yn Ni NS g ae Le AA EAA AA es oe ae ee iB 0) ee Et th ees 44 ay A \ \ My Ts iS Ny ie ¥ ne Ri ‘| H a , q ss i y t % i | { i 2 Se et SS AS KX AS Lie oy S RES A Ki acd LA NAAQS LAS MANA SAS SS WS S WN \ SN or a oh . ee Ri ZS < Speke es a Rete erence eae ea NS Se. Es Ruane Cornell University Library arV19088 MU 1924 031 233 962 3 olin,anx E B Cc D A Glimpse of the coast of Valencia, Spain, illustrating the botanical Series and Classes. A. Padina pavonia, seaweed, at low tide. B. Cyathea arborea, tree-fern, in a private garden. C. Cycas revoluta. D, Phenix dactylifera, Date-Palm, female tree; other trees, male and female, on the horizon. E. Quercus suber, Cork Oak, on the edge of a Cork Oak planta- tion; laborers cutting the bark, which is the cork of commerce. BOTANY FOR ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES; CONSISTING OF PLANT DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE FROM SEAWEED TO CLEMATIS WITH TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS ; AND A MANUAL OF PLANTS INCLUDING ALL THE KNOWN ORDERS WITH THEIR REPRESENTATIVE GENERA. BY ANNIE CHAMBERS-KETCHUM, A.M., MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 1889. ® /COPNE LL UNI Vad. SITY: i Lie RAY | Copyright, 1888, by Annie CHAmBERS-KeTCHUM. TO THE ILLUSTRIOUS MEMORY OF ANTOINE L, DE JUSSIEU. PREFACE. THE course of study in these Lessons is based upon the inductive method of A. L. de Jussieu. Beginning with Cryptogamia (the alphabet of organic life), Plant Develop- ment is gradually unfolded, from the green stain on our door-stone to the Magnolia and Clematis. Thus, at the outset, we see the principles upon which Differentiation is based. The Lesson on Fossils (including the Geological Table) exhibits the proofs of these principles. Then, with the plant world thus outlined, we begin the study of sepa- rate parts—root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, tissues—and the forces which govern them. The Phanerogamia are’ usually divided by systematic botanists into two classes,—Monocotyledons or Endogens, and Dicotyledons or Exogens; and the Dicotyledons into two sub-classes,—Gymnosperme and Angiosperme. This is not nature’s method. The Monocotyledons are Angio- spermee (Covered Seeds) as well as the Dicotyledons; they are much more highly differentiated than the Gymnosperme ; and they are a much newer class, geologically. The most learned scientists of to-day follow nature; and in nature ‘we find Gymnosperms associated with the higher Crypto- gams in the order of development. They form Compre- hensive Types, including the characters of Cryptogams, Monocotyledons, and Dicotyledons. They are not true Dicotyledons. Their flowers are without calyx or corolla ; vii Vill PREFACE. the female flower is a naked ovule without an ovary ; the embryo has a long, persistent suspensor. Their wood and bark are nearly identical in structure. Their leaves re- semble those of the Fern, Club-Moss, or Palm. No type of plants is more distinctly individualized. In these Les- sons they are accordingly separated into a distinct class, and placed immediately after the Cryptogams. Next fol- low the Angiosperms, divided into two sub-classes, Mono- cotyledons and Dicotyledons (see Frontispiece, facing Title- Page). This is the only departure from the method of” Jussieu; and the author is confident that if Jussieu had lived to learn the lesson of the fossils as well as other late discoveries in science, he would have been first to advocate an arrangement which is so logical because it is so natural. The Manual which forms the second part of this volume is only an outline, for a mere catalogue of the 150,000 or more species of known plants would fill a quarto; but it is a complete outline. It should be consulted with every Lesson, and living specimens of the plants mentioned should be examined whenever they can be obtained. The use of the microscope cannot be too strongly urged. Without it no part of the plant can be successfully studied ; and good compound instruments small enough to be put in the pocket can be bought at rates ranging from three to five dollars. CONTENTS. LESSONS. FRONTISPIECE «203. Bala wR mR SOR ewe Re TITLE-PacEe. . . SIS B . goo See hie Mowe DEDICATION .... ho «BG Ge ER se Be Rh eee ee PREFACE, ao 6. vee ha we Qos eee List oF ILLUSTRATIONS .. . SECTION I.—STRUCTURAL BOTANY. PART FIRST.—MORPHOLOGY. Lesson I. Fundamental Definitions... .......... Lzsson II. The Flower Defined—The Embryo . Lesson III. The Embryo Gentinied —Geuniaton ren ae Lesson IV. The Perfect and Complete Flower—Basis of Classifi- cation—Botanical Names... 2 1. ee ee ee eee Lesson V. Morphology of the Plant as a Whole—Plant Devel- opment. Series I. Cryptogamia; Class I. Thallogens— Naked Spores; s.-::4).5- 046 Sw ee ee seated es Lesson VI. Thallogens Finished ..... ©... . ee Lesson VII. Class II. Acrogens—Covered Spores ..... .~ Lesson VIII. Acrogens Finished. . . 1... 2... 2. eee Lzsson IX. Plant Development Continued. Series II. Phane- rogamia; Class I. Gymnosperme .. ...... Lzsson. X. Class II. Angiosperme#; Sub-Class I. Endogens. Monocotyledons «64 & ee a RE Re Lzsson XI. Sub-Class II. Exogens. Dicotyledons. Apetale, Monopetal: 3. 2 sae See HERES ERD EE ES . Lesson XII. Sub-Class II. Dicotyledons Finished. Polypet- LDDs Sp es cd Saat aN se tat Ry as BE aOR vies See al ee oo gh BO, a Lesson XIII. Fossils and their Teachings. = 8 ...... PART SECOND.—PHYSIOLOGY. Lzsson XIV. Root and Subterranean Stem ......... Lesson XV. Upper (Superterranean) Stem .......-.. Lesson XVI. Bud and Leaf... . 1... 1 eee PAGE ii iii vii xi on 15 19 26 33 388 42 49 57 62 69 74 78 84 x CONTENTS. PAGE Lzsson XVII. Venation—Leaf Forms—Simple Leaves ... 89 Lesson XVIII. Compound Leaves—Leaf Texture and Surface. 93 Lesson XIX. Aistivation—Inflorescence ......-.-5 97 Lesson XX. Inflorescence Finished... 1... 1.7 7 103 Lesson XXI. The Flower... . 0... eee ee es 106 Lesson XXII. Calyx—Corolla. .... 1... eee 112 Lxsson XXIII. The Man’s House (Andrecium)...... .- 116 Lesson XXIV. The Woman’s House (Gynecium)..... . 122 Lxsson XXV. Pollination—Fertilization .. . : ‘ . . 128 Lusson XXVI. TheSeed . .......0.. 1. 188 Lesson XXVII. The Fruit—Dehiscent Fruits: Pods . . . 1389 Lusson XXVIII. Indehiscent Fruits: Nuts, Drupes, Berries . 148 PART THIRD.—PHYTOTOMY, OR PLANT ANATOMY. Lusson XXIX. Cells—Fibres—Vessels ... .. 0 ..- 148 Lusson XXX. Root—Stem. ....... soe ae BD Lusson XXXI. Bark—Leaf bs ee a2 oa 3 & ee 166 PART FOURTH.—CHEMISTRY. Lesson XXXII. Phenomena of Growth—Constituents of the PIS ar ae a EE a Oe SP ES Pe 161 Lesson XXXIII. Forces: Physical, Chemical, Vital, Voluntary 168 SECTION II.—SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. PART FIRST—TAXONOMY, OR CLASSIFICATION. Lesson XXXIV. NaturalSystem ..... ..... . 178 Lesson XXXV. Rules for Nomenclature and Pronunciation. . 177 Lesson XXXVI. Artificial, or Linnean, System ..... 180 GuLossary AND INDEX To Lessons. ... . br é 183 PART SECOND.—PHYTOLOGY. MANUAL OF PLANTS. TITLE-PaGEe nye oe, Giles he ett ded a Gat a el iii PREFACE. .... Me Whe SOAR eG and gaa Sians, ABBREVIATIONS .. 2. ee eee eee aos vi PTY MONS seg coca a iy ss PH AR ee eee a aH Synopsis OF CLASSIFICATION ........ me eae 1 Synopsis oF ORDERS AND THEIR ALLIANCES ........ 3 INDEX TO MANUAL. 2... eee ee ee ee 171 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Abies eacélsa, Dr., CONE, Bd...ecceeere Acanthus spindsus, If. nat. and conven- severe 123 46 tionalized .. Acer campéstris, A. Peehdo Platanus, br., fr., ft fl. . Aconitum LyeGctonum, sd Pp Zisculus Hippocdstanum, br., fi8., fr......00e0e0e 192 Es, hybrida, OVUIES...cceeeserseee: 180, F AAthisa Cyndpium, lvs., fis..... Agé&ricus campéstris A. Geérgii A. oréades. Agave americana, Alaria esculenta... Albizzia Julibrissin, sd. sprouting ........7, B Alisma, fl, diagram...... 62 Alfssum sazdtile, DAIS. 00. eeeeereee «20106, 6 Amardntus eau bt, br., lvs., Amber, with fossil in- Bects.. Anacardi br., fis., fr. Ananissa sativa, Plant, fr. .reccereecerers Anchisa ertspa, Anona muricata, br., lvs., fis... Antirrhinum majus, br., lvs., fis., ff... 161 Aquilégia vulgaris, br., lvs., fis follicle. petal ... eco 9, Aristolochia Serpentdria, plant, fis., fr.......... 186 Arméria vulgaris, ova, vert. 8€C....... 195, D Arrhenathérum avendceum, plant, fis. 5 Artocarpus incisa, Asclépias tuberdsa, fl. , Separate organs, Asphédelus “Glbus, Plant, fis .........008- Avéna sativa, gr. sprouting, emb., Balsamodéndron mjrrha, br., lvs., spines... Banksia tito, br., fis... seeseeee 165 Bérberis mulgaris, pistil... eceanirs Bertholldtia excélea, If., fr., ad., emb ..... Bata vulgaris, young cells... raphides. Bétula padmila, od catkin..... Bigndnia picta, br., lvs., fis... Bixa Orellann, br., fis., fr....... ates 199 Blitum capitatum, 104 69, B plant, fl., fr... 120 Boswéllia serrata, br., lvs., fis., fr ..... 125 Botrychium Lundriu, prothallus, with fis. 36 Brasénia peltdta, ova divided....... 179, Gr ‘Brbesice sativa, ILD os ssses ene soveanse D1, C Bryonia dlba, DAITB,....cecessenceeee B. dioica, br., lvs., fls., fr... Bry6psis plamoee, plant... Budding... ” 106, 9 184 carpel, trans, sec. 179, % Caléndula officinalis, fi., hd., vert. sec...... 143 Clee naa , fr., emb. Campanula rotundyolea, Plant, f19......sceeevesee 144 Canna, indica, fi. plan...... eevetodes 63, C Ofpparis spindsa, Qf Carica Papaya, tree, fis., fr... eens Caryocar butyrosum, OMD, ... seeeeeceseee vvee Catandnche ceriilea, fit. Cearas, Libani, axereceo Al Cephaslis ‘ipecacudinha, rt., St., IVB....... aveee: Cerdstium ieee “Agrostém- ma Githdgo), ova.179, F Cérasus (Prius) sinénsis, pistil reverting to If, 79, A true pistil...........179, B Ceratoziamia longifolia, pollen-grain emit- ting tube... weed Cetraria isldndica.. xi 7, B 24 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. descenee 82 Cheirénthus Chéiri, 11; B emb. ov. 181, D silique . “200, A Ceelionton majus, 181, © ee ~ 221 Chérda filum, ‘plant, Book-cover, - front. Chrdsécoccus ruféscens, Plant ..........e00 11, B, C Cinnamdmum zeyldnicum, br., lvs., fis., sta...... 170 Cistus symphitifolius, ads, vert. sec.,...... 189, C Citrus Liménum, br., lvs., fis., fr ...... 127 Cladium mariscoides, akaine... wee 54, B Clavaria phallo\des,, sfaese 22, 7 Clématis Vitdlba, fr., Book-cover, side. Clostérium acitum, 13, B, C, D Coffea ardbica, br., lvs., fis., fr., sd.. 147 Convallaria majalis, Tvs., fis .....eceseee weore 138 Crescéntia Cujéte, carved calabashes... 209 Cicumis Mélo, Bt., trANS. BEC... ++. a0 vessels... -220, A, B ° Cc. get seeeevereee68, Oucdrbite Papo, young anther. pollen-mother. Cupréssus sempervirens, br., lvs., galbules.... 45 pollen QPr........0047, A Cfiscuta Beis, plants fis oyathe: ea arborea, Tree-fern, ¥rontis- Dactylis glomerdta, pollen gr. Daphne Mesereum, t, fi Dietyota dichotoma, plant Digits purpiirea, 3 Dipsacus ula, . Pe ie 105 Dorstinia Contrayéroa, fl. hd. .. 141, A c Drosera eae ei: eee marin C¥clamen ewropaéum, plant, fis., fr.....ss00e C¥enoches ventriadeum, PIECe .eeescereere B st., trans, sec - 42 Cycas revolt, Fron a If. with 9 fis. 43 245 seer 153, B Cydania. rf br., eulsiri frie esoee » 210 nara Scdlymus, Oe Ta a al - ¢ fina scoparius, 7 br., Ivs., fi, fr, ANY sessereceserereess 166 Beogpnium Pirga «52, © -.180, D Detphinivmn iran, ha -106. Dintis spectabilis, 1 . 112 -- 179, D Ecbalium (Elatérium) reste, Epilobium angustifolium, br., lvs., fis., ova, sd. 75 aa "Telmateia, .200, B Erysimum cheiranthoides, plant, fis., fi. organs, fio 5, cescniscssasonssses 162 Eucalyptus pulverulénta, Saveccenscensccser br., fis. Enpherbia eae . 146 ~ 81 87 8d... seaunctnbinasesense 195 Fiatsia papyrifera, st., pith, cells... 225 » 140 « 236 91 as ea officindle, 174, E Fragari: fl., vert. Bec. we LTS, A Fraxinus excélsior, | br. , fis., fr... Fritillaria imperidlis, . plan... eevee OB, Frontispiece, facing Title- Page. Facus platycdrpus, antherozoids . eeauesti Die A F. vesiculdsus, frond, with fr. and air-bladders Rc Caleckodenaton atile, Gengnan latea, If., fis., fr., ad......... 116 Geological Table, facing Lesson XIII. ‘ Geranium Robertidnum, fs ty ED. cas ce ee soeene eee LOO, © sanguineum, ee 174, A Gossypium herbaceum, Grafting buds..... Grammatodphora marin 1 Greville HAA Guaiacum aficinite, br., lvs., fis.. a» 128 Heménthus multiflorus, br., fl, hd., fi. DYis, Aeiisverrsensd es Hédera Heélia, plant........ hairs... Hedfsarum corondrium, Joment .....se00+ 197, ‘A, B Heli4nthemum vulgare, Dr., 1VS., 18...reeeeeree 243 Heliinthus tuberdsus, PANE... .eeeeceeseevereee 95 Hephtica irioba, ta. 80, E Humiriuin ate ai Hyoaoyamas niger, fiasesseuanatssoaessie i Cc H¢pnum dendroides, plant, fl., fre... 30 Impatiens Balsamina, If, VOrts SC. cecerseeees 234 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. uiphee Noli-me-tingere, br., lvs., fis., fr....... 164 tris germdnica, st., vert. sec. Isitis tinctoria, OND... eecseveeeoescee Isonandra Gitta, br., lvs., fis., fr., ov., anth 191, A Jiglans régia, br., Ivs., fis., fr... Lagétta lintedria, st., bark.. eevee 230 Lamium amplevicaiite, cleistogamous fi...... 183 Lathyrus odordtus, andr. and gyneec..167, A Lecandra tartdrea, plant. odgonium Lécythis Olidria, monkeypot Friueeeee. 156 Homne minor, Seeasadvens thee aeoney 181, B Lepidodénaron, ae 84 Liane .....eeeceeecnsrrereeee + 100 Lilium cdéndidum, 54 If., vert. sec. 239 Liquidsmbar styractflua, Dr., LV8., fTeeeseesereee 118 Lonicéra nigra, He DUG... ccscescdeeedes 107 Lotus corniculatus, br., lvs., fis., itty fl. orgi ans. wees 16: ae leiden, ANt, £19... 55 Lychuis Githago, DOI] ..sssesreseeeeeeee 97, EB sige tant, br. with fis............ Magnolia glaadca, br., lvs., fls., fr., sd.. 133 Malva ‘Alcéa, pollen gr. 4,5 calyx and - 134 M. rotundifolia, fl. OFZANB...ceccereerene 182 M. aylveetres, Madecestskasentes 174, B, C Marchiniia polymérpha, elaters .. ae sees, pistillidium . oS 21, 14 receptacle, vert. sec. 29 Marsilea mderopus (Sal- vAtrix), Plant......ccscensecsees 38 Megalospora affinis, spore sprouting...... 26 Melandrium dioicwm, fl., vert. sec.... 1174, A Melosira sulcdta.... wo14, B Mimésa nil6tica, br., Iv8., fi......s0e-.. 130 Macor Mucédo, PLANS. .rcccccerseenes ves Misa paradisiaca, plant, fis., fr.... Myrica Gale, br., lvs., fis., scale, sta,, anth,......0. 111 Myristica moschata, br., lvs., fis., fr., sd.. 196 Mfrtus comminis, br., lvs., fis., fl., vert. BOC srereceee ener os seneee 178 20 we 60 Narcissus Tazzétta, boll, fl. plan....202, A, B Navicula viridis, Plant... ccsrrcssrcereee 13, A NelG@mbium specidsum, plants; fis., fr.. nut open, showing emb. 79 Nepénthes distillatoria, br., ae fis. 113 Nerium Olednder, Bas sasbsctacecosn eed 168, A Niphar ddvena, sd., Vert. BCC... 7,E Cdogdnium cilidtum, spores Ginothera biénnis, pollen gr. diax Ces Oldhimia antiqua, fossil animal......... lea sativa, br., Ivs., fis., Oncidium Papilio Freese Opantia cockiniltifera, plant, fls., insects.. Orchis Mério, st., fis. sta, fr. br. a ronda, 4 spore- Ouvirdndra fonesirdtia, plant, spike, sep. fis.. 231 Padina pavénia, Frontispiece..........+« A Paleochiérda minor, fossil plant.........00+ 83, A Palitrus aculedius, br., lvs., fis., fr... 77 Parmelia parietina, thallus, vert. sec..... Passiflora iicoriatd, fee fl pfs desseeu seeese Pedidstrum granaitn, zoospore. és ser aeeseeeeeL50, D fl.. Poristéria "aldta, 53, A Pe inféstans, plant... a basaenecs Petroselinum “sativum, If, fs., fr... sees 139, boll dissepiments. 204, Cc Phaséolus vulgaris, Frontispiece.. Ehytelephee macroc ‘l-pitgaioin euuparts plant, fl........... aseoe 88 Pinus excélsa, Pollen QY....eeeeeeee 4, 6 P, sylvéstris, Pol¢gala vulgaris, plant, fis. pollen gr... Polygonum pennsylodnicum, pistil, ov., emb., pol- len BT wrienseeee Pol¥trichum commane, antherid, anthero- zoids... seer 2,B Por anthers ericifolia, iotenseane nivdlis, Planta... .seseee feats D- Prinus Pérsica, FP. sccecscesceesccssceseree 206 Ptéris aquilina, scalariform vessel... 220 P. serruléta, antherozoids.......... 2,B Punica grandtum, fr., vert. sec... Quércus Robur, Q. Saber, tree, Frontispiece... E Bt., tTANS, BEC... 229 xiv Rafflasia Arndldii, PlANtS ......seecccccoves Rantinculus deris, 68 young Cells........... Reséda Laéola, br., Ivs., f18.........008 Rhus Cotinus, br., Ivs., fis. Ribes Grossuldria, fr., trans. sec...... seve 207 Ricinus communis, boll and plan...203, A, B 8d., vert. S€C.....-.4. 195; Cc Rosa canina, akaine, hip, If. 211 RB. rubiginosa, hair.. fr., vert. sec. raphides.... Rascus acu br., lvs Rita tla br., fls., insects....... 188 Rytiphioaa ‘uyotdes, Plant.........se0csseeel6, 4 fr, sd.. 103 ea adiantfoia Salvinia ‘ndtans, sporocarps...... soneees Sambicus nigra, dotted cells. pith cells... Sarracénia purp2rea, plant, pitchers, fis., BLIZ., OVA.cccerseeeae 114 Scolopéndrum vulgére, plants, fronds, spore- fl. Selaginélla Marténsii, spores sprouting..... Sempervivum tectérum, plant, fis....... aa vseees 148 Senecio vulgaris, Senior gig trees, Three Graces. Sigillaria, fossil plant .. Smilax papyrdcea, br., lvs., fis., fr., drils 85 8. tuberdsum, cell with starch grs., Str¥chnos Nux-v6mica, : br., lvs., fis... i Sfmphytum officin fi, vert. BOOsacvaseaes - 5,2 Tamarix gallica, br., lvs., fi8......2000. 119 Taréxacum _Dens-tednis, z ae eae 142 oe ia rieoueseave pp 191, E wietican Scorodonia, plant, fis., fl. organs. 160 Théa sinénsis, br., lvs., fis... Theobroma Cae: br., Ivs., fis., Tilia europaéa, br., Ivs., f13......+00004 117 Torula ‘cerevisiae, LANL .rereeceesseeerenens - 18 Tradescintia virginica, hairs, cyclosis......... 242 Trifolium répens, St., lvs., f18...... 182 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. sd. sprouting. . starch grs Tuber ele ON plant... sepedenest: S20 Vaccinium wligindsum, sta. ne ’ Valeriana officinalis, br., lvs., fis., akaine. 73 Vallisnéria lis, do and poiks in fl. 244 Vauchéria séssilis, fis., spore..... Verbéseum Thap 18, Viscum dlbum, plant, fis., sta., sd... 65 young cells...... 217, B,C Vitex Agnus-cdstus, br., Ivs., fis., fr........ 126 Vitis vinifera, fl. organs.. br., Ivs., fis., gang, fr., tendrils, 101 ooh vais rotundifolia, 7 Volvor globator, colony of plants...... 12 Welwitschia mirabilis, plant, lvs., cones..... 49 and @ fig... 50 Wrightia tinctoria, lvs., fis., fr... Xanthorrhéa héstilis, trees; one with a fl. BPIKC.....ceereereeee 96 Zea Mays, sd. sprouting. starch grs.. -239, C Zingiber officinale, plant, fis., sta........... 151 ACADEMIC BOTANY. SECTION L—STRUCTURAL BOTANY, PART FIRST.—MORPHOLOGY. LESSON I. FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS. 1-4. Natural Science. 5. The Plant. 6. Energy and Forces. 7. Life. 8. Plant defined. 9. Primordial Cell. 10. Nomenclature. 11. Departments of Science. 12. Sex, Series. 1. Natural Science treats of all things in Nature. Nature is a synonyme for the Universe. It consists of Ele- ments; of Bodies made out of elements; of States or Con- ditions in which elements and bodies exist; of Forces which govern them. ExaMpLe: Oxygen and Hydrogen are elements; they exist in a gaseous state. These two elements (gases) unite by chemical force, and form Water. Water exists in a liquid state; it is put in motion, or brought to rest, by physical force. F 2. Bodies are Inorganic and Organic. 3. Inorganie Bodies are without organs (Gr. organon, from ergon, work); that is, they have no working parts. They consist of particles, all of which are alike ; and they increase by accretion or addition, not by growth. They are called inert because they have no inherent power to 9 ACADEMIC BOTANY. move, but are active only when moved by outside force. Minerals (which include gases, water, metals, stones, and earths) are inorganic. 4. Organic Bodies have organs (working parts). They feed, they grow, they reproduce their kind. A plant is organic; its working parts are Root, Stem, Leaf, and Flower, or parts equivalent to them. An animal is or- ganic; its working parts are Stomach, Entrails, Lungs, Heart, Head, or parts equivalent to them. The science of organic bodies has two divisions: Botany, which treats of plants; Zoology, which treats of animals. These divisions constitute Biology (Gr. science of life), a term invented by Lamarck, who saw the truth of Butfon’s declaration that ‘‘ These two classes of organized beings have many more ¢ommon properties than real differ- ences.”’ 5. The plant is the vital link between the mineral and animal, Plants feed on minerals and digest them into organic food. Animals feed on plants or on animals ; none of them, except the lowest (simplest), which are plant- like in structure, can digest minerals (9, 53). 6. Energy and Forces—Energy is the power which pervades all nature, the reservoir whence all her activities proceed,— Attraction, Repulsion, Heat, Light, Electricity, Magnetism, Life,—and these activities are called Forces. A. Chemical force governs elements ; its study is Chemistry. B. Physical force governs bodies and their particles, together with their properties and relations; its study is Physics. C. Vital force governs life, and life exists only in plants and animals; its study is Biology, under the two divisions Botany and Zoology. Vital force includes D. Voluntary force, which governs Will; and E. Mental force, which governs Reason. Mental force .is the at- tribute of man alone; but there is a prophecy of it in the instinct of animals, and a foreshadowing of it in the behavior of plants, as we shall presently see. 7. Life——Organie bodies are called living because they have life, which may be described—not defined—as: The power by which organized beings feed, grow, and reproduce their kind. Life, then, is threefold ; it includes A, Digestion, the power to take food and to convert this food into substances like those of the being that digests it ; FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS. 3 B. Growth, the increase and development of the organs of living things ; C. Reproduction, the power to generate a living body like the parent or parents that produced it. This living body is at first a minute cell called an Embryo (Gr. em- bryon, the rudiment of a living being). 8. Plant defined.—A Plant is an organized body, feeding on water, air, and earth by means of roots, stems, and leaves, or parts equivalent to them, and reproducing its kind by means of flowers or parts equivalent to them. The old definition of a plant—‘an organic body destitute of sense and spontaneous motion,’’ ete.—has long been discarded. The various parts of plants perform the functions of animal organs. With some- thing very much like cunning the Fly-Trap (Fig. 112), Nepenthes (Fig. 118), and Sarracenia (Fig. 114) catch insects and digest them at leisure. The Vallisneria flowers (Fig. 244) carry on as pretty a court- ship as human lovers. The Cyclamen (Fig. 245), like our homely Gooba pea, shows a mother’s forethought in the care she takes of her young ; and the lower seaweeds (Figs. 11 to 18) swim about with an apparently voluntary motion by which they are often mistaken for animals. These phenomena no longer surprise us; for 9. The Primordial Cell, or life-cell, in both plants and animals, is composed of the same materials and endued with the same power of self-motion; differing, however, in food: the plant feeds on inorganic, the animal on organic, matter (5, 53). 10. Nomenclature.—In Botany, as in every other science, the Nomenclature or Terminology—system of names or terms—is based on the rule of the Latin Grammar, though the names may come from the Greek or any other language. This method was adopted by scientists because the Latin, being a fixed language, is not subject to change. Scientific nomenclature is, therefore, a sort of universal speech, easy to acquire, which saves the labor of translation into various tongues. It is imperative that the student of any branch of science should master the principles of its nomenclature, which are-few and simple. These, with the Rules for Pronunciation, are given in Lesson XXXV. 11. Sections.—Botanical Science has two Sections or departments: Section I. Structural Botany.—This concerns the forms, functions, and structure of organs. Its divisions are: A. Morphology (Organography), which treats of the outward form, arrangement, and behavior of organs, whether as a whole in the plant or as individuals ; - B. Physiology, which treats of the functions of organs; that is, of the special work they do. These functions come under three heads: (1) Nutrition ; (2) Reproduction ; (8) Correlation, or those functions by means of which external objects are brought into relation with the plant, and by which it reacts upon them ; C. Phytotomy (Histology), which treats of the anatomy of plants and their tissues ; 4 ACADEMIC BOTANY. me Chemistry, which treats of the elements of which they are com- posed. Section II. Systematic Botany.—This concerns the study of different plants in their relations to one another. Its divisions are: A. Taxonomy (Classification), which places plants in groups ; B. Phytology (Descriptive Botany), which gives the diagnosis or dis- tinctive features of these groups and of their individual members. 12. Sex. Marriage of Flowers. Series.—Though System- atic Botany is comparatively a new science, the fact upon which it is based, that flowers, like animals, are male and female, has been known from the earliest dates of history. Herodotus (480 B.c.) tells of the female palm-trees so carefully tended by the Babylonians, who brought flowers trom the male trees in the distant forests, and pollinated the flowers of the female trees, which otherwise would have remained barren. Empedocles (440 B.c.) called seeds the eggs of plants,—a term still retained by botanists. A great revival in botanical research took place in the seven- teenth century of the Christian era; and the marriage of flowers was declared as a creed in the names given to the Two Series into which plants are naturally separated, viz. : Series I. Cryptogamia, or Hidden Marriage (Gr. krupto, I hide, gamos, marriage): Plants with rudimentary flowers which are usually microscopic, and which produce spores. Seaweeds and ferns are examples. Series II. Phanerogamia, or Visible Marriage (Gr. phan- eros, visible): Plants with developed and usually visible flowers, which produce seeds. The Pine-tree, Wheat, and Apple are examples. THE FLOWER DEFINED.—THE EMBRYO. 5 LESSON II. THE FLOWER DEFINED—THE EMBRYO. 18. Flower defined. 14. Cryptogamia. 15. Parentage. 15 a. Naked and covered spores. 16. Phanerogamia. 17. Naked and Cov- ered Seeds. 18. Embryo-sac and Vesicle. 19. Male Flower. 20. Parentage; Fertilization ; Parthenogenesis. 13. The Flower con- sists of generative or- gans and an Axis of growth. Itis the most important part of the plant. 14. Cryptogamia.— A. The female flower has several names, all equivalent to the same thing. The common name in Seaweeds is Oégonium, or Ege- Seed (Gr. odn, ege, go- nos, seed). Inthe Ferns it is Archegonium, or Chief Seed (Gr. arke, chief). These odgonia and archegonia are often contained in a re- Os ceptacle called SPOrTaN- Fre. 1.—A, Vuncheric sessilis with ogonium and gium (plural sporan- antheridium. B, ojgonium open, antherozoids en- tering it. C, odgonium closed and ripening into an 1a), AscUs r uch ovspore; antheridium withered. \< 30 diam. D, I ), 3, o po ovspore of Glagoninm ciliahun. E, zotspore of Vau- (plural asci), and sev- cheria after the withdrawal of the cilize. F, zodspore eral other names, to b e of Gdogonium sprouting. > 350 diam. rey. mentioned in their proper places. Each oégonium or arche- gonium contains one or more spores ; each spore is the em- bryo of the future plant (Fig. 1). This spore, even in the highest eryptogam (plant of Cryptogamia), has no develop- 1 6 ACADEMIC BOTANY. ment into special organs like those of the parent. It con- tains, however, all the materials for the immediate struc- ture of those organs, though it remains until germination (the period when it begins to sprout) a simple cell with minute granules (grains) in its cavity. B. The male flower throughout the Cryptogamia is called Antheridium, or little anther (Gr. antheros, blooming). It produces minute particles (Fig. 2) called Antherozoids, or animal-like anthers (Gr. zoén, animal). These have an active self-motion. 15. Parentage. A. Fertilization—As soon as the con- tents of the odgonium and antheridium are mature each organ opens at the apex (Fig. 1, A, B); the spore in the odgonium remains still ; the anthero- zoids pass out from the antheridium, swim or creep to “the open odgo- nium (Fig. 1, B), enter it, and blend with its spore. After this process —which is called Fertilization — the antheridium dies, Fic. 2.—A, antherozoids of Seaweed— Fucus platycarpus ; its work being ac- some free, others still in the antheridial cells. B, anthe- . ridium of moss—Polytrichum commune—discharging anthe- complished ; the rozoids. C, antherozoid of fern—Preris serrulata; a, large * : extremity ; b, small extremity ; d, cilie, or hairs. Greatly OOGOM1UM closes magnified. (Fig. 1, C); her spore develops into an Odspore (egg-spore) ; and thus Hm- bryogeny, or embryo-creation, is accomplished. At maturity this ege-spore passes out from the oégonium, which bursts to discharge it. It is now capable of sprouting and grow- ing up into a plant, which it soon begins to do (Fig. 1, F). But even when fully grown and ready to sprout it is still a simple cell. B. Parthenogenesis. Often in Vaucheria and other seaweeds reproduction takes place in a mother-cell without foreign aid from antherozoids. This is Virgin parentage (Gr. parthenos, virgin, genesis, creation). In THE FLOWER DEFINED.—THE EMBRYO. u these cases the spores (Fig. 1, D) are provided with hairs called cilie (LL. cilia, hair), and are endued with self-motion. They are therefore called Zoospores, or animal-spores. These little creatures are very social; they dance among them- selves, circling merrily, but never jostling; no human dancers could be more polite; then, when the heyday of youth is over, they with- draw their ciliw (Fig. 1, E) coe an outer wall, send out root-like projections (Fig. 1, F), and develop into staid mother-plants. 15 a. Naked and Covered Spores.—IJn the lower Crypto- gamia—Seaweeds, ete.—the spores are naked ; that is, they have no special cover immediately surrounding them. The plants grow broadly from a common centre, without dis- tinction of stem or leaf; they are called Thallogens (Gr. thallus, a young shoot, gennao, to grow, beget), and may be called Broad-growers. In the higher Cryptogamia—Ferns, etc.—the spores are covered ; the plant-growth is upward, from the top; they are called Acrogens (Gr. akros, top, end, summit), and may be styled Top-growers. 16. Phanerogamia.—A. The female flower is called an Ovule (L. ovulum, little egg); sometimes called Nucleus, or kernel. It usually 7 has two coats (Fig. 3, a) called Seed- ” coats. The inner coat is called Secundine, or sec- ond coat (though it is first formed). The outer ip is called Primine, or first coat. The opening in the Secundine is called the Endostome, or B inner mouth (Gr. endon, within, stoma, mouth). The opening in the ; primine is called the Ezostome, or outer mouth (Gr. exo, outside). The apex of the g j ovule (Fig. 3, f Ss \ a, n) points to ite \ these mouths. j ve The two coats @ I Ra are attached \\wutttih to the ovule a only atits base Fie. 3.—a, ovule of Smartweed (Pulygonum), with two coats; n, nu- (Fig ee embryo-sac. A, pistil of same; 0, ovary; styl, style; sig, (Fig. .? 2") stigma; p, pollen-grains; tp, pollen-tube ; ve, embryonic vesicle; ch, ch) 3 this point chalaza. B, pollen-grain emitting its tube. C, a, b, ¢, d, embryo (now is called the become many-celled) at different stages of growth; d, showing two Chalaza (Gr. cotyledons forming, The long thread-like part in the four figures is tuberel ) ; the the suspensor. orifice at the apex of the coats (whether there be one or two coats) 8 ACADEMIC BOTANY. is the Micropyle (Gr. mikron, small, pyle, gate). For accents of terms, see Glossary and Indices. 3 17. Naked Seeds and Covered Seeds. —In the lower Phanerogamia— Pines, etc.—the ovule has no cover except its own coat or coats. The plants in this low- er division are called, therefore, Gymnosperme, or src nel Sanne tao aed AE eS conked, seeds (Gr. disk of the torus below the ovary. 2, pollen-grain of Milk- gymnos, na ked, wort (Polygala vulgaris); e, grooves or slits in the extine, through which the intine f protrades asa pollen-tube. 3, Spermda, seed). In pollen-grain of Cherry (Cerasus vulgaris), discharging fovilla. . 4, pollen-grain of ane Primrose (@£nothera biennis), tube the higher Phane- protruding. 5, pollen-grain of Mallow (Jf. Aleea). 6, pollen- qe grains of Pine (Pinus excelsa), with two bladder-like swell- rogamia Grasses, ings of the extine, which assist it on being borne by the wind. Palms, Oaks, ete. —the ovule is contained in an Ovary, or egg-holder (Fig. 3, A,o). The plants in these higher divisions are therefore called Angiosperme, or Covered Seeds (Gr. aggeion, a vessel). The upper part of this ovary is usually prolonged into a stalk called a Style (Fig. 3, A); the apex of the style is with- out the epidermis, or skin, which covers the rest of the plant ; it is therefore called a Stigma (Gr. brand), because it is like flesh seared by a hot iron. These,—ovary, style, and stigma, —taken together, form the Pistil ; but they are merely pro- tective; the ovule is the only essential part. When the style is wanting, as in the Vine (Fig. 4, 1), the stigma is termed Sessile, that is, seated (on the ovary). Sometimes the ovule is raised on a stalk called a Funiculus (L. little cord), as in the Pea (Fig. 5, gs; when this is wanting the ovule is ses- sile. The part of the ovary (or of the scale in Naked Seeds) to which the ovule is attached is the Placenta (L. cake). The point by which the ovule is attached to the funiculus (or to the placenta when the funiculus is wanting) is the Hilwm, or Eye. The Black-Eyed Pea gets its name from its conspicuous hilum. : 18, The Embryo-Sac and Vesicle——The Ovule (nucleus) contains the Hmbryo-sac (Fig. 3, a, s); this sac contains THE FLOWER DEFINED.—THE EMBRYO. 9 the Embryonic Vesicle (Fig. 3, A, ve), which becomes the embryo. All the other parts of the ovule, as well as of the plant, consist of many united cells; but this vesicle, before fertilization, is a simple cell, like the spore in Cryp- togamia. At first it has a neck called Suspensor, as in the figures in C; but this suspensor soon disappears, except in Gymnosperms, in which it persists. 19. The Male Flower in Phanerogamia is called an An- ther. It is usu- ally raised on a stalk called a Filament, as in the Vine (Fig. 41,)and Cherry (Fig. 5, 5); and the two together —anther and filament—form the Stamen (from Gr. istemi, Istand). When the filament is wanting the an- ther is sessile. The anther Fie. 5.—1, vertical section of fl. of Primrose (Primula elatior), has two lobes, showing many ovules on a free central Plone stamens on a which are at monopet. corol. 2, vert. sec. of fl. of Comfrey (Symphytum) ; i . corolla and two ovaries removed. 3, pistil of Barberry (Ber- once united and beris) ; oe short, aa ae shield-like. 4, transverse section of ovary of Lily (Lilium), three-celled. 5, vert. sec. of separated by &@ 4. of Cherry (Cerasus aga petals removed; two pistils, ridge or line many stamens. 6, pistil of Pea (Pisum) opened; a, ovule; b, walled He placenta ; /, funiculus. Connective (Fig. 4, 1). Usually the connective is a mere prolongation of the filament; but sometimes. it is a well- defined body, as in the Almond. The anther contains a fine dust called Pollen (Li. flour-dust), This consists of minute separate cells called pollen-grains. Each grain has two coats (Fig. 4, 2 to 6): the Jntine, or inner, the Extine, or outer. The extine is often beautifully figured or orna- mented. Each type of plant has its peculiar pollen-grains, characterized by special forms and markings. The pollen- 10 ACADEMIC BOTANY. grain is filled with a fluid called Fovilla (L. nourishment). This fovilla (Fig. 4, 3) contains particles which are the equivalents of antherozoids in Cryptogamia; but they have only a slight self-motion. 20. Parentage.— When the ovule and pollen are mature —at the flowering season—the anther-lobes open and the pollen-grains are set free. Borne by the wind or by in- sects, these grains reach the naked ovule of the Pine, or the stigma of the pistil in the higher phanerogams. Both of these—the Pine ovule and the stigma—have, at the apex, delicate papille (L. nipples), which are projections forming what is styled the conducting tissue. The pollen- grains fall on this tissue, to which they are held by a viscid fluid it secretes. This fluid acts on the pollen-grain ; if it is a gymnosperm (Pine, Cycas, etc.) its extine bursts irregu- larly (Fig. 48, B); if an angiosperm (Grass, Cherry, etc.), its extine is provided with special openings (Fig. 4, 2 to 5) ; through these openings the intine protrudes in the form of a tube (Fig. 3, A, B). This tube contains the fovilla; and descending through the loose tissues of the style (Fig. 3, A, ép) it penetrates to the embryo-sac, and mingles its contents with the contents of the embryonic vesicle (which is equiv- alent, as we know, to the spore in cryptogamia). The transfer of the fovilla from the pollen-tube to the embry- onic vesicle has never been detected ; botanists suppose it takes place by diffusion through the cell-walls. At any rate, the appearance of the pollen-tube in this neighborhood incites the embryonic vesicle to active work; and this is called Fertilization also, though not by direct contact as in Vaucheria.. The time required for this process varies. In Gymnosperms the pollen-grain remains dormant on the naked ovule for weeks and months before sending down its tube; and the fruit does not ripen until the following year. In the higher plants a much shorter time is required ; some- times a week elapses; sometimes a day; the pollen-tube passes down the long style of the Pretty-by-night (Mirabilis) and the Night-blooming Cereus in a few hours. THE EMBRYO CONTINUED. 11 LESSON III. THE EMBRYO CONTINUED—GERMINATION—TORUS. 21. Seed, Embryo. 22, 23. Fruit, Seed. 24. Cotyledons. 25. Ger- mination. 26. Collum. 27. Axis of growth, or Torus; Houses. 21. Seed. Embryo.—The ovule, after fertilization, is technically called a Seed. The embryonic vesicle—which is equivalent to the odspore in Cryptogamia—does not re- main a simple cell. It rapidly multiplies its cells by divis- ion; the cells remain united (Fig. 3, C), and are gradually differentiated—that is, changed into different organs and parts Fic. 6.—A, vert. section of grain of Oats (Avena), with large perisperm ; a, cotyledon with its pointed scutellum, or shield; g, plumule; +r, radicle. B,em- bryo removed and still more enlarged ; a, scutellum ; \ ¢, cotyledon ; /,slit through which the plumule will pass out in sprouting; 7, radicle. (, grain of Wheat : (Triticum) sprouting ; q, seed ; t, plumule ; ¢, coleo- rhiza, or root-sheath. D, grain of Indian Corn (Zea) sprouting; plumule with three leaves; stem sending out adventitious roots above the collum. like those of the parent plant. Whilst this process is going on in the embryo itself, the embryo-sac becomes filled with nutrient substances which are provided to sustain the embryo at the time of germination (Fig. 6, A; Fig. 9, 2). This food is called Perisperm (Gr. peri, around, sperma, seed), because it usually obliterates the embryo-sac and fills the cells of the nucleus, thus surrounding the embryo, which is the soul of the seed. It is the perisperm in the grains— Wheat, Oats, Maize, ete—which furnishes our flour and meal, [Sometimes the embryo-sac persists at a certain 12 ACADEMIC BOTANY. stage of growth, as in the Yellow Water-Lily (Fig. 7, E); it retains its special secretion or food, whilst other food is developed in the nucleus outside of it. This outer nutri- ment is the perisperm ; the inner nutriment is called Endo- sperm, a term sometimes (but loosely) applied to the true perisperm. The persistent embryo-sac here is called a Vi- tellus (L. yolk of an egg) because in position it resembles the yolk of an egg.] In many cases the embryo itself becomes large, completely fills the seed, and stores up the nutriment in its own proper organs, as in the Pea, Acacia (Fig. 7, A, B), Walnut, Almond, ete. 22, Fruit. Seed.— Whilst this pro- cess is going on in the embryo itself, the seed-coats grow; the outer coat thickens ; in Gymnosperms (which we know have no ovary) this outer coat becomes fleshy or woody, simulating a true seed-cover. In Angiosperms (which have an ovary) the ovary grows and be- comes a Pericarp (Gr. peri, around, karpos, fruit). In the Pea and Bean (Fig. 5,6) the pericarp is a pod with many seeds. In the Cherry the pericarp is a stone with a fleshy exterior. Let usremem- {| ber, in the ber #1 5 (4 ‘ginning of our A é Lessons, that 36,1 Abn of Pu (um) wih he tma xyldo the Seed itself flower (Albizzia Julibrissin) sprouting ; top of cotyledons still en- . closed in the seed-coats. OC, same, further advanced. Both these is the true figures show the collum, or neck, m. D, young Maple (Acer); 1, puss all lies cle ies ae ee oe other parts of Lily (Nuphar), showing the vitellus with its endosperm, and the outer perisperm; «embryo minute. the flower— ovary, calyx, ete—are but its envelopes, whether they be edible or not; though these too are called the fruit. THE EMBRYO CONTINUED. 13 23. We pluck the ripe fruit—Pea, for example (Fig. 5, 6),—open the pod, and take out a seed. This seed has two coats; the inner one, thin and fine, is called the Teg- men (L. covering) ; it is the Secundine of the ovule. The outer coat is the Testa (Li. shell); this is the primine of the ovule. It is usually harder and thicker than the teg- men, and often variously carved and appendaged, as we shall see in a future lesson. We carefully remove these seed-coats, and we find the ripe embryo (Fig. 7, A, B). We examine its parts. They are: the Radicle, or root, r ; the Caulicle, or lower stem, t; the Plumule, or upper stem, g; the Cotyledons, cc. The cotyledons get their name from the Greek kotule, a cup, which they often resemble; being rounded without and hollowed within. The point of junc- tion between the radicle and caulicle is the Collum, or neck (m). This is quite plain in the Acacia (Fig. 7, B, C); but in many plants it is invisible. 24. Number of Cotyledons—In Gymnosperms the em- bryo has two, or oftener many cotyledons; in Angiosperms there are two divisions: (1) the Grasses, Lilies, Palms, etc., which have but one cotyledon, and which are called Mono- cotyledons ; and (2) the Oak, Apple, Pea, etc., which have two cotyledons and are called Dicotyledons. In mono- cotylédons the cotyledon is sheathing, like a cylinder around the plumule ; and it never leaves the seed nor ascends above ground in germination. In dicotyledons and gymnosperms the cotyledons often ascend, as in the Pea and Maple (Fig. 7). The cotyledons are transformed leaves; thev are usually called Seed-leaves, because they nourish the young seed in germination, gradually yielding up their store as the plant grows, and then withering. 25, Germination.—We plant the seed. If it be a mono- cotyledon (Fig. 6, C, D), its plumule alone ascends above ground, and becomes a Caulis, or upper stem, whilst the radicle descends in the ground, and soon perishes; but other roots rapidly spring around the collum, or neck ; and thus we see many fibrous roots in monocotyledons, but no central or tap-root. If the seed be a dicotyledon or a gym- nosperm, its radicle becomes a strong tap-root, as in the Pine, Acacia, and Maple (Fig. 7, C, D), with many 2 14 ACADEMIC BOTANY. branches; its caulicle often bears the cotyledons above ground (though sometimes, when they are very large and fleshy, as in the Acorn and Buckeye, the cotyledons re- main under ground); its plumule lengthens into a Caulis, or true upper stem, with true leaves and branches. We see therefore in the embryo a miniature plant with root, stem, and leaves whilst still in the seed and attached to the mother-plant,—wonderfully developed above the spore in’ Cryptogamia. 26. The Collum, or neck (Fig. 7, D, m), is the focus of the two axes of the plant: the descending axis, which re- gards the root and its functions; and the ascending axis, which regards the stem and its functions. These functions are quite distinct, as we shall see. 27. The Axis of Growth of the flower (13) is called the Torus (L. cushion or couch). It segregates the generative organs from the body of the plant; at the same time it keeps them in communication with the plant, from which it transmits nutriment to them. In Cryptogamia it is often a mere line or point, as at the base of the organs in Vaucheria (Fig. 1, A, B,C). In Phanerogamia it is often conspicuous, forming a disk, as in the Vine (Fig. 4, 1). When the male and female flowers (stamens and pistils) are on the same torus, as in the Vine, Cherry, Prinirose, etc., the flower is called Biserual (two-sexed), and also Monoclinous, or one-couched (Gr. kline, couch). When the male and female are on separate tori (plural of torus), as in the Vaucheria (Fig. 1) and the Maize, or Indian Corn, the flowers are Unisevual (one-sexed), and also Diclinous, or two-couched. Diclinous flowers are called Diccious, or two-housed (Gr. otkos, house), when the male and female are on separate plants, as in the Date, Willow, Hemp. They are called Monecious, or one-housed, when they are on the same plant, but on separate tori, or couches, as in the Vaucheria (Fig. 1) and Indian Corn. The place which the stamens occupy on the torus is called the An- dreecium, or man’s house (Gr. andros, man); the place occupied by the pistils is called the Gyneciwm, or woman’s house (Gr. gyne, woman); and this is always in the centre of the torus. The staminate flower is called Sterile, or bar- THE PERFECT AND COMPLETE FLOWER. 15 ren, because its share in the work of reproduction is very brief, and it dies as soon as this is accomplished. The pistil- late flower is called Fertile, because it does almost the whole work of reproduction—sometimes the whole. Ex.. In.the Maple, Pea, etc., after the pollen-grains of the stamen fertilize the ovule of the pistil the stamen dies in a few hours. The ovule develops into a fruit, requiring the entire summer to ripen. The case is the same in Cryptogamia. See Vaucheria, Figure 1, C. LESSON IV. THE PERFECT AND COMPLETE FLOWER—BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION—BOTANICAL NAMES. 28. Perfect Flower. 29. Complete Flower. 80. Arrangement of parts. 31. Basis of Classification. 82. Embryo rules the structure. 88. Order of Classification. 34. Botanical names. 28, The Perfect Flower is monoclinous (27). In the lower phanerogams the pistil, stamen, and torus make the entire flower, as in the Black Pepper and the Ash (Fig. 8, A); here cssomeqniy ‘usay 3 suabossy ‘uBTuoAag Jo ‘au0ys -pueg pry PIO coco ssgmpg ssuabounlig sanded “‘snlolasyiuoqie<) ‘010Z08 1Vg “Gwinn “010208 1Vg “spag “SIssenL | On og > --- -------- “poomg : suabopug ‘otssein{ “SPU AL Payomad ~~~ 10 3T1100 3 "470 ‘svjdog : suaborgy 0102082 Wl “snoasejaIQ “9102089, “SpouUDy 1200} "Arena L ' | o10Zz0NaD see ~Areusazeng D1OZONAD 4907002 ADOTOT9 ‘ANV.LO@ FOSSILS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. 69 LESSON XIII. FOSSILS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. 123-125. Earth development. 126. Animal Kingdom. 127. Lirr- Less Time. 128. ANciENT Timz. 129. Silurian: Thallogens, In- vertebrates; Acrogens, Fishes. 130. Devonian : Gymnosperms, Fishes, Insects. 181. Carboniferous: Tree-Ferns, Horsetails, Club-Mosses. 182. MippLe Time. 133. Triassic and Jurassic : Cycads, Endogens, Reptiles, Reptilian Birds, Pouched Mammals. 184. Cretaceous; Exo- gens, Wader-Birds. 135. MopEerN Time. 136. Tertiary: Modern Plants and Animals. 137-140. Quaternary: Man. 141. Natural Selection, 123. “In the beginning the earth was without form and void,’’—a chaotic nebulous mass (supposed to have been 800,000 times its present size), which was slowly condensed into a liquid ball of molten minerals. As its surface cooled, a rocky crust was formed; this, on account of commotions within the mass, was thrust up and folded in various ways. The vapors became seas; these seas wore away the surface of the first rocks and formed layers; upheavals and depressions made lakes and rivers; finer deposits made soil. The crust of the earth, the best geolo- gists presume, has an average thickness of 25 miles,—less than y45 of its diameter, and thinner in comparison than an egg-shell. 124, Earth-development has four divisions of Time (see Table facing Lesson XIII.) : I. Lifeless Time, or Azoic (Gr. a, wanting, zoe, life). Without plants or animals. II. Ancient Time, or Paleozoic (Gr. palaios, ancient). Plants and animals prefiguring modern types but different from them. III. Middle Time, or Mesozoic (Gr. mesos, middle). Plants and animals more like modern types. IV. Modern Time, or Cenozoic (Gr. kainos, modern). Plants and animals as they are to-day. 125. Giving to each pericd its relative age as counted from the time required to make modern deposits of stone, mud, etc., the proportion is 4,12, 8,1. The age of the earth is reckoned to be 60 millions of years. We have, then, for Lifeless Time 12 millions; Ancient Time, 36 millions; Middle Time, 9 millions ; Modern Time, 8 millions. 126. The Animal Kingdom (Zoology), like Botany, has two Series: Series I.—Invertebrates, without spinal column. Reproduction single, dual, alternate. Multiplication by gemmation (producing gems or offsuoots). Four classes : : 1. Protozoa (Nummulites, Sea-Jelly) ; as simple as protophytes. 2. Radiates (Sea-Fir, Star-fish, Coral); plant-like. 3. Mollusks (Oyster, Clam, Snail, Cuttle-fish) ; soft-bodied. 4, Articulates (Worm, Crab, Insect) ; jointed. 70 ACADEMIC BOTANY. Series II.—Vertebrates, with spinal column ; producing eggs. Re- production by fertilization. Five classes: 1. Fishes (Herring, Salmon, Cod, Shark). 2. Amphibians (Salamander, Mud-Kel, Oviparous ; young de- Frog). veloped in the egg after 3. Reptiles (Turtle, Snake, Lizard, Alli- [it separates from the gator). mother. 4. Birds (Goose, Ostrich, Parrot). Viviparous; young 5. Mammals (Opossum, Sloth, Whale, ae te ee oY Cat, Rat, Bat, Mole, Monkey, Man). suckled by the eyehae after birth. 127. Lifeless Time. Though the layers of later periods are placed in regular succession, the Lifeless, or Azoic rocks (sometimes called Archean), have been thrust up at various times by internal commo- tions, and are seen at the surface in Norway, Sweden, Bohemia, and Scotland. They are remarkably exhibited in North America, especially in Canada (called the Laurentian rocks, from the river St. Lawrence), and extending along the Allegheny and Blue Ridge ranges to Ala- bama; also in the Rocky Mountains. America is indeed -the Old World rather than the New. Some of her living quadrupeds (Opos- sum, Sloth) and one of her races of men (Esquimaux) are found elsewhere only in fossils. 128. Ancient Time has four periods : eo Silurian (L. Silures, the Welsh), because these rocks abound in ales. 2 Devonian, from Devon, England; sometimes called Old Red Sandstone. 8. Carboniferous, from the abundance of its coal-measures. 4. Permian, from Perm, in Russia. Fig. 83.—A, Puleochorda minor, 81 d, fossil, Scotland. B, Oldhami ig sea animal, fossil, Ireland. 129. In the Lower Silurian (see Table) are the first authentic fossils. The plants are THALLOGENS; one of them is a Seaweed (Fig. 88, A), resembling the Dead-Man’s-Rope of our own time (Book-cover, front). Another is an Invertebrate animal, also marine, like our Sea-Fir (Fig. 83, B). In the Upper Silurian land plants appear; AcRogENs,—Ferns FOSSILS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. 71 and Club-Mosses. Vertebr: meee ‘ Shade ed, Stammcas brates, too, are here,—Fishes resembling the 180. In the Devonian Desmids abound; Ferns and Club-Mosses in- crease. GYMNOSPERMS appear,—trees resembling the Pines. Fishes so abound that this is called the Age : of Fishes. Insects appear. At the i a close of the Devonian period New 1 York State arose above the seas. 181. The Curboniferous period ex- hibits the most magnificent vegetation the earth has ever known During this time Nature produced and stored up her supply of coal for man, al- though he was not to appear for mil- lions of years. More than half the plants that make our coal-measures are fossil ferns. The Tree- Ferns, Horsetails, and Club-Mosses were giants. One of the Club-Mosses, the Lepidodendron .(Fig. 84), was more ly : i ! | ie ig. a a Fic. 84.—Fragment of fossil Lepé- dodendron: leaf-scars spirally ar- ranged. than 60 feet high and 4 feet in diameter. The Sigillaria (Fig. 85), allied to the Club-Moss, prophesied the Cycas. Ancient Time, through all its periods, shows slow growth, great quiet, and mild, uniform temperature. At its close tre- mendous geologic convulsions took place, and the extermina- tion of life was complete. The . Appalachian Mountain chain Fig. 85.—Roots and part of stem of fossil Sigillaria: stem fluted, and marked with seal- rose above the seas from New like scales. York to Alabama; the Ural chain in Europe. 182. Middle Time has three periods : 1. Triassic (L. ¢rias, three), rocks sometimes in three layers. 2. Jurassic, from the Jura Alps. 3. Cretaceous (Li. ereta, chalk), from the chalk-beds of Europe. 138. In the Triassic and Jurassic periods Club-Mosses and Ferns di- minish to their present size and number. The Cycads reach their greatest size, and exceed all other plants in number. Pines increase. EnpogEns appear,—Lilies, Grasses, Pond-weeds, and Screw-Pines. Reptiles abound; flying dragons, more hideous than the fabled one slain by St. George. Insectscome in. Birds appear, but with jointed, long tails, like the tail of a lizard (though richly feathered), and claws on their wings, like those on the Bat’s. Mammals, bearing 72 ACADEMIC BOTANY. their young in a pouch (like the Opossum), come in, At the close of the Jurassic period the Sierra Nevada, Wahsatch, and Humboldt Mountains were thrust up in North America. Europe was still an archipelago; eastern and southeastern England was still submerged. 184, In the Cretaceous period Diatoms and Desmids abound. Palms increase. ExocEns appear,—fossil leaves of the Oak, Poplar, Beech, Willow, Dogwood, Sassafras, and Tulip-tree. Huge reptiles continue; Middle Time is called the Age of Reptiles. The birds resemble Cor- morants and Waders; but their teeth are pointed, like a‘reptile’s. _ The climate of the world was still mild. At the close of this period disturbances occurred, and life was again exterminated. The Rocky Mountain region arose above the seas and became a level plateau. But the Gulf of Mexico still extended to the mouth of the Ohio River, and covered the whole area east of the Rocky Mountain plateau as far as the Arctic Circle. : 135. Modern Time has two periods: 1. Tertiary, or Third, so called because Lifeless Time was once called Primary, Ancient and Middle Time Secondary ; 2. Quaternary, or Fourth, sometimes called Recent. 136. In the Tertiary Diatoms still abound. Ferns and Pines sink to their present proportions. Exogens appear very nearly as they are to- day. The Butterfly and Bee come in with the flowers; we see them embalmed in Amber (Fig. 86), which is the fossil resin of some coniferous tree. The strange animals disap- pear; the higher Mammals come in,—the Whale, Horse, Hog, Elephant, Ox; the Ter- tiary is the Age of Mammals. The Pheasant and Wood- pecker, the Wildcat and Deer, appear in the woods. The == Monkey is their comrade, and Fig. 86—Amber, with remains of fossil insects. grins at us with an ancestral familiarity that cuts down our self-conceit. The earth still preserved a mean temperature of 48° Fahrenheit. At the close of this period there was another upheaval. The Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathian Mountains were made in Europe; the Himalayas in Asia; the Rocky Mountain plateau was thrust up into its present line of mountains. But the Gulf of Mexico still ex- tended to the mouth of the Ohio River; Florida and the Atlantic States were submerged as far as New York. 137, The Quaternary is the Age of Man. It has three periods: 1. Glacial, in which moving glaciers in high latitudes modified the surfaces of continents ; 2. Champlain, in which the ice passed away and coast deposits were formed ; 8. Recent, or Terrace, in which the land was raised approximately to its present level. 188. In the Glacial and Champlain periods Man is first seen as a FOSSILS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. 73 fossil skeleton in Belgium ; a cave-dweller, with rude stone implements beside him ; low-browed, short in stature, a hunter and fisher, as the bones attest which are associated with him ; this, therefore, is his Pale- olithic (Old-Stone) Age. The Esquimaux are considered his lineal descendants. At the close of the Champlain period a higher type ap- pears in the south of France; still a cave-dweller, but of larger stature and brain ; he has better stone implements, and others of horn, bone, and ivory, elegantly carved with the figures of animals. The bones of the Reindeer are associated with him; this is his Reindeer Age. After a second glacial period, which occurred in Europe, the Recent Period comes in, and a still higher type appears in the Denmark skeletons,— a farmer and herdsman, with -handsome stone implements and vessels of pottery. He understood spinning and weaving ; was to some extent an engineer, for in Great Britain he excavated galleries in the chalk- beds to extract flints, which he converted into weapons and tools. He believed in a future state; the pottery, arrow-heads, etc., found in his graves were evidently placed there for the use of the dead. This is his Neolithic Age (New Stone). The Lapps in Northern Europe, the handsome Basques in the south of France, the small, dark Welshman and Irishman of West Ireland, are considered his descendants. To the latter part of this period the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland belong; they used bronze instruments as well as stone; theirs is therefore the Bronze Age. 139. Of man’s antiquity, as compared with historical annals, the geo- logic records afford every proof; the best scientific authorities agree that he appeared first at least sixty thousand years ago. Yet geology teaches us that he is the latest born of living creatures. We see, there- fore, that the fossil Bible under our feet and the written Bible which is our rule of life tell the same story of Creation. 140. Both plant and animal types are still dying out, as in former ages. The Horsetails and Cycads are few and diminishing. The Auk, a bird of Northern seas, has become extinct within forty years. The Esquimaux and Lapps are decreasing. 141, Natural Selection.—In the midst of all the geologic, glacial, and climatic changes, certain types of both plants and animals have adapted themselves by specialization to the needs of their “ environ- ments” or surroundings. We have examples in the Grasses and Lilies in Endogens; in the Mistletoe, Oak, and Sunflower family in Exogens. These seem to have been selected by nature as the fittest to survwe. Hence we have the two famous phrases of Mr. Darwin,—Natural Selection and Survival of the Fittest. 74 ACADEMIC BOTANY. PART SHECOND.—PHYSIOLOGY. LESSON XIV. ROOT AND SUBTERRANEAN STEM. 142. The Root: 148. Axial; 144. Inaxial; 145. Tuberous. 146. Air-plants. 147. Adventitious Roots. 148. Parasites. 149,150. The Stem: 151. Bulb; 152. Corm; 158. Rhizome; 154. Tuber. 142. The Root is the organ of absorption. It imbibes food materials, which it sends up to the stem and leaves ; there they are 4 digested into ¥ food and sent back to be stored both as food and struc- NJ ture in the stem and root. Roots are of two kinds, Azial and In- Ny avial. 143. The Awial root has a strong central root, called Tap-root; it characterizes Exo- gens. It has four ( forms, — Conical, ecia’tgot Meat Carrot; Fusiform, or sina vulgarias h separate & can Jalap (Bogonium spindle-shaped, Rad- Bra See ish; Napiform, or turnip-shaped, Jalap (Fig. 87) ; Ramose, or branching, Butterwort (Fig. 88). 144, Inaxial roots have no tap-root, on account of the early decay of the radicle. They characterize Endogens, ROOT AND SUBTERRANEAN STEM. 75 but are found also in some Exogens,—the Sweet Potato, Dahlia, Peony, ete. They are Fibrous (thread-like) in the Grasses (Figs. 6, 57); Tuberous, or tuber- like, in the Yam (Fig. 89) and Sweet Potato. 145, Tuberous roots are distinguishable from the true tuber in being without buds, or Eyes; they develop leaves and stems only from the ex- tremity. (Compare Figs. 89 and 95.) They are Corailine, like coral, in the Coral-root Orchid ; Fasciculate, bundled, in the Asphodel (Fig. 56) ; Filipendulous, hanging sep- . > arately at the end of a long Fig. 89.—Rt., st., with vs. and fla, of Yam fibre, in the Dropwort; Dioscorea sativa) of West Indies and Southern Moniliform, necklace-like, tates. Lvs. do not show the ribs plainly enough. ike g string of beads, in the Pelargonium and Ipecac (Fig. 90). ‘se, Air-Plants, or Epiphytes (Gr. epi, upon, phyton, plant), do not grow in the ground, but rest upon other plants, and draw their food from the air. They are chiefly of the Orchis and Pine- Apple Orders, growing in warm, moist climates. The Magnolia Orchis ( Fpidendron) and Spanish, or Florida, Moss (Tillandsia) are examples. In these the roots serve the same purpose as in other plants,—support and absorption. 147. Adventitious, or Sec- ondary Roots will spring from any part of the stem if it be favorably placed. We see this in cuttings and slips. The In- dian Corn and Sugar-Cane send out secondary roots from several joints near the ground; the Mangrove of our Southern States sends them out in such size and abundance that it gets its generic name— Rhizophora, Root-bearer—from them. The Banyan (Fig. 91) sends them down from its wide branches, making a miniature forest; one Fic. 90.—Rt., st., and lvs. of Ipecac (Ceph- aélis Ipecacuanha) of Brazil. 76 ACADEMIC BOTANY. tree often has 800 of these root-props, which enable its branches to ex- tend until they = cover a space 2000 feet in diameter,— large enough to shelter 7000 men. Other adventitious roots are seen in the Ivy (Fig. 92), Trumpet Flower, and Poison Su- mach. These serve as supports to the plant in climbing. 148. Parasites, as we know (51), not only rest, but feed upon other plants. The roots of the Rafflesia Fic. 91.—Banyan-trees (Ficus indica) of Eust India. (Fig. 68) and the Mistletoe (Fig. 65) penetrate into the wood of the host, and become so incorporated as to seem a part of it. Usually, however, parasitic roots strike through the bark only far enough to reach the sap between the bark and wood of the host. The Dodder (Fig. 93) is one of our : common parasites. The plant springs from aseed in the ground; then, climb- ing to some other plant,—Flax, Clover, Alder, etc.,—it sends out adventitious roots, which penetrate the bark of the host. The first root perishes soon ; and the Dodder lives entirely upon its host, twining its pale, leafless, amber threads so tightly that it has the name Love- Vine, or Love-Cord, in the South. The Banyan, like the Dodder, is parasitic from choice. It rarely vegetates in the ground, but chooses the crown of the palm-tree, where its seeds are left by birds. Here it sprouts, and sends roots to the ground, which at the same time embrace the nursing palm and literally suck its life away. a Faas; 149, The Stem is the organ of As circulation. It bears buds, Fra. 92. Ivy (Hedera Hélix) ; plants leaves, branches, flowers. Even entire: acaulescent plants (those without a caulis, or stem, like the Butterwort, Fig. 88) have a short suppressed stem at the surface of the soil ; their leaves are called Radical—root leaves—because this stem is so ROOT AND SUBTERRANEAN STEM. [7 short it seems a part of the root. The points from which the leaves spring are called Nodes (Li. nodus, knot); the spaces between the nodes are Internodes (Fig. 93). The buds are usually in the awil of the leaf; that is, at the base of the leaf or leaf-stalk, at its upper face. There is a bud also at the apex of the stem; this is the Terminal bud; the other buds are Axillary, or Lateral. 150. Stems are Subterranean (L. sub, under, terra, earth) and Superterranean (I super, above). Subterranean stems include the Bulb, Corm, Rhi- zome, Tuber. 151. The Bulb is a suppressed sub- ae Oe a ee eee terranean stem, with many nodes, , bearing fleshy leaves in the form of scales or of coats. The Lily bulb is Sealy. The Onion (Fig. 94) is Tunicated, or Coated (L. tunica, coat) ; the central part representing the stem is hemispherical. Each scale of the Lily, or tunic (coat) of the Onion, may produce a bud or a bulb in its axil. 152. The Corm is bulb-like, with many nodes, but few scales, and these quite small, as in the Cyclamen (Fig. 245). 158. The Rhizome, or Root-stock, is usually fleshy, and always developed in length; it may be prostrate, erect, or creeping. It has many nodes and scales, usually smaller than those of the corm, When abrupt at the lower end it tion of Onion (Allium 38 called Preemorse, or : cepa): s, suppressed subt, Bitten, as in Solo- — yy¢, 95,—Jernsalem Artichoke stem. mon’s-Seal and Cala- (Helianthus tuberosus). mus-Flag. The Rhi- . zome of the Common Ginger (Fig. 151) furnishes the ginger of com- merce. 154, The Tuber is solid, fleshy, with many nodes; but the scales are so small that the naked bud looks like and is called an Eye. The Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. 95) and Irish Potato are examples. T* 78 ACADEMIC BOTANY. LESSON XV. UPPER (SUPERTERRANEAN) STEM. 155, 156. Stem growth and names. 157. Herbs. 158. Shrubs and Trees. 159. Descriptive terms. 160. Climatic changes. 161. Age. 162. Monocarpic Plants. 168. Tree Forms. 164. Stem Habits. 165. Lianes, Lianas. 166. The term Vine. 167. Triangular and Square Stems. 168. Fleshy Stems. 169. Branches. 170. Transformations. 171. Spines, Thorns, Tendrils. 172. Prickles and Hairs. 155. Stems, as to manner of growth, are, as we know, Simple in Acrogens and Endogens,—Tree-Fern, G'rass-tree (Fig. 96), Palm; Haecurrent in Gymnosperms, — Pines (Fig. 97); Solvent in Exo- gens, — Plane- tree (Fig. 98). They are named as follows: Caudex, the stem of Ferns (Acrogens) ; Culm, the stem of Grasses (Endogens) ; Stipe, the stem of Palms (Endogens) ; Stem, the general name of herbaceous and woody climbers, Fic, 96.—Grass-tree, Black Boy (Xanthorrloa hastilis), of ela har iar 1G, »—Grass-tree, ‘aC. 0; anthorrhad haaturs), 0) Australia; st. 6 to 10 ft. high. ne , of srt ee sperms and Exogens, but applied also to Endogens and Aerogens. 156. Plants as to age, texture, and form are classed as Herbs, Shrubs, Trees. 157. Herbs (except the grasses) have soft stems. They include Annuals, that sprout, bloom, bear fruit, and die within UPPER (SUPERTERRANEAN) STEM. 79 the year, sometimes in a few weeks: Indian Corn, Morning- Glory ; Biennials, that sprout and grow the first year; bloom, bear fruit, and die the second year: Radish, Canterbury Bell ; Perennial herbs, with roots that live many years, but stems that die annually: Butterwort, Catchfly. 158. Shrubs and Trees are 2 perennial throughout. Their # stems are hard and ligneous (woody). A Shrub has no stout trunk, and is from 4 inches to many feet in height: Heath (Fig. 72), Crow- berry (Fig. 99), Rose, Lilac, Vine (Fig. 101). A Tree has a trunk, and is from 10 to 400 feet high. The Peach, Almond, Crépe-M yr- tle are small trees, 10 to 30 feet high. The Oak, Sycamore, Plane, (Fig. 98), and Magnolia eile 60 to 120 feet high. The California see Micah Pines (Fig. 97) and the Eucalyp- «the'Throe Graces,” Cal’ 300 feet tagh tus of Australia are gigantic, 150 to 300 feet high; the Eucalyptus sometimes 400 feet. 159. The following descriptive terms are used : : Arboreous, proper trees; Arborescent, large shrubs, small trees; Frutescent, ordinary shrubs; Herbaceous, plants that die entirely or down to the ground each year; Suffrutescent, perennials slightly woody at base, herbaceous above. Suffruticose, perennials quite woody at base, herbaceous above. 160. Climate often makes changes in these conditions. The Castor- Oil Plant is a perennial tree in the tropics; in Tennessee it is tree-like, but suffruticose; in the Northern States it is an annual. 161. Age is usually proportioned to the size and quality of the stem. Bushes and Shrubs live from 5 to 15 years. The Peach lives 12 to 15 years in perfection ; the Apple, 30; the Chestnut, 600; the Oak, 1500; the Olive and Baobab, 2000; the Pines, 3000; the Grass-tree (Fig. 96) and Dragon’s Blood (both Endogens) live 4000 years. The 80 ACADEMIC BOTANY. primitive types—Gymnogens and Endogens—live longest ; a character resulting, doubtless, from the needs of their Fig. 98.—Plane-tree, or Sycamore (Platanus orientulis). former geological conditions. 162. Monocarpic Plants.— Perennials, after a few years’ growth, usually bear flowers and fruit an- nually until they die of old age. Among Endogens, however, and especially in the Amaryllis Order, we find Monocarpic, or Once-fruiting plants. The giant Fourcroya of South America is anexample. The stem is 400 years attaining its full growth, a height of 60 feet. Then it sud- denly sends up a branching flower-stalk (panicle), which in 6 weeks reaches a height of 40 feet, with correspond- ing dimensions, and bearing 20,000 lilies. In a few weeks more the fruit ripens, and then the whole plant dies. The Agave Fig. 115) is also monocarpic. It is called entury Plant for this reason; but the plants bloom at the age of 20, 40, or 50 years. 163. Trees, as to form, are Drooping, with branches jae sometimes trunks) declined: Weeping Willow, Birch ; Fastigiate, with small, erect branches, par- allel to the trunk: Lombardy Poplar; Round-headed, with solvent trunks and nearly equal branches: Plane (Fig. 98); Spire-topped, with excurrent trunks and tapering branches: Pines (Fig. 97). 164. Stems, as to habit, are Ascending, Assurgent, when they rise ob- liquely, as in Polygala (Fig. 185); Cespi- tose, when in turfy patches like the Mosses ; Declined, bent on one side: Judas-Tree; Decumbent, at base erect, but the stem prostrate without rooting: Raspberry; Dif- Suse, loosely spreading: Raspberry; Pro- Fig. '99.—Crowberry (Fmpe- trum nigrum); plant entire: b, fr. cut open; ¢, flower. cumbent, Prostrate, Trailing, lying flat on the ground without UPPER (SUPERTERRANEAN) STEM. 81 rooting: Crowberry; Repent (Creeping), prostrate and rooting : White Clover, Ivy; Sarmenta- ceous, Sarmentose, with long, flexible twigs: Wistaria; Scan-_ dent, climbing other plants or ob- jects. The Wistaria climbs by coiling the ends of its sarmentose twigs; the Vine, by tendrils; the Virginia Creeper, by tendrils, which it converts at will into rootlets or holdfasts, thus be- coming a true creeper. The Cle- matis makes tendrils of its leaf- stalks. Some plants climb by twining the stem, like the Morn- ing-Glory and Hop; these are ealled Voluble. 165. Liana (Sp. lee-4h-na) and liane (Fr. lee-ahn), words méan- ing a rope or cord, are the names given to all tropical climbers, but especially to such as are woody (Fig. 100). These names have with 5 petals coherent at top. Fic. 101.—Wine-bearing Vine (Vitis vinifera) ; branch with tendrils, leaves, and fruit; separate cluster (thyrse) of fis. and 2 separate stamens; sep. fl. with ovary and 5 stamens; sep. corolla Fig. 100.—Tropical Lianas. long been adopted into the English language, and sup- ply avery great need. The ‘Wrightia, already mentioned no the Vanilla Orchid; the Rattan Palm; the Smi- lax; the Yellow Jessamine; the Virginia Creeper; the Wistaria; the Vine, are rep- resentative lianas (Fig. 101). 166. The term Vine should never be used to describe scandent or running stems. Vine is a generic name, like Rose, Lily, etc. We might as well say the Cucumber Rose, the Madeira Rose, as to say the Cucumber-Vine, the Madeira-Vine. The Cu- cumber is a running plant; the Madeira flower is a twining plant; these are in no sense vines. Vine (which means wine in Greek and Latin, whence the word is derived) is the name of the woody climber that produces grapes. The name is misapplie g 82 ACADEMIC BOTANY. to other plants only in the United States and in some few localities in England. Climber is a correct term for all scandent stems; runner, for all that trail or run. 167. Stems are usually cylindrical ; but in the Sedges they are triangular (triquetrous) ; in the Mint Order they are square. 168. Fleshy Stems characterize the Cactus Order. They are usually leaf- less; the green skin—there is no de- veloped bark—serving the purpose of leaves. In the Prickly Pear (Fig. 102) the thick, jointed stems simulate leaves; the true leaves are minute scales, with bristles in their axils. In the tree cacti the stems are tall and columnar. Other fleshy stems are seen in the Stapelia, the Tortoise- Plant, and some Euphorbias. Growth like this, no matter in what part of the plant it occurs, is called Anomalous a ee er Gr. irregular), because it departs from cochinillifera), eee established order. s 169. Branches usually spring from buds in the leaf-axils (nodes) of the stem. They are Runners when pros- trate and rooting only at the end,— Strawberry; Suckers when arising from subterranean stems,—Rose, As- pen; Stolons when they are decum- bent suckers, taking root where they touch the soil,—Gooseberry. 170. Transformations.—In the Butchers’ Broom (Fig. 103), the so- called leaves are branches expanded into leafy shapes, each tiny spiny- tipped “leaf” pearing a little white flower in its centre, which becomes a red berry nearly as large as the leaf. The leaves of the Asparagus and of the “Smilax” (Myrsiphyllum) of the greenhouses are also transformed branches. In all these plants the true leaves are small scales; they are well seen in young asparagus-shoots : Some botanists regard these leaves as _ Fis. See Pato al Broom (Rus- transformed peduncles, and term this Cee ete DES SEs Ges form of inflorescence Epiphyllous (Gr. epi, upon, phyllon, leaf). 171. Spines, Thorns, Tendrils, are transformations. When trans- formed branches they are part of the wood, and remain so after the UPPER (SUPERTERRANEAN) STEM. 83 bark is resaenals as in the tendrils Fic. 104.—Myrrh (Bal- samodendron myrrha); br. with lvs., fis., spines. 172. Prickles and Hairs belong to the epidermis, or skin, of the bark and leaf. They are often strong and sharp, as in the Teasel (Fig. 105), the Prickly Pear, and Thistle. Hairs are varied in form and texture (Fig. 106); they are among the most interesting objects of the mi- croscope; and they have given rise to most of the poetical terms which describe leaf-surface, as we shall see in Lesson XVIII. of the Vine (Fig. 101), and the Spines and Thorns Se g- Y104), the = Hawthorn, “etc. When 4 transformed leaves, they } come off with the bark, as in the spines of the Lo- cust, the thorns of the Rose, the tendrils Yay of the Cle- matis and Pea. Fic. 105.—Fuller’s Teasel (Dipsacus Sullonum). Fic, 106.—Hairs of Plants: 1, Delphiniwm pinnatifidum, X 200 diam. ; 2, Anchusa crispa, X 200diam.; 3, scale-like, from sd. of Cobo scandens, 50 diam.; 4, stellate, lf. of Hedera Helix, XK 100 diam.; 5, branched, Verbascum Thapsus, < 25 diam.; 6, stellate, "Alyssum, *« 100 diam. ; 3 7, horizontal, stalked, Grevillea lithidophylla, X 30 diam. ; 8, annulated, from sd. of Ruellia formosa, in water, X 50 ‘diam. ; 8a, de- tached cell-wall of same, < 200 diam. ; 9, glandular, Bryonia alba, X 50 diam.; 10, from sd. of Salvia, 50 diam. 84 ACADEMIC BOTANY. LESSON XVI. BUD AND LEAF. 178-175. Buds. 176. Gems. 177. Grafting. 178. Bud-Scales. 179. Vernation, Prefoliation. 180. Vernation of leaves as regards one another. 181. Leaf-arrangement. 182. Spiral arrangement. 183. Leaf; an organ of digestion. 184. Blade. 185. Transformations. 186. Leaf uses. 187. Petiole. 188. Stipule. 173, Buds are of three kinds: Leaf-Bud ; Flower-Bud ; Mixed Bud with both leaves and flowers. 174. The Leaf-Bud is the beginning of a stem or branch.