from the number of its monv-
ments, as from the fact that it was the first city in America that could
boast a worthy monument to Washington. The Washington Monument,
erected by the State of Maryland, and finished in 1829, is a Doric column
of white Maryland marble, 164 feet in height, rising from a marble base
50 feet square and 24 feet high, and surmounted by a statue 16 feet in
height, representing Washington in the act of resigning his commission.
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 365

A winding staircase in the interior leads to the plinth, which is guarded
by a parapet, and from it an extensive view can be had of the city,
harbor and surrounding country. .

Battle Monument, in Monument Square, commemorates the Balti-
moreans who fell in defense of the city at the battle of North Point,
September 12, 1814.

In the grounds of the Samuel Ready Orphan Asylum stands a slender
shaft of brick, covered with stucco, which is interesting as the first
monument raised in the New World to the memory of Christopher
Columbus. It was erected in 1792 by the Chevalier d’Anmour, the French
consul; and for thirty years was the only monument to the great navi-
gator in the hemisphere which he discovered. One hundred years after
its erection, a statue of Columbus, presented by the Italian residents of
Baltimore, was unveiled in Druid Hill Park.

Other monumental memorials are the Wells and McComas monument,
the Wildey monument, the Wallace statue, in Druid Hill Park, and the
cippus which marks the grave of Edgar Allan Poe.

Residences. The domestic architecture of Baltimore is character-
ized rather by substantiality and comfort than by show and splendor.
Few, if any private houses are of the style which reporters call “palatial.”
Nearly all the residences are of brick, ornamented, in those of the better
class, with string courses, lintels, and other trimmings of marble or
sandstone of various hues. Of late years there has been a decided
tendency to improve the domestic architecture by introducing novel
designs and variety of building materials. Sandstone of various tints,
from a deep maroon to a bright russet, marble, gneiss, fine gray freestone,
green serpentine, bricks of different colors, diversify the streets with a
pleasing polychromatic effect.

In some sections of the city the visitor is surprised by the great
number of small but decent houses, inhabited for the most part by
workmen with their families. Baltimore has never taken kindly to
tenement-houses and lodging-houses; and the cheapness of rents enables
nearly every married workingman to have a home of his own; so that
Baltimore is emphatically a city of homes. When we consider the
advantages to the health, comfort, independence and morality of the
workingman that gather around his ‘ain fireside,” we can cheerfully
accept the loss of architectural display.

Clubs. The inveterate domesticity of Baltimoreans has probably
been the cause that the clubs are less numerous than would be expected
from the size of the city, though of late years there has been some
change in this respect. The Maryland Club, founded in 1857, is the
oldest and most important, and has recently removed to a stately new
building of white marble, at the corner of Charles and Eager streets,
366 MARYLAND.

which is one of the most ornamental buildings in the city. In addition,
there are the Baltimore Club, the Athenzum Club, the University Club,
the Germania and the Phcenix clubs, besides others of less numerous
membership.

The Masonic lodges have temporary quarters in the former United
States court house on Fayette street, pending the rebuilding of their
temple on Charles street, destroyed by fire a few years ago. The Order
of Odd Fellows have recently built a fine hall at the corner of Saratoga
and Cathedral streets.

Other institutions of Baltimore, as well as its commerce and manu-
factures, are treated under their appropriate heads.

The medial position of Baltimore, exempting it from the excessive
rigors of winter and the exhausting heats of summer, contributes largely
to making it one of the healthiest of American cities. According to the
police census of 1890 the population of that year was 455,427, and the
total mortality of the same year was 10,198, giving a total death-rate of
22.41 per thousand. The white mortality was 8,057, out of a white
population of 384,394, or a death-rate of 20.98; and the colored mortality
2,141 out of a population of 71,033, or a death-rate of 30.15.

ANNAPOLIS.

The most interesting survival of Maryland’s past is her ancient
capital, Annapolis. Two and a-half centuries have rolled away full of
the most surprising changes, and yet this relic of Old Maryland is as full
of interest to-day as ever in her long history.

Thirteen years after the establishment of the proprietary government
at St. Mary’s in the year 1647, an invitation was extended by Governor
Stone to a colony of non-conformist Puritans settled in the lower counties
of Virginia, and much disquieted by the authorities of that colony, to
enjoy perfect religious freedom within the borders of Maryland. For a
year they hesitated, but fresh persecutions were upon them, and the offer
was accepted. During the early spring and summer of 1649 the emigra-
tion continued from Virginia. Thankful for their preservation and
happy at finding a home where peace and security were guaranteed them,
the Puritans named their new settlement “Providence.” At first a long
stretch of plantations along the shores of the bay and its tributaries, the
Puritan settlement could not be protected from the Indian marauders
that nightly threatened, and gradually we mark the tendency to central-
ize upon one spot at the mouth of the Severn, where their meeting-house
stood. Here Anne Arundel Town, later called Annapolis, had its begin-
ning. As the soil was fertile and well cultivated, this section grew to be
the richest in the Province.
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 367

The central situation, general prosperity and more salubrious climate
marked this region as the best location for the seat of government, which
was removed from St. Mary’s to Anne Arundel Town by Governor Francis
Nicholson in 1695, and the name changed to Annapolis in honor of the
Princess Anne, afterwards Queen of England.

In 1708 Annapolis became a chartered city, with a regular municipal
government. King William School, which had been founded in 1696,
became the chief seat of domestic education. From the opening of the
century the capital increased steadily in wealth and importance, and soon
became the social centre south of Philadelphia, and the inhabitants were
distinguished for sociability, courtesy and refinement of manners. Races,
balls and other festivities attracted strangers not only from adjacent coun-
ties, but adjacent colonies. Conviviality prevailed; clubs were founded,

‘and deep drinking was the rule among all classes, the clergy not excepted.

The Tuesday Club became famous in the colonies for its wit and good
cheer, and claimed among its members many of the leading Americans
of the day. The quaint but voluminous records of the club give a charm-
ing insight of the social life at Annapolis. The provincial State House
became better known as a ball-room than a hallof legislation. <A theatre
was in full operation as early as 1745, and was the first, it is asserted, in
the colonies. French hair-dressers, tailors and perfumers plied their
trades in the little city, and excited the admiration and wonder of the
French and English visitors. The golden age of Annapolis lies between
1750 and 1770, when its wealth, influence and attractiveness were at the
highest point.

The spirit of resistance to the arbitrary measures of England rose
high at Annapolis. Non-importation clubs were formed, and the pres-
ence of the convention at once cherished and moderated the patriotic
spirit. The burning of the “Peggy Stewart,” with her cargo of tea, has
been described on an earlier page.

It was at Annapolis that Washington resigned his commission to
Congress, on December 23, 1783. But the Revolution concludes a chapter
of her history, and marks the beginning of her commercial decay. Ina
few years she was entirely overshadowed, in this respect, by Baltimore
on the Patapsco, and all her struggles to regain her old position were in
vain.

In the second war with Great Britain, Annapolis was on the very
verge of the battlefield, and many of her sons were upon the muster
rolls of those who rallied to the defense of the federal capital and
Baltimore. The little town was blockaded by the British fleet, but the
guns of Fort Severn, manned by resolute citizens, drove the enemy
down the bay. The historian notes but few changes in the half century
which separates this war from the greater civil conflict. Annapolis grew
368 MARYLAND.

but little, her commerce decreased, while many of her better citizens
moved to Baltimore and Washington. The establishment of the Naval
Academy here in 1845, marks the beginning of the naval regime in the
history of Annapolis, an important factor economically and socially.

During the Civil War, Annapolis became an army town, and thou-
sands of troops were quartered within her limits, while a large “parole”
camp lay on the outskirts. So menaced was she at times that the Naval
Academy had to be removed to Newport until hostilities had ceased.

Since the war her population has doubled and her material prosperity
greatly increased, though Annapolis will probably always be noted more
for its social opportunities and the hospitality of her citizens, than as a
pushing business-like modern city.

Colonial Houses. To the architect, the old houses of Annapolis
present an interesting study, as among the purest and most complete
examples of what is known as the “Colonial Style.” Of the seventeenth
century buildings, few survive here or in the State, or at most, so
modified as to be scarcely recognizable. Passable exceptions are the
house at the corner of Church and Conduit streets, and the building used
as the Treasury, on State House Hill.

Of the class of houses termed “mansions,” the Carroll house, now
a part of the Redemptorist seminary, is one of the earliest, as indicated
by the massive simplicity of its style. A garden terraced towards the
water was the usual adjunct of these homes, and while they had a town-
ward entrance the more pretentious front generally overlooked the garden
toward the bay. Intrinsic evidence, as shown in the change from a
somewhat primitive construction to the style of William and Mary,
recalling the Dutch taste of Hampton Court, and then to the Georgian,
lost in turn in the greater elegance of the French influence of Louis XV
architecture, may be traced distinctly in Annapolis mansions. Taken in
historical sequence we have the Tydings house; the Treasury; the
Randall house, built 1730 by Thomas Bordley; the Carroll mansion ; the
Brice house, corner East and Prince George streets, 1740 probably ; the
Iglehart house, Prince George street; its opposite neighbor, the Paca
house; the Claude house, Shipwright street, and the Ridout mansion,
Duke of Gloucester street; the Mason house, built by Governor Ogle
1742, and St. John’s College (McDowell Hall); the Randall house, Market
Space, and the house of Antony Stewart, of “Peggy Stewart” fame,
Hanover street. The City Hotel, Washington’s hostelry, belongs to an
early period, while the Chase mansion, built by Governor Lloyd, and the
Lockerman house opposite, built 1770, plainly show the growth of French
influence in plan and decoration.

In the more inodern dwellings of the colonial period the hipped
roof, similar to the French mansard, though without an ornamental
- OF

“

CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 369

character, was almost universal and covered many a comfortable home
of those days. One of the houses of this character, on Charles street, is
noted as the printing office and dwelling of the editor of the Maryland
Gazette, published here since 1745. Another on State House circle, the
Franklin house, is a specimen of the hipped roof colonial dwelling. Old
Annapolis consisted mostly of this sensible style of building, varied
occasionally by the very high-pitched roof, both picturesque and suited
to storm and sun.

Most of these humbler dwellings have disappeared, or, by modifica-
tion or additions, have lost all their original architectural character.

The State House and other public buildings of Annapolis are
described elsewhere in this volume.

Municipal Institutions. Annapolis is governed by a Mayor, Recorder

_and Aldermen, deriving authority from a charter granted in 1708, and

since amended by the Legislature. St. John’s College, four public schools,
three parochial schools, and five private schools, provide ample educa-
tional facilities. Protection from fire is assured by a steam fire engine,
two volunteer hose companies, a hook and ladder company and the fire
organization connected with the United States Naval Academy. Water
and gas supply are in the hands of private corporations.

CUMBERLAND.

The location of Cumberland, the county seat of Alleghany county,
and the second city of Maryland in point of importance, size, manufac-
turing interests and population, is in the northwestern part of the State,
one hundred and seventy-eight miles, by rail, from Baltimore city. It is
on the boundary line that separates Maryland from West Virginia—the
Potomac River—at the intersection of Wills’ Creek with the river. Its
precise geographical position is longitude 78° 45’ 25” and 39° 39’ 14” north
latitude; its altitude is seven hundred feet above sea level. The land
upon which the city is built was originally owned by Governor Thomas
Bladen, who disposed of it to George Mason, of Fairfax county, Va., to
whom a grant, by letters patent, was made on the 25th of March, 1756.
In October, 1783, it was purchased by Thomas Beall, of Samuel, for
$1,407.10. In 1785 Mr. Beall laid off the town, the county of Alleghany
having about this time been separated from Washington county, of which
it formed a part. In 1787 articles of incorporation were drawn up and
presented to the Legislature, who granted the privileges asked for.
Before this the town, which contained but thirty-five families, was
known by the name of Washington Town. A desire on the part of the
inhabitants for a more distinctive name was manifested, and the one
borne at the present time was selected in commemoration of Fort
Cumberland, which had been erected on the site by Gov. Dinwiddie, of

24
370 MARYLAND.

Virginia, as a defence against the French and Indians in 1754, and around
which the first houses had been built. The commanding site of old Fort
Cumberland is at present occupied by Emmanuel Episcopal Church and
some beautiful private residences, and is one of the prettiest spots in the
State, commanding a magnificent view of the city and surrounding hills
and valleys. In 1794 the first levy of $200 was made for the erection of
a court-house, to be located adjoining the site of the old fort. Other
levies were made up to 1799, when the total amount expended on its
construction amounted to $612.10. On January 1, 1795, Cumberland was
made a postoffice, established by order of the Postmaster-General, and
with its courthouse and postoffice, became entitled to be recognized by
the outside world asa place of local habitation. The woodsman’s axe,
border civilization and the progress of a century have cleared the way
gradually, until there nestles in a basin at the hills and lofty mountains
that almost completely surround it, one of the most beautifully located,
energetic and bustling cities in the country.

The business portion of Cumberland is built on the flats, banked on
the south and west by the north branch of the Potomac river and Wills’
creek, while on the rising ground on the east, north and west side are the
residence portions. Handsome private buildings mark the homes of its
citizens along broad and shady streets, while the towering verdure-clad
slopes of Wills’ mountain form a background to a noble panoramic view.
The city has a breathing place in “ Narrows Park,” out on the National
road, the substantial construction of which by the United States govern-
ment before the days of the locomotive, makes it the chief of all
promenades and carriage-ways. This popular road winds through an
immense cleft in the mountain, known as the “ Narrows,” whose rocky
sides stretch perpendicularly a thousand feet on either side, leaving a
chasm a little over a hundred yards wide, through which roll the waters
of Will’s Creek. Flanked on both sides by railroads and the National
highway, it is a veritable gateway from the north entrance into the city.
A short distance from the Narrows entrance is the park. Across a little
valley from that place are situated the base-ball and athletic grounds, and
two miles further west is the Alleghany Grove camp ground, filled with
neat cottages. At the southern end of the city lie the Tri-State Exposition
grounds—embracing a large enclosure, in which is an excellent half-mile
regulation track, numerous stables for horses, a grand stand for spectators
and large halls and exposition buildings. Those points of interest in the
suburbs are reached from all points of the city by six miles of electric
street railway operated by the trolley system. Among other points
outside of Cumberland well worth visiting are the coal mines, to which
four different routes by rail are at the choice of the tourist. An hour’s
ride, on any of them, will place him at the mouth of one of the large
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 371

mines that have so greatly contributed to Cumberland’s prosperity. In
the city itself, which has a population of fourteen thousand, there are
many points and features of interest.. It has fifteen miles of paved
streets, the most frequented being laid in vitrified brick. It is well
illuminated by gas and electricity, and the water supply from the river
is abundant.

The city’s officials consist of a mayor and eleven councilmen, city
clerk, treasurer and a tax collector. These officials have their quarters
in the City Hall, a large, handsome building, erected in 1874, and occupy-
ing the square bounded by Frederick, North Centre, North Liberty and
Bedford streets. The entire ground floor of this building is occupied as
a meat and vegetable market; the second floor by the Academy of Music,
the seating capacity of which is over one thousand persons. Lodging
rooms and city offices take up the rest of the structure. In the rear of
the City Hall is the Market Square, Station House and the Pioneer Hose
Company’s building. Thirteen policemen make up the force of the city’s
guardians. The fire department at present consists of four volunteer
companies. The taxable basis of the city on June 1, 1892, was $6,845,548,
and the tax rate was placed at eight mills.

The educational needs of the city are amply provided for by seven
public and six parochial schools, one high school and the Alleghany
County Academy. Its religious world worships in eighteen churches,
representing all creeds. The handsomest of these are owned by the
congregations of the Presbyterian, Emmanuel Protestant Episcopal,
Methodist Episcopal, Saints Peter and Paul’s and St. Patrick’s Catholic.
In connection with Saints Peter and Paul’s Church there is a convent in
charge of the Ursuline nuns, and a large monastery of the Capuchin
Order, while the convent of the Sisters of Mercy of St. Joseph is attached
to St. Patrick’s Church. The cemeteries are Rose Hill and Saints Peter
and Paul’s, beautifully located on the brow of the hill on the western
part, Greenmount, Sumner (colored), St. Patrick’s and a Jewish cemetery
in the eastern part of the city.

One of Cumberland’s handsomest buildings, the court-house, was
destroyed by fire on the early morning of January 5, 1893. It will be
rebuilt, enlarged and improved during the present summer. Immedi-
ately in the rear of the court-house site, on the opposite side of the
street, is the county jail, a well-protected and strongly built piece of
brick work. Within a stone’s throw of the jail are located the city
water works, between Green street and the river. Just at the eastern
limits of the city are the Alms-house and Sylvan Retreat, an asylum for
the insane, built by the county in 1888, at a cost of thirty-five hundred
dollars. On Baltimore avenue there is the Western Maryland Home and
Infirmary. This charitable undertaking was organized in 1887 by a few
372 MARYLAND.

of Cumberland’s philanthropic ladies. State aid was obtained, and the
present perfectly appointed hospital erected at a cost of twenty thousand
dollars.

The industries of Cumberland have been treated in another chapter,
and a visit to any one of these will well repay the visitor. The cement
quarries, the steel mills and glass factories are, perhaps, of particular
interest. '

HAGERSTOWN.

Hagerstown, the county seat of Washington county, is picturesquely
situated upon the crest of the main watershed of the Cumberland valley,
with the historic Antietam one mile east and the Conococheague six
miles west. It is nearly at the middle of the valley, which here is about
twenty miles wide, and is equidistant from Pennsylvania and West
Virginia. At an elevation of 600 feet above sea level, its broken and
rolling site has adequate surface drainage and is exceptionally healthy.
The geological formation of the region is Lower Silurian, the Trenton
limestone being the surface rock, with mountain sandstone flanking at
the foot-hills on either side. It is at the centre of one of the richest
agricultural sections of the continent, and from the hili-sides and higher
buildings the eye takes in, to the east and west, bounded only by “South”
Mountain on the east and “North” Mountain on the west, a grand
panorama of the valley, twenty miles or more in width. To the north
and south extends a stretch of more than sixty miles of thickly-settled,
abundantly-watered, highly-cultivated farm lands, the homes of thrift,
happiness and peace, while at either extremity lie the great battle-fields of
Antietam and Gettysburg.

The city was founded in 1762, by Jonathan Hager, whose name it
bears. In making its plan, he wisely provided wide and regular streets,
and spacious town lots, so that, in the older parts of the city, an absence
of the crowding so often seen in American cities is noticeable.

The history of Hagerstown before 1860 is that of most county seats
in agricultural sections, one of slow, steady growth from within, yet so
substantial as to lay broadly the foundation for large things in the future.
Upon the great highway, the National road, from Washington westward,
its wayside inns were of wide repute in stage coach days. The road
system of the county early received attention, and the abundance of
limestone facilitated the making of excellent Macadam roads. At the
present time eleven of these radiate to all the lesser towns, aftording
ample facilities for access, and with admirable railroad facilities,
concentrating in this city the larger part of the traffic of the county and
the adjoining parts of the valley, both north and south. Being one of
the strategic points of the late war, it early came to share the fortunes of
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 373

the borderland, and its occupation by the forces of one of the other of
the contending armies, was almost constant. ‘This was not, however, an
unmixed evil, since it attracted sorhe measure of attention to the
advantages of its location for business, manufacture and residence. Its
real development began about 1870, at which date its population was less
than 5,000. Since then its growth has been steady in measure, substantial
in character and encouraging in stability and diversity. Its population
in 1890 was 11,698, an increase in the decade of over 52 per cent. The
estimated present rate of increase is over 7 per cent. per annum, making
the population at the beginning of the year 1893 at least 13,000. This
estimate is fully warranted by the annual increase for some years past of
over 225 dwellings. The fact is also significant that houses are built to
meet actual needs, and are in large part erected by wage-earners for
their own occupation.

Hagerstown has twenty-one churches, of which twenty are Protestant,
representing eleven denominations, the Lutheran predominating, three
colored and one Catholic. All have fine edifices, and a number very
beautiful church buildings. It has also five public school buildings,
accommodating thirty-nine graded public schools, five private schools,
one young ladies’ seminary having over two hundred students, and a
commodious and elegant municipal building, with ample public market
accommodations. Its hotels are greatly superior to those of any town of
its size in the East. They are ten innumber, furnishing accommodations
for one thousand persons, and actually accommodating an annual average
of forty-five thousand persons. The two principal ones cost over $125,000
each, and are models of elegance and comfort, heated throughout by
steam, lighted with electricity, with elevators and all modern conve-
niences. so complete in their accommodations as to be noted and especially
attractive to travelers. The entire city is amply lighted by electricity,
its dwellings and business houses by electricity and gas. With its graded
and paved sidewalks, wide, macadamized streets, its law-abiding popula-
tion (the entire and efficient police force consisting of a chief and three
roundsmen), Hagerstown is a model town. Its ample water supply of
pure, soft sandstone water, is drawn from mountain streams eight miles
away, and. two hundred and fifty feet above mean level, giving an
average hydrant pressure of eighty-five pounds at the highest point of
service, and so making almost unnecessary the volunteer fire department,
which includes two first-class steam-engines, two hand-engines and
ample hook-and-ladder and hose apparatus.

Its municipal government is now conducted by a Mayor and Council.
All street maintenance and extension are under the direction of an
unpaid street commission. All public needs and expenditures are met
by an annual tax of five mills, and this, with the State and county tax,
374 MARYLAND.

amount to but fourteen and one-half mills. Property is assessed at an
average of about three-fourths of its estimated market value. The
limitation by charter of the maximum corporate tax, and of public
expenditures in each year to the amount of tax specifically levied, with
the inhibition of the creation of debt without previous legislative
authority and popular approval by vote, effectually guards the city
against extravagance in municipal expenditures.

FREDERICK.

Frederick, the county seat of Frederick county, is a beautiful town,
nestling among Maryland hills upon the banks of Carroll Creek. It was
laid out by Patrick Dulany in 1745, and the first house was built by John
Thomas Schley on what is now East Patrick street. Here Washington
and Benjamin Franklin met for the first time, and here also Washington
and Braddock fitted out their famous expedition against the French and
Indians in 1755. The barracks in which the troops were quartered, and
the military road built by them and over which they marched, are still
in a good state of preservation. Before the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
was built, all the travel and traffic to and from the West came over the
National road, which passes through the city. Such distinguished
statesmen and public men as Henry Clay, General Andrew Jackson,
President William Henry Harrison and General Winfield Scott were
entertained by its citizens, while the older inhabitants of the generation
that has just passed away, delighted to relate their recollections of the
visit of the Marquis De Lafayette and the ball given in his honor in this
city.

Frederick is well laid out with wide streets intersecting each other
at right angles, paved with stones and lighted with electricity. The
houses are substantially built, and though some are old-fashioned and
quaint in style of architecture, many are modern and handsome, equalling
those of any other city of its size. The public buildings, including the
court-house, market-house, public halls, churches, schools, banks and the
State institution for the deaf and dumb, are modern and well built. The
stores are numerous and well furnished with articles in their various
lines. Markets are abundantly supplied with the necessaries and com-
forts of living, at reasonable prices. The city has, just beyond its limits,
a large reservoir supplied with an abundance of pure, fresh water,
brought in pipes from springs in the mountains, in sufficient quantity for
all domestic and manufacturing purposes and for the needs of an efficient
volunteer fire department.

The fertile lands, the admirable location, the low cost of living, the
salubrity and beauty of its site, the energy, thrift and prosperity of its
population, all combine to make Frederick a highly attractive city.
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 375

TOWNS.

Cambridge, the county seat of Dorchester county, is the largest town
on the Eastern Shore. It is finely situated on the south bank of the
Choptank River, about eighteen miles from its mouth, which at this
point is between two and three miles wide. The town is divided
unequally by a branch of the river into east Cambridge and the main
town, and possesses a fine harbor for vessels of all descriptions. The
streets are, as a general rule, wide and well shaded by trees, while the
whole is beautified by flower gardens and grass plots in front of many of
the dwellings. The houses are, generally, of the cottage type, so
characteristic of Eastern Shore towns; but many substantial brick
buildings have recently been erected in the business section. The town
is well lighted by gas, and will soon be provided with a system of
artesian water supply. It is amply protected from fire by a volunteer
fire department. Educational advantages are afforded by an excellent
system of public schools, including a high school, partly supported by
the State. There are eight churches, six white and two colored, repre-
senting as many different denominations.

Frostburg is the second largest town in Allegany county. It is
situated on a plateau of the Allegany Range seventeen hundred feet
above sea level. It is in the midst of a great coal region, midway
between Cumberland and Piedmont, on the line of the Cumberland and
Pennsylvania Railroad. The population of the town is composed for the.
most part of miners of foreign extraction, but of thrifty and law-
abiding habits. The town is governed by a Mayor and a board of six
Councilmen; it is lighted by gas and well provided with well water. It
contains fourteen churches, several public schools and two newspapers.
The vicinity of Frostburg is notable for the beauty and sublimity of
its natural scenery. The view afforded from the town itself into Penn-
sylvania, Maryland and West Virginia is most impressive.

Havre de Grace is pleasantly situated on the south bank of the
Susquehanna River near its mouth. It is one of the oldest towns in the
State, and received its name from a fancied resemblance to the site and
environment of the French port. The city is governed by a board of
five commissioners elected annually. It is attractively laid out with
wide streets, lined by well-built houses. A system of public schools for
white and colored children, and a number of churches provide for the
needs of the inhabitants. The industrial activity of the town largely
centres, as has been stated, about its fisheries and ice trade. Havre de
Grace has admirable railroad connection with the larger cities, being
about midway between Baltimore and Philadelphia. It is located in
the midst of a rich agricultural country, with an almost inexhaustible
supply of fish and fowl at its very door. Living is cheap, the climate is
376 MARYLAND.

healthy, and it offers many attractions asa place of permanent or transient
residence.

Haston, the county seat of Talbot county, has grown up around the
court house, which was built, somewhat more than one hundred years
ago, in an “old field near Pitts his bridge.” The court house, a well-
proportioned Colonial building, is still the most prominent feature of
the town, standing with the jail and armory, on a shaded green. Near
it are the market house and town hall, and the Odd Fellows’ hall. The
town is regularly laid out, well lighted with electricity and gas, and
supplied with abundant water from artesian wells. It is still primarily
a shire town, the capital of a wealthy and populous county. On any
“public day” the streets are crowded with vehicles of every description,
while the market house and “space” are full of people buying, selling
and discussing business or county affairs. The Talbot county fair is held
here every fall, the exhibits being displayed in a series of fine buildings
owned by the Fair Association. Easton has a militia company of about
forty men, and an efficient fire company. The important religious
denominations are represented by well built churches. The most
interesting of these structures is, perhaps, the Friends’ meeting house,
erected over two hundred years, and standing in a grove of great oaks,
just outside the town. Both Fox and Penn worshipped here. Four
newspapers are published in the town, and well organized public schools
are in operation.

Salisbury, the county town of Wicomico county, and the second
largest town on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, is situated on the
Wicomico river, ninety-five miles from Annapolis. Jn its present form
the town dates practically from a disastrous fire, occurring several years
ago. In the work of reconstruction, the main street was widened and
straightened, and brick buildings generally substituted for the’ earlier
frame structures. As a result, the town presents a modern appearance
unusual in towns of larger size. Salisbury has several banks, a number
of churches, and a volunteer fire department. Its public schools are well
equipped, graduates of the high school being prepared to enter a colle-
giate sophomore year. Two newspapers are published in the town. The
climate of Salisbury is pleasant and healthful, and the surrounding
country is rich and productive. Its industrial activity centres largely
in the lumber trade.

Westminster, the county seat of Carroll county, is situated at the
head-waters of the Patapsco, midway between Baltimore and Hagerstown,
on the line of the Western Maryland Railroad. It was founded as early
as 1766 and incorporated as a town seventy years later. It is situated in
the midst of a rich and productive country, and has ample water power
for industrial establishments. Fine grades of marble are quarried in the
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 377

vicinity. Westminster is the site of Western Maryland College, a
co-educational institution under the control of the Maryland Conference
of the Methodist Protestant Church. * The town contains several fine
structures, and bears the general appearance of a substantial, prosperous
community.

Chestertown, the county town of Kent county, was incorporated in
1706, and early became a port of entry for the Province. The original
custom-house and counting-room, though since converted into dwellings,
can still be pointed out. The town is well laid off, the streets being wide
and straight, and lined on either side with historic shade trees. The
court-house and jail are spacious modern structures, as are many of the
private residences. Chestertown is the site of Washington College,
which was established in 1782, and was visited by Washington himself
two years later. Five churches of as many different denominations, two
banks and a series of public schools are located in the town. It is sixty
miles distant from Baltimore by water, and ninety miles by rail. Steamers
from Baltimore arrive daily.

Elkton, the county seat of Cecil county, is advantageously located
at the head of Elk river, a tributary of the Chesapeake. The town is
also half way between Philadelphia and Baltimore on the Philadelphia,
Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad. The public buildings consist of a
court-house, recently rebuilt, with fire-proof offices for the county
archives, a handsome town council hall, part of which is occupied by a
well equipped local fire company; and seven church edifices, all excel-
lently maintained. The town is supplied with both gas and electric
light. Water has recently been introduced through a modern reservoir
and gravity system, affording a constant supply of pure and soft water
for domestic and municipal uses. The educational facilities of the town
embrace an academy of high grade, a grammar school and public schools
for white and colored children. Ample facilities are afforded for public
entertainments, and a free circulating library will soon be provided. Two
national banks afford all needed banking facilities, and the retail trade
of the town is transacted by enterprising mercantile establishments.
Elkton is the centre of a refined and cultivated population, with every
inducement for permanent residence, and many attractions for summer
sojourn.

Catonsville is on the Frederick road, six miles from Baltimore, with
which it is connected both by railroad and street railways. It is well
provided with churches and schools, and is the site of the Spring Grove
Insane Asylum. Its pleasant location, healthy environment and prox-
imity to Baltimore have made it a growing suburb of that city.

Sparrow's Point is the site of the works of the Maryland Steel
Company, and has been described in another connection.
378 MARYLAND.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

State House. The first colonial capital of Maryland was St. Mary’s,
in the southern part of the Province, but the seat of government was
removed in 1694 to Annapolis, where the first state house was built upon
the site of the present building. This being destroyed by fire in 1704, a
larger capitol was erected, but this again, after fifty years’ occupation,
proving too small for the increased needs of the community, was torn
down in 1769, and replaced by the present structure. The plans are
supposed to have been drawn by a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren. The
dimensions are: height to the top of the dome, 200 feet; front, 120 feet;
depth, 175 feet.

The visitor enters by the south door into a rotunda of imposing
effect, beneath the dome. To the right of the entrance is the Senate
chamber, and that of the Delegates on the left. .

The Senate chamber has been the scene of memorable events in the
country’s history. Here, on December 23, 1783, Washington surrendered
to Congress his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the armies of the
United States. In this chamber, in 1784, the long struggle for American
independence was brought to a close by the ratification, in the presence
of Congress, of the treaty of peace with Great Britain. Here, in
September, 1786, the first Constitutional Convention, generally known as
the Annapolis Convention, met to frame a better form of government for
the United States.

This apartment, measuring thirty feet by forty, has been enlarged
and embellished in the last few years. On the west wall is a painting
representing Washington resigning his commission, and on the opposite
side is the famous portrait of Washington by Gilbert Stuart. Other
portraits of distinguished Marylanders, and many curious and interesting
historical relics, adorn the walls of this and the antechamber.

In the Delegates’ chamber is a fine painting by Peale, representing
the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.

The State Library, containing about 70,000 volumes, and the Judicial
and Executive Departments are on the second floor. In the Governor’s
room is a fine portrait of George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, copied
from the original by Mytens, and presented to the State by the late John
W. Garrett, Esq. Here too are portraits of several early governors of the
State.

From the balcony above the dome, at the height of one hundred
and eighty-five feet, a magnificent view is obtained; the city of Annapolis
with its harbor, the Severn river, the Chesapeake bay, and the picturesque
surrounding country, spreading like a panorama before the eye.

Two fine bronze statues of colossal proportions adorn the grounds.
One, representing Roger Brooke Taney, Chief Justice of the United States,
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 379

is the work of W. H. Rinehart, a distinguished Maryland sculptor, and
was erected by the State in 1872. The other, representing Baron DeKalb,
leading the Maryland and Delaware treops at the battle of Camden,
where that hero fell, mortally wounded, was erected by the United States
in 1886, in pursuance of a resolution of Congress passed in 1780. This
spirited work is by Ephraim Keyser, also a Maryland artist.

Executive Mansion. The official residence of the Governors of
Maryland for one hundred years before 1866, was the building now used
as the library of the Naval Academy, having been purchased by the
Federal Government in the year last named. In the same year, during
the administration of Governor Swann, the present Executive Mansion
was built.

State Treasury, &c. Upon the State-house hill, to the right of the
State-house, stands a quaint old colonial building of very modest propor-
tions. This is the Treasury of the State of Maryland. The building is
in the shape of a Greek cross, and is probably the oldest edifice in the
city. The venerable college poplar is the single living witness of its
building, nearly two hundred years ago. The rooms are low, and the
walls of unusual solidity and thickness, capable of bidding defiance to
‘the limited resources of colonial burglars. Near it stands a modern
building containing the Land Office and other public offices.
CHAPTER XII.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.

The political evolution of Maryland from the struggling palatinate
of the seventeenth century to the sovereign State of our own day, has
been traced in an earlier part of this volume. The purpose of the
following pages is to describe the present government and existent
political institutions of the State.

GOVERNMENT.

Constitution. The present Constitution of Maryland was formed by
a convention assembled in Annapolis in May, 1867, and was ratified by
popular vote in the following September. It is the fourth Constitution
adopted in the history of the State, earlier instruments bearing date of
1864, 1851 and 1776. It is preceded by a Declaration of Rights, containing
forty-five articles, asserting the usual rights of trial by jury, freedom of
speech, religious liberty, taxation according to actual worth, with declara-
tions against retrospective and sanguinary laws, attainder, monopolies,
trial by martial law, etc. The Constitution proper consists of fifteen
articles, treating of elective franchise, executive department, legislative
department, judiciary department, Attorney General and State’s Attorneys,
Treasury department, sundry officers (County Commissioners, Surveyors,
State Librarian, Commissioner of the Land Office), education, militia and
military affairs, labor and agriculture, public works, new counties,
amendments, miscellaneous matters and vote on the Constitution.

Administration. The government of Maryland follows the general
theory of American political organization in a fundamental separation of
departments. This is specifically provided in Article 8, of the Declara-
tion of Rights, which asserts that “the legislative, executive and judicial
powers of government ought to be forever separate and distinct from
each other.” For purposes of administration the State is divided into
twenty-three counties, and the city of Baltimore, which is not comprised
within the limits of any county. The local affairs of each county
are regulated by a board of County Commissioners, elected by popular
vote, but determined in number and term of office by special acts
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POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 381

of the General Assembly. There is no general administrative sub-
division of counties into townships, but school and election districts
exist for the purposes indicated. The government of Baltimore is vested
in a Mayor and City Council.* The local affairs of other minor civil
divisions, cities, towns and villages, are variously controlled by a Mayor
and Council, by a Burgess or President and Board of Commissioners, or
by a Board of Commissioners alone. The manner of election and range
of powers of these authorities are in each case defined by legislative
charters, and by special acts of the legislature, passed from time to
time.

Hazecutive. The executive power of the State is vested in a
Governor, elected for a term of four years and receiving an annual salary
of $4,500. He must have attained the age of thirty years, and must have
been for ten years a citizen of Maryland, and for five years next preceding
his election a resident of the State. He is the commander-in-chief of
the land and naval forces of the State, may call out the militia to sup-
press insurrections, repel invasions and enforce the execution of the
laws, but can not take the command in person without the consent of the
legislature. All legislative enactments must be submitted to his consid-
eration, and his veto can be overruled only by a three-fifths vote of
both houses.

He has the usual power to grant reprieves and pardons and to remit
fines and forfeitures to the State. He appoints, by and with the consent
of the Senate, all civil and military officers of the State, whose election
is not otherwise provided for, and is vested with general. authority to
secure the faithful execution of all laws.

The Governor, upon election, appoints a Secretary of State, who
continues in office during the gubernatorial term, and receives an annual
salary of two thousand dollars. He keeps and preserves a careful record
of all official acts and proceedings, and performs such other duties as are
prescribed by law, or as properly belong to his office.

Legislative. The legislative department consists of two distinct
branches, a Senate and a House of Delegates, together styled the General
Assembly of Maryland. Each county in the State, and each of the three
legislative districts of Baltimore, is entitled to one Senator elected for a
term of four years. The apportionment of representation in the House
of Delegates is made upon the following basis: Counties having a
population of eighteen thousand persons or less are entitled to two
delegates; those between eighteen thousand and twenty-eight thousand,
to three delegates; between twenty-eight thousand and forty thousand,
to four delegates; between forty thousand and fifty-five thousand, five
delegates; and fifty-five thousand or more, six delegates. Each of the

 

* For a more detailed account of the government of Baltimore, see page 361.
382 MARYLAND.

legislative districts of Baltimore city is entitled to as many delegates as
the largest county—six. :

No person is eligible as Senator until he has reached the age of
twenty-five years, nor as Delegate until he has reached legal majority,
nor to either office unless he has been a resident of Maryland for at least
three years, and of the particular county or legislative district which he
may be chosen to represent, for one year. The members of both bodies
receive a compensation of five dollars per diem for actual service.

The General Assembly meets biennially, and as the first Legislature
under the Constitution of 1867 met in 1868, sessions always fall in even
years. It convenes on the first Wednesday of January and continues in
session for a period fixed by a constitutional limitation as not longer
than ninety days. A special session may be convened by proclamation
of the Governor, but may not sit longer than thirty days.

Judicial. The judicial powers of the State are vested in a Court of
Appeals, Circuit Courts, Orphans’ Courts, Baltimore City Courts and
Justices of the Peace. All judges, except those of the Orphans’ Courts,
are elected by popular vote fora term of fifteen years and are selected
from those who have been admitted to practice law in the State, and who
are “most distinguished for integrity, wisdom and sound legal knowledge”
(Const. of Md., Art IV., Sect. 2). The State is divided into eight judicial
circuits, in the following manner: Worcester, Somerset, Wicomico and
Dorchester counties, first; Caroline, Talbot, Queen Anne, Kent and Cecil,
second; Baltimore and Harford, third ; Allegany, Washington and Garrett,
fourth; Carroll, Howard and Anne Arundel, fifth; Montgomery and
Frederick, sixth; Prince George’s, Charles, Calvert, St. Mary’s, seventh ;
Baltimore city, eighth. ’ .

For each of the first seven of the above circuits, a chief judge and
two associate judges are elected, who hold a Circuit Court of not less
than two terms in each county. A clerk of the Circuit Court is elected
by popular vote in every county for a term of six years. The salary of
the chief judge is fixed at $4,500 per year, and that of an associate judge
at $3,600.

The judiciary of Baltimore consists of a chief judge and four associate
judges, together styled the Supreme Bench of Baltimore City. The
judges are elected fora term of fifteen years, and are assigned to the
tollowing courts: Superior Court, Court of Common Pleas, Baltimore
City Court, Criminal Court, Circuit Court and Circuit Court No. 2, the
two latter being courts of equity.

The Court of Appeals is composed of the chief judges of the first
seven of the judicial circuits of the State, anda judge from the city of
Baltimore specially elected thereto. The Governor designates one of
this body by and with the consent of the Senate, as chief judge. A clerk
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 383

of the Court of Appeals is elected by popular vote for a term of six
years, and the sessions of the court are held in Annapolis.

An Orphans’ Court is located in each county of the State and in
Baltimore city. It consists of three judges elected by popular vote for a
term of four years, and exercises the functions of a Probate Court. A
Register of Wills is similarly elected for a term of six years. He is
eligible for re-election and subject to judicial removal for cause.

Justices of the peace are appointed in the several counties by the
Governor, and have jurisdiction in civil suits where the amount involved
does not exceed one hundred dollars. Constables are appointed by the
County Commissioners and by the Mayor and City Council of Baltimore
for a term of two years, subject to judicial removal for incompetency or
neglect of duty. A sheriff is elected in each county and in the city of
Baltimore every second year. Coroners and notaries public are appointed
by the Governor.

Legal. The legal functions of the State are entrusted to an Attorney-
General, elected by the voters for a term of four years, and receiving an
annual salary of three thousand dollars. He must have resided and
practiced law in the State for at least ten years before his election. He
is charged with the prosecution and defense on the part of the State of
all cases pending in the Court of Appeals, or in the United States Supreme
Court. He is required to give his opinion in writing, whenever required
by any public officer, upon any legal matter pending before him, and
cannot receive any fees or perquisite in addition to the salary paid for
the performance of his official duty.

A State’s Attorney is elected by popular vote in each county and in
the city of Baltimore for a term of four years, and serves as the prose-
cuting officer of the State in the particular district. He must have been
admitted to practice law in the State, and have resided at least two
years in the county or city in which he may be elected.

FINANCES.

The finances of the State are administered by a Treasury Depart-
ment, consisting of a Comptroller, chosen biennially by popular vote,
with an annual salary of twenty-five hundred dollars, and a Treas-
urer, appointed by the General Assembly at the same salary. The
Comptroller is vested with a general superintendence of the fiscal affairs
of the State. He prepares and reports estimates of revenue and expen-
diture; enforces the prompt collection of all taxes; preserves all public
accounts, and grants all warrants for money to be paid out of the treasury
in pursuance of appropriations by law. The Treasurer receives and
deposits the moneys of the State, and disburses the same upon warrants
384 MARYLAND.

drawn by the Comptroller. He provides for the payment of the interest
of the State debt, and for purchases on account of the sinking fund.
Funded Debt. The net funded debt of Maryland aggregated on
September 30, 1892, $3,082,286.35. The original loans, which have all
been re-funded at 3 and 37%5 per cent., were issued to aid in the construc-
tion of works of internal improvement, largely the Chesapeake and Ohio
Canal and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad; for the erection of State
institutions, and to assist in the public defence during the late war. The
volume of indebtedness is being rapidly reduced—by the amount of
$2,036,656.28 in 1892—and will probably be entirely extinguished in a
few years. The credit of the State is high, its bonds being sought for
purposes of investment, and commanding premiums in the general
market. The following is a detailed statement of the funded debt:

Date of

Character of Loan. Maturity. Amount.
3 per cent. Exchange Loan of 1886............ 1900 $ 628,355.00
3f%5 per cent. Defence Redemption Loan...... 1899 3,000,000.00
3 per cent. Exchange Loan of 1886..... ...... 1901 1,270,474.10
3 per cent. Exchange Loan of 1889............ 1903 3,079,400.00
3 per cent. Exchange Loan of 1891...........- 1905 706,757.14
Gross amount of Funded Debt.... ......... $8,684,986.24

As an offset to this debt, the State holds the following bonds and
stocks, on which interest or dividends are paid:

Stock in Washington Branch B. & O. R. R. Co. ....... $ 550,000.00
Hf Farmer’s National Bank of Annapolis.... ... 46,470.00
Annapolis Water Company... .............. 30,000.00

Bonds of N. C. Railway Mortgage..................00. 1,500,000.00
Bonds of Susquehanna and Tide-Water Canal Co...... 1,000,000.00
Cash to Credit of Sinking Funds.................. 4. 1,485.46
Stocks and Bonds to Credit of Sinking Funds......... 2,474,744.43

 

 

Net debt after productive stocks held by the State and
the Sinking Funds are deducted*.................. $3,082,286.35

Revenues. Article 14 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights (Art.
XV.), declares that “every person in the State or persons holding property
therein, ought to contribute his proportion of public taxes for the
support of the government according to his actual worth in real and
personal property.” ‘This is the basis of Maryland taxation. A direct
tax is levied upon all real and personal property, for purposes of public
education and to provide interest and sinking funds for the funded debt.
It is imposed upon individual and corporate property, and upon the

 

* “Tt is worthy of note that the productive stocks, with a single exception, held by the State, have a
market value greatly in excess of their par value, and if a statement was prepared placing the State
securities at their market value, this net debt would be decreased by more than one-half.’’ (Report of

Comptroller for 1892, p. vi).
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 385

capital stock of corporations, less the assessed value of parts of its capital
already taxed or non-taxable. Personal property is listed by the state-
ment of the taxable, and valued by the assessor. The last general
assessment was made in 1876. Revisions are, however, made from year
to year by the county boards and by the Appeal Tax Court of Baltimore
City. A Tax Commissioner is apointed by the Board of Public Works
for a term of four years, at an annual salary of twenty-five hundred
dollars, to assess and revise for State purposes the shares of all incor-
porated associations or institutions liable to taxation.

The assessed value of property in 1877—in which year the returns of
the general assessment became first available—in 1891 and in 1892, and
the amount realized in 1892, are as follows:

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Counties Assessed. value o1/Assessed value of/Assesscd value or smeent ot ee
and property for property for property for ait 173, ets
Baltimore City. State levy in 1877.|State levy in 1891./State levy in 1892. an each $100.00.
ANECBONY: scarica: ome vedeard $ 10,809,342 3 16,082,934 $ 16,151,558 $ 28,669 01
Anne Arundel ...... Sects a 9,870,117 10,725,314 10,874,049 19,301 44
Baltimore City ............ <3 243,132,007 276,408,052 277,171,612 491,979 61
Baltimore County 50,501, 160 39,650,644 41,359, 723 73,413 50
Calvert tes tecagnas che aeeies 2,118,559 2,037,800 2,033,209 3,608 95
Caroline .....eeeeeeees 3,757, 157 4,381,469 4,351,415 7,723 4
Carroll eve eseeateaes ae 16,167,511 15,885,655 15,877,537 28,182 62
CO GED sicies'sie cove eesti re 18, 198,535 18,889,101 13,271,949 23,557 70
Charles 00% sawesaes xe abot 3,452,501 3,322,016 3,410, 140 6,052 98
Dorchester.......+-seeeseeeeee 6,029,790 6,183,618 6,193,888 10,994 15
Frederick ......0.0.002eeeeeee 25,462,716 23, 139,041 28,613,030 41,913 18
Garrett . fae sa 3,336,359 4,124,187 4,261,610 7,564 36
Harford . 11,506,902 12,137,415 12,444, 104 22,088 27
Howard... 7,526,408 7,486,312 7,515,094 13,839 29
Kent scape ccwienivnyavie se 35 7,448,301 7,759,640 7,783,728 13,816 11
Montgomery ..........-- sacs 8,272,571 9,951,605 10,425,220 18,504 76
Prince George’s....-.--....+55 9,073,363 9,005,217 9,138,883 16,221 52
Queen Anne’S......-..05 eee ee 6,585,383 7,230,844 7,544,416 13,391 34
Sty Mary’ Sussac “atreshnc ates 2,918,698 2,831,924 2,718,126 4,824 67
Somerset cae-c cians news eee BPH 3,939,349 4,088,342 4, 193,568 7,443 57
Talbot seovresecec tesa s esaar 8,107,149 8,634,056 8,698, 294 15,489 46
Washington.........-.20 0 sees 16,599,731 17,055,413 17,851,775 30,799 40
Wicomico: sexs siseeecee sees 4,479,301 4,065,605 4,149,119 7,364 68
Worcester.........0eeeeeeenee 4,180,118 4,477,278 4,605,481 8,174 72
Totalsieciwoct ius staat «iets $478, 468,028 $510,003,077 $515,137,528 $914,368 98
RECAPITULATION FOR 1892.

Amount of levy for public school tax, at 104g cents on each S100.... ...eeseeee eee eee ee eee $540,894 32

Amount of levy for defence redemption tax, at 51¥ cents on each $100 283,325 60

Amount of levy for treasury relief tax, at 1}¢ cents on each $100................ 77,270 62

Amount of levy for exchange loan of 1886 tax, at 14 cent on each $100 12,878 44

DP OUAL wcia-arais vis cth Woche ais oc HY Se Bie eakS SPOS NieGpanaelds ea cieals niisteleies oie Pa auay s Linley See ates $914,368 98

 

The rate of the State tax for each year since 1876 is as follows:

LS icccrucgaced Fae ier vua see hi amethe shane SaRe ats 17} per cent.
ISIS TOTS Tags ceases. ng tagecee eee, Masui ne 182 per cent.
1888 (01892 cucdwae ese ye eciaec ows Paka dae hadeares 172% per cent.

Sources of revenue other than this general property tax, are the sale
of traders’ and other licenses, a bonus or franchise tax of one-eighth of
25
386 : MARYLAND.

one per cent. upon the capital stock of all newly created corporations, a
franchise tax upon the deposits of saving institutions, a part of which
accrues to the locality where the institution is located; a tax of one-
half of one per cent. upon the gross receipts of electric light and electric
construction companies; of one per cent. upon the gross receipts of
railroad corporations; and of a designated per cent. of the gross receipts
of other specified corporations. A State tax is also imposed on collateral
inheritances, and on commissions of executors and administrators. The
excess of fees of public officers and the liquor license in Baltimore ree
constitute other sources of revenue.

Receipts. The total receipts in the State Treasury for the fiscal year
ended September 30, 1892, were $3,006,551.18. Of this aggregate the
important items were as follows:

Direct tax upon persons and incorporated institutions.. $902,770 12

High Liquor License for Baltimore city................ *507,086 87
REAGer’S: DiCens er v0 .tuccesanee daeaie bd ed teeaacare Ab 189,764 52
Foreign insurance companieS........-...... 2.00. c eee ee 113,601 83
Tax on gross receipts of corporations................0. 138,016 34

« «collateral inheritances ¢2e0nsene. « 2een eeaees 114,009 21

“ “ executors’ commissions.... ..-...... cece ee eee 58,452 40
Interest on invested Sinking Fund..................... 171,514 65
Hxehange Loan. Of 1894. sic caads vimacmsece ting eee s 100,000 00
Direct tax of 1861 from United States Gover nment..... 371,299 83

Hapenditures. The total disbursements from the State Treasury
during the fiscal year ended September 30, 1892, were $3,065,833.02. The
principal items of expenditures were the following:

Public Debt, interest s.nccaveuyese tea res paperaineie cas $323,596 39

" «Sinking Fund.iswu swaste gisesenescaves 404,387 58
State Stock, for redemption..... .... cc. 0c eee e eee eae 406,012 76
JUCIGIAEY jscccitica ate yeee4 the ag STINAERELD GEE O EERE TE 100,992 28
TGC RIS LAL E se es wccstarapyenectiate 8 5a dua ehaeainn are Geran Sees 122,829 49
Public schools, white and colored............ ......05- 560,512 86
Charitable, Reformatory and Penal Institutions.... ... 237,430 00
Colleges and academiesciciicccics cease cease owas ns cas 67,317 29

PUBLIC DEPARTMENTS.

Board of Public Works. The Governor of the State, the Comp-
troller of the Treasury and the State Treasurer constitute the Board of
Public Works. Their duties are generally defined in Article XII of the
Constitution of Maryland, as “a diligent and faithful supervision of all
public works in which the State may be interested as stockholder or
creditor.’ At the present time this consists in the appointment of
directors for the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, the Washington Branch of
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and various other corporations in which

 

*Of this amount, $380,469.74 was returned us required by law to Baltimore City.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 387

the State is, to a less degree, interested. The Board of Public Works
also appoints, as will be seen hereafter, the officers of the State Fishery
Force, together with certain special officers, such as the Tax Commissioner
and the Insurance Commissioner.

Militia. The history of the militia of Maryland is throughout a
record of unflinching bravery in war and of timely service in riot and
disorder. The close of the Revolutionary War found the State with five
full regiments in the field. Many of them were converted into militia
companies of one kind or another, which the Whiskey Insurrection, the
threatened difficulties with France, and the imminent outbreak with
England kept alive and strong. A large force of well-equipped volun-
teers fought in the war of 1812,and during the Civil War, no class
responded more promptly or served more gallantly than did the citizen
soldiers of Maryland. Since the war the militia has rendered excellent
service in the preservation of order. During the railroad strikes of 1877
the Fifth Regiment, together with the Sixth, was called upon at an
unexpected time to assist in maintaining law and order, and discharged
its duty creditably under the most trying circumstances. Subsequent
activity has been characterized by the same spirit. Animated by the
same spirit and remarkable for its rapid development is the Fourth
Regiment, the nucleus of which, the Baltimore Light Infantry, was
organized in the winter of 1885.

The Maryland National Guard was reorganized in its present form
by an act of the Maryland Legislature passed in 1886, providing for a
State military force of not more than two thousand two hundred and
eighty men, formed in one brigade. At present the command is coin-
posed of the following organizations:

First Regiment Infantry, nine companies, consisting of Frederick
Rifles, Hagerstown Light Infantry, Linganore Guards, Jackson Guards,
Governor’s Guards, Waverley Guards, Towson Guards and Howard
Zouaves.

Fourth Regiment Infantry (Baltimore), nine companies, of sixty
men each, with fifty-two officers, making the total strength of the
regiment about six hundred men.

Fifth Regiment Infantry (Baltimore), twelve companies of sixty
men each, with sixty officers. The band of the regiment numbers
seventy-five musicians. A Veteran Corps, consisting of three companies,
with a full strength of one hundred and fifty men, maintains fellowship
among ex-members of the regiment.

Second Battalion Infantry, four companies, consisting of Voltigeurs
(Cumberland), Garrett Guards (Oakland), and Hamilton Light Infantry
(Frostburg).
388 MARYLAND.

Third Battalion Infantry, five companies, consisting of Groome
Guards, Prince George’s Rifles, Talbot County Guards, Lloyd Guards and
Calvert County Company.

Monumental City Guards (Baltimore), independent colored company.

Baltimore Rifles (Baltimore), independent colored company.

Alleghany County Guards (Cumberland), independent colored com-
pany.

Fishery Force. The Maryland State Fishery Force consists of two
steamers, nine schooners and two sloops, armed and equipped as a naval
militia to enforce the oyster fishery laws of the State. Eight local boats
are paid by the counties to watch the waters within their jurisdiction,
but are under the control of the State navy. The movements of the force
are directed by a commander appointed, as are all the subordinate
officers, by the Board of Public Works. Each of the steamers is controlled
by a deputy commander, and each of the schooners and sloops by a
captain. The territories protected by the local boats are Poplar Island
Narrows, Cambridge, Herring Bay, Holland Straits, St. Mary’s River, St.
Michael’s and Oxford. The Governor McLane is the flagship of the
navy. The outfit of the regular boats, as distinguished from the local
boats, consists of Winchester rifles and one cannon each. The steamers
have each a crew of twelve men, and the schooners and sloops each of
six. The local boats, which are only employed for six months of the
year, have each a crew of four men. They carry no cannon, but are
armed with Winchester rifles.

Tobacco Inspector. From early provincial days, measures have
been taken in Maryland to maintain a high standard of excellence in the
production of its chief staple. The various statutes adopted from time
to time were systematized in a Tobacco Code, passed in 1763. It
consisted of one hundred and fifty-three sections providing in great
detail for the inspection, sampling and shipping af tobacco. This code
has since been supplemented and revised at intervals. To facilitate
inspection, a number of tobacco warehouses have been erected in Balti-
more, the first as early as 1823. At present three are in activity, each
under the direction of an inspector, biennially appointed by the Governor
at an annual salary of twenty-five hundred dollars, and a subordinate
force similarly appointed. The general supervision of the system is
entrusted to a Supervisor of Warehouses, appointed for a term of two
years at an annual salary of twenty-five hundred dollars.

Land Office. A Land Office, distinct from other public departments,
was created in Maryland as early as 1680. Its functions were adminis-
tered by a Land Council, and included the disposition and regulation of
all public lands, whether by lease or sale. The Confiscation Act of 1780
vested in the State all lands belonging to the Proprietary and other
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 389

British owners. In 1781 a portion of these lands was allotted to Maryland
officers and soldiers who had served in the War of Revolution, and a Land
Office was created for the Western Shore, and another for the Eastern
Shore, under the direction and care of Registers. The two offlces were
united in 1851 at Annapolis. Subsequent legislation has materially
enlarged the character and scope of the department. Its administration
is vested in a Comunissioner of the Land Office appointed by the Governor
for a term of four years and receiving an annual salary of fifteen hundred
dollars, together with a commission on the fees of office. He is required
to make searches and furnish copies of land patents; to prescribe rules
for and regulate the conduct of County Surveyors in making surveys and
returning certificates and plats; and to hear and decide upon all caveats
which may come before him as Commissioner.

Bureau of Statistics and Information. A Bureau of Industrial
Statistics and Information was established in Maryland in 1884, and
biennial reports published upon the industrial and social condition of
the State. In 1892 the Bureau was revrganized and its scope largely
extended. As now constituted, the department is in charge of a Chief
of the Industrial Bureau, appointed by the Governor for a term of two
years, at an annual salary of $2,500. The work of the Bureau includes
the collection of information and statistical data concerning the condition
of labor, the agricultural and mineral products of the State, and the
traffic of railroads and transportation companies, and of shipping and
commerce. The information so vathered is collated and published in an
annual report. The Bureau is located in Baltimore at the southwest
corner of Charles and Saratoya streets, and it is here that all inquiries
suggested by and unanswered in the present volume should be addressed.

Maryland State Weather Bureau. A Bureau for the reception of
meteorological reports and the display of warning signals for the States
of Maryland and Delaware, was organized in May, 1891, under the joint
auspices of the Johns Hopkins University, the Maryland Agricultural
College and the United States Weather Bureau. The service occupies
quarters in the Physical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, on
Monument street and Linden avenue, with Dr. C. P. Cronk, of the United
States Weather Bureau, as meteorologist in charge. Sub-stations are
located in all the counties of Maryland, and also in Delaware, from which
reports are regularly received and where warning signals are displayed.

State Board of Hducation. The general care and supervision of
public education in Maryland is vested in a State Board of Education,
consisting of four persons, appointed by the Governor at every regular
session of the General Assembly and serving without salary. the Gov-
ernor himself and the principal of the State Normal School. They
exercise general supervision over Boards of County School Commissioners,
390 MARYLAND.

examine candidates, when requested, for the office of County Examiners,
and issue professional certificates to teachers. They are ev-officio trustees
of the State Normal School, and are vested with its general administra-
tion and control. Each Board of County School Commissioners and all
schools and colleges receiving State appropriations are required to make
to them an annual report of all matters affecting educational interests in
the county. County Boards are also requested to submit a statement of
receipts, disbursements and indebtedness. An abstract of these reports,
together with a statement of the apportionment of money to the counties
and Baltimore city, and such suggestions regarding the educational
interests of the State as are deemed expedient, is submitted in an annual
report to the Governor.

State Board of Health. This board has general care of the sanitary
interests of the people of Maryland. It consists of seven members—
three physicians, one civil engineer, a secretary, the attorney-general of
the State (ezv-officto), and the health commissioner of Baltimore (ez-
officio\—appointed by the Governor for a term of four years, and serving
without compensation. The secretary is, however, elected by the board
upon organization, and receives an annual salary of eighteen hundred
dollars. The functions of the board include a general supervision over
the health of the State, investigations into the presence and causes of
disease, epidemics and nuisances in specific localities, and the collection
of vital statistics.

Two Boards of Medical Hxaminers, consisting of seven physicians
each, appointed for a term of four years, and respectively representing
the Medical and Chirurgical Faculty of Maryland, and the Maryland
Homeopathic Medical Society, examine and license persons qualified to
practice medicine in the State.

A Board of Hxaminers of Dental Surgery, composed of the
attorney-general, the health commissioner of Baltimore and five practic-
ing dentists, appointed by the Governor for four years, and serving
without compensation, examine and issue certificates to all persons
practicing dentistry within the State. Three Commissioners of Phar-
macy are biennially appointed by the Governor upon nomination of the
Maryland College of Pharmacy, to license practical pharmacists in the
State. A State Lunacy Commission, composed of six competent persons
appointed by the Governor, and serving without compensation, with the
attorney-general as a member ex-officio, exercise supervision over all
institutions, public and private, in which insane persons are confined.
The protection of domestic animals from contagious and infectious
diseases is vested in a Live Stock Sanitary Board, consisting of three
commissioners appointed by the Governor, and receiving a per diem
compensation for actual service. Two Commissioners of Fisheries, at
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 391

an annual salary of fifteen hundred dollars each, have charge of the
propagation, culture and preservation of food fishes in the waters of the
State. Two Inspectors of Steam Boilers, biennially appointed by the
Governor at the same salary, inspect, register, and, if necessary, condemn,
stationary steam boilers throughout the State.

An Insurance Commissioner, appointed by the Board of Public
Works for a term of four years at an annual salary of $2,500, issues
licenses to insurance companies and maintains the standard of solvency
fixed by State law. The interests of the mine labor of the State are
entrusted to a Commissioner of Mines for Alleghany and Garrett
counties, appointed by the Governor at an annual salary of $1,500. He
makes periodic investigations of the condition of all mines, sees to the
enforcement of all laws relating to mine ventilation, is an inspector of
mining scales and weights, investigates all loss of life in mines, and may
institute suit if the accident arises from the overseer’s violation of law.

A State Vaccine Agent, appointed by the Governor for a term of six
years at an annual salary of $600, procures and supplies virus to physicians
throughout the State.

Flag and Seal. The great seal of Maryland has already been
described and explained in the Historical Sketch. The flag of the State
bears the escutcheon of the seal. This device seems to have been
adopted by common consent, as there is no record of the formal adoption
of any desiyn as the official flag of the State. That the colony had a
distinct flag or standard, we know. The first recorded instance of the
use of a Maryland flag occurs in Leonard Calvert’s report of the reduction
of Kent Island (February, 1638), in which he says that he and his force
marched with Baltimore’s banner displayed. At the battle of the Severn
in 1655, where the supporters of the proprietary government under
William Stone, the Governor, were defeated by the Parliamentary party
under Captain William Fuller, Stone’s forces marched under the flag of
Maryland, borne by William Nugent, ‘standard-bearer of the Province ;”
while Fuller’s party displayed the flag of the Commonwealth, charged
with the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. It is also said that a
Maryland flag was carried by the Marylanders who accompanied Brad-
dock’s expedition against Fort Du Quesne in 1756.

A Maryland flag was presented at the outbreak of the late war to
the Frederick Volunteers, an organization which afterwards became part
of the First Maryland Regiment, C.S. A.; and it was carried from the
first battle of Manassas, July 21, 1861, to the surrender at Appomattox,
April 9, 1865.
392 MARYLAND.

It is almost superfluous to add that Marylanders take great pride in
their beautiful and historic flag. It forms a part of the stands of colors
of the principal militia commands, and is displayed at the City Hall on
occasions of public festivity.

Federal Representation. Maryland is entitled to elect six represent-
atives to the United States Congress, of whom two are entirely and two
partly chosen by the votes of Baltimore city. The composition of the
Congressional districts is as follows: 1. Worcester, Somerset, Wicomico,
Dorchester, Talbot, Queen Anne’s, Caroline and Kent counties. 2. Cecil,
Harford, Carroll counties; districts two to twelve of Baltimore county ;
wards Eleven, precinct No. 9, Twenty-one, Twenty-two of Baltimore city.
3. Wards One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Fifteen and Sixteen of
Baltimore city. 4. Wards Eight, Nine, Ten, Eleven, precincts one to
eight inclusive, Twelve, Thirteen, Fourteen, Eighteen, Nineteen of Balti-
more city. 5. St. Mary’s, Charles, Calvert, Prince George’s, Anne Arundel,
Howard and Baltimore counties, districts one and thirteen, Baltimore city,
ward Seventeen. 6. Alleghany, Garrett, Washington, Frederick, Mont-
gomery counties.

The law provides that of the two United States Senators from Mary-
land, one shall be chosen from the Eastern, and the other from the
Western Shore.
CHAPTER XIII.

CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS.

The history of the many religions organizations now existing in the
State of Maryland cannot be written within the compass of a dozen pages,
nor can any adequate showing be made of their present activity and
boundless possibilities. Scores of volumes have been written upon the
past, hundreds of pages of statistics published to show the condition of
the present. The present paper, therefore, avoiding detailed statements
of past and present, gives only brief synopses of every current phase of
religious life within the State. Where the general history of any one
denomination becomes closely linked with the State, where important
church councils have been held on Maryland soil, this local connection
has been brought out; but no attempt has been made to give a connected
history. The very complicated system of administrative divisions in the
larger denominations has also been explained in so far as it has any con-
nection with our Maryland churches. Nearly one-half the chapter is
taken up with describing briefly the many and varied forms of organiza-
tions and associations which have grown up under the protecting wing of
the churches with the idea of making religion more attractive to certain
classes, and thus more effective in its main purpose.

CHURCH STATISTICS.

The present strength of the various denominations within tie State
is shown by the accompanying table, which has been compiled from the
results of the eleventh census (1890). Nearly a third of the figures are
from unpublished tabulations and are here given through the courtesy of
Rev. H. K. Carroll, LL.D., special agent of the Census Bureau in charge
of the statistics of churches:
MARYLAND.

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CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 395

THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

Though Lord Baltimore originally intended that Maryland should be
a safe home for his Catholic co-religionists, the effects of his policy of
toleration lasted only until the Protestant revolution of 1688, when the
Catholics in the colony were disfranchised, subjected to double taxes and
compelled to support Protestant clergy and erect Protestant churches.
This state of things continued until the War of the Revolution. No
churches could be erected, and Catholics had only private chapels in the
homes of the wealthy, or received periodical visits from priests, chiefly
Jesuits, who carried the vestments and the sacred vessels with them.
The suppression of this Order by the Pope in 1773 cut off even this
suurce of supply, and until the close of the Revolution the Church was
badly crippled. The few remaining clergy petitioned the Pope for a
national organization and a local superior, and in 1784 the Rev. John
Carroll was made Prefect Apostolic in the United States, with his head-
quarters at Baltimore.

In 1789 he was promoted to a Bishopric, and in 1808 Baltimore was
raised to the dignity of an Archiepiscopal See. Since that time it has
frequently been divided and subdivided on account of the rapidity of
Catholic growth; but in 1858, by a decree of the Propaganda, “the
prerogative of peace was granted to the See of Baltimore, so that in
councils, assemblies and in meetings of every kind precedence was given
to the Archbishop of Baltimore, and the seat of honor above every other
Archbishop.” Three times the holder of the See has been specially
appointed Apostolic Legate at the national councils of the Church, and
in 1886 the present Archbishop, Most Rev. Dr. James Gibbons, was
promoted to membership in the College of Cardinals.

The Archbishop of Baltimore has provincial jurisdiction over the
Bishoprics of Charleston, Richmond, Savannah, St. Augustine, Wheeling,
Wilmington and North Carolina—this including every Southern State
from Delaware to Florida. The Episcopal Diocese of Baltimore proper
includes the Western Shore of Maryland and the District of Columbia,
and is by far the largest of the eight Sees in the province. The counties
on the Eastern Shore are under the jurisdiction of the Bishopric of
Wilmington, which was established in 1868. The strength of the
Catholic Church in Maryland lies in Carroll county and Baltimore, the
two together containing two-thirds of the Catholic population. The
Church is also very strong in the Southern tier of counties—St. Mary’s,
Prince George’s, Charlesand Anne Arundel—and among the mining popu-
lation of Allegany.

Fourteen important Church councils have occurred at the Cathedral
in Baltimore, of which ten were “ Provincial” and three “ Plenary.”
396 MARYLAND.

The former are always attended by the Bishops of a province; the latter by
the whole Hierarchy of the United States. The object of these councils
is usually to bring about concerted action in matters of Church discipline.
The last Plenary Council was held here in 1884, and was one of the most
important ecclesiastical gatherings ever held in America, both in point
of numbers and in the results growing out of its deliberations. In 1889
there was convened the first Catholic Congress at which lay members
were permitted to take part in the discussion of Catholic affairs. It was
attended by prominent laymen from every Diocese.

THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH.

The Protestant Episcopal Church has the distinction of being the
first denomination to be represented within the bounds of Maryland. In
1629, five years before Lord Baltimore’s colonists arrived at St. Mary’s,
services were held at Claiborne’s trading-post on Kent Island, by a duly-
ordained minister of the Church of England. The Church spread
rapidly after the coming of Baltimore’s followers, and in 1642,a Jesuit
provincial writes that “by far the greater number of the colonists are
heretics” (i. e. Episcopalians). From 1688 to 1692 occurred the “ Protest-
ant Revolution,” which ended in the establishment of the Church of
England by act of Assembly in 1692. The territory of the colony was
divided into parishes, and a tax, payable in tobacco, voted for the
support of the Church. The number of clergymen and communicants
steadily increased during the next seventy-five years, but the Church
establishments were odious to a majority of the people because of their
inefficjency, and because of the general tax for their maintenance. The
Revolution seriously threatened the very existence of the Church, and
at its close the number of its clergy was found to be reduced one-half.
In August, 1783, the remaining clergy met and organized the Diocese of
Maryland, which, however, remained without a bishop until 1792, when
Bishop Claggett was installed, being the first bishop consecrated by the
American episcopate. This convention of 1783 is important because of a
historical document called “A Declaration of Certain Fundamental
Rights and Liberties of the Protestant Episcopal Church of Maryland.”
According to the late Bishop Whittingham, this is the earliest use of the
words which were afterward selected for the title of the Church in
America. :

The policy of the Episcopal Church has always been to make the
limits of the separate dioceses coincide with the State lines, and until
the year 1868, the Diocese of Maryland included the whole of Maryland
and the whole of the District of Columbia. At that time, however, the
Eastern Shore counties were formed into a separate diocese, called the
Diocese of Easton. The original diocese is much the larger of the two,
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CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 397

having nearly ten times as many communicants as the Easton diocese.
More than one-half of the total number in Maryland are to be found in
the city of Baltimore. The Church is also very strong in Anne Arundel,
Baltimore, Prince George’s and Charles counties. The General Conven-
tion has thrice held its triennial sessions in Baltimore. The first occasion
was in 1808 and the second in 1871. The former is important because it
was the first of the general conventions at which a tendency for closer
church union became noticeable, while the latter was held just on the
eve of the Low-Church defection, which resulted in the formation of the
Reformed Episcopal Church. In 1892 the General Convention again
assembled in Baltimore, at Emmanuel Church, and among other things
thoroughly revised the liturgy of the Church.

THE METHODIST CHURCHES.

During the first thirty years in the history of Methodism in America,
the State of Maryland was the centre of nearly all of its activity. It
was about 1766 that Robert Strawbridge, a Wesleyan local preacher, from
Ireland, gathered a small number of people in Frederick county, and
organized what Bishop Asbury believed to be the first Methodist con-
gregation in America. From this place the spread of Methodism in the
colonies was carried on by Strawbridge and others with gratifying results.
Baltimore soon became an important centre, and from 1775 until 1784,
when the Methodist Episcopal Church was formed, it was the meeting-
place of the annual conferences of the Methodist churches in America.
The convention which organized the Methodist Episcopal Church also
met in Baltimore in 1784, eighty-three itinerant ministers being present
from various parts of this country. Francis Asbury became one of the
two bishops of the new Church, and made Baltimore his episcopal resi-
dence for many years. The society was at first opposed to general con-
ferences, and until the bounds of the annual conferences were marked out
in 1792, Baltimore conference was the first in point of members and
importance. The first college of the denomination, Cokesbury College,
was established in Harford county, in 1785, and it is worthy of note, also,
that the first native itinerant preacher, and the first native local preacher,
were both Marylanders. The first general conference of the Church
assembled in Baltimore in 1792, and until 1812 the quadrennial sessions
of that body were all held in the same place. In 1820 and 1824, in 1840,
and again in 1876, the conference returned to Baltimore. In 1884, on the
suggestion of the M. E. Church South, the centennial of American
Methodism was celebrated in Baltimore by a congress which included
representatives of every branch of the Church.

The Methodist Episcopal Church in Maryland at the present time is
largely under the jurisdiction of three Annual Conferences, all of which
398 MARYLAND.

assembled in March of each year. The Baltimore conference is the
largest of the three; it has 360 ministers and local preachers connected
with it, and includes churches in the counties of the Western Shore, in
Washington, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The boundaries of the
conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church frequently overlap each
other, and it is not, therefore, surprising to find that the Washington
conference, with its 340 preachers, occupies nearly the same field as the
Baltimore conference, with the addition of the upper counties of Virginia.
The churches on the Eastern Shore of Maryland belong to the Wilmington
conference and the Delaware conference. The Garrett county congrega-
tion are united with the West Virginia conference, and several German
Methodist churches in Baltimore are affiliated with the East German
conference.

The Methodist Protestant Church had its beginnings in Maryland,
which is still the third largest State in the number of its communicants.
The separation of the denomination from the Episcopal Methodist
government was the outcome of a movement for church reform by the
admission of the laity to a share in the administration. In 1824 a Union
Society was formed in Baltimore having this object in view, and a
periodical started in that city to advocate it. In 1827 a convention of
the reformers was held in Baltimore, and drew up a petition, which was
rejected by the general conference of 1828. The Baltimore society started
anew an agitation which resulted in the expulsion of its leaders from the
church. Many sympathizers followed them, and in 1828 a convention
was held in Baltimore, which drew up a provisional form of organization.
Two years later another gathering took place in the same city, and the
Methodist Protestant Church was constituted. Baltimore continued to
be the centre of the denominational work, and the general conferences
frequently assembled here and elsewhere in the State. That of 1877 is
noteworthy for the reunion which then took place between the parent
body and a large body of members who had seceded on the question of
slavery and formed “The Methodist Church.” The Methodist Protestant
Church in Maryland is strongest numerically in Baltimore city and the
counties immediately adjacent, and on the Eastern Shore. Its governing
body is the Maryland Conference, which is the largest of the church
conferences, and includes also Delaware and portions of Virginia, West
Virginia and Pennsylvania. The colored churches belong to the Balti-
more Colored Mission.

The Methodist Episcopal Church South was very slightly represented
in Maryland until the outbreak of the civil war. According to the “ plan
of separation” drawn up in 1844, the Baltimore Conference adhered to
the Northern Church, and continued in this relation until 1860. The
General Conference of that year so changed the book of discipline that
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 399

in 1861 the Baltimore Conference determined to submit no longer to the
General Conference of the Northern Church. During the four years of
the war it maintained an independent pogition; but in 1866 it determined
by a unanimous vote to unite with the M. E. Church South. Several
churches of that denomination having been organized in Maryland since
the war, the local conference was rearranged and finally reconstructed in
the form which it now has. The Baltimore Conference includes eighteen
of the twenty-one counties in which the denomination is represented in
Maryland, beside Washington and parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia and
West Virginia. Dorchester, Wicomico and Worcester counties are
included in the Virginia Conference. One of the bishops of the M. E.
Church South has his episcopal residence in Baltimore, which is also the
home of two bishops of the colored Methodist churches—one of the
African M. E. Church, the other of the African M. E. Zion Church. The
strength of these colored churches lies almost entirely in the city, the
former being much wealthier and more influential. The two denomina-
tions have recently decided to unite under the name of the African and
Zion M. E. Church.

THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.

The early history of the Presbyterian Church in America is very
closely associated with colonial Maryland. According to the generally
received account, the first Presbyterian Church in America was organized
at Snow Hill, Md., about the close of the seventeenth century, by the
Rev. Francis Makemie, an Irish clergyman, who had been invited to
Maryland by a member of Lord Baltimore’s Council. According to
another account, the first congregation is to be found still earlier, at
Annapolis, among the so-called Puritans who settled there from Virginia
in 1649. But whether founded in 1649 or 1700, the fact still remains that
the Presbyterian faith spread rapidly in Maryland during colonial days,
and Maryland members of the denomination were prominent in organizing
the first Presbytery, that of Philadelphia, in 1707. Since those times,
however, the Church has not grown with the same rapidity in this State
as elsewhere; and in the order of numerical strength, Maryland is now
the fifteenth State on the Presbyterian roll. In the controversies which
have cut up the parent body, the Presbyterians of Maryland took no
leading part, although some fifteen hundred of them are members of the
Southern branch of the Church.

The Maryland Presbyterians in the Northern body are included in
three Presbyteries—those of Baltimore, which is entirely in Maryland;
Washington City, which includes Montgomery and Prince George’s
counties, and Newcastle, which includes the counties on the Eastern
Shore. These three are part of the Synod of Baltimore, which was
400 MARYLAND.

carved out of the Synod of Philadelphia in 1854. The Southern Presby-
terians are all included in the Presbytery of Maryland, except one
congregation in Garrett county, which belongs to the Winchester
Presbytery.

THE FRIENDS.

The early history of the Quakers in America is likewise closely
associated with colonial Maryland, for it was on the Patuxent River that
George Fox, the founder of the sect, landed in 1672 on his first visit to
America. Here he found a small body of his followers suffering perse-
cution from the colonists because of their refusal to bear arms, and with
them he organized at West River, Anne Arundel county, in the same year,
the second yearly meeting of Friends in America, the first having been
formed in 1661 in Rhode Island. The Friends in Maryland at the present
time are found chiefly in Baltimore city and Harford, Baltimore, Mont-
gomery and Carroll counties. The Orthodox Friends belong to the
Baltimore Yearly Meeting, which includes Washington and portions of
Virginia and Pennsylvania. The Hicksite Friends have also formed a
Baltimore Yearly Meeting, covering nearly the same territory, but
including almost three times as many meinbers.

THE GERMAN CHURCHES.

The prominence in Maryland of the Lutheran, German Reformed
and United Brethren Churches can easily be accounted for by the
constant stream of German immigration which has been pouring into
the State since the beginning of the eighteenth century. The members
of these three denominations are nearly all German by birth or descent,
and in more than half of their congregations German is used to the
exclusion of English, or side by side with it. The strength of these
German churches is found in Baltimore city and county, in Carroll,
Frederick, Washington and Garrett counties, all of which contain the
chief settlements of the German immigrants into the State.

Maryland is very intimately associated with the movement for
Lutheran union which resulted in the formation of the General Synod in
1820. The first meeting at which the matter was discussed was held in
Baltimore in 1819, the plan for union formally drawn up at Hagerstown
in 1820, and the first regular meeting of the General Synod held at
Frederick in 1821. Since that time this supreme body has several times
met at various places in Maryland.

In the dissensions which have split up the Lutheran Church in
America into a dozen branches, the members of the faith in Maryland
have never taken a prominent part. A large majority of them still
belong to the parent body—the General Synod—but the Synodical
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 401

Conference and the Ohio Synod each have a following of several
thousand. The adherents to the General Synod are members of the
Synod of Maryland, which also includes congregations in neighboring
States. It is the oldest and next to the largest synod of that body.

The United Brethren Church had its origin and organization in
Baltimore more than a century ago, under Rev. William Otterbein, a
Lutheran clergyman, who came to Baltimore in 1770, and in 1774
organized what he called an Evangelical Reformed Church, which
became the centre of a considerable conference of churches under the
name of the United Brethren. He and Rev. Martin Boehm were the first
superintendents, or bishops; and under the care of these men and their
successors, the Church has grown to be one of the:most important of the
German-American sects. The geographical boundaries of the local
synods are not well defined, and the members of the Church in Maryland
are contained in no less than three synods.

Maryland is also one of the strongest centres of the Reformed (German)
Church, ranking after Pennsylvania and Ohio in the order of numerical
strength. Its members are included under (1) the Maryland Classis, which
contains the English members of the Church, and belongs to the Synod of
the Potomac ; (2) the German Maryland Classis, belonging to the German
Synod of the East.

THE BAPTIST CHURCH.

The Baptists, too, are not closely united under any form of church
administration, but nearly all the separate congregations in the State are
connected with the Maryland Union Baptist Association, which was
formed in 1836, with six churches, four ministers and three hundred and
forty-five members. It originally included the churches of the District
of Columbia, but the last of these withdrew in 1879 to join a District
association. The union has no legislative authority, but merely advises
the separate congregations on points of discipline and government. It
holds meetings annually, but during the interim its place is taken by an
Executive Board, which meets bi-monthly. For local and social purposes
the Baptist congregations in the State are divided into three district
associations—Eastern, Middle and Western. The main strength of the
denomination lies in the city of Baltimore. Nearly one-half of the
total membership is comprised in the colored churches, which have
recently organized a separate State body under the name of the Maryland
Baptist State Convention.

THE JEWS.

It was not until the year 1825 that the people of Maryland removed

all political disabilities from the Jews, and admitted them to public
26
402 MARYLAND.

office. There were at that time only one hundred and fifty Jews in the
State, but after their enfranchisement the influx of co-religionists was
rapid and continuous. It is now estimated that there are over ten
thousand Hebrews in the State, though this showing does not appear in
the official statistics because of the fact that only heads of families are
customarily enrolled as members. Their congregations are entirely
autonomous, and there is no form of association or union existing between
them. The Orthodox Jews have three congregations in Baltimore; the
Reformed Jews, eight in Baltimore and one in Allegany county.

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

One of the most noticeable tendencies in Maryland churches during
the past twenty-five years has been the erection of large and costly
structures, embodying the latest and most original ideas of church
architecture. This has been more particularly the case in Baltimore,
where by means of the increasing wealth of congregations, and the
generosity of influential members, the plainer structures of the past have
given way to beautiful buildings whose total cost has been estimated at
several millions of dollars. This tendency has not been confined to one
or two denominations, but has included nearly all. Of eight churches
which may be taken as the most typical examples, two are Presbyterian,
two Methodist, two Hebrew, one Catholic and one an independent body.
All but two of them are the work of local architects. The earliest was
the First Presbyterian Church, a brownstone structure, erected in 1859,
and modeled by the architects after the Gothic Cathedral at Freiburg.
Mt. Vernon M. E. Church was completed in 1872, after designs by the
late Charles L. Carson, of Baltimore, and is said to be one of the hand-
somest Methodist churches in this country. It is decorated English
Gothic in its design, the materials used in its construction being mainly
serpentine, from quarries in Baltimore county. Mr. Carson was also the
architect of the magnificent Byzantine structure occupied by the
Baltimore Hebrew congregation. His successor, Mr. Joseph E. Sperry, was
the architect of the stately marble Synagogue of the Oheb Shalom
congregation,- now nearly completed. This edifice, with its massive
dome, occupies a commanding position on one of the highest hills in the
city. It is in the Free Renaissance style, the marble used in its construc-
tion being from Baltimore county. In 1887 the new building of the First
M. E. Church was completed after designs by McKim, Mead and White,
of New York. It is a granite structure, of Lombardic design, and was
modeled very closely after the famous cathedral at Ravenna. A very
original design in the Romanesque style is the new home of the
Associate Reformed Church, erected in 1889, by Charles E. Cassell, of
Baltimore. Mr. Cassell also designed the English Gothic edifice occupied
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 403

by the Boundary Avenue Presbyterian Church, and was associated in the
construction of the stately Decorated Gothic structure of the Corpus
Christi Catholic Church. :

SUNDAY SCHOOLS.

The work of the Sunday schools in Maryland has, in the past thirty
years, been largely under the supervision of the Maryland Sunday School
Union, which was formed in 1856. Of recent years the work has grown
very rapidly, until the membership of the Protestant Sunday schools is
larger than that of the churches themselves. The following statistics of
the Sunday school organizations in Baltimore and the various counties
have been obtained through the courtesy of Mr. William A. Baker, State
Superintendent of the Union:

 

 

 

    
  

 

 

: ao og
od & Bia 4
a ei a 4 g ae
8 3 g 8 a BES.
oa qa 2 3 o
CountrEs. 3 ge e g a 5 hat) @
e | ef a a 22 | yas
a | & a g 3 “BS
N 3 ND a 4 ae?
Allépany. g2 tvawesenereeg over 84 1,248 9,635 10,883 6,329 16,004
Anne Arundel................ 99 978 7,268 8,246 4,601 13,126
BaltimOre’ 205532 acorerens kee 212 2,416 18,294 20,710 13,426 28,070
Baltimore City........... tis 360 §,031 93,313 102,344 67,473 167,282
Calvert .......0..eeeee- jeans 45 401 2,497 2,898 1,757 3,796
Caroline ta, stssie s,2ainsaiereeeas 69 726 3,575 4,301 3,237 5,853
Carrol kc tisind:nniyeseyia $033 biorernynne 120 1,507 9,250 10,757 8,148 12.465
COCilive. cogs ts aeerenee cos nae 78 867 6,893 7,760 5,222 9,953
Charles. sacacasperea's vite wien eciie 33 201 1,365 1,566 1,107 5, 848
Dorchester. eae eeee 74 922 5,824 6,746 4,499 9,565
Frederick 156 2,326 15, 252 17,578 11,282 19,062
Garrety: semaine Ban a Qeeces a 115 "932 31280 4 212 2,922 5,472
Howard ecsis vss se ets get vaste 36 422 38,108 31525 2,254 6,263
FIATLONG 1a aieis’ciacaiscerd snus oS eve 98 nee 6 a eae oe 11,162
ROD is aisista sto: siatica ave crava 5! oie anenets 56 5 5,61 3,505, 6,726
MontQOMery «acs ners cenen veux 80 760 5, "090 5,850 3,913 10, 466
Prince George’s Siamonaaie Mie 7A 618 4 525 5,138 3,308 10, 041
Queen Anne's 2.54. rar vais cees 74 744 5,105 5,849 3,872 F107
St. Mary’ Sx sens svaxad san cea 19 136 891 1,027 633 6,090
Somerset. TW 915 6,899 7,814 4,913 9,300
DAN DOts s.isea.ncsrtes icersitwewacee sate 63 744 5,414. 6,158 3,855 7,598
Washington.. ...........-.65 161 2,206 11,280 13,436 8,882 15,316
Wicomico ......-..e cece eeeee 52 584 4,368 4,952 3,008 7,673
"WOPrCOSlGd 4 vr eeueewene res cae a7 827 5 456 6 288 4,027 7,603
Catholic in City ... 2.2... eee 65 315 13, 825 14, 140 WO B59 i seine aeiie is M5 Mele
Catholic in County ........... 54 1538 5, 364 5,517 SAA be cevdvaivn i cae
Hebrew in City ccsesccins veer a 55 "739 794 G20 ice tiv sr5 ies Sine
Totalsiae. cscecsacscs ses 2,434 31,717 259,928 291,645 192,253 401,341

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES.

The most prominent of the many Catholic orders within the State
are the Redemptorists, Jesuits, Passionists, Sulpicians, Brothers of the
Christian Schools and Xaverian Brothers. The Redemptorists are mainly
engaged in pastoral work among the foreign Catholic population, and
404 MARYLAND.

have five residences at churches in Baltimore city. That connected with
St. Alphonsus Church is likewise the residence of a provincial of the
order. The Redemptorists have a house for novices at Annapolis, con-
taining nine priests, three choir novices and sixteen lay brothers; and a
house for theological study at Ilchester, Howard county, containing
twenty-two priests, seventy-three professed students and twenty lay
brothers. The total number of members of the order in the State is not
far from two hundred. The Jesuits are engaged in teaching in Baltimore
and Frederick, and in mission work in Southern Maryland. They have
a seminary at Woodstock, a novitiate at Frederick and Loyola College, a
secular institution in Baltimore. The Passionists have a monastery near
Catonsville, Baltimore county, and supply many missions in the
immediate neighborhood. The Sulpicians control St. Sulpice Seminary,
St. Mary’s University, St. Joseph’s Seminary and Epiphany Apostolic
College, in Baltimore, and St. Charles College, Howard county. The
Brothers of the Christian Schools have a novitiate at Ammendale, Prince
George’s county, which is likewise the residence of a provincial of the
order. Its members conduct Rock Hill College, Ellicott city; Calvert
Hall, Baltimore; St. Vincent’s Male Orphan Asylum, Baltimore, and
many parochial schools in Baltimore. The work of the Xaverian
Brothers is very similar. They have a novitiate in Baltimore county,
which is also the residence of the provincial; a community in St.
Patrick’s Parish, Baltimore; and they conduct Mount St. Joseph’s
College, near Catonsville; St. Mary’s Industrial School for Boys, near
Catonsville; St. James’ Home for Boys, in Baltimore; and are engaged
as teachers in many parochial schools. The Capuchins have a monastery
at Cumberland, and there are also Brothers of Mary and members of the
Benedictine and other orders engaged in pastoral work in the diocese.
The Catholic sisterhoods within the State are very numerous, but it
is impossible to obtain any definite statistics regarding their numbers.
The greater part of them are engaged in teaching or in the care of the
sick. The best known orders are those of the Sisters of Notre Dame and
the Sisters of Charity. The former are occupied almost entirely with
the instruction of the young, the latter with the conduct of hospitals and
asylums. The mother-houses of both lie within the bounds of the
State, the former at Govanstown, the latter at Emmitsburg. In the
former there are the following inmates: Professed religious, 38 ; novices,
21; postulants, 16; sisters, 60; boarders, 130; day pupils, 30. The
Sisterhood has smaller convents in eight of the parishes of Baltimore,
and occupies itself with conducting the schools of the parish. Sisters
of Notre Dame are also engaged in five other parochial schools of Balti-
more, and superintend an orphan asylum there. They have a convent
and academy at Annapolis, another at Hagerstown, and a mission house
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 405

at Towson. The Sisters of Charity have 200 professed sisters, 50 novices,
and 100 pupils at their mother-house at Emmitsburg. They have
charge of an orphan asylum and a house of industry in Baltimore; an
orphan asylum near Melvale, Baltimore county; a hospital and retreat
for the insane at Mount Hope, and a hospital near Catonsville. They
also conduct an academy and school at Emmitsburg; an academy at
Leonardstown, and five parochial schools in Baltimore. The Sisters of
Mercy have a convent at Mount Washington and another in Baltimore.
They have charge of the City Hospital,a home for working yirls, and four
parochial schools in Baltimore, and an academy at Cumberland. There
are Convents of the Visitation, with female academies attached, at
Baltimore, at Frederick, and at Mount de Sales, near Catonsville. The
Franciscans have houses on Maryland avenue and St. Paul street, in
Baltimore, and at Highland Park, from which they carry on mission
work and schools among the colored people. The Oblate Sisters of
Providence is the name of an order of colored sisters working in
Baltimore among their own race. There are also convents, schools and
asylums in Maryland managed by the following sisterhoods: Benedictines,
Carmelites, Ursulines, Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of St. Joseph, of
the Good Shepherd and of the Holy Cross. The Sisters of Bon Secours
founded a convent in Baltimore in 1881, from which they go out to nurse
in the homes of the sick without regard to denomination or color.

The Protestant communities within the State are few in number.
The largest Episcopalian Order is the Sisterhood of All Saints, Mt. Calvary
parish of Baltimore. ‘The sisterhood was originally started as a branch
of an English Order, but is now entirely independent of foreign control.
Bishop Paret, of the Diocese of Maryland, is the official visitor of the
Order, which includes eighteen or twenty Sisters living in two houses,
and carrying on parish work among both white and colored. The white
Sisters conduct a training home for girls and a sewing school; the
colored Sisters a home for colored boys, a day school and a fresh-air
fund. The parish work of St. John’s Parish, Waverley, including an
Orphanage and a Parochial School, is also managed by an Episcopal
Sisterhood under the direction of the rector. The Episcopalians have a
Brotherhood called the Order of the Holy Cross, whose headquarters are
at Westminster. During the summer they give instruction in theology
and parochial administration to a number of young clergy. They also
hold themselves ready to obey a request for mission work in any diocese
in this country. The Methodist Episcopal Church opened in 1892 a
Deaconesses’ Home in Baltimore. It is supported by the Woman’s Home
Missionary Society, and its inmates are engaged in nursing, visiting and
teaching. A movement has recently been started among the members
406 MARYLAND.

of the Baltimore Conference to enlarge and greatly extend the scope
of the work in Maryland.

RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS.

Probably the most remarkable development in the recent history of
American churches has been what may be called, for want of a better
term, the specialization of religion. By this is implied an adaptation of
the methods and means of the churches to meet the socio-religious demands
of particular classes, by the formation of special associations, religious
in purpose, national or international in extent, and denominational or
undenominational in character. This tendency has been most strongly
marked among the young people of both sexes, and young men’s and
young women’s associations or guilds are now found in nearly every city
or congregation in this country. Maryland was one of the first States to
enroll herself in the work, and her enlargement of the idea has kept
pace with the development in other States. The first Young Men’s
Christian Association in Maryland was organized in Baltimore in 1853,
and a State organization was effected in 1872. There are now nineteen
such associations in the State, six of them being in various colleges, six
in Baltimore city, and the rest in separate towns in Western Maryland.
The city associations all own or occupy commodious buildings suited to
their needs—two of them, the main building on Saratoga and Charles
streets, and Levering Hall, the home of the Johns Hopkins Y. M. C. A.—
being specially constructed for the needs of these branches. The follow-
ing statistics of the Y.M.C. A. are taken from the annual report for
1893:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vy A Ge
z 5 3 3 5 ; Se afd
el oO low! ~
gd | Se] 38 | B | sf | 438
5 qo ao ° Po > 3
a =a | 45 a A a
Baltimore AssociationS...........ccesecseneeeececucs 6 | 1,270 | 1,583 | 2,808 | 2,999 $285,505
College AssociationS........ cc. cece cece eee e eee eeeee 6 264 158 422 700 20,000
‘Uther AGSOCIAIONS 3s sous «dawns cece sieas acene esas ees i 230 300 5380 | 3,825 125
DOU ope 3 sss vie cieeh Bislera dete Secetsise aleie seas Seace Seeat 19 | 1,764 | 1,991 | 3,755 | 7,524 $305,630

 

 

 

In 1890 there was organized in Baltimore a Young Men’s Hebrew
Association, similar in its purposes and aims to the Young Men’s Christian
Association. It includes about four hundred members. There is also a
colored Young Men’s Christian Association, having a rapidly increasing
membership among the many colored churches of Baltimore.

The Young Women’s Christian Association of Baltimore was organ-
ized in 1882, and has increased very rapidly in numbers and influence.
The association now owns and occupies a large building in Baltimore,
valued at $50,000. The resources of the association are supplied mainly
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 407

by outside subscriptions, and not by the young girls themselves. A
particular feature of the work is the use of the central building for a
boarding-house and lunch-room for hundreds of working girls. There
are three branches of the main association in Baltimore—Mothers’ Branch,
comprising fifty members, and occupied with the care of needy women
in confinement; Eastern Branch, or Helping Hand Society, with two
hundred young girls under its care; and a Northwestern Branch, with
twenty-seven members. There is also a Young Women’s Christian Asso-
ciation connected with the Western Maryland College at Westminster, a
co-educational institution.

The National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union has a very
large and active membership in the State. The centre of its activity is
a Memorial Building in Baltimore, purchased in 1891 at a cost of over
$30,000. In addition to the promotion of total abstinence, the organiza-
tion also carries on much charitable and religious work. Branches are
found in all but three of the counties. The following statistics are from
the last annual report of the corresponding secretary: Number of branch
unions, 168; juvenile unions, 86; active members, 3,157; honorary
members, 887; juvenile members, 4,596; total membership, 8,640.

In addition to these various non-sectarian bodies, there are likewise
organized within the State hundreds of branches of national associations
whose work is much more closely associated with the separate churches
and congregations in which these branches are formed. They have no
separate homes, or central buildings, but meet in the church buildings
and confine their efforts to religious and charitable work within the
congregation. The care and conduct of the weekly prayer-meeting
usually devolve upon them, as well as the direction of many sewing-
schools and branch missions. The separate branches are bound together
by State and district officers, and by annual and quarterly conventions.
The largest of these bodies within the State is the Young People’s
Society of Christian Endeavor, branches of which exist in nearly every
county. It is non-sectarian, and includes in its ranks representatives of
sixteen denominations, the most prominent of whom are the Methodist
Protestants, Lutherans, Presbyterians and Baptists. In January, 1893,
there were 192 societies within the State, of whom 68 were in Baltimore.
The total membership was 8,884. The next largest body is the Epworth
League, which in 1892 was taken under the patronage of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. There is no State organization, the separate unions
being grouped together on the same territorial lines as the Annual Con-
ferences into which Maryland is divided for administrative purposes.
Branches are found in nearly every congregation. and the total State
membership is estimated at 6,000 members. The Order of the King’s
Daughters and Sons is non-sectarian, and reported in January, 1893,
408 MARYLAND.

about 5,000 members, belonging to 142 circles, of which 105 were in
Baltimore. The Girls’ Friendly Society is under the protection of
women of the Episcopal Church, and has for its active members girls of
any creed, bound together for mutual help—secular and religious. There
are about twenty-five branches in Maryland, with 300 associates and over
1,500. active members.

Besides these organizations there are many others of smaller numbers,
including branches in various churches of the State. Among them are
the Society of St. Vincent of St. Paul (Catholic); the Daughters in
Israel (Hebrew); the Daughters of the King (Episcopalian); Young
Catholics’ Friend Society (Catholic), and the Brotherhood of St. Andrew’s
(Episcopalian).

RELIGIOUS PUBLICATIONS.

The number of religious papers issued within the State is sixteen, of
which six are weekly, nine monthly, and one quarterly. Of the weeklies
two are Catholic, two Methodist Episcopal, one Baptist and one Metho-
dist Protestant. The monthlies and the quarterly include two Catholic,
one Methodist Episcopal, one Baptist (colored), one Episcopalian, one
Independent Methodist, two Evangelical and three Y. M. C. A. bulletins.
All of these journals are issued at Baltimore except the organ of the
Frederick City Y. M. C. A.

The only denominational publishing houses in Maryland possessing
an official character belong to two branches of the Methodist faith. The
larger one is the Methodist Book Depository, which is located in Balti-
more, under the direction of the Baltimore Conference of the M. E.
Church. The other is the Central Book Concern of the Methodist
Protestant Church, established in Baltimore in 1831, shortly after the
formation of the Church. There are likewise publishing houses of the
Baptist and M. E. South Churches, controlled by individuals, but possess-
ing the endorsement of their respective Churches.

The Maryland Bible Society was formed in May, 1833, under the
presidency of Hon. William Wirt. During the fifty-nine years of its
existence it has distributed 1,038,596 volumes of the Scriptures, has
received from sales, gifts and bequests over $600,000, and has transmitted
to the American Bible Society nearly $75,000, to be used in increasing
the circulation of the Bible throughout the world. It employs three
colporteurs in the city and ten in the counties, and also makes use of
auxiliaries among the ladies of Baltimore, and in Somerset, Frederick,
Wicomico and Allegany counties. The Maryland Tract Society was first
organized in 1844, and now makes use of three colporteurs and over one
hundred and fifty tract distributors.
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 409

RELIGIOUS CAMP-MEETINGS.

Camp-meetings were very early introduced into Maryland by mem-
bers of the Methodist Church, and they have since been fostered mainly
by the various branches of that denomination. The sites on which they
are held are now usually owned by a stock company, comprising members
of the churches who direct the meetings. Tenters frequently occupy
the grounds during the months of July and August, but the religious
meetings for prayer, exhortation and conversion do not occupy more than
two weeks of that time. The largest and most important camps are:
Emory Grove, Baltimore county, under the direction of the M. E. Church;
Wesley Grove, Howard county, M. E. Church South; Summit Grove, near
the Pennsylvania state line, M. E. Church; Deal’s Island, Chesapeake bay,
M. E. Church; Mt. Airy, Frederick county, M. P. Church; Glyndon Camp,
Baltimore county, Prohibitionist; Washington Grove, Montgomery county,
M. E. Church, and Asbury Grove, Baltimore county, M. E. Church
(colored).

CEMETERIES AND BURYING-GROUNDS.

In the several counties of the State the bodies of the dead are buried
either in the churchyard surrounding the local church or in the scores of
private family cemeteries to be found in every rural district. I1t is only
near the larger towns and cities,and more particularly near Baltimore, that
undenominational public cemeteries exist, under the care and direction
of stock associations incorporated under an act of the State Legislature.
Greenmount Cemetery, in the northern section of Baltimore, is the most
important and most interesting of these cities of the dead. It contains
the remains of many prominent Marylanders who have died within the
past fifty years, among them being those of John McDonogh, Johns
Hopkins, Junius Brutus Booth and several of his family. Other large
cemeteries of Baltimore are Loudon Park, containing many beautiful
monuments, and interesting because of the beauty of its landscape gar-
dening; Mount Olivet, containing the remains of Asbury and other
Methodist Episcopal Bishops, over whom a graceful shaft has been placed ;
and Bonnie Brae, in which are the bones of Charles Carroll of Carrollton,
originally interred at his manor in Howard county. An interesting sur-
vival of a rural churchyard in the midst of a large city is to be found in
the Westminster Presbyterian Church of Baltimore, in the yard of which
are many old vaults and tombs, among them being that of Edgar Allen
Poe. Another interesting survival is the old family burying-ground in
Druid Hill Park, containing the remains of several generations of the
Rogers family, the former owners of the ground now contained in the
park.
410 MARYLAND.

Several military and national cemeteries are to be found within the
State, the largest of them being on Antietam battle-field. Five thousand
Union soldiers are buried here, fifteen hundred of them being those who
fell in the engagement of September 17,1862. The rest were brought from
Monocacy, South Mountain and Harper’s Ferry. The Confederate soldiers
who fell at Antietam are buried near Hagerstown. Twenty-three hundred
Union soldiers from the hospitals in and around Baltimore are buried in
the national cemetery at Loudon Park, which also contains a Confederate
burying-ground with three hundred dead init. At Annapolis there is a
government burying-ground containing the bodies of two thousand five
hundred returned prisoners, who died at Camp Parole, near that city.
Two thousand Confederates are buried at Point Lookout, where most of
them died while prisoners of war.
CHAPTER XIV.

EDUCATION.

PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

The father of the public school system of Maryland was Francis
Nicholson, Royal Governor of the Province, 1694-1698. Down to his
time there had been no general provision for education, but under his
influence the Assembly in 1694 passed an act for the maintenance of
free schools by duties laid on exported furs, which then formed a large
item of Maryland’s trade. In 1696 King William School was founded at
Anne Arundel Town (afterwards Annapolis), and provision was made for
the erection of others. King William School afterwards became St.
John’s College, which still flourishes. In 1723,an act was passed looking
to the establishment of one free school in every county. These schools
were the only ones supported by the colony and State until well into
this century.

Various measures dealing with public education were enacted
during the first half of this century, but no general and effective system
was established until 1864, when a State Board of Education was created,
and a Superintendent of Public Instruction appointed. Under the
present law the schools in each county are under the control and super-
vision of county school boards appointed by the Governor. The board
of Baltimore city consists of one commissioner from each ward. The
principal of the State Normal School is the chief executive officer of the
whole system. The schools are supported by a State tax, supplemented
by local taxation in each county. Appropriations are also made by the
Legislature for the assistance of some colleges and academies which do
not belong to the system, and the institutions so aided usually bestow
free scholarships.

In the year ending July 31, 1891, the period covered by the last
report of the State Board of Education, there were in Maryland (exclusive
of Baltimore city), 2,089 public schools, with 123,456 enrolled pupils and
2,723 teachers. For colored children there were 450 schools.
412 MARYLAND.

The State Normal School for the training of teachers was established
in 1866, and occupies a handsome building in Baltimore, on the corner of
Lafayette and Carrollton avenues. To this each county is entitled to
send two students for each representative in the Assembly, and a limited
number of others are received on the payment of tuition.

The State School for the Deaf and Dumb was founded in 1868 and
located in Frederick City. Pupils are received between the ages of nine
and twenty-one. Children of Marylanders receive gratuitous board and
instruction, but those from other States pay $150 yearly. Both the sign
language and articulation are taught, and in addition to the ordinary
branches of education the pupils are trained in various handicrafts.

The State School for the Blind is situated on North avenue, near
Calvert street, Baltimore. This is not an asylum, but a school of
instruction, and is supported in part by an appropriation which entitles
the State to free scholarships, and in part by the income from endow-
ments. The blind of the District of Columbia are also educated here.
In addition to scholastic instruction a number of gainful occupations are
taught, such as music, piano-tuning, broom-making and chair-caning.
There is also in Baltimore a school for the colored blind and deaf, to
which the State appropriates $7,000. Pupils are also sent here by the
State of West Virginia and the District of Columbia.

BALTIMORE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

The public school system of Baltimore was established in 1827 by
an ordinance creating a Board of Commissions and investing them with
the necessary powers. The earliest schools were elementary and con-
ducted on the Lancasterian system, but in process of time the course was
enlarged and grammar schools added to the primary. In 1839 a high
school for boys was established, followed by two for girls in 1844. The
boys’ high school was afterwards erected by legislation into the Balti-
more City College. After the civil war, free schools were opened for
colored children and were graded like the others.

On January 1, 1893, there were one hundred and fifty-six day schools
and eight night schools in Baltimore, classed as follows: The City
College, two high schools for girls, the Manual Training School, forty
grammar schools, sixty-three primary schools, five English-German
schools, eighteen schools in the annexed wards (Twenty-first and Twenty-
second), and eighteen schools for colored children, In these were
employed 1,430 teachers. The day schools were attended by 54,406
pupils, and the night schools by 1,413. These schools occupy 108
buildings. The expenditure for 1892 was $1,009,444, of which $800,978
was for salaries.
EDUCATION. 413

BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE.

This, as has been said, was formerly the boys’ high school, which in
1866 was made a college by legislative enactment, though it has never
conferred degrees. When first opened, it received only the advanced
pupils of the grammar schools, but afterwards was opened to all qualified
to enter. At present it has a faculty of fifteen members and four
hundred and fifty scholars. The standard of scholarship is high, and
students who have completed its courses are received in the Johns
Hopkins University without further examination. A building on Howard
street was constructed for it in 1873 and used until 1892, when a sinking
of the bed of the street, caused by tunnelling, occasioned its downfall.
The college now occupies temporary quarters on Fayette street.

The high school for colored children is on Saratoga street, east of
Charles.

BALTIMORE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, FORMERLY THE MANUAL TRAINING
SCHOOL.

This is the first school of its kind established in the United States as
a part of the public school system. It isnot designed to teach any special
handicrafts, to turn out carpenters or blacksmiths, but to teach the use of
tools and the elementary mechanical processes and arts in dealing with
wood, the metals, etc., thus giving the eye, hand and brain a training
which is not given in the literary courses of the schools. Its building is
situated on Courtland street, and has room for five hundred students.
The building contains boiler-rooms, machine shops, forges, work-rooms
for steam engineering, pattern making, carpentery, wood carving, free-
hand and mechanical drawing, laboratories for physics and chemistry,
recitation-rooms, gymnasium and swimming-pool.

MANUAL LABOR SCHOOL.

The Baltimore Manual Labor School for indigent boys, founded in
1845, is situated at Arbutus, in Baltimore county, on a farm of one hun-
dred and forty acres. The scholars, who are mostly sons of indigent
widows, are trained in farm work, and also receive a school education.
414 MARYLAND.
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES.

THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND.

Most of the older universities in this country were developed from
colleges, but this institution had its origin in a medical school. In 1802
Dr. John B. Davidge, of Baltimore, opened a private medical class, which
was so successful that in 1807, in connection with two other physicians,
he obtained from the Assembly a charter for the College of Medicine of
Maryland, and permission to raise $40,000 by lottery. This college
proved so great a success that the founder conceived the idea of making
it part of a more comprehensive scheme, and in 1812 obtained an enlarged
charter authorizing the college to constitute and annex three other
faculties, of Divinity, Law and Arts, which combined should constitute
the University of Maryland.

The faculty of divinity was never organized, that of arts was twice
organized and twice perished, and that of law early gave up activity, to
be revived, however, in 1869. The faculty of medicine has always been
the largest school, having had a course of great prosperity and a
succession of professors of distinguished ability and wide repute. In
point of age it is the fifth medical school in the United States.

In 1812, the University purchased from Colonel John Eager Howard,
at a price little more than nominal, the lot on the corner of Lombard and
Greene streets, which has ever since been its home. The first building,
which is still in use, was erected from the designs of R.C. Long, modelled
on the Pantheon at Rome, and was at the time the finest medical college
building in the United States. Im 1823, the Baltimore Infirmary, under
the control of the University, was built on the opposite side of Lombard
street, where it still stands, though much enlarged. It now contains 250
beds, and receives annually $3,750 from the State and $6,760 from the
city. In connection with the University are a nurses’ training school
and also the Free Lying-in Hospital on Lombard street, with from
thirty-five to forty beds, which is also aided by the State.

The faculty of the medical school consists of ten professors, five
lecturers, six demonstrators and three prosectors. A three years’ course
has been adopted.

Among the historic distinctions of this school are the introduction
of hygiene and medical jurisprudence into the curriculum as early as
1833, the first lectures in the United States on dentistry in 1837, the
enforcement of dissection, first or second of American colleges, the intro-
duction of courses of comparative physiology and microscopy, and in
1867, the first independent chair of diseases of women and children.

The Law School occupies a building adjoining the Medical School.
It has seven professors and over one hundredstudents. The course covers
three years. Judge H. D. Harlan is the Dean of the Faculty.
EDUCATION. 415

In 1882, the Dental Department was organized with Dr. F. J. S. Gorgas
as the Dean, and it has now about two hundred students. For graduation,
attendance upon three sessions with clinical instruction, is required.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.

Baltimore owes a large debt of gratitude to her munificent citizens.
The names of George Peabody, Moses Sheppard, Enoch Pratt, James
McDonogh, Thomas Wilson, Mary Elizabeth Garrett, John W. McCoy
and others appear elsewhere in these pages, and we have now to add to
them that of the man whose great wealth enabled him to make the most
splendid gift the city ever received—the name of Johns Hopkins.

This gentleman, a native of Maryland, had amassed an ample fortune
in his long career as a successful merchant and banker, and being a
bachelor without claims of family upon him, he conceived the idea of
benefiting his native State and country, and perpetuating his name in two
great foundations, a university and a hospital. He selected among his
friends a body of trustees whose intelligence, integrity and liberal views
eminently fitted them for the responsibility, and in 1867 the University
was incorporated. In 1870, the Trustees met, organized and adjourned,
not to re-assemble until after the death of the founder. Mr. Hopkins
died in December, 1873, and by his will divided his estate, amounting to
about seven millions of dollars, between the two institutions. The
Trustees were informed, in a letter of instructions, of the general scope
of the founder’s plans, but were left unfettered as to the mode of carrying
them into effect.

In December, 1874, Daniel C. Gilman, L.L.D., a graduate of Yale,
and then President of the University of California, was offered and
accepted the presidency of the new institution, an office he still holds.
In the following year he spent some months in Europe, studying
university organization, and maturing a system for the new foundation.
In 1876, on February 22, a day since observed by the University in
annual commemoration, the President was publicly inaugurated, and in
his address intimated the scope, methods and aims of the Johns Hopkins
University. “The object of the University,’ he said, “is to develop
character, tomake men. It misses its aim if it produces learned pedants,
or simple artisans, or cunning sophists, or pretentious practitioners. Its
purpose is not so much to impart knowledge to the students, as to whet
the appetite, exhibit methods, develop power, strengthen judgment, and
invigorate the intellectual and moral forces. It should prepare for the
service of society a class of students who will be wise, thoughtful,
progressive guides in whatever department of work or thought they may
be engaged.”
416 MARYLAND.

The founder had forbidden any part of the capital of the University
to be used in the erection of buildings, therefore the beginnings were
necessarily on a modest scale. A plain house on Howard street was
enlarged and fitted up, and in it the Department of Philosophy began in
the fall of 1876.

At the time the University was opened, there being comparatively
little attention paid in this country to post-graduate work, it was decided
to make this at first the leading feature of the institution, and a three
year’s graduate course was established, leading to the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy. The undergraduate work was then organized, leading to the
degree of Bachelor of Arts. This, as now arranged, presents for the
student’s choice, seven elective groups, equivalent in value.

A feature of the University is the publication of journals and other
serials on scientific subjects, published by the University itself or under
its auspices. The following are regularly issued, beside occasional publi-
cations, reports, &c.:

The American Journal of Mathematics.
The American Chemical Journal.

The American Journal of Philology.
Studies from the Biological Laboratory.
Studies in Historical and Political Science.
Contributions to Assyriology.

University Circulars.

Another periodical, Modern Language Notes, is edited by members
of the faculty.

In the rear of the Front Building on Howard street, which contains
the offices of administration, and class rooms in Ancient Languages, is
the Library Building. This contains on the first floor Hopkins Hall,
now used for chemical lectures; on the second floor the reading-room
and general library, and on the third the rooms and library of the
Department of History and Political Science. The next building to
the west of this contains the chemical laboratories, lecture-rooms, &c.,
and still further west, on the corner of Eutaw street, is the Biological
Laboratory. The building last constructed for purposes of instruction,
and also the largest, is the Physical Laboratory, at the corner of Monu-
ment and Garden streets. It is a fine structure of pressed brick, trimmed
with sandstone and surmounted by an astronomical cbservatory. Other
departments of the University, such as Mineralogy, Geology, Modern
Languages, &c., are temporarily housed in the near vicinity, until proper
quarters can be provided for them.

In addition to the buildings already mentioned, there is the Gym-
nasium at the corner of Garden and Little Ross streets, and Levering
Hall, a handsome edifice built at the cost of $20,000 and presented to
EDUCATION. 417

the University by Mr. Eugene Levering, a Baltimore merchant, for the use
of the University Young Men’s Christian Association. This hall stood
formerly at the corner of Garden street, but in the summer of 1892 it
was moved half a block westward to Eutaw street, to make room for
McCoy Hall.

Mr. John W. McCoy, a retired merchant, and a liberal patron of arts
and letters, left by will his valuable library of about 8,000 volumes
(largely consisting of rare and costly works relating to art), to the
University, and made it also his residuary legatee. From the funds thus
derived the University is now constructing an imposing building to be
called McCoy Hall. It extends from Monument to Little Ross street,
and is intended to contain the offices of administration, the library and
reading-room, the departments of Languages, History and Political
Economy and a large lecture-hall.

The faculty (1893) consists of the president, twenty-nine professors,
and one non-resident emeritus professor, six lecturers, seven associate
professors, nine associates and nine instructors.

The general control of the University is vested in a board of thirteen
trustees, of whom Mr. C. Morton Stewart is president.

The University annually awards twenty-one fellowships, yielding
each $500, one of which is a private endowment; twenty scholarships for
graduate students, yielding $200 each, and a varying number of under-
graduate scholarships. These last are given to students from Maryland.
There are also graduate scholarships for students from Virginia and
North Carolina.

Two lectureships have been founded by the gifts of friends: the ~°
Percy Turnbull Lectureship of Poetry, founded by Mr. and Mrs. Lawrence
Turnbull, in memory of their son, and the Levering Lectureship on
Religious Subjects, founded by Mr. Eugene Levering. Mrs. Caroline
Donovan, of Baltimore, has endowed a chair of English Literature.

The increase of students has been steady, rising from eighty-nine in
the winter of 1876, to five hundred and forty-two in the winter of 1892 f
of whom more than three-fifths are post-graduate. In the sixteen years
of the University’s existence, two thousand and eleven students have
been enrolled, of whom eight hundred were from Maryland; two hundred
and eighty have received the degree of Ph. D.,and three hundred and
eighty that of A. B.

Soon after the opening of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, in 1889, a
movement was set on foot by ladies of Baltimore to establish a medical
school, to which women as well as men might be admitted, and in
pursuance of this object they raised a fund of over $100,000, which the
Trustees accepted, with the understanding that the school should be
founded, when the fund should be raised to $500,000. Notwithstanding

27
418 MARYLAND.

the help which the University itself was able to give, more than three-
fifths of the required sum were still lacking, when Miss Mary Elizabeth
Garrett, of Baltimore, a lady Cistinguished for zeal and liberality in
promoting the higher culture of women, generously made up the
deficiency in December, 1892. This fund is to be kept intact and known
as the Garrett fund. It is expected that this school will be opened in
the fall of 1893, when a second Faculty, that of Medicine, will begin
instruction. 3

The endowment of the university comprised Mr. Hopkins’ country
seat, Clifton, a beautiful tract of 330 acres, to the northeast of the city,
15,000 shares of the common stock of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,
and other values amounting to about $750,000 more. The railroad stock
had a par value of $100 per share, but being exempt from taxation and
paying 10 per cent. dividends, its market value at the time was nearly
$200, and Mr. Hopkins had expressly recommended that it should not be
sold. But the road become involved in difficulties in 1887 and for several
years following dividends were entirely suspended. Consequently the
University found itself deprived of a great part of its revenue and that
even its existence was imperilled. Generous friends, however, came to
its assistance, and an emergency fund of $108,700 was subscribed, which
tided it over the time of trial. The trustees effected a conversion of the
stock in 1890, and the University was again placed ona sound financial
basis.

The University is already known to the whole world by its contri-
butions to knowledge. Prof. Rowland’s investigations of the solar
spectrum, and his diffraction-gratings, Prof. Brooke’s exhaustive mono-
graph on the oyster, Prof. Remsen’s researches into the causes of
contamination of water-supplies, Prof. Williams’ geological maps have
marked important steps in the advance of science. Of works produced
by members of the University in the principal departments of knowledge,
not even the names can be given here. Its influence has also been widely
extended by the number of its alumni who have become professors or
teachers in universities, colleges and schools in nearly every State in the
Union, as well as in Europe and Asia. Of its doctors of philosophy 87
per cent. and of its bachelors of arts 27 per cent. have become teachers,
the number amounting to no less than 514 in the short period of sixteen
years.

WASHINGTON COLLEGE.

Though various desultory attempts had been made to establish a
college in Maryland in colonial times, nothing was effected until 1780,
when Dr. William Smith, ex-president of what is now the University of
Pennsylvania, came to Chestertown, in Kent county, and opened “a
EDUCATION. A419

school for instruction in the higher branches of education.” His attempt
being very successful, the Legislature, two years later, granted the school
a charter as Maryland’s first college, and named it “in honorable and
perpetual memory” of Washington. Assisted by the State, Washington
College flourished for a number of years, after which, from the withdrawal
of State aid and other misadventures, it had a somewhat checkered
career. It is now, however, fairly prosperous, and has a faculty of seven
instructors and 117 students. Since 1890 young women have been
admitted to its courses. It is the only college on the Eastern Shore.

ST. JOHN’S COLLEGE.

As previously stated, this college is a continuation of the oldest
public school in Maryland—King William School, founded in 1696—and
is situated in Annapolis, the capital. It was raised to collegiate rank in
1784, to be for the Western Shore what Washington College was for the
Eastern. Its first quarters were-in the house built by Governor Bladen,
in colonial times, as his official residence, which still remains as
McDowell Hall, so named from the first president.

It had a prosperous career until the withdrawal of the State
appropriation in 1805, after which it languished and for a while was
closed. A new era, however, began for it under the presidency of the
Rev. Hector Humphreys, who devoted himself to its rehabilitation. He
reorganized the system of instruction, traveled in its interests, raised
funds for two more buildings, prevailed on the Legislature to renew the
appropriation, and worked faithfully in its behalf until his death in 1857.

During the civil war it was closed and the buildings used as a
hospital, but it was reopened in 1866. The present president, Thomas Fell ;
LL.D., was appointed in 1887. The faculty consists of fifteen members
and the students number 182. The grounds, upon which the college
buildings stand, comprise twenty acres. In the College library may be
found an interesting collection of books, the gift of King William III. to
the school that bore his name. The college is in close and friendly
relations with Johns Hopkins University, where its certificated students
are received without further examination.

MOUNT ST. MARY’S COLLEGE.

This was founded in 1808 at Emmittsburg, Frederick county, by the
Rev. Jean Dubois, a priest of the Roman Catholic Church, who had
emigrated from France in 1797. It was at first under the control of the
Sulpician Order, but is now governed by the secular clergy, the Rev,
Edward P. Allen being the president. In addition to the regular collegiate
curriculum, there is a commercial course and a preparatory department,
An ecclesiastical seminary preparatory to the priesthood is also main-
tained.
420 MARYLAND.

NEW WINDSOR COLLEGE.

This college, situated at New Windsor, Carroll county, was founded
in 1843. It is under the control of the Presbyterian Church. Both sexes
are instructed, but separately, in different courses of study. It has also
a commercial department.

LOYOLA COLLEGE.

This was opened in 1852 in its present situation on Calvert street,
Baltimore. It is under the control of the Jesuit order, and its course of
study is similar to that of other Jesuit colleges. A commercial course is
also given, and a preparatory school maintained.

ROCK HILL COLLEGE.

The Brothers of Christian Schools, a Roman Catholic fraternity,
founded two centuries ago by Jean Baptiste de la Salle, purchased in
1857 the Rock Hill Academy at Ellicott City, Howard county, and
procured a college charter in 1865. Three courses of study are given: A
classical and a scientific course, each of four years, and a commercial
course of two years. It has a preparatory department.

WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE,

This college, under the control of the Methodist Protestant Church,
was incorporated in 1868. It is unsectarian and receives students of any
denomination. Both sexes are received, but follow different courses.
The male and female students are separated in the chapel and dining
hall, but meet once a month socially in the reception parlors. This
college, though not endowed, has been especially prosperous in late
years, and has increased the area of its grounds and added new buildings.
The Rev. Thomas H. Lewis is president, with a faculty of eighteen
members. The students number two hundred and fifty-eight.

THE WOMAN’S COLLEGE OF BALTIMORE.

The Woman’s College is an institution founded by the Methodist
Episcopal Church for the higher education of women. It was incorporated
in 1884, and opened in 1888, but did not send forth any graduates until
1892.

Its buildings, of massive granite, are in the northern part of the city,
at and near the junction of St. Paul and Twenty-second streets. The
main building, called Goucher Hall, in honor of the president, the Rev.
John F. Goucher, D.D., to whose zealous labors and lavish generosity the
success of the whole foundation is largely due, immediately adjoins the
First Methodist Church, which serves as the college chapel, being con-
nected with Goucher Hall by a bridge. On the other side stands Bennett
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EDUCATION. 421

Hall, given by Mr. B. F. Bennett, of Baltimore, in memory of his wife,
and used as the gymnasium—one of the most exteusive in the world for
the exclusive use of women, containing ali the best modern appliances,
as swimming-pool, &c. The physical culture department is in charge of
a professor who is a doctor of medicine, and the Swedish system of
training is used, the instructors being graduates of the Royal Institute
of Stockholm. The resident students live in three handsome buildings
erected for the purpose in the vicinity of the college, and arranged and
fitted up with the most careful attention to health and comfort. It has
also a preparatory department, the Girls’ Latin School, with a separate
corps of instructors.

In 1892, there were 208 students in the preparatory school and 124
in the College, of whom only 55 were from Baltimore.

The funds of the Male Free School, founded in 1802, and of the
Colvin Institute for Girls, founded in 1839, were transferred to this
College in 1890, the public schools having superseded the older founda-
tions ; and these funds have been applied to the creation of scholarships.

MORGAN COLLEGE.

This institution, situated on Fulton avenue, Baltimore, is for the
education of colored youth. It was chartered in 1889.

PRIVATE SCHOOLS.

In addition to the school system of State, county and city, there are
many valuable schools in Maryland, under the control of private corpo-
rations or supported by private liberality. Of these only a few can
be mentioned. In St. Mary’s county is Charlotte Hall, founded in 1774;
in Frederick county, Frederick College, founded in 1763, and receiving
its present charter in 1830; in Montgomery, the Rockville Academy,
chartered in 1808; in Allegany, the Allegany County Academy, founded
in 1800; in Queen Anne’s, the Centreville Academy, chartered in 1793;
in Cecil, the West Nottingham Academy, beside others.

Calvert Hall, in Baltimore city, is managed by the Brothers of
Christian Schools, a fraternity of the Roman Catholic Church, and is the
preparatory department of Rock Hill College, Howard county, belonging
to the same Order. It occupies a large and handsome building at the
corner of Cathedral and Mulberry streets.

The McDonogh Institute and Farm School is situated on the Western
Maryland Railroad, 9 miles from the city. It was founded by John
McDonogh, a wealthy merchant of Baltimore and New Orleans, who, at
his death in 1850, left half his fortune for its establishment, though
owing to tedious litigation, it was not opened until 1875. This school has
been organized and carried out in strict accordance with the instructions
422 MARYLAND.

of its founder. On a farm of 835 acres, 110 boys live in one great family.
They perform all the lighter farm work, and receive manual training in
machine and carpenter shops. Literary studies are not neglected, and
graduates of the school are prepared to enter college. The boys edit
and print a paper of their own called “The Week.” This institution has
been fortunate in its excellent superintendents, and admission to it is
much sought after.

The Oliver Hibernian Free School, on North street, Baltimore, was
founded by a bequest of John Oliver, a Baltimore merchant, in 1823, as a
free school for poor children of Irish parentage.

The Jacob Tome Institute of Port Deposit, Cecil county, was endowed
in 1889 by Mr. Tone with $2,500,000, but has not yet been opened. It is
intended for the free education of white children from ten to eighteen
years of age.

For the education of girls and young women many excellent institu-
tions are provided in the city and State. Among them are the Frederick
Female Seminary, in Frederick county, founded in 1841, which has just
passed under the control of the Reformed Church in the United
States; the Hannah More Academy, at Reisterstown, in Baltimore
county, founded in 1838, under the control of the Protestant Episcopal
Church, and the Lutherville Seminary, at Lutherville, in Baltimore county,
founded in 1853, under the control of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

The Bryn Mawr School, preparatory to Bryn Mawr College, was
founded in 1889, largely through the liberality of Miss Mary Elizabeth
Garrett, whose philanthropy has already been mentioned in these
pages. It occupies a fine and substantial building at the corner of Pres-
ton and Cathedral streets, and is fitted up with the best nodern appliances
for instruction and exercise.

Under the control of the Roman Catholic Church are the Academies
of Notre Dame, St. Agnes, and Mount de Sales, in Baltimore county; St.
Joseph’s Seminary at Emmittsburg, Frederick county, and the Academy
of the Visitation, in Baltimore.

Beside those mentioned, there are many excellent private schools in
the city and the counties, so that, population and wealth being considered,
Maryland enjoys facilities for education not inferior to those of any of
her sister States.

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES.
ST. MARY’S SEMINARY OF ST. SULPICE.

When the revolution in France threatened the destruction of all the
religious orders, the Rev. André Emery, Superior General of the Society
of St. Sulpice, thought of seeking an asylum for his society in America.
After a conference in England with the Rev. John Carroll, first Roman
EDUCATION. 423

Catholic Bishop in the United States, he determined to found a new
home for the Sulpicians in Maryland, and in 1791 four priests and five
seminarians embarked. In July of that year, they began their labors,
having bought for the sum of £850, Maryland currency, a lot of four
acres in Baltimore, being the site which their seminary now occupies
at the corner of St. Mary and Paca streets.

The Sulpician Society aims almost exclusively at training candidates
for the priesthood, but as few such presented themselves at first, the faculty
enlarged the sphere of their activity, so as to include secular education,
and in 1797 founded St. Mary’s College, which was raised to the rank of
a university by the legislature. The reputation of this college long stood
deservedly high, and many of the leading men of Maryland, in the first
half of the century, received their education in its halls.

But the society never lost sight of its original purpose, and when
other secular colleges were founded by Sulpicians and Jesuits, the
collegiate department was closed, and the seminary work alone continued.
As a theological school it has had a high reputation, and its success
necessitated the erection of new and extensive buildings in 1878 and 1881.

In 1828, St. Mary’s College received authority from the Pope to grant
degrees in theology and canon law. The course as now pursued embraces
five years, two of which are devoted to philosophy and natural science,
and three to biblical study, theology, canon law and ecclesiastical history.
None are admitted but candidates for the priesthood, who have taken a
collegiate course.

The Rev. A. Magnien has been the head of the Seminary since 1878.

Under the supervision of St. Mary’s Seminary is St. Joseph’s Seminary
for the education of colored priests.

ST. CHARLES’ COLLEGE.

This institution owes its existence to Charles Carroll of Carrollton,
who in 1830 gaveit lands and endowment. It is under the control of
the Sulpician Order, and is attractively situated on elevated ground near
Ellicott City, in Howard county. The college building is a handsome
structure of granite. The Rev. F. L. Dumont, D. D., is president.

WOODSTOCK COLLEGE.

This college was founded by the Society of Jesus as a theological
seminary for the education of priests. It occupies a fine situation on a
hill overlooking the Patapsco river at Woodstock, in Howard county.
The Rev. P. O. Racicot is president. Woodstock College has a remark-
able and very valuable library of 62,000 volumes.
424 MARYLAND.

REDEMPTORIST COLLEGE.

This institution, whose exact name is House of Studies of the Con-
gregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, Mt. St. Clement, was founded in 1867
at Ilchester, Howard county, by the Redemptorist Congregation of the
Roman Catholic Church, as a school to prepare members of their body
for the priesthood. The course of study covers six years, and includes
philosophy, natural science, biblical study, theology, canon law and
church history. The rector is the Rev. Eugene Dumont.

WESTMINSTER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY.

This seminary is designed to educate young men for the ministry of
the Methodist Protestant Church. It occupies a building on the grounds
of the Western Maryland College, Westminster, and is closely connected
with that institution, though it has a separate legal existence. The Rev.
J. T. Ward, D.D., is the president.

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES FOR COLORED MEN.

Several seminaries have been established to prepare colored men for
the ministry of the Gospel, among which are the Theological Department
of Morgan College, in Baltimore, belonging to the Methodist Episcopal
Church, and Epiphany Apostolic College and St. Joseph’s Seminary, also
in Baltimore, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church.

MEDICAL COLLEGES.

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND.

The medical faculty of this, the oldest school of medicine in the
State, has already been spoken of under the head of universities.

MEDICAL AND CHIRURGICAL FACULTY OF MARYLAND.

In 1799 the Legislature incorporated this venerable body for the
purpose of “promoting and disseminating medical and chirurgical
knowledge throughout the State, and preventing the citizens thereof
from risking their lives in the hands of ignorant practitioners or pre-
tenders to the healing art.” It was rather an examining than a teaching
body, and was invested with power to give certificates to competent
practitioners, which certification was made obligatory. This provision
afterwards fell into disuse, and no examination of physicians was made
until the passage of the act of 1892. The membership comprises some
of the most distinguished physicians of the State. It holds semi-annual
meetings at its rooms at the corner of St. Paul and Saratoga streets,
Baltimore, where it has a valuable library. An annual volume of trans-
actions is published.
EDUCATION. 425

COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS.

This medical school was incorporated in 1872 by a number of
physicians who had been members of the faculty of Washington
University, which was finally absorbed by the younger institution. It
now has charge of the new City Hospital at the corner of Calvert and
Saratoga streets, which contains three hundred beds, and is managed by
the Sisters of Mercy. Connected with the hospital is a dispensary, and a
building for the reception of colored patients. It also controls the
Maryland Lying-in Asylum. The city aids the dispensary with a yearly
appropriation, and pays an annual sum for beds in the hospital. The
State also gives assistance to the College, which has a faculty of ten
members, and gives a three years’ course of study.

BALTIMORE MEDICAL COLLEGE.

This, the third Baltimore medical school in point of age, was
organized in 1881. Its earlier growth was slow, but after certain changes
were effected in its organization, and the removal to a new site, it
prospered. In 1892, it erected a handsome building on the corner of
Madison street and Linden avenue. It has a faculty of eleven professors
and nine assistants. It controls the Maryland General Hospital con-
nected with its buildings, which receives assistance from both State and
city. The city gives also an annual sum to its dispensary.

BALTIMORE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE.

This was founded in 1884, and is situated on Bond street, East
Baltimore. Its charter endows it with full University powers, and it has
lately added dental, veterinary and law departments to the original
medical school. In 1891 it numbered one hundred and twenty-four
students. Its dispensary and hospital receive an annual sum from the
city.

SOUTHERN HOMCEOPATHIC MEDICAL COLLEGE.

This was opened in 1890, and occupies a building on Saratoga street,
near Charles. It controls the Maryland Homeopathic Free Dispensary
and Hospital on North Paca street.

WOMAN’S MEDICAL COLLEGE.

In 1882, was organized the first school in Baltimore which provided
medical education for women. It is situated at the corner of Hoffman
and McCulloh streets. Its course is as thorough as those given in the
other colleges. The faculty nuinbers twelve protessors. It controls the
Hospital of the Good Samaritan, on Hoffman street, and receives aid from
both State and city for its hospital and dispensary.
426 MARYLAND.

MARYLAND COLLEGE OF PHARMACY.

This was incorporated in 1841, but did not succeed until reorganized
in 1856, since which time it has steadily grown in attendance and reputa-
tion. In 1886, it erected its present building at the corner of Fayette
and Aisquith streets. It gives a two years’ course, leading to the degree
of Graduate in Pharmacy. The college is conducted by an association
of pharmacists, of whom Dr. E. Eareckson is president.

BALTIMORE COLLEGE OF DENTAL SURGERY.

This was chartered in 1839, and is the oldest dental college in the
world. It is located at the corner of Franklin and Eutaw streets, where
it has well-appointed lecture-rooms, laboratories, and infirmary. The
course extends over two years, and covers the whole field of operative
and mechanical dentistry with the cognate studies. R. B. Winder, M.D.,
is the president.

OTHER EDUCATIONAL AND LITERARY INSTITUTIONS.

THE PEABODY INSTITUTE.

This institution, of which Baltimore is justly proud, is due to the
munificence of Mr. George Peabody, who in the earlier part of his life
had been a citizen of Baltimore, where he laid the foundation of his large
fortune. In 1857, after he had long been a citizen of London, he had
matured the plan of an institution which should advance the culture of
a city toward which he felt a filial affection. His design was embodied
in a letter addressed to twenty-five gentlemen whom he had selected as
trustees, in which he announced an endowment of $300,000 as the first
instalment of his gift, which he afterward increased to $1,240,000. The
plan included a free public library, a conservatory of music, a gallery of
fine art, provision for public lectures, and a system of premiums to the
high schools of the city.

The site selected is one of the finest in the city, on the hill at the
intersection of Charles and Monument streets, at the foot of the Wash-
ington Monument. The building was begun in 1858, and the west wing
was finished in 1861 and the library begun. The institute was formally
opened in 1866 in the presence of the founder. John G. Morris, D.D., was
the first librarian. On his resignation, N. H. Morison, LL.D., was appointed
executive head of the institute with the title of Provost, which office he
held until his death in 1890, when he was succeeded by P. R. Uhler,
the present Provost. The building has been completed by the addition
of the central portico and east wing, and has now a front of one hundred
and seventy-five feet. It is built of white marble, and the style is Italian
Renaissance, of tasteful design.
EDUCATION. 427

The institute has three halls for public lectures, concerts, etc., a
gallery of art and a conservatory of music. The library occupies the
entire east wing and contains 116,000 volumes, with space for 500,000.
The library is for reference and consultation, and is of remarkable excel-
lence, every department of knowledge and letters being well represented.
Admission is free to all. The art gallery contains a choice collection of
paintings, largely the gift of the late Mr. John W. McCoy, who also
enriched the collection with works from the chisel of Rinehart, the
sculptor, whose genius Mr. McCoy recognized and assisted, and to whom
he was ever a warm and generous friend. Chief among these works is
the exquisite ideal statue of Clytie, the artist’s masterpiece. The gallery
will be further enriched by a valuable collection of paintings, miniatures,
medallions, bronzes and statuary, received from the estate of the late
Mr. Charles J. M. Eaton, of Baltimore. There is also a gallery of casts from
the antique and other more modern great works, presented by the late
Mr. John W. Garrett. The conservatory of music occupies a large part
of the west wing, and is under the direction of Mr. Asgar Hamerik, K.D.
Advanced instruction in all branches of music is given by a corps of
professors, and diplomas are conferred. In connection with this depart-
ment, musical recitals, students’ concerts, and symphony concerts are given.

A course of thirty lectures is giveu during the fall and winter by
lecturers of distinction, at a price of admission little more than nominal.

The Institute also gives yearly medals snd premiums to the most
meritorious graduates of the Maryland Institute and of the city high
schools, so that its beneficent influences are felt in many ways.

MARYLAND INSTITUTE FOR THE PROMOTION OF THE MECHANIC ARTS.

This institution was founded in 1826, but after an existence of nine
years its building was destroyed by fire, and its activity ceased. It was
revived in 1848, in which year a night school was opened, to which a
day school was added in 1854. Its building is on East Baltimore street,
the lower story being an open arcade, forming the continuation of the
Centre Market.

In the day school is given a four years’ course in drawing, painting
and modeling. The night school has three divisions, comprising free-
hand, mechanical and architectural drawing. A commercial school also
is open for six months in the year.

Thirty-five scholarships are offered to residents of Baltimore and
twenty-three to students from other parts of the State. During its exist-
ence it has enrolled over 17,000 students. The attendance in the winter
of 1892-93 was 1,021, of whoin 715 were in the night, 222 in the day and
84 in the commercial schools. It has a reading-room and library of
20,000 volumes. The State and city each appropriate $6,000 annually. to
428 MARYLAND.

its support. The will of George Peabody endowed it with a fund for the
annual distribution of prizes to the value of $500. The president is Mr.
Joseph M. Cushing.

MARYLAND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

This college, chartered in 1856, was the first in the country to
recognize agricultural experimentation as an important part of its opera-
tions; it is the second agricultural college and third agricultural school
opened in the United States, and the only one founded by voluntary
subscription. It is situated in Prince George’s county, eight miles from
Washington city.

In 1862, the Federal government began to make appropriations for
agricultural colleges, of which this institution receives a share; and
- when, in 1887, Congress passed an act for establishing agricultural
experiment stations, Maryland’s station was organized in connection with
this college. It has also received aid from the State. The course of
study includes agriculture, horticulture, history, natural history, English,
mathematics and political economy, with optional courses in languages.
Tuition and lodging are free. Military drill is given to the students, who
are organized into a battalion.

MARYLAND ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

This association, organized in 1863, devoted itself especially to the
illustration of the flora, fauna, geology and mineralogy of the State. Its
collections were very valuable, but for lack of support it fell intoa
languishing state, and transferred its specimens to the museum of Johns
Hopkins University. Within the past year Mr. Enoch Pratt has
presented to the association a commodious building at the corner of
Franklin and Cathedral streets, and it will now carry on its instructive
and valuable work under more fortunate auspices.

MARYLAND HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

The object of this society, which was organized in 1844, is the
collecting and preserving materials relating to the history of the State,
and by publications, addresses, &c., quickening interest in historical
studies. Its collection of manuscripts and rare publications illustrating
the early history of the colony and State, and of other historical relics, is of
singular interest and value. It has a very valuable library of about 30,000
volumes, particularly rich in Americana.

The Legislature has appointed this society the custodian of the
ancient archives of the State, from the earliest colonial period down to
the peace with Great Britain in 1783, and for several years has made an
appropriation for their publication, eleven quarto volumes having already
EDUCATION. 429

appeared. The society has also a publication fund left it by the late
George Peabody, from the income of which it has published thirty-two
historical and’ biographical monographs. It owns and occupies the
Athenzum Building at the corner of St. Paul and Saratoga streets, in the
upper story of which is the gallery of paintings and portraits, which is
open to the public without charge, as are also the other rooms of the
society. The president is the Hon. 8. Teackle Wallis.

THE ENOCH PRATT FREE LIBRARY.

This library owes its existence to the bounty of Mr. Enoch Pratt, a
native of Massachusetts, but a resident of Baltimore since 1831, and one
of its most prosperous merchants. In 1882 Mr. Pratt laid his plans for a
free public library before the Mayor and City Council, and carried them
out by the erection, at a cost of $250,000, of a handsome building for the
main library on Mulberry street, near Cathedral, and of four branch
libraries in other parts of the city at a cost of $50,000. In pursuance of
his design, Mr. Pratt gave the city the sum of $833,333, on condition of
the city’s creating, in favor of the library, a perpetual annuity of $50,000,
payable to a co-optative Board of Trustees, selected in the first instance
by the donor.

The central building is of white marble, in a bold Romanesque style,
embellished with handsome sculpture and mouldings, and has a front of
eighty-two feet with a depth of one hundred and forty-two. The books
are housed in the lower story, and delivered by attendants as called for
at the office. The second story contains the reading room, librarian’s
room, &c.

This building was turned over to the Trustees in 1884. The
library, organized under the direction of Lewis H. Steiner, M. D.,
librarian, was opened to the public in January 1886. Dr. Steiner
died in 1892, and was succeeded by his son, Bernard C. Steiner, Ph. D.,
the present librarian.

During 1892 the circulation was 452,733 volumes, and on July 1,
1893, there were 82,265 volumes on the shelves of the central library,
and 47,007 on those of the five branches, a fifth branch having been
added in 1888. Any resident of the city above the age of fourteen may
draw books after having been registered, and having furnished a guar-
antor, and sojourners have the privilege of drawing books on condition
of asmall cautionary deposit.

THE NEW MERCANTILE LIBRARY.

The old Mercantile Library, founded in 1839, having fallen into
difficulties after a long career of usefulness, was closed in 1886, and the
books purchased by an association of gentlemen who determined to put
430 MARYLAND.

it on a better footing and reawaken public interest in it. The rooms
were newly furnished and decorated, and the shelves supplied with new
and attractive books. The fears of many that a free circulating library
would make a subscription library impossible were not realized, and
it was soon placed on a sound basis. It now contains over 20,000
volumes,-and circulates 60,000 yearly. It is situated on Charles street,
near Saratoga, and its pleasant reading-room, supplied with the best
periodicals, is a favorite resort of ladies.

OTHER LIBRARIES.

The Whittingham Memorial Library, containing about 20,000 volumes,
left by the late Bishop Whittingham to the Maryland Diocese of the
Protestant Episcopal Church and preserved at the Episcopal residence
on Madison avenue, is a valuable collection, especially of theological
works. The Bar Library, maintained by the members of the Baltimore
bar, contains over 10,000 volumes. It is preserved in the upper floor of
the Equitable building. The Independent Order of Odd Fellows have in
their hall about 22,000 volumes, accessible to members of the Order.

The City Library, at the City Hall, contains nearly 12,000 bound
volumes, besides the municipal reports, pamphlets, &c.

It is safe to say that within a circle of a half-mile radius in Balti-
more there are half a million of books, to which students or investi-
gators can have access and which cover every department of human
thought.

Outside of Baltimore the principal library not attached to a religious
or educational institution is the State Library at Annapolis.

THE YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION,

This, though primarily a religious body, has also educational features,
and classes in German, mathematics, book-keeping and other subjects are
conducted at its central building, on the corner of Charles and Saratoga
streets, and at its five branches. It has gymnasia and grounds for open-air
athletics. Lectures and instructive entertainments are also given.

THE YOUNG MEN’S HEBREW ASSOCIATION

was organized in 1890. Its rooms on Eutaw street are provided with a
gymnasium, reading-rooms, &c., and it is proposed to organize educational
classes. Lectures are given in the winter.

THE CHARCOAL CLUB

was founded by a company of artists and lovers of art for the promotion
of art in Baltimore and for social purposes. In their rooms, at the corner
of Howard and Franklin streets, both day and night classes in drawing,
&c., are conducted, and exhibitions are given.
EDUCATION. 431

WALTERS ART GALLERY.

This, probably the choicest art collection in the United States, is the
property of William T. Walters, Esq., of* Baltimore, and is contained in
his house on Mount Vernon Place. It consists of a gallery of paintings
by modern masters, a collection of rare oriental porcelains, ivories, and
lacquers from China and Japan, a collection of bronzes by Barye, old
carved furniture, and other objects of art.

The paintings, which have been selected by Mr. Walters with the
most refined taste, and many of which have been executed for him,
represent the most characteristic work of the masters of the French,
German, English and American schools.

The oriental collection comprises porcelains and potteries of the
rarest and most beautiful designs, of all ages, illustrating the history
of the art for centuries; exquisite works in metal, quaint and delicate
carvings in ivory and wood, &c. Thousands of precious and curious objects
are arranged in the various rooms.

Though a strictly private gallery, Mr. Walters opens it to the public
on certain days in February, March and April, for a small admission fee,
the proceeds being given to a public charity.
CHAPTER XV.
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND.

For the first one hundred and fifty-six years after the landing of the
pilgrims from the Ark and the Dove, there are no trustworthy statistics
of the population of Maryland. Vague guesses as to the number of
inhabitants were occasionally made, and in the latter part of the
colonial period, and during the interval between the Declaration
of Independence and the adoption of the Federal Constitution, several
more or less careful official estimates of population were put forth.

In the following table some of these guesses and estimates are
reproduced, while for purposes of comparison the population in 1790, as
returned by the first Federal Census, is also given:

 

 

 

 

 

 

| = gs rT

a oo By | a oo 2
DATE OF 3 3 34 | 288 || Darzor 3 s 3 | 78s
ESTIMATE. Ss a as Sea | Estmare. 3 a as See
2 2 oa go 2 2 3a asd
e | 2 | Bf | 28s B | & | B* | EBs

a a ow Zi Au a Ay Z
1634....... BUG | ca0e seas alee era twa ae ees eee UW5G ee esan4 154,188 24,188 18.60 8
LOGO ces exe 12,000 11,800 | 5900.00 26 pb | eres 166,523 12,335 8.00 4
1671....... 20,000 8,000 66.67 11 || 1770....... 199,827 33,304 20.00 10
WN a ce eee 25,000 5,000 25.00 30 Li vaseeae 225,000 25,173 12.60 5
Ties «ons 30,000 5,000 20.00 14 LISD. assets 254,050 29,050: 12,91 7
TYAS, aa eees 130,000 100,000 333.33 33 TI scm teae 319,728 65,678 25.85 8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

While it would be very unsafe to base any nice calculations upon
data the accuracy of which is as uncertain as is that of most of the above
figures, it would seem that the general belief at the time was, that in the
almost half century between 1671 and 1715 the increase of population
was slow, while subsequent to 1715 it was relatively rapid. For the last
century the eleven censuses of the United States thus far taken supply
us with definite and reasonably accurate figures for a study of the
absolute gain in population and for a comparison of rates of increase in
this and in the other older States. In all such comparisons, however,
the small area of Maryland must be kept constantly in mind.

In point of territorial extent the original thirteen States divide
themselves into two classes. The six States of New York, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia are relatively large, the smallest of
them covering an area more than three times as extensive as that of the
largest of the other seven. Maryland, with a land surface of 9,860 square
miles, stands at the head of the seven small States of Maryland, New
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 433

Hampshire, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Connecticut, Delaware and Rhode
Island. Ever since the Union was formed, Maryland has been one of the
more densely peopled members of the gisterhood. In 1790, when the
first census was taken, with 32 inhabitants to the square mile, only
Rhode Island, Connecticut and Massachusetts surpassed it in the average
density of settlement. In 1890 the eleventh decennial enumeration
showed that it had 105 inhabitants for every square mile of its land
surface, and in this respect it was outranked by Rhode Island, Massa-
chusetts, New Jersey, Connecticut, New York and Pennsylvania alone.

The area of the State having of course remained the same, it is
obvious that the aggregate population has in the course of the century
been multiplied more than three-fold. Both absolutely and relatively
the increase of population has been much more rapid during the latter
than during the former half of the century. Until subsequently to 1840,
when the great flood of immigrants began to pour into this country, the
population of most of the smaller, and, in 1790, more densely populated
States increased but slowly. In the fifty years from 1790 to 1840 the popu-
lation of Maryland rose from 319,728 to 470,019, a gain of only 150,291, or
at the rate of but 47.00 pér cent. On the other hand, so soon as the Irish
famine, the political troubles in Germany, and other causes gave impetus
to the movement from Europe to America, which has ever since been
going on, the population began to multiply with great rapidity, and in
1890 the State contained 1,042,390 souls, an increase in the half century
since 1840 of no less than 572,371, or at a rate, 121.77 per cent., more than
two and a-half times as great as in the preceding fifty years.

In the table below will be found the population of the State accord-
ing to each Federal Census, the increase and the percentage of increase
during each decade, the increase and the percentage of increase since
1790, the number of inhabitants to the square mile at the date of each
census and the increase in each decade in the number of inhabitants to
the square mile.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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o z o A Oe 1no,
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a on 5 7 on me a = = A s 5 S
2 a © sa Pe Lag eBaes
el =o ° = oe aa A2g8
3 Bu a s 2 oS rast.
Date OF CENSUS. ge A'S wa 2A 28 San aa Sad
3,5" Sar 7 Se. | So | 585 | euagS
om S s 2as ag 2n, .| e°Ssg
eh g Z 223 28 |'sess|$.83%,
% 2 a | oe | go |2aka | eB oye
TOO § aceite Uaentasen stewed BUGS TOS: lace seks sal vase aoe se leatane sean liisdeeras|| oo Vous
Tega yricun toe eee 341.548 |" "21.820 |” "21,880 6.3) 6)8 34.6 23
ABU OS: ay..5ia.0i5 oe ne Martner Houateeseeetee a 380,546 38,998 60,818 11.4 19.0 38.6 4.0
B20 stealer stiee chery os ieee 407,350 | 26,804 ] 87,622 7.0 27.4 41.3 2 7
NS SO i sec ausretataceienateyaee aasqavty yeunediea 447,040 39,690 127,312 9.7 39.8 45.3 4.0
470,019 | 22,979 | 150,291 5.1 47.0 47.7 2.4
583,034 | 113,015 | 263,306 24.0 82.3 59.1 11.4
687,049 | 104,015 367,321 17.8 114.9 69.6 10.5
780,894 | 93,845 | 461,166 13.7 144.2 79.1 915
934,943 | 154,049 | 615,215 19.7 192.4 94.8 15.7
2800 onamn ies Ken tewes cere 1,042,390 | 107,447 | 722,662 11.5 226.00 105.7 10.9

 

 
434 MARYLAND.

In Maryland, as in most other portions of the civilized world, the
urban population is and has beeu increasing very much more rapidly
than the rural. In 1790 only one Marylander in twenty-three resided in
the limits of what was then officially styled Baltimore Town, while in
1890 the City of Baltimore contained more than two-fifths of the popula-
tion of the entire State. Of the aggregate increase of 722,000 in the
population of Maryland during the century, more than four-sevenths is
to be credited to Baltimore City alone. The way in which, in common
speech, Maryland is divided into “The City,” by which Baltimore is, of
course, meant, and “The Counties,” in which are comprised all of the
State outside of Baltimore, is in itself a striking evidence of the large
place Baltimore necessarily occupies in any study of Maryland.

THE COUNTIES AND BALTIMORE CITY.

In the following table will be found the population of “The City”
and “The Counties” according to each Federal Census, the increase and
the percentage of increase in the population of each during each decade,
and the total increase and the percentage of increase in each since
1790.

 

 

| Percentage
of total pop- ‘ . Percentage 7 : Percentage of
Population. ulation of a | of increase Tnevaase since increase since
pie | State resid- in decade, 1790.
ing in

CENsus. | e

| Balti- The

' +. (Coun-| a: Coun-| a4,, |Coun-) «,. | Coun- Coun-

| City. ee City: "ties. | Clty. | ties. | CltY- I ties. | City: | “ties. | City. lies.

i : 5

 

 

|
187503) °:306;005 |" A289 UBI78| Vazcus cla’ anaes ne Sele voles lig sete alee edemes te wactael nent 3
26.614) 314934] 7.79. 92.21] 13,111] 8,709] 97.09] 2.84) 13,111] 8,709] 97.09 2.84
46,555 333,991| 12.23| 87.77) 19,941, 19057] 74.93} 6.05| 33,052] 27,766] 244.78) 9.07
62,738} 344°612| 15.40) 84.60| 16/183] 10,621] 34.76] 3.18] 491235] 38,387] 364.62] 19.54
80,625) 366,415] 18.04] 81.96] 17,887) 21,803] 28.51) 6.33] 67,122| 60,190 497.09] 19.65
1027313] 367,706! 21.77] 78.23, 21,688 1,291] 26.90] .35| 88,810| 61,481] 657.71) 20.08
169,054} 413,980) 29.00] 71.00, 66,741) 46,274] 65.23] 12.58) 155,551) 107,755] 1151.97) 35.19
212/418] 474/631) 30.92! 69.08) 43,364] 60,651| 25.65) 14.65] 198,915] 168,406 1473.12| 54.99
267,354] 513,540] 34.24| 65.76] 54,936] 38,909] 25.86] 8.20] 253,851| 207,315| 1879.96] 67.70
332}313) 602/630) 35.54| 64.46, 64,959) 89,090) 24.30] 17.35] 318,810) 206,405) 2361.03] 96.76
434,439] 607,951] 41.68] 58.32! 102,126] 5,321) 30.73) .88| 420,936 301,726] 3117.35] 98.53

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In comparing 1790 with 1890 it is unnecessary to take into account
the fact that within the century there have been. various extensions
of the city limits, for the number of inhabitants, who, at the earlier
date, resided in the territory, which was not then, but is now, within
the corporate boundaries, must have been both relatively and absolutely
small, but in contrasting one census with another immediately succeeding
or preceding it, the fact that the lines separating the municipality from
the surrounding country have been changed in the intervening decade,
may, of course, seriously affect the apparent relative rates of growth in
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 435

population between the two federal enumerations of “The City” and of
“ The Counties.”

Thus in 1888 there was annexed to the city a territory which in 1880
contained, probably, 25,000 inhabitants. Treating this territory for pur-
poses of comparison, as having been part of the city in 1880, as it was in
1890, the total increase in the population of “The Counties” in the
decade was 30,321, or nearly five per cent., while the increase in the city
was 77,126, or more than twenty-three per cent.; a great difference, but
still a much less extensive one than the above table would indicate. On
the other hand, in the twenty years between 1860 and 1880, during which
the population of this surrounding “Belt” of Baltimore was rapidly
multiplying as part of the city’s growth, the increase went to the credit
of “The Counties,” although it really belonged to “The City.”

Probably many, if not most well informed people, familiar as they
are with the generally depressed state of agricultural industry of late
years, will be surprised to learn that, as the table shows, the growth of
rural Maryland in population has been much more rapid during the later
than during the earlier half of the century which has elapsed since the
first census was taken. In the fifty years between 1790 and 1840, Mary-
land, outside of Baltimore City, added but twenty per cent. to its
population, while since 1840 the increase has been more than three times
as rapid, or at the rate of more than sixty-five per cent.

Compared with the counties the City of Baltimore is still quite a
youth; and, as a not uncommon result of its having been relatively
small when the basis of representation was first established in the new
State, it has still a very much feebler voice in the General Assembly of
the Commonwealth than its numbers, to say nothing of its wealth,
would seem to entitle it, for while it now cuntains, as above set forth, no
less than 41.68 per cent. of the entire population of the State, it elects
less than eighteen per cent. of the membership of the State Legislature.

THE EASTERN AND THE WESTERN SHORES.

The two great geographical divisions of the State are the Eastern
and Western Shores. In colonial days, and for many years following the
Declaration of Independence, this division was recognized for many
administrative and political purposes, and down to the present day
one United States Senator is always chosen from among the residents of
the Eastern and the other from among those of the Western Shore.
436 MARYLAND.

Leaving out Baltimore City altogether, the following table will show
the relative growth of the counties of the Eastern and of the Western
Shores:

 

Percentage of Percentage of

Increase during

 

 

P * ‘ Increase since | ; j
Population. increase during increase since
decade. decade. 1790.
mo : 3; a 5 < 5 ; o
ge.) ¢ . g g : 5 g 2 g
Date or Censvs.| 2 52 s a 3 a g a g a a
neo na e mn a n mn wm ie n
Bee ee) ee es Be |) ee
SoH 3 2 & 2 oS 3 g 2 s
a x 3s + Qn ~ val » w ~ ta oe)
oom a 2 a 2 a © a 2 a
E a B a E a B a E a
}
LOTO9 | dos erarcl vawieres leangeraclen ecaas sects a | ature ula tote ated leaden oa
108,382 | 7,966 743; 4.01 69 7,966 743} 4.02 67

117,121] 10,318} 8,739 5.00 8.06 | 18,284] 9,482 9.21 8.81
121,709} 6,083) 4,588 2.78 8.92 | 24,3817| 14,070] 12.25 13.06
119,472 | 24,040 | #2,2387) 10.79 | #1.84 | 48,357) 11,883) 24.35 10.99
117,831 | 3,482 | #2,141 1.89 | #1.79 | 51,789) 9,692] 26.08 8.99
128,504 | 85,101 | 11,178] 14.02 9.53 | 86,890 | 20,865] 43.76 19.38
145,128 | 44,027] 16,624] 15.43 | 12.93 | 180,917] 37,489] 65.93 34.82
157,254 | 26,783 | 12,126 8.18 8.386 | 157,700 | 49,615 | 79.42 46.08
ABEO: case ianacdvereutia.ciseass 423,496 | 179,134 | 67,210 | 21,880} 18.58 | 13.91 | 224,990] 71,415] 118.27 66.41
1880 ies asa Sa eiarsasees 423,554 | 184,097 858 | 4,963 09 2.77 | 225,268 | 76,458 | 113.45 71.02

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

*Decrease.

During the hundred years covered by the above table, it will be
perceived that the Western Shore has grown something over one and a
half times as fast as the Eastern. The latter, indeed, as late as 1840,
had less than ten per cent. more people than it had had fifty years before,
there having been between 1820 and 1840 an absolute decrease. Since the
latter date, however, the progress of the Peninsula counties has been
steady, and—bearing in mind that they are almost purely agricultural,
and are among the earliest settled portions of the original thirteen
States—tairly satisfactory. The low apparent rate of increase in the
Western Shore during the last decade was caused by the extension in
1888, of the limits of Baltimore city over an area of Baltimore county,
which in that year had, as before stated, a population of about 25,000.

NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN MARYLAND.

On the Western Shore there is, and always has been, quite a marked
difference between the southern counties and those which lie further north
in the industrial and social conditions, and in the relative proportions of
the white and colored elements of the population. While these
regions shade into each other by more or less easy stages, still a line
drawn along the Patapsco from its mouth, and then west and southwest
along the northern boundaries of Howard and Montgomery counties to
the Potomac river, will be a fairly accurate dividing line between what
is usually called Southern Maryland and what we may for convenience
here designate as Northern or Northern and Western Maryland. The
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 437

Southern counties were the earlier settled. The Northern have a little
more than a third larger area, the land surface of Southern Maryland as
above defined, comprising two thousand six hundred and seventy-six
square miles, and of Northern Maryland, exclusive of Baltimore city,
three thousand six hundred and ninety-five square miles. As the land
area of the nine Eastern Shore counties is three thousand four hundred
and sixty-one square miles, the division of the Western Shore above
suggested, separates the counties of the State into three groups of not
very widely different extent.

A hundred years ago there was no great difference in the number of
inhabitants of each of these sections. The Eastern Shore then having,
as has been before stated, 107,389 inhabitants, Southern Maryland 106,754
and Northern Maryland, Baltimore city always being excluded, 91,832.
The circumstance that the section of the State having the largest superfi-
cial area had the smallest population, was due to the fact that a large
portion of the Western counties were still either an altogether unpeopled
wilderness or at best were very thinly settled.

The table below will show the comparative increase in Northern and
Southern Maryland since 1790.

 

 

 

 

 

. Percentage of : : Percentage of
Population. eee ome increase augne nee increase Hines
CATES decade. ? 1790
Date or Census. = zg z 3 = — 3 = o c
q Ss a & qd is a Ss q = a = q = q iS aq = r=] &
a
eo | ga | ee |S | eS | os | es | ea | es | ee
Z B Z B z B Zi B Z B
1790) ow ci oie oe 91,832 | 106,754
1800 sacitsersccetecron 106,518 | 100,034
SLO. «sien cvnisna od syaveteisie 110,589 | 106,281
1E20) 5 nanan esidin oe 121,575 | 101,328
US BO cases: sees b:ctaieia See 138,280 | 108,713
1840 vsivawxaennens 147,372 | 103,003
TBS Ose sis isisieis aes. ee 176,168 | 109,308
TS60 occnex eeoenrs 208,439 | 121,064
1S 7O wisiaiccness 2 sities 935; 5431 | 120,855
VERO sc cree cad ce te 281, "600 141,896
NS 9O sie: Sve rais: bo arescis cus 279,356 144) 498
1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

*Decrease.

A hundred years ago the Southern counties had a more numerous
population than the Northern, and now the latter have twice as many
inhabitants as the former. Every decade has witnessed an increase in
the population of the Northern part of the State, the apparent decrease
in the decade between 1880 and 1890 being due to the change in the
boundaries of Baltimore City.

As in other portions of the State, progress has been both relatively
and absolutely more rapid since 1840 than before, the population having
438 MARYLAND.

increased but 55,540, or at the rate of 60.48 per cent. between 1790 and
1840, as against an increase of 131,984, or at the rate of 89.56 per cent.
since.

For the sixty years between 1790 and 1850 there was, practically
speaking, no change in the number of the inhabitants of Southern
Maryland. In one decade the census returns would indicate a slight
increase and in the next a corresponding decrease.

For the decrease between 1790 and 1800, the cession by Maryland of
portions of Prince George’s and Montgomery counties to provide a site
for the Federal Capital, is at least partly responsible. Since 1850 the
population of the Southern counties has increased about one-third, more
than half that increase having apparently been in the decade between
1870 and 1880. As to this seemingly abnormal increase in this particular
decade, the Southern Maryland counties simply stand in the same
position as almost ail other sections of the country in which the negro
population is relatively large. The changes in the census law and in its
administration resulted in 1880, in all the so-called “black belts,” in a
much fuller and more accurate return of population than had ever been
made before.

It will be noted in examining the tables already given that in
agricultural sections there are often long periods in which there is no
substantial gain in population, and then either as a result of increased
transportation facilities, of changes in the methods of farming, or of the
springing up of local industries other than purely agricultural, or of
several or all these causes combined, the region seems to take a new
start, and for a while at least grows rapidly:

In Northern Maryland such a change of conditions took place appar-
ently between 1840 and 1850, following very closely upon the opening of
railroad lines, and being contemporaneous with the rush of immigrants
from Europe. In Southern Maryland it has been but partially made
even yet. It is true that since 1850 there has been a material increase
in population, but that increase has been confined entirely to the portions
of Prince George’s and Montgomery counties lying near Washington or
along the railroad lines, and to those portions of Howard and Anne
Arundel counties which lie within twenty or twenty-five miles of
Baltimore city.

- ST. MARY’S, CHARLES AND CALVERT.

The remaining counties of Southern Maryland, St. Mary’s, Charles
and Calvert, are historically and socially among the most interesting
portions of the State. With the exception of Claiborne’s trading-post on
Kent Island, the earliest settlements in the State were made in them.
During the days when tobacco was the great and almost the only
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 439

source of provincial wealth, these counties were among the richest
and most prosperous in the entire colony. In them, too, was to be found
a nearer approach to the plantation system of the more Southern com-
monwealths than existed elsewhere in Maryland.

Unfortunately for the permanence of their early prosperity, both
along the Potomac to the south and west, and the Chesapeake to the east
of them, navigable water extended tar past them, and towns and cities
naturally sprang up at the heads of navigation, at which places, of
course, the land haul from the interior to the seaboard was the shortest.
The great wagon routes, and subsequently the railroad lines from the
West to the Atlantic ports, and from the North to the South along the
coast, ran to and between the great shipping ports and centres of popu-
lation; and these counties lying as they do off both the direct lines of
travel from the West to Baltimore and Washington, and the roads running
southwest along the coast from Boston, New York and Philadelphia have
long suffered from their isolation and lack of facilities for transportation.
Under such circumstances they have been almost compelled to confine
their agricultural industry far too closely to the cultivation of their
great staple of tobacco, with the unfortunate economic results which
usually attend the prolonged and exclusive cultivation of one crop. The
soil of these counties is usually good, their climate mild and healthy,
and in most parts their scenery varied and attractive, and as they are
specially adapted to trucking and small farming, they would readily
support a dense population; but principally because of the lack of
adequate means of transportation, and possibly though to a less extent to
the disturbance of their previously existing social and industrial system
by the war and the emancipation of the negroes, as well as perhaps by
some tardiness and lack of elasticity in adapting themselves to the
changed order of things, they have lagged behind the rest of the State, as
the following table will show:

ST. MARY’S, CHARLES AND CALVERT COUNTIES.

 

 

 

| 3 3 ew gle g§ | @ 2 Se cs
3 3 Oo 3} 9o 8g! 8 2: Oe 63. I SOrc., ae
F q a S Ss
d 268 2S |oeS/o38 4 a Dee | oS
6 & © i420 | neo | Z 4 mee | ge
Date or CEnsus. $ Ba $a | s8A/ 88a of 28 | oT | es"
= oa oa | Aden! 890) a& at Hos | ae
= oH mo ° 2
3 aa ga Sen | 2a) 2 2 SAaaq | 28a
a eee AE | 248 | fA 8 3 24.6 | SA.5
a A| 46/8 é|& 6) 4 |& [& “Ia *
|
BA BOG os vin a sing bes eaten whens cunvese 3 |
41,168 '....0... 3,641 [1.0.00
L044 bocce esas] — 124 Josaeacas
87547 ooo, 3,497 Joos...
40,128 ; 2,581 |........ §.87
88,476 |... 6... 1,652 |........
89,506 , 1,030 |........ 2.68
42,177 ° 2,671 |........ 6.76
40,547 |... 2... 1,630 |........
7020 5,478 |e... 13.50
40,80 )...0.+.. 5,150 |... 0...
\

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 
440 . MARYLAND.

The population of these counties was returned by the first census at
a higher figure than by any other of the succeeding ten, except that of
1880. It is possible that even that exception may be more apparent
than real, the seeming increase being not improbably due entirely to
the more efficient machinery of enumeration then first put into operation.
They seem to have had fewer inhabitants about 1820 than at any period
since. Whether the closing of their accustomed transportation routes
for some years during the preceding decade by the British fleet was the
cause of this falling off in population, it is not now easy to say.

The progress of this section has been long retarded, but with the
completion of the projected railroad lines from Baltimore and Washing-
ton through these counties, there are many reasons to believe that the
conditions which have so long arrested their forward movement will be,
in large measure, at least, removed. Whenever a change takes place it is
likely to be accompanied by the springing up of towns and villages, of
which this section of Maryland is now singularly destitute. Leonard-
town, named after Leonard Calvert, the brother of the second Lord
Baltimore and first Governor of the Province, and the county seat of
St. Mary’s county, is the most populous town in these counties, and in
1890 it had but 521 inhabitants.

DENSITY OF SETTLEMENT.

At present the most densely settled portions of the State and the
sections in which smaller cities, towns and villages are the most
numerous, are the counties lying along the Pennsylvania border to the
north and west of Baltimore City, except Garrett county, in the extreme
west, which, situated as it is, among the higher ridges of the Alleganies,
is still the most sparsely settled county in the State. Anne Arundel
county directly bordering on Baltimore city, and containing, as it does,
the city of Annapolis, has a high average density of settlement, although
the more southern portions of the county are still comparatively thinly
peopled.

The following table shows the number of inhabitants to each square
mile of the land surface of each county in 1890:

 

intab tants si cee ag a
County. seine inile of | COUNTY. Simuere amas of | COUNTY. adios: mie of
land surface. land surface. land surface.

Garrett: 245543650005 20 Anne Arundel...... 85 Cee sic eke ee ene 68
Alleghany........... 87 Howard ............ 65 RON aie sendin seen 55
Washington .......- 91 Montgomery........ 53 Queen Anne’s...... 52
Frederick ........... 77 Prince George’s..... 54 Carolineys.2.ccieecesa 44
Carroll. chs eadnese 16 Calvert wx cca can ares 45 Talbot ..... wes 69
Baltimore........... 117 St. Mary’s.......... 43 Dorchester. . ... 40
Harford...........- 68 Charles.... ....... 33 Somerset ........... 66

-—— — Wicomico...... ... 54
Average for Average for Worcester .... ..... 41

Northern Maryland 75 Southern Maryland 54 —
Average for

Eastern Shore.... 53
: THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 441

‘

CITIES AND TOWNS.

Besides Baltimore the cities of Cumberland, Hagerstown, Frederick
and Annapolis, each contained more than five thousand inhabitants in
1890. Of these cities Annapolis is the oldest, and Hagerstown during
the last decade grew most rapidly.

The population of each of these cities, according to the ninth, tenth
and eleventh censuses, was as follows:

1890. 1880. 1870.
Cumberland..... .. ... 0 .-.... 12,729 10,693 8,056
Frederick .........00 0000000 e ees 8,193 8,659 8,526
Hagerstown esos isedseeessaeuas 10,118 6,627 5,779
ANNBPOlIS: + voccswd se veeecas ee 7,604. 6,642 5,774

In 1890 there were twenty-nine other places in Maryland with more
than one thousand inhabitants each. The names of these towns, the
population of each, and the county in which each is situated, are stated
below:

 

 

    
  
 
 
 

    
  
 
 
 

   
 
  

Popula- | Popula-
City on Town. County. tion. Crry or Town. County. tion.
1890. 1890.
Cambridge........ «| DOPCRCRTEP woce cess 4,192 || Crisfield.... see. sees Soniersttsasc asa ax] 1,065
Frostburg...... .| Alleghany. . --| 3,804 || Westernpor va) DULOSHONT oa weed « 1,526
Havre de Grace -| Harford... 3,244 || Ellicott City. Balto. and Howard.| 1,488
Easton... .| Talbot... 2,939 || Towson...... Baltimore.......... 1,487

     
 
 
 

 

Salisbury.... .| Wicomico... 2,905 || Snow Hil ..| Worcester. 1,483
Westminster. .| Carroll. 2,903 || Belair..... ..| Harford... 1,416
Chestertown......... Kent..... 2,632 || St. Michael’ .-| Talbot.. 1,529
Sparrow’s Point...... Baltimore -.| 2,507 || Centreville... ..| Queen Anne’s. 1,309
BE GOD so: ersiois ssecareeue ostisie Cecil...- .. .-| 2,818 || Williamsport ..| Washington. . 1,277
Catonsvilie........... BaltiWore.< c.sses ca 2,115 || Northeast.... 2+] GOGH ea nses 1,249
Lautel ssua2 esas eres Prince George’s....| 1,984 || Sharpsburg...... ..| Washington. 1,163
Port Deposit......... COCR sora syers oiees aint a9 1,908 || Chesapeake City..... Cecil.... 1,155
Pocomoke City....... Worcester. .22re sae 1,866 |) Osfottles ox ssaeed Seems} Lalbot.. «| L9G
Rockville............. Montgomery....... 1,568 {| Oakland.......... .. Garrett ... 0.0.0... 1,036

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE WHITE AND NEGRO POPULATION.

As in most of the other old slave States, the primary division of the
people has always been between the pure Caucasians on the one side
and persons with African blood in their veins on the other. In most of
the earlier guesses at the population of the State, no attempt was made
to estimate the ratio borne by the white to the colored population.

Since 1748, however, the number of inhabitants belonging to each
class has always been estimated even if previous to the first Federal
census in 1790 no actual count was made.

Repeating the caution that no great reliance can be placed upon
the estimates of population made prior to 1790, the number of whites
and of blacks in the Province or State at the date of each estimate, and
of each Federal ceusus, with the percentage the inhabitants of each
442 MARYLAND.

race constituted of the total population at that date, will be shown by the
following table:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE
DaTE oF PopPuULATION. OF DaTE or PopuLation, OF
ENUMERATION POPULATION. || ENUMERATION POPULATION.
OR ESTIMATE. or ESTIMATE. ‘
White. | Negro. | White. | Negro. White. | Negro. | White. | Negro.
TES ire eis Sans ete 94,000 | 36,000; 72.31 | 27.69 || 1820............. 260,223 | 147,127] 63.88 | 386.12
VSG ear saes Gans 107,963 | 46,225) 70.02 | 29.98 || 1880............. 291,108 | 155,932} 65.12] 34.88
V26O eisnea way se Bae 116,759 | 49,764] 70.12 | 29.48 || 1840............. 318,204 | 151,815} 67.70] 32.30
WHO scscs dae Sara: bop Sik 140,110} 59,717] 70.12; 29.88 || 1850............. 417,943 | 165,091 | 71.68] 28.32
WD sree nie entinens: 159,083 | 65,917] 70.70 | 29.30 |) 1860............. 515,918 | 171,131 | 75.09 | 24.91
LIBR o asia ates, 170,688 | 83,362] 67.19 | 32.81 || 1870............. 605,497 | 175,897 | 77.54 | 22.46
TOG cai savariawss 208,649 | 111,079 | 65.26) 34.74 || 1880.......... .. 724,693 | 210,250 77.51 22 49
1800 sis ss:hsenne eee 216,826 | 125,222] 63.34] 36.66 || 1890............. 826,498 | 215,897 79.29) 20.7]
TS 1O ss seie Se sas wc 285,117 | 145,429 | 61.78 | 88.22 |I.... ccc ee cece fee e ween e lene eenee | ea sane diciedle tect
|

 

 

 

 

 

 

Apparently from the outbreak of the Revolution until 1810, a period
of some thirty-five years, the negro population increased at a more rapid
ratio than did the white. Since the last mentioned date, however, the
reverse has been true, and now the negroes number but a trifle over
one-fifth of the entire population.

As late, however, as 1830, persons with negro blood in their veins
constituted more than one-third of the aggregate inhabitants, and were
in a majority in no less than eight out of the nineteen counties into
which the State was then divided. At that time in every one of the
five counties lying to the south of Baltimore, there were negro majorities
as there also were in the three adjoining Eastern Shore counties of Kent,
Queen Anne’s and Talbot. In 1890 there were only two counties, Charles
and Calvert, in which the whites did not outnumber the negroes, and in
each of these the negro majority was relatively small. It is seldom safe
to prophesy as to the future movements of population, but judging by
the history of the last eighty years, it appears highly probable that
the negro element is destined to become numerically less and less im-
portant.

In the last decade the whites increased more rapidly than the
negroes in no less than twenty-one out of the twenty-three counties of
the State. In Baltimore county, one of the remaining two, the small
apparent relative increase of negrues was probably due altogether to the
annexation to Baltimore city, during the decade, of territory the negro
population of which was proportionately smaller than that of the county
as a whole. In Garrett, the other county in which the negroes consti-
tuted in 1890 a greater percentage of the population than they did ten
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 443

years previous, the total negro population was only one hundred and
eighty-five, or less than one and a half per cent. of the aggregate
inhabitants. The change in percentage simply means that there were a
few more negro waiters in 1890 employed in the summer hotels at Deer
Park and Oakland than there were in 1880.

There is not a county in the State in which the negroes were not in
1850, in proportion to the total population, more numerous than they
were in 1890.

In some counties the change in the relative number of the two races
has been striking. Thus in Kent, Queen Anne’s and Talbot in 1850, the
negroes constituted more than half of the entire population, while to-day
they number less than two-fifths of it.. Sixty years ago, in Prince
George’s county, which adjoins the District of Columbia, almost two-
thirds of the entire population were negroes; now they number but little
more than two-fifths.

The negroes are least numerous in the counties of Western Maryland
adjoining Pennsylvania. Of the five counties so situated, only in Fred-
erick is there as many as one negro in every ten of the total population.
In the five counties together the negroes number only about one-
fourteenth of the population and are relatively decreasing. In the three
counties of Baltimore, Harford and Cecil, lying along the Pennsylvania
line to the north and northeast of Baltimore city, about one-sixth of the
population is colored. In this section the relative proportion of the two
races has changed but slightly in the last thirty or forty years. In the
Eastern Shore counties south of Cecil the negroes number but little more
than one-third of the population, and the whites have been gaining on
them with considerable rapidity. In the central counties of the Western
Shore, Anne Arundel, Howard, Prince George’s and Montgomery, the
whites constitute more than three-fifths of the entire population, and the
proportion is steadily increasing, while even in the three southern
counties of the Western Shore, in which, taken together, the negroes are
slightly more numerous than the whites, the relative decrease has been
so great that the indications are that by 1900 there will be a white
majority. The colored population of Baltimore city has been largely
increased at the expense of the counties and of Virginia, and is now rela-
tively greater than it was thirty years ago, although slightly less than it
was in 1880, a decrease, however, which is partly due to the annexation
of a portion of Baltimore county containing very few negroes.
444 MARYLAND.

DESCENT OF WHITE INHABITANTS.

The earlier settlers in the Province were, as a rule, of English birth.
In the region bounding on Pennsylvania, from Baltimore westward, there
was a numerous influx of Germans in the eighteenth century, and in
particular neighborhoods the dialect commonly called “ Pennsylvania
Dutch ” was sometimes spoken. In the later provincial period the Scotch
Irish formed a very influential element of the population, while there
were many pure Irish of the elder faith. Local antiquarians interested
in particular European nations have traced out the part persons of those
nationalities have had in the making up of Maryland, but however
picturesque some of those settlers and their settlements may have been,
it remains true that for practical purposes the entire white population
of Maryland at the date of the Revolution, and for many years after-
wards consisted of natives of the British Isles or of Germany and their
descendants. Between the Declaration of Independence and 1830 there
was no great immigration from abroad, although the troubles in San
Domingo at the close of the eighteenth century first brought many
refugees to the State, while the population of the rapidly-growing city
of Baltimore was being materially increased by newcomers from abroad.
The movement from Europe beginning somewhat earlier than the date
of the great Irish famine and of the political troubles in Europe,
following the popular risings of 1848, was given an enormous impetus
by these events.

The nativities of the population were first returned in 1850, and the
following table shows the number of the native and foreign inhabitants
of the State at each census from that time to this, and the ratio which
each bears to the total population :

 

 

 

PERCENTAGE.
POPULATION. OF
DATE oF CENSUS. TotTaL POPULATION.
Native. Foreign. Native. Foreign.
1850 ccsisis ce shase'oledinen Rawls BaN ye Ree eels ee YeniS 531,825 51,209 91.22 8.78
TOO ze soreness ant ecsaieed wane suisagatyerancnncoennt tne el 609,518 77,586 88.72 11.28
ISTO on avn weeaamieailgamnle unas becca s Yoaeaede 697,482 83,412 89.32 10.68
TSSO sire eeie'y aa tved. Seams sens onteeninne eemeeE | 852,137 82,806 91.14 8.86
SOD aie ssnts Sans. & ocr eoa ce tigie teva lve valine 948,094 94,296 90.95 9.05

 

 

 

 

 

 
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 445

As the preceding table shows, there has been no great change in the
last fifty years in the relative number of the native and foreign born
inhabitants of the State. The latter were, however, proportionately
somewhat more numerous in 1860 than they have been at any time since.

On the other hand, natives of the United States, one or both of whose
parents were born abroad, formed in 1890 relatively a somewhat larger
element of the population than at any time since 1870, when for the first

time a return of the parentage of the inhabitants was made, as the
following table shows:

 

 

 

NATIVE OF FOREIGN
AGGREGATE PARENTAGE.
DATE oF CENSUS. f
POPULATION.
Number. Percentage.

WSO, cei canes ee eee eee cree 780,84 97,950 12.54
DESO) ssctss sve ccs arave Sie Seals 6 vin oln ovdicteceterva S sia 934,943 186,028 14.55
1890 6 ssid cares coieay stasis KeMe Shee 6 aes 1,042,390 156,421 15.00

 

 

 

 

The population of foreign parentage, whether of native or foreign
birth, is very unevenly distributed over the State. Proportionately it is
most numerous in Alleghany county, where it constitutes no less than
45.05 per cent. of the aggregate number of inhabitants. The bringing in
during the last forty or fifty years of successive importations of foreign
miners and laborers to work the mines in this county, has resulted in the
foreign element being there more largely represented than elsewhere.
Next to Alleghany county, it is in Baltimore city that foreigners and the
children of foreigners are relatively the most abundant, forming as they
do 41.55 per cent. of the total population of the metropolis of the State.
Such counties as Baltimore, Anne Arundel, Harford and Howard, adjoining
on or lying in the immediate neighborhood of Baltimore city and Garrett,
to which some of the foreign born residents of the neighboring county of
Alleghany and some of their children have moved, come next in order.
Outside of the city and counties above named, there are no counties in
the State in which persons of foreign parentage amount to as much as 10
per cent. of the total population, while in some of the more Southern
counties of the Eastern and Western Shores not one inhabitant in every
hundred had either parent born abroad.

In Maryland, as generally throughout the country, immigrants from
Europe seein consciously or unconsciously to avoid sections in which
persons of negro blood are numerous. The following table, which
shows the relative proportion of native whites, of native whites of
foreign parentage, of foreign born whites, of native colored and of
446 MARYLAND.

foreign born colored for each county in the State, makes this tendency
quite plain:

 

 

 

 
 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

seer eae Foreign Native Foreign
Ayeregate) Parentage. Parentage. White. Colored. Colored.
CouNTIES. opula- gisseeet

tion. Num- | Per | Num- | Per | Num- | Per | Num- | Per |Num-) Per
ber. |Cent.| ber. |Cent.| ber. |Cent.| ber. | Cent.| ber. | Cent.
Alleghany........... 41,571] 21,405) 51.49) 18,109) 31.53) 5,621) 18.52] 1,480) 3.44 6.02
Anne Arundel...... 34,094 14,657] 42.99) 2,015) 5 91) 2,908] 8.53} 14,497] 42.52 17.05
Baltimore........... 72,909 4,044) 56.30) 18,204 18.11) 8,431) 11.56] 10,208) 14.00 22; 03
Baltimore City ..... 434,489) 186,625) 42 96, 111,942) 25.77] 68,576] 15.78] 66,869] 15.39] 427 .10
Calvert .... .. PS 9,860| 4,781) 47.98) 82; .82 338) = «34 55,064) 51.36)......]......
Caroline oe 18,908! 9,570) 68.83 283) 2.04 239) 1.71 3,809| 27.40 2.02
Carrol cssiess re:gq: eine 82,376] 28,030 86.57, —1,528| 4.72 683} 2.11] 2,183) 6.59) 2) OL
COP iins wamesse enna 25,851) 19,421) 75.12; 1,585) 5.94 894) 3.46) 4,001] 15 48/......)......
Charles ............ 15,191) 6,772) 44.58 170) 1.12) 112) .73) 8,136) 53.56 LOL
Dorchester ......... 24,8483) 15,797) 63.59 188) .7%6) 148} = .59} 8,707 35.05 3} OL
Frederick ... ...... 49,512) 40,041] 80.87] 1,896] 3.83} 1,046) 2.11) 6,526] 13.18 3) OL
Garrett..........008 14,218) 11,413} 88.12) 1,635] 11.50 580} 4.08) ASS) TBO) eae thee veces
Harford ..... 38 28,993; 18,905] 65.20) 2,453| 8 46] 1,259] 4.35! 6,374) 21.98 2 «OL
Howard..... es 16,269) 9,730) 59.81 1,623) 9.98 806} 4.95) 4,107) 25.24 3] 02
Kent ..... ase ae 17,471; = 9,985) 57.15 482) 2.47) 847) 1.41) 6,804! 38.95 3) .02
Montgomery 27,185, 16,462] 60.56 686} 2.52 352) 1.29] 9,685) 35.63)......)....-8
Prince George’s.... 26,050} 13,364) 51.24 915) 3.51 588} 2.25) 11,211) 42.99) 2 OL
Queen Anne’s...... 18,461) 11,440) 61.97 302) 1.63) 162} .88) = 6,555) 35.51 2] OL
St. Mary’s.......... 15,819) 7,966) 50.36) 121); .76 66, .42| =-7,666/ 48.46]......)......
Somerset ..... “ce 24,155} 14,464] 59.88 118} = .49 68} .28/ 9,500} 39.33 5) 02
Talbot ...... is 19,786; 11,874} 57.68 496) 2.51 378} 1.91) 7,486) 38.44 2.01
Washington 3,782} 35,197] 88.48} 1,570| 3.95) 507} 1.27] 2,506] 6.30 Bilis adaseacs
Wicomico .. a 19,980) 14,585] 73.18) 104) 52 42) .21} 5,198} 26.08 1 OL
Worcester. si cccics- 19,747] 12,907} 65.36) 64.82 41) .21) = 6,781) 34.09 4.02
The State........ 1,042,390) 576,285] 55.29/ 156,421) 15.00] 93,787] 9.00) 215,388] 20.67) 500 04

 

 

 

 

 

 

The proportion which the natives born of foreign parentage bear to
the foreign born, varies considerably. In some counties, such as Alle-
ghany, to which immigration was relatively greater a generation ago
than it is now, the foreigners are less than half as numerous as the natives
of foreign parentage. In other counties to which foreign immigration
has but recently set in, the foreigners are more numerous than the native
children of foreigners.

Large as has been the foreign element added to the population of
Maryland within the last sixty years, there is no reason to doubt that the
overwhelming majority of it will be absorbed without difficulty in the
native population, as much of it has already been, and that, too, without
making any noticeable change of importance in the previously existing
character of the population. Immigrants from Europe have brought
various customs with them. Such of these customs as proved attractive
to Americans and were adopted to a greater or less extent by them, have
taken some root, and are likely to continue, while the rest seldom last
much longer than the generation which brought them over the ocean.
Persons who fear a permanent change in the character of the population
lose sight of the fact that the branches which have been engrafted upon
the older American stock are very closely related to it.
THE POPULATION OF MARYLAND. 447

The English race was composed of an admixture in varying propor-
tions of the victorious invading hosts of the Germanic and Scandinavian
tribes with the original Celtic inhabitants of the British Isles. As the
following table shows, the overwhelming majority of the foreigners
residing in Maryland are, and always have been, natives either of the
British Islands, or of some of the Scandinavian or Germanic countries of
continental Europe:

 

 

 

 

 

 

Born In BRitTIsH ISLES OR
ToraL IN GERMANIC OR SCANDI- ALL_OTHERS.
ForREIGN NAVIAN COUNTRIES.
POPULATION. i
Number. Per Cent. Number. | Per Cent
__ |
253,288 51,798 97.20 1,490 | 2.80
77,529 75,980 98.00 1,549 2.00
83,412 79,098 94.83 4,314 5.17
82,806 97,728 93.87 5,078 6.13
94,296 82,3821 87.30 11,975 | 12.70

 

 

 

 

*The total foreign population for 1850 stated in this table differs from that given in a previous table,
The difference exists between the different tables in the Census of 1850.

It will be noticed, from the above table, that there has recently
been a inarked relative increase in the immigration to Maryland of
members of non-British and non-Teutonic races. The following table
shows that this increase has been principally among natives of Bohemia,
Italy, Poland and Russia, the number of persons born in those countries
and residing in Maryland mee risen from 2,501 in 1880 to 9,025 in
1890:

 

 

 

  

 

1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890.
Austria, “Proper? acces ico nedders duieoesnee 16 122 266 401 1,388
Bohemia 789 1,169 1,554
644 988 1,020
rccrdvoyG, Sha aretorens eielevia eaepeee 649 620 623
" 47,045 45,481 52,436
4, 932 5 244 5,591
28, 630 21,865 18,735
2)432 2} 645 2,823
"y94 "904 761
210 477 1,416
145 642 1,797
50 213 4,258
1,626 2,187 2,393
TOCA, sais tacks woaeewade semaines fae eases 58,288 77,536 82,806 82,806 94,296

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
CHAPTER XVI.

CHARITIES AND CORRECTION.

The preceding pages have described many institutions that are
deemed worthy of praise, but in few of them does Maryland take more
pride than in her charities. The cry of the needy has always brought a
generous response, and many earnest lives and many fortunes have been
devoted to the care of the dependent and delinquent.

ADVANCED METHODS.

Since the administration of charity has become asubject of scientific
stuuy, and public attention has been given to the methods and ultimate
effects rather than to the amount of charity, Maryland has been com-
paratively quick to adopt the improved methods. How torelieve distress
without pauperizing the recipients, how to restore the wayward to lives
of usefulness, and how to give the homeless child a just share in our
inherited civilization, are questions to whose solution a goodly number of
the people of Maryland are devoting their best energies.

As early as 1849 the Society for the Improvement of the Condition
of the Poor was organized, having for “its object and design” “to
discourage indiscriminate alms-giving, street begging, pauperism and
idleness; and to elevate the moral and physical condition of the indigent,
and so far as compatible with those objects, the relief of their necessities.”
Thus a beginning was made in the reformation of charities, though the
fact that the association soon became almost exclusively a relief-giving
agency, indicates that public sentiment did not yet recognize the import-
ance of curing as well as feeding the pauper.

The association, however, has never forgotten its avowed purpose,
and much has been accomplished by it toward the introduction of wise
methods of relief.

In 1868, the Maryland Prisoners’ Aid Association was established
with reform in punitive methods as one of its leading objects.

Through the efforts of this association and its honored president,
countless abuses have been remedied, a number of reformatory institu-
tions have been established, and public attention has been constantly
directed to the importance of preventive and reformatory measures.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 449

Toward improvements in the structure and management of county
almshouses and jails several influences have conspired. Since 1870 an
officer of the Prisoner’s Aid Association has annually visited these
institutions, giving valuable suggestions fo those in charge, and calling
public attention to abuses which require the force of public opinion for
their redress.

An important factor in this reform movement was a plain-spoken
report upon the public charities of Maryland, which was issued by the
State Board of Health in 1877; and since 1885 the frequent visits and
annual reports of the State Lunacy Commission have stimulated the
progressive tendencies. Asaresult of these efforts the secretary of the
commission confidently affirms that the Maryland almshouses and jails
are, on the whole, as well conducted as those of any State in the Union.

The improvements in the management of almshouses and jails,
resulting somewhat incidentally from the activity of the State Board of
Health and the Lunacy Commission, indicate that still more might be
accomplished by a Board charged especially with the oversight of the
charities of the State; and the establishment of a State Board of Chari-
ties is now under consideration.

But since, its establishment in 1881, the Charity Organization Society
of Baltimore has been the chief factor in the dissemination of advanced
methods in the administration of charities. Of the specific work of
these societies more will be said in another place.

The institutions for the care of the dependent and delinquent classes
of Maryland naturally centre in Baltimore, where the aggregation of
nearly one-half the population of the State concentrates social needs
and renders organized effort for their relief both natural and easy. The
present chapter, therefore, will first consider those institutions and
societies which are dealing with the social problems of Baltimore, and
then, under each subdivision, something will be said of the local work
which is being done in the various branches of charity and correction in
the different counties of the State. In describing these institutions an
effort will be made to follow a natural order.

INSTITUTIONS FOR INFANTS.

Through this order of treatment the first picture to present itself is
one of the saddest of all. Over four hundred friendless little infants,
deprived of mothers through death, or more often, cast away by them in
order to escape burdens or hide shame, are yearly brought to the three
infant asylums.

Most of the abandoned infants which are brought in by the Police
Department soon die from the effects of bad blood, disease and exposure.

29
450 MARYLAND,

Those coming from the lying-in hospitals have a better chance of life,
though, at best, the motherless infant has a precarious existence.

Of the four hundred infants left to the care of the public, about one-
half are taken to St. Vincent’s Infant Asylum, where they are cared
for by the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph’s of Emmittsburg. This
institution was founded in 1856, and since 1860 has occupied its present
site on the corner of Lafayette avenue and Division street. Children
are received up to six years of age and about one hundred and fifty are
to be found in the institution at any time. Unless restored to their
parents or provided with suitable homes before that time, the children
are kept until seven years of age, when they are transferred to other
institutions.

A Maternity Hospital, connected with the institution, offers shelter
and reformatory influences to unprotected young women who need such
an asylum, and are not hardened in sin.

The system of boarding-out infants till eighteen months of age has
been tried and found to result in a diminished mortality.

A kindergarten is provided for the children between the ages of
three and seven, and its good effects are apparent in the bright faces of
the children and the zest with which they enter into the games and
exercises. Institution children need the kindergarten more than any
others.

A farm of sixty-three acres, located near Mount Hope, supplies the
institution with milk and other farm products, and in summer is utilized
for giving the children a short experience of country life.

A new building is about to be erected upon the farm with a view to
keeping all the children in the country during the summer months.

The Nursery and Child’s Hospital on Schroeder street is managed
by charitable women of the city, some of whom devote much of their
time to its interests. A stately mansion, once in the outskirts of the city,
forms the nucleus of the building, and the broad porticoes and large
grounds invite the children to healthful exercise. Infants are committed
here as to St. Vincent’s Asylum, by the magistrates of Baltimore, or of
other districts of the State, and many are left temporarily by parents who
are unable to care for them. Many children are adopted from this institu-
tion, and attractive ones, especially if they be girls, are readily placed in
desirable homes. If suitable homes are not found for children before
they are five years of age, they are usually transferred to some orphan-
age, where they may receive instruction. An oversight is kept of all
placed-out children and applications for the admission of infants are
carefully investigated to prevent parents from putting away their
children for merely selfish reasons.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 461

As the name of the institution implies, it embraces a hospital depart-
ment for the benefit of sick children. A new wing has recently been
built which makes room for about fifty more children upon the upper
floor, while the lower floor is equipped as a dispensary for the treatment
of such children of the poor as do not require residence in the hospital.

The third infant asylum of Baltimore is known as St. Hlizabeth’s
Home for Colored Orphan Children. Jt is under the management of the
Sisters of the Franciscan Order. The department for infants is located at
No. 317 St. Paul street, where about one hundred colored foundlings and
orphans were received last year. The number is increasing. .As soon as
old enongh to receive instruction the boys are transferred to the Wilming-
ton orphanage for colored boys, but the girls remain with the Franciscan
Sisters in a neatly kept orphanage connected with the Franciscan
Convent, on Maryland avenue. One-half the working-hours are devoted
to study and one-half to learning house-work and sewing. The girls are
placed out at. service in families as soon as they have had sufficient
training.

The Home for Mothers and Infants, on Barclay and Twenty-first
streets, is doing good work in saving both mother and infant by keeping
them together. A recent report of this home says: “There is no better
education for the mother’s character than the care of her child. When
the mother first comes to us she may be an ignorant, childish, frivolous
young girl, her higher nature dormant, her reason and conscience in so
undeveloped a state that they cannot be relied on as a guiding power.
But there is one resource. What the undeveloped conscience cannot do
for her, her love for her child will accomplish.”

Since the institution was opened in 1890, about fifty destitute
mothers with their infants have found in it a temporary home, and a
sanitarium for their moral, physical and economic improvement. The
women usually remain in the home from eight to ten months, during
which time they are kept busy, so far as their strength permits, in
learning to sew, do housework, and care for their infants properly, and in
making clothing. An opportunity is given for earning something by
their work, and when they are prepared to leave, positions are found for
them, usually in the country, where they can support themselves with
their infants.

DAY NURSERIES.

Two day nurseries have been established in East Baltimore for the
care of the small children of industrious women who are kept from their
homes all day by employment. The mothers are charged five cents a
day for one child, seven cents for two and ten cents for three. The
Baltimore Day Nursery is on Patterson Park avenue, and the Worth-
452 MARYLAND.

eastern Day Nursery is on Orleans street. A day nursery has also been
established in connection with the Electric Sewing Machine Rooms.

FREE KINDERGARTENS.

The Kindergarten seems likely to become a part of the public school
system, but at present the free kindergartens of Baltimore are supported
and managed as private charities. The importance of the kindergarten
as a means for rescuing little children from harmful influences and
directing their pliant minds into channels that lead to intellectual
activity and moral strength, is being recognized more and more each
year.

The first free kindergarten in Baltimore was opened in 1883, under
the supervision of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union. Since
then, according to a recent report made to the Kindergarten Association,
the number has been increased to ten for children from the streets and
alleys, and four for children in institutions.

They are supported largely by individual churches, and are usually
located in those portions of the city which contain the greatest number
of poor children. The increasing interest in this means of bettering the
condition of the children of the poor has been manifested during the
past winter in the formation of a Kindergarten Association for the
purpose of establishing new free kindergartens, and furthering the
adoption of the kindergarten system in the public schools.

PROTECTION OF CHILDREN.

Before describing the Homes for Children some mention should be
made of the means of rescuing the unfortunate ones from the cruelty of
unnatural parents, and from an environment of vice and crime.

For this purpose the Society for the Protection of Children from
Cruelty and Immorality was organized in June of 1877. A salaried agent
devotes his entire time to the work of the society in protecting children
within their homes, removing them when necessary, and seeing that the
laws in behalf of children are carried out.

During the year ending March 31, 1893, 208 cases were investigated,
affecting the welfare of 471 children, and 189 children were removed
from cruel, intemperate or depraved parents or guardians. Of this
number 28 were found homes in private families, 15 were transferred to
the Henry Watson Children’s Aid Society and 146 were placed in twenty-
one different homes or reformatories for children.

An important part of the work of this society has been directed
toward the enactment of suitable Laws for the Protection of Children.
In respect to the legislative work we will quote from a sketch of the
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 453

Society for the Protection of Children, which Mr. G. S. Griffith addressed
to the National Prison Congress of December, 1892:

It is generally conceded by persons familiar with such matters, that the State of Mary-
land occupies the most advanced position in the matter of this kind of legislation, and this
is owing entirely to the efforts of the Society. The various statutory regulations, drafted
and presented at different times to the Legislature by the Society, and afterwards enacted,
will be briefly noted.

1. The Aabeas corpus law. The effect of this statute is to enable judges in all cases
involving the custody of children to proceed with sole regard to the interest of the child and
to do everything that a humane regard for the child’s welfare requires, absolutely ignoring
every other consideration. The entire subject is placed upon a strictly humanitarian basis.

2. The destitute and suffering minors’ law. Under this act a child that is neglected or
ill-treated can be immediately removed from its parent or other custodian, without any of
those delays or formalities that are incident to ordinary legal proceedings.

3. A statute, exceedingly comprehensive in its terms, prohibiting the use of children
for begging or the like.

4. A statute, exempting from vexations, suits or prosecutions, persons who “harbor”
children, when there is reason to believe that they have been ill-treated by their parents.

5, A statute, prohibiting the selling or giving of cigars, cigarettes or tobacco to minors
under fifteen years.

6. A statute, recently passed and very stringent, prohibiting the employment of
children under sixteen years for more than ten hours a day.

7. A recent statute, authorizing courts to sentence minors to juvenile institutions
instead of ordinary prisons.

8. An “adoption” law passed by the Legislature of 1892.

HOMES FOR CHILDREN.

It seems natural that the care of orphans should be the first charity
to be undertaken by the public ina systematic way, and whatever other
institutions may have been in existence during the early history of the
city it is at least true that the oldest of the present charitable institu-
tions of Baltimore are orphanages.

The Benevolent Society of St. Paul’s Parish was incorporated in 1799
for the support of an orphanage which is still sustained with increasing
resources.

The Baltimore Orphan Asylum grew out of a “charity school,”
which was incorporated as early as 1778, and assumed the name of
“ Female Orphaline Charity School ” in 1801.

A number of the other orphanages started as free schools for the
education of indigent children, but when the free public schools made
that charity unnecessary, the funds which had accumulated for the sup-
port of the schools were used for the care of orphans. The name St.
Peter’s School is still to be seen over the door of the orphanage on Myrtle
avenue, and the corporation known as the Trustees of St. Peter’s School
is still in active existence as a support for the orphanage.

Including the infant asylums already described, and excluding cor-
rectional institutions, there are forty-one homes for children in Maryland.
454 MARYLAND.

With the exception of a State institution for feeble-minded children
and a State school for the deaf, all these homes are under private control,
though fifteen receive appropriations from the State treasury and twelve
from Baltimore city.

The following figures are obtained from data carefully gathered for
the Maryland exhibit in the department of charities and correction at the
World’s Columbian Exposition :

Excluding the special schools and the industrial homes, we find
thirty-three homes, which shelter 1,743* children. The real estate so
occupied, exclusive of buildings rented, was valued at $1,781,665, and in
addition to the use of this property the operating expenses of these
institutions the last fiscal year amounted to $182,649. These expenses
were met in part by the income from endowments and productive
investments amounting in the aggregate to about $2,505,583. A total
indebtedness of $29,344 was reported; but the interest upon the indebted-
ness was not included in the operating expenses. Thus we find that
upon the average, the support of an orphan for one year costs $104.79
in addition to the use of $1,022.18 of property.t

Of the small children, more boys are received than girls, and fewer
are adopted; but the boys leave the institution earlier than the girls.
In accordance with the public sentiment upon that point, white and
colored children are never found in the same institution, though both
races are well provided for.

The orphanages of Baltimore are subject to no general control nor
systematic visitation, and of course the efficiency of their work varies
with the special fitness of those who are placed in charge; but public
interest in their work acts as a stimulus to good management, and,
granting that orphans must be raised in institutions, it may be doubted
whether much better results could be obtained without greater outlay.
There are a few which may be called ideal homes; in none do we find
gross abuses. That they are well managed from the standpoint of sani-
tation is indicated by the low death rate which, excluding infant
asylums, was for the last year but seven to the thousand.

On looking at these institutions more closely, they appear to fall into
groups. In the first place there are three large non-denominational
orphanages, with from one hundred and twelve to one hundred and fifty

 

*This number is obtained from the number of days’ board forthe year. The total number of
inmates for the year is, of course, greater.

+ These figures, however, do not include the total cost of maintaining these institutions, for nearly
all the orphanages receive many donations in the form of provisions, clothing, and gratuitous service,
which are not reported in the operating expenses.

+By comparing the report of the City Health Department for 1892 with the returns of the U.S.
Census of 1890, we find that the death rate for the total population of Baltimore between the ages of five
and twenty was but 6.88 to the thousand. The average vitality of orphans, when recived by the insti-
tution, is doubtless below that of other children.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 455

boys and girls in each, then a group of five orphan asylums under Roman
Catholic management, then three Protestant institutions for colored
children, a Hebrew orphan asylum, efght denominational or church
orphanages, mostly for girls; then a group of institutions, mostly for
older children, which are more distinctly industrial or educational; and,
finally, five local orphanages in different parts of the State.

All these institutions, except one home for little colored children,
provide at least an elementary education in English branches, usually
about the same that is given to children of the same age in the public
schools, though as a rule institution children are not as readily interested
in studies as those who are stimulated by the outside life. In addition
to their school studies, girls are always taught to sew and do housework.

The Home of the Friendless, on Druid Hill Avenue, is the largest
Protestant orphanage in the State. Destitute children of all ages under
twelve years are received, though but few are taken in infancy. Many
children are placed here temporarily by parents who hope soon to be
able to provide for them again. When able, such parents pay something
for the support of their children.

A kindergarten has been recently established for the younger children.
Suitable homes are found for the inmates as soon as possible, and but few
are kept beyond the age of twelve. Of the 266 children in the institu-
tion last year there were:

Discharged to Parents or Friends. ............ sees eee ee ee eee 75
Provided with: Homes. sncvjersigu succes oe eens cae ae eR wace Reis aiecens 33
Transferred to McDonogh School............ 0 ceeeeeee eee eee 4
Transferred to Manual Labor School..... 2... . eee ee ee cee 2
Transferred to Samuel Ready Home........... 0 sees e eee eee eee 3
Transferred to All Saints’ Orphanage...........-...06 26 6 vee 2
DIGG, dedx.30 ra ees eis bebe Medea cd BORE, Mantas ave OR MEL pOe aS 3
Remaining at the close of the year... .......--- ee eee eee eee eee 155

The Baltimore Orphan Asylum, on Stricker street, receives only
children who are above five years of age, and usually retains them till
they are able to earn their living in the outside world. Like the Home
of the Friendless, this asylum is supported in part by private subscriptions
and public appropriations, but its chief income is derived from invest-
ments which have been accumulating ever since Captain Yellott
bequeathed $2,000 to it in the year 1807.

The third of the large general orphan asylums is known among its
patrons as the Allgemeines Deutsches Waisenhaus. It is supported by
the Protestant German population of the city, over twenty-eight hundred
persons contributing each year in sums varying from twenty-five cents to
fifty dollars. A sewing society of three hundred and sixty-six members
supplies the clothing, and, according to the last printed report, fourteen
other German societies are associated with the asylum.
456 MARYLAND.

At the age of fourteen the boys are bound out to learn a trade, and
most of the girls are provided with homes or situations as domestics.
One of the most interesting features of this institution is its use of the
neighboring public schools for the education of the children. The
expense of separate schools is thus avoided, and the children have the
stimulus of contact with outer life. The superintendent of this institu-
tion reports that no extra difficulty arises from the system, and the
Hebrew Orphan Asylum has adopted the same method with satisfaction.

Among the institutions which are under Roman Catholic manage-
ment we find a correlation which is largely wanting in the other charities
of the city. St. Vincent’s Infant Asylum provides for white children
under seven years of age, while between the ages of seven and fourteen
girls find a home in St. Mary’s Female Orphan Asylum and boys in the
St. Vincent de Paul Orphan Asylum, where school work receives the
chief attention. Older girls are given industrial training at St. Joseph’s
House of Industry, and a reformatory institution is provided for wayward
children of each sex. The St. Mary’s Orphan Asylum maintains more
children than any other institution in the State. Many girls are com-
mitted to it from the different counties as well as from the city, and its
support is largely derived from public appropriations. The city pays
two dollars a week each for eighty or ninety committed children.

The St. Vincent de Paul Asylum, on Front street, is managed by the
Brotherhood of the Christian Schools, and the boys attend the St. Vincent
de Paul parish school.

St. Anthony’s German Orphan Asylum is supported by the German
Catholic churches of Baltimore. The children attend the St. James
Parochial School, and at the age of twelve are placed in German Catholic
families, where they are regularly visited.

There are two other Roman Catholic institutions for white children
located on Gough street in East Baltimore: The Dolan Children’s Aid
Asylum and St. Patrick’s Orphan Asylum. The children from both
attend neighboring Catholic schools, and both are supported in part by
an income from the estate left by Father Dolan.

For colored orphans there are two institutions under Catholic man-
agement: The St. Elizabeth Home, already described, and the St. Frances
Orphan Asylum, on East Chase street. The latter institution is under
the control of the Oblate Sisters of Providence, a Roman Catholic
sisterhood of colored women, established in 1829 for the education of
colored girls. Under the same roof is an academy for colored girls, and
a few of the orphans who are especially bright in their studies receive
advanced instructions in the academy. The support for the orphans is
obtained largely by personal solicitation.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 457

Of the three Protestant institutions for colored children the one of
chief interest is the Johns Hopkins Colored Orphan Asylum, where
about thirty girls are being trained for useful lives.

Among the directions given by Johns Hopkins to the Trustees of the
Johns Hopkins Hospital Endowment, provision was made for the
establishment, at some future time, of a large institution “for the
reception, maintenance and education of orphan colored children.”
Accommodation was to be provided for three or four hundred children,
and a possible income of twenty thousand dollars was named. The
execution of the other provisions of the Hopkins gift have made it
necessary to delay the establishment of the orphans’ home, upon the
large scale contemplated by the donor, and meanwhile the present
asylum for colored girls is being maintained from the Hospital fund.

St. Mary's Home for Colored Boys is one of the charities con-
nected with the Mount Calvary Protestant Episcopal Church, and is
under the management of a branch of the Order of All Saints’ Sisters.

The Simmons Home for Friendless Children is managed by an
association of charitable colored people. It has been lately reorganized
and moved to No. 130 North Pearl street.

One of the largest and best conducted of the homes for children is
the Hebrew Orphan Asylum, on Calverton Heights. The large building,
imposing from the outside, is scrupulously clean within, and order is
everywhere apparent. A kindergarten is provided for the little children.
The older ones attend the public school, where they are said to stand at
the head of their classes. On returning from the public schools an hour is
given to the study of Hebrew and German. An Orphans’ Aid Society,
composed of several hundred Hebrew women, supplies clothing for the
children, and finds employment for them on leaving the orphanage. By
the help of this society a “grand bazaar” was held in March of 1892,
which yielded over twenty-three thousand dollars for the benefit of the
orphan asylum and other Hebrew charities.

There is room for but few words concerning the eight church orphan-
ages. Two only receive boys. St. John’s Orphanage, at Waverley, is
under the control of the vestry of St. John’s Episcopal Church, and the
boys attend the parish school. The Baptist Orphanage of Maryland,
on West Lanvale street, receives both boys and girls. It was opened in
October of 1890, through. the efforts of two charitable women, who
devote their time to the care and instruction of the children. The
support comes largely from the Brantley Baptist Church.

Of the six church orphanages for girls, four are connected with
Protestant Episcopal Churches: The All Saints’ Training Home (Mount
Calvary Church); the Girls’ Orphanage of St. Paul’s Parish, incorporated
as The Benevolent Society of the City and County of Baltimore ; the Christ
458 MARYLAND.

Church Asylum for Female Children, and St. Peter’s Asylum for Female
Children. The Hgenton Female Orphan Asylum is under the control of
the First Presbyterian Church, and the Kelso Home for Orphans of the
Methodist Episcopal Church is under the partial control of the Baltimore
Methodist Conference, though it has a self-perpetuating board of trustees.
All of these orphanages, except the last, receive young girls of any
denomination, and all keep them in charge until eighteen years of age.
The comparatively small number in each institution allows some approach
to family relationship, and an effort to make the orphanage pleasant and
homelike is apparent in all. The Benevolent Society, Egenton, and Kelso
homes are supported entirély by endowments, while the others depend
largely upon annual subscriptions and contributions. The Christ Church
and Kelso Homes occupy fine buildings in North Baltimore, and the
Benevolent Society has a summer home in the same part of the city.

In the church orphanages for girls much attention is given to moral,
intellectual and industrial training; but two of the endowed homes for
children have been so carefully planned from the standpoint of education
that they are no less interesting to the educator than to the philan-
thropist. One of these is the McDonogh School for Boys, which has
been treated in another chapter; the other is the Samuel Ready Asylum
Jor Female Orphans, which will now be described somewhat in detail as
an institution especially worthy of study.

Upon the death of Samuel Ready in 1871 the sum of $371,000 was
placed in the hands of a self-perpetuating board of trustees for the
establishment and support of the asylum, which had already been
incorporated. By allowing this fund to accumulate for a number of
years, the grounds have been purchased and improved with a total cost
of $179,000, while still leaving a productive endowment of $524,947.
The income from this endowment is greater than the annual operating
expenses, and the surplus is used for new buildings. A new wing was
built last year, a house for the gardener has just been completed, and a
school building separate from the home is planned by the trustees in
order to increase the capacity of the institution. .There are now sixty
girls in the home, thirty-eight from Baltimore and twenty-two from
twelve counties of the State. The number of eligible applicants so
much exceeds the capacity of the house that, as with the McDonogh
School, some discretion may be used in selecting those who will make
the best use of the exceptional advantages which are offered. In the
introduction to a recent report of the United States Bureau of Education
upon “Industrial and Manual Training in Public Schools,’ Mr. Isaac
Edwards Clarke speaks of the Samuel Ready Asylum as “an ideal
orphans home,” and describes some of its characteristics in the following
words:
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 459

“The feature which differences this from many other similar ‘orphans’
homes’ is the care taken to prevent any consciousness by the children
that they are inmates of a charitable imstitution; while in many
so-called orphans’ homes, there seems to be a constant effort to impress
this one fact upon the consciousness of the unfortunate child-inmates. In
this truer ‘home,’ on the contrary, the development of the independence,
self-reliance, self-respect, and personal character of the individual child,
is a constant purpose kept in view; in connection with the effort to
surround all with the protection and happiness of a home. The children
of this family, inmates of a cheerful, well-ordered household, may well
be reckoned as exceptionally fortunate. Here the spirit of Frébel’s
ideals of child happiness and child development seems to be admirably
embodied; though not shown by formal kindergarten methods.” *

“The excellent methods here ‘adopted are, indeed, well worth the
careful study of all interested in similar establishments; yet, in this
instance, as in so many others of exceptional success, the secret must be
held to lie rather in the personality of the individual teacher, than in
formal communicable methods.”

An air of culture and refinement is to be found in all the appoint-
ments of the house. Curtains in the dormitories and bath-rooms provide
private apartments for dressing and the daily bath. The usual orphans’
uniform gives way to tasteful garments suited to the features and to the
choice of each individual. Through an elaborate system of rotation
all kinds of household duties are assigned and each room is placed in
the charge of some girl who uses, and cultivates, her own taste in
Keeping it in order. Each child has a small flower-bed of her own. All
are taught sewing, cooking and even marketing and shopping. An
opportunity for earning money at the rate of two cents per hour is given
for overtime work, and the girls learn to economize in the use of their

.earnings. Every care is taken to preserve the health of the pupils, and
there has been no serious illness in the institution since it was opened
in 1887.

The girls have a vacation in August, varying in length from one day
to three weeks. Those who do the best work or make the greatest effort,
get the longest holiday, and the fact that the length of their holiday
depends upon themselves is a great incentive to earnest effort.

In the school-room the most approved methods are in use; drawing,
vocal music, and physical culture are prominent features in the instruc-
tion of all. As all the girls must be prepared for self-support, each
individual receives careful attention, and is given special instruction in
accordance with her proclivities. Twelve girls are now learning type-

 

*There is a kindergarten class, though it is used chiefly as a recreation or as areward for good
class work. No children are received under five years of age.
460 MARYLAND.

writing, and ten instrumental music; two are taking’ drawing lessons at
the Maryland Institute; one is receiving special instruction in scientific
cooking, while five are taking a special course in dress making. The
girls attend churches of their respective denominations, and no sectarian
views are inculcated, but in all the regulations of the institution the
development of strong moral character is recognized as the most
important object to be attained.

The Boys’ School of St. Paul's Parish is an institution for the
maintenance and education of poor boys during the school year. Twenty-
five are now in attendance. Some of the boys return to their homes
during the summer, and some are supported elsewhere by the school.

The Baltimore Manual Labor School for Indigent Boys is at the
same time an educational and an industrial institution, located a few
miles from the city upon a farm of one hundred and fifty acres. Accord-
ing to the Baltimore Charities Directory, about thirteen hundred boys
have been received since the foundation of the institution in 1845. The
products of the farm, through the help of the boys, yield about one-half
the operating expenses.

St. Joseph’s House of Industry, like St. Vincent’s Infant Asylum
and St. Mary’s Female Orphan Asylum, is under the management of the
Sisters of Charity, and nearly all its seventy-five inmates came from the
latter institution. Only girls between the ages of twelve and eighteen
are received. An hour a day is devoted to school work, but the chief
occupation is sewing. Each girl is given thorough instruction in the
different branches of sewing and dressmaking, and much fine work is
done for regular customers. When the girls leave the house employment
and suitable homes are found for them; but they are welcomed back
whenever in need or out of work. A country home near Jessup’s is used
as a Summer resort.

Among the other educational homes should be mentioned the Asylum
and Training School for the Feeble Minded of the State of Maryland.
This is a State institution, opened in 1888, and located upon a large farm
at Owings’ Mills. Kindergarten methods are used for brightening the
intellects of these unfortunate children, and those who are capable
receive instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic and various industrial
pursuits.

A much-needed institution for epileptics will probably be built upon
the same farm in the near future.

The Pont Hill Private Institution for Feeble-Minded and Epileptic
Children reports thirty inmates now in attendance. Excellent training
is given, but only pay pupils are received. This is said to be the only
educational institution in the South which admits epileptics.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 461

The Maryland Schools for the Blind and the Maryland School for
the Deaf have been described in the chapter devoted to educational
institutions. ;

In the counties of Maryland are five local homes for children, of
which the oldest is that of the Memale Orphan Asylum of Annapolis,
which was incorporated in 1828. Over one hundred destitute children
have been received in this little cottage home, and no death nor serious
casualty has occurred among the children in the home during the whole
sixty-five years that it has been open. Four inmates are reported at
present.

The Home for Friendless Children of the Eastern Shore of Maryland
reports fourteen inmates, all girls. This institution was established at
Easton, Talbot County, in 1871. It is under the management of the
Protestant Episcopal Diocese of Easton, and receives annual subscriptions
from the different parishes of the Eastern Shore. Older girls are some-
times placed out at service, the wages being kept for them until they are
of age.

Two well-kept orphanages, supported by endowments, are located at
Frederick. Yhe Protestant Episcopal Orphan House and Free School of
All Saint’s Parish, Fredericktown, is an organization which began work
in a log-house in 1833. The institution started as a free school, but the
assistance of female orphans soon became a leading object and finally
supplanted the day school when that form of charity became unnecessary.
An endowment fund, amounting to $32,428, has been gradually accumulated
and now supports twelve orphans. Like the Annapolis society, this
institution reports that no death, nor even serious illness, has occurred in
the home during its whole history.

The Loats Female Orphan Asylum was opened at Frederick in
1882, through a generous bequest by Mr. John Loats. The endowment
with the building amounts to $40,000. It is managed under the auspices
of the Lutheran Church by a self-perpetuating board of trustees.

The Home for Orphan and Friendless Children at Hagerstown is
a semi-public institution, receiving most of its income from an annual
appropriation of $1,500 by Washington county. It was established in
1883, through the efforts of charitable people, for the purpose especially
of rescuing destitute children from the demoralizing influences of the
almshouse. An endowment of $10,000 was given by Mr. B. F. Newcomer.
The children attend a public school, which is conducted in the same
building with the Home, and as soon as practicable they are placed out
in private families, though remaining under the supervision of the Home
till the age of eighteen.
462 MARYLAND.

PLACING OUT CHILDREN.

A good institution is better than no home or a vicious home; but it
is generally recognized that the artificial, restricted life of the orphan
asylum cannot fully take the place of the natural and free home life as
the preparation for an active and useful career in the world. In accordance
with this idea we find the managers of many of our orphan asylums
eager to have their children adopted into suitable families. The Home
of the Friendless, St. Vincent’s Infant Asylum, the Nursery and Child’s
Hospital, and St. Mary’s Female Orphan Asylum, place out many children
by adoption, while older children, who are able to pay their way, are
frequently placed ‘at service, with certain stipulations in regard to
education and general treatment. In addition to the Home of the
Friendless and St. Mary’s Orphan Asylum, this form of placing out is
employed especially by the German Orphan Asylums, the Manual Labor
School, Baltimore Orphan Asylum, the Washington County Home, and
all the institutions for colored children. Much attention is now given
to the oversight of placed-out children, though more could well be done
in that direction. The laws of Maryland allow no contract to interfere
with the manifest interests of the child.

But the chief agency for placing destitute children in private
families is the Henry Watson Children’s Aid Society. This organiza-
tion was incorporated in 1862 as the Children’s Aid Society, and assumed
its present appellation in 1872, after receiving an endowment of $100,000
from Henry Watson. As reported to the National Prison Congress by
Mr. Griffith, this society has received 2,518 children, and secured for
them 2,147 country homes, mostly in the counties of Maryland. During
the last year forty-eight were placed in country homes and ten in other
institutions.

Much care is taken in the selection of homes; but the fact that of
those placed out last year, twenty-three had been out before, indicates
that it is not always easy to satisfy both the child and its patron. Those
receiving children are required to educate them, surround them with
Christian influences, support and clothe them well, and give them, on
reaching the age of eighteen, fifty dollars as freedom dues. Semi-annual
‘correspondence is maintained with the children, and much care is taken
not to lose sight of them; though if the income of the Society would
admit of frequent visitation, this important part of the work could
doubtless be done more efficiently. Mr. Griffith states the belief “that
ninety-five per cent. of the children placed out by this Society in the
country homes turn out well,” and that “nearly ninety per cent. of those
attaining the age of eighteen years, when they are ‘free’ from this
Society, remain in the country.”
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 463

Granting that the child pays its way in the country home by the
increased enjoyment which it brings, if not by the work which it does,
the economy of the placing-out system becomes very apparent when we
consider that, at $150 each, the yearly cost of maintaining one hundred
and seventy-five children in orphan asylums would be $26,250, while
that number of placed-out children are now cared for, and several other
branches of work are conducted by the Henry Watson Society, with a
total annual expense of about six thousand dollars.

In addition to this work of placing out and overseeing children in
country homes, the Henry Watson Society provides in its large building
on north Calvert street, a temporary home for children, a home for
working girls and those seeking employment, and an industrial school
for teaching girls to sew and make dresses.

The method of boarding-out children has not been tried system-
atically in Maryland.

HOMES FOR WORKING BOYS AND WORKING GIRLS.

To supplement these homes for the support and education of children,
Baltimore is provided with a number of charitable institutions which
supply a home with favorable surroundings to boys or girls who are at
work for wages. Temporary maintenance is often given to those seeking
employment, but the regular inmates pay for their board at a low rate.
The most notable institution of this kind is the Boys’ Home, on Calvert
street. During the iast year a monthly average of ninety-nine boys
made this institution their home.

Homeless boys, between nine and eighteen years of age, are received,
and a number are committed to the institution by the city magistrates.
Positions paying from one to seven dollars per week are found for the
boys, and a charge is made for board varying from $1.75* to $2.50 per
week, according to the wages which the boy receives. The payments for
board cover a little more than one-half the expense of the institution.
Clothing is bought at wholesale and supplied to the boys at cost, while
all the sewing and mending is done for them through a Ladies’ Aid
Society. A free night school is in session for seven months of the year,
and free instruction in vocal music is also given for the sake of its
refining influence. Among the recent improvements may be mentioned
the infirmary, and a well-equipped bath-room which provides private
bathing apartments for ten boys at a time.

Another institution, similar in design to the Boys’ Home, but under
Catholic management, is St. James’ Home for Boys, at the corner of
High and Low streets. This home is controlled by the same corporation
as St. Mary’s Industrial School, and about one-fourth of the inmates are

*If a boy cannot pay this amount a debt is allowed to accumulate.
464 MARYLAND.

from that institution. Aside from the payments made by the boys the
chief support of the Home comes from a society organized for that
purpose and known as the Immaculate Conception Union.

The Guild House of St. Paul’s Parish also provides a home at low
rates for boys and young men whose wages are small.

For working girls we have the Girls’ Home of the Henry Watson
Children’s Aid Society, where about twenty inmates are given board,
lodging and medical attendance in return for one-half their wages; S?.
Vincent’s Home for Working Girls, under the care of the Sisters of
Mercy; and several homes for self-supporting young women, in which
from $2.50 to $3.00 per week is paid for board and the other benefits of
the house. Such homes are S¢. Paul’s House, 309 Cathedral street; the
Home for Working Girls, 25 South High street, under the care of the All
Saints’ Sisters of the Poor; the Memale Christian Home, 416 North
Greene street; and the Home of the Young Womer’s Christian Asso-
ciation, at 128 West Franklin street. In the year 1892 the last-named
home provided for twenty-nine permanent and one hundred and fifty-
seven transient boarders.

MEDICAL AND SANITARY RELIEF FOR CHILDREN.

Several important institutions have been recently established in
Baltimore for the relief of sick children. They include two special
hospitals four dispensaries and two sanitariums.

The Nursery and Child’s Hospital, with its free dispensary, has
already been mentioned.

The Garrett Free Hospital and Dispensary for Children on Carey
street is a well conducted institution supported entirely by Mrs. Robert
Garrett. During the year endiny in October 1892, ninety-nine cases were
treated in the hospital and about two thousand cases were prescribed for
in the dispensary. Five nurses are employed and a course of special
training in the care of children is given, on the completion of which
certificates are awarded.

During the summer months the hospital is closed, and the Garrett
Sanitarium for Children is opened at Mount Airy in Carroll county.
Free transportation is supplied to sick children and the mothers or
nurses who bring them.

Two large cottages, with adjoining buildings, furnish accommoda-
tions for twenty-five children, and a resident physician, five nurses, a
matron, and seven servants are employed to care for them. Since these
institutions were opened in 1888, 266 children have been admitted to the
Hospital and 339 to the Sanitarium, 321 surgical operations have been
performed, 13,771 cases have been treated in the dispensary, and 833
visits have been paid to the homes of patients.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 465

The Thomas Wilson Sanitarium for the benefit of children suffer-
ing from complaints peculiar to summer, was opened at Mount Wilson,
Baltimore county, in 1884. The institution cost over one hundred and
eighty thousand dollars, and derives its sipport from an endowment of
five hundred thousand.

During the summer months a special train left Hillen Station five
mornings each week to convey the sick children, with their mothers or
nurses, to the Sanitarium. On the first four days of the week white
people were accommodated, while Friday was assigned to the colored
applicants.

The benefit of pure air, suitable food and special medical treatment
were given for the day, and a return passage by special train at evening.
Five thousand eight hundred and fifty-one people took advantage of this
charity during the last season. Children who were very ill were allowed
to remain at the Sanitarium over night, or, if need be, for several days,
and when the mothers were not able to remain with them such children
were placed in the charge of trained nurses. A longer stay isfound to be
needed by so many that increased accommodations are called for, and
several additional cottages are being erected for use as hospital pavilions.
It is announced that during the coming season five trained nurses will be
employed in the different sections of the city, each to visit and care for
the sick children at their homes within her district, while only those
children who need continued treatment will be taken to the Sanitarium,
and they will be allowed to remain two weeks.

The other hospitals of Baltimore receive children as well as adults,
and some of the hospitals, as the Church Home and Infirmary, provide
special wards for them; but the advantages thus offered are not fully
utilized because poor mothers, even when unable to care properly
for their children, are especially reluctant about placing them in other
hands when they are sick.

Another special dispensary for children is located at the corner of
Druid Hill avenue and Preston street, and at 407 west Hoffinan street is
Miss Barnwell’s Dispensary for Plaster of Paris Jackets and Free
School for Deformed Children. This is a unique charity for the benefit
of spinal cripples. The method of applying the plaster jackets has
been developed from that of Professor Sayre, of New York. Miss
Barnwell devotes her time and skill to the work without remuneration,
and through the voluntary contributions of friends and patients, an
assistant, a teacher, and an examining physician are employed. The day
school for children who are so deformed as to prevent them from attend-
ing the public schools, was opened in 1889. During the year 1892,
sixty-six patients were treated in the dispensary, and twenty-one
deformed children were taught in the schools.

30
466 MARYLAND.

At this point of our study, mention should be made of the Children’s
Country Home, the Children’s Summer Home, and the Children’s Fresh
Air Society, each of which is an agency for giving children of poor
people the benefit of two weeks in the country during the heated season.
The Country Home is located at Orange Grove, Baltimore County, where
about two hundred children were cared for last summer. A new building
which accommodates one hundred children at a time has been opened
for the summer of 1893. The Children’s Summer Home, at Catonsville,
is managed by an organization of young women of the Friends’ Park
Avenue Meeting. The work began last year, and arrangements have
been made to accommodate twenty children at a time during the present
summer. The Fresh Air Society scatters its beneficiaries among charita-
ble families in country districts. During the two years of its existence,
seventy-nine children have been sent out, and plans have been made for
extending the charity to one hundred little ones in the coming season.

EDUCATIONAL CHARITIES.

Aside from the purely educational institutions, and the free kinder-
gartens and homes already mentioned, we find in Baltimore a large number
of private charities which aim to relieve want and prevent evil by teaching
young people to care for themselves. Under this head come the numer-
ous sewing schools which are supported by the different church societies
of the city. Fifty-eight of them are mentioned in the list of churches
appended to the directory of Baltimore charities. Sewing is now taught
in all the grammar schools of the city, but these church schools are
doing an important supplementary work.

In addition to these local church schools, mention should be made
of a few societies whose work covers a broader field and enlists more
general interest.

The work of the Henry Watson Children’s Aid Society in securing
homes for children has been described above, but this society is also
doing an important service to Baltimore in the line of industrial educa-
tion through its two branches known as the Sewing Machine Department
and the Cutting and Fitting Department. According to the report of the
agent, about one hundred girls are in daily attendance at these two
schools. The hours are from 9 to 12 and 2to 4. Only needy girls are
received and each pupil retains the garments which she has made.

St. Joseph’s Guild is a new Roman Catholic community organized in
Baltimore five years ago and now numbering sixteen sisters. The
purpose of the Guild is to work entirely among the colored people,
relieving distress, strengthening the inefficient, rescuing the wayward,
and spreading the influence of the Catholic Church. Eight sewing
schools have been established by the Guild in different parts of the city,
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 467

and about three hundred and twenty-five colored girls are being instructed
inthem. The work for the most part is rudimentary, but those who
care for more technical instruction are encouraged to continue work in a
graduate class. .

The Deaconess Home, on East Pratt street, is the centre of missionary
and charitable work on the part of three deaconesses of the Methodist
Church. Three industrial schools for girls are maintained, and during
the first eight months (February 2 to September 28, 1892) two thousand
six hundred and ninety-seven visits were made among the poor and
needy. Two deaconesses devote their time largely to visiting the poor
while one makes a specialty of nursing the sick. A temporary home for
immigrant girls was opened at Locust Point in December.

The Daughters in Israel is the name of a society of youpg Hebrew
women organized here in 1890 for work among the Russian refugees.
There are a number of separate bands under the general organization.
Two industrial schools are in operation, a sewing-school for children and
a class in dressmaking for older girls. The latter class is composed
entirely of Jewish girls who are actively employed during the day, but
are so eager to improve themselves that they attend this class at least
three evenings in every week. A working girls’ club has also proved to
be an important factor in the work of organizing this foreign element.
In this as in its other lines of work the society aims to render its
beneficiaries self-supporting, self-respecting and independent. The use
of any language other than English is discouraged, and the necessity of
an American education is strongly impressed upon parents and children.

Two Wight Schools under Hebrew management are doing an im-
portant work in teaching English to immigrants, and various other
organizations offer evening instruction to young men and women who are
employed during the day.

One of the most interesting of the educational charities is the
Cooking School connected with the Friends’ Mission on Federal Hiil.
During the past winter a class of forty-five girls has been receiving free
instruction in culinary art and many applicants had to be refused. Next
year it is proposed to offer these advantages to one hundred school girls,
with the hope of interesting the public school board in that line of
education. Its importance cannot be doubted when one thinks of the
amount of social and economic evil which arises from the lack of skill
in cooking.

Hope Institute, on Hillen street, with its night school for boys, and
classes in cooking, dressmaking and singing, should be mentioned here,
as well as the educational work of the Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tion and the Young Women’s Christian Association, though in these
468 MARYLAND.

societies the co-operative element is combined with the charitable, and a
small fee is usually charged for the benefit of the class work.

Another educational charity is to be found in the Hlectric Sewing
Machine Rooms, opened in May, 1891, and now located at 312 St. Paul
street. This is a unique institution, and has proved to be an important
factor in solving the problems which poverty and inefficiency are con-
stantly presenting to charitable societies. The equipment consists of
twenty-six machines run by electric power, a supply of coarse sewing from
contractors, and a competent teacher with an assistant. Any indigent
woman who wishes to become self-supporting has an opportunity here
of earning something at once and of receiving instruction which will, in
most cases, enable her to earn living wages in the field of competitive
industry. Those who are able pay fifty cents « week for the use of the
machines and power, while some who are in especial need are supported
through the Charity Organization Society until able to earn their living
by their own work.

Eighty women have already been made entirely self-supporting
through the benefit derived from this charity. An employment agency
has been opened recently, and now a nursery is provided for the care of
small children while their mothers are at work. Another room for
teaching hand sewing, and lodging apartments for homeless women, are
among the additions contemplated by the managers of this growing
institution.

In this connection mention should be made of the educational indus-
tries-carried on in the shops of the Schools for the Blind. At the North
avenue school, in addition to the industrial training given to the regular
students, blind men, are taught to make brooms, and at the Saratoga
street school blind colored men are taught chair-caning and mattress
making, and are afterward allowed the use of the shops without charge.

St. Mary’s Colored Industrial School at Charlotte Hall, St. Mary’s
county, is doing an important work in teaching cooking, needlework,
dressmaking, shoemaking and farming, as well as the usual school
studies.

THE REFORMATION OF DELINQUENTS.

In Maryland, as in other States, the last few decades have brought
notable improvements in the treatment of those who, through depravity
or misfortune, have become amenable to public discipline.

JUVENILE REFORMATORIES.

The evident harmfulness of confining juvenile offenders with
hardened criminals led to the incorporation of the House of Refuge as
early as 1831, but nothing definite was accomplished until 1849, when
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 469

the Baltimore City Council made an appropriation for the erection of a
building. Private citizens, comprising the corporation, gave $67,000, and
finally, in 1855, the House of Refuge was opened for the separate care
and education of juvenile delinquents. Both boys and girls were received
at this institution until after the Maryland Industrial School for Girls
(incorporated 1870) was opened at Orange Grove. In 1880, the latter
corporation changed its name to the Female House of Refuge, and
was soon after moved to its present location within the city.

In the mean time homeless or wayward girls, and especially fallen
women, who desired to reform, had been cared for in the House of the
Good Shepherd since its establishment in 1864, and in 1878 additional
powers were given by the General Assembly of Maryland for the com-
mitment of wayward girls to this institution, and an annual appropria-
tion was granted for its support. Thus reformatories for girls, under
both Protestant and Catholic influence, were established ;.and simulta-
neously a Catholic reformatory for boys was organized, through the efforts
of Archbishop Spaulding, to supplement the work of the House of
Refuge, and especially to provide good moral and industrial training for
boys who were without proper home influence. This institution, St.
Mary’s Industrial School for Boys, was opened in 1866, and placed under
the care of the Xaverian Brothers. It was conducted for eight years as
a private charity, aided irregularly by public appropriations, but in 1874
a new charter was granted which provided for the commitment to this
institution as to the House of Refuge, of boys convicted of petty offences.
At the same time representatives of the State and Baltimore city were
added to the board of managers and regular appropriations were assured.

Thus provision was made for the care of juvenile delinquents of
both sexes, under either Protestant or Catholic management, but the fact
that neither of these institutions received colored people left a large
class of young offenders still exposed to the baneful influences of the
common jails. However, public sentiment, aroused especially through
the efforts of the Prisoners’ Aid Association, was too conscious of the
evils arising from such conditions to tolerate them long. The House of
Reformation for Colored Boys was incorporated in 1870, and opened at
Cheltenham, Prince George’s county, in 1873; and the Industrial Home
for Colored Girls was opened in Baltimore in 1883, and moved to its
present location at Melvale, Baltimore county, in 1888. The division has
been carried still further by the establishment in September, 1892, of a
new branch of the House of the Good Shepherd, for the care of colored
girls.

All these six reformatories are controlled by private corporations,
though all are supported chiefly by public appropriation. The House of
the Good Shepherd is entirely under the control of the Sisters of the
470 MARYLAND.

Good Shepherd, and receives aid from the State only, while the other
institutions receive about equal appropriations from the State and city,
and recognize public authority in their management through the appoint-
ment by the Governor and Mayor of a few of the trustees. In the case
of the House of Refuge, a majority of the trustees are so appointed.

All the reformatories receive occasional delinquents, who are
sentenced fora definite term, though the most of their inmates are
committed to the institutions until of age, the colored girls, at present,
becoming free at eighteen, the others at twenty-one.

Excepting the House of Reformation for Colored Boys and St. Mary’s
Industrial School, which admit none over sixteen years of age, boys
and girls are received by the reformatories up to the age of majority ;
but children committed when under eight are usually transferred to
institutions for orphans.

The total number of inmates of these reformatories upon the 30th
of June, 1892, was reported as 1,239, but this number included the
inmates of the House of the Good Shepherd, most of whom, either on
account of their innocence upon the one hand or their age upon the
other, do not strictly belong to the class of juvenile delinquents.

With the exception of three-fourths of the inmates of the House of
the Good Shepherd, a half-dozen boarders at the House of Refuge and a
somewhat larger number at St. Mary’s Industrial School, it appears that
all the inmates of these institutions have been sentenced or committed
by process of law. About one-half of these were committed on the
charge of incorrigibility brought against them usually by their parents
or guardians. Of the other half the larger part were committed for
vagrancy. A number have been convicted of larceny and various offences
of a more serious nature, while a few have been committed to the care
of the reform school on account of the cruelty of their parents or
guardians.

Although commitments may be caused by the fault of the parent as
well as of the child, the moral restraint of home life even among the
delinguent class is evidenced by the large proportion of orphans among
the juvenile offenders. Only three institutions publish statistics upon
this point—the House of Refuge, the House of Reformation, and the
Female House of Refuge. The last printed reports of these reformatories
indicate respectively that 38, 68, and 68 per cent. of the committed
youths had lost one or both parents.

In the management of all the juvenile reformatories, the idea of
punishment is entirely subordinated to that of education and the estab-
lishment of moral character. About equal time is usually given to
school work and manual labor—the latter being utilized for the partial
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 471

support of the institution through contract work. Industrial training is
also given to some extent in all the institutions.

When sufficient training has been received and the inmate is deemed
trustworthy, he is usually released on a ticket of leave or apprenticed
with a suitable family under the oversight of the institution. Of these
outside wards, still under the jurisdiction of the reformatories, the
House of Refuge reports two hundred and sixty-one; St. Mary’s Industrial
School seven hundred and forty-five; Female House of Refuge fifteen,
and the Industrial Home for Colored Girls sixty. After this general
outline of the history and management of the juvenile reformatories, a
few words will be added concerning the individual features of each
institution.

The House of Refuge occupies a massive stone building near the
western limits of the city. The surrounding wall and the jail-like cells
remnind one of a prison, though the management of the institution is not
punitive but thoroughly educational.

The forenoon is occupied with work in the overall shops and else-
where, while the afternoon is devoted to studies. The common English
branches, including history and elementary physiology, are taught, and a
good supply of current literature is provided for evening reading.
Through a special appropriation of $10,000 by the Baltimore City
Council, a Manual Training School was established in 1891, and an
equipment provided for teaching wood work, metal work and printing.
The interest shown by the boys in the manual training can leave no
doubt of its value as a factor in reformatory work, and it is to be hoped
that it will be sustained by regular appropriations.

No boy is dismissed from the institution until a good home and
suitable employment has been secured for him, and a special visiting
agent is employed to look after the interests of the outside wards.

St. Mary’s Industrial School for Boys is located upon a fruitful
farm of one hundred acres about a mile to the south from the House of
Refuge. Compared with the House of Refuge, we find in this institution
a larger number of boys, with a lower average age, many boys being
committed because destitute rather than delinquent. A large five-story
stone building provides dormitories, school-rooms and chapel, while the
adjoining shops and green-house supplement the farm in furnishing
manual employment for the boys. Knitting hose, tailoring, printing,
carpentering and shoemaking are the industries in progress, in addition
to the care of the farm and buildings. Much industrial training is thus
secured, and the educational element in the manual labor is developed
as far as the income of the institution will admit. Among the branches
taught in the school-rooms we find history, physiology and book-keeping,
and instruction in drawing is given to all the inmates. Vocal music is
472 MARYLAND.

taught to a limited class and a large band isin training. When a boy is
thought to be prepared to leave the school he is usually returned to his
parents or provided with a suitable home ina private family, but many
boys for whom such homes are not at hand continue under the care of
the Xaverian Brothers in the St. James’ Home for Boys, which has been
mentioned as one of the homes for working boys.

The House of Reformation for Colored Boys is an interesting
institution peculiar to the State of Maryland. A farm of eight hundred
acres, forty-three miles to the south from Baltimore, forms the material
environment of the reformatory and furnishes a large part of instructive
employment which is needed. The most distinctive feature of this
institution is the arrangement of buildings upon the family plan. Inthe
place of one large dormitory five family buildings furnish accommoda-
tions for fifty boys each. Each building contains a separate school-
room, hospital, and play-room, and is under the immediate care of a
teacher who resides in it. This plan permits of gradation, and the boys
are stimulated by promotion from one building to another as they
advance in proficiency. In addition to these brick family buildings, are
several shops and a large administration building, one wing of which is
occupied by the superintendent, while the other furnishes large dining-
rooms where all the inmates of the institution take their meals. Four
and one-half hours of the day are devoted to school work and the same
length of time to manual labor. A stocking factory furnishes employ-
ment for about one hundred and twenty of the younger boys, while
carpentering, blacksmithing, baking, painting, tailoring, and shoemaking
are some of the industries which occupy the older boys. Although none
are received over sixteen years of age, the buildings are always crowded,
and the lack of room often necessitates the dismissal of boys earlier
than would otherwise be thought best.

The Female House of Refuge, on Carey and Baker streets, shelters
about seventy girls. Industry is the chief factor in the work of reforma-
tion, and thirty-six sewing machines are kept busy all day making
underwear for contractors. The net proceeds of the sewing-room amounted
last year to nearly three thousand five hundred dollars. A record is kept
of the work done by each inmate, and one-half of its proceeds is placed
to her credit in a4 savings bank. The work of so large a household gives
an opportunity for valuable industrial training, and a sewing teacher, as
well as a school teacher, is employed. Girls who are considered trust-
worthy are often placed out at service, though remaining under the
control of the institution till of age. An auxiliary board of fifteen
women assists in the management of the reformatory.

The Industrial Home for Colored Girls is similar to the Female
House of Refuge in purpose and methods. A new building has just been
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 473

erected, which increases the capacity of the institution to one hundred
and twenty-five and adds much to the comfort of the inmates. Making
overalls is the chief remunerative industry. During the last year the
girls earned about $5,000, of which $238 was placed to their credit for
over-time work. Many of them, after receiving some training, are
apprenticed out with good families on condition that they be well cared
for and given twenty-five dollars and an outfit on reaching the age of
eighteen. Such careful training is given the girls in all branches of
housework that their services are always in demand in good homes as
soon as they leave the institution. Whatever methods may be employed,
the efficiency of a reformatory in really elevating the character of its
inmates must depend largely upon the personal qualifications of those
who are placed in charge, and the managers of the Industrial Home seem
to have been fortunate in securing an unusually capable superintendent.

The House of the Good Shepherd occupies a whole block in the
western part of- Baltimore, and, like many of the older Catholic institu-
tions, is secluded from the outside world by a high brick wall. Itis in
part co-ordinate with the other reformatories for girls, though quite
different in some of its features. There are three distinct departments—
the preservation department, the reformatory, and a community of Sister
Magdalens. In the preservation department are about one hundred girls
of allages from four or five years to twenty or over. The preservation
of innocence seems to be the leading purpose of this department. Most
of the girls are brought here by their guardians or friends, though many
are committed by the magistrates for vagrancy, destitution, or the want
of proper home influences. The day is devoted chiefly to housework
and sewing, while school work occupies the evening.

The reformatory department is for girls and women who have
committed some misdemeanor. A few girls are committed to this
deparment, as to the other reformatories, till they reach the age of
majority, but the most of the inmates are fallen women who are brought
in by parents or friends, or who come voluntarily with the purpose of
reforming. There is no age limit and many of the inmates are mature
women. Sewing is the regular occupation.

The Community of Magdalens is a sisterhood of thoroughly repent-
ant women, who have chosen to spend the remainder of their lives in
industry and religious devotion within the walls of the institution.

The total income from the work of inmates of the institution for the
last year was $18,748.43.

The House of the Good Shepherd for Colored Girls is a branch of
the older institution recently opened at Calverton Heights, near the
western limits of the city. About thirty incorrigible colored girls have
A74 MARYLAND.

been left under the charge of the sisters there, and the next Legislature
is expected to recognize the institution as a public reformatory.

The Sisters of the Good Shepherd, who control these reformatories
and similar institutions in all parts of the world, form a sisterhood
which was organized for this purpose in 1642, and has its “mother
house” at Angers, France.

Another institution, which may be mentioned in connection with
the House of the Good Shepherd, is The Home for fallen women, on
Exeter street, where seventy unfortunate women have found shelter and
religious influences during the past year. Residence in the home is
entirely voluntary, and is often brief, but many are helped to a higher
life. Industrial training is given, and honest employment is found for
those who are ready to leave the home.

The Helping-up Mission at Arch and Baltimore streets is doing
reformatory work among the same class of women in West Baltimore.

PRISONS.

Continuing from the juvenile and voluntary reformatories we come
to a class of institutions which have but recently taken on the character
of charities, and are still commonly regarded as means for vengeance
rather than for charitable effort. For the true position of prisons does
not appear till we come to recognize on the one hand that it is truer
charity to upbuild men than to indulge them, and on the other hand
that the most efficient punishment is that which reforms the offender.

In Maryland, as in other States, the treatment of adult offenders is
far behind this conception of the purpose of punishment, for it is the
character of the past crime, instead of the progress of the reformation,
that determines the time when the prisoner shall be released. Yet while
much remains to be accomplished in the improvement of criminal law
and practice, the principle of reformation, as applied to adults, as well
as to minors, has been recognized in the general laws of Maryland, as
well as in the management of the individual prisons. Especially a law
passed in 1876 allowing a commutation for good behavior of four days
from each month of a sentenced term of imprisonment is said to have
given excellent results. In the treatment of criminals while enduring
confinement, their reformation is constantly held in view.

There are now three prisons that receive adult criminals from the
courts of Baltimore—the Baltimore City Jail, the House of Correction
and the Maryland Penitentiary. The first is supported and controlled by
the city, while the two others are State institutions. Of the fourteen
hundred prisoners confined in these three institutions almost one-half
are colored (though the colored population of the State is only one-
fourth of the white) ; and about ten per cent. are women. The white race
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 475

predominates in the jail, while a large majority of the penitentiary
convicts and of the female inmates of all the prisonsare colored. Among
these prisoners are always a number of mirfors, who have been committed
to these institutions because they were deemed unsuitable for the juvenile
reformatories, or because the reformatories were too full to receive them.

All these prisons are under capable and progressive management.
The management of the Penitentiary especially, receives very high
praise from recognized authorities upon the subject of penology. Indus-
try everywhere prevails, cruelty or neglect is not tolerated, and all gross
abuses have been removed. Except at the House of Correction, the
women are confined in buildings by themselves. Moral and religious
influences are brought to bear upon the prisoners, and the officers in
charge make reformation the object of their efforts. In the way of
economic management little more could be asked, for the total expense
per capita for the last year was but $114.22 for the Jail, $105 for the
House of Correction, and $119.08 tor the Penitentiary, and a large part of
this expense was met by the work of the inmates. Although an abund-
ance of good nourishing food is given, the average daily cost for food is
reported at seven and two-third cents for the Jail, five and one-fourth
cents for the House of Correction and seven and one-fourth cents for the
Penitentiary.

The Jail of Baltimore City is an imposing stone building lying to
the east of Jones’ Falls. From ten to eleven thousand men and women
are committed to this institution each year; about three-fourths of them
are imprisoned for drunkenness and disorderly conduct. The average
daily population for the year 1891 was four hundred and ninety-seven ;
for the year 1892, four hundred and sixty-seven. This decrease is
assigned by the Warden to the action of a new law respecting the “drunk
and disorderly” cases which commits them, in default of the payment of
fine, for only seven days for the first offence, with an increasing term for
subsequent commitments within a period of sixty days. Since 1889, one
hundred of the prisoners have been employed under contract in a basket
factory, while the others are utilized to a large extent in making repairs
and doing the routine work of the institution.

The House of Correction isa State prison for short-term offenders
where the idleness of the county jails is replaced by hard work. The
recognized need of such a prison led to an appropriation in 1874, of
$250,000 for its establishment, and the institution was opened at Jessup’s,
Anne Arundel county, in 1879. The average population of the prison is
about two hundred and seventy-five. The brevity of the terms of
imprisonment interferes with the best results from the labor of: the
convicts, but an income of about $9,000 from contract work is reported
for last year. Chair-caning and covering demijohns are the present
476 MARYLAND.

employments, but it is expected that more important industries will soon
be introduced.

The Maryland Penitentiary is the State prison for long-term
offenders. It is located in the heart of the city, adjoining the Baltimore
Jail. Little of it can be seen from the street except a high wall with
pavilions for watchmen. Within we find a well-organized industrial
establishment, in which each inmate is assigned a place suited to his
strength and capacity. Out of an average population of 652 about eighty
are assigned to the various tasks which the maintenance of so large an
institution requires, while an average of 569 are employed by contractors.
In order to suit the varying capacity of the different convicts three lines
of manufacturing are conducted within the prison walls, comprising a
hollow-ware foundry, marble works and a boot and shoe manufactory.
The prisoners remain under the supervision of the warden, and the best
discipline prevails. The proceeds from the contract labor amounted last
year to over seventy-nine thousand dollars, and more than paid the
entire expense of maintaining the prison. After the regular day’s labor
of eight hours has been completed an opportunity is given for over-time
work, and the earnings are placed to the credit of the prisoner. The
amount thus gained by the prisoners during the year ending November
30, 1892, was $10,208.51. Prisoners may draw upon their earnings for the
support of families outside or may allow the account to accumulate till
they are discharged. The Bertillon system of measurements for the
identification of criminals has been recently introduced.

COUNTY JAILS.

It may be doubted whether the county jails should be treated under
the heading of *‘ Reformation of Delinquents,” for it must be acknowl-
edged that but few criminals are freed from their evil purposes by
confinement in the jails. Yet the county jails have felt the wave of
reform, and none of the gross abuses which were common fifteen years
ago are now tolerated. The sexes are completely separated, the insane
are removed to asylums, and children are sent to reformatories.

Each of the twenty-three counties has a jail located at the county
seat. The aggregate cost of these jails as reported for the World’s Fair
charts was $351,968. The aggregate average number of inmates was
reported at 249. The jails at Cumberland, Easton, Frederick and Elkton,
may be mentioned as especially well constructed and managed. The
management of the jails is vested in the sheriffs of the respective
counties, though in about one-half the counties the sheriff appoints a
warden to have immediate control of the building and prisoners.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. A477

AID FOR PRISONERS.

As stated at the opening of the chapter, a large share of the advance-
ment which Maryland has made in penal and reformatory methods has
been due to the influence of the Maryland Prisoners’ Aid Association,
a private association supported by annual subscriptions, but recognized
by law and given full powers of visitation in respect to all the penal
institutions of the State. But, while much is done in behalf of prison
reform, the work of the association is primarily with the prisoner rather
than with the prison. Its objects are concisely stated in a circular
as follows:

“To afford prisoners moral and religious instruction.

“To furnish them with Bibles and other elevating literature.

“To teach the illiterate how to read and write.

“To furnish discharged prisoners with necessary clothing and tools,
and, when possible, with employment.

“To send those living out of the city to their homes.

“To visit the sick or impoverished families of prisoners and to supply
their immediate needs.”

The agent of the Association, an ordained minister, is constantly
engaged in this work of reclamation. One or more of the prisons is
visited every day for personal interviews with prisoners, and religious
services are conducted every Sunday. Frequent visits are made to the
reformatories also, and to the county jails and almshouses. But it is at
the critical time when a man regains his freedom that the friendly help
of the Prisoners’ Aid Association is most needed. The acquaintance
which has been gained during the term of imprisonment gives mutual
confidence, and very many ex-convicts have thus been started in an honest
course, which they have followed for the remainder of their lives.

THE PREVENTION OF VICE AND CRIME.

Another chapter has described the chief factor in the suppression of
evil through the cultivation of higher motives—the Christian Church.
The Police Department also, which may be regarded as the chief out-
ward factor in the prevention of crime, does not come within the scope
of this chapter, and the work of the Society for the Protection of
Children, of the orphanages, and of the reformatories and prisons, which
aim to be preventive as well as curative, is spoken of elsewhere, yet a
few other societies remain for our consideration under this head.

The Society for the Suppression of Vice of Baltimore City has
been actively at work since 1888 in securing better laws for the promo-
tion of the moral well-being of the community, and especially in
gaining the enforcement of existing laws respecting the liquor trafic,
gambling, and indecent writings and pictures.
478 MARYLAND.

The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union in Maryland is carry-
ing on the same warfare with social evils, which characterizes its activity
in other States and countries. The State building, costing about $30,000,
is located at No. 8 South Gay street, where a free kindergarten, mothers’
meetings, and other lines of social work are carried on. A branch of
this organization, known as the Memorial Union for Preventive and
Rescue Work, was formed in 1890 for the protection of homeless girls.
Such girls are provided with a temporary home, and employment is
found for them. In pursuit of the rescue work members of the Union
visit the railway stations, police stations and the city jail, and a com-
mittee is appointed for visiting the homes of the very poor in the
interests of destitute children.

The temporary Home for Immigrant Girls, recently opened at Locust
Point by the Methodist deaconesses, should be mentioned here, as well as
the work of the Daughters in Israel, already described.

The Hebrew Friendly Inn, on East Lombard street, also provides a
free temporary home for large numbers of immigrants, both men and
women, and the Port Mission Home for Seamen, opened in 1892 on
Thames street, offers religious surroundings to sailors while in port.
The Home is supported in part by charity, though the payment of board
is expected.

Several other religious societies are combating the evil influences of
the city by purely religious work combined with more concrete forms of
charity. The Baltimore Female City Mission has been actively at
work since 1865. Five agents are employed who visit destitute homes,
distribute food and clothing, and secure employment for some who are
out of work. The annual report speaks of closing five saloons and
houses or ill-fame.

The Rescue Association of Baltimore City, formerly known as the
Free Sunday Breakfast Association, is continuing the work among home-
less men, which was begun by its president, Mr. Blackburn, in 1890.
During the winter coffee was served every evening in the chapel of the
old Associate Reformed Church, on Fayette street. Following this
refreshment was a religious meeting, with an average attendance of
about one hundred destitute men, and during the cold weather large
numbers took advantage of the privilege granted them of sleeping upon
the bare floor of the hall. In order to keep the converts under helpful
influence, Rescue Home was opened for their accommodation at No. 109
Marsh Market Space. The inmates of this Home, from thirty to forty
in number, either pay their board or obtain tickets which are paid for by
others.

Plans have been formed for moving the mission work to Market
Space, and introducing an industrial feature as a help toward the redemp-
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 479

tion of those who are looking upward, and also as a work test for trying
the motives of applicants for relief. A building has been leased (June,
1893,) for this purpose at the corner of Market Space and Hawk street.

An organization has been formed recently for maintaining an
Industrial Home for Women, witha view to placing vagrants in the
way of self-support. The home has been opened at No. 706 West Lombard
street.

Important factors in lessening the influences of saloons are the
numerous Free Reading Rooms and Club Rooms conducted by religious
societies. Seven of these are supported by the Young Men’s Christian
Association. Among the others mention may be made of Hope Institute,
already spoken of, the People’s Institute, managed by the Memorial
Presbyterian Church; the Port Mission Reading Room for sailors, at
815 south Broadway; another reading room, similar in purpose, recently
opened on Aliceanna street, by the Seamen’s Union Bethel Society; the
Newsboys’ and Bootblacks’ Club Rooms at No. 218 East Baltimore street,
and Hmmanuel House, recently opened, (April 4, 1893), on Calvert street,
where, in connection with the free reading rooms, meals and lodgings are
furnished at a low rate.

The most recent movement for the improvement of social conditions
in Baltimore resulted in the organization, on the 19th of June, 1893, of
The Union for Public Good, having for its purpose “to promote the
good government, health and prosperity of the City of Baltimore, to
secure useful and prevent injurious legislation affecting its interests, to
correct public scandals, grievances and abuses, to restrain all forms of
vice and immorality, and to encourage the co-operation of individuals
and existing societies aiming to advance these ends.” It is organized asa
union of societies, and every congregation or society having for its object
the moral or social improvement of the community, is invited to become
affiliated to the Union, and to be represented at its meetings.

THE MANAGEMENT OF TRAMPS AND BEGGARS.

Short-sighted generosity has interfered somewhat with the successful
treatment of these social parasites, though stringent laws have been
passed for the suppression of vagrancy. However, begging in public
places is now confined for the most part to the blind or crippled who
offer pencils or matches for sale, or present some other form of exchange.

Tramps in large numbers spend the winter months in the city alms-
houses, where about one-fourth the inmates are people who, according to
their own report, had lived in Baltimore less than six months. At the
station houses of the police department 20,611 free lodgings were given
to tramps in 1892; and throughout the State, but especially in the northern
counties, many of these vagrants find free accommodations at the alms-
480 MARYLAND.

houses and jails. During the past winter, however, this evil has been
greatly relieved in Carroll, Frederick, and some other counties by
requiring all tramps to earn their maintenance by working on the roads.

Within the city the Free Sunday Breakfast Association, as already
stated, has been trying to restore this class of men to useful lives through
charity and religious conversion, while the friendly Jnn, on South Sharp
street, aims to remove the necessity of free lodgings, with their pauper-
izing tendencies, by granting meals and lodgings in return for work in a
wood yard. Fifteen cents in cash, or an order from some subscriber who
pays the bill, is accepted in place of the labor. During the last fiscal
year 18,669 lodgings were furnished, of which 10,235 were worked out.
Though contrary to the designs of the institution, some forty or fifty
men have hitherto made this their home for the winter. The others
usually remain but a few days, and in the summer the building is nearly
empty. A laundry and free shower baths secure outward cleanliness for
the inmates, and religious meetings are held for their spiritual regenera-
tion. The management of the institution has been improving for some
time, and it seems destined to become the chief factor in the solution of
the tramp question for the city.

THE RELIEF OF WANT AND PREVENTION OF PAUPERISM.

The idle and shiftless pauper, who has given up all effort toward
self-support, and is watchful only for largesses, is everywhere recognized
as a menace to the welfare of society. If he does not himself fall into
dissipation and crime, his children are pretty sure to do so, and the total
‘ effect of his life is to place a brake upon social progress. It is not with-
out justification, then, that the prevention of pauperism is made
co-ordinate with the relief of immediate distress as a leading object of
charitable effort. The rendering of aid to the needy may be prompted
simply by the spirit of humanity, but it is ultimately justified by its
effect in giving strength and courage for renewed effort and higher
attainment. The problem of pure relief, however, is made difficult by
the fact that alms, when carelessly given, do not always strengthen the
recipient, but are quite as likely to weaken his moral nature and induce
him to exchange self-help for parasitism.

This difficulty is now recognized to some extent by all the relief-
giving societies of Maryland, and, while many distributing agencies are
doubtless too careless in their methods, all are at least striving to prevent
pauperism by giving the aid that will be truly helpful.

A leading motive in much of the work already described is the
prevention of pauperism. This is especially true of the Electric Sewing
Machine Rooms, and the other educational charities. The charities
which remain to be treated under this heading fall, for the most part
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 48]

into three groups, having for their main purpose respectively, the secur-
ing of work for the unemployed, the encouragement of provident habits,
and the granting of needed relief. This tlassification leaves the Charity
Organization Society for treatment by itself.

In the first group belongs the Women’s Industrial Hachange, on
Charles street, where any needy woman may enter her work for sale,
subject to the rules of the Exchange. A large business is done in all
kinds of sewing, but the most lucrative branch of work is the cooking.
A lunch room is connected with the exchange, from which the receipts
amounted last year to $6,489, while the receipts in the store exceeded
nineteen thousand dollars.

The Decorative Art Society offers similar advantages for the sale
of meritorious work in the line of painting, designing, and embroidery.
Instruction is given in these branches of art, anda number of free scholar-
ships are granted.

Among the important helps in the prevention of pauperism are the
Employment Bureaus. The private bureaus, which are managed for
profit, deal successfully with applicants who are efficient and have good
recommendations, but the indigent, the inefficient, and the wayward
need more personal attention than the commercial bureaus find profit-
able to bestow, and, as a result, inany fees are paid in vain by those who
are most in need. Only charitable effort can meet this difficulty fully,
and a large number of the societies described in this chapter devote some
attention to finding employment for their beneficiaries. This feature
has been recently introduced by the “ Poor Association,” and the Electric
Sewing Machine Rooms. The German Society, the Young Men’s
Christian Association and the Young Women’s Christian Association
have regular employment bureaus, the last-named society charging fifty
cents to employers only. But the chief agency for finding employment
for the needy is the Charity Organization Society, whose work will be
considered later.

Among the agencies for encouraging provident habits among the
poor, mention should be made of the Thomas Wilson Fuel-Saving
Society, an endowed charity, having for its object: “To encourage those
who have but little money, to lay by small sums during the summer for
the purchase of coal in the winter at reduced rates, and to aid women
in the purchase of sewing machines upon easy terms of payment.”
Payments of any amount above five cents are accepted from eligible
applicants, and when full payment has been made for coal it will be
delivered in loads of one-quarter ton or more, at the rate of five dollars
a ton. Sewing machines are delivered before full payment has been
made, but are subject to recall.

31
482 MARYLAND.

The Provident Savings Bank, though organized upon a paying basis,
was started by charitable people and designed to better the condition of
the poor. The stamp-card system is in use, through which deposits may
be made in amounts as low as five cents. In order to extend the benefits
of the institution, some fifty agencies for the sale of the deposit stamps
have been established, mostly at drug stores; and eleven branch offices,
nine in the city, one at Sparrow’s Point, and one in Cecil county, are
opened at least once a week for withdrawals and the reception of the larger
deposits. At the Central Office, on the corner of Howard and Franklin
streets, a regular savings bank business is done.

Public Outdoor Relief is confined in Baltimore to an appropriation
of $1,000 for the transportation of indigent people to their homes or
friends in other places. Only about three-fourths of this appropriation
was expended last year.

Outside of the city, however, an extensive system of outdoor relief
prevails in the form of Pensions from the County Treasuries. The
rule, in some of the counties at least, is to grant a pension to anyone who
gets five freeholders to certify that he is not able fully to support himself
by his own efforts. According to the reports received from county
officers nearly 2,800 people are receiving these pensions, varying much in
amount, but averaging $17.20 each. Allegany county alone grants no
pensions.

Aside from the free transportation, the nearest approach to public
out-door relief in Baltimore is found in the private contributions dis-
tributed to the poor through the Police Department. Two-thirds (in
value) of the contributions are in cash, but all are distributed in the
form of provisions, fuel and clothing, or of orders upon the dealers in
those supplies. The supplies are dealt out at the police stations on the
orders of the patrolmen, the guaranty against harmful subsidies being
the personal acquaintance of the patrolmen with the poor people upon
their respective beats. During the year 1892, distributions were made in
this way to the amount of $4,516. But during the brief period from
January 1 to March 3, 18938, no less than $16,297 was given out through
this agency.

The exceptionally severe weather of the past winter interrupted
many of the industries, especially the oyster dredging, which usually
employ thousands of men during the winter months. Destitute men
flocked to the city in great numbers, and the resulting distress called
forth an unprecedented wave of charity. In addition to the relief given:
through the Police Department and extra work done by all the relief-
giving societies of the city, eight or nine stations were opened for serving
free soup to the hungry poor. For this purpose the Winter Relief
Association was organized. Eight two-barrel soup caldrons were pur-
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 483

chased and located at five stations, where, within the month from January
16 to February 16, nearly 25,000 gallons of soup were made with a total
cost of $1,316. The soup was served onée a day, and during a part of the
month as many as 6,000 persons were supplied. The number of applicants
was reduced by instituting an investigation of each case, and yvradually
fell away to one hundred and sixty-five on the 16th of February, when
the distribution ceased.

Returning from this special flood of relief to the permanent stream
of charitable effort, we find in Baltimore as many as twenty societies
which, in addition to the church charities, are supplying poor people
with food, fuel and clothing by an annual expenditure of about eighty
thousand dollars.

Of these societies the leading one is the Baltimore Association for
the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, whose origin and purpose
have already been described. The chief work of this association is, at
present, the direct relief of the poor by supplying them with fuel and
groceries. Of the $18,600 thus expended during the last fiscal year, about
$7,400 was spent for fuel, distributed in the winter only, $6,300 for groceries,
provisions, etc., and $4,900 for operating expenses. The association is
supported chiefly and managed by annual subscribers under a thorough
organization. For the better administration of the charity the city is
divided into four districts, in each of which is an office of the association
and a paid agent, who investigates all cases of want reported within his
district, and attends to the distribution of the relief. The agents become
acquainted with the recipients of their charity, and thus not only avoid
much wasteful and harmful giving, but also, to some extent, uplift the
poor by their persona! influence.

In order to increase this element of personal contact, a system of
friendly visiting like that of the Charity Organization Society was
introduced last year; or, rather revived, for in former years the entire
work since intrusted to paid agents was done by volunteer visitors. The
visitors for each district are appointed by the President. The new
system proved especially successful in the northeastern district, where
about twenty visitors, mostly women, are at work, each having about a
dozen families assigned to her care. As in the German system of poor
relief, all the families of a given locality are assigned to one visitor.

The other relief-giving societies must be passed with but few words
concerning each. Nearly all of the first group are religious societies,
and many are denominational, though their charity usually extends
beyond the bounds of the denomination which supports them. A second
group of societies observe the lines of nationality and grant relief to
those who are bound by the ties of a common fatherland or a common
ancestry.
484 MARYLAND.

The Young Catholics’ Friend Society assists several hundred Catholic
children with clothing and instruction, and manages the Dolan Children’s
Aid Asylum.

The Society of St. Vincent de Paul, of Baltimore, is a branch of a
general Roman Catholic organization having its centre in Paris. The
primary object of the society, as stated by its president, is the sanctifi-
cation of its members through sympathetic work in behalf of the needy.
Thirteen conferences of the society are connected with the Catholic
churches of the city, and are actively engaged in visiting and relieving
the poor, and extending the influence of religion over the lives of the
destitute and wayward. One conference is located at Cumberland, Md.,
and under the central council of Baltimore are thirty-three other confer-
ences located at Washington and in the other South Atlantic States.

The Ladies’ Special Relief Association of South Baltimore is doing
an important work in its locality. The poor are visited and given
general relief.

The Order of the Aing’s Daughters has over one hundred circles in
Baltimore and the counties, and nearly all are engaged in some charitable
work.

The Friends’ Lombard Street Benevolent Soctety, an incorporated
society connected with the Park Avenue Meeting, has a visiting committee
of twenty members who work among the poor, giving clothing and other
relief which the Society supplies.

Many similar societies are connected with the different churches in
Baltimore and all parts of the State.

The Society for the Relief of Widows and Orphans of Seamen,
organized in 1827 and incorporated in 1893, is connected with the Sea-
men’s Union Bethel. Twenty-five or thirty needy widows of seamen are
pensioned during the winter months.

The Charitable Marine Society, incorporated in 1796, pensions
needy widows and orphans of deceased members, and relieves members
who have suffered from shipwreck or otherwise.

The Beneficial Association of the Maryland Line grants relief to
ex-Confederate soldiers, according to the discretion of the visiting
committee. The funds for this purpose are derived principally from
annuities purchased with the proceeds of “The Confederate Bazaar,”
held some ten or twelve years ago.*

Many other beneficial societies grant relief to members and their

families.
Intermediate between the religious and the national societies are

the Hebrew organizations,

*The fund derived from this bazaar, amounting at the time to $31,000, is administered by the Army
and Navy Society of the C. 8. A., in the State of Maryland.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 485

The Hebrew Benevolent Society has a membership of seven or eight
hundred annual subscribers, and during the last year expended $21,411 in
various forms of relief for the poor, The city is divided into six
districts, in each of which are three managers who investigate the appli-
cations from their respective neighborhoods. A banquet is held every
year at which large sums are contributed, in addition to the regular
membership dues.

The Hebrew Ladies’ Sewing Society is associated with the preceding
organization, though under entirely distinct management. Clothing,
shoes, and provisions are given in large quantities.

Since July, 1890, over eighteen thousand dollars have been expended
by the Baltimore committee of the Baron de Hirsch Fund for the relief
of Hebrew immigrants. The report of this committee for the ten months
from July, 1892, to May, 1893, is as follows:

 

32 Taught trades and established in business......... ....... cece ee eee $ 631 50
11 Supplied with tools........ 0.0... ccc eck cece cee cen cerecueeeuanaes .... 160 46
40 Supplied with furniture and goods............ 0.0. cc cece cece eee eeees 533 06
889 DranSPOred .vvecsw cece meGgelavhalss sain Mee ween eney Se hee kK a eee cases 2,879 382
To the English night schools...... es tess BAe aids a cetduantia desde se rasa 970 00
Agent’s salary, sundries, and office expaiites aaa RateaSi yoge auc oaae .--. 681 84
otal... cancesan aeeeeeese ches P toadaenvaeanianes sane de “Weincblan ako yal . $5,356 18

The German Society of Maryland is the most distinctively chari-
table as well as the largest of the national societies. Over five thousand
dollars are annually expended in the relief of the poor, and an experienced
agent is employed to administer the charity and investigate all applica-
tions for aid. Relief is given chiefly in the form of money, medical
treatment, or employment. Work was found for three hundred and
thirty-three persons during the last year.

The founders of St. Andrew’s Society, which was organized in 1806,
expressed the motive of the organization in the following language* :

“ When people fall into misfortune in any part of the world, remote
from the place of their nativity, it is natural for them to make their
distress known to those originally from the same country; the presump-
tion in this case is, that the love of the native soil, which is inseparable
from every human breast, will make their countrymen more ready than
others to administer to their relief, and that possibly some may be found
among them with whom they are connected by blood, or who know
something of their relatives.

“For these reasons the natives of Scotland and those descended of
Scotch parentage, in the city of Baltimore, have formed themselves into
a charitable society, the principal design of which is to raise and keep a
sum of money in readiness for the above benevolent purpose.”

 

* Report of St. Andrew’s Society for 1892.
486 MARYLAND.

The saine motive, together with the desire to promote social inter-
course, led to the formation of St. George’s Society of Baltimore, for the
relief of indigent natives of England, Wales and the British colonies;
the Hibernian Society of Baltimore, for the assistance of emigrants
from Ireland; and the Societe Francaise de Bienfaisance de Baltimore,
for the relief of needy French people who may be in the city. St.
Andrew’s Society has perinanent investments valued at $35,616, and the
Hibernian Society, which was founded as early as 1808, has charge of a
fund of $25,000, bequeathed by John Oliver in 1826 for the support of a
free school. The fund is used in maintaining an evening school for boys.

The long list of independent charities working in the same field,
each with but partial regard to the work of the others, suggested the
need of a central organizing bureau where the work of the different
societies might be recorded, duplications and deficiencies revealed, and
the efficacy of all increased. Such was the leading motive in the estab-
lishment, twelve years ago, of the Charity Organization Society; but,
like the associations bearing the same name in other cities, the Charity
Organization Society of Baltimore has developed many lines of beneficent
activity in addition to the work of co-ordinating charities. Under the
head of “objects” we find the following statement in the last annual
report:

The specific objects and methods of the Charity Organization Society shall include:

1. The promotion of cordial co-operation between the municipal authorities, benevo-
lent societies, churches and individuals, thus effectually checking the evils of overlapping
of relief caused by simultaneous but independent action.

2. Such a system of visiting and inquiry as shall insure an accurate knowledge of the
condition of each applicant for relief.

3. A careful system of registration that shall make the results of these inquiries
available to all.

4. The application of correctional influences to all able but unwilling to work; the
placing of all unable to work in institutions or homes; and the counteraction of hereditary
pauperism by wholesome educational influences for the young.

5. The prevention of imposture by duplication or otherwise, and the exposure of
habitual beggars and frauds.

6. Employment or other suitable relief for all deserving applicants.

7. The organization of a body of friendly visitors, who shall, by faithful personal
interest and sympathy, gradually build up habits of industry, saving, and self-control among
the less fortunate, thus preserving and elevating the home.

8. The provision of temporary employment as a work-test, and the promotion of
industrial education.

9. The collection and diffusion of knowledge on all subjects connected with the
administration of charity, and the maintenance of a free library of information on these

subjects.

The equipment for the accomplishment of these objects consists in
(1) a central office, where the general secretary and several assistants are
engaged in the general management of the society, keeping complete
records of all the cases helped by the society or reported from other
societies, and attending to transient applicants for relief; and (2) seven
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 487

branch offices, each of which is a centre of organized personal work in
behalf of the poor within its district. In each district is a paid agent, who
may be found at the district office for consultation during certain hours,
but who spends most of the day in investigating new cases, visiting old
ones and doing whatever he can to secure the true welfare of the poor.
As assistants to the agents there are in all two hundred and forty-three
volunteer visitors, to each of whom is assigned at least one needy family
for his continued personal care. The visitors of each district meet
weekly for discussing the varied questions which arise, and deciding
what action should be taken in individual cases. This board of visitors,
especially its chairman and case committee, oversees the work of the
agent as well as that of the volunteers.

Realizing that careless almsgiving does no more than mollify, and
often even aggravates the evil which it aims to relieve, the Charity
Organization Society asks the co-operation of all charitable people, so
that, after careful investigation, the relief may be made efficient and
adequate. The causes and conditions of distress are found to be so
variable that the form of relief best adapted to the conditions must be
separately decided for each case. Any pressing want, such as the lack of
food, is at once relieved on the first visit of the agent, and then the more
difficult task of removing the cause of the distress is undertaken. In
many cases employment is all that is needed, but more often some
weakness in the character, perhaps merely laziness, has tc be contended
with. Others need industrial training, hospital treatment, legal advice,
or sometimes simply encouragement and sympathy. For supplying the
most of these and countless other needs the personal, active friendship
of the agent and the visitor is the main reliance.*

The Charity Organization Society does not aim to give direct relief
in money or commodities, but a small fund is provided for emergencies,
loans and other cases. When continued financial aid is thought advisable
it is obtained by interesting some charitable individual, church, or society
in the case.

Something of the scope of the Society’s work, as well as its recent
increase, is indicated by the following statistics :

Six months Twelve months

Ending April 1, 1893. Ending Nov. 1, 1892.

Total applications.. ..... 0 0. ..e se eee eee 7,164 7,769
Aid procured for.....-..-..0.++.002 5s . 2,260 2,004
Employment found for......-...-...+..0555 1,055 1,047
Loans made to.....00 cadauesSeteseeceesvas ye AT 56
Transportation obtained for................ 51 V7
Placed in institutions...-.. ..........0.8. 76 125
Impostors exposed... ....6. eee cece cree 176 311
False addresses discovered.............- 05: 191 290
Visits made to the homes of the poor by

friendly visitors and agents............ 8,289 10,935

 

*Both men and women act as volunteer visitors. All but one of the agents are women.
488 MARYLAND.

A new quarterly publication—the Charities Record—is published by
the Society as an exponent of the charitable work of Baltimore.*

Among the relief-giving societies in the counties of Maryland
mention may be made of the Charity Organization Society of Cumber-
land, which has been established during the past year for the more
efficient treatment of dependents and mendicants in that city, and the
Charity Society of Annapolis, which is dealing with the same problems
at the Capital of the State.

MEDICAL AND SANITARY RELIEF.

The special medical and sanitary relief for children has already
been described.

Public activity for the prevention of sickness and disease is chiefly
manifested in the Health Department of the city government. The
principal lines of work undertaken are: (1) the collection of vital
statistics; (2) investigating and abating nuisances dangerous to health ;
(3) the removal of filth; (4) the inspection of plumbing and drains; (5)
the maintenance of a quarantine station and hospital; (6) vaccination
against small-pox; (7) the prevention of the spread of infectious diseases
through isolation and disinfection, and (8) the maintenance of a morgue
and two public cemeteries.

Through the activity of the Baltimore News, aided by the chemists
of Johns Hopkins University, public attention has been called (May,
18938,) to the deficient quality of much of the milk sold in the city, and
the Health Department has undertaken the inspection of milk and dairies
within the city limits.

With this exception the inspection of food products is left to the
State Board of Health. This board is doing valuable work throughout
the State in exposing unsanitary conditions and suggesting the proper
remedies. The inspection of dairies in the suburbs of Baltimore is now
being carried on with vigor. cS

A number of charitable societies are also aiming to improve the
general health of their beneficiaries rather than to cure diseases. For
this purpose the Hree Swmmer Haucursion Society was organized in 1875.
Picnic grounds are owned at Chesterwood, on the Patapsco river, to
which about 15,000 women and childreti are taken each year upon day
excursions. Free bathing privileges and two free meals are supplied.

St. Lukeland is the name of a summer sanitarium near Catonsville,
owned and managed by the Hospital Relief Association. During the last
season seventy-two women and girls were given the advantage of two
weeks of needed rest and recuperation.

 

*The first number is for May, 1893.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 489

The Fresh Air Fund of the Young Women’s Christian Association
assisted one hundred and sixty-nine working girls to a fortnight’s vaca-
tion in the country, or at the seashore, by paying transportation or board ;
and an association of young women, known as the Co-operative Workers,
have provided a summer home where self-supporting girls may enjoy a
two-weeks’ vacation in the mountains at small expense. Vacation Lodge,
the new home owned by this Society, was opened at Blue Ridge Summit
June 8, 1893.

DISPENSARIES AND HOSPITALS.

For the treatment of the sick and injured Baltimore is provided
with twenty-four hospitals and as many dispensaries, and one hospital is
located in Cumberland.

The dispensaries are for the most part simply free out-patient
departments of the hospitals, and need not be mentioned separately. A
number, however, are independent, deriving their support jointly from
contributions, small investments, and city appropriations. To this class
belong the Baltimore General Dispensary, established in 1801, the
Eastern, Northeastern and Southern Dispensaries.

The Homeopathic Dispensary, on Greene street, has been one of
the most active, but is now (June, 1893,) closed. Perhaps the most
progressive of these agencies of relief is the Hvening Dispensary for
Working Women and Girls, on South Charles street, organized and
conducted by women physicians.

At nearly all the dispensaries treatment is given free of charge,
though, nominally, at least, to those only who are unable to pay. To
avoid the pauperizing tendency of free treatment the Johns Hopkins
Dispensary and the Evening Dispensary for Women usually make a charge
of ten cents for treatment, or, as respects the Evening Dispensary, of
twenty-five cents for treatment and prescription. Asa rule, treatment is
given at the dispensaries only, though a number of the organizations
extend their services also to the homes of the indigent sick.

Three of these hospitals are under public control—the United States
Marine Hospital, supported by the federal government for the care of
American seamen; the Quarantine Hospital, supported by the city at the
quarantine station, twelve miles down the bay; and the old quarantine,
or Pest Hospital, which occupies a valuable piece of land four miles from
the city*. The City Council has appropriated $8,000 for the erection of a
steam disinfecting plant at the quarantine station, and also $45,000
($10,000 for the site), for a more available Hospital for the Treatment of
Infectious Diseases.

 

*The medical and surgical department of the Bay View Almshouse constitutes another free
hospital under city control.
490 MARYLAND.

The other hospitals are under private control, though eight of them
are aided by the support of two hundred and seventy-five beds at $3.25
per week on the part of the city, and six of them receive appropriations
from the State. Two are special hospitals for lying-in women, and two
are for the treatment of the eye, ear,and throat only. All the general
hospitals receive both pay and free patients, usually in about equal
numbers. To pay patients the charge, including board, medical attendance
and nursing, ranges from three to thirty-five dollars per week.

Seven of these are connected with the seven medical schools of
Baltimore. The Hospital of Baltimore University and the Maryland
Homeopathic Hospital are explained by their names. The Hospital of
the Good Samaritan is connected with the Woman’s Medical College,
and the Maryland General Hospital with the Baltimore Medical
College.

The Maryland University Hospital, on Lombard street, was estab-
lished in 1823,and has maintained a training school for nurses since
1889. Under the same university is a free lying-in hospital, with a
training school for nurses in obstetrics.

The City Hospital, on Calvert street, is connected with the College
of Physicians and Surgeons, though it is owned and managed by the
Sisters of Mercy. One hundred free beds are supported by the city, and
they, with about as many others, are always full. Many accident cases
are received from the railways and factories, and the dispensary is open
day and night for their treatment.

Much more might well be said concerning the good work of these
hospitals, but a wider interest attaches to the one which we come to
next—the Johns Hopkins Hospital, doubtless, upon the whole, the
leading institution of the kind in America. Mr. Henry C. Burdett, in
his great work upon the Hospitals and Asylums of the World,* introduces
a detailed description of this institution with the following words:
“Seldom, if ever, has a hospital been started on its career of usefulness
with such deliberate care, such wise forethought, such self-sacrificing
search after the best way, as have been devoted to the institution now to
be described.” The income from the endowment (the endowment now
amounts to about three and one-third millions of dollars) was placed at
the disposal of the trustees in 1873, and their activity began at once.
Several years were devoted to perfecting the plan, and the utmost care
was given to every detail of the construction, so that when the institution
was opened in 1889 Dr. J. S. Billings, of the United States Army, who had
made a special study of European hospitals, was able to affirm that in
regard to construction these were “the best built buildings of their kind
in the world.’ The hospital occupies four squares, covering about

 

* London, 1893, vol. 1V, page 150.
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CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. : 491

fourteen acres, upon an elevated site in the eastern part of the city. It
is built upon the pavilion system, the complete plan calling for twenty-
five buildings, of which nineteen have been completed. The system of
ventilating and heating is especially perfect, and something of its mag-
nitude is shown by the total length of the piping in the buildings, which
is said to be over sixty miles. The heating is done by warm water
radiators, through which the incoming air passes, so that the temperature
of this air may be regulated at will without changing its volume. A
constant flow of fresh air to the amount of about one cubic foot per
second for each individual occupying a ward is maintained in all
conditions of the weather. The registers are so arranged that the
current of air never passes from one bed to another, but directly from
each bed to a ventilator located underneath or in a central shaft. An
account of the special features of the construction, many of which have
been worked out with great care, fills many pages of the large quarto
description published by the trustees of the hospital, and constitutes a
valuable guide to those who are preparing plans for such buildings.

The fifty-eight private rooms for pay patients are nearly always
occupied, and the free wards contain an average of about one hundred
and twelve patients. The total number under treatment in the hospital
last year was 1,970, while the out-patient department prescribed for

41,114 others.
The nursing is well organized, with a superintendent, eleven head

nurses and forty-four pupils. The training-school for nurses is especially
eflicient. The instruction extends over a period of two years, and
embraces a course of six weeks in the art of cooking.

The Johns Hopkins Hospital, though upon an independent foundation,
is closely connected with the Johns Hopkins University, and fosters the
same spirit of research and maintains the same high standard of attain-
ment for which the University is noted. No pains have been spared in
securing an able staff of physicians, and the advancement of medical
science is an object constantly held in view.

The educational work of the hospital will soon be greatly increased
by the opening of the Medical School of the Jolins Hopkins University,
of which it was designed to become a part.

The other hospitals of Baltimore are not connected with educational
institutions, direct medical relief being the motive for their establish-
ment. The largest hospitals of this class are the St. Agnes’ Sanitarium,
just outside the city to the southwest, where patients suffering from
alcoholism, as wellas from other complaints, are treated; and St. Joseph’s
Hospital, on Caroline street. Both are owned and managed by Catholic
Sisters, the former by the Sisters of Charity, the latter by the Third
Order of the Sisters of St. Francis.
492 MARYLAND.

The Hospital for the Women of Maryland was established in 1882
by an association of women, which continues in control with an active
membership of thirty-three. Skilled surgeons are in charge, and much
good work has been done in alleviating the sufferings of women. A free
dispensary is connected with the hospital.

The Union Protestant Infirmary is also managed by a board of
charitable women, and derives its support from investments, board of
pay patients, and annual subscriptions.

The remaining hospitals supply a home for incurables as well as
temporary treatment for acute cases. The Church Home and Infirmary,
on Broadway, occupies a commanding position, overlooking the harbor
and city. The interior is nicely fitted up with many memorial rooms
and beds supported by individual churches of the Protestant Episcopal
denomination. Upon the first of February there were seventy-seven
inmates, of whom forty-four were supported by the church, twenty-eight
were pay patients, and five were free. According to the last printed
report forty-four remained in the hospital during the entire year.

The Hebrew Hospital and Asylum, situated opposite the Johns
Hopkins Hospital, is a well conducted institution reporting, upon the
first of January, twenty-two inmates in the Hospital and the same
number in the asylum. The Hebrew population of the city are careful
to support their own poor, and the asylum department of this institution
constitute the Hebrew home for the aged and infirm.

At the Home for Incurables, on Twenty-first street, only women who
are without hope of recovery are received. It is conducted like a home
for the aged, an admission fee of two hundred dollars being charged.

The Home and Infirmary of Western Maryland, located at Cumber-
land, has nine permanent inmates under the regulations of a home for
the aged. The work of the hospital department is increasing. At the
time reported ten patients were in the infirmary for treatment. In
October, 1892, a new building was opened, toward which the State Legis-
lature appropriated $10,000.

OTHER RELIEF FOR THE SICK.

Several societies have been organized as aids to the work of the
hospitals. The Hospital Saturday and Sunday Association, by means
of special collections in churches and business places, raises about $2,000
annually for the support of free beds in hospitals. The Hospital Relief
Association, of Maryland, carries on a varied work, with the general
purpose of making life more agreeable to the unfortunate inmates of the
hospitals. The seven standing committees are on books, pictures, visit-
ing and delicacies, flowers, first aid to injured, the press, and music,
respectively. To the activity of this Association are due the Home for
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 493

Incurables, the Hospital Saturday and Sunday Association, and the St.
Lukeland Sanitarium.

The Hospital Clothing Club is composgd of about fifty members
who contribute their services aud money for supplying needed garments
to the indigent sick in hospitals.

For work outside of hospitals the /ndigent Sick Society was organ-
ized, according to the Baltimore Charities Directory, some seventy years
ago, and in 1890, four hundred and seven sick persons were relieved, with
small sums of money or otherwise. The Hebrew Young Men’s Sick
Relief Association is explained by its name. Relief is given mainly by
gifts and loans.

The Mothers’ Branch of the Young Women’s Christian Association
provides assistance, including nursing and medical attendance, for needy
women in confinement. Free nursing, outside of institutions, is also
done by the sisters of the Convent of Bon Secours, the deaconesses of the
Methodist Deaconess Home, a nurse connected with the Evening Dispen-
sary for Women, and, during the summer, the nurses employed by the
Thomas Wilson Sanitarium, as well as by other agencies less generally
known.

Outside of Baltimore, and aside from the Home and Infirmary of
Western Maryland, the most thoroughly organized association for the
relief of the sick, is the Hospital Club, of Annapolis, composed of women,
organized under the direction of the Rector of St. Anne’s Parish. Bedding,
clothing, invalid chairs and other appliances for the sick-room are kept
in store, and supplied to those in need, together with medical attendance,
nursing, and other forms of relief.

HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE,

For the care of the insane, Maryland at present has but one State
institution, but public opinion favors State care for the insane, and the
crowded condition of the existing institutions, especially of the city
asylum, lends an added force which will probably soon result in the
building of more State hospitals.

Of the 1,816 insane patients reported in the institutions of Maryland
on the 30th of June,* 1892, 427 were in the State hospital, 371 in the city
hospital (Bayview), 249 in county hospitals, including Montevue and
Bellevue, 139 in county almshouses, and 630 in private institutions.

Each public patient, even those in the State hospital, is maintained
at the expense of the county (or city, in case of Baltimore), from which
the patient comes. Many of these county patients are treated in the
private asylum at Mount Hope, while others are cared for in the four
county institutions which have been granted licenses by the Lunacy

 

*In some cases other more recent dates had to be taken instead of June 30.
494 MARYLAND.

Commission permitting them to receive pay patients. The uniform rate
paid for public patients is one hundred and fifty dollars per year.

General supervision of all institutions which care for the insane is
vested in a State Lunacy Commission appointed by the Governor. Every
almshouse or hospital in which the insane are kept must be visited at
least once every six months. The commission has full power of examina-
tion, and all cases of supposed cruelty, neglect, or unjustifiable detention
are investigated and acted upon. A statute requires that every inmate
of an asylum have full liberty to correspond with the Lunacy Commis-
sion once each month. The annual report of the commission gives a
brief account of the condition of each institution, together with statistical
tables from the principal hospitals.

The Maryland Hospital for the Insane grew out of a general hospital
which was founded before the close of the last century, occupying the
present site of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. It has been devoted to the
care of the insane since 1840, and has occupied the present location,
known as Spring Grove, near Catonsville, since 1872. The building is a
handsome, well arranged structure of Maryland granite. The eighteen
wards permit classification and promotion. Careful attendance takes
the place of physical restraint, and employment is given to divert the
mind. The last report of the Board of Managers states that “ Atter the
contemplated improvements have been completed, for which the last
session of the Legislature made appropriations, we doubt if there will
be any better equipped institution in the country.” Of the four hundred
and twenty-seven patients under treatment upon the 31st of October,
1892, twenty-nine were private patients, one hundred and forty-seven
were supported by Baltimore City, and two hundred and fifty-one by the
various counties. The managers of the hospital are appointed by the
State governor, and an annual appropriation on the part of the State
supplements the fee of one hundred and fifty dollars a patient paid by
the counties and city.

The largest of the hospitals for the insane, Mownt Hope Retreat, is
under private management, being owned and conducted by the Sisters of
Charity of St. Joseph’s. The five-story brick building occupies a beautiful
eminence five or six miles northwest of Baltimore. The institution is
highly praised for its general management, and especially for the care
taken to divert the minds of the patients by agreeable employments and
amusements. That the Retreat bas a national reputation is indicated
by the fact that about one-third the inmates come from outside the State.
About one-half are public patients committed, for the most part, from
Baltimore city. In addition to the insane patients, some ten or twelve
persons are usually under treatment for inebriety.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 495

Another notable institution for the insane is the Sheppard Asylum,
excepting the Johns Hopkins Hospital, the most costly charitable insti-
tution in the State, and unique among Amerjcan Hospitals for the Insane
in being founded and endowed by the charity of one individual. Moses
Sheppard organized the board of trustees in 1853, and at his death, in
1857, bequeathed to them his estate, amounting to $567,632. From the
income of this fund the asylum has been built at a total expense of over
a million dollars, while the endowment itself has increased to $669,154.
The founder “expressed the wish that the experiment might be tried to
ascertain kow much good would result from an unlimited amount of
attention to everything that could possibly alleviate the condition of the
insane.”’* The trustees proceeded with care, and it was not till November,
1891, that the hospital was opened for the reception of patients. Fifty-
three were treated during the first year, all but two of whom were charged
for board in full or in part. Advancement in the treatment of the insane
is the central purpose in the management of the institution. Asin Mount
Hope Retreat, a training-school, with regular lectures and demonstrations,
is provided for the instruction of the nurses.

Two other private hospitals may be mentioned here as treating the
insane, though they are not managed as charities—the Matley Hill
Sanitarium, at Relay Station, reporting twenty-four inmates, and the
Richard Gundry Home, with seventeen inmates, at Catonsville.

Two of the counties support hospitals for the insane, independent
of the almshouses in respect to their accounts and superintendency,
though managed by the same board of county commissioners. Sylvan
Retreat, near Cumberland, reports sixty inmates. In addition to the
indigent insane of Allegany county, a number of pay patients are under
treatment, and a few inmates are supported by other counties. The Cecil
County Insane Asylum is located at Cherry Hill, two and a-half miles
from Elkton, and, like Sylvan Retreat, is built upon the county poor
farm. Twenty-seven inmates are reported.

The Baltimore City Insane Hospital, and two other county hospitals
for the insane, are constituent departments of the almshouses, and will
be considered in the following section:

ALMSHOUSES.

In spite of the many lines of effort in their behalf, large numbers of
incapable people fall back upon the State for support and find shelter in
the public almshouses.

The aggregate average number of inmates of these institutions in
Maryland, according to the reports received last year, is two thousand
one hundred and eleven.

 

* Announcement of the Sheppard Asylum, 1891.
496 MARYLAND.

Of this number, one thousand two hundred and eighty-eight must be
assigned to the great city almshouse, known as Bayview Asylum, the
largest institution that comes within the scope of this chapter.

The buildings and farm have a favorable location just outside the
city to the east. The institution is composite in its nature, comprising
a large hospital for the insane, a home for the infirm and aged, a hospital
for medical and surgical cases, and a shelter for vagrants.

Admissions to the almshouse are obtained from the purveyor,* who
has an office at the City Hall. Every day brings its allotment of needy
and afflicted applicants. During the busy season of the year, medical
treatment is most often required, and for this, applicants are assigned to
the city beds in the subsidized hospitals as well as to the almshouse;
but when the cold weather renders it more difficult to obtain an
independent living, great numbers of incompetent and improvident men
apply for protection from cold and hunger. The number of inmates is
at present increasing from year to year. In 1876 the daily average
population in all departments was seven hundred and ninety-three; in
1883, seven hundred and ninety-seven; in 1884, seven hundred and twenty,
in 1885, eight hundred and seventy-three; in 1889, one thousand and sixty-
eight; in 1891, one thousand one hundred and forty-one; in 1892, one
thousand two hundred and eighty-eight. The largest number ever
sheltered in the almshouse at one time was during the past winter. On
the 380th of January, 1898, one thousand eight hundred and fifty-four
inmates were reported, of whom one thousand two hundred and ninety-
seven were white men; three hundred and thirty-two white women ;
one hundred and twelve colored men; ninety-eight colored women, and
fifteen were children (imbeciles, epileptics, and infants). Out of this
number one thousand five hundred and eighty-one were reported as
“under medical treatment,” two hundred and sixty-three were employed
in the various departments of the household, and ten were boarders.

The report for May 8, 1893, shows that the number of white men in
the almshouse was 697 less than it was upon the 30th of January, while
all the other numbers remained about the same. The regulations of the
institution require that all inmates “ who may be in a condition to labor
shall be kept at some suitable employment.” This rule is fairly well
enforced in the summer and autumn, but with the present equipment it is
not found feasible to give employment to the men who throng the house
during the winter months. Of the permanent inmates about 400} are over
sixty years of age, and about 375 are insane. During the last year 1,864
medical cases and 1,127 surgical cases were treated in the hospital wards,

 

* People arrested for vagrancy are sometimes committed to the Almshouse for a definite time, but
no means are provided for the prevention of escape.
+ Estimated by the superintendent.
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION. 497

while many others were prescribed for in a dispensary connected with
the institution. The medical and surgical department is under the control
of the College of Physicians and Surgeong and the Maryland University,
and the medical treatment in the department for the insane is under the
management of the Medical School of Johns Hopkins University.

It is apparent to the trustees of the poor, as well as to others who
have taken an interest in the matter, that the hospital for the treatment
of the insane should be entirely distinct from the almshouse in order
that the whole system of management may be founded upon different
principles in the two institutions. Some change in this direction will
doubtless be brought about in the near future, but whether the State or
the city will take the initiative is not yet apparent. Meanwhile the
department for the insane is being managed as well as the meagre
equipment allows. The whole institution is kept in good order, and
aside from the lack of work for the winter residents, the management
receives quite general praise. The annual cost of maintaining the
institution is from seventy-two dollars to eighty dollars per capita.

All but three of the twenty-three counties of Maryland have pro-
vided County Almshouses for the care of the indigent, though, as already
stated, a much larger number of poor people are given partial support
through pensions from the county treasuries.

In some counties the poor relief is managed directly by the Board
of County Commissioners, while in others Trustees of the Poor are
appointed. In all the almshouses good management is stimulated by
the regular visits of the Grand Juries, the Lunacy Commission and the
Prisoners’ Aid Association. Though many features are still subject to
improvement, the more gross abuses have been abolished, the sexes have
been separated, the rooms are usually kept fairly neat and comfortable,
and a State law, which is now well enforced, provides that no capable
child over three years of age shall be kept in an almshouse for a longer
period than ninety days. A few chronic cases of insanity are sheltered
in nearly all the almshouses, but acute cases are taken to hospitals for
curative treatment.

As previously stated, two of the counties have provided separate
institutions for the insane. ‘I'wo others, while placing the insane under
the same management as the paupers, have made special permission for
their treatment, and have been licensed by the Lunacy Commission to
receive insane persons from other counties for pay.

Montevue Hospital, the Frederick County almshouse, is the leading
county institution for the insane. The superintendent reports two
hundred and twenty-eight inmates, of whom one hundred and twenty-
four are insane. Fifty-eight are maintained at the expense of fourteen
other counties, and five are detained for the State Penitentiary.

32
498 MARYLAND.

The Washington County Almshouse, known as the Bellevue Asylum,
returns seventy inmates, of whom thirty-eight are insane. The building
is well constructed from a sanitary point of view, and the inmates, as in
Montevue Hospital, are kept employed.

Among the other almshouses which are especially well constructed
and managed, mention may be made of those of Cecil, Harford, Talbot
and Baltimore counties. In Kent county the large county farm of 300
acres is placed under separate management, so that the superintendent
of the almshouse may give his entire attention to the buildings and
inmates.

HOMES FOR THE AGED.

It is generally thought that shelters for paupers and tramps may be
made too inviting, especially by the absence of compulsory labor, but all
are glad to see the aged and infirm passing their last years amid the
countorts of a pleasant home, though ill-fortune may have deprived them
of property and of supporting relatives.

For such people ten homes are provided by private charity, aided in
many cases by public appropriations. Two of the homes included in
this number have no age limit, and will, therefore, receive our attention
first.

The Maryland Line Confederate Soldiers’ Home occupies a beautiful
site at Pikesville, Baltimore county. The building was formerly a United
States arsenal, donated by the federal government to the State, and by
the State to the Association of the Maryland Line for the purpose of a
home for needy, infirm ex-Confederate soldiers. The inmates number
seventy-five.

Eleven aged women ace given unusually pleasant surroundings in the
Home for Confederate Widows and Mothers, on St. Paul street.

In respect to the number provided for, the leading home for the
aged of Maryland is that supported by the Little Sisters of the Poor, on
Preston and Valley streets. It is a strivtly charitable institution. Only
those are received who are indigent, worthy and over sixty years of age,
and no admission fee is required. The large buildings, accommodating
three hundred inmates, are always full and applications are made some
time in advance of admission. The rooms are kept in the best order
and all the surroundings are comfortable. The support of the home is
derived largely from the donation of supplies by dealers and others, from
whom the sisters solicit help.

The Little Sisters of the Poor were organized in France, about the
year 1840. The Mother House, where all the sisters have resided for
their novitiate, is at St. Servan, in Lower Brittany. Over four thousand
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION, 499

sisters have been sent out to care for the aged poor in all parts of the
world. The community in Baltimore numbers seventeen.

The other Maryland homes for the aged are under Protestant manage-
ment. All are well conducted and provide many of the advantages of
family life. As a rule, each inmate has a room by himself. Only
agreeable people sixty years or more of age are received, and an admis-
sion fee is required, varying, in respect to the homes for white people,
from three hundred dollars to one hundred and fifty dollars, according to
the age of the applicant.* The homes for colored people receive a
uniform fee of one hundred dollars. It is usually required also that any
pension or further property belonging to the inmate, or falling to him,
shall be given up to the home. In many cases the fees are paid by
churches or friends of the applicants.

The oldest institution of this kind is the Aged Women’s Home, on
west Lexington street. It is managed by the Baltimore Humane Impar-
tial Society, which was organized for the care of widows and orphans, in
1802, though the home was not established till 1850. In 1864, the
building was enlarged, and the Aged Men’s Home was opened by the
same society.

The Home of the Aged of the Methodist Episcopal Church, on
Fulton avenue, provides a pleasant home for fifty-five inmates, all but
five of whom are women. It was founded in 1867.

The Allgemeine Deutsche Greisenheimat occupies a fine, well-kept
building on West Baltimore street. Both men and women are received,
and one married couple is provided for.

The Shelter for Aged and Infirm Colored Persons, on west Biddle
street, is managed by an association of white subscribers. Thirty-two
colored women occupy the home.

The Aged Men and Women’s Home provides a comfortable shelter
for fifteen colored people in South Baltimore. The management was
reorganized last year and placed in the hands of the nine Colored
Methodist Churches of Baltimore. Each church supports the home for
one month at a time.

The youngest and one of the most carefully organized of the
Maryland institutions of this class is the Hume for the Aged, opened at
Frederick October 26, 1892. All fees and donations in sums exceeding
one hundred dollars are added to the endowment fund, but inmates have
for their own use the interest of all money donated by them in excess of
their admission fees.

Thus we have followed the wards of the public from the foundling
hospital and the orphanage, through the many variations of dependency

 

* The Lexington street homes make an extra charge for admissions from outside the city.
+ Baltimore Directory of Charities.
500 MARYLAND.

and delinquency, to the institutions and homes which provide a shelter
for their declining years, but charity has not completed its work even
when death releases the soul from want. Something of the ancient fear
of remaining unburied seems to survive in the modern aversion to the
potter’s field. This general sentiment causes many a hard-earned dollar
to be stored away, but more often causes a debt to be contracted, which
results in financial distress, or even pauperism, for the surviving widow
or mother. Nearly all the charitable institutions make provision for the
burial of inmates, private charity often supplies the bereaved with the
needed funds, and the Hebrew Free Burial Association relieves the Jewish
population from this form of distress. In a few cases where friends of a
deceased person can only pay fora grave, the city gives free burial in
any cemetery, yet each year from five to six hundred bodies are buried
by the Health Department in the two public cemeteries—one upon the
eastern and one upon the western outskirts of the city. A wooden slab
marks the grave, and a carefully kept record preserves its identity.

But while the relationship of Charity to the individual ends with
this sad picture, let it not be imagined that her beneficiaries usually
remain dependent ta the end. At each stage of the earlier development
children, men and women are being rescued from destitution and degra-
dation, and restored to the ranks of happy, useful, independent life.
Many preventive measures are still to be inaugurated, and better organiza-
tion will render the curative work more effective ; but in the great fund
of charitable effort and purpose, the manifestations of which have been
partly portrayed in this chapter, lies the promise of indefinite social
improvement.
PAGES.
Academy of Sciences. ...... Sabai caihniy i nays 428
Agricultural Colleges ..............2.005 428
AGRICULTURE: cccsagsacieees ssa sant 154
Alleghany Mountains... .......... ....85 17
AIMShOUSES:scenw seeee's -<dieie nie saeed 495

Amnapolis ...........-7, 8, 9, 47, 856, 366, 441
Annapolis & Baltimore Short Line R. R. .321

ADUMONY. «652 sont onenanan enya . 148
Appalachian Region.................5 11, 12
TOpPOStaphy vies pewey deg yee agers 16
Water Powers: .ccsas cued ae 5eyaens 53
Geology insane: ak oveseiewkend ses aoe 67
Ark and Dove... ccc cece cece cece teeeees 2
ASDOBEOS a isissescsnochsncugetia ones oor tiecnncacyinheaecalave 147
ASSOMDLYs 32.2 iadadaa chsawadeiwors 38, 5, 881
AVAIOW. contreewacad oehcductuse ae Aear ves 1
BaltiMORE ecuciuweegetec saeee ees 7, 814, 360
Defence Of ss sa.. aevene weeny esas 9, 10
TWGUS HTC Se eeicden ser ueeaw an cee 340
Water “Supply: sence? soled ccubinde cd acces AY
CHMATE cicae Aeeetee cates 35, 164, 220
THadéecc ssi passe see 313, 817, 321
Populations, 5.55 saccsewees rane oa 434
Baltimore & Lehigh R.R.............--- 821
Baltimore, Lords, see Calvert.
Baltimore Medical College.... .......... 425
Baltimore & Ohio R. R.........- 10, 320, 353
Baltimore & Potomac R. R......... ..-- 821
Bankin ge. isp apacsee sateeoge teat eee 342
BaptistvChureheccsks oeeesee. geaeea cand 401
Barleyiu: ccvecessuas cure ecgeepeaaa cen aes 162
Battle Monument... ......0... 6. cece eee 10
Bay Mackerel... .csesada maga s. Go ae 251
Belair picnr yeas it nar hue pies Gaaaneeede 358
Bladensburg, Battle of.... ...- .... ------ 9
Blue: Ridges.ce. cease eitaa ene, cerned 17
BODY. s0+sasa dosidieawe vikeas suena? 218
Botindarles:. « sassacie eagecesecsas overs 1
Boy’s and Girl’s Homes...... 0 .....--- 462
Brass Founding................ cece ee eee 347
Bricks sia .xiticiemes ace 75, 148, 348, 353
Brunswick, cass csccieas ay gees eae aeibies a 355
Buckwheatin. wis caisons eneevsadaasseavas 162

 

PAGES

Calvert, C6CiitSy cccccg acca near e aces 1
Calvert, Charles 4. cca cindrsicninnce nies 5, 6, 7
Calvert, Frederick: 1.0 cc eset gain earscdencaae 7
Calvert; George, occ son sameeren tamed 1
Calvert; Leonard, « « seae ace eavewes 2,3
Calvert; Philip: cgs04 vaceeesesem eee ceed
CAMB Ge: i ccrganie sane gosaeayeen ee 356, 375
Canning Industry. ....175, 178, 259, 308, 343
CANTO is WEAR de Rese eda nek AAA OM 350
Catoctin Mountains.... 1... ..-.....00.05- 17
Catonsville: cAcciu. a aciyenieteccat ns 48, 377
Cattle. cs. a4 re aiGaidnamiasae nates 3 180, 216
Cementi.. gases. “c¢eed abs: ee seus yamenira 189
Cemeteriess+:4 eecvee savarag sia doraninien 409
Centrevilléveccecexd: gin neaiedenies aanis 48
CeTeals: seenude cin fccgeersuanweee oes . 162
Charcoal Clabes icici ccacccce ean aes eSpere 430
CHARITIES AND CORRECTION ... ...- «+ 448
Charitable Associations............. 483, 492
Chartetcas csadcned stash eke saa abana 1
Chesapeake Bay............0.28 ee 14, 265
Chestertowits te, 2iscgoaieaweamna awe 48, 357, 377
Children’s Asylums...... 6. 26. .sseeeeee 449
Children’s Hospitals. ... . ....... 464
Chrome... ..... {Rae a ede Was gaa eS 120
CHURCHES AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 393
CITIES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS......-... 359
Clay tease cgencnciagterees 75, 148, 145, 353
Climate vasciew samen e ua eewradiinene 18, 164, 220
Clubs Asoiece vAcaueer's...dusdac San seamen nas 365
O0alnwiinice wecereiese bee ke oa osaeens 91, 352
Coastal, Plain.,.cstixcexs oteayeens Gane 12, 18
GeolOg yi tecg se evene weet yEet 73
College of Dental Surgery..... .......-. 426
College of Pharmacy.............25 -05- 426
College of Physicians and Surgeons...... 425
CoMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION ....- 318
Commercial Organizations .. .......... 351
Convention ces cceeaekad vos Sebeede ses 8
Cotton, DUCKiccics upeewesene eens 349, 351
Council of Safety. .......... 0. cece eee eee 8
GRADS: wis tie ang ee ens cate pea eer ued 255
CGrisfield ss ous cans veaewa sar ....807, 308, 358
Cumberland............ 49, 382, 352, 369, 441
 

502 INDEX

PAGES PAGES
Curtis’ Baye wise sastelni oa tasdyaaasineds bee 900) | HORE cenmiusarad Robie dndhiay catia caannees 217
Homes for the Aged ........... eee eee 498
Dairy Parming sia, cocoa Raegagseeteti< L7G. LOTSES ssc sini sic eee siars. wget ce eiatacees 213
Declaration of Independence..... ........ 9) | Hospitalss.cscecusecdaiwanasenan soe 489, 493

Diatomaceous Earth ......... 81, 91, 148, 201
DISPENSaTless.a sc caasrae ove Grew eas 425, 489 | Immigrants............... 00.0202 433, 444
District of Columbia.... .........-.....055 Q} |) LIGIANG), 2.c5 sucas 4 5 anablany Gun ndisaceersath er ce 3, 5
Dradinageec. i0.0 cen wade weneies 14, 16,18 | Infusorial Earth.............. 81, 91, 148, 201
DUCES, Wald ic sacctina ay ere gwenesewins : 285 | Insane Asylums......... 0. .... ce ee eee 493
Tron IMdUstry seis cesses ope eer 100, 344

Hastern-Shores.; sa.se ssa¢asesuvene tw 14
FOrMin@icceras dagned a4 wes ee sAGO | MWS: cctnad singe oc8eceetesd sees Selene 401
DOM Bic. 2. lune ce hetdineunieny Beas & 192, 210 | Johns Hopkins University... .........-. 415

NPAGEReocidiiee® cabsaualeouae iain 336
Population... ............-.... 436, 440 | Kent Island........ 22. cece eee ee ee 2,3
HastON s ween pnccusexacgews cesar 49, 356, 876 | Key, Francis Scott.............25 seers 10

EDUCATION 2 gcc asc dale cee agues . 411
Educational Charities ................... 466 | Land Animals... ...........ce cere eens 235
HNKGON cco S 2 yess Seba & Sonndeees 857,377 | Latrobe; By A .iaceccosnscagexeswee Sars 247
Elhcott: Citys s +2 sadsstende sey gee cee P27 BOS: | WGA sccissistinde teed ane ae seORa Oe MOEA 147
Enoch Pratt Free Library............... 429 ; Limestone ......... 06. eee e cece eee ees 134
IVE StO Ces eat) ene a G8 48 08 there ns eeees 212
PertiliZers:. ccaenawontnctay ngewe sanmminnds 845 | Loyola College..... 0... 6. cece cece eee 420
HIMANCE? 422 crets eka Roars Wade 383:.| hutibel scx cevea a Guliteauetunigees eyed 346, 352

Mirebricks wavs cca. Gen apewes 144, 3853
FISH AND FISHERIES...... .. ...... 20, 239 | Manganese. sxi-ccges sie scene agsvces oe aie 148
Flagand Seal. sens eos vee yeaa eas deutee 391 | MANUFACTURES......... 0.00. cce eee eee 339
Bi tiscee Sadi te Sereanere dieedcareee aban TAG? | MAL DNC, 5 cassie Jonas Scale. gov Sr Sard odenacennce ve? 134, 187
WI OTA se nsacie astibapne taro see apt e) Wau 218 | Market Gardening.......... 0 .....-. 172
BlOur Millay: ios sek Vpetdeaarssaunens 08451) MAP: coceauunes abvorecind ahennadont 149
HORCBtB ewe wehan 24 sap emaaeaninn y shat gauge 221 | Maryland Historical Society............ 428
Fort MCHenny icin nnda dc eins s pg woasans 9 | Maryland Institute. ................ 008 427
Fossilsice cilacs wy kague oweionss 45, 77, 79, 81 | Maryland Line. ........ 0. ccc ee ee eee eee 9
Frederick City ............ 7, 49, 855, 374, 441 | Maryland Seal and Flag .... ......... 4, 391
Pree: SCHOOM§.,5. 4255 sao ees Meee A dna auasete 7 | Maryland Steel Company..... . .......- 110
PTICNO Se 67s icicaeinuvians eaters ne aaa 400 | Mason and Dixon’s Line.. .. ..... ...... 8
HTPOStbUES <.2c5 occu sa iwneeewee wae Ae 49, 875 | Mechanicstown....... 0.0.00. 0 ce cee e eee 50
FTUItS es. ch thais sundae eed 171,176, 177, 178 | Medical and Chirurgical Faculty......... 424
PUINIUUTC: vucgnsdas Yexsan eek soem Nee 346 | Medical and Sanitary Relief -488
Medical Climatology..............00. 0005 40
Geological History.............. .....00. 8bi.| Menhad ene 25.08 vrscdatee wate eure ie 247
GHOLOGYacuioaw aucematin an awaeta wxees 55 | Methodist Church....................05. 397
German Churchesiiscisv avs gpm eaiialinain ADO) | MiGaiea: < 6c tices tana tnew Wis eas eamaernibanes 148
Glass*sand. nic eceeey eye eapeceen seers 147, 149° | Mimeral Watersico. as cc .c0cgeg0% ak andes 150
QrelsBy oe seons poe thas yells “seme os ais 128 | Mines AND MINERALS.........- 0.00000. 89
GOld sis cactivaie dimes Packer ab tigers baeids 122 |) Molybdenuitias cicess- 2ibeed>  Seudietnet 148
GOVEINMONt:s 1c:.2 5 wae eee eek 25, 880 | Mountains....... 2.0... 2.0... 17, 18, 57, 68
GYaRlb6isicwiacusaanus ae eyewear 124 | Mount St. Mary’s College.... ..... ..... 419
Graphite ocnyauinmssehas cadagcedeyeeeh 148: | Mullesisaiwc Gicks-seanseieewee aay mention’ 216
Hagerstown. .. ....... 49, 3384, 354, 872, 441 | Native Plants............ 0... cases 221
Havre de Grace.................. 49, 356, 8375 | NATURAL HIsToRY..:......-.--0.02 ee eee 218
HISTORICAL SKETCH. ..... 0. cee cess eee eee | SNGBEOCR. ic4o004 cae eee patenle aa eamiadigs 441
INDEX. 5038
PAGER PAGES.
New Mercantile Library................. 429 | Salisbury.... 02... cece eee e eee 50, 357, 376
New Windsor College.... ...... ....... A200) DAN ces. eg derenbawneealgeaten di ieee 75, 147, 149
Nicholson, Francis....... ....... 0... Wall | SADISt OMS accaceecss scouediee tesa ee pees 129
North Point, Battle of.......... 0... 0.0... 10°} Séal-of Maryland. + gsssesscs¢sacetaca Sonos 4
Northern Central Maryland. Serpentinens vs cyeasca wang daccasioon “evade 141
Farming yeas xnasaner ee center 158, 165 | Severn, Battle at ... 0... 002. 1. wees eee 5
Boilsi iv. eeaseh seeeg Rha. 7B, 192, L94: | SNA) cee acoiee Oh p68 exe d aa hee aca dase seem 239
Northern Central Railway............... 820 | Sharpe, Horatio ......0 co... cee eee ce eee 7
BHEEDy. siienahinae ebeawiums aaa yids gene 216
Oats. .162 | Shipbuilding. ............... sceeeee cee 845
OCHO 4. ctatiine. dune Se Share ee na ade aelgaeccens TAT | Slater esas ngunigiion, ax aiwadeye Casares 40% 183
OFphanagessee. 2ciesideewvad Gaveeedss das 453") ‘SOAPStONG: asaeecw ne odivw- easy aa'es eas 142
Out-door Relief....... 2.0.0 6. cee eee, 482 | Sous scsicgee 2yexeexgeerss .. 181, 186, 1938
OYSTER AND OysTER INDUSTRY.... 264 Analyses...... 188, 192, 201, 202, 203, 208
Southern Homeopathic College.......... 425
Paleontology........... & dinate 75, 77, 79, 81 | Southern Maryland.
Peabody Institute........ 0. cc... cea ee 426 Parmin Sssinvacase Gaon oe4 159, 165, 200
Peaches......... POaTuRGtA caer 176, 177, 197 SOUS) cuca eee 188, 192, 199, 208
Peggy Stewart, The....... 0.0.00... 0 cease 8 Poépulation...c.cscee dic'sien 437, 489, 440
Penny Williain saicitis iss: ot edesaas ncaa 6 | Sparrow's Point ........... 0 .....- 110, 377
Phila., Wilmington & Baltimore R. R....321 | St. Charles’ College......... 6... 2... 423
PHYSICAL FEATURES.... 2.0.0.0. 20.00 eee 11 | St. John’s College .. ...... 2. eee. 419
Piedmont Plateau..... .............. 11,12 | St. Mary’s, Founded. ......... ..... Higby 2
TOPORSTAPhY 8 hoc: Suustinew 26. Haka oe 15 | St. Mary’s Seminary..................... 422
Water POWER... ccs. eee eee pes Bde BGAM Dp VaR ess cers sua cade eiacsns acedeun dena tines oud 8
GeOlOBy ns wisedhanends tectieleamar 58 | ‘Star-Spangled Banner”................. 10
Pocomoke, Fight at......... 8 | State Government..... ............... 9, 380
PoutTicaL INSTITUTIONS ..... 20.00. 005. 380 | Strawberries .................. cee... eee 177
POPULATION a vuawediacaes gpeus Garinens 482.) Straw HatSindisss cecse weve ¥oReo eee 348
Porcelain Clays ......... .....0..e ee 146, 848 | Sunday Schools.... ...............-.02. 403
Port Depositi..wiix cos ead sind i dad 16% 124, 358
POttelyueesiases pads Leaves 95, 145, 848 | Tea-burning................. 000.002 cee 8
Presbyterian Church.... ............. 299.) ‘Nemperatures.... ss sscb cuentas secs dowanan 19
Prevention of Vice... .............0005 ATE | RORTA DUA, 3 ocu.j cid, ag De 8A basis chase Sandee BUND 261
PYIBONS caiaeoes geesuuaus Behea sotadas 474 | Tobacco.6, 159, 160, 164,169, 170, 201, 204,209,344
Private Schools............ 6.00. uae 421 | Toleration Act........... 0... e cece ee eee 4
Protestant Episcopal Church ........... 396 | Tomatoes................428 178, 174, 206, 208
Public: Buildings. + so0i sce eeeecdaas eae B18 | Loposraphy vicsesdccweensaus Ay glabes 11
Public Departments................00005 386. | TVCCS: accrkawoawavedsecezresccaaewad sae 221
Public Schools: oo. os inwciceag .esbeguas 411 | Truck Farming ...... .171, 174, 185, 189, 206
FRAUMPAN gia sss ce: nsnecs daca a ease 4 ae anaes 34,164. | Union Bridge «.22¢2-..44 2404 64). $4 dient a aie 50
Redemptorist College ......... 2. ...0.. 424 | University of Maryland.... .... ....... 414
Reformatories: sai: seen der see viene tax ets 468 | University School of Medicine........... 425
Religious Associations ........... ... 5. 406
. Communities............ 2... 408 | Vegetables..............ecee eae 173, 206, 208
oi Publicationg....cc cere cue ob se 408
RIVGTS cxevesaeiiaeies 14, 15, 17, 18, 51, 52,53 | Walters Art Gallery..................... 431
Rock Hill College..... aa sok sale oee 8 420 | Washington College..............0..00. 418
Roman Catholic Church................. 895.) Wetter Powerin. 5 sccccsg e220. cannes 50
Royal Government ... .. .... ......0.. 6; 7 | Water Supply.c. cece s.ccag eeecnetau dines 47
RY€ oe eee eee cece ee eee e eee eee ee ees 162 | Weather Service .......... 6. .eeee eee 19

 
504

PaGEs.

Western Maryland.
Farming ccisisee aaa .+ +157, 165
Soils....... patton eas 175, 181, 192, 194
Populatioir: sic ocsaacadsaiecacae os 436
Western Maryland College..... ........ 420
Western Maryland R.R....... ........- 321
Westininsterss.+ssauiactiins sivangs ved 50, 3876
Westminster Theological Seminary..... 424
Wheat .162, 165, 166, 184, 187, 201, 202, 205, 207
Wildfowl, occa swakwin can ina en daw ctwos wane 235

Wath Sasaki Sine aro conan eseieens Saaisat ae 38

INDEX.

PaaEs
W ontan’s: College: .ccce.daoy tan aa eases 420
Wowan’s Medical College....... ....... 425
WOOGDEEEY ciree ass: aawaawinrny anes an 351
Woodstock - s.nse csactscwscers tenes 125
Woodstock College ..... 6.6. ce cece eee eee 423
Young Men’s Christian Association...... 430
Young Men’s Hebrew Association....... 430
FDC ig. ue oe tnng eG eae: aad Peale 147
THE GEOLOGICAL MAP.

The Geological Map of Maryland which accompanies this volume
has been compiled from all existing sources of imformation, and contains
the results of much geological work within the confines of the State
which has never before been published. The map is nevertheless of only
a preliminary character, since no systematic survey of the State as a
whole has ever been carried on. The amount of reliable information for
different parts of the area is very unequal. In some portions—especially
the Eastern Shore and Garrett County—very few observations have been
made, while in others much detailed work has been done. The geologists
who have been accepted as authorities for different parts of the State
are indicated on the sketch map in the legend. Assistance has also been
obtained from the publications of the Pennsylvania Geological Surveys
and from Prof. W. B. Rogers’ geological map of Virginia.

The only other geological map of Maryland which has ever been
issued is that contained in P. T. Tyson’s first Annual Report as State
Agricultural Chemist in 1860. While not yet complete, the present
map will at once be recognized asa great advance over this earlier pub-
lication. It thoroughly represents the present state of our knowledge,
and will serve as a definite point of departure for future work by showing
where the existing data is least satisfactory.

The base of the geological map of Maryland is the outline of the
State, including Delaware, carefully drawn by the U.S. Geological Survey
for the Maryland State Weather Service in 1891. It is accurate for
boundaries, drainage, and the location of towns, but has no topography
or roads. Its scale is 1:500,000, or approximately eight miles to the inch.

The remarkable completeness of the geological record found within
Maryland’s territory has rendered a large number of tints and colors
necessary. Twenty-nine of these have been employed, although the
THE GEOLOGICAL MAP.

number of separate formations in reality is much greater. To avoid
confusion, similar or unimportant horizons have, in many cases, been
united. The indicated subdivisions fall naturally into three main series:
eight pre-Paleozoic, thirteen Paleozoic and eight post-Paleozoic. Inas-
much as these series also correspond quite closely to the three topo-
graphic provinces of the State—Piedmont Plateau, Mountains and Coastal
Plain—the colors have been so arranged as to express these great divi-
sions in tints of the three primary colors: red, blue and yellow.

Letter symbols have been used to designate the different formations,
except in the case of the Paleozoic strata, where the old and well estab-
lished numbers of the Pennsylvania Surveys have been retained. No
attempt has been made to apply the colors to the generalized section
which runs across the top of the map, because of the difficulty in obtain-
ing a perfect register in chromo-lithographing such minute areas. The
vertical exaggeration (about eight times) of this section is believed to be
justified because of the very low relief in the eastern part of the State.

The practical value of this map is greatly enhanced by the agricul-
tural designations which Professor Whitney has assigned to the various
formations in the legend. These will enable the farmer to use it with
reference to the crops for which his lands are best suited.

Too much cannot be said in praise of the care and pains which Mr.
A. B. Hoen, of the firm of Hoen & Co., has expended upon the artistic
reproduction of this map. The successful preservation of sharp contrasts
in its colors and their distribution in three main areas, without the least
sacrifice of harmonious blending and pleasing general effect, is due

entirely to his experience and skill.
G. H.W.
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