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the incidence

ST
A SPECIAL STUDY |”

OF

THE INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION

BY

LOUIS B. BLAN, Pu.D.

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 40

PUBLISHED BY
Teachers College, Columbia University
NEW YORK CITY
1911 ,
5

Nn)
A.A. b4

Copyright, 1911, by Louis B. Blan
PREFACE

An attempt is made in this dissertation to measure primarily
the relative frequency of non-promotion in the grades of the
public school. The method of approach differs somewhat from
that pursued in previous studies of the problem of retardation.
The records of the local beginners or the so-called initial starters
who have persisted in the present grammar grades were alone
sought and from them the endeavor has been made to ascertain
with some exactitude the particular grade or grades in which
the pupils most frequently tend to be retarded.

Acknowledgments are due to Professor Edward L. Thorn-
dike, of Teachers College, Commissioner David Snedden, of
Massachusetts, and Professor G. D. Strayer, of Teachers Col-
lege, for the kindly interest manifested and the helpful assist-
ance tendered by them during the progress of the investigation.

The author is also indebted to the superintendents, principals,
and teachers in the five city school systems visited who were
especially courteous and cheerfully made every effort to assist
in sectiring as accurate information as is possible in view of the
prevailing incompleteness of the individual history or record
cards.

Columbia University L.B.B.
CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I Criticat Review oF THE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS

TO THE StuDy OF RETARDATION. . 5: . ot

II New York City, N. Y. (One District) 1,312 CasES 20

- III Exizasetu, N. J. 1,088 Cases. : : : - 40

IV Paterson, N. J. 1,246 Cases. : , i + Bg

V East Orance, N. J. 448 CAsEs . 5 3 : - 67

VI Pratnrietp, N. J. 485 Cases. : . ‘ - Bo

VII Summary . : ; . : : ‘ : - 92

BIBLIOGRAPHY . ; : - 10g
THE INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION

CHAPTER I

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE IMPORTANT CONTRIBU-
TIONS TO THE STUDY OF RETARDATION

The handicap of an inadequate terminology occasions con-
siderable ambiguity in various fields of educational endeavor.
The necessity for caution in the use of “ biological analogy” in
one’s theory of education has been pointed out by noted edu-
cational philosophers.t. The analogous application of terms
prevails quite as much in the specific fields of school study,—a
tendency which here too frequently leads to difficulty.

The term “retardation”? has been borrowed recently from
physics, and seemingly well adapted, its use has been favored by
all school-men. In defining its true meaning, however, there has
arisen some difference of opinion to be explained largely in
terms of relative emphasis. In one case the rate of progress,
that is, the length of time it takes the pupil to do one year’s
work, is taken to be the proper criterion in estimating whether
he is to be adjudged subnormal, normal, or supernormal. On the
other hand, the age-grade standard is considered by many at
once the more precise and objective measure of retardation.

Not unmindful of the fact that children vary greatly physi-
cally and mentally and hence cannot be measured at all times in
terms of age-relations, the prevailing method of classification of
children by grades and ages in all the progressive school systems’
of this country must be acknowledged as being more worth while
in that it affords a better, if not the only, objective means of de-
termining the number of backward children in our schools» The
contention that retardation is not to be gleaned from the age-
grade table but is to be estimated in terms of the pupil’s rate of

‘Harris, W.T., The Danger of Using Biological Analogies in Reason-

ing on Educational Subjects. Proceedings N. E. A., 19o2:215.
I
2 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

speed through the grades irrespective of his age at entrance or
thereafter, cannot be justified.

It has been charged by the advocates of the progress-standard
that the measure of retardation in terms of a modal age group
is unfair. Superintendent Greenwood, of Kansas City, rather
dogmatically insists that “retardation is not a question of age
without respect to progress, but it is one of time required to do
a given amount of work within a specified time without regard
to age.” Those who voice this latter opinion do so, it would
seem, more out of fear than otherwise. Since the serious import
of retardation as a vital educational problem has awakened the
school authorities throughout the land to investigate along these
lines, some of the usual conservatives have striven to prove
the alarm an exaggeration. They argue that it is sensible and in-
telligent for the parents to send their children to school at a
late age for where such children do enter the first grade, say,
at eight years of age or over, they soon make up for lost time
by “skipping” classes. How, then, they ask, is it possible to
gauge retardation on the basis of a hypothetical normal age for
grade.

If it were definitely established that it is of little consequence
when a child enters school because of this proved tendency to
“skip,” the progress-standard for measuring retardation certainly
would hold good, but only for the lower grades, for, by the time
the “over-age” entrance pupil reached the higher grades, he
would be one of the normal age group himself. There is, how-
ever, little evidence other than mere opinion to prove this
tendency. No adequate attempts have been made to study this
important problem. Such studies on record which treat of the
extent of “skipping” in our graded city schools tend to show
the presence of a small percentage of these rapidly progressing
pupils. How many of the “over-age” initial starters are in-
cluded therein no one is in a position to say.

In a recent article published in the Educational Review, Mr.
R. P. Falkner cites from the reports of several large and
small cities such statistics as he and other investigators could
find which bore on the subject or revealed the amount of ex-
ceptionally rapid movement of some of the pupils through the

1 Falkner, R. P., Retardation, its Significance and its Requirements,
Educa. R. 1909. ,
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 3

grades. In Somerville, Mass., 1907, the amount of rapid pro-
gress, i.e., the promotions over more than one grade plus the
promotions during the year, amounted to 1.4 per cent of all
the promotions. In Springfield, Ohio, where 4,755 promotions
were recorded only seven of these or not quite 0.15 per cent
represented the number promoted more than one grade at the
end or during the yearly term. In New York City, Mr. L. P.
Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation, studied the records of
946 fifth grade pupils and found that 5.4 per cent of these
achieved their work in less than the regularly allotted time.
In one of the Philadelphia school reports, Mr. Falkner found
that 2,406 pupils out of 122,644 or less than 2 per cent were
thus described as incidental.

Keeping in mind, then, these small percentages of rapidly ad-
vancing pupils, it would at least seem an unwise chance for the
pupil to enter the first grade at a late age and depend upon his
ability solely as a result of his initial “over-ageness” to “skip”
grades and make up the handicap of a year or more which he
concedes: his schoolmates at the very start.

Much of the dissension is attributable to the arbitrary fixing
of a normal age for grade. The considerable diversity of opinion
manifest demonstrates plainly the futility of defining the nor-
mal child. In some cities the so-called “ theoretical. age-limit ”
for a pupil entering the first grade is five years.t Others hold that
a child should enter the first year of school before his seventh
birthday and then if he advances regularly, he will have accom-
plished the eight years’ course before he is fifteen years of age.
Professor L. Witmer, of the University of Pennsylvania, regis-
tered the opinion, when Dr. Bryan made his investigation in
Camden, N. J., (1904-06) and found 72 per cent above this lat-
ter age-limit (6 years o months to 6 years 11 months inclusive
for entrance to first grade, etc.) that only those be counted as
retarded who exceeded this age-limit by one year or more. This
lowered the percentages as follows: 47 per cent, one year or
more over the age-limit; 26 per cent, two years or more; 13 per
cent, three years or more; and 5 per cent, four years or more.
Duly considering then these alarming retardation figures, Pro-

1In Medford, Mass., the superintendent regards five yearsas the proper

age-standard for entrance to the first grade.
2 Witmer, L., What is meant by Retardation? Psy. Clinic. Oct. 1910.
4 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

fessor Witmer tells us that it was deemed advisable to call all
those pupils ‘ pedagogically retarded” who exceeded the age-
limit by two years or more and that investigators of statis-
tics of age distribution have generally accepted this as the age-
standard in their studies of the problem of retardation in other
cities.

In order to properly analyze conditions in any city, statistical
comparisons with other cities become imperative. Only within
recent years the statistics of retardation have been published.
At present they occupy a vitally important place in the annual
and special reports of every efficient superintendent. Statisti-
cians are wont to build up tables showing the relative amounts
of retardation prevalent in various systems on the basis of the
published percentages of “over-ageness” recorded in the respec-
tive school reports. While due precaution at times is taken to
observe that in each system the same. normal age-standard is
assumed, nevertheless these comparisons when made simply on
this basis are commonly misleading. So long as full age-grade
tables are shown recording accurately the distribution of all pu-
pils according to age, e.g., in first grade, so many 5 years o
months to 5 years I1 months inclusive; so many 6 years o
months to 6 years Ir months inclusive; etc., it matters little
what specific theoretical age-limit is taken. The complete dis-
tributory tables furnish thé only true means of comparing con-
ditions in the schools of any given city or of city with city.
The variance in interpreting just what 5 years as a normal en-
trance age, or 6 years, etc., really means is a real cause for many
fallacious comparisons. Some understand 5 years of age to
mean anywhere between 414 and 5% years; others regard it as
5 years O months to 5 years 11 months inclusive, etc. It is
plain then that great care ought to be exercised in this matter of
explaining the true signification of each age-heading in all age-
grade tables.

Professor Witmer in the aforementioned article outlines in
brief the history of the growth of the study of retardation in
our schools. He asserts that the mind of the school authority
was first aroused to notice the prevailing conditions of retarda-
tion among school children in the year 1895. In part this
awakening is attributed to the introduction of medical inspection
and to the resulting valuable medical reports tabulating the vari-
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 5

ous defects of the pupils examined. Since then the literature of
retardation has grown to vast proportions. Much that has been
written is definite in the way of contribution towards the under-
standing of this serious problem of school management. In
considering critically some of the publications of the leading
students of retardation, the quantitative aspect of each of these
studies will be treated as the fundamental concern of this dis-
sertation. Discussions treating of the causes, and suggestions
as to remedies will be omitted.

A large majority of the valuable studies of the retardation
have appeared in the pages of the Psychological Clinic, a peri-
odical in issue since March, 1907, edited by Professor L. Wit-
mer, of the University of Pennsylvania. In the February num-
ber of this psychological journal, District Superintendent O. P.
Cornman, of Philadelphia, collated statistics showing the amount
of retardation in five selected city school systems. In the main
his system of statistical tabulation demonstrated conclusively the
value of the age-grade table as a standard for measuring the
extent of retardation in any school and as a means for comparing
the same in the school systems of various cities. Philadelphia,
Boston, New York City, Camden, and Kansas City were selected
for study.

Assuming 7 years to 7 years I1 months inclusive as the nor-
mal age for entrance to the first grade, Superintendent Cornman
found the range of “over-ageness” to be from 51 per cent in
Boston to 77.6 per cent in Kansas City.?| From Table VI sum-
marizing the percentages of enrollment above normal age, one
notes in all five cities a progressive increase of retardation till the
fifth grade and then a gradual falling off in the sixth and
seventh grades and a marked drop in the eighth grade. This
is especially so in Camden and in New York City. Superintend-
ent Cornman quite correctly accounts for this on the assumption
that the older children in the later grades drop out of school to
go to work! Some students of retardation observing similar con-
ditions have made the serious error of concluding that the larger
retardation per cents in the lower grades proved that the earlier
grades were unquestionably more difficult than the later ones.
Mr. L. P. Ayres, in his investigation of the records of 20,000
New York City school pupils, is the chief offender in this re-

1 Psychological Clinic. Feb. 1908: Tables I to V.
6 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

spect. He assumes the frequency of repetition in the upper
grades, beginning with the sixth, is absolutely nothing and bases
his estimates of retardation on this false assumption.*

Superintendent Cornman’s study shows, then, by means of
clear systematic age-distribution tables the great diversity of
ages of the pupils in their respective grades and emphasizes
the value of the age-grade table as unmistakable proof of the
fact of retardation. That his admirable work had a considerable
effect in decreasing the number of retarded pupils may at least be
presumed on comparing such statistical information cited in his
reports of June, 1907 and June, 1908. Whereas in the earlier year
he found 12.7 per cent as being 20 or more months in one grade,
in the next year there were only 6.6 per cent so retarded. It is
highly probable that the marked reduction in the amount of re-
tardation was due in large part to the mere fact that attention was
called to the prevailing conditions.

In the Psychological Clinic issued during the month of May,
1908, Dr. R. P. Falkner, former Commissioner of Education
for Porto Rico, endeavored to show some further possibilities
of interpretation of the valuable statistical material gathered by
Superintendent Cornman in the same five city school systems.
This article is largely a special critique of method and chal-
lenges many of Superintendent Cornman’s contentions. Dr.
Falkner points out the significant fact that the serious effect
of retardation is the shortening of the amount of education
measured in time, for the few. For example, the age-grade
tables of Camden, N. J., show 317 pupils in the third grade
and eleven years old. In comment Dr. Falkner says that “ the
sad fact is not that they will be 16 years old when they reach
the eighth grade but that the vast majority will never get there.”
Retardation means then that only the relatively few succeed
in finishing the entire elementary course.

The question next under consideration is to determine to just
what extent Cornman’s age-grade tables are comparable. The
statistical material having been gathered from annual school
reports in which the grade distributions represent conditions re-
ported at different periods throughout the year, some of the
comparisons are obviously unfair. And in this connection there
appears a just criticism of the methods of recording statistics

' Referred to again more fully cn pages 12 and 13.
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 7

of enrollment as employed in these cities. In Boston, the facts
are recorded at the end of the year; in Philadelphia and New
York City, after the June promotions; in Camden and Kansas
City, at various times during the year. Dr. Falkner discusses
the three methods and declares the Boston system to be the
best and the simplest. Even so, it is not considered altogether
satisfactory. He suggests that the faults of this method would
be obviated by recording enrollment figures on the first of Octo-
ber, for by that time the regular fall registration is complete
and the school population has reached its maximum.

It is generally admitted by school-men and serious research stu-
dents that the school reports of the majority of our cities furnish
information of rather doubtful accuracy. Many of them do not
show the correct age records of the pupils. Whereas accuracy
is possible since the original records frequently call for age in
years and date of birth, the teacher in most cases is inclined
to report age in years alone irrespective of the time when the
question is asked. The writer was particularly hampered while
gathering material for the following quantitative study of re-
tardation, in consequence of this neglect on the part of the
teacher in the matter of securing the complete age record. It
became necessary on innumerable occasions to ask the pupils
individually to write out the exact date of birth, year, month,
day, as well as the present age in years.

In addition, then, to this original error of the class teacher,
mistakes frequently arise as a result of carelessness or even will-
fulness in copying off the figures of the class-room register.
All these errors of transcription combine to make the final figures
as reported out by the superintendent misstate the real facts.
Such discrepancies as do occur when comparing the studies on
the one hand of those who obtain their records from the class-
room registers or individual record cards and of those research
students of the official annual school reports are largely attrib-
utable to these inaccuracies in transcribing the original entries.

Noting the age-distribution tables of Superintendent Corn-
man, attention is called to the tremendous falling off at the age of
fourteen years. Dr. Falkner commenting on the fact that at
fourteen only an approximate one-half of those who are in school
at twelve are still present, concludes that dropping out of school
is more dependent upon age than upon the stage of grade ad-
8 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

‘

vancement,—‘ a fact ” which he says is “ of cardinal importance
in the study of retardation.”

The next point of vital consequence is to consider how much
there is in the prevalent contention that, were the complete sta-
tistical material at hand, the financial loss to the municipality
as a result of this so-called damming of the stream of the regu-
larly advancing pupils, would be surprisingly large. Superin-
tendent Cornman claims that a child who takes ten years to ac-
complish an ‘eight year course, costs the city 25 per cent more
than one who goes through in the regular time. Whereas this’
may be so theoretically, the fundamental fallacy is to assume that
it is actually thus in practice and to argue from it as a premise,
the advisability of studying to remedy the evils of retardation.
The fact must be recognized that innumerable pupils drop out
of school in consequence of being held back who if regularly
promoted year after year would perhaps remain throughout the
entire eight year course and thus cost the city the expense of
the added year or years of instruction. On the whole Professor
E. L. Thorndike, of Teachers College Columbia University, esti-
mates that “of pupils failing of promotion in the last grammar
grade about one-third are eliminated before the next year’s
enrollment is counted; of pupils failing in the seventh grade
about one-fourth; in the sixth about one-fifth; in the fifth about
one-sixth.”* Dr, Falkner in challenging Cornman’s notion says
“that if retardation were wholly eliminated from our schools
the cost would be increased.” He agrees that a wasteful expendi-
ture of money is a result of retardation, but argues that the
expenditure is wasteful largely because of its ineffectiveness.
The money expended although not greater than it ordinarily
would amount to yields considerably less than it would under
more favorable conditions.

One of the most informational contributions to the study of
retardation was made by Mr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell
Sage Foundation, who undertook the investigation of 20,000
pupils in fifteen schools in the Borough of Manhattan, New York
City. The findings of this investigation were published in 1909
in a volume entitled, “Laggards in Our Schools.” An endeavor
is made to learn from the official reports of sixty-three American

‘Thorndike, E. L. Promotion, Retardaticn, and Elimination. Psy.
Clinic. Feb. 1910.
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 9

cities and from the published and unpublished school records in
New York City something of the conditions and the related
causes of retardation. Many important phases of the question
are clearly set forth by Mr. Ayres and definite conclusions sub-
stantially correct in many cases are set down at the end of each
chapter, and merit the praise due the investigator who makes
definite advances toward solving so vital a problem.

Mr. Ayres’ results prove beyond any question that the con-
siderable variance in the relative amounts of retardation recorded
in many of the city school reports is largely a result of the
difference in method of obtaining such statistics. Tabulations
must be made upon a uniform basis in order to be comparable.
Assuming 6 to 8 years as the normal age for the first grade
pupil; 7 to 9 years for the second grade; 8 to 10 years for
the third grade; and so on, he finds that Medford, Mass., shows
the least retardation of the 31 cities and the colored pupils
in Memphis, Tenn., the most. Taken generally the schools of
the New England States show comparatively little retardation ;
the schools of the Eastern and Central States record modal
percentages of retardation; the schools of the Southern
States, especially the colored ones, register the maximum
tendency. Of course these percentages are to be con-
sidered merely as approximations as the time when the
statistics were obtained varies from September, in some cases,
to June in others. Again this massing of figures quite often
yields results of a somewhat distorted character. To say for in-
stance that in the 31 cities on the average 33.7 per cent of
the children are above normal age for their grades means little.
Far more satisfactory conclusions could be drawn were the age-
grade tables of at least a few of these cities printed in full so
that the student could see plainly the nature of the respective dis-
tributions. Mr. Ayres agrees that the discrepancy between the
two cities, Medford, Mass., and Memphis, Tenn. (colored)
which two represent the extreme cases, would not be so great
were the computations made on the same basis. It is question-
able if he is entirely correct in assuming that even if the data were
gathered on a truly comparable basis the record of Medford
would still be the best and that of Memphis, the worst.

In this connection it is well to remark that only in a few city
school systems can one obtain the individual record or so-called

tf
10 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

history cards dating back more than five years. In Medford,
Mass., these records are obtainable and the superintendent en-
forces the age-standard with unusual severity; five years being
taken as the normal age for a first grade pupil. In all probability
this attitude explains in part the excellent showing made by this
city, only 7.5 per cent of the pupils being classed as above
normal age.

As a result of a laborious study of the rates of progress of
pupils through the grades, Mr. Ayres has quarried out certain
facts. His data show “that for every pupil making rapid pro-
gress there are from eight to ten making slow progress and for
every term gained by the rapid pupils from ten to twelve are
lost by the slow ones.” But Mr. Ayres is not at all careful in
distinguishing between the retarded pupil and the repeating pupil.
For example, in his third chapter treating of the factors affect-
ing grade distribution, Mr. Ayres discusses the factor of retarda-
tion solely on the basis of percentages of promotion. If, as
he maintains, the pupils who are “over-age”’ at the time of en-
trance to the first grade make the quickest progress and by “skip-
ping” grades soon catch up to the normal-age pupil, it follows
that the percentages of repetition and retardation in the early
grades would show an inverse correlation. In this case, if the
complete records were obtainable the figures showing repetition
could be used as a check on those of retardation directly for those
pupils who are of normal age and indirectly in the case of the
“over-age” pupils in question.

Quite often where there is a considerable increase in the num-
ber of pupils promoted and a corresponding decrease in the num-
ber left back to repeat the grade one or more times, the percent-
ages above normal age may show only slight reduction. This
was the case at the end of the school year 1908 in Philadelphia.
Superintendent Cornman reported in June, 1907, 37.1 per cent
as being above normal age and in June, 1908, 36.8 per cent, a
difference of only 0.3 per cent in spite of the marked increase
in percentages of promotion and decrease in percentages of
“hold-overs.’”?

The writer found it quite impossible to utilize the percentages
of retardation of the pupils in the eighth grades to check up

‘In Plainfield, N. J., full history cards are kept, dating back twelve
years and over.

2 See first paragraph, page *
Critical Review of the Important Contributions II

the percentages of the repeating pupils in these grades. Chart I
shows the percentages of eighth grade pupils repeating one or
more times during their entire school life. Chart II represents
the amount of retardation in per cents of these same pupils who
are now in the eighth grade.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percents, Pereents,

90 G0

80 80 —
lo Jo
60 bo

50 7 50

40 4o

30 Bo

20 20

Jo Jo

 

 

 

 

 

Crhies NY (Poé. Elz. Plain..£.0. Cities. NY. Pat. Elz. Plan. £.0.

CHART 1. Percentages of CuHart 2. Percentages of re-
eighth grade pupils repeating tardation in the eighth grades:
one or more times during entire assuming 13 years to I3 years
school life 11 months inclusive as the nor-

mal entrance age to the eighth
grade

In New York City (one district) whereas 65 per cent of the
eighth grade pupils repeated one or more times during their en-
tire school life, 71 per cent of those in this same grade were
“over-age” for grade, assuming 13 years 0 months to 13 years II
months inclusive as the normal entrance age to the eighth grade;
in Paterson 55 per cent of the eighth grade pupils repeated one
or more times, and 40 per cent were found to be “over-age.”
In Elizabeth and East Orange the contrasts were very marked
indeed. In the former the writer found only 29 per cent of re-
peaters as against 62 per cent of retarded pupils, and in the lat-
ter city, 38 per cent of the repeaters with 77 per cent retarded. In
Plainfield the maximum of repetition was found, go per cent,
and 78 per cent of the eighth grade pupils were above normal
age for grade.*

The foregoing comparisons prove beyond question that it is
by no means correct to use the terms repetition and retardation
interchangeably. Such confusion of terms can only lead to seri-

1 Explanation of these excessively high percentages is found on page 86.
12 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

ous error especially when the percentages of repetition are mere-
ly theoretical estimates based on the number of probable be-
ginners, e.g., Mr. Ayres’ method of determining the number of
repeaters by finding what per cent the pupils in a given grade
is of the probable number of beginners in the school.

But, as Professor Thorndike points out, Mr. Ayres’ unpar-
donable error is his assumption that from the sixth grade on,
the frequency of repetition is zero. His elimination and retarda-
tion figures being derived on this basis, show up much too high
for grades one to six and much too low for grades six and over.

Mr. Ayres in determining the number of repeaters in the
elementary grades of a given system takes the “average of the
generations of the ages seven to twelve in the school membership
of the system” as the number of probable beginners and uses
this average as the base in such estimations. A single instance
will suffice to show how far wrong Mr. Ayres’ method may
lead one in estimating the relative trequency of non-promotion
in the grades.

According to this method the assistant superintendent of
schools, Cleveland, Ohio, reckons the repeaters in the schools of
his city for 1908-09 would be distributed as follows :1

 

Piss. grade sods can cand eee ace ees 5,260 pupils repeating
Second grade..... 0.0.0... c cece eee 2,216 # a
Liind Grad Gh. ofa ee dieuk Wa Gig se-pamees S 2,243 3 us
Fourth gradéucccuseoeayediernasa tums risi7 0 “
Fifth grades os sicawes gag yrera cease ae 8a7. %
Sixth. grades escag eee sede swe ven aes oO. “
Seventh grad@ice siya y aay ce eee kr aes op ‘
Eighth, erage... cikad seek ws awhue dae o © be
Total. accce: giedice ees ees eevee: 12,059 “ “

On actual investigation, however, the true figures were found
to be thus distributed:

 

First Stade. agen dle dwteaawaw enna eewns 1364 pupils r in
Second. PTad6 noc. iacuceatenadam ants on _ — =
Third Srad6ic<condeacas «share Agee 4 e356 ‘
POUrth STA isis vous a gts eieeres gee sae 1,086 a a
Fifth grades a sega wages ees o4 MS aad pieces 797“ *
pixth eradencs ciarw eam fee eens deus 474.“ .
Seventh orad@ns ia sacs g sana tcidamedaces 320 "
Eighth grade............... 0... c ees “tog i
Totals sieueewves Be4e exe space dks 8,653“ e

' Educational Review. June, 1910.
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 13

Note, then, whereas Mr. Ayres figures that 20.2 per cent on
the total registration repeated grades in the Cleveland schools
during the school year, in reality the percentage of repeaters is
only 14.5 per cent. His method shows an excess of 56.4 per cent
on the actual number of repeaters in the first grade; 73.9 per cent
more in the second; 81.6 per cent more in the third; 39.7 per
cent more in the fourth; 3.3 per cent more in the fifth; and to-
tally neglects the number of repeaters in the sixth, seventh, and
eighth grades.

In the Educational Review, February, 1910, Professor E. L.
Thorndike, of Teachers College, reviewed Mr. Ayres’ book,
pointing out its many valuable features. Compliment is paid
the author for his having avoided certain common errors,
e.g., the neglect of the inverse correlation of physical defects
with age and the effect of the school entrance age upon the
rate of progress therein. Many important relations, however,
which could have been determined from the individual records
of the New York City pupils are mentioned by the reviewer and
the author is severely criticised for such omission. For example,
Mr. Ayres says nothing concerning the typical rate of progress
and the variations from this rate for, say 1A pupils, at the age
of six, seven, etc. He neglects to ascertain the correlations be-
tween failure of promotion in a given grade and failure of pro-
motion in subsequent grades ; between failure of promotion in two
or more grades and retention in other grades, e.g., comparing the
sixth and seventh grades with the fourth and fifth grades with
respect to the extent of non-promotion in the third grade. This
sort of comparative grade study is well worth while, the result-
ing correlations being integral in measuring the underlying causes
of failure.

The only serious attempt to gauge the comparative lengths of
the different grades of the elementary school is found in a criti-
cal study made by Professor Thorndike and published in the
January and February numbers, 1910, of the Psychological Clinic,
under the caption, “ Promotion, Retardation and Elimination.”

Professor Thorndike carefully examined the school reports of
over one hundred cities and towns and from the statements of
the number of promotions by grades recorded therein, he has
ascertained with a reasonable amount of accuracy the relative
lengths of the various grades of city school systems in general.
14 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

Actual percentages of pupils who fail based on the grade enroll-
ment at the end of the year are found and in order that the in-
vestigator may conveniently elicit from these figures the extent
to which the grades are of unequal length, the ratios of these per-
centages to the average for grades two to eight are computed.
It was advisable to use as the base grades two to eight rather
than one to eight on account of the considerable variability
among cities in the proportion of failures in the first grade.
Tables II and IV in Professor Thorndike’s study show the dis-
tribution of non-promotion in grades two to eight. Table II
reports on fifteen cities of which thirteen have complete data.
Table IV records thirteen other cities treated in Mr. Ayres’ in-
vestigation. Selecting from these two tables the cities with com-
plete data and only those having eight yearly systems, the follow-
ing two groups may be formed wherein similar tendencies prevail :

GROUP A

Proportion which the Percentage of Pupils enrolled at the End of
the Year who fail of Promotion, is of the Average of such Percen-
tages for Grade 2 to the last Grammar Grade, inclusive, in the
City in Question.

GRADES I 2 3 4 5 6 y. 8
Manhattan, N. Y. 1.48 -89 .87 -98 1.09 99 1.09 1.09
Chester, Pa...... -93 “49 .65 285 -93 1.38 1.09 1.62
Providence, R. I.. -99 .50 85 +78 1.21 1.35 1.49 85
Wilkesbarre, Pai: “45 -61 +50 -40 27D T.lt DsqAr use
Elgin, Ind....... -41 +59 275 +99 1.00 1.05 1.15 1.36
Pasadena, Cal.... 1.25 279 #I.12 41,00 .88 -93 1663 D535
Jamestown, Va... 1.64 I.or -93 68 82 -61 -97 2.00

GROUP B
(Same)
GRADES I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Brooklyn,N. Y... 1.52 -9I -96 -995 I.105 1.14 1.215 .84
Fort Wayne, Ind. 2.13 .87 -94 1.05 1.22 -84 1.08 -98
Columbus, O..... 2at7, +59 -93 1.20 1.09 1.05 1.12 1.03
Philadelphia, Pa.. 1.24 1.07 1.02 -96 1.19 -96 -9o “90
Chicago, Ill...... 2.25 1.13 94 -88 1.13 1.06 1.00 .81
Wheeling, W. Va. 2.08 1.25 1.13 1.46 1.42 1.54 .88 -33
Springfield, O.... 1.40 1.18 1.32 1.18 1.03 1.25 81 122
San Francisco,Cal. -89 1.09 1.24 1.16 1.16 1,09 81 “45
Cincinnati, O..... 1.82 1.20 1.20 1.20 -94 .88 .88 .70

Of the sixteen cities recorded above, the seven in Group A
show the average length of the first four grades to be less than
the average length of the last four grades; and the nine in Group
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 15

B show the reverse. The larger number in the second group is
easily explained. The average weights all grades equally and as
the first grade in nearly all cases is exceptionally long and the last
grade in many cases rather short, several of these cities should
not properly be classed in this group. The comparison would be
far truer were these extreme grades eliminated. Thus comparing
the averages of the lengths of the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades,
one is enabled to get a more correct estimate of the relative
lengths of the lower and upper grades of the city school systems
in question. Groups A? and B* show then more accurately in
average per cents how the three lower grades compare in length
with the three higher grades.

GROUP A!

Average of Proportions which the Percentage of Pupils enrolled at the
End of the Year who fail of Promotion in Grades 2, 3, and 4 as
compared with such Averages in Grades 5, 6, and 7 is of the same
Base: the Average of such Percentages for Grade 2 to last Grammar
Grade inclusive.

GRADES)...dcasanerdne Sees z, 3,and 4 5, 6, and 7
Manhattan, No Ys oes ce see sa ah eeie were ey ee +92 1.06
Chester, Paces a259ccae sme ig eye a deaeae egg a -66 1.13
Providence, R. Tscsscaiineneease ete saa teares -7L, 1.02
Wilkesbatre,. Pa: . cc-nco saucy agee ei egues aioe ten .50 1.08
elo ity, ENG jo wes 65s acdcad uate Wa Sep wes SE BEN -78 1.07
Brooklyne NoOY 33 abeisuure bie barn see ene nas 96 TiS
Bort: Waynes Indes: ascent ee eS 95 1.05
Columbus; Onssccandoeneatare Aiewe uaa dee aus 91 1.09
Chicavos Ul swag. eun ad ag tats Hee ee Ae tes ote -98 1.06
Pasadena; Cale. cicsdgcaeon osu cael cake aaa 94 +95
GROUP B!
(Same)
GRADES» oca5 sane xeeeeeee 2,3,and 4 5, 6, and 7
Wheeling, Wi; Varies. c.. cisco eee eee mae ees 1.28 +95
Springfield, O...... mae erent Gotu cise sas anyy 1.23 1.03
Sam Frasicisto, Cal.ccea.cuec¢avenhs siewierad 1.16 1.02
Cincinnati, O...s6.34 css eimnvades eda Shee ees 1.20 -9o
Jamestown, Va........ 20. eee eens 87 -80
Of equal average length in:
Philadelphia, Pa... . 0.0.60. cee e cece ences 1.02 1.02

If the lengths of the grades may be taken as criteria of the
relative difficulty of these grades the upper grades are unquestion-
ably more difficult than the lower. From the statistics of the
entire fifteen cities gathered by Professor Thorndike, the central
16 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

tendencies in the records of non-promotion figured as percent-
ages of the June enrollment are as follows:

GRADES 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Medians...... 12.25 I4.00 14.75 16.00 14.25 15.00 12.50

Combining the records of these cities with those found in Mr.
Ayres’ report:

GRADES I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Medians...... 160 95 94 99-5 109 102 99.5 89

The progressive increase of non-promotion up to the sixth
grade is plainly the tendency. The smaller percentages in the
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades must not be taken to imply
that these grades are less difficult than the earlier grades. In all
probability a large number of the failing pupils in the fifth grade
leave school and go to work and for those that remain, the
seventh grade would seem to again function as the final selective
force. Certainly if all the pupils who failed of promotion in the
fifth grade remained long enough to struggle through the sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades, these grades would show very much
larger percentages of non-promotion. The writer found upon
careful examination of the individual records of 3,865 grammar:
grade pupils in five city school systems that the grade distribu-
tion of non-promotion showed plainly a progressive increase of
non-promotion from the first grade till the eighth grade, the
seventh grade in all five cities recording the highest percentage
of retention. The assumption then that very few pupils who
reach the upper grades fail of promotion and repeat the work of
the grade is wrong. The facts demonstrate that the retarding
force in the grammar grades is certainly no less than in the pri-
mary.

It is justifiable to assume that the conditions discovered in the
five cities treated in the present retardation study outline the gen-
eral tendency. In this connection the reader is referred to Chap-
ter XIX in the forthcoming 1910 report of the Commissioner of
Education, written by Professor G. D. Strayer, of Teachers Col-
lege, Columbia University. This chapter in so far as it.touches
on retardation is a summary of a statistical study soon to appear
in a special bulletin issued by the Bureau of Education. It dis-
cusses the retardation and elimination of pupils as the result of

1 Psychological Clinic, Jan. 1910:240.
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 17

a study of three hundred and nineteen cities of varying size in
all sections of the United States. The conclusions are based on
an age-grade census. The normal age is defined as six to eight
for the first grade, seven to nine for the second, eight to ten for
the third, and so on. Professor Strayer prefers to take the larg-
est age group as a measure of the number entering school during
the year for which the data. were secured. He argues the reli-
ability of this estimate of the entering group as opposed to the
customary average of the ages seven to twelve. Wherever the
actual number of beginners could be determined the latter meas-
ure has proved too small.

The tables expressing the frequency of retardation of boys and
girls show the wide variability among cities. The sexes are dis-
tributed in the following manner :

Quantity: PER Cent oF THE ToTAL Frequency: NuMBER OF CITIES
NuMBER oF Boys

Boys Girls
Per Cent No. of Cities Per Cent No. of Cities
G cca aniasnnet npnagrs 2$ 2
Siees sued he aees 2 Biz aac als ais aoe he 9
TO sie eR Pe eee 5 716 TOle rere panting coals 7 +19
D2 is esque nia wien ee 9 D2 gir ins denne aa 3
DE iia pista aie 5 TA aniaaivn ie bass 7
DO se raeetn ase alah ag I PIT TGisws ceawsdtes tag Ir - 28
TBgiaxaot ce yee aes 5 TS. ates eer hue ee 10
BO ise Hee ee hp en wake 9 BOn sid oe eee eS 12
B28 act ascagauwes 5 722 DD aiusds ig, dosbiasdaecDgr aon 20 +46
QA ai ese ese eee oe 8 BA ew halb.d koala b I4
20 ioe ies Sa ee eSB 14 QO ise iie ae heh Ge 25
BS bois mie dusenened 17 742 BBs wtaiawinger ash 8s 23 767
B Oks hike. tyes net os II BOhsladg sik Havoc mae 19
Seige Re 26 BP iew ee oewaraula aK ai |
BAe as Mee whao es 17 + 66 BA Asse se bianeee 18 +56
BO ene gaig ty sow aks 23 BOs 34 PEDO MRES 17 J
BBs « panlae Mies ate 26 BS. ccsi ain oan er ke 22
BOR sles ts OORT 16 jo B Oia ie ene) Sadaapie erate 18 $49
A Dia cen's asicrbat es noe 23 A2ksc weal aad meen 9)
A Aso te een aoealns ace 21 Adsdsa wie ange wees Io
QO cacy a cae ees 12-51 46 nic edage et BORE E 3 719
QSivkaneswaameyax 18 AS se oe 2h Wabij'ss % 6
Oia die actatah Aenean 8 8 Olga ansiadt oe Wah wun ae 5 |
BD dca MAC ar ead 5 718 Gari tase nah Gh 2 710
5 dic oeittaca Wn eh heed 5 GS Aihindeia gyi nets eblae x 3)
SOs raises eae 3 B Ones iety GO eed ant ata 5
Bieta acta MS 2 pit Bide aie Mh aaan a 7 P13
GO ie each ns ae aah BEES 6 GOA e see gd aaa I
A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

QuanTiTy: PER CENT OF THE TOTAL

Numser oF Boys

FREQUENCY: NUMBER OF CITIES

Boys Girls

Per Cent No. of Cities Per Cent No. of Cities
C2in20 paicte Were nieats 4 CBee data oane ° |
Ofc sce eaneeeuags 4 9 Ei gh ac tare verss a I 4
OO ce isrectittngeyaesa eases I OO iciepe sats ive Facies ox 3 J
OB a cuie aes Naudia I OSlstok eh Vere vacs cues 3 3
Os catia tas Secase content 47 6 Wb. SG SGT Sins 2 5
ees I TB hacitaheaigd oc Shae AS °
WA nlan mia see eek 2} 2 Ti da tos cate ARIAS dere If I

The mode ranges in the case of the boys from .32 to .42;
whereas for the girls the modal range is from .26 to .36. These
percentages show plainly that boys in general tend to be more
retarded than girls. The theoretical age-limit allowing in each
grade one year on the normal age assumed in the subjoined study
accounts for the low percentages of retardation as compared with
those of the five eastern school systems.

Median percentages indicating the distribution of boys and
girls retarded I year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years and over, again
show that the boys are more frequently retarded. The cities are
classified by population as follows:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“UNDER-
“ OveR-AGE”’ PupiLs TOTAL AcE”
PERCENT- PupPiits
PopuLaTION AGES —
Four years One year
One year | Two years |Three vears| and over -and more
Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls |Boys | Girls |Boys | Girls |Boys |Girls
25,000 and
over (133
cities) ....| 20 18 10 9 5 3 2 I 38 32 4 4
Less than
25,000 (186
cities) ....| 20 18 Ir 8 4 3 2 I 38 36 4 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Professor Strayer advises the separate sex classification in the
study of the problem of retardation. He advocates the formation
of “ special classes for the bright, the slow, the backward, and the
deficient.” Special opportunity should be afforded those to pro-
gress in direct proportion to their ability instead of compelling
the monotonous repetition of the same work over and over again.

It is significant that even assuming a rather liberal theoretical
age-limit, in more than two-thirds of the cities considered, over
Critical Review of the Important Contributions 19

thirty per cent of the boys are retarded. The excessive retarda-
tion in the schools of many cities throughout the country de-
mands scientific consideration. If we would acclaim the principle
of equal opportunity in our public schools, the relative amount
of withdrawal, year by year and grade by grade, must be reduced.
This necessitates primarily a decrease in the percentage of
retarded pupils and a corresponding increase in the number
accelerated.
CHAPTER II

NEW YORK CITY (One District) 1,312 CASES

The present chapter concerns the retardation of elementary
school pupils only, in one school district of New York City."
The study was made during the months of October and Novem-
ber, 1909 and February, 1910. A method of investigation was
used which enables one to measure the incidence of retardation,
so as to estimate with some exactitude the amount of it in each
grade. The cases studied are confined to pupils who began
school in the kindergarten or the first grade of the school in
which they now are.

The district selected is a suburban one. The six schools con-
sidered range in registry numbers from 400 to 1,500 pupils ap-
proximately. Such selection was made solely on the basis of
convenience and of close personal acquaintance with the facul-
ties of the schools.

The method employed in studying the 1,312 initial starters in
this district will serve as the plan of treatment in the subsequent
chapters devoted to the study of the cases recorded in the other
four cities.

/- Tz MIGRATION OF PuPiLs

As a preliminary consideration it is worth while to note the
following tabulated comparison by grades of the net results of
the effect of the migratory tendency plus the tendency to enter
the grades beyond the first.

A rather poor statistical measure, yet interesting in this case,
is the range in per cent of the effect of the migratory tendency
in the various sections of a school district. It is seen in Table I
to be from 22 per cent to 62 per cent, i.e., whereas in School
F the pupils who are now in the grammar grades and who entered
the kindergarten or the 1 A grade represent about one-fifth of
the present total register in these grades, in School A there are,

*This chapter was published as a special article in the Educational
Review, June, 1910. Some changes have been made in the text. Table
6 has been added and sex distributions are shown.

20
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 21

subject to the same conditioning factor, more than three times
as many. The 78 per cent in the one case or the 38 per cent in
the other would represent the migration from other schools
plus the number of those who were admitted as absolutely new
pupils in or beyond the second grade. As a matter of fact the
number of such absolutely new admissions is unquestionably

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 1
Per Cents oF INITIAL STARTERS!
Schools A B Cc D E F Aver.
Grades per cent|per cent|per cent/per centiper cent}per cent/per cent
8B 60 26 60 44 45 27 43-7
8A 57 | 34 45 30 50 6 | 37-0
7B 62 32 46 38 36 17 38.5
TA 56 17 29 31 42 17 32 <0
6B 64 44 43 19 58 40 44-7
6A 51 46 aI 25 43 II 41.2
5B 59 53 yu 24 49 te | ins
5A of 58 48 66 51 17 52.0
4B 81 100 56 45 46 40 61.3
4A 58 gi 60 50 63 26 58.0
Average 62 50 53 37 48 22 45-3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1The quotients obtained by dividing the numbers of pupils in each grade, who entered
the school in which they are at present enrolled in either the 1A grade or in the kinder-
garten, by the present total register of the grade in which they now are, are changed to
per cents.

so small that it is scarcely worth considering.’ Taken generally
the net results obtained by subtracting the per cents given from
100 per cent show quite accurately the migratory tendency pre-
valent in the district studied.

Considering the 7 A grades in aggregate one notes that the min-
imum of 32 per cent, and in all the 4B grades the maximum of
61.3 per cent show similarly the wide range in grade distribution
of those who originally entered the lowest grade of school. Or
more generally in grades 6 A and up through 8 B, on the average
60 per cent of the registered pupils have been received mostly
by transfer from other schools to, or have been admitted as new
22 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

pupils in grades beyond, the 1A grade. On the other hand ia
grades 5 B and down through 4A there is a decrease of 25 per
cent on that rate, showing 45 per cent as not having entered the
initial grade of the school in which they now attend.

THe AGE-GRADE RELATIONS OF THE 1,312 INITIAL STARTERS

The actual numbers of pupils in the grades of the six schools
are shown, segregated according to ages, in Table 2. The age
of each individual is given in years only and represents the en-
trance age to the present grade. In the last column of Table 2
the numbers of retarded pupils are changed to per cents.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 2
Six ScHoots. AcE DistRiBuTION. AGGREGATE 1,312 CASES
t
Above Nor-
7 17 ‘| mal Age
. Grade» | or| 8 | 9 | 10] 11} 12/13] 14]15]16] or | Total
less more Per
No. | cent
8B 28) 27) rol 7] 2 83) 55] 66.3
8A 2) 3] 24) 23) 3 65} 50) 76.9
7B 1] 14] 33) 30] ro} 8 96 81) 84.4°
7A Tt} 4) 18) 33) 28) r5} 4) 2 95, 72] 75.8
6B 2a} go] 39] 20; 7 3 138] 18} 85.5
6A 2} 45) 41| 30] I7} g} x ~145 98] 67.6
5B I] 24] 50) 47| 23] 13] 6 164; 139) 84.8
5A x] 42] 48) 36] 13) 7) 4] 1 152} 100] 71.7
4B 26] 61] 47} 34] 13| 7] 2 Igo] 164 86.3
4A x] 16] 48] 55] 35) 13) z1] 5 184] 19) 64.7
Total.......00, 1,312|Cases

 

 

Assuming 9 years to 9 years 11 months inclusive as the nor-
mal entrance age in grade 4 A, had no pupils been delayed in en-
tering school or held back thereafter in the six schools considered,
in general it may be said that 66.3 per cent of those in 8B ee
entered their respective schools in the first grade, are “ over-age ”
76.9 per cent in 8A; 84.4 per cent in 7B, etc., to 64. 7 per cent
in4 A. Taking 6 years to 6 years 11 months inclusive as the nor-
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 28

mal entrance age to grade 1 A, 7 years to 7 years 11 months inclu-
sive to grade 2 A, 8 years to 8 years 11 months inclusive to grade
3A, 9 years to 9 years 11 months inclusive to grade 4A, etc.,
the writer is following the usual custom. In reality the modal
entrance age in the schools of the particular district studied, as
shown by Table 2, is almost seven years, probably 6 years 10
months or thereabouts. Percentages of “over-ageness” as stated

in the last column of Table 2 are therefore too high. Taking

10 years to Io years 11 months inclusive as the normal age of
a pupil entering the fourth grade, these percentages for 8B
through 4A would reduce to 33.7, 40.0, 50.0, 41.1, 56.5, 39.3,
54:3, 40.1, 56.8, 34.8, respectively.

The accompanying graph illustrates in per cents the modes,
maxima and minima, of retardation by grades in the various
schools :

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

*
BiB add gee elerieae ocd woes 4 9 une c wasn oe alan eed 2 Gaiek wa seine «eee Meweea es 90
70
IHG 8A eh ed eel Ve me eine tees 43
SA Wa euacestens Sve tatea ona evan nae ete aed icra hs eel dice pnts cash ge eS eee Oe Ee td 100
75
ake dia a: Lsering iy ac Kinga ew Vee ERA Y 6 BORER OH 50
WB | erecvecce Yeiom ne Haulnes Aaa wie s Sane ee wUN AS bees be Reis Boag ee bey s eet OMe eases 100
= 80
ifan viens 20: sc eaewaris hanes ahs 4aseiceus ale neidoyctis av eNb Lat aloes ov awstespeds:B: sapaacnustesaneasus 64
IM ah fo hcaby ats les ae eauigtene ah SosKova ta ce dnsavenh enon Rit ane a adeeb cd BA Gates dL lest gesedird ok eee 100
70
erin ghee 6 wha a Reed 4 ORS 40
GIB [tenes een Geir et aya bees 2 Mele Bene eee Rate ad Ee TOY & ower te big ¥ gees 100
80
Lik ae Rd weties Sea eeu eed a SSE 50
PN is ash S Lec SS BNA LAY Oe GNA RAHAT EE DAWG A BARS eee LANAE TEA ATER Ale e 100
75 ;
iteieack ses Sdiie we Suv eras a. sia cocass BIS meats MEM; TiS Reese 62
PORT Gd EOe RY OPN wed TE 1GRsH O4ES TS y Ea eES 8 exees's PRErN® 100
5B}: :-- -
L440 Aine UN RHE kde ER Meee Ry Reeds AERA CDARES RE ES Coy 74
Bec ccc eee eee ce ee een eee eee ee nena eee enna nett ene e nents 100
5 75
eC ee en te re 52
eG BOHR 4 RAR AA Ba EUS eS ke a e E GI WS 100
4B] --+--++-- -
peta arin Mie ae ek pxee dias es dewss Chey 4 peeeEA NEED teens BS
bs va ‘npdhenclotats sar wowuletanwhecehesalaakase as duiauied 26: sigenerians "6:8 eusyeach oie: oust See Re eteasuiets acuser tds 80
ae ; 62
Pr ee 40
cm
Cuart 3. Scale —————~ 10 per cent.
24 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

Table 3 shows in full the approximate modes by grades, de-
viations from these modes and average deviations.

TABLE 3

RETARDATION IN PER CENTS. BASED ON ENTRANCE AGE TO
PRESENT GRADE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ap- Deviations from Mode cee

Schools A|B c|D|E|F pes a El Tw 2 eT ath ev.

si i per per! per| per| per| per ] per | per ‘per, per | per | per| per| per
Grades cent |cent |cent |cent|cent| cent] cent | cent} cent] cent} cent| cent| cent} cent

8B 73 | 88 | 43 | 73 | 90 | 50 70 +3] +18/—27| +3] +20)—20] 15.2

8A a, 71 “98 77. | 50 | 73 | 100 75 aa +23) +2|—25| —2] +25] 13.5

7B , 92 8. 74 | 64 | 100] 67 80 |} +12] +16] —6 |—16| +20/—13] 13.8
—— aA : 27. nga 80 | 100] 69 | 40 70 +7|—3 | +10} +30] —1 |—30] 13.5
6B . 86 | 10% | 81 | 100} 78 | 50 80 Pas +17| +1] +20] —2|—30] 12.7

7 6A “1 66 | 68° 62175 | 74 | 100] 75 = —7|—13| o |—1]|+25] 9.2
5B “| oa eeu 74 | 88 | 83 | 100] 85 +8) +3/—11] +3|—2]+4+15| 7.0

5A "| ea Bor 52 | 70 | 75 | 100] 75 | —8|+14/—23] +4] 0 | +25] 12.3

4B " 90 | 83 | 76 | 100! 95 | 75 85 +5|—2|—o9 : +15) t10/—10; 8.5

4A 66 | 80 | 54] 45 | 70 | 40 60 +6} +20] —6|—15| +10]—20] 12.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The sex distributions of retarded pupils in the grades 4A
through 8B are shown in the following table and comparative
charts. The plain type in each square numbers the boys graded
according to entrance age to present class; the numbers of girls
are printed in italics in the upper part of these same squares.

The last column in Table 4 indicates the ratios in per cents of
the boys above normal age to the total number of boys in their
respective classes and the figure above in each case indicates
the ratio in per cent of the ‘‘over-age” girls to the total number of
girls. A statement then such as the following may be made:
Whereas 65.1 per cent of the total number of male initial start-
ers now in grade 8 B are above the assumed normal age 13 years
to 13 years I1 months inclusive, 67.5 per cent of the total number
of female initial starters now in this same class are thus graded
“over-age.” However, in only three grades, 8B, 6A, and 5 B,
are there larger percentages of retarded girls than boys. Charts
4a and 4b illustrate plainly the tendency in this New York
City district. The median for the ten grades in the case of the 665
boys is 79.0 per cent; and for the 647 girls it is 75.0 per cent.
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 25

TABLE 4

Srx ScHoots. AGse-Grapse TaBLe SHowINnG Sex DistRIBUTION
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
7 17 mal Age
Grades | or] 8 | 9 | 10] 11 | 12] 13) 14|15]16) or | Total} ——————
less more Per
No. | cent
8B 3] r2| ro} 3) 2° 40 27 | 67.5
15} I5;} 9) 4| 9 43 | 28 | 65.1
8A o| Of zo} 6| 2 24 18 | 75.0
2) 7) 14) 17| 1 41 32 | 78.0
7B I| &| 16} 14) 3) 5 47 | 38 | 80.9
o}| 6) r7l 16] 7) 3 49 | 43 | 87.8
GA Ii 2| rz) r7| ro} 7} 3) 2 52 39 | 75.0
1} 2] 7) 16} 8 8 az} Oo 43 33 | 76.7
6B Io| 16} 1&| 14) 4) 3 65 55 | 84.6
To] 24] 21] 15] 3] o 73 63 | 86.3
6A Oo} Ig) 25) 73) oO} Bl 70 51 | 72.9
2| 26} 16) 17} 8} 6) o 75 47 | 62.7
5B I| 7) 26} 26) rr) 5| 3 79 71 | 89.9
o} ry] 24] 21) 12) 8] 3 85 68 | 80.0
5A o| 32] 2z| 22| 5) O| 87 55 | 63.2
1] ro} 27] r4] 8] | 3) 1 65 54 | 83.1
4B 18} 30] 20) 17} 6) 2) 1 94 76 | 80.8
8] 31| 27] 17] 7) 5] 2 _ 96 88 | 91.7
4h o| 9} 23) 28) 13] 7] 6) 3 89) 57 | 64.0
‘ 1] 7) 25} 27| 22] 6) 5] 2 95 62 | 65.3
Total...... 647 | Girls
665 | Boys

 

 

 

 

 

(Charts 4a and 4b referring to Table 4 are found on page 30.)

It has been suggested that it is unfair to assume that six years
is the average entrance age of a pupil admitted to the 1 A grade
in the schools of this city. Table 5 is is i a 1 simple statement_of the
ages at entrance to 1 A grade of the 1, 1,312 | children treated in this
chapter. gee. Se =.
~ Reading from Table 5, one notes that of the.373 initial start-
ers in School A, 46 entered grade 1A at the age of five or

eed

 
26 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

less ; 137, at the age of six; 119, at seven; and 71, at eight years
or more. This means that about one half of these children were
“over-age” at the time of their entrance to the first grade.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 5
AGE DisTRIBUTION OF 1,312 PupiLs AT TIME OF ENTRANCE TO
1 A GRADE
5 8 Above Normal
Schools or 6 a or Total Age
less more SEES
No. |Percent
A 46 | 137 | 119 7t | 373 | 19° | 50.9
B 31 109 81 58 | 279 139 49.8
Cc 34 162 92 34 | 320 124 38.8
D Ir 40 53 13 II7 66 56.4
E 17 74 55 41 187 96 51.3
F 10 12 9 5 36 14 38.9
Total 149 534 407 222 |1,312 629 47.9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

For the six schools, about 48 per cent of the 1,312 pupils
treated were over six years of age (i.e., 6 years Oo months to 6
‘years I1 months inclusive) when they were admitted to grade
1A. The large numbers in the seven-year and eight-year
columns are, perhaps, to be accounted for by the fact that prior
to October 1, 1909 the compulsory attendance age in the schools
of this city ranged from eight to sixteen. At present the amended
Compulsory Education Law says, in part, that “every child be-
tween seven and sixteen years of age, in proper physical and
mental condition to attend school, shall regularly attend upon in-
struction during the compulsory school year.”

In order to learn more in detail concerning the age records
of the 1,312 initial starters as furnished in Table 6, the follow-
ing table was constructed to show how old these pupils were
when they entered the 1 A class, distributed according to pres-
ent grade.

The extreme column on the right in Table 6 tells us that 48.2
per cent of the present 8B pupils were “ over-age” at the time
27

New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Sb log o6r jz fe |€ | jor Jaxx b jz |g jzx |gz a g {4 |6x [Sx jxz fe |S |x |€ Jor jer qv
OLS Igg zSr |r jg |€ je jg jor £ {6 |6 Jor |jrz Jo |r |r jez jg jor fr |x |e Je Je xx yw
g lr igh tor jo |9o |x fh |g fk ur /€ jrr j6 jér fx |xr J |gr ot oz Ix jr |x lor jz fz qs
Lov |6S Str jo |v lo |p |r IZ S jb jrzr jer jg Jr (6 [4 Jee |rz lgr dx fx |r |e |x fz v9
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ZS {1S $6 jo |g |x |b Jz fox z |$ |6 j€ |g |€ |p |r |6 |b [4 Fr |x fe Je € Io ys
b6S [LS 96 r jz |r |§ |9 16 £ | jor j6 j€ Jo |€@& |€ 16 |r Jo |x lo Jo |€ |p Jo qt
zgb jot Sg o |r |x jx J€& je gs j€ |p |S |S Jo |b Ir |g |g 6 fr |x |r Je |x |x V8
zgb jot £g o je |€ |v |e jr z |b |€1 jz Ib Jz fo |€ lor le |g fo fo |x Je |x fz ds
sapeliry
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aqvayg Wi OL FONVULNY dO AWI], LV STidng crf‘ dO NOILNAINIsIq aavay-aoy
9 ATaVL
28 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

of their entrance to the 1 A grade; 46.2 per cent in 8A; 59.4
per cent in 7B, etc., to 41.3 per cent in 4A. In all the grades
from 4A to 8B inclusive, the percentages range from 40.7 to
59.4. The fourth and sixth grades show minimum percentages
of initial ‘“‘over-ageness”; the fifth and seventh, maximum per-
centages. Referring to Table 2 one notes that the present per-
centages of “over-ageness” in the fifth and seventh grades are
larger than those in the other grades. The natural tendency is
to conclude that a large proportion of such “over-ageness”’ is
the result of original ‘“‘over-ageness” at the time of school en-
trance as recorded in Table 6. For example, one is inclined
to say that out of the 66.3 per cent of “over-age” pupils now in
8B, 48.2 per cent were “ over-age” at the time of entrance to
the 1A grade. This is by no means correct for the forty pupils
in the one case do not of necessity refer to the same 40 individ-
uals out of 55 who are now graded as “ over-age”’ in 8 B. Where-
as the same groups are referred to, it was found impossible under
the present circumstances to handle the individual records of
these pupils so as to afford an explanation of the exact amount
of present “over-ageness” due to initial “over-ageness.” All
that one is justly entitled to say concerning these percentages
of pupils above normal age as recorded in Tables 2 and 6 is
that these percentages in both cases are relatively high. It is
probable then that a large proportion of these present “over-age”
pupils were “ over-age”’ at the time of their entrance to the 1A
grade, in so far as there are at present in the 8B grade only
83 initial starters of which 40 were above normal age when
they began school and 55 are “over-age” now.

Table 7 shows the initial age-grade records of the 1,312 cases
distributed according to sex, and the appended charts illustrate
graphically the “over-age” boys at the time of their entrance to
the 1 A grade as compared with the “ over-age ” girls.

From Table 7, of the boys who remain through the fourth,
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades about 50 per cent were
over 6 years 11 months when they entered the 1A grade; of
the girls, about 46 per cent. In this district then the boys re-
maining in all the grammar grades who entered the first class
of the school in which they now are, show larger percentages.
29

New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Sth |6€ 68 o |€ jo |r |G |e |r Io JE jo |e IZ g |€ |rr jor jez jo jz jo jo |F Jo yr
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gfb jre |P6 je |x [zt je IR Jo je je jr |€ |S ler G§ | |6 |Z jor |r je |x je |g |g qr
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A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

30

 

 

 

 

 

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F PUB ‘Spvended
New York City (One District) 1.312 Cases 31

of initial “over-ageness” than the girls. At the same time one
notes in Table 4 that these boys now in the grammar grades tend
to be more retarded than the girls. In the eighth and seventh
ingots Pe ee eee es wate
grades, the median percentage for “over-age” boys (Table 4)
is 77.4; for “over-age” girls it is 75.0; whereas from Table 7
the median percentages of initial ‘‘over-ageness” of boys and girls
for these same grades are 58.1 and 44.6 respectively. Other
things being equal these figures would indicate the probability
that the selected boys who reach the high grades and are retarded,
are so more as a result of their initial “over-ageness” than is
the case. with the retarded girls.

Charts 5a and 5b show clearly that in the matter of “ over-
ageness” at the time of school entrance boys are considerably
more variable per grade than girls.

2
~~) THE INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION

The second part of this chapter is devoted to the measurement
of the relative frequency of non-promotion in the different
grades. Each pupil was asked to state in what grade or grades
he had been kept back for a second term. In the event of the
pupil’s inability to remember accurately, a note was made of
such inability and recourse was had to the record card filed in
the office of the principal. Such action was necessary in 32 out
of 1,312 cases and the writer was particularly fortunate in ob-
taining full records of same; for it was noted that in the majority
of cases the record cards of the upper grade pupils did not show
in full their history since their entrance into grade 1A. The
records usually read back only as far as 1904. This explains
why it became necessary to visit each and every class in grades
4A through 8 B in the six schools in order to obtain direct from
the pupils the information sought. This information was checked
up by the records when possible.

In the first place an endeavor was made to ascertain the fre-
quency of non-promotion of those pupils now in the grammar
grades including 4A and 4B.

The figures in Table 8 a show how many pupils of the initial
starters who had reached any given grade from 4A on, in the
32 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

six schools, had been “held back” once, twice, three times, etc.
Converting these figures to per cents for purposes of comparison,
we have Table 8b. These figures do some of the pupils an in-
justice in that no allowance was made in the case of those pupils
who failed in a given grade but “skipped” a grade either previ-

ously or thereafter.

Six ScHOOLS.

TABLE 8a

AGGREGATE 1,312 CASES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Left Back 4A |4B | 5A ]5B/ 6A | 6Bj7A/7B{ 8A] 8B
None 78} 68] 42) 67) 45} 41/ 30! 40] 17] 36
One 64, 53} 54} 42] 36] 40] 23] 27] 23] 20
Two 25} 35| 36; 38) 42; 309} 26) 24] 47] az
Three g| 20} rol 45] 15] 13 8 5 7 2
Four 44 7 G& 3) 7 S| 5} Of 6 6t] 3
Five or More 4 q 4 ° ° ° 3 ° ° I
Total Left Back 106] 122] Tro; 97] Too] 97] 65} 56} 48] 47
Total Cases 184] Igo] 152) 164] 145] 138] 95] 96] 65] 83
TABLE 8b
SAME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS
uae Bee 4A | 4B] 5A]5B]6A/6B{] 7A] 7B] 8A] 8B
cent | cent'| cent | cent | cont | cont | cont cent cente| went
None 42} 36! 28) 41} 31) 3c; 32) 42! 26! 43
One 35] 28] 36| 25] 25] 20] 24) 28] 35] 24
Two 14, 18} 24/ 23] 29] 28) 27) 25] 26} 25
Three 5) 11 7 g| 10 9 8 5| m1 2
Four 2 4 4 2 5 4 oe ° 2 4
Five or More 2 4 3 ° ° ° 3 ° ° I
Total Left Back 58 65] 74) 59) 69) 7o} 67} 58] 74] 56

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 33

The opinion has been expressed by many of the teachers and
principals questioned at the time of the investigation that the
so-called “ average ” pupil, mentally, does reach the 8 B grade but
is left back at least twice during his or her school life. The
use of the expression “average” pupil is confusing, to say the
least. Whether or not those who enter 1A and pass through
8B in the same school are of average ability, the fact is that
almost one half of these pupils are never left back at all; one
fourth, once; one fourth, twice; 2 per cent, three times; 4 per
cent, four times; and I per cent, five times or more. The me-
dian evidently would be somewhere in the “one-time” group.

These same data are distributed according to sex in the fol-
lowing tables. The charts compare eighth grade boys and girls
with respect to promotion and repetition during their entire
school life.

TABLE 9a

Pupits REPEATING AND Non-Repeatinc Durine ENTIRE
ScHoot Lire

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

Left Back 44 /4B!/ 5A] 5B/6A| 6B] 7A/ 7B] 8A] 8B

 

 

None 38| 36| 37) 35) a2z| 7) rol 18 a 55

40 33 Il 32 24 24 II 22 Io 21

 

One 33| 28) 29) 2z| 18} 7} ro} 13) ral] r2
3I} 25} 25 20) 18} 23) 4313) 34} or 8

 

Two It} ro] 17; 8} 23) 22) 5} 13 4| Ir
14] 16} 19} 20] xo} 27} rr} rl 13] 10

 

 

 

 

 

Three 3) 7 5] 5} OT at]

6) 13 5] 0 9 8 3 2 6 I

Four I 4 4 oO 2 4 2 oO E

3 3 2 3 5 I 3 c I 2

Five or More 3 7 1 oO oO oO I oO oO oO

I 6 3 ° ° ° 2 ° ° I

Total Left Back 51| 59] 56| 44) 40| 48) 33) 29) 317] 25
55; 63} 54/ 53) 51] 49) 32} 27) 31, 22

Total Cases &9| 941 87) 79) 7o| 65) 52| 47| 24) 4o

95] 96} 65) 85) 75) 73] 43] 49] 43] 43

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
34 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

TABLE 9b

SAME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

«AQ

es

44 | 4B| 5A] 5B] 6A] 6B] 7A| 7B] 8A| 8B] 8

Left Back <3
| per per per per per i per per per per per per

cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent| cent
None 42.7| 37.2| 35-0| 44.3) 30.0| 26.2] 36.5} 38.3] 29.2] 37.5| 34.4
42.1] 34.4] 16.9] 37.6) 32.0] 32.9] 25.6] 46.9] 24.4| 48.8) 36.9
One 37.2| 29.8| 33.3] 26.6] 25.7| 20.2] 19.2| 27.7| 50.0] 30.0] 37.5
32.6] 26.0] 38.5] 23.5] 24.0] 31.5] 30.2| 28.6] 26.8] 18.6) 22.6
Two 12.4) 20.2| 19.51 22.81 32.9] 33.8] 28.8| 27.7| 16.71 27.5] 23.4
14.7] 16.7] 29.2] 23.5] 25.3] 23.3] 25.6] 22.4] 31.7] 23.3] 27.4
Three 3-44 7.4) 5.7| 6.3} 8.6) 7.7] 9.6) 6.4] 4.2) 2.5] 3.1
6.3) 13.5] 7-7) 11.8) 12.0] 11.0] 7.0] 4.1/14.6] 2.3] 8.3
Four I.I| 4.3} 4.0] 0.0] 2.9} 6.2] 3.8] 0.0] 0.0] 2.5] 1.6
3-2} 3.1] 3.1] 3.5} 6.7] 3.4] 7.0] 0.0} 2.4] 4.7] 3.6
Five or More | 3.4) z.1| r.z| 0.0] 0.0} 0.0] r.9| 0.0] 0.0] 0.0] 0.0
I.1] 6.3] 4.6] 0.0] o.0o] o.o] 4.7] 0.0] 0.0] 2.3] 1.2
Total Left | 56.2] 62.8) 64.4] 55.7) 70.0! 73.8) 63.5| 61.7| 70.8| 62.5] 65.6
Back 57-9| 65.6] 83.1] 62.4] 68.0] 67.1] 74.4] 55.1 alga 63.1

 

 

 

1These percentages are derived from the 8A and 8B columns of Table 9a. Use sum of
41+ 43 = 84 as base for Boys; 24+ 40 = 64 as base for Girls.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percents Percants
4o 4o
35 35 nt [FS]
30 30
25 i=] 25
2o 20
15 15
lo lo
: Tl.
ea
None One = =Twe Three four Five None One Two Three Four Five

Cuart 6a. Eighth grade boys. Cuart 6b. Eighth grade girls.
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- Repeaters and non-repeaters dur-
ing school life ing school life

The top row of Table 9b records, in grades 4 A through 5 B
as compared with grades 6A through 8B, the girls promoted
in larger numbers than the boys. The larger percentage of regu-
larly promoted boys then considering only those who reach the
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 35

highest grades in this school district would indicate that these
boys are brighter than their girl classmates. On the other hand,
whereas larger percentages of eighth grade girls left back once
during their entire school life are recorded, the percentages of
boys left back twice, three, four, and five or more times by
far exceed those of the girls. |

Charts 6a and 6b again show the boys who are successful
in their elementary school work to be more variable than the
girls in the matter of promotion and non-promotion. It would
seem in this district at any rate that the boys may be properly
grouped at both extremes of the curve of distribution. They
as compared with the girls are brighter and more stupid; the
girls evidently maintain the average position, assuming of course
the records of promotion and repetition as criteria.

Tables ga and gb throw some light on the question as to
the extent to which each of the sixteen half-year grades acts
as a stumbling block for those who survive the entire course
and each of the fifteen for those who reach 8 A; and each of the
fourteen grades for the 7 B pupils, etc., down through all of the
grammar grades including 4A and 4B.

The facts will be clearer, however, from the two following
tables. Table 10 a is the statement of the aggregate represent-
ing the records of 1,312 pupils in the six schools. Table 10b
gives the same facts in per cents.

In cases where a boy or girl was left back once in one grade
and once in another, records are made in both places, the same
as if the records of two pupils, each showing one non-promotion,
were given. Ifa pupil is left back twice in one grade the record
counts as a double score in that grade, in the same way as the
records of two individuals who are left back in that grade would
count. It is for this reason that Tables 10a and 10b do not
seem at first glance to tally with Tables 8a and 8b. In order
to check up Table toa turn to Table 8a and note the following:
For example, in 8 B there are 20 left back once which means 20
records; 21 left back twice, or 42 records; 2 left back three
times, or 6 records; 3 left back four times, or 12 records, and
1 left back five times to count as 5 records. The sum of
20+ 42+6+12+5, or 85 records, is the same as the sum
total of non-promotions in grade 8B, as recorded in the next
to the last column of Table toa.
36 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 10a
GraDE DisTRiBUTION oF NoN-PRoMOTION IN AGGREGATE
Grand Total
Grades| 8B] 8A} 7B} 7A] 6B} 6A] sB} 5A] 4B] 4A} 3B] 3A] 2B] 2A] 1B] 1A} No. |Total pro-
left | moted and
back | non-prom.
8B als 8! xz} of 7{ 7] S| 3) 4/ 4! Ss} 2] 4] 2) 2) 85 12
8A ies 14] ae| a 6| Of 6f 5) 4) 4f of a) of x 82 99
7B Peat 18 | s| cas 8} Ol 4t) oat) 3k) 6) oa] gl oat 6} ogo 130
oA 25| 14] 15] ro] ro] z2| 14] 8 6] 3] 41 3 2] 135 165
6B it 23| 22] 27| 18) 15] 16) 13] 14{ o| 10} 6] 4] 177 218
6A 24| 24| 27] roj 20] 25] 14} 13; 13] 3] IZ] 193 238
5B i 30| 29] 20] 17} 23] 17] ro] 8! 8] 12] 174 241
5A i ah 22! 21] 31] 21] 32] 20| 17] ro] ro] 202 244
4B 26) 33] 46) 33] 35] 28] 22! 30] 253 321
5 30) 24) 37) 24| 18] 13] 33] 179 257
TABLE 10b

SAME IN PER CENTS
Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

8B | 8A | 7B | 7A} 6B} 6A} 5B] sA | 4B] 4A | 3B] 3A | 2B] 2A] 1B] 1A

Grades
cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent|cent |cent| aent| cent| cent| cent| dent
8B 5.8) 4.1] 6.6) 9.1) 7-4) 5.8) 5.81 4.1) 2.5) 3.3] 3.3] 4-1] 1-7] 3.3] 1.9] 23.7
8A | 6.1} 9.1] 14.1] 16.2] 4.0] 6.1] 6.1] 6.1] 5.1] 4.0] 4.0] 0.0] 1.0] 0.0] 1.0
7B Ll 13.8] 6.0] 5.4] 9.2] 6.2] 4.6} 3.1] 3.2] 2.3] 4.6] 0.8 3-1] 1.5} 4.6
7A rl 15.2{ 8.5} 9.1] 6.1) 11.5] 7.3] 8.5] 4.8] 3.6) 1.8] 2.4] 2.8] 1.2
6B at 10,6] 10.1] 12.4] 8.3} 6.0] 7.3] 6.0] 6.4] 4.1] 4.6] 2.8] 1.8
6A I0.1} 10.1] 11.3] 8.0] 8.4] 10.5} 5.0] 5.5] 5.5 1.3} 4.6
5B 12.4{ 12.0] 8.3] 7.11 9.5] 7.1] 4.2 3-31 3.3} 5.0
_ SAL Ne iy 9.0] 8.6) 12.7] 8.6) 13.1] rr.9] 7.0] 4.1 7.8
4B od 8.1} 10.3] 14.3] 10.3] 10.9] 8.7 6.0] 90.3
4A = T1.7| 9.3} 14.4] 9.3] 7-0] 5.1] 12.8
Aver. 5-8] 5.0] 10.0] 11.5} 9.4] 8.7] 9.2] 09.1] 7.1] 8.6] 8.4] 8.3] 6.1 5.3] 3.4] 5.0

 

Aver.

of per} 5.8] 5.1] 9.8) 11.3} 9.6] 8.1] 8.4] 8.4] 6. 8 i -
mente S| 7-3) 7-4) 5.0] 4.6] 2.0] 5.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1In this row the averages are obtained from Table roa as follows:

are 11 of those now in 8B who were left back in 7A; 14 ay ee anaes
back in 7A; 9 in 7B left back in 7A; and 25 in 7A left back in 7A. The sum of these is
50. Dividing same by the sum of the total promotions and non-promotions in grades
8B, 8A, 7B, and 7A as recorded in the last column of Table roa, ie., 121 +90 +130 +165=
515; and then changing quotient to per cent one gets 11.5 per cent. This statement of
averages is a truer one than that made in the bottom row of Table rob as the latter states
merely the averages of gross per cents and in doing co weights all grades alike,
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 37

- Reading from Table 10 b it is seen, concerning those now in
8 B of the initial starters, that 5.8 per cent represents the amount
of non-promotion in grade 8B; 4.1 per cent in grade 8A; 6.6
per cent in grade 7B; 9.1 per cent in grade 7A; 7.4 per cent
in grade OB, etc., . . . to 1.7 per cent in grade 1 A. Again
concerning those now in 8 A, there was a non-promotion of 6.1
per cent in 8A;.9.1 per cent in 7B; 14.1 per cent in 7A,
etc, . . . to I per cent in 1A. In like manner, the other
grammar grades may be interpreted.

In fine, it may be said concerning those pupils who are now
in grade 8B that the retention in grade 8B amounts to about
one in seventeen; of those who are in 8B or are in 8A, it is
about one in twenty in the 8A grade; of those in or beyond 7B
it is about one in ten in grade 7 B; about one in nine in 7 A, etc.

To account for the low percentages in the first and second
grades is difficult. One may contend that the memory of the
pupil in the higher grade is at fault, that he is more inclined
to forget that he was left back in 1A or 1B than in the other
grades. While this is possible, it certainly does not seem prob-
able as the entire cause. Perhaps it may be due to the fact
that the number of incoming new pupils is, as a rule, quite
large, and in consequence there is the necessity for promoting
freely in the lowest grades of the school to afford sitting room
for the new arrivals. Again it may be that many “under-age”
pupils enter the 1 A or 1B grades and, after a short time, are
taken out by their parents on account of the strain and placed
in the kindergarten or are kept at home for the rest of the year.
These pupils, if asked later in school life to state the grades in
which they were left back, would not be inclined to say that they
were “held over” in 1 A or 1B, provided that on their second
trial which covered a full term, they passed through these grades
successfully. And it does seem reasonable to justify their atti-
tude in this matter.

Turning to Table 1ob again one notes the large per cents in
the seventh grades. This seems to indicate that these grades are
the chief stumbling blocks, serving to delay the normal progress
of a considerable number and so acting with telling effect as
the final weeding-out process of the incapable.

Of course it may be argued that whereas about one-half of
the pupils in the seventh grades (see Table 2) are fourteen years
38 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

or more, in consequence the desire to drop out and go to work,
coupled with a consequent indifference to the work in these
grades, makes for this high rate of “ hold-overs,” especially when
the said pupils are not permitted by their parents to leave school.
On the other hand, does not the relative time manifestation of
this final selective action seem to be the natural course of events
in the high school and the college as well as in the elementary
school? Once a student has reached the senior year of his
course, one may safely say that he will almost invariably be
graduated at the end of the year, the next to the last year func-
tioning as the ultimate selective force.

The following comparative grade study uses data furnished
in Table 10b. Comparing those who are now in the sixth
grades with those now in the fourth grades as to the number of
times left back, say in the third grades, this table shows:

GRADES...... 3B 3A GRADES...... 3B OBA

per cent per cent

In 6B grade......... 6.0 6.4 In 4B grade...... 14.3 10.3

In 6A grade......... 10.5 5.9 In 4A grade...... 9-3 14.4
Median... ...... 6.2 Median. .... 12.3

Generally speaking, then, this means that of those who are now
in the sixth grades about 1 in 15 was left back in the third grade;
whereas of those who are in the fourth grades the ratio of reten-
tion increases to approximately 1 in 8. The differences become
more marked as we compare grades farther apart. To illustrate,
of those now in the eighth grades it will be found that only 1 in
25 was left back in the third grades.

Now comparing the eighth and seventh grades with the fifth
and fourth grades with respect to non-promotion in the third
grades, one notes the following distribution:

GRADES...... 3B OBA GRADES...... 3B 3A
per cent per cent
8B grade.......... 3-3. 4.1 5B grade.......... 5 Fi
8A grade.......... 4.0 4.0 5A grade.......... 8.6 13.1
WB TAME c0-3. the es ads 2.3 -4.6 4B grade.......... 14.3 10.3
WA PTAE a cae cael gu 4.8 3.6 4A grade.......... 9-3 14.4
Median.......... 4.0 Median......... 9.9

That is, the ratio of non-promotion in the third grades of
those initial starters who are now in the seventh and eighth
grades to those now in the fourth and fifth grades, is as 4 is to
10 approximately.
New York City (One District) 1,312 Cases 39

Assuming the proper correction to be made for errors of
memory in those cases where the card records were not obtain-
able and the teachers and classmates were unable to check up the
doubtful pupils’ statements, it seems justifiable to conclude that
intrinsically the grades one to seven in this district are progres-
sively harder. For the same pupil, retardation becomes more —
probable grade by grade till the eighth. The common view that
retardation is chiefly a matter of the primary grades is certainly
false for these schools, the fact being that the many pupils who
are retarded in grades one to four would be retarded still oftener
if they continued in school.
CHAPTER III
ELIZABETH, N. J. 1,088 CASES

In Elizabeth, N. J., five schools were visited during the month
of March, 1910. These schools typify conditions in all sections
of the city. They represent the entire number of schools having
the complete series of grades from the first to the eighth inclusive.
The records of 1,088 pupils were obtained and tabulated ac-
cording to the method employed in Chapter IJ. The numbers of
pupils on register in the schools studied are approximately:
School G, 600; School H, 1,600; School I, goo; School J, 500;
School K, 700.

Tue MIGRATION OF PUPILS

Table 11 shows the per cents of initial starters.1 Subtracting
these per cents from 100 per cent one may determine the relative
amount of migration in these schools plus, as was previously ex-
plained, the percentage of those pupils who were admitted as
absolutely new pupils in or beyond the second grade.

TABLE 11

Per Cents oF INITIAL STARTERS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Schecls G H I J Kk Aver.
Grades per cent/per cent|per cent|per cent|per cent/per cent
Eighth 8 61 Z 19 55 32.9
Seventh 9 58 32 26 44 33.6
Sixth 16 57 38 46 35 37-0
Fifth 37 60 ‘Se. 53 38 si.
Fourth 43 48 51 35 41 44.8
Average 28 57 35 36 43 40.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

" Method of obtaining these per cents is explained on page 21, chap. II.
40
Elizabeth, N. J. 1,088 Cases 4I

From Table 11 it is seen that on the average 40.8 per cent! of
the pupils in grades four through eight of the schools of Eliza-
beth began their work in the first grade of the schools they now
attend. The range is from 23 per cent in School G to 57 per
cent in School H. Grades 6, 7, and 8 average below 40.8 per cent,
grades 4 and 5 are above, indicating the lack of persistency on
the part of the initial starters as they advance to the higher
grammar grades.

THE AGE-GRADE RELATIONS OF THE 1,088 INITIAL STARTERS

The distribution of pupils according to age at the time of’
entrance to the present grade is shown in the following table.
The percentages of retardation are printed in the last column.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 12

Five ScHoorts. Ace DistripuTion. AGGREGATE 1,088 CASES
Above Nor-
mal Age
Grades | 8] 9 ic| rz | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16°] Total) ——————
Per
No. | cent
Eighth to] 4c} 42| 31 7| 130 80] 61.5
Seventh to] 37] 58; 46| 18 3] 172| 125) 72.7
Sixth 14] 34) 81} 48) 33 6 2} 218] 170| 78.0
Fifth 8] 46] 107/ 99] 62] 27 349| 295] 84.5
Fourth 4{ 37] 65} 48) 43] 413] «1 219] 178} 81.3

POtal sss ei 1,088|Cases

 

 

 

 

 

In the eighth grade 61.5 per cent of the pupils are reported as
being “‘over-age,’ assuming 13 years to 13 years II months
as the normal entrance age to the eighth grade; 72.7 per cent in
grade 7; 78.0 per cent in grade 6; 84.5 per cent in grade 5;
and 81.3 per cent in grade 4. These percentages are extremely
high and show a marked progressive decrease from the fifth grade
to the eighth grade inclusive. Counting only those pupils in
the fourth grade as “over-age” who exceed the age limit of 9

1This percentage is derived by dividing the entire number of records
obtained by the total register of the five schools (grades 4 to 8 only)
at the time of visitation.

‘
42 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

years 0 months to 9 years 11 months inclusive by one or more
years and measuring the other grades accordingly ‘these percent-
ages of retardation would lower to: Eighth grade, 29.2 per
cent; seventh grade, 39.0 per cent; sixth grade, 40.8 per cent;
fifth grade, 53.9 per cent; and fourth grade, 51.6 per cent.

The distribution of the retarded pupils in these grades accord-
ing to sex is shown in the table and charts following.

TABLE 13

Five ScHoots. AGE-GRADE TABLE SHOWING SEX DISTRIBUTION
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age
Grades 8 | 9 | 10] tr} 12} 13) 14] 15] 16 | Total ;}————_—_—
Per
: No. | cent
Eighth 6| 21] 25) ro| 2| 64 37 | 57.8
4| ro] 17! 21] 5] 66 43 | 65.2
Seventh 6| 22) 27| 21| 5) 3] 84 56 | 66.7
4} ™5] 31] 25) 13) of 88 69 | 78.4
Sixth 8| 19] 47| 27| r2| 2| oO} 115 88 | 76.5
6] rs] 34] 21] 21) 4] 2] 103 82 | 79.6
Fifth 6| 31) 55) 52| 29) 11 184 | 147 | 79.9
2| 15] 52] 47] 33} 16 165 148 | 89.7
Fourth 3) 22| 33) 28) 17) 5) 4) 112 87 | 77.7
1] 15} 32] 20] 24| 8] 7 I0o7 gi | 85.0
Totalas2ccorstias 559 | Girls
529 | Boys
Pereents. Percents.
qo 40
_ 80 80 .
‘To 10
60 bo
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
To} yo
Grades. & 7 6 5 4 Grades 8 aT G 5 4
CuHarT 7a. Percentages of re- Cuart 7b. Percentages of re-

tarded boys tarded girls
Elizabeth, N. J. 1,088 Cases 43

In the schools of Elizabeth there seems to be no doubt con-
cerning sex difference in retardation. In every instance as shown
in the preceding table the boys are more retarded than the girls.
The median for the 529 cases (boys) in grades 4 through 8 is
79.6; whereas for the 559 cases (girls) it is 76.5. In the two
upper grammar grades the boys as compared with the girls show
relatively more “over-ageness” than in the two lower grades.
With both sexes the same progressive increase in retardation is
noticeable (see charts 5 a and 5 b) in descending from the eighth
to the fourth grade. Were the theoretical age limit for the fourth
grade taken to extend from 9 to 11 years, for the fifth grade from
10 to 12 years, for the sixth grade from II to 13 years, etc.,
the “over-age” boys in each case would again be recorded in
larger numbers.

Table 14 shows the distribution of the 1,088 cases according
to age at the time of their entrance to the first grade of the school
in which they now attend.

TABLE 14

AcE DistRIBUTION OF 1,088 Pupits aT TIME OF ENTRANCE TO THE
First GRADE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Normal
8 Age

Schools 5 6 7 or Total _—————____
more Per
No. cent
G 5 36 60 32 133 92 69.2
H 17 145 246 120 528 366 69.3
I 4 62 65 33 164 98 59.8
J 3 32 51 24 IIo 75 68.2
K 5 37 74 37 153 rrr | 72.5
Total 34 312 496 246 | 1,088 742 68.2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Approximately 68 per cent of the cases studied were “‘over-
age” at the time of entrance to the first grade. Relative to this
exceptionally high figure, the superintendent explained that the
parents were encouraged during the past five years by the medi-
cal officials of the city in public circulars and otherwise, not to
44 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

send their children to school before the age of seven. This ac-
counts for the fact that of the five cities reported on in this
study, Elizabeth records by far the largest percentage of initial
“over-ageness.”"! The modal entrance age as shown in the fore-
going distribution is clearly in the group, 7 years to 7 years II
months inclusive.

The distribution of these 1,088 pupils at the time of their
school entrance is again recorded in Table 15. This table is
more valuable in that it shows also the distribution by grades.

From the percentages of “over-ageness” at the time of entrance
to the first grade, as read in the last column of Table 15, one
notes that in grades 4 and 5 such “‘over-ageness” is at a maxi-
mum. Evidently the fact aforementioned concerning the atti-
tude of the medical men largely accounts for these high percent-
ages. The upper grades show less pupils above normal age.
Whereas it is certainly wrong in comparing Tables 15 and 12
to say positively that 61.5 per cent now in the eighth grade are
“over-age,” 56.2 per cent of the eighth grade pupils were “‘over-
age” at the time of entrance to the first grade, therefore approx-
imately 85 per cent of those who are ‘‘over-age”’ now are so be-
cause of “over-ageness” at the time of school entrance, still it may
be true and is highly probable that the vast majority of the re-
tarded pupils in the Elizabeth schools are so in consequence
of their initial ‘‘over-ageness” on starting school.

Comparison of sexes in the matter of age-record at the time of
their entrance to the first grades is shown in Table 16 and
accompanying charts.

Of the 529 boys whose records were taken, 72.2 per cent were
found to be over 6 years 11 months when they entered the first
grade; of the 559 girl initial starters, 61.5 per cent were thus
“over-age.” Just as was pointed out in comparing the boys and
girls classified as retarded in their present grades (see page 43),
the boys in each grade show here larger percentages above the as-
sumed normal entrance age.

In the eighth grade whereas 65.2 per cent (Table 13) of the
boys are above normal age, a still larger proportion (74.2 per
cent) of these boys were “over-age” when they began school. In
all the other grades the percentages of initial “over-ageness”
closely approximate the present “over-ageness” in the case of

1See Chapter VII, Table 5r.
45

1,088 Cases

Elizabeth, N. J.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ST ATAVL
A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

46

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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91 ATAVL
Elizabeth, N. J. 1,088 Cases 47

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percents. Percents.

8s 35

80 a 80

15 5

70 10 :
és és =i
60 60

55 55

50 50

45 45

4o 40

35 35

30 30

25 25

20 20

15 (5

Jo 1o

5 5

Grades, 8 7 G 2 4 Grades, 8 7T 6 > 4
Cuart 8a. “Over-age” boys Cuart 8b. “ Over-age” girls
entering first grade entering first grade

the boys. Some such statement then as the following is justifi-
able: Whereas the boys are more retarded than the girls in
the schools of Elizabeth, such retardation is probably due more
to initial retardation rather than to failure to pass regularly
through the grades. As for the boys this would seem at first
glance to argue the advisability of encouraging them to enter
school later in years. Table 18b (page 49) however disproves
this.

That the boys are more variable than the girls in this instance
is again evident from the appended diagrams. Note the progres-
sive increase in initial “over-ageness” of the girls in grades 8
through 4 (Chart 8 b). The same steady increase in present
“ over-ageness ” is to be noted in Chart 7b, page 42.

Tue INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION
The numbers of repeating and non-repeating pupils of the
1,088 children investigated are shown in Table 17a. These fig-
ures are changed to per cents in Table 17 b.
48 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 17a
Five ScuHoots. AGGREGATE 1,088 CASES
Left Back Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh | Eighth
None 133 176 133 113 92
One 56 127 62 40 29
Two 22 38 20 17 7
Three 6 6 3 2 I
Four 2 2 ° ° I
Total Left Back 86 173 85 59 38
Total Cases 219 349 218 172 130
TABLE 17b
SAME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS
Tete Baa Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh] Eighth
per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent
None 61 50 61 66 71
One 26 36 28 23 22
Two Io II 9 Io 5
Three 3 2 I I I
Four I I ° ° I
Total Left Back 39 50 39 | 34 29
' 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the five grades tabulated, the mode in each case is in the
“no-time” group. Although the percentages of retardation are
highest in the Elizabeth schools, the percentages of pupils re-
peating during their entire school life are lowest when compared
with those of the other four cities. This again seems to point
to the fact that the present considerable “over-ageness” in the
schools of this city is due largely to “over-ageness” at the time
of entrance to the first grade.

The sex distribution of repeaters and non-repeaters is shown
next in tables and diagrams.
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Elizabeth, N. J. 1,088 Cases 49
TABLE 18a
Pupits REPEATING AND Non-REpeATING Durinc ScHooL Lire
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.
Left Back Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh} Eighth
None 71 Io2 83 56 47
62 74 5° 57 45
One 32 60 27 18 I4
24 67 35 22 15
Two 6 18 5 9 2
16 20 15 8 5
Three 3 2 o I o
3 4 3 I I
Four o 2 o oO I
2 fo} ° ° °
Total Left Back 41 82 32 28 I7
45 gt 53 31 “BE
Total Cases Il2 I84 IIS 84 64
107 165 103 88 66
TABLE 18b
SaME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics,
Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh | Eighth
Left Back
per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent
None 63-4 55-4 72.2 66.7 73-4
57-9 44.8 48.5 64.8 68.2
One 28.6 32.6 23-5 21.4 21.9
22.4. 40.6 34.0 25.0 212 27
Two 5.4 98 4.3 10.7 Bur
I5.0 D2 14.6 9.1 76
Three 2.7 Tit 0.0 Ts 0.0
2.8 2''5 2.9 Tin I.5
Four 0.0 LL 0.0 0.0 1.6
I 9 0,0 0.0 0.0 Vv.0
Total Left Back 36.6 44.6 27.8 33-3 26.6
42.4 56.4 51.5 35.2 31.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
50 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Perverts Pe reenrts.
15 15
10 10
65 65
60 60
38 55)
50 50
45 45
40 : 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
1s 15
10 10
: =... *
= —
None One Two Taree Four None One Two Three Four
Cuart ga. Eighth grade boys. Cuart 9b. Eighth grade girls.
Repeaters and non-repeaters dur- Repeaters and non-repeaters dur-
ing school life ing school life

The girls recorded in these five schools are unquestionably
brighter than the boys if one measures mental ability on the basis
of the relative frequency of promotions and non-promotions. In
the fourth through the eighth grades the ratio of the regularly
promoted girls to the total number of girls promoted and non-
promoted exceeds that of the boys similarly figured. The boys
in almost every grade are also left back more frequently once,
twice, and three times. The two girls in the fifth grade and the
one in the eighth grade (see Table 18 a) repeating four times are
quite exceptional.

In the eighth grade, it is seen from Table 18b that 73.4 per
cent of all the girls studied, were never left back during their en-
tire school life; 21.9 per cent were left back once; and 3.1 per
cent, twice. Of the boys 68.2 per cent were promoted regularly
since school entrance; 22.7 per cent failed once; and 7.6 per cent
failed twice. Again it would seem that the selected girls who
reach the graduating class must be credited with better records
although the differences are not so marked as in the lower grades,
especially the sixth. Judged accordingly, the girls here by far
Elizabeth, N. J. 1,088 Cases 51

outstrip the boys in mental ability. The charts show respectively
the percentages of promoted and non-promoted eighth grade boys
and girls. The one glaring fact is the large percentages of regu-
larly advancing pupils in both cases.

Relative to the grade distribution of the repeating pupils, Table
1g a in actual numbers and Table 19 b in per cents show plainly
such incidence of retardation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 19a
Grave DisTRIBUTION OF Non-PRoMOTION IN AGGREGATE
Grand Total
Ss a aera eee,

a 2» a < Total

Grades| = 5 g a % zg 8 2 | No. Prom.
"So > i a 2 ack 3 | Left and

ica) a a a ey n ey POE gece

rom.

Eighth 8 13 ; 3 3 6 7 5 5 50 142
Seventh 24 9 5 8 II 15 80 193
Sixth 30 25 24 13 9 Io | III 244
Fifth 77} 49 | 42] 33} 29 | 229 | 405
Fourth 46 37 24 19g | 126 259

TABLE 19b

SAME IN PER CENTS
Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Eighth|Seventh] Sixth | Fifth| Fourth | Third | Second} First
Grades | per per per per per per per cee
cent cent cent cent cent cent cent cent
Eighth 5.6 9.2 2.1 2.1 4.2 4.9 3.5 3.45
Seventh 12.4 4-7 4ea 2.6 4.1 ay) 7.8
Sixth | 12.3 | 10.2 9.8 5-3 Bo !| aad
Fifth 19.0 E24 10.1 8.1 V2
Fourth 17.8 10.4 9-3 743
Aver. 5.6 IT.o 7.3 | I1.5 10.5 8.5 6.6 6.3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
52 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

The progressive increase of retardation till the sixth grade is
manifest in the bottom row of average percentages, Table 19b,
computed in the manner explained in the preceding chapter on
page 36. The distribution curve in the case of the school children
of Elizabeth would show two distinct high levels, one in the fifth
grade and the other in the seventh. It is reasonable to suppose
then that a large number of pupils are eliminated in the difficult
fourth and fifth grades and that those pupils who remain find
little trouble in accomplishing the sixth grade work but are sub-
jected to the final selective test when they enter the seventh
grade. The successful seventh grade scholars then pass into the
easy eighth grade, from which nearly all at the close of the year
are permitted to graduate.

Comparing percentages of eighth, sixth, and fourth grade pu-
pils with respect to their records of failure in the third grade,
Table 19 b shows:

THIRD GRADE

per cent
Ineighth rade. ck aca cvw an ermiwes e And de es 4-9
AM SI Xt Ora Opa ea) bicen nieces deat ield Bay's pre eases eaanier 5-3
Infourth erade:.. .oadeaandasageomerneaeoae es 10.4

Approximately twice as many pupils in the fourth grade as
compared with either the sixth or eighth grade are left back in the
third grade. In grades eight and six about 1 in 20 were “held
over” in the third grade, whereas of the fourth grade pupils as
many as I in 10 failed in the lower grade.

The relative amounts of retention in the third grade of the
eighth and seventh grade pupils and those of the fifth and fourth
grades are:

THIRD GRADE THIRD GRADE
per cent per cent
In eighth grade....... 4.9 In fifth grade........ 10.1
In seventh grade..... 4.1 In fourth grade...... 10.4
Median........... 4-5 Median........... 10.3

In fine, then, it may be said that the fourth or fifth grade pupil
is left back in the third grade more than twice as often as the
eighth or seventh grade pupil. The fact that the fourth, fifth,
and seventh grades in this city schoal system are the most difficult
for the children who have gone through them, is undeniable. The
high percentage of repetition in the seventh grade indicates this
grade to be the ultimate selective force. Those who just survive
the fourth and fifth grades, were they to remain, would most
probably be “held over” again in the seventh grade if not elim-
inated altogether.
CHAPTER IV
PATERSON, N. J. 1,246 CASES

The five schools of Paterson, N. J., reported in this chapter
furnished records of 1,246 initial starters. Only the grammar
grade pupils are considered and these are tabulated as in New
York City in half-yearly grades. The “A” classes, however, are
the upper and the “B” classes the lower grades in the Paterson
school system. School O with 1,500 pupils registered represents
the largest school and School N with a registry of goo pupils,
the smallest at the time of visitation during the months of March
and April, 1910.

Tue MicRATION oF PuPILs
The approximate percentages of initial starters now in the

grammar grades are shown in Table 20.

TABLE 20

Per Cents or INITIAL STARTERS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Schools L M N oO P Average
Grades per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent
8A 62 39 37 52 49 48.3
8B 44 57 44 60 44 51.0
7A 33 58 38 49 43 47-4
7B 67 60 41 60 45 55-4
6A 46 47 49 52 53 50.3
6B 38 47 39 41 28 40.1
5A _ 46 55 |. 45 59 36 49-1
5B 55 43 61 53 37 50.3

Average 48 5 45 54 43 48.9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

53
54 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

Accordingly 48.9 per cent of the grammar grade pupils regis-
tered in the five schools are rated as initial starters. That is, ap-
proximately half the number of grammar grade children in the
Paterson schools must have either migrated to the schools they
now attend from other schools in Paterson or from other cities
or else must have been admitted as new pupils in their present
school in a higher grade than the first. This would seem to be
the tendency in all the grammar grades with but slight deviation.
The largest school, School O, with .52 in 8A and .60 in 8B
and an average for all the grammar grades of .54 excels all
the others in percentages of initial starters.

Tue AGE-GRADE RELATIONS OF THE 1,246 INITIAL STARTERS

The 1,246 pupils tabulated in the following distribution are seg-
regated with respect to age at the time of entrance to the present
grade.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 21
Five Scuoors. AGE DisTRIBUTION. AGGREGATE 1,246 CasFs

Above Nor-

mal Age
Grades | 8] 9 | ro | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | Total; ——————
Per

No. | cent
8A T7| SC} 37) 17 8} 129 62| 48.1
8B 3 44) 53]! 39) 9 rt 147 49] 33:3
7A T] 5} 63] 53) 28 2 162 83] 51.2
7B To] 44| 58) 52] 20 2 186 74| 39.8
6A 3] r4/ 57] 59o] 29] 14 176} 102] 58.0
6B 3] rg! 56} 35] 21 6 140 62] 44.3
5A 13} 38] 4€| 23) 16 3 139 88} 63.3
5B 7] 4t| sol 27] 13) 18) 2 167/60] 35.9

Total........|1,246|Cases

 

 

 

 

 

The percentages of “over-ageness” in the grades of the Pater-
son schools are seen to be relatively small but considerable vari-
ation is manifest. The fifth and sixth grades show higher per-
centages than the seventh and eighth. The upper seventh grade
Paterson, N. J. 1,246 Cases 55

recording 51.2 per cent as above normal age is significant. Those
that do reach this grade are probably “held back” here more
than in the preceding grades. (See Table 21.)

Assuming 14 years to 14 years II months inclusive instead
of 13 years to 13 years 11 months inclusive as the normal en-
trance age to the eighth grade, the percentages of “over-age”
pupils would decrease to: 8A grade, 19.4 per cent; 8B grade,
6.8 per cent; 7A grade, 18.5 per cent; 7B grade, 11.8 per cent;
6A grade, 24.4 per cent; 6B grade, 14.3 per cent; 5A oped
30.2 per cent; 5 B grade, 19.8 per cent.

Note that in each instance the lower “ B ” grades show smaller
percentages of retarded pupils than the upper “A” grades for

TABLE 22

Five Scuoots. Ace-Grape Taste SHowinec SEx DistrRiBution
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age
Grades | 8 | 9 | 10 | rz | r2 | 13 | 14 | 25 | 16 | Total
Per
No. | cent
8A I2| 32) 15 é| 3] 7o 26 | 37.1
5} ral 22 9 5| 59 20 | 44.1
8B 1] 22) 26) 15 I o| 65 16 | 24.6
2} 20| 27) 24 8 I] 82 33 | 40.2
7A tT} 9} 38] 32) 16) 1 97 | 49 | 50.5
6} 25] 21] 12 I 65 34 | 52.3
7B 5] 23) 25] 25) 8! 1 87 | 34 | 39.2
5} 21] 33[ 27/ 32} 2 99 | 40 | 40.4
6A 2 8| 29) 23) 18 9 89 50 | 56.2
I 6; 28] 36) «1 5 87 52] 59.8
6B 2| Io} 33) 2) Io oO 67 22 | 32.8
I go} 23) 23) I2 6 73 40 | 54.8
A g| 8} 29] Io 9 2 77. | 50 | 64.9
; 4, 20] 17] 13 7 I 62 38 | 61.3
5B 4, 20) 24) Iz} 5, 7) Oo 77 | 23 | 26.9
3] 5] 35] 16 8} 15 2 go 37 | 41.1
Total.s ecees 629 | Girls
617 | Boys

 

 

 
56 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

the reason that the same theoretical normal age was assumed
for the lower half-yearly grade as for the higher. The same
holds true of the New York City schools with the single ex-
ception of the eighth grades. (See Chapter H, page 22.) Hf,
for example, the age limit for the 8B grade were taken to ex-
tend from 13 years to 13 years 11 months inclusive, it would per-
haps have been fairer to have taken 13 years 6 months to 14 years
5 months inclusive as the normal entrance age to the 8A grade.

Table 22 and the graphic illustrations represent the sex distri-
bution of the “ under-age,” “normal,” and “over-age”’ pupils,
the diagrams referring only to the last group. (Chart roa and
10b which refer to Table 22 are found on page 60.)

From the preceding age-grade table one learns that with the ex-
ception of grade 5 A, the boys are retarded much more often than
the girls. The median in the case of the former for the eight
grades tabulated would be 48.2; in the case of the latter, only
38.1. The difference is most marked in the two eighth grades.
The boys as compared with the girls who do reach these grades
are much older. The larger ratios of “over-age’’ boys would
still hold in all grades excepting 7 A and 6A were the age limit
raised a year in each case. The charts illustrate plainly that in
the matter of retardation the grammar grade girls of the Pater-
son schools are much more variable than the boys.

The following table records the age distribution of these gram-
mar grade pupils at the time of their entrance to the 1B grade
of the school in which they now are.

Of the 1,246 initial starters, 286 or only 23 per cent were
over 6 years 11 months when they entered the 1B grade of the
school. Just as Paterson with no exception has less retardation
in its grammar grades than the other cities, it likewise shows con-
siderably less initial “over-ageness” of its local beginners.
Whereas the largest school, School O, had the largest percent-
age of initial starters (see page 53), Table 23 records this school
as having the largest percentage of “over-ageness” on the part
of such pupils. School N with next to the smallest percentage
in Table 20 holds in Table 23 the minimum record. The median
entrance age in the Paterson schools would fall in the group 6
Paterson, N. J. 1,246 Cases 57

years to 6 years 11 months inclusive, the normal entrance age
considered throughout in this special study.

TABLE 23

Ace DIstTRIBUTION OF 1,246 PupiLts AT TIME OF ENTRANCE
To 1B GRADE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age
Schools 5 6 q 8 9 to | Total) ——————
Per
No. | cent
L 84 69 39 8 5 o| 205 52| 25.4
M 122 84 43 4 3 o| 256 50] 19.8
N 76 66 26 7 ° o| 175/ 33] 18.9
O 158] 137 67 22 15 4) 403) 108) 26.8
P 74 go 39 3 I o| 207 43] 20.8
Total 514] 446) 214 44 24|~ 4) 1,246| 286} 23.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 24 shows the same pupils considered in Table 23 dis-
tributed according to present grade and entrance age to the 1B
grade.

Comparing this table with Table 21 one can find little reason
to explain the present grade “over-ageness” on the basis of the
initial “ over-ageness ” of the beginners. In grade 7 A, Table 21
records nearly the highest percentage of retardation; whereas
Table 24 shows almost the smallest percentage: 19.8 per cent of
the present 7 A pupils as “ over-age”’ when they entered school.
On the other hand Table 24 tells us that the highest proportion,
30.6 per cent of the present 7B pupils, were above normal age
at the time of their entrance to grade 1 B; Table 21 records only
39.8 per cent or the sixth from the highest percentage of present
“over-age’” pupils.

The sex distribution of these initial starters is stated in Table
25 and the graphic illustrations of the “over-age” boys and girls
entering grade 1 B are shown on page 60 (Charts 11 a and 11 b).

In total, 23.5 per cent of the girls as opposed to 22.4 per cent
of the boys were above 6 years 11 months when they entered
school. Just as the girls showed the largest percentages of re-
A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

58

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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59

1,246 Cases

Paterson, N. J.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

60

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Paterson, N. J. 1,246 Cases 61

tardation in the sixth and seventh grades (Table 22), in Table
25 they also show more initial “over-ageness” in these grades.

Whereas the boys are retarded more in the fifth and sixth
grades and least in the 7 B grade according to Table 22; in the
eighth and the fifth grades and mostly in the 7 B grade, one notes
the largest percentages above normal age at the time of school
entrance (Table 25). Evidently late entrance with the boys is
not so potent a cause of retardation as in the case of the girls.
Charts 11 a and 11 b again call attention to the tendency toward
greater variability on the part of the boys.

THE INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION

Table 26a represents in numbers the distribution of the 1,246
Paterson school children according as they were or were not
left back during their entire school life. Table 26b reports the
same, only the numbers are changed to per cent equivalents.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 26a
Five ScHoots. AGGREGATE 1,246 CASES

Left Back 5B | 5sA | 6B | 6A | 7B | 7A | 8B | 8A
None 94} 75| 58| or] 89] 74] 65 | 60
One 32 40 | 42 47 581 48] 46! 36
Two 19 18 30 27 29 33 25 30
Three 17 5 9 II 7 6 9 3
Four or more 5 I I ° 3 Ye 2 °
Total Left Back 93 64 82 85 97 88 ; 82 69
Total Cases 167 | 139 | 140 | 176 | 186 | 162 | 147 | 129

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

With the exception of the fifth grades and the upper sixth, the
mode expressing the frequency of non-promotion falls in the
“one-time ” group. The tendency of the pupils of Paterson who
have reached the highest grades is to be left back once during
their entire school life. Rather large percentages of pupils in
all the grades of the grammar department, especially the high
ones, are left back twice. In the lower grades a considerable
number have repeated three times since they began school.
6a A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 26b
SamME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS
sB | sA | 6B | 6A | 7B |] 7A | 8B | 8A
Left Back

per per per per per per per per

cent cent cent cet cent cent cent cent

None 56) 54] 41 52 48 | 46 | 44] 47
One 19 29 30 27 31 30 3a 28
Two Ir 13 2 15 16 20 17 23
Three Io 4 6 6 4 4 6 2
Four 3 I I ° 2 I I °
Total Left Back 44 46 59 48 52 54 56 53

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The statement showing the sex of the promoted and non-pro-
moted children now in the grammar classes is found in the next
tables. The graphic illustrations compare the boys and girls
of the eighth grade as to relative frequency of promotion and
repetition.

TABLE 27a
Pupits REPEATING AND Non-REPEATING DurRING ScHooL LIFE

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Left Back 5B | sA | 6B | 6A | 7B |] 7A | 8B | 8A
None 43 | 42| 38] 54) 42) 49] 30| 37
St] 33} 20) 37] 48) 25) 35] 23
One I7 I9 I7 I6 28 26 22 22
15 21 25 31 30 22 24 14
Two 6 I4 Ir 16 I2 2I 12 TF
13 4 19 II 17 12 13 19

Three Io 5 if L

 

Four I
4

sy

oO I oO 0

£ a 3 : o

7 4 8 8 2 5 8 3
oO

° 2 I 2 oO

°
H

 

Total Left Back 34 35 29 35 46 48 35 33
39 | 29] 53] 50) 52] 40] 47) 36

Total Cases 77\ 77 | 67) 89 | 87| 97) 65] 7o
99 | 62 | 73 | 87} 99 | 65 | 82] 59

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
Paterson, N. J.

Boys in plain type.

1,246 Cases

TABLE 27b
SAME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQuivALENTS

Girls in italics.

63

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

sB | 54 | 6B | 6A | 7B | 7A | 8B | 8A | Average
Left Back 5 fi 7 8B and 8A
per per per per per per per per per
cent cent | cent cent | cent cent | cent cent cent
None 55.8) 54.5| 56.7| 60.7| 47.1| 49.5| 46.2| 52.9} 49.6
56.7] 53.2] 27.4] 42.5] 48.5] 38.5) 42.7] 39.0; 41.1
One 22.1| 24.7| 25.4| 18.0| 32.2| 26.8| 33.8] 31.4) 32.6
16.7] 33-9) 34-2! 35-6] 30.3} 33-8) 29.3] 23-7) 27+
Two 7.8) 18.2| 16.4] 18.0] 13.8] 21.6] 18.5] 15.7| 17.0
14.4} 6.5] 26.0] 12.6] 17.2] 18.5| 15.9] 32.2] 22.7
Three I3.0| 2.3} 1.5) 3.4) 5-7) T.o] 1.5] oO. 0.7
7.8) 6.5] 11.0] g.2) 2.0] 7.7] 9.8] 5.1 7.8
Four I.3) 1.3) 0.0} O.0| £.z} O.o}| O.0] 0.0 0.0
4.4 0.0 1.4 0.0 2.0 1.5 V.0 “eg I.4
Total Left} 44.2) 45.5) 43-3] 39-3) 52-9] 49.5] 53-8) 47-1| 50.4
Back 43-3] 46.8] 72.6] 57.5] 52.5] 61.5] 57-3] 6r.0] 58-9
Perwvents. Rerevents.
50 50
45 45.
Ao 40
35 35
Bo 3o
25 | ; 25
20 20
15 15
}o | lo
5 | s
Hees One Two Three Four None One Two Three four
Cuart 12a. Eighth grade boys. Cart 12b. Eighth grade girls.

Repeaters and non-repeaters dur-

ing ‘school life

Repeaters and non-repeaters dur-
ing school life

From the bottom row of Table 27b one notes that the boys
fail to be promoted much more frequently than the girls in nearly
In the eighth grades whereas 49.6 per cent of

all the grades.

the girls were never left back during their entire school life, the
64 A Special Study of the I ncidence of Retardation

percentage in the case of the boys is 41.1. On the other hand,
50.4 per cent of the girls as opposed to 58.9 per cent of the boys
were left back one or more times since their entrance in school.

The girls however show a greater tendency to be left back
once, the boys being “held back” in larger numbers, two, three,
and four times. In grades 5 B and 7B the distribution is quite
similar to that in the district of New York City reported in
Chapter II, page 35. The boys may be placed here at both ex-
tremes of the distribution curve, the girls being about average.
Measured then on the basis of the relative frequency of promo-
tion and repetition, as read in all the grades tabulated, the girls
of the Paterson schools are brighter than the boys. In Chart
12a more variation is apparent than in Chart 12D.

Tables 28a and 28b show again in numbers and in per cents
respectively the relative frequency of non-promotion and the
particular grades in which such non-promotion occurs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 28a
GRADE DisTRIBUTION OF NON-PROMOTION IN AGGREGATE

Grand Total

Total

Grades | 8A] 8B| 7A| 7B] 6A| 6B| sA! 5B] 4A} 4B] 3A] 3B] 2A| 2B) 1A] 1B} No. Prom.
Left and °

Back | Non-

e prom.

8A 6| s| 16] r4| 8} of 6 6] 7} 4] 31 4| 3) 3) 6f 5} 6105 165
8B ro| 17] ro) 7{ 12] 7| z4} 12} of 5] 10] 3] 8 4} 4) 3132 196
7A 17| 12} ro] ro] rz] 13] rz] 8] 14] 5 7| 5] 7] 6| 136 210
7B 24| 15| 12] 18] 14] 13) rz] 5] r1] 7) 7} 8] 4) 340 238
6A 23| 20] 17{ ro] 9] of 16] ro} 4} 4) 6] 6} 3134 225
6B 23| r2| rs5| 14] 8] 12] 14]| 7] 12) 8] of 134 192
5A ro} 18; 13) 9| 13) 9} 7] 5) 3) 8 95 170
5B 26| 17/ of 17] 14} ro] 131] r¢€] 12] 141 235

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Beginning with about three per cent as the average percentage
of pupils now in the grammar grades who were left back in the
first grades, there is a relatively steady increase from these grades
till the eighth grades in the proportion of such non-promotions.
The seventh grades in this system are unquestionably the select-
ing grades and those who are fortunate enough to withstand
Paterson, N. J. 1,246 Cases 65

the strain here, proceed to the eighth grades where most all at
the end of the “A” term are awarded the coveted diploma.

TABLE 28b
SAME IN PER CENTS
Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

gua 8A | 8B | 7A | 7B | 6A | 6B} sA| 5B / 4A] 4B | 3A | 3B] 2A | 2B | 1A] 1B
r | cent| cent] cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent| cent
8A 3.6] 3.0] 9.7] 8.5] 4.8] 5.5] 3.6] 3.6] 4.2] 2.4] 1.8] 2.4] 1.8] 1.8] 3.6] 3.0
8B §.1| 8.7} 5.1] 3.6] 6.1] 3.6] 7.1] 5.6] 4.6) 2.5] 5.1] 2.5] 4.1] 2.0] 2.0
TA 8.1] 5.7} 4.8] 4.8] 5.2] 6.2] 5.2] 3.8) 6.7] 2.4] 3.3) 2.4] 3-3] 2-9
7B ro.1] 6.3] 5.0] 7.6] 5.09] 5.5] 4.6] 2.1] 4.6] 2.0] 2.0] 3.4] 1.7
6A 10.2] 8.9; 7.6] 4.4] 4.0] 4.0] 7.1] 4.4] 1.8] 1.8] 2.6) 2.6
6B 12.0] 6.2| 7.8] 7.3] 4.2] 6.2] 7.3] 3.6] 6.2] 4.2 7
5A 5.9| 10.6] 7.6] 5.3] 7.6] 5.3] 4-1] 2.9] 1.8] 4.7
5B 11.0] 7.2] 3.8] 7.2] 6.0] 8.1] 4.7| 6.8] 5.2
Aver.| 3.6] 4.2] 8.8} 7.4] 6.1] 7.0; 5.8] 7.2] 5.8] 4.3] 5.2] 4.7] 3.5] 3.4] 3.6] 3.3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Proceeding as in the previous chapters to a brief comparative
study of grade retention, the failures in the 3 A and 3B grades
of the present 7A and 7B pupils as compared with the present
5A and 5B pupils may be gleaned from Table 28 b.

Grapgs.... 3A 3B Grapgs.... 3A 3B

per cent per cent

In 7A grade.......... 6.7 2.4 In 5A grade......... 7.6 5.3

In 7B grade.......... z.I 4.6 In 5B grade......... 7.2 6.0
Median............ BOS Median........... 6.6

In the fifth grades about 1 in 15 was left back in the third
grades. Of the present seventh grade pupils approximately 1
in 30 failed in these grades.

Comparing now the eighth and seventh grades with the sixth
and fifth grades on the basis of failure of promotion in the third
grades the following may be noted:

Grapes.... 3A 3B GraDEs.... 3A 3B

per cent per cent

In 8A grade..........- 1.8 2.4 In 6A grade......... 7.t 464

In 8B grade.......... 2-5 5-1 In 6B grade......... 6.2 7.3

In 4A grade........-- 6.7 2.4 In sA grade......... 220° 35.3

In 7B grade.......... 2.1 4.6 In 5B grade......... 7.2 6.0
Median.......--++ 2.45 Median. ......... 6.65
66 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

The chance then that a sixth grade or a fifth grade pupil was
left back in the third grade is more than twice as great as is the
case of a pupil known to have reached the seventh or the eighth
grade. Only 1 in 40 of these upper grade grammar pupils re-
peated the primary grade in question; whereas the ratio of re-
tention in the case of the fifth and the sixth grade pupils is
about I to 15.

Taking the averages of the “A” and “B” grades to count as
the amount of retention in what would be a single yearly grade,
the percentages are as follows:

Grapes: First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth
ae 3-4 5.0 5.0 6.5 6.6 8.0 4.0

In no other city system is the steady gradual increase from the
first till the eighth grade so marked as in the Paterson schools.
CHAPTER V
EAST ORANGE, N. J. 448 CASES

The selection of the East Orange schools for study was
prompted by the desire to get records from enough select schools
to offset those obtained from the schools of the other cities at-
tended largely by the poorer class of children. Only four schools
in East Orange have the complete graded system extending
through the grammar department. They have an approximate
register of 500, 600, 550, 650 pupils, respectively. These schools
were visited in March and April, 1gto.

THe MIGRATION OF PUPILS

Small percentages of initial starters characterize the condition
in the East Orange system. This is a result of the combined
action of three main causes: the considerable migration from
school to school in the city itself, also from other cities, and the
tendency of the parents to send their children in their earlier
years to private institutions with a view to have them trans-
ferred later to the regular public schools.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 29
Per Cents oF INITIAL STARTERS

Schools Q R $ a Average

Grades per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent
Eighth 36 43 43 34 39.9
Seventh 33 38 24 41 33-8
Sixth 42 33 3r 26 30.4
Fifth 38 33 38 66 43-3
Fourth 52 36 53 42 45-7
Average 40 37 38 42 38.3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

67
68 A Special Study of the I ncidence of Retardation

Only 38.3 per cent of those who are now in grades four to
eight inclusive originally entered the schools in which they now
attend. Although the larger percentages are apparent in the
fourth and fifth grades this does not signify that the migratory
tendency is becoming less active. Many of these lower grade
initial starters will be eliminated in, or perhaps before, they reach
the higher grades, and so these percentages will be reduced to at
least the same level as those now recorded in the upper three
classes.

Tue AGre-GrapeE RELATIONS OF THE 448 INITIAL STARTERS

In the following age-grade table the grammar grade pupils in-
cluding those in the fourth grade are distributed according to
their age at the time of entrance to their present grade.

TABLE 30

Four Scuoots. Ace DISTRIBUTION. AGGREGATE 448 CASES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age

Grades | 9 | 10 | 11 |] r2 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16] 17 | Total
Per
No.} cent
Eighth 5| ro} 4o} 26] 12 3] ros} 81] 77.1
Seventh 6 og] 25) 22] I1 I 74, 59] 79-3
Sixth 2] 13) 415} 15 2 57) 45} 78.9
Fifth 1] r4] 35} 22 9| I0 or] 76| 83.5
Fourth 23] 35] 31) 22] Zo 121] 98| 81.0

Total; oieeate 448! Cases

 

 

 

 

 

From Table 30 one notes in the last column the percentages
of “over-ageness” in the five grades. These figures are sur-
prisingly high. The lower grades seem especially burdened with
retarded pupils. Assuming 9 years to 9 years 11 months inclusive
as the normal entrance age to the fourth grade, 81 per cent of
the initial starters in this grade in the four schools are “over-age.”
East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases 69

In the fifth grade adding one year to the theoretical age limit
assumed in the fourth grade, a still larger proportion of pupils
are above the normal age.

More pupils 16 and 17 years of age are found in the graduating
classes of these “aristocratic” schools than in the schools of
the cities previously treated. It is evident that the parents
can afford to permit their children to remain in school until they
finish, no matter how long it takes them to accomplish the course.
The same is likewise noticeable in the select schools of Plainfield,
considered in the next chapter.

Taking 10 years to 10 years 11 months as the normal age
for the fourth grade, 11 years to. 11 years 11 months, for the fifth |
grade, etc., these percentages of retarded pupils reduce as follows:
Eighth grade, 39.0 per cent; sixth grade, 50.1 per cent; fifth
grade, 45.1 per cent; fourth grade, 52.1 per cent.

Distributing these retarded pupils according to sex, Table 31
and Charts 13 a and 13 b show the desired comparison.

TABLE 31
Four Scnoots. Acs-GrapE TaBLe SHowine SEx DISTRIBUTION
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age
Grades | 9 | 10 | rr | t2 | 13 | rq | 15 | 16 | 17 | Total] —————_
Per
No. | cent
Eighth 2| rol r7| 16 7 «| 53) 4I| 77.4
3 of 23} 10 5 2 52} 40] 76.9
Seventh 3 7| 17| ~+IoO a oO 44| 34) 77.3
3 2 8) 12 4 I 30] 25/ 83.3
Sixth 6 9 7 7 oO 29} 23) 79.3
6 4 8 8 2 28] 22] 78.6
Fifth o| g| 8 7 4 Z 39| 30| 76.9
1 5} 7} 35} ST 52} 46) 88.5
Fourth I7| 16) 14 6 3 56| 39) 69.6
6] ro} 37| 16 7 65] 59} 90.8
: Totals cyseevewes 221| Girls
227| Boys

 

 

 

 

 
70 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

 

Percends, Percents
qo 4o
go SS go
10 70 Sa
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
Grades 3 7 & 5 4 Grades & 7 6 5 4
Cuart 13a. Percentages of re- Cuart 13b. Percentages of re-
tarded boys tarded girls

The median percentage above normal age in the case of the
boys is in the seventh grade, 83.3 per cent. In the case of the
girls it is also found in the same grade with 77.3 per cent re-
tarded. The boys are much more retarded than the girls in the
fourth, fifth, and seventh grades of this system. In the other two
grades, the ratios are about equal. The percentages of “over-
age’ boys as compared with the girls in the seventh and eighth
grades reduce in greater proportion when the age limit is ex-
tended in these grades up to 14 years and up to 15 years respec-
tively.

The graphic illustrations following Table 31 show the consider-
able variability manifested by the retarded boys as against the

TABLE 32

Ace DistRiBUTION oF 448 Pupits aT TIME OF ENTRANCE TO THE
First GRADE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Normal Age
Schools 5 6 q 8 9 Tcotal | -————___
No. Per cent
Q 13 47 28 9 I 98 38 38.8
R 29 52 32 7 I 121 40 33.1
S$ 20 49 32 I4 ° IIS 46 40.0
qt 20 53 38 2 i Ir4 41 35-9
Total 82 201 130 32 3 448 165 36.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases 71

comparatively even distribution of the “over-age” girls in grades
four through eight.

Table 32 is a statement of the ages of the 448 pupils when they
entered school. ,

Only 36.8 per cent of the 448 pupils whose records were taken
were seven years or more when they entered the first school
grade. The six-year column evidently in all the four schools
holds the modal entrance group. The schools are seen to vary
only slightly in the matter of “over-age” initial starters, the me-
dian being approximately 37 per cent.

The distribution of pupils with respect to school, present
grade, and initial entrance age is shown in the next table.

In this table showing the age-grade groups of the initial start-
ers one notes that whereas the largest percentages of present
grade “ over-ageness”” as read in Table 30 are recorded in the
fourth and fifth grades, here too the minimum and maximum
amounts are registered as above the assumed normal age for
these same grades. Again the reader is cautioned not to take
these latter percentages in certain explanation of the former.
Although the groups treated are the same, the individuals who
were “ over-age ” may be by no means the same individuals who
were “over-age” in their present grades. Comparing Tables
32 and 33 there seems to be more evidence of deviation from
the median percentage above normal age in the five grades in
the latter, where the pupils are distributed according to grades,
than in the former table wherein merely school totals are re-
corded.

Relative sex comparisons of the ages of the initial starters
when they entered school follow on pages 73 and 74. The ap-
pended diagrams compare only those boys and girls who were
above 6 years 11 months when they were admitted to the first
grade.

The percentage of boys now in the grammar and fourth grades
who were “over-age’’ on admission to the first grade is a trifle
more than the corresponding: percentage of girls. In the one
case it is 37.9 per cent; in the other, 35.7 per cent. The boys
at present are retarded in great numbers in the fourth grade
(see Table 31). From Table 34 it appears that a very small
percentage of these fourth grade boys were “over-age” when
they entered school. In the fifth grade, however, whereas 88.5
A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

g of Sor gtr |x jo |x |x |z |rr |L |6 |gf Jef jzt |gz ES |6r zS |Lb Joz loz |Oz |f1 [e1OL
rlz gz 1rzt_ lo jo jo jo Jo |S |x |x Jz [6 |€ |g J4z [4x jor |gx for j4 jor |r yywnog
S-o$ gb 16 1 jo jo |x Jo |x Jo |g |éx Jor j§ |S [xx |x Jer fg [rh jx & fe wya
fob fz Ls o lo |o jo jo lz Jo Jo |l4 |4 |g |x Jo |g ih |e Je jh |S jo YyXIS
gle gz bl o jo Jo jo jz |r |x |x jor jo |p |6 J6 |6 |6 |g fx JE [4 jz yjueaes
I'gt ot Sor lo jo |x Jo jo |S |S |x |€ |g |rx J§ for |vx [Sx fxr fz |S |b |r yaya
sopeiy
es tdi “ON casey | 1813 OlLislalOl/Lys|alolxr{s};aljo]xrisjayjo spooyos
asy [81OL 3
[BULION eaoqy Siva ouUIN sIevox yystq | sivaq ueAag s1eax xg SIVOK BATT sosy

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

aavuy) LSulg OL AONVALNY dO AWIL, LV STIdNd gbb dO NOILNAIMLSIG AAVAy ADV

eg ATaVL
73

East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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obz gr S9 Oo jo [fo jo jo |S |r |x |r |e Jo |b JS jig J£ |€r fo € Io |x
biz zr 95 0 jo jo jo jo jo jo jo jo |§ \€ |b Jer lo |€ Io Ie Ie |e Ie qyinog
ess 6z zs o jo jo jx jo jo jo |& Jor |£ jz |r FE Jo |6 |S Jz jo fe fz
gb ZI o€ |r jo jo jo jo jr jo jr |Z |€ I€ |r Jo |x I§ |e Je |x |r |r yy
ize 6 gz o jo {9 jo Jo Jo jo jo fe 1€ [€ tr |e 1h te Ir Tx fe le lo
£-9b br 6z |o |o jo Jo jo jz jo fo |§ |r € lo |b |r le Je le Ir je So YIXIS
Loft Il of Oo |O |o jo Jo Jo |r jo j§ Jo |x |e fe je |S Je fx [at |r |x
9 SE 4I te jo jo jo jo je jx jo jx |§ Jo |€ |F Jo |Z |e |e fo le |e |r YyyuaAag
bop 1z zs o jo jt jo jo |b |€& |r jx |x |g je |e |g lo |r Jo |r le fz
Ss& Or &5 jo jo jo jo jo jr jz jo je |§ |lo I€ Yo lo |6 |Z Je |r fr le yyysiq
SOpRlN
dh ON L/S|al/O;Lis]axlO;Lf{sjalofaisjalofaisjalo] — stooges
sased
asy [e10],
[eULION eacqy sieax oun sreax yysIq | sivax usaag sieaxX xI¢ SIVI_ ALT sosy

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fava) LSulf OL AONVAINY dO AWIL, LY Sildng gr? 40 NOILNAINLSIq xag aavaD-T9y

“Sore UT SII

*edAy uteyd ut shog

rE ATAVL
54 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

Percents Pereents.
Go exe}
BS 55

 

50 50
45 45 |

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

40 40

35 | pW 35 ae

30 30

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 jo

5 5

Grades & 1 6 5 4 Grodes & 4 & 5 4
Cuart 14a. “ Over-age” boys CuHart 14b. “ Over-age” girls

entering first grade entering first grade.

per cent of the boys are at present retarded, 55.8 per cent of this
same group of boys were “over-age” in the first grade. The per-
centages of “over-age” girls of the sixth and seventh grades are
larger than is the case with the boys in these same grades. In
the other grades the reverse is true. The records for all the
grades show the boys to be more variable than the girls.

Tue INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION
The following tables outline the repeaters and non-repeaters
during their entire school life with respect to present grade dis-
tribution. Table 35a records the actual numbers of promoted
and non-promoted children; Table 35 b, the per cents.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 35a
Four ScHoots. AGGREGATE 448 CASES
Left Back Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh] Eighth
None 71 56 35 43 66
One 28 28 15 26 30
Two 20 7 6 5 9
Three 2 fe) I ° °
Total Left Back 5° 35 22 31 39
Total Cases 121 gt 57 74 105

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases 75

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 385b
SaME CONVERTED TO PER Cent EQUIVALENTS
Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh| Eighth
Left Back

per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent

None 59 62 61 58 63

One 23 31 26 35 29

Two 17 8 II 7 9

Three 2 ° 2 ° °

Total Left Back 41 38 39 42 37

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In East Orange a rather anomalous situation presents itself.
Table 30 proves the excessive extent of retardation in the schools
studied. Table 33 shows a relatively small amount of “ over-age-
ness ” of these initial starters at the time of their entrance to the
first grade. Finally, Table 35 b to perplex the problem records
exceedingly high percentages of regular promotion: 59 per cent in
the fourth grade; 62 per cent in the fifth; 61 per cent in the
sixth; 58 per cent in the seventh; and 63 per cent in the eighth.
In each case the mode falls in the uppermost row. In the fifth
grade where retardation registered a maximum of 83.5 per cent,
the percentage of pupils never left back (Table 35 b) is 62 per
cent; with 31 per cent repeating once, and 8 per cent, twice.
A possible explanation of this exceptional condition would be
found in complete age-grade tables for the school year 1909-10.
Unfortunately no such tables are published in any of the super-
intendent’s reports.

The regularly promoted boys and girls and those repeating
once, twice, and three times throughout the entire school course
are distributed in Tables 36a and 36b.

Table 36b states that 58.5 per cent of the 53 girls reported in
the eighth grade were promoted regularly since their entrance
in school; 34 per cent were left back once; and 7.5 per cent,
twice. Of the 52 eighth grade boys, 67.3 per cent were never
left back; 23.1 per cent repeated once; and 9.6 per cent, twice,
during their entire school life.

Thus measured the boys show a greater range of mental ability
than the girls, the latter occupying the average position; the
76 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

former, the two extremes of the normal distributory curve.

Charts 15a and 15D.)
In grades 4, 5, 6, and 7, however, the girls show by far larger

percentages of regular promotion, than the boys. Reading from

Pupits REPEATING AND Non-REPEATING DurinG ENTIRE SCHOOL LIFE
Girls in italics.

TABLE 36a

Boys in plain type.

(See

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Left Back Fourth | Fifth Sixth |Seventh} Eighth
None 37 27 20 3O BI
34 29 15 13 35
One Io II 7 II 18
18 17 8 15 12
Two 9 E I 3 4
1 6 5 2 5
Three oO oO I oO o
2 oO ° ° °
Total Left Back I9 I2 9 I4 22
31 23 13 17 17
Total Cases 56 39 29 44 53
65 52 28 30 52
‘TABLE 36d
SAME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.
Fourth | Fifth Sixth | Seventh | Eighth
Left Back
per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent
None 66.1 69.2 69.0 08 .2 58.5
52.3 55-8 53-6 43-3 67.3
One I7.9 28.2 24.1 25.0 34.0
27.7 ey, 28.6 50.0 23.1
Two 16.1 6 3.4 6.8 7.5
16.9 Il.5 17.9 6.7 9.6
Three 0.0 0.0 3°4 -0.0 0.0
Bak v.o 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total Left Back 33-9 30.8 3I.O 34.8 41.5
47°7 44.2 46.4 56.7 32-7

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases 77

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percents. Percents,
5 25 &5
GO Go
55 55
50 5o
45 45
4o 4o
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 ho
15 16
lo 10
5 5 |
None ne Two None one Two

Cuart 15a. Eighth Cuart 15b. Eighth
grade boys. ' grade girls.

Repeaters and non-repeaters during school life

the bottom row of Table 36b one notes that in all grades ex-
cepting the highest the boys repeat much oftener than the girls.
The grade distributions of the repeaters in the grammar and
fourth grades of the East Orange schools (Tables 37a and 37 b)
show the relative frequencies in number and per cent respectively.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 37a
GravDeE DistRIBUTION OF NON-PROMOTION IN AGGREGATE

a Grand Total

3 4 a br b=) =

a
Grades ‘% || = || 2 2 3 8 % No. Left [poet na

Alala le la | a] a |e | Back Jon-
Prom.
Eighth 5 | 2% 8 5 5 3 I 4 48 II4
Seventh 9; 6{ 7/ 5] 2] 3] 4 36 79
Sixth 9} 5] 3] 4] 4] 5 30 65
Fifth Io 7 7 | Io 8 42 98
Fourth 17 | 22 | 16 |} 19 74 145

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
78 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

TABLE 37b
SAME IN PER CENTS

Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base

 

 

Eighth|Seventh| Sixth | Fifth | Fourth| Third | Second | First
Grades

 

per per per per per per per per
cent cent cent cent cent cent cent cent

 

Eighth 4.4 14.9 7.0 4.4 4.4 2.6 0.9 3-5

 

 

 

 

Seventh rr.4 |} 7.6 8.9 6.3 2:56 3-8 5.1
Sixth 13.8 eh 4.6 6.2 6.2 7.7
Fifth 10.2 ee a8 10.2 8.2
Fourth 11.7 15.2 Th. | 13,01

 

 

Aver.| 4.4 13.5 8.9 yee) 7-4 Pa 6.8 8.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

From the averages obtained, with due regard to the proper
totals of promoted and non-promoted in grades 4 to 8 inclusive,
one learns that the seventh grade holds clearly the maximum
record of retention. Eliminating the first grade, the grades from
the second till the eighth increase in percentages of “hold-overs,”
progressively to the seventh, in which grade an amazingly large
percentage of non-promotion is recorded. A considerable drop
quite as remarkable is manifest in the final grade. Unquestion-
ably in this small city school system the seventh grade is the
potent selective force in deciding on the competent ones fitted
to enter the graduating class.

Taken from Table 37b the following percentages compare

grade retention:
THIRD GRADE

per cent
Ineighth-etade:..  ca4teddcaeras oem ye eaeuve es 2.6
TED SUR CACO TA CE riser vet se nie ah here Hedge ae Ale wey es 6.2
Iti fount SraAd Sis oss eth oreoe eile ga used brea seated 15.2

Whereas I pupil in 38 of those now in the eighth grade was
left back in the third grade, for those in the sixth grade the
ratio is I to 16 and for those in the fourth grade about 1 to 7.
East Orange, N. J. 448 Cases 79

Again comparing those now in the eighth and the seventh
grades who were left back in the third grade, with those now
in the fifth and the fourth grades, the distribution is as follows:

THIRD GRADE THIRD GRADE
per cent per cent
In eighth grade..... z.6 In fifth grade...... 7.2
In seventh grade.. 2.5 In fourth grade.... 5.2
Median.......... 2.55 Median... ...... IL.2

The probable chance then that a fifth or a fourth grade pupil
was left back in the third grade is at least four times as great
as in the case of the eighth or the seventh grade pupil.

The indication from Table 37b that in the grammar grades
excepting the graduating class, the pupils are invariably retained
more frequently in their present grade than in the previous
grades is evidence that a gradual eliminating process is at work
in grades five and on, culminating in the difficult seventh. In
this grade so much pressure is brought to bear on the pupils
that about every seventh one is forced to repeat or suffer elim-
ination.
CHAPTER VI

PLAINFIELD, N. J. 485 CASES

The Plainfield system is distinctive in that it segregates the
sixth, seventh, and eighth year pupils in central schools. The
lower grades are distributed regularly in the other schools. The
tables in this chapter show then the distributions with respect
to grade only.

The city of Plainfield was included in this special study be-
cause it was the only system situated within convenient dis-
tance of New York City in which complete history cards were
obtainable. These individual record-forms of the pupils dating
back to the time when they entered the first grade of the school
show accurately the regular promotions and the incidence of grade
repetition. The writer, however, visited each class room of the
fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades and questioned the pupils
individually as in the other cities. Their written answers were
then carefully checked up by the official record cards and the er-
rors corrected. It is significant to mention here, this being the
one city wherein it was possible to check up all the records,
that the pupils made comparatively few mistakes in answering
the formal questions. Such errors as were found, were mostly
in reply to the question asking the pupils to state the number of
times they were left back during their entire school life and
the grades in which they were retained. The fact is that in
nearly every case where the individuals’ own statements were
unwittingly false concerning the latter in particular, their mem-
ory seemed to waver only in the case of the primary grades.
Quite often the pupil himself when in doubt as to his failure in
an upper grade was reminded either by his classmates or perhaps
by the teacher.

Again, wherever it was found that the pupils deliberately
misstated the facts, their records as read from the individual
history cards were invariably somewhat worse than they cared
to admit. For example, when pupils replied that they were left

80
Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases 81

back a given number of times, on checking up their statements
it was found that in no case were they left back less than they
stated. On the other hand, in quite a number of instances their
history cards showed one or more retentions above the number
admitted by them in class.

THE MIGRATION OF PUPILS

The per cents of initial starters are distributed as follows in
the grammar grades of the Plainfield schools:

TABLE 38
Per Cents oF INITIAL STARTERS

 

 

Eighth | Seventh | Sixth Fifth | Average

 

Grammar Grades per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent

 

56 53 57 56 56

 

 

 

 

 

 

The percentages in Table 38 are high when compared with
those of the other four cities because of the prevailing method
of centralizing the upper grade pupils as previously explained.
All those pupils who entered the first grade of any public school
in Plainfield proper were recorded in this particular city ; where-
as in the other cities only those who entered the first grade of
the school in which they now attend or in its official “feeding”
school were rated as initial starters and their records sought.
From Table 38 one reads that 56 per cent of the pupils now in
the grammar grades of the Plainfield schools entered the first
grade of one of the schools in that city.

Tue AGE-GRADE RELATIONS OF THE 485 INITIAL STARTERS

The ages of the 485 pupils when they entered their present
grades are given in Table 39.

Assuming Io years to 10 years 11 months inclusive as the nor-
mal entrance age to the fifth grade; II years to II years II
months inclusive for the sixth grade, etc., the percentages of
“over-age” grammar grade pupils are shown in the last column
of Table 39. The largest proportion of retarded pupils is found
in the eighth grade. The percentages in all four grades are
rather high. ,
82 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

TABLE 39
GramMMAR GRADES. AGE DISTRIBUTION. AGGREGATE 485 CASES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-!
mal Age
Grades 9 | to} 11) 12] 13] 14] 15] 16) 17] 18 | Total) ———_——___
: Fer
No. | cent
Eighth 1) 17) 29) 21; 13} 3} 2] 85 67 78.8
Seventh 5] 37] 36] 32; 12] 5; 1 128 86 67.2
Sixth I] 2] 36{ 59] 34] 22] 2] 1 157 | 118 75.2-
Fifth 6} 25] 35] 19) 21; 5] 4 II5 84 | 73.0
WORE sccoit an rea 485 | Cases

 

 

 

 

 

Counting only those as retarded who exceed the assumed nor-
mal age by one or more years in the respective grades the pro-
portion of “over-age” pupils would be: Eighth grade, 44.7 per
cent; seventh grade, 39.1 per cent; sixth grade, 37.6 per cent;
-fifth grade, 42.6 per cent.

The sex distribution of the 485 initial starters respecting age-
grade relations is to be noted in the following table and graphic

illustrations :
TABLE 40

GRAMMAR GrapFs. AGE-GRADE TABLE SHOWING SEX DISTRIBUTION
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age
Grades 9 | to) tr) 12] 13} 14] 15}16/17/ 18] Total
Per
No. | cent
Eighth Z| ro} r3| 23} 7| 2) 2] 47 36 76.6
o} 7[ 16] 8] 6) 1 of 38 31 81.6
Seventh 2| 21) 13) 15) 6| 3] oOo 60 37 61.7
3) 16) 23] 17] 6] 2] 4 68 49 72 ik
Sixth o| 2) 11] 31) r7| gf o| 71 58 SI.7
I) of} 25] 28) r7/ 13} 2} o 86 60 69.8
Fifth 3) Ts] 73] ro) 8| fr - 49 33 67.3
3] 12} 22} of 13] 4) 2 66 51 77-3
Total eicccecias 227 | Girls
258 | Boys

 

 

 

 

 
Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases 83

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percents Pervents,
80 | 80
To 10
bo bo
50 50
4o 45
30 30
20 Lo
10 10
Grades 3 7 G 5 Grades 3 1 G 5

CuHart I6a. Percentages CuHart 16b. Percentages
of retarded boys of retarded girls

The boys in grades eight, seven, and five are more retarded
than the girls. Whereas in the sixth grade 81.7 per cent of the
girls are “over-age,” the boys record only 69.8 per cent. Allow-
ing one year on the assumed theoretical age-limit for this grade,
these percentages would change to 38.0 per cent in the case of
the girls and to 37.2 per cent for the boys. The modal age for
the fifth grade girls and boys is evidently 11 years to II years
II months inclusive; for the sixth grade, 12 years to 12 years
Ii months inclusive, etc. Assuming these age-limits the girls
show 40.4 per cent with an average deviation of 2.95 as the me-
dian percentage of retardation for the four grades, the median
for the boys being 38.85 per cent, A. D. 2.0. The girls of the
grammar grades in this school system are more variable than the
boys in the matter of present ‘‘over-ageness.””

TABLE 41

AcE DIstRIBUTION OF 485 Pupits aT TIME OF ENTRANCE TO
First GRADE

 

 

Above Nor-
mal Age

Per
cent

 

 

Ages 4/5 6 7 8 9 | ro |Total
No.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grammar Grades| 2 | 79 | 249] 131] 29 | 12 | 3 | 485] 155 | 32.0

 

 

The 485 pupils entering the initial grade in any of the Plain-
field schools are distributed in the above table according to their
ages at the time of such entrance. One hundred and fifty-five
84 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

of these children or 32 per cent were “over-age” when they be-
gan school. The modal entrance age is clearly 6 years 0 months
to 6 years 11 months inclusive.

The next table records the age-grade distribution of these
initial starters classified according to present grade.

TABLE 42

AcE-GrRADE DISTRIBUTION OF 485 Pupits aT TIME OF ENTRANCE
$ TO First GRADE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Above Nor-

mal Age
Ages 4 5 6 q 8 9g | 10 |Total} ——————

Per

No. | cent

Grades

Eighth 1} 24) 35] 19 5 I ° 85 25) 29.4
Seventh o| 32] 66], 24 3 3 of} 6128 30] 23.4
Sixth 1} r2]} 93] 36) 13 2 o| 157 5I] 32.5
Fifth o} rf 55] 32 8 6 3) ES 49| 42.6
Total 2| 79] 249] 111] 209] 12 3| 485] 55} 32.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The lower grammar grades show considerably more initial
“over-ageness” than the upper grades. From Table 39 one notes
that the percentages of retardation at present in the two lower
as compared with the two higher classes approximately aver-
age the same.

The classification in the following age-grade table (Table 43)
shows the sex distribution of the initial starters..

Of the 258 boys whose records were taken in Plainfield, 78
or 30.2 per cent were seven years or more when they entered
the first grade; whereas of the 227 girls 77 or 33.9 per cent
were above normal age at that time. In the eighth grade and
especially in the fifth grade the girls show more initial “over-
ageness” than the boys. Concerning the percentages of present
grade retardation as read in Table 40, the boys in both fifth
and eighth grades record the larger proportions. The greater
variability among the girls as illustrated in Charts 16a and 16b
is perhaps a result of the similar tendency manifest at school
entrance.
Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3
TABLE 43
Ace-GrapbE Sex DistripuTIon oF 485 Pupits at TIME OF
ENTRANCE TO First GRADE
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.
Above Nor-
mal Age
Ages 4 5 6 7 8 to | Total
Per
No. | cent
Grades
Eighth I] r2] rol 313) 2 o| 6 6ol) 47| 5, 3.9
o} r2f 16 6 3 I ° 38 Io} 26.3
Seventh o| 16) 31) Io I 2; o| 60 13} 21.7
o} 16) 35) 14 2 I ° 68 17| 25.0
Sixth o 6) 42] 17 6 o oO TE 23) 32-4
I 6} 51] 19 7 2 ° 86 28] 32.6
Fifth oO 3] 20] 19 4 2 I 49 26) 53.1
° 8] 35] 13 4 4 2 66 23] 34.8
Total I| 37] 112] 5¢6) 13 4 I] 227 77| 33-9
I} 42] 137] 52| 16 8 2| 258 78| 3052
Pereents Percents.
50 50
45 45
40 4o
25 _ 95
So i 7 Be
25 25
20 Zo
15 15
lo 10
5 5
Gredes 8 7 6 5 Gredes 3 71 6 5
Cuart 17a. “ Over-age” Cuart 17b. “ Over-age”

boys entering first grade

girls entering first grade

Tue INCIDENCE OF RETARDATION

Tables 44a and 44b inJicate in aggregate and in per cent
respectively the present grade distribution of repeaters.
It appears from Tables 44a and 44b that of the 85 eighth
grade pupils recorded, only 9 per cent were never left back during
their entire school life; 48 per cent were left back once; 32 per
86 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

cent twice; and 10 per cent three times. These extraordinary
percentages need explanation. Until four years ago the Plain-
field schools had in reality though not officially a nine year sys-
tem. Children entered a so-called lower first. class, remained
there a year, and then advanced to the upper first class, a yearly
grade also. Only the exceptionally bright were permitted to
advance to the second grade after spending one year in the ini-
tial grade. This arrangement was abolished quite recently. The
records, however, of the present grammar grade pupils are af-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 44a
GRAMMAR GRADES. AGGREGATE 485 CASES
Left Back Fifth Sixth | Seventh | Eighth
None 32 44 25 8
One 5t 59 52 41
Two 22 38 31 27
Three 9 I4 13 9
Four I I 6 °
Five ° I I °
Total Left Back 83 113 103 an
Total Cases II5 157 128 85
TABLE 44b
SAME CONVERTED TO PER Cent EguivaLENTsS
eae Fifth Sixth | Seventh | Eighth
per cent | per cent | per cent | per cent

None 28 28, 20 9
One 44 38 41 48
Two 19 24 24 32
Three 8 9 Io Io
Four I I 5 °
Five ° © I °
Tctal Left Back 72 72 80 gl

 

 

 

 

 

 
Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases 87

fected in consequence. The superintendent now insists that the
teachers record all the pupils who remained in the first grade
more than one year as having repeated that grade. Advance-
ment from lower to upper first grade is not regarded as a pro-
motion in such cases where the pupil remained over a year
in these classes. In the majority of cases when the writer
checked up the records of the pupils who claimed not to have
been left back since school entrance, it was found that the his-
tory cards reported a non-promotion in the first grade. These
latter records being officially sanctioned by the superintendent
it was thought best to employ them rather than those gathered
in the class rooms from the pupils. Naturally in all the gram-
mar grades one notes that the tendency of non-promotion dur-
ing school life is recorded in the “one-time” group. In all prob-
ability eliminating the first grade repeaters the mode would fall
in the top row.

Classifying the repeaters and non-repeaters according to sex,
the following tables and charts show the distributions:

TABLE 45a

Pupits REPEATING AND Non-ReEpeaTiInG Durince ScHooL LIFE
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Left Back Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth
None 16 24 12 5
16 20 13 3
One 22 24 23 2r
29 3 5 290 20
Two é 13 17 Is
i I4 25 I4 12
Three 3 9 6 6
6 5 7 3
Four o I I oO
I ° 5 °
Five o oO I o
oO I °
Total Left Back 33 47 48 42
53 66 55 35
Total Cases 49 71 60 47
66 86 68 38

 

 

 

 

 

 
88 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

TABLE 45b.
SAME CONVERTED TO PER CENT EQUIVALENTS

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth
Left Back

per cent per cent per cent per cent

None 32.7 33.8 20.0 10.6

24.2 23.63 Ig.1 7.9

One 44-9 33.8 38 «3 44-7

43-9 40.7 42.6 52.6

Two - 16.5 18.3 28 3 31.9

21.2 29.1 20.6 31.6

Three 6.1 I2.7 I0.0 12.8

9.1 5.38 10.3 7.9

Four 0 I.4 I.7 0.0

1.5 °.0 Dod 0.0

Five 0.0 0.0 I.7 0.0

0.0 LB 0.0 0.0

Total Left Back 67.3 66.2 80.0 89.4

80.3 70.7 80.9 g2.1

Pervents Paorcents,
55 : 55
50 50
45 AS
40 4o
35 45
30 Bo
25) 25
Ro 20
15 1S
lo 10
5 5
Yone One Two Three None One Two Three

Cuart 18a. Eighth grade Cuart 18b. Eighth grade
boys. Repeaters and non- girls. Repeaters and non-
repeaters during school life repeaters during school life
The eighth grade girls of the Plainfield schools show at once
better records of regular promotion and the larger percentages
of more frequent repetition.
Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases 89

The boys and girls indicate a modal tendency of repeating
once during their entire school life. In the matter of frequency
of non-promotion, the boys are more variable than the girls.
(Compare Charts 18a and 18b.)

In all the grammar grades the following is noted: That the
girls are more often regularly promoted; that the girls are less
frequently held back once, the median in the case of the girls
in the “one-time” row being 41.5 per cent, in the case of the boys,
43.3 per cent; that the girls repeat less often twice, and more
often three times. The few repeaters four and five times do
not justify sex comparison.

The results of the early system of grading previously ex-
plained are shown plainly in the next two tables outlining the
incidence of retardation of those repeaters who are now in
the central schools including the fifth grade pupils.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 46a
GRADE DISTRIBUTION OF NON-PROMOTION IN AGGREGATE
Grand Total
a neice
Grades 2 2 | ale . a |e ls fg Total
a v ~ 3 3 a ° 7 oO. Prom,
bo > M ae 5 ‘3 ° a Left and
Ral o n Bl ® = 2
Olal al|wa | sal] e|a] & Back Non-
prom,
Eighth 4 26] 14) 13 7 8] 10} 4o}] 122 130
Seventh 29} 38] 15} 4] 1} 13] 62] 182 207
Sixth 37| 24] 20] 15) 16} 74] 186 230
Fifth 24] 2I/ Io 9] 62) 126 158

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reading from the right in the bottom row of Table 46b (page
90), 32.8 per cent of the total promoted and non-promoted gram-
mar grade pupils were left back in the first grade; 6.6 per cent in
the second grade; 6.1 per cent in the third; 8.6 per cent in the
fourth; 10.5 per cent in the fifth; 15.7 per cent in the sixth;
16.3 per cent in the seventh; and 3.1 per cent in the eighth.
These figures, not considering the first grade, indicate a progres-
sive increase from the second grade through the seventh. The
sixth grade school would seem to function as the initial clear-
go A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

ing house for those pupils unfitted to take up the higher class
work. The successful sixth graders pass on to undergo an-
other and-at the same time more severe selective strain in the
seventh grade. Those that survive this final ordeal enter the
comparatively easy final grade. Only 3.1 per cent of the present
pupils of the eighth grade failed therein.

TABLE 46b
SAME IN PER CENTS
Using Total of Promoted and Non-Promoted as the Base

 

 

Eighth] Seventh | Sixth | Fifth | Fourth | Third | Second | First

 

Grades
per per per per per per per per
cent ecenny cent. cent cent cent cent cent

 

Eighth 3.1 20.0 10.8 IO.u 5-4 6.2 Ve7 30.8

 

 

 

Seventh I4.0 18.4 7.2 6.8 5-3 6.3 30.0
Sixth 16.1 10.4 8.7 6.5 7.0 32.2
Fifth I§.2 2333 6.3 Bad 39.2

 

Aver.| 3.1 16.3 I5.7 10.5 8.6 6.1 6.6 32.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In Table 46b, on comparing the pupils now in the eighth,
seventh, sixth, and fifth grades who repeated the third grade,

little variation is apparent.
THIRD GRADE

per cent
In €ighth, grade vinci. ccc eacdecenees awed ein wows 6.2
Inmise ver thigradess 6 cia sisedatetecc acy gkpondy yun ne © 5-3
[nisixth Orad Cassis cas cin ce eecpaed ees aad eee 6.5
Mniehiftherade:s sie accu ee h cea Ye Howe Seah ewe 6.3
MCA tates say's pedies aga e hy hE bones Bote eo deena 6.25

The chances of any of the pupils of the grammar grades
having been left back in the third grade are about the same.
The ratio is 1 to 16.

The same holds true on comparing those in the eighth and
seventh with those in the sixth and fifth taken together respec-
tively. In the fourth grade, however, the fifth and sixth grade
pupils have on the average failed twice as frequently as the
seventh and eighth grade pupils.
Plainfield, N. J. 485 Cases gi

The special treatment of retardation in this and the preceding
chapters being limited to the study of the so-called initial starters,
it is unfortunate that in the city of Plainfield where the full his-
tory cards are recorded that only 485 cases were obtainable.
One notes in some of the tables showing the age-grade relations,
promotion and non-promotion statistics, and the accompanying
sex distributions, violations of certain tendencies gleaned from
the tables of the previous systems. It may be that Plainfield
is rather different from the other cities, or on the other hand,
the number of cases being somewhat meagre may possibly ac-
count for the odd distributions. However, in Table 46b the
general tendency relative to the difficulty of the various grades
indicates the same scale of increase from the second through
the seventh grade.
CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY
GRAMMAR GRADE PUPILS. 3,865 CASES

The records of the initial starters in the school systems tabu-
lated in the foregoing chapters indicate definite tendencies. The
summary is confined to the cases in the grammar grades only.
Table 47 indicates in number the sex distribution of the pupils
in the five cities visited.

TABLE 47
ActuaL NuMBER OF Cases INVESTIGATED

Personal Study of 3,865 Initial Starters in the Grammar Grades of
Schools Selected at Random in Five Cities

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cities : Schools Boys Girls Total
East Orange, N. J. 4 162 165 327
Plainfield, N. J. qo 258 227 485
Elizabeth, N. J 5 422 447 869
New York City, N. Y. (One
school district.) 6 474 464 938
Paterson, N. J. 5 617 629 1,246
Total 24 1,933 1,932 3,865

 

 

 

 

 

 

Eliminating the fourth grade cases, the most number of records
were obtained from Paterson, the least from East Orange. By
mere chance the boys and girls were found almost evenly dis-
tributed. Of the total 3,865 initial starters in the twenty-four
schools, 1,933 were boys and 1,932, girls.

Tue MIGRATION OF PUPILS

The per cents of initial starters in the grammar grades based
on the current register at the time of visitation are shown in
Table 48 and in graphic illustration, Chart 19.

g2
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary 93
TABLE 48
Per Cents or Initrav STARTERS IN GRAMMAR GRADES
Aver. of
Grades 8B | 8A | 7B | 7A | 6B | 6A | 5B | 5A Be ee
Cities
eae See 43.7 | 37-0 | 38.5 | 32.0) 44.7 oe 45.5 | §2.0, 41.9
| 40.4 | | 35-3 | | 43.0 | | 48.8 |
eer 48.3 | sro | 47-4 | 55.4| 50.3 | 40.1 | 49.1 | 50.3] 49.0
| 49.7 | | 5r-4] | | 45.2] | | 49.7 |
Elizabeth 32.9 33 -6 39 vo 51.5 38.8
Plainfield 56.0 53.0 57.0 56.0 55-5
East Orange 39-9 33-8 30.4 43-3 36.9
Medians 40.4 3543 43.0 49-7 41.9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1The order of grades in Paterson is: 8A, 8B, 7A, 7B, 6A, 6B, 5A, 5B.

Percent

 

   

ve Lata

E0range
Elizabeth

‘Median

Sotsts

 

 

 

 

Cuart 19. Approximate percentages of initial starters in
grammar grades

The median per cents in the five cities show that 40.4 per cent
of the registered eighth grade pupils entered the schools in which
they now attend; 35.3 per cent in the case of the seventh
grade; 43.0 per cent in the sixth grade; and 49.7 per cent in
the fifth grade. The median of the averages of gross per cents
in all the grammar grades is 41.9 per cent. That is, more than
half of the present grammar grade pupils either migrated to
the schools in which they now attend, from other schools in
94 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

the community or elsewhere, and were admitted by transfer, or
they entered their present schools in some grade later than the
first as new admissions.

Obviously, to take the average percentage instead of the me-
dian would be incorrect in view of the situation in Plainfield,
(See Chapter VI, page 81.) Note that the New York schools
register the tendency in the eighth, seventh, and sixth grades.

One may safely say that less than 50 per cent of the gram-
mar grade children of these city school systems have been under
the entire charge of their present schools from the first grade
up. In Chart 19 the relative comparison of systems in this re-
spect is plainly evident. Paterson, in which city retardation
is less frequent as compared with any of the other cities, has at
the same time a larger percentage of initial starters in its gram-
mar department. The city of Plainfield, for reasons previously
stated, is not considered.

AGE-GRADE RELATIONS

Concerning the 3,865 grammar grade initial starters, Table
49 shows in hundredths the retardation by grades.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 49
RETARDATION IN PER CENTS IN GRAMMAR GRADES
Grades 8B | 8A | 7B | 7A | 6B | 6A |] 5B | 5A
Cities
66. 6. : 8 : ; i
New York 6.3 | 76.9 | 84.4 | 75 ie 5 | 67.6 | 84.8 | 71.7
| 70.9 | | 80.r | | 76.3 | | 78.5 |
Eokeee 48.1 | 33.3] 52.2 | 39-8] 58.0 | 44.3 | 63-3 | 35-9
| 40.2 | | 45.1 | | 51.9 | | 48.4 |
Elizabeth 61.5 72.7 78.0 84.5
Plainfield 78.8 67.2 75.2 73.0
East Orange a st 79.3 78.9 83-5

 

Medians 70.9 Fa9 76.3 78.5

 

 

 

 

 

 
Summary 95

“Percent 1020304050 60 70. 80/00 10 20304050607080_/0 20 304050607080 /0 203040506070 50

 

Grades "UTR EUV Skee UT UU Velen? [ Erpat

 

 

 

  

PDolbstsls tats til boda ts ta tadis is toledo dt hl Dh hh td

 

 

CuHart 20. Percentages of retardation in grammar grades; assuming
1o years to 10 years I1 months inclusive as the normal entrance age
to the fifth grade

To permit of comparison with the other cities, in New York
City and Paterson the half-yearly grades are averaged in the
following manner: For example, from Chapter II, page 22,
one learns that 55, 8B pupils and 50, 8A pupils are above
normal age. The total numbers of cases in these grades are
83 and 65 respectively. The sum 50+ 55=105 is divided by
the sum 83 +65 = 148 to obtain 70.9 per cent, the average per-
centage of retardation in the eighth grade.

The median percentages of retardation in the grammar grades,
assuming 10 years to 10 years 11 months inclusive as the nor-
mal entrance age to the fifth grade, are all above 70 per cent.
In the eighth, sixth, and fifth grades New York City again in-
dicates the tendency. In Paterson the deviations from the me-
dians are by far the greatest.

Allowing one year on the assumed theoretical age-limit, these
percentages reduce considerably. The medians now become:
Eighth grade, 36.9; seventh grade, 39.1; sixth grade, - 40.8;
fifth grade, 45.1. That is, 36.9 per cent of the present eighth
grade pupils were more than 14 years I1 months when they en-
tered the eighth grade; 39.1 per cent were more than 13 years
1z months when they entered the seventh grade; 40.8 per cent
were more than 12 years 11 months when they entered the
sixth grade; and 45.1 per cent were more than II years II
months when they entered the fifth grade. The progressive
decrease from the fifth grade to the eighth grade inclusive in-
dicates clearly the effect of increasing elimination.
96 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

Comparing the grammar grade girls and boys in the matter
of retardation, Table 50 and the accompanying charts show the
age-grade relations by city and grades.

TABLE 50

RETARDATION IN PER CENTS IN GRAMMAR GRADES. SEX DISTRIBUTION
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades 8B | 8A | 7B} 7A | 6B} 6A |] 5B] sA
Cities
67.5 | 75.0 | 80.9 | 75.0| 84.6 | 72.9 | 89.9 | 63.2
New York 65.1 | 78.0 | 87.8 ' 76.7 | 86.3 | 62.7 | 80.0 | 83.1
70.3 | 77-8 | | 78.5 75-9
71.4 | 82.6 94.3 81.3

 

 

51.4 | 24.6 | 50.5 | 39.1 | 56.2 | 32.8 | 64.9 | 29.9
44.1 | 40.2 | 52.3 | 40.4] 59.8 | 54.8 | 61.3 | 41.1

 

Paterson

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

38.5 | 45.1 | 46.2 47.4 |
41.8 | 1 45-0 | 57-5 49-3 |
Elizabeth 57.8 66.7 76.5 79-9
65.2 78.4 79.6 89.7
Plainfield 76.6 61.7 ‘8r.7 67.3
81.6 92.1 69.8 77-3
East Orange 77.4 7B 79.3 76.9
76.9 83.3 78.6 88.5
Medians 70.3 66.7 78.5 75.9
71.4 78.4 743 » 81.3
Percents Pereents
30 90
80 ee ae 30
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
lo ie)
Grades 8 I 6 5 Grades 8 71 6 5
CHart 2ta. Median per- Cuarr 21b. Median per-

centages of retarded boys centages of retarded girls
Summary 97

Reading from Table 50 it appears that the boys are retarded
more often than the girls. The median percentage of retarded
girls in the sixth grade, 78.5 per cent, is larger than that recorded
in the case of the boys. In two out of the five cities, however,
there are larger proportions of “over-age” boys in this grade
also. The medians in the sex classification table are the same
in hundredths as those of New York City, excepting for grade
seven, wherein Elizabeth registers the middle tendency.

The summary table showing the distribution of “over-ageness”
at the time of entrance to the first grade follows. Six years
to 6 years 11 months is the assumed normal entrance age in
Table 51 and Charts 22 and 23.

TABLE 51

* OvER-AGENESS "’ IN PER CENTS AT TIME OF ENTRANCE TO
First GRADE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades 8B | 8A | 7B | 7A | 6B | 6A | 5B} 5A Average
Cities j ‘ :
48.2 | 46.2 | 59.4 | 53-7 | 46.4 | 40.7 | 47-6 | 57.9 | 40.
York ;
eee i Tape | Lseet | base] | ieee |
24.0 | 18.4 | 19.8 ] 30.6 | 23.9 | 18.6] 27.3 | 19.8] 23.0
Paterson | 21.0 | | 25.6 | | 21.5 | | 23.2 |
Elizabeth 56.2 55.8 68.3 74.5 66.5
Plainfield 29.4 23.4 32.8 42.6 32.0
East Orange 38.4 37.8 40.3 50.5 41.9
Medians 38.1 37.8 40.3 50.5 41.9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Percent 10 2030405060930 10203040506070 /0 2030405060 40 2030405060
Grades [UU FRR UT Sth TO Seventh | | eighen”

 

 

 

E.0ra ng
Etzabet
New Yorn
Paterson

Plarnfield

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

atstitsbsir tit Bititititatia phoirtis tists atifsdititr

Cuart 22. Percentages of “over-ageness” at time of en-
trance to the first grade: assuming 6 years to 6 years II
months inclusive as the normal entrance age

 

 
98 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

Percent 24 6 810 20 30 40 50 60 70
ao arr

TTT TT

 

 

 

 

 

atatitstitststitials baditadbststostatdsdsel shade dada tstats dads atototstal)

 

Cuart 23. Average percentages of “over-ageness” at time of entrance
to first grade

The East Orange system indicates the median tendency in
the matter of initial “over-ageness.” Of the eighth grade pupils
38.1 per cent were above 6 years 11 months at school entrance;
seventh grade, 37.8 per cent; sixth grade, 40.3 per cent; fifth
grade, 50.5 per cent. Taking the median of the averages of all
grades,! one finds that 41.9 per cent of the children now in the
grammar grades were “‘over-age”’ at the time of entrance to
the first grade. Whereas in each of the grammar grades over
70 per cent are at present retarded (see Table 49), the per-
centage of pupils who were above the normal age assumed,
when they were admitted to the first grade, is approximately.
40 per cent.

The ‘‘over-age”’ pupils based on the initial age records of
the 1,933 boys and the 1,932 girls are distributed in the next
table. The median percentages of “over-age’ boys and girls
may be compared in the appended graphic illustrations.

Although the median of the averages for the five cities would
indicate that more boys as compared with girls were above 6
years II months when they began school, in grades seven and
six the reverse is the tendency. That boys are more variable in
the matter of “over-ageness” at the time of entrance to the first
grade is apparent in Charts 24a and 24b. It is necessary,
however, to constantly keep in mind the fact that all the con-
clusions in this summary refer to that select class of children
who entered the first grade, have remained through the primary
grades, and are now in the grammar department of the school
in which they were originally admitted.

1 These averages ere reckoned es follows: e.g., In the case of New
York City the quotient obtained by dividing the sum of the numbers

of the initial ‘‘over-age’’ pupils in all the grammar grades hy the sum
of the total number of cases studied is changed to per cent.
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary 99
TABLE 52
‘“Over-AGENESS ’’’ IN PER CENTS AT TIME OF ENTRANCZ TO
First GrapE. Sex DistRIBUTION
Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.
Grades 8B | 8A | 7B | 7A | 6B | 6A | 5B | sA Average
Cities
40.0 | 45.8 | 59.6 | 44.2] 41.5 | 40.0 | 45.6 | 55.2
New York | 55-8 | 46.3 | 59-2 | 65.1 | 50.7 | 41.3 | 49-4 | 61.5 | 46.8
42.2 | 50.5 | 40.7 50.6 | 52-7
51.2 | 62.0 45-7 54-7 |
21.4 | 18.5 | 21.6 | 28.7 | 29.2 | 20.9 | 26.0 | 19.5
Paterson 27.1 | 18.3 | 16.9 | 32.3 | 18.4 | 16.4 | 29.0 | 20.0] 23.5
20.0 | 25.0 25.6 22.7 22.4
22.0 | 26.2 17.5 23-7
Elizabeth 37.5 52.4 64.3 67.4 59.5
74.2 59.1 72.8. 82.5 73-9
_ Plainfield BIO 2ie7 32.4 53-1 33-9
26.3 25.0 32.6 34.8 30.2
East Orange 35-8 38.6 48 .3 43.6 40.6
40.4 36.7 32.1 55.8 43-2
Sf 35.8 38 .6 40.7 50.6 40.6
Medians 40.4 36.7 32.6 54-7 43.2

 

 

 

Por ven ts

Ferovonds

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

55 55

50 50

45 45

Ao 4o — je
35 a 35

30 to

25 25

20 20

15 15

$0 lo

5 5
Grades % t G 5 Grades 8 I 6 5

Cuart 24a. Boys CuHart 24b. Girls

Median percentages of initial “* over-ageness ”

Tue INcIDENCE OF RETARDATION

The relative frequency of regularly promoted and non-pro-
moted eighth grade pupils is summarized in Table 53. The
100 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

accompanying charts illustrate the median percentages of regu-
larly promoted pupils and of those left back one, two, three,
four, and five times.

TABLE 53

PERCENTAGES OF EIGHTH GRADE PupiLts REPEATING AND Non-REPEATING
DurinG ScHooL LIFE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

None One Two Three Four Five
Cities
8B | 8A | 8B| 8A] 8B] 8A]! 8B] 8A | 8B | 8A | 8B | 8A
New York | 42 | 26 | 24 | 25 | 25 | 26] 2 1 |) 4 | 2 r | 6
[seid ae |) eee eet elit a]
Paterson 47 | 44 | 28131 | 23 [17] 2 | 6 |o fa o |] o
jae] place) | teed } lari ye.) fe
Elizabeth qI 22 5 I I °
Plainfield 9 48 32 10 ° °
East Orange 63 29 9 ° ° o =
Medians 45 29 20 4 I °

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 shrastitolstsis iris

CHART 25. Bevoshiapes 6 riphith grade pupils never left back during
entire school life

 

 

 

Percent 4% 11620 30 40 50 49121620 30 40 48121620 48 4
LeftBacn] eee “One ee mule Ebeole (a Tiree Pour Five

 

 

 

E.Ora nge
Elizabeth
NewYorx

 

Paterson

Plarnfiel

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bebabadststaistastitsiatd Behi tat stshitatad Potitital Hii sii

 

 

Cuarr 26. Percentages of eighth grade pupils repeating during entire
school life
Summary LOL

Of the eighth grade pupils who entered the first grade of the
school in which they now attend, 45 per cent as a median have
never been left back during their entire school life; 29 per
cent have repeated once; 20 per cent, twice; 4 per cent, three
times; and 1 per cent, four times. It is justifiable to say that
of those selected pupils who reach the highest grade, the tend-
ency is to be left back once during their school life. In Eliza-
beth and East Orange the mode falls in the “no-time” group.
Eliminating Plainfield, these cities deviate most from the me-
dian percentage of regularly promoted children.

Distributing the eighth grade pupils according to sex, Table
54 shows the relative frequencies as percentages of eighth grade
boys and girls promoted and non-promoted throughout the
grades. The median percentages are stated in the bottom row.

TABLE 54

EicutH Grape Pupirs REPEATING AND Non-REPEATING DuRING
Scuoot Lirz. Sex DistrRipuTIon tn PER CENTS

Boys in plain type. Girls in italics.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

None One Two Three Four Five
Cities ;
8B; 8A} 8B | 8A 8B 8A | 8B | 8A | 8B 8A} 8B | 8A
37-5 29.2} 30.0| 50.0| 27.5|16.7| 2.5 4.2 | 2.5] 0.0| 0.0 | 0.0
N York 48.8] 24.4] 18.6] 26.8] 23.3] 31.7] 2.3 114.6] 4.7 | 2.4 2.3 | 0.0
or. > -
Mm 34.4 37-5 23.4 BI | I.0 0.0
36.9 22.6 27.4 8.3 3:6 I.z
: 52.9[ 46.2 5T-4| 33-8] 15.7| 18.5] 0.0 | 1.5| 0.0| 0.0 | 0.0 0.0
39-01 42.7| 23.71 29.3] 32.2! 15.91 5.1 | 9.8] 0.0 | 2.4 | 0.0 | 0.0
Pateipos 49.6 | | 32.6 17.0 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.0
41.1 | | 27.0 22.7 7.8 1.4 0.0
Elizabeth 73.4 21.9 wa 0.0 1.6 0.0
; 68.2 22.7 7.6 I.5 0.0 0.0
Plainfield 10.6 44.7 31.9 12.8 0.0 0.0
7.9 52.6 31.6 7.9 0.0 0.0
East Orange] 58.5 34.0 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
67.3 2g05 9.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
sone : = 6 1.0 I7.0 0.7 0.0 0.0
Medians pel oo ae 7.8 0.0 0.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
192 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pereends. Fervents.
15 15
To To
G5 65
Go bo
55 55
50 50
45 7 45
40 f 40
BS 35
Lewmne 7
30 30 |
ae |
' 5
PIS: 7 teal 2 1
20 20
15 1S
40 to
5 5

 

 

 

 

 

Cities WK Fat Elz Flar £0. Cities MK Pet Fhz. Plan £0.

 

 

 

 

CHART 27 a. Eighth grade CHART 27b. Eighth grade
boys never left back during entire girls never left back during entire
school life. ---- Eighth grade school. life. ---- Eighth grade
boys left back once girls left back once

Percents, Porvents.
30

30
25 ; 25
20 20 ; |

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1S: | ‘ 15
1
lo LJ 10
5 ooo 5 b----—
i L --————

 

 

 

 

Cities MY. Foé. Elz. Plan £0. Cites WK Feat Fliz. Plar £0.

CuHart 28a. Eighth grade boys CuHart 28b. Eighth grade girls
left back two and three or more left back two and three or more

 

times during school life times during school life
—— Twotimes. ---- Three or Twotimes. ---- Threeor
more times more times

In the case of regular promotion and “one-time” repetition
the girls record larger percentages, whereas the boys are more
frequently left back two and three times. In New York City
and East Orange the girls maintain the average position in the
distribution curve of mental ability, such ability being measured
solely on the basis of relative frequency in the grades. The
Summary 103

boys on the other hand in these cities occupy the extremes of
the distribution. Larger percentages of them have advanced
regularly and at the same time more of them have repeated
two, three, and more times. In Paterson and Elizabeth the girls
unquestionably are brighter than the boys. In the former city the
mode in the case of the eighth grade girls is in the “ no-time”
group while the selected boys tend to be left back once during
school life. In Plainfield the boys who finally reach the eighth
grade must be credited with the better records. From the medians
as read in the bottom row of Table 54, one notes the larger
range in relative ability on the part of the boys. The Paterson
system records the median tendency of the five cities.

The fact that the girls who reach the eighth grade in general
have been more successful throughout the entire school course
in the matter of regular promotion and relative frequency of
repetition does not of necessity reflect discredit on the boys.
It may sanction the charge that the modern course of study
is not sufficiently adapted to the special needs and inherent
capacities of the latter.

The grade distributions of non-promotion as percentages of
the total number promoted and non-promoted in the various
school systems are shown in Tables 55, 56, 57, 58, and Charts
29 through 32.

Reading from Table 55, the bottom row of percentages record
with considerable accuracy the prevailing tendencies in the five
city school systems. Four and four tenths per cent of the eighth
grade pupils who remain through all the grades of the school
they originally entered are left back in the eighth grade; 9.5
per cent, in the seventh grade; 7 per cent, in the sixth; 4.6 per
cent, in the fifth; 4.3 per cent, in the fourth; 3.9 per cent, in
the third; 2.4 per cent, in the second; and 3.5 per cent, in the
first. It is evident that the seventh grade marks the chief ob-
stacle in the progress of the pupil who persists in school. The
increasing difficulty of the grades from the first till the eighth
is clearly manifest. This holds true of the two systems with
half-yearly terms as well as in the case of those cities having
the yearly series of grades. In New York City the 6B and
7 A grades show the highest percentages of retention. In Pater-
son evidently the upper seventh is the most difficult.
104 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

TABLE 55

GRADE DIstTRIiBUTION INDICATING RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF Non-
PROMOTION IN HUNDREDTHS

Eighth Grade Pupils Only

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades 8B] 8A| 7B | 7A | 6B |} 6A | 5B] sA/ 4B] 4A} 3B] 3A} 2B] 2A} 1B] 1A
Cities 5.81 5.0] 7.7 | 13.3 | 5.0 sol 5.0 a1 4.1 3.6 4.1 0.0 2.3 ogling
New York ls-31) lost | 1821 |lsst}l421]t3-0 1) 12-61} 123 |
Dateson 2.61 4.2] 9.1 | 6.6 | 4.2 | 5.8 | 3.6]5.5 | 5.0/2.6 | 2.2]3.9| 1.7/3.0 | 2.8]2.5
l4ol] [791] Iso] | [461] 1431] l30]] l241]] [26]
Elizabeth 5.6 Q.2 2.1 2,1 4.2 4.9 3-5 3.5
Plainfield 3.1 20.0 10.8 10.0 5.4 | 6.2 7.7 30.8
East Orange 4.4 14.0 7.0 4.4 44 2.6 0.9 3-5
Medians 4.4 9.5 7.0 4.6 4:3 3-9 2.4 3.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pereents.
(2

VW

°

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

row fh Oo F&F 7 @

 

 

 

Grades 8 t 6 5 4 3 2 1

Cuart 29. Median percentages of eighth grade pupils showing the inci-
dence of retardation
mm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary 105
TABLE 56
Grave DistrisutTion InpicaTiInG RELATIVE FREQUENCY oF Non-
PRomoTIon IN HUNDREDTHS
Seventh Grade Pupils Only
Grades 7B | WA 6B| 6A] 5B/ sA 4B] 4A 3B| 3A| 2B] 2A) 1B) 1A
Cities 13.8I01.5 Wisk lg.2 6.1 [8.5 |5.4 |6.1 3.7 lat 1.4 |2.7 1.7 12.7
‘New York |z2.2| || 82 [}! 73/1) ] 5-81] [3-0 |] | 2-0 ]] | 2.2 |
8.1]8.0 6/4. -5[6.0 {5. -2| 4.2/3.6] 3.1|2. 23/22
ee rari |issi|resilleet|taoilteet| ee
Elizabeth 12.4 4.7 4.1 2.6 4.1 gy 7.8
Plainfield 14.0 18.4 7.2 6.8 5-3 6.3 : 30.0
East Orange. Ir.4 7.6 8.9 6.3 2.5 3.8 fo
Medians 12.2 7.6 72 5.8 3.9 i 3.8 5.1
Porcenis.
13
Iz
MW
Jo
9
8 {
; Se eee
6
5
4 a
3
Z
|
Grades | 6 5 4 3 2 }

CHart 30. Median percentages cf seventh grade pupils showing
the incidence of retardation
106 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

TABLE 57

GrRabDE DistRIBUTION INDICATING RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF NoN-

PROMOTION IN HUNDREDTHS

Sixth Grade Pupils Only

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades 6B | 6A] 5B] 5A | 4B/ 4A] 3B] 3A] 2Bi 2A/]1B] 1A
Cities | |
New York 10.6] 10.1] 11.2] 9.9 | 7-4 7-9 8.3 | 6.1 | 4.8] 5.0 | 2.0 | 3.3
[ro.2! | [ros] | 17-7] | | 7-2! | lao] | | 2-6]
19.2/10. .o | 6.0] 5. I] 6. .8 | 2.6 | 3.8] 3. .6
baron es || a ae aa re a
Elizabeth 12.3 10.2 9.8 5.3 3.7 4.1
Plainfield 16.1 10.4 8.7 6.5 7.0 32.2
East Orange} 13.8 17 4.6 6.2 6.2 oid
Medians 12.3. |. 10.2 ag 6.2 4.9 4.1
Fereents.
i)
12
M
lo
q-
8
7
6
5
4 ees
S
2
]
Graces b 5 4 3 2 |
Cuart 31. Median percentage of sixth grade pupils

showing the incidence of retardation
Summary

TABLE 58

107

GrabDE DistRIBUTION INDICATING RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF Non-
Promotion IN HUNDREDTHS

Fifth Grade Pupils Only

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades 5B} 5A] 4B] 4A] 3B] 3A] 2B] 2Aj}1Bi 1A
Cities : : gel é
12.4] 10.5] 8.5 | 9. .I | r0.1}] 8.0 | 5.2] 3. :
lille Gaal | Toa! | [ool | Pest'| Geet
.g | 10.9] 7. : 4 |B: ; 0 | 4. .
Theeass so lic-9 ales ral oe sr ise
Elizabeth 19.0 12.1 10.1 8.1 7.2
Plainfield 15.2 13.3 6.3 5-7 39-2
East Orange 10.2 7.2 7.2 10.2 8.2
Medians II.2 9.2 7.2 6.6 7.2
Pereenes.
13
V2
N
jo
q
&
7 a
6
é
4
i)
z
|
Grades 5 4 3 Z ]
CHart 32. Median percentages of fifth grade

pupils showing the incidence of retardation
108 A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

That the pupils find the lower much easier than the upper
grades is the definite tendency as shown in the foregoing tables.
Table 55 indicates the seventh grade with a median of 9.5 per
cent as having been the most difficult grade for the present
eighth grade pupils. Table 56 indicates the seventh grade again
with a median of 12.2 per cent as the most difficult grade for
the present seventh grade pupils. In Table 57 the sixth grade
pupils show the largest percentages of non-promotion in their
present grade. The progress of the fifth grade pupils according
to Table 58 is impeded more in the fifth grade than in any of
the preceding grades. In grades five, six, and especially seven,
the chances of retardation in the case of any given pupil are
decidedly more than in any of the other grades. The pupil who
is fortunate enough to withstand the strain of the difficult sev-
enth grade is practically offered the assurance of success on
entrance to the comparatively easy graduating class.

Taken generally the grammar grades exert much more pres-
sure on the pupils in the matter of retardation. It is more than
probable that, were all the “hold-overs” in grades one through
four to remain in school, the percentages of retardation in the
upper grades would be still larger.

Tables 55 to 58 record the distribution of non-promotion in
hundredths of the grammar grade initial starters. These pupils
represent a selected class as compared with the children migrat-
ing from school to school. It is fair to suppose that, were the
histories of these shifting pupils studied, the same progressive
increase in grade frequency would be the characteristic tendency.

The records of the initial starters were obtained from the in-
dividual pupils in class room and were checked by a care-
ful study of the individual history cards. These cards registered
accurately the frequency of grammar grade retention. In the
case of non-promotion in the primary grades, where the official
records were not obtainable, errors of memory would necessitate
some correction of the recorded percentages. Even with a gen-
erous corrective allowance there is every reason to believe that
the classes would still be progressively harder from the first to
the last year of the school. At any rate the burden of proof
rests upon those who fancy that a pupil is more likely to suffer
retardation in early than in late grades.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Booxs

Ayres, L. P.* Laggards in Our Schools; a Study of Retardation and
Elimination in City Systems. New York: Russell Sage Founda-
tion Publications, 1909.

Bonser, F. G. The Reasoning Ability of Children of the Fourth, Fifth,
and Sixth School Grades. New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1910.

Cornman, O. P.* Promotion and Retardation in the Elementary
Schools. Philadelphia: 1906.

Dutton, S. T. and SNeEppEN, D. §.* Administration of Public Educa-
tion in the United States. New York: Macmillan Company, 1908.

Gutick, L. H. and Ayres, L. P.* Medical Inspection of Schools. New
York: Russell Sage Foundation Publications, 1908.

Maennen, B. Auxiliary Education; The Training of Backward Children.
Trans. by Emma Sy.vesterR. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.
Ig0g.

SneppEN, D. S. and ALLen, W. H.* School Reports and School Effi-
ciency. New York: Macmillan Company, 1908.

TuHoRNDIKE, E. L.* Educational Psychology. New York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1gr1o.

.* Theory of Mental and Social Measurements. New York,

Science Press, 1904.

 

The following reports were examined in order to check the
statistical conclusions of some of the investigations referred to
in this study.

GENERAL REPORTS

REPoRT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EpucATION. Vol. 2, 1907:577. Sta-
tistics of City School Systems.

Vol. 2, 1908:1057. Summary of Statistical Tables.

. Vol. 2, 1909:1343. Retardaticn and Acceleraticn of Pupils in
City Schools.

DEPARTMENT oF INTERIOR. Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 4,
1907. The Elimination of Pupils from School. E. L. THornprKe.

Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 5, 1911. G. D. STRAYER.

REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EpucATION oF NEw York STATE. 1908:
610; Igt0:32.

Report oF COMMITTEE ON DELINQUENT AND DEPENDENT CHILDREN.
State Association of Town and City Superintendents. 1908:3-25.

 

 

 

* Special reference is made to this study.
I09Q
IIO A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation

City REPorRTS

Battimore, Mp. Annual Report of Beard of Schcol Commissioners.
1908 :51, 119.

Boston, Mass. Report of Schocl Committee. June, 1909:20; July,
1909 :22.

Brooxiyn, N. Y. Tenth Annual Report of New York City Superin-
tendent. 1908:68.

Curcaco, Ill. Report of Board of Education. 1899:123.

Cincinnati, O. Annual Report of the Public Schocls. 1929:55.

CotumsBus, O. Report of Public Schools. 1902 :200.

East OrancE, N. J. Annual School Report. 1905:19; 1997:56.

Kansas City, Mo. Annual Report of Board of Education. 1907:88.

LouisvitLE, Ky. Report of School Board. 1997:127.

Meprorp, Mass. Annual Report of School Committee. 1907:17.
1g08:17.

New Haven, Conn. Report of Board of Education. 1908:28.

New York City, N. Y. Sixth Annual Report of City Superintendent
of Schools. 1904:42-49. Twelfth Annual Report. 1910:225.
Paterson, N. J. Annual Report of Public Schools. 19087159; 1999:1I0.
PuiLaDELpHia, Pa. Report of Board of Public Education. 1907:24

(Statements J and K); 1908:92 (Tables 16-37).
PLAINFIELD, N. J. Report of Board of Education. 1998:47; 1909 :37
Reapinc, Pa. Biennial Report of Board of Education. 1997:95.
Rocuester, N. Y. Annual Report of the Public Schools. 1897:7, 30.
San Francisco, Cat. Annual Report of the Public Schools. 1892:7.
SPRINGFIELD, O. Annual Report of Public Schools. 1998:31, 53.
ee N. J. Annual Report of Commissioners of Public Instructicn.
1897 :204. .
Wuee tine, W. Va. Annual Report of Public Schools. 1907 :19.

ARTICLES FROM PERIODICALS

Educational Review.* 1909:122. Retardation, its Significance and its
Requirements. R. P. FALKNER.

* 1909:342. Retardation of Pupils in their Studies. J. M.

GREENWOOD.

* r910:48. Elimination and Repetition. F. P. Bachman.

tgto:121. A Neglected Cause of Retardation. W.D. SuHELpon.

Elementary School Teacher. 1910:326. England and her Retarded Chil-
dren. H. LEATHER. :

.* r910:409. Repeaters in the Upper Grammar Grades. E. L.
THORNDIKE.

Journal of Educational Psychology. __1910:61.* Individual Differences
in Grammar Grade Children. W. G. CHAMBERs.

——.. _I910:132. The Subnormal Child in New York City Schools.
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