Cente Aen Prien iy orc et eR) tS eK Rad fad foie sk oes RAR eC RA é THE GIFT OF Alived €C. Barnes. Cornell University Libra “ai THE DOCTRINE OF THE PROPHETS EA LoquuNTUR PROPHETAE DEL QUAE AUDIUNT AB EO, NIHILQUE ALIUD EST PROPHETA DEI, NISI ENUNTIATOR VERBORUM DEI HOMINIBUS. QuID ERGO? CUM LEGIMUS, OBLIVISCIMUR QUEMADMODUM LOQUI SOLEAMUS? AN SCRIPTURA DEI ALITER NOBISCUM FUERAT QUAM NOSTRO MORE LOCUTURA ? 8S. AUGUSTINUS. THE DOCTRINE OF THE PROPHETS THE WARBURTONIAN LECTURES For 1886-1890 BY A. F. KIRKPATRICK, D.D. REGIUS PROFESSOR OF HEBREW AND FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE CANON OF ELY CATHEDRAL London MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1892 All rights reserved TO THE Reverenp ARTHUR GRAY BUTLER, M.A., FELLOW AND TUTOR OF ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD, AND FIRST HEAD MASTER OF HAILEYBURY COLLEGE, THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED BY HIS OLD PUPIL, AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE OF REGARD AND AFFECTION AND IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF STIMULATIVE TEACHING, WISE COUNSEL, AND UNVARYING KINDNESS, MDCCCLXIII.—MDCCCLXVII. HE Sursum Corda. HH PREFACE THis volume contains the Lectures delivered upon the foundation of Bishop Warburton in the Chapel of Lincoln’s Inn during the years 1886-1890, by the kind permission of the Benchers given in accord- ance with the desire of the Founder. The original Lectures have been in some cases re-written and expanded, and the series has been completed by the addition of Lectures not actually delivered. But it has seemed best to allow the book to retain the style and character given to it by the circumstances of its origin, rather than to recast it into a more formal shape. I had at one time intended to add some critical and exegetical notes to the Lectures ; but with a few exceptions this plan has been abandoned, partly because the volume had already grown to its full limits, and partly because I now hope that, for a portion of the field traversed, such notes may find a more suitable resting-place else- where. vill PREFACE I desire to acknowledge most fully my obligations, direct and indirect, to the many authors whose works have been consulted during a long course of study. These Lectures lay no claim to originality, save in so far as I have endeavoured to make the statements contained in them my own by careful study of the prophetic writings themselves, with all the helps at my disposal so far as time allowed. But no critic can well be more sensible of the many defects of the volume than its author. He lays down his pen with the consciousness that the words of the son of Sirach, applied by St. Augustine to the study of the Psalter, are even more applicable to the study of the Prophets. When a man hath done, then he beginneth, and when he leaveth off, then he shall be doubtful.) It is perhaps hardly necessary to say that refer- ence is throughout intended to be made to the Revised Version. In some cases, where the differ- ence of rendering is important, I have called attention to it by adding #.V. to the reference. In actual quotations I have not scrupled to introduce fresh renderings where it seemed possible to express the meaning of the original more closely. I have, as a 1 Eeclesiasticus xviii. 7. PREFACE ix tule, restored JEHOVAH in place of Lorp or Gop, which, in accordance with the Jewish tradition, our Versions generally substitute for the Sacred Name. The pronunciation of that Name as JEHOVAH, although not philologically defensible, is so far naturalised in our language that it cannot easily be displaced in favour of the presumably correct pro- nuneiation Yahweh. But the correct pronunciation is a matter of small importance, compared with the recognition that it is a proper name, the sum- mary expression of God’s revelation of Himself to Israel. The object of these Lectures is to give some account of the work of the Prophets in relation to their own times ; to shew, letting each of them, as far as possible, speak for himself, the contribution made by each to the progress of revelation ; to point out the unity in variety, and variety in unity, of their teaching, testifying alike to the one divine Source from which their inspiration was derived, and to the diversity in the human instruments through which He willed to communicate His message. It may seem to some that the human, personal, circumstantial elements of prophecy have been unduly exaggerated, but I have desired always x PREFACE to remember that while “Scripture speaks to men in their own language,’! “the prophets of God speak what they hear from Him, and the prophet of God is nothing else but the enunciator of the words of God to men.” ” It may seem further that, especially in view of the purpose of the Warburtonian Lecture as defined by its Founder, I have devoted too little attention to the consideration of special fulfilments of Prophecy. But if it be true, as I have lately endeavoured to shew elsewhere,® that the evidential value of the Old Testament to the mind of the present day rests not merely or mainly on the fulfilment of specific and circumstantial prophecies, but on the whole drift and tendency of a manifold and complex pre- paration, in history, in life, in thought, pointing to an end which it foreshadowed, but could not describe, for which it prepared, but which it could not pro- duce, then the attempt to exhibit the distinctive characteristics of the teaching of the Prophets in relation to their own times may legitimately be regarded as a contribution towards the elucidation of the evidential value of the Old Testament. It 1 Op. St. Aug. c. Faustum, xxxiii. 7. 2 St. Aug. Quaest. in Exod. v. 17. 3-In a paper on The Evidentiul Value of the O0.T., vead at the Church Congress at Folkestone, 1892. PREFACE xi was the function of the Prophets to prepare for the coming of Christ not less than to predict it; and nothing can produce a firmer conviction of their divine mission, than the consideration of the way in which they were raised up from time to time to meet the actual needs of great crises in the history of Israel, as well as to point forward to the great purpose of the ages. If thereby we gain an increased conviction of the naturalness of Prophecy, we gain at the same time an increasing conviction of its supernaturalness. Adaptation not less than marvel is a characteristic of divine working; and it is by studying the ways of God in history that we come to recognise His footprints. It has been said by an acute observer of move- ments of theological thought and Biblical study, that “the full rediscovering and full appropriating of the Old Testament are the special problem of our own day.... The fashioning of the methods by which the secret of the Old Testament is to be approached and elicited has taken many centuries. We are not yet agreed about it; but I do not think that it is being too sanguine to feel that we are draw- ing nearer to it. We are beginning to feel the warmth and the life and the reality come back to those pale and shadowy figures. Isaiah and Hosea and xii PREFACE Jeremiah no longer walk in a limbus Patrum, but we see them as they were among the forces by which they were actually surrounded. We see what they were as men; we see what they were as exponents of a message from God; we see the grand and glorious ideas which stirred within them in all their richness and fulness, conditioned, yet not wholly conditioned, by the world of thought and action in which they moved. We see these ideas linking themselves together, stretching hands as it were across the ages, the root-principles of the Old Testa- ment running on into the New, and there attaining developments which may have been present to the Divine Mind—though they cannot have been present to the human instruments whose words went and came at its prompting.” ? The words are bold; but at least they express the aim and desire of those who, while they advocate the most searching critical and historical study of the Old Testament, retain a firm belief that it is the inspired record of a unique divine revelation to the world. The interpretation of the Bible is not stationary but progressive. As successive centuries contributed to the construction of the Divine Library, so successive centuries must contribute to 1 Sanday, Zhe Oracles of (od, pp. 118, 120. PREFACE xiii its interpretation. It must not be supposed that modern students of the Old Testament wish to depreciate the students of past generations, or to regard their own work as final. The answer of Jerome to the charges of innovation so fiercely hurled at him will be theirs. Quid igitur? damnamus veteres? minime: sed post priorum studia in domo Domini quid possumus laboramus? “Tt is no less true now than ever it has been, that the surest means of religious advance is to be sought in renewed study of the Bible. What we need especially at this moment is freshness, a real getting at the heart of the matter instead of dally- ing with the outside. And I question if we shall get this in any better way than by approaching our task under the guidance of Criticism and History— of Criticism and History not, as too often, dissevered from, but united with, Religion.” ” May these Lectures offer some help towards such a more real understanding of the Prophets; and better still, may they direct their readers, if they shall find any, to such a diligent and attentive study of the Prophetic Books themselves, that, in the words of 1 Prologus in Genesin (Tom. ix. p. 6). * Sanday, p. 126. xiv PREFACE Origen, they may feel, as they read, the traces of their inspiration, and gain a firmer conviction that they are in very truth no mere writings of men, but the words of God. CAMBRIDGE, November 15, 1892. InrRODUCTION OBADIAH JOEL . Amos. HosEa CONTENTS LECTURE I LECTURE II LECTURE III LECTURE IV LECTURE V PAGE 33 46 81 107 xvi CONTENTS LECTURE VI IsAIAH THE SON OF AMOZ . LECTURE VII Mica LECTURE VIII NAHUM LECTURE IX ZEPHANIAH LECTURE X HABAKKUK . LECTURE XI JEREMIAH LECTURE XII EZEKIEL LECTURE XIII ISAIAH OF THE EXILE PAGE 141 201 235 253 264 286 321 349 CONTENTS xvii LECTURE XIV PAGE HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH . 5 409 LECTURE XV ZECHARIAH IX.-XIV. » 4388 LECTURE XVI IsAIAH XXIV.-XXVII. é 475 LECTURE XVII MALacui » 490 LECTURE XVIII CHRIST THE GOAL OF PROPHECY . ¥ « 68 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 528 INDEX oF SoME PassAGES COMMENTED ON 535 GENERAL INDEX . 2 537 INTRODUCTION otdé yap 6a Tovdalous udvous of mpopjra: éréumovto . . maons 6é ris olxoupévns Foav didacKddov lepdy ris wept Ocod yvadcews Kal Ths Kara Wuxnv todirelas. 8. ATHANASIUS. LECTURE I INTRODUCTION Gop, having of old time spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken wnto us in His Son.—Hrsrews i. 1, 2. I THE opening words of the Epistle to the Hebrews connexion c é and contrast affirm the connexion, while they contrast the el ie ase ris- 1 thristi 7 _ tian dis- character, of the Jewish and the Christian dispensa. is tions. It was the same God who spoke in both, though the mode and the instruments of His com- munication with men in the two periods were widely different. Of old time, in the long period which pre- ceded the Incarnation, He spoke to the fathers in the prophets. The voices of that long succession of men whom He raised up from time to time through a period of more than a thousand years were the voice of God. In them He spoke by divers portions and in divers manners; or, as the inimitable words of the original’ may be otherwise rendered, in many frag- 1 rrodumepa@s kal modurporws. The one a preparation Sor the other. 4 THE PREPARATION LECT. ments and in many fashions. The revelation was diversified, fragmentary, imperfect ; here a little and there a little, line upon line, and precept upon pre- cept, as men needed and as they were able to bear it. But in these latter days He has spoken to us in a Son? Unity is contrasted with variety. In Him the many partial and fragmentary utterances are reconciled and united. He is the one supreme and final revela- tion of God. The Messenger is Himself the message. The whole of the New Testament is the delineation and interpretation of His Person and His Work. There was an intimate and organic connexion be- tween the two revelations. God, hurting spoken in the prophets spoke in His Son. The first revelation was the necessary preparation for the second. The second revelation was the fore-ordained sequel of the first. This is not the peculiar doctrine of the author of the Epistle to the Helnews. It is the unanimous teaching of the whole New Testament. Our Lord Himself repeatedly declared that the old dispensation looked forward to Him. Evangelists and Apostles were but following His example when they taught that in all its parts it was the manifold preparation fur His Coming. If the Incarnation is indeed a fact, if God has indeed spoken to us in His Son, if the New Testament is in any degree a faithful 1 This is the literal rendering of the Greek, in which the pronoun His is not expressed. It lays stress on the nature and quality of Christ, not upon His personality. The one who is a son is con- trasted with the many who were servants. I FOR THE INCARNATION 5 record of His teaching and of the teaching of those who received their instruction from His lips, then the divine choice of the nation of Israel to be the object of a special discipline and the recipient of an unique revelation cannot possibly be called in ques- tion. The view which regards the religion of Israel as only “ one of the principal religions of the world,” maintaining that between it and all the other forms of religion “there exists no specific difference,” ? to the believing Christian, absolutely untenable. For it assumes that all religions alike are but “ so many manifestations of the religious spirit of man- kind,” and that there is no such thing as a special divine revelation. Let us fully admit that God Je/t not Himself without witness among the heathen is, nations of antiquity ; that many strivings, and very noble strivings, after truth are to be found in other religions than that of Israel; that these too in their appointed way formed part of the divine preparation for the Incarnation; yet from the Christian point of view it is impossible to class them together. Chris- tianity stands apart from all other religions as the final revelation of God to man, and the religion of Israel stands apart from all other pre-Christian re- ligions as the special preparation for that unique event which is the fundamental fact of Christianity. The nation of Israel was the organ of a special rne 0. 7. se a A the inspired divine revelation, and the Old Testament is the record of this prepar- ation. 1 Kuenen, Religion of Israel, vol. i. p. 5. 6 THE PURPOSE OF LECT. divinely ordered record of that revelation. It can only be rightly understood when it is studied in the light of this specific purpose. Viewed as a history of the nation of Israel, it tantalises by its disap- pointing fragmentariness. It gives little or no account of many of the most important periods of national development. It affords little or no insight into many of the most instructive features of national life. Viewed as a literature, it is, as a whole, in- ferior to the literature of Greece and Rome. But when it is viewed as the record of the divine training of the nation which was chosen to be the recipient of a special revelation, its peculiar characteristics receive their explanation. When it is viewed as the record of the revelation made to Israel and through Israel, in itself preparatory and imperfect, but ever looking forward to some future fuller manifestation of God to men, ever yearning for a real ‘fulfilment, its many voices are found to combine in a true har- mony. The Old Testament is unique as a national literature in virtue of the essential unity of spirit and purpose which characterises it notwithstanding the wide diversity of date and variety of form of its different elements; in virtue of the progressiveness with which its teaching advances, not indeed uni- formly or without any check or retrogression, but in the main and on the whole, from an outward and material to an inward and spiritual conception of religion ; in virtue of its steady outlook, in spite of I THE OLD TESTAMENT it manifold disappointments, towards an age to come, which forms the goal of divine purpose for Israel and for the world. This unity, this progressiveness, this hope, are rightly regarded as marks of its divine origin, and proofs of the inspiration of its authors. It was the office of Israel to prepare for Christ, and it is the function of the Old Testament to bear witness to Christ. But its message to the Christian Church is not exhausted in this its prophetic and propeedeutic character. It is placed in the hands of the Christian Church as still profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which rs in righteousness, It has an abiding moral and spiritual value. We read it now with the light of fuller revela- tion reflected back upon it, in a richer and fuller sense than that which those to whom its words were originally addressed could possibly have recognised. II When this lecture was founded by Bishop War- Present burton more than a century ago,’ with the object thea! of elucidating the evidential value of prophecy, the ?”?/ry- argument from prophecy and the argument from miracles were regarded as two of the most con- vincing- proofs of the truth of Christianity.” In the previous century Pascal could say, “La plus grande 1 Jn 1768. ” See e.g. Butler’s Analogy, part ii. ch. 7. 8 THE ARGUMENTS FROM LECT. des preuves de Jésus-Christ, ce sont les prophéties.”? But in the present day miracles which were once appealed to as a ground of belief, are in many quarters treated as a hindrance to belief. It is denied by many that there is any such clear correspondence between prophecy and its alleged fulfilment as to constitute a proof of the divine origin of Christianity. It is not my purpose to discuss the causes of this change of view at length. Scientific research has “placed in a clearer light the symmetry and order of external nature, and invested the idea of law with an absolute majesty inconceivable at an earlier time.” A naturalistic theory of the world banishes God from the pages of history. Historical criticism chal- lenges the accuracy of ancient records. Deeply as the extreme results of these tendencies of modern thought are to be deplored, they have not been with- out a wholesome influence upon Christian thought. They have taught us to look for God’s revelation of Himself in His ordinary not less than in His extra- ordinary modes of working. The fixed laws of Nature, unknown to an earlier age, are in a true sense powers which testify to the majesty of Him who ordained them and maintains them in operation. The pheno- mena of Nature are signs which manifest His glory to the eye of faith, and there is no other faculty but faith by which He can be seen. We have learnt to look for the proofs of God’s shaping of the history of 1 Pensées, ti. 11, 1. 1 PROPHECY AND MIRACLES 9 the world in the continuous discipline in which we believe His hand can be traced, and in the pro- gressive teaching which we believe reflects His mind, rather than in isolated interpositions and special predictions. It cannot be denied that in former times a dis- proportionate value was attached to the arguments from miracles and prophecy, and that an undue stress was laid upon the least important aspects of them. The more astounding to the senses a miracle appeared to be, the more convincing an exhibition of divine omnipotence was it thought to offer. “The particular details, inaccessible by inference from general principles or other rational means, seemed to apologists of special importance in proving the supernatural origin of prophecy. The predictions of single incidental circumstances seemed the most striking.”? But now these arguments are recognised as taking a subordinate though real place among the evidences of Christianity, and the nature of their evidence has been placed in a truer light. Miracles are regarded as vehicles rather than as proofs of revelation ; as the manifestation of a higher law, or the promise of the restoration of the true order which has been inter- rupted by sin. While circumstantial predictions are not to be denied, comparatively little stress is to be laid upon them. They cannot always be authenti- 1 Orelli, Old Testament Prophecy, p. 27 (H.T.). 10 PRESENT POSITION OF LECT. cated. For example, the prediction of a Josiah or a Cyrus by name centuries before they were born was at one time regarded as an irrefragable proof of the inspiration of the record. Such predictions would no doubt be a very remarkable proof that the prophets who delivered them were the agents of an omniscient Being, if we could be sure that they were really predictions. But the Book of Kings did not take its present form till after the reign of Josiah, and the name of Josiah may easily have been an addition to the original narrative; while many arguments combine to prove that the later chapters of the Book of Isaiah were not written until the lifetime of Cyrus. But even when circumstantial predictions can be authenticated, they cannot be held to possess the importance which was once attached to them. Isolated predictions of this kind give little informa- tion as to the character and purposes of God. They may serve to attract attention and appeal to the temper of mind which seeks for a sign, but they will not satisfy the more thoughtful student. For him the contemplation of the wider characteristics of prophecy as a whole will furnish a more solid if less startling proof of its divine origin. The ‘argument from prophecy’ must be based upon the broadest possible foundation. Appeal must be made to the whole of the Old Testament as the record of the preparation for Christ's coming. For I THE ARGUMENT FROM PROPHECY i as it has well been said, the Old Testament does not merely contain prophecies, but is in itself throughout a prophecy. And in dealing with those parts of the Old Testament which contain the teaching of the prophets, appeal must be made not to the predictive elements of prophecy only, but to the work of the prophets as a whole. That work must be regarded in its entirety as one great factor in God’s revelation of Himself to Israel, preparing the way for the fuller revelation to come, not less than as the fore-announce- ment of His purpose to make that revelation, and of the mode in which it was to be made. We shall claim to find in Christ, not the fulfilment of the predictions of the prophets only, but the consumma- tion and realisation of the whole of their teaching. In the harmony of the two revelations we shall hear the voice of God speaking to men, not the voices of men striving to express their aspirations after God. The prophecies are not human ideals, but divine ideas. But the argument is only one among many arguments for the truth of Christianity; and it is more properly addressed to believers for the support and confirmation of their faith than to unbelievers for the removal of their doubts. What has been said of miracles is true of prophecy. It “belongs properly to the believer and not to the doubter. It is a treasure rather than a bulwark. It is in its inmost sense instruction, and not evidence.”! 1 Bishop Westcott, Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles, p. 7. Gains from hostile criticism. 12 CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL LECT. Ill Christian students of the Old Testament, who start from the premiss that it is the divinely inspired record of a divinely ordered preparation for a divinely purposed end, and who retain their belief that the Holy Ghost “spake by the prophets,” need not hesitate to acknowledge that they owe a delt to hostile criticism. There are three points in particular in which they have made a decided advance in recent years towards the general adoption of sounder methods of interpretation, and the use of safer if less startling arguments. They have learnt to study the Old Testa- ment critically and historically ; to take account of a wider view of prophecy; to offer a more reasonable conception of the fulfilment of prophecy. 1. Christian students have come to recognise that the Old Testament must be studied critically and historically. It is their duty to examine, frankly and fearlessly, all that can be ascertained with regard to the origin and date of the several books, the genuineness of the text, the character of the record, and all the problems which necessarily arise in the examination and interpretation of ancient documents. They will not dissect the volume with irreverent hands as though anxious to demonstrate that it never had or could have a living unity, but they will seek to exhibit more fully the nature and the correlation of the complex parts which constitute I STUDY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT 13 the organism in which the life is manifested. It is no less their duty to study the Old Testament. his- torically; to endeavour to realise the relation of each book to the conditions and ideas of the age in which it was produced, and to the whole history and revelation of which it forms a part. This is especially important in the study of the prophets. The Pro- phecies of the Old Testament, like the Epistles of the New Testament, had what may be called a circumstantial origin. Each prophecy, as a rule, bears the stamp of its own age; it is couched in the terms of its own particular epoch; it is shaped to meet the special needs of those to whom it was first addressed ; it bears the impress of the character and the training of the individual through whom it was given. For every fiery prophet in old times, And all the sacred madness of the bard, When God made music thro’ them, could but speak His music by the framework and the chord.! 2. Christian students have learnt to take a larger view of the prophet’s work. The prophet was not merely, I might even say he was not chiefly, a pre- dictor. He was not so much a foreteller as a forth- teller. Insight not less than foresight was the gift of the seer. The precise original meaning of the Hebrew word for prophet is much disputed. But it 1 Tennyson, The Holy Grail, p. 85. i4 COMPLEX CHARACTER OF LECT. does not in itself contain the idea of prediction. In usage it denotes one who is the spokesman or interpreter of God to men, one who is the medium through which divine revelations are conveyed, rather than one who is endowed with the power of foreknowledge, though this may be one of his gifts. The prophet’s work concerned the past, the pre- sent, and the future. The prophets were the historians of Israel? They regarded the history of the nation from a religious standpoint. They traced the direct control of Jehovah over the fortunes of His people, in mercy and in judgement. It was their function to record and interpret the lessons of the past for the warning and encouragement of the present and the future. Their work was concerned with the present. They were preachers of righteousness. They summoned men to repentance, setting before them the good- ness and the severity of Gud. The relation of Jehovah to His people, and the consequent duty of Jehovah's people to Him, side by side with the duty of man to his neighbour, arising out of that mutual relation- 1 Comp. Ex. vii. 1: ‘See, I have made thee a god to Pharaoh : and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet,” with Ex. iv. 16: “Ie shall be thy spokesman unto the people: and it shall come to pass, that he shall be to thee a mouth, and thou shalt be to him as God.” 2 It will be remembered that the Books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings are classed in the Jewish Canon as ‘ the former prophets.” I THE WORK OF THE PROPHETS 15 ship, were the constant themes of their teaching. It was their work to make known the Will of God, and to urge men to bring their lives into harmony with that Will. They were unceasingly engaged in advancing’ the knowledge of His character and requirements. Yet none the less were they concerned with the future; and that not merely by way of general promises of reward and threatenings of punishment, but with the full conviction that they were the appointed heralds of the divine purpose for Israel, and through Israel for the world. The manifestation of salvation in the fullest sense; the advent of Jehovah Himself to be the Redeemer of His people; the establishment of His kingdom upon earth; these were the lofty hopes which they were commissioned to proclaim. But it was their task not only to announce the divine purpose, but to prepare the way for its realisation. 3. Christian students have learnt a truer concep- tion of what is meant by the fulfilment of prophecy. Prophecy and fulfilment were once supposed to be related as the reflection in a mirror to the object reflected. The complete course of future events was thought to have been mapped out in a way intelligible to the prophet and his contemporaries. Prophecy was considered as being throughout “inverted history.” Even Bishop Butler could say that “ pro- phecy is nothing but the history of events before 16 FULFILMENT OF PROPHECY LECT. they come to pass.”' It was expected that the ful- filment would correspond exactly to the prediction. Many of the objections which have been levelled against the Christian view of the relation of the Old Testament to the New Testament rest in great measure upon the erroneous assumption that this mechanical view of prophecy and fulfilment is what the defenders of the faith are pledged to maintain. But fulfilment is related to prophecy rather as the plant with all its beauty of leaf and flower and fruit is related to the seed from which it has sprung. The connexion can be traced: the microscope can detect the parts of the future plant wrapped up in the envelope of the seed; but it could not foretell, apart from experience, what the full growth will bring, or how the minute and colourless rudiments will de- velop into rich variety of form and colour. The envelope is necessary to contain and protect the germ; but it is not itself the life-principle of the future plant. And so, prophecy contains the germ which is to spring up in a new form in the fulfilment ; the principle which will in due time receive its legitimate development. Itis the outline which will be filled in and take definite shape. The inner idea, and not the form in which that idea is conveyed, is the essential part of a prophecy. The form in which the idea is embodied is largely human, determined by the conditions of the prophet’s age and varying 1 4dnalogy, part ii. ch. vii. I FULFILMENT OF PROPHECY 17 from time to time accordingly. The fulfilment, which is the evolution of the essential idea, is greater than the prophecy. It drops the envelope which served ‘to contain it. It grows up out of it. It unites elements which existed separately, the combination of which, apart from the fulfilment, could not have been foreseen. That it is a true realisation of what was fore-designed in the divine purpose, and foretold by inspired prophets, will be recognised without hesitation by the believer. It will not compel belief, any more than any other spiritual truth, but it will confirm belief. IV I propose in this Course of Lectures to approach eg the prophecies of the Old Testament from the point of view of their delivery rather than of their fulfil- ment. I propose to limit the inquiry to the teaching of those prophets whose writings have come down to us. Ido not propose to carry it further back into the age which preceded the age of written prophecy, or to continue it into New Testament times. I pro- pose to examine the teaching of each prophet in relation to the circumstances and the needs of his own time; to endeavour to estimate the special contribution made by each to the progress of revela- tion and the development of the Messianic hope; to sketch out, so far as it may be possible to do so in a short compass, the doctrine of the prophets in its c The wrder of the prophets, 18 ORDER OF THE PROPHETS LECT. historical development as the message of Jehovah to Israel in successive periods, and the preparation for the fuller revelation of the kingdom of God in Christ. The plan will involve some repetition. But it is worth while to treat each prophet separately, even at the expense of some repetition, if by so doing we may realise better the unity in variety which character- ises their message. Each prophet has his own marked individuality of style, of thought, of teaching; but they all combine to promote one common end, the furtherance and the establishment of the kingdom of God. At the same time it is necessary to beware of generalising too rigidly, and “ making particular prophets the exponents of merely a single concep- tion,” to the exclusion of “other conceptions, which, though less prominent, are present, either expressed or suggested. Broad distinctions are rare in the Old Testament. The course of revelation is like a river, which cannot be cut up into sections.” ! Vv It will be convenient at once to take a rapid survey of the chronological order of the canonical prophets, distinguishing those whose dates are certain, from those whose dates rest wpon internal evidence, and can only be determined with more or less prob- TA, B, Davidson in The Expositor, 3rd Ser, vol. vi. p. 163, I ORDER OF THE PROPHETS 19 ability. Those of the former class may be arranged in three groups. 1. The prophets of the eighth century or the Assyrian period (B.c. 760-700), in which Assyria first began seriously to interfere in the affairs of Palestine, and the kingdom of Israel finally succumbed to its power. To this period belong Amos and Hosea, IsalAn and Mican. The two former exercised their ministry in Israel, and foretold the downfall of the Northern kingdom ; the two latter prophesied in Judah, in the momentous crisis when it seemed that it must share a similar fate, 2. The prophets of the seventh century, or the Chaldean period (B.c. 640-570), in which Babylon took the place of Nineveh as the mistress of the world, and Jerusalem fell before the Chaldean in- vader. First in this period comes Nauum, who raises a triumphant pean over the impending fall of Nineveh : next to him ZEPHANIAH, with his message of the day of judgement at hand for Jerusalem: and after him HABAKKUK, with his bold questionings of the ways of Providence. The long ministry of JERE- MIAH, to whom was assigned the bitter task of de- livering an unheeded message of admonition, and watching the agony of his nation’s dissolution, covered the period in which the two last-named prophets flourished, and was continued for many years subse- quently. Contemporaneously with the latter part of it EZEKIEL was prophesying to the exiles in Babylonia. 20 ORDER OF THE PROPHETS LECT. 3. To the period after the Return from Babylon belong Haccat, ZEcHARIA, and Manacnt, The two former encouraged the fainting spirits of the returned exiles to rebuild the Temple; the latter probably supported the reforms of Nehemiah nearly a century later, and closed the series of canonical prophets. With regard to the dates of these prophets there is but little variation of opinion. But where shall we place Obadiah, Joel, Isaiah xxiv.-xxvil. and xl.- lxvi., Zechariah ix.-xiv.? Should Opap1aH be dated as early as the reign of Jehoram (B.C, 848-S44); or shortly after the Fall of Jerusalem? Should JozL be placed in the early part of the reign of Joash (B.c, 837-817), or in the period after the Return from Babylon? Not without some hesitation I have come to the conclusion that the evidence is in favour of the earlier dates, and treated these prophets as belonging to the pre-Assyrian period. That the Book of Con- solation now attached to the Book of Isaiah (chaps. xL-lxvi.) was the work not of Isaiah but (in the main at least) of a prophet towards the close of the Baby- lonian Exile seems to me a certain conclusion from internal evidence. The closing chapters of the Book of Zechariah present a difficult problem, but I am in- clined to think that although they are probably not the work of Zechariah, but of one or possibly two other prophets, they stand in their right position among the post-exilie prophets, and in all probability belong to the period between Zechariah and Malachi. -! ORDER OF THE PROPHETS 21 To the same period I am disposed to refer the re- markable prophecy in chapters xxiv.-xxvii. of the Book of Isaiah. I have excluded the Book of Jonah and the Book of Daniel from consideration. The former is not the record of a prophet’s teaching but the account of a prophet’s work. Though it stands among the Twelve Minor Prophets it is wholly unlike the remaining eleven. It is emphatically, as a Jewish tradition calls it, “a book by itself,’! and important as are the lessons which it conveys, it has no claim to be in- cluded in a study of prophetic teaching. The Book of Daniel is not reckoned among the prophets in the Jewish Canon, and belongs to the study of apo- calyptic rather than of prophetic literature. Some minor fragments embedded in larger books have also been passed over. VI In this sketch of the succession of the prophets the Tha viantof right of literary criticism to set aside the tradition of the Jewish Church concerning the authorship and date of books or portions of books has been assumed. A few words must be said in justification of that right.2 The conclusions of criticism rest upon such 1 Midrash Bemidbar (c. 18), quoted in Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament, p. 194. See Wiinsche, Bibliotheca Rabbinica, p. 451. 2 See further my Divine Library of the Old Testament, Lectures i, and ii, It is perhaps worth while observing that the principle of literary criticism is fully admitted by one of my most distinguished 22 THE LEGITIMACY OF CRITICISM LECT, grounds as those of historical allusions, literary style, characteristic doctrines. They are probable, not demonstrative, and in different cases reach very different degrees of probability. A prejudice is sometimes raised against the conclusions of criticism, by the allegation that it springs ultimately from a desire to deny the predictive character of prophecy. It is possible that this may have been a motive with some of its advocates. But it is not so with others. They do not start with any theory of the impossibility of prediction. For them—to take a concrete example —the question with regard to the last twenty-seven chapters of Isaiah is not whether Isaiah could have uttered the predictions they contain, but whether the historical situation presumed is that of Isaiah’s life- time; whether the style is such that these chapters can reasonably be supposed to have proceeded from the same pen as the acknowledged prophecies of Isaiah ; whether the characteristic doctrines differ from those of the earlier part in a way which can only be ac- counted for by a considerable interval of time, and the occurrence in that interval of an unparalleled catastrophe. It is sometimes urged that such questions ought to be regarded as settled by the authority of the New predecessors in the Warburtonian Lectureship, whose orthodoxy has been generally regarded as unimpeachable ; and its application to the later chapters of Zechariah is accepted as proving that they cannot be ascribed to Zechariah or his age. I refer to Davison, On Prophecy, pp. 277, 230 (ed. 1856). I THE LEGITIMACY OF CRITICISM 23 Testament. On this point I may be allowed to refer to what I have said elsewhere! I can only repeat that it is difficult to see how our Lord and His Apostles (with reverence be it said) could have done otherwise than accept the current nomenclature of the time. The critical questions and the issues which they raise were not before them; and their acceptance of what was then universally believed cannot be legitimately regarded as precluding critical inquiry, any more than their acceptance of current ideas upon physical questions is regarded as a bar to scientific research. VII Two questions of no slight interest and importance cnaracter arise in regard to the contents and arrangement of Paperont the prophetic books. They have an important bear- phetic books. ing upon their interpretation, and a few general remarks must be made here, which will receive de- tailed illustration as we proceed. What is the character of the records of prophecy which have been preserved to us? and what is the principle upon which they have been arranged in the different books? The answers to these questions will naturally vary in different cases. Some prophecies appear to have been committed immediately to writing without ever having been orally delivered. Other prophecies l Divine Library of the Old Testament, pp. 8 tf. 24 CHARACTER OF THE PROPHETIC BOOKS — cecr. were first orally delivered and then committed to writing. Sometimes this was done by the prophet himself; sometimes little more than reminiscences preserved by the prophet’s disciples appear to have come down to us. In some cases a prophecy was committed to writing immediately after its delivery. In other cases a long period of oral teaching preceded the committal to writing, and we possess only a con- densed report giving the substance of teaching spread over months or even years, and fusing together discourses delivered upon different occasions. A most instructive account of a prophet’s method of working is preserved in the Book of Jeremiah (ch. xxxvi.). He prophesied for more than twenty years before he com- mitted anything to writing; and the roll which he then dictated to Baruch can obviously have contained only a summary of his teaching during that period. When he re-wrote it after its destruction by Jehoi- akim, he made many additions to it, and this enlarged roll forms only the basis of our present book, which contains many later prophecies. Upon another occasion he received a command to commit a prophecy to writing without delay as a witness to future ages (xxx. 1 ff). Tt would vastly simplify the student’s task if it could be assumed that the prophecies in each book were arranged in chronological order. But it is certain that this is not always the case. 1 CHARACTER OF THE PROPHETIC BOOKS 25 While the principle of arrangement is generally in the main chronological, this principle is to some extent traversed and obscured by arrangement according to subject matter. Prophecies of cognate character in style or thought have been grouped together. In some instances collections of portions of the prophet’s works, published by himself or his disciples, preceded the complete collection, and to some extent in- fluenced its arrangement. Consequently we may have to turn to different parts of a book for illustra- tion of the prophet’s teaching in a particular period, and we cannot assume that the book as it stands will present his teaching in an orderly progress and development. Thus a wide variety of possibilities with regard to the character and arrangement of the prophetic books must be constantly taken into account. And further, as has been already observed, some of the prophetic books undoubtedly contain prophecies by other prophets than those whose names they bear. But that they have been altered and interpolated to the extent which is maintained by some modern critics is wholly improbable, and the arguments by which these critics support their theories are often based upon unproved hypotheses, and are of an ex- tremely arbitrary and subjective character. Tinportance of the pro- phets in relation to modern theories. 26 IMPORTANCE OF THE LECT. VIL The importance of the study of the prophets, and especially of the prophets of the earliest period, in relation to the questions which are now being debated with regard to the origin of the religion of Israel, can hardly be exaggerated. In Amos, Hosea, and the acknowledged parts of Isaiah, we are dealing with documents the age of which is not disputed. They occupy a position in the Old Testament analog- ous to the position which is occupied in the New Testament by the acknowledged Epistles of St. Paul. It is maintained by the school of critics which regards the religion of Israel as a natural develop- ment and not as a divine revelation that the prophets of the eighth century were “the founders of ethical Monotheism,” in other words that they were the first teachers of the moral character and requirements of Jehovah. The careful study of their writings affords the most convincing refutation of this theory. If anythine is clear from their writings, it is that they do not regard themselves as innovators but as reformers. They are striving to recall the people to their allegiance to Jehovah, and to raise practice to the level of belief. The standard and the motive of right conduct is the knowledge of God, which the people might have possessed, but for their own carelessness and the neglect of their I STUDY OF THE PROPHETS 27 teachers. Jehovah’s word and His law have been declared to them; but they have despised His word and transgressed His law. These prophets are con- scious of no discontinuity with the past. Amos speaks of the prophets who had preceded him, with- out any doubt that he is their legitimate successor. “ The springs at least of all prophecy can be seen in the. two prophets of northern Israel [Amos and Hosea]; but the rains which fed those fountains fell in the often unrecorded past.”? The simple fact that Amos, who went from Judah to prophesy to Israel, and Hosea, who was a born Israelite, are agreed in the fundamental principles of their teaching, proves that the foundations of the religion of Israel were firmly established before the Division of the Kingdoms. Nor can there be any doubt to what period the prophets referred the origin of Israel’s religion. It was to the Mosaic age, when Jehovah entered into covenant with the nation which He brought out of Egypt; though even in the patriarchal period He had revealed Himself to their ancestors. But while on the one hand the earliest prophets bear testimony to the antiquity of Jehovah’s revela- tion of Himself to Israel, on the other hand they cannot be held to afford proof of the existence of the Pentateuch in its present form. They do not appeal to a written law as the recognised standard of 1 A. B. Davidson, The Expositor, 3rd Ser. vol. vi. p. 163. 28 THE PROPHETS AND THE LAW LECT. conduct.’ The ‘law’ or ‘instruction’ of Jehovah of which they speak is the equivalent of His ‘ word.’ It is oral and not written. It deals with morality, not with ceremonial. No doubt a sacrificial system was in full operation. The prophets repeatedly condemn the popular idea that Jehovah could be propitiated by sacrifice without reyard to the moral condition of the worshipper. Festivals such as the new moon and Sabbath were observed. There are allusions to the celebration of the Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles. A body of priests existed whose duty it was not merely to maintain the established ritual of sacrifice, but to instruct the people in their religious duties. Not a few parallels to the language of Deuteronomy and even of the priestly legislation may be collected. But the whole drift of the teaching of the earlier prophets indicates that the law, both moral and ceremonial, was still in process of growth, and though portions both of the legal and historical elements of the Hexateuch probably already existed in writing, other portions were still preserved by oral tradition. In fact we must think of ‘the Law’ and ‘the Prophets’ as concomitant rather than suecessive disciplines. Prophecy reached back to the foundation of the law; and the law went on growing side by side with 1 No such phrase as “the book of the law” oceurs in them. Hos. viii. 12 may imply the existence of written laws, but its meaning is uncertain. I THE PROPHETS AND THE LAW 29 prophecy. “It cannot be doubted that Moses was the ultimate founder of both the national and the religious life of Israel; and that he provided his people not only with at least the nucleus of a system of civil ordinances (such as would, in fact, arise directly out of his judicial functions, as described in Exod. xviil.), but also (as the necessary correlative of the primary truth that Jehovah was the God of Israel) with some system of ceremonial observances, designed as the expression and concomitant of the religious and ethical duties involved in the people’s relation to its national God.” But “in process of time, as national life grew more complex, and fresh cases requiring to be dealt with arose,” the original principles “ would be found no longer to suffice, and their extension would become a necessity.”’ To the end, however, the law built up wpon the Mosaic foundation remained the Mosaic law, and was revered as possessing the sanction of its founder's authority. TX The historical study of the prophets in relation to vatueof the istorical their own age may seem to some readers to be less method of a fruitful and less necessary than the study of them in ?”PHes the light of their fulfilment. But I am confident that there is no other method by which so firm a 1 Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, p. 144 f, 30 METHOD OF STUDY LECT. I conviction can be gained that they were in very truth what they claimed to be, the inspired mes- sengers of God; no better means by which an insight may be obtained into the variety and vitality of their message; no more certain way of attaining to an assurance that by their agency God was training His people for that greater revelation which was to be at once the consummation of the past and the starting- point of the future. It has been well said that “at the present stage in the progress of religious thought we seem to need above all things to enter with a living sympathy into the whole teaching of the Bible, in its many parts and many forms; to realise with a historical, no less than with a spiritual insight, what lessons it conveys and in what shape; in order that so we may be trained to recognise and to interpret the fresh lessons which the One Spirit is offering to us in other ways.”! Towards such a study of an important part of Holy Scripture it is the aim of these Lectures to offer some con- tribution however small. " Bishop Westcott, The Revelation of the Risen Lord, p. xv. PROPHETS OF THE NINTH CENTURY OR PRE-ASSYRIAN PERIOD OBADIAH—JOEL GG Kal al mpopyretar Tots ph Tapépyws evtvyxdvover TH &v avrats mpoyviocer ikaval wor elvar Soxobcr mpos TO metcae Tov auvETas dua cal evyvwudvus dvayyvickovta br. Ocod mvedua Fv €v Tots dvdpaow éxelvos. ORIGENES. LECTURE II OBADIAH The kingdom shall be Jehovah's. -OBADIAH 21. I THE brief prophecy which bears the name of Obadiah contents of is directed against Edom. The nations are summoned ee by Jehovah’s messengers to make war upon Edom. He has determined to humble Edom’s pride; Edom’s arrogant confidence in the impregnability of his rock fortress will be undeceived. Edom will be plundered by enemies and deserted by allies. His wise coun- sellors will become fools, his heroes cowards; he is doomed to utter destruction. It is for his inhuman behaviour towards his brother Jacob that this sentence is pronounced (1-10). For in the day of Judah’s humiliation and calamity, when Jerusalem was taken and sacked by foreign enemies, Edom was as one of them, rejoicing mali- ciously at Judah’s disaster, sharing the plunder, cutting off the fugitives from escape (11-14). D Oceasion and date, 34 OCCASION AND DATE OF OBADIAH LECT. But Jehovah's day of judgement for all the nations is at hand, and Edom will not escupe a just retribu- tion. A remnant will remain in Jerusalem, and Jerusalem will no more be desecrated by invaders : but Edom will be utterly destroyed ly the reunited forces of Judah and Israel, who will take possession not only of their own land, but of Edom on the east, and Philistia on the west; and Jehovah’s kingdom will be established securely (15-21). II Of the prophet himself nothing is known. All that can be inferred from his prophecy is that he was a native of Judah. Widely different opinions are held as to the date at which he prophesied, some placing him in the ninth century, others at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, others much later still. But the choice really lies between the two first-named dates, the relative claims of which we will proceed to consider. The occasion of the prophecy is obvious. It was some recent capture of Jerusalem, in which the Edom- ites had been guilty of the grossest insult and injury to Judah. They were not themselves the principal assailants ; indeed it is not clear that they took part in the attack; but they had displayed an un- brotherly spirit by their malignant delight at Judah’s calamity, by sharing in the plunder of the II OCCASION AND DATE OF OBADIAH 35 city, by intercepting the fugitives, and butchering them or surrendering them to be sold as slaves. It is generally assumed that this sack of Jerusalem 1s it the ae- struction of can be no other than the capture and destruction of serusalein, the city by Nebuchadnezzar in B.c. 586. In support of this view it is argued that the terms in which the catastrophe which has befallen Jehovah’s people is described can refer to no less disastrous event. It is spoken of as the day of distress, the day of their calamity, the day of their destruction. Moreover the spirit of bitter hostility to Edom which the prophecy breathes is said to date from this time. It is in the prophets of the exilic and the post-exilic periods that we must look for the closest parallels to Obadiah." But this view is traversed by a serious difficulty. retation to Jeremiah’s prophecy against Edom (xlix. 7-22) con- pore tains much that is found in Obadiah. It is impossible to regard Jeremiah as the original which Obadiah has copied. Jeremiah’s frequent practice of borrowing from earlier prophets? makes it @ priori probable that he is borrowing here: the passages common to both prophets do not contain expressions which are characteristic of Jeremiah, whereas the other parts of the prophecy against Edom in Jer. xlix. do con- tain such expressions: the prophecy in Obadiah is a 1 See Lam. iv. 21 f. ; Ezek. xxv. 12 ff. ; xxxv. 5 ff. ; Isa. xxxiv. 5 ff. ; lxiii. 1; Ps. exxxvii. 7; 1 Esdras iv. 45, 50. 2 E.g. the prophecy against Moab in Jer, xlviii. is largely de- pendent on Isa. xv., xvi. Did both borrow from an older prophet ? 36 RELATION OF OBADIAH TO JEREMIAH _ xect. well-arranged whole, whereas in Jeremiah the same matter is broken up and given in a far less forcible and obvious order. Now Jeremiah’s prophecy against Edom appears to have been delivered in the fourth year of Jehoiakim (xlvi. 1 f.); at any rate before the destruction of Jerusalem, for the judgement upon Judah is still future (xlix. 12, R.V.). Either then Jeremiah is not borrowing from the Book of Obadiah in its present form, or Obadiah does not refer to the capture of Jerusalem in Bc. 586. If the view is maintained that Obadiah refers to that capture of Jerusalem, the relation between his prophecy and that of Jeremiah can only be explained by the hypothesis that they are both borrowing from some older prophecy against Edom. Jeremiah has treated it freely and broken it up, while Obadiah has taken it as a whole, and supplemented it by the addition of the promise of Judah’s restoration. In support of this view it is urged that as the common matter extends to the first nine verses of Obadiah only, it is clear that this was all that Jeremiah had before him; and that the inconsistencies, want of con- nexion, and difference of style, between these verses and the later verses, point to a difference of auther- ship. But it is by no means certain that Jeremiah had only vv. 1-9 before him. The resemblance between Jer, xlix. 12 and Obadiah 16 can hardly be accidental, II RELATION OF OBADIAH TO JEREMIAH 37 and suggests the probability that Jeremiah had the conclusion of the prophecy before him, though he made little use of it. It would be quite natural for him to adopt the verses which describe the doom of Edom, and to neglect those which describe Edom’s offence, if that offence lay in the remote past; while the latter part of the prophecy, which predicts the restoration of Judah, lay entirely outside of his plan. In view of the variety of representation which meets us in almost every prophet it can hardly be seriously argued that because the nations are summoned to muster against Edom in v. 1, while in v. 18 the final destruction of Edom is spoken of as the work of reunited Israel, therefore these later verses cannot be by the same author as the earlier ones. The want of connexion and the difference of style between the earlier and later verses are not so pronounced that any stress can be laid upon them. The hypothesis of a common original is no doubt possible; but it is only a hypothesis, and there is much to be said in favour of the unity of the Book of Obadiah. It forms a symmetrical whole. The doom of Edom is naturally followed by the reason for that doom, while the promise of the restoration of Judah forms the natural counterfoil to the fate of Edom, and an appropriate conclusion to the pro- phecy. There are links of connexion between the parts. Or is an earlier sack of Jerusa- lem referred to? 38 PROBABILITY OF AN EARLY DATE LECT. In both Edom is spoken of as sau ;' in both Esau’s pride is condemned (vv. 3,12); and the retribution (v. 6) gains point when it is seen that it is like for like (ve. 11, 13, 15). No doubt such links of connexion might be due to a continuator, but they are certainly in favour of the unity of the prophecy. When once however the assumption, that the calamity described must be the destruction of Jeru- salera in B.C. 586, is abandoned, it becomes unnecessary to retain the theory of composite authorship. Anda careful examination of the prophecy favours the view that it is not the final destruction of Jerusalem which is here referred to. There is not the slightest hint that the Temple and the city have been destroyed; there is no allusion, such as we find in Ezekiel (xxxv. 10 ff.), to the Edomites taking possession of the south country; there is no explicit reference to the Chaldeans, or to Nebuchadnezzar,’ or to the wholesale deportation of the nation to Babylon The attempt to account for 1 Esau, v. 6; the mount of Esau, vv. 8, 9, 19, 213; the house of Esau, v. 18. Edom only occurs in the title, and in v. 8, where the parallelism requires an alternative name. But Esau=Edom is rare. Jer. xlix. 8, 10 are influenced by Obadiah. In Mal. i. 2, 3 Esau and Jacob are the ancestors of the nations. Children of Esau occurs in Deut. ii. 4, 8, 12, 22, 29. * Contrast Jer. xlix. 19, 22. * Obad. 20 is very obscure ; but, hy the help of a slight emenda- tion, we may perhaps adopt the rendering of R.V.; The captivity of this host of the children of Isracl, which are among the Canaanites, shall possess even unto Zarephath ; and the captivity of Jerusalem which is in Sepharad, shall possess the citics of the South. The IL PROBABILITY OF AN EARLY DATE 39 this silence by assigning the prophecy in its com- pleted form to a date long after the destruction of the city is extremely unsatisfactory. The calamity, what- ever it was, was certainly recent; and the language of v, 12 perhaps implies that a repetition of Edom’s offence was possible, which would not have been the case after the final destruction of the city. But if the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans was not the occasion of the prophecy, what calamity was it that is referred to? Certainly not the sack of Jerusalem by Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 25, 26), for Edom was then subject to Judah; nor the capture of the city by Joash in the reign of Amaziah (2 Kings xiv. 13, 14), for the Israelites could not be described as strangers and foreigners (v. 11). There remains the capture and plundering of the city by the Philistines and Arabians in the reign of Jehoram, B.c. 848-844. To this it seems most probable that Obadiah refers, It is true that the brief account in 2 Chron. xxi. 16,17 does not mention the Edomites; but the historical books are first-mentioned captives will be those amoung the Pheenicians, who trafficked in Israelite slaves (cp. Amos i. 9): the second possibly those to whom Joel refers as having been sold away to Ionia. See p. 70. 1 The literal rendering of vv. 12 ff. is that of the R.V., Look not thou, etc. Either the prophet throws himself back to the time of the offence, and reproves the Edomites as if they were actually com- mitting it ; in which case the rendering of the R.V. (thou shouldest not have looked, etc.) will be virtually, though not grammatically, correct ; or he throws his reproof into the form of an admonition because a repetition of the offence is still possible. 40 RELATION OF OBADIAH LECT. equally silent about the part which the Edomites played at the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad- nezzar. Evidently they were not the chief actors; but it was natural that just at this time they should have joined in the raid with a view to plunder, for they had recently revolted from Judah (2 Kings viii. 20 ff.). The condemnation of Edom’s pride (vv. 3 ff.) is specially appropriate, if they had but lately asserted their independence. Relation of This early date for Obadiah falls in with the Jecland allusions to his prophecy in Joel, and with the references to Edom in Amos. Joel,as I hope to shuw presently, prophesied during the early part of the reign of Joash (B.c. 837-7972). He was familiar with the words, or the writings, of Obadiah. Jn Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those that escape, as Jehovah hath said (Joel ii, 32), appears to be a distinct reference to Obad. 17; and the last chapter of Joel contains several allusions to Obadiah. Amos condemns Edom for unbrotherly conduct towards Israel G. 11), singling out precisely the same point in Edom’s guilt as Obadiah (vv. 10, 12), and for trafficking in Israelite slaves, an offence closely akin to the behaviour condemned hy Obadiah (v. 14). Many years had elapsed since the events to 1 Comp. Joel iii. 3 with Obad. 11 ; iii. 7, 8 with Obad. 15 ; iii. 17 with Obad. 11, 17; iii, 19 with Obad. 10, observing that both passages refer to Edom, IL TO JOEL AND AMOS 41 which Obadiah refers, and the bitterness of feeling which was natural while the memory of Edom’s revolt and insolence was still fresh, had been some- what softened. The brevity of the oracle of Amos against Edom does not admit of detail, but the relation of the two peoples is essentially the same, and the words of Amos are best explained if Obadiah’s prophecy had preceded. But once more; Amos looks forward to the restoration of a united Israel under the house of David, which will possess the remnant of Edom (ix. 11, 12), and herein he repeats the prophecy of Obadiah, who foretells that the house of Jacob and the house of Joseph will consume the house of Esau, and the dwellers in the south of Judah will spread over the mount of Esau.t III The teaching of the Book of Obadiah is extremely Teaching of badiah. simple. Edom’s pride is to be humbled; Edom is to be judged for his conduct toward the people of Jehovah, which is the more heinous because of the relationship between them. But the judgement of Edom is only one item in a 1 The meaning of Sepharad in Obad. 20 is much too uncertain to be made the basis of an argument. But the Persian inscriptions of Darius repeatedly name (parda in close connexion with Jaund or the Ionians (Schrader, Cwneif. Jnscr. p. 446). It has been sug- gested that Qparda is probably Sardis ; and if Sepharad = Sardis, the passage may refer to the sale of Israelite slaves to the Ionian Greeks of which Joel speaks (iii. 6). 42 TEACHING OF OBADIAH LECT. larger judgement; for the duy of Jehovah is near upon all the nations, That day will be a day of reckoning and retribution. In the great conflict between good and evil, represented by Jehovah’s people on the one side, and the nations which con- spire to destroy them on the other, the cause of Jehovah’s people must prevail. The enemies of Jehovah’s kingdom must be defeated. While the mount of Esau lies desolate, the mount of Zion will no more be profaned by the foot of the invading stranger. The captive exiles will be restored to their home; Judah and Israel will be reunited; and the final result reached in the closing words of the prophecy is that to which all Israel’s history pointed, the kingdom shall be Jehovah’s. But we are still within the narrow limits of Palestine. No larger hope is expressed of the in- clusion of the nations in that kingdom. This agrees with the early date of the prophecy. The nations, as in Joel, are the objects of judgement, not of grace. Not until Isracl comes into actual contact with Assyria and Egypt in the days of Isaiah and Micah does the truth shine forth that Israel’s mission is to achieve a spiritual conquest of all the nations. As in Ainos, this picture of the future is a picture of temporal prosperity. Israel will possess its own land in undisturbed security, and Jehovah will reign over them there; but the moral renewal of the people II TEACHING OF OBADIAH 43 under His rule is not mentioned either as a necessity or asa hope. As in Amos, there is no reference to one special deliverer, the Messianic King. Deliverers are spoken of, who will come up on mount Zion to judge the mount of Hsaw; and the term recalls the days of the Judges who were raised up from time to time to fulfil a special work (Jud. iii. 9, 15; Neh. ix. 27). IV If Obadiah prophesied in the reign of Jehoram, no long interval elapsed before Edom was chastised, and Obadiah’s prophecy in part fulfilled. Amaziah captured Sela, the rock-fortress in which the Edom- ites trusted, and inflicted a terrible vengeance upon them (2 Kings xiv. 7; 2 Chron. xxv, 11, 12). But they were not completely crushed. They were again making raids upon Judah in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron. xxvii. 17), and at the destruc- tion of Jerusalem they filled up the measure of their iniquity by conduct which aroused feelings of the most bitter indignation. They spread over the south country as far as Hebron (Ezek. xxxv, 10; 1 Mace. v.65). Whether along with the neigh- bouring nations they were conquered by Nebuchad- nezzar is uncertain. But Malachi (i. 3) presupposes that Edom had suffered heavily from invasion ; and before the end of the fourth century B.c. their old Fulfilment. 44 FULFILMENT OF OBADIAH'S PROPHECY | tect. capital Petra had passed into the hands of the Nabath- eans, who founded the kingdom of Arabia Petraea. The Maccabees waged successful wars against them. Judas Maccabaeus defeated them at Arabattine (1 Mace. v. 3), recovered the south country, and recaptured Hebron. John Hyrcanus compelled the Edomites who were settled there to accept circum- cision and to conform to the law. The Edomites appear for the last time during the great struggle of the Jews with Rome. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus their name disappears from history. Edom perished but Israel survived. The succes- sive crises of its history were successive steps towards the establishment of that kingdom which is the final goal to which Obadiah’s prophecy looks forward. But the idea which he expressed under limitations of time and space and the conceptions of his own age has been expanded and spiritualised. The closing words of his prophecy are still the end upon which the eye of hope is fixed. But the kingdom for which we look and pray is not limited, material, temporal, but universal, spiritual, eternal. Thus when we claim fulfilment for the prophecies of Obadiah, we do not mean that the course of history, either for Edom or for Israel, corresponded step hy step with his anticipations. He combines into one picture a process which was to be the work of aves. But we do claim that the principles which find Ir FULFILMENT OF OBADIAH’S PROPHECY 45 expression in his prophecy in a limited and relative form have been verified by the course of history, and we await with confidence that complete fulfilment of them to which the New Testament still points us forward. LECTURE III JOEL Z will pour vut My spirit upon ail flesh. —JoEL ii, 28. I ithe erdphet: Chr oel the son of Pethuel nothing is known but the oe a native of Judah. meagre hints which may be gathered from his pro- phecy. The name was not an uncommon one. It appears as early as the time of Samuel (1 Sam. viii. 2), and survives as late as the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 9), but there is no ground whatever for identifying the prophet with any one of the name mentioned elsewhere. The name is significant. It means Jehovah is God. Like the name Micah, it contains a brief confession of faith. Joel was a native of Judah. His home was in Jerusalem or its immediate neighbourhood. He speaks repeatedly of Zion (11. 1, 15, 52; iii, 16, 17, 21), and the children of Zion (ii. 23); of Judah and Jerusalem (ii. 32; iii. 1, 16, 17, 18, 20); and the children of Judah and Serusulem (ii. 6, 8, 19) in a way which leaves no doubt upon this point. LECT, IIT PROBLEMS OF JOEL 47 He was familiar with the Temple and its services, with the priests and their ministrations (i. 9, 13, 14, 16; ii. 14,17; iii. 18). When he uses the name Jsrael (ii. 27 ; iii. 2, 16) it is as the covenant name of God’s chosen people, not as the distinctive name of the Northern Kingdom, to which he makes no allusion whatsoever. The frequent references to the Temple and its Was he a priest ? worship, and the importance attached to the inter- cessory functions of the priests, have been supposed to indicate that, like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, he was himself priest as well as prophet. But this is at least doubtful. In more than one passage he seems to summon the priests to their duties as though he were not himself one of them (i. 13, 14; ii. 17). Not only however is the personality of the blems of date and in- prophet shrouded in obscurity. Opinions differ terpretation. most widely as to the time at which he flourished, and the character of the book which bears his name. Was he among the earliest of the prophets, in the period before Assyria had even begun to loom like a threatening storm-cloud on the horizon? or is he to be placed among the very latest of the prophets, in a time when even the memory of Babylon’s cruel tyranny had been blunted into vague generalities? Did he first originate, or at least first commit to writing, thoughts and ideas which were to be taken up and expanded by his successors? or did he merely resume and summarise the writings of his long-past Contents of the book. 48 CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF JOEL LECT. predecessors, with which he was acquainted from diligent literary study? Is the description of the locust plague narrative or prediction? Is it to be understood literally or allegorically ? or may not the whole book be rather apocalyptic in its character not resting upon a foundation of present facts, or addressed to any particular audience, but idealising natural phenomena with a view to delineate for its readers the terrors and the glories of the age to come ? II All fruitful discussion of these problems must, it is obvious, start from a careful examination of the book itself. It consists of two parts. In the first part (i. 2-ii. 17) the prophet speaks. According to the view which will be adopted here, he is describing an actual calamity which has befallen the people, and exhorting them to penitence and prayer. In the second part (ii, 18-111, 21) Jehovah speaks, promising the removal of the calamity in the im- mediate future, and foretelling the issues of judgement and blessing which are in store for the remoter future. It is important to remember that although these two parts of the book are now combined in close juxtaposition without any marked break, they did not necessarily form one continuous discourse. In reducing his book to writing Joel has probably combined addresses delivered on various occasions, I CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF JOEL 49 and possibly supplemented them by additional pro- phecies not orally delivered. The general theme of the first division of the (A) Oh. 3. 8 book is the call to national humiliation and repent- ance in view of the visitation of drought and locusts by which the land has been devastated. In his first discourse (ch. i.) the prophet describes this calamity, «o cn. i. unparalleled in past times, and destined to be long memorable in the future. Successive swarms of locusts have stripped the land and left it bare (i. 2-4). The careless drunkards must rouse themselves from their debauch, for they can no longer drug them- selves into insensibility to the sufferings of the land (5-7). Zion must mourn, for so terrible is the scarcity that meal and wine can no longer be provided for the accustomed offerings in the Temple (8-10). The tillers of the soil must mourn for the loss of their labours (11, 12). The priests are bidden to humble themselves in penitence for the intermission of their due ministrations, and, proclaiming a fast, to gather the people for solemn humiliation and prayer (13, 14); and the prophet puts into their mouths a supplication which pathetically describes the suffer- ings of animals as well as men in the drought which has burnt up and desolated the whole country (15-20). In ch. ii a fresh address commences. The © cn. it. thought already suggested (i. 15) that the present visitation is the harbinger of the day of Jehovah is LE 50 CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF JOEL LECT. taken up and pressed home. The locust plague is described as the army of Jehovah, innumerable and irresistible, at the head of which He is Himself advancing to judgement (ii. 1-11). Yet even now, heartfelt repentance may avail to avert the judgement, and restore the people to His favour (12-14). ® onii.is- Then, in a brief exhortation, the prophet once more bids proclaim the fast, prescribes the manner of it, and dictates to the priests the solemn litany of intercession which they are to offer in the Temple court (15-17). ()ch.ii.48- The second part of the book contains Jehovah’s answer to His people’s prayer.’ An interval must be assumed, in which the prophet’s call to repentance was obeyed. Then the prophet, speaking directly in Jehovah’s name and as His mouthpiece, conveys the promise of the removal of the temporal judgement in the immediate future, and of the bestowal of spiritual blessing in the remoter future; and expands the thought of the day of Jehovah in its double aspect of judgement and salvation. () Oh. it. 18- The locust army will be banished and destroyed ; land, cattle, and people will again rejoice in abundant rain and the restored fertility of the soil; and in their deliverance they will recognise a fresh proof that Jehovah is their God (18-27). (2) Ch. ti, 28- But these temporal judgements and temporal 1 It must be noticed that vv. 18, 19 are certainly to be rendered in the past tense: dnd Jchoruh was jealous for His land, and had pity on His people, and Jehovah answered and said unto His people, Behold, ete. II CONTENTS OF THE BOOK OF JOEL 51 blessings are the type of spiritual blessings and greater judgements in the future. Hereafter Jehovah will pour out His spirit upon all flesh; awful signs will precede the great and terrible day of Jehovah; but in the midst of them all will be deliverance in Jerusalem for those who call upon the name of Jehovah (28-32). In that distant future the nations will be sum- (3) Oh. tit 1- moned to Jehovah’s tribunal to answer for the wrongs they have done to His people (iii. 1-8). They are challenged to muster their forces and do their worst. It is in vain. They do but gather themselves to meet ) Ch. ti 9 their doom (9-15). But in that day of terror Jehovah 7 will be His people’s refuge. Foreigners will no more overrun the holy land. Judah will be blessed with a marvellous fertility, while Egypt and Edom lie desolate for the punishment of their sins. Jehovah’s presence will be manifested in the midst of a pardoned people (16-21). Ill Such is a brief outline of the Book of Joel, if we Cope € pro- adopt the literal interpretation, which is, I believe, at phecy with once the most natural and the most satisfactory. The } prophet’s teaching springs throughout from the needs and the circumstances of his own time. The drought and the locusts were an actual, present visitation. So terrible was it, that the great day of Jehovah, the final day of judgement, seemed to be close at hand. But the the cireum- San of the time. The locust plague de- serthed not preticted, 52 INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK OF JOEL Lecr. prophet’s message for his countrymen is that repent- ance may avert that judgement. They repent, and he is commissioned to announce the removal of the plague. But they must not fancy that because it is postponed, the day of Jehovah will never come. It will come, in blessing and in judgement. The locust army which has invaded Judah is but a type of the army of the nations which will muster to battle against Jehovah and His people. The destruction of the locusts is the type of the destruction of the nations. The outpouring of abundant rain upon the parched land is the type of the outpouring of the spirit of God in the latter days. The deliverance of those who call unto Jehovah in their present distress (i. 19) is the pledge of the deliverance of those who call upon His name in the great day of judgement (ii. 32). The restored fertility of the land is an anticipation of the marvellous fertility of the future. The present deliverance is a proof of the Presence of Jehovah among His people (ii. 27); that Presence is the supreme blessing of the redeemed nation when the final judgement is past (iii, 21), The literal interpretation of the first part of the book as the description of an actual calamity has, however, been warmly disputed. Two questions have been raised—(1) whether this part of the book is descriptive or predictive; (2) whether it is literal or allegorical. To the first question I believe a decisive answer may con- IIL INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK OF JOEL 53 fidently be given, that the prophet describes a calamity from which the land was actually suffering. This is clear, whether the locusts are regarded as literal and actual locusts, or interpreted allegorically of an invading army. The appeal to the experience of the old men and their fathers (i. 2); the charge to hand on the memory of the visitation to future generations (i. 3); the detailed and graphic picture of the calamity in all its consequences ; in fact, almost every feature and every verse of the passage, condemn the theory that the prophet is predicting the future while he seems to describe the present. To the second question I believe that an equally a decisive answer may be given. It is argued that the description of the locust plague far exceeds the bounds of possible reality, and in several of its features is applicable only to an invading army of human beings, and not to irrational insects ; that “the northern army,” literally the northerner (ii. 20) must refer not to locusts, which never come from the north, but to some enemy advancing from that quarter (cp. Jer. i. 13 ff.) ; that the prayer, “ Give not Thine heritage to reproach, that the nations should rule over them” (ii. 17), clearly points to the fear of subjugation by a foreign invader. It is even supposed that the four kinds of locusts (i. 4; 11. 25) represent the four great powers from which Israel successively suffered—the Assyrio- Babylonian, the Medo-Persian, the Greek, and the Roman empires ; 54 INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK OF JOEL Lect. or four successive invading armies at some period of its history. To these arguments it may be answered that Joel’s language is not to be regarded as plain bare prose, though in fact the devastation wrought by locusts can scarcely be exaggerated. It has in it a touch of poetical imagination and Oriental hyperbole. His description of the locusts is perhaps coloured by the thought constantly present to his mind that they were a Divine visitation, the prototype and the har- binger of the great day of J ehovah, with its attendant terrors. “The northerner” is a term of too uncertain meaning to count for much. While locusts undoubt- edly for the most part enter Dalestine from the south or south-east, it does not seem certain that they never came from the north. Possibly the word may have denoted what is destructive, ill-omened, and calam- itous. In ch. ii 17 the right rendering unquestion- ably is, “ Give not Thine heritage to reproach, that the nations should use a byword against them.’ The calamity which had befallen Israel would seem to be due to the unwillingness or inability of Jehovah to protect them, so that the heathen would mockingly ask, Where ts their God ? But the final and conclusive argument against the allegorical interpretation is that the locust plague is itself compared to an army (ii. 2 ff.). It would be strange indeed to compare a symbol with the reality of which it is intended to be a symbol. And when Ur INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK OF JOEL 55 Jehovah promises to restore the damage which has been wrought, it is exclusively of the produce of the earth that He speaks (ii. 21 ff.). Here, at any rate, if the language had been allegorical, it would have been natural to look for some hint of the actual disasters to which it was intended to refer, for some allusion to the restoration of plunder carried off and captives torn from their homes. But there is none ; and we are driven back upou the simple and natural explanation that Joel is describing the disaster which had actually befallen the land at the time when he spoke or wrote, from an unprecedentedly terrible plague of locusts, combined with a severe drought. There is, however, a modification of the allegorical oe eee theory which has found considerable favour in recent wntenabie. times. According to this view, the book is an escha- tological or apocalyptic work, describing the terrors of the last days, which will precede the final day of judgement. It was never orally delivered to an audience, but composed for study. It is addressed not to the prophet’s contemporaries, but to those upon whom that awful day will dawn. The locusts of ch. 1. are not common locusts, but weird super- natural creatures. The army described in ch. ii. under the figure of locusts is no ordinary army, but a mysterious host of unearthly warriors. These strange terrors and supernatural portents precede and usher in the day of Jehovah, which is then described in its double aspect of judgement and 56 DATE OF JOEL LECT, blessing. “The northerner” is a ‘term borrowed from Ezek. xxxviii. 6, 15 to designate the army of Gog, issuing from the remote recesses of the north for a final conflict against the people of God. This view is open to the objections already urged against the older form of the allegorical theory. And further, there is no hint that Joel’s words are not addressed to his immediate contemporaries, but to some imaginary readers in a distant future. He includes himself along with his audience as a spec- tator of the sufferings of the land (i. 16). Moreover, there is no ground for distinguishing the locusts of ch. i. from the locust army of ch. 1. In the first discourse the devastation which they have wrought, in the second the irresistibleness of their advance, is in the foreground; but in both discourses they are connected with the day of Jehovah (i. 15; 11. 1, 11), and throughout the damage wrought is simply that of the locust plague, which is designated alike in the description of its march (ii. 11) and in the promise of restoration (11. 25) as Jehoreh’sarmy. This theory, moreover, is closely bound up with a view of the date of the book which we shall find good grounds for rejecting. We conclude, tien, that Joel describes an actual plague of locusts, accompanied by a severe drought. This visitation formed the occasion of his prophecy, and gave shape to his predictions for the future. IIT DATE OF JOEL 57 But it may freely be admitted that his picture of the present calamity is drawn with bolder lines and stronger colouring in view of the more awful realities in the distant future which it prefigured. The de- scription of natural phenomena must always be largely influenced by the ideas which they represent to the beholder. IV The date of Joel’s prophecy is one of the most keenly-debated problems of Biblical criticism. It is generally acknowledged that he must either have been one of the very earliest of the prophets, or have lived after the Return from the Captivity, and have been, in all probability, one of the very latest of them. The absence of any mention of Syria, Assyria, and Babylon among the enemies of Judah points to a time when these nations had not yet come into conflict with Judah, or had long disappeared from the stage of history. For the earlier date we must go back beyond the time of Amos, who threatens the Syrians with punishment, and already foresees that Israel will fall a prey to Assyria, to the earlier part of the reign of Joash, before Hazael invaded Judah, and only retired from Jerusalem on the payment of a heavy indemnity (2 Kings xii. 18 ff). Most of the critics who adopt the earlier date agree in placing Joel in this period, ie. according to the revised chronology, between about Date of Joel. 58 DATE OF JOEL LECT, 837 and 817 B.c. No other date has been suggested in the regal period which has at all an equal degree of probability. Prenump- The position of Joel in the series of the Minor tion raised by position Py, 7 i 1 op gee’ Prophets raises a presumption in favour of an early date. It is the fashion to set aside this considera- tion as entirely worthless; but it cannot be denied that the arrangement of the collection is in the main intended to be chronological. Hosea, Amos, Micah stand first as prophets of the Assyrian period ; Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah form a middle group in the half-century before the exile; Haggai, Zechar- iah, and Malachi stand last as belonging to the period of the Restoration. The chronological inten- tion in this grouping cannot be mistaken. But if Joel belonged to the later period, why was he not placed along with the prophets of that period? If he lived late on in it—and the arguments which make for placing him in that period make for placing him decidedly late in it—it is hard to suppose that all tradition of his date could have been lost at the time when the collection was made, at the latest in the third century B.c., and very probably at an earlier date. The position of Joel in the collection of the Minor Prophets does no more than create a pre- sumption that, at the time when that collection was made, he was thought to have lived at an early period. But it may justify us in considering first Il DATE OF JOEL 59 whether the indications which can be gathered from his prophecy do not confirm that presumption. At the time when Joel prophesied the priests Cae were held in high esteem. The Temple services were time, regularly maintained, and were regarded as of great importance. The intermission of the daily meal- offering and drink-offering is regarded as the culi.in- ating point of the calamity caused by the drought and the locusts, for it seems to signify nothing less than a rupture of the fellowship between Jehovah and His people. But religion was no mere outward formalism. The need of repentance, deep and thorough, is fully recognised, and pressed upon the people in words that are true for all time (ii. 12 ff). To judge from the absence of any denunciation of particular sins, such as injustice, immorality, or idolatry, the standard of morals and religion was high. Further, there is no reference to a king or court; and the prophet’s view is limited entirely to Judah; there is no allusion to the northern kingdom. There is one period, and one only, in the history correspond the cir- of Judah before the exile to which these indications romances can point. That period is, as has already been said, arto the the earlier part of the reign of Joash. After Ahaziah 7" had been slain by Jehu, the throne of Judah was seized by the queen-mother Athaliah, the worthy daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (2 Kings xi. 1 ff). Tn oriental fashion she murdered all the male mem- 60 DATE OF JOEL LECT. bers of the royal family, with the exception of Joash, who was saved from the massacre by his aunt Jehosheba, the wife of the high priest Jehoiada. For six years he was concealed in the Temple. Athaliah reigned with undisputed sway. Under her auspices Baal worship was publicly carried on in Jerusalem. When Joash had entered on his seventh year, Jehoiada planned an insurrection, deposed Athaliah, who was put to death, and crowned and anointed Joash. A religious reformation followed. Baal worship was put down, and the Temple worship was reorganised. The change was evidently welcomed by the people, who hated Athaliah, and it was effected without serious opposition. -A// the people of the land, we are told, rejviced, and the city was quiet (2 Kings xi. 20). Jehoiada became the young king’s guardian. During his lifetime all went well. The worship of Jehovah was maintained, and the Temple was restored. It was not until after his death that the princes, jealous, no doubt, of the priestly influence at court, succeeded in mis- persuading the king, and a relapse into idolatry followed (2 Chron. xxiv. 17). During the minority of Joash a condition of affairs such as that indicated in Joel may well have existed. Priestly influence was in the ascendant. The person and authority of the king were in the background. There had been a popular reaction against the ll DATE OF JOEL 61 Baal worship of Athaliah’s reign. The worship of Jehovah was, for the time at any rate, generally practised. In this period, then, we find at any rate a possible 7nis date agrees with place for the prophecy of Joel; and the possibility ee that he flourished then is raised to a strong proba- "0" bility by the references in his book to foreign nations. We have already seen that this date will account for the absence of all mention of Syria, Assyria, and Babylon; they had not yet come into conflict with Judah. But we have not only an argument from silence. The nations which are actually mentioned are nations which we know to have been enemies of Judah before the time of Joash. In ch. ili. we have a prophecy of the judgement upon the heathen ; and the nations which are singled out for special mention as enemies of Judah are the Phcenicians and Philistines (vv. 4 ff.), the Egyptians and Edom- ites (v. 19). The Pheenicians and Philistines are charged with carrying off the spoils of Jehovah’s people to decorate their temples, and with trafficking in Israelite slaves. The Egyptians and the Edomites are charged with the gratuitous murder of unoffend- ing Israelites in their land. Much stress can hardly xgype. be laid upon the mention of Judah’s hereditary enemy, Egypt. Still, in the time of Joash not more than a century had elapsed since Shishak invaded Judah and captured and plundered Jerusalem (1 Kings xiv. 25 f). The memory of that disaster Edom. Philistia, Phanicia. 62 DATE OF JOEL LECT. must still have survived. But Judah was smarting yet more keenly under the sense of recent injury from Edom. From the time of David, Edom had been subject to Judah. Jehoshaphat exercised the rights of an overlord, summoned the king of Edom to follow him to battle, and marched through his country (1 Kings xxii. 47; 2 Kings iii, 9). But under his weak son and successor Jehoram, Edom revolted, probably, according to the revised chron- ology, about B.c, 848 (2 Kings vin. 20-22). What more probable than that the revolt was accompanied by a massacre of Israelites resident in Edom—the shedding of innocent blood to which Joel refers ? From the Philistines, too, Judah suffered heavily about the same time. In conjunction with the Arabians they invaded Judah, took and plundered Jerusalem, and carried away the treasures of Jehoram’s palace, together with his sons and _ his wives (2 Chron. xxi. 16 ff.). It is not recorded that the Phcenicians took any share in the attack. But they were the great slave-traders of the East. As we learn from Amos, they sold their captives for the Philistines (Amos i. 6, 9); and to the Israelite, with his keen love of freedom and attachment to his country, this was almost, if not quite, as great an injury as open hostility. Thus the mention of these four nations and no others as hostile to Judah strikingly supports the view that Joel prophesied in the early part of the reign of Joash. mm DATE OF JOEL 63 There is one possible historical allusion which 4 possivie may be mentioned here. Though but little stress auction, can be laid upon it, it points in the same direction as the references to foreign nations. The scene of the final overthrow of the heathen is laid in the Valley of Jchoshaphat (iii. 2, 12). The significance of the name Jehovah judgeth may be sufficient to account for its use; but it undoubtedly gains in point if we may assume that there is in it an allusion to Jehoshaphat’s great victory over the confederate forces of Moab, Ammon, and Edom, in which Jehovah fought for His people and judged their enemies, who had mustered their forces with the intention of anni- hilating Judah (2 Chron. xx.). It is at least possible that this great triumph over the nations, still fresh in the recollection of the people, for it happened only a quarter of a century before the time of Joash, supplied the prophet with his imagery and suggested his language.’ The probability of the early date of Joel is still Relation of further confirmed by the consideration of the relation Amos of Amos to Joel. Clearly either Amos is quoting Joel, or Joel is referring to Amos; and, in spite of all that has been said to the contrary, I cannot but 1 The locality of Jehoshaphat’s victory was in the neighbourhood of Engedi, in the wilderness of Tekoa. The tradition which assigns the name Valley of Jehoshaphat to the valley of the Kidron, between Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives, cannot be traced beyond the time of Eusebius and Jerome. That valley can- not be meant here. The term used, denoting a broad open vale, would be quite inapplicable to the narrow ravine of the Kidron. 64 DATE OF JOEL LECT. think that it is Amos who is dependent on Joel. He opens his prophecy (Amos i. 2) by repeating the words of his predecessor (Joel ili. 16), Jehovah shall roar from Zion, as if to show that he is continuing Joel’s work, and that they are both alike messengers of the same God, Who will arise to judge the heathen. The connexion les deeper than an external coinci- dence of language. The Book of Joel closes with a vision of judgement on the nations, and a promise of prosperity for Judah. Amos takes up the thought of judgement, develops it in detail with specific threat- enings, and warns Judah and Israel that they will not escape. Amos closes his prophecy (ix. 13) with a repetition of Joel’s promise of marvellous fertility for the land of Judah (Joel iii. 18), as though he would declare that, although the promise has not yet been realised, God’s word cannot fail of fulfil- ment. In respect both of threatening and of promise he confirms the message of his predecessor. It has been maintained that Joel is borrowing the language of Amos. But both quotations are firmly embedded in the context of Joel, and belong to his circle of ideas. How natural to the prophet for whom Zion is the centre of thought is the phrase, Jehovah shall roar from Zion; how appropriate the promise of fertility in contrast to the scarcity caused by the locusts and the drought; and Amos follows up his first quotation (@. 2) with words which are a reminiscence of the circumstances of the Book of I DATE OF JOEL 65 Joel: The pastures of the shepherds shall mourn, and the top of Carmel shall wither. Again, Amos seems to refer to the circumstances described by Joel when he reminds the Israelites of the judgements by which Jehovah had called them to repentance (iv. 6 ff.).'| The reproof, Yet have ye not returned unto Me, corresponds exactly to Joel’s summons, Return unto Me with all your heart (ii. 12). Once more, it is plain that the day of Jehovah was a familiar idea to the people in the time of Amos “(v. 18 ff). But they misinterpreted its significance, claiming its blessings for themselves, and assigning its threatenings exclusively to their enemies. Such a misconception might easily have arisen from a one- sided and partial interpretation of the prophecy of Joel. It is, of course, impossible positively to affirm that the prophecy of Joel is referred to by Ezekiel (xxxvili, 17; xxxix. 8), when he speaks of ancient prophecies which had predicted the great final assault of the powers of the world upon Israel, but it is at least important to observe that the con- ception of a conflict between the confederate nations and Israel, and the supernatural destruction of the nations who defy Jehovah in defying His people, is no new idea in Ezekiel’s time. Ezekiel’s emphatic 1 Amos (iv. 9) uses the word g&:am, A.V. palmer-worm, lit. biter, for some kind of locust. It is found in Joel i. 4; ii, 25, and nowhere else. F and Ezekiel 66 DATE OF JOEL LECT. language im ancient days scarcely allows us to sup- pose that he is referring to the quite recent utterances of Zephaniah and Jeremiah ; but it would be natural if he had Joel in mind, and Joel had prophesied more than two centuries before. Arguments Such are some of the principal reasons for gzilic date, regarding Joel as one of the earliest of the prophets. We must, however, examine the arguments urged with equal confidence for placing him after the return from the Captivity. It is alleged that the language of ch. ili. 1, 17 is decisive for a date after the destruc- tion of Jerusalem in B.C. 586 ; that the absence of all allusion to the Northern Kingdom, or to a king and princes, points to a time when that kingdom had passed away, and even Judah had no longer a king or court, but was governed by priests and elders; that the sale of Israelite slaves to the sons of Javan, or Jonian Greeks (iii. 6), indicates a late date, for down to the time of Ezekiel the Ionians were bringing slaves to Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 13); that the ideas of the book are hierarchical and ceremonial, and only conceivable in the period of the Restoration, and in the small community of the returned exiles ; that the absence of reproof for special sins, and in particular for idolatry, cannot be reconciled with all that we know of pre-exilic times ; that the attitude of the prophet towards the heathen nations shows an approximation towards the narrow exelusiveness of later Judaism. The general tendency of recent criti- II DATE OF JOEL 67 cism has been in favour of a post-exilic date; but to what precise epoch of the post-exilic period the book should be assigned is a much disputed point. It cannot well be earlier than B.c. 500, for the Temple is standing, and its services are regularly performed. To adate about this time some critics would assign it, but according to others it is later than the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah, and must be placed about B.c. 400, or even later. Those who adopt the later date for the most part regard Joel as a kind of com- pendium of Jewish eschatology, and the forerunner of the later apocalyptic literature. The arguments seem formidable, but their force diminishes upon closer examination. The phrase in ch. iii. 1, rendered in our English Versions bring again the captivity, probably means, restore the fortune, and does not necessarily refer to exile. In any case it is no proof of a post-exilic date, for it occurs in Amos (ix. 14) and Hosea (vi. 11). These prophets look beyond the disasters which they fore- see are in store for Israel, to the restoration of the people to their own land in the distant future. But the dispersion of Israel among the nations of which Joel speaks is not the deportation of the people en masse by its Assyrian or Babylonian conquerors, but, as the context shows, the sale of captives as slaves to distant nations (vv. 6, 7), for which Amos condemns Gaza and Tyre with stern severity (i. 6, 9). The division of Jehovah’s land is not the conquest of of doubtful cogency. 68 DATE OF JOEL LECT. the whole country by the Chaldeans (in what sense was that a division of the land among the nations ?), but the seizure or reconquest of territory which had once belonged to Judah, by Philistines, Edomites, and other neighbouring nations, which, as we have seen, took place in the reign of Jehoram. The silence of Joel about the Northern Kingdom may be due not to the fact that this kingdom had ceased to exist, but to the limited circle of Joel’s interests. His silence, moreover, admits of a very natural explanation, if he was writing at a time when Judah was still smarting from the recollection of the cruel tyranny of Athaliah. It is easy to understand how the hopes of reunion which appear in almost all the other prophets might, under these circumstances, fall into the background. The absence of all mention of the king and court is sufficiently accounted for by the peculiar circum- stances of the minority of Joash. Too much stress must not be laid upon it. The Book of Micah contains no reference to Hezekiah, except in the title, though, as we know from the Book of Jeremiah (xxvi. 18), he prophesied before him. The predominant influence of the priesthood, and the importance attached to ceremonial, have been somewhat exaggerated. But Jehoiada could not have occupied the position which he did without increasing the influence of his class. Devotion to ceremonial was by no means limited to post-exilic II DATE OF JOEL 69 times. Isaiah’s complaint is that it was regarded as the sum and substance of religion, Elders, if indeed magistrates are denoted by the term at all in Joel,’ were not an institution peculiar to post-exilic times. On the contrary, they are more often mentioned before the exile than after it. The absence of rebuke for particular sins, and the attitude of the prophet towards the nations, are at least as difficult to explain on the hypothesis of the late date as on that of the early date. In the first quarter of a century after the Return, Haggai and Zechariah have abundant fault to find with the people. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Malachi find even graver offences to rebuke. The circumstances of the Book of Joel do not agree with what we know of either of these periods ; and in fact the advocates of the post-exilic date generally avoid the difficulty by placing the book in the interval between Zechariah and Ezra, or some considerable time after Malachi— two periods of which we know practically nothing. All the later prophets look forward to the conversion of at least a remnant of the nations. Joel’s “particularism” may be due to his early date rather than to the advance of a spirit of Judaism. Hosea is wholly silent about the destiny of the nations. 1 In ch. i. 14 the right rendering may possibly be Gather, ye elders, the inhabitants, etc., but it is not certain. In ch. i. 2; ii. 16 the context shows that old men are meant. 70 DATE OF JOEL LECT. Amos looks forward to their conquest, not their conversion (ix. 12). The argument from the course of the slave trade between Pheenicia and Ionia can hardly be pressed. The Pheenicians maintained intercourse with the Tonian Greeks from the earliest times. Syrian slaves may have been transported to Asia Minor then as they were afterwards; and Joel would select the Ionians for mention as the remotest region to which his countrymen had been carried away. The positive arguments for the early date of Joel seem to me decidedly to preponderate, and the force of those for the late date diminishes upon examina- tion. It is extremely difficult to see how Joel can be fitted into any part of the period after the Return without considerable assumptions ; and it is admitted that we are not in a position to explain his refer- ences to surrounding nations from the circumstances of that period. There is an entire absence of indica- tions that the prophet is living-in a small, struggling, despised community. The Temple worship is firmly established and regularly organised. There is no sign of the apathy and neglect which Haveai and 1 Homer (JZ, xxiii. 740) speaks of— ‘CA silver bow] well wrought, By Sidon’s artists cunningly adorned, Borne by Pheenicians o'er the dark blue sea ;" and the Tell-el-Amarna tablets (? fifteenth century B.c.) mention Ionians in connexion with Tyre. See Sayce in The Academy, 17th Oct. 1891, p. 340. IIL DATE OF JOEL 71 Zechariah rebuke, or of the contemptuous careless- ness which Malachi censures. Attention has been called to the resemblance comparison between Joel and Zechariah xii.-xiv., and they have Zech been assigned approximately to the same period.! The comparison is instructive, for there are certain resemblances, but the contrasts are greater than the resemblances. Joel's prophecy springs out of the actual circumstances of his time. It is emphatically a message to his contemporaries. It summons them to humiliation and penitence. It promises the removal of the plague from which they had been suffering. When he goes on to speak of the more distant future, it is in terms suggested by, and closely related to, the circumstances of the present. Zechariah xii.-xiv., on the other hand, is not based upon present circumstances. It is apocalyptic and eschatological, rather than prophetic and didactic. It deals simply with the distant future. The difference between the two works seems to me so marked that if, as I hope to shew, Zechariah xii.-xiv. belongs to the post- exilic period, a strong presumption is raised against the probability that Joel can be referred to the same period. The question may naturally be asked, how it can aaraninest be that style and language do not at once enable us to decide between dates so far apart as the ninth and fifth, or even fourth, centuries B.c.? The most 1 See Cheyne’s Bampton Lectures, p. Xx. Leaching of vel — The day of Jehovah, 72 TEACHING OF JOEL LECT. opposite conclusions have been drawn from the style of Joel. To one critic its smooth, flowing simplicity appears to be a certain indication of high antiquity ; another regards it as the result of art and familiarity with the older literature. But style, if we may judge from modern instances, depends at least as much upon the individual as upon the age; and in the case of the prophets it probably depends largely upon the way in which the books were committed to writing. The remains of Hebrew literature are too scanty for us to decide with certainty what was and what was not possible in a particular period. The uniformity of the Massoretic punctuation has obliterated many distinctions of pronunciation which would have served as landmarks. For these reasons it is doubtful if the argument from Joel’s style and language can be laid in the scale on either side. But it is a strange misrepresentation to say that “the language of Joel plainly bears the char- acter of the latest period of Hebrew literature.” If any argument can be drawn from it, it is in favour of the early date. Vy Joel, if we are right in assigning him to the ninth century B.c., leads the way in the series of prophecies which culminate in the Apocalypse. In the plague of locusts and drought, which was the occasion of II TEACHING OF JOEL 73 his prophecy, he saw a sign and presage of the great day of judgement and redemption—the day of Jehovah. It seems to be close at hand. Woe worth the day! Jor the day of Jehovah is at hand, and as destruction Srom the Almighty shall ut come... . Great is the day of Jehovah and very terrible! and who can abide it? But repentance may avert the final catastrophe. Jehovah is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and plenteous in lovingkindness, and repenting Him of the evil. If the visitation bears its fruit in penitence, He may send blessing to take the place of judgement. The people obeyed the prophet’s warning and repented, and he was commissioned to assure them of the speedy removal of the scourge from which they had suffered, and of the complete restoration of the fertility of their land. But he would not have them rest contented with this immediate and temporal blessing. This present experience is intended as a presage of spiritual bless- ing, a warning of decisive judgement. The great day of Jehovah is still to come, heralded by terrible signs in nature, wonders in the heavens and in the earth, blood, and fire, and pillars of smoke, While for the nations who have misused the people of Jehovah and defied Him it will be a time of judgement and retribu- tion, for Israel it will be a time of the outpouring of the Spirit, of deliverance in the midst of judgement. And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will rhe outpour- Ste ing of the pour out My spirit upon all flesh ; and your sons and spirit. 74 TEACHING OF JOEL LECT, your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall sce visions : and even upon the slaves and upon the handmaids in those days will I pour out My spirit (ii. 28, 29). Universal as the promise to «l/l flesh seems at first sight to be, the context and the explanation, upon your sons and upon your daughters, show that in its first and original intention it is limited to Isracl. The words admit of the larger meaning which was given them on the day of Pentecost, but it does not appear to be as yet explicitly present to the prophet’s mind. He foretells the realisation of Moses’ wish, Would God that all the Lord’s people were prophets, that He would put His spirit upon them (Num. xi. 29). In the new age the whole nation will receive the eift of the divine spirit, and participate in that prophetic illumination which as yet is granted only to a few select individuals. Inferiority of position will be no bar to privilege. Even slaves will share the blessing. aig The promise of the outpouring of the spirit was miseat | fulfilled on the day of Pentecost (.\cts ii, 14 ff). The prophecy did not, indeed, refer solely to the Pentecostal gift, nor was it exhausted in it. But the miracle of Pentecost ushered in the new dispensation to which Joel had pointed, and in which his words are to receive an ever-increasing fulfilment. It is noteworthy that a larger meaning is attached to the words, All flesh is extended to include Gentile III TEACHING OF JOEL 75 as well as Jew. And that which Joel speaks of as the action of Jehovah Himself is attributed to the Risen and Ascended Lord (Acts ii. 33). Nor does St. Peter omit the words which tell of the approach of the day of the Lord in its aspect of terror. Grace and judgement move side by side. The Fall of Jerusalem was the sequel of the day of Pentecost. For those who would not receive their God when He came in mercy, He must appear in wrath. The day of Jehovah will come with its attendant ne aetiver- terrors. But it will not be a day of terror for Israel, Tract, for whosoever shall call on the name of Jehovah shall be delivered: for in mount Zion and in Jerusalem shall be a company that escape, as Jehovah hath said, and among the survivors shall be those whom Jehovah calleth (ii. 32)! Here, too, the primary reference appears to be to Israel ; and although the words admit of a wider meaning, it is implicit, and not definitely expressed. The counterpart of this picture of Israel’s iumin- The judge. ation and deliverance is the judgement of the nations, nations. They are summoned before Jehovah’s tribunal to answer for their offences against His people. Those who have plundered Jerusalem, and sold Israelite captives into distant slavery, will themselves in turn meet the like fate. Another scene follows. The nations are ironically challenged to muster for the final conflict. Jehovah 1 On the probability that here and elsewhere Joel refers to Obadiah, see above p. 40. 76 TEACHING OF JOEL LECT, brings down His heavenly hosts to battle against them. The day of His final triumph is at hand. The prophet leaves the doom of the insurgent armies to his reader’s imagination, and turns to picture the felicity of Zion, when Jerusalem shall be holy, and there shall no strangers pass through her any more ; when there shall be no more scarcity and drought, but perennial streams will fertilise even the barren ravine of the acacias ; when the Presence of Jehovah among His people will at length be fully realised. Limitations The limitations of Joel’s prophecy require careful Phecy ae” notice. For him the great contrast is between Israel (Fhe and the nations. Israel is to be saved and glorified. (he nations, The nations are to be judged. The contrast between the righteous and the ungodly within the chosen people, and the hope of the salvation of at least a remnant among the heathen nations, lie outside the circle of Joel’s teaching. There are none of the stern warnings which we find in almost every other prophet, that the day of Jehovah will be a day of terror and doom to the sinners even among His own people ; none of the glorious hopes which meet us alike in the prophets of the eighth century and in the prophets of the Restoration, that the nations will one day pay homage to Jehovah, and come to Zion for instruction. If there is room in his words for both warning and hope, at any rate they are not explicitly expressed. Can these limitations best be explained on the hypothesis of an early or a late date? Has the III TEACHING OF JOEL 77 universalism of Messianic prophecy not yet been reached ? or is the stern exclusiveness of later Judaism already clouding over the larger hope? Surely it is easier to see in them the unexpanded bud of prophecy, rather than its withered flower. The author of deliverance is Jehovah Himself. Cee There is no prediction of a Teacher! or Deliverer or King who will be His earthly representative. Him- self He sits to judge the nations. In person He takes up His abode in Zion. Joel has been charged with “a want of ethical © cthicat interest.” The moral element in his prophecy is ne said to be subordinated to the longing for a national triumph over the heathen. The criticism, I must say, seems to me a shallow one. Repentance deep and sincere is urged upon the people in the strongest terms. The locust plague is viewed as a divine call to return to Jehovah. It is true that repentance is not defined, and that particular sins are not singled out for condemnation. But we cannot tell how far 1The rendering of ch. ii, 23: Mor He hath given you the teacher for righteousness, which is followed by the Targum and Vulgate (quia dedit vobis doctorem “ustitiae), cannot be defended. The context makes it clear that méreh must mean, as it does in the next clause, the former rain. The meaning of the words for righteousness is, however, difficult. The rendering moderately (A.V.), or in just measure (R.V.), is questionable, for the word righteousness in the O.T. always has an ethical sense. Probably for righteousness means either—(a) in proof of His righteousness or faithfulness to His covenant (Isa. li. 5, 6); or (0) in token of your righteousness, ie, your justification and restoration to God’s favour (Job xxxiii. 26). Conclusion. 78 CONCLUSION LECT. Tl these brief utterances may have been supplemented by oral teaching. Leturning to Jehovah sums up the duty of His people who had wandered from Him. The promise of the outpouring of the Spirit recognises most fully man’s need of the infusion of a supernatural life, and his capacity for being raised above his natural self. The dwelling of Jehovah among His people, which is the final goal of the prophecy, implies that they have been fitted for His immediate presence. And if the relation of Israel to the nations may seem at first sight to be tinged with a spirit of narrow nationalism, it must be remembered that the conflict between Israel and the nations was the form in which the great conflict between good and evil, between God and His enemies, presented itself to Joel under the circumstances of his age. Thus, then, at the time when Israel was about to come in contact with the great powers of the ancient world, and fainting spirits might be tempted to tremble for the very existence of the people of God, Joel was inspired confidently to predict the final issue of the conflict between the people of God and the powers of the world. Be it never so long delayed, the day of Jehovah must come, when He will be finally triumphant over every enemy. Be His own people never so obstinate, the goal must finally be reached, when the words shall be fulfilled : Jehovah dwelleth in Zion. THE PROPHETS OF THE ASSYRIAN PERIOD AMOS—HOSEA—ISATAH—MICAH 6 dé per’ emipedrelas kal mpocoxfs évtvyxdvev Tots mpopytikols Nbyos, Tabav é& abrod rod avayryvwoKew ixvos évOovoracpod, d av Tacxe. mecOjnceTa ovK avOpwrwy eva ovyypdpmata Tovs TemTLC- Teupévous Oeod Nd-yous. ORIGENES. LECTURE IV AMOS Let judgement roll down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream.—Amos v. 24. I Four of the prophets whose writings have been pre- The pro- served to us belong to what may be termed the “ssyrin Assyrian period: the period in which the Northern Kingdom fell before the advancing armies of Tiglath- pileser, Shalmaneser, and Sargon; and the Southern Kingdom, after becoming a tributary vassal of the great king, only escaped from a like fate by the miraculous intervention of Jehovah for the deliver- ance of His people. Of these four prophets Amos and Hosea prophesied to Israel, Isaiah and Micah to Judah. Amos and Hosea were in part contemporary, but Amos was somewhat the earlier of the two. They both commenced their ministry in the reign of Jeroboam IT; but while there are no indications that any of the extant prophecies of Amos were delivered after that reign, Hosea’s activity certainly continued G Date of Amos. 82 CONTRAST BETWEEN AMOS AND HOSEA _LEcT, into the period of political chaos which followed upon the death of that powerful monarch. II The precise note of time prefixed to the prophecy of Amos, two years before the earthquake, probably refers to his mission to Bethel. The memory of that earthquake long survived, preserved possibly by its visible effects ;+ but the date of it is no longer known. We shall not, however, be far wrong if we place the ministry of Amos in the second half of Jeroboam’s reign. The victories by which he restored the border of Isral from the entering in of Hamath unto the sea of the Arabah, had already been won when Amos prophesied,” and the prosperity which was the result of these successes had already begun to bear evil fruit in the spirit of luxury and overweening self- confidence. If Jeroboam’s reign, as seems most proh- able, lasted until B.c. 749, or even a few years later, the mission of .Amos is probably to be placed about Bc. 760. On the other hand, none of Hosea’s pro- phecies can well be later than Bc. 734." Thus the two prophets fall within the same quarter of a century, and though Amos preceded Hosea, it can at the most have been by but a few years, 1 Zech. xiv. 5; ep. note to Lect. XV. * Cp, Amos vi. 14 with 2 Kings xiv. 25. * See p. 108 1 Iv CONTRAST BETWEEN AMOS AND HOSEA 83 Til But the recorded prophecies of these two con- contrast temporary prophets present a singular contrast, which dinos and it is well to bear in mind in studying their books. oe It cannot be accounted for by the fact that Amos, though he prophesied to Israel, was a native of Judah, while Hosea was a native of the Northern Kingdom; nor need it be supposed that either of them ignored the truths which the other teaches, for Hosea seems to have been acquainted with the writings of Amos. But they offer a remarkable illustration of the principle which it is essential to bear in mind for the study of the Old Testament as well as the New, that God chooses one man to present one portion or one aspect of the whole sum of truth, and another man to present another portion or another aspect of it. The fourfold Gospel gives a more complete portraiture of our Lord’s life and work than a single narrative could have done. St. Peter and St. John, St. James and St. Paul, have each a distinctive and characteristic message to de- liver. Perhaps with our present limited faculties we are more impressed by truth when one part of it is presented to us boldly without reserve or qualifica- tion, and then another part offered for our accept- ance with equal definiteness and emphasis. The teachings which a hasty judgement may pronounce to Cireum- stances of the time. 84 HISTORY OF THE TIME OF AMOS LECT. be contradictory are in fact complementary: consci- ence, not logic, will adjust the balance between them. So it is with Amos and Hosea. Amos starts from the thought of the universal sovereignty of Jehovah. He is a preacher of a righteousness. His soul is filled with a sense of the need for justice. He says comparatively little about deeper motives. Humanity in man’s dealings with his fellow-man is a wniversal duty, incumbent upon and recognisable by nations outside the sphere of special revelation. Hosea starts from the thought of Jehovah’s relation to Israel. He is the preacher of mercy and loving- kindness. He points to the inner motives of human conduct, and deals with man’s duty to his fellow-man in the light of his duty to God and in virtue of God’s choice of Israel. His spirit is full of a pathetic tenderness, learnt in the school of sorrow. IV The period in which Amos was called to his pro- phetic work was one of singular external prosperity for both Israel and Judah. Israel had recently re- covered from a state of extreme depression. During the reign of Jehoahaz, the son and successor of Jehu, it had sutfered most severely from the Syrians under Hazael and Benhadad III. Hazael took all the Israelite territory beyond the Jordan, and even captured some cities on the western side of it. The lv HISTORY OF THE TIME OF AMOS 85 army of Israel was reduced to a nominal strength. Its weakness is indicated by the repeated raids of the Moabites, who penetrated even into the neighbour- hood of Samaria (2 Kings x. 32 f.; xiii. 3, 7, 20, 22, 25). The nation seemed to be on the brink of de- struction. But the hour of Israel’s fall had not yet come. It was to have one more respite. Stimulated by Elisha’s dying charge, Joash, the son and successor of Jehoahaz, recovered the cities which his father had lost to the west of the Jordan. It is probable that these successes were partly due to the fact that the strength of Syria was otherwise occupied in grappling with a new enemy on the north. The Assyrians were advancing southwards. Jehu is named on the ‘black obelisk’ of Shalmaneser IT. as having paid him tribute in Bc. 842. But they began by concentrating their attack upon Syria. For the time Damascus served as a barrier to check the tide of their conquests, and their successes relieved Israel from the presence of their formidable neigh- bours. Joash, however, did not follow up his victories ; and it was reserved for Jeroboam II. to be the saviour of Israel (2 Kings xiii. 4 f.; xiv. 26 f). He assumed the aggressive, recovered the territory of Israel on the east of the Jordan from Hamath in the valley of the Orontes on the north to the Dead Sea on the south, and even captured Damascus (2 Kings xiv. 25, 28). Almost simultaneously Uzziah was extending Internal condition of Israel. 86 SOCIAL EVILS OF THE TIME LECT. the power of Judah in the south ; and the two king- doms rose to a pitch of power and prosperity greater than they had enjoyed since the days of Solomon. But prosperity, as it so often has done, brought grave evils in its train. The brief chronicle in the Book of Kings does little more than give a bare out- line of the external history. It is from the pages of Amos and Hosea that we must draw the materials for a picture of the actual condition of the people in the Northern Kingdom. There we get a glimpse of a state of society from which the primitive simplicity , and equality had disappeared. A class of wealthy nobles had arisen, who had swept the smaller hold- ings together into vast estates in defiance of the fundamental principles of the constitution, and mis- used their power to oppress the masses, who had sunk into a condition of poverty and in some cases even actual slavery.! Let us turn to the pages of Amos, and note what he saw beneath the apparent prosperity and external splendour of Jeroboam’s reign. The luxury of the rich was conspicuous. They had their winter and summer residences (iii. 15), which were built of hewn stone, panelled with ivory, and furnished with couches inlaid with the same costly material (v. 11; iii. 15; vi. 4), where they feasted and drank to excess amid delicate perfumes, and soft strains of varied music (vi. 4-6). But these luxuries were obtained by means 1 See Robertson Smith’s Prophets of Isracl, p. 93. Iv SOCIAL EVILS OF THE TIME 87 which Amos bluntly calls violence and robbery (iii. 10); by oppression of the poor and needy, who were even sold as slaves by their remorseless creditors (ii. 6-8) ; by dishonest trading, by false weights, and worthless goods (viii. 4-6); by exacting presents and taking bribes (v. 11, 12). Women shewed themselves as eruel and hard-hearted as men, imperiously demand- ing from their husbands the means for the supply of their Inxuries, regardless of the fact that they were to be procured at the expense of the poor and needy (iv. 1). Public and private virtues alike had decayed. The venality of the judges—that perpetual curse of Oriental countries—was notorious. The poor man need not look for redress in the courts where justice was openly bought and sold (v. 7, 12). Licentious- ness of the grossest kind was unblushingly practised (ii, 7). Tradesmen made no secret of their covetous- ness and dishonesty (viii. 4 ff). Humane laws were openly ignored (ii. 8). And withal no reproof of these practices was tolerated. The suggestion of the duty of upright dealing was sufficient to make a man unpopular (v.10). Engrossed with their own pleasures, the nobles shewed a callous indifference to the moral ruin of their country (vi. 6). Confident in the continuance of a prosperity which they attributed to their own exertions, they had no fear of impending judgement (vi. 1, 13). Personal history of Amos. 88 PERSONAL HISTORY OF AMOS LECT. The outward ordinances of worship were zealously observed at the various sanctuaries. Sacrifices and burnt offerings and meal offerings and thank offerings and freewill offerings were brought in abundance. New moons and Sabbaths and festivals were ob- served. The joyous songs of the worshippers re- sounded in their sanctuaries (v. 21 ff; iv.4f.; vi. 3, 5,10). They trusted in the privilege of descent (iii. 2; ix. 7). Was not Jehovah of hostsin their midst ? Did they not duly propitiate Him in the manner He desired ? Could He possibly desert them? Surely the day, whenever it might come, in which He would manifest His Presence more immediately and visibly, must be a welcome day of blessing for Israel, and discomfiture for Israel’s enemies (v. 14, 18)! Vv Such was the state of society in Northern Israel when Amos was sent on his mission. His home was at Tekoa, about twelve miles south of Jerusalem, whence came the “wise woman” who was employed by Joab to procure Absalom’s recall (2 Sum, xiv. 2), He was no prophet by birth or education,’ but a shepherd or herdman,’ and dresser of sycamore trees, which were * When Amos disclaims being a prophet’s son (vii. 14), he may refer to his natural parentage ; but it is certainly possible that he means that he had not been trained in the ‘schools of the pro- phets.’ So R.V. marg., one of the sons of the prophets. Cp. 1 Kings xx. 85. 2 In ch. i. 1 he is said to have been among the shepherds of Iv PERSONAL HISTORY OF AMOS 89 cultivated both for their fruit and for their durable wood (1 Chron. xxvii, 28; Iga. ix.10). He may have partly owned the flocks and the trees which he tended, but the fact that he followed the flock (vii. 15), makes it clear that he was not a wealthy noble, but a yeo- man like Elisha who worked upon his own farm, or perhaps of still humbler position, The language of his prophecy bears numerous traces of the character of his occupation. The significance of the phe- nomena of nature, familiar to one whose life was spent in the open air, impressed itself deeply upon him (iv. 13; v. 8; ix. 5,6). The waggon loaded with sheaves (ii. 13); the lion growling over his prey (ii. 4); the remnants of his prey recovered by the shepherd out of the lion’s mouth (ii. 12); the bear, more formidable to the shepherd than even the lion (v. 19) ; the snares set for birds (iii. 5); plough- ing (vi. 12); cattle-driving (iv. 3); corn-winnowing (ix. 9); the locusts devouring the aftermath (vii. 1 ff); the basket‘ of summer fruit (viii, 1 ff); supply him with imagery which he uses with perfect natural- ness, as might be expected from one who was brought up to the calling of a shepherd and husbandman. At the divine call Amos left his flocks and herds ix mission 0 bethet. Tekou. The term ndkéd here used occurs elsewhere in the Old Tes- tament only in 2 Kings iii, 4, where it is applied to Mesha (A.V. sheepmaster). It appears to denote the owner or keeper of a par- ticular breed of sheep or goats, small and ugly, but valuable for their wool. In ch. vii. 14, 15 Amos describes himself as a herd- man, and says that Jehovah took him from following the flock. 90 PROPHECIES OF AMOS LECT. and sycamore orchards at Tekoa, and journeyed to Bethel. There, under the shadow of the royal palace and sanctuary, he publicly delivered his message.’ How much of the book as we now have it was thus orally delivered, we cannot tell. But no doubt the substance of the prophecy against Israel which occupies the greater part of it was actually spoken. The climax was reached when he foretold the destruction of the sanctuaries of Israel, the fall of the house of Jeroboam, and the captivity of the people. Amaziah the priest of Bethel interposed, and sent word to Jeroboam, charging Amos with treason. Amaziah evidently dared not lay violent hands on the sacrosanct person of a prophet without the king’s authority. But he strove to silence the unwelcome visitor, and bade him flee to his own home, and prophesy there. Amos defended his action. It was no self-chosen task, but one imposed upon him, contrary to all expectation, by a divine mandate which he could not resist. And he pro- nounces a solemn sentence upon Amaziah. Though he might now be able to silence the prophet, he was destined himself to experience the fulfilment of his words. 1 It is possible that he went as far as Samaria. The addresses in chaps. iii.-vi. seem, in part at least, more suitable to Samaria than to Bethel. See iii. 9; iv. 1; vi. 1. Iv AGAINST THE NATIONS 91 VI It seems probable that Amos went home to rhe Book of Tekoa, and there committed his prophecies to writ- aur ing. The book bears evidence of more orderly and systematic arrangement than would be likely to have characterised the spoken prophecies! In particular, the prophecies against surrounding nations, and against Judah, with which it opens, would scarcely have been spoken in Bethel. If, as there seems no reason to doubt, the title is from the prophet’s own hand, at least two years elapsed before it was completed. The series of prophecies against the nations which Higa forms the prologue to the book is noteworthy, alike tina the for the view of the universal sovereignty of Jehovah Chaps. tf which it presents, and for the doctrine of the moral responsibility of the heathen which it assumes. Here, in the earliest of the prophets whose date is universally acknowledged, Jehovah is already presented to view as the supreme Ruler of the world. He is not Israel’s God alone, though He is Israel’s God in a special sense, for He has chosen Israel out of all the families of the earth to be His own people. But He who is the all-sovereign Creator of the universe, orders the migrations of the nations, and cares tor their welfare. It is He who 1 See Note A, p. 105. 92 PROPHECIES OF AMOS LECT. brought up the Philistines from Caphtor and the Syrians from Kir, not less than Israel from the land of Egypt (ix. 7). He has the right and the power to punish them for their offences. What then are the offences of which they have been guilty? In part no doubt it is for hostility to Israel that they are condemned; but in the main it is for inhumanity, for breaches of those natural laws of piety written in the heart and conscience of man, by which the relation of man to man and nation to nation ought to be governed. The gravamen of the offence lies in its character, not in the fact that it is com- mitted against Jehovah’s people. Thus Syria is con- demned for the barbarous destructiveness of its wars against Gilead; Philistia for merciless deportation of captives into slavery; Tyre for a like offence, ageravated by the forgetfulness of the brotherly covenant made by Hiram with David and Solomon ; Edom for pitiless hostility, and that against his own brother; Ammon for savage brutality in warfare; Moab, most notable instance of all, for senseless insult, which violated the natural laws of respect for the dead. The condemnation of these nations implies that even the heathen possessed some know- ledge of right, which carried with it a corresponding degree of moral responsibility. The violation of the natural laws of humanity written in their hearts demands punishment. They are capable of exercis- ing moral judgements. Even the Philistines and Iv AGAINST THE NATIONS 93 Egyptians are summoned as witnesses of the wrongs which are perpetrated in Samaria (iii. 9). With Judah and Israel it is otherwise. Judah is sudan ana condemned for disregard of the divine revelation a made to it: because they have rejected the law of Jehovah, and have not hept His statutes, and their lies, the false gods which they have chosen, have caused them to err (ii. 4). Israel is condemned for in- humanity and debauchery ; and their misconduct is ageravated by forgetfulness of all that Jehovah had done for them in bringing them out of Egypt, and establishing them in the land of Canaan. They have been admonished by a succession of prophets; but they have silenced the prophets whose rebukes disturbed their complacency. They have had the Nazirites before their eyes as a standing example of self-control, but they had done their best to corrupt those whose ascetic lives were a constant rebuke of their self-indulgence (ii. 6-12). VII The storm of judgement which has swept over the ssracrs sins. surrounding nations from north to south, and from west to east, remains suspended in all its intensity over Israel. It was to Israel that Amos was specially sent, and upon them the full force of his moral indignation is let loose. The sins which were rife in the state of society which has already been 94 THE SINS OF ISRAEL LECT, described—covetousness and dishonesty, cruel treat- ment of the poor and defenceless, open violation of humane laws, perversion of justice, selfish and idle luxury, immorality and profanity—all in succession are dragged to the light and unsparingly denounced. Repeated chastisements have had no effect upon them (iv. 6 ff); they are ripe for judgement; let them prepare to meet their God; to seek Him is the one condition of life; and if they do not seek Him, He will break forth as a consuming fire that none can quench. By the side of Isvael’s moral offences, their cere- monial errors fall comparatively into the background. Amos goes to the root of the matter, and deals with the attitude of the people’s heart and will towards Jehovah. How could any worship, offered ly hands so stained with sin, from hearts so absolutely indif- ferent not merely to Jehovah’s known requirements, but to the common dictates of morality, be possibly acceptable? But it is scarcely true to say that Amos “ expresses no dread of the religious symbolism prevalent in Northern Israel”; that “like Elijah and Elisha, he lets the golden calves pass without a word *) Elijah and Elisha were face to face with the graver question whether Baal or Jehovah was to be [svacl’s God. Amos was face to face with of protest. the scarcely less grave moral question, what concep- 1 Cheyne, Hosea, p. 31. Seo Davidson’s criticism in The Expositor, 8rd Ser, vol. v. p. 174 MT. IV THE SINS OF ISRAEL 95 tion Israel formed of Jehovah and His requirements, This question overshadows everything else. But apart from the indispensable moral conditions of true worship, it is clear that he regards the worship carried on in sanctuaries of their own choice, with ceremonies of their own devising, as no true seeking of Jehovah. Their altars are to be destroyed. Jn the day that I shall visit the transgressions of Israel upon him, I will also visit the altars of Beth-el, and the horns of the altar shall be cut off, and fall to the ground (ii. 14). Or again: Seek ye Me, and ye shall live: but seck not Beth-el, nor enter into Gilgal, and pass not to Beer-sheba: for Gilgal shall surely go into captiwity, and Beth-el shall come to nought (v. 4). Tronically he exhorts them: Come to Bethel, and transgress ; to Gigal, and multiply transgression ; and bring your sacrifices every morning, and your tithes every three days ; and offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving of that which is leavened, and proclaim freewill offerings and publish them (iv. 4, 5). It may be doubtful whether the sin of Samaria means the calf of Bethel or the Asherah which was still standing in Samaria (2 Kings xiii. 6) ; but the worshippers of the calves are certainly in- cluded in the threat: They that swear by the sin of Samaria, and say, As thy God, O Dan, liveth ; and, As the way of Beer-sheba liveth ; even they shall fall, and never rise wp again (vii. 14). And the last vision (ix. i. ff) presents a graphic picture of the worshippers buried under the ruins of the Temple in which they Israel's self- delusion. 96 JEHOVAH’S REQUIREMENTS LECT. are assembled for worship. “These passages,” says Professor Davidson, “appear to carry in them a formal repudiation of the calves... If the pro- phet’s language be not a verbal protest against the calf worship, it is because it is a great deal more; it is a protest which goes much deeper than the calves, and is directed to something behind them. The calves, and the whole ritual service as it was prac- tised, were but symptoms of that which gave offence to the prophets, which was the spirit of the worship, the mind of the worshippers, the conception of Deity which they had in worshipping, and to which they offered their worship. Jehovah distinguishes between this service and the worship of Him. Seek Ale, and seek not to Bethel.” In the midst of all their moral depravity, and failures to recognise Jehovah’s character, they still claimed to be His people, and imagined themselves to be entitled to His favour. Jehovah, the God of hosts, is with us, was their favourite watchword (v.14). They desired the day of Jehovah (v. 18). It was inconceivable that He should manifest Himself other- wise than as the champion of His own people and the destroyer of their enemies. It must have been a rude shock to the easy-going security of the Israel- ites to learn that just because they were Jehovah’s people He intended to punish them. ow only have I known of all the families of the earth: therefore I will visit upon you all your iniquities (ii. 2), All Iv JEHOVAH’S REQUIREMENTS 97 that He had done for them in delivering them from the bondage of Egypt, and leading them through the wilderness, and destroying the gigantic Amorites before them, ought to have bound them to grateful service. At least, if they did not recognise the claim to gratitude, it would have been the part of prudence to fear the Almighty Creator of the universe (iv. 13; v. 8; ix. 6). Jehovah’s requirements are few and simple. Seek serovan’s good and not evil... . Hate the evil, and love the good, iments. and establish gudgement in the gate (v. 14,15). Let judyement roll down as waters, and righteousness as a perennial stream (v. 24). Reyuirements few and simple, yet difficult, because they cut clean across the ingrained selfishness of the human heart, and demanded nothing less than a complete reversal of their present principles of action. Seek Jehovah ; seek good ; that ye may live, is the The impena- ing judge- burden of the prophet’s message. He sets before ment. them life and death; and if they will not choose the way of life, the punishment cannot be averted. Once and again at the intercession of the prophet Jehovah repents Him of the evil (vii. 1-6). But the end must come. Judgement cannot be deferred (vii. 7 ff.; viii. 1 ff). The sinful kingdom must be destroyed from off the face of the earth. Jehovah’s character must be vindicated in the sight of all the nations. The instrument of chastisement is at hand. Amos does not name them, but no doubt he has the Assyrians H 98 THEOLOGY OF AMOS LECT. inview. The Syrians had been a formidable enemy, but a still more formidable and irresistible power was arising in the distant north (v. 27; vi. 14). The restora. Yet CO-ordinately with the prediction of judgement nee we meet with the promise of restoration. When the sinful kingdom is destroyed, the house of Jacob will not be utterly destroyed. When the house of Israel is sifted among all the nations, as corn is sifted in a sieve, the least grain shall not fall upon the ground. Only the self-confident sinners, who deny the possi- bility of a judgement, will perish (ix. 8-10). Then the ancient glory of the Davidic kingdom will be restored ; a reunited, purified Israel will once more possess the remnant of Edom, and all the nations which Jehovah had claimed as His own.? Israel will be restored to its own land, and dwell there securely in the enjoyment of undisturbed prosperity. The curse of barrenness will be removed: the land will be enriched with the blessings of exuberant fertility (ix, 11-15). VIII Theology of The dominant idea in the theology of Amos is the sovereignty of Jehovah in nature and in history. The Lord, or the Lord Jehovah, or the God of hosts, are his favourite titles for (fod;? and whatever may have been the origin of the title Jehovah of hosts, it 1 With ix. 12 ep. Deut. xxviii. 10. 2 See Note B, p. 106, IV THEOLOGY OF AMOS 99 can hardly be doubted that the Septuagint rendering Lord all-sovereign («ipsos tavtoxpdtwp) rightly re- presents the sense in which the prophets employed it to designate Jehovah as the Ruler of the hosts of heaven and earth. In three passages Amos breaks out into a sublime apostrophe of the sovereign Creator. When he bids Israel prepare to meet its God, he would startle them into repentance by bring- ing home to them the conviction of what He is Whose name is Jehovah, the God of Hosts. He it is Who formed the solid mountains and created the subtle wind, Who reveals to man His thoughts in His works and by His prophets, Who turns the light of dawn into darkness, and makes the high places of the earth as it were the footstool of His feet (iv. 13). When he bids Israel seek Jehovah if they would live and not die, he draws as it were two portraits, and hangs them up one over against the other. On the one side there are the men who turn judgement to wornwood, and cast righteousness down to the ground : on the other there is the maker of the Pleiades and Orion, Who turns the deepest gloom into morning, and mahes day as dark as night ; Iho calls for the waters of the sea, and pours them over the face of the earth ; Jehovah is His name; Who flashes destruction upon the strong, so that destruction comes upon the fortress (v. '7 ff). This is the God with whom these daring sinners have to do. Do they doubt His power to overtake them, 100 ESCHATOLOGY OF AMOS LECT. though they should bury themselves in the lowest depths of Sheol, or scale the topmost heights of heaven? He Iho touches the lund and it melts away, and all its inhabitants mourn, is none other than He Who builds His chambers in the heaven, and founds His vault upon the carth, and calls for the waters of the sea, and pours them out upon the face of the earth (ix. 6). He is, as we have seen already, the God of his- tory, Who orders the migrations of the nations, Who claims the right and has the power to judge them for their breaches of the common law which He has written in their hearts. But in a special way He has revealed Himself to Israel. In one sense Israel is but as one of the nations whose destinies He has guided. Are ye not us the children of the Ethiopians unto Me, O children of Isracl (ix. 7)? But in another sense Israel is the only nation which He has /nown,’ chosen and acknowledged as peculiarly His own. He has sent them prophets, and the prophets are His servants, to whom He reveals His secret counsel (ii. 11: ui. 7). His moral character is shewn in His denunciation of Israel’s conduct, and in those demands of goodness, judgement, and righteousness, of which we have alrealy spoken, 1 Cp. the use of the word in Gen. xviii. 19 of the call of Abraham. Iv ESCHATOLOGY OF AMOS 101 The eschatology of Amos is of the simplest amos character. The picture of Israel’s future which he eure draws in the concluding verses of the book is, like that of Joel,’ a picture of purely temporal felicity. Sinners will be destroyed in the judgement which is impending; while the sound grain will be preserved out of which a renewed people is to spring (ix. 9, 10). But he casts no light on the deeper problem, how sin is to be atoned for and eradicated. He looks apparently for this restoration to follow at no long interval upon the judgement which is to fall upon Israel from the Assyrians. He has no pre- diction of a personal Messiah. But it is noteworthy that he does connect the hope of the future with the house of David. This is to be restored to its pristine glory, and through its restoration blessing comes to the no longer divided nation which exercises a sovereignty over surrounding nations as of old. He is still the representative of a rudi- mentary stage of prophetic revelation, to be en- larged, developed, spiritualised by his successors ; to be fulfilled not indeed in the letter, but in the spirit. IX But though in some respects the teaching of Place of . : “ mos in. Amos is of a simple and rudimentary character, his oe * Israel. 1 To whose words he seems to allude, cp. Amos ix. 13 with Joel iii. 18. See above, p. 63 ff. 102 PLACE OF AMOS IN THE LECT. book offers a complete refutation of the theory that his prophecy marks an entirely new departure in the religious history of Israel. He, in common with the other prophets of the eighth century,’ is, as I have already observed (p. 26 ff), a reformer and not a founder. If the people had no knowledge of the moral demands of Jehovah, how could they justly be blamed for disregarding them? Amos refers to prophets who had preceded him, and betrays no sense of any discontinuity between their teaching and his own (ii. 11; iii. 7). With all their faults, men desire to hear the words of Jehovah. They are their spiritual food, and the spiritual ‘famine’ which will ensue upon the withdrawal of prophetic teaching, which is threatened as part of Israel's punishment, will be recognised as a grievous evil (vill. 11 ff). It is instructive to observe the knowledge which Amos himself shews, and which he presumes in his hearers. He implies a familiarity with the history of Jacob and Esau (i, 11). Moab shall die with tumult (ii. 2) may possibly be a reference to the phrase sons of tvmull in Balaam’s prophecy of the destruction of Moab (Num. xxiv. 17, RV). He condemns (ii. 8) the Iweach of the humane law concerning pledges, which is found in Exod. xxii. 26. He speaks of the forty years of wandering in the 1 [ do not refer to the evidence of Obadiah and Jocl, because their dates are disputed. IV RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF ISRAEL 103 wilderness, and the gigantic stature of the Amorites (i. 9, 10). He knows the fame of David as a musician (vi. 5). This simple country- man is acquainted with the history of his nation and understands its religious significance. He expects his hearers and readers to know it, for he refers to these things incidentally and cursorily, as to matters with which they would be familiar; and he refers to events outside his own nation. The fate of Calneh and Hamath, the origin of the Philistines and the Syrians, have their warning and their interest for him. The natural inference is that the class of yeomen, possibly even of peasants, to which Amos belonged, was by no means an uninstructed class. How far the ancient history of the nation had been already committed to writing, or how far it was still preserved by oral tradition, is a question which cannot be answered with certainty. But if, as there seems no reason to doubt, Amos committed his own prophecy to writing, it is at least probable that some historical records already existed in a written form. The law and the statutes of Jehovah are presumed to be known, for Judah is condemned for having forsaken them and followed false gods (their lies) like their fathers (ii. 4)! The existence of a ritual law is implied in the condemnation of the offering 1 It is wholly arbitrary to condemn this passage as a ‘ Deuter- onomic’ interpolation. Permanent lessons of the book, 104 LESSONS OF THE BOOK OF AMOS LECT. of leavened sacrifices on the altar (iv. 5);' and the sanctity of the holy land in comparison with foreign countries is presupposed when Amaziah is con- demned, as part of his punishment, to die in a land that is unclean (vii. 17; ep. Hos. ix. 3). New moons and Sabbaths were observed by abstinence from business, even by those who had no heart in the observance (viii. 5); feasts and solemn assemblies were frequented (v. 21; vii. 10); sacrifices, burnt offerings, meal offerings, peace offer- ings, freewill offerings were offered (v. 22; iv. 5); tithes were paid (iv. 4). The Book of Amos teaches, with singular clear- ness and force, truths which can never become superfluous or obsolete. The truths that justice between man and man is one of the divine founda- tions of society ; that privilege implies responsibility, and that failure to recognise responsibility will surely bring punishment; that nations, and by analogy, individuals, are bound to live up to that measure of light and knowledge which has been granted to them; that the most elaborate worship is but an insult to God when offered by those who have no mind to conform their wills and conduct to 1 Lit. burn a thank offering of leaven. Cakes of leavened bread were presented as part of the sacrifice of peace offerings (Lev. vii. 13), but no leaven was ever to be burnt (Lev. it. 11). Such a ritual impropriety would seem to be of small moment. The allusion to it implies the existence of a ritual law, to which much importance was attached. IV LESSONS OF THE BOOK OF AMOS 105 His requirements ;—these are elementary but eternal truths. Notg A. STRUCTURE OF THE Book or Anos. The Book of Amos may be divided as follows :— (i) Chaps. i-ii. The Prologue. The title and preface ! (i. 1, 2) are followed by denuncia- tions of judgement against six neighbouring nations (i. 3- ii. 8); upon Judah (ii. 4, 5); and lastly, in more detail, upon Israel (ii. 6-16), Each begins, Thus saith Jehovah. (ii) Chaps. ii.—vi. A series of addresses, three of which begin Hear ye this word (iii. 1; iv. 1; v. 1), and end with a threat introduced by Therefore (iii. 11; iv. 12; v. 11, 16); and two begin with IVoe (v. 18; vi. 1). In these the crimes and the impending punishment of Israel are set forth at length, (iii) Chaps. vii, 1-ix. 10. Further threatenings of judgement in the form of five visions. After the third follows the narrative of Amos’ experience at Bethel (vii. 10 ff.); and after the fourth a repeated rebuke of the sins of the people (viii, 4 ff.). (iv) Chap. ix. 11-15. The Epilogue. The promise of the restoration of the House of David, and the renewed happiness of Israel in their own land under Jehovah’s protection. 1 Comp. Joel iii. 16. 106 NAMES OF GOD IN AMOS LECT. IV Nore B. Names oF Gop In Amos, (1) The Lord Jehovah! is his favourite title, occurring nineteen times, Ch, i, 8; iii. 7, 8, 113; iv. 2,5; v. 3; vi. 8; vil. 1, 2, 4 (2), 5, 6; viii. 1, 3, 9, 11; ix. 8, The Lord only, vii. 7, 8 ; ix. 1, (2) Jehovah the God of hosts; iv. 18; v.14, 1535 vi. 8, 14; and more emphatically, Jehovah, whose name is the God of hosts, v. 27. The Lord, Jchovah of hosts, ix. 5. The Lord Jehovah, the God of hosts, iii, 13. Jehovah, the God of hosts, the Lord, v. 16. Note that Lord never occurs in Hosea, and God of hosts only once (xii. 5). ’ Readers of the E.V. will remember that Gop and Lonrp printed in capitals represent the sacred name JHVH, which from early times was not pronounced by the Jews in reading the Scrip- tures. In place of that ineffable Name was read Addnat=Lord, or when Adonai precedes, Hlohim =God. LECTURE V HOSEA I desire lovingkindness, and not sacrifice ; and knowledge of God more than burnt offerings. — HosEa vi. 6. I HOsEA was a younger contemporary of Amos, and Date of an older contemporary of Isaiah and Micah.