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Fronvisrizce. —A Shade Plant, Jack-in-the-Pulgit
FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
BY
JOSEPH Y. BERGEN, A.M.
InstTRUCTOR IN BioLocy, ENcLisH H1cH ScHooL, Boston
BOSTON, U.S.A.
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS
The Atheneum Press
1904
4\-3) Dt
NAAB YS 4,
CoPYRIGHT, 1901, BY
JOSEPH Y. BERGEN
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
af
tf
PREFACE
Tus book is written upon the same plan as the author’s
Elements of Botany. A few chapters stand here but little
altered from the former work, but most of them have been
rewritten and considerably enlarged, and many new ones
have been added. The principal changes in the book as a
whole are these:
1. Most of the discussion of ecological topics is put by
itself, in Part IT.
2. The amount of laboratory work on the anatomy and
physiology of seed-plants is considerably increased and addi-
tional experiments are introduced.
3. The treatment of spore-plants is greatly extended, so as
to include laboratory work on the most important groups.
4. The meagre Flora which accompanied the earlier book
has been replaced by one which contains fairly full descrip-
tions of nearly seven hundred species of plants. Most of
these are wild, but a considerable number of cultivated species
have been included, mainly for the convenience of schools in
large cities.
Ample material is offered for a year’s course, four or five
periods per week. The author is well aware that most schools
devote but half a year to botany, but the tendency sets strongly
toward allowing more time for this subject. Even in schools
where the minimum time allowance is devoted to botany, there
is a distinct advantage in being provided with a book which
allows the teacher considerable option as regards the kind
and amount of work which he shall offer to his classes.
im
iv PREFACE
Suggestions are made in the teacher’s Handbook, which
accompanies this volume, in regard to shaping half-year
courses.
The latest authorities in the various departments of botany
have been consulted on all doubtful points, and the attempt
has been to make the book scientifically accurate throughout,
yet not unduly difficult.
Most of the illustrations have been redrawn from those in
standard German works of an advanced character, or drawn
from nature or from photographs, expressly for. this book.
Besides the sources of drawings acknowledged in the author’s
Elements, many cuts have been taken from the botanies of
Frank, Prantl, Detmer, Murray, and Bennett and Murray, as
well as from Schimper’s Pflanzengeographie.
Of the drawings from nature or from photographs, some
figures, and Plates I, VII, and VIII, are by Mr. Edmund
Garrett of Boston; several figures, the Frontispiece, and
Plates II, IV, X, XI, are by Mr. Bruce Horsfall of New York ;
several figures are by Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews of Boston; a
large number of figures and Plate V are by Mr. E. N. Fischer
of Boston; several figures are by Mr. E. R. Kingsbury of Boston
and Dr. J. W. Folsom of the University of Illinois.
Thanks for the use of photographs are due to Mr. H. G.
Peabody of Boston (Fig. 234), to Mr. J. H. White of Boston
(Figs. 32, 75, 222), to Professor Conway MacMillan of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota (Frontispiece), and to Professor F. V.
Coville of Washington (Plate VII). Figs. 28 and 275 are
taken by permission from the Primer of Forestry, issued by the
Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Figs.
263, 264, 276 are copied by permission from Professor W. J.
Beal’s Seed Dispersal, and Figs. 226, 229, 233 from Professor
‘W. M. Davis’s Physical Geography. Fig. 269 is from a photo-
graph by Professor C. F. Millspaugh of Chicago. Plate IV
is from a photograph by Dr. H. J. Webber. /
PREFACE ¥
Most of the redrawn illustrations (not microscopical) from
various European sources are by Mr. Fischer. Most of the
microscopical ones (and a number of figures from nature) are
by Dr. J. W. Folsom of the University of Illinois, and many
of both classes are by Mr. Mathews. Thanks are due to
Professor J. M. Holzinger of the Winona (Minn.) State
Normal School, to Professor L. Murbach of the Detroit High
School, and to Mr. I. 8. Cutter of Lincoln, Nebraska, for
their many discriminating criticisms of the proof of Parts I
and IJ. Mr. Samuel F. Tower of the Boston English High
School, Professor Charles V. Piper of the Washington State
Agricultural College, and Dr. Rodney H. True, Lecturer on
Botany at Harvard University, have all read the whole or
large portions of Part I and given valuable suggestions.
Professor W. F. Ganong, of Smith College, has read and
criticised Part II.
The chapters on spore-plants, excepting a small amount of
matter retained from the Elements of Botany, are entirely the
work of Mr. A. B. Seymour of the Cryptogamic Herbarium of
Harvard University.
_ The author has attempted to steer a middle course between
the advocates of the out-of-door school and of the histological
school of botany teaching. He has endeavored never to use a
technical term where he could dispense with it, and on the
othér hand, not to become inexact by shunning necessary
terms. In deciding questions of this sort, a priori reasoning
is of little value-; one must ascertain by repeated trials how
much of a technical vocabulary the average beginner in botany
can profitably master. The teacher who has discovered that
not one of the boys in a division of thirty-six pupils knows
that his own desk-top is of cherry wood may well hesitate’
about beginning his botany teaching with a discourse on cen-
trospheres and karyokinesis. It has been assumed throughout
this book that, other things being equal, the knowledge is of
vi PREFACE
most worth which touches the pupil’s daily life at the most
points, and therefore best enables him to understand his own
environment. On the other hand, the author has no sympathy
with those who decry the use of apparatus in botany teaching
in secondary schools and who would confine the work of their
pupils mainly within the limits of what can be seen with the
unaided eye. If the compound microscope plainly reveals
things shown only imperfectly by a magnifier and not seen at
all with the naked eye,-——- use the microscope! If iodine
solution or other easily prepared reagents make evident the
existence of structures or substances not to be detected with-
out them, — then use the reagents! No one thinks of deny-
ing a boy the use of a spyglass or a compass for his tramps
afield or his outings in a boat because he has not studied
physics. No one would refuse to let an intelligent boy or
girl use a camera because the would-be photographer had not
mastered the chemical reactions that follow upon the expo-
sure of a sensitized plate. Yet it is equally illogical to defer
some of the most fascinating portions of botanical study until
the college course, to which most never attain. When the
university professor tells the teacher that he ought not to
employ the ordinary appliances of elementary biological inves-
tigation in the school laboratory because the pupils cannot
intelligently use them, the teacher is forced to reply that the
professor himself cannot intelligently discuss a subject of
which he has no personal knowledge. The pupils are deeply
interested; they prove by their drawings and their recita-
tions that they have seen a good way into plant structures
and plant functions; then why not let them study botany
in earnest ?
J. Y. B.
CampBrinex, January, 1901.
CONTENTS
Part I
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
CHAPTER I
PAGES
Tue SEED AND ITs GERMINATION. ‘ é ‘ ; . 5-13
CHAPTER II
Storace oF Foop in THE SEED : 7 ‘ : r . 14-24
CHAPTER II
Movements, DevELopmMENT, AND MorPHotocy of THE SEEDLING 25-35
e
CHAPTER IV
Roots - : . ‘ A 3 3 ‘ ‘ . . 86-61
CHAPTER V
Stems : ‘ : : . : r “ : 3 - 62-82
CHAPTER VI
StrucTuRE OF THE STEM . : ‘ 7 i ‘ . 88-103
CHAPTER VII
Living Parts oF tHE Stem; Work or THE STEM. ‘ . 104-118
CHAPTER VIII
Bups . Z . ‘ . ‘ 7 : ‘ i ‘ . 119-129
vii
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX nie
LEAVES ‘ : : ‘ ! : ‘ : ‘ . 130-139
CHAPTER X
LeaF-ARRANGEMENT FOR Exposure To Sun anp AIR; Move-
MENTS OF LEAVES AND SHoots . ¢ ‘ : . 140-149
CHAPTER XI
Mivute Structure oF LEAvEs; Functions or LEAVES. . 160-177
CHAPTER XII
PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES. “ ‘ . 178-185
CHAPTER XIII
INFLORESCENCE, OR ARRANGEMENT OF FLowers on THR Stem 186-191
CHAPTER XIV
Tue Srupy or TypicaL FLowers . i i . : . 192-196
CHAPTER XV
PLAN AND STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS . 197-207
CHAPTER XVI
True Nature or Frorat Organs; Deraits or THER StRuc-
TURE; FERTILIZATION . 2 : : . 5 . 208-216
CHAPTER XVII
Tue Stupy or Tyrpicat Fruits ‘ - ‘ ‘ ‘ . 217-220
CHAPTER XVIII
Tue Fruit ‘ , : 5 : ‘ , 5 4 . 221-227
CHAPTER XIX
Tue CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS j F i é 228-284
CONTENTS 1x
CHAPTER XX
PAGES
TYPES oF CrYPToGaMS; THALLOPHYTES . f i . 285-276
CHAPTER XXI
Types oF Cryprocams; BryrorpHyTes é » 277-285
CHAPTER XXII
Types or CRYPTOGAMS; PYERIDOPHYTES . : . : . 286-297
3 CHAPTER XXIII
Tue Evoxutionary History or PLAnts ‘ : - 298-305
Part II
ECOLOGY, OR RELATIONS OF PLANTS TO THE WORLD
ABOUT THEM
CHAPTER XXIV
Pianr Societies " : ‘ ‘ 5 i ‘ . 807-3823
CHAPTER XXV
BoranicaAL GEOGRAPHY : 3 F . . 324-335
CHAPTER XXVI
Parasires, Exstavep Piants, Messmates, Carnivorous Piants 336-344
CHAPTER XXVII
{_ How Prants PRoTecT THEMSELVES FROM ANIMALS . . 845-362
x CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXVIII
PAGES
EcoLocy or FLrowers 5 5 ‘ 3 : : ‘ . 8538-372
CHAPTER XXIX
How Prants are ScaTTERED AND PROPAGATHD. i : . 373-386
CHAPTER XXX
Tue SrruecLte ror EXISTENCE AND THE SURVIVAL OF THE
FIrrest 5 7 ‘ é ‘ , 3 F 7 . 387-395
LIST OF PLATES
Frontispiece. Jack-in-the-pulpit, a typical shade-plant, with large,
thin leaves.
Facing page
Prats I, Sand-dunes with sea rye grass. Deep-rooted, with exten-
sively running rootstocks . : : s ‘ , . . 76
Prate II. Pollarded willows, showing growth of slender twigs from
adventitious buds é . ‘i : ‘ . j ‘ . 128
Puate IT. Japanese ivy, a tendril-climber growing on face of a
building, showing leaves all exposed to sunlight at the most
advantageous angle . , é $ ot : , . 140
Prate IV. Cypress swamp, showing ‘‘ Spanish moss’’ (Tillandsia),
a phanerogamic epiphyte practically leafless, the work ordinarily
done by leaves devolving on the slender stems. The cypress
trees are furnished with ‘‘ knees’’ or projections from the roots,
which are thought by some to absorb air . 3 . . . 158
Puate V. Indian pipe, a saprophytic seed-plant, wholly destitute
of chlorophyll and with scales instead of foliage leaves - . 168
Prare VI. Fan palms, showing general habit of the tree, and large
projecting bases of old petioles left after the decay of the leaves 176
Puate VII. A tree yucca in the Mohave Desert, a characteristic
xerophytic tree. Other sparse desert vegetation is also shown . 316
Pirate VIII. Belt of trees along a Nebraskan river, showing depend-
ence offoreston watersupply . . . . . . «. 884
Pirate IX. Cottonwood. Tree largely overgrown with American
mistletoe, near Mesilla, New Mexico. The photograph was taken
in winter, when the tree was leafless, so that all the foliage shown
is that of the mistletoe é , 2 . : . , . 886
Pirate X. Humming-bird visiting flowers of the trumpet creeper.
This is one of the best North American examples of a flower
mainly pollinated by birds . i % é 5 , 3 . 862
Puare XI. Asters and golden-rods, Composite, illustrating the
principle of grouping many small flowers into heads (and in
the golden-rod the heads into rather close clusters) to facilitate
the visits of insects . ; : : : : F . . 872
FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
INTRODUCTION
“Botany is the science which endeavors to answer every reason-
able question about plants.” !
THE plant is a living being, provided generally with
many parts, called organs, which it uses for taking in nour-
ishment, for breathing, for protection against its enemies,
and for reproducing itself and so keeping up the numbers
of its own kind. The stugy of the individual plant there-
fore embraces a variety of topics, and the examination of
its relation to others introduces many more subjects.
Morphology, or the science of form, structure, and so on,
deals with the plant without much regard to its character
as a living thing. Under this head are studied the forms
of plants and the various shapes or disguises which the
same sort of organ may take in different kinds of plants,
their gross structure, their microscopical structure, their
classification, and the successive stages in the develop-
ment of the individual plant.
Plant Physiology treats of the plant in action, how it lives,
breathes, feeds, grows, and produces others like itself.
Geographical Distribution, or botanical geography, dis-
cusses the range of the various kinds of plants over the
1 Professor George L. Goodale.
1
2 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
earth’s surface. Another subdivision of botany, usually
studied along with geology, describes the history of plant
life on the earth from the appearance of the first plants
until the present time.
Systematic Botany, or the classification of plants, should
naturally follow the examination of the groups of seed-
plants and spore-plants.
Plant Ecology treats of the relations of the plant to
the conditions under which it lives. Under this division
of the science are studied the effects of soil, climate, and
friendly or hostile animals and plants on the external
form, the internal structure, and the habits of plants.
This is in many respects the most interesting department
of botany, but it has to be studied for the most part out
of doors.
Many of the topics suggested in the above outline cannot
well be studied in the high school. There is not usually
time to take up more than the merest outline of botanical
geography, or to do much more than mention the impor-
tant subject of Economic Botany —the study of the uses
of plants to man. It ought, however, to be possible for
the student to learn in his high-school course a good deal
about the simpler facts of morphology and of vegetable
physiology. One does not become a botanist — not even
much of an amateur in the subject —by reading books
about botany. It is necessary to study plants themselves,
to take them to pieces and make out the connection of their
parts, to examine with the microscope small portions of the
exterior surface and thin slices of all the variously built
materials or tissues of which the plant consists. All this ~
can be done with living specimens or with those taken
INTRODUCTION 3
from dead parts of plants that have been preserved in any
suitable way, as by drying or by placing in alcohol or other
fluids which prevent decay. Living plants must be studied
in order to ascertain what kinds of food they take, what
kinds of waste substances they excrete, how afd where
their growth takes place and what circumstances favor it,
how they move, and indeed to get as complete an idea as
possible of what has been called the behavior of plants.
Since the most familiar and most interesting plants
spring from seeds, the beginner in botany can hardly do
better than to examine at the outset the structure of a few
familiar seéds, then sprout them and watch the growth of
the seedlings which spring from them. Afterwards he
may study in a few typical examples the organs, structure,
and functions of seed-plants, trace their life history, and
so, step by step, follow the process by which a new crop
of seeds at last results from the growth and development
of such a seed as that with which he began.
After he has come to know in a general way about the
structure and functions of seed-plants, the student may
become acquainted with some typical cryptogams or spore-
plants. There are so many groups of these that only a
few representative ones can be chosen for study.
Part I
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS, AND CLASSIFI-
CATION OF PLANTS
CHAPTER I
THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION
1. Germination of the Squash Seed. — Soak some squash seeds in
tepid water for twelve hours or more. Plant these about an inch
deep in damp sand or pine sawdust or peat-moss in a wooden box
which has had holes enough bored through the bottom so that it will
not hold water. Put the box in a warm place (not at any time over
70° or 80° Fahrenheit),! and cover it loosely with a board or a pane
of glass. Keep the sand or sawdust moist, but not wet, and the
seeds will germinate. As soon as any of the seeds, on being dug up,
are found to have burst open, sketch one in this condition,’ noting
the manner in which the outer seed-coat is split, and continue to
examine the seedlings at intervals of two days, until at least eight
stages in the growth of the plantlet have been noted.®
1 Here and elsewhere throughout the book temperatures are expressed in
Fahrenheit degrees, since with us, unfortunately, the Centigrade scale is not
the familiar one, outside of physical and chemical laboratories.
2 The student need not feel that he is expected to make finished drawings
to record what he sees, but some kind of careful sketch, if only the merest
outline, is indispensable. Practice and study of the illustrations hereafter
given will soon impart some facility even to those who have had little or no
instruction in drawing. Consult here Figs. 9 and 89.
8 The class is not to wait for the completion of this work (which may, if
desirable, be done by each pupil at home), but is to proceed at once with the
examination of the squash seed and of other seeds, as directed in the follow-
ing sections, and to set some beans, peas, and corn to sprouting, so that they
may be studied at the same time with the germinating squashes.
5
6 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Observe particularly how the sand is pushed aside by the rise of
the young seedlings. Suggest some reason for the manner in which
f the sand is penetrated by the rising stem.
2. Examination of the Squash Seed. —
Make a sketch of the dry seed, natural size.
Note the little scar at the pointed end of the
seed where the latter was attached to its
place of growth in the squash. Label this
hilum.
Note the little hole in the hilum; it is
the micropyle, seen most plainly in a soaked
seed. (If there are two depressions on the
hilum the deeper one is the micropyle.)
Describe the color and texture’of the outer
coating of the seed. With a scalpel or a very
----e sharp knife cut across near the middle a seed
that has been soaked in water for twenty-
= four hours. Squeeze one of the portions,
” held edgewise between the thumb and finger,
in such a way as to separate slightly the
halves into which the contents of the seed is
--p naturally divided. Examine with the mag-
nifying glass the section thus treated, make
a sketch of it, and label the shell or covering
of the seed and the kernel within this.
Taking another soaked seed, chip away
i the white outer shell, called: the testa, and
Rey ---C observe the thin, greenish inner skin (Fig.
1, e), with which the kernel of the seed is
closely covered.1
Strip this off and sketch the uncovered ker-
G
gy
LUT CN Cee TOT
omaha et
AIAN
aegis ane oe nel or embryo. Note that at one end it tapers
of a Squash Seed. (Magni- to a point. This pointed portion, known
fied about tive times.) as the hypocotyl, will develop after the seed
sprouts into the stem of the plantlet, like that shown at c in Fig. 2.
Split the halves of the kernel entirely apart from each other,
1 See footnote 2 to Sect. 18,
THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 7
noticing that they are only attached for a very little way next to
the hypocotyl, and observe the thickness of the halves and the slight
unevenness of the inner’surfaces.
or cotyledons.
These halves are called seed-leaves
Have ready some seeds which have been soaked for twenty-four
hours and then left in a loosely covered jar on damp blotting paper
at a temperature of 70° or over
until they have begun to sprout.
Split one of these seeds apart,
separating the cotyledons, and
observe, at the junction of these,
two very slender pointed objects,
the rudimentary leaves of the
plumule or first bud (Fig. 1, p).
3. Examination of the Bean.
—Study the seed, both dry and
after twelve hours’ soaking, in
the same general way in which
the squash seed has just been
examined.}
Notice the presence of a dis-
tinct plumule, consisting of a pair
of rudimentary leaves between
the cotyledons, just where they
are joined to the top of the hypo-
cotyl. In many seeds (as the pea)
the plumule does not show dis-
tinct leaves. But in all cases
the plumule contains the growing
point, the tip of the stem from
which all the upward growth of
the plant is to proceed.
Fic. 2.— The Castor Bean and its
Germination.
A, longitudinal section of ripe seed; 1,
testa; co, cotyledon; v, hypocotyl;
B, sprouting seed covered with endo-
sperm; C, same, with half of endo-
sperm removed; D, seedling; r, pri-
mary root; r’, secondary roots; c, arch
of hypocotyl.
Make a sketch of these leaves as they lie in place on one of the
cotyledons, after the bean has been split open.
1 The larger the variety of bean chosen, the easier it will be to see and
sketch the several parts.
The large red kidney bean, the horticultural bean,
or the lima bean will do well for this examination...
8 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Note the cavity in each cotyledon caused by the pressure of the
plumule and of the hypocotyl.
4, Examination of the Pea. —There are no very important points,
of difference between the bean and pea, so far as the structure of
the seed is concerned, but the student should rapidly dissect a few
soaked peas to get an idea of the appearance of the parts, since he
is to study the germination of peas in some detail. ‘,
Make only one sketch, that of the hypocotyl as seen in position
after the removal of the seed-coats.!
5. Germination of the Bean or the White Lupine, the Pea, and the
Grain of Corn. — Soak some beans or lupine seeds as directed in
Section 8, plant them,? and make a series of sketches on the same
general plan as those in Fig. 9.
Follow the same directions with some peas and some corn. In the
case of the corn, make six or more sketches at various stages to illus-
trate the growth of the plumule and the formation of roots; first a
main root from the base of the hypocotyl, then others more slender
from the same region, and later on still others from points higher
up on the stem (see Fig. 15). The student may be able to dis-
cover what becomes of the large outer part of the embryo. This is
really the single cotyledon of the corn (Fig. 6). It does not as a
whole rise above ground, but most of it remains in the buried grain,
and acts as a digesting and absorbing organ through which the
endosperm or food stored outside of the embryo is transferred into
the growing plant, as fast as it can be made liquid for that purpose.
6. Germination of the Horse-Chestnut.— Plant some seeds of the
horse-chestnut or the buckeye, study their mode of germination, and
observe the nature and peculiar modifications of the parts.
Consult Gray’s Structural Botany, Vol. I, pp. 19, 20.
7. Conditions Requisite for Germination. —- When we
try to enumerate the external conditions which can affect
1 The teacher will find excellent sketches of most of the germinating seeds
described in the présent chapter in Miss Newell’s Outlines of Lessons in
Botany, Part I.
2The pupil may economize space by planting the new seeds in boxes
from which part of the earlier planted seeds have been dug up for use in
sketching, ete.
THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 9
germination, we find that the principal ones are heat,
moisture, and presence of air. A few simple experiments
will show what influence these conditions exert.
8. Temperature. Common observation shows that a
moderate amount of warmth is necessary for the sprout-
ing of seeds. Every farmer or gardener knows that
during a cold spring many seeds, if planted, will rot in
the ground. But a somewhat exact experiment is neces-
sary to show what is the best temperature for seeds to
grow in, and whether variations in the temperature make
more difference in the quickness with which they begin
to germinate or in the total per cent which finally succeed.
EXPERIMENT I
Relation of Temperature to Germination. — Prepare at least four
teacups or tumblers, each with wet soft paper packed in the bottom
to a depth of nearly an inch. Have a tightly fitting cover over each.
Put in each vessel the same number of soaked peas. Stand the ves-
sels with their contents in places where they will be exposed to dit-
ferent, but fairly constant, temperatures, and observe the several
temperatures carefully with a thermometer. Take pains to keep the
tumblers in the warm places from drying out, so that their contents
will not be less moist than that of the others. The following series
is merely suggested, — other values may be found more convenient.
Note the rate of germination in each place and record in tabular
form as follows:
No. of seeds sprouted in 24 hrs. 48 hrs. 72 hrs. 96 hrs. ete.
At 32°, —
At 50°, SSS ee
At 70°, —S>= o> ——- Ss Ss —-_—
At 90°,} — $—- Ss Ss —--— —
1 For the exact regulation of the temperatures a thermostat (see Handbook)
is desirable. If one is available, 4 maximum temperature of 100° or over
should be tried.
10 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
9. Moisture. — What was said in the preceding section
in regard to temperature applies also to the question of
the best conditions for germination as regards the supply
of moisture. The soil in which seeds grow out of doors
is always moist; it rests with the experimenter to find
out approximately what is the best amount of moisture.
EXPERIMENT II?
Relation of Water to Germination. Arrange seeds in several
vessels as follows:
In the first put blotting paper that is barely moistened; on this
put some dry seeds.
In the second put blotting paper that has been barely moistened ;
on this put seeds that have been soaked for twenty-four hours.
In the third put
water enough to soak
the paper thor-
oughly; use soaked
seeds.
In the fourth put
water enough to half
cover the seeds.
Place the vessels
where they will have
same temperature and
note the time of ger-
mination.
Tabulate your re-
sults as in the previ-
ous experiment.
Fia. 3,—Soaked Peas in Stoppered Bottle, ready
for Exhaustion of Air,
10. Relation of the Air-Supply to Germination. — If we
wish to see how soaked seeds will behave with hardly any
air supply, it is necessary to place them in a bottle arranged
1 This may be made a home experiment.
THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 11
as shown in Fig. 3, exhaust the air by connecting the glass
tube with an air-pump, which is then pumped vigorously,
and seal the tube while the exhaustion is going on. The
sealing is best done by holding a Bunsen flame under the
middle of the horizontal part of the tube. A much easier
experiment, which is nearly as satisfactory, can, however,
be performed without the air-pump.
EXPERIMENT III
Will Seeds Germinate well without a Good Supply of Air? —
Place some soaked seeds on damp blotting paper in the bottom of a
bottle, using seeds enough to fill it three-quarters full, and close
tightly with a rubber stopper.
Place a few other seeds of the same kind in a second bottle;
cover loosely.
Place the bottles side by side, so that they will have the same
conditions of light and heat. Watch for results, and tabulate as in
previous experiments.
Most seeds will not germinate under water, but those of the
sunflower will do so, and therefore Exp. III may be varied in the
following manner:
Remove the shells carefully from a considerable number of sun-
flower seeds. Try to germinate one lot of these in water which has
been boiled in a flask to remove the air, and then cooled in the
same flask. Over the water, with the seeds in it, a layer of cotton-
seed oil about a half inch deep is poured, to keep the water from
contact with air. In this bottle then there will be only seeds and
air-free water. Try to germinate another lot of seeds in a bottle
half filled with ordinary water, also covered with cotton-seed oil.
Results?
11. Germination involves Chemical Changes.— If a ther-
mometer is inserted into a jar of sprouting seeds, for
1 These are really fruits, but the distinction is not an important one at
this time.
12 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
instance peas, in a room at the ordinary temperature, the
peas will be found to be warmer than the surrounding
air. This rise of temperature is at least partly due to
the absorption from the air of that substance in it which
supports the life of animals and maintains the burning of
fires, namely, oxygen.
The union of oxygen with substances with which it
can combine, that is with those which will burn, is called
oxidation. This kind of chemical change is universal in
plants and animals while they are in an active condition,
and the energy which they manifest in their growth and
movements is as directly the result of the oxidation going
on inside them as the energy of a steam engine is the
result of the burning of coal or other fuel under its boiler.
In the sprouting seed much of the energy produced by
the action of oxygen upon oxidizable portions of its con-
tents is expended in producing growth, but some of this
energy is wasted by being transformed into heat which
escapes into the surrounding soil. It is this escaping
heat which is detected by a thermometer thrust into a
quantity of germinating seeds.
EXPERIMENT IV
Effect of Germinating Seeds upon the Surrounding Air. — When
Exp. III has been finished, remove a little of the air from above the
peas in the first bottle. This can easily be done with a rubber bulb
attached to a short glass tube. Then bubble this air through some
clear, filtered limewater. Also blow the breath through some lime-
water by aid of a short glass tube. Explain any similarity in
results obtained. (Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky.) After-
wards insert into the air above the peas in the same bottle a lighted
pine splinter, and note the effect upon its flame,
THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 13
12. Other Proofs of Chemical Action.— Besides the proof
of chemical changes in germinating seeds just described,
there are other kinds of evidence to the same effect.
Malt, which is merely sprouted barley with its germi-
nation permanently stopped at the desired point by the
application of heat, tastes differently from the unsprouted
grain, and can be shown by chemical tests to have suffered
a variety of changes. If you can get unsprouted barley
and malt, taste both and see if you can decide what sub-
stance is more abundant in the malt.
Germinating kernels of corn undergo great alterations
in their structure; the starch grains are gradually eaten
away until they are ragged and full of holes and finally
disappear.
13. The Embryo and its Development. —‘The miniature
plant, as it exists ready formed and alive but inactive in
the seed, is called the embryo. In the seeds so far ex-
amined, practically the entire contents of the seed-coats
consist of the embryo, but this is not the case with the
great majority of seeds, as will be shown in the following
chapter.
CHAPTER II
STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED
14. Food in the Embryo. — Squash seeds are not much
used for human food, though both these and melon seeds
are occasionally eaten in parts of Europe; but beans and
peas are important articles of food. Whether the material
accumulated in the cotyledons is an aid to the growth of
the young plant may be léarned from a simple experiment.
15. Mutilated and Perfect Seedlings. — One of the best
ways in which to find out the importance and the special
use of any part of
a plant is to re-
move the part in
question and see
how the plant be-
haves afterward.
EXPERIMENT V!
Are the Cotyledons
of a Pea of any Use
to the Seedling ? —
Sprout several peas on
blotting paper. When
the plumules appear,
carefully cut away the cotyledons from some of the seeds. Place on
a perforated cork, as shown in Fig. 4, one or two seedlings from
Fic. 4.—Germinating Peas, growing in Water, one
deprived of its Cotyledons.
1 May be a home experiment.
14
STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE CELLS 15
which the cotyledons have been cut, and as many which have not
been mutilated, and allow the roots to extend into the water. Let
them grow for some days, or even weeks, and note results.
16. Food stored in Seeds in Relation to Growth after
Germination. — If two kinds of seeds of somewhat similar
character, one kind large and the other small, are allowed
to germinate and grow side by side, some important infer-
ences may be drawn from their relative rate of growth.
EXPERIMENT VI}
Does the Amount of Material in the Seed have anything to do with
the Rate of Growth of the Seedling ?—-Germinate ten or more
clover seeds, and about the same number of peas, on moist blotting
paper under a bell-jar. After they are well sprouted, transfer both
kinds of seeds to fine cotton netting, stretched across wide-mouthed
jars nearly full of water. The roots should dip into the water, but
the seeds must not do so. Allow the plants to grow until the peas
are from four to six’inches high.
Some of the growth in each case depends on material
gathered from the air and water, but most of it, during the
very early life of the plant, is due to the reserve material
stored in the seed. Where is it in
the seeds so far studied? Proof?
17. Storage of Food outside of
the Embryo. — In very many cases
the cotyledons contain little food, I I
but there is a supply of it stored Fic.5.—Seeds with Endosperm,
in the seed beside or around them oe
I, asparagus (magnified).
(Figs. 2, 5, and 6). II, poppy (magnified).
18, Examination of the Four-o’clock Seed. Examine the exter-
nal surface of a seed? of the four-o’clock, and try the hardness of
1 May be a home experiment. 2Strictly speaking, a fruit.
16 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
the outer coat by cutting it with a knife. From seeds which have
been soaked in water at least twenty-four hours peel off the coatings
and sketch the kernel. Make a cross-section of one of the soaked
seeds which has not been stripped of its coatings, and sketch the sec-
tion as seen with the magnifying glass, to show the parts, especially
the two cotyledons, lying in close contact and encircling the white,
starchy-looking endosperm.}
The name endosperm is applied to food stored in parts of the
seed other than the embryo.?) With a mounted needle pick out the
little almost spherical mass of endosperm from inside the cotyledons
of a seed which has been deprived of
its coats, and sketch the embryo, noting
how it is curved so as to enclose the
endosperm almost completely.
19. Examination of the Kernel of In-
dian Corn. — Soak some grains of large
yellow field corn * for about three days.
Sketch an unsoaked kernel, so as to
show the grooved side, where the germ
lies. Observe how this groove has be-
come partially filled up in the soaked
’ Fig. 6.—Lengthwise Section of kernels.
Oe eee Sea a Remove the thin, tough skin from
y, yellow, oily part of endosperm, ©N¢ of the latter, and notice its transpar-
w, white, starchy part of en- ency. This skin —the bran of unsifted
wees ae i. &® corn meal — does not exactly correspond
with the endosperm for absorp- to the testa and inner coat of ordinary
tion of food from it; r, the seeds, since the kernel of corn, like all
Dear ane other grains (and like the seed of the
four-o’clock), represents not merely the seed, but also the seed-vessel
in which it was formed and grew, and is therefore. a fruit.
1 Buckwheat furnishes another excellent study in seeds with endosperm.
Like that of the four-o’clock, it is, strictly speaking, a fruit; so also is a grain
of corn.
2 In the squash seed the green layer which covered the embryo represents
the remains of the endosperm.
3 The varieties with long, flat kernels, raised in the Middle and Southern
States under the name of ‘“‘dent corn,” are the best.
STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 17
Cut sections of the soaked kernels, some transverse, some length-
wise and parallel to the flat surfaces, some lengthwise and at right
angles to the flat surfaces. Try the effect of staining some of these
sections with iodine solution. :
Make a sketch of one section of each of the three kinds, and label
the dirty white portion, of cheesy consistency, embryo; and the yel-
low portions, and those which are white and floury, endosperm.
Chip off the endosperm from one kernel so as to remove the
embryo free from other parts.!_ Notice its form, somewhat triangular
in outline, sometimes nearly the shape of a beechnut, in other speci-
mens nearly like an almond.
Estimate what proportion of the entire bulk of the soaked kernel
is embryo. ;
Split the embryo lengthwise so as to show the slender, somewhat
conical plumule.?
20. Corn Seedlings deprived of Endosperm.— An experi-
ment parallel to No. V serves to show the function and
the importance of the endosperm of Indian corn.
EXPERIMENT VII
Of how much Use to the Corn Seedling is the Endosperm ? — Sprout
kernels of corn on blotting paper. When they get fairly started,
cut away the endosperm carefully from several of the seeds. Sus-
pend on mosquito netting on the surface of water in the same jar
two or three seedlings which have had their endosperm removed, and
as many which have not been mutilated. Let them grow for some
weeks, and note results.
21. Starch. Most common seeds contain starch.
Every one knows something about the appearance of ordi-
1The embryo may be removed with great ease from kernels of rather ma-
ture green corn. Boil the corn for about twenty minutes on the cob, then pick
the kernels off one by one with the point of a knife. They may be preserved
indefinitely in alcohol of 50 or 75%.
2 The teacher may well consult Figs. 56-61, inclusive, in Gray’s Structural
Botany.
18 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
nary commercial starch as used in the laundry, and as
sold for food in packages of cornstarch. When pure it
is characterized not only by its lustre, but also by its
peculiar velvety feeling when rubbed between the fingers.
22. The Starch Test. — It is not always easy to recog-
nize at sight the presence of starch as it. occurs in seeds,
but it may be detected by a very simple chemical test,
namely, the addition of a solution of iodine.?
3
EXPERIMENT VIII?
Examination of Familiar Seeds with Iodine. Cut in two with a
sharp knife the seeds to be experimented on, then pour on each, drop
by drop, some of the iodine solution. Only a little is necessary;
sometimes the first drop is enough.
If starch is present, a blue color (sometimes almost black) will
appear. If no color is obtained in this way, boil the pulverized
seeds for a moment in a few drops of water, and try again.
Test in this manner corn, wheat (in the shape of flour), oats (in
oatmeal), barley, rice, buckwheat, flax, rye, sunflower, four-o’clock,
morning-glory, mustard seed, beans, peanuts, Brazil-nuts, hazelnuts,
and any other seeds that you can get. Report your results in tabu-
lar form as follows:
Mucx Starch LittLe STaRcH No Srarce
Color: blackish or Color: pale blue or Color: brown, orange,
dark blue. greenish. or yellowish.
23. Microscopical Examination of Starch.?— Examine starch in
water with a rather high power of the microscope (not less than 200
diameters).
1The tincture of iodine sold at the drug-stores will do, but the solution
prepared as directed in the Handbook answers better. This may be made up
in quantity, and issued to the pupils in drachm vials, to be taken home and
used there, if the experimenting must be done outside of the laboratory or the
schoolroom. 2May be a home experiment.
8 At this point the teacher should give a brief illustrated talk on the con-
struction and theory of the compound microscope.
STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 19
Pulp scraped from a potato, that from a canna rootstock, wheat
flour, the finely powdered starch sold under the commercial name of
“cornstarch” for cooking, oat- TN
meal, and buckwheat finely pow-
dered in a mortar, will furnish
excellent examples of the shape
and markings of starch grains.
Sketch all of the kinds exam-
ined, taking pains to bring out
the markings.1 Compare the
sketches with Figs. 7 and 8.
With a medicine-dropper or a
very small pipette run in a drop
of iodine solution under one edge
of the cover-glass, at the same time withdrawing a little water from .
the margin opposite by touching to it a bit of blotting paper. |
Fig. 7.— Canna Starch. (Magnified
300 diameters.)
C- ~~ amt ain APR SSIS ps OE ge I
?--- “SQO0Q0OGDO0O
m.--- KX PEI ORES
“x CTI CIO ODBC
Se Oe
— —
: Fia. 8.—Section through Exterior Part of a Grain of Wheat.
e, cuticle or outer layer of bran; ep, epidermis; m, layer beneath epidermis ; qu,
sch, layers of hull next to seed-coats; br, n, seed-coats; Ki, layer containing
proteid grains ; st, cells of the endosperm filled with starch. (Greatly magnified.)
1 The markings will be seen more distinctly if care is taken not to admit
too much light to the object. Rotate the diaphragm beneath the stage of the
microscope, or otherwise regulate the supply of light, until the opening is
found which gives the best effect.
20 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Examine again and note the blue coloration of the starch grains and
the unstained or yellow appearance of other substances in the field.
Cut very thin slices from beans, peas, or kernels of corn; mount in
water, stain as above directed, and draw as seen under the microscope.
Compare with Figs. 7 and 8.!_ Note the fact that the starch is not
packed away in the seeds in bulk, but that it is enclosed in little
chambers or cells.
24. Plant-Cells. — Almost all the parts of the higher
plants are built up of little separate portions called cells.
The cell is the unit of plant-structure, and bears some-
thing the same relation to the plant of which it is a part
that one cell of a honeycomb does to the whole comb.
But this comparison is not a perfect one, for neither the
waxen wall of the honeycomb-cell nor the honey within it
is alive, while every plant-cell is or has been alive. And
even the largest ordinary honeycomb consists of only a
few hundred cells, while a large tree is made up of very
many miillons of cells. The student must not conceive
of the cell as merely a little chamber or enclosure. The
living, more or less liquid, or mucilage-like, or jelly-like
substance known as protoplasm, which forms a large portion
of the bulk of living and growing cells, is the all-important
part of such a cell. Professor Huxley has well called
this substance “the physical basis of life.” Cells are of
all shapes and sizes, from little spheres a ten-thousandth
of an inch or less in diameter to slender tubes, such as
fibers of cotton, several inches long. To get an idea of
the appearance of some rather large cells, scrape a little
pulp from a ripe, mealy apple, and examine it first with
1The differentiation between the starch grains, the other cell-contents,
and the cell-walls will appear better in the drawings if the starch grains are
sketched with blue ink.
STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 21
a strong magnifying glass, then with a moderate power of
the compound microscope. To see how dead, dry cell-
walls, with nothing inside them, look, examine (as before)
a very thin slice of elder pith, sunflower pith, or pith from
a dead cornstalk. Look also at the figures inChapter VI
of this book. Notice that the simplest plants (Chapter XX)
consist of a single cell each. The study of the structure
of plants is the study of the forms which cells and groups
of cells assume, and the study of plant physiology is the
study of what cells and cell combinations do.
25. Absorption of Starch from the Cotyledons. — Examine with
the microscope, using a medium power, soaked beans and the cotyle-
dons from seedlings that have been growing for three or four weeks.
Stain the sections with iodine solution, and notice how completely
the clusters of starch grains that filled most of the cells of the un-
sprouted cotyledons have disappeared from the shriveled cotyledons
of the seedlings. A few grains may be left, but they have lost their
sharpness of outline.
26. Oil.— The presence of oil in any considerable
quantity in seeds is not as general as is the presence of
starch, though in many common seeds there is a good
deal of it.
Sometimes the oil is sufficiently abundant to make it
worth while to extract it by pressure, as is done with flax-
seed, cotton-seed, the seeds of some plants of the cress
family, the “castor bean,” and other seeds.
27. Dissolving Oil from Ground Seeds. — It is not possi-
ble easily to show a class how oil is extracted from seeds
by pressure; but there are several liquids which readily
dissolve oils and yet have no effect on starch and most of
the other constituents of seeds.
22 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
EXPERIMENT IX
Extraction of Oil by Ether or Benzine.—To a few ounces of
ground flaxseed add an equal volume of ether or benzine. Let it
stand ten or fifteen minutes and then filter. Let the liquid stand in
a saucer or evaporating dish in a good draught till it has lost the
odor of the ether or benzine.
Describe the oil which you have obtained.
Of what use would it have been to the plant?
Tf the student wishes to do this experiment at home for himself,
he should bear in mind the following :
Caution. — Never handle benzine or ether near a flame or stove.
A much simpler experiment to find oil in seeds may readily be
performed by the pupilat home. Put the material to be studied, e.g.,
flaxseed meal, corn meal, wheat flour, cotton-seed meal, buckwheat
flour, oatmeal, and so on, upon little labeled pieces of white paper,
one kind of flour or meal on each bit of paper. Place all the papers,
with their contents, on a perfectly clean plate, free from cracks, or
on a clean sheet of iron, and put this in an oven hot enough nearly
(but not quite) to scorch the paper. “After half an hour remove the
plate from the oven, shake off the flour or meal from each paper, and
note the results, a more or less distinct grease spot showing the
presence of oil, or the absence of any stain that there was little or
no oil in the seed examined.
28. Albuminous Substances. — Albuminous substances
or proteids occur in all seeds, though often only in small
quantities. They have nearly the same chemical compo-
sition as white of egg and the curd of milk among animal
substances, and are essential to the plant, since the living
and growing parts of all plants contain large quantities of
proteid material.
Sometimes the albuminous constituents of the seed occur
in more or less regular grains (Fig. 8, at K7).
But much of the proteid material of seeds is not in any
STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE SEED 23
form in which it can be recognized under the microscope.
One test for its presence is the peculiar smell which it
produces in burning. Hair, wool, feathers, leather, and
lean meat all produce a well-known sickening smell when
scorched or burned, and the similarity of the proteid mate-
rial in such seeds as the bean and pea to these substances
is shown by the fact that scorching beans and similar
seeds give off the familiar smell of burnt feathers.
29. Chemical Tests for Proteids.— All proteids (and
very few other substances) are turned yellow by nitric
acid, and this yellow color becomes deeper or even orange
when the yellowish substance is moistened with ammonia.
They are also turned yellow by iodine solution. Most
proteids are turned more or less red by the solution of
nitrate of mercury known as Millon’s reagent.?
EXPERIMENT X
Detection of Proteids in Seeds. — Extract the germs from some
soaked kernels of corn and bruise them; soak some wheat-germ meal
for a few hours in warm water, or wash the starch out of wheat-
flour dough; reserving the latter for use, place it in a white saucer or
porcelain evaporating dish, and moisten well with Millon’s reagent
or with nitric acid; examine after fifteen minutes.
30. The Brazil-Nut as a Typical Oily Seed. — Not many
familiar seeds are as oily as the Brazil-nut. Its large size
makes it convenient for examination, and the fact that this
nut is good for human food makes it the more interesting
to investigate the kinds of plant-food which it contains.
1 See Handbook.
24 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
EXPERIMENT XI
Testing Brazil-Nuts for Plant-Foods.— Crack fifteen or twenty
Brazil-nuts, peel off the brown coating from the kernel of each, and
then grind the kernels to a pulp in a mortar. Shake up this pulp
with ether, pour upon a paper filter, and wash with ether until the
washings when evaporated are nearly free from oil. The funnel
containing the filter should be kept covered as much as possible
until the washing is finished. Evaporate the filtrate to procure the
oil, which may afterwards be kept in a glass-stoppered bottle. Dry
the powder which remains on the filter and keep it in a wide-
mouthed bottle. Test portions of this powder for proteids and for
starch. Explain the.results obtained.
31. Other Constituents of Seeds. — Besides the substances
above suggested, others occur in different seeds. Some
of these are of use in feeding the seedling, others are of
value in protecting the seed itself from being eaten by
animals or in rendering it less liable to decay. In such
seeds as that of the nutmeg, the essential oil which gives
it its characteristic flavor probably makes it unpalatable
to animals and at the same time preserves it from decay.
Date seeds are so hard and tough that they cannot be
eaten and do not readily decay. Lemon, orange, horse-
chestnut and buckeye seeds are too bitter to be eaten, and
the seeds of the apple, cherry, peach, and plum are some-
what bitter.
The seeds of larkspur, thorn-apple,! croton, the castor-
oil plant, nux vomica, and many oEner kinds of plants
contain active poisons.
1 Datura, commonly called “ Jimpson weed.”
CHAPTER III
MOVEMENTS, DEVELOPMENT, AND MORPHOLOGY OF
THE SEEDLING
32. How the Seedling breaks Ground. — As the student
has already learned by his own observations, the seedling
does not always push its way straight out of the ground.
Corn, like all the other grains and grasses, it is true, sends
a tightly rolled, pointed leaf vertically upward into the
air. But the other seedlings examined usually will not
be found to do anything of the sort. The squash seedling
is a good one in which to study what may
be called the arched hypocotyl
type of germination. If the ¢,5—%
seed when planted is laid hori- s
. - Cc es
( ()
A B Cc D E
Fic. 9.— Successive Stages in the Life History of the Squash Seedling.
GG, the surface of the ground; 1, primary root; 1’, secondary root; ¢, hypocoty1 ;
a, arch of hypocotyl; co, cotyledons.
zontally on one of its broad surfaces, it usually goes through
some such changes of position as are shown in Fig. 9.
25
26 ' FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
The seed is gradually tilted until, at the time of their
emergence from the ground (at C), the cotyledons are
almost vertical. The only part above the ground-line G, G,
at this period, is the arched hypocotyl. Once out of ground,
the cotyledons soon rise, until (at H) they are again ver-
tical, but with the other end up from that which stood
highest in C. Then the two cotyledons separate until
they once more lie horizontal, pointing away from each
other.
Can you suggest any advantage which the plant derives
from having the cotyledons dragged out of the ground
rather than having them pushed out, tips first?
33. Cause of the Arch. — It is evident that a flexible
object like the hypocotyl, when pushed upward through the
earth, might easily be bent into an arch or loop. Whether
the shape which the hypocotyl assumes is wholly caused
by the resistance of the soil can best be ascertained by
an experiment. -
EXPERIMENT XII
Is the Arch of the Hypocotyl due to the Pressure of the Soil on the
Rising Cotyledons ? — Sprout some squash seeds on wet paper under
a bell-glass, and when the root is an inch or more long, hang several
of the seedlings, roots down, in little stirrups made of soft twine,
attached by beeswax and rosin mixture to the inside of the upper
part of a bell-glass. Put the bell-glass on a large plate or a sheet of
glass on which lies wet paper to keep the air moist. Note whether «.
the seedlings form hypocotyl arches at all and, if so, whether the
arch is more or less perfect than that formed by seedlings growing
in earth, sand, or sawdust.
34. What pushes the Cotyledons up?—A very little
study of any set of squash seedlings, or even of Fig. 9, is
MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 27
sufficient to show that the portion of the plant where
roots and hypocotyl are joined neither rises nor sinks, but
that the plant grows both ways from this part (a little
above 7’ in Fig. 9, A and B). It is evident that as soon as
the hypocotyl begins to lengthen much it must do one of
two things: either push the cotyledons out into the air or
else force the root down into the ground as one might
push a stake down. What changes does the plantlet
undergo, in passing from the stage shown at A to that
of B and of C, making it harder and harder for the root
to be thrust downward?
35. Use of the Peg. — Squash seedlings usually (though
not always) form a sort of knob on the hypocotyl. This is
known as the peg. Study a good many seedlings and try
to find out what the lengthening of the hypocotyl, between
the peg and the bases of the cotyledons, does for the little
plant. Set a lot of squash seeds, hilum down, in moist
sand or sawdust and see whether the peg is more or less
developed than in seeds sprouted lying on their sides, and
whether the cotyledons ip the case of the vertically planted
seeds usually come out of the ground in the same condi-
tion as do those shown in Fig. 9.
36. Discrimination between Root and Hypocotyl. — It is
not always easy to decide by their appearance and be-
- havior what part of the seedling is root and what part is
hypocotyl. In a seedling visibly beginning to germinate,
the sprout, as it is commonly called, which projects from
the seed might be either root or hypocotyl or might consist
of both together, so far as its appearance is concerned. A
microscopic study of the cross-section of a root, compared
with one of the hypocotyl, would show decided differences
28 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
of structure between the two. Their mode of growth is
also different, as the pupil may infer after he has tried
Exp. XIV.
37. Discrimination by Staining. — For some reason, per-
haps because the skin or epidermis of the young root is
not so water-proof as that of the stem, the former stains
more easily than the latter does.
EXPERIMENT XIII
The Permanganate Test. — Make a solution of potassium perman-
ganate in water, by adding about four parts, by weight, of the crystal-
lized permanganate to 100 parts of water. Drop into the solution
seedlings, ¢.g., of all the kinds that have been so far studied, each in
its earliest stage of germination (that is, when the root or hypocotyl
has pushed out of the seed half an inch or less), and also at one or
two subsequent stages. After the seedlings have been in the solu-
tion from three to five minutes, or as soon as the roots are consider-
ably stained, pour off (and save) the solution and rinse the plants
with plenty of clear water. Sketch one specimen of each kind, col-
oring the brown-stained part, which is root, in some way so as to
distinguish it from the unstained hypocotyl. Note particularly how
much difference there is in the amount of lengthening in the several
kinds of hypocotyl examined. Decide whether the peg of the squash
seedling is an outgrowth of hypocotyl or of root.
38. Disposition made of the Cotyledons. — As soon as
the young plants of squash, bean, and pea have reached
a height of three or four inches above the ground it is
easy to recognize important differences in the way in
which they set out in life.
The cotyledons of the squash increase greatly in sur-
face, acquire a green color and a generally leaf-like appear-
ance, and, in fact, do the work of ordinary leaves, In
MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 29
such a case as this the appropriateness of the name seed-
leaf is evident enough, — one recognizes at sight the fact
that the cotyledons are actually the plant’s first leaves.
In the bean the leaf-like nature of the cotyledons is not
so clear. They rise out of the ground like the squash
cotyledons, but then gradually shrivel away, though they
may first turn green and somewhat leaf-like for a time.
In the pea (as in the acorn, the horse-chestnut, and
many other seeds) we have quite another plan, the under-
ground type of germination. Here the thick cotyledons
no longer rise above ground at all, because they are so
gorged with food that they could never become leaves ;
but the young stem pushes rapidly up from the surface
of the soil. :
The development of the plumule seems to depend some-
what on that of the cotyledons. The squash seed has
cotyledons which are not too thick to become useful leaves,
and so the plant is in no special haste to get ready any
other leaves. The plumule, therefore, cannot be found
with the magnifying glass in the unsprouted seed, and is
almost microscopic in size at the time when the hypocotyl
begins to show outside of the seed-coats.
In the bean and pea, on the other hand, since the cotyle-
dons cannot serve as foliage leaves, the later leaves must
be pushed forward rapidly. In the bean the first pair are
already well formed in the seed. In the pea they cannot
be clearly made out, since the young plant forms several
scales on its stem before it produces any full-sized leaves,
and the embryo contains only hypocotyl, cotyledons, and a
sort of knobbed plumule, well developed in point of size,
representing the lower scaly part of the stem,
30 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
39. Root, Stem, and Leaf. — By the time the seedling is
well out of the ground it, in most cases, possesses the three
kinds of vegetative organs, or parts essential to growth, of
ordinary flowering plants, ¢.e., the root, stem, and leaf, or,
as they are sometimes classified, root and shoot. All of
these organs may multiply and increase in size as the
plant grows older, and their mature structure will be
studied in later chapters, but some facts concerning them
can best be learned by watching their growth from the
outset.
40. Young Roots grown for Examination. — Roots grow-
ing in sand or ordinary soil cling to its particles so tena-
ciously that they cannot easily be studied, and those grown
in water have not quite the same form as soil-roots. Roots
grown in damp air are best adapted for careful study.
41. Elongation of the Root. — We know that the roots
of seedlings grow pretty rapidly from the fact that each
day finds them reaching visibly farther down into the
water or other medium in which they are planted. A
sprouted Windsor bean in a vertical thistle-tube will send
its root downward fast enough so that ten minutes’ watch-
ing through the microscope will suffice to show growth.
To find out just where the growth goes on requires a
special experiment.
EXPERIMENT XIV
In what Portions of the Root does its Increase in Length take Place ?
— Sprout some peas on moist blotting paper in a loosely covered tum-
bler. When the roots are one and a half inches or more long, mark
them along the whole length with little dots made with a bristle
dipped in water-proof India ink, or a fine inked thread stretched on
a little bow of whalebone or brass wire.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 31
Transfer the plants.to moist blotting paper under a bell-glass or
an inverted battery jar and examine the roots at the end of twenty-
four hours to see along what portions their length has increased ;
continue observations on them for several days.
42. Root-Hairs. — Barley, oats, wheat, red clover, or
buckwheat seeds soaked and then sprouted on moist
blotting paper afford convenient material for studying
root-hairs. ‘The seeds may be kept covered with a watch-
glass or a clock-glass while sprouting. After they have
begun to germinate well, care must be taken not to
have them kept in too moist an atmosphere, or very few
root-hairs will be formed. Examine with the magni-
fying glass those parts of the root which have these
appendages.
Try to find out whether all the portions of the root are
equally covered with hairs and, if not, where they are
most abundant. (See also Sect. 53.)
The root-hairs in plants growing under ordinary condi-
tions are surrounded by the moist soil and wrap them-
selves around microscopical particles of earth (Fig. 11).
Thus they are able rapidly to absorb through their thin
walls the soil-water, with whatever mineral substances it
has dissolved in it.
43. The Young Stem.— The hypocotyl, or portion of
the stem which lies below the cotyledons, is the earliest
formed portion of the stem. Sometimes this lengthens but
little; often, however, as the student knows from his own
observations, the hypocotyl lengthens enough to raise the
cotyledons well above ground, as in Fig. 10.
The later portions of the stem are considered to be
divided into successive nodes, — places at which a leaf (or
82 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
a scale which represents a leaf) appears; and internodes, —
portions between the leaves. —
The student should watch the growth of a seedling
bean or pea and ascertain by actual measurements whether
the internodes lengthen after they have once been formed,
and if so, for how long a time the increase continues.
Fie. 10. Fie. il.
Fie. 10.— A Turnip Seedling, with the Cotyledons developed into Temporary Leaves.
h, root-hairs from the primary root; 6, bare portion of the root, on which no
hairs have as yet been produced.
Fia. 11, —Cross-Section of a Root, a good deal magnified, showing root-hairs attached
to particles of soil, and sometimes enwrapping these particles.
44. The First Leaves. — The cotyledons are, as already
explained, the first leaves which the seedling possesses, —
even if a plumule is found well developed in the seed, it
was formed after the cotyledons. In those plants which
have so much food stored in the cotyledons as to render
these unfit ever to become useful foliage leaves, there is
little or nothing in the color, shape, or general appearance
MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 33
of the cotyledon to make one think it really a leaf, and it
is only by.studying many cases that the botanist is enabled
to class all cotyledons as leaves in their nature, even if they
are quite unable to do the ordinary work of leaves. The
study of the various forms which the parts or organs of a
plant may assume is called morphology ; it traces the rela-
tionship of parts which are really akin to each other,
though dissimilar in appearance and often in function.
In seeds which have endosperm, or food stored outside of
the embryo, the cotyledons usually become green and
leaf-like, as they do, for example, in the four-o’clock, the
morning-glory, and the buckwheat; but in the seeds of
the grains (which contain endosperm) a large portion of
the single cotyledon remains throughout as a thickish
mass buried in the seed. In a few cases, as in the pea,
there are scales instead of true leaves formed on the first
nodes above the cotyledons, and it is only at about the
third node above that leaves of the ordinary co
kind appear. In the bean and some other |”, ~
plants which in general bear one leaf at a
node along the stem, there is a pair produced
at the first node above the cotyledons, and
the leaves of this pair differ in shape from
those which arise from the succeeding por-
tions of the stem.
45. Classification of Plants by the Number
of their Cotyledons. —In the pine family the jig 19 ~ Ger.
germinating seed often displays more than minating Pine.
two cotyledons, as shown in Fig. 12; in the “°*vietons
majority of common flowering plants the seed con-
tains two cotyledons, while in the lilies, the rushes, the
84 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
sedges, the grasses, and some other plants, there is but one
cotyledon. Upon these facts is based the division of most
flowering plants into two great groups: the dicotyledonous
plants, which have two seed-leaves, and the monocotyledon-
ous plants, which have one seed-leaf. Other important
differences nearly always accompany the difference in
number of cotyledons, as will be seen later.
46. Tabular Review of Experiments. — Make out a
table containing a very brief summary of the experiments
thus far performed, as follows:
NUMBER MATERIALS OPERA-
OBJECT
OF AND TIONS RESULTS | INFERENCES
SOUGHT
EXPERIMENT APPARATUS | PERFORMED
47. Review Sketches. — Make out a comparison of the
early life histories of all the other seedlings studied, by
arranging in parallel columns a series of drawings of each,
MORPHOLOGY OF THE SEEDLING 35
like those of Fig. 9, but in vertical series, the youngest
of each at the top, thus:
Brean Pra Corn °
First STAGE
SEconD STAGE
Tuirp STAGE
FourtH STAGE
Firth STAGE
ETC.
CHAPTER IV
ROOTS !
48. Origin of Roots. — The primary root originates from
the lower end of the hypocotyl, as the student learned
from his own observations on sprouting seeds. The
branches of the primary root are called secondary roots,
and the branches of these are known as tertiary roots.
Those roots which occur on the stem or in other unusual
places are known as adventitious roots. The roots which
form so readily on cuttings of willow, southernwood,
tropeolum, French marigold, geranium (pelargonium),
tradescaiitia, and many other plants, when placed in damp
earth or water, are adventitious.
49, Aerial Roots. —While the roots of most familiar
plants grow in the earth and‘are known as soil-roots, there
are others which are formed in the air, called aerial roots.
They serve various purposes: in some tropical air-plants
(Fig. 18) they serve to fasten the plant to the tree on
which it establishes itself, as well as to take in water which
drips from branches and trunks above them, so that these
plants require no soil and grow in mid-air suspended from
trees, which serve them merely as supports ;?. many such
1To the plant the root is more important than the stem. The author has,
however, treated the structure of the latter more fully than that of the root,
mainly because the tissues are more varied in the stem and a moderate knowl-
edge of the more complex anatomy of the stem will serve every purpose.
“If it can be conveniently managed, the class will find it highly interesting
and profitable to visit any greenhouse of considerable size, in which the aerial
roots of orchids and aroids may be examined.
36
ROOTS 37
air-plants are grown in greenhouses. In such plants as the
ivy (Fig. 15) the aerial roots (which are also adventitious)
hold the plant to the wall or other surface up which it climbs.
In the Indian corn (Fig. 14) roots are sent out from
nodes at some dis-
tance above the
ground and ‘finally
descend until they
enter the ground.
They serve both to
anchor the cornstalk
so as to enable it to
resist the wind and
to supply additional
water to the plant.t
They often produce
no rootlets until they
reach the ground.
50. Water-Roots. — Many
plants, such as the willow,
readily adapt their roots to
live either in earth or in water, *
- and some, like the little float-
ing duckweed, regularly pro-
duce roots which are adapted to live in water ‘
only. These water-roots often show large and \
distinct sheaths on the ends of the roots, as, for instance,
in the so-called water-hyacinth. This plant is especially
interesting for laboratory cultivation from the fact that
Fig. 13. — Aerial §
Roots of an Orchid..
1 Specimens of the lower part of the cornstalk, with ordinary roots and
aerial roots, should be dried and kept for class study.
38 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
t 1
I di |
. vw
|
Indian Corn, showing Aerial
Roots (‘ Brace-Roots ”’),
a,c, internodes of the stem ; 8, d, e, f', nodes of various age bearing roots. Most of
these started as aerial roots, but all except those from 6 have now reached the earth,
ROOTS ES)
it may readily be transferred to moderately damp soil,
and that the whole plant presents curious modifications
when made to grow in earth instead of water.
51. Parasitic Roots.:— The dodder, the mistletoe, and a
good many other parasites, live upon nourishment which
they steal from other plants, called hosts. The parasitic
Fig. 15. — Aerial Adventitious Roots of the Ivy.
roots, or haustoria, form the most intimate connections
with the interior portions of the stem or the root, as the
case may be, of the host-plant on which the parasite
fastens itself.
In the dodder, as is shown in Fig. 16, it is most inter-
esting to notice how admirably the seedling parasite is
adapted to the conditions under which it is to live. Rooted
1See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 171-213,
40 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
at first in the ground, it develops a slender, leafless stem,
which, leaning this way and that, no sooner comes into
Fic. 16. — Dodder, growing upon a Golden-Rod Stem,
8, seedling dodder plants, growing in earth; h, stem of host; r, haustoria or
parasitic roots of dodder ; J, scale-like leaves. .4, magnified section of a por-
tion of willow stem, showing penetration of haustoria.
permanent contact with a congenial host than it produces
haustoria at many points, gives up further growth in its
ROOTS 41
soil-roots, and grows rapidly on the strength of the sup-
plies of ready-made sap which it obtains from the host.
52. Forms of Roots. — The primary root is that which
proceeds like a downward prolongation directly from the
lower end of the hypocotyl. In many cases the mature root-
system of the plant contains one main root much larger
than any of its branches. This is called a taproot (Fig. 17).
Such a root, if much thickened, would assume the form
Fie. 17.— A Taproot. Fia, 18. — Fibrous Roots. Fia. 19.— Fascicled Roots.
shown in the carrot, parsnip, beet, turnip, salsify, or radish,
and is called.a fleshy root. Some plants produce multiple
primary roots, that is, a cluster proceeding from the lower
end of the hypocotyl at the outset. If such roots become
thickened, like those of the sweet potato and the dahlia
(Fig. 19), they are known as fascicled roots.
Roots of grasses, etc., are thread-like, and known as
fibrous roots (Fig. 18).
53. General Structure of Roots. — The structure of the
very young root can be partially made out by examining
42 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
the entire root with a moderate magnifying power, since
the whole is sufficiently translucent to allow the interior
as well as the exterior portion to be studied while the root
is still alive and growing.
Place some vigorous cuttings of tradescantia or Zebrina, which
can usually be obtained of a gardener or florist, in a beaker or jar of
water.) The jar should
be as thin and trans-
parent as possible, and
it is well to get a flat-
sided rather than a
cylindrical one. Leave
the jar of cuttings in
@ sunny, warm place.
As soon as roots have
developed at the nodes
and reached the length
of three-quarters of an
inch or more, arrange
a microscope in a hori-
zontal position (see
Handbook), and exam-
ine the tip and adjacent
portion of one of the
young roots with a
powér of from twelve
to twenty diameters.
Fic. 20.—Lengthwise Section (somewhat diagram- Note:
matic) through Root-Tip of Indian Corn. x about 130. (a) The roo t-eap,
W, root-eap ; i, younger part of cap ; z, dead cells sepa- of loosel y
rating from cap ; s, growing point; 0, epidermis; p’,
intermediate layer between epidermis and central attached cells.
cylinder; p, central cylinder; d, layer from which (0) The central
the root-cap originates. cylinder.
1 If the tradescantia or Zebrina cannot be obtained, roots of seedlings of
oats, wheat, or barley, or of red-clover seedlings raised in a large covered cell
on a microscope slide, may be used.
ROOTS 43
(¢) The cortical portion, a tubular part enclosing the solid
central cylinder.
(@) The root-hairs, which cover some parts of the outer layer of
' the cortical portion very thickly. Observe particularly
how far toward the tip of the root the root-hairs extend,
-and where the youngest ones are found.
Make a drawing to illustrate all the points above suggested
(a,b, c,d). Compare your drawing with Fig. 20. Make a careful
study of longitudinal sections through the centers of the tips of very
young roots of the hyacinth or the Chinese sacred lily. Sketch
one section and compare the sketch with Fig. 20.
Make a study of the roots. of any of the common duckweeds,
growing in nutrient solution in a jar of water under a bell-glass, and
note the curious root-pockets which here take the place of root-caps.
54. Details of Root-Structure.— The plan on which the
young root is built has been outlined in Sect. 538. o NY 86 a? CAoame
2 © Se\ (2 Ho 9 cAne @
PP OE ® 9 @ \ ae So As 3 s 2
o ee as fo a of6 => 9 Bo
oe @e™ = Ze 90 ne
Sat’ “So Nt Yo =e *F apes 6
: “Br oF, {j= d Oe'\s ~o0® = Ze =
. cs 999.0 9 AS og 2° Sy
9, : , %O @ 9% = 2 0°
3 . ®
F 0° ¥ @ =. : © Bee
ee a 2?
e C
2 st
Fig. 116. — Vertical Section of the Leaf of the Beet. (Much magnified.)
e, epidermis ; p, palisade-cells (and similar elongated cells) ; r, cells filled with
red cell sap ; i, intercellular spaces; a, air spaces communicating with the
stomata; st, stomata, or breathing pores.
1 The teacher may measure the size with the camera lucida.
152 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
somewhat kidney-shaped and become more or less curved
as they are fuller or less full of water (see Sect. 170).
162, Calculation of Number of Stomata per Unit of Area.
—In order to get a fairly exact-idea of the number of
stomata on a unit of leaf-surface, the most convenient
Fig. 117. —Epidermis of Leaf of Althea.
(Much magnified.)
A, from upper surface; B, from lower surface.
h, star-shaped compound hairs; st, stomata; p,
upper ends of palisade-cells, seen through the
epidermis ; e, cells of epidermis,
plan is to make
use of a photo-
micrograph. The
bromide enlarge-
ment No. 12 of
the Tower series
represents about
a twenty-five-
hundredth of a
square inch of the
lower epidermis of
the cyclamen leaf,
magnified until it
is about fifteen
inches square.
Count the number
of stomata on the
entire photograph,
then calculate the
number of stomata
on a square inch
of the surface of
this leaf. If a cyclamen plant has twelve leaves, each
with an average area of six square inches, calculate the
number of stomata of the lower epidermis of all the leaves
taken together.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 153
In the case of an apple tree, where the epidermis of the
lower surface of the leaf contains about 24,000 stomata to
the square inch, or the black walnut, with nearly 300,000
to the square inch,
the total number
on a tree is incon-
ceivably large.
163. Uses of the
Parts examined. —
It will be most con-
venient to discuss
the uses of the
parts of the leaf a
little later, but it
will make matters
simpler to state at
once that the epi-
dermis serves as a
mechanical protec-
tion to the parts yy. 118,A Stomaof Thyme. (Greatly magnified.)
vo , i 52, -
beneath and pre A, section at right angles to surface of leaf; B, sur.
. face view of stoma. cu, cuticle; g, guard-cells;
vents excessive 8, stoma; e, epidermal cells; a, air chamber ;
evaporation, that e, cells of spongy parenchyma with grains of
the palisade-cells ee
(which it may not be easy to make out very clearly in a
roughly prepared section) hold large quantities of the green
coloring matter of the leaf in a position where it can
receive enough but not too much sunlight, and the. cells
of the spongy parenchyma share the work of the palisade-
cells, besides evaporating much water. The stomata
admit air to the interior of the leaf (where the air spaces
154 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
serve to store and to distribute it), they allow oxygen
and carbonic acid gas to escape, and, above all, they regu-
late the evaporation of water from the plant.
164, Leaf of “‘India-Rubber Plant.’?!— Study with the micro-
scope, as the lily leaf was studied, make the same set of sketches,
note the differences in structure between the two leaves, and try to
discover their meaning.
How does the epidermis of the two leaves compare?
Which has the larger stomata?
Which would better withstand great heat and long drought?
165. Chlorophyll as found in the Leaf. — Slice off a
little of the epidermis from some such soft, pulpy leaf as
Fia. 119.— Section through Lower Epidermis of Leaf of India-Rubber Plant
(Ficus elastica). (Magnified 330 diameters.)
v, opening of pit; p, pit leading to stoma; s, stoma, with two guard-cells; w,
water-storage cells of epidermis ; a, an air space; around and above the air
spaces are cells of the spongy parenchyma.
that of the common field sorrel,? live-for-ever, or spinach ;
scrape from the exposed portion a very little of the green
pulp ; examine with the highest power attainable with
your microscope, and sketch several cells.
1 Ficus elastica, a kind of fig tree.
2 Rumex Acetoseila.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 155
Notice that the green coloring matter is not uniformly
distributed, but that it is collected into little particles
called chlorophyll bodies (Fig. 120, p).
166. Woody Tissue in Leaves.— The veins of leaves
consist of fibro-vascular bundles containing wood and
vessels much like those of the stem
of the plant. Indeed, these bundles
in the leaf are continuous with those
of the stem, and consist a of
portions of the latter, looking , --~ e
as if unraveled, which pass *
outward and upward from the
stem into the leaf under
the name of leaf-traces. ¢
These traverse the peti- £9
ole often in a somewhat —
irregular fashion.
Fig. 120.—Termination Ss*
of a Vein in a Leaf. F
EXPERIMENT XXVIII (Mamiiaad: ancne fa
diameters.)
Passage of Water from aa fs mutatis
v, Spirally 1¢Kened Ce.
Stem to Leaf.—Place a ‘of the vein; p, paren-
freshly cut leafy shoot of some ¢hyma-cells of the
s spongy interior of the
plant with large thin leaves, leaf, with chlorophyll
such as Hydrangea hortensia, aa my nucleated
in eosin solution for a few
minutes. As soon as the leaves show a decided reddening, pull
some of them off and sketch the red stains on the scars thus made.
What does this show?
167. Experimental Study of Functions of Leaves. — The
most interesting and profitable way in which to find out
what work leaves do for the plant is by experimenting
upon them. Much that relates to the uses of leaves is
«
156 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
not readily shown in ordinary class-room experiments, but
some things can readily be demonstrated in the experi-
ments which follow.
EXPERIMENT XXTX
Transpiration. — Take two twigs or leafy shoots of any thin-leafed
plant ;1 cover the cut end of each stem with a bit of grafting wax?
to prevent evaporation from the cut surface. Put one shoot into a
fruit jar, screw the top on, and leave in a warm room; put the other
beside it, and allow both to remain some hours. Examine the
relative appearance of the two, as regards wilting, at the end of the
time.
Which shoot has lost most? Why? Has the one in the fruit
jar lost any water? To answer this question, put the jar (without
opening it) into a refrigerator; or, if the weather is cold, put it out
of doors for a few minutes, and examine the appearance of the inside
of the jar. What does this show ?®
168. Uses of the Epidermis.t— The epidermis, by its
toughness, tends to prevent mechanical injuries to the
leaf, and after the filling up of a part of its outer por-
tion with a corky substance it greatly diminishes the loss of
water from the general surface. This process of becom-
ing filled with cork substance, suberin (or a substance
of similar properties known as cutin) is essential to the
safety of leaves or of young stems which have to with-
stand heat and dryness. The corky or cutinized cell-
wall is waterproof, while ordinary cellulose allows water
1 Hydrangea, squash, melon, or cucumber is best; many other kinds will
answer very well.
2 Grafting wax may be bought of nurserymen or seedsmen.
8 If the student is in doubt whether the jar filled with ordinary air might
not behave in the same way, the question may be readily answered by putting
a sealed jar of air into the refrigerator.
4 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 273-362.
MINUTE STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 157
to soak through it with ease. Merely examining sections
of the various kinds of epidermis will not give nearly
as good an idea of their properties as can be obtained
by studying the behavior during severe droughts of
plants which have strongly cutinized surfaces and of
those which have not. Fig. 121, however, may convey
some notion of the difference between the two kinds of
structure. In most c.
cases, as in the india- ring eee T
rubber tree, the ex- if q,
i f
ternal epidermal cells ( } («|
(and often two or TN
three layers of cells
beneath these) are - —————_——__
_filled with water, and B 4
thus serve as reser- <—~ fr Par N fo
voirs from which the Fig. 121. — Unequal Development of Cuticle
outer parts of the leaf By Res ronan es
4 A, epidermis of Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus); B,
and the stem are at epidermis of sunflower; c, cuticle; e, epi-
times supplied. dermis-cells.
In many cases, noticeably in the cabbage, the epidermis
is covered with a waxy coating, which doubtless increases
the power of the leaf to retain needed moisture, and
which certainly prevents rain or dew from covering the
leaf-surfaces, especially the lower surfaces, so as to hinder
the operation of the stomata. Many common plants, like
the meadow rue and the nasturtium, possess this power
to shed water to such a degree that the under surface of
the leaf is hardly wet at all when immersed in water.
The air-bubbles on such leaves give them a silvery
appearance when held under water.
158 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
169. Hairs on Leaves. — Many kinds of leaves are more
or less hairy or downy, as those of the mullein, the
“mullein pink,” many cinquefoils, and other common
plants. In some instances this hairiness may be a protec-
tion against snails or other small leaf-eating animals, but
in other cases it seems to be pretty clear that the woolli-
ness (so often confined to the under surface) is to lessen
the loss of water through the stomata. The Labrador
tea is an excellent example of a plant, with a densely
woolly coating on the lower surface of the leaf. The
leaves, too, are partly rolled up (see Fig. 224), with the
upper surface outward, so as to give the lower surface
a sort of deeply grooved form, and on the lower surface
all of the stomata are placed. This plant, like some
others with the same characteristics, ranges far north into. .
regions where the temperature, even during summer,
often falls so low that absorption of water by the roots
ceases, since it has been shown that this nearly stops a
little above the freezing point of water (see Exp. XVII).
Exposed to cold, dry winds, the plant would then often
be killed by complete drying if it were not for the pro-
tection afforded by the woolly, channeled under surfaces
of the leaves.t
170. Operation of the Stomata.— The stomata serve to
admit air to the interior of the leaf, and to allow moisture,
in the form of vapor, to pass out of it. They do this not
in a passive way, as so many mere holes in the epidermis
might, but to a considerable extent they regulate the
rapidity of transpiration, opening more widely in damp
weather and closing in dry weather. The opening is
1 This adaptation is sufficiently interesting for class study.
ence teeamninn tence ac Ea nner Ray
aM tn cc,
Puate IV. — A Cypress Swamp
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 159
caused by each of the guard-cells bending into a more
kidney-like form than usual, and the closing by a straight-
ening out of the guard-cells. The under side of the leaf,
free from palisade-cells, abounding in intercellular spaces,
and pretty well protected from becoming covered with
rain or dew, is especially adapted for the working of the
stomata, and accordingly we usually find them in much
greater numbers on the lower surface. On the other
hand, the little flowerless plants known as liverworts,
which lie prostrate on the ground, have their stomata on
the upper surface, and so do the leaves of pond lilies,
which lie flat on the water. In those leaves which stand
with their edges nearly vertical, the stomata are dis-
tributed somewhat equally on both surfaces. Stomata
occur in the epidermis of young stems, being replaced
later by the lenticels. Those plants which, like the
cacti, have no ordinary-leaves, transpire through the
stomata scattered over their general surfaces.
The health of the plant depends largely on the proper
working condition of the stomata, and one reason why
plants in cities often fail to thrive is that the stomata
become choked with dust and soot. In some plants, as
the oleander, provision is made for the exclusion of dust
by a fringe of hairs about the opening of each stoma. If
the stomata were to become filled with water, their activ-
ity would cease until they were freed from it; hence
many plants have their leaves, especially the under sur-
faces, protected by a coating of wax which sheds water.
171. Measurement of Transpiration. — We have already
proved that water is lost by the leaves, but it is worth
while to perform a careful experiment to reduce our
160 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
knowledge to an exact form, to learn how much water
a given plant transpires under certain conditions. It is
also desirable to find out whether different kinds of plants
transpire alike, and what changes in the temperature, the
dampness of the air, the brightness of the light, to which
a plant is exposed, have to do with its transpiration.
Another experiment will show whether both sides of a
leaf transpire alike.
EXPERIMENT XXX
Amount of Water lost by Transpiration. — Procure a thrifty hydran-
gea+ and a small “india-rubber plant,”? each growing in a small
flower-pot, and with the number
of square inches of leaf-surface
in the two plants not too widely
different. Calculate the area of
the leaf-surface for each plant,
by dividing the surface of a piece
of tracing cloth into a series of
squares one-half inch on a side,
holding an average leaf of each
plant against this and counting
the number of squares and parts
of squares covered by the leaf.
‘> Or weigh a square inch of tinfoil
on a very delicate balance, cut
out a piece of the same kind of
tinfoil of the size of an average
Fig. 122.— A Hydrangea pottedina = Jeaf, weigh this and calculate the
Seu Nee eerie leaf-area from the two weights.
This area, multiplied by the number of leaves for each plant, will
give approximately the total evaporating surface for each. i
Transfer each plant to a glass battery jar of suitable size. Cover
1 The common species of the greenhouses, Hydrangea Hortensia.
2 This is really a fig, Ficus elastica.
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 161
the jar with a piece of sheet lead, slit to admit the stem of the plant,
invert the jar and seal the lead to the glass with a hot mixture of
beeswax and rosin. Seal up the slit and the opening about the
stem with grafting wax. A thistle-tube, such as is used by chem-
ists, is also to be inserted, as shown in Fig.122.1 The mouth of this
may be kept corked when the tube is not in use for watering.
Water each plant moderately and weigh the plants separately on
a balance that is sensitive to one-fifth gram. Record the weights,
allow the plants to stand in a sunny, warm room for twenty-four
hours and reweigh.
Add to each plant just the amount of water which is lost,? and
continue the experiment in the same manner for several days so as
to ascertain, if possible, the effect upon transpiration of varying
amounts of water in the atmosphere.
Calculate the average loss per 100 square inches of leaf-surface for
each plant throughout the whole course of the experiment. Divide
the greater loss by the lesser to find their ratio. Find the ratio of
each plant’s greatest loss per day to its least loss per day, and by
comparing these ratios decide which transpires more regularly.
Try the effect of supplying very little water to each, so that the
hydrangea will begin to droop, and see whether this changes the
relative amount of transpiration for the two plants. Vary the con-
ditions of the experiment for a day or two as regards temperature,
and again for a day or two as regards light, and note the effect upon
the amount of transpiration.
The structure of the fig (India-rubber plant) leaf has already been
studied. That of the hydrangea is looser in texture and more like
the leaf of the lily or the beet (Fig. 116).
What light does the structure throw on the results of the pre-
ceding experiment ?
1 It will be much more convenient to tie the hydrangea if one has been
chosen that has but a single main stem. Instead of the hydrangea, the com-
mon cineraria, Senecio cruentus, does very well.
2 The addition of known amounts of water may be made most conveniently
by measuring it in a cylindrical graduate.
162 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
EXPERIMENT XXXI
Through which Side of a Leaf of the India-Rubber Plant does Tran-
spiration occur ?— The student may already have found (Sect. 164)
that there are no stomata on the upper surface of the fig leaf which
he studied. That fact makes this leaf an excellent one by means of
which to study the relation of stomata to transpiration.
Take two large, sound rubber-plant leaves, cut off pretty close to
the stem of the plant. Slip over the cut end of the pétiole of each
leaf a piece of small rubber tubing, wire this on, leaving about half
of it free, then double the free end over and wire tightly, so as to
make the covering moisture-proof. Warm some vaseline or grafting
wax until it is almost liquid, and spread a thin layer of it smoothly
over the upper surface of one leaf and the lower surface of the other.
Hang both up in a sunny place in the laboratory and watch them for
a month or more.
What difference in the appearance of the two leaves’ becomes
evident? What does the experiment prove?
172, Endurance of Drought by Plants. — Plants in a wild
state have to live under extremely different conditions as
regards water supply (see Chapter XXIV). Observation
of growing plants during a long drought will quickly
show how differently the various species of a region bear
the hardships due to a scanty supply of moisture. It is
still easier, however, to subject some plants to an artificial
drought and watch their condition.
EXPERIMENT XXXII
Resistance to Drought. — Procure at least one plant from each of
these groups : .
Group I. Melon-cactus (Echinocactus or Mamillaria), prickly
pear cactus.
Group II. Aloe, Cotyledon (often called Echeveria), houseleek.
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 163
Group IIL. Live-for-ever (Sedum Telephium), Bryophyllum, English
ivy, “ivy-leafed geranium,” (Pelargonium peltatum), or any of the
fleshy-leafed begonias.
Group IV. Hydrangea (H. Hortensia), squash or cucumber, sun-
flower.
The plants should be growing in pots and well rooted. Water
them well and then put them all in a warm, sunny place. Note the
appearance of all the plants at the end of twenty-four hours. If any
are wilting badly, water them. Keep on with the experiment, in no
case watering any plant or set of plants until it has wilted a good
deal. Record the observations in such a way as to show just how
long a time it took each plant to begin to wilt from the time when
the experiment began. If any hold out more than a monthy they
may aiterwards be examined at intervals of a week, to save the time
required for daily observations. If possible, account by the struc-
ture of the plants for some of the differences observed. Try to learn
the native country of each plant used and the soil or exposure natural
to it.
173. Course traversed by Water through the Leaf.— The
same plan that was adopted to trace the course of water in
the stem (Exp. X XI) may be followed to discover its path
through the leaf.
EXPERIMENT XXXII
Rise of Sap in Leaves. — Put the freshly cut ends of the petioles
of several thin leaves of different kinds into small glasses, each con-
taining eosin solution to the depth of one-quarter inch or more.
Allow them to stand for half an hour, and examine them by holding
up to the light and looking through them to see into what parts the
eosin solution has risen. Allow some of the leaves to remain as
much as twelve hours, and examine them again. The red-stained
portions of the leaf mark the lines along which, under natural con-
ditions, sap rises into it. Cut across (near the petiole or midrib
ends) all the principal veins of some kind of large, thin leaf. Then
cut off the petiole and at once stand the cut end, to which the blade
164 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
is attached, in eosin solution. Repeat with another leaf and stand
in water. What do the results teach?
174, Total Amount of Transpiration. — In order to pre-
vent wilting, the rise of sap during the life of the leaf
must have kept pace with the evaporation from its sur-
face. The total amount of water that travels through the
roots, stems, and leaves of most seed-plants during their
lifetime is large, relative to the weight of the plant itself.
During 1738 days of growth a corn-plant has been found to
give off nearly 381 pounds of water. During 140 days of
growth a sunflower-plant gave off about 145 pounds. A
grass-plant has been found to give off its own weight of
water every twenty-four hours in hot, dry summer weather.
This would make about 6} tons per acre every twenty-four
hours for an ordinary grass-field, or rather over 2200 pounds
of water from a field 50 x 150 feet, that is, not larger than
a good-sized city lot. Calculations based on observations
made by the Austrian forest experiment stations showed
that a birch tree with 200,000 leaves, standing in open
ground, transpired on hot summer days from 700 to 900
pounds, while at other times the amount of transpiration
“was probably not more than 18 to 20 pounds.!
These large amounts of water are absorbed, carried
through the tissues of the plant, and then given off by the
leaves because the plant-food contained in the soil-water
is in a condition so diluted that great quantities of water
must be taken in order to secure enough of the mineral
and other substances which the plant demands from the
soil. Active transpiration may also have other causes.
1 See B. E. Fernow’s discussion in Report of Division of Forestry of U. 8.
Department of Agriculture, 1889,
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 165
Meadow hay contains about two per cent of potash, or
2000 parts in 100,000, while the soil-water of a good soil
does not contain more than one-half part in 100,000 parts.
It would therefore take 4000 tons of such water to furnish
the potash for one ton of ‘hay. The water which the
root-hairs take up must, however, contain far more potash
than is assumed in the calculation above given, so that the
amount of water actually used in the growth of a ton of
hay cannot be much more than 260 tons.!
175, Accumulation of Mineral Matter in the Leaf. — Just
as a deposit of salt is found in the bottom of a seaside pool
of salt water which has been dried up by the sun, so old
leaves are found to be loaded with mineral matter, left
behind as the sap drawn up from the roots is evaporated
through the stomata. A bonfire of leaves makes a sur-
prisingly large heap of ashes. An abundant constituent
of the ashes of burnt leaves is silica, a substance chemic-
ally the same as sand. This the plant is forced to absorb
along with the potash, compounds of phosphorus, and other
useful substances contained in the soil-water; but since
the silica is of hardly any value to most plants, it often
accumulates in the leaf as so much refuse. Lime is much
more useful to the plant than silica, but a far larger quan-
tity of it is absorbed than is needed; hence it, too, accu-
mulates in the leaf.
176. Nutrition, Metabolism.2— The manufacture of the
more complex plant-foods, starch, sugar, and so on, from
1 See the article, ‘‘ Water as a Factor in the Growth of Plants,” by B. T.
Galloway and Albert F. Woods, Year-Book of U. S. Department of Agriculture,
1894,
2See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 371-483.
Also Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, translated by Ewart, Chapter VIII.
166 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
the raw materials which are afforded by the earth and air
and all the steps of the processes by which these foods are
used in the life and growth of the plant are together known
as its nutrition. When we think more of the chemical
side of nutrition than of its relation to plant-life, we call
any of the changes or all of them metabolism, which means
simply chemical transformation in living tissues. There
are two main classes of metabolism — the constructive kind,
which embraces those changes which build up more com-
plicated substances out of simpler ones (Sect. 179), and the
destructive kind, the reverse of the former (Sect. 184). A
good many references to cases of plant metabolism have
been made in earlier chapters, but the subject comes up in
more detail in connection with the study of the work of leaves
than anywhere else, because the feeding which the ordinary
seed-plant does is very largely done in and by its leaves.
177. Details of the Work of the Leaf. — A leaf has four
functions to perform: (1) Starch-making; (2) assimila-
tion; (8) excretion of water ; (4) respiration.
178. Absorption of Carbon Dioxide and Removal of its
Carbon. — Carbon dioxide is a constant ingredient of the
atmosphere, usually occurring in the proportion of about
four parts in every 10,000 of air or one twenty-fifth of one
per cent. It is a colorless gas, a compound of two simple
substances or elements, carbon and oxygen, the former
familiar to us in the forms of charcoal and graphite, the
latter occurring as the active constituent of air.
1JIn many works on Botany (1) and (2) are both compounded under the
term assimilation. Many botanists (most of the American ones) apply the
name photosynthesis or photosyntax to the starch-making process, but these
names are not wholly satisfactory, and perhaps it is as well (as suggested by
Professor Atkinson) to name the process from its result.
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES , 167
Carbon dioxide is produced in immense quantities by
the decay of vegetable and animal matter, by the respira-
tion of animals, and by all fires in which wood, coal, gas,
or petroleum is burned.
Green leaves and the green parts of plants, when they
contain a suitable amount of potassium salts, have the
power of removing carbon dioxide from the air (or in
the case of some aquatic plants from water in which it is
dissolved), retaining its carbon and setting free part or all
of the oxygen. This process is an important part of the
work done by the plant in making over raw materials into
food from which it forms its own substance.
EXPERIMENT XXXIV
Oxygen-Making in Sunlight.— Place a green aquatic plant in a
glass jar full of ice-cold fresh water, in front of a sunny window.!
Place a thermometer in the jar, watch the rise of temperature, aud
note at what point you first observe the formation of oxygen bub-
bles. Remove to a dark closet for a few minutes and examine by
lamplight, to see whether the rise of bubbles still continues.
This-gas may be shown to be oxygen by collecting some
of it in a small inverted test-tube filled with water and
thrusting the glowing coal of a match just blown out into
the gas. It is not, however, very easy to do this satisfac-
torily before the class.
Repeat the experiment, using water which has been well boiled
and then quickly cooled. Boiling removes all the dissolved gases
from water, and they are not re-dissolved in any considerable quantity
for many hours.
1 Elodea, Myriophyllum, Chrysosplenium, Potamogeton, Fontinalis, any of
the green aquatic flowering plants, or even the common confervaceous plants,
known as pond-scum or “ frog-spit,” will do for this experiment.
168 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Ordinary air, containing a known per cent of carbon dioxide,
if passed very slowly over the foliage of a plant covered with a bell-
glass and placed in full sunlight, will, if tested chemically, on com-
ing out of the bell-glass be found to have lost a little of its carbon
dioxide. The pot in which the plant grows must be covered with a
lid, closely sealed on, to prevent air charged with carbon dioxide (as
the air of the soil is apt to be) from rising into the bell-glass.
179. Disposition made of the Absorbed Carbon Dioxide.
— It would lead the student too far into the chemistry of
botany to ask him to follow out in detail the changes by
which carbon dioxide lets go part at least of its oxygen
and gives its remaining portions, namely, the carbon, and
perhaps part of its oxygen, to build up the substance of
the plant. Starch is composed of three elements: hydro-
gen (a colorless, inflammable gas, the lightest of known
substances), carbon, and oxygen. Water is composed
largely of hydrogen, and, therefore, carbon dioxide and
water contain all the elements necessary for making starch.
The chemist cannot put these elements together to form
starch, but the plant can do it, and at suitable temperatures
starch-making goes on constantly in the green parts of
plants when exposed to sunlight and supplied with water
and carbon dioxide.! The seat of the manufacture is in
the chlorophyll bodies, and protoplasm is without doubt the
manufacturer, but the process is not understood by chemists
or botanists. No carbon dioxide can be taken up and used
by plants growing in the dark, nor in an atmosphere con-
taining only carbon dioxide, even in the light.
1 Very likely the plant makes sugar first of all and then rapidly changes
this into starch. However that may be, the first kind of food made in the
leaf and retained long enough to be found there by ordinary tests is starch.
See Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, translated by Ewart, Vol. I, pp. 317, 318.
Puate V. — A Saprophyte, Indian Pipe
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 169
A very good comparison of: the leaf to a mill has been
made as follows !:
The mill: : Palisade-cells and underlying
cells of the leaf.
Raw material used: Carbon dioxide, water.
Milling apparatus : Chlorophyll grains.
Energy by which the mill
is run: Sunlight.
Manufactured product : Starch.
Waste product : Oxygen.
180. Plants Destitute of Chlorophyll not Starch-Makers.
— Aside from the fact that newly formed starch grains are
first found in the chlorophyll bodies of the leaf and the
green layer of the bark, one of the best evidences of
the intimate relation of chlorophyll to starch-making is
derived from the fact that plants which contain no chloro-
phyll cannot make starch from water and carbon dioxide.
Parasites, like the dodder, which are nearly destitute of
green coloring matter, cannot do this; neither can sapro-
phytes or plants which live on decaying or fermenting
organic matter, animal or vegetable. Most saprophytes,
like the moulds, toadstools, and yeast, are flowerless plants
of low organization, but there are a few (such as the
Indian pipe (Plate V), which flourishes on rotten wood
or among decaying leaves) that bear flowers and seeds.
181. Detection of Starch in Leaves. — Starch may be
found in abundance by microscopical examination of the
green parts of growing leaves, or its presence may be
shown by testing the whole leaf with iodine solution.
1 By Professor George L. Goodale.
170 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
EXPERIMENT XXXV
Occurrence of Starch in Nasturtium Leaves. — Toward the close of
a very sunny day collect some bean leaves or leaves of nasturtium
(Tropeolum). - Boil these in water for a few minutes, to kill the
protoplasmic contents of the cells and to soften and swell the starch
grains.
Soak the leaves, after boiling, in strong alcohol for a day or two,
to dissolve out the chlorophyll, which would otherwise make it diffi-
cult to see the blue color of the starch test, if any were obtained.
Rinse out the alcohol with plenty of water
and then place the leaves for ten or fifteen
minutes in a solution of iodine, rinse off
with water and note what portions of the
leaf, if any, show the presence of starch.
EXPERIMENT XXXVI
Consumption of Starch in Nasturtium
(Tropeolum) Leaves. —Select some healthy
leaves of Tropeolum on a plant growing
vigorously indoors or, still better, in the
Fic. 123.—Leaf of Tropzo- : .
lum partly covered with open air. Shut off the sunlight from
Disks of Cork and ex- parts of. the selected leaves (which are to
cee be left on the plant and as little injured
as may be) by pinning circular disks of cork on opposite sides of
the leaf, as shown in Fig. 123. On the afternoon of the next day
remove these leaves from the plant and treat as described in the
preceding experiment, taking especial pains to get rid of all the
chlorophyll by changing the alcohol as many times as may be neces-
sary. What does this experiment show in regard to the consump-
tion of starch in the leaf? What has caused its disappearance?
182. Rate at which Starch is manufactured. — The
amount of starch made in a day by any given area of
1 The leaves, collected as above described, may, after boiling, be kept in
alcohol for winter use. They also make excellent material for the micro-
scopical study of starch in the leaf.
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 171
foliage must depend on the kind of leaves, the tempera-
ture of the air, the intensity of the sunlight, and some
other circumstances. Sunflower leaves and pumpkin or
squash leaves have been found to manufacture starch at
about the same rate. In a summer day fifteen hours long
they can make nearly three-quarters of an ounce of starch
for each square yard of leaf-surface. A full-grown squash
leaf has an area of about one and one-eighth square feet,
and a plant may bear as many as 100 leaves. What would
be the daily starch-making capacity of such a plant?!
183. Assimilation. — From the starch in the leaf, grape-
sugar or malt-sugar is readily formed, and some of this in
turn is apparently combined on the spot with nitrogen,
sulphur, and phosphorus. These elements are derived
from nitrates, sulphates, and phosphates, taken up in a
dissolved condition by the roots of the plant and trans-
ported to the leaves. The details of the process are not
understood, but the result of the combination of the
sugars or similar substances with suitable (very minute)
proportions of nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus is to
form complex nitrogen compounds. These are not pre-
cisely of the same composition as the living protoplasm
of plant-cells or as the reserve proteids stored in seeds
(Sects. 14, 17), stems (Sect. 127), and other parts of
plants, but are readily changed into protoplasm or proteid
foods as necessity may demand.
Assimilation is by no means confined to leaves ; indeed,
most of it, as above suggested, must take place in other
parts of the plant. For instance, the manufacture of the
immense amounts ‘of cellulose, of cork, and of the com-
1 See Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, translated by Ewart, Vol. I, p. 324.
172 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
pound (lignin) characteristic of wood-fiber, that go to make
up the main bulk of a large tree must be carried on in the
roots, trunk, and.branches of the tree.
184, Digestive Metabolism. — Plant-food in order to be
carried to the parts where it is needed must be dissolved,
and this dissolving often involves a chemical change and
is somewhat similar to digestion as it occurs in animals.
The newly made starch in the leaf must be changed to a
sugar or other substance soluble in water before it can be
carried to the parts of the plant where it is to be stored
or to rapidly growing parts where it is to be used for
building material. On the other hand, starch, oil, and
such insoluble proteids as are deposited in the outer por-
tion of the kernel of wheat and other grains are extremely
well adapted to serve as stored food, but on account of
their insoluble nature are quite unfit to circulate through
the tissues of the plant. The various kinds of sugar are
not well adapted for storage, since they ferment easily in
the presence of warmth and moisture if yeast-cells or
suitable kinds of bacteria are present.
Two important differences between starch-making in
the green parts of plants and the non-constructive or the
destructive type of metabolism should be carefully noticed.
These latter kinds of metabolism go on in the dark as
well as in the light and do not add to the total weight
of the plant.
185. Excretion of Water and Respiration. — Enough has
been said in Sect. 174 concerning the former of these pro-
cesses. Respiration, or breathing in oxygen and giving
off carbonic acid gas, is an operation which goes on con-
stantly in plants, as it does in animals, and is necessary to
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 173
their life. For, like animals, plants get the energy with
which they do the work of assimilation, growth, reproduc-
tion, and performing their movements from the oxidation
of such combustible substances as oil, starch, and sugar.
The amount of oxy-
gen absorbed and of car-
bonic acid given off is,
however, so trifling com-
pared with the amount
of each gas passing in
the opposite direction,
while starch-making is
going on in sunlight,
that under such circum-
stances it is difficult to
observe the occurrence
of respiration. In ordi-
nary leafy plants the Fie. 124.—Cross-Section of Stem of Marestail
leaves (throu gh their (Hippuris) with Air-Passages, a.
stomata) are the principal organs for absorption of air, but
much air passes into the plant through the lenticels of
the bark.
In partly submerged aquatics especial provisions are
found for carrying the air absorbed by the leaves down to
the submerged parts. This is accomplished in pond lilies
by ventilating tubes which traverse the leaf-stalks length-
wise. In many cases such channels run up and down the
stem (Fig. 124).
1 The necessity of an air supply about the roots of the plant may be shown
by filling the pot or jar in which the hydrangea was grown for the transpi-
ration experiment perfectly full of water and noting the subsequent appear-
ance of the plant at periods twelve to twenty-four hours apart.
FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
174
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FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 175
187. The Fall of the Leaf. — In the tropics trees retain
most of their leaves the year round; a leaf occasionally
falls, but no considerable portion of them drops at any
one season.! The same statement holds true in regard to
our cone-bearing evergreen trees, such as pines, spruces,
and the like. But the impossibility of absorbing soil-water
when the ground is at or near the freezing temperature
(Exp. XVII) would cause the death, by drying up, of
trees with broad leaf-surfaces in a northern winter. And
in countries where there is much snowfall, most broad-
leafed trees could not escape injury to their branches from
overloading with snow, except by encountering winter
storms in as close-reefed a condition as possible. For
such reasons our common shrubs and forest trees (except
the cone-bearing, narrow-leafed ones already mentioned)
are mostly deciduous, that is they shed their leaves at the
approach of winter.
The fall of the leaf is preceded by important changes
in the contents of its cells.
EXPERIMENT XXXVII
Does the Leaf vary in its Starch Contents at Different Seasons ?
Collect in early summer some leaves of several kinds of trees and
shrubs and -preserve them in alcohol. Collect others as they are
beginning to drop from the trees in autumn and preserve them in
the same way. Test some of each lot for starch as described in
Sect. 181.
What does the result indicate?
Much of the sugary and protoplasmic contents of the
leaf disappears before it falls.. These valuable materials
1 Except where there is a severe dry season.
176 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
have been absorbed by the branches and roots, to be used
again the following spring.
The separation of the leaf from the twig is accomplished
by the formation of a layer of cork cells across the base of
the petiole in such a way that the latter finally breaks off
across the surface of the layer. A waterproof scar is thus
already formed before the removal of the leaf, and there is
no waste of sap dripping from the wound where the leaf-
stalk has been removed, and no chance for moulds to
attack the bark or wood and cause it to decay. In com-
pound leaves each leaflet may become separated from the
petiole, as is notably the case with the horse-chestnut leaf
(Fig. 102). In woody monocotyledons, such as palms, the
leaf-stalks do not commonly break squarely off at the base,
but wither and leave projecting stumps on the stem
(Plate VI).
The brilliant coloration, yellow, scarlet, deep red, and
purple, of autumn leaves is popularly but wrongly sup-
posed to be due to the action of frost. It depends merely
on the changes in the chlorophyll grains and the liquid
cell-contents that accompany the withdrawal of the proteid
material from the tissues of the leaf. The chlorophyll
turns into a yellow insoluble substance after the valuable
materials which accompany it have been taken away, and
the cell sap at the same time may turn red. Frost per-
haps hastens the break-up of the chlorophyll, but individual
trees often show bright colors long before the first frost,
and in very warm autumns most of the changes in the foli-
age may come about before there has been any frost.
188. Tabular Review of Experiments.
[Continue the table from Sect. 128.]
Piatre VI. — Fan Palms
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES 177
189. Review Summary of Minute Structure of Leaves.!
General structure, distribution of
parenchyma, and prosenchyma
Layers of tissue seen on a cross-
sectin «ss
Structure of epidermis
Structure of stomata .
Distribution of stomata
Structure and distribution of
chlorophyll bodies
190. Review Summary of Functions of Leaves.
fibro-vascular bundles
epidermis .
stomata
air spaces .
palisade-cells .
spongy parenchyma
waxy coating .
hairs
from the air .
from the soil .
Principal uses of .
Substances received by the leaf .
Substances manufactured by the leaf .
into the air
{| into the stem
Mineral substances accumulated in the leaf
Statistics in regard to transpiration
Statistics in regard to starch-making .
Substances given off by the leaf
1 Illustrate with sketches and diagrams.
CHAPTER XII
PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES
191. The Cell in its Simplest Form. — Sufficient has
been said in the preceding chapters, and enough tissues
have been microscopically studied, to make it pretty clear
what vegetable cells, as they occur in flowering plants,
are like. In Chapter XI, leaf-cells have been taken for
granted and their work described in some detail. Before
going further, it is worth while to consider the structure
of an individual cell, and to see of what kinds of activity
it is capable.
In studying the minute anatomy of bark, wood, pith,
and other tissues the attention is often directed to the
cell-wall without much regard to the nature of the cell-
contents. Yet the cell-wall is not the cell, any more than
the lobster shell or the crayfish shell is the lobster or the
crayfish. The contained protoplasm with its nucleus is the
cell. The cell reduced to its lowest terms need not have
a cell-wall, but may consist simply of a mass of proto-
plasm, usually containing a portion of denser consistency
than the main bulk,- known as the nucleus.
Such cells, without a cell-wall, are not common in the vege-
table world, but are frequently encountered among animals.
192. The Slime Moulds. One of the best examples of
masses of naked protoplasm leading an individual existence
1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 21-51.
2 Sirasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schimper’s Text-Book of Botany, pp. 50-52
and 302-305. Bie
PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES 179
is found in the slime moulds, which live upon rotten tan
bark, decaying wood, and so on. These curious organ-
isms have so many of the characteristics both of animals
and of plants that they have been described in zodlogies
under the former title and in botanies under the latter
one. Perhaps it would not really be so absurd a state-
ment as it might seem, to say that every slime mould leads
the life of an animal during one period of its existence and
of a plant at another period. At any rate, whatever their
true nature, these little masses of unenclosed protoplasm
illustrate admirably some of the most important properties
of protoplasm. Slime moulds spring from minute bodies
called spores (Fig. 125, a) which differ from the seeds of
seed-plants not only in their microscopic size but still
more in their lack of an embryo. The spores of slime
moulds are capable, when kept dry, of preserving for
many years their power of germination, but in the pres-
ence of moisture and warmth they will germinate as soon
a8 they are scattered. During the process of germination
the spore swells, as shown at 6, and then bursts, discharging
its protoplasmic contents, as seen atc and d. ‘This in a
few minutes lengthens out and produces at one end a hair-
like ciliwm, as shown at e,f,g. These ciliated bodies are
called swarmspores, from their power of swimming freely
about by the vibrating motion of the cilia. Every swarm-
spore has at its ciliated end a nucleus, and at the other end
a bubble-like object which gradually expands, quickly dis-
appears, and then again expands. This contractile vacuole
is commonly met with in animalcules, and increases the
likeness between the slime moulds and many microscopic
animals. The next change of the swarmspores is into an
180 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Ameba form (so called from one of the most interesting and
simplest of animals, the Amada, found on the surface of
Fig. 125.— A Slime Mould. (a~m, inclusive, x 540 times, n x 90 times.)
mud and the leaves of water plants). In this condition,
as shown at A, 7, k, the spores creep about over the sur-
face of the decaying vegetable material on which the
PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES 18]
slime moulds live. Their movement is caused by a thrust-
ing out of the semi-liquid protoplasm on one side of the
mass, and a withdrawal of its substance from the other
side. At length many ameba-shaped bodies unite, as at 1,
to form a larger mass, m, which finally increases to the
protoplasmic network shown at . This eventually col-
lects into a roundish or egg-shaped firm body, inside of
which a new crop of spores is produced. It is not easy to
trace the manner in which the nourishment of these simple
plants is taken. Probably they absorb it from the decay-
ing matter upon which they live during their amceba-like
period, and after they have formed the larger masses, n.
193. Characteristics of Living Protoplasm.! — The behav-
ior of the slime moulds during their growth and transfor-
mations, as just outlined, affords a fair idea of several of
the remarkable powers which belong to living protoplasm,
which have been summed up as follows:
(1) The power to take up new material into its own
substance (selective absorption). This is not merely a proc-
ess of soaking up liquids, such as occurs when dry earth
or a sponge is moistened. The protoplasmic lining of a
root-hair, for example, selects ‘from the. soil-water some
substances and rejects others (Sect. 65).
(2) The ability to change certain substances into others
of different chemical composition (metabolism, Sect. 176).
Carbon dioxide and water, losing some oxygen in the
process, are combined into starch; starch is changed into
various kinds of sugar and these back into starch again;
starch becomes converted into vegetable acids, into cellu-
lose, or into oil; or the elements of starch are~combined
1 See Huxley’s Essays, Vol. I, essay on “‘ The Physical Basis of Life.”
182 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
with nitrogen to mezke various proteid compounds, either
for immediate use or for reserve food. Many other com-
plicated transformations occur.
(8) The power to cast off waste or used-up material
(exeretion). Getting rid of surplus water (Sect. 174) and
of oxygen (Sect. 178) constitutes a very large part of the
excretory work of plants.
(4) The capacity for growth and the production of off-
spring (reproduction). These are especially characteristic
of living protoplasm. It is true that non-living objects
may grow in a certain sense, as an icicle or a crystal of
salt or of alum in a solution of its own material does.
But growth by the process of taking suitable particles
into the interior of the growing substance and arranging
them into an orderly structure (Fig. 126) is possible only
in the case of live protoplasm.
(5) The possession of the power of originating move-
ments not wholly and directly caused by any external
impulse (automatic movements). Such, for instance, are
the lashing movements of the cilia of the swarmspores
of slime moulds, or the slow pendulum movements of
Oscillatoria (Sect. 269), or the slow vibrating movements
of the stipules of the “telegraph plant” (Desmodium),
not uncommon in greenhouses.
(6) The power of shrinking or closing up (contractility).
This is illustrated by the action of the contractile vacuole
of the slime moulds and of many animalcules and by all
‘the muscular movements of animals.
(7) Sensitiveness when touched or otherwise disturbed,
for instance, by a change of light or of temperature
(erritability).
‘
PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES 183
194. Nature and Occurrence of Irritability in Plants.t —
Mention has already been made of the fact that certain
parts of plants respond to suitable stimuli that is exciting
Fic. 126. — Protoplasm in Ovule and Fruit of Snowberry (Symphoricarpus
racemosus).
A, cells from ovule, x 340; B, cells from an ovule further developed, x 340; C, D,
cells from pulp of fruit, x 110; ”, nucleus ; p, protoplasm ; s, cell-sap.
In the young and rapidly growing cells, A and B, the cell-sap is not present, or
present only in:small quantities, while in the older cells, C and D, it occupies
a large portion of the interior of the cell,
causes. Geotropic movements (Sect. 70) are due to
the response of roots or shoots to gravitation. These
1 See Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and poeanene 8s Text-Book of Botany,
pp. 160-162 and 269-274,
184
FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
movements are due to unequal growth induced in the
younger portions of the plant by the action of gravi-
Fig. 127. — Stinging
Hair of Nettle, with
Nucleus. (Much.
magnified.) The ar-
rows show the direc-
tion of the currents
in the protoplasm.
tation upon it. Other movements (of
ordinary foliage leaves, of the floral leaves
of many flowers, and of other parts of a
few flowers) are produced by changes in
the distention or turgescence of some of the
cells in the organs which move and have
nothing to do with growth. The closing
of the leaves of insect-catching plants is
briefly described in Sect. 410, and the
“sleep” of leaves, due to movements of
the pulvini, was described in Sect. 152.
A few facts in regard to the opening and
closing of flowers will be found in
Sect. 440.
The stimuli which cause movements of
leaves or of the irritable parts of flowers
are of several kinds. Light is the main
cause which induces leaves to open from
their night position to that usual in the
daytime. In the case of flowers, it is
sometimes light and sometimes warmth
which causes them to open. Leaves which
catch insects may be made to close by
touching them, but the sensitive-plants,
of which there are several kinds found in
the United States, and a much more sensi-
tive one in tropical America, all fold their leaflets, on
being touched,
at night.
into the same position which they assume
PROTOPLASM AND ITS PROPERTIES 185
195. Circulation of Protoplasm.— When confined by a
cell-wall, protoplasm often manifests a beautiful and con-
stant rotating movement, traveling incessantly up one
side of the cell and down the other. A more complicated
motion is the cireulation of protoplasm, shown in cells of
‘the jointed blue hairs in the flower of the common spider-
wort and in the stinging hairs of the nettle (Fig. 127).
The thin cell-wall of each hair is lined with a protoplasmic
layer in which are seen many irregular, thread-like cur-
rents, marked by the movements of the granules, of which
the protoplasmic layer is full.
1 See Huxley and Martin’s Elementary Biology, under Chara.
CHAPTER XIII
INFLORESCENCE, OR ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ‘
ON THE STEM
196. Regular Positions for Flower-Buds. — Flower-buds,
like leaf-buds, occur regularly either in the axils of leaves
or at the end of the stem or branch and are therefore
either axillary or terminal.
197. Axillary and Solitary Flowers; Indeterminate
Inflorescence. — The simplest possible arrangement for
flowers which-arise from the axils of
leaves is to have a single flower spring’
from each leaf-axil. Fig. 128 shows
how this plan appears in a plant with
opposite leaves. As long as the stem
continues to grow, the production of new
leaves may be followed by that of new
\ ‘p
Fig. 128.— Axillary and Fic. 129.—Raceme of a
Solitary Flowers of Common Red Currant. CAI@ S
Pimpernel. DP, peduncle ; p’, pedicel ; br, bract.
flowers. Since there is no definite limit to the number
of flowers which may appear in this way, the mode of
flowering just described (with many others of the same
general character) is known as indeterminate inflorescence.
186
ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM
187
198. The Racemes and Related Forms. — If the leaves
along the stem were to become very much dwarfed and the
Fie. 130.— Simple Umbel of Cherry.
flowers brought closer together,
as they frequently are, a kind
of flower-cluster like that of the
currant (Fig. 129) or the lily-
of-the-valley would result. Such
an. inflorescence is called a ra-
ceme; the main flower-stalk is
known as the pedunele ; the little
individual flower-stalks are pedi-
cels, and the small, more or
less scale-like leaves of the
peduncle are bracts.!
Frequently the lower pedicels of a cluster on the
general plan of the raceme are longer than the upper
ones and make a some-
what flat-topped cluster,
like that of the hawthorn, ;
the sheep laurel, or the
trumpet creeper. This
is called a corymb.
In many cases, for ex-
ample the parsnip, the
Sweet Cicely, the gin-
seng, and the cherry, a
group of pedicels of
nearly equal length
A
Fig. 131. — Catkins of Willow.
A, staminate flowers ; B, pistillate flowers
1It is hardly necessary to say that the teacher will find it better in every
way, if material is abundant, to begin the study of flower-clusters with the
examination of typical specimens by the class,
188 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
spring from about the same point.. This produces a
flower-cluster called the wmbel (Fig. 130).
199. Sessile Flowers and Flower-Clusters. — Often the
pedicels are wanting, or the flowers are sessile, and then
a modification of the raceme is produced which is called
; a spike, like that of the plantain (Fig. 132). The
willow, alder, birch, poplar, and many other common
trees bear a short, flexible, rather scaly spike (Fig.
181), which is called a catkin.
The peduncle of a spike is often so much short-
ened as to bring the flowers into a somewhat globu-
lar mass. This is called a head (Fig. 1382). Around
the base of the head usually
occurs a circle of bracts known
as the involucre. The same
name is given to a set of bracts
which often surround the bases
of the pedicels in an umbel.
200. The Composite Head. —
The plants of one large group,
Fic. ie — Pilko at ies and of which the dandelion, the
daisy, the thistle, and the sun-
flower are well-known members, bear their flowers in
close involucrate heads on a common receptacle. The
whole cluster looks so much like a single flower that it is
usually taken for one by non-botanical people. In many
of the largest and most showy heads, like that of the
sunflower and the daisy, there are two kinds of flowers,
the ray-flowers, around the margin, and the tubular disk-
flowers of the interior of the head (Fig. 133). The early
botanists supposed the whole flower-cluster to be a single
ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM 189
Fic. 133.— Head of Yarrow.
A, top view. (Magnified.) B, lengthwise section. (Magnified.) 7e, receptacle ; i,
involucre; r, ray-flowers; d, disk-flowers; c, corolla; s, stigma; ch, chaff,
or bracts of receptacle.
Fia. 134. Fie. 135. — Compound Umbel
Panicle of Oat. of Carrot.
190 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
compound flower. This belief gave rise to the name of
one family of plants, Composite, that is, plants with com-
pound flowers. In such heads as those of the thistle, the
cud weed, and the everlasting there are no ray-flowers,
and in others, like those of the dandelion and the chicory,
all the flowers are ray-flowers.
201. Compound Flower-Clusters.——If the pedicels of a
raceme branch, they may produce a compound raceme, or
A B Cc D
FIG. 136.— Diagrams of Inflorescence.
A, panicle; B, raceme; C, spike; HZ, umbel; D, head.
panicle, like that of the oat (Fig. 134).1 Other forms of
compound racemes have received other names.
An umbel may become compound by the branching. of
its flower-stalks (Fig. 135), each of which then bears a
little umbel, an wmbellet.
202. Inflorescence Diagrams. — The plan of inflorescence
may readily be indicated by diagrams like those of Fig. 136.
The student should construct such diagrams for some rather com-
plicated flower-clusters, like those of the grape, horse-chestnut or
buckeye, hardhack, vervain, or many grasses.
1 Panicles may also be formed by compound cymes (see Sect. 204).
ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS ON THE STEM 191
203. Terminal Flowers; Determinate Inflorescence. —
The terminal bud of a stem may be a flower-bud. In this
case the direct growth of the stem is stopped or deter-
mined by the appearance of the flower; hence such plants
are said to have a determinate inflorescence. The simplest
possible case of this kind is that
in which the stem bears but one
flower at its summit.
204. The Cyme. — Very often
‘flowers appear from lateral (axil-
lary) buds, below the terminal
flower, and thus give rise to a
flower-cluster called a cyme.
This may have only three flowers,
and in that case would look very
much like a three-flowered
umbel. But in the raceme,
corymb, and umbel the order of
Fig. 137. — Compound Cyme of
flowering is from below upward, Mouse-Ear Chickweed.
or from the outside of the clus- —% *he terminal (oldest) flower.
ter inward, because the lowest or the outermost flowers
are the oldest, while in determinate forms of inflorescence
the central flower is the oldest, and therefore the order of
blossoming is from the center outwards. Cymes are very
commonly compound, like those of the elder and of many
plants of the pink family, such as the Sweet William and
the. mouse-ear chickweed (Fig. 1387). They may also, as
already mentioned, be panicled, thus making a cluster
much like Fig. 136, A.
CHAPTER XIV
THE STUDY OF TYPICAL FLOWERS
(Only one of the three flowers described to be studied by aid of these
directions.)
205. The Flower of the Trillium. — Cut off the flower-stalk rather
close to the flower; stand the latter, face down, on the table, and
draw the parts then shown. Label the green leaf-like parts sepals,
and the white parts, which alternate with these, petals. Turn the
flower face up, and make another sketch, labeling the parts as before,
together with the yellow enlarged extremities or anthers of the stalked
organs called stamens.
Note and describe the way in which the petals alternate with the
sepals. Observe the arrangement of the edges of the petals toward
the base, —how many with both edges outside the others, how many
with both edges inside, how many with one edge in and one out.
Note the veining of both sepals and petals, more distinct in
which set?1
Pull off a sepal and make a sketch of it, natural size ; then remove
a petal, flatten it out, and sketch it, natural size.
Observe that the flower-stalk is enlarged slightly at the upper end
into a rounded portion, the receptacle, on which all the parts of the
flower rest.
Note how the six stamens arise from the receptacle and their
relations to the origins of the petals. Remove the remaining petals
1 In flowers with delicate white petals the distribution of the fibro-vascular
bundles in these can usually be readily shown by standing the freshly cut end
of the peduncle in red ink for a short time, until colored veins begin to appear
in the petals. The experiment succeeds readily with apple, cherry, or plum
blossoms; with white gilliflower the coloration is very prompt. Lily-of-the-
valley is perhaps as interesting a flower as any on which to try the experi-
ment, since the well-defined stained stripes are separated by portions quite
free from stain, and the pistils are also colored.
192
THE STUDY OF TYPICAL FLOWERS 198
(cutting them off near the bottom with a knife), and sketch the sta-
mens, together with the other object, the pistil, which stands in the
center.
Cut off one stamen, and sketch it as seen through the magnifying
glass. Notice that it consists of a greenish stalk, the filament, and
a broader portion, the anther (Fig. 149). The latter is easily seen
to contain a prolongation of the green filament, nearly surrounded
by a yellow substance. In the bud it will be found that the anther
consists of two long pouches or anther-cells, which are attached by
their whole length to the filament, and face inward (towards the
center of the flower). When the flower is fairly open, the anther-
cells have already split down their margins, and are discharging a
yellow, somewhat sticky powder, the pollen.
Examine one of the anthers with the microscope, using the two-
inch objective, and sketch it. :
Cut away all the stamens, and sketch the pistil. It consists of a
stout lower portion, the ovary, which is six-ridged or angled, and
which bears at its summit three slender stigmas.
In another flower, which has begun to wither (and in which the
ovary is larger than in a newly opened flower), cut the ovary across
about the middle, and try to make out with the magnifying glass
the number of chambers or cells which it contains. Examine the
cross-section with the two-inch objective; sketch it, and note partic-
ularly the appearance and mode of attachment of the undeveloped
seeds or ovules with which it is filled. Make a vertical section of
another rather mature ovary, and examine this in the same way.
Using a fresh flower, construct a diagram to show the relation of
the parts on an imaginary cross-section, as illustrated in Fig. 157.1
Construct a diagram of a longitudinal section of the flower, on the
general plan of those in Fig. 155, but showing the contents of the
ovary.
Make a tabular list of the parts of the flower, beginning with the
sepals, giving the order of parts and number in each set.
1 It is important to notice that such a diagram is not a picture of the section
actually produced by cutting through the flower crosswise at any one level,
but that it is rather a projection of the sections through the most typical part
of each of the floral organs.
194 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
206. The Flower of the Tulip.1— Make a diagram of a side view
of the well-opened flower, as it appears when standing in sunlight.
Observe that there is a set of outer flower-leaves and a set of inner
ones.? Label the outer set sepals and the inner set petals. In most
flowers the parts of the outer set are greenish, and those of the inner
set of some other color. It is often convenient to use the name
perianth, meaning around the flower, for the two sets taken together.
Note the white waxy bloom on the outer surface of the outer seg-
ments of the perianth. What is the use of this? Note the manner
in which the inner segments of the perianth arise from the top of the
peduncle and their relation to the points of attachment of the outer
segments. In a flower not too-widely opened, note the relative posi-
tion of the inner segments of the perianth, how many wholly outside
the other two, how many wholly inside, how many with one edge in
and one edge out.
Remove one of the sepals by cutting it off close to its attachment
to the peduncle, and examine the veining by holding it up in a strong
light and looking through it. Make a sketch to show the general
outline and the shape of the tip.
Examine a petal in the same way, and sketch it.
Cut off the remaining portions of the perianth, leaving about a
quarter of an inch at the base of each segment. Sketch the upright,
triangular, pillar-like object in the center, label it pistil, sketch the
organs which spriug from around its base, and label these stamens.
Note the fact that each stamen arises froma point just above and
within the base.of a segment of the perianth. Each stamen consists
of a somewhat conical or awl-shaped portion below, the filament, sur-
mounted by an ovate linear portion, the anther. Sketch one of the
stamens about twice natural size and label it x 2. Is the attach-
ment of the anther to the filament such as to admit of any nodding
or twisting movement of the former? In a young flower, note the
two tubular pouches or anther-cells of which the anther is composed,
and the slits by which these open. Observe the dark-colored pollen
1 Tulipa Gesneriana. As the flowers are rather expensive, and their parts
are large and firm, it is not absolutely necessary to give a flower to each pupil,
but some may be kept entire for sketching and others dissected by the class.
All the flowers must be single.
2 Best seen in a flower which is just opening.
THE STUDY OF TYPICAL FLOWERS 195
which escapes from the anther-cells and adheres to paper or to the
fingers, Examine a newly opened anther with the microscope, using
the two-inch objective, and sketch it.
Cut away all the stamens and note the two portions of the pistil,
a triangular prism, the ovary, and three roughened scroll-like objects
at the top, the three lobes of the stigma. Make a sketch of these
parts about twice natural size, and label them x 2. ‘ouch a small
camel's-hair pencil to one of the anthers, and then transfer the pollen
thus removed to the stigma. This operation is merely an imitation
of the work done by insects which visit the flowers out of doors.
Does the pollen cling readily to the rough stigmatic surface? Examine
this adhering pollen with the two-inch objective, and sketch a few
grains of it, together with the bit of the stigma to which it clings.
Compare this drawing with Fig. 162. Make a cross-section of the
ovary about midway of its length, and sketch the section as seen
through the magnifying glass. Label the three chambers shown
cells of the ovary ' or locules, and the white egg-shaped objects within
ovules.?
Make a longitudinal section of another ovary, taking pains to
secure a good view of the ovules, and sketch as seen through the
magnifying glass.
Making use of the information already gained and the cross-
section of the ovary as sketched, construct a diagram of a cross-
section of the entire flower on the same general plan as those shown
in Fig. 157.8
Split a flower lengthwise,4 and construct a longitudinal section of
the entire flower on the plan of those shown in Fig. 155, but showing
the contents of the ovary.
207. The Flower of the Buttercup.— Make a diagram of the
mature flower as seen in a side view, looking a little down into it.
Label the pale greenish-yellow, hairy, outermost parts sepals, and
1 Notice that the word cell here means a comparatively large cavity, and is
not used in the same sense in which we speak of a wood-cell or a pith-cell.
2 The section will be more satisfactory if made from an older flower, grown
out of doors, from which the perianth has fallen: In this case label the con-
tained objects seeds.
8 Consult also the footnote on p. 193.
4 One will do for an entire division of the class.
196 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
the larger bright yellow parts above and within these petals, and
the yellow-knobbed parts which occupy a good deal of the interior
of the flower stamens.
Note the difference in the position of the sepals of a newly
opened flower and that of the sepals of a flower which has opened as
widely as possible. Note the way in which the petals are arranged
in relation to the sepals. In an opening flower observe the arrange-
ment of the edges of the petals, how many entirely outside the
others, how many entirely inside, how many with one edge in and
the other out.
Cut off a sepal and a petal, each close to its attachment to the
flower ; place both, face down, on a sheet of paper, and sketch about
twice the natural size and label it x 2. Describe the difference in
appearance between the outer and the inner surface of the sepal and
of the petal. Note the little scale at the base of the petal, inside.
Strip off all the parts from a flower which has lost its petals,
until nothing is left but a slender conical object a little more than
an eighth of an inch in length. This is the receptacle or summit of
the peduncle.
In a fully opened flower, note the numerous yellow-tipped stamens,
each consisting of a short stalk, the filament, and an enlarged yellow
knob at the end, the anther. Note the division of the anther into
two portions, which appear from the outside as parallel ridges, but
which are really closed tubes, the anther-cells.
Observe in the interior of the flower the somewhat globular mass
(in a young flower almost covered by the stamens). This is a group
of pistils. Study one of these groups in a flower from which the
stamens have mostly fallen off, and make an enlarged sketch of the
head of pistils. Remove some of the pistils from a mature head,
and sketch a single one as seen with the magnifying glass. Label
the little knob or beak at the upper end of the pistil stigma, and the
main body of the pistil the ovary. Make a section of one of the
pistils, parallel to the flattened surfaces, like that shown in Fig. 150,
and note the partially matured seed within.
CHAPTER XV
PLAN AND STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS
ORGANS
208. Parts or Organs of the Flower. — Most showy
flowers consist, like those studied in the preceding chap-
ter, of four circles or sets of organs, the sepals, petals,
stamens, and pistils. The sepals, taken together, consti-
tute the calyx; the petals, taken together, constitute the
corolla (Fig. 188).1 Some- Z
times it is convenient to have
a word to comprise both calyx
and corolla; for this the term
perianth is used. A flower
which contains all four of
these sets is said to be com-
plete. Since the work of the
flower is to produce seed, and "
seed-forming is due to the Fic. 138.— The Parts of the Flower.
codperation of stamens and cal, calyx; cor, corolla; st,
pistils, or, as they are often eee
called from their relation to the reproductive organs of
spore-plants, microsporophylls and macrosporophylls (see
Sect. 374), these are known as the essential organs
(Fig. 188). The simplest possible pistil is a dwarfed and
1 The flower of the waterleaf Hydrophyllum canadense, modified by the
omission of the hairs on the stamens, is here given because it shows so plainly
the relation of the parts.
197
198 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
greatly modified leaf (Sect. 222), adapted into a seed-
bearing organ. Such a pistil may be one-seeded, as in
Fig. 166, or several-seeded, as in the diagrammatic one
(Fig. 150); itis called a carpel. The calyx and corolla are
also known as the floral envelopes. Flowers which have
the essential organs are called perfect flowers. They may,
therefore, be perfect without being complete. Incomplete
flowers with only one row of parts in the
perianth are said to be apetalous (Fig. 139).
209. Regular.and Symmetrical Flowers.
—A flower is regular if all the parts of
the same set or circle are alike in size and
shape, as in the stonecrop (Fig. 140). Such
a€ flowers as that of the violet, the monkshood,
Fic. 139.— Apetal- and the sweet pea (Fig. 141) are irregular.
ous Flower of cm
(European) wild Symmetrical flowers are those whose calyx,
senees corolla, circle of stamens, and set of
carpels consist each of the same number of parts, or in
which the number in every case is a multiple of the
smallest number found in any set. The stonecrop is
Fic. 140.— Flower of Stonecrop.
I, entire flower (magnified) ; II, vertical section (magnified).
symmetrical, since it has five sepals, five petals, ten sta-
mens, and five carpels. Roses, mallows, and mignonette
*
STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS 199
are familiar examples of flowers which are unsymmet-
rical because they have a large, indefinite number of
stamens ; the portulaca is unsymmetrical, since it has two
divisions of the calyx, five or six petals, and seven to
twenty stamens.
210, The Receptacle.— The parts of the flower are
borne on an expansion of the peduncle, called the recep-
tacle. Usually, as in the flower of the grape (Fig. 250),
this is only a slight enlargement of the peduncle, but in
Fig. 141. — Irregular Corolla of
ki Sweet Pea.
} A, side view ; B, front view ; s, stand-
A ard; ww, wings; &, keel.
the lotus and the magnolia the receptacle is of great size,
particularly after the petals have fallen and the seed has
ripened. The receptacle of the rose (Fig. 142) is hollow,
and the pistils arise from its interior surface.
211. Imperfect or Separated Flowers. — The stamens
and pistils may be produced in separate flowers, which
are, of course, imperfect. This term does not imply that
such flowers do their work any less perfectly than others,
but only that they have not both kinds of essential organs.
In the very simple imperfect flowers of the willow (Fig.
148) each flower of the catkin (Fig. 131) consists merely
200 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
of a pistil or a group of (usually two) stamens, springing
from the axil of a small bract.
Staminate and pistillate flowers may be borne on differ-
ent plants, as they are in the willow, or they may be
borne on the same plant, as in the hickory and the hazel,
among trees, or in the castor-oil plant, Indian corn, and
the begonias. When staminate and pistillate flowers are
borne on separate plants, such a plant is said to be
diccious, that is, of two households; when both kinds of
flower appear on the same individual, the plant is said
to be monecious, that is, of one household.
212. Study of Imperfect Flowers. — Examine, draw, and describe
the imperfect flowers of some‘of the following dicecious plants and
one of the moncecious plants :1
early meadow rue.
Diccious plants. . . . .... willow.
poplar.
( walnut, oak, chestnut.
Moneecious plants . ... . ‘ hickory, alder, beech.
birch, hazel, begonia.
213. Union of Similar Parts of the Perianth. — The
sepals may appear to join or cohere to form a calyx which
is more or less entirely united into one piece, as in Figs.
139 and 148. In this case the calyx is said to be gamo-
sepalous, that is, of wedded sepals. In the same way the
corolla is frequently gamopetalous, as in Figs. 144-148.
Frequently the border or limb of the calyx or corolla is
more or less cut or lobed. In this case the projecting
1¥For figures or descriptions of these or allied flowers consult Gray’s
Manual of Botany, Emerson’s Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, Newhall’s
Trees of the Northern United States, or Le Maout and Decaisne’s Traité
Général de Botanique.
STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS 201
portions of the limb are known as divisions, teeth, or
‘lobes.’ Special names of great use in accurately describing
plants are given to a large number of forms of the gamo-
Fic, 142,
A Rose, Longitudi-
nal Section.
petalous corolla. Only a few of these
names are here given, in connection with
the figures.
When the parts of either circle of the
perianth are wholly unconnected with each
other, that is, polysepalous or polypetalous,
such parts are said to be distinct.
214, Parts of the Stamen and the Pistil.
— The stamen usually consists of a hollow
portion, the anther (Fig. 149, a), borne on a
stalk called the filament (Fig. 149, f), which
is often lacking. Inside the anther is a pow-
dery or pasty substance called pollen or microspores (Sect.
374). The pistil usually consists of a small chamber, the
ovary, which
contains the ovules, macrospores (Sect. 374),
or rudimentary seeds, a slen-
der portion or stalk, called the
style, and at the top of this a
ridge, knob, or point called
the stigma. These parts are
all shown in Fig. 150. In
many pistils the stigma is
borne directly on the ovary.
215. Union of Stamens with
Each Other.— Stamens may
Fie, 143.— Flowers of Willow.
(Magnified.)
be wholly unconnected with A, staminate flower ; B, pistillate flower.
1 It would not be safe to assume that the gamosepalous calyx or the gamo-
petalous corolla is really formed by the union of separate portions, but it is
very convenient to speak of it as if it were.
202 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
each other or distinet, or they may cohere by their fila-
ments into a single group, when they are said to be
monadelphous, of one brotherhood (Fig.
151), into two groups (diadelphous) (Fig.
152), or into many groups. In some
flowers the stamens are held together in
a ring by their coherent anthers (Fig.
153). 2
216. Union of Pistils.— The pistils
may be entirely separate from each
other, distinct and simple, as they are
Fic. 144.—Bell-Shaped ,
Corollaof Bell-Flower in the buttercup and the stonecrop, or
a ga several may join to form one compound
pistil of more or less united carpels. In the latter case
the union generally affects the ovaries, but often leaves
the styles separate, or it may result
in joining ovaries and styles, but
leave the stigmas separate or at any
rate lobed, so as to show of how
many separate carpels the compound
pistil is made up. Even when there
is no external sign to show the
compound nature of
the pistil, it can usu-
ally be recognized
from the study of
a cross-section of the
Fie. 145, — Salver-Shaped Fie. 146.
Corolla of Jasmine. Ovary. ‘Wheel-Shaped Corolla
(Magnified.) 217. Cells of the of Potato.
Ovary; Placentas.— Compound ovaries are very com-
monly several-celled, that is, they consist of » number of
STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS 203
separate cells’ or chambers, more scientifically known
as locwles, Fig. 154, B, shows a three-celled ovary
seen in eross-section. The ovules are not borne indis-
criminately by any part of the lining of the ovary. .In
one-celled. pistils they frequently grow in a line running
along one side of the ovary, as in the pea pod (Fig. 271).
The ovule-bearing line is called a placenta ; in compound
g Fig; 149.—Partsof a F16. 150.— Parts
Fie. 147.—Tubu- Fie. 148, —Labi- Stamen, pine Eset:
lar Corolla, from ate or Ringent 4, front; B,back;a,an- ov, ovary.
Head of Bache- Corolla of Dead ther; c, connective; sty, style.
lor’s Button. Nettle. J, filament. stig, stigma.
separate pistils joined to make the compound one. Pla-
centas on the wall of the ovary, like those in Fig. 154, A,
are called parietal placentas ; those which occur as at B,
in the same figure, are said to be central, and those which,
like the form represented in C of the same figure, consist
of a column rising from the bottom of the ovary are
called free central placentas.
1 Notice that the word cell is here used in an entirely different sense from
that in which it has been employed in the earlier chapters of this book. As
applied to the ovary, it means a chamber or compartment.
204 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
218. Union of Separate Circles. —'The members of one
of the circles of floral organs may join those of another
circle, thus becoming adnate, adherent, or consolidated.
Fig, 151.
Monadelphous
In Fig. 189 the calyx tube is adnate to the
ovary. In this case the parts of the flower do
not all appear to spring from the receptacle.
Fig. 155 illustrates three common cases as
regards insertion of the parts of the flower.
In I they are,all inserted on the receptacle,
and the corolla and stamens are said to be
hypogynous, that is, beneath the pistil.". In II
the petals and the stamens appear as if they
Stamensof had grown fast to the calyx for some distance,
Mallow.
therefore said to be perigynous, that is,
around the pistil. In III all the parts are
free or unconsolidated, except the petals
and stamens; the stamens may be described
as epipetalous, that is, growing on the petals.
Sometimes some or all
“3
of the other parts stand
upon the ovary, and such
Fic. 152, —Diadelphous parts are said to be epig-
Stamens of Sweet Pea. ynous, that is, on the
ovary, like the petals and stamens of the
white water-lily (Fig. 156).
219. Floral Diagrams. — Sections (real
or imaginary) through the flower length-
wise, like those of Fig. 155, help greatly
so that they surround the pistil, and they are
Fig. 153, —Stamens
of a Thistle, with
Anthers united
into a Ring.
in giving an accurate idea of the relative % united anthers; /,
position of the floral organs. Still more
filaments, bearded
on the sides.
STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS 205
important in this way are cross-sections, which may be
recorded in diagrams like those of Fig. 157.1. In con-
structing such diagrams it
es
oS will often be necessary to
suppose some of the parts
&) SY Cs of the flower to be raised
a B Cc
or lowered from their true
Fic. 154. — Principal Types of Placenta. position, so as to bring
A, parietal placenta; B, central placenta ; . .
C, free central placenta; Aand B, trans- them into such relations
verse sections ; C, longitudinal section. that all could be cut by a
single section. This would, for instance, be necessary
in making a diagram for the cross-section of the flower
y II y RAK
j : SS
Fig. 155.— Insertion of the
Floral Organs.
I, Hypogynous, al) the other parts on
the receptacle, beneath the pistil ;
I, Perigynous, petals and stamens
apparently growing out of the calyx, FIG. 156.— White Water-Lily. The
around the pistil; III, corolla inner petals and the stamens grow-
hypogynous, stamens epipetalous. ing from the ovary.
of the white water-lily, of which a partial view of one
side is shown in Fig. 156.7
1¥For floral diagrams see Le Maout and Decaisne’s Traité Général de
Botanique, or Hichler’s Blithendiagramme.
2 It is best to begin practice on floral diagrams with flowers so firm and
large that actual sections of them may be cut with ease and the relations of
the parts in the section readily made out. The tulip is admirably adapted
for this purpose.
206 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Construct diagrams of the longitudinal section and the
transverse section of several large flowers, following the
method indicated in Figs. 155 and 157, but making
the longitudinal section show
KES the interior of the ovary. It
(pea \\\ is found convenient to distin-
ie ry
We
SF Til
I I
Fic. 157. — Diagram of Cross-Sections of Flowers.
I, columbine ; II, heath family ; IL, iris family. In each diagram the dot along-
side the main portion indicates a cross-section of the stem of the plant. In
II every other stamen is more lightly shaded, because gome plants of the
heath family have five and some ten stamens.
guish the sepals from the petals by representing the
former with midribs. The diagrammatic symbol for a
stamen stands for a cross-section of the anther, and that
for the pistil is a section of the ovary. If any part is
lacking in the flower (as in the case of flowers which
have some antherless filaments) the missing or abortive
organ may be indicated by a dot. In the diagram of the
Tris Family (Fig. 157, ITI) the three dots inside the flower
indicate the position of a second circle of stamens, found
“in most flowers of monocotyledons but not found in this
family.
1 Among the many excellent early flowers for this purpose may be men-
tioned trillium, bloodroot, dogtooth violet, marsh marigold, buttercup, tulip
tree, horse-chestnut, Jeffersonia, May-apple, cherry, apple, crocus, tulip,
daffodil, primrose, wild ginger, cranesbill, locust, bluebell.
STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER AND ITS ORGANS 207
220. Review Summary of Chapter XV.!
1.
Kinds of flowers as regards number of circles or 2.
sets of organs present 3.
4,
Kinds as regards numerical plan 5
Kinds as regards similarity of parts of the same { 1.
circle . ae eee ee 2.
eT
Parts of astamen . . lg By Ss: Bh eae 9
1. ,
Parts of apistil . . . ae dee aa ie 2.
3.
Stamens as regards union with each other
Pistils as regards union with each other .
Degree of union of separate circles
poe Gees ey
NO Ee ee
1 Illustrate by sketches.
CHAPTER XVI
TRUE NATURE OF FLORAL ORGANS; DETAILS OF
THEIR STRUCTURE; FERTILIZATION
221. The Flower a Shortened and greatly Modified
Branch. — In Chapter VIII, the leaf-bud was explained
as being an undeveloped branch, which in its growth
would develop into a real branch (or a prolongation of
the main stem). Now, since flower-buds appear regularly
Fia@, 158. — Transition from Bracts to Sepals in a Cactus Flower.
’ either in the axils of leaves or as terminal buds, there is
reason to regard them as of similar nature to leaf-buds.
This would imply that the receptacle corresponds to the
axis of the bud shown in Fig. 86, and that the parts of
the flower correspond to leaves. There is plenty of evi-
dence that this is really true. Sepals frequently look
very much like leaves, and in many cacti the bracts
208
TRUE NATURE OF FLORAL ORGANS 209
about the flower are so sepal-like that it is impossible to
tell where the bracts end and the sepals begin (Fig. 158).
The same thing is true of sepals and petals in such flowers
as the white water-lily. In this flower there is a remark-
able series of intermediate steps, ranging all the way from
petals, tipped with a bit of anther, through stamens with
a broad petal-like filament, to regular stamens, as is shown
in Fig. 159, #, F, G, H. The same thing is shown in
Fig. 159. — Transitions from Petals to Stamens in White Water-Lily.
E, F, G, H, various steps between petal and stamen.
many double roses. In completely double flowers all the
essential organs are transformed by cultivation into petals.
In the flowers of the cultivated double cherry the pistils
occasionally take the form of small leaves, and some roses
turn wholly into green leaves.
Summing up, then, we know that flowers are altered
and shortened branches: (1) because flower-buds have as
regards position, the same kind of origin as leaf-buds;
(2) because all the intermediate steps are found between
bracts, on the one hand, and stamens, on the other ; (3)
210 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
because the essential organs are found to be replaced by
petals or even by green leaves.
The fact that leaves should be so greatly modified as
they are in flowers and given work to do wholly different
from that of the other kinds of leaves so far studied need
not strike one as exceptional. In many of the most highly
developed plants below the seed-plants, organs correspond-
ing to flowers are found, and these consist of modified
leaves, set apart for the work of reproducing (Sect. 367).
222. Mode of Formation of Stamens and Pistils from
Leaves. — It is hardly possible to state, until after Chap-
ter XXIII has been studied, how stamens stand related
to leaves.}
The simple pistil or carpel is supposed to be made on
the plan of a leaf folded along the midrib until its margins
touch, like the cherry leaf in Fig. 87. But the student
must not understand by this statement that the little
pistil leaf grows at first like an ordinary leaf and finally
becomes folded in. The united leaf-margins near the tip
would form the stigma, and the placenta would correspond
to the same margins, rolled slightly inwards, extending
along the inside of the inflated leaf-pouch. Place several
such folded leaves upright about a common center, and
their cross-section would be much like that of B in Fig.
154. Evidence that carpels are really formed in this way
may be gained from the study of such fruits as that of
the monkshood (Fig. 168), in which the ripe carpels may
be seen to unfold into a shape much more leaf-like than
that which they had while the pistil was maturing. What
“4 “The anther answers exactly to the spore-cases of the ferns and their
allies, while the filament is a small specialized leaf to support it.” For a
fuller statement, see Potter and Warming’s Systematic Botany; pp. 236, 237.
TRUE NATURE OF FLORAL ORGANS 211
really occurs is this: the flower-bud, as soon as it has
developed far enough to show the first rudiments of the
essential organs, contains them in the form of minute
knobs. These are developed from the tissues of the plant
in the same manner as are the knobs in a leaf-bud, which
afterwards become leaves (Fig. 87, II); but as growth
and development progress
in the flower-bud, its con-
tents soon show themselves
to be stamens and pistils (if
the flower is a perfect one).
223. The Anther and its
Contents.—Some of the
shapes of the anthers may
be learned from Figs. 149
and 160.1 The shape of the F14- 160.—Modes of discharging Pollen.
anther and the way in which at; Cia felted aves thee
it opens depend largely upon _ berry); III, by apore at the top of each
ie way ata abel thie pollen anther-lobe (nightshade).
is to be discharged and how it is carried from flower tc
flower. The commonest method is to have the anther-
cells split lengthwise, as in Fig. 160, I. A few anthers
open by trap-doors like valves, as in II, and a larger
number by little holes at the top, as in. III.
The pollen in many plants with inconspicuous flowers,
as the evergreen cone-bearing trees, the grasses, rushes,
and. sedges, is a fine, dry powder. In plants with showy
flowers it is often somewhat sticky or pasty. . The forms
of pollen grains are extremely various. Fig. 161 will
serve to furnish examples of some of the shapes which
1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. II, pp. 86-95.
212 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
the grains assume; ¢ in the latter figure is perhaps as
common a form asany. Each pollen grain consists mainly
of a single cell, and is covered by a moderately thick outer
wall and a thin inner one. Its contents are thickish
protoplasm, full of little opaque particles and usually
containing grains of starch and little drops of oil. The
knobs on the outer coat, as shown in Fig. 161 6, mark
b C d e
Fic. 161. — Pollen Grains. (Very greatly magnified.)
a, pumpkin ; 6, enchanter’s nightshade ; c, Albuca; d, pink ; e, hibiscus.
the spots at which the inner coat of the grain is finally
to burst through the ovfter one, pushing its way out in
the form of a slender, thin-walled tube.}
224, The Formation of Pollen Tubes. — This can be
studied in pollen grains which have lodged on the stigma
and there been subjected to the action of its moist surface.
It is, however, easier to cause the artificial production of
the tubes.
x
EXPERIMENT XXXVIII
Production of Pollen Tubes. — Place a few drops of suitably diluted
syrup with some fresh pollen in a concave cell ground in a micro-
scope slide; cover with thin glass circle; place under a bell-glass,
with a wet cloth or sponge, to prevent evaporation of the syrup, and
set aside in a warm place, or merely put some pollen in syrup in a
1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. 1, pp. 95-104.
FERTILIZATION 2138
watch crystal under the bell-glass. Examine from time to time to
note the appearance of the pollen tubes. Try several kinds of
pollen if possible, using syrups of various strengths. The follow-
ing kinds of pollen form tubes readily in syrups of the strengths
indicated.
Tulip ‘ : : ‘ 1 to 3 per cent.
Narcissus. , : 3 ; 8to5 «
Cytisus canariensis (called Genista by florists) 15 «
Chinese primrose ‘ : 5 i 10
Sweet pea} ; . 10to15 «
Tropzolum 4 : , 15 «
225. Microscopical Structure of the Stigma and Style.
Under a moderate power of the microscope the stigma is
seen to consist of cells set irregularly over the surface,
and secreting a moist liquid to
which the pollen grains adhere (Fig.
162). Beneath these superficial cells
and running down through the style
(if there is one) to the ovary is
spongy parenchyma. In some pistils
the pollen tube proceeds through
the cell walls, which it softens by
means of a substance which it exudes
for that purpose. In other cases
(Fig. 163) there is a canal or passage,
Fia. 162. — Stigma of Thorn-
along which the pollen tube travels Apple (Datura) with Pollen.
' ified.
on its way to the ovule. NE
1 The sweet-pea pollen and that of Tropzolum are easier to manage than
any other kinds of which the author has personal knowledge. If a concaved
slide is not available, the cover-glass may be propped up on bits of the thin-
nest broken cover-glasses. From presence of air or some other reason, the
formation of pollen tubes often proceeds most rapidly just inside the margin
of the cover-glass.
214 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
226. Fertilization. — By fertilization in seed-plants the
botanist means the union of a generative cell from a pol-
Fic. 163, — Pollen Grains producing
Tubes, on Stigma of a Lily. (Much
magnified.)
g, pollen grains ; #, pollen tubes; p,
papille of stigma; c, canal or pas-
sage running toward ovary.
Fic. 164.— Pollen Grain of Snow-
flake (Leucoiwm) producing a Pol-
len Tube with Two Naked Genera-
tive Cells.
len grain with that of an egg-cell
at the apex of the embryo sac
(Fig. 165). This process gives
rise to a cell which contains
material derived from the pollen
and from the egg-cell. In a
great many plants the pollen,
in order to accomplish the most
successful fertilization, must
come from another plant of the
same kind, not from the indi-
vidual which bears the ovules
that are being fertilized.
Pollen tubes begin to form
soon after pollen grains lodge
on the stigma. The time re-
quired for the process to begin
varies in different kinds of
plants, requiring in many cases
twenty-four hours or more. The
length of time needed for the
pollen tube to make its way
through the style to the ovary
depends upon the length of the
style and other conditions. In
the crocus, which has a style
several inches long, the descent
takes from one to three days.
Finally the tube penetrates the opening at the apex of
FERTILIZATION
215
the ovule m, in Fig. 165, reaches one of the cells shown
at e, and transfers a generative cell into this egg-cell. The
latter is thus enabled to
divide and grow rapidly
into an embryo. This
the cell does by forming
cell-walls and then in-
creasing by continued
subdivision, in much the
same way in which the
cells at the growing point
near the tip of the root,
or those of the cambium
layer, subdivide.!
227. Nature of the
Fertilizing Process. —
The necessary feature of
the process of fertiliza-
tion is the union of the
essential contents of two
cells to form a new one,
from which the future
plant is to spring. This
kind of union is found
to occur in many cryp-
togams (Chapters
XX-XXII), resulting
in the production of
a spore capable of grow-
Fig. 165. - Diagrammatic Representation of
Fertilization of an Ovule.
i, inner coating of ovule; 0, outer coating of
ovule; p, pollen tube, proceeding from one
of the pollen grains on the stigma; ec, the
place where the two coats of the ovule
blend. (The kind of ovule here shown is
inverted, its opening m being at the bottom,
and the stalk f adhering along one side of
the ovule.) a toe, embryo sac, full of pro-
toplasm ; a, so-called antipodal cells of em-
bryo sac; 7, central nucleus of the embryo
sac; e, nucleated cells, one of which, the
egg-cell, receives the essential contents of
the pollen tube; f, funiculus or stalk of
ovule; m, opening into the ovule.
ing into a complete plant like that which produced it.
1 See Kerner and Oliver’s Natural History of Plants, Vol. I, pp. 401-420.
216 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
228. Number of Pollen Grains to Each Ovule. — Only
one pollen tube is necessary to fertilize each ovule, but
so many pollen grains are lost that plants produce many
more of them than of ovules. The ratio, however, varies
greatly. In the night-blooming cereus there are about
250,000 pollen grains for 30,000 ovules, or rather more
than 8 to 1, while in the common garden wistaria there
are about 7000 pollen grains to every ovule, and in Indian
corn, the cone-bearing evergreens, and a multitude of other
plants, many times more than 7000 to 1. These differences
depend upon the mode in which the pollen is carried from
the stamens to the pistil.
CHAPTER XVII
THE STUDY OF TYPICAL FRUITS
229. A Berry, the Tomato.!— Study the external fotm of the
tomato, and make a sketch of it showing the persistent calyx and
peduncle.
Cut a cross-section at about the middle of the tomato. Note the
thickness of the epidermis (peel off a strip) and of the wall of the
ovary. Note the number, size, form, and contents of the cells of
the ovary. Observe the thickness and texture of the partitions
between the cells. Sketch. :
Note the attachments of the seeds to the placentas and the gelati-
nous, slippery coating of each seed.
The tomato is a typical berry, but its structure presents fewer
points of interest than are found in some other fruits of the same
general character, so the student will do well to spend a little more
time on the examination of such fruits as the orange or the lemon.
230. A Hesperidium, the Lemon. — Procure a large lemon which
is not withered, if possible one which still shows the remains of the
calyx at the base of the fruit.
Note the color, general shape, surface, remains of the calyx,
knob at portion formerly occupied by the stigma. Sketch the fruit
about natural size. Examine the pitted surface of the rind with
the magnifying glass and sketch it. Remove the bit of stem and
dried-up calyx from the base of the fruit; observe, above the calyx,
the knob or disk on which the pistil stood. Note with the magni-
fying glass and count the minute whitish raised knobs at the bottom
of the saucer-shaped depression left by the removal of the disk.
What are they ?
1 Fresh tomatoes, not too ripe, are to be used, or those which have been kept
over from the previous summer in formalin solution. The very smallest
varieties, such as are often sold for preserving, are as good for study as the
larger kinds.
217
218 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Make a transverse section of the lemon, not more than a fifth of
the way down from the stigma end and note:
(1) The thick skin, pale yellow near the outside, white within.
(2) The more or less wedge-shaped divisions containing the juicy
pulp of the fruit. These are the matured cells of the ovary; count
these.
(3) The thin partition between the cells.
(4) The central column or axis of white pithy tissue.
(5) The location and attachment of any seeds that may be
encountered in the section.
Make a sketch to illustrate these points, comparing it with
Fig. 171.
Study the section with the magnifying glass and note the little
spherical reservoirs near the outer part of the skin, which contain the
oil of lemon which gives to lemon peel its characteristic smell and
taste. Cut-with the razor a thin slice from the surface of a lemon
peel, some distance below the section, and at once examine the
freshly cut surface with a magnifying glass to see the reservoirs,
still containing oil, which, however, soon evaporates. On the cut
surface of the pulp (in the original cross-section) note the tubes in
which the juice is contained. These tubes are not cells, but their
walls are built of cells. Cut a fresh section across the lemon, about
midway of its length and sketch it, bringing out the same points
which were shown in the previous one. The fact that the number
of ovary cells in the fruit corresponds with the number of minute
knobs in the depression at its base is due to the fact that these
knobs mark the points at which fibro-vascular bundles passed from
the peduncle into the cells of the fruit, carrying the sap by which
the growth of the latter was maintained.
Note the toughness and thickness of the seed-coats. Taste the
kernel of the seed.
Cut a very thin slice from the surface of the skin, mount in
water, and examine with a medium power of the microscope.
Sketch the cellular structure shown and compare it with the sketch
of the corky layer of the bark of the potato tuber.
Of what use to the fruit is a corky layer in the skin? (See Sect.
453 for further questions.)
THE STUDY OF TYPICAL FRUITS 219
231. A Legume, the Bean-Pod.1— Lay the pod flat on the table
and make a sketch of it, about natural size. Label stigma, style,
ovary, calyx, peduncle.
Make a longitudinal section of the pod, at right angles to the
plane in which it lay as first sketched, and make a sketch of the
section, showing the partially developed seeds, the cavities in which
they lie, and the solid portion of the pod between each bean and
the next.
Split another pod, so as to leave all the beans lying undisturbed
on one-half of it and sketch that half, showing the beans lying in
their natural position and the funiculus or stalk by which each is
attached to the placenta; compare Fig. 271.
Make a cross-section of another pod, through one of the beans,
sketch the section, and label the placenta (formed by the united
edges of the pistil leaf) and the midrib of the pistil leaf.
Break off sections of the pod and determine, by observing where
the most stringy portions are found, where the fibro-vascular bundles
are most numerous.
Examine some ripe pods of the preceding year,? and notice where
the dehiscence, or splitting open of the pods, occurs, whether down
the placental edge, ventral suture, the other edge, dorsal suture, or
both.
232. An Akene, the Fruit of Dock.— Hold in the forceps a ripe
fruit of any of the common kinds of dock,® and examine with the
magnifying glass. Note the three dry, veiny, membranaceous sepals
by which the fruit is enclosed. On the outside of one or more of
the sepals is found a tubercle or thickened appendage which looks
like a little seed or grain. Cut off the tubercles from several of the
fruits, put these, with some uninjured ones, to float in a pan of
water, and watch their behavior for several hours. What is appar-
ently the use of the tubercle?
1 Any species of bean (Phaseolus) will answer for this study. Specimens
in the condition known at the markets as “shell-beans ’’ would be best, but
these are not obtainable in spring. Ordinary “‘string-beans ”’ will do.
2 Which may be passed round for that purpose. They should have been
saved and dried the preceding autumn.
3 Rumex crispus, R. obtusifolius, or R. verticillatus. This should have
been gathered and dried the preceding summer.
220 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Of what use are the sepals, after drying up? Why do the fruits
cling to the plant long after ripening?
Carefully remove the sepals and examine the fruit within them.
What is its color, size, and shape? Make a sketch of it as seen with
the magnifying glass. Note the three tufted stigmas, attached by
slender threads to the apex of the fruit. What does their tufted
shape indicate?
What evidence is there that this seed-like fruit is not really a
seed?
Make a cross-section of a fruit and notice whether the wall of
the ovary can be seen, distinct from the seed-coats. Compare the
dock fruit in this respect with the fruit of the buttercup, shown in
Fig. 166. Such a fruit as either of these is called an akene.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE FRUIT!
233. What constitutes a Fruit. — It is not easy to make
a short and simple definition of what botanists mean by
the term fruit. It has very little to do with the popular
use of the word. Briefly stated, the definition may be
given as follows: The fruit consists of the matured ovary
and contents, together with any intimately connected parts.
Botanically speaking, the bur of beggar’s ticks (Fig. 278),
the three-cornered grain of buckwheat, or such true grains
as wheat and oats, are as much fruits as is an apple or a
peach.
The style or stigma sometimes remains as an important
part of the fruit in the shape of a hook, as in the common
hooked crowfoot; or in the shape of a plumed appendage,
as in the virgin’s bower, often called wild hops. The
calyx may develop hooks, as in the agrimony, or plumes,
as in the thistle, the dandelion, lettuce, and many other
familiar plants. In the apple, pear, and very many ber-
ries, the calyx becomes enlarged and pulpy, often consti-
tuting the main bulk of the mature fruit. The receptacle
not infrequently, as in the apple, forms a more or less
important part of the fruit.
234. Indehiscent and Dehiscent Fruits. — All of the
fruits considered in the next three sections are indehiscent,
1See Gray’s Structural Botany, Chapter VII, also Kerner and Oliver’s
Natural History of Plants, Vol. Il, pp. 427-438.
221
222 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
that is, they remain closed after ripening. Dehiscent
fruits when ripe open in order to discharge their seeds.
The three classes which im-
mediately follow Sect. 237
belong to this division.
235. The Akene. — The
one-celled and one-seeded
pistils of the buttercup,
‘strawberry, and many other
flowers, ripen into a little
Fic. 166.— Akenes of a Buttercup. fruit called an. akene (Fig.
A, head of akenes ; B, section of a single 166). Such fruits, from
ST their small size, their dry
consistency, and the fact that they never open, are usually
taken for seeds by those who are not botanists.
In the group of plants to which the daisy, the sunflower,
and the dandelion belong, the akenes consist of the ovary
and the adherent calyx tube. The limb of the calyx is
borne on the summit of many akenes, sometimes in the form
of teeth, sometimes as a tuft
of hairs or bristles (Fig. 267).
236. The Grain. — Grains,
such as corn, wheat, oats, bar-
ley, rice, and so on, have the
‘interior of the ovary com-
pletely filled by the seed, and
the seed-coats and the wall of
the ovary are firmly united, as
shown in Fig. 6.
237. The Nut.— A nut (Fig. 167) is larger than an
akene, usually has a harder shell, and commonly contains
Fic. 167, — Chestnuts.
THE FRUIT 223
a seed which springs from a single ovule of one cell of a
compound ovary, which develops at the expense of all the
other ovules. The chestnut-bur is a kind of involucre,
and so is the acorn-cup. The name
nut is often incorrectly applied in
popular language; for example, the
we, so-called Brazil-nut is really a large
seed with a very hard testa.
238. The Follicle. — One-celled,
4 simple pistils, like those of the marsh
Z marigold, the columbine, and a good
| ~ many other plants, often produce a
Fig. 168.—Group of Foui- fruit which dehisces along a single
oe and 2 Single Follicle suture, usually the ventral one. Such
a fruit is called a follicle (Fig. 168).
239. The Legume.— A legume is a one-celled pod,
formed by the maturing of a simple pistil, which dehisces
along both of its sutures, as already seen in the case of
the bean pod, and illus-
trated in Fig. 271.
240. The Capsule: —
The dehiscent fruit
formed by the ripening
of a compound pistil is
called a capsule. Such
a fruit may. be one-
celled, as in the linear
pod of the celandine Fia. 169. — Winged Fruits.
(Fig. 271), or several- Ma Meee
celled, as in the fruit of the poppy, the morning-glory,
and the jimson weed (Fig. 271).
224 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
241. Dry Fruits and Fleshy Fruits. —In all the cases
discussed or described in Sects. 238-240, the wall of the
ovary (and the adherent calyx when present) ripen into
tissues which are somewhat hard and dry. Often, how-
ever, these parts become developed into a juicy or fleshy
mass by which the seed is surrounded ; hence a general
division of fruits into dry fruits and fleshy frutts.
242, The Stone-Fruit. — In the peach, apricot, plum, and
cherry, the perecary or wall of the ovary, during the proc-
ess of ripening, becomes con-
verted into two kinds of tissue,
the outer portion pulpy and
edible, the inner portion of
almost stony hardness. In
common language the hard-
ened inner layer of the peri-
carp, enclosing the seed, is
: called the stone (Fig. 170),
Fic. 170.—Peach. Longitudinal hence the name stone-fruits.
ener re 243. The Pome. — The fruit
of the apple, pear,-and quince is called a pome. It con-
sists of a several-celled ovary, — the seeds and the tough
membrane surrounding them in the core, — enclosed by a
fleshy, edible portion which makes up the main bulk of
the fruit and is formed from the much-thickened calyx,
with sometimes an enlarged receptacle. In the apple and
the pear much of the fruit is receptacle.
244. The Pepo or Gourd-Fruit.— In the squash, pump-
kin, and cucumber, the ripened ovary, together with the
thickened adherent calyx, makes up a peculiar fruit (with
a firm outer rind) known as the pepo. The relative bulk
THE FRUIT 225
of enlarged calyx and of ovary in such fruits is not always
the same.
How does the amount of material derived from fleshy
and thickened placente in the squash compare with that
in the watermelon? Z
245. The Berry.— The berry proper, such as the
tomato, grape, persimmon, gooseberry, currant, and so on,
consists of a rather thin-
skinned, one- to several-
celled, fleshy ovary and its
contents. In the first three
cases above mentioned the
calyx forms no part of the
fruit, but it does in the last
two, and in a great number
of berries.
The gourd-fruit and the
hesperidium, such as the
Fria. 171. — Cross-Section of an Orange.
‘ a, axis of fruit with dots showing cut-off
orange (Fig. 1 71), lemon, ends of fibro-vascular bundles ; p, parti-
: tion between cells of ovary; S, seed;
and lime, are merely de- e, cell of ovary, filled with a pulp com-
: : : posed of irregular tubes, full of juice;
cided modifications of the 0, oil reservoirs near outer surface of
rind; e, corky layer of epidermis.
berry proper.
246. Aggregate Fruits.— ‘The raspberry, blackberry
(Fig. 172), and similar fruits consist of many carpels, each
of which ripens into a part of a compound mass, which,
for a time at least, clings to the receptacle. The whole is
called an aggregate fruit.
To which one of the preceding classes does each unit of
a blackberry or of a raspberry belong? /
What is the most important difference in structure
between a fully ripened raspberry and a blackberry ?
226 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
247. Accessory Fruits and Multiple Fruits. — Not infre-
quently, as in the strawberry (Fig. 172), the main bulk of
the so-called fruit consists neither of the ripened ovary
nor its appendages. Such a combination is called an
accessory fruit.
Examine with a magnifying glass the surface of a small, unripe
strawberry, then that of a ripe one, and finally a section of a ripe
one, and decide where the separate fruits of the strawberry are found,
what kind of fruits they are, and of what the main bulk of the straw-
berry consists. <
The fruits of two or more separate flowers may blend
into a single mass, which is known as a multiple fruit.
Perhaps the best-known edible examples of this are the
Fic. 172. —I, Strawberry ; II, Raspberry ; III, Mulberry,
mulberry (Fig. 172) and the pineapple. The last-named
fruit is an excellent instance of the seedless condition
which not infrequently results from long-continued culti-
vation.
248. Summary.-— The student may find it easier to
retain what knowledge he has gained in regard to fruits if
he copies the following synopsis of the classification of
fruits, and gives an example of each kind.
Fruits
THE FRUIT
Composition
Texture
Mode of.
disseminating seed
Simple.
Aggregate.
Accessory.
Multiple.
r
Fleshy
Stone
Dry
k
Indehiscent
Delriscent
\
CORSE (ee RS ee Se Pe
227
CHAPTER XIX
THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS!
249. Natural Groups of Plants. — One does not need to
be a botanist in order to recognize the fact that plants
naturally fall into groups which resemble each other pretty
closely, that these groups may be combined into larger
ones the members of which are somewhat alike, and so on.
For example, all the bulb-forming spring buttercups 2 which
grow ina particular field may be so much alike in leaf,
flower, and fruit that the differences are hardly worth
mentioning. The tall summer buttercups ? resemble each
other closely, but are decidedly different from the bulbous
spring-flowering kind, and yet are enough like the latter
to be ranked with them as buttercups. The yellow
water-buttercups* resemble in their flowers the two
kinds above mentioned, but differ from them greatly in
habit of growth and in foliage, while still another, a
very small-flowered kind,’ might fail to be recognized
as a buttercup at all.
The marsh marigold, the hepatica, the rue anemone,
and the anemone all have a family resemblance to butter-
cups,® and the various anemones by themselves form
another group like that of the buttercups.
1 See Warming and Potter’s Systematic Botany, Strasburger, Noll, Schenk,
and Schimper’s Text-Book of Botany, Part II, or Kerner and Oliver, Vol. II,
pp. 616-790. 2. bulbosus. % R. acris. 4 R. multifidus. 5 R. abortivus.
6 Fresh specimens or herbarium specimens will show this.
228
THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 229
250. Genus and Species. —Such a group as that of the
buttercups is called a genus (plural genéra), while the
various kinds of buttercups of which it is composed are
called species. The scientific name of a plant is that of the
genus followed by that of the species. The generic name
begins with a capital, the specific does not, unless it is a
substantive. After the name comes the abbreviation for
the name of the botanist who is authority for it; thus the
common elder is Sambucus canadensis, L., L. standing for
Linneus. Familiar examples of genera are the Violet
genus, the Rosé genus, the Clover genus, the Golden-rod
genus, the Oak genus. The number of species in a genus
is very various,—the Kentucky Coffee-tree genus con-
tains only one species, while the Golden-rod genus com-
prises more than forty species in the northeastern United
States alone.
251. Hybrids. — If the pollen of a plant of one species
is placed on the stigma of a plant of the same genus but a
different species, no fertilization will usually occur. Ina
large number. of cases, however, the pistil will be ferti-
lized, and the resulting seed will often produce a plant
intermediate between the two parent forms. This proc-
ess is called hybridization, and the resulting plant a
hybrid. Many hybrid oaks have been found to occur
in a state of nature, and hybrid forms of grapes, orchids,
and other cultivated plants, are produced by horticul-
turists at will.
252. Varieties. — Oftentimes it is desirable to describe
and give names to subdivisions of species. All the culti-
vated kinds of apple are reckoned as belonging to one spe-
cies, but it is convenient to designate such varieties as the
230 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Baldwin, the Bellflower, the Rambo, the Gravenstein, the
Northern Spy, and so on. Very commonly varieties do
not, as horticulturists say, “come true,” that is to say, the
seeds of any particular variety of apple not only are not
sure to produce that variety, but they are nearly sure to
produce a great number of widely different sorts. Varie-
ties which will reproduce themselves from the seed, such
as pop-corn, sweet corn, flint-corn, and so on, are called
races.
Only long and careful study of plants themselves and
of the principles of classification will enable any one to
decide on the limits of the variety, species, or genus, that
is, to determine what plants shall be included in a given
group and what ones shall be classed elsewhere.
253, Order or Family. — Genera which resemble each
other somewhat closely, like those discussed in Sect. 249,
are classed together in one order or family. The particu-
lar genera above mentioned, together with a large number
of others, combine to make up the Crowfoot family. In
determining the classification of plants most points of
structure are important, but the characteristics of the
flower and fruit outrank others because they are more
constant, since they vary less rapidly than the characteris-
tics of roots, stems, and leaves do under changed condi-
tions of soil, climate, or other surrounding circumstances.
Mere size or habit of growth has nothing to do with the
matter, so the botanist finds no difficulty in recognizing
the strawberry plant and the apple tree as members of
the same family.
This family affords excellent illustrations of the mean-
ing of the terms genus, species, and so on. Put in a
THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 231
tabular form, some of the subdivisions of the Rose family
are as follows :
The Rose family includes (among many. others) :
(
L
Plum genus
Rose genus
Pear genus
r
L
Peach species (many varieties).
Garden plum species (many varieties).
Wild black cherry species.
| Garden red cherry species (many varieties).
(Dwarf wild rose
species.
Sweet-brier species.
i Tea variety.
India rose species *
c eae | Pompon variety, etc.
| Damask rose species.
( Seckel variety.
Pear species Bartlett variety.
Sheldon variety, etc.
Baldwin variety.
Greening variety.
Apple species Bellflower variety.
Northern Spy variety,
etc.
254, Grouping of Families.— Families are assembled
into classes, and these again into larger groups. The
details of the entire plan of classification are too compli-
cated for any but professional botanists to master, but an
outline of the scheme may be given in small space.
The entire vegetable kingdom is divided into two great
divisions, the first consisting of eryptogams or spore-plants,
the second of phanerogams or seed-plants. Here the rela-_
tions of the various subdivisions may best be shown by a
table.
1 This is, of course, only for consultation, not to be committed to memory.
FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
232
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IVALLVTION
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1
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THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 233
Crass I
.|GYMNOSPERMS or seed-plants with naked ova-
ries, such as pines, spruces, cedars, and many
other evergreen trees.
Drvision II .
( Susciass I
PHANEROGAMS OR Cc II | MoNnocoTyLEDONOUS
LASS
SEED-PLANTS |
ANGIOSPERMS OF PLANTS
seed-plants with Susciass II
closed ovaries’ DICOTYLEDONOUS
l PLANts.
256. The Groups of Cryptogams. — The student is not
to suppose that the arrangement of cryptogams into the
four great groups given in the preceding table is the only
way in which they could be classed. It is simply one
way of dividing up the enormous number of spore-bearing
plants into sections, each designated by marked character-
istics of its own. But the amount of difference between
one group and another is not always necessarily the same.
The pteridophytes and the bryophytes resemble each
other much more closely than the latter do the thallo-
phytes, while the myxothallophytes are but little like other
plants and it is extremely probable that they are really
animals.
The classes given in the table do not embrace all known
cryptogams, but only those of which one or more repre-
sentatives are described or designated for study in this
book. Lichens in one sense hardly form a class, but it is
most convenient to assemble them under a head by them-
selves, on account of their extraordinary mode of life, a
partnership between alge and fungi.
257. The Classes of Seed-Plants.— The gymnosperms
are much less highly developed than other seed-plants.
234 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
The angiosperms constitute the great majority of seed-
plants (or, as they have been more commonly called,
flowering plants). Only one family of gymnosperms (the
Conifere) is described in Part III of this book, though
there are other families of great interest to the botanist,
but with no representatives growing wild in the Northern
United States.
When people who are not botanists speak of plants
they nearly always mean angiosperms. This class is more
interesting to people at large than any other, not only on
account of the comparatively large size and the con-
spicuousness of the members of many families, but also
on account of the attractiveness of the flowers and fruit
of many. Almost all of the book which precedes the
present chapter (except Chapter XII) has been occupied
with seed-plants.
Seed-plants of both classes frequently offer striking
examples of adaptation to the conditions under which
they live, and these adaptations have lately received much
study, and are now treated as a separate department of
botany (see Part IT).
CHAPTER XX
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES
258. The Group Thallophytes.— Under this head are
classed all the multitude of cryptogams which have a
plant-body without true roots, stems, or leaves. Such a
plant-body is called a thallus. In its simplest form it con-
sists of a portion of protoplasm not enclosed in a cell-wall
and without much of any physiological division of labor
among its parts (Fig. 125). Only a little less simple are
such enclosed cells as that of Plewrococcus (Sect. 278) or
one of the segments of Oseillatoria (Sect. 268). The most
complex thallophytes, such as the higher alge and fungi,
have parts definitely set aside for absorption of food and
for reproduction. The latter is sometimes accomplished
by more than one process and is occasionally aided by
some provision for scattering the reproductive bodies or
spores about when they are mature.
259. Spores. — Before beginning the study of spore-
plants it is well for the student to know what a spore is.
A spore is a cell which becomes free and capable of develop-
ing into a new plant. Spores are produced in one of two
ways: either aserually, from the protoplasm of some part ;
of the plant (often a specialized spore-producing portion),
or sexually, by the combination of two masses of proto-
plasm, from two separate plants, or from different parts of
the same plant.
236
236 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Asexually produced spores are sometimes formed, each
by the condensation of the protoplasm of a single cell, as
shown in Fig. 174, #. They are also formed by the con-
tents of spore-cases breaking up into many spores (Fig.
1738, B; Fig. 210, D). Spores are sometimes produced by
the spontaneous division of a mass of protoplasm into a
small definite number of segments (Fig. 188, t). Spores
which have the power of moving (swimming) freely are
known as zoéspores (Fig. 179, B).
Sexually produced spores are formed in many ways.
One of the simplest modes is that shown in Fig. 178,
resulting in zygospores. Other methods are illustrated in
Figs. 185 and 187.1
THE STUDY OF SLIME MOULDS?
260. Occurrence. — Slime moulds occur in greenhouses, in tan-
yards, or on old logs and decaying leaves in woods. They may be
cultivated in the laboratory. :
They have been described in their vegetative condition on page 179.
261. Examination with the Magnifying Glass. — Stemonitis is one
of the most available genera to illustrate the fruiting of slime moulds.
At maturity the motile protoplasm of the vegetative stage quickly
transforms itself into numerous sporangia or spore-cases with dust-
like spores. With the naked eye and with a inagnifying glass note
the color, form, and feathery appearance of the spore-case of Stemo-
nitis. The outer wall disappears at an early stage, leaving only an
inner structure and spores. Sketch the general outline under a
magnifying glass.
262, Examination with the Microscope.-— With a low power of
the microscope sketch the network of branching hairs which com-
pose the structure of the sporangium. Note the presence or absence
1 See Vine’s Student’s Text-Book of Botany, pp. 68-71.
2 This should logically precede Sect. 258.
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 237
of a central column. Have any of the branches free tips? With a
power of 250 or more examine the spores. A much higher power
may be used to advantage. Describe the surface of the spore.
THE STUDY OF BACTERIA
263. Occurrence. — «Bacteria may occur anywhere but not every-
where.” In water, air, soil, and almost any organic substance, living
Fia. 173. — Spore-Cases of Slime Moulds.
A,a group of spore-cases of Arcyria; B, a spore-case of Trichia, bursting open
and exposing its spores to the wind, x 20; C, threads of the same, with spores
between them, x 250.
or dead, some species of plant belonging to the group Bacteria may
occur. A small bunch of hay placed in a tumbler of water will, at a
suitable temperature, yield an abundant crop in a few days or hours.
Raw peas or beans soaked for a week or two in water in a warm
place will afford a plentiful supply.
264, Cultures. — Pure cultures of bacteria are commonly made in
some preparation of gelatine in sterilized test-tubes. Boiled potatoes
serve a good purpose for simple (but usually not pure) cultures.
Select a few small roundish potatoes with skins entire and boil
in water for a sufficient time to cook them through. Cut them in
halves with a knife well scalded or sterilized, i.e. freed from all living
238 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
organisms in a flame, and lay each on a saucer, with cut surface up,
covering each with a glass tumbler. The tumblers and saucers
should be well scalded or kept in boiling water for half an hour and
used without wiping. Sterilization may be improved by baking
them in an oven for an hour.
265. Inoculation. The culture media prepared as above may
now be inoculated. Uncover them only when necessary and quickly
replace the cover. Scrape a little material from the teeth, tongue,
kitchen sink, floor of house or schoolroom, or any other place you
may desire to investigate. With the point of a knife blade or a
needle sterilized in a flame, inoculate a particle of the material to be
cultivated into the surface of one of the potatoes. Several cultures
ee
greul
Fig. 174. — Bacteria stained to show Cilia.
A, Bacillus subtilis; B, Bacillus typhi (the bacillus of typhoid fever); C, Bacillus
tetani (the bacillus which causes lockjaw) ; D, Spirillum undula; FE, Bacillus
tetani forming spores. (All five are magnified 1000 diameters.)
may be made in this way and one or more left uninoculated as
checks. Another may be left uncovered in the air for half an hour.
Others may be made with uncovered potatoes. Number each culture
and keep a numbered record.
Keep watch of the cultures, looking at them daily or oftener. As
soon as any change is noticed on the surface of a culture, make a
descriptive note of it and continue to record the changes which are
seen. Note the color of the areas of growth, their size, outline, ele-
vation above the surface, and any indications of wateriness. Any
growth showing peculiar colors or other characters of special inter-
est may be inoculated into freshly prepared culture media, using
any additional precautions that are practicable to guard against
contamination.
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 230
266. Microscopic Examination. — Examine some of the cultures.
Place a particle of the growth on a slide, dilute it with a drop of
clear water, and place a cover-glass over it. Examine with the
highest obtainable power of the microscope, at least 3 in. objective.
Note the forms and movements, also the sizes if practicable, of any
bacteria that are found.
THE STUDY OF OSCILLATORIA!
267. Occurrence. — Oscillatoria may occur floating in stagnant
water or on damp soil in ditches, roadsides, dooryards, paths, or
pots in greenhouses. Other nearly related plants occur on surfaces
of ponds sometimes covering considerable areas or adhering in small
spheres to submerged vegetation. Alge of this class are particu-
larly noxious in water supplies, as they partake of the nature of
bacteria, to which they are related.
268. Examination with the Microscope. — After washing a particle
of Oscillatoria material in a drop of water to remove as much of the
earth as possible, place it in a clean drop of water, pull to shreds
with needles, cover, and examine under a power of 200 or more
diameters.
Note the color and compare it with chlorophyll green.
The filament is not one plant, but each of the cells which com-
pose it is one plant. They are packed together in the filament like
coins and sometimes may be found separating singly. The usual
mode of reproduction is by the separation of a number of adhering
cells as a short filament from one end of a longer one, and this
increases in length by the dividing of its individual cells.
269. Movement.— At ordinary temperatures, favorable to growth,
movement may be observed in the filaments. Describe the move-
ment. What has it to do with the name of the plant?
1 A genus of the class Schizophycez.
240 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
THE STUDY OF DIATOMS
270. Occurrence. — Diatoms of different species may be found in
sediment in water in various kinds of places or mixed with or
A B
Fia. 175. — Schizophycex.
A, a filament of Calothrix, reproducing by
hormogonia, h, segmented portions which
escape from the sheath of the filament ;
B, Rivularia. (Both A and B greatly
magnified.)
adhering to fresh-water or ma-
rine alge, in ponds and ditches
or on sand or earth at the
bottom of clear brooks. In the
last place they may be detected
with the eye, forming a yellow-
ish coloring. They may often
be obtained by straining hy-
drant water. Where diatoms
have been very abundant their
remains sometimes form beds
of rock, and fossil diatoms
compose some of the polishing
powders of commerce.
271. Microscopical Examina-
tion of Diatoms. — Place a drop
of water containing diatoms on
a slide and put a cover-glass
over it. Examine with a power
of 200 or more diameters. Dia-
toms occur singly, resembling
triangles, wheels, boats, rods,
and. a great variety of other
forms (Fig. 176), or adhering
in long bands, as spokes of a
wheel, etc. The boat-shaped
kinds are among the common-
est. The color of the contents:
is yellowish. The cell-wall is
encrusted with a shell of silica
whose surface is covered with beautiful markings, dots or lines,
which are conspicuous in some species, in others so minute that the
most powerful microscopes are required to detect them. By boiling
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS ; THALLOPHYTES 241
in nitric acid, the cellulose wall and its contents may be destroyed
and the markings of the siliceous shell more easily observed. Each
diatom consists of a single cell.
272, Movements of Diatoms. — Living diatoms exhibit a peculiar
power of movement. Jn the boat-shaped species the movement is
much like that of a row-boat, forward or backward.
THE STUDY OF SPIROGYRA
273. Occurrence. — Spirogyra, one of the plants commonly known
as pond-scum, or “frog-spit,” occurs widely distributed throughout
the country in ponds, springs, 6
and clear streams. It is of a
green or yellowish-green color,
and in sunny weather usually
floats on or near the surface of
the water, buoyed up by the
numerous oxygen bubbles which
it sets free. It may be found
flourishing in unfrozen springs,
even in midwinter.
274. Examination with the
Magnifying Glass.1— Float a
little of the material in a white
plate, using just water enough
to cover the bottom of the latter.
Study with the magnifying glass
and note the green color of the
threads and their great length
as compared with their thick-
ness. Are all the filaments about
equal to each other in diameter?
Handle a mass of the material and describe how it feels between
the fingers. ’
275, Examination with the Microscope. — Mount in water under
a large cover-glass and examine first with a power of about 100
Fic. 176.— A Group of Diatoms.
A, Achnanthes; B, Cocconema;
C, Meridion; D, Pleurosigma.
1 Consult Huxley’s Biology and Spalding’s Introduction to Botany.
242 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
diameters, then with a power of 200 diameters or more. Note the
structure of the filaments. Of what is each made up? Compare
with the structure of Oscillatoria.
Move the slide so as to trace the whole length of several filaments,
and, if the unbroken end of one can be found, study and sketch it.
Study with the higher power a single
cell of one of the larger filaments and
ascertain the details of structure. Try
to discover, by focusing, the exact shape
of the cell. How do you know that
the cells are not flat? Count the bands
of chlorophyll. The number of bands
is an important characteristic in dis-
tinguishing one species from another.
Run in five-per-cent salt solution at
one edge of the cover-glass (withdraw-
ing water from the other edge with a
bit of blotting paper). If any change
in the appearance of the cell becomes
evident, make a sketch to show it.
What has happened to the cell-con-
_ tents? Explain the cause of the
Fic. 177.— Process of Cell-Multi-
plication in a Species of Pond- change-by reference to what you know
Scum. (Considerably magnified.) of osmose.
A, portion of a filament partly On a freshly mounted slide run
ae eee under the cover-glass iodine solution,
completed, a new partition of a little at a time, and note its action
neue aes wees ete A a on the nucleus. Is any starch shown
tied, Sica aicous oe to be present? If so, just how is it
d, general cell-wall ve, and a distributed through the cell?
ag asap ean — 276. Reproduction of Spirogyra. —
The reproductive process in Spirogyra
is of two kinds, the simplest being a process of jission, or cell-
division. The nucleus undergoes a very complicated series of
transformations, which result in the division of the protoplasmic
contents of a cell into two independent portions, each of which is
at length surrounded by a complete cell-wall of its own. In Fig. 176
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; 'THALLOPHYTES 248
the division of the protoplasm and formation of a partition of
cellulose in a kind of pond-scum are shown, but the nucleus and its
changes are not represented.
Another‘kind of reproduction, namely by conjugation, is found in
Spirogyra. This process in its simplest form is found in such
unicellular plants as the desmids
(Fig. 178). Two cells (apparently
precisely alike) come in contact,
undergo a thinning-down or absorp-
tive process in the cell-walls at the
point of contact, and finally blend ,
their protoplasmic cell-contents, as
shown in the figure, to form a mass
known as @ spore, or more accu-
rately a zygospore, from which, after
I
Fie. 178. — Conjugation of Cells of Green Alge. (Much magnified.)
I. Conjugation of Desmids. .A,a single plant in its ordinary condition; B, empty
cell-wall of another individual; C, conjugation of two individuals to form a
spore by union of their cell-contents.
Il. Conjugation of Spirogyra. A, two tilaments of Spirogyra side by side, with
the contents of adjacent cells uniting to form spores, z. At the bottom of the
figure the process is shown as beginning at the top as completed, and the cells
of one filament emptied; B, a single filament of another kind of Spirogyra,
containing two spores, one lettered z. (A magnified 240 diameters, B 150
diameters.)
@ period of rest, a new individual develops. In Spirogyra each
cell of the filament appears to be an individual and can conjugate
like the one-celled desmids. It is not easy to watch the process,
since the spore-formation takes place at night. It is possible,
244 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
however, to retard the occurrence of conjugation by leaving the
Spirogyra filaments in very cold water over night, and in this way
the successive steps of the conjugating process may be studied by
daylight. In such ways the series of phenomena shown in Fig.
178, II, has been accurately followed. If the student cannot follow
these operations under the microscope, he may, at least, by looking
over the yellower portions of a mass of Spirogyra find threads con-
taining fully formed zygospores, like those shown in B, Fig. 178.
THE STUDY OF PLEUROCOCCUS
277. Occurrence. — Pleurococcus may be found on old fences,
roofs, and many similar places, particularly on the bark of the north
side of trees. The individual plants cannot be detected by the naked
eye, but when grouped in masses they form a powdery green covering
over indefinite areas of bark. Plenty are seen where it is moist.
278. Microscopical Examination of Pleurococcus. — Scrape a minute
quantity of Pleurococcus from a specimen on bark, place it in a drop
of water on a slide, distributing it slightly in the water, lay on it
a cover-glass and ex-
amine with a power of
200 or more diameters.
Sketch with the cam-
era lucida one of the
largest cells, some of
intermediate size, and
one of the smallest,
beside several divisions
of the stage microm-
eter.
Note the clearly de-
fined cell-wall of cel-
A, a spherical cell of the stillform; B, a motile cell lulose, enclosing the
with its protoplasm enclosed in a loose cell-walland protoplasmic contents,
provided with two cilia. ;
Fic. 179.— Two Cells of Protococcus.
(Greatly magnified.)
usually green through-
out. Do any cells show a nucleus like that in Fig. 179, A?
Test the cells with iodine solution for starch.
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 245
Note that in reproduction the cell-contents in many individuals
has divided into two parts which become separated from each other
by a cellulose partition. Each of these again divides, and the proc-
ess continues until thirty-two or more cells may be found in one
mass or they may fall apart at an earlier stage.
279. Nutrition of Pleurococcus. -—- Pleurococcus can flourish only
with an abundance of light and moisture. In daylight it can absorb
carbon dioxide and fix carbon (giving off the oxygen at the same
time as bubbles of oxygen) and can assimilate mineral substances.
It is a capital example of an individual cell capable of independent
existence.
280. Motile Forms. — No motile form is known in Pleurococcus.
Hematoccus, often known as Protococcus (Fig. 179), is a better object
for study than Pleurococcus. It may sometimes be found in water
of stagnant pools, particularly those which contain the drainage of
barnyards or manure-heaps, in mud at the bottom of eaves-troughs,
in barrels containing rain-water, or in water standing in cavities in
logs or stumps. Its presence is indicated by a greenish or some-
times by a reddish color. It is sometimes found in an actively
swimming condition, in which case each cell is called a zodspore.
THE STUDY OF VAUCHERIA
281. Occurrence. — Species of Vaucheria are found in ponds,
streams, and pools, immersed or floating like Spirogyra and at all
seasons may be sought in greenhouses, where they grow on the moist
earth of beds and pots, forming a green felt.
282. Examination with the Magnifying Glass.-The magnifying
glass will show the growth of Vaucheria to consist of numerous
green filaments similar to those of Spirogyra. Select a small portion
and spread out the filaments carefully in a drop of water on a slide.
Does the glass reveal any indications of cross-partitions, of branch-
ing, or of fruiting organs as short lateral branches? Does it show
the form or arrangement of the green coloring matter?
283. Examination with the Microscope. — Prepare as directed
for the magnifying glass and place a cover-glass over the prepara-
tion, with sufficient water. With the lowest power observe the
246 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
continuity of the cell-cavity and (in young plants growing on soil)
search for root-like portions, in those growing in water for branch-
ing portions, and fruiting organs in the form of swellings or short
lateral branches.
With a power of about thirty to sixty diameters sketch a selected
plant of moderate extent as nearly complete as possible or else
Fic, 180.— Vaucheria synandra.
A, a filament with archegonia and antheridia (considerably magnified); B, part
of same much more highly magnified; 0, oJgonium; a, antheridium; C, a
Jater stage of B; D, end of a filament with a zodspore, z, escaping (highly
magnified).
sketch a portion showing the branching and a rootlike portion.
Note. and indicate the absence or presence and arrangement of
chlorophyll. Can Vaucheria probably use carbon dioxide?
284, Reproduction in Vaucheria.— Make an outline sketch of
fruiting organs, if found. See if any filaments can be found with
the contents massing or escaping at the tips. In some species
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 247
zoéspores are formed in this way, having their entire surface clothed
with cilia. They are the largest motile cells known. In other spe-
cies a portion of the filament is separated and cut off by a cell-wall.
Such spores soon germinate and may be found in various stages of
growth. They often serve for propagation through several genera-
tions before spores are produced by fertilization.
With a power of about 200 diameters sketch a portion of a fila-
ment to show the form and location of chlorophyll. Sketch the
fruiting organs in detail, if any can be found.t
Antheridia and odgonia are-formed near together on the same
filament. The antheridium is a cell forming the terminal portion
of a short branch, which is rather slender, straight or curved. Its
contents form numerous minute antherozoids, each with two cilia.
The cilia can be seen only with great difficulty, if at all, but their
presence is indicated by their active movements.
The odgonium is a short, somewhat spheroidal branch separated
by a cross-partition at the base. The cell-wall becomes ruptured at
the tip, allowing the entrance of the antherozoids by which it is
fertilized. After fertilization a cell-wall is formed about the odsphere,
and it matures as an odspore and enters upon a period of rest.
THE STUDY OF NITELLA
285. Occurrence. — Nitella is a green plant growing attached to
the bottom of ponds and streams, usually in shallow water. It is
not common everywhere but is widely distributed. Chara is similar
and may be used as a substitute but is more complicated.
286. General Aspect.— With the naked eye and a magnify-
ing glass note the general aspect of Witella, the length of the stem-
like portions, from the root-like parts to the tip, the length of some
of the joints (internodes), the arrangement of leaf-like and branch-
like portions.
287. Protoplasm. — Examine the cells of stems or leaves under a
low power. Select a vigorous cell of moderate size and examine
1 Goebel states that the formation of the fruiting organs begins in the ewen-
ing, is completed the next morning, and that fertilization takes place during
the day between ten and four o’clock.
248 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
under a power of 200 or more diameters. Select the terminal cell
of the leaf if Chara is used. The protoplasm is nearly colorless but
usually contains bodies which can be seen moving in the current of
protoplasm. The protoplasm will show
normal activity at the temperature of a
comfortable living room. By focusing, see
if the current of protoplasm can be detected
moving in more than one direction.
Note the form and arrangement of the
chlorophyll and any places lacking chloro-
phyll, and see if you can tell whether the
arrangement has any relation to the current
of protoplasm. With a low power trace the
course in several cells. How many cells con-
stitute each internode of Nitella? If Chara
is used, internodes will be found to be
covered with a layer of many corticating
cells. Under a high power compare the
general structure of node and internode and
see if the attachment of leaves and branches
can be clearly determined. Compare the tip
of a leaf with the tip of a stem or branch
if the material permits. Are the fruiting
organs produced on the stems or the leaves?
288. Antheridia.—_The antheridia are
globular bodies, bearing male fertilizing
cells and becoming red at maturity (Fig.
182), Eight cells compose the outer wall.
They have radial lines indicating folds and
Fig, 181.—End of a Main join one another by irregular sutures. Note
Shoot of Chara. (About a round spot in the middle of each cell
pases ae: which marks the point of attachment within
of the stalk on which antherozoid-producing cells are borne.
289. Odgonia.— The egg-shaped fruits, known as odgonia (Fig.
182), are borne near the antheridia in monecious species. Count
thé number of pointed cells which constitute the “crown” of the
fruit. Does each tip consist of one or two short cells? Examine
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 249
the surface of the enveloping cells which enclose the spore. What
is their number and form? What is their relation to the cells form-
ing the crown? Focus so as to see the large egg-cell (odsphere or
odspore) which constitutes the center of the fruit. Can you determine
anything regarding its contents?
Search for young odgonia and if practicable describe and draw
them in several stages of development. Their structure can be seen
much more easily than that of the
antheridia. Make drawings to illus-
trate various details of structure.
290. Characea. — Miella
and Chara are the genera
composing the group Chara-
cee, a group of green alge
differing widely from any
others. They show in a won-
derful manner simplicity of
cell-structure with a high |
degree of organization. Fic. 182. — Part of a Leaf of Fig. 181.
(Considerably magnified.)
Scarcely less wonderful are a,antheridium ; 0,o$gonium. At the
the care and precision with ‘ight are a young antheridium and
which botanists have worked § ""°°""™
out their life history. Asastudy in evolution the Characee
may be considered as representing the highest develop-
ment attained along the line of filamentous green alge,
which, while preserving their algal characteristics, are
comparable in a remarkable degree with moss- and fern-
plants and with seed-plants. Every cell in the plant has
been accounted for and is understood in regard to origin,
relationship, and function. With harmony of structure
throughout, it has organs comparable to root, stem, and
leaf in seed-plants, each with characteristic structure and
250 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
mode of growth. The stem has nodes and internodes.
The stem increases by the growth of an apical cell, but
growth in length depends chiefly on the elongation of each
internodal cell instead of the multiplication of numerous
internodal cells.
THE STUDY OF ROCKWEED!
291. Occurrence. The common rockweed is abundant every-
where on rocks, between high and low tide, on the New England
coast and southward.
292. The Frond. — A plant of rockweed
consists mostly of a growth which is some-
what leaf-like, but, in fact, stem and leaf
are not separately developed, and the growth
is therefore called a thallus. This combined
stem and leaf has. many flat leathery
branches which are buoyed up in the water
by air-bladders. Cut one of the bladders
openand note its form and appearance. Note
whether they occur singly or how grouped.
Note the prominent midrib running through-
out the middle of each branch. Examine
the swollen tips of some of the branches and
note their peculiarities. Sketch a portion
#) of a frond to show the characteristics so far
noted.
293. Reproduction. — Cut across through
the middle of one of the swollen fruiting
tips. Note the fruiting papille (concep-
tacles) as they appear in this section, and
make a simple sketch to show their position.
Select some plants with brighter colored
Fig. 183.—Part of Thallusof tips and some less bright, if any di
a Rockweed (Fucus platy- Pp ope = y difference
carpus), naturalsize. The : a i
two uppermost branchlets 1 Fucus vesiculosus is the most available species.
are fertile. Others may be substituted.
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 251
can be detected. After making the
microscopic examination which follows,
note what correspondence of structure B
with color has been observed. Cut very
thin sections through fruiting tips from
different plants, keeping those from each
plant separate. Be sure that some of
the cuts pass through the conceptacle as
near the middle as possible.
Examine with a power of about sixty
diameters sections from different fronds,
searching for one kind containing rather
large egg-shaped cells and another con-
taining bundles of numerous smaller yo, 194. —Rockweed (Fucus).
sac-shaped cells. With a power of 200 4 antheridia borne on branch-
diameters study the details of the sec- ing hairs, x 160; B, anthero-
tions. Note the character of the cells 7148 from same, * 980.
forming the surface of the frond, those
of the inner structure, and those limit-
ing the cavity of the conceptacle. Ina
conceptacle cut through the middle note
the form of the orifice. Examine the
slender hairs or filaments (paraphyses)
which, arising at right angles, line the
walls of the conceptacle.
294. Odgonia and Antheridia. — In
conceptacles containing egg-shaped cells
(odgonia) note the form,
mode of attachment (ses-
sile or stalked), and dif-
ferent stages of develop-
ment. At maturity the
contents are divided,
forming eight odspheres;
but not all can be seen Fie. 185.— Rockweed (Fucus).
A, oégonium, its contents dividing into eight odspheres,
at once, some being be- x 160; B, an odsphere, escaped, surrounded by an
neath the others, therozoids, x 160,
252 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
In conceptacles of the other kind examine the numerous small
sac-shaped cells (antheridia). At maturity the contents of each
divide to form nunierous very minute motile antherozoids, each with
two delicate hairs or cilia. Dissect, by picking and by friction under
cover-glass, a bunch of
antheridia and note
the branching fila-
ments upon which
they are borne.
Make drawings to
illustrate the various
points of structure.
295. Number of
Antherozoids required
for Fertilization.—The
bulk of an odsphere
has been estimated
equal to that of thirty
thousand to sixty
thousand antherozoids,
but apparently an
odsphere may be fer-
tilized by only one
antherozoid. Yet a
large number swarm
around each odsphere
after both have
escaped from the con-
ceptacies, and often
their movements are
so active as to cause the rotation of the odsphere. The process of
fertilization may be discerned in fresh material by squeezing
oéspheres and antherozoids from theix respective conceptacles into
a drop of water on a slide. In some species, as Fucus platgcarpus
(Fig. 186), antheridia and odgonia are found in the same
conceptacle.
Fic. 186.— Transverse Section of Conceptacle of a
Rockweed (Fucus platycarpus). (x about 35.)
h, hairs ; a, antheridia; 0, odgonia,
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 258
THE STUDY OF NEMALION
296. Occurrence. — Seven or eight species of Nemalion are known
in the world, but only one! is widely diffused, being found in Europe
and on the New England coast from Rhode Island northward. It
grows in salt water attached to exposed rocks at low-water mark.
Nemation represents the largest of the groups of alge, nearly all of
which live in salt water and have the characteristic color ; but afew
live in fresh water.
297. Color.— Fresh specimens or those properly dried for the
herbarium show the color which is characteristic of the great group
to which Nemalion belongs. Dried specimens of «Jrish moss”
(Chondrus) and many other species furnish good illustrations. There
are many variations of shade and intensity.
Place a piece of afresh or dried specimen of some species in a
beaker of fresh water over night or longer and note the color of the
solution and of the treated specimen. Treat another piece similarly
with alcohol. A few genera related to Nemalion grow in fresh
water. What do you infer regarding their color?
298. Form and General Character.— Examine specimens of
Nemalion and note the size, shape, mode of branching, nature, or
consistency of their substance. Examine a fragment of the plant
with a power of about sixty diameters and note how the structure
differs from what it appears to be to the naked eye. Do cells appear
more densely packed or differently colored at any points?
299. Structure. — From a small portion of the plant cut thin
longitudinal and transverse sections or pull it to pieces with needles
so as to expose the inner portion. Place on a slide under a cover-
glass in a drop of water. With a power of about 250 diameters or
more examine the general structure of the frond, as shown by a slide
prepared as above. Note the central portion (azis) of the frond as
dissected out, consisting of long, slender, thread-like cells. Examine
and draw the branching rows of cells which, radiating from the
axis, form the surrounding outer structure of the frond. Note the
tips of these branches and look for the fruiting organs and fruit
(spores).
1 Nemalion multifidum.
254 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Fic. 187.— Portions of Thallus of a Red Alga
(Chantransia). (Much magnified.)
A, filaments with antheridia, a; B, young recep-
tive hair, or trichogyne,t; C and D, successive
stages in the growth of the clustered fruit, f.
300. Organs for Repro-
duction. — The fruiting
organs are to be sought
on the radiating branching
filaments and are usually
produced in great abun-
dance during the summer.
Various stages of develop-
ment may be expected at
a given time. The anther-
ozoids are small spheres
without cilia, non-motile,
with a thin cell-wall. Look
for cells in which they are
formed (antheridia), occur-
ring in groups at the tips
of the branches. Compare
these with the vegetative
cells. x
301. Spore-Production.
—Look for spore-producing
organs in various stages.
In the young stage at the
time of fertilization, an-
therozoids, carried by cur-
rents of water, may be
found adhering. Note the
shape of the tip (trichogyne)
and the base (carpogonium),
and find whether there is
any partition separating
them at this stage.. Draw
or describe a few later
stages in development, and
note the arrangement of
the spores at maturity. Are they naked or enclosed in any sort of
envelope? Are they arranged in masses, chains, or otherwise?
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 255
302. Other Floridee.— Nemalion represents one of the simplest
modes of fruiting in the red alge. In others there is great variety in
structure and great complication in the mode of fruiting. Some
species of Polysiphonia (or Dasya) may well be studied in compari-
son with Nemalion and in further illustration of this important
group.! Understanding that a siphon, in alge, is a row of cells, end
to end, study the structure of a plant of Poly-
siphonia as illustrating its name. How many
siphons are there? Do the main branches
have any other cells covering the surface (cor-
ticating cells) ?
Note the tufts of repeatedly forking, one-
siphoned filaments.
303. Fruiting of Polysiphonia. — The anther-
idia are to be sought on the branching fila-
ments just mentioned. Note how they differ
from those of Nemalion. The clustered fruits
or cystocarps will be recognized as ovoid- ©6@
globose or urn-shaped bodies attached
externally to the frond. Note whether ®
the group of spores is naked or otherwise, ©
whether the spores are produced singly
or in chains ; how attached; shape.
“Many Floride@ have another kind of =
fruiting bodies, spores produced without eae
fertilization, codrdinate with the asexual —_y spores of Wemalion Greatly
spores of black mould (see Sect. 308). magnified); B, portion of
In Floridee such spores are usually ee of a red alga, Lejo-
isia, with tetraspores, %.
found in fours and are called tetraspores.
Are tetraspores usually found on separate plants?
In Polysiphonia the tetraspores appear to be formed in threes
(tripartite), the fourth being underneath the three. When found,
describe their position and arrangement.
304. Alge.— Diatom, Oscillatoria, Pleurococeus, Spi-
rogyra, Vaucheria, Nitella, Fucus, Nemalion, these eight
1 It is desirable also to exhibit fresh or pressed specimens of various genera
to show their general aspect.
256 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
plants which we have just studied, are types of several
families of plants which together make the great group
called Alge. Something of its importance in nature is
indicated by these facts: The number of known species is
about 12,000. In size, the individuals in various species
range from a single cell of microscopic dimensions, as in
Pleurococeus, to the giant kelp of California which reaches,
a length of more than 1000 feet. The form ranges from a
simple spherical cell as in Pleurococeus to an extensive,
branching cell in Vauwcheria and its allies, spécialized
organs in the form of root, stem, leaf, air-bladder, and
‘fruiting organs in Sargassum, which isan ally of Fucus.
The alge illustrate a series of modes of propagation
from simple division in Oscillatoria to the union of two
similar masses of protoplasm to form a spore in Spirogyra,
the direct fertilization of a germ-cell by motile anthero-
zoids in Vaucheria, Nitella, Fucus, the indirect fertilization
of fruiting cells by non-motile antherozoids in Nemalion.
In allies of the latter there are more intricate variations of
the same mode.
The alge fall into five natural groups based primarily
on the mode of fruiting. In most cases color is codrdinate
with class and may be relied upon as a superficial guide in
grouping ; but there are a few exceptions, e.g., some fruit-
ing like the red group are, nevertheless, green.
The nutrition of the brown and the red alge is similar
to that of the green alge, since the brown or red color
merely conceals the green of the chlorophyll which is
present in all and enables them all to take in and decom-
pose carbon dioxide.!
1 See Murray’s Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds, pp. 4-6. London,
1895,
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 267
305. Classification of Types studied.
DIATOMACES. Yellowish.
Diatoms.
CYANOPHYCEE. Blue-green or some similar color.
Oscillatoria.
CHLOROPHYCES. Green.
Pleurococcus, Spirogyra,
Vaucheria, Nitella.
PHXOPHYCEA. Olive.
Fucus.
FLorIDEz. Red.
Nemalion.
Polysiphonia.
THE STUDY OF BLACK MOULD (RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS)
306. Occurrence. — This mould may be found in abundance on
decaying fruits, such as tomatoes, apples, peaches, grapes, and cher-
ries, or on decaying sweet potatoes or squashes. For class study it
may most conveniently be obtained by putting pieces of wet bread
on plates for a few days under bell-jars and leaving in a warm place
until patches of the mould begin to appear.
307. Examination with the Magnifying Glass.— Study some of
the larger and more mature patches'and some of the smaller ones.
Note :
(a) The slender, thread-like network with which the surface of
the bread is covered. The threads are known as hyphae, the entire
network is called the mycelium.
(6) The delicate threads which rise at intervals from the myce-
lium and are terminated by small globular objects. These little
spheres are spore-cases. Compare some of the spore-cases with
each other and notice what change of color marks their coming to
maturity.
308. Examination with the Microscope. — Sketch a portion of the
untouched surface of the mould as seen (opaque) with a two-inch
objective, then compare with Fig. 189,
258 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Wet a bit of the mould, first with alcohol, then with water.
Examine in water with the half-inch objective, and sketch a little of
the mycelium, some of the spore-cases, and the thread-like stalks on
which they are borne. Are these stalks and the mycelium filaments
solid or tubular? Are they one-celled or several-celled?
Mount some of the mature spore-cases in water, examine them
with the highest obtainable power, and sketch the escaping spores.
A
Fia. 189, — Unicellular Mycelium of a Mould (Mucor Mucedo), sprung from a
Single Spore.
a, b, and c, branches for the production of spore-cases, showing various stages of
maturity. (Considerably magnified.)
Sow some of these spores on the surface of “hay-tea,”’ made by
boiling a handful of hay in just water enough to cover it and then
straining through cloth or filtering through a paper filter. After
from three to six hours examine a drop from the surface of the
liquid with a medium power of the microscope (half-inch objective)
to see how the development of hyphze from the spores begins.
Sketch.
TYPES OF CRYPTOGAMS; THALLOPHYTES 259
After about twenty-four hours examine another portion of the
mould from the surface of the liquid and study the more fully
developed mycelium. Sketch.
309. Zygospores.— Besides
the spores just studied, zygo-
spores are formed by conju-
gation of the hyphe of the
black moulds. It is not very
easy to find these in process
of formation, but the student
may be able to gather from
Fig. 190 the nature of the
process by which they are
formed, —a process which can-
not fail to remind him of the
conjugation of pond-scum.
THE STUDY OF WHEAT
RUST (PUCCINIA
GRAMINIS)
310. Occurrence. — Wheat
rust is common on cultivated
wheat and other grains, and
also on many wild and culti-
vated forage grasses. In fact,
this or similar rusts occur on
a very large number of grasses,
and many species of such rusts
are recognized. A rust may
have one, two, or three kinds
Fie. 190.— Formation of Zygospores ina
Mould (Mucor Mucedo).
1, threads in contact previous to conjuga-
tion; 2, cutting off of the conjugating
cells, a, from the threads, 6; 3, a later
stage of the process ; 4, ripe zygospore ; 5,
germination of a zygospore and formation
of aspore-case. (1-4 magnified 225 diam-
eters, 5 magnified about 60 diameters.)
of spores, and when three occur one is known as the cluster-cup stage
and the others as red rust. and black rust, according to the usual
approximate color of the spores. The rust called Puccinia graminis
growing on wheat has its cluster-cup stage on the leaves of barberry
in June. The spores from the cluster-cups are carried by the wind
to the wheat, where they germinate and in a few days produce the
260 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
red rust. Wt
a Plant from Shade _ WY
Conditions to Sun ><
Conditions. — It is
characteristic of
many kinds of forest
trees that the young
seedlings are much
more tolerant of I II
dense shade than the Fi. 227.1, a Shade-Plant (Clintonia) ; II, a Sun-
Plant, Dog Fennel (Maruta).
adult trees are.
Sometimes their seeds will hardly germinate at all unless
thoroughly shaded, and the young trees for the first few
years flourish best in the shade. Afterwards most trees
need a good deal of sunlight, but. they may live long
with a scanty supply of light, The red spruce sometimes
3822 . FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Fic. 228.— An Epiphytic Fern (Platycerium) on a Tree Trunk.
The more upright leaves next the trunk of the tree serve to collect water
and to accumulate a deposit of decaying vegetable matter, while the
outer leaves serve as foliage and bear spores.
PLANT SOCIETIES 323
lingers on for fifty or a hundred years, reaching meantime
a diameter of not more than two inches, and then, on
getting more light, shoots up into a large and valuable
timber tree.}
394. Epiphytes. — It is even easier for a plant to secure
enough sunlight in a forest region by perching itself upon
the trunk or branches of a tree than by climbing, as our
wild grapevines and the great tropical lianas do. There
is a large number of such perched plants, or epiphytes,
embracing species of many different groups of seed-plants
and of spore-plants. The fern shown in Fig. 228 is a good
example of an epiphyte. Instances among seed-plants are
the so-called Florida moss (Plate IV) and orchids like
those in Fig. 13.
1See the Primer of Forestry, Part I, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
1899, pp. 33-35.
CHAPTER XXV
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY
395. Regions of Vegetation. — The earth’s surface (that
of the land) has been described by one of the greatest of
geographical botanists! as divided into twenty-four regions
of vegetation. This classification takes account of all the
principal continental areas which have a characteristic set
of plants of their own, as well as of the most important
islands. But a simpler arrangement is to consider the
plant life of the earth as distributed among the following
regions :
The tropical zone.
The temperate zones.
The arctic zones.
Mountain-heights,
Bodies of water.
Soot oO
Any good geography gives some account of at least the
land vegetation of the earth. It is necessary in the pres-
ent chapter only to point out a few of the most important
characteristics of the plants of the zones and other areas
mentioned above and to give some reasons why the plant
population of each has its special characteristics.
396. Tropical Vegetation. _— Within the tropics two of
the great factors of plant life and growth, namely, light
and heat, are found in a higher degree than elsewhere
on the earth. Moisture, the third requisite, is in some
1 A. Grisebach.
824
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY 325
regions very abundant (over sixteen feet of rainfall in a
year) or sometimes, in desert areas, almost lacking. We
find here, accordingly, the greatest extremes in amount
of vegetation, from the bare sands or rocks of the Sahara
desert (Fig. 229) to the densely wooded basin of the
Kongo and of the Amazon. Xerophytie plants, many of
them with extremely. complete. adaptations for supporting
life for long periods without water, are characteristic of
tropical deserts, while many of the most decided hydro-
phytes. among land-plants are found in the, dripping sub-
FG, 229, — Hills of Drifted Sand in the Sahara, ©
tropical forest interiors. ‘Throughout a large part of the
zone; reaching five degrees each way from ‘the equator,
there are daily rains the year round.
397. Vegetation of the Temperate Zones. — We-are ‘all
familiar in a general way with the nature of ‘thé plant
life of the north temperate zone; that of the: south
temperate is in most ways similar to our own: Most of
the annuals and biennials are of a: medium type, ‘not
decided xerophytes nor hydrophytes, and the ‘perennials
are mainly tropophytes. There are no: desert areas so
large or so nearly destitute of plants as those found in
subtropical regions, neither are there any such luxuriant
326 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
growths as occur in the rainy forest regions of the tropics.
On the other hand, the largest trees on earth, the “big
trees,” or Sequoias (Fig. 82), occur in the temperate por-
tion of North America, along the Sierra Nevada, and
the taller, though less bulky, gum trees (Hucalyptus) of
Australia grow in a warm temperate region.
398. Temperate Plant Societies due to Special Conditions
of Soil. — Even where the climate
! is a moderate one as regards tem-
perature and rainfall, peculiar
soils may cause the assemblage
of exceptional plant societies.
‘Some of the most notable of
such societies in temperate North
America are those of the salt
marshes, the sand dunes, and the
peat bogs.
In salt marshes the water sup-
ply is abundant, but plants do not
readily absorb salt water by their
Fr¢.230.— A Halophytic Plant roots, so that the plants which
(enone), grow in salt marshes usually have
something of the structure and appearance of xerophytes.
Some of them are fleshy (Fig. 230), and some species are
practically leafless.
Sand dunes, whether along the seacoast or near the
great lakes, offer a scanty water supply to the roots dur-
ing much of the year, and the soil-water contains less of
the raw materials for plant food than is offered by that
of ordinary soils. Many grasses thrive, however, in these
shifting sands (Plate I), and some, like the beach-grass
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY 827
(Ammophila) of the Atlantic coast and the great lakes,
will continue to eet upward as the sand is piled about
them by the winds until they
have risen to a level of a
hundred feet above the start-
an ing point.
$ Peat bogs are especially
characterized by the predominance of
the peat mosses (Fig. 231) from which
they take their name.
These plants and the others which associ-
ate with them are mostly hydrophytes, living
usually with a considerable portion of the
plant continually submerged in the bog
water. The water of such bogs contains
little mineral matter and only a very scanty
supply of nitrogen, in the form of nitrates
dissolved in it. The bog-plants, therefore,
must either get on with an exceptionally
small supply of nitrogen or they must get
it from an unusual source. The peat mosses
adopt the former alternative, while the sun
dews (Fig. 238), the pitcher-plants (Fig.
237), and some other species adopt the latter and
derive their nitrogen supply largely from insects
which they catch, kill, and digest.
399. Arctic Vegetation. — The seed-plants of the
Fic. 231. arctic flora are mostly perennials, never trees.
Peat Moss. By the large bulk of the underground portion
as compared with that of the part above ground, they
are adapted to a climate in which they must lie dormant
828 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
for not less than nine months of the year. The flowers
are often showy and appear very quickly after the brief
summer begins. Mosses and lichens are abundant, — the
latter of economical importance because they furnish a
considerable part of the food of reindeer. :
400. Mountain or Alpine Vegetation. — In a general way
the effect of ascending a mountain, so far as vegetation is
Fic. 232.— A Plant of Arctic Willow. (About natural size.)
concerned, is like that of traveling into colder regions.
It was long ago suggested, in regard to Mount Ararat,
that on ascending it one traversed first an Armenian, then
a South European, then a French, then a Scandinavian,
and finally an arctic flora. Up to a certain height, which
varies in different latitudes, the slopes of mountains are
very commonly forest-covered. The altitude up to which
trees can grow (or as it is commonly called in this country:
the “timber line”) is somewhat over twelve thousand feet
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY 829
in the equatorial Andes and lessens in higher latitudes as
one goes either way from the equator. In the White
Mountains, for instance, the timber line only rises to about
four thousand five hundred feet. The seed-plants of alpine
regions in all parts of the earth have a peculiar and charac-
teristic appearance. It is easiest’ to show how such plants
differ from those of the same species as they look when
Fic. 233. - = Trobe ¥ near the Timber Line’ on. the Slope of Pikes Peak,
growing. in w ohdinary situations. by réference to the plants
themselves or to good’ pictures of them (see. Fig. 235).
The differences between-alpine and non-alpine plants of
the same or closely related species nave been summed up
as: follows : +
“The alpine individuals have shorter stems, smaller leaves,
more strongly déveloped roots, equally large or somewhat
larger and usually somewhat more deeply colored flowers,
and their whole structure is drought-loving (xerophilous).”
1By A. F. W. Schimper.
330 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
J,
Lys Sm
SSA ae, Se
f a Vy
Fs i fi
att iit af f
ase ob Pests das
Nir os, 4
— a as ¢
sinh te ea ;
eal
a f=?
=
Fig. 234, — Decrease in Size of Trees at High Elevations (Canadian Rockies),
Trees at great elevations become much gnarled and
stunted, as their growth is necessarily very slow (Fig.
233). The gradual diminution of the height of the
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY 38381
trees on ascending a mountain is well shown in Fig. 234.
The treeless character of the mountain summit is also
plain.}
Recent experiments have shown that many ordinary
plants promptly take on alpine characteristics when they
are transferred to moderate heights on mountains. For
instance, a rather DCB fs
commonly cultii /W A :
vated sunflower,? [ he A, ate
when planted at a ;
height of about six |
thousand five hun-
dred feet, instead _.
of having a tall
leafy stem pro-
duces a rosette of
very hairy leaves
lying close to the
ground, thus be-
coming almost un-
recognizable as a
sunflower. The
change was even
greater than that (Both drawn to the same scale.)
shown in the rock A, low ground form ; B, alpine form.
rose (Fig. 235) cultivated by the same experimenter. The
peculiarities of alpine plants appear to be due mainly to
the intense light which they receive during the daytime,
(Se
1 Part of the diminution is only apparent, — the effect of distance, — but the
growth at the highest levels is often less than waist high.
2 Helianthus tuberosus, the so-called Jerusalem artichoke.
832 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
to the strongly drying character of the air in which they
grow (due partly to its rarefaction), and to the low temper-
ature which they must endure every night.
401. Aquatic Vegetation. — Plants which live wholly in
water often need a less complicated system of organs than.
land-plants. True roots may be dispensed with altogether,
as in many seaweeds, in most fresh-water alge, and in
some seed-plants. A few such plants have mere. hold-
fasts that keep them from drifting with the waves or the
current. Sometimes roots may, as in the duckweeds
(Fig. 220), serve the purpose of a keel and keep the
flat, expanded part of the plant from turning bottom up.
The tissues that give strength to the stems and leaves of
land-plants are not usually much developed in submerged
aquatics, since the water supports:-the weight of such
plants. In some alge, as the common rockweed or blad-
der-wrack (Fig. 183), the weight of the plant is admi-
rably buoyed up by large air-bladders. ‘Transpiration is
done away with, and. whatever carbonic acid gas or oxygen
is absorbed or given off passes directly through the cell-
walls into the interiors- of the cells. Generally water-
plants do not reach any great size, but some species are
the longest: of known plants, Macrocystis, the great kelp
of the Pacific Ocean, attaining, it is said, the length of a
thousand feet or more. In spite of the moderate size of
most alge the total bulk in the various oceans must be
extremely large. The Sargasso Sea alone, in the Atlantic
Ocean, reaches most of the way from the Bahamas to the
Azores and extends over seventeen degrees of latitude.
The whole area is occupied by a nearly compact mass of
floating seaweed.
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY 833
Besides the comparatively well-known and readily seen
larger alge there is a great amount of vegetation floating
in what is known as the plankton. This is a mass of
microscopic animals and plants, found floating scum-like
or submerged in fresh and in salt water and often accu-
mulated in great quantities near shores, to which it is
.swept by the action of the wind and waves and currents.
Much of the plant life of the plankton, both of fresh and
of salt water, often consists of the flinty-shelled one-celled
microscopic algze known as diatoms (Fig. 176).
402. Botanical Geography of the United States. — All of
the continuous territory of the United States 1 lies in the
north temperate zone. There is material for a large vol-
ume in the discussion of the distribution of plants over
our territory in this continent alone, but it is possible to
sum up a mere outline of the matter ina very few words.
Excluding the floras of many single mountains and moun-
tain ranges, the land surface of the country may for’ botan-
ical purposes be divided into four great areas, as follows:
1. The Forest Region. — This occupies the eastern and,
central portion of the United States. It is bounded on
the west by an irregular line, most of which-lies to the
eastward of the hundredth meridian. In_some places this
forest boundary extends eastward across the Mississippi
River, while in others it recedes from the river five
hundred miles or more to the westward.
2. The Great Plains Region. — This extends westward
from the region above named to the Rocky Mountain
Plateau.
1 That is, not counting in Alaska, our west Indian possessions, the Sand-
wich Islands, or the Philippines.
334 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
8. The Pacific Highland Region. — This includes the
Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and the various
plateaus between them.
4. The Pacific Slope.— This extends from the Cascade
Range and the Sierra Nevada to the sea.
403. Characteristics of the Four Regions. — The forest
region is mainly remarkable for its great variety of hard-
wood trees, of which it contains a larger number of
useful species than any equal area of the earth with a
temperate climate. In the northeasterly portion and in
much of the southerly portion there are extensive forests
of the cone-bearing evergreens, such as pines, spruces,
hemlocks, and cedars. The vegetation is in general
such as thrives in medium conditions as regards heat
and rainfall.
The plains region is largely covered with grasses, many
of them xerophytes. Some of the most characteristic plants
associated with the grasses are Composite, such as sun-
flowers, rosin-weeds (Silphiwm), cone-flowers, gum-weeds
(Grindelia), and blazing-stars (Liatris).
The Pacific highland region includes a very great vari-
ety of plant societies, from the heavily wooded mountain
slopes and valleys to high sterile plains which are almost
deserts. Cone-bearing evergreen trees are very character-
istic of the forests. Great numbers of alpine species of
herbs and shrubs are found on the mountains at and above
the timber line. In the alkali regions, where the soil is
too full of mineral salts to permit ordinary plants to grow,
many kinds of xerophytes, such as the salty sage (Atriplez)
and the greasewood (Sarcobatus), occur. In the southern
portion cactuses abound.
Puate VIII. — Tree Belt along.a Stream, Nebraska
BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY 335
The Pacific Slope is characterized by cone-bearing ever-
greens in great abundance in the mountains and along the
foothills. Chief among these in point of size are the red-
woods and the “big trees” (Sequoias) (Fig. 82). Oaks
are represented by a good many species, several of them
evergreen. There are many xeroplytes, some of them
characteristic of alkali regions; and in Southern California,
on account of the long dry season, plants with large roots
or rootstocks and bulb-bearing plants (many: of them
belonging to the lily family) are abundant. The tree
yucca (Plate VII) is one of’the largest and most inter-
esting xerophytic plants of North America.
CHAPTER XXVI
PARASITES, ENSLAVED PLANTS, MESSMATES,
CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
404. Parasites. — A little was said in Chapter IV about
parasitic plants, and the life history of one of them, the
dodder, was briefly outlined,; another, the wheat rust, was
discussed in Sects. 310-813. y i .
P,, a scaly bract (palea); e, transparent Ae . eo
seales (lodicules) at the base of the the palea behind; C, a lodicule;
flower ; B, the flower. D, ovary.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 23
4. GRAMINEAE. Grass Famity.
Mostly herbs, with usually hollow stems, closed and en-
larged at the nodes. Leaves alternate, in two ranks, with
sheathing bases, which are split open on the side opposite the
blade. Flowers nearly or quite destitute of floral envelopes,
solitary, and borne in the axils of scaly bracts called glumes,
which are arranged in two ranks overlapping each other on
1-many-flowered spikelets; these are variously grouped in
spikes, panicles, and so on. Fruit a grain. (The family is
too difficult for the béginner, but the structure and group-
ing of the flowers may be gathered from a careful study of
Figs. 2, 3.) -
5. CYPERACEZ. Sepce Famity.
Grass-like or rush-like herbs, with solid, usually triangular,
stems, growing in tufts. The sheathing base of the generally
3-ranked leaves, when present, is not slit as in grasses. The
flowers are usually somewhat less enclosed by bracts than
those of grasses; the perianth is absent or rudimentary ;
stamens generally 3; style 2-cleft or 3-cleft.
The general appearance of a common sedge may be learned
from Part I, Ch. V, and the flower-cluster and the flower
understood from an inspection of Fig. 4.
The species are even more difficult to determine than those
of grasses.
6. ARACEA. Arum Famity.
Perennial herbs, with pungent or acrid juice, leaves often
netted-veined, small flowers (perfect or imperfect) clustered
along a peculiar fleshy spike called a spadix, and frequently
more or less covered by a large, hood-like bract called a
spathe. Perianth, when present, of 4-6 parts; often want-
ing. Fruit usually a berry.
24 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Fia. 4.— Inflorescence, Flower, and Seed, of a Sedge.
(Great Bulrush, Scirpus lacustris.)
A, magnified flower, surrounded by a perianth of hypogynous bristles; B, the
seed; C, section of the seed, showing the small embryo enclosed in the base
of the endosperm.
I. ARISAMA, Martius.
Perennial herbs, springing from a corm or a tuberous
rootstock.
Spathe rolled up at base. Summit of spadix naked, the
lower part flower-bearing; staminate flowers above, pistil-
late ones below. Stigma flat; ovary 1-celled ; berry 1-few-
seeded.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 25
1, A. triphyllum, Torr, Inpian Turnip, JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT.
Leaves generally 2, each of 3 elliptical-ovate, pointed leaflets. Spadix
club-shaped, bearing usually only one kind of fully developed flowers ;
that is, full-sized pistillate and rudimentary staminate ones, or the
reverse. Spathe much longer than the spadix, and covering it like
a hood. Corm turnip-like, but much wrinkled, very starchy, and
filled with intensely burning juice.
2. A. Dracontium, Schott. Green Dracon, Dracon Root. Leaf
usually single, divided into 7-11 rather narrow-pointed leaflets ;
spadix tapering to a long, slender point, often bearing fully devel-
oped staminate and pistillate flowers.
Il. SYMPLOCARPUS, Salisb.
Rootstock very stout, with many long, cylindrical roots.
Leaves clustered, very large, and entire. Spathe shell-shaped,
very thick. Spadix globular, thickly covered with perfect
flowers. Sepals 4. Stamens 4. Style 4-angled. Fruit glob-
ular or ellipsoidal, with the seeds slightly buried in the
enlarged spadix.
Coarse, stemless herbs, with a powerful scent like that of
the skunk and of onions.
1. S. fetidus, Salisb. Skunk Cappace. Leaves many, slightly
petioled, 1-2-ft. long, appearing after the flowers. The latter are
usually seen before the ground is wholly free from frost, often earlier
than any other flower. Bogs and wet meadows, very common N.
Il. ACORUS, L.
Rootstocks horizontal, long, and moderately stout, aromatic.
Leaves long, upright, sword-shaped. Spathe much like the
leaves. Spadix projecting from the edge of the spathe, con-
sisting of numerous perfect flowers. Sepals 6. Stamens 6.
Ovary 2-3-celled, with numerous ovules. Fruit 1—-few-seeded.
1. A. Calamus, L. Swrsrt Frac. Scape with a long, leaf-like
prolongation (spathe) beyond the green, very closely flowered, spadix.
Along borders of brooks and swamps.
The rootstocks furnish the well-known calamus or “sweet flag-
root” sold everywhere by druggists.
26 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
7. COMMELINACEZ. SpirperworT FaAmILy.
Herbs, with slimy or mucilaginous juice ; stems somewhat
succulent, jointed, leafy, simple or branched. Leaves simple,
succulent, narrow, entire, sheathing at the base, sheaths entire
Fic. 5.— Acorus Calamus.
A, spadix ; B, a single flower, enlarged ; C, diagram of flower, enlarged.
or split. Flowers in terminal cymes or umbels, perfect, often
irregular. Sepals 3, persistent, foliaceous or colored. Petals 3,
soon falling or liquefying ; stamens 6 or fewer, often some of
them abortive. Ovary 2—3-celled ; style single, stigma entire
or 3-lobed, fruit a 2-3-celled, 2-3-valved capsule, seeds soli-
tary or several in each cell.*
MUNOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 27
I. COMMELINA, Dill.
Annual or perennial, stem branching, erect. or procumbent,
smooth or downy. Leaves petioled or sessile, entire, the
floral ones heart-shaped, folded, and forming a spathe enclos-
ing the base of the cymes. Flowers irregular, sepals mostly
colored, 1 of them smaller. Petals blue, unequal, 2 of them
kidney-shaped and long-clawed, the other smaller. Stamens 6,
only 3 of them fertile, filaments smooth. Capsule 1-3-celled,
seeds 1-2 in each cell.*.
1. C. virginica, L. Vireinrta DayrLoweEr. Stem erect, downy,
1-2 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed,
3-5 in. long, somewhat rough above, sheaths inflated, hairy,
the opening often fringed. Spathes containing a slimy secretion.
Flowers 1 in. wide, the odd petal lanceolate. Capsule 3-seeded, the
dorsal cell not splitting open. On moist, sandy soil.*
Il. TRADESCANTIA, L.
Perennial, stem simple or branched. Leaves very narrow.
Flowers in terminal and axillary bracted umbels, regular,
1 in. broad. Sepals 3, herbaceous. Petals 3, soon falling or
liquefying to jelly. Stamens 6, sometimes 3 shorter than the
others, filaments bearded or smooth. Ovary 3-celled, with
2 ovules in each cell, pedicels recurved in fruit. Capsule
8-celled, 3-valved, 3-6-seeded.*
1. T. virginica, L. SprpErwort. Stem erect, stout, smooth,
or with long, soft hairs, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves linear, keeled, often
purple-veined, long, taper-pointed, 1 ft. or more in length. Bracts
similar to the leaves, umbels sessile, 2-many-flowered, flowers in 2
rows in the bud. Petals blue or purple, twice as long as the sepals.
Stamens blue, filaments densely bearded. Capsule ovoid or oblong.
On dry, sandy soil.*
2. T. pilosa, Lehm. Harry Sprperwort. Stem stout, erect, or
zigzag, branched, with long, soft hairs, or nearly smooth, 1-2 ft.
high. Leaves linear-oblong, tapar-pointed at the apex, narrowed at
the base, hairy on both sides. Umbels axillary and terminal, many-
flowered. Pedicels and sepals with soft, glandular hairs. Flowers
blue or purple, 3-1 in. wide. Seeds pitted. In rich soil.*
28 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I. ZEBRINA, Schnizl.
Trailing or slightly climbing herbs. Leaves often striped.
Flowers irregular, usually in pairs. Calyx with a short tube,
regularly or irregularly 3-parted. Corolla nearly regular,
with tube longer than the calyx. Filaments naked or bearded.
Ovary 3-celled, 3-6-ovuled.
1. Z. pendula, Schnizl Wanperinc Jew. Stems perennial,
prostrate, or nearly so, branching freely, rooting easily at the nodes.
Leaves somewhat succulent, lance-ovate or oblong, crimson beneath,
green or dark purplish above, often with two wide silvery stripes.
Cultivated from Mexico.
8. PONTEDERIACEZ. PicKeEREL-wEED FAMILY.
Perennial marsh or aquatic herbs, stems simple or branched, ~
succulent. Leaves simple, alternate. Flowers solitary or
spiked, each subtended by a leaf-like spathe, perfect, mostly
irregular. Perianth corolla-like, 6-parted. Stamens 3 or 6,
unequal, inserted irregularly in the tube or throat of the
perianth. Ovary free, style single, stigma entire or toothed,
ovary 1 or 3 celled. Fruit a 1-seeded utricle.*
PONTEDERIA, L.
Stem erect, from a thick, creeping rootstock, bearing a
single leaf above the middle and several sheathing, bract-like
leaves at its base. Radical leaves numerous, thick, parallel-
veined. Petiole long, from a sheathing base. Flowers in
terminal spikes. Perianth 2-lipped, lobes of the upper lip
ovate, of the lower oblong, spreading. Stamens 6, the 3
upper short and often imperfect, the 3 lower protruding.
Ovary 3-celled, but only 1 cell ovule-bearing. The 1-seeded
utricle enclosed by the base of the perianth.*
1. P. cordata, L. PICKEREL-WEED. Stem stout, erect, 2-4 ft. high.
Leaves long, from heart-shaped to lanceolate and often halberd-
shaped, apex aud basal lobes obtuse, finely nerved. Spike dense,
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 29
2-4 in. long, peduncles enclosed by the spathe. Perianth hairy,
blue, the upper lip with 2 yellow spots, tube 6-ribbed, curved, rather
longer than the lobes. Ovary oblong. In ponds and slow streams.*
9. JUNCACEH. Rusw Famity.
Grass-like perennial or annual herbs, mostly growing on
wet soil. Stems mostly erect but sometimes creeping, simple
or branched, naked or leafy and jointed. Leaves cylindrical,
sheathing at the base, very slender and pointed or flattened
and grass-like. Flowers in cymes or panicles, which may be
very loose and spreading, or so compact as to form a head,
sometimes with a rigid scape prolonged beyond the flower-
cluster. Flowers usually bracted, perianth of 6 nearly equal
scale-like persistent divisions. Stamens 3 or 6, inserted on
the base of the perianth. Ovary free, 1 or 3 celled, many-
ovuled. Style single, stigmas 3, usually hairy. Fruit a 1 or
3 celled, 3-many-seeded capsule. [Most species flower late in
the season, and their identification is too difficult for one
without considerable experience. | *
10. LILIACEZ. Liry Famity.
Mostly herbs. Flowers regular and symmetrical. Perianth
free from the ovary. Stamens nearly always 6, one before
each division of the perianth. Ovary usually 3-celled. Fruit
a pod or berry, few—many-seeded.
Except in the genus Trillium the divisions of the perianth
are colored nearly alike.
30 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
SUBFAMILY I.—LILIACEZ PROPER.
Not tendril-climbers, rarely diecious.
A.
Styles or sessile stigmas 3, more or less separate.
Leaves 3-ranked, strongly nerved and plaited. Flowers some-
what monecious, small. Veratrum, I.
Leaves flat, lanceolate, or spatulate. Flowers diccious, showy.
Chamelirium, II.
Leaves grass-like. Flowers perfect, showy. Amianthium, III.
B.
Style undivided (in No. XXIII, 3 sessile stigmas). Plants from root-
stocks.
Leaves perfoliate. Flowers solitary, drooping, yellow.
Uvularia, IV.
Leaves broad, clasping. Flowers solitary or nearly so, drooping,
yellow. Oakesia, V.
Leaves scale-like. Thread-like branches borne in their axils.
Flowers small, bell-shaped. Asparagus, XVII.
Leaves several_many, sessile or clasping, alternate. Flowers
small, 6-parted, white, in a terminal simple or compound
raceme. Smilacina, XVIII.
Leaves only 2-3, sessile or slightly petioled. Flowers very
small, 4-parted, solitary or in a small terminal cluster.
Maianthemum, XIX.
Leaves clasping. Flowers solitary or in pairs, greenish-white or
rose-purple, borne on pedicels abruptly bent near the middle.
Streptopus, XX.
Leaves nearly sessile or partly clasping. Flowers axillary,
greenish, on pedicels jointed near the flower.
Polygonatum, XXI.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 81
Leaves only 2, directly from the rootstock. Flowers in a raceme,
bell-shaped, white, sweet-scented. Convallaria, XXII.
Leaves 38, netted-veined. Flower single, large, terminal.
Trillium, XXIII.
c.
Style undivided. Plants from fibrous roots.
Flowers yellow or orange. Hemerocallis, VI.
Flowers white. Yucca, XVI.
D.
Style usually undivided. Plants from coated or solid-looking bulbs.
Leafy-stemmed plants. Flowers large, solitary, or apparently
umbelled. Fritillaria, IX.
Apparently stemless plants.
(a) Plants with the smell of onions or garlic. Flowers
umbelled. Allium, VII.
(0) Flower solitary, erect, large. Tulipa, X.
(c) Flower solitary, nodding. Erythronium, XI.
(d) Flowers racemed. Perianth with hardly any tube.
Stigma a single knob. Scilla, XII.
(e) Flowers racemed. Perianth with hardly any tube.
Stigma 8-cleft. Camassia, XIII.
(f) Flowers corymbed. Perianth with hardly any tube.-
Leaves linear. Ornithogalum, XIV.
(g) Flowers racemed. Perianth with a tube. Leaves
lance-linear. Hyacinthus, XV.
E.
Style undivided. Plants from scaly bulbs. Lilium, VIII.
SUBFAMILY II. —SMILACEA.
Climbers, often tendril-bearing. . Flowers diccious. Smilax, XXIV.
32 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I, VERATRUM, Tourn.
Simple-stemmed perennials. Roots fibrous, from the thick-
ened base of the stem, poisonous, emetic. Leaves 3-ranked,
plaited, and veiny. Flowers panicled, greenish, or brownish.
Sepals 6, spreading, nearly free from the ovary. Stamens
shorter than the perianth, and inserted on its base. Ovary of
3 carpels united at base. Fruit a few-seeded capsule, splitting
into 8 parts.
1. V. viride, Ait. Wuitrz Hextirsorr, Inp1ian Poxe. Stem
stout, 2-7 ft. high, very leafy. Flowers very numerous, in a panicle,
composed of spike-like racemes. Sepals yellowish-green. Wet
meadows and brooksides.
2. V. Woodii, Robbins. Stem slender, 2-5 ft. high, not very leafy.
Flowers in a long, narrow panicle. Sepals greenish-purple or almost
black. Woods and dry hillsides.
Il. CHAMLIRIUM, Willd.
Rootstock short and thick, bitter. Stem simple, erect, leafy,
smooth. Lower leaves spatulate to obovate, the stem-leaves
narrower. Flowers small, white, in a spike-like raceme,
dicecious. Perianth of 6 linear-spatulate segments. Stamens
6, filaments longer than the perianth. Ovary 3-celled, styles
3. Fruit an ovoid, 3-angled, many-seeded capsule.*
1. C. carolinianum, Willd. Unicorn-root, Devit’s Bit. Stem
furrowed, staminate plants 1-2 ft. high, pistillate taller, often 8 ft.
or more. Lower leaves obovate, clustered, the upper small and
bract-like. Staminate racemes slender and drooping, the pistillate
erect. Flowers short-pediceled. Capsule 3-valved, seeds linear-
oblong, winged at the ends. On low ground.*
Il. AMIANTHIUM, Gray.
Stem simple, glabrous, erect from a bulbous base. Leaves
long and slender. Flowers white, in a simple terminal raceme,
perfect. Perianth of 6 segments which are sessile and gland-
less. Stamens 6, inserted in the base of the perianth. Ovary
3-lobed, 3-celled, fruit a dehiscent, 3-lobed capsule, the lobes
becoming awl-shaped by the persistent style bases; cells few-
seeded.*
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 33
1. A. muscetoxicum, Gray. Fuiy Porson. Bulb ovoid or oblong.
Stem somewhat angled below, 1-8 ft. high. Lower leaves strap-
shaped, channeled, the upper small and bract-like. Raceme dense,
cylindrical, pedicels from the axils of minute ovate bracts. Peri-
anth segments ovate, white, becoming greenish, nearly as long as
the slender stamens. Styles spreading. Capsule with divergent
lobes; seeds ovoid, red. In rich woods.*
Iv. UVULARIA, L.
Rather low plants with short rootstocks. Leaves alternate,
broad, and parallel-veined. Flowers yellow or yellowish,
drooping, borne singly at the end of the forking stem.
Perianth of 6 similar and separate narrow spatulate sepals,
each grooved and nectar-bearing inside toward the base.
Stamens 6, with linear anthers, which are much longer than
the filaments. Style 3-cleft. Pod 3-lobed, 3-celled, few-
seeded.
1. U. grandiflora. Larcer BeLtuwort. Leaves oblong, with the
base clasping the stem so as to make it appear.to run through the
leaf a little way from the base; flowers greenish-yellow, 14 in. long,
anthers obtuse. A leafy plant, 1-2 ft. high.
2. U. perfoliata. Meaty Betiwort. Leaves much as in the
preceding species; flowers very pale yellow, with shining grains on
the inner surfaces of the twisted sepals; anthers sharp-pointed ;
plant about 2 the size of the preceding.
Vv. OAKESIA, Watson.
Plants with much the aspect of the preceding genus, but
with merely sessile leaves, triangular winged pods, and slen-
der creeping rootstocks.
1. O. sessilifolia. Witp Oats, Straw Litres. Stem slender,
zigzag. Leaves lance-oval, thin, smooth, pale beneath, 1-1} in.
long. Flower cream-color, nearly 1 in. long.
VI. HEMEROCALLIS, L.
Perennial, from a fascicle of fleshy roots. Stem erect,
branched, smooth. Leaves mostly basal and linear. Flowers
on branching scapes, large, yellow or orange, solitary or
384 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
corymbed, perianth funnel-form, with a spreading limb much
longer than the tube. Stamens 6, inserted in the top of the
tube, shorter than the lobes, curved upward. Ovary 3-celled,
many-ovuled, style longer than the stamens, curved upward,
stigma knobbed. Fruit a 3-celled, 3-angled capsule.*
1. H. fulva, L. Day Lity. Scapes stout, branched above, with a
few bract-like leaves, smooth, 3-5 ft. high. Leaves very long, strap-
shaped, acute, channeled. Flowers short-pediceled, tawny-yellow,
perianth lobes oblong, netted-veined, lasting only one day. Intro-
duced from Asia and common in old gardens.*
VI. ALLIUM, L.
Stemless herbs from coated. bulbs with the characteristic
odor of onions. Bulbs solitary or clustered. Leaves narrowly
linear or slender-tubular, with a bloom. Flowers small on
slender pedicels, in terminal umbels on naked scapes, the
umbels often bracted or enclosed in a spathe. Perianth
6-parted, persistent ; stamens 6, inserted on the base of the
perianth, filaments filiform or dilated below. Ovary sessile,
8-celled. Style thread-like, jointed; stigma entire. Fruit a
3-celled, 3-valved, few-seeded capsule. Flowers sometimes
changed into bulblets.*
1. A. canadense,L. Merapow Gartic. Bulbs ovoid, the outer
coats of white and thin, dry, netted fibers. Leaves narrowly linear,
flat, or concave above. Scape cylindrical, 1 ft. high. Bracts of the
umbel 2-3, ovate, acuminate; umbel consisting mostly of sessile
bulblets. The few flowers long-pediceled, rose-colored. Perianth
about as long as the stamens. Filaments dilated below. Capsule
shorter than the perianth, 6-toothed, ovules 2 in each cell. On moist
soil.*
2. A. striatum, Jacq. Srrireep WiLtp Onion. Bulbs clustered,
outer coat membranaceous. Leaves linear, concave, striate on the
back. Scape 6-12 in. high. Umbel 3-10-flowered, bracts 2, pedicels
1-2 in. long. Perianth nearly white, longer than the stamens, the
outer segments green-keeled on the back. Capsule not toothed,
seeds several in each cell. Low pine barrens.*
3. A. vineale,L. Fire~rp Garuic. Bulb mostly solitary. Leaves
cylindrical, hollow, very slender. Scape slender, sheathed below the
middle by the bases of the leaves. Umbels often crowded with
bulblets. A troublesome weed in moist meadows and fields east-
ward, giving milk a strong flavor of onions or garlic.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 35
VU. LILIUM, L.
Perennial, from scaly bulbs, stem erect, leafy, usually tall
and slender. Leaves sessile, scattered, or whorled. Flowers
large, erect, or drooping. -Perianth corolla-like, deciduous.
Segments 6, spreading or recurved above, sessile or clawed,
each with a nectar-bearing groove near the base. Stamens 6,
elongated, anthers linear, versatile. Ovary 3-celled, many-
ovuled, style long and slender, stigma 3-lobed. Fruit a 3-celled,
dehiscent, many-seeded capsule.
1. L. longiflorum, Thunb. LonG-FLOWERED WuHiteE Lity. Stem
1-3 ft. high. Leaves thick, lanceolate, scattered. Flower single,
pure white, funnel-shaped, 5-6 in. long. Var. eximium, the Easter
lily, bears several very showy and sweet-scented flowers.
2. L. philadelphicum, L. Witp Rep Lity. Stem 2-3 ft. high.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, the upper ones generally whorled. Flower
usually solitary (sometimes 2 or 3), erect, reddish-orange, with tawny
or purplish spots inside. Sepals with claws. Dry or sandy ground,
borders of thickets, etc.
3. L. canadense, L. Witp Yrxtuow Lity, Mzapow Lity. Stem
2-5 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate, 3-nerved, the margins and nerves
roughish with short hairs, whorled. Flowers usually 3, sometimes
more numerous, all nodding, on peduncles 3-6 in. long, yellow or
orange, with dark-purple or brown spots inside. Sepals without
claws, recurved. Moist meadows and borders of woods.
TX. FRITILLARIA, Tourn.
Leafy-stemmed perennials, from scaly or coated bulbs.
Flowers single or several, nodding. Perianth bell-shaped, a
nectar-bearing spot above the base of each division. Stamens
as long as the petals.
1. F. Meleagris, L. Guinea-Hen Fiower. Stem 1 ft. high.
Leaves linear, alternate, channeled. Flower usually single, large,
purplish, checkered with blue and purple or yellow. Cultivated
from Europe.
2. F. imperialis,L. Crown Imprriay. Stem 3-4 ft. high. Leaves
abundant in whorls about the middle or lower part of the stem, lan-
ceolate or lance-oblong. Flowers several, large, yellow or red, in an
umbel-like cluster beneath the terminal crown of leaves. Cultivated
from Asia.
36 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
X. TULIPA, Tourn.
Stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves sessile. Scape
simple. Flower solitary, erect. Perianth bell-shaped. Stamens
short, awl:shaped, with broadly linear anthers. Style short,
stigma thick, 3-lobed. ‘Ovary and pod triangular.
1. T. gesneriana,L. Common Tuuir. Leaves 3-6, ovate-lanceo-
late, close to-the ground. Flower large, on a smooth peduncle, color
red, yellow, white, or variegated. Cultivated from Asia Minor.
Many garden varieties exist.
XI. ERYTHRONIUM, L.
Nearly stemless herbs, arising from rather deeply buried
bulbs. Leaves 2, long and smooth, with underground petioles.
Scape arising from between the bases of the leaves. Flower
commonly single, nodding.
1. E. americanum, Ker. YELLOW ADDER’s-TONGUE. Leaves
mottled. Flowers handsome. Perianth light yellow, style club-
shaped, stigmas united.
2. E. albidum, Nutt. Waite Doa’s-rootu VioLteT. Leaves
not much mottled. Perianth bluish-white. Stigmas 38, short and
spreading.
XII. SCILLA, L.
Perennial seuilens herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves linear.
Flowers racemed on a scape, generally blue. Divisions of the
perianth 1-nerved, parted almost to the base. Filaments 6,
often broad at the base. Style slender, with a knob-like
stigma. Ovary 3-angled, 3-celled.
1. S. sibirica, Andr. Srperran Squity. Scapes 3-8 in. high,
several from each bulb, 2-3-flowered. Leaves 2-4, narrowly strap-
shaped. Flowers intense blue, short-peduncled, often nodding.
- Cultivated from Russia and Siberia.
XI. CAMASSIA, Lindl.
Stemless herbs, from coated bulbs. Leaves linear. Flowers
racemed, on a scape. Perianth of 6 blue or purple spreading
sepals. Stamens with thread-like filaments, from the base of
the perianth. Style thread-like, ending in a knobbed stigma.
Capsule 3-angled, 3-celled, several-seeded,
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 37
1. C. Fraseri, Torr, Witp Hyacinru. Leaves keeled, weak,
shorter than the scape. Flowers in a long-bracted raceme, pale
blue. River bottoms and other damp, rich soil.
XIV. ORNITHOGALUM, Tourn.
Stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves linear, fleshy.
Scape erect. Flowers in corymbs or racemes, bracted. Peri-
anth segments 6, white, nerved, persistent. Stamens 6,
hypogynous, slender. Filaments flattened. Ovary sessile,
3-celled, few-ovuled. Fruit a roundish, 3-angled capsule,
seeds black.*
1. 0. umbellatum, L. Star or Betaitenem. Bulb ovoid, mem-
branous-coated. Leaves numerous, linear, fleshy, mid-vein nearly
white, as long as the scape. Scape slender, 6-12 in. high. Flowers
opening in sunshine, long-pediceled. Bracts linear-lanceolate, about
as long as the pedicels. Perianth segments oblong-lanceolate, white
with a green stripe on the back, twice the length of the stamens.
Introduced. from Europe; very common about old gardens.*
XV. HYACINTHUS, L.
Stemless herbs from coated bulbs. Leaves linear, fleshy.
Flowers in an erect spike, pediceled, bracted. Perianth
tubular below, lobed and spreading above. Stamens short,
included. Style short, stigma knobbed. Ovary 3-celled,
many-ovuled.*
1. H. orientalis, L. Hyacrnru. Leaves lance-linear, thick and
fleshy, smooth. Scape erect, many-flowered. Segments united about
half their length, white, blue, or red. Filaments very short. Ovary
rarely maturing seed. Common in cultivation.*
XVI. YUCCA, L.
Plants with woody and leafy stems. Leaves numerous,
rigid, spine-pointed, persistent. Flowers in large terminal
racemes or panicles, bracted, nodding. Perianth bell-shaped,
segments 6, nearly alike, deciduous. Stamens 6, filaments
thickened above, often papillose. Anthers small. Ovary.
sessile, 3-celled, or becoming 6-celled, 3-angled, many-ovuled.
Fruit an oblong, 3-angled, many-seeded, dehiscent capsule,
or fleshy and indehiscent.*
38 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. Y. filamentosa, L. Spanisa Daceer. Stem stout, 4-12 in.
high. Leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, slender-pointed, narrowed
above the spreading and clasping base, spreading or recurved, smooth,
with loose, thread-like filaments on the margins. Panicle elongated,
with bract-like leaves on the scape, widely branched, downy-hairy
above, 3-6 ft. high. Perianth white, bell-shaped, 2 in. wide. Cap-
sule oblong, angles rounded, sides furrowed, at length 3-valved and
dehiscent. In sandy soil, and often cultivated for ornament.*
XVII. ASPARAGUS, Tourn.
Stem from fleshy fibrous roots, erect, branched, branches
slender, with thread-like branchlets in the axils of scales which
take the place of leaves. Flowers small, solitary, or racemed.
Perianth 6-parted, segments distinct or slightly united, Sta-
mens 6, perigynous, “filaments thread-like. Ovary 3-celled,
6-ovuled, style short, slender, stigmas 3, recurved. Fruit a
berry.*
1. A. officinalis, L. Asparagus. Stem succulent and simple, with
fleshy scales when young, becoming taller, more woody and widely
branched when old. Flowers axillary, solitary, or 2 or 3 together on
slender, jointed, drooping pedicels, greenish, segments linear. Berry
red, few-seeded. Introduced from Europe, common in cultivation,
and often escaped.*
XVII. SMILACINA, Desf.
Perennial, simple-stemmed herbs, with rootstocks. Leaves
usually sessile, nerved, alternate. Flowers white, in a ter-
minal raceme. Perianth spreading, 6-parted. Stamens 6,
springing from the base of the perianth. Filaments slender.
Anthers short, facing inward. Ovary 3-celled, 6-ovuled. Style
short and stout, with a somewhat 3-lobed stigma, Fruit a
1—2-seeded berry.
1. S. racemosa, Desf. Fause Sprkenarp. A showy plant with
curved stem 1-3 ft. high, downy throughout. Leaves abundant,
oval or ovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed. Flowers small, in a com-
pound raceme. Berries pale red, speckled with dark red or purple.
Moist thickets.
2. S. stellata, Desf. Plant 1 ft. or less in height, nearly smooth.
Leaves broadly lanceolate, acute, clasping. Flowers few, larger than
in No. 1, in a simple raceme. Berries very dark red. Along ‘river
banks.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 39
XIX. MAIANTHEMUM, Wigg.
Stem low. Leaves 2-3, lanceolate or ovate, with a heart-
shaped base. Flowers small, white, solitary, or in a simple
raceme. Perianth 4-parted. Stamens 4. Ovary 2-celled.
Stigma 2-lobed.
1. M. canadense, Desf. Two-LEAvep SoLomon’s SEAL, WILD
LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. Plant 3-6 in. high. Leaves very short-
petioled. Fruit a globular or ovoid berry, whitish, with brownish-
red blotches. Woods and shaded banks N.
XX. STREPTOPUS, Michx.
Herbs with forking stems from a creeping rootstock. Leaves
clasping. Flowers small, borne singly or in pairs on peduncles
which arise above the leaf-axils and which are sharply bent
or twisted near the middle. Anthers arrow-shaped. Ovary
3-celled, ripening into a red, many-seeded berry.
1. S. amplexifolius, D.C. Liver-serry. Stem smooth, 2 ft. or
more high. Leaves smooth-margined. Flowers greenish-white.
Damp woods.
2. S. roseus, Michx. Liver-BeRRY, JAcoB’s LADDER. Branches
with a few bristly hairs. Lower leaves margined with fine bristles.
Flowers reddish or purplish. Cold, damp woods N.
XXI. POLYGONATUM, Tourn.
Rootstock creeping, jointed, scarred. Stems simple, erect,
scaly below, leafy above. Leaves alternate, oval, or oblong.
Flowers on axillary, 1-4-flowered, drooping, jointed peduncles.
Perianth tubular, 6-cleft. Stamens 6, included, inserted about
the middle of the tube. Anthers arrow-shaped. Ovary
8-celled, many-ovuled, style slender, stigmas knobbed or
3-lobed. Fruit a few-seeded berry.*
1. P. biflorum, Ell. Harry Sotomon’s Szau. Stem simple, erect,
arched, nearly naked below, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves 2-ranked, sessile
or clasping, 38-7-nerved, smooth above, pale and downy beneath.
Peduncles short, 1-4, often 2-flowered. Perianth greenish, 1-2 in.
long. Filaments thread-shaped, roughened. Berry dark blue.
Shady banks.*
40 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
2. P. giganteum, Dietrich. SmootH Sotomon’s Sear. Stem
simple, stout, curving above, 3-8 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to ovate,
many-nerved, partly clasping, smooth on both sides. Peduncles nearly
half as long as the leaves, 2-6-flowered. Perianth greenish-yellow,
in. long. Filaments smooth. Berry blue, } in. in diameter. In
rocky woods and along streams.*
XXII. CONVALLARIA, L.
Low, smooth, stemless, perennial herbs. Leaves 2, oblong,
with long petioles, from a slender, creeping rootstock. Scape
slender, angled, enclosed at the base by the leaf-stalks. Flowers
racemed, white, drooping. Perianth bell-shaped, with recurved
lobes. Stamens borne on the base of the perianth. Ovary
3-celled, ripening into a few-seeded red berry.
1. C. majalis, L. Lizy-or-rue-vautry. A familiar garden flower,
cultivated from Europe, and also found wild in mountain woods
from Virginia to Georgia.
XXII. TRILLIUM, L.
Low herbs with the stem springing from a short rootstock.
Leaves 3, large, netted-veined, in a whorl. Flower large, ter-
minal. Perianth of 6 parts, the 3 sepals unlike the 3 petals
in color and in texture. Stamens 6, with the linear anthers
usually opening inward, longer than the filaments. Stigmas
3, sessile, spreading at the tips. Ovary 3 or 6-angled, 3-celled,
many-seeded. Fruit a roundish, many-seeded purple berry.
1. T. sessile, L. Rootstock erect or ascending, corm-like. Stem
slender, 1-8 in. high. Leaves broadly oval, obtuse or acute at the
apex, rounded and sessile at the base, 3-5-nerved, smooth, bright
green, not mottled. Flowers sessile, sepals lanceolate, 2-1 in. long,
petals purple, elliptical, about the length of the sepals. Stamens
half the length of the petals. Styles elongated, straight. In rich
woods.*
2. T. Underwoodii, Small. Unperwoop’s WAKE-ROBIN. Root-
stock horizontal, stem stout, 4-12 in. high. Leaves ovate-lanceolate
to broadly ovate, acute or short taper-pointed at the apex, rounded
and sessile at the base, wavy on the margins, 3-5-nerved, smooth,
prominently mottled with different shades of green. Flowers sessile.
Sepals lanceolate, 14-2 in. long, often purplish green. Petals purple,
lanceolate to oblanceolate, 2-3 in. long. Stamens 3-4 the length
of the petals. Style very short, stigmas recurved. Fruit an ovoid
berry. In rich woods.*
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 41
3. T. erectum, L. Squawroot, Benyamin. Rootstock rather
upright, large and stout. eaves broadly diamond-shaped, tapering
to a short point. Pedicel 1-3 in. long, not quite erect. Petals ovate
to lanceolate, much broader than the sepals, of a rich brownish-
purple or sometimes white or pale. Stigmas distinct, stout, and
spreading. The disagreeable scent of the flower has given rise to
several absurd popular names for it. In rich woods.
4. T. grandiflorum, Salisb. LARGE-FLOWERED WaAKE-ROBIN.
Rootstock horizontal, stem slender, 12-18 in. high. Leaves rhombic-
ovate, taper-pointed at the apex, rounded and sessile or slightly
peduncled at the base, smooth and with a bloom, 5-7-nerved, bright
green. Peduncle longer than the erect or slightly declined flower.
Sepals lanceolate-acute, 1-14 in. long. Petals white, fading to pink,
longer than the sepals. Stamens less than half the length of the
petals. Style short, stigmas recurved. Fruit a black, roundish berry.
In rich woods.*
5. T. nivale, Riddell. Dwarr Wuitre Trittium. Plant 2-4 in.
high. Leaves petioled, oval to ovate. Flower white, erect. Petals
$-11 in. long, ovate-spatulate. Rich, damp woods, blooming with
the very earliest spring flowers.
6. T. erythrocarpum, Michx. ParinteEp Trittium. Plant 8-12
in. high. Rootstock oblique to the rest of the stem, rather small;
roots long and fibrous. Leaves ovate, taper-pointed. Petals white,
penciled at the base, with purple stripes, lance-ovate, somewhat
recurved, wavy. Cold woods, especially N.
XXIV. SMILAX, Tourn.
Mostly woody vines, usually with prickly stems, climbing by
tendrils. Rootstock often large and tuberous. Leaves alter-
nate, prominently nerved, netted-veined, petioled, stipules
replaced by persistent tendrils. Flowers regular, diccious,
small, greenish, in axillary umbels. Perianth bell-shaped,
segments 6. Stamens 6, distinct. Ovary 3-celled, 3-6-ovuled,
stigmas 1-3, sessile or nearly so. Fruit a 1-6-seeded globose
berry.
1. S. herbacea, L. CARRION-FLOWER. Stem herbaceous, erect,
simple or branched, not prickly, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves few, ovate,
acute, and mucronate at the apex, somewhat heart-shaped at the
base, 5 —T-nerved, thin, smooth above, downy below, the upper some-
times whorled and the lower bract-like ; petiole short. Peduncles as
long as the leaves, growing from below the petiole. Umbel many-
flowered, flowers carrion-scented. Berry blue-black, 2-4-seeded. Dry,
fertile soil.*
42 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
2. S. glauca, Walt. GreeEn-BRizR. Stem cylindrical, slender,
with scattered prickles, branches angled, and usually without prickles.
Leaves ovate or subcordate, pointed at the apex, mostly 5-nerved,
smooth, white beneath, with a bloom, margin entire. Peduncle
flattened, 2-3 times as long as the petiole, few-flowered. Berry
black, 8-seeded. Margin of swamps.*
3. S. Bona-Nox, L. BamsBoo-vinge. Stem stout, cylindrical, or
slightly angled, scurfy when young, armed with numerous stout
prickles. Branches 4-angled, usually unarmed. Leaves triangular,
ovate, or often halberd-shaped, 5—7-ribbed, smooth on both sides and
often discolored, margins usually fringed with fine prickles. Pedun-
cles twice as long as the petioles, flattened. Umbels many-flowered,
pedicels short. Berries 8-20 in a cluster, black, 1-seeded. In swamps
and thickets.*
4. S. Walteri, Pursh. GrrEN-BRIER. Stem low, with few
prickles, 2-5 ft. long, branches slightly 4-angled, unarmed. Leaves
oblong-lanceolate to oval, obtuse or acute at the apex, rounded or
cordate at the base, 5-ribbed, smooth. Peduncles flattened, about as
long as the petioles and pedicels. Berry bright red, ripening the
first year. Wet pine barrens,*
5. S. rotundifolia, L. GREEN-BRIER, CAT-BRIER, DoG-BRIER,
HorsE-BRIER, WaItT-a-BIT. Stem green, strong; branchlets, and
sometimes the branches, 4-angled, armed with stout hooked prickles.
Leaves ovate or round-ovate, with a slightly heart-shaped base and
an abruptly pointed tip. Berries black, with a bloom. Thickets,
the commonest species N. E.
11. AMARYLLIDACEZ. Amary.uis Famity.
Mostly smooth perennial herbs, from bulbs. Leaves radi-
cal, with no distinction between petiole and blade. Flowers
borne on a scape, nearly or quite regular. Stamens 6.
Style 1. Tube of the 6-parted, corolla-like perianth adnate
to the 3-celled ovary. Capsule 3-celled, several-many-seeded.
I. ZEPHYRANTHES, Herb.
Stemless, from a coated bulb. Leaves linear, fleshy. Scape
erect, 1-few-flowered. Flowers large, erect, or declined, sub-
tended by a 1-2-leaved spathe. Perianth 6-parted, naked in
the throat, tube short, segments petal-like, spreading. Stamens
free, anthers versatile. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled. Style
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 43
elongated, declined. Stigma 3-cleft. Fruit a many-seeded,
3-valved capsule, seeds black, compressed, or angled.*
_ 1. Z, Atamasco, Herb, Atamasco Liry. Bulbs about 1 in. in
diameter. Leaves narrow, concave above, smooth, usually longer
than the scape. Scape 6-12 in. high, 1-flowered. Spathe 1-leaved,
2-cleft. Flowers 2-3 in. long, white, tinged with pink or purple,
bell-shaped, short-peduncled. Stamens longer than the tube, shorter
than the style. Capsule depressed-globose, seeds angled. In rich,
damp soil, often cultivated.*
If. NARCISSUS, L.
Scapes with 1-several flowers from a thin, dry spathe.
Flowers with a cup-shaped or other crown on the throat of
the perianth ; tube of the perianth somewhat cylindrical, the
6 divisions of the limb widely spreading. Stamens 6, inserted
in the tube.
1. N. Pseudo-narcissus, L. Darropit, Darry, EASTER-FLOWER.
Scape short, bearing 1 large yellow flower ; tube of perianth short
and wide, crown with a crimped margin. Cultivated from Europe.
2. N. Tazetta, var. orientalis. Curnese Sacrep Lity. Bulb
large, often with many smaller ones attached to its base. Scape
1 ft. or more high. Flowers several, umbeled, fragrant. Perianth
white or nearly so, the crown rather spreading, finely scalloped,
yellow or orange. Cultivated from China. i
3. N. poeticus, L. Port’s Narcissus. Scape l-flowered. Peri-
anth pure white, the crown very narrow, edged with pink. Culti-
vated from 8. Europe.
I. HYPOXIS, L.
Small, stemless herbs. Leaves grass-like, hairy, from
a solid bulb. Scapes thread-like, few-flowered. Perianth
6-parted, wheel-shaped, the 3 outer divisions greenish on the
outside, the whole perianth withering on the’ pod. Seeds
numerous.
1. H. erecta, L. Strar-crass. Leaves longer than the scape,
both sparsely set with long, soft hairs. Scape 3-8 in. high. Flowers
1-4, about } in. across, yellow. Common in meadows and dry
woods,
44 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Fig, 6, —Iris.
I, flower ; II, seed, longitudinal section ; III, flower with outer segments of
perianth removed ; stig., stigma, ov., ovary.
Fia. 7. — Iris.
I, flower, longitudinal section, ov., ovary ; II, diagram, showing stigmas
opposite the stamens ; III, capsule, splitting between the partitions.
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 45
12. IRIDACEZ. Iris Famity.
Perennial herbs from bulbs, corms, or rootstocks. Leaves
2-ranked, equitant. Flowers perfect, regular or irregular, each
subtended by two bracts. Perianth 6-parted, the tube adher-
ent to the ovary, the segments in 2 series of 3 each, equal, or
the inner ones smaller. Stamens 3, distinct or united, oppo-
site the outer segments. Ovary forming a 3-celled, 3-angled,
3-valved, many-seeded, dehiscent capsule.*
I. CROCUS, L.
Leaves radical. Flowers sessile on the corm. Tube of the
perianth very long and slender, its divisions all alike or
nearly so. Stigmas 3-cleft.
1, C. vernus. Spring Crocus. Leaves linear. Stigmas short.
Flowers white, blue, or purple. Our earliest garden flower. Culti-
vated from Europe.
Ol. IRIS, Tourn.
Rootstock thick, creeping, branching, horizontal, sometimes
tuberous. Stems erect, simple, or branched. Leaves linear or
sword-shaped. Flowers showy, epigynous, the outer perianth
segments spreading or recurved, often bearded within, the
inner segments usually smaller and erect. Stamens inserted
in the base of the outer segments. Style deeply 3-parted, the
divisions broad and petal-like, covering the stamens. Fruit
an oblong or oval, 8 or 6 angled, many-seeded capsule.*
1. I. versicolor, L. Lares Brug Frac. Rootstock thick, hori-
zontal. Stem cylindrical, smooth, simple or branched, leafy, 2-8 ft.
high. Leaves linear, sword-shaped, finely nerved, with a bloom, the
lower 13-2 ft. long, the upper shorter. Bracts longer than the
pedicels. Flowers terminal, single, or few together, blue variegated
with white, yellow, and purple, perianth segments not bearded,
the inner ones smaller. Ovary 3-angled, longer than the inflated
perianth tube. Capsule oblong, slightly lobed, seeds 2 rows in each
cell. In wet places.*
2. I, germanica, L. Furur-pe-11s. Rootstock thick, matted.
Stem stout, branched, leafy, 2-8 ft. high. Leaves strap-shaped,
46 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
acute, erect, shorter than the stem, bracts scarious. Flowers sessile,
large and showy, blue, variegated with white and yellow, sometimes
nearly all white, outer segments large, recurved, bearded, the inner
narrower, erect, or arched inward. Introduced from Europe; com-
mon in gardens and naturalized in many places.*
3. I. fulva, Ker. YrELLow Frac. Rootstock fleshy. Stem sim-
ple or branched, grooved, l-angled below, bearing 2-3 leaves, 2-3 ft.
high. Leaves linear, sword-shaped, with a bloom, shorter than the
stem, bracts small. Pedicels short, flowers axillary and terminal,
dull yellow or reddish-brown, variegated with blue and green, peri-
anth segments not bearded. Style branches but little exceeding
the stamens, ovary about as long as the inflated perianth tube.
Capsule ovate, 6-angled. Swamps and wet places.*
I. SISYRHINCHIUM, L.
Small, grass-like perennials. Stems erect, flattened, or
winged. Roots fibrous. Leaves linear or lanceolate. Flowers
small, blue, quickly withering, in terminal 2-bracted umbels.
Perianth corollalike, of 6 bristle-pointed segments, tube
nearly or wholly lacking. Stamens 3, completely monadel-
phous. Stigmas 3, thread-like. Fruit a nearly globular
3-angled capsule. Species too difficult for the beginner.
13. ORCHIDACEZ, Orcnuis Famity.
Perennial herbs with simple stems, often arising from bulbs
or tubers. Leaves simple, usually alternate and entire. Flow-
ers perfect, generally showy, often extraordinarily irregular.
Perianth of 6 divisions, adnate to the 1-celled ovary. Stamens
1 or 2, united with the pistil; pollen of comparatively few
grains held together in masses by cobweb-like threads. Ovary
1-celled, containing many (sometimes more than a million)
very minute ovules.
The family is a difficult one, and most of the genera are
so rare that specimens should not be collected in large num-
bers for class study. Two of the most familiar genera are
Cypripedium, or lady’s slipper, and Spiranthes, or lady’s tresses.
Many of the genera are tropical air-plants like Part I, Fig. 13.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS AT
SUBCLASS II.—DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS.
Stems composed of bark, wood, and pith; the fibro-vascular
bundles in rings ; in woody stems which live over from year
to year, the wood generally in annual rings, traversed at right
angles by medullary rays. Leaves netted-veined. Parts of
the flower usually in fours or fives. Cotyledons 2 (rarely
none).
14. SALICACEZ. Witiow Famity.
Dicecious trees or shrubs, with flowers in catkins (Ch. XIII),
destitute of floral envelopes. Fruit a 1-celled pod, with
numerous seeds, provided with rather long and silky down,
by means of which they are transported by the wind.
I. POPULUS, Tourn.
Trees with prominent scaly buds, twigs more or less angled.
Leaves usually long-petioled. 4 ;
Flowers borne in long, drooping catkins, which appear
before the leaves ; scales of the catkins irregularly cut toward
the tip. Stamens 8-30 or more. Stigmas 2-4. Capsules
opening early by 2 to 4 valves.
1. P. tremuloides, Michx. AMERICAN ASPEN, QuakING Asp. A
tree 20 to 60 ft. high, with greenish-white bark; leaves roundish,
heart-shaped, abruptly pointed, with small regular teeth. Leaf-
stalk long, slender, and flattened at right angles to the broad
surfaces of the leaf, causing it to sway edgewise with the least per-
ceptible breeze. Common especially N.
2. P. grandidentata, Michx. LarGe-rootHep Popiar. A tree
60 to 80 ft. high, with rather smooth gray bark ; leaves 3-5 in. long,
roundish ovate and irregularly sinuate-toothed; when young com.
pletely covered with white silky wool, which is shed as soon as the
leaf matures. The petiole is somewhat flattened, but not nearly as
touch so as that of the preceding species. Rich woods N.
3. P. heterophylla, L. Swamp Porrar. Branches only slightly
angled. Leaves ovate, mostly obtuse at the apex, rounded or sub-
cordate at the base, serrate with obtuse teeth, densely woolly when
48 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
young, but becoming smooth with age ; petioles cylindrical. Pistil-
late catkins smooth, erect, or spreading, loosely flowered. Capsule
ovoid, usually shorter than the pedicel. Common in river swamps.
A large tree with soft light wood, which is often used in making
cheap furniture.*
4. P, monilifera, Ait. Corronwoop. A large and very rapidly
growing tree, 75 to 100 or more feet in height, often with a markedly
excurrent trunk. Leaves large and broadly triangular, with crenate-
serrate margins and long, tapering acute tips; petioles long and
considerably flattened. The numerous pediceled capsules are quite
conspicuous when mature, and the air is filled with the downy
seeds at the time when the capsules open. Common W., espe-
cially along streams and planted as a shade-tree.
I. SALIX, Tourn.
Shrubs or trees, branches usually very slender. Buds with
single scales. Leaves usually long and narrow ; stipules some-
times leaf-like or often small and soon deciduous; Bracts
of the catkins entire; staminate catkins erect or drooping,
staminate flowers with 2-10, mostly 2, distinct or united
stamens. Pistillate catkins usually erect, flowers with a small
gland on the inner side of the bract, stigmas short, 2-lobed.
Capsule 2-valved.*
1. S. nigra, Marsh. Buack Wittow. Leaves elliptical or nar-
rowly lanceolate, acute at each end, serrate, short-petioled, downy
when young and becoming smooth with age, 2-3 in. long; stipules
persistent or deciduous. Staminate catkins 1-2 in. long; the pistil-
late 2-4 in. long. Stamens 3-7, distinct, filaments soft, hairy below.
Capsule twice the length of the pedicel, ovate, taper-pointed, pointed
by the prominent style. A small tree with very brittle branches.
Along streams and borders of marshes.*
2. §. babylonica, Tourn. Wrrpinc Wittow. Leaves narrowly
lanceolate, taper-pointed, serrate, slightly downy when young and
becoming smooth with age, green above, pale beneath, often 5-7 in.
long, petioles short, glandular. Catkins on short lateral branches.
Stamens 2. Style almost none. Capsule sessile, smooth. Introduced
and cultivated for ornament, becoming a large tree.*
[Some 20 species of willow are found growing wild in the north-
eastern and north central states, but they are very hard, even for
botanists, to identify.]
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 49
15. MYRICACEZ. Bayperry Famity.
Shrubs with alternate, simple, resinous-dotted leaves ;
moneecious or dicecious. Flowers in short, bracted catkins,
perianth none. Staminate flowers 2-10, stamens inserted on
the receptacle. Pistillate flowers surrounded by 2-6 scales.
Ovary 1-celled, style short, stigmas 2.
I. MYRICA, L.
Shrubs or small trees with the branches clustered at the
end of the growth of the previous season. Leaves short-
petioled, entire, lobed or toothed, the margin usually revo-
lute, without stipules. Perianth none. Staminate flowers in
oblong or cylindrical catkins, stamens 2-10, with the fila-
ments united below. Pistillate flowers surrounded by a cup
of 2-6 scales, ovary solitary, becoming a 1-celled, roundish
stone-fruit or nut, often covered with waxy grains. Whole
plant usually fragrant.*
1. M. cerifera, L. WaxBErry, Bayserry. A spreading shrub or
small tree; young branches downy. Leaves lanceolate or oblong-
janceolate, entire or sometimes serrate near the mostly obtuse apex,
smooth or downy on the veins beneath, tapering into a short petiole.
Flowers mostly dicecious. Staminate catkins numerous, stamens 4.
Pistillate catkins small, bracts slightly 3-lobed, scales of the ovary 4,
fringed with hairs; stigmas 2. Fruit very abundant, incrusted with
white wax, 1-1 in. in diameter, sometimes persistent for 2 or 3 years.
Common on wet soils, especially near the coast.*
2. M. asplenifolia, Endl. Sweet Fern. A shrub 2 ft. or less in
height, with brown twigs. Leaves fern-like, linear-lanceolate, 20-30-
lobed, 38-5 in. long and very fragrant. Often moncecious. Staminate
catkins cylindrical. Pistillate catkins globular. Ovary surrounded
by 8 long, linear, awl-shaped, hairy and glandular scales which en-
circle the ripened fruit. Nut nearly ovoid, smooth, small, but eaten
by children.
16. JUGLANDACEZ. Watnour Famity.
Trees with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves without stipules.
Flowers monecious, the staminate in long and drooping
catkins, stamens few or many. Calyx 2-6-parted. Fertile
50 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
flowers solitary or in small clusters. Calyx 3-5-lobed, minute
petals sometimes present. Ovary 1-celled or incompletely
2-4-celled. Fruit with a dry husk enclosing a bony nut.*
I. JUGLANS, L.
Staminate catkins cylindrical, solitary, borne on wood of
the previous year, stamens numerous, filaments short, calyx
4-6-parted. Pistillate flowers single or a few together on a
short peduncle at the base of the growth of the season. Calyx
4-parted. Petals 4, minute, adnate to the ovary. Styles 2,
short, plumose. Fruit large, roundish or oval, husk fibrous-
fleshy, becoming dry, indehiscent, nut bony, very rough.*
1, J. nigra, L. Brack Watnur. Leaflets 138-21, ovate-lanceo-
late, serrate, taper-pointed, somewhat cordate or oblique at the base,
nearly smooth above, downy beneath, petioles minutely downy.
Fruit usually single, roundish, about 2 in. in diameter. On rich
soil, rare near the coast. One of the most valuable of our native
trees, the wood being very durable and highly prized for cabinet
work.*
2. J. cinerea, L. Butternut. Leaflets 15-19, ovate-lanceolate,
taper-pointed at the apex, rounded or slightly unsymmetrical at the
base, serrate, downy beneath; petioles, branchlets, and fruit clothed
with short, sticky hairs. Fruit often somewhat in clusters, oblong,
large. More common northward. Wood less valuable and nut less
oily than the black walnut. The English walnut (J. regia) is
occasionally seen in cultivation. It has 7-11 leaflets and a nearly
smooth nut.*
Il. CARYA, Nutt.
Leaflets serrate; staminate catkins usually in threes on a
common peduncle, or sometimes sessile at the base of. the
growth of the season; calyx 2-3-parted, stamens 3-10, fila-
ments short. Pistillate flowers 2-5 in terminal clusters,
calyx 4-parted, petals none, styles 2 or 4, fringed. Fruit
somewhat globular, husk separating more or less completely
into 4 valves. Nut smooth or angled.*
1. C. oliveformis, Nutt. Przcan. A large tree with rough gray
bark, young twigs and leaves downy, nearly smooth when mature.
Leaflets 11-15, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, scythe-shaped.
Staminate catkins nearly sessile, 5-6 in. long. Husk thin nut oval
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 51
or oblong, thin-shelled. River bottoms. Rarely native east of the
Mississippi River, but widely planted for its fruit.*
2. C. alba, Nutt. SuELiBarK Hickory. A large tree with bark
scaling off in long plates, young twigs and leaves downy, becoming
smooth with age. Leaflets 5, the lower ones oblong-lanceolate, the
upper one longer and obovate, taper-pointed at the apex, narrowed
to the sessile base. Inner bud-scales becoming large and conspicu-
ous. Staminate catkins in threes. Fruit globose, husk thick, split-
ting into four sections, nut white, compressed, “4-angled, pointed,
thin-shelled. On rich soil. More common N. Wood strong and
elastic, but not durable when exposed.*
3. C. sulcata, Nutt. Bra SHetiBarx, Kine Nut, Butt Nur. A
tree 70-90 ft. high, with shaggy bark. Leaflets 7 or 9, the terminal
one nearly sessile. Fruit large, ovoid or nearly so, 4-grooved toward
the outer end, the husk very thick, nut pointed.at each end, 14-2 in.
long, thick-shelled, with a very sweet kernel. Wood hard and heavy.
Common in rich, damp soil W.
4. C. amara, Nutt. Pianut, Swamp Hicxory. A medium-
sized tree, with rather smooth bark. Leaflets 7-11, lanceolate or
oblong-lanceolate. Fruit not large, husk thin, nut globular, with a
short point, very thin-shelled, kernel extremely bitter. Moist soil,
common in the Middle States.
17. BETULACEA. Brecon Famity.
Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, petioled leaves with
usually deciduous stipules. Flowers moncecious in cylindri-
cal or subglobose catkins, staminate catkins drooping; flowers
1-3 in the axil of each bract, calyx none, or membranous
and 2-4-parted; stamens 2-10, distinct. Pistillate catkins
drooping, spreading, or erect and spike-like; flowers with or
without a calyx, ovary solitary, 1—-2-celled, ovules 1-2 in each
cell. Fruit a 1-celled nut or key.*
I. CARPINUS, L.
Trees with thin, straight-veined leaves, which are folded
in the bud. Flowers appearing before the leaves ; staminate
flowers in slender drooping catkins, sessile at the end of the
growth of the previous season; stamens 3-12, subtended by
a bract, filaments forked, anthers hairy. Pistillate catkins
52 FOUNDATIONS OF: BOTANY
spike-like, each pair of flowers subtended by a deciduous
bract, and each flower by a persistent bractlet which becomes
large and leaf-like in fruit; ovary 2-celled, 2-ovuled; stigmas
2, thread-like. Fruit a small angular nut.*
1. C. caroliniana, Walt. Horwnsram. A small tree with smooth
and close gray bark; twigs slender. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute or
taper-pointed, sharply and doubly serrate, the straight veins terminat-
ing in the larger serrations; downy when young and soon becoming
smooth. Staminate catkins 1-14 in. long. Pistillate catkins long-
peduncled, 8-12-flowered ; bractlets becoming nearly 1 in. long, cut-
toothed, the middle tooth much longer than the others. In rich,
moist woods. Often known as “blue beech” and “ iron-wood.” *
Il. OSTRYA, Micheli.
Small trees with gray bark and very hard wood. Leaves
open and concave in the bud and somewhat plaited on the
veins. Staminate flowers on slender, drooping catkins, sessile
at the end of the growth of the previous season; stamens
3-12, subtended by a bract, filaments forked, anthers hairy.
Pistillate flowers surrounded by a tubular bractlet which
becomes large and bladder-like at maturity. Fruit a small,
pointed, smooth nut; mature catkins hop-like.*
0. virginica, Willd. A small tree with brownish, furrowed bark ;
leaves ovate, acute, doubly serrate, often inequilateral at the base,
short-petioled ; staminate and fertile catkins 2-3 in. long. In rich
woods. Often known as “iron-wood” and “lever-wood.” *
I. CORYLUS, Tourn.
Shrubs with prominently veined, cut-toothed leaves which
are folded lengthwise in the bud. Flowers expanding before
the leaves. Staminate flowers in slender, drooping catkins ;
stamens 8, anthers 1-celled. Fertile flowers several in a
cluster or in very short catkins at the ends of the twigs of
the season; ovary incompletely 2-celled, style short, stigmas
2, bractlets 2, becoming enlarged and enclosing the single
bony nut at maturity.*
1. C. americana, Walt. Hazruinut. A shrub 2-5 ft. high, young
twigs and petioles covered with brownish, stiff hairs. Leaves not
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 53
very thin, round-cordate, acute or slightly taper-pointed, irregularly
toothed, nearly smooth above, downy below. Involucre longer than
the nut and partially enclosing it, glandular-hairy. Nut subglobose,
pointed, edible. On rich soil, borders of meadows and fields, and
in oak-openings.
2. C. rostrata, Ait. Braxep Hazetnut. A shrub 4-8 ft. high.
Young twigs near ends smooth. Leaves thin, little, if at all, heart-
shaped, doubly serrate or incised, taper-pointed, stipules linear-
lanceolate. Involucre completely covering the nut and prolonged
into a beak beyond it. Common N. [The latter species is not
nearly as widely distributed as the former ; they cannot be readily
distinguished from each other until the fruit is somewhat mature.
The principal points of difference discernible before the fruit is
nearly mature are the hairy twigs of No. 1 and the smooth ones of
No. 2, and the fact that No. 1 has buds rounded at the apex and
more slender and longer staminate catkins, while No. 2 has buds
acute at the apex and thicker and shorter staminate catkins. ]
IV. BETULA, Tourn.
‘Trees with slender, aromatic twigs and thin, usually straight-
veined leaves. Staminate catkins drooping, flowers usually 3
in the axil of each bract, stamens 4, short, anthers 1-celled.
Pistillate catkins erect, flowers 2 or 3 in the axil of each bract ;
ovary sessilé, 2-celled, styles 2; bracts 3-lobed ; perianth none,
Nut broadly winged. *
1. B. nigra, L. River Bircu, Rep Bircu. A medium-sized
tree with reddish-brown hark. Leaves rhombic-ovate, acute at the
apex, acute or obtuse at the base, sharply and doubly serrate, white-
downy below, becoming smoother with age, petioles short. Stami-
nate catkins 2-3 in. long. Pistillate catkins 1-14 in. long, peduncles
short, bracts nearly equally 3-cleft, woolly. River banks, especially
S. and Ww.*
2. B.lenta, LL. CHrerry Birca. Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate,
acute, heart-shaped, finely and doubly serrate, silky when young;
petioles about 4 in. long. Staminate catkins clustered, 3-4 in. long.
Pistillate catkins sessile, about 1 in. long, cylindrical bracts spread-
ing, acute, smooth. River banks, especially N. A large tree with
aromatic twigs. The oil contained in the bark and twigs is distilled
and used as a substitute for wintergreen.*
8. B. populifolia, Ait. Gray Brrcn. A tall shrub or slender,
straggling tree, 15-30 ft. high, seldom growing erect, often several
trunks springing from the ground almost in contact and slanting
away from each other. Leaves triangular, with a long taper point
54 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
and truncate base, unevenly twice serrate, with rather long, slender
petioles, which allow the leaves to quiver like those of the aspen.
Bark scaling off in white strips and layers, but not in nearly as
large sheets as that of the rarer canoe birch (B. papyrifera). The
commonest birch of New England.
4. B. alba, L. European Wuits Bircu, Cut-LeEAvepD Bircu.
A tree 50 to 60 ft. high, often with drooping branches. Leaves
triangular-ovate, truncate, rounded or somewhat heart-shaped at
the base, not strongly taper-pointed except in the cut-leaved form.
Commonly cultivated from Europe. Resembles No. 3, but Has
whiter bark and (the weeping form) much more slender branches.
Vv. ALNUS, Tourn.
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves petioled, serrate. Flower-
buds stalked, appearing the previous season; staminate cat-
kins racemed, drooping, flowers 3-6 in the axil of each bract,
subtended by 1-2 bractlets, perianth 4-parted, stamens 4, fila-
Fic. 8.— Alnus glutinosa.
A, a flowering twig; s, staminate catkins; p, pistillate catkins; B, a group ot
staminate flowers, enlarged; C, two pistillate flowers, enlarged.
DICUTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 55
ments short. Pistillate catkins erect; flowers 2-3 in the axil
of each bract, perianth replaced by 2-4 minute bractlets which
are adherent to the bract; ovary 2-celled, styles 2. Fruita
winged or angled nut; bracts of the pistillate flowers some-
what fleshy, persistent, becoming woody in fruit.*
1. A. serrulata, Willd. Smootn ALpEer. A shrub or small tree
with smooth bark. Leaves obovate, rounded or obtuse at the apex,.
acute at the base, sharply and minutely serrate, smooth above, downy
beneath, petioled, stipules oval, deciduous. Staminate catkins 2-4
in. long; fruiting catkins ovoid, short-peduncled. Fruit ovate, wing-
less. Banks of streams and borders of marshes, ranging far 8S.
Leaves often persistent during the winter.*
2. A.incana, Willd. Spreckitep Atper. A shrub 8-20 ft. high.
Leaves broadly oval or ovate, rounded at the base, sharply (some-
times doubly) serrate, white and usually downy beneath. Fruit
round. Forming thickets by streams, very common N.
18. FAGACEZ. Brseca Famity.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, pinnately
veined; stipules deciduous. Flowers monecious, the stami-
nate in heads, or in drooping, spreading, or erect catkins,
calyx minute, petals none, stamens 4-20. Pistillate flowers
solitary or in small clusters, each flower subtended by more
or less united bracts which at maturity form a cup or bur,
calyx minutely toothed, petals none; ovary 2-T7-celled, but
becoming 1-celled. Fruit a 1-seeded nut.*
I. FAGUS, Tourn.
Trees with smooth, close, ash-gray bark, and slender, often
horizontal branches. Staminate flowers in long, slender-
peduncled, roundish clusters, calyx bell-shaped, 4—6-cleft,
stamens 8-12, anthers 2-celled; pistillate flowers solitary or
more often in pairs, peduncled, surrounded by a 4-lobed in-
_volucre and numerous linear bracts; ovaries 3-celled with 2
ovules in each cell, but usually only 1 ovule matures in each
ovary; styles 3, thread-shaped, fruit a thin-shelled, 3-angled
nut.*
56 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. F. ferruginea, Ait. Brrcu. Large trees. Leaves oblong-ovate,
taper-pointed at the apex, serrate, straight-veined, very white-silky
when young, nearly smooth with age. Involucre densely covered
with short recurved spines. Nuts thin-shelled, edible. Common on
damp soil everywhere. The wood is very hard, tough, and close-
grained, and is especially valuable for the manufacture of small
tools.*
2. F. sylvatica, L. The European beech is occasionally found
planted as a shade-tree. The. variety known as the copper beech
“is most usual, and is readily recognized by its dark, crimson-purple
leaves.
Il. CASTANEA, Tourn.
Trees or shrubs with rough, gray, rather close bark. Leaves
straight-veined, undivided, prominently toothed. Flowers ap-
pearing later than the leaves. Staminate catkins erect or
spreading, loosely flowered, flowers several in the axil of each
bract, calyx 4—6-parted, stamens 8-16. Pistillate flowers at
the base of the staminate catkin or in small separate clus-
ters, usually 3 in each involucre ; ovary 4-celled, surrounded
by 5-12 abortive stamens. Fruit a 1-celled nut enclosed in
the greatly enlarged and very prickly involucre.*
1. C. sativa, Mill., var. americana, Wats. AMERICAN CHESTNUT.
A large tree, bark somewhat rough, and splitting into longitudinal
plates. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex, usually
acute at the base, coarsely and sharply serrate with ascending
teeth, smooth, dark green above, lighter below; petioles stout,
short. Staminate catkins erect, 6-10 in. long. Nuts usually 8 in
each bur. Rich soil, especially N. Rarely found on soils contain-
ing much .lime.*
2. C. pumila, Mill. CHinquapin. A small tree or shrub. Leaves
oblong, acute or obtuse at both ends, serrate with divergent teeth,
dark green and smooth above, white-woolly below. Nuts solitary,
nearly globular. Common southward in rich woods.*
I. QUERCUS, L.
Trees or shrubs with entire, serrate, or lobed leaves, which
are often persistent. Staminate flowers in slender catkins,
each subtended by quickly deciduous bracts, and consisting
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 5T
of 3-12 stamens enclosed by a 4-8-parted perianth, often
containing an abortive ovary. Pistillate flowers solitary or
in small clusters, each consisting of a 3-celled ovary with
2 ovules in each cell, though rarely more than 1 ovule
matures; styles short, erect, or recurved. Pistillate flowers
surrounded by a scaly involucre which at maturity becomes
a cup enclosing the base of the fruit or sometimes a large
part of it. Fruit an ovoid or subglobose, 1-seeded, thin-
shelled nut (acorn).
A. Fruit biennial; leaves entire or with bristle-pointed
lobes.*
1. Q. rubra, L. RepOax. Alarge tree. Leaves oval or obovate,
green above, pale and slightly downy beneath, sinuses shallow and
rounded, lobes 8-12, taper-pointed ; petioles long. Cup saucer-shaped,
with fine scales ; acorn ovate or oblong, about 1 in. long. Common;
wood not valuable ; leaves turning red after frost and often remain-
ing on the tree through the winter.*
2. Q. coccinea, var. tinctoria, Gray. Buack Oax. A large tree
with rough, dark brown outer bark and thick, bright yellow inner
bark; leaves broadly oval, usually cut more than halfway to the
midrib, sinuses rounded ; lobes about 7, sharply toothed at the apex,
smooth above, usually downy on the veins beneath; cup hemispher-
ical or top-shaped, with coarse scales, short-peduncled, enclosing about
half the roundish acorn. Common; wood not valuable, but the
inner bark used for tanning and dyeing.* ,
3. Q. falcata, Michx. SpanisH Oax. A small or medium-sized
tree with leaves 3—5-lobed at the apex, obtuse or rounded at the
base, grayish-downy beneath, lobes lanceolate and often scythe-
shaped, sparingly cut-toothed. Cup top-shaped, with coarse scales,
enclosing about half the nearly round acorn. Common in dry
woods. Foliage quite variable in outline and lobing; bark valu-
able for tanning.*
4. Q. nigra, L. Buiack-syack Oax. A small tree; leaves obovate,
usually with three rounded lobes at the apex, the lobes bristle-pointed,
rounded, or slightly cordate at the base, rusty-pubescent beneath,
shining above, coriaceous, short-petioled; cup top-shaped, short-
peduncled, with coarse and truncate scales, enclosing about one-
third of the oblong-ovate acorn. An almost worthless tree, its
presence indicating a thin and sterile soil.* :
5. Q. Phellos, L. Wuittow Oax. A tree of medium size, leaves
lanceolate or elliptical, seurfy when young and becoming smooth
with age; very short-petioled ; cup shallow, sessile ; acorn subglobose.
Wet soil ; often planted for shade.*
58 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
B. Fruit annual; leaves not bristle-tipped, though often
mucronate.
6. Q. alba, L. Waite Oax. A large tree with light gray bark.
Leaves obovate-oblong, 3—9-lobed, lobes rounded and mostly entire,
bright green above, paler below, short-petioled. Cup hemispherical,
scales rough, woolly when young, but becoming smooth with age;
acorn oblong-ovate, about 1 in. long. Common in damp soil; wood
strong and durable; one of the most valuable timber trees.*
7. Q. stellata, Wang. Post Oax. A tree of medium size with
rough gray bark. Leaves broadly obovate, deeply lyrate-pinnatified
into 5-7 rounded, divergent lobes, upper lobes much the longer,
smooth above, yellowish-downy beneath, petioles about 1 in. long.
Cup hemispherical, nearly sessile; acorn ovoid, 2-3 times as long as
the cup. On dry soil ; wood hard and valuable.
8. Q. macrocarpa, Michx. Bur Oax. A medium-sized to very
large tree, with roughish gray bark. Leaves obovate or oblong,
lyrately and deeply sinuate-lobed, smooth above, pale or downy
beneath. Cup very deep and thick, abundantly fringed about the
margin, 2 in. to 2 in. in diameter.. Acorn, half or more [sometimes
entirely] enclosed by the cup. Reaches its full size only on rich
bottom lands S. and W., where it becomes one of the finest timber
oaks. Wood very hard and heavy.
9. Q. lyrata, Walt. Swame Oax. A large tree with gray or
reddish bark. Leaves obovate-oblong, deeply pinnatifid, lobes
narrow, often toothed, thin, smcoth above, white, densely woolly
beneath. Cup round-ovate, scales cuspidate, enclosing nearly the
whole of the depressed-globose acorn. On wet soil; wood strong
and very durable.*
10. Q. prinus, L. Swamp Cuestnut Oax. A large tree with
brown, ridged bark. Leaves oblong or oblong-lanceolate, rather ob-
tuse, crenately toothed, minutely downy beneath, petioles slender,
about 1 in. long. Cup hemispherical, peduncles longer than the
petioles, scales acute, tubercular, appressed; acorn oblong, acute,
1 in. or less in length, edible. Common on low ground. Wood
strong and valuable.*
11. Q. Muhlenbergii, Engelm. Yerttow Curestnut Osan. A
tree of medium or large size with gray bark. Leaves oblong or
oblanceolate, usually acute at the apex and obtuse or rounded at the
base, coarsely and evenly toothed; veins straight, impressed above
and prominent beneath ; petioles slender. Cup hemispherical, sessile
or short-peduncled, with flat scales, $ in. broad, enclosing about half
the ovoid acorn, which is 3-3 in. long. Common on dry soil, wood
close-grained, durable, and valuable.
12. Q. virginiana, Mill. Live Oak. A large tree with rough
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 59
gray or brown bark and a low, spreading top. Leaves leathery,
evergreen, oblong or oblanceolate, often somewhat 3-lobed on young
trees, margin rolled under, dark green and shining above, pale
below ; petioles short, stout. Fruit often in short racemes, cup top-
shaped, scales closely appressed, hoary, peduncles 3-1 in. long; acorn
from subglobose to oblong, the longer form occurring on the younger
trees. On low ground near the coast ; wood very hard and durable ;
valued for shipbuilding.* :
19. ULMACEZ. Exum Famtity.
Trees or shrubs with watery juice, alternate, simple, petio-
late, serrate, stipulate leaves, which are usually 2-ranked ;
and small, perfect, or somewhat moneecious, apetalous flowers.
Calyx of 3-9 sepals which are distinct or partly united,
stamens as many as the sepals and
opposite them. Ovary 1-2-celled,
styles 2, spreading. Fruit a key,
nut, or stone fruit.*
Fic. 9.— Ulmus campestris.
A, a flowering twig ; B, a flower; C, longitudinal section of a flower; D, a fruit.
I. ULMUS, L.
Trees with straight-veined, unsymmetrical, doubly serrate
leaves; stipules early deciduous. Flowers perfect, calyx
bell-shaped, 4-9-cleft. Stamens slender, protruding. Ovary
compressed, styles 2, spreading. Fruit membranaceous, flat,
winged on the edge.*
60 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. U. americana, L. Witz Exm. A large tree with gray bark,
drooping branches, and smooth or slightly downy twigs. Leaves
oval or obovate, abruptly taper-pointed at the apex, obtuse and
oblique at the base, slightly rough above, soft downy or soon smooth
beneath. Flowers in close fascicles, peduncles slender, smooth.
Fruit oval or obovate, with 2 sharp teeth bending toward each
other at the apex, wing reticulate-veined, downy on the margin.
In moist, rich soil. A widely planted ornamental tree; wood
strong but warping badly, and not durable when exposed.*
2. U. alata, Michx. Wincep Exim. A small tree with branches
corky-winged. Leaves small, ovate-lanceolate, acute, sharply serrate,
base nearly equal-sided, rough above, downy beneath, nearly sessile,
Flowers in small clusters. Fruit oblong, downy on the sides, ciliate
on the edges. On rich soil. Occasionally producing a second set of
flowers and fruit from September to November.*
3. U. fulva, Michx. Suirprery Erm. A tree of medium size
with rough downy twigs, and rusty, densely woolly bud-scales.
Leaves large, thick, very rough above, downy beneath, ovate or
obovate, taper-pointed at the apex, unsynimetrical, obtuse or some-
what cordate at the base, coarsely and doubly serrate, calyx-lobes
and pedicels downy. Fruit broadly oval, downy over the seed, the
wing smooth. Inner bark very fragrant when dried, and a popular
domestic remedy.*
tl. CELTIS, Tourn.
Trees or shrubs with entire or serrate, petioled leaves.
Flowers greenish, axillary, on wood of the same season, the
staminate in small clusters, the fertile single or 2-3 together.*
1, C. occidentalis, L. Hacxperry. A large or medium-sized
tree having much the appearance of an elm, bark dark and rough.
Leaves ovate, taper-pointed at the apex, abruptly obtuse and inequi-
lateral at the base, sharply serrate, often 3-nerved from the base,
smooth above, usually somewhat downy below. Fruit a small, dark
purple stone fruit. On rich soil.
2. C. mississippiensis, Bosc. SouTHeERN Hackperry. A tree
usually smaller than the preceding, bark gray, often very warty.
Leaves broadly lanceolate or ovate, long taper-pointed at the apex,
obtuse or sometimes heart-shaped at the base, entire or with very
few serratures, smooth on both sides, 3-nerved. Fruit a purplish-
black, globose stone fruit,*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 61
20. MORACEZ. Muserry Famity.
Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with milky juice, alternate
leaves, large deciduous stipules and small moneecious or dic-
cious flowers crowded in spikes, heads or racemes, or enclosed
in a fleshy receptacle. Staminate flowers with a 3-4-lobed
calyx, stamens 3-4, inserted on the base of the calyx, fila-
ments usually inflexed in the bud, straightening at maturity.
Pistillate flowers 3—-5-sepalous ; ovary 1-2-celled, 1-2-ovuled ;
styles 2, receptacle and perianth often fleshy at maturity.*
I. MORUS, Tourn.
Trees or shrubs with milky juice, rounded leaves, and
monecious flowers in axillary spikes. Staminate flowers
with a 4-parted perianth, and 4 stamens inflexed in the bud.
Pistillate flowers with a 4-parted perianth which becomes
fleshy in the multiple fruit, the pulpy part of which consists
of the thickened calyx, bracts and so on of many flowers;
ovary sessile, stigmas 2, linear, spreading ; the fleshy perianth
enclosing the ovary at maturity.*
1. M. rubra, L. Rep Muuperry. A small tree. Leaves cor-
date-ovate, often 3-5-lobed on vigorous shoots, taper-pointed at the
apex, serrate, rough above, white, densely woolly beneath. Mature
fruiting spikes oblong, drooping, dark red or purple, edible. On rich
soil.. Wood very durable, bearing exposure to the weather.
2. M. alba, L. Wuite Mutperry. A small tree. Leaves
ovate, heart-shaped, acute at the apex, rounded and often oblique at
the base, serrate or sometimes lobed. Smooth and shining on both
sides. Mature fruit light red or white. Introduced and common
about old dwellings.*
I. MACLURA, Nutt.
A small tree with milky juice. Leaves alternate, petioled,
spines axillary. Flowers diccious. Staminate flowers: in
short axillary racemes ; calyx 4-parted ; stamens 4, inflexed
in the bud. Pistillate flowers in axillary, peduncled, capitate
clusters ; calyx 4-parted, ovary sessile, style long; calyces
becoming thickened and fleshy in fruit and aggregated into a
large, dense, globular head.*
62 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. M. aurantiaca, Nutt. OsaceOranae. Asmall tree with ridged,
yellowish-brown bark. Leaves minutely downy when young, becom-
ing smooth and shining with age, ovate or ovate-oblong, taper-
pointed at the apex, obtuse or subcordate at the base, entire, petioled.
Staminate racemes about 1 in. long. Pistillate flower clusters about
1 in. in diameter. Fruit yellowish, tubercled, 3-4 in. in diameter.
In rich soil. Native in Texas and extensively planted for hedges.
Wood very durable when exposed to the weather, and therefore used
for fence posts. As the wood does not swell or shrink with changes
in its moisture, it is highly valued for wheel hubs, etc.*
Il. BROUSSONETIA, L’Her.
Small trees with milky juice. Leaves alternate, petioled ;
flowers dicecious. Staminate in cylindrical spikes, with a
4-cleft calyx, 4 stamens, and a rudimentary ovary. Pistil-
late flowers in capitate clusters. Calyx 3-4-toothed. Ovary
stalked, style 2-cleft, fruit in a globular head.*
1. B. papyrifera, Vent. Paper MuLperry. A round-topped tree
with yellowish-brown bark. Leaves cordate, often irregularly 2-3-
lobed, serrate, rough above, downy beneath, long-petioled. Stami-
nate spikelets peduncled, 2-3 in. long. Pistillate heads stout, pedun-
cled, about 1 in. in diameter. Introduced from Asia and very
common §. about old dooryards.*
IV. CANNABIS, Tour.
Coarse herbs with very tough, fibrous bark. Leaves usu-
ally opposite, palmately compound. Flowers small, dicecious,
greenish, the staminate ones in compound racemes or panicles,
the pistillate ones in spikes. Calyx of the staminate flowers
of 5 sepals, that of the pistillate flowers of 1 large sepal
which covers the ovary and the akene.
1. C. sativa, L. Common Hemp. An erect plant, 4-8 ft. high.
Leaves large, petioled, of 5-7 lanceolate, irregularly serrate or
toothed leaflets. Cultivated from Europe, S. and W., for its fiber,
and sometimes runs wild along roadsides in rich soil.
21. URTICACEH. Nettie Famity.
Herbs with watery juice, stem and leaves often clothed
with stinging hairs. Leaves undivided, stipulate. Flowers
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 63
small, greenish, imperfect, apetalous in axillary clusters.
Calyx of the staminate flowers 4-5-parted or 4—5-sepalous ;
stamens as many as the sepals and opposite them, filaments
inflexed in the bud and straightening at maturity, anthers
2-celled. Calyx of pistillate flowers 2-4-sepalous; ovary
sessile, 1-celled, stigma simple or tufted. Fruit an akene
commonly enclosed in the dry, persistent calyx.*
URTICA, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves with stinging hairs,
opposite, petioled, several-nerved, dentate, or incised, stipulate.
Flowers moncecious or dicecious. Calyx of the staminate
flowers 4-parted ; stamens 4, inserted around a rudimentary
ovary. Pistillate flowers with 4 unequal sepals, the inner
ones dilated in fruit; akenes smooth, compressed.*
1. U. urens, L. Smatut Netrie. Annual; stem stout, 4-angled,
hairy, 12-18 in. tall, with few stinging hairs; branches slender.
Leaves elliptical or ovate, serrate or incised, 3-5-nerved, acute or
obtuse at the ends, thin, hairy ; petioles often as long as the blades ;
stipules short. Flower clusters axillary, in pairs, loose, mostly
shorter than the petioles. On damp soil in waste places.*
22. LORANTHACEZ. Murstietor Famity.
Parasitic shrubs or herbs, leaves opposite, leathery, with-
out stipules. Flowers moncecious or dicecious, clustered or
solitary ; perianth of both calyx and corolla, or of a calyx
only, or sometimes wanting ; calyx-tube adnate to the ovary,
sepals 2-8. Stamens as many as the sepals, and opposite
them; ovary 1-celled, ovule 1. Fruit a berry.*
PHORADENDRON, Nutt.
Evergreen, shrubby plants, parasitic on trees; branches
greenish, jointed, and very brittle. Leaves leathery. Flowers
dicecious, in short jointed spikes. Staminate flowers globular,
calyx 2-4-lobed, stamens sessile at the base of the lobes,
64 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
anthers transversely 2-celled. Pistillate flowers with the
calyx-tube adnate to the ovary, stigma sessile, berry
1-seeded.* ,
1. P. flavescens, Nutt. AmericAN MisTLETOE. Veryround, bushy;
branches very brittle at the joints, opposite or whorled, 6 in. to 2 ft,
long. Leaves flat, leathery, or somewhat fleshy, nearly veinless,
obovate, entire, with short petioles. Flowering spikes solitary or
2-3 together in the axils of the leaves. Berry roundish, white,
glutinous. Parasitic on many deciduous trees.*
23. SANTALACEH. Sanpatwoop Famity.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees with entire leaves. Flowers usually
small. Calyx 4-5-cleft, its tube adnate tothe ovary. Corolla
wanting. Stamens as many as the calyx-lobes and opposite
‘them, inserted on the margin of a fleshy disk. Style1. Ovary
i-celled, with 2-4 ovules borne at the top of a free central
placenta. Fruit 1-seeded.
COMANDRA, Nutt.
Low, smooth perennials with herbaceous stems, rather
woody below, often parasitic. Leaves alternate and nearly
sessile. Flowers nearly white, in small umbel-like clusters,
perfect. Calyx bell-shaped at first. Stamens borne on a
5-lobed disk which surrounds the pistil, anthers connected
by a tuft of hairs to the calyx-lobes.
1. C. umbellata, Nutt. Bastarp Toap-FLtax. Plant 8-10 in.
high, with very leafy stems. Roots attached to the roots of trees,
from which they draw nourishment. Leaves oblong or oblanceolate,
pale, nearly 1 in. long. Umbel-like clusters about 3-flowered, longer
than the leaves. Rocky, dry woods.
24. ARISTOLOCHIACEZ. Dutcuman’s Pier Famity.
Herbaceous plants, stemless or with twining and leafy
stems. Leaves alternate, without stipules, petioled, mostly
roundish or kidney-shaped. Flowers axillary, solitary or
clustered, perfect, regular or irregular. Calyx tubular, 3 or
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 65
6 lobed, usually colored. Petals none. Stamens 6-12, inserted
onthe ovary. Pistils 1, ovary mostly 6-celled, many-seeded.*
I. ASARUM, Toum.
Perennial, stemless, aromatic herbs, with slender, branch-
ing rootstocks. Leaves long-petioled, from kidney-shaped to
halberd-shaped. Flowers axillary, peduncled. Calyx regular,
3-lobed, withering-persistent. Stamens 12, the filaments par-
tially united with the style and usually prolonged beyond the
anthers. Ovary 6-celled with parietal placente, many-seeded.
Mature capsule roundish, often somewhat fleshy.*
1. A. canadense, L. Witp Gincer. Plant soft, hairy. Leaves
2, large, kidney-shaped, on long petioles, with the flower borne on a
short peduncle between them. Flower greenish outside, brownish-
purple insitle. Calyx-tube wholly adnate to the ovary, calyx-lobes
taper-pointed, widely spreading, reflexed at the tip. Rich, shady
woods, common N. .
2. A. virginicum, L. Vireinra Asarum. Leaves evergreen, 1-3
to each plant, smooth, mottled, round-cordate, entire, 2-3 in. long
and broad; petioles smooth or downy along one side, 3-7 in. long.
Flowers nearly sessile, greenish without, dull purple within, 2-3 in.
long, tube inflated below, narrow at the throat, lobes spreading.
Rich, shady woods.*
Il. ARISTOLOCHIA, Tourn.
Erect or twining perennial herbs or woody vines. Leaves
alternate, heart-shaped at the base, palmately nerved, petioled,
entire. Flowers irregular, solitary, or in small clusters.
Calyx more or less adnate to the ovary, tubular, irregular.
Stamens mostly 6, sessile, adnate to the angled and fleshy
3-6-lobed or angled stigma. Capsule naked, 6-valved, seeds
very numerous.*
1. A. Sipho, L’Her. Durcuman’s Pire, Pirze Vine. A tall
climber. Leaves dark green, smooth, round-kidney-shaped, some-
times 1 ft. wide. Peduncles 1-flowered, with a single clasping bract.
Calyx 14 in. long, bent into the shape of a pipe, its border abruptly
spreading, brownish-purple. Rich woods, often cultivated.
2. A. tomentosa, Sims. DuTcuMman’s Pirr. Stem woody, climb-
ing high, branches and leaves densely woolly. Leaves heart-shaped,
prominently veined, 3-5 in. long and broad. Flowers axillary,
66 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
mostly solitary, on slender peduncles. Calyx bent in the shape of
a pipe, yellowish-green with a dark purple throat, limb unequally
8-lobed, rugose, reflexed. Anthers in pairs below the 3 spreading
lobes of the stigma. Capsule oblong. Stems sometimes 30 ft. long.
Rich woods 8.*
25. POLYGONACEZ2. BuckwHeaT FAmItLy.
Herbs with alternate, entire leaves and usually with sheath-
ing stipules above the swollen joints of the stem. Flowers
apetalous, generally perfect, with a 3-6-cleft calyx, generally
colored and persistent. Fruit a compressed or 3-angled akene,
enclosed in the calyx. Seeds with endosperm, which does not
generally enclose the embryo. Stamens 4-12, on the base of
the calyx. a
I. RUMEX, L.
Coarse herbs, many of them troublesome weeds. Flowers
small, usually green or greenish, generally in whorls borne in
panicled racemes. Calyx of 6 nearly distinct sepals, the 3
inner larger and more petal-like than the 3 outer, and one
or more of them usually with a little knob or tubercle on its
back. Stamens 6. Styles 3. Stigmas short, fringed. Fruit
a 8-angled akene, closely covered by the 3 inner calyx-lobes,
enlarged and known as valves.
1. R. Acetosella, L. Surer Sorrex. Erect annual or perennial
herbs with creeping rootstocks. Stem simple or branched, smooth.
Leaves petioled, narrowly halberd-shaped, usually widest above the
middle, the apex acute or obtuse, upper stem-leaves often nearly
linear and not lobed. Flowers dicecious, small, in terminal, naked,
panicled, interrupted racemes. Calyx greenish; the pistillate pani-
cles becoming reddish. Fruit less than ,j, in. long, granular, longer
than the calyx. A common introduced weed, in dry fields and on
sour soils. Foliage very acid.*
2. R. verticillatus, L. Swamp Dock. Perennial, stem stout,
smooth, erect or ascending, 3-5 ft. tall. Lower leaves oblong,
obtuse at the apex and usually heart-shaped at the base, long-
petioled, often 12-18 in. long, upper leaves narrower and often
acute at both ends. Flowers perfect or somewhat monecious, in
dense whorls, pedicels slender, 1-2 in. long, tapering downward,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 67
reflexed at maturity. Calyx green, the valves broadly triangular,
abruptly pointed, reticulated, a distinct long and narrow tubercle on
the back of each. Swamps and wet ground.*
3. R. crispus, L. YELLow Dock. Stout, smooth, 3-4 ft. high.
Leaves lanceolate, margins very wavy, acute, the lower more or less
heart-shaped. Root long, tapering gradually downward, yellow,
very tough. Flowers in whorls crowded in long, straight, slender
racemes. Valves roundish heart-shaped, mostly tubercled. A very
hardy weed, introduced from Europe.
Il. POLYGONUM, L.
Annual or perennial, terrestrial or aquatic herbs, with
enlarged joints and simple, alternate, entire leaves; the
sheathing stipules often cut or fringed. Flowers perfect,
usually white or rose-colored, each flower or cluster subtended
by a membranaceous bract, similar to the stipules of the
leaves. Calyx mostly 5-parted, the divisions petal-like, erect
and persistent. Stamens 3-9. Styles 2—3-parted. Fruit
lens-shaped or 3-angled.*
1. P. aviculare, L. Kwot-arass. Annual or perennial. Stem
prostrate or ascending, diffuse, smooth, 6-24 in. long. Leaves small,
lanceolate or linear-oblong, obtuse, nearly
or quite sessile. Stipules thin and dry, 2-3-
cleft or cut. Flower-clusters axillary, 1—-5-
flowered, flowers inconspicuous, nearly ses-
sile. Calyx greenish-white, 5-parted, the
lobes with white or colored borders. Stamens
5-8. Style 3-parted; akene 3-angled, not
shining. A common weed in dooryards and A
where the ground is trampled.* Fie. 10.— Buckwheat.
2. P. Dumetorum, L. Farse Buck- 4, flower, longitudinal sec-
WHEAT. Perennial ; stems slender, twining, are ce some-
branched, 2-10 ft. long. Leaves ovate, heroes:
taper-pointed, heart-shaped to halberd-shaped at the base, long-
petioled. Stipules cylindrical, truncate. Flowers in axillary, more
or less compound and-leafy racemes. Calyx greenish-white, the
outer lobes winged and forming a margin on the pedicel. Stamens
8. Stigmas 3; akene 3-angled, black, smooth, and shining. Margins
of fields and thickets.*
68 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
26. CHENOPODIACEZ. Goosrroot FamIty.
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, without sti-
pules. Flowers small, regular, either perfect or more or
less moncecious or dicecious. Calyx free from the ovary.
Corolla wanting. Stamens usually 5, opposite the sepals.
Styles or stigmas generally 2. Fruit with 1 seed, usually
enclosed in a small, bladdery sac, sometimes an akene.
I. SPINACIA, Tourn.
Herbs. Flowers dicecious, in close axillary clusters. Stami-
nate flowers 3—5-sepaled, with 4 or 5 projecting stamens.
Pistillate flowers with a tubular 2-toothed or 4-toothed calyx.
1. S. oleracea, Mill. Sprnacu. A soft annual or biennial herb.
Leaves triangular, ovate, or halberd-shaped, petioled. Cultivated
from Asia as a pot-herb.
Il. CHENOPODIUM, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs. Stems erect or spreading.
Leaves alternate, usually white-mealy. Flowers small, green-
Fig. 11.— Chenopodium.
A, flower ; B, fruit.
ish, in panicled spikes. Calyx 38—5-parted, the lobes often
slightly fleshy and keeled. Stamens 5; filaments thread-
shaped. Styles 2-3, distinct or united at the base. Seed
lens-shaped.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 69
1. C. hybridum, L. Mapie-teavep Gooseroot. A tall annual
herb 2-4 ft. high. Leaves 2-6 in. long, thin, bright green, long,
taper-pointed, with several angled lobes on each side, terminating in
pointed teeth. Flower-clusters rather large, consisting of loosely
panicled racemes. A rather common weed.
2. C. Botrys,L. JERUSALEM Oak. A low spreading plant cov-
ered with sticky down. Leaves with slender petioles, oblong, sin-
uately lobed or the lobes pinnate. Flowers in loose, diverging,
leafless racemes. The whole plant is sweet-scented. Introduced
from Europe and naturalized in gardens and along roadsides.
27, PHYTOLACCACEA. PoxrwrEep FaAmIty.
Plants with alternate entire leaves. Flowers perfect, 5-
parted, with the characters of the Goosefoot Family, but the
ovary generally consisting of several carpels, which unite to
form a berry.
PHYTOLACCA, Tourn.
Perennial herbs. Stems tall, branching. Leaves large,
entire. Flowers small, in terminal racemes, pedicels bracted.
Calyx of 4-5 nearly equal, persistent sepals. Stamens 5-15,
inserted at the base of the calyx. Styles 5-12, recurved at
the apex. Fruit a depressed-globose, juicy berry.*
1. P. decandra, L. Pokrwrrp. Stems erect, smooth, branched
above, usually dark purple, 4-7 ft. tall; root large, fleshy, poisonous.
Leaves ovate-lanceolate, smooth, acute, long-petioled. Racemes pedun-
cled, many-flowered, opposite the leaves, flowers. white, becoming
purplish. Stamens 10, shorter than the sepals. Styles 10, car-
pels 10; fruit a dark purple berry. A weed on waste- ground.
The young branches are often eaten like asparagus, and the root,
known as “ garget root,” is used in medicine.*
28. AIZOACEA. Icr-pLant Famity.
Mostly fleshy plants, mainly natives of Africa. Flowers
often large and showy. Stamens often doubled and some of
them petal-like. Ovary 2-many-celled.
[Our only very common genus belongs to a subfamily
which has little resemblance to the fleshy “ ice-plants,” found
in some gardens, which best represent the family as a whole. |
70 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
MOLLUGO, L.
Low branching annuals. Sepals 5, greenish outside, white
inside. Corolla wanting. Stamens 5, alternate with the
sepals, or 3, alternate with the cells of the ovary. Capsule
3-celled, many-seeded.
1. M. verticillata, L. Carprt-werp. Stems branching and
forming radiating patches. Leaves clustered in apparent whorls at
the joints of the stem, spatulate. Flowers in little sessile umbels at
the joints. Stamens commonly 3. A troublesome weed in sandy
soil and common on sandy beaches and river banks.
29. PORTULACACEZ. PursLtane FAMILY.
Generally herbs. Leaves opposite or alternate, entire;
stipules dry and membranaceous. Sepals 2. Petals 4 or
more, distinct or united below. Stamens 4 or more, free or
adnate to the petals. Ovary usually free, 1-celled; style
simple or 3-cleft; ovules 2-many. Capsule opening trans-
versely with a lid, or 2-3-valved.
I, CLAYTONIA, Gronov.
Perennial; stem simple, smooth, erect, 4-10 in. high.
Leaves 2, opposite, smooth, succulent. Flowers in a terminal
raceme, Sepals 2, ovate, persistent. Petals 5, sometimes
coherent at the base. Stamens 5, inserted on the base of
the petals. Style 3-cleft, ovary 1-celled, 3-6-seeded.
1. C. virginica, L. Spring Braury. Stem simple, erect from a
deep, tuberous root. The 2 stem-leaves narrowly elliptical, 3-6 in.
long, smooth, fleshy; basal leaves occasionally produced. Flowers
on short pedicels. Petals white or pink, with darker veins, 1-8 in.
long, notched. Capsule shorter than the persistent sepals. Common
in rich woods.*
2. C. caroliniana, Michx. NortHEern Serine Beauty. Flowers
fewer, smaller, and whiter than No. 1, fragrant. Leaves 1-2 in.
long, ovate-lanceolate or spatulate, pretty distinctly petioled. Moist
woods, especially N.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 71
0. PORTULACA, Tourn.
Annual; stems low, diffuse, and spreading, fleshy. Leaves
entire, mostly alternate. Flowers terminal. Sepals 2, united
at the base and coherent with the ovary. Petals usually 5, in-
serted on the calyx, quickly withering. Stamens 8-20, inserted
on the calyx. Style 3-8-parted. Capsule globose, opening
by the upper portion coming off like a lid, 1-celled, many-
seeded.* ~
1. P. oleracea, L. Pursztane. Stems prostrate, diffuse, fleshy.
Leaves alternate, flat, obovate, or wedge-shaped. Flowers solitary,
sessile, opening in bright sunshine in the morning, and usually
withering before noon. Sepals broad, acute. Petals yellow. Sta-
mens 10-12. Capsule very-many-seeded, seeds small, wrinkled. A
common garden weed.* 2
2. P. grandiflora, Hook. GarprEN Porrurtaca. Stems fleshy,
erect, or ascending, densely hairy or nearly smooth, 3-6 in. long.
Leaves alternate, cylindrical, fleshy, $-1 in. long. Flowers 1-2 in.
wide, white, yellow, or red, showy, opening only in sunlight. Com-
mon in cultivation and often growing spontaneously.*
80. CARYOPHYLLACEA. Pink Famity.
Herbs sometimes woody below, with thickened nodes.
Leaves opposite, entire; stipules small and dry or none.
Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-5 (rarely 0), usually hypogynous. Sta-
mens usually 8-10, hypogynous or perigynous. Styles 2-5
(rarely 1). Ovules 1-many. Fruit usually a capsule.
A.
Sepals distinct or nearly so. Petals (if any) without claws. Capsule
several_many-seeded.
Styles usually 8. Capsule ovoid. Stellaria, I.
Styles 5 or 4. Capsule cylindrical. Cerastium, II.
B.
Sepals united into an urn-shaped tube. Petals none. Fruit 1-seeded.
Scleranthus, ITI.
72 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
€.
Sepals more or less united. Petals with claws. Capsule several—
many-seeded.
(a) Calyx without bracts, its lobes long and leaf-like.
Agrostemma, IV.
(6) Calyx without bracts, lobes not leaf-like. Styles 3 or 4.
Silene, V.
(c) Calyx without bracts, lobes not leaf-like. Styles 5 (rarely 4).
Lychnis, VI.
(d) Calyx with little bracts at the base. Styles 2.
Dianthus, VII.
I. STELLARIA, L.
Slender, usually smooth herbs. Flowers small, white, soli-
tary, or in forking cymes. Sepals 5 (rarely 4). Petals 5
(rarely 4), 2-cleft or divided. Stamens 10 (rarely 8, 5, or 3),
maturing in 2 sets. Styles 3 (rarely 4or 5), opposite the same
number of petals; ovary 1-celled, many-ovuled. Capsule
short, splitting into as many valves as there are styles.
1. S. media, Cyrill. Common CuickwrEEp. Stem prostrate,
6-18 in. long, with a line or two of hairs along it. Leaves ovate,
taper-pointed, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Petals shorter
than the sepals, sometimes wanting. An annual weed, introduced
from Europe, common in damp, shady places N.
2. S. longifolia, Muhl. Lonc-LEavep StitcHwort. Stem
slender, usually erect, 8-18 in. high, often sharply 4-angled. Leaves
linear or nearly so, spreading. Flower-clusters peduncled, many-
flowered, the pedicels spreading. Petals 2-parted, at length longer
than the calyx. Perennial in meadows and grassy thickets, espe-
cially N.
I. CERASTIUM, L.
Annual or perennial. Stems diffuse, usually downy ; leaves
opposite. Flowers white, peduncled, in terminal, regularly
forking cymes. Sepals 4-5. Petals 4-5, notched or 2-cleft.
Stamens 10. Styles 5 or less. Capsule cylindrical, 1-celled,
many-seeded.*
1. C. vulgatum, L. Movss-rar Cuickwrerp. Annual or some-
times perennial. Stems diffuse, tufted, clammy-downy, 6-12 in.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 73
high. Lower leaves spatulate, the upper oblong, acute, or obtuse ;
bracts thin and dry. Flowers in loose cymes, pedicels becoming
much longer than the calyx. Sepals lanceolate, acute, about as long
as the 2-cleft petals. Slender capsule becoming twice as long as the
calyx and curved upward. A common garden weed.*
I. SCLERANTHUS, L.
Low tufted herbs. Leaves opposite, clasping, awl-shaped,
sharp-pointed. Flowers very small and greenish. Calyx-
tube funnel-shaped or urn-shaped, hardening into an envelope
for the fruit; calyx-lobes 4-5, short, erect. Petals none.
Stamens 1, 2, 5, or 10, inserted on the throat of the calyx.
Styles 2, thread-like. Fruit 1-seeded, never opening.
1. S. annuus, L. Kwawet. A much-branched annual weed,
2-8 in. high. Stem and leaves pale green; the leaves 1 to i in.
long, rather prickly pointed. Flowers solitary in the lower axils
and somewhat clustered above. Calyx-teeth with narrow whitish
margins. Introduced from Europe, common in-sandy roads and
waste ground E.
Iv. AGROSTEMMA, L.
Annual; stem pubescent, branching above. Leaves linear-
lanceolate or linear, pubescent, sessile. Flowers showy, on
long and naked peduncles in terminal corymbs. Calyx tubu-
lar, the tube oblong, 10-ribbed, lobes elongated, leaf-like,
deciduous. Petals 5, shorter than the calyx lobes, entire.
Stamens 10. Styles 5, capsules 1-celled.*
1. A. Githago, L. Corn Cocxie. Stem erect, rather slender, 1-3
ft. tall, gray, with long, appressed hairs. Leaves linear-lanceolate,
acuminate, erect, 2-4 in. long. Petals obovate, notched, purple.
Capsule 5-toothed, many-seeded ; seeds black. An introduced weed,
common in grain fields.*
V. SILENE, L.
Annual or perennial herbs. Stems erect or decumbent and
diffuse. Leaves often connate or whorled. Flowers clustered
or solitary, usually pink or white. Calyx tubular, more or
less inflated, 5-toothed, 10-nerved, bractless. Petals 5, long-
clawed, and with the ten stamens inserted at the base of the
ovary. Styles 3, ovary 1-celled or 3-celled at the base, open-
ing by 6 teeth, many-seeded. Seeds usually roughened.*
74 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. S. Cucubalus, Wibel. Snappers, RaTTLeBox. A perennial
branched herb about 1 ft. high. Leaves opposite, smooth, ovate, or
ovate-lanceolate. Calyx thin and bladdery, beautifully veined.
Petals white, 2-cleft. Capsule nearly globular. In fields and along
roadsides, especially eastward. Introduced from Europe.
2. S. pennsylvanica, Michx. Witp Pink. A perennial with low
clustered stems (4-8 in.). Root-leaves wedge-shaped or spatulate,
those of the stem lanceolate. Flowers medium-sized, clustered.
Petals wedge-shaped, notched, pink, with a crown at the throat of
the corolla. Gravelly soil E.
3. S. virginica, L. Fire Ping. A slender perennial with erect
stem, 1-2 ft. high. Root-leaves spatulate, the upper leaves oblong-
lanceolate. Flowers few, peduncled, large and showy, bright crim-
son. Corolla crowned, petals deeply 2-cleft. Woods.
4. S. Armeria, L. Catcurty, None-so-preTTy. A smooth, erect
annual or biennial, 6-15 in. high. Several nodes of the stem are
usually covered for part of their length with a sticky substance.
Leaves very smooth, with a bloom beneath, lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, clasping. Flowers showy, dark pink, nearly 3 in. in
diameter, in flat-topped clusters. Calyx club-shaped. Petals some-
what notched. Cultivated from Europe and introduced.
5. S. antirrhina, L. Syeeey Catcuriy. Stem smooth, slender,
8-80 in. high, sticky in spots. Leaves lanceolate or linear. Flowers
rather few and small, panicled. Calyx ovoid. Petals inversely
heart-shaped, pink, opening only for a short time in sunshine. Dry
waste ground.
6. S. noctiflora, L. Nigut-rFLowrrina CatcuFriy. A tall, coarse
annual or biennial weed, covered with sticky hairs. Lower leaves
spatulate, the upper ones lanceolate and pointed. Flowers large,
white, opening at night or in c'oudy weather. Calyx-teeth very long
and awl-shaped. Petals 2-parted. In fields and gardens, introduced
from Europe.
VI. LYCHNIS, L.
Plants with nearly the same characteristics as Silene, but
usually with 5 styles.
1. L. chalcedonica, L. Scarier Lycunis, Lonpon Pripr. A
tall, hairy perennial (about 2 ft.). Leaves lance-ovate, somewhat
clasping. Flower-cluster flat-topped and very dense. Flowers
bright scarlet, not very large. Petals 2-lobed. Common in old
gardens ; from Russia.
2. L. coronaria, Lam. Muzzern Pinx. A forking perennial
plant, 2 ft. high, covered with white, cottony down. Root-leaves
very wavy, spatulate ; stem-leaves ovate-lanceolate, wavy, clasping.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 75
Peduncles long, 1-flowered. Flowers about 12 in. broad, deep crim-
son. Calyx-tube very strongly 5-ribbed, with 5 } smaller ones between ;
calyx-teeth short and slender. Petals somewhat notched. Culti-
vated in old gardens; from Italy.
VO. DIANTHUS, L.
Tufted, mostly perennial herbs, often shrubby at the base.
Leaves narrow and grass-like. Flowers solitary or variously
clustered. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed, with overlapping bracts
at the base. Petals 5, with long claws. Stamens 10, matur-
ing 5at atime. Styles 2; ovary 1-celled. Capsule cylindrical,
4-valved at the top.
1. D. Armeria, L. Drprrorp Pink. Rather erect, annual, with
stiff stems 1-2 ft. high. Leaves very dark green, linear, 1-2 in. long,
the lower obtuse, the upper acute. Flowers loosely clustered, small,
dark pink. Calyx-tube 4-3 in. long, nearly cylindrical. Petals
narrow, speckled with very small whitish dots. In sandy fields
eastward, introduced from Europe; sometimes cultivated.
2. D. barbatus, L. Sweet Wiiuiam. Perennial, often in large
clumps. Stems erect, branching above, smooth, 1-2 ft. tall. Leaves
lanceolate, 2-3 in. long, acute. Flowers crimson-pink, white or
variegated, in terminal clusters, bracts linear, as long as the calyx.
Common about old gardens; from Europe.*
3. D. plumarius, L. Common Pinx, Grass Pinx.. Leaves grass-
like, with a whitish bloom. Petals white, pink, or variegated, with
the limb fringed. Flowers solitary, fragrant. Hardy perennials,
cultivated from Europe.
4. D. Caryophyllus, L. Carnation, Ctove Pinx. Much hke
the preceding species, but with larger fragrant flowers; the broad
petals merely crenate. Hothouse perennials (some hardy varieties),
cultivated from Europe.
31. NYMPHAACEZ. WatTer-Lity Fami ty.
Perennial aquatic herbs. Leaves usually floating, often
shield-shaped. Flowers borne on naked scapes. Floral en-
velopes and stamens all hypogynous or else adnate to a fleshy
disk that encloses the carpels. Sepals 3-6. Petals 3-5 or
often very numerous. Stamens many. Carpels 3 or more,
free, in a single circle or united with the disk. Fruit a berry
or a group of separate carpels.
76 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I. NELUMBO, Tourn.
Rootstock large and stout. Leaves round, shield-shaped,
often raised above the water. Flowers large, raised above
water at first, but often submerged after blooming. Sepals
and petals hypogynous, numerous, the inner sepals and outer
petals not distinguishable from each other. Stamens many,
hypogynous. Pistils several, 1-ovuled, borne in pits in the
flattish upper surface of a top-shaped receptacle, which en-
larges greatly in fruit.
1. N. lutea, Pers. Amertcan Lotus. WaTER CHINQUAPIN.
Rootstock often 3-4 in. in diameter, horizontal. Leaves 14-24 ft.
broad, prominently ribbed, with much bloom above, often downy
beneath. Petioles and peduncles stout. Flowers pale yellow, 5-9
in. broad. Sepals and petals falling quickly. Fruit top-shaped,
38-4 in. in diameter; the seeds 4 in. in diameter. In ponds and
slow-running streams W., introduced from the Southwest.*
Il. NYMPHAZA, Tourn.
Rootstock horizontal, creeping extensively. Leaves float-
ing, entire, shield-shaped or heart-shaped. Flowers showy.
Sepals 4, green without, white within. Petals many, white,
becoming smaller towards the center. Stamens many, the
outer with broad and the inner with linear filaments. Ovary
many-celled, stigmas shield-shaped and radiating. Fruit berry-
like, many-seeded.*
1. N. odorata, Ait. Witz WatTer-.ity. Rootstock large,
branched but little. Leaves floating, entire, the notch narrow, and
basal lobes acute, green and smooth above, purple and downy
beneath. Petioles and peduncles slender. Flowers white, very
fragrant, opening in the morning, 38-5 in. broad. Fruit globose,
seeds enclosed in a membranaceous sac. In ponds and still water.*
I. NUPHAR, Smith.
Rootstock horizontal, thick, cylindrical. Leaves heart-
shaped, floating or erect. Flowers yellow. Sepals 4-6,
green on the outside, obovate, concave. Petals many, hypogy-
nous, the inner ones becoming small and stamen-like. Sta-
mens many, hypogynous. Ovary cylindrical, many-celled,
stigma disk-shaped. Fruit ovoid.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS TT
1. N. advena. YELLOw Ponp Lity, Cow Lity, SpaTTERDOCK.
Leaves oval or orbicular, rather thick, often downy beneath. Flowers
bright yellow, 2-3 in. in diameter, depressed-globular. Sepals 6.
Petals thick and fleshy, truncate. Stamens in several rows, anthers
nearly as long as the filaments. In slow streams and still water.*
82. RANUNCULACEH. Buttercup Famity.
Herbs, rarely shrubs, usually with biting or bitter juice.
Leaves radical or alternate (in Clematis opposite ; stem-leaves
or involucre whorled in anemone); stipules none or adnate to
the petiole. Floral organs all distinct and unconnected.
Sepals 5 or more (rarely 2-4), falling early, often petal-like.
Petals none, or 5 or more (rarely 3). Stamens many. Carpels
many, i-celled; stigmas simple; ovules 1 or more. Fruit
composed of 1-seeded akenes or many-seeded follicles. Seeds
small.
A.
Flowers irregular.
With a spur. Delphinium, VII.
With a hood. Aconitum, VIII.
B.
Flowers regular.
1. Petals present (in ¢ not very unlike the stamens).
(a) Petals very large and showy. | Peonia, I.
(0) Petals small, tubular at the tip. Coptis, IV.
(c) Petals narrow, spatulate, on slender claws. Acta, V.
(d) Petals prolonged backward into spurs. Aquilegia, VI.
(e) Petals flat, with a little scale at the base, inside.
Ranunculus, XIIT.
2. Petals none, or very small and stamen-like.
(a) Sepals yellow. Caltha, IT.
(0) Sepals greenish or white, falling as the flower opens.
Thalictrum, XIV.
(c) Sepals white or colored, involucre sepal-like. Hepatica, X.
(d) Sepals 4. Plants climbing. Clematis, XII.
78 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
(e) Sepals 5, white. Flowers axillary and terminal. Pods
2-several-seeded. Isopyrum, III.
(f) Sepals white or colored. Plants not climbing. Akenes
more or less tailed with the styles in fruit.
Anemone, IX.
(g) Sepals 5-10, white. Flowers in an umbel. Roots
tuberous. Anemonella, XI.
I. PAEONIA, L.
Perennial; from thick, fleshy roots ; stems shrubby or her-
baceous. Leaves much divided. Flowers terminal, large and
showy. Sepals 5, leaf-like and persistent. Petals 5 or more.
Pistils 8-5 ; ovaries surrounded by a disk.*
1. P. officinalis, L. Garprn Pony. Herbaceous; flowering
stems 1-2 ft. high. Leaves ample; leaflets lance-ovate, cut or
incised, smooth. Flowers double, white or red. Follicles 2, erect,
many-seeded. Common in gardens.*
I. CALTHA, L.
Smooth perennials with large, roundish leaves. Sepals
petal-like, 5-9. Petals none. Pistils 5-10, each consisting
of a 1-celled ovary with a nearly sessile stigma. Fruit a
many-seeded follicle.
1. C. palustris. Marsn Maricorp, Cowsiips, MEApow Butter-
cup (both the latter unsuitable names, but in common use). Stem
hollow, smooth, ascending; leaves smooth, roundish and _heart-
shaped, or kidney-shaped, with crenate, dentate, or nearly entire
margins; the broad oval sepals bright yellow. Swamps or wet
ground.
I. ISOPYRUM, L.
Small, smooth herbs, Leaves 2-3 times compound, in
threes ; the leaflets 2-3-lobed. Flowers peduncled, white.
Sepals 5, petal-like, soon falling. Petals wanting (in our
species). Stamens 10-40. Pistils 3-6 or more.
1. I. biternatum, Torr. and Gr. A delicate, erect plant, with alter-
nate branches, looking much like Anemonella, with clustered stems
from perennial tuberous roots. Damp woods.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 79
IV. COPTIS, Salisb.
Low, smooth perennials with 3-divided root-leaves. Flowers
small, white, on scapes. Sepals 5-7, petal-like, soon fall-
ing. Petals 5-7, small, club-shaped, tubular at the apex.
Stamens 15-25. Pistils 3-7, stalked. Pods thin and dry,
4-8-seeded.
1. C. trifolia, Salisb. Gotp Tureap. A pretty, delicate plant,
with slender, 1-flowered scapes, from long, bright-yellow, thread-like
rootstocks, which are bitter and somewhat medicinal. Leaves later
than the flowers, each of 8 wedge-shaped leaflets, which finally
become shining and evergreen. Damp, cold woods and bogs.
Vv. ACTA, L.
Perennial ; stem simple. Leaves 2-3, compound in threes.
Leaflets ovate, sharply cut or toothed. Flowers white, in a
short and thick terminal raceme. Sepals 4—5, soon decidu-
ous. Petals 4-10, small. Pistil single ; stigma 2-lobed.
Fruit a many-seeded berry.*
1. A. alba, Bigel. BanEBERRY. Stem erect, smooth or nearly so,
18-24 in. high. Leaves large and spreading; leafletsthin. Racemes
very broad. Petals slender, truncate. Pedicels red, thickened in
fruiting; berries white. In rich woods, more common S.*
2. A. spicata, var. rubra, Ait. Rep BanrBEerry. Stem about
2 ft. high. Raceme ovoid or hemispherical. Petals acute. Pedicels
slender. Berries usually red, sometimes white, ovoid. Common N.
VI. AQUILEGIA, Toum.
Perennials with leaves twice or thrice palmately compound,
the divisions in threes.
Sepals 5, petal-like, all similar. Petals 5, all similar, each
consisting of an expanded portion, prolonged backward into
a hollow spur, the whole much longer than the calyx. Pistils
5, forming many-seeded pods.
1. A. canadensis, L. Witp CotumBINE. Flowers scarlet with-
out, yellow within, nodding; spurs rather long.
2. A. vulgaris, L. Garpen Cotumsine. Flowers often double
and white, blue, or purple. Spurs shorter and more hooked. Cul-
tivated from Europe, and sometimes become wild.
80 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Vl. DELPHINIUM, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs ; stem erect, simple, or branched.
Leaves alternate, petioled, palmately divided. Flowers in ter-
minal racemes or panicles, showy. Sepals 5, colored, irregu-
lar, the upper one prolonged into aspur. Petals 4, unequal,
the two upper ones with long spurs which are enclosed in the
spur of the upper sepal, the other two short-stalked. Pistils
1-5; ovaries many-seeded.*
1. D. tricorne, Michx. Dwarr Larxspur. Perennial. Stem
simple, from a tuberous root, usually low (4 to 1 ft. high), but some-
times 2 ft. high. Leaves deeply 5-parted, the divisions irregularly
8-5-cleft. Racemes few-flowered, loose. Flowers blue, sometimes
white. Pods diverging. Southward.
2. D. azureum, Michx. Biur Larkspur. Perennial. Stem
usually simple, slender, downy, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves 2-38 in. wide,
3-5-parted, the divisions cleft into 8-5 narrow, toothed, or entire
lobes. Flowers in a strict, many-flowered, terminal raceme, showy,
blue or whitish. Spur ascending, curved; lower petals bearded, 2-
cleft. Pods erect. On rich or rocky soil in open places. Northward.*
VI. ACONITUM, L.
Erect, perennial herbs. Leaves alternate, palmately lobed
or cut. Flowers irregular, in panicles or racemes. Sepals 5,
the back one large, arched, and hooded, the front one the
narrowest. Petals 2-5, small, the 2 back ones clawed and
covered by the hood of the sepals; 3 lateral ones small
or wanting. Follicles 3-5. Seeds many, wrinkled.
1. A. Napellus, L. Monxsuoop. An erect, poisonous plant,
1-2 ft. high. Raceme simple and densely flowered. Flowers dark
blue. Cultivated from Europe.
Ix. ANEMONE, Tourn.
Perennial herbs, usually with radical leaves, and 2 or 3
opposite or whorled stem-leaves, constituting an involucre
some distance below the flower or flower-cluster. Sepals few
or numerous, colored and petal-like. Petals usually wanting.
Akenes pointed, or with long, feathery tails.
1. A. patens, var. nuttalliana, Gray. Pasquz FLower. Low
plants, 1 in. to 1 ft. high, clothed with long, silky hairs. Leaves
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 81
divided in threes. Flower single, large, showy, pale-purplish, borne
on a peduncle developed before the leaves. Carpels many, with long,
hairy styles, which in fruit form tails 2 in. long. Prairies and
blufis, N. W.
2. A. caroliniana, Walt. CaroLinaA ANEMONE. Stem simple,
from a roundish tuber, slightly downy, 6-12 in. high, bearing a
single flower about 1 in. broad. Root-leaves 2-3, long-petioled, com-
pound in threes, the divisions cut or lobed; stem-leaves sessile,
compound in threes, the divisions wedge-shaped. Sepals 12-20,
white; head of fruit becoming oblong; akenes woolly. In open
woods W.*
3. A. cylindrica. Lona-rruITED ANEMONE. Plants about 2
ft. high, branching, with an involucre of long-petioled, divided and
cleft leaves, from within which spring several long, naked peduncles.
Flowers greenish-white. Sepals obtuse. Head of fruit cylindrical.
composed of very many densely woolly akenes. Dry woods and
prairies.
4, A. virginiana, L. Plant hairy, 2-3 ft. high. Peduncles 6-12
in. long, sometimes forking, the first ones naked, the later ones with
a little 2-leaved involucre at the middle. Leaves of the involucre 3,
each 8-parted, the divisions ovate-lanceolate, pointed. Sepals acute.
Head of fruit ovoid. Woods and meadows.
5. A. quinquefolia, L. WiInp-rLowER, Woop ANEMONE. Stem
simple, from a thread-like rootstock; involucre of 3 leaves, each
petioled, and of 3 leaflets, which are cut, toothed, or parted. Pedun-
cle 1-flowered. Sepals 4—7, white, often tinged with purple outside.
Carpels 15 or 20. This species is very nearly related to, but now
regarded as distinct from, the European A. nemorosa.
X. HEPATICA, Dill.
Involucre of 3 small, simple leaves, so close to the flower as
to look like a calyx. Leaves all radical, 3-lobed, heart-shaped,
thick, and evergreen, purplish-red beneath. Flowers single,
on rather slender hairy scapes.
1. H. triloba, Chaix. Rounp-LopEp HeEpatica. Lobes of the
leaves obtuse or rounded ; those of the involucre obtuse ; sepals
6-12, varying from blue to white.
2. H. acutiloba, DC. Suarp-topep Hepatica. Closely similar
to the former, except for the acute lobes of the leaves and tips of
the involucre.
[Both-species have many local names, such. as Liverleaf, Liverwort,
Noble Liverwort, Spring Beauty.]
82 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
XI. ANEMONELLA, Spach.
Small, perennial herbs. Leaves compound, smooth, those
from the root long-petioled, those of the stem sessile. Flowers
in a terminal umbel, slender-pediceled. Sepals petal-like.
Petals none. Pistils 4-15; stigmas sessile, truncate.*
1, A.thalictroides, Spach. Rur ANemone. Stem slender, 6-10 in.
high, from a cluster of tuberous roots. Radical leaves long-petioled,
twice compound in threes, leaflets oval, heart-shaped, 3-5-lobed.
Stem-leaves 2-3 compound in threes whorled, the long-stalked leaf-
lets veiny, forming an involucre of 6-9 apparently simple leaves.
Flowers 8-6 in an umbel, 4—3 in. wide; sepals 6-10, white. In rich
woods.*
XU. CLEMATIS, L.
Perennial herbs or slightly woody vines, usually climbing
by the leaf-stalks. Leaves opposite, simple, or compound.
Sepals 4, petal-like. Petals very small or wanting. Pistils
numerous, tipped by the persistent styles which often become
long and plumose in fruit.*
1. C. crispa, L. Marsu Crematis. Stem climbing, a little
woody below, slightly downy above, 3-5 ft. high. Leaves pinnately
compound; leaflets 5-7, varying from lanceolate to ovate, thin,
entire, or 3-5-lobed. Flowers showy, perfect, solitary, on long, axil-
lary peduncles. Sepals lanceolate, taper-pointed, thick, wavy on the
margins, twice the length of the stamens, light bluish-purple, 1-14
in. in length. Tails of the ripened akenes 1 in. long, silky. Rich
woods and river banks 8.*
2. C. viorna, L. LeatHer Fiower. Stem climbing, nearly
smooth, 6-10 ft. long. Leaves usually pinnately compound, the
lowest pair often compound in threes and the upper pair simple.
Leaflets usually 5-7, oblong-ovate or oval, acute, firm, entire, or
lobed. Calyx bell-shaped, nodding ; sepals ovate, taper-pointed with
a short, recurved point, thick and leathery, reddish-purple, 1 in. long.
Tails of the akenes plumose, 14 in. long, brownish. On river banks
and rich soil.*
XI. RANUNCULUS, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves alternate, usually
deeply lobed or parted. Flowers axillary or in corymbs,
white or yellow. Sepals 3-5. Petals 3-5, flat, with a small
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 83
pit or scale inside at the narrowed base. Stamens usually
numerous. Pistils few or several ina head. Akenes flattened,
pointed.*
1, R. pusillus, Poir, Low Sprarwort. Perennial. Stems sev-
eral, erect or ascending, branched, smooth, 6-15 in. high. Leaves
entire or slightly toothed, the lower round or cordate, long-petioled,
the upper lanceolate or elliptical, nearly or quite sessile. Flowers
very small, about 2 in. wide, yellow. Petals 1-5, as long as the
sepals. Stamens 3-10. Akenes smooth, with a very short point.
On muddy banks.*
2. R. abortivus, L. SMALL-FLOWERED CrowFrooT. Perennial.
Stems smooth, branching, 12-18 in. high. MRoot-leaves round-cor-
date, crenate, petioled. Stem-leaves 3-5-parted, with wedge-shaped
or linear divisions, sessile. Flowers very small, pale yellow. Sepals
reflexed, longer than the petals. Akenes in a globose head, smooth,
without a beak. Common on wet ground and waste places.*
3. R. recurvyatus, Poir, Hooxep Crowroot. Perennial. Stem
erect, hairy, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves all nearly alike, petioled, 3-5-lobed
with the lobes wedge-shaped, cut or toothed at the apex. Flowers
small, pale yellow. Petals minute, shorter than the reflexed sepals.
Akenes in a globular head, smooth, with a slender, recurved beak.
On low ground.*
4. R. pennsylvanicus, L. Bristty Crowroor. Perennial. Stems
rough-hairy, erect, 2-38 ft. high. Leaves compound in threes, on
long and very hairy petioles; leaflets long-stalked, 3-parted, the
divisions sharply lobed or toothed. Flowers small. Petals yellow,
shorter than the sepals. Akenes flat, smooth, in oblong heads, beak
broad and straight. On low ground.*
5. R. bulbosus, L. Burtsous Buttercup, Eariy BurtEercup.
Stem upright, from a solid bulb about as large as a filbert, about
1 ft. high, hairy. Root-leaves 3-divided, the divisions lobed and
cleft. Peduncles furrowed. Flowers large and showy (3 to 1 in. in
diameter). Sepals strongly reflexed. Petals roundish, wedge-shaped
at the base. Akenes with a very short beak. Introduced from
Europe. Common in grass fields in New England.
6. R. acris, L. Tart Burrercur. Erect, hairy, 2-3 ft. high.
Leaves 3~7-parted, the divisions of the lower ones wedge-shaped,
deeply cut and lobed. Peduncles not furrowed.. Sepals spreading,
downy. Petals obovate, a little smaller and paler yellow than in
No. 5. A common weed, introduced from Europe, in grass fields
and elsewhere, especially eastward.
84 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
XIV. THALICTRUM, L.
Erect perennial herbs. Leaves compound, with stipules.
Flowers in panicles or racemes, often somewhat moncecious
or dicecious, wind-fertilized. Sepals 4-5, petal-like. Petals
none. Stamens many. Carpels few or many; ovule1. Fruit
a small head of akenes. [The following species are both
usually dicecious. |
1. T. dioicum, L. Earty Meapow Rue. Plant 1-2 ft. high,
smooth and pale or with a bloom. Leaves all petioled, most of them
thrice compound in threes ; leaflets thin and delicate, roundish, 3—7-
lobed. Flowers in slender panicles, purplish or greenish ; staminate
ones with slender, thread-like filaments, from which hang the con-
spicuous yellowish anthers. Rocky woods and hillsides.
2.7. polygamum, Muhl. Tatu Mreapow Rue. Stems from
fibrous roots, tall and coarse, nearly or quite smooth, 4-8 ft. tall.
Leaves twice compound, those of the stem sessile, the others long-
petioled ; leaflets oval or oblong, often cordate, smooth or downy
beneath, quite variable in size on the same plant. Flowers small,
in large panicles. Sepals 4 or 5, white. Filaments club-shaped.
Akenes short-stalked. Thickets and meadows E.
83. BERBERIDACEZ. BarBreRRY FAMILY.
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple or compound,
usually without stipules. Sepals petal-like. Petals hypogy-
nous, distinct, their number some multiple of 2, 3, or 4, never
of 5. Stamens one opposite each petal, anthers opening by
2 uplifted lids. Pistil 1, 1-celled, ovules 2 or more. Fruit
a berry or capsule.
I, BERBERIS, L.
Spiny shrubs with yellow wood. Leaves spinous-toothed,
jointed on the very short petiole, often reduced to 3-7-cleft
spines. Flowers in racemes, solitary, or in pairs. Sepals
8-9, the outer minute. Petals 6, each with 2 nectar glands
at the base. Stamens 6. Ovules few. Berry 1-2-seeded ;
seeds bony-coated.
1. B. vulgaris, L. Common Barperry. A shrub 4-6 ft. high.
Leaves obovate, spinous-serrate ; those on the old shoots mere
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 85
spines. Flowers pale yellow, in drooping racemes. Stamens irrita-
ble, closing quickly toward the center of the flower when touched.
Berry 4 in. long, nearly ellipsoidal in shape, scarlet or orange-scarlet,
very acid, eatable when cooked. Cultivated from Europe and intro-
i in eastern New England and locally in the upper Mississippi
valley.
2. B. Thunbergii, DC. A low shrub. Leaves entire, turning
red and remaining so for a considerable time in autumn. Flowers
solitary or in pairs. Berries bright red, remaining on the branches
all winter. Cultivated from Japan.
I. CAULOPHYLLUM, Michx.
A perennial smooth herb, 1-24 ft. high. Leaf large, single,
sessile, thrice compound in threes, borne high up on the stem ;
there is also a large, very compound radical leaf. Flowers
racemed or panicled, yellowish-green. Sepals 6, with 3 bract-
lets. Petals 6, gland-like, somewhat curved inward at the
tip, much smaller than the sepals. Pistil 2-ovuled, the ovary
soon bursting open and leaving the 2 blue seeds to ripen naked.
1. C. thalictroides, Michx. Biur Conosu, Parpoose Root.
Whole plant purplish and covered with a bloom when young.
Flowers appearing before the leaf is fully developed. Rich woods.
I. PODOPHYLLUM, L.
Perennial. Stem simple, smooth, erect, 12-15 in. tall, bear-
ing 2 leaves with a large white flower between them. Sepals
6, falling off as the flower opens. Petals 6-9, obovate. Sta-
mens twice as many as the petals. Pistil 1, stigma large, flat,
sessile. Fruit berry-like, 1-celled, many-seeded.*
1. P. peltatum, L. May-arpie. Rootstock rather large. Leaves
orbicular, shield-shaped, 5-9-lobed and toothed, smooth, 9-12 in.
wide. Flowers 1-2 in. wide, on a peduncle 1-2 in. long. Stamens
prominent, anthers opening longitudinally. Fruit 14-2 in. long,
oval, fragrant, edible ; each seed surrounded by a pulpy covering.
In rich woods. The roots and leaves are used in medicine.*
34. MAGNOLIACEZ. Maenoria Famity.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, not toothed or serrate.
Flowers solitary, large, and showy. Floral envelopes and
86 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
stamens hypogynous. Calyx and corolla colored alike, the
parts of the perianth forming 3 or more circles of 3 parts
each. Stamens many. Carpels many, usually cohering over
the long receptacle and.forming a sort of cone-shaped fruit,
which may be either fleshy or dry.
I. MAGNOLIA, L.
Aromatic trees or shrubs; leaves alternate, often in clus-
ters at the ends of the branches, entire, usually thick and
leathery; stipules large, quickly deciduous ; flowers termi-
nal, showy, perfect ; sepals 3, caducous ; petals 6-12, in 2-4
rows, concave; stamens numerous; ovaries numerous, 1-celled,
2-seeded, the mature follicles opening at the beak, and the
fleshy seeds remaining for some time suspended by slender
threads.*
1. M. grandiflora, L. LarGre-FLOWERED Macenouia. A large
tree with spreading branches and a rounded top; bark nearly
smooth. Leaves very thick, evergreen, smooth and shining above,
rusty-downy beneath, entire, oval or oblong, 6-9 in. long. Flowers
white, very fragrant, 6-9 in. in diameter. Petals 9 or more, obovate,
concave. Fruit a rusty-downy cone 3-4 in. long, seeds bright scarlet.
Common on light soils in Arkansas and the Gulf States.*
2. M. Fraseri, Walt. Long-LEAVED UMBRELLA TREE. A small
tree with a slender trunk and widely spreading branches. Leaves
clustered at the ends of the branches, deciduous, oblong or obovate,
contracted, cordate and eared at the base, smooth on both sides,
8-12 in. long; petioles slender. Flowers white and fragrant, 6 in.
broad. Petals longer than the sepals, spatulate or oblong, obtuse at
the apex, narrowed at the base. Cone 3-4 in. long, pink at maturity.
In rich woods S.*
3. M. macrophylla, Michx. LARGE-LEAVED UMBRELLA TREE.
A small tree with gray bark. Leaves clustered at the ends of the
branches, oblong or obovate, obtuse at the apex, cordate at the base,
green and glabrous above, white and downy beneath, 14-3 ft. long ;
petioles stout. Flowers white with a purple center, fragrant, 8-12
in. wide; petals oblong, obtuse, two or three times as long as the
sepals. Cone ovate, 4-6 in. long, bright red at maturity. Shady
woods on light soil $.*
4. M. virginiana, L. Sweet Bay. A small tree with light gray
bark. Leaves scattered on the branches, evergreen, thick and
leathery, oval or oblong, smooth and green above, white and with
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 87
a bloom, downy beneath, 4-6 in. long. Flowers white, fragrant, 2-3
in. in diameter; petals 9, concave. Cone 11-2 in. long, pink. Com-
mon in swamps and along streams, New York and southward (a
few in eastern Massachusetts). The leaves often used in flavoring
soups, etc.
Il. LIRIODENDRON, L.
A large tree with rough, dark-colored bark. Leaves scat-
tered on the branches, deciduous, 3-lobed, truncate, stipuled,
petioled. Flowers perfect. Sepals 3, reflexed. Petals 6,
erect. Stamens numerous. Ovaries numerous, 2-ovuled,
cohering over each other on the elongated receptacle, never
opening, deciduous.*
1. L. tulipifera, L. Tutize Trex. The largest tree in the family.
Leaves roundish in outline, mostly 3-lobed, the terminal lobe trun-
cate or broadly notched, usually heart-shaped at the base, smooth,
green above, lighter beneath. -Petioles slender. Flowers terminal,
bell-shaped, greenish-yellow marked with orange. Petals obovate,
obtuse, about as long as the sepals. Mature cones ovate, acute,
2-3 in. long. Common on low ground, Pennsylvania and 8S. Often
called «white wood” or, incorrectly, “white poplar.” Wood valua-
ble for making boxes and light furniture.*
85. CALYCANTHACEZ. CatycantTHus Famity.
Shrubs. Leaves opposite, entire, without stipules. Flowers
solitary, often sweet-scented. Sepals and petals numerous,
the outer sepals bract-like. Stamens many, short, the inner
ones usually sterile. Ovaries several, inserted on the inside
of an irregular, hollow, pear-shaped receptacle something like
a large rose-hip, forming 1-seeded akenes in fruit.
CALYCANTHUS, L.
Shrubs, 4-8 ft. tall; branches opposite. Leaves oval,
downy beneath, short-petioled; both leaves and bark aro-
matic. Sepals and petals many, in several rows, somewhat
fleshy, indistinguishable. Pistils several, inserted on the
inner side of the persistent calyx-tube. Mature fruit pear-
shaped, dry, enclosing the akenes.*
88 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. C. floridus, L. SwrET-SsCENTED SHRUB, STRAWBERRY Busu,
Srick Busu, Surus. A widespreading bush, 4-8 ft. high; twigs
downy. Leaves oval or oblong, acute or taper-pointed, rough
above, downy beneath, 2-3 in. long. Flowers 1 in. wide, brownish-
purple, very fragrant; sepals united below to form a cup, on the
inside of which the other parts of the flower are inserted, cup leafy-
bracted on the outside. Banks of streams and rich hillsides S.,
often cultivated.*
86. ANONACEA. Pawpaw Famity.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, entire ; pinnately veined.
Flowers perfect, hypogynous, axillary, solitary. Calyx of 3
sepals, corolla of 6 thickish petals in 2 rows. Stamens many,
filaments very short. Pistils several or many, becoming
fleshy or pulpy in fruit.
ASIMINA, Adans.
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves deciduous. Flowers nod-
ding. Sepals 3, ovate. Petals 6, the 3 outer ones larger
and spreading. Stamens very numerous, crowded on the
globular receptacle. Ovaries 3-15, sessile, 1-celled, several-
ovuled. Fruit a large, fleshy, oblong berry, seeds large,
horizontal.*
1. A. triloba, Dunal. Pawpaw. A small tree, 10-20 ft. high;
bark nearly smooth, lead-colored. . Leaves oblong-obovate, acute at
the apex, obtuse at the base, rusty-downy when young and becoming
smoother with age, 6-10 in. long. Flowers on branches of the
previous season, appearing before or with the leaves; the short
peduncles and the sepals brown-downy. Petals purple, obovate, 3-4
times longer than the sepals. Fruit 3-5 in. long, edible when ripe.
Common on banks of streams, especially S. and S.W. The bark
is very tough and is often used in the place of rope.*
87. LAURACEH. Laure. Famity.
Aromatic plants, nearly always trees or shrubs. Leaves
alternate, simple, usually entire, and marked with translucent
dots. Calyx regular, hypogynous, of 4 or 6 colored sepals.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 89
Stamens in 3 or 4 circles of 3 each, the anthers opening by
valves. Style single. Fruit a 1-seeded berry or stone-fruit.
I. SASSAFRAS, Nees.
A tree with rough, yellowish bark and a spreading top.
Leaves deciduous, entire or 2-3-lobed. Flowers dicecious, in-
volucrate, at the end of the twigs of the previous season.
Calyx 6-parted, persistent in the pistillate flowers. Stamens
9, in 3 rows. Pistillate flowers with 4-6 abortive stamens
and a single ovary. Fruit a stone-fruit.*
1. S. officinale, Nees. Sassarras. A tree, usually small and
slender, but sometimes with a trunk 3 ft. in diameter and 125 ft.
high. Leaves oval, entire, mitten-shaped or 3-lobed, downy when
young but becoming smooth with age, dark green above, paler
below, petiolate. Racemes several in a cluster, peduncled ; flowers
yellow. Stamens about as long as the sepals. Fruit dark blue,
ovoid, on thickened, red pedicels. All parts of the tree aromatic ;
trees producing pistillate flowers rare. Common. The wood is
valuable for cabinet-making, and an aromatic oil is extracted from
the bark.*
I. LINDERA, Thunb.
Shrubs; leaves deciduous, entire. Flowers in lateral,
sessile: clusters, appearing before the leaves, dicecious or
somewhat moneecious. Involucre of 4 scales. Stamens 9 in
the staminate flowers, filaments slender. Pistillate flowers
with 12-15 abortive stamens and a single globose ovary with
a short style.*
1. L. Benzoin, Blume. Spiczr Buse. A shrub, 5-15 ft. high,
with smooth bark and slender twigs. Leaves oblong-obovate, acute
at the base, pale and downy beneath, becoming smooth when old ;
petioles short. Flowers about as long as the pedicels, yellow, very
fragrant. Ovary about as long as the style. Fruit an obovoid, red
stone-fruit about 3 in. long, on a slender pedicel. Banks of streams
and damp woods. Twigs and leaves quite aromatic.*
38. PAPAVERACEZ. Porpy Fami ty.
Annual or perennial herbs, often with milky juice. Leaves
sometimes all radical, stem-leaves usually alternate without
90 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
stipules. Flowers perfect, regular or irregular. Sepals
usually 2, shed as the flower opens. Petals 4-12, falling
early. Stamens numerous or 6 (in 2 sets), 4, or 2. Carpels
2-16. Fruit a capsule.
I. ESCHSHOLTZIA, Cham.
Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves pale or bluish-green,
usually cut into very narrow divisions. Sepals united into a
pointed cap, which falls off in one piece as the flower opens.
Petals 4, orange or yellow. Stamens many, with long anthers.
Stigmas 2-6, spreading. Pods long and slender, grooved. Re-
ceptacle often surrounded by a rim on which the calyx rests.
1. E. californica, Cham. Annual or perennial, with rather suc-
culent leafy stems. Flowers large and showy, yellow or orange-
yellow. Receptacle top-shaped, with a broad rim. Cultivated from
California.
Il. SANGUINARIA, Dill.
Perennial. Rootstock thick, horizontal, joints and scars
of previous growths persistent several years ; juice orange-
colored. Leaves on long petioles, kidney-shaped. Scape
1-flowered. Sepals 2, falling off as the flower opens. Petals
8-12. Ovary 1, stigmas 2; capsule oblong, seeds crested.*
1. S. canadensis, L. Biooproot. Leaves and scape with a
bloom; leaves palmately 5-9-lobed, lobes rounded or toothed; scapes
naked, nearly as long as the petioles. Flowers white, 1 in. or more
wide. Petals oblong or obovate, quickly deciduous. Capsule
1-celled, 2-valved, the valves separating from the persistent placentz
at maturity. In rich, open woods.*
I. CHELIDONIUM, L.
Erect, branched, perennial herbs with yellow juice. Leaves
much divided. Flowers yellow. Sepals 2, falling as the
flower opens. Petals 4. Ovary 1-celled ; style dilated at the
top, with 2 adnate stigmas. Capsule linear.
1. C. majus,L. CrELanpine. Stem 1-2 ft. high, brittle, slightly
hairy, leafy. Leaves once or twice pinnate. Flowers small. A rather
common weed in yards and along fences. Introduced from Europe.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 91
Iv. PAPAVER, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs with milky juice. Stem erect,
smooth, or rough-hairy, branching above. Leaves more or
less lobed or dissected. Flower-buds nodding, flowers showy.
Sepals commonly 2, falling off as the flower opens. Petals
4-6. Stamens many. Stigma disk-like, ovules many, borne
on many inwardly projecting placente.*
1. P. somniferum, L. Opium Poppy. Annual; stem erect,
branched above, smooth and with a bloom, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves
oblong, irregularly lobed or cut, sessile, clasping. Flowers nearly
white, with a purple center, large and showy, on long peduncles.
Capsule globose, seeds minutely pitted. About old gardens and
waste places. Cultivated in southern Asia, where the juice of the
capsules is dried to make opium.*
2. P. dubium, L. Corn Poppy. Annual; stem slender, branch-
ing, 1-2 ft. tall. Leaves pinnatifid, the lower petioled, the upper
sessile. Flowers large and showy, usually red; capsule long-
obovoid, smooth. In cultivated ground. Both the species named
are often cultivated in gardens and produce double flowers.*
3. P. orientale, L. Orrentat Poppy. A large, rough-hairy
perennial. Leaves large, deep green, almost pinnate. Flower very
large, deep red. Cultivated from the eastern Mediterranean region.
4. P. nudicaule, L. IczLaAnp Poppy. A delicate but rough-
hairy perennial plant. Leaves all radical, pale, pinnately cut.
Flowers yellow-orange or white, borne singly on rather slender,
hairy scapes. Cultivated from Europe.
V. DICENTRA, Borkh.
Smooth, delicate herbs with watery juice. Leaves com-
pound in threes and finely cut. Flowers racemed, nodding.
Sepals 2, small and scale-like. Petals 4, slightly united to
form a heart-shaped or 2-spurred corolla (Fig. 12), the inner
‘ pair spoon-shaped, enclosing the stamens and pistil. Stamens
6; the filaments somewhat united into 2 sets, and the anthers
in 2 sets close to the stigma. Stigma 2-crested. Pod 10-20-
seeded.
1. D. Cucullaria, DC. Durcuman’s BrercuEs, BREECHES
Frower. A low, stemless perennial, with a delicate scape and a
cluster of root-leaves with linear divisions from a sort of bulb made
92 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
of small, scaly grains. Flowers in a 4-10-flowered simple raceme, not
fragrant. Spurs of the corolla longer than the pedicels; corolla
mostly white with a yellowish tip. Rich woods, common.
2. D. canadensis, DC. Squirret Corn, Witp HyacintoH. A
low, stemless perennial, with scape and leaves much as in No. 1, and
with small yellow tubers looking like grains of corn scattered along
the underground shoots. Corolla only heart-shaped at the base,
whitish or flesh-colored, very fragrant. Rich woods.
3. D. spectabilis, DC. Burrpinc Heart, Ear Drors. Stems
branching, recurved. Leaves large, twice compound in threes, the
divisions rather broad, like those of the common peony. Racemes
long, drooping, many-flowered. Flowers large, heart-shaped, bright
pink. Cultivated from China.
VI. ADLUMIA, Raf.
A delicate climbing biennial. Leaves thrice-pinnate, cut-
lobed. Sepals 2, very small.” Petals 4, all united into a corolla
which is slightly heart-shaped or 2- knobbed at the base, remain-
ing as a spongy covering over the small, few-seeded pod.
Fic. 12. — Flower of Dicentra.
A, view of flower partly dissected ; », the larger outer petals; p', the spoon~
shaped inner petals; B, floral diagram.
1. A. cirrhosa, Raf. Mounrarn FrincE, ALLEGHANY VINE.
Climbing several feet high by the leaf-stalks. Flowers pinkish-
white. Rocky hillsides, often cultivated.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 93
VIL. CORYDALIS, Vent.
Leafy-stemmed biennial herbs (the American species).
Leaves much divided, alternate or nearly opposite. Racemes
terminal or opposite the leaves. Sepals 2, small. Petals 4;
corolla with a single spur at the base, on the upper side.
Capsule many-seeded.
1. C. glauca, Pursh. Pate Corypatis. Plant erect, covered
with a bloom. Flowers pink-purple with yellow tips. Spur of the
corolla very short and rounded. Rocky woods.
2. C. aurea, Willd. GoxtpENn Corypa.is. A low, spreading plant,
finally ascending. Corolla bright yellow, 1-2 in. long; the spur
shorter than the pedicel, somewhat bent. Shaded, rocky banks.
39. CRUCIFERZ. Mustarp Famity.
Herbs with pungent, watery juice and alternate leaves with-
out stipules. Sepals 4, often falling off early. Petals usually
4, arranged in the form of a cross. Stamens 6, the 2 outer
ones shorter than the 4 inner ones. Fruit generally a pod,
divided into two cells by a thin partition which stretches
across from one to the other of the two placente. The
flowers throughout the family are so much alike that the gen-
era and species cannot usually be determined without examin-
ing the tolerably mature fruit.
A.
Pods short and flattened, contrary to the partition, splitting open when ripe.
Pod roundish. Lepidium, I.
Pod triangular, inversely heart-shaped. Capsella, IX.
B.
Pods globular or cylindrical, splitting open when ripe.
(a) Pods globular. Flowers white. Petals much longer
than the calyx. Cochlearia, IT.
(6) Pods cylindrical; seeds ellipsoid. Flowers very small,
yellow. Sisymbrium, III.
94 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
(c) Pods cylindrical; seeds globular. Flowers of moderate
size, yellow. Brassica, IV.
(2) Pods cylindrical. Flowers white. Or pods ovoid or
ellipsoid. Flower yellowish. Aquatic plants, or
growing in wet soil. Nasturtium, VI.
c.
Pods elongated, often jointed, tapering toward the tip, never-splitting
open. Raphanus, V.
D.
Pods flattened parallel to the partition, splitting open when ripe.
(a) Wild species leafy-stemmed; growing in or near water.
Pods linear. Cardamine, VII.
(6) Wild species; stems naked below, bearing only 2 or 3
leaves. Pods lanceolate. Dentaria, VIII.
(c) Wild species ; leafy-stemmed; growing on dry ground
or rocks. Pods linear; seeds usually winged or
margined. Arabis, X.
(d) Cultivated species. Pods round or roundish.
Lobularia, XI.
(e) Cultivated species, covered with a grayish down of
star-shaped hairs. Pods cylindrical.
Matthiola, XII.
I. LEPIDIUM, Tourn.
Annual; stem erect, or sometimes diffuse. Leaves entire,
toothed, or pinnately divided. Flowers in a terminal raceme
small, white. Petals short, sometimes wanting. Stamens 2,
4, or 6. Pod rounded or obcordate, flattened contrary to the
partition.*
1. L. virginicum, L. Prrrpererass, Brrps’ Pepper, ToNGuE
Grass. Stem erect, smooth, much branched, 1-2 ft. high. Lower
leaves obovate in outline, pinnately cut with dentate lobes; upper
leaves lanceolate, dentate, slightly downy. Flowers on slender
pedicels, petals present, sometimes reduced in the later flowers.
Stamens 2. Pod round. A weed growing in waste places.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 95
JL COCHLEARIA, Tourn.
Perennial herbs. Leaves entire or pinnate. Flowers
small, white. Sepals short. Petals with short claws. Pods
globular or ellipsoid.
1. C. Armoracia, L. Horss-rapisa. A coarse herb with large
leaves from stout, long, cylindrical rootstocks filled with a very
sharp, biting juice. Root-leaves long-petioled, linear-oblong, obtuse,
regularly scalloped; stem-leaves sessile. Racemes in panicles.
Pods obovoid, on long, slender pedicels. Seeds seldom or never
tipening. Probably from Europe ; cultivated and often introduced
in damp ground.
Il. SISYMBRIUM, Tourn.
Annual or biennial herbs. Radical leaves spreading ; stem-
leaves alternate, often eared at the base. Flowers in loose
racemes, usually yellow, often bracted. Pods generally nar-
rowly linear, cylindrical or 4-6-angled. Seeds many, ellip-
soid, not margined.
1. S. canescens, Nutt. Tansy Mustarp. Stem 1-2 ft. high.
Leaves twice pinnately cut, usually covered with grayish down.
Flowers very small, yellowish. Pods oblong, club-shaped, 4-angled,
borne on pedicels projecting almost horizontally from the stem, in
long racemes. Common westward.
2. S. officinale, Scop. Hepcre Mustrarp. Stems branching, stiff.
Leaves runcinate-toothed or lobed. Flowers very small, pale yel-
low. Pods somewhat 6-sided, awl-shaped, closely pressed against
the stem. An unsightly weed in waste ground, introduced from
Europe.
IV. BRASSICA, Tourn.
Branching herbs. Teaves often pinnately cut. Flowers
in racemes, rather large, yellow. Sepals spreading. Pods
nearly cylindrical, sometimes tipped with a beak which does
not open. Seeds globular.
1. B. arvensis, Boiss. CHartocx. Stem 1-2 ft. high; it andthe
leaves rough-hairy. Upper leaves rhombic-toothed or no. Flowers
43-2 in. across, somewhat corymbed, bright yellow. Pods knotty,
spreading, at least 4 of each consisting of a 2-edged, 1-seeded beak.
A showy, troublesome weed in grain fields, introduced from Europe.
96 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
2. B. juncea, Coss. Similar to the preceding, but nearly or quite
smooth. Pedicels slender. Beak of the cylindric pod slender,
conical, not containing a seed. Recently introduced from Asia and
becoming very abundant eastward.
3. B. alba, Boiss. Wuitr Mustarp. Stem 2-5 ft. high, with
reflexed hairs. Upper leaves pinnately cut. Pods borne on spread-.
ing pedicels, bristly, with a sword-shaped, l-seeded beak occupying
more than half their length. Seeds pale. Cultivated from Europe
and introduced to some extent.
4, B. nigra, Koch. Briacx Mustarp. Stem 3-6 ft. high, some-
what hairy. Lower leaves lyrate with the terminal lobe much the
longest, stem-leaves linear-lanceolate, entire or toothed, smooth.
Pods awl-shaped, 4-angled, smooth, lying against the stem. Seeds
brownish, more biting than in No. 2. Cultivated from Europe and
introduced.
V. RAPHANUS, Tourn.
Annual or biennial herbs. Root-leaves lyrate. Flowers in
long racemes, white or yellow, purple-veined. Sepals erect.
Pods rather long, slender-beaked, not splitting open but some-
times breaking across into 1-seeded joints.
1. R. Raphanistrum, L. Witp Ravise, JoINTED CHARLOCK.
A stout, hairy annual 1-2 ft. high. Leaves cut into remote seg-
ments, which are coarsely toothed or serrate; terminal segment
largest. Flowers yellow, turning whitish or purplish. Pods
necklace-shaped, with a long beak. A common weed eastward,
introduced from Europe.
VI. NASTURTIUM, R. Br.
. Annual or biennial, mostly aquatic plants. Stems erect or
diffuse, often widely branching. Leaves simple, pinnately
lobed. Flowers small, white or yellow. Sepals spreading.
Stamens 1-6. Pod short and broad or nearly linear. Seeds
numerous in 2 rows in each cell.*
1, N. officinale, R. Br. Watercress. Aquatic herbs. Stems
smooth, diffuse, rooting at the joints. Leaves with 3-9 rounded,
pinnate lobes, the terminal lobe much the largest. Racemes
elongating in fruit. Petals white, twice the length of the sepals.
Pods linear, 3-3 in. long, on slender, spreading pedicels. In ditches
and slow streams. Often used for salad.*
2. N. palustre, DC. YELLow Watercress. Annual or bien-
nial. Stem erect, branched, slightly downy. Leaves irregularly
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 97
lyrate, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Flowers small. Petals
yellow. Pods linear, spreading, longer than the pedicels. In wet
places.*
VI. CARDAMINE, Tourn.
Annual or perennial. Rootstock often scaly or bulb-bear-
ing. Stem erect or ascending, usually smooth. Leaves
more or less divided. Flowers in terminal racemes, white or
purple. Petals rather large. Stamens 6. Fruit a linear
flattened pod. Seeds several, in a single row in each cell.*
1. C. rhomboidea, DC. BuxBovus Cress. Perennial. Root tuber-
ous. Stem simple, erect, smooth, without runners, 9-18 in. tall.
Lower leaves long-petioled, ovate, orbicular or heart-shaped, often
angled or toothed, the upper short-petioled or sessile, lanceolate or
oblong, toothed or entire. Pedicels 3-1 in. long. Petals white,
3-4 in. long. Pod erect, linear-lanceolate, tipped by the persistent
style. Seeds round-oval. Cool, wet places.*
2. C. pennsylvanica, Muhl. Brrter Cress. Annual. Stem slender,
erect, simple, or with a few slender branches, 6-15 in. tall. Leaves
mostly in a cluster at the base of the stem, pinnately divided, the
terminal lobe roundish, the lateral lobes narrower, somewhat hairy
above, stem-leaves nearly linear. Flowers small. Petals white,
longer than the sepals. Stamens 4. Pods linear, erect on erect
pedicels, about lin. long. Seeds oval. In wet places.*
VOI. DENTARIA, Tourn.
Stems naked below, 2-3-leaved above, from a thickish,
more or less knotted or interrupted rootstock, Flowers
rather large, in early spring. Pod lance-linear, flattish. Seeds
in 1 row, wingless, seedstalks broad and flat.
1. D. diphylla, L. Two-Leavep TootHwort, PEPPER Root,
Crinkxte Root. Rootstock long, often branched, toothed, eatable,
with a flavor like that of cress or radish. Stem-leaves 2, close
together, each composed of 3 ovate-diamond-shaped and toothed or
crenate leaflets; the root-leaf like the stem-leaves. Flowers white.
Damp woods.
2. D. laciniata, Muhl. Crow’s Foot. Rootstock short, necklace-
like. Stem-leaves 3-parted ; root-leaf often absent. Flowers white
or rose-color. Woods.
98 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
IX. CAPSELLA, Medic.
Annual. Stem erect, downy, with branched hairs. Racemes
terminal, becoming elongated in fruit. Flowers small, white.
Pod obcordate or triangular, flattened contrary to the parti-
tion, shorter than the spreading pedicel.*
1. C. Bursa-pastoris, Moench. SHEPHERD’s Purse. Root longand
straight. Stem branching above, downy below, smooth above.
Lower leaves forming a rosette at the base of the stem, irregularly
lobed or pinnately cut, stem-leaves lanceolate, clasping, toothed or
entire. Sepals downy, about 4 as long as the petals. Pod trian-
gular, notched, or cordate at the apex. Seeds several in each cell.
A common weed.*
X. ARABIS, L.
Annual or perennial herbs, smooth or with forked or star-
shaped hairs. Radical leaves spatulate ; stem-leaves sessile.
Flowers usually white. Petals entire, usually with claws.
Pods linear, flattened. Seeds often margined or winged.
1. A. hirsuta, Scop. A rough-hairy, erect, leafy-stemmed bien-
nial, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves simple ; stem-leaves oblong or lanceolate,
entire or toothed, somewhat clasping, often with an arrow-shaped
base. Flowers small, greenish-white, the petals somewhat longer
than the sepals. Pods and pedicels upright. Style almost wanting.
Seeds roundish, somewhat wing-margined. Rocks, N.
2. A. levigata, Poir. A smooth, leafy-stemmed biennial 1-2 ft.
high, covered with a bloom. Stem-leayes lance-linear, clasping.
Flowers small and whitish, the petals hardly longer than the sepals.
Pods 2-8 in. long, flattened, spreading, and recurved. Seeds broadly
winged. Rocks.
3. A. canadensis, L. Srcxite Pop. An upright, leafy-stemmed
biennial, 2-3 ft. high, simple or slightly branching above, some-
times slightly hairy at the base. Stem-leaves sessile, oblong-
lanceolate, pointed at both ends, downy, the lower ones toothed.
Flowers small, whitish, the petals twice as long as the sepals. Pods
scythe-shaped, much flattened, hanging from hairy pedicels. Seeds
broadly winged. Rocky hillsides,
XI. LOBULARIA, Desv. (Atyssum, L.)
Perennial, though usually growing as an annual. Stems
branching, diffuse; branches slender. Leaves small, entire,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 99
downy, with forked hairs. Flowers small, white, in numerous
terminal racemes. Petals obovate, entire, twice as long as
the sepals. Filaments enlarged below. Pod round, com-
pressed. Seeds 1 in each cell.*
1. L. maritima, Desy. Sweet ALyssum. Stem weak, diffuse,
ascending, minutely downy. Lower leaves narrowed into a petiole,
the upper sessile. Racemes erect, many-flowered. Flowers fra-
grant, pedicels ascending. Pod often pointed. Common in culti-
vation and often run wild.*
Xl. MATTHIOLA, R. Br.
Herbaceous or shrubby oriental plants, covered with a down
composed of star-shaped hairs. Flowers in showy racemes
of many colors, ranging from white to crimson. Stigmas
large and spreading. Pods nearly cylindrical, except for a
prominent midrib on each valve.
1. M. incana, Br. Common Stock, GILLYFLowER. Biennial or
perennial, with somewhat woody stems. Cultivated in greenhouses
and gardens.
40. CAPPARIDACEZ. Caper FamIty.
Herbs (when growing in cool temperate regions), with bit-
ter or nauseous juice. Leaves alternate, usually palmately
compound. ‘Flowers often irregular, usually perfect. Sepals
4-8. Petals 4 or wanting. Stamens 6 or more. Ovary and
pod 1-celled, with’2 rows of ovules. Seeds kidney-shaped.
I. POLANISIA, Raf.
Il-smelling annual plants covered with glandular or
clammy hairs. Sepals distinct, spreading. Petals with
claws, notched at the tip. Stamens 8-32, of various lengths.
Receptacle not lengthened. Pod linear or oblong, rather
large, many-seeded.
1. P. graveolens, Raf. A very strong-scented, leafy, branching
herb, 6-15 in. high. Leaves with 3 oblong leafiets. Flowers small,
pinkish and yellowish-white, in the axils of leafy bracts, in terminal
racemes. Stamens 8-12, not much longer than the petals. Pod
about 2 in. long, slightly stalked. Gravelly banks.
100 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Il. CLEOME, L.
Mostly annual herbs; stems branched. Leaves petioled,
simple, or with 3-7 entire or serrate leaflets. Flowers in
bracted racemes. Sepals 4, often persistent. Petals 4, often
long-clawed, nearly. equal, entire. Stamens 6, filaments
thread-like, usually projecting much, but sometimes 1-3 much
shorter than the others, inserted on the short receptacle.
Ovary on a short stalk with a small gland at its base. Fruit
a slender capsule on an elongated stalk.*
1. C. integrifolia, Torr. and Gr. Rocky Mountain Ber Puant.
A smooth plant 2 ft. or more high. Leaves with 3 leaflets. Flowers
pink, showy, in leafy-bracted racemes. Pod oblong to linear, 1-2 in.
long. Cultivated as an ornamental plant and also for bees. Common
in a wild condition W.
41. RESEDACEZ. MIGNoONETTE FAmILy.
Annual or perennial herbs, ‘rarely shrubs. Leaves alter-
nate, simple or pinnately cut. Flowers racemed or spiked,
bracted. Calyx 4-7, parted, often irregular. Petals 4-7,
hypogynous, often unequal and cleft or notched. Stamens
usually many, borne on a large one-sided hypogynous disk.
Ovary of 2-6 carpels, which are more or less united into a
single 1-celled, many-seeded, several-lobed, or horned pistil,
which opens at the top before the seeds ripen.
RESEDA, Tourn.
Annual; stems diffuse, widely branched. Leaves sessile,
entire or lobed, smooth. Flowers in close racemes or spikes.
Petals 4-7, toothed or cleft. Stamens 8-30, inserted at one
side of the flower. Capsule 3-6-lobed.*
1. R. odorata, L. MicnonetTEe. Stem widely diffuse, 6-12 in.
high, smooth. Leaves wedge-shaped, entire or 3-lobed. Flowers
small, greenish-yellow, very fragrant. Petals deeply 7-13-cleft.
Often cultivated. From Egypt.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 101
42. SARRACENIACEA. Prrcuer—prant FamIty.
Perennial, stemless, marsh herbs. Leaves tubular or
trumpet-shaped. Flowers single, nodding, on a naked or
bracted scape. Sepals 4-5, colored, persistent. Petals 5,
deciduous, or sometimes wanting. Stamens numerous. Pistil
compound, 5-celled, many-ovuled ; style terminal, nearly as
broad as the flower, shield-shaped.*
SARRACENIA, Tourn.
Rootstock short, horizontal; scape naked. Leaves trumpet-
shaped, with a wing extending nearly to the base and a broad
blade at the apex (see Part II, Ch. XXVI); tube hairy
within, with downward-pointing, stiff hairs. Calyx 3-bracted.
Petals obovate, drooping or incurved. Style umbrella-shaped,
5-angled ; stigmas at the hooked angles of the style on the
under surface. Capsule globose, rough. [The tubular leaves
usually contain more or less water and dead insects, the latter
having been attracted by a honey-like secretion near the
opening. For a full account of the structure and peculiar
action of the leaves, see Goodale’s Physiological Botany,
pp. 3847-353.]*
1. S. purpurea, L. Sipe-sappLeE FLower. Leaves ascending,
curved, broadly winged, purple-veined, 4-8 in. long; blade erect,
round-cordate, hairy on the inner side. Scapes 12-18 in. tall; flower
deep purple, about 2 in. broad. Style yellowish. Mossy swamps.*
43. SAXIFRAGACEZ. SaxirraGe Famity.
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, generally
without stipules. Sepals 4 or 5, more or less coherent with
each other and adnate to the ovary. Petals as many as the
sepals and alternate with them. Stamens as many as the
petals and alternate with them, or 2-10 times as many.
Ovary usually of 2 carpels, united only at the base or more
or less throughout. Fruit generally a 1-2-celled capsule,
sometimes a berry. Seeds many, with endosperm.
102 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I. SAXIFRAGA, L.
Herbs with simple or palmately cut leaves and generally
cymose or panicled flowers. Sepals 5, more or less united.
Petals 5, entire, inserted on the calyx-tube. Stamens 10.
Capsule consisting of 2 (sometimes more) ovaries, united at
the base, separate and diverging above.
1. S. virginiensis, Michx. Earty Saxirracr, MAYFLower.
Perennial. Stemless, with a cluster of spatulate, obovate, or wedge-
shaped root-leaves and a scape 3-9 in. high, which bears a dense
cluster of small white flowers, becoming at length a panicled cyme.
Petals white, oblong, much longer than the calyx. Rocks and dry
hillsides N.
2. S. pennsylvanica, L. Swamp SaxirraGce. Perennial.
Leaves 4-8 in. long, oblong-lanceolate and tapering to the base,
slightly toothed. Scape 1-2 ft. high, bearing an oblong cluster of
small greenish flowers, at length diffusely panicled. Petals green-
ish-yellow (rarely crimson), linear-lanceolate, hardly longer than the
calyx-lobes. Boggy ground.
Il. TIARELLA, L.
Perennial. Flowers white, in racemes. Calyx white,
5-parted, nearly free from the ovary. Corolla of 5 very nar-
row petals, with slender claws, alternating with the calyx-
lobes. Stamens 10, springing from the calyx-tube and
extending outside the flower. Styles 2, long and slender.
Ovary 1-celled, 2-beaked. In fruit one of the carpels grows
to be much larger than the other, thus making up the main
bulk of the thin, dry pod, which has a few seeds attached
near the bottom.
1. T. cordifolia, L. Fats Mitre-wort. Stem 5-12 in. high,
usually leafless, sometimes with 1 or 2 leaves. Rootstock bearing
runners in summer. Leaves heart-shaped, sharply lobed, the lobes
with acute or mucronate teeth, somewhat hairy above, downy
beneath. Raceme short and simple. Rocky woods, especially N.
I. MITELLA, Tourn.
Delicate perennial herbs. Flowers small, pretty, in a sim-
ple raceme or spike. Calyx 5-cleft, adnate to the base of the
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 103
ovary. Petals 5, cut-fringed, inserted on the throat of the
calyx-tube. Stamens 5 or 10, not projecting from the calyx-
tube. Styles 2, very short. Ovary and pod 2-beaked,
globular, 1-celled.
1. M. diphylla, L. Two-LEavep BisHor’s Cap, Frings Cup,
‘Farry Cup. Stemless, with long-petioled, roundish-cordate root-
leaves, and a scape about 1 ft. high, bearing 2 opposite, nearly ses-
sile leaves. Flowers many, racemed, white. Woods.
Iv. HEUCHERA, L.
Perennials with a tall scape and roundish, heart-shaped
radical leaves. Flowers rather small, greenish or purplish,
in along panicle. Calyx 5-cleft, the tube below adnate to the
ovary. Petals 5, small, spatulate, inserted with the 5 sta-
mens on the margin of the calyx-tube. Capsule 1-celled,
2-beaked, splitting open between the beaks.
1. H. americana, L. Common Atum Root. Scapes 2-4 ft. high,
rather slender, often several from the same root, hairy and glandu-
lar. Radical leaves large and long-petioled, abundant, somewhat
7-lobed. Flowers whitish with a tinge of purple, in a loose panicle.
Stamens projecting considerably outside the flower, their stamens
of a bright terra cotta color. The root is very astringent and is
somewhat used as a home remedy. Shaded banks, fence rows, and
thickets ; common W.
V. PHILADELPHUS, L.
Shrubs. Leaves simple, opposite, 3—5-ribbed, petioled,
without stipules. Flowers solitary or in cymes, large, white.
Calyx-tube top-shaped, adnate to the ovary, the limb 4-5-
parted, persistent. Petals 4-5, rounded or obovate. Stamens
20-40, shorter than the petals. Ovary 3-5-celled, many-
seeded ; styles 3-5, more or less united.*
1. P. grandiflorus, Willd. LAarGE-FLOWERED SyrinGA. Shrub,
6-10 ft. high; branches downy. Leaves ovate or ovate-oblong,
taper-pointed, sharply serrate, downy, 3-ribbed. Flowers solitary or
2-3 together, white, 14-2 in. broad, not fragrant. Calyx-lobes
ovate, taper-pointed, about twice as long as the tube. On low
ground, S., and cultivated.*
2. P. coronarius, L. GarpreNn Syrinea. Shrub, 8-10 ft. high.
Leaves oval or ovate, obtuse at the base, acute at the apex, remotely
104 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
toothed, smooth above, downy beneath. Flowers in terminal
racemes, creamy white, 1-1} in. wide, very fragrant. Calyx-lobes
ovate, acute, longer than the tube. Common in cultivation.*
VI. DEUTZIA, Thunb.
Shrubs -with simple, opposite leaves, without stipules.
Flowers all perfect and alike, racemed or panicled, showy.
Calyx-lobes 5. Petals 5. Stamens 10, 5 long and 5 short ;
filaments flat and 3-pronged, the middle prong bearing an
anther. Styles 3-5, slender. Pod 3—5-celled.
1. D. gracilis, Sieb. and Zucc. About 2 ft. high, loosely spreading.
Leaves ovate-lanceolate, sharply serrate, smooth. Flowers white,
very numerous. Cultivated from Japan, often in greenhouses.
Vil. RIBES, L.
Shrubs. Leaves palmately veined and lobed, sometimes
with stipules. Calyx-tube egg-shaped, adnate to the 1-celled
ovary, its 5 lobes usually colored like the petals. Petals 5,
small, generally inserted on the throat of the calyx-tube.
Stamens 5, inserted with the petals. Styles 2. Ovary
1-celled, with 2 placentz on its walls, becoming in fruit a
pulpy (usually eatable) berry.
1. R. rotundifolium, Michx. Smoora WiLp GoosrBerRy. Spines
few and short, prickles few or absent. Leaves roundish, lobed, with
the lobes crenate-dentate, often downy. Peduncles slender ; flowers
inconspicuous. Calyx-lobes reflexed. Styles and stamens projecting
decidedly from the calyx-tube. Berries smooth.
2. R. Cynosbati, L. Pricxty Witp GooseBERRY. Spines in
pairs, Leaves long-petioled, downy, heart-shaped, cut-dentate. The
single style and the stamens not projecting from the calyx-tube.
Berries generally prickly, brownish-purple, pleasant-flavored.
3. R. rubrum, L. Rep Currant. Stems more or less reclining.
Leaves somewhat heart-shaped, obtusely 83-5-lobed. Racemes droop-
ing. Limb of the calyx wheel-shaped. Berries acid, eatable, red
or light amber-colored. Cultivated from Europe, also ‘a variety wild
in the northern United States.
4. R. aureum, Pursh. GoLpEN Currant, Frowerine C., Mis-
sourr C., Crove C. A much taller shrub than the common red
currant. Leaves 3-lobed, toothed. Racemes short and loose. Tube
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 105
of the yellow calyx much longer than its limb. Flowers very
fragrant. Fruit brownish-black, barely eatable.
44, PLATANACER. Sycamore Faminy.
Trees ; with simple, alternate, petioled leaves with stipules,
the bases of the petioles covering the buds. Flowers mone-
cious, in axillary, long-peduncled, globose heads. Calyx and
corolla very inconspicuous, each consisting of 3-8 minute
scales, or wanting. Stamens as many as the sepals and
opposite. them. Pistils several, inversely conical, hairy at
the base, styles long. Capsules 1-seeded.*
PLATANUS, L.
Characters of the family.
1. P. occidentalis, L. Sycamore, Burtonwoop. A large tree,
bark light-colored, smooth, peeling off in large, thin plates. Leaves
large, round heart-shaped, angularly lobed and toothed, densely
white-woolly when young, becoming smooth with age; stipules
large, toothed. Fruit in a globular, drooping head, which remains
on the tree through the winter, dropping the seeds very slowly.
Common on river banks and in swampy woods.*
45. ROSACEZH. RosE Famity.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate or rarely oppo-
site, simple or compound, with stipules. Calyx 5-lobed.
Petals 5, rarely wanting, inserted with the stamens on the
edge of a disk that lines the calyx-tube. Stamens many,
rarely 1 or few. Carpels 1 or more, distinct or coherent, free
or adnate to the calyx-tube. Fruit a pome, a stone-fruit or
group of stone-fruits, or 1-several akenes or follicles, rarely
a berry or capsule. The relation of the parts of the flower
to each other and to the receptacle is shown in Fig. 13.
106 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
A.
Ripe carpels not enclosed within the calyx-tube.
1. Fruit dry.
(a) Carpels 1-5, inflated. Physocarpus, I.
(6) Pods 5-8, not inflated. Spirea, II.
(c) Akenes 2-6, styles not lengthening after flowering.
, Waldsteinia, VIII.
(d) Akenes many, on a dry receptacle. Styles not length-
ening. Potentilla, X.
(e) Akenes many, on a dry receptacle. Styles lengthening
after flowering, forming tails to the akenes.
Geum., XI.
2. Fruit fleshy.
(a) Akenes several-many, becoming little stone-fruits.
Rubus, VII.
(6) Akenes many, dry on ripening, on a fleshy, eatable
receptacle. Fragaria, IX.
(c) Pistil solitary, becoming a stone-fruit. Prunus, XIII.
Fig. 13.— Pistils in the Rose Family.
A, Prunus-type; B, Potentilla-type; C, Rosa-type, v, calyx, 0, ovary.
B.
Ripe carpels enclosed within the calyx-tube.
1. Fruit a pome.
(a) Carpels more than 2-seeded; seeds covered with a muci-
laginous pulp. Fruit 5-celled. Cydonia, III.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 107
(6) Carpels 2-seeded (except in some cultivated varieties) ;
seeds without pulp. Fruit 5-celled. Pyrus, IV.
(c) Carpels 2-seeded; fruit 10-celled. Amelanchier, V.
2. Fruit not evidently a pome or not at all so.
(a) Trees or shrubs. Fruit with a stone usually of 2-5 bony
1-seeded carpels united. Crategus, VI.
(6) Herbs. Fruit consisting of riumerous very small akenes
collected on a fleshy, eatable receptacle. Fragaria, IX.
(c) Shrubs. Fruit with many akenes borne on the interior
of a fleshy calyx tube. Rosa, XII.
(d) Trees or shrubs. Fruit a simple stone-fruit (plum or
cherry). Prunus, XIII.
I. PHYSOCARPUS, Maxim.
Shrubs. Leaves simple, palmately veined and lobed, pet-
ioled. Flowers white, in terminal corymbs. Calyx spreading,
5-lobed. Petals 5. Stamens numerous. Pistils 1-5, short-
stalked, stigma terminal; ovaries becoming inflated at matu-
rity, 2-4-seeded, splitting open.*
1. P. opulifolius, Maxim. Ninezsarx. A spreading shrub 3-6 ft.
high, the old bark separating into thin strips. Leaves petioled,
broadly ovate or rounded, often heart-shaped, 3-lobed, the lobes doubly
crenate-serrate ; stipules deciduous. Corymbs terminal, peduncled,
nearly globose, downy, many-flowered. Follicles 8-5, much longer
than the calyx, smooth and shining, obliquely tipped by the persistent
style. Banks of streams.*
Il. SPIREA, L.
Shrubs with simple leaves. Flowers perfect, in terminal
or axillary racemes or panicles. Calyx 5-cleft, persistent.
Petals 5. Stamens numerous. Pistils usually 5, free from
the calyx and alternate with its lobes. Follicles not inflated,
2-several-seeded.*
1. S. salicifolia, L. Wr1nLow-teaFep Sprrea. Shrubs 2-5 ft.
high, branches smooth; leaves lanceolate to oblong-ovate, smooth or
nearly so, sharply serrate, base usually wedge-shaped, pale beneath ;
stipules deciduous; flowers white or pink, panicle dense-flowered ;
follicles smooth. On low ground.*
108 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
2. S. reevesiana, Gard. Brrpat Wreartu. Shrubs 2-4 ft. tall;
branches long, slender, and spreading; leaves lanceolate, serrate,
sometimes 3-lobed or pinnatifid, with a bloom beneath ; flowers white
or pinkish, in axillary racemes or corymbs, often forming long
wreaths; follicles smooth. Cultivated from Europe.
3. S. tomentosa, L. Harpuacx. Erect shrubs; stems densely
downy, usually simple; leaves simple, ovate or oblong, serrate,
densely rusty downy below, smooth and dark green above; flowers
small, pink or purple, in a close panicle; follicles 5, densely downy,
several-seeded. On low ground S., and along fence-rows and in pas-
tures N., where it is a troublesome weed.*
Ill. CYDONIA, Tourn.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, toothed or lobed, stipules
deciduous. Flowers usually solitary, white or pink. Calyx-
tube urn-shaped, adnate to the ovary, 5-lobed, lobes acute,
spreading, persistent. Petals 5. Stamens numerous, inserted
with the petals on the calyx-tube. Styles 2-5, mostly 5,
united at the base. Ovary 5-celled, seeds many in each cell.
Fruit a pome, globose, usually depressed or hollowed at the
extremities, flesh without hard grains.*
1. C. vulgaris, Pers. Quince. Shrub 6-12 ft. high. Leaves
oblong-ovate, acute at the apex, obtuse at the base, entire, downy
below. Flowers large, white or pink. Fruit ovoid, downy. Cul-
tivated.*
2. C. japonica, Pers. Japan Quince. A widely branching
shrub, 3-6 ft. high, branches with numerous straight spines. Leaves
ovate-lanceolate, acute at each end, smooth and shining, serrulate;
stipules conspicuous, kidney-shaped. Flowers in nearly sessile axil-
lary clusters, bright scarlet. Fruit globose. Common in cultivation.*
IV. PYRUS, L.
Trees. Leaves simple, stipules small, deciduous. Flowers
in cymes, large, white or pink. Calyx urn-shaped, adnate to
the ovary, 5-cleft, its lobes acute. Petals rounded, short-
clawed. Stamens numerous, borne with the petals on the
calyx-tube. Styles 5, distinct or slightly united at the base.
Fruit a pome, with about 2 seeds in each carpel.*
1. P. communis, L. Pear. A tree, often very large, head usually
pyramidal; branches often thorny. Leaves thick and leathery,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 109
ovate or oval, acute, finely serrate or entire, downy when young,
becoming smooth with age; petioles slender. Cymes few-several-
flowered, terminal, and at the ends of “fruit spurs’? grown the
previous season. Flowers white. Styles not united. Fruit obovoid,
with hard gritty grains near the core. A European and Asiatic
tree common in cultivation.*
2. P. Malus. Appts. A tree with a rounded top and dark-
colored bark. Leaves oval or ovate, obtuse or pointed, dentate or
nearly entire, rounded at the base, smooth above, downy beneath.
Cymes few-many-flowered. Flowers large, white or pink. Calyx
downy. Fruit depressed-globose to ovoid, hollowed at the base and
usually at the apex. Cultivated from Europe and often running
wild in old pastures, etc., E.*
3. P. coronaria, L. AMERICAN Cras AppLe. A small tree
with smooth bark. Leaves triangular or. oval-lanceolate, acutish or
rounded or a little heart-shaped at the base, cut-serrate and often
somewhat 3-lobed, slender-petioled, soon smooth. Flowers large,
few in a cluster, pale rose-color, very sweet-scented. Fruit bright
green, turning yellowish, sometimes 14 in. in ‘diameter, flattened at
right angles to the pedicels, very fragrant. Glades, W. N. Y., West
and South.
4. P. angustifolia, Ait. NaRROw-LEAVED CraB AppLir. A small
tree with smooth, light gray bark. Leaves lanceolate or oblong,
serrate, downy when young, acute at the base, short-petioled.
Corymbs few-flowered. Flowers pink, fragrant, about 1 in. broad.
Styles smooth, distinct. Fruit nearly globose, about 2 in. in diame-
ter, very sour. In open woods, Penn., W. and S.*
5. P. arbutifolia, L.f. CHoKEBERRY, CHoKE Prar, DoGBERRY.
A shrub 5-8 ft. high. Leaves oblong or oblanceolate, finely serrate,
downy beneath, short-petioled. Flowers in a downy compound
cyme, small, white or reddish. Fruit pear-shaped or nearly globular,
not larger than a currant, very dark purple, dry and puckery. There
is also a smooth-leaved variety with black fruit. Swamps and damp
thickets, especially N. E. ;
6. P. americana, DC. AmeErRICAN Mountain Asa. A tall shrub
or small tree. Leaves odd-pinnate. Leaflets oblong-lanceolate, taper-
pointed, sharply serrate, smooth, bright green. Flowers small, white,
in large, flat, compound cymes. Fruit bright scarlet, not larger
than currants. Common N. and often cultivated.
7. P. Aucuparia, Gaertn. European Mountain AsH oR Rowan
Tree. Larger than No. 6. Leaflets paler, downy beneath. Fruit
larger, about $ in. in diameter. Cultivated from Europe.
110 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Vv. AMELANCHIER, Medic.
Shrubs or small trees with smooth gray bark. Leaves
simple, sharply serrate, petioled. Flowers white, in racemes.
Calyx-tube 5-cleft, adnate to the ovary. Petals oblong.
Styles 5, united below. Ovary 5-celled, 2 ovules in each cell,
often only 1 maturing. Fruit small, berry-like.*
1. A. canadensis, Torr. and Gr. Service Berry, June: Berry,
Snap Busn, Sugar Pium, Sucar Pear, Witp Pear. A small
tree, branches downy when young, soon becoming smooth. Leaves
ovate to elliptical, finely and sharply serrate, acute at the apex,
usually obtuse or cordate at the base. Racemes slender, many-
flowered, appearing before or with the leaves. Flowers showy.
Petals 4 or 5 times the length of the smooth sepals. Fruit globose,
dark red, edible. In rich woods; extremely variable in height, and
in shape of leaves.*
VI. CRATAGUS, L.
Shrubs or small trees, mostly with numerous strong spines,
wood very hard. Leaves serrate, lobed or deeply incised,
petioled. Flowers white or pink, in terminal corymbs or
sometimes solitary. Calyx-tube urn-shaped, 5-cleft, the limb
persistent. Petals round. Stamens few or many. Styles
1-5, distinct; ovules 1 in each cell. Fruit a small pome with
bony carpels.* [The species are hard to distinguish and are
not very perfectly defined. At present the genus is under-
going a careful revision by Professor C. 8. Sargent. ]
1. C. coccinea, L. SCARLET-FRUITED THorN, Rep Haw. A tall
shrub or small tree, with smooth, reddish branches, but the young
shoots downy. Leaves thin, roundish-ovate, cut-lobed or sharply
toothed, slender-petioled. Flowers large, in a many-flowered corymb.
Fruit bright red, nearly globular or obovoid, } in. long.
Var. mollis, Torr. and Gr., has the young shoots densely covered
with down and fruit twice the length of the preceding, sweet and
edible. Common in the Mississippi valley.
2. C. tomentosa, L. Prar Tuorn. A small tree, the young
shoots, peduncles, and calyx downy or soft-hairy. Leaves large,
thickish, ovate or ovate-oblong, downy beneath, doubly serrate or
cut-lobed. Flowers later than No. 1, sometimes 1 in. in diameter.
Fruit scarlet or orange, rather less than 1 in. long, edible.
3. C. Crus-Galli, L. Cocxsrpur THorn. Small trees with spread-
ing branches; spines usually numerous, long and stout, but some-
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 111
times few or wanting. Leaves thick, oval or obovate, shining above,
paler below, obtuse or acute, and sharply serrate at the apex, wedge-
shaped and entire at the base. Corymbs terminal, many-flowered,
smooth; fiowers about 4 in. wide; styles 1-3 ; fruit red, subglobose,
4 in. in diameter. Common in open woods.*
4. C. spathulata, Michx. Smaut-rruITED Haw. A small tree,
young twigs densely downy; spines 1-2 in. long; leaves small,
spatulate, crenate at the rounded apex, entire and wedge-shaped
below, leathery, smooth; stipules crescent-shaped; corymbs com-
pound, many-flowered; flowers small; calyx-lobes very short; styles
5; fruit red, about the size of a small pea. On river banks.*
5. C. flava, Ait. YxeLLow Haw. A small tree with very numer-
ous spines; leaves obovate, glandular-serrate at the rounded apex,
cuneate below, downy when young; petiole short; corymbs few-
flowered, slightly downy; flowers 4-3 in. wide; calyx-lobes entire
or glandular-serrate ; styles 4-5; fruit pear-shaped, 4 in. or more in
length, greenish-yellow. On sandy soil.*
VII. RUBUS, L.
Mostly prickly shrubs, producing runners. Leaves alter-
nate, simple or compound; stipules adnate to the petiole.
Flowers in terminal and axillary clusters, rarely solitary,
white (in one American species [No. 1] purple rose-color).
Calyx free from the ovary, with a broad tube; its lobes 5,
persistent. Petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels many, distinct,
on a convex receptacle. Fruit a cluster of little 1-seeded
stone-fruits on a dry or somewhat juicy receptacle.
A. RASPBERRIES.
Grains of the fruit, when ripe, falling off from the receptacle and
leaving the latter with the calyz.
1. Rubus odoratus, L. FLowrrine Raspserry (often wrongly
called MuLperry). Stems shrubby and rather stout, 3-5 ft. high,
not prickly, the young shoots, peduncles, and calyx covered with
sticky glandular hairs. Leaves large, simple, 3-5-lobed. Flowers
showy, rose-purple, 1-2 in. in diameter, on many-flowered pedun-
cles. Fruit flattish, eatable. Rather common E. and N. and often
cultivated.
2. R. triflorus, Richardson. Dwarr Raspserry (also wrongly
known as Mutserry). A slender trailing plant, almost entirely
herbaceous, not prickly but sometimes bristly. Leaves compound,
112 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
usually of 3 but sometimes of 5 thin ovate-lanceolate, frequently
unsymmetrical leaflets, which are coarsely doubly serrate and often
cleft or lobed, with a shining upper surface. Flowers small, on 1-3-
flowered peduncles. Fruit of a few loosely cohering grains, eaten
by children. Common, especially N., in hilly woods, often forming
a dense carpet in the partial shade of pines.
3. R. occidentalis, L. Bxiacx RaspsBerry. Stems long and
slender, often recurved and rooting at the tips, armed with weak,
hooked prickles. Leaves petioled, 3-5 ovate leaflets, coarsely ser-
rate, white-downy below. Flowers white, in compact terminal
corymbs. Pedicels erect or ascending. Fruit black, hemispherical,
separating easily from the receptacle. Common on borders of
woods Mo. and N., widely cultivated.*
4. R. strigosus, Michx. Rep Raspperry. Stems widely branch-
ing, biennial, not rooting at the tips, armed with weak bristles and
with a few hooked prickles. Leaves petioled, of 8-5 ovate leaflets
which are sharply serrate and sometimes lobed, downy beneath.
Flowers in terminal and axillary racemes and panicles, pedicels
drooping. Fruit hemispherical or conical, red, separating easily
from the receptacle. Common on mountains and burned clearings.
Iowa and N. and widely cultivated.*
B. BuackBerRigEs.
Grains of the ripe fruit falling from the calyx along with the soft,
eatable receptacle.
5. R. nigrobaccus, Bailey. Hicu BLacksBerry. Stem shrubby,
erect or bending, 4-10 ft. high, glandular-downy above and with
stout, hooked prickles below. Leaves petioled, of 38-7 ovate leaflets
which are acute, irregularly serrate, smooth or soft-hairy. Flowers
in terminal, bracted panicles. Petals white, obovate, much longer
than the taper-pointed sepals. Fruit large, black, oblong. Common
in thickets.*
6. R. villosus, Ait. Low BuiacxBerry, Dewsrerry. Stems
shrubby, trailing widely, from 38-10 ft. long, somewhat prickly.
Leaflets usually 3, but sometimes 5 or 7, ovate, acute, sharply (and
doubly) cut-serrate, thin. Racemes upright on the short branches,
1-3-flowered. Fruit roundish, of fewer and larger grains than No. 5,
very sweet when fully ripe. Common N., in stony or gravelly fields.
7. R. cuneifolius, Pursh, Sanp BiackBerry. Stem shrubby,
erect or diffuse, 2-3 ft. high; prickles straight or recurved. Leaves
petioled, 3-5-foliate ; leaflets obovate, serrate towards the apex,
wedge-shaped towards the base, rough above, white downy-woolly
beneath. Racemes mainly terminal. few-flowered. Petals white,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 1138
longer than the sepals. Fruit ovoid, black, smaller than the pre-
ceding. Common in old fields.*
8. R. hispidus, L. Stem trailing or prostrate, often several feet
in length, armed with small, straight, or’ recurved prickles, and
often thickly set with bristles. Leaves petioled, mostly of 3 leaflets ;
leaflets obovate, obtuse, rather coarsely serrate. Flowering branches
commonly erect, few-flowered, flowers white. Fruit black. Common
on dry, sandy soil.*
VII. WALDSTEINIA, Willd.
Stemless perennial herbs. Leaves 3-5-lobed or divided.
Flowers several, rather small, yellow, on a bracted scape.
Calyx-tube top-shaped; the limb spreading, with sometimes
little bracts alternating with the lobes. Petals 5. Stamens
many. Style 2-6. Akenes few, on a dry receptacle.
1, W. fragarioides, Tratt. Barren StraAwsBeErRRY. A low herb
with much the appearance of a strawberry plant. Leaflets 3,
broadly wedge-shaped, crenate-dentate. Scapes many-flowered ; the
flowers rather pretty. Wooded hillsides.
IX. FRAGARIA, Tourn.
Perennial scape-bearing herbs, with runners. Leaves with
3 leaflets ; stipules adnate to the petiole. Flowers (of Ameri-
can species) white. Calyx free from the ovary, 5-parted,
5-bracted, persistent. Petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels
many, on a convex receptacle. Akenes of the ripe straw-
berry many, very small, more or less imbedded in the large,
sweet, pulpy receptacle.
1. F. virginiana, Mill. Witp StrawsBerry. Leaflets thick,
oval to obovate, coarsely serrate, somewhat hairy. Scape usually
shorter than the petioles, few-flowered. Fruit ovoid, akenes imbedded
in deep pits. Common.*
2. F. vesca, L. European STRAWBERRY. Leaflets ovate or
broadly oval, dentate above, wedge-shaped below, slightly hairy.
Scape usually longer than the petioles. Fruit globular or oval,
akenes adherent to the nearly even surface of the receptacle. Com-
mon in cultivation. Many of the cultivated varieties of strawberry
are hybrids between the two described above. The American form
is less hairy than the European and is by some regarded as distinct.*
114 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
X. POTENTILLA, L.
Perennial herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves compound; stipules
adnate to the petiole. Flowers white or yellow, rarely red ;
solitary or in cymes. Calyx free from the ovary, 5-cleft, with
5 little bracts alternating with its lobes. Petals 5. Stamens
many. Carpels usually many, on a dry convex or concave
receptacle ; styles falling off from the akenes as they mature.
1. P. arguta, Pursh. Upricgur Cinqurrort. An erect, stout
‘hairy plant, 1-4 ft. high. Root-leaves long-petioled, pinnate. Stem-
leaves few, each of 3-7 leaflets, the latter broadly ovate and cut
toothed or serrate, downy underneath. Flowers large, in dense
terminal clusters; the petals whitish or cream-color. Rocky hills.
2. P. canadensis, L. Common CinqueEFoIL. Stems slender, pro-
cumbent, silky-hairy, sending out long runners. Leaflets obovate
wedge-shaped, appearing like 5 from the divisions of the 2 lateral
ones. Peduncles 1-flowered in the axils of the leaves. Flowers
yellow. Common in dry pastures and a troublesome weed.
3. P. argentea, L. Sitvery Cinqueroin. Stems prostrate or
ascending. and branching, woolly. Leaflets oblong, wedge-shaped,
those of the upper leaves very narrow, with a few large, deepiy cut
teeth, smooth and green above, silvery beneath, with a dense coat of
white wool. Flowers small and somewhat clustered, yellow. Dry
fields and roadsides.
XI. GEUM, L.
Erect perennial herbs. Radical leaves crowded, pinnate,
with a very large terminal leaflet. Flowers and fruit much
as in Potentilla, but the akenes tailed with the remains of the
styles.
1. G. album, Gmelin. Waits Avrns. Stem erect, branching
above, smooth or finely downy, 18-24 in. high. Radical leaves pin-
nate, or the earliest simple and rounded, long-petioled, serrate or
dentate, terminal lobe larger than the lateral lobes; stem-leaves
short-petioled, 2—5-lobed or parted. Flowers on slender peduncles.
Petals white, not longer than the sepals. Styles jointed near the
miiddle, the lower portion persistent and hooked. Ovaries and recep-
tacle hairy, head of fruit globose. Rich woods.*
2. G. virginianum, L. Stem 2-3 ft. high, stout and bristly
hairy. Lower leaves and root-leaves pinnate, varying greatly; upper
leaves mostly of 3 leaflets or 3-parted. Petals white or pale yellow,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 115
small, shorter than the calyx-lobes. Heads of fruit large, on stout,
hairy peduncles ; the receptacle nearly or quite smooth. Borders of
woods and damp thickets.
3. G. rivale, L. Water Avens, Purpte AvEens, CHOCOLATE
Root. Stem 13-2 ft. high, somewhat downy or hairy, simple or
nearly so. Root-leaves lyrate and somewhat pinnate, with the divi-
sions irregular ; stem-leaves few, of 3 leaflets or 3-lobed. Flowers
rather large. Petals purplish-yellow, as long as the brownish-purple
calyx-lobes. Styles long, purplish; stigmas thread-like, feathered
with soft hairs, especially in fruit. Wet meadows.
XO. ROSA, Toum.
Erect, running or climbing prickly shrubs. Leaves pinnate,
leaflets serrate, stipules adnate to the petiole. Calyx-tube
urn-shaped, with a rather narrow mouth. Petals (in single
roses) 5. Stamens many, inserted around the inside of the
mouth of the calyx-tube. Ovaries many, hairy, ripening
into bony akenes, enclosed in the rather fleshy and sometimes
eatable calyx-tube.
1. R. blanda, Ait. Earty Witp Rosz. Stems 1-3 ft. high,
usually without prickles ; stipules broad. Flowers generally large,
corymbed or solitary; sepals after flowering closing over the mouth
of the calyx-tube and persistent. Rocks and rocky shores.
2. R. carolina, L. Swamp Ross. Stems 4-8 ft. high, with
stout and generally recurved prickles. Stipules long and narrow;
leaflets commonly downy beneath, finely serrate. Flowers several in
a corymb, bright rose-color. Sepals spreading and falling off after
flowering. Damp woods and borders of swamps.
8. R. lucida, Ehrh, Dwarr Witp Rose. Stems varying in
height from less than a foot to 6 ft., with stout, somewhat hooked
prickles. Stipules rather broad; leaflets small, thickish and glossy
above, coarsely toothed toward the tip. Flowers corymbed, or soli-
tary, pale rose-color. Sepals spreading and falling off after flower-
ing. Moist.ground and swamps.
4. R. humilis, Marsh. Pasture Rose. Stem erect, branched,
usually armed with stout stipular prickles and with bristles, but
sometimes nearly smooth, 1-3 ft. tall. Leaves mostly of 5 leaflets;
stipules entire; leaflets oblong-lanceolate or oval, shining above,
pale beneath, sharply serrate. Flowers solitary or 2-8 together,
2-3 in. broad, pink. Peduncles and calyx glandular-downy. Calyx-
lobes leaf-like, spreading, finally deciduous. Styles distinct. Fruit
globose, bristly hairy. On dry soil; our most common wild rose. S.*
116 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
5. R. rmubiginosa, L. Swerersrier. Stem erect or curving,
armed with stout recurved prickles. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets, the
latter broadly oval, coarsely serrate, glandular-bristly beneath,
aromatic. Flowers white or pink. Sepals widely spreading,
deciduous. Fruit obovate, slightly bristly. Common in cultiva-
tion and sometimes wild.*
XI. PRUNUS, Tourn.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, with stipules, which are
often small or fall off early. Calyx with a bell-shaped or
urn-shaped tube and 5-lobed spreading limb, falling off after
flowering. Petals 5. Stamens 3-5 times as numerous, or
indefinite, inserted on the throat of the calyx-tube. Pistil 1,
long-styled, with 2 ovules, ripening into a single stone-fruit.
A. Stone oval, compressed ; fruit smooth when ripe. Branches often
spiny. (Plums. )
1, P. americana, Marsh. Wi~tp Prum. A _ small tree, bark
thick and rough, branches spiny. Leaves ovate or obovate, acumi-
nate at the apex, rounded or cordate at the base, sharply serrate,
rather thick, downy beneath; petioles glandular. Flowers in lat-
eral, sessile umbels, appearing with or before the leaves; pedicels
4-£ in. long, flowers 3-3 in. in diameter. Calyx downy within;
fruit globose, red or yellow, 4-1 in. in diameter. Common in
woods.*
2. P. angustifolia, Michx. Cuickasaw Prum. A small tree
with spiny branches. Leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, acute
at the apex, usually obtuse at the base, finely and sharply serrate,
rather thin, smooth. Flowers in lateral, sessile umbels, pedicels
short. Calyx smooth. Fruit yellowish-red, subglobose, skin thin,
stone only slightly compressed. In old fields, S.*
B. Stone deeply furrowed and pitted; fruit downy when ripe.
Branches not spiny. (Peaches and almonds.)
3. P. persica, Sieb. and Zucc. Pracu. A tree with a rounded
top; bark nearly smooth. Leaves lanceolate, taper-pointed, finely
serrate, smooth on both sides; petioles usually bearing 2 or 4
crescent-shaped or cup-shaped glands. Flowers pink, scaly-bracted.
Fruit ovoid, with a seam along one side. Often escaped from culti-
vation.*
C. Stone more or less spherical ; fruit smooth when ripe. Branches
not spiny. (Cherries.)
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 117
4. P. virginiana, L. Cnoxecuerry. A shrub or small tree,
5-20 ft. high. Leaves thin, oval or obovate, pale, pointed, sharply
serrate. Flowers small, white, in short racemes. Fruit bright red,
turning at length to dark crimson, very puckery until fully ripe.
River banks and thickets.
5. P. serotina, Ehrh. Witp Brack Cuerry. Often becoming a
large tree; bark on old trees rough, nearly black. Leaves rather
thick, oval to lanceolate-ovate, acute or taper-pointed at the apex,
finely serrate with calloused teeth, smooth above, downy on the veins
beneath. Racemes terminal, long and spreading. Flowers white.
Fruit globose, about 3 in. in diameter, purplish-black. In rich
woods. Wood much used in cabinet-making.*
6. P. Cerasus, L. Cuerry. Often becoming a large tree.
Leaves oval or ovate, acute or taper-pointed at the apex, rounded at
the base, irregularly serrate-dentate, smooth on both sides, resinous
when young. Flowers in lateral umbels, white; pedicels long and
slender. Fruit globose, red or black. This is the European species
from which most of our cultivated varieties have been developed.*
46. LEGUMINOSZ. Putse Famity.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, usually com-
pound (either pinnately or palmately), with stipules, the leaf-
lets mostly entire. Calyx of 5 sepals, which are more or less
united, often somewhat irregular. Corolla, of 5 petals, often
Fic. 14.—I, Diagram of Flower of Sweet Pea, Lathyrus odoratus. II, Vertical
Section of Flower (magnified). III, Calyx (magnified).
II
Fic. 15.—I, Stamens and Pistil of Sweet Pea (magnified). II, Fruit. III, Part of
Fruit, showing one seed.
118 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
papilionaceous or somewhat regular, in No. XV much reduced.
Stamens diadelphous (Fig. 15), monadelphous, or distinct.
Ovary simple, free from the calyx. Fruit usually a 1-celled
pod (Fig. 15). Seeds one or several, without endosperm.
A.
Flower regular, small. Stamens hypogynous. Leaves twice pinnate.
Petals not united to each other. Stamens 5 or 10. Pod
Desmanthus, I.
smooth.
Corolla gamopetalous, 5-cleft. Stamens 8 orl0. Pod minutely
prickly or rough. Schrankia, II.
B.
Trees. Flowers somewhat or not at all papilionaceous ; sometimes almost
regular. The upper petal inside the others in the bud. Stamens 10
or less, usually not united to each other, borne on the calyx.
Flowers imperfectly papilionaceous. Leaves simple.
Cercis, ITI.
Flowers not papilionaceous. Thornless. Gymnocladus, IV.
Flowers not papilionaceous. Thorny. Gleditschia, V.
Cc.
Herbs or trees. Flowers decidedly papilionaceous. The upper petal
external in bud and enclosing the others. Stamens 10, not united to
each other.
Trees. Cladrastis, VI.
Herbs. Baptisia, VII.
Dz.
Shrubs with a corolla of one petal only. Amorpha, XV.
E.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Flowers decidedly papilionaceous. Stamens
monadelphous or diadelphous (in the latter case usually 9 and 1, as in
Fig. 15).
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 119
1. Stamens with anthers of two forms. Leaves palmately com-
pound.
Herbs. Leaves with many leaflets. Lupinus, VIII.
Trees. Laburnum, IX.
Low shrubs. Cytisus, X.
2. Anthers all alike except in No. 14.
Leaves usually with 3 leaflets. Leaflets with fine teeth,
except in No. 14.
(a) Pod coiled. Medicago, XT.
(2) Pod not coiled. Flowers in racemes. Melilotus, XII.
(c) Pod not coiled. Flowers in heads. Trifolium, XIII.
(d) Leaflets entire. _ Psoralea, XIV.
3. Leaves odd-pinnate, with more than 3 leaflets.
(e) Low woody shrubs. Amorpha, XV.
(f) Tall twining shrubs. Wistaria, XVI.
(g) Trees. Robinia, XVII.
(2) Herbs. Astragalus, XVIII.
4. Leaves pinnate, the midrib prolonged into a tendril.
(4) Leaflets usually many pairs. Style slender, bearded
only at the tip or all round the upper portion. Pod
2-several-seeded. Vicia, XTX.
(j) Leaflets few or several pairs. Style bearded along one
face only. Pod several-seeded. Lathyrus, XX.
(&) Leaflets 1-3 pairs. Style enlarged above, grooved on
the back. Pod several-seeded ; seeds large, globular
or nearly so. Pisum, XXI.
I, DESMANTHUS, Willd.
Shrubs or perennial herbs; stems erect or diffuse, smooth.
Leaves abruptly twice-pinnate ; stipules small.. Flowers in
heads or spikes, on axillary peduncles, the upper perfect, the
lower often staminate or neutral. Calyx 5-toothed. Corolla
of 5 distinct petals or 5-cleft. Stamens 5-10, distinct.
Ovary nearly sessile, flat, several-seeded.*
120 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. D. brachylobus, Benth. Dresmantuaus. Stem erect or ascend-
ing, smooth, 1-4 ft. high. Pinne 6-14 pairs, each with a minute
gland at the base; leaflets 20-30 pairs, small, linear. Heads glo-
bose. Stamens 5. Pods several, on a peduncle 2-3 in. long, curved,
flat, 2-valved, 3-6-seeded. Open, sandy fields.*
Il. SCHRANKIA, Willd.
Perennial ‘herbs ; stems reclining or prostrate, prickly, 2-5
ft. long. Leaves twice-pinnate ; stipules bristly. Flowers
perfect or somewhat moneecious, in axillary peduncled heads.
Calyx minute. Corolla tubular, 5-cleft. Stamens 8-10, dis-
tinct. Pod long, prickly, 1-celled.*
1. S. uncinata, Willd. Sensitive Brier, SensiTIvVE Ross,
SHame Ving. Plant covered with hooked prickles. Leaflets ellip-
tical, with a conspicuous network of veins beneath; leaves closing
gradually after being touched. Flowers rose-colored. Pods nearly
cylindrical, 2 in. long. Dry, sandy soil and rolling prairies, espe-
cially S. and W.
I. CERCIS, L.
Trees. Leaves simple with stipules. Flowers in axillary
clusters, papilionaceous. Calyx bell-shaped, 5-toothed. Sta-
mens 10, distinct. Ovary short-stalked; ovules several.
Fruit a flattened pod.
1. C. canadensis, L. RepBup. A small tree, 10-20 ft. high, wood
hard but weak, bark smooth, dark-colored. Leaves broadly cordate,
abruptly acute, rather thick, very smooth above, often slightly
downy below. Flowers several in a cluster, appearing before the
leaves, pinkish-purple. Pod oblong, compressed, many-seeded. Com-
mon on rich soil, especially S.*
IV. GYMNOCLADUS, Lam.
A large, thornless tree, its twigs few and stout. Leaves
very large, twice pinnately compound, without stipules.
Flowers regular, whitish, dicecious or somewhat monccious,
in racemes at the ends of the branches. Calyx-tube rather
long, its 5 lobes spreading. Petals oblong, all alike, inserted
with the stamens on the throat of the calyx. Stamens of
the fertile flowers usually not pollen-bearing. Pod hard, flat,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 121
partly filled with a sweet substance, slow in opening. Seeds
several, flattish, over } in. in diameter, very hard and shining.
1. G. canadensis, Lam. Kentucky Corres Tren. Tree 50 ft.
or more in height, with rough gray bark. Leaves 2-3 ft. long, the
leaflets vertical. Pods sometimes nearly 1 ft. long. Rich soil and
river bottoms, especially S. and W.
Vv. GLEDITSCHIA, L.
Large trees; bark dark-colored, nearly smooth. Leaves
usually pinnately twice compound ; leaflets serrate. Flowers
somewhat moncecious, in small spike-like racemes. Calyx
spreading, 3-5-cleft. Petals as many as the sepals and
inserted at the summit of the tube. Stamens 5-10, distinct,
inserted with the petals. Ovary nearly sessile, ovoid or
elongated. Fruit a 1 or many seeded, leathery pod.*
1. G. Triacanthos,L. Honry Locust. A large tree, usually armed
with stout, branched thorns, which are sometimes a foot or more in
length. Leaves petioled; leaflets short-stalked, lanceolate-oblong,
base inequilateral, smooth ‘above, often downy below. Racemes soli-
tary or in small clusters, drooping. Flowers inconspicuous, greenish.
Pod linear-oblong, often 12-15 in. long by 1 in. wide, twisted, many-
séeded, smooth and shiny, pulpy within. In rich woods. [The
thorns are plainly modified branches bearing dormant buds, and
often partially developed leaves. The early spring leaves are usually
only once compound, while those of later growth are almost invaria-
bly twice compound. Often a single leaf will show both forms of
compounding. |*
VI. CLADRASTIS, Raf.
A moderate-sized tree with smooth dark gray bark and
yellow wood. Leaves of 7-11 smooth oval or ovate leaflets.
Flowers creamy-white, in long, drooping panicles. Calyx
5-toothed. Standard large, nearly round, reflexed ; petals of
the keel and wings separate and straight. Stamens 10,
unconnected with each other. Pod borne on a short stalk
above the calyx. Seeds 4-6.
1. C. tinctoria, Raf. YrEtLow Woop. Tree 50 ft. or less in
height, much branched, with a round, spreading top. Hillsides, in
fertile soil, south central states. Also considerably planted as a
shade tree.
122 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
VO. BAPTISIA, Vent.
Perennial herbs; stems erect, widely branched. Leaves
simple or palmate, of 3 leaflets. Flowers in racemes. Calyx
4-5-lobed, persistent, the upper lobe usually longer and
notched ; standard rounded, its sides reflexed, wings about
as long as the keel. Stamens 10, distinct. Pod stalked,
long-pointed by the remains of the style. Plants usually
becoming black in ‘drying.*
1. B. tinctoria, R. Br. Wuitp Inpico. Stem smooth, slender,
2-4 ft. high; branches slender. Leaves of 3 leaflets, on short
petioles, the upper nearly sessile ; stipules minute, quickly deciduous.
Leaflets obovate to oblanceolate, obtuse at the apex, wedge-shaped
at the base, entire. Racemes numerous, terminal. Flowers yellow,
4 in. long. Pod globose, ovoid, on a stalk about the length of the
calyx, point long and slender. Plant blackening in drying. Com-
mon on dry, sandy soil.*
2. B. leucophea, Nutt. Low, hairy, and branching. Leaves
‘nearly sessile, leaflets oblanceolate or obovate-spatulate. Stipules tri-
angular-ovate, large, persistent ; bracts large and leaf-like. Racemes
long. Flowers large, yellowish-white. Pod ovoid, swollen. Prairies
and open woods, W. and 8.
3. B. leucantha, Torr. and Gr. Stout, smooth, and covered with
a bloom, 8 ft. or more high, with spreading branches. Petioles
short ; lanceolate stipules and bracts falling off early. Racemes
erect. Flowers large, white. Pods ellipsoidal, 2 in. long, borne on
a stalk twice as long as the calyx. Rich river bottoms and prairies.
4. B. alba, R. Br. Wurre Wrip Inpico. Stem smooth and
with a bloom, often purple, 2-3 ft. high ; branches slender, spreading.
Leaves petioled, with 3 leaflets; stipules minute, soon deciduous.
Flowers white, mostly in a single raceme which is 1-3 ft. long, with
occasionally lateral, few-flowered racemes. Pod linear-oblong, the
point very slender and soon deciduous. Plant unchanged in drying.
In damp soil.*
5. B. australis, R. Br. Brur Farse Inpico. Stem smooth,
stout, 2-4 ft. high. Leaves of 3 leaflets, short-petioled; stipules
lanceolate, persistent, longer than the petioles; leaflets oblong,
wedge-shaped or narrowly obovate, entire. Elowers bright blue,
1 in. long, in terminal, erect, loosely flowered racemes; stalk about
the length of the calyx. Pod oblong, with a slender, persistent
point. Banks of rivers; often cultivated for ornament.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 123
VII. LUPINUS, Tourn.
Biennial or perennial herbs. Leaves simple or palmately
compound. Flowers showy, in terminal racemes. Calyx
2-lipped, 5-toothed. Standard round, with the sides reflexed,
keel scythe-shaped. Stamens monadelphous, anthers alter-
nately oblong and roundish. Ovary sessile; matured pod
oblong, several-seeded, often compressed between the seeds.*
1. L. perennis, L. Perennial; stem erect, downy, 12-18 in. high.
Leaves palmately 7-9 foliate; leaflets obovate or oblanceolate, obtuse
and mucronate at the apex, slightly downy ; petiole slender ; stipules
small. Racemes terminal, slender, loosely many-flowered. Flowers
purple, blue, pink, or white. Pod oblong, densely downy, few-seeded.
Dry, sandy soil.*
IX. LABURNUM, Benth.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves of 3 leaflets, with very small
stipules or none. Flowers golden-yellow, in slender, drooping
racemes. Calyx 2-lipped, the upper lip 2-toothed, the lower
8-toothed. Standard ovate, upright, of the same length as
the straight wings. Stamens diadelphous (9 and 1). Ovary
and pod somewhat stalked above the calyx, several-seeded.
1. L. vulgare, Gris. Lasurnum, GotpEN Carin. A small tree,
with smooth, greenish bark. Leaves with slender petioles ; leaflets.
oblong-ovate, acute at the base, taper-pointed, downy beneath.
Flowers showy, in graceful racemes. Cultivated from Europe.
Xx. CYTISUS, L.
Shrubs, rarely spiny. Leaves of 1-3 leaflets or none ; stip.
ules very small. Calyx 2-lipped, the upper lip slightly
2-toothed, the lower 3-toothed. Keel straight or a little
curved, blunt, turned down after flowering. Stamens with
their filaments all united ; anthers every other one short and
attached by its center, the alternate ones long and fastened
by their bases. Style curved in, or, after the flower opens,
coiled up. Pod flat, long, many-seeded.
1. C. canariensis, Steud. A shrub with-many rather stiff, erect,
slender branches. Leaves abundant, very small, covered with soft
124 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
gray hairs; leaflets 3, obovate. Flowers rather small, yellow, in
somewhat erect racemes. Cultivated in greenhouses. From the
Canary Islands.
XI. MEDICAGO, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs; leaves petioled, of 3 toothed
leaflets. Flowers in terminal and axillary spikes or racemes.
Calyx 5-toothed, the teeth short and slender. Standard
oblong, much longer than the wings or keel. Stamens 10,
diadelphous. Ovary sessile. Pod 1-several-seeded, coiled,
not splitting open, often spiny.*
1. M. sativa, L. Auratra. Perennial; stems erect, branching,
downy when young, becoming smooth with age, 2-3 ft. high.
Leaves short-petioled; leaflets obovate, sharply dentate towards the
apex, obtuse or sometimes notched or mucronate; stipules lanceolate,
entire. Flowers blue, small, in rather close spikes; pods downy,
coiled, few-seeded. Introduced from Europe, and cultivated for hay
and pasture.*
2. M. lupulina, L. Buiacx Mepicx, Nonesucw. An annual or
biennial, much branched, reclining herb, with stems from 6-20 in.
long. Leaves very short-petioled; leaflets obovate, acute, 1-% in.
long, toothed near the tip. Flowers small, yellow, in short spikes.
Pods very small, 1-seeded, kidney-shaped, black. Roadsides and
waste ground, introduced from Europe.
XII. MELILOTUS, Tourn.
Annual or biennial herbs. Leaves petioled, of 3 leaflets.
Flowers small, white or yellow, in dense axillary and terminal
racemes. Calyx 5-toothed, the teeth nearly equal. Standard
erect, wings and keel cohering. Stamens 10, diadelphous.
Pod longer than the calyx, 1~4-seeded.*
1. M. alba, Lam. Metitotus. Biennial; stem erect, branching,
smooth or the young branches slightly downy. Leaflets oblong or
oblanceolate, rounded or truncate at the apex, serrate; stipules small.
Racemes long, slender, erect. Flowers white. Standard longer than
the wings and keel. Pod ovoid, wrinkled, drooping, mostly 1-seeded,
searcely opening. Common as a weed and widely cultivated.*
2. M. officinalis, Willd. Yexrtow Sweet Crover. A stout,
upright, branching herb, 2-4 ft. high, looking much like the preced-
ing species, but coarser. Flowers yellow. Waste ground and road-
sides. Introduced from Europe.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 125
XI. TRIFOLIUM, Tourn.
Annual, biennial, or perennial herbs. Stems more or less
spreading. Leaves petioled, of 3 toothed or serrate leaflets ;
stipules adnate to the petioles. Flowers white, yellow, or
red, in heads. Calyx 5-cleft, the teeth nearly equal and
subulate. Petals withering-persistent, keel shorter than the
wings. Stamens diadelphous. Pod smooth, 1-6-seeded,
scarcely opening.*
1. T. procumbens, L. Low Hor-ctover. Annual; stem slender,
erect, or spreading, downy, 6-10 in. long. Leaves short-petioled ;
leaflets obovate or obcordate, finely dentate, the middle one distinctly
stalked ; stipules lanceovate. Flowers yellow, reflexed in fruit. Pod
1-seeded. Common on clay soil, in waste places.*
2. T. incarnatum, L. Crimson CLover. Annual; stem erect,
somewhat branched, downy, 1-2 ft. high. Lower leaves long-, the
upper short-petioled; leaflets obovate or wedge-shaped, toothed at
the apex. Flowers bright crimson, sessile, in terminal heads which
finally become much elongated. Calyx silky, its lobes long and
plumose. Introduced and cultivated for fodder.
3. T. pratense, L. Rep Crover. Biennial or short-lived peren-
nial ; stems spreading, branching, downy, 1-8 ft. long. Leaves long-
petioled ; stipules large ; leaflets oval to obovate, finely toothed, often
with a dark triangular spot near the center. Flowers red or purple,
in globose heads, erect in fruit. Calyx-teeth bristle-shaped, hairy.
Pod 1-3 seeded. Introduced and widely cultivated.*
4. T. carolinianum, Michx. CaroLina Cuiover. Perennial;
stems spreading or ascending, much-branched, downy, 6-10 in. long.
Leaves short-petioled ; leaflets small, obovate or obcordate, slightly
toothed. Heads small, globose, on long peduncles. Flowers white,
tinged with purple, reflexed in fruit. Pod 4-seeded. Common in
waste places S.*
5. T. repens, L. Wuire Crover. Perennial; stems widely
branching at the base, prostrate and creeping, nearly smooth, 6-12
in. long. Leaves long-petioled; leaflets oval, obovate or obcordate,
minutely toothed. Heads globose, long-peduncled. Flowers white,
reflexed in fruit. Pod 3-4-seeded. Introduced; common about
houses and in pastures.*
6. T. hybridum, L. Axzsrxe Crover. Perennial, considerably
resembling No. 5, but the stems more upright and stouter. Leaflets
varying from broadly ovate to ovate-lanceolate, mucronate or
slightly notched, the margins fringed with hairs; stipules prolonged
into bristle-like points. Flowers rose-color and white, very fragrant.
In fields and along roadsides. Introduced from Europe.
126 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
XIV. PSORALEA, L.
Perennial herbs ; whole plant glandular-dotted. Leaves of
3-5 leaflets ; stipules cohering with the petioles. Flowers in
axillary or terminal spikes or racemes. Calyx 5-cleft, the
lobes nearly equal. Standard ovate or orbicular, keel
incurved, obtuse. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous,
5 of the anthers often undeveloped. Ovary nearly sessile.
Pod included in the calyx, often wrinkled, remaining closed,
1-seeded.*
1. P. melilotoides, Michx. Samson’s SNAKEROOT. Stem erect,
slender, branching above, downy, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves of 3 leaflets ;
petioles shorter than the leaflets; stipules awl-shaped; leaflets
elliptical or oblong-lanceolate, sparingly glandular-dotted, the termi-
nal one stalked. Loosely flowered spikes axillary and terminal, on
peduncles much longer than the leaves. Flowers blue or purple,
about 3 in. long. Pod compressed-globose, wrinkled transversely.
Dry soil *
2. P. tenuiflora, Pursh. Upright, slender, bushy and branching,
2-4 ft. high, covered when young with a fine grayish down. Leaves
palmately compound, with 3-5 linear to obovate-oblong leafiets, cov-
ered with glandular dots. Flowers 1-1 in. long, loosely racemed.
Pod rough with glands. Prairies, W.
3. P. esculenta, Pursh. Pomme BLANCHE, Tresin, Daxota Tur-
ir. Clothed with roughish hairs. Stem 5-15 in. high, ereet and
stout. Root turnip-shaped, starchy, eatable. Leaves palmately
compound, with 5 lance-oblong leaflets. Flowers } in. long, in a
dense ellipsoidal spike. Pod hairy, with a pointed tip. High
prairies or plains, especially N. W.
XV. AMORPHA, L.
Small shrubs, glandular-dotted. Leavesodd-pinnate. Flowers
purple, blue, or white, in slender spikes or racemes. Calyx
5-toothed, persistent. Standard obovate, concave, wings and
keel none. Stamens monadelphous, projecting much. Ovary
sessile. Pod curved, glandular-roughened, 1-2-seeded, never
opening.*
1. A. fruticosa, L. Fase Inpigo. A shrub 6-15 ft. high, with
smooth, dark-brown bark. Leaves petioled; leaflets 15-21, short-
stalked, oblong, obtuse or notched, sparingly punctate with clear
dots. Slender flowering spikes, panicled or solitary, 4-6 in. long.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 127
Flowers blue or purple. Calyx-teeth short, nearly equal, downy.
Pod glandular. River banks.*
XVI. WISTARIA, Nutt.
Tall, twining shrubs. Leaves odd-pinnate. Racemes ter-
minal. Flowers large and showy. Calyx 2-lipped, the upper
lip 2-cleft, short, the lower longer and 3-cleft. Standard
large, round, with 2 calloused ridges at the base, wings
eared at the base, keel scythe-shaped. Pod long, stalked,
leathery, 2-valved, several-seeded.*-
1. W. frutescens, Poir. Wistarra. Stem climbing 30-40 ft.,
often 2-3 in. in diameter at the base; branches and leaves downy
when young, becoming smoother with age. Leaves short-petioled ;
stipules minute; leaflets 9-17, ovate-lanceolate, acute at the apex,
rounded at the base. Racemes large, densely flowered. Calyx
downy. Corolla lilac-purple, one wing with a short and one with a
long appendage at the base. Pod 2-3 in. long, 2-4-seeded. River
banks 8. Often cultivated for ornament.*
2. W. chinensis, DC. Curnese Wistaria. Larger and faster
growing than No.1. Racemes longer and more slender. Wing-
appendages equal. Seldom fruiting inthisregion. Cultivated from
China or Japan.
XVII. ROBINIA, L.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves odd-pinnate ; stipules often spiny.
Flowers showy, in axillary racemes. Calyx short, 5-toothed,
the two upper teeth shorter and partially united. Standard
large, orbicular, reflexed, keel obtuse. Stamens diadelphous.
Style bearded on one side. Pod compressed, several-seeded.*
1. R. Pseudacacia, L. Biacx Locust. A tree of medium size;
bark rough and nearly black; twigs and leaves smooth. Leaflets
9-15, ovate or oblong, obtuse and slightly mucronate at the apex;
stipules forming persistent spines. Racemes loose, pendulous, 3-5 in.
long. Flowers white, fragrant. Pod smooth, 4-8-seeded. Intro-
duced and quite common; wood very durable when exposed to the
weather, and extensively used for posts.*
XVII. ASTRAGALUS, Tourn.
Mostly perennial herbs. Leaves odd-pinnate. Flowers in
spikes or racemes. Calyx 5-toothed. Petals long, erect, with
128 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
claws. Standard narrow. Stamens diadelphous (9 and 1).
Pod usually swollen, sometimes fleshy and eatable, several-
many-seeded.
1. A. caryocarpus, Ker. Grounp Pium, Burrato AprLe. Covered
with pale, close-lying down. Leaflets narrow, oblong. Flowers violet-
purple, in a short, narrow raceme. Fruit looking like a small, green,
pointed plum, about 2 in. in diameter, eatable. N. W., and S. to
Texas.
2. A. mexicanus, A. DC. Prarrig Appre. Smooth or with
some loose hairs. Corolla cream-color, with the tip bluish. Fruit
globular, not pointed, eatable. Prairies, Illinois and S. W.
3. A. canadensis, L. Erect, often tall (1-4 ft. high), more or less
downy. Leaflets oblong, 21-27. Flowers pale greenish, in long
spikes. Pod dry, 2-celled, sessile. River bottoms, prairies,and woods.
XIX. VICIA, Tourn.
Climbing or spreading herbs. Leaves odd-pinnate, usually
ending in a tendril. Leaflets many, entire or toothed at the
tip ; stipules half arrow-shaped. Flowers blue, purple, or yel-
low, in axillary racemes. Calyx-teeth nearly equal. Wings
adnate to the keel. Stamens diadelphous (9 and 1); fila-
ments thread-shaped, anthers all alike. Style bent, smooth or
downy all round or bearded below the stigma; ovules usually
many. Pod flattened, 2-several-seeded. Seeds globular.
1. V. americana, Muhl. Witp Vercu, Burrato Pera. Peren-
nial. Smooth, 1-3 ft. high. Leaflets 10-14, elliptical or ovate-
oblong, obtuse. Peduncles shorter than the leaves, 4-8-flowered.
Flowers bluish-purple, 3 in. long. Common N. and W.
2. V.caroliniana, Walt. Perennial. Smooth or nearly so, 4-6 ft.
high. Leaflets 8-24, narrowly oblong, blunt. Peduncles loosely
flowered. Flowers smaller than in No. 1, whitish or tipped with pale
purple. River banks.
3. V. sativa, L. Common Vetcn. Annual. Stem simple,
smooth or downy, reclining, 1-8 ft. long. Leaves short-petioled ;
leaflets 5-7 pairs, obovate-oblong to linear, obtuse, notched and
mucronate at the apex. Flowers in pairs, nearly sessile in the axils,
pale purple, 3-1 in. long. Pod linear, several-seeded. Introduced
from Europe and common in cultivation.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 129
XX. LATHYRUS, Tourn.
Like Vicia excepting that the leaflets are fewer and the
style is bearded on the side toward the standard.
1. L. venosus, Muhl. Verny Vetcn. Perennial. Stem stout,
prominently angled, climbing or reclining, 2-5 ft. long. Leaves
short-petioled; stipules large, lanceolate; leaflets 5-7 pairs, broadly
ovate-obtuse, mucronate. Peduncles nearly as long as the leaves,
many-flowered. Flowers purple, 2 in. long. Calyx-teeth very
unequal. Pod linear, veined, 4—6-seeded. Shady banks and moist
prairies.*
2. L. maritimus, Bigelow. Bracu Pra. Perennial. Stem stout,
1-2 ft. high. Stipules broadly ovate and heart or halberd shaped,
nearly as large as the 6-12 leaflets, of which the lower pair is the
largest; tendrils pretty Jarge. Flowers large, blue or purple. Sea-
shores and beaches of the Great Lakes.
3. L. palustris, L. Wirtp Pea. Stem frequently winged, slender,
and climbing by delicate tendrils at the ends of the leaves. Stipules
narrow and pointed ; leaflets 4-8, narrowly oblong to linear, acute.
Peduncles bearing 2-6 pretty large, drooping, blue, purple, and
white flowers. Damp thickets and borders of swamps.
4. L. odoratus, L. Sweet Pes. Annual. Stem roughish-
hairy, it and the petioles winged. Leaflets only one pair, oval or ob-
long. Flowers large, 2 or 3 on the long peduncles, sweet-scented,
white, rose-color, purple, or variegated. Cultivated from Europe.
XXI. PISUM, L.
Climbing or prostrate herbs. Style enlarged above, grooved
on the back, soft-hairy down on the inner edge. Leaflets
1-3 pairs. Flowers and fruit much like those of Lathyrus.
1. P. sativum, L. Common Pra. Annual. Smooth and covered
with a bloom. Leaflets usually 2 pairs; tendrils branching; stip-
ules large, ovate, rather heart-shaped at the base. Peduncle severa'-
flowered. Flowers white, bluish, reddish, or variegated. Pods large;
seeds globular or somewhat flattened and wrinkled. There are
many varieties, differing greatly in size, of the plant and of the
fruit. Cultivated from Europe (?).
47. GERANIACEZ. Geranium Fami ty.
Herbs or small shrubs. Leaves simple, usually with glan-
dular hairs which secrete an aromatic oil. Flowers perfect,
130 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
axillary and solitary or clustered, regular or slightly irregular
hypogynous, their parts in fives. Stamens 5 or 10, monadel-
phous at the base. Carpels 5, each 2-ovuled, splitting away
with their long styles when ripe from a central axis and thus
scattering the seeds.
I. GERANIUM, Tourn.
Herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves with stipules, opposite or
alternate, usually cut or lobed. Flowers regular, on 1-2-
flowered axillary peduncles. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens
10, ripening in 2 sets. Ovary 5-lobed, 5-beaked ; stigmas 5.
1. G. maculatum, L. Wi~p CRANESBILL, WILD GERANIUM.
Perennial, with an erect, hairy stem, 12-18 in. high. Leaves about
5-parted, marked with pale blotches, the root-leaves long-petioled.
Flowers large (1 in. or more in diameter), light purple, somewhat
corymbed. Petals entire, twice as long as the calyx, the claw
bearded. Open woods and thickets; common..
2. G. robertianum. Hers Ropert. Annual or biennial. Stems
somewhat hairy, weak and spreading, reddish. Leaves of 5 leaflets,
the latter once or twice pinnately cut, long-petioled. Flowers light
purple, about 4 in. in diameter, streaked with dark and light red.
Claws of petals smooth. Damp woods and ravines E.
Il. PELARGONIUM, L’Her.
Perennial herbs or shrubs. Leaves with stipules, scented.
Flowers much as in the preceding genus, but one of the
sepals hollowed out below into a nectar-bearing tube extend-
ing down the pedicel. The 2 upper petals different in size or
shape from the other 8. Cultivated from the Cape of Good
Hope. [Most of the species are commonly, though not quite
correctly, called “ geraniums.” Only a few of the commonest
are here. described. ]
1. P. peltatum, Ait. Ivy Geranium. Stems somewhat prostrate
and trailing. Leaves somewhat peltate, smooth or nearly so.
Flowers pink or white.
2. P. zonale, Willd. HorszsHozr Geranium. Stem erect,
widely branched, woody below. Leaves alternate, opposite or some-
times in 3’s, round or kidney-shaped, palmately veined, crenate,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 131
downy, usually with a dark zone near the middle. Flowers in a
long peduncled umbel, showy, red or white, often double. Number-
less varieties in cultivation.
3. P. graveolens, Ait. Rose Grranium. Stem erect or ascend-
ing, densely downy, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves alternate, palmately lobed
or divided, the lobes often finely dissected, rolled under at the edges.
Flowers umbelled, small, light purple with darker veins; whole
plant very fragrant. Common in cultivation.
4. P. odoratissimum, Ait. NutTmea Gegranium. Branches
crooked and straggling from a very short, moderately stout main
stem. Leaves small, roundish and scalloped, covered with velvety
down, very fragrant. Flowers white, inconspicuous, on short pedi-
cels, the petals hardly longer than the calyx.
48. OXALIDACEZH. Woop-sorret Famity.
Herbs or woody plants. Leaves compound. Flowers in
fives, perfect, regular, hypogynous. Stamens 10, somewhat
monadelphous at the base. Ovary with several ovules in
each cell. Fruit a capsule. .
OXALIS, L.
Acid herbs. Leaves radical or alternate, with or without
stipules, usually of 3 leaflets, which droop at night. Sepals
5. Petals 5. Stamens 10. Ovary 5-lobed, 5-celled ; styles 5.
1. 0. Acetosella, L. Woop-sorrer. Stemless, from a creeping,
scaly rootstock. Leaves all radical, long-petioled, of 3 inversely
heart-shaped leaflets ; scape slender, 2-5 in. high, 1-flowered. Flowers
nearly 1 in. in diameter, white, veined with red or purple. Cold
woods N.
2. 0. violacea, L. ViotetT Woop-sorret. Perennial from a
bulbous root, stemless. Leaves long-petioled; leaflets inversely
heart-shaped, sometimes slightly downy, often with a dark zone
near the middle. Scapes usually longer than the petioles, umbel-
lately 4-10-flowered; pedicels slender. Flowers violet-purple, nod-
ding. Petals obtuse, 2-3 times as long as the sepals; scapes and
petioles 4-5 in. long. Common in rich woods.*
[The forms with small yellow flowers, hitherto referred to O. cor-
niculata, belong to several nearly related species too difficult for the
beginner. ]
132 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
49. TROPZOLACEZH. Inpran Cress Famity.
Smooth and tender herbaceous plants, with biting juice, often
climbing by the petioles of their simple leaves. Leaves alter-
nate, without stipules. Peduncles axillary, 1-flowered. Sepals
3-5, the upper one with a long, distinct spur. Petals 1-5,
hypogynous, not always all alike. Stamens 6~10, perigynous,
distinct. Ovary 1, 3-cornered, made up of 3-5 1-ovuled
carpels; style 1; stigmas 3-5. Fruit not opening.
TROPAOLUM, L.
Characteristics of the genus those of the family above
given, together with the following :
Petals usually 5, clawed, the 2 upper inserted at the mouth
of the spur and unlike the 3 lower ones. Stamens 8, ripen-
ing unequally, the filaments curved. Fruit 3-celled, 3-seeded.
Cultivated from §. A. for the very showy flowers and the
sharp-flavored fruits, which are often pickled.
1, T. majus,L. Common Nasturtium. Climbing by the petioles
6-8 ft. (there is also a low variety which does not climb). Leaves
roundish but more or less 6-angled, peltate, with the petiole attached
near the middle. Flowers varying from almost white to nearly black,
but commonly crimson, scarlet, or flame-color.
50. LINACEZH. Frax FamMiy.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves usually alternate, simple,
entire, sometimes with stipules. Flowers variously clus-
tered. Sepals 5, distinct or coherent. Petals 5, hypogynous.
Stamens 5, monadelphous below. Pod 8-10-seeded, with
twice as many cells as there are styles.
LINUM, Toum.
Herbs or small shrubs, with tough, fibrous bark. Leaves
sessile. Flowers in corymbs or panicles. Sepals 5, entire.
Petals 5, distinct or coherent below, falling in a few hours
after expanding.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 133
1. L. virginianum, L. Witp Fiax. Stem rather slender, erect
and cylindrical; branches cylindrical. Leaves small, varying from
oblong to lanceolate or spatulate, the lower often opposite. Flowers
small, yellow. Capsules flattened at right angles to the pedicels.
Dry woods and pastures.
2. L. usitatissimum, L. Common Fxiax. Stem erect, with
corymbed branches at the top. Leaves narrowly lanceolate. Flowers
handsome, large, blue. Cultivated for the fiber. From Europe;
introduced here to some extent.
51. RUTACEZ. Rue Famity.
Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, compound, without
stipules, marked with translucent dots. Flowers perfect or
variously imperfect. Sepals and petals 3-5 or none; petals
hypogynous or perigynous when present. Stamens as many
or twice as many as the sepals, inserted on the glandular disk.
Pistils 2-5, often partially united. Fruit a capsule, a key-
fruit, or in the important genus Citrus (orange, lemon, lime,
etc., not here described) a leathery-skinned berry, the outer
part of the skin containing many spherical oil-cavities.*
I. XANTHOXYLUM, L.
Trees or shrubs ; bark, twigs, and petioles usually prickly ;
leaves odd-pinnate, marked with translucent dots. Flowers
in axillary or terminal cymes or umbels, monccious or
dicecious. Sepals and petals 3-5 or none. Stamens 3-5,
hypogynous. Pistils 2-5, distinct. Carpels 2-valved, 1—2-
seeded. Seeds smooth and shining.*
1. X. americanum, Mill. Norruern Pricxiy Asx, TooTHACcHE-
TREE. A prickly shrub, 8-12 ft. high, with aromatic bark. Leaves
pinnately compound; leaflets ovate-oblong. Flowers small and
greenish, in axillary umbels, appearing before the leaves. Petals
4-5. Pistils 3-5, the styles slender. Pods rather globose, somewhat
more than } in. in diameter, roughish, borne on a short stalk above
the receptacle, with a strong scent of lemon and tasting at first
aromatic, then burning. Rocky woods, ravines, and river banks.
134 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Il. PTELEA, L.
Shrubs with smooth and bitter bark. Leaves with 3 leaflets.
Flowers in terminal cymes, somewhat monecious. Sepals
3-6, deciduous, much shorter than the petals. Stamens 4-5,
longer than the petals and alternate with them. Pistillate
flowers producing imperfect stamens. Ovary compressed,
2-celled. Fruit a 2-celled, 2-seeded, broadly winged key.*
1. P. trifoliata, L. Hor-rrer, Warer Asawa. A shrub 4-8 ft.
high. Leaves long-petioled ; leaflets oval or ovate, acute, obscurely
serrate, the lateral ones oblique. Cymes compound. Flowers
greenish. Stamens mostly 4, filaments bearded, key about 1 in. in
diameter; wing notched, strongly netted-veined. Rocky banks; often
cultivated.*
52. POLYGALACEH. PoryGara Fami Ly.
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate or nearly opposite,
without stipules, simple. Flowers irregular. Sepals unequal,
the 2 inner wing-shaped and petal-like. Petals 3-5, hypogy-
nous, the 2 lateral ones often united with the hooded lower
one into a tube, split open at the base behind. Stamens 8,
filaments united into a split sheath, which is usually adnate
to the petals ; anthers usually opening by pores. Ovary
2-celled, 2-ovuled. [A difficult family for the beginner. |
POLYGALA, Tourn.
Herbs or shrubs. Flowers racemed or spiked, some of them
often cleistogamous. Petals adnate below to the stamen-
sheath. Anthers opening by transverse pores.
1. P. paucifolia, Willd. Frinczp PoLyGaLa, Basis’ Toss,
May Wines. A low perennial herb, with branches 3-4 in. high
from a slender, creeping rootstock. Lower leaves scattered, small
and scale-like, the upper ones with petioles, crowded near the tips of
the branches, ovate or nearly so. Flowers of two kinds, the cleis-
togamous whitish, fertile, borne underground along the rootstock, the
terminal flowers large and showy (nearly an inch long), rose-purple,
with a beautiful fringed crest. Woods, especially N. and E.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 135
2. P. Senega, L. Seneca Snaxeroot. A perennial herb, with
several erect stems arising from stout, hard, knotty rootstocks.
Leaves lanceolate, oblong or lance-ovate, sessile. Flowers all alike,
smmall, white, in solitary close spikes. Rocky woods.
53. EUPHORBIACEZ. Sprurce Famity.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, usually with a milky, more or less
acrid and sometimes poisonous juice. Flowers mostly apeta-
lous, moneecious or dicecious (Fig. 16). Ovary usually 3-celled,
with 1 or 2 ovules in each cell; stigmas as many as the
Fic. 16.— Zuphorbia corollata.
A, flower-cluster with involucre, the whole appearing like a single flower; B, a
single staminate flower ; C, immature fertile flower, as seen after the removal of
the sterile flowers ; 7, involucre; s, stigmas.
cells or twice as many. Fruit a 3-lobed capsule. Seeds con-
taining fleshy or oily endosperm (Part I, Fig. 2). Most of
the family are natives of hot regions, many of them of pecu-
liar aspect from their adaptation to life in dry climates.
[The family is too difficult for the beginner in botany to
determine many of its genera and species with certainty, but
a few are described below. ]
186 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I, EUPHORBIA, L.
Herbs or shrubs, with milky juice, often poisonous.
Flowers moncecious, enclosed in a 4—5-lobed involucre, which
is often showy and resembles a calyx or corolla, usually bear-
ing large glands at its notches. Sterile flowers many, borne
inside the involucre at its base (Fig. 16, A), each cousisting only
of a single stamen attached by a joint to a pedicel which
looks like a filament. Fertile flower standing alone at the
center of the involucre (Fig.16, C’) (soon pushed out by the
growth of its pedicel), consisting only of a 3-lobed and
8-celled ovary, 3 2-cleft styles, and 6 stigmas. Pod 3-celled
and 3-seeded.
A. Cultivated shrubs.
1. E. splendens, Bojer. Crown or TuHorns. An extremely
prickly shrub, with many erect, few-leaved branches. Leaves
obovate or obovate-spatulate, mucronate, entire, each with two very
sharp prickles (longer than the petiole) as stipules. Peduncles long,
sticky, each bearing 2—4 objects, which appear to be showy scarlet
flowers, but which are actually 2-bracted involucres containing the
true flowers. Involucral scales somewhat kidney-shaped, mucronate.
Flowering all the year round. Cultivated in greenhouses. From
Mauritius.
B. Herbs with rather showy white flower-clusters.
2. E. corollata, L. FLowrrinc SpurGe. Perennial. Stem
erect, umbellately branched above, smooth or downy, 1-3 ft. high.
Leaves of the stem alternate, those of the branches usually opposite
or whorled, rather thick, oval to narrowly oblong, pale beneath,
usually slightly downy. Flowering branches repeatedly forked ;
involucres terminal and in the forks of the branches, peduncled;
glands 4—5, oblong, green ; appendages white and petal-like, showy.
Capsule erect, seed smooth or faintly pitted. Common in dry, open
woods.
C. Herbs: No. 3 a native species, No. 4 cultivated from Europe or
escaping from gardens. Flower-clusters in umbels not white. Involucre
4 or 5 lobed, each lobe with a gland.
3. E. dictyosperma, Fischer and Mayer. Annual. Stem slender,
8-18 in. high, erect. Stem-leaves oblong-spatulate to obovate, ser-
rate ; floral ones roundish-ovate, somewhat heart-shaped. Flower-
cluster a compound umbel, the rays once or twice 3-forked, then
2-forked. Seeds covered with a network. Prairies and roadsides.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 137
4. E. Cyparissias, L. Cypress Spurce, Cypress, GRAVEYARD
Moss. A perennial, in dense clusters 6-12 in. high from running
rootstocks. Leaves much crowded, all sessile, the stem-leaves linear,
floral ones broadly heart-shaped. Flower-cluster a simple, many-
rayed umbel. Glands crescent-shaped. Cemeteries, roadsides, etc.,
escaped from cultivation; also cultivated in old gardens, From
Europe.
Ul. JATROPHA, L.
Shrubs or herbs. Leaves alternate. Flowers monecious,
staminate and pistillate intermixed in the cymes, apetalous.
Calyx large, white, 5-lobed, corolla-like. Stamens numerous,
usually monadelphous. Ovary usually 3-celled, 3-seeded ;
styles 3, united at the base, several-parted.*
1, J. stimulosa, Michx. Spurce NeTTLe. Perennial herbs armed
with stinging hairs; stems erect, branched, bright green with white
lines, 8-15 in. high. Leaves long-petioled, deeply palmately 3-5-
lobed, the lobes irregularly cut and toothed, often mottled. Sepals
white, spreading. Seeds oblong, smooth, mottled. In dry woods S.*
54. ANACARDIACEH. Sumac Famity.
Trees or shrubs, with resinous, acrid, or milky sap. Leaves
simple, of 3 leaflets or pinnately compound, alternate, with-
out stipules. Flowers perfect or imperfect, small. Calyx
3-5-parted, persistent. Petals 3-5 or wanting. Stamens as
many as the sepals or sometimes twice as many, inserted in
the base of the calyx, distinct. Ovary free, 1-celled, styles
1-3. Fruit a 1-seeded stone-fruit.*
RHUS, L.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves of 3 leaflets or odd-pinnate.
Flowers in spikes or panicles. Calyx mostly 5-parted.
Petals and stamens 5. Pistil 1, sessile ; styles 3, terminal.
Fruit small, smooth or downy.*
1. R. glabra, L. Sumac. A shrub or small tree, sometimes
25-30 ft. high; branches downy. Leaves odd-pinnate, main midrib
downy and wing-margined ; leaflets 9-21, ovate-lanceolate, acute at
the apex, inequilateral, entire or slightly toothed, smooth and green
138 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
above, pale and downy beneath. Panicle often large and spreading ;
flowers somewhat monecious. Fruit red, hairy, acid. Open woods.*
2. R. typhina, L. Stacuorn Sumac. A small tree, 20-40 ft.
high; branches and petioles closely velvety-hairy. Leaves odd-pin-
nate, leaflets 17-27, lanceolate-oblong, taper-pointed at the apex,
very obtuse at the base, sharply serrate, smooth above, pale and
downy beneath. Flowers somewhat monecious, in dense terminal
panicles. Fruit red, with crimson hairs. Dry hillsides N. and E.*
3. R. Toxicodendron, L. Porson Vine, Porson Ivy, Mercury,
Brack Mercury. Stem a woody vine- climbing high by aerial
rootlets, or sometimes short and erect. Leaves petioled, of 3 leaflets,
downy; leaflets ovate or oval, taper-pointed, entire or somewhat
dentate, often angled or lobed. Flowers dicecious, in loose axillary
panicles. Fruit nearly white, smooth. Common in open woods and
along fences. Plant poisonous to the touch.*
4. R. venenata, L. Poison Sumac, Porson DoGwoop. A very
smooth shrub with gray bark, 6-18 ft. high. Leaves large and
glossy, with 7-13 obovate-oblong, entire leaflets. Flower-clusters
loosely-flowered, axillary panicles. Fruit smooth, greenish-yellow.
Swamps and wet openings in woods N. and E. Plant more poison-
ous than the preceding species,
55. AQUIFOLIACEH. Horry Famiry.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, petioled; stip-
ules small or wanting. Flowers small, greenish, clustered
or solitary in the axils, usually dicecious. Calyx 4~9-parted.
Petals 4-9, somewhat united at the base. Stamens inserted
in the tube of the corolla and alternate with its lobes. Ovary
free, 4-9-celled, with a single ovule in each cell. Fruit a
berry-like stone-fruit, 4-9-seeded.*
ILEX, L.
Small trees or shrubs. Leaves usually leathery, often per-
sistent and evergreen; stipules minute. Flowers axillary,
4_9-parted, the fertile often solitary and the staminate clus-
tered. Fruit a stone-fruit with 4-9 nutlets.*
1. I. opaca, Ait. Horry. Trees with smooth, light-colored bark,
and hard, very white wood; young twigs downy. Leaves leathery,
oval or ovate, margin prickly-toothed, dark green and shining
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 139
above, paler and sometimes slightly downy beneath. Peduncles
short, bracted. Flowers 4-parted, staminate flowers in small cymes,
the pistillate usually solitary. Fruit bright red. Damp, sandy soil
E. and S.*
2. I. decidua, Walt. Decipvovus Horry. Small trees; twigs
smooth. Leaves thin, obovate, obtuse or sometimes acute at the
apex, scalloped, smooth, deciduous. Flowers in sessile clusters,
4-6 parted. Fruits very numerous, bright red. On low ground S.*
3. I. verticillata, Gray. Buack ALDER, WINTERBERRY. A much-
branched shrub 6-8 ft. high. Leaves thin, oval or obovate, taper-
pointed, serrate, 1}-2 in. long. Flowers greenish-white, on very
short peduncles. Fruit bright red, 1, 2, or 8 in a leaf-axil, remain-
ing long after the leaves have fallen. Swampy ground and damp
woods and thickets.
56.: CELASTRACEZ. STAFF-TREE FAMILY.
Trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing. Leaves simple, oppo-
site or alternate. Flowers small, in cymes. Calyx small,
4—5-lobed, persistent. Petals 4-6, short. Stamens 4-6,
alternate with the petals and inserted with them on a disk.
Ovary sessile, 3-5-celled ; style entire or 3—5-cleft; ovules 2
in each cell. Seeds usually covered with an appendage (aril)
growing from the hilum.
I. CELASTRUS, L.
A woody, twining shrub. Leaves alternate. Flowers
dicecious or somewhat moneecious, small, greenish, clustered
at the ends of the branches. Pod 3-celled, 3-valved, looking
like an orange-colored berry, which on opening shows the
scarlet arils of the seeds.
1. C. scandens, L. Wax-work, CiimBinc BITTERSWEET.
Climbing 10-15 ft. Leaves ovate-oblong, 2-4 in. long, finely ser-
tate, taper-pointed. In thickets and along fences, also planted for
the showy scarlet seeds, which retain their color for many months.
I. EUVONYMUS, Tourn.
Shrubs with 4-angled branches. Leaves opposite. Flowers
in axillary, peduncled cymes, purplish or greenish, small.
140 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Sepals and petals 4-5, spreading. Stamens as many as the
petals, short. Ovary 3-5-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell.
Seeds enclosed in a red, fleshy pulp.* :
1. E. americanus, L. Strawserry Bus. A shrub 3-8 ft.
high. Leaves short-petioled, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute or
taper-pointed at the apex, finely serrulate, smooth or slightly hairy.
Peduncles axillary, slender, 1-3-flowered. Flowers greenish. Capsule
3-5-angled, warty. In low, shady woods.
2. E. atropurpureus, Jacq. Waunoo. A tree-like shrub 10-15 ft.
high. Leaves oval to ovate, taper-pointed, finely serrulate, minutely
downy petioles 4-3 in. long. Peduncles slender, 3-forked, several-
flowered. Flower purplish; capsule deeply 3—5-lobed, smooth.
River banks.
57. STAPHYLEACEA. BLADDER-NUT FAmILy.
Shrubs. Leaves pinnately compound, with stipules, and
the leaflets with little individual stipules (stipels). Flowers
regular and perfect. Calyx-lobes 5. Petals 5, inserted in or
around a saucer-shaped disk. Stamens 5, alternate with the
petals, perigynous. Ovary 2-3-celled, with the carpels more
or less distinct ; ovules several; styles 2-3, cohering some-
what below. Fruit usually 1-few-seeded.
STAPHYLEA, L.
Calyx deeply 5-parted, the lobes appearing like separate
sepals, erect. Petals spatulate, borne on the rim of the thick
disk. Pod large, papery, 3-celled, finally opening at the top.
Seeds 1-4 in each cell, bony.
1. S. trifolia, L. Amrrican BLappEr-NuT. A shrub 6-12 ft.
high, with smooth, slender, greenish striped, at length gray, branches.
Leaves long-petioled, with 3 ovate, taper-pointed, finely serrate leaf-
lets. Damp thickets.
58. ACERACEZ. Marte Famity.
Trees or shrubs, with abundant, often sugary sap. Leaves
opposite, simple and palmately lobed, or pinnate, without
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 141
stipules. Flowers regular, mostly somewhat moncecious or
dicecious, in axillary and terminal cymes or racemes. Calyx
4-9-parted. Petals as many as the lobes of the calyx or
none. Stamens 4-12, hypogynous. Ovary 2-celled ; styles 2.
Fruit a double key.*
ACER, Tourn.
Characteristics of the genus as above given for the family.
1. A. saccharinum, L. (A. dasycarpum, Ehrh.). Wauirr Mapte,
River Mapce. A tall tree with the main branches slender and
rather erect. Leaves very deeply 5-lobed, with the notches rather
acute, silvery-white, and when young downy on the lower surface,
the divisions narrow, coarsely cut and toothed. Flowers greenish,
in umbel-like clusters, appearing long before the leaves. Petals
absent. Fruit wovlly at first, then smooth, with-diverging wings,
the whole 2—3 in. long. Common on river banks 8. and W., also
planted for a shade-tree, but not safe, as the branches are easily
broken off by the wind.
2. A. rubrum, L. Rep Mapte. A small tree with red or purple
twigs. Leaves simple, broadly ovate, palmately 3-5-lobed or some-
times merely serrate or cut-toothed, taper-pointed at the apex,
rounded or heart-shaped at the base, smooth or downy, becoming
bright red in autumn. Flowers appearing before the leaves on erect,
clustered pedicels. Petals red or yellow, oblong or linear. Fruiting
pedicels elongated, and drooping. Key red, smooth, wings about an
inch long. Swamps and river banks E.*
3. A. saccharum, Marsh (A. saccharinum, Wang.). Sugar Marte.
A large tree. Leaves simple, palmately lobed, truncate or heart-
shaped at the base, lobes sinuate-toothed and acuminate, pale and
slightly downy beneath. Flowers appearing with the leaves, on
clustered drooping pedicels. Calyx bell-shaped, fringed. Petals
none. Keys smooth, wings about 1-1} in. long. In cold woods,
more abundant northward. The sap of this tree is the principal
source of maple sugar, and some forms of the tree produce the
curled maple and bird’s-eye maple used in cabinet-making.*
_4, A. Pseudo-Platanus, L. Sycamore Marte. Easily recognized
by its drooping clusters of rather large green flowers, which appear
with the leaves. Cultivated from Europe.
5. A. platanoides, L. Norway Maprz. A large tree, with
milky sap, which exudes from broken shoots or leafstalks in the
spring. Cultivated from Europe ; a very desirable shade-tree.
6. A. Negundo, L. Box Expser. A small tree. Leaves opposite,
142 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
pinnately 3-5-foliate; leaflets ovate, lobed, toothed or entire, downy
when young. Flowers dicecious, appearing from lateral buds before
or with the leaves; the staminate on long and drooping pedicels,
the pistillate in drooping racemes. Keys smooth, 1-1} in. long.
River banks. Often cultivated as a quick-growing shade-tree.*
59, HIPPOCASTANACEZ. Buckeye Famity.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, long-petioled, palmately
compound. Flowers showy, somewhat moncecious, in termi-
nal panicles. Calyx 5-lobed, oblique. Petals 4-5, unequal.
Stamens 5-8, hypogynous. Pistil 1; ovary 3-celled, 2 ovules
in each cell; style slender. Fruit a 1-3-celled, leathery
capsule, 1-3-seeded. Seeds with a large scar.*
ESCULUS, L.
Characteristics of the genus as above given forthe family.
1. 4. Hippocastanum, L. Horse-cHestnut. A round-topped
tree with frequently forking branches and stumpy twigs. Leaves
very large, with 7 straight-veined leaflets. Flowers large and showy.
Corolla open and spreading, of 5 white petals, spotted with purple
and yellow. Stamens with long, curved filaments. Fruit large, cov-
ered with stout, soft prickles when young. Cultivated from Asia.
2. 2. glabra, Willd. Ouro Bucxeyr. A large tree, not unlike
a horse-chestnut. Leaflets generally 5. Flowers small. Corolla of
4 upright, pale yellow petals. Stamens curved, about twice as long
as the petals. Fruit prickly at first. River banks.
3. #. flava, Ait. Sweet Buckxryr. Varying in size from a
low shrub to a tall tree. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets. Flowers ig a
short, dense panicle. Petals 4, in 2 unlike pairs, bending inward,
blades of the longer pair very small. Fruit not prickly. Woods,
W. and 8.
4. #. Pavia, L. Rep Buckeye. Shrubs; stems erect, branched,
4-8 ft. high. Leaflets usually 5, lanceolate to narrowly oval, taper-
pointed at both ends, finely serrate, smooth or nearly so. Flowers
in dense, erect panicles, bright red. Stamens rather longer than
the petals. Fruit nearly smooth. Common in open woods.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 143
60. BALSAMINACEZ. Batsam Famity.
Tender, fleshy-stemmed, annual herbs. Leaves simple, with-
out stipules. Flowers perfect, irregular. Sepals usually 3,
the largest one with aspur. Petals 3. Stamens 5, distinct
or nearly so. Ovary 5-celled, bursting when ripe into 5
valves.
IMPATIENS, L.
Characteristics of the genus those above given for the
family. Fruit a capsule (very fleshy in our species), which
when ripe bursts open with considerable force, throwing the
seeds about.
1. I. aurea, Muhl. (1. pallida, Nutt.). Wirp Bartsam. Lapy’s-
SLIPPER. Stem 3-5 ft. high, branching. Leaves oblong-ovate, 2-6
in. long, the lower often long-petioled, the upper nearly sessile.
Peduncles axillary, 1-3 in. long, slender, 2-5 flowered. Flowers
pale yellow, slightly dotted with brownish-red. Sac of the large
sepal broader than it is long, ending in a recurved spur about 2 in.
long. Damp, shaded ground, not very common.
2. I. biflora, Walt. (I. fulva, Nutt.). Witp Bazsam, Lapy’s-
SLIPPER, JEWEL WEED, SNAP WEED, Kicxine Cott. Stem 2-4 ft.
high, branching. Leaves rhombic-ovate, 1-4 in. long. Peduncles
about 1 in. long, generally 2-3-flowered. Flowers orange-color, with
many pretty, large, reddish-brown spots. Sac longer than it is broad,
ending in a recurved spur about 3 in. long. Damp, shaded ground,
commoner than No. 1 and usually blossoming earlier.
61. RHAMNACEA. Bucxruorn Famity.
Trees orshrubs. Leaves simple, often 3—-5-nerved ; stipules
small. Flowers small, sometimes imperfect, green or yellow.
Calyx 4-5-lobed. Petals 4, 5, or absent, inserted on a disk at
the throat of the calyx, very small, hooded, usually with
claws. Stamens 4-5, inserted with the petals and opposite
them, often enclosed by the petals; filaments awl-shaped ;
anthers small, versatile. Ovary 3-celled, 3-ovuled.
144 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I, BERCHEMIA, Necker.
Shrubs ; stems twining or erect. Leaves‘alternate, promi-
nently pinnate-veined, stipules minute. Flowers in axillary
or terminal panicles, or rarely solitary. Calyx-tube hemi.
spherical, 5-lobed. Petals 5, sessile, concave, as long as the
calyx. Ovary 2-celled, half-inferior; stigmas 2. Fruit an
oval, 2-seeded stone-fruit.*
1. B. volubilis, DC. SuppLe-sackx, RaTTAN-VINE. Woody, often
twining high; older bark yellowish, twigs purple, wood very tough.
Leaves ovate or oval, acute or obtuse, cuspidate at the apex,
rounded at the base, wavy on the margins, green above, pale beneath.
Flowers in small panicles. Fruit purple. In moist woods and along
streams S.*
I. RHAMNUS, L.
Leaves alternate, deciduous. Flowers in small, axillary
cymes, often imperfect. Petals 4-5 or wanting. Stamens 4
or 5, very short. Stone-fruit, 2-4-seeded.
1. R. lanceolata, Pursh. A tall shrub. Leaves with short peti-
oles, taper-pointed or somewhat obtuse, very variable in size, smooth
or nearly so above, more or less downy beneath, finely serrate.
Flowers 2 or 3 together in the axils, greenish, about 4 in. in diame-
ter, usually dicecious, appearing at the same time as the leaves.
Calyx 4-lobed. Petals 4. Stamens 4. Fruit black, about } in. in
diameter. Hills and river banks.
2. R. caroliniana, Walt. Caroxtina BuckTHorn. A small tree
with black bark and very hard wood ; twigs finely downy. Leaves
alternate, prominently veined, elliptical to broadly oval, entire or
obscurely serrate, smooth or sometimes downy below ; petioles slen-
der, downy. Flowers in axillary, peduncled umbels; petals minute.
Fruit globose, }-} in. in diameter, 3-seeded. Seeds smooth. On
river banks.*
I. CEANOTHUS, L.
Shrubs. Leaves alternate, petioled. Flowers perfect, in
terminal panicles or corymbs formed of little umbel-like clus-
ters. Calyx-tube top-shaped or hemispherical, with a 5-lobed
border. Petals 5, with hoods, on slender claws. Stamens 5,
filaments long and thread-like. Fruit dry, 3-lobed, splitting
when ripe into 3 carpels.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 145
1. C. americanus, L. New Jersey Tra, Rep Root. Shrub,
with many branching stems, 1-3 ft. high, from a deep red root.
Leaves 1-38 in. long, ovate or nearly so, acute or taper-pointed at the
tip, obtuse or somewhat heart-shaped at the base, downy beneath,
serrate, 8-nerved. Flowers small, white.
62. VITACEZ. Vine Famity.
Shrubs, with the stem swollen at the insertion of the peti-
oles and climbing by tendrils borne opposite the leaves.
Leaves alternate, with stipules simple or compound. Flowers
small, greenish, generally in clusters, borne in similar posi-
tions to the tendrils, hypogynous or nearly so. Sepals, petals,
and stamens 4-5. Carpels 2, each 2-ovuled. Calyx very
small, Corolla deciduous, the petals often hooded. Stamens
opposite the petals. A disk inside the calyx bears nectar and
its lobes alternate with the stamens. Fruit a berry.
I. VITIS, Tourn.
Climbing woody vines; stems with tumid joints, climbing
by tendrils opposite some of the leaves. Leaves simple,
palmately veined or lobed; stipules small, soon deciduous.
Flowers mostly somewhat moncecious or diccious. Petals
often united at the apex and not expanding. Stamens in-
serted between the lobes of the disk. Ovary usually 2-celled,
4-ovuled. Fruit juicy, 14-seeded.*
1. V. labrusca, L. Fox Grave. Stems climbing high, often
1 ft. or more in diameter ; bark shreddy, coming off in long strips,
young branches woolly. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, more or less
deeply 3-5-lobed, mucronate-dentate, very woolly when young,
becoming smooth above. Panicles of pistillate flowers compact, of
staminate flowers looser. Fruit about } in. in diameter, dark pur-
ple or sometimes nearly white. In rich woods E.,S.,andSW. Many
of the cultivated varieties, Concord, Niagara, etc., have been devel-
oped from this species.*
2. V. estivalis, Michx. Summer Grape. Stem climbing high ;
bark shreddy. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, 8—5-lobed, the lobes
dentate, notches rounded, white-woolly when young, often nearly
smooth when old; tendrils or panicles opposite 2 out of every 3
146 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
leaves, panicles long and slender. Fruit dark blue, small, very acid.
In rich woods E. and 8.*
3. V. cordifolia, Michx. Frost Grapr, CHICKEN GRAPE,
Leaves rather smooth, thin, and shining, either not lobed or some-
what 3-lobed, heart-shaped, with the notch at the base deep and
acute, taper-pointed, with large, sharp teeth. Flower-clusters large
and loose. Grapes shining black, very sour, not ripening until after
frosts; seeds 1 or 2, rather large. Moist thickets and banks of
streams S.
4. V. rotundifolia, Michx. Muscapine Grape. Stem climbing
high; joints short; bark not shreddy ; wood very hard, often. pro-
ducing long, aerial roots. Leaves orbicular, heart-shaped at the
base, coarsely toothed, nearly or quite smooth. Panicle small.
Grapes few in a cluster, large. The original form of the Scupper-
nong grape S.*
Il. AMPELOPSIS, Michx.
Woody vines, climbing by tendrils and rootlets. Leaves
palmately compound. Flowers in compound cymes, perfect
or somewhat moneecious. Petals 5, distinct, spreading ; disk
none. Stamens 5. Ovary 2-celled, 4-ovuled. Fruit a 1-4-
seeded berry, not edible.*
1. A. quinquefolia, Michx. VireintaA Creeper. Woopsine.
Stem usually climbing high, but sometimes short and prostrate,
often producing many adventitious aerial roots which assist the vine
in holding to a support; tendrils usually terminating in flat, adhesive
disks. Leaves palmately compound, of 5 oval leaflets, coarsely and
unevenly toothed above, usually entire below, smooth or slightly
downy. Cymes large and spreading when mature; pedicels red.
Berries small, dark blue. Common in rich woods.*
2. A. tricuspidata, Sieb. and Zucc. Japanese Ivy, Boston Ivy.
A freely branching, hardy climber. Tendrils numerous, branching
with closely adhesive disks. Leaves occasionally with 3 leaflets, but
usually with only one, which is jointed with the main petiole and
in autumn falls before the petiole; leaflet 3-lobed or only scalloped,
roundish-ovate or heart-shaped, rather thick and shining. Culti-
vated from Japan.
63. TILIACEA. Linpen Famity.
Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs. Leaves alternate, with
stipules. Flowers perfect in cymes, the latter usually in
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 147
corymbs or panicles. Sepals 5. Petals 5 or fewer or wanting.
Stamens many, inserted on a swollen disk. Ovary 2-10-celled,
with 1 or more ovules in each cell. Fruit 1-12-celled, dry or
berry-like.
TILIA, Tourn.
Trees with rough gray bark on the trunk; bark of the twigs
smooth, lead-colored; wood white and soft. Leaves cordate,
usually inequilateral. Cymes axillary or terminal, peduncles
adnate to a large, prominently veined leaf-like bract. Flowers
yellowish-white. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens many, in 5
groups. Ovary 5-celled, with 2 ovules in each cell; stigma
5-lobed. Capsule 1-celled, 1—2-seeded ; peduncle and bract
deciduous with the matured fruit, the bract forming a wing
by which the fruit is often carried to a considerable distance.*
1. T. pubescens, Ait. Basswoop. A tree of medium size; leaves
ovate, acuminate at the apex, obtuse and oblique at the base,
mucronate-serrate, woolly on both sides or smooth above when old ;
flowers fragrant, florai bract 2-3 in. long, usually rounded at the
base. Fruit globose, about } in. in diameter. In rich woods. Bees
gather large quantities of nectar from the flowers.*
2. T. americana, L. Basswoop, WHITEWoop. A large tree,
sometimes 125 ft. high. Leaves larger than in No. 1 (2-5 in. wide),
often unsymmetrical, heart-shaped or truncate at the base, sharply
toothed. Floral bract often narrowed at the base. Fruit somewhat
ovoid, } in. or more in diameter. Common in rich woods; occurs
farther N. than No. 1.
3. T. europea, L. Evurorean Linpen. A good-sized tree.
Leaves roundish, obliquely heart-shaped, abruptly taper-pointed,
finely toothed. Flowers differing from Nos. 1 and 2 in the absence
of petal-like scales at the bases of the stamens. Cultivated from
Europe.
64. MALVACEZ. Mattow Famity.
Herbs or shrubs, with simple, alternate, palmately-veined
leaves, with stipules. Flowers regular. Sepals 5, often
surrounded by an involucre at the base. Petals 5. Stamens
numerous, monadelphous. Pistils several, more or less dis-
tinct. Fruit a several-celled capsule or a collection of 1-seeded
carpels.
148 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I. MALVA, L.
Calyx 5-cleft, with a small, 3-leaved involucre. Petals
obcordate or truncate. Styles many, slender, with stigmas
running down the sides. Carpels many, 1-seeded, arranged
in a circle and separating from each other, but not opening
when ripe.
1. M. rotundifolia, L. Common Matiow, Curgrses (from ap-
pearance of the unripe fruit). A common biennial or perennial
weed, with nearly prostrate stems. Leaves long-petioled, round-
kidney-shaped, with crenate margins. Flowers small, whitish, on
long peduncles.
2. M. sylvestris, L. Hica Maritow. Biennial or perennial.
Stem erect, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves 5-7 lobed. Flowers purplish,
larger than those of the preceding species.
0. ABUTILON, Tourn.
Calyx 5-cleft, the tube often angled. Styles 5-20, with
knobbed stigmas. Carpels as many as the styles, arranged in
a circle, each 1-celled, 3-6-seeded, and opening when ripe by
2 valves.
1. A. striatum, Dicks. TassrL Trez, FLowrerina Marie. A
shrub 5-10 ft. high. Leaves maple-like. Flowers showy, solitary,
nodding on slender peduncles. Corolla not opening widely, orange,
striped with reddish-brown veins. Column of stamens projecting
beyond the corolla like a tassel. Cultivated in hothouses. From
Brazil.
65. HYPERICACEH. Sr. Jonnswort FamIty.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite, often covered
with translucent or dark dots, entire or with glandular teeth,
without stipules. Flowers usually in terminal cymes. Sepals
5, rarely 4. Petals as many as the sepals, hypogynous.
Stamens usually many, more or less grouped in bundles,
anthers versatile. Pod 1-celled, with 2-5 parietal placenta
and the same number of styles. or else 3-7-celled, splitting
along the partitions.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 149
HYPERICUM, L.
Herbs, shrubs, or small trees. Leaves sessile, often dotted.
Flowers yellow, perfect.
1. H. perforatum, L. Common St. Jonnswort. Perennial.
Stem erect, 1-3 ft. high, 2-ridged, much branched. Leaves linear or
oblong, obtuse, with translucent veins and dots. Cymes grouped in
corymbs, many-flowered. Flowers 1 in. in diameter. Sepals acute.
Petals much longer than the sepals, oblique at the tip and irregularly
fringed. A common weed in meadows and pastures E. and N.
2. H. nudicaule, Walt. ORANGE-GRASS, PINE-WEED. Low (4-9 in.
high), slender annual, with erect, angled or almost winged wiry stem
and branches. Leaves minute, awl-shaped scales. Corolla about
4 in. in diameter, usually closing by or before midday. Sandy
banks and roadsides.
66. VIOLACEZ. ViovLet Famity.
Herbs, with simple, alternate leaves, with stipules. Calyx
of 5 persistent sepals. Corolla of 5 petals, somewhat irreg-
ular, one petal with a spur. Stamens 5, short, the filaments
often cohering around the pistil (Fig. 17). Style generally
club-shaped, with a one-sided stigma, with an opening leading
to its interior. Pod 1-celled, splitting into 3 valves, each
bearing a placenta. The seeds are often dispersed by the
splitting of the elastic valves (Fig. 17).
VIOLA, Tourn.
Sepals ear-like at the base. Petals somewhat irregular,
some of them bearded within, thus affording a foothold for
bees, the lowest one with a spur at the base. Stamens not
cohering very much, the two lowermost with spurs which
reach down into the spur of the lowest petal. Many species
bear inconspicuous apetalous flowers later than the showy
ordinary ones and produce most of their seed from these
closed, self-fertilized flowers. (See Part I, Ch. XXVIII.)
s
150 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
§ 1. Stemless perennials.
1. V. pedata, L. Brirp-root VioLet, HorsrsHor VioLet, Sanp
ViotET. Rootstock stout, upright, not scaly. Leaves all palmately
5-9-parted into linear or linear-lanceolate divisions. Flowers showy,
about 1 in. broad, pale violet to whitish; petals not bearded.
2. V. palmata, L. Common Bivug VIOLET. Rootstock stout and
scaly. arlier leaves roundish heart-shaped or kidney-form and cre-
nate, with the sides rolled in at the base when young. The later
ones variously cleft or parted. Flowers dark or light blue, some-
times whitish; the lateral petals bearded.
Variety cucullata, Gray. Common Biur VioLet, Hoop-LEar
VIoLET. Later leaves remaining nearly crenate, like the earlier
ones, in rich soil becoming very luxuriant.
3. V. sagittata, Ait. ARROW-LEAVED VIOLET, SPADE-LEAF VIO-
LET. Leaves very variable, ranging in shape from oblong-heart-
Fig. 17. — Viola tricolor.
A, stamens and pistil; B, pistil with stamens removed ; C, pod split open.
shaped to triangular-halberd-shaped, very often with an arrow-
shaped base, the earlier ones on short, margined petioles, the later
frequently long-petioled. Flowers rather large, otherwise much as
in the preceding species. Variable and perhaps an aggregate of
several distinct species.
4. V. blanda, Willd. Sweet Waite VioLet. Rootstock long,
slender, and creeping. Leaves roundish heart-shaped or kidney-
shaped. Flowers rather small, whitish, sweet-scented, generally
beardless, with the lowermost petal exquisitely veined with dark
purple lines, In damp or marshy ground.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 151
§2. Leafy-stemmed perennials.
5. V. pubescens, Ait. Downy YELLow Vioxet. Soft, downy,
6-12 in. high. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, toothed, with large
stipules. Flowers yellow, with a short spur.
6. V. canadensis, L. Canapa Viorrer. Stems very leafy, smooth,
1 ft. or more high. Leaves heart-shaped, taper-pointed, serrate.
Flowers large and handsome; petals white, or nearly so, inside, the
upper ones usually violet-tinged beneath, lateral petals bearded.
§ 3. Leafy-stemmed, from an annual, biennial, or occasionally short-
lived perennial root; stipules about as large as the leaves.
7. V. tricolor, L. Pansy, Hrart’s-EasE. Stem branching,
angular, hardly erect. Leaves yariable, more or less ovate, crenate.
Flowers large (often more than 1 in. across), flattish, short-spurred,
exceedingly variable in color. Cultivated from Europe.
Variety arvensis. JoHNNY-JuMP-UP, LADyY’s-DELIGHT: persistent. Corolla
wheel-shaped, 5-lobed. Stamens 5, projecting, the filaments
very short, the anthers long and meeting about the style.
Ovary 2-celled; style slender. Fruit a many-seeded, juicy
berry.*
1. S. Dulcamara, L. Bittersweet. Perennial. Stems rather
shrubby, long, and climbing. Leaves heart-shaped, or some of them
with irregular lobes, or ear-like leaflets at the base. Flowers blue
or purple, somewhat cymose. Berries showy, of many shades of
orange and red in the same cluster, according to their maturity.
2. S. nigrum, L. NigutsHapse. Annual; stem smooth, or
downy with simple hairs, erect, diffusely branched; branches witig-
angled, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves ovate, irregularly toothed or entire,
somewhat inequilateral, petioled. Flowers in lateral, peduncled um-
bels, small, white, drooping. Calyx-lobes obtuse; corolla 4—4 in.
wide; filaments downy; berries globose, smooth, black when ripe.
Common in cultivated fields and waste places.*
8. S. carolinense, L. Horse Nettie. Perennial; stem erect,
branched, downy with star-shaped hairs, armed with straight, yellow
prickles, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves ovate-oblong, deeply toothed or lobed,
200 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
acute at the apex, abruptly contracted to the short petiole, prickly
on the veins. Racemes lateral, few-flowered; pedicels recurved in
fruit. Calyx-lobes taper-pointed. Corolla deeply angular-lobed,
blue or white; berry globose, smooth, yellow. A common weed.*
4. S. rostratum, Dunal. Sanp Bur, Burrato Bur. Annual;
the whole plant beset with yellow prickles; stem erect, diffusely
branched, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves broadly oval or ovate in outline,
deeply pinnately lobed or parted, petioled, downy, with star-shaped
hairs. Racemes few-flowered; pedicels erect in fruit. Calyx very
prickly, becoming enlarged and enclosing the fruit. Corolla bright
yellow, 5-emgled, about 1 in. broad. Introduced from the West,
and becoming a troublesome weed in some places.*
5. S. tuberosum, L. IrisH Potato. Annual; stem diffusely
branched, downy, underground branches numerous and tuber-bearing.
Leaves irregularly pinnatifid and divided.’ Flowers in cymose clus-
ters, white or purple, with prominent yellow anthers; pedicels
jointed. Corolla 5-angled, 3-1 in. broad. Fruit a globose, greenish-
yellow, many-seeded berry, about }$ in. indiameter. Cultivated from
Chili.*
Il. LYCOPERSICUM, Tourn.
Annual ; stem diffusely branched. Leaves pinnately divided.
Flowers in raceme-like clusters on peduncles opposite the
leaves. Oalyx 5-many-parted, persistent. Corolla wheel-
shaped, 5—6-parted. Stamens 5-6, inserted in the short tube
of the corolla, filaments short, anthers elongated. Ovary
2-several-celled, style and stigma simple. Fruit a many-
seeded berry.*
1. L. esculentum, Mill. Tomato. Stem diffusely branched, at
length leaning over, furrowed and angled below, sticky-hairy, 3-5
ft. long. Leaves irregularly lobed and pinnatifid, petioled. Calyx-
lobes linear, about as long as the yellow corolla. Fruit (in the wild
state) globose or ovoid, red or yellow, 3-4 in. in diameter, but greatly
enlarged in cultivation. Common in cultivation from tropical
America.*
IV. DATURA, L.
Annual or perennial, strong-scented herbs; stems tall and
branching. Leaves petioled, entire or lobéd. Flowers large, soli-
tary in the forks of the bfanches. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed
or lobed, the upper part deciduous and the lower persistent.
Corolla funnel-form, 5-angled. Stamens 5, inserted in the
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 201
corolla-tube. Ovary 2-celled or imperfectly 4-celled ; style
filiform ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a spiny, 4-valved, many-seeded
capsule.*
1. D. Stramonium, L. Jimson-weep. Annual; stem smooth,
green, stout, forking above, 1-4 ft. high. Leaves ovate to oblong-
ovate, acute at the apex, narrowed at the base, sinuate-toothed,
petioled. Calyx 5-angled. Corolla white, about 4 in. long. Capsule
ovoid, erect, 2 in. long. A common weed; poisonous. Introduced
from Asia.*
2. D. Tatula, L. Taller, with a purple stem. Flowers rather
later than No. 1; corolla violet-tinged.
V. PETUNIA, Juss.
Herbs; leaves alternate and entire. Divisions of the calyx
oblong-spatulate. Corolla showy, spreading funnel-shaped,
not perfectly regular. Stamens 5, somewhat unequal in
length, inserted in the middle of the corolla-tube and not
projecting beyond it. Capsule 2-celled, containing many very
small seeds.
1. P. violacea, Lindl. Common Petunia. Stems rather weak
and reclining. Leaves covered with clammy down. Corolla vary-
ing from pale pink to bright purplish-red, often variegated, with
a broad, inflated tube, which is hardly twice as long as the calyx.
Cultivated annual from South America.
2. P. nyctaginiflora, Juss. Wouits Petunia. Leaves somewhat
petioled. ‘Tube of corolla long and slender. Flowers white. Culti-
vated from South America. This and the preceding species much
mixed by hybridization.
89. SCROPHULARIACEA. Ficwort Famity.
Mostly herbs, with irregular flowers. Calyx free from the
ovary and persistent. Corolla 2-lipped or otherwise more or
less irregular. Stamens usually 2 long and 2 short, or only
2 in all, inserted on the corolla-tube, often 1 or 3 of them
imperfectly developed. FPistil consisting of a 2-celled and
usually many-ovuled ovary, with a single style and an entire
or 2-lobed stigma.
202 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Corolla wheel-shaped, stamens 5. Verbascum, I.
Corolla wheel-shaped or salver-shaped, nearly regular, stamens 2.
Veronica, VI.
Corolla 2-lipped, the mouth closed by a palate, tubular below, a
spur at the base. Linaria, IT.
Corolla 2-lipped, the mouth closed by a palate, tubular below, a
short, broad pouch at the base. Antirrhinum, III.
Corolla decidedly 2-lipped.
Stamens with anthers 2. Gratiola, V.
Stamens 4, with a fifth antherless filament. Pentstemon, IV.
Stamens 4, the anther-cells unequal. Castilleia, VIT.
Stamens 4, the anther-cells equal. Pedicularis, VIII.
I. VERBASCUM, L.
Biennial ; stem tall, erect. Leaves alternate. Flowers in
spikes, racemes or panicles. Calyx deeply 5-cleft. Corolla
wheel-shaped, 5-lobed, the lobes nearly equal. Stamens 5,
unequal, declined, some or all of the filaments bearded.
Style flattened at the apex. Fruit a globose capsule; seeds
roughened.*
1. V. Blattaria, L. Motu Muturin. Stem erect, slender, sim-
ple or sparingly branched, smooth below, downy above, 2-4 ft. high,
Leaves oblong to lanceolate, acute at the apex, obtuse or truncate at
the’ base, dentate to pinnately lobed, the lower petioled, the upper
sessile and clasping. Raceme long and loose, glandular-downy,
pedicels bracted. Corolla white or yellow, marked with brown on
the back, about 1 in. wide. Filaments all bearded with purple
hairs. .Capsule longer than the calyx. Common in fields and waste
places ; introduced from Europe.*
I. LINARIA, Tourn.
Herbs, rarely shrubby. Lower leaves opposite, whorled or
alternate. Flowers in bracted racemes or spikes or axillary
and solitary. Calyx 5-parted. Corolla 2-lipped, the tube
spurred. Stamens 4, with sometimes a rudiment of a fifth.
Stigma notched or 2-lobed. Capsule ovoid or globose; cells
-nearly equal,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 203
1. L. vulgaris, Miller. Butter-anp-raes, JacoB’s Lapp#ER,
Witp Frax. A perennial, erect, smooth herb, with a bloom, stem
1-2 ft. high. Leaves linear or lanceolate, 1-3 in. long, often
whorled. Racemes densely flowered. Sepals shorter than the spur.
Corolla yellow, $-1 in. long; spur parallel to and as long as the
tube ; throat closed by a palate-like fold. Common in dry fields and
pastures and along roadsides; introduced from Europe.
2. L. canadensis, Dumont. Toap-rLax. Biennial; flowering
stems erect, slender, rarely branched, smooth, 1-2 ft. high, sterile
stems prostrate, with opposite or whorled leaves, 2-6 in. long.
Leaves linear, entire, sessile. Racemes erect, slender; pedicels
erect, as long as the calyx. Corolla small, blue and white, the spur
thread-like, curved, longer than the pedicels. Capsule 2-valved, the
valves 3-toothed. On dry or cultivated ground E.
Il. ANTIRRHINUM, Tourn.
Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves entire, rarely lobed,
the lower ones opposite, the upper alternate. Flowers axillary
and solitary or racemed and bracted. Calyx 65-parted.
Corolla 2-lipped. The tube with a sac, the broad bearded
palate closing the throat. Stamens 4. Stigma with 2 short
lobes. Capsule 2-celled, the upper cell opening by 1 pore,
the lower by 2.
1. A. majus, L. Snappracon. Perennial; stem erect, smooth
below, glandular-downy above, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves linear to
oblong-lanceolate, entire, smooth, sometimes fleshy, sessile or short-
petioled. Flowers in a terminal raceme; pedicels short, stout,
erect in fruit. Corolla 13-2 in. long, of many colors. Capsule
oblique, the persistent base of the style bent forward. Common in
gardens, cultivated from Europe, and often escaped.*
IV. PENTSTEMON, Mitchell.
Perennials, the stems branching from the base, unbranched
above. Leaves opposite. Flowers usually showy in a termi-
nal panicle. Calyx of 5 nearly distinct sepals. Corolla
tubular, the tube wide above and narrowed below; 2-lipped.
Stamens 4, 2 long and 2 short, with a fifth antherless filament
as long as the others, its upper half bearded. Capsule ovoid,
acute.
1. P. pubescens, Solander. Stem somewhat sticky-downy, 1-2
ft. high. Leaves varying from oblong to lanceolate, 2-4 in. long,
204 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
usually with small teeth. Flower-cluster narrow. Corolla dingy
violet, purplish, or whitish, the tube not much widened above, its
throat nearly closed by a hairy palate. Sterile filament much
bearded. Dry hillsides or stony ground.
2. P. levigatus, Solander. Stem usually smooth except the
flower-cluster, 2-4 ft. high. leaves shining, those of the stem
ovate-lanceolate or broadly lanceolate, 2-5 in. long, with a somewhat
heart-shaped clasping base. Flower-cluster broader than in No. 1.
Corolla white or oftener purplish, suddenly widened above, the throat
not closed. - Sterile filament slightly bearded toward the top. In
rich soil.
3. P. barbatus, Nutt. Stems slender and rod-like, 3-4 ft. high.
Leaves lanceolate, entire. Flower-cluster long and loosely flowered.
Flowers showy, drooping. Corolla-tube slender, scarlet, somewhat
bearded in the throat. Sterile filament beardless. Cultivated from
Mexico.
V. GRATIOLA, L.
Low herbs growing in wet or damp ground. Leaves oppo-
site, sessile. Flowers axillary and solitary, peduncled. Calyx
5-parted, usually with 2 bractlets at the base. Corolla some-
what 2-lipped. Perfect stamens 2. Stigma enlarged or
2-lipped. Pod 4-valved, many-seeded.
1. G. virginiana, L. Stem cylindrical, 4-10 in. long, branching
from the base. Leaves 3-14 in. long, varying from lance-oblong to
spatulate. Corolla pale yellow, tinged with red. Common in muddy
soil, along brooksides, etc.
VI. VERONICA, Tourn.
Herbs or shrubs. Lower leaves or all the leaves opposite,
rarely whorled. Flowers in axillary or terminal racemes,
rarely solitary. Calyx usually 4-parted. Corolla wheel-
shaped or somewhat bell-shaped; limb usually 4-cleft, spread-
ing, the side lobes commonly narrower. Stamens 2, inserted
on the corolla-tube at the sides of the upper lobe, projecting.
Stigma somewhat knobbed. Capsule generally flattened, often
notched at the apex, 2-celled, few-many-seeded.
1. V. americana, Schweinitz. Brooxiime. A perennial smooth
herb, somewhat prostrate below, but the upper parts of the stem
erect, 8-15 in. high. Leaves 1-2 in, long, lance-ovate or oblong,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 205
serrate, short-petioled. Racemes 2-4 in. long, axillary and opposite.
Corolla wheel-shaped, blue. Capsule swollen, roundish. Muddy
soil about springs and brooks. :
2. V. officinalis, L. Common SprepweLt, Gypsy Weep.
Perennial. Roughish-downy, with the prostrate stems spreading
and rooting. Leaves wedge-oblong or nearly so, obtuse, serrate,
somewhat petioled. Racemes dense, of many pale bluish flowers.
Capsule rather large, inversely heart-shaped. and somewhat trian-
gular. Dry hillsides, open woods and fields.
3. V. serpyllifolia, L. THyme-LEAVED SPEEPWELL. Perennial.
Smooth or nearly so; branching and creeping below, but with nearly
simple ascending shoots, 2-4 in. high. Leaves slightly crenate, the
lowest ones petioled and roundish, those farther up ovate or oblong,
the uppermost ones mere bracts. Raceme loosely flowered. Corolla
nearly white or pale blue, beautifully striped with darker lines; cap-
sule inversely heart-shaped, its width greater than its length. Damp
grassy ground ; a common weed in lawns.
4, V. peregrina, L. Purstane Sprerpwrtit. A homely, rather
fleshy, somewhat erect-branched annual weed, 4-9 in. high. Lowest
leaves petioled, oblong, somewhat toothed, those above them sessile,
the uppermost ones broadly linear and entire. Flowers solitary,
inconspicuous, whitish, barely pediceled, appearing to spring from
the axils of the small floral leaves. Corolla shorter than the calyx.
Roundish, barely notched, many-seeded. Common in damp ground,
in fields and gardens.
Vl. CASTILLEIA, Mutis.
Herbs parasitic on the roots of other plants. Leaves alter-
nate; the floral ones usually colored at the tip and more showy
than the flowers. Flowers yellow or purplish in terminal
leafy spikes. Calyx tubular, flattened, 2-4-cleft. Corolla-tube
included within the calyx; upper lip of the corolla very long,
linear, arched, and enclosing the stamens, 2 of which are long
and 2 short. Ovary many-ovuled.
1. C. coccinea, Sprengel. ScarteT Parnrep Cur, Parnt-BRusH,
InpDIAN Pink, PRAIRIE Fire, WickaKEE. A hairy, simple-stemmed
herb. Annual or biennial. Root-leaves clustered obovate or oblong.
Stem-leaves cut; floral leaves 3-5 cleft and bright scarlet (occasion-
ally yellow) toward the tips, as though dipped in a scarlet dye. Calyx
nearly as long as the pale yellow corolla, 2-cleft. The spikes are
often very broad, making this one of the most conspicuous of our
native flowers. Damp, sandy ground, or on bluffs near streams;
sometimes in marshes.
206 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
VOI. PEDICULARIS, Tourn.
Perennial herbs, with the lower leaves pinnately cut and
the floral ones reduced to bracts. Flowers spiked. Corolla
markedly 2-lipped; the upper lip much flattened laterally and
arched, the lower lip spreading, 3-lobed. Stamens 4, beneath
the upper lip. Capsule 2-celled, tipped with an abrupt point,
several-seeded.
1. P. canadensis, L. Common Lousewort. Hairy, with clus-
tered simple stems, 1 ft. high or less. Leaves petioled, the lower-
most ones pinnately parted, the others somewhat pinnately cut; spike
short, closely flowered and leafy-bracted; calyx split down the front;
corolla greenish-yellow and purplish, with its upper lip hood-like,
curved under, and with 2 awl-like teeth near the end; capsule flat,
broadly sword-shaped. Knolls and openings among thickets.
90. BIGNONIACEZ. Bicnonra FamIty.
Trees or shrubs, often twining or climbing, rarely herbs.
Leaves usually opposite, without stipules. Flowers showy,
irregular. -Corolla tubular, with a widened throat and a
5-lobed limb. Stamens usually 2 long and 2 short, or only 2.
Ovary free from the calyx, 2-celled or rarely i-celled, with
many ovules. Fruit a capsule; seeds large, winged.
I. BIGNONIA, Tourn.
Woody vines. Leaves opposite, compound, usually ten-
dril-bearing. Flowers large, in axillary clusters. Calyx
cup-shaped, truncate, or undulate-toothed. Corolla spreading-
tubular, somewhat 2-lipped, the lobes rounded. Stamens 4,
2 long and 2 short. Capsule linear, flattened parallel with
the partition, the two valves separating from the partition at
maturity. Seeds flat, broadly winged.* |
1. B. capreolata, L. Cross-vine. Stem climbing high, a trans-
verse section of the older stems showing a conspicuous cross formed
by the 4 medullary rays; branches smooth. Leaves evergreen,
petioled ; leaflets 2, ovate, taper-pointed with a blunt apex, heart-
shaped at the base, entire, stalked, upper leaflets transformed into
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 207
branching tendrils. Flowers numerous, short-peduncled. Corolla
2 in. long, reddish-brown without, yellow within. Capsule 6 in.
long, flat, the valves with a prominent central nerve. Seeds broadly
winged on the sides, short-winged on the ends. Common in woods S.*
I. TECOMA, Juss.
Woody vines, climbing by aerial rootlets. Leaves com-
pound, odd-pinnate. Flowers large, in terminal clusters.
Calyx bell-shaped, unequally 5-toothed. Corolla funnel-form,
enlarged above the calyx, 5-lobed, slightly 2-lipped. Stamens
4, 2 long and 2 short. Capsule slender, spindle-shaped,
slightly compressed contrary to the partition, 2-valved, dehis-
cent. Seeds winged.*
1. T. radicans, Juss. Trumpet FLowrer, TruMPET CREEPER.
Stems climbing high by numerous rootlets, bark shreddy. Leaves
deciduous, petioled; leaflets 9-11, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, serrate, .
short-stalked, smooth or slightly downy. Flowers in short, terminal
racemes or corymbs. Calyx tubular, 3 in. long. Corolla 2-3 in. long,
scarlet without, yellow within, the lobes spreading. Capsule 5-6
in. long, curved, often persistent through the winter. Seeds broadly
winged. On borders of fields and in woods S.; often cultivated.*
Il. CATALPA, Scop., Walt.
Small trees. Leaves large, opposite, simple, petioled, decid-
uous. Flowers large and showy, in terminal panicles. Calyx
irregularly 2-lipped. Corolla tubular-bell-shaped, oblique,
5-lobed, 2-lipped. Fertile stamens 2, sterile stamens 3, short.
Fruit a linear, 2-valved, many-seeded capsule. Seeds winged.*
1. C. bignonioides, Walt. CatTatpa. A small tree with thin,
rough, gray bark and light, soft, but exceedingly durable wood.
Leaves long-petioled, heart-shaped, entire or palmately 3-lobed, taper-
pointed at the apex, palmately veined, downy. Branches of the
panicle in threes; flowers large, 1-14 in. long, white, variegated
with yellow and purple. Corolla lobes undulate or crisped. Capsule
very slender, 1 ft. or more in length, pendulous. Seeds with long,
fringed wings. On margins of rivers and swamps S., often
cultivated.*
2. C. speciosa, Warder. Cataxpa. A tall tree with very durable
wood. Leaves large, heart-shaped, taper-pointed. Corolla about
2 in. long, almost white, but slightly spotted ; tube inversely conical ;
208 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
limb somewhat oblique, its lower lobe notched. Pod rather stout.
Rich, damp woods, especially 8. W. ; often cultivated.
91. OROBANCHACEA. Broom-RaPE FAMILY.
Leafless brownish root-parasites. Rootstock often tuberous,
naked or scaly. Stem usually stout, solitary, scaly. Flowers
spiked or racemed. Sepals 4-5, free from the ovary. Corolla
hypogynous, irregular, the tube curved; the limb 2-lipped.
Stamens 4, 2 long and 2 short, inserted on the corolla-tube ;
anthers 2-celled, the cells spurred at the base. Ovary 1-celled,
of 2 carpels, style simple, stigma 2-lobed; ovules many. Cap-
sule 1-celled, 2-valved, few-many-seeded ; seeds very small.
I. CONOPHOLIS, Wallroth.
Stems often clustered, stout, covered with scales which
overlap, the uppermost ones each with an axillary flower,
thus forming a spike. Calyx irregularly 4-5 cleft, split down
the lower side. Corolla swollen below, decidedly 2-lipped, the
upper lip arched. Stamens projecting.
1. C. americana, Wallroth. Squaw-root, CANCER-ROOT. Stems
3-6 in. high, yellowish or yellowish-brown. Flowers numerous, in-
conspicuous. Corolla dirty white or pale brown. In oak woods,
not very common.
I. APHYLLON, Mitchell.
Brownish or whitish plants with naked scapes borne on
scaly, mostly underground stems. Calyx regular, 5-cleft.
Corolla 5-lobed, slightly irregular. Stamens not projecting
from the corolla-tube.
1. Aphyllon uniflorum, Gray. ONE-FLOWERED CANCER-ROOT.
Slightly covered with clammy down. Stems very short-branched,
each with 1-3 1-flowered scapes 3-5 in. high. Calyx-lobes lance-
awl-shaped, half as long as the corolla. Corolla yellowish-white,
veiny, purple-tinged, palate with 2 yellow bearded ridges. Damp
woods.
2. A. fasciculatum, Gray. Stem scaly, upright, 3-4 in. high above
ground and generally longer than the numerous 1-flowered pedun-
cles. Calyx-lobes short, triangular. Parasitic on wild species of
Artemisia, etc., in sandy and loamy soil N. W. and W.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 209
92. LENTIBULARIACEH. Biapperwort FamIty.
Seape-bearing herbs, chiefly aquatic or living in marshes.
Leaves are often thread-like and floating, without stipules.
Flowers irregular. Calyx free from the ovary, persistent.
Corolla hypogynous, 2-lipped, the tube short, spurred at the
base. Stamens 2, opposite the lateral sepals, hypogynous or
inserted on the corolla-tube. Ovary free, 1-celled; style
short, thick, stigma 2-lipped, ovules many. Capsule 2-valved
or bursting irregularly, many-seeded.
UTRICULARIA, L.
Aquatic or terrestrial herbs, often floating and propagated
by buds which break loose from the plant and sink to the
bottom of the pond or stream during the winter. Leaves of
the aquatic species floating, thread-like, furnished with little
bladders in which animalcules are caught. Flowers often
rather showy, solitary, spiked or racemed. Corolla with its
throat nearly closed by the palate. Capsule globose, bursting
sirregularly.
1. U. cornuta, Michx. Hornep BLappERWoRT. Stemless. Leaves
linear and entire or none; air bladders few or none. Scape erect,
stout, 2-5-flowered, 8-12 in. high. Flowers yellow, fragrant, 3 in.
wide. Pedicel as ‘long as the calyx. Lips of the corolla obovate,
unequal, the lower longer, abruptly pointed, the sides reflexed, as
long as the horn-shaped, curved spur, throat bearded. Seeds minutely
pitted. In swamps and muddy places.*
2. U. subulata, L. Smarty BLappERWworT. Scape thread-like,
2-6 in. high. Leaves few and awl-shaped or none; air bladders few
or none. Racemes zigzag, 1-6-flowered ; pedicels much longer than
the calyx. Corolla yellow, } in. wide, the lower lip 3-lobed, longer
than the appressed, conical, green-pointed spur. Wet, sandy soil.*
3. U. inflata, Walt. SwoLLen BLapDERWORT. Perennial; stem
very slender, floating. Leaves finely dissected, the lower ones scat-
tered, the upper ones whorled; the petioles dilated upward and
inflated, air bladders very numerous. are stout, 6-12 in. high,
3-10-flowered. Corolla yellow, about 2 in. wide, upper lip ovate,
slightly lobed, lower lip 3-lobed, twice the length of the curved,
emarginate spur. Fruit nodding. In ponds and still water.*
210 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
4. U. vulgaris, L. Greater BLADDERWORT. Stems submerged,
leafy, 1-3 ft. long. Leaves spreading, pinnately cut into very many
thread-like segments which bear many bladders. Scapes 6-12 in.
long, 5-12-flowered, pedicels bent down after flowering. Corolla 3-3
in. long, yellow, upper lip broad and short, palate prominent; spur
conical, pressed close to the under lip. Ponds and slowly flowing
streams.
93. ACANTHACE2. Acantuus FamiIty.
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves opposite or whorled, without
stipules. Flowers irregular, usually with large bracts. Calyx
of 4 or 5 unequal segments which considerably overlap each
other. Corolla 4-5-parted and usually more or less 2-lipped.
Stamens usually 2 long and 2 short, sometimes only 2. Ovary
free from the calyx. Fruit usually a. capsule. Seeds not
winged. A large family, mostly tropical, with only a few
insignificant wild species in the northern United States.
I. RUELLIA, Plumier.
Perennial herbs; stems swollen at the joints and often
between them, somewhat 4-angled. Leaves sessile or short-
petioled, mostly entire. Flowers axillary, solitary or clustered,
showy, white, blue, or purple. Calyx 2-bracted, 5-parted, the
divisions linear and awl-shaped. Corolla-tube slender, often
much elongated, the limb spreading, nearly equally 5-lobed.
Stamens 4, 2 long and 2 short, included or slightly projecting.
Style slender. Capsule slender, narrowed below, 4—12-seeded.*
1. R. strepens, L. SmootH Ruetzira. Stem erect, slender,
usually simple, smooth or hairy, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves ovate to
oblong, acute at the apex, narrowed below into a short petiole.
Flowers solitary or in small clusters, sessile or short-peduncled.
Calyx-lobes shorter than the tube of the corolla, downy or fringed.
Corolla blue, the tube 1}-2 in. long, the limb 1-14 in. wide. Cap-
sule usually longer than the calyx, smooth, 8-12-seeded. The later
flowers often without a corolla. On rich, dry soil.* :
2. R. ciliosa, Pursh. Harry Ruewiia. Stem erect, rather stout,
often few-branched. above, covered with white hairs, 4-30 in. high.
Leaves oblong to ovate, acute or obtuse at the apex, narrowed and
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 211
mostly sessile at the base, hairy-fringed. Flowers pale blue, solitary
or 2-3 together. Calyx-lobes bristle-shaped, half the length of the
corolla-tube. Tube of the corolla 2 in. long. Capsule shorter than
the calyx, smooth, 8-12-seeded. A very variable species, the flowers
often without a corolla. In dry woods and fields S.*
fl. DIANTHERA, Gronov.
Perennial herbs; stem smooth. Leaves opposite, entire or
toothed. Flowers axillary, solitary or clustered, irregular.
Calyx 5-parted. Corolla 2-lipped, upper lip erect, concave,
entire or notched, the lower prominently veined, spreading,
8-lobed. Stamens 2, inserted in the throat of: the corolla.
Ovary 2-celled, 4-ovuled, style simple, acute. Capsule flat-
tened, narrowed below into a little stalk.*
1. D. americana, L. Water WitLow. Stem erect, slender, 2-3
ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, taper-pointed at the
apex, narrowed below to the sessile or short-petioled base. Flowers
bracted, in short spikes, on peduncles as long as the leaves. Corolla
pale blue or purple, the tube as long as the lips, lower lip wrinkled.
Capsule about the length of the calyx. In water 8.*
94, PLANTAGINACEA. PLantTain Famity.
Annual or perennial scape-bearing herbs. Leaves usually
all radical, with parallel ribs. Flowers small, green, usually
spiked, regular and perfect (Fig. 21). Sepals 4, persistent.
Corolla hypogynous, salver-shaped, thin and dry; lobes 4,
spreading. Stamens 4, usually inserted on the corolla-tube,
filaments thread-like, anthers large and versatile. Ovary free,
usually 2-4-celled; style thread-like. Fruit a 1-4-celled,
1 or more seeded membranous capsule, which splits open
transversely, the top coming off like a lid.
PLANTAGO, L.
Characteristics of the genus as given above for the family.
1. P. major, L. Pxranrain. Perennial, from a very short root-
stock. Leaves ovate to oval, strongly 5-9-ribbed, acute or obtuse at
212 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
the apex, rounded at the base into a long, concave petiole, entire or
toothed, smooth or slightly downy. Scape taller than the leaves,
downy, spike densely flowered; bracts short, ovate. Flowers per-
fect. Stamens 4, projecting. Capsule ovoid, about twice the length
of the calyx. Common in dooryards.*
2. P. lanceolata, L. Rrise@rass. Biennial or perennial; soft-
hairy or nearly smooth. Leaves numerous, lanceolate to elliptical,
acute, long-petioled, strongly 8-5-ribbed, entire
or toothed. Scapes much longer than the leaves,
striate-angled, 1-2 ft. high, spike short and dense.
Bracts and sepals ovate. Corolla smooth. Cap-
sule longer than the calyx, 2-seeded. Introduced;
common in meadows.*
8. P. aristata, Michx. LARGE-BRACTED PLAN-
Tain. Annual. Leaves broadly linear, entire
or sparingly and finely toothed, narrowed below
into a margined petiole, smooth or
silky-downy. Scape longer than the
leaves, 6-10 in. high, spike dense.
Bracts linear, 3-1 in. long. Stamens
4; capsule 2-seeded, longer than the
calyx. Common on dry soil.*
4. P. heterophylla, Nutt. Mawny-
SEEDED PLantTain. Annual.
/ Leaves linear, fleshy, entire, or with
Fic. 21.—Flowers of Plantain a few spreading teeth, smooth or
(Plantago), enlarged. slightly downy. Scapes slender, 3-6
A, earlier stage, pistil mature, sta- jn, high, spike very slender, many-
mens not yet appearing outside flowered, the lower flowers often.
the corolla. B, later stage, pistil scattered. Bracts ovate, longer than
ern the sepals. Stamens 2. Capsule
twice the length of the calyx, many-seeded. Common in cultivated
ground, especially S.*
95. RUBIACEX. Mapper Famity.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite and entire, with
stipules between them, or appearing whorled since the stipules
resemble the leaves. Flowers always perfect, frequently
dimorphous (as in Houstonia, Mitchella, and Bouvardia).
Calyx-tube adnate to the ovary; limb 3-6-toothed. Corolla
regular, inserted on the calyx-tube, as many-lobed as the
calyx. Stamens equal in number to the divisions of the
corolla. Ovary 2 or more celled. A very large and important
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 213
family, of which many of the important species, for instance,
the coffee shrub aud the cinchona tree, are natives of warm or
tropical climates.
I. HOUSTONIA, L.
Annual, biennial, or perennial herbs; stems erect or diffuse.
Leaves entire, stipules often only a line connecting the bases
of opposite leaves. Flowers small, solifary, or clustered.
Calyx 4-toothed, persistent. Corolla wheel-shaped to funnel-
form, 4-lobed. Stamens 4. Ovary 2-celled, style slender,
stigmas 2. Fruit a 2-celled, few-many-seeded capsule, open-
ing at the apex, free from the calyx.*
1. H. cerulea, L. Buvets, Innocence, QuakeR Lapiss, Evye-
BRIGHT. Perennial, from very slender rootstocks; stems tufted,
erect, smooth, forking, 3-6 in. high. Leaves sessile, often hairy-
fringed, the lower spatulate, the upper lanceolate. Flowers solitary,
on slender axillary peduncles. Calyx small. Corolla salver-form,
blue or white, yellow in the throat, smooth, of two forms, the stamens
projecting and the style short in one form, while in the other the
stamens are short and the style projecting. Capsule laterally com-
pressed, 2-lobed, shorter than the calyx. Common on open ground.*
2. H. patens, Ell. Smaty Biuets. Annual. Stem erect, branched
at the base, forking above, smooth, 2-4 in. high. Lower leaves oval
to ovate, petioled, the upper narrower and sessile. Flowers solitary,
on slender, axillary peduncles, blue or white. Calyx small. Lobes
of the corolla about as long as the tube ; stamens and style project-
ing or included. Capsule compressed, as long as the calyx. Com-
mon on dry, open ground.*
3. H. purpurea, L. Large Buiuets. Perennial; stem stout, erect,
simple or branched, smooth or downy, 4-angled, 6-12 in. high.
Leaves ovate to ovate-lanceolate, sessile or short-petioled, 3—5-nerved,
often hairy-fringed on the margins. Flowers in terminal cymes,
purple to nearly white. Corolla funnel-form; the tube longer than
the limb, hairy within. Stamens and style projecting or included.
Capsule compressed-globose, much shorter than the calyx. In dry,
open woods.* :
Var. longifolia, Gray. LoneG-Leavep Biuets. Perennial. Stem
erect, branched, smooth, 4-angled, 8-12 in. high. Leaves sessile,
the lower oblanceolate or spatulate, the upper linear, 1-nerved.
Corymbs terminal, few-flowered. Corolla light purple to white, the
lobes much shorter than the tube. Capsule compressed-globose,
nearly as long as the calyx. In dry, open woods.*
214 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Il. BOUVARDIA, Salisb.
Smooth perennials. Leaves lanceolate, thickish. Calyx
4-lobed, the divisions slender. Corolla with a long and nar-
row or rather trumpet-shaped tube and spreading 4-lobed limb.
Anthers 4, inserted in the throat of the corolla, almost sessile.
Stigmas 2, flat... Capsule globular, 2-celled, many-seeded.
Flowers dimorphous.
1. B. triphylla, Salisb. THreE-LEAVED Bouvarpia. Somewhat
shrubby. Leaves nearly smooth, ovate or oblong-ovate, the lower
ones in threes, the upper ones sometimes in pairs. Corolla scarlet
and slightly downy outside.
2. B. leiantha, Benth. Downy-LEaAvep Bovuvarpia. Leaves
rather downy. Corolla deep scarlet, smooth outside.
Both species cultivated from Mexico; in greenhouses.
Il. MITCHELLA, L.
A pretty trailing evergreen herb. Leaves roundish-ovate,
petioled. Flowers fragrant, white or pinkish, dimorphous,
growing in pairs, joined by their ovaries. Calyx 4-toothed.
Corolla funnel-shaped, with the lobes bearded within. Sta-
mens 4, short. Style 1, stigmas 4, slender. Fruit double,
composed. of the united ovaries, really a stone-fruit containing
8 seed-like bony nutlets, ripening into tasteless scarlet berries
which cling to the plant through the winter.
1. M. repens, L. Partripce Berry, Squaw Vinr, Two-EyYE
Berry. Common in dry woods, especially under evergreen conif-
erous trees.
Iv. GALIUM, L.
Annual or perennial herbs; stems slender, 4-angled. Leaves
appearing whorled. Flowers small, in axillary or terminal
cymes or panicles, perfect or rarely dicecious. Calyx-tube
short, the teeth minute or wanting. Corolla wheel-shaped,
8-4-lobed. Stamens 3-4, short. Ovary 2-celled, styles 2,
short, united below. Fruit 2, united, sometimes fleshy,
1-seeded carpels which do not split open.*
1. G. Aparine, L. Goosrcrass. Annual; stem weak, decum-
bent, sharply 4-angled and with backward pointing prickly hairs,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 215
widely branched, 24 ft. long. Leaves 6-8 in a whorl, oblanceolate,
prickly-hairy on the margins and midrib. Peduneles axillary,
longer than the leaves, 1-3-flowered; flowers white. Fruiting pedi-
cels erect; fruit dry, covered with hooked bristles. In waste
places. ;
2. G. circezans, Michx. Witp Licorics. Perennial; stems
several, erect, smooth or downy, 12-18 in. high. Leaves 4 in a
whorl, oval to ovate, obtuse at the apex, strongly 3-nerved, downy.
Cymes long-peduncled, repeatedly branched. Flowers ne“rly sessile,
greenish-purple; pedicels at length recurved. Fruit with hooked
bristles. In dry, open woods S. Easily recognized by the sweet,
licorice-like taste of the leaves.*
3. G. hispidulum, Michx. Brpstraw. Perennial, from yellow
roots; stems diffusely branched, smooth or slightly roughened,
downy at the joints, erect or decumbent, 1-2 ft. long. Leaves 4 in
a whorl, narrowly oval, acute, rough on the margins and mid-vein.
Peduncles 1-8-flowered ; flowers white. Pedicels becoming reflexed ;
fruit a bluish-black, roughened berry. On dry, sandy soil.*
4. G. triflorum, Michx. Perennial; stems reclining or prostrate,
angles rough-bristly. Leaves mostly in sixes, lance-oblong, mucro-
nate. Flowers usually in threes, on slender peduncles. Woodlands,
especially N.
96. CAPRIFOLIACEZ. Honrysuckie FAMILy.
Mostly shrubs. Leaves opposite, without true stipules.
Flowers often irregular. Calyx-tube adnate to the ovary.
Corolla tubular or wheel-shaped. Stamens usually as many
‘as the corolla-lobes and inserted on the corolla-tube. Fruit a
berry, stone-fruit, or capsule.
I. SAMBUCUS, Tourn.
Shrubs with odd-pinnate leaves. Calyx-limb minute or
wanting. Flowers very many, small, white, in compound
cymes. Corolla with a small, somewhat urn-shaped tube and
a flattish, spreading, 5-cleft limb. Stamens 5. Stigmas 3,
sessile. Fruit a globular, pulpy stone-fruit, 3-seeded, appear-
ing like a berry. e
1. S. canadensis, L. Common Exper. Stems 5-10 ft. high,
with a thin cylinder of wood surrounding abundant white pith.
216 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Leaflets 5-11, oblong, taper-pointed, smooth. Cymes flat and often
very large. Fruit purplish-black, insipid or almost nauseous, but
somewhat used in cookery.
2. S. racemosa, L. Rep-serriep ExLpEer. More woody, with
brown pith. Leaflets fewer, downy beneath, especially when young.
Cymes panicled and somewhat pyramidal. Fruit scarlet.
Il. VIBURNUM, L.
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves simple, entire, dentate or
lobed, with or without stipules. Flowers small, white, in
terminal cymes, the outer flowers of the cyme sometimes
greatly enlarged and sterile. Calyx-tube very small, 5-toothed.
Corolla wheel-shaped or bell-shaped, 5-lobed. Stamens 5, in-
serted in the tube of the corolla. Ovary 1-3-celled, 1-3-
ovuled, but only 1 ovule maturing; style short, 3-lobed. Fruit
a 1-seeded stone-fruit.*
A.
Flowers around the margin of the cyme without stamens or pistils,
large and showy.
1. V. lantanoides, Michx. Hoxsaie-BusnH, WITCH-HOBBLE. A
shrub about 5 ft. high, with the branches reclining and often root-
ing and forming loops (whence the popular names). Leaves very
large, roundish, abruptly taper-pointed, serrate, with a rusty down
on the petioles and veinlets. Cymes very broad and showy. Fruit
red, not eatable.
2. V. Opulus, L. Cranperry Tree, Hicu-push CRANBERRY.
A handsome, upright shrub. Leaves 3—5-ribbed and 3-lobed. Fruit
bright red, juicy, very acid, and used as a substitute for cranberries.
Common N. The form known as * Snowball” with all the flowers
showy and sterile is cultivated from Europe.
B.
Flowers all small and perfect.
3. V. acerifolium, L. Mapie-Leavep Arrowwoop. A slender
shrub 3-6 ft. high. Leaves broadly ovate to heart-shaped, palmately
veined and 3-lobed, serrate or nearly entire, petioled, downy, becom-
ing smooth above. Cymes peduncled, about 7-rayed, 2~3 in. wide;
sterile flowers none. Fruit oval, black, stone flat, 2-ridged on the
edges. In dry, open woods.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 217
4. V. dentatum, L. Arrowwoopv. A shrub 8-15 ft. high.
Leaves broadly ovate to oval, acute at the apex, rounded or heart-
shaped at the base, coarsely dentate, smooth above, hairy in the
axils of the veins beneath, short-petioled. Cymes long-peduncled,
T-rayed, 2-3 in. wide; sterile flowers none. Calyx smooth. Fruit
globose, dark blue, stone compressed, grooved on one side. In rich,
damp soil.*
5. V. nudum, L. Wirtue-rop. A shrub 8-12 ft. high. Leaves
ovate to lanceolate, entire or slightly toothed, acute at both ends,
thick, smooth above, the veins prominent beneath ; petiole short.
Cymes short-peduncled, 5-rayed ; sterile flowers none. Fruit ovoid,
blue. Common in swamps.*
6. V. prunifolium, L. Brack Haw. A small tree, 15-20 ft.
high. Leaves oval to ovate, acute or obtuse at each end, finely and
sharply serrate, smooth and shining above, often slightly downy
beneath; petioles dilated and rusty-downy. Cymes sessile, large,
4-5-rayed; sterile flowers none. Fruit oval, bluish-black, eatable. -
In rich, moist woods.*
III. SYMPHORICARPOS, Dill.
Shrubs. Leaves short-petioled, deciduous. Flowers in
axillary clusters. Calyx-tube globose, 4-5-toothed. Corolla
bell-shaped, 4—5-lobed, sometimes knobbed at the base, smooth
or hairy within. Stamens 4-5. Ovary 4-celled, 2 of the
cells with a single fertile ovule in each, the other cells with
several abortive ovules; style slender, stigma knobbed or
2-lobed. Fruit a 4-celled, 2-seeded berry.*
1. S. racemosus, Michx. SnowBerry. An ornamental shrub,
2-8 ft. high. Flowers in loose terminal racemes, which are often
leafy. Corolla bell-shaped, much bearded inside, pinkish-white.
Stamens and style not projecting. Berries rather large, snow-white,
remaining long on the branches. Rocky banks, often cultivated.
IV. LINNAA, Gronov.
A very small, slender, creeping evergreen shrub; branches
‘inclined, ending in a slender, erect, 2-flowered peduncle.
Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers nodding, on slen-
‘der pedicels, with 2 bractlets. Calyx-tube ovoid ; limb 5-lobed.
Corolla nearly bell-shaped, 5-lobed. Stamens 4, inserted near
the base of the corolla, 2 of them longer than the other 2
218 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Ovary 3-celled; style thread-like, stigma knobbed; ovules
many in 1 cell, solitary in the 2 others. Fruit nearly globose,
1-seeded.
1. L. borealis, L. Twin-rtower. A beautiful, delicate plant.
Corolla pale pink, very fragrant. Moist woods, in. moss, and cold
bogs N.
Vv. TRIOSTEUM, L.
Coarse, hairy, perennial herbs. Leaves large, those of each
pair somewhat joined at the base, so that the stem appears to
rise through them. Calyx-tube ovoid; divisions of the limb
leaf-like, lance-linear, persistent. Corolla knobbed at the base,
nearly equally 5-lobed. Ovary usually 3-celled, ripening into
a stone-fruit with 3 nutlets.
1. T. perfoliatum, L. TinKER-wEED, WILD CorFresr, FEVER-
worT, Horse-GENTIAN. Stem unbranched, soft-hairy, 2-4 ft. high.
Leaves spatulate-ovate, abruptly narrowed at the base, 4-7 in. long
and 2-4 in. wide, bordered with a fringe of hairs. Flowers dark
brownish-purple. Corolla about 1 in. long, sticky-downy. Fruit
ellipsoidal, orange-colored when ripe. Common along fence-rows
and in rocky woods.
VI. LONICERA, L.
Shrubs or woody vines. Leaves simple, usually entire,
those of a pair often appearing as if joined together at the
base, so that the stem seems to rise through them. Calyx-
tube ovoid, 5-toothed. Corolla tubular to bell-shaped, often
knobbed at the base or 2-lipped. Stamens 5. Ovary 2-8-
celled, ovules several in each cell; style slender, stigma
knobbed. Fruit a 1-3-celled, 1-few-seeded berry.*
A.
Stems twining.
1. L. Sullivantii, Gray. YrLLow Honeysuckite. Stem some-
what twining. Leaves oval to obovate, obtuse, entire, green above,
with a bloom beneath, the lower short-petioled, the upper sessile or
joined at the base. Flowers in crowded, terminal whorls, bright
yellow, fragrant. Corolla-tube slender, 1-14 in. long, bilabiate,-
4.lobed, pubescent within. Stamens and style projecting. On river
banks and hillsides; often cultivated.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 219
2, L. sempervirens, L. Corat Honrysuckir, Trumpet Honey-
SUCKLE. Stem twining high. Leaves evergreen (in the South),
oval to oblong, obtuse. entire, smooth above, pale and often downy
beneath, the lower petioled, the upper pair nearly semi-orbicular and
joined at the base. Flowering spikes terminal, bearing several
whorls. Corolla about 2 in. long, slender, smooth, the limb short,
nearly equally 5-lobed, scarlet without, bright yellow within. Sta-
mens slightly projecting; fruit red. On low ground; often culti-
vated.*
3. L. japonica, Thunb. Jaran Honrysuckir. Stem twining
high; young branches downy. Leaves ovate to oblong, entire,
smooth above, pale and downy beneath, all short-petioled ; peduncles
axillary, 2-bracted, 2-flowered; flowers white or pink, fading to yel-
low, 2-lipped, the lips nearly as long as the downy tube. Stamens
and style projecting. Fruit black. Introduced from Japan; com-
mon in cultivation.*
4, L. Caprifolium, L. Evropran Honeysuckxite. A moder-
ately high-climbing shrub. Leaves smooth and deciduous, several
of the upper pairs united at their bases to form a flattish disk or
somewhat cup-shaped leaf. Flowers in a single terminal whorl, very
sweet-scented. Corolla whitish, red, or yellow, 2-lipped, with the
lips recurved. Cultivated from Europe.
B.
More or less upright bushes, not climbing.
5. L. tatarica, L. TartarraN Honeysuckis. A_ branching
shrub, 5-8 ft. high. Leaves oval or ovate, heart-shaped, shining.
‘Flowers many, showy, rose-colored. Fruit consisting of 2 red
berries; somewhat united below at maturity. Cultivated from
Asia.
6. L. ciliata, Muhl. Earty Fry Honeysuckte. A straggling
bush, 3-5 ft. high. Leaves ovate or oval, slightly heart-shaped, thin,
at first downy beneath. Flowers straw-yellow, on short, slender
peduncles. Corolla-lobes nearly equal; tube pouched at the base.
Fruit, 2 separate red berries. —
VII. DIERVILLA, Tourn.
Low, upright shrubs. Leaves taper-pointed, serrate. Flowers
in loose terminal or axillary clusters or cymes. Calyx with
a limb of 5 linear divisions. Corolla funnel-shaped, almost
regularly 5-lobed. Stamens 5. Ovary slender, 2-celled, ripen-
ing into a 2-valved, many-seeded pod.
220 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. D. trifida, Moench. Common Busn Honrysuckie. Bushy,
1-4 ft. high. Leaves ovate or oblong-ovate, petioled. Peduncles
. 1-8-flowered. Pods tapering to a slender point. Rocks, espe-
. cially N:
2. D. japonica, Thunb. Wererna. A stout, branching shrub,
3-6 ft. high. Leaves broadly oval, acute at the apex, rounded at
the base, coarsely serrate, rough above, downy beneath, short-peti-
oled. Flowers spreading, funnel-form, rose-color, 1-1} in. long.
Calyx-lobes deciduous. Corolla downy without, the lobes spreading.
Capsule oblong or spindle-shaped. Seeds with netted wings. Intro-
duced from Japan ; common in cultivation.*
97. VALERIANACEA. Vaverian Famity.
Herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves opposite, without stipules.
Flowers small, usually irregular, in forking cymes. Calyx-
tube adnate to the ovary. Corolla funnel-shaped, the base
often with a sac or spur. Stamens 1-3 or 5, inserted at the
base of the corolla-tube; filaments slender, anthers versatile.
Ovary cells 3, two of them not ovule-bearing, the third with a
single ovule hanging from the top; style thread-like, stigma
blunt or 2-8-lobed. Fruit small, not splitting open.
I. VALERIANA, L.
Perennial, rarely annual, herbs. Root-leaves crowded;
stem-leaves opposite or whorled, entire or pinnately cut.
Flowers in corymbed, headed, or panicled cymes. -Limb of
the calyx consisting of several plumy bristles. Lobes of
the corolla 5 or rarely 3-4, unequal. Stamens 3. Stigma
knobbed. Fruit flattened, ribbed, 1-celled, 1-seeded.
1. V. edulis, Nutt. An upright, straight-stemmed plant, 1-4 ft.
high. Leaves all thickish and closely fringed with short hairs;
root-leaves linear-spatulate or lanceolate-spatulate, entire; stem-leaves
pinnately parted, the 3-7 divisions long and narrow. Flowers almost
dicecious, in a long, interrupted panicle. Corolla whitish. Root long
and stout, eaten by Indians. Low ground and wet prairies, especially
N. W.
2. V. officinalis, L. Garpgen VALERIAN. Plant smooth or hairy
below, strong-smelling. Rootstock short, eaves all pinnate ; root-
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 221
leaves long-petioled, soon withering; stem-leaves 2-5 in. long,
sessile, the leaflets lanceolate, entire or serrate. Corolla pale
pink. Rootstocks strong-scented, used in medicine. Cultivated
from Europe.
I. VALERIANELLA, Tourn.
Annual herbs; stem forking regularly. Leaves opposite,
entire or dentate. Flowers in crowded, terminal, bracted
cymes. Calyx-limb toothed or wanting. Corolla white or
purplish, funnel-form, 5-lobed. Stamens 3. Style 3-lobed.
Fruit 3-celled, 1-seeded.*
1. V. olitoria, Poll, Lams Lretrucr. Stem erect, smooth, or
downy at the nodes, many times forked, 9-12 in. high. Basal leaves
tufted, spatulate to obovate, entire, the upper lanceolate, dentate,
sessile. Cymes short-peduncled, bracts linear. Flowers pale blue.
Fruit compressed, oblique. On rich soil in waste places.*
2. V. radiata, Dufr. Corn Satap. Stem erect, smooth above,
downy below, 2-4 times forked, 8-12 in. high. Lower leaves spatu-
late, entire, the upper lanceolate, clasping at the base, dentate.
Cymes compact; bracts lanceolate. Flowers white. Fruit ovoid,
downy, furrowed. On damp soil.*
98. CUCURBITACEZ. Gourp Famiry.
Somewhat succulent, tendril-bearing, prostrate or climbing,
herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate, with stipules. Flowers
dicecious or moneecious, often gamopetalous. Calyx-tube ad-
nate to the ovary; calyx-liumb (if present) 5-lobed. Corolla.
usually 5-lobed and with its tube more or less united with the
calyx-tube. Stamens perigynous or borne upon the corolla,
the anthers usually joined in long, serpentine ridges. Ovary
8-celled; stigmas 2 or’ 3. Fruit generally a pepo (like the
melon, squash, and pumpkin), but sometimes dry. Seeds
commonly large and flat. A large family, mostly of tropical
plants, many with eatable fruit, but some species poisonous.
222 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
I. CUCURBITA, L.
Annual or perennial herbs; stem trailing or climbing, 2-20
ft. long. Leaves angular-lobed; tendrils branching. Flowers
moneecious, solitary or in small clusters. Calyx 5-toothed, the
limb deciduous. Corolla bell-shaped, 5-lobed. Staminate flowers
with 3'stamens and no pistil; pistillate flowers with 1 pistil
and 3 imperfect stamens. Style short; stigmas 3-5, each
2-lobed. Fruit 1-celled, with numerous seeds on the 3 parietal
placente.*
1. C. Melopepo, L. Summer Squasu. Stem rough-hairy, angled,
2-5 ft. long. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, angularly 3-5-lobed,
rough. Flowers yellow, short-peduncled. Fruit roundish, longitudi-
nally compressed, the margin smooth, wavy, or tubercular. Common
in cultivation.* :
2. C. verrucosa, L. Crooxneck Squasu. Stem .rough-hairy,
angled and striate, 5-10 ft. long. Leaves cordate, deeply 5-lobed,
very rough, long-petioled. Flowers light yellow, long-peduncled.
Fruit clavate, the base often slender and curved, smooth or tubercu-
late, very variable. Common in cultivation.*
II. CUCUMIS, L.
Annual herbs; stems trailing, usually shorter and more
slender than in the preceding genus. Tendrils not forked.
Leaves varying from entire or nearly so to deeply cut. Sterile
flowers in clusters, fertile ones solitary in the leaf-axils.
Corolla of 5 acute petals, which are but little joined at the
base. Stamens not evidently united. Style short; stigmas 3,
each 2-lobed. Fruit rather long. Seeds not large, lance-
oblong, not margined.
1. C. sativus, L. CucumBer. Leaves somewhat lobed, the
middle lobe largest. Fruit more or less eovered when young with
rather brittle, blackish prickles, which fall off as it ripens. Culti-
vated from 8. Asia. [Other varieties of the genus Cucumis are the
muskmelon, cantaloupe, and nutmeg melon. Other commonly
cultivated genera are Citrullus, the watermelon, and Lagenaria, the
bottle-gourd. Two wild genera, Echinocystis, the wild cucumber,
and Sicyos, the star cucumber, which blossom through the summer
and autumn, are common in the Northern States and the Middle
‘West. ]
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 223
99, CAMPANULACEZ. CampanuLa FamIy.
Herbs, with milky juice. Leaves alternate, without stipules.
Flowers regular, not clustered. Calyx 5-lobed, adnate to the
ovary. Corolla regular, bell-shaped, 5-lobed. Stamens 5,
usually free from the corolla and not coherent. Style 1,
usually hairy above; stigmas 2 or more. Fruit a capsule,
2-or more celled, many-seeded.
I. CAMPANULA, Tourn.
Annual, biennial, or perennial herbs. Fiowers solitary,
racemed or spiked, regular, blue or white. Calyx 5-lobed
or parted. Corolla wheel-shaped to bell-shaped, 5-lobed.
Stamens 5, free from the corolla, distinct, filaments dilated
at the base. Ovary 3—5-celled, many-ovuled; style 3-parted.
Capsule short, bearing the persistent calyx-lobes at its apex,
many-seeded, splitting open on the sides.*
1. C. rotundifolia, L. Harrsexy. A slender, smooth, branching
perennial, 5-12 in. high. Root-leaves broadly ovate-heart-shaped,
generally somewhat crenate, soon withering. Stem-leaves varying
from linear to narrowly lanceolate, entire. Pedicels slender, flowers
solitary or somewhat racemed, the buds erect but the fully opened
flower drooping. Calyx.teeth erect, awl-shaped. Corolla bell-shaped,
4-1 in. long, its lobes short and recurved. Rocky hillsides, espe-
cially N.
2. C. aparinoides, Pursh. Marsn Breri-rtrower. Stem angular,
unbranched, slender, weak and leaning on the grass among which it
usually grows, the angles clothed with minute, backward-pointing
prickles. Leaves lance-linear, nearly entire. Flowers terminal,
about 4 in. long, white. Corolla bell-shaped. Wet meadows, in tall
grass.
t. SPECULARIA, Heister.
Annual; stems slender, angled. Leaves entire or toothed.
Flowers axillary, regular, solitary or in small clusters, sessile,
bracted. Calyx-tube slender, 3-5-parted. Corolla wheel-
shaped, 5-lobed. Stamens with the filaments flattened and
shorter than the anthers. Ovary 3-celled, many-ovuled ;
stigmas 3. Fruit a prismatic, 3-celled, many-seeded capsule.*
224 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
1. S. perfoliata, A. DC. Sprcutaria. Stem erect, simple or
branched from the base, angles roughened, 10-20 in. high. Leaves
ovate to lanceolate, acute at the apex, sessile, crenate or entire, the
upper bract-like. Flowers solitary or in pairs. Corolla blue, often
wanting. Capsule cylindrical, smaller above. In waste places.*
100. COMPOSITZ2. Composite Famity.
Flowers in a dense head, on a common receptacle, sur-
rounded by an involucre composed of many bracts (Fig. 22),
Fia. 22,— Flower-cluster of Bachelor’s Button (Centawrea Cyanus).
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 225
with usually 5 stamens inserted on the corolla, the anthers
united into a tube which surrounds the style (Fig. 23, V).
Calyx with its tube adnate to the ovary, the limb sometimes
wanting, when present taking the form of scales, bristles, etc.,
known as pappus (Fig. 24, II, III). Corolla either strap-
shaped (Fig. 25, r) or tubular (Fig. 23, V), in the former case
I Il Ul
Fia. 23. —Bachelor’s Button.
I, vertical section of the receptacle; II, style and forked stigma (magnified) ;
IH, corolla, united anthers and stigma (magnified) ; 1V, pistil (magnified) ;
pap, pappus; ak,akene; V, tubular flower cut vertically (magnified), showing
anther-tube, traversed by the style ; /, lobe of corolla.
often 5-toothed, in the latter usually 5-lobed. Style 2-cleft
above. Fruit an akene, often provided with means of trans-
portation (Part II, Ch. XXIX). The largest family of
flowering plants and among the most specialized for insect
pollination. The genera of the northern United States are
divided into two suborders: I. Tusutirior#, corolla of the
perfect flowers tubular and 5-lobed ; IJ. Ligur1rLoRr2, corollas
all strap-shaped and flowers all perfect.
226 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Ill
Fic. 24,—Bachelor’s Button.
I, a tubular flower (magnified); anth, the united anthers ; I, fruit (magnified) ;
III, fruit, vertical section (magnified); IV, a neutral ray-flower ;1 V, ring
of anthers.
Fic. 25.— Flower-cluster of Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium), enlarged.
A, head seen from above ; B, longitudinal section ; re, receptacle ; ch, chaff ;
i, involucre; r, ray-flowers ; d, disk-flowers ; c, corolla; s, stigma.
1 This is not precisely homologous with the ray-flowers of Helianthus and most
rayed Compositz, but is an enlarged and conspicuous tubular flower.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 227
I. TUBULIFLORZ.
Aj}
Corollas some or all of them tubular.
Rays white, pink, or purplish.
Rays many; akenes flat; pappus wanting; low herbs. Bellis, I.
Rays many; akenes cylindrical or winged, grooved; pappus
wanting ; tall herbs or shrubby. Chrysanthemum, VIII.
Rays many; akenes flat; pappus of an outer row of minute
scales and an inner row of delicate bristles. Erigeron, II.
Rays many; akenes cylindrical or ribbed; pappus wanting ;
strong-scented branching herbs. Anthemis, VI.
Rays few. Achillea, VII.
Rays yellow.
Disk purplish-brown. Rudbeckia, IV.
Disk yellow.
Involucre of 2 rows of bracts, the outer rather leaf-like.
Coreopsis, ITT.
Involucre of reflexed scales; pappus of 5-8 scales.
Helenium, V.
Involucre of erect scales ; pappus of abundant soft hairs.
: Senecio, IX.
Rays none, but the marginal flowers sterile and their tubular
corollas partly flattened like rays (Fig. 24). Centaurea, X.
Rays none and marginal flowers like the others; scales of the
involucre overlapping in many rows, prickly-pointed.
Cirsium, XI.
B.
Coroillas all strap-shaped.
Corollas blue (rarely pinkish); akenes not beaked.
Cichorium, XIII.
Corollas blue; akenes beaked. Lactuca, XVIII.
1 The characters in this key are not necessarily true of all species in the genera
referred to, but only of those described below.
228 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Corollas yellow.
Akenes truncate; pappus double, of chaff and bristles.
Krigia, XII.
Akenes columnar; pappus of tawny, rough bristles ; stem
scape-like. Hieracium, XIV.
Akenes spindle-shaped, not beaked; pappus of plumed
bristles. Leontodon, XV.
Akenes ovoid to spindle-shaped, long-beaked; pappus white,
soft, and abundant. Taraxacum, XVI.
Akenes nearly as in XVI; pappus tawny.
Pyrrhopappus, XVII.
Akenes flattened, beaked ; pappus soft, white, the hairs soon
falling off separately ; leafy-stemmed herbs.
Lactuca, XVITI.
Akenes flattened, not beaked ; pappus abundant, soft, white ;
leafy-stemmed, spiny-leaved herbs. Sonchus, XTX.
I. BELLIS, L.
Small herbs. Leaves usually all radical, petioled. Heads
solitary, disk yellow, ray-flowers white or pink; involucre
bell-shaped, bracts in 1 or 2 rows, green; receptacle conical.
Ray-flowers many, in a single row, pistillate. Disk-flowers
tubular, perfect, 4-5-toothed; forks of the style short, thick,
tipped by roughened cones. Fruit flattened, obovate; pappus
wanting.
1. B. integrifolia, Michx. AmErican Daisy. A branching annual
or biennial herb, 4-12 in. high. Upper leaves lanceolate or oblong,
the lower ones obovate-spatulate. Heads borne on slender peduncles;
rays violet-purple. Prairies, especially S.W.
2. B. perennis, L. Enezuisa Daisy, Scorcu Daisy. A stem-
less perennial. Leaves obovate-spatulate, smooth or hairy. Heads
3-1 in. in diameter, very pretty, the rays delicate. Cultivated
from Europe.
Il. ERIGERON, L.
Herbs. Leaves usually sessile. Heads many-flowered, flat
or nearly hemispherical, the rays numerous, narrow, pistillate.
Scales of the involucre narrow and overlapping but little.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 229
Akenes flattish, crowned with a single row of hair-like bristles,
or sometimes with shorter bristles or scales outside these.
Disk yellow, rays white, pinkish, or purple.
1, E. annuus, Pers. Common FLEasane. Annual or biennial.
Stem grooved and stout, branching, 2-5 ft. high, with scattered
hairs; lowest leaves petioled, ovate, coarsely toothed, those higher up
the stem successively narrower, sessile; heads in a large loose
corymb ; rays short, white or purplish. Fields and waste ground.
2. E. strigosus, Muhl. Daisy Fieasane. Annual or biennial.
Considerably resembling the preceding species, but with entire
_ leaves, smaller and less branched stem, smaller heads, and longer
rays. Fields and pastures. ; ,
3. E. bellidifolius, Muhl. Roprn’s PLanrarin. Perennial. Soft-
hairy; stems sometimes throwing out offsets from the base; simple,
erect, 1-2 ft. high; root-leaves, obovate-obtuse, somewhat serrate;
stem-leaves few, lance-oblong, acute, clasping; heads rather large,
1-9, on long peduncles, with 50-60 long, rather broad, bluish-purple
or reddish-purple rays. Thickets and moist banks.
4. E. philadelphicus, L. Perennial. Rather hairy; stems slender,
about 2 ft. high; root-leaves spatulate and toothed; stem-leaves
usually entire and strongly clasping, sometimes with a heart-shaped
or eared base; heads several, small, long-petioled ; rays exceedingly
numerous, thread-like, reddish-purple or flesh-color. In damp soil.
iI. COREOPSIS, L.
Annual or perennial herbs. Leaves opposite or the upper
alternate, entire or pinnately divided. Heads radiate, solitary
or corymbed, many-flowered ; bracts in 2 rows of about 8 each,
the inner membranaceous and appressed, the outer narrower
and spreading; receptacle chaffy. Ray-flowers neutral; disk-
flowers tubular, perfect. Akenes compressed, oval to oblong,
often winged. Pappus of 2 scales or bristles, or wanting.*
1. C. tinctoria, Nutt. GarpEn Corrorsis. Annual. Stem erect,
smooth, branched, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves 2-3 times pinnately divided,
the divisions linear, lower leaves petioled, the upper often sessile and
entire. Heads 1-14 in. wide, on slender peduncles ; inner bracts
brown with scarious margins, outer bracts very short. Ray-flowers
about 8, yellow with a brown base, 3-lobed at the apex. Akenes
linear. Pappus minute or none. Common in gardens.*
2. C. lanceolata, L. Ticwserp. Perennial; stem slender, erect
or ascending, smooth or slightly downy below, simple, 9-15 in. high.
Leaves opposite, the lower spatulate to elliptical, sometimes lobed,
230 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
on long, hairy-fringed petioles, the upper lanceolate, sessile. Heads
few, on long peduncles; bracts ovate-lanceolate, the outer narrower.
Ray-flowers 6-10, rays 3-5-lobed, bright yellow. Akenes oval,
broadly winged, warty. Pappus of 2 teeth. On rich, dry soil S.
and E.*
3. C. auriculata, L. Running TicksEEep. Perennial; stem ascend-
ing or decumbent, weak, smooth, nearly simple, 6-15 in. long.
Leaves ovate to oval, entire or with 2-4 small and rounded lobes at
the base, downy, long-petioled. Heads 1-14 in. wide, few or single;
outer bracts narrower than the inner. Rays 6-10, mostly 4-toothed
at the apex ; chaff as long as the flowers. Akenes oblong, the wings
narrow and thickened. Pappus of 2 minute teeth.. In rich woods.*
Iv. RUDBECKIA, L.
Perennial or biennial. Leaves alternate, entire or lobed.
Heads radiate, long-peduncled, many-flowered; bracts imbri-
cated in 2-3 series, spreading; receptacle convex or long-coni-
cal, with concave, chaffy scales. Ray-flowers yellow, neutral ;
disk-flowers purple to brown, perfect. Akenes smooth,
4-angled, truncate. Pappus a few short teeth or wanting.*
1. R. hirta, L. Conr-FLower. Annual or biennial; stem erect,
rough-hairy, simple or branched, 2-3 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate to
oblong, thick, obscurely serrate, rough-hairy, 3-ribbed, the lower
petioled, the upper sessile. Heads few, long-peduncled; bracts
rough-hairy, spreading. Ray-flowers 10-20, orange-yellow; disk-
flowers purplish brown. Chaff acute, hairy at the apex. Pappus
none. On dry, open ground.
V. HELENIUM, L.
Annual or perennial. Leaves alternate, forming wings on
the stem. Heads radiate, peduncled, many-flowered; bracts
in 2 series, the outer linear and spreading, the inner few and
scale-like; receptacle naked, convex or oblong. Ray-flowers
pistillate and fertile, or neutral, the rays wedge-shaped, 3-5-
lobed; disk-flowers perfect, tubular, 4-5-lobed. Akenes top-
shaped, hairy, ribbed. Pappus of 4-5 entire, toothed or awned
scales.*
1, H. nudiflorum, Nutt. Snerzewerp. Perennial; stem slender,
erect, downy, branched above, 1-2 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate,
entire or slightly toothed, the lower petioled, the upper sessile.
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 231
Heads numerous. Ray-flowers 10-15, neutral, yellow or yellow and
brown ; disk-flowers purple. Akenes hairy on the ribs; pappus of
ovate, minutely toothed, awned scales. Common on river banks S.*
VI. ANTHEMIS, L.
Aromatic or ill-scented herbs. Leaves finely pinnately
divided. Heads many-flowered, with ray-flowers. Rays pis-
tillate or neutral. Involucre of many small, dry, close-pressed
scales. Akenes nearly cylindrical, generally ribbed; barely
crowned or naked at the summit.
1. A. Cotula, DC. Mayweep, DoG-rENNEL. Leaves irregularly
cut into very many narrow segments. Heads small, produced all
summer. Disk yellow. Rays rather short, white, neutral. A low,
offensive-smelling annual weed, by roadsides and in barnyards.
Vil. ACHILLEA, L.
Perennial; leaves alternate, pinnately divided. Heads with
ray-flowers in a terminal corymb; involucral bracts imbricated
in several series, the outer shorter; receptacle chaffy. Ray-
flowers white or pink, pistillate and fertile; disk-flowers per-
fect, tubular, 5-lobed. Akenes oblong, compressed, slightly
margined. Pappus none.*
1. A. Millefolium, L. Yarrow. Stems often clustered, erect
from a creeping rootstock, simple, downy or woolly, 1-2 ft. high.
Leaves lanceolate or oblong, the segments finely cut and divided,
smooth or downy, the lower petioled, the upper sessile. Heads
small, numerous, in flat-topped corymbs; bracts downy. Ray-flowers
4-5, white or pink, rays 3-lobed at the apex. Common in old fields.*
VII, CHRYSANTHEMUM, Tour.
Perennials, with toothed, pinnately cut or divided leaves.
Heads nearly as in the Anthemis, except that the ray-flowers
are pistillate.
1. C. Leucanthemum, L. Oxrye Daisy, WHITEWEED, BULL’s-
EYE, SHERIFF Pink. Stem erect, unbranched or nearly so, 1-2 ft.
high; root-leaves oblong-spatulate, petioled, deeply and irregularly
toothed ; stem-leaves sessile and clasping, toothed and cut, the upper-
most ones shading off into bracts. Heads terminal and solitary,
232 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
large and showy, with a yellow disk and many white rays. A trouble-
some but handsome perennial weed. Introduced from Europe,
chiefly E.
2. C. frutescens, L. Manrcuerite. Erect, branching, perennial,
woody below, smooth, and with a pale bloom. Divisions of the
leaves linear, with the uppermost leaves often merely 3-cleft bracts.
Heads long-peduncled, showy, with a yellow disk and large, spread-
ing white rays. Cultivated in greenhouses; from the Canary Islands.
IX. SENECIO, Tourn.
Annual or perennial; stems often hollow. Leaves alternate,
entire or pinnately divided. Heads with or without rays, in
terminal corymbs; bracts mostly in a single row, often witha
few shorter ones at the base; receptacle naked or pitted. Ray-
flowers yellow or orange, pistillate and fertile when present;
disk-flowers tubular, perfect. Akenes cylindrical or com-
pressed, not beaked or winged, 5-10-ribbed, downy. Pappus
of numerous, slender, white hairs.*
1. S. tomentosus, Michx. WooLtLy RaGweep. Perennial; woolly
throughout ; stem stout, erect, mostly simple, 2-3 ft. high. Lower
leaves ovate to oblong, crenate or entire, obtuse, long-petioled; stem-
leaves few, elliptical to oblanceolate, serrate or toothed, acute, sessile.
Heads radiate, 2 in. wide, on slender peduncles; bracts narrow,
becoming smooth. Ray-flowers 12-15, yellow. Akenes hairy. On
damp soil.*
2. S. aureus, L. Go~pEN RAGweeEp. Perennial; stems often
tufted, erect, slender, woolly when young, branched above, 18-30 in.
high. Lower leaves broadly ovate, obtuse at the apex, heart-shaped
at the base, crenate, long-petioled; stem-leaves lanceolate and often
pinnatifid, the upper small and sessile. Heads radiate, corymbed,
on slender peduncles; ray-flowers 8-12, bright yellow. Akenes
smooth. On wet soil; very variable.* :
3. S. lobatus, Pers. ButTTrerwerp. -Annual; stem erect, ridged,
hollow, often woolly when young, and becoming smooth with age,
branched above, 1-3 ft. high. Leaves lyrate-pinnatifid, thin, the
lower petioled, the upper sessile. Heads radiate in a terminal
corymb; bracts linear, acute. Ray-flowers about 12, yellow.
Akenes slightly rough-hairy on the angles. Pappus rough, longer
than the involucre. Common on low ground.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 233
X. CENTAUREA, L.
Herbs. Leaves entire or cut, often spiny-toothed. Heads
single; involucre ovoid or globose (Fig. 22); bracts closely
overlapping, entire, dry and membranaceous. Corollas all
tubular, oblique or 2-lipped, inflated above; the outer ones
usually larger and neutral, the inner flowers perfect; lobes 5,
slender. Akenes flattened. Pappus hairs short, slender, rough.
1. C. Cyanus, L. Bacuetor’s Burron.’ Stem erect, slender,
grooved, 1-2 ft. high, somewhat branched. Leaves acute, sessile,
narrow, entire or few-lobed. Peduncles covered with cottony wool.
Heads 4-1 in. in diameter, cobwebby. Ray-like flowers few, large,
bright blue or pink; those of the disk smaller. Cultivated from
Europe and escaped from gardens.
XI. CIRSIUM, Tourn.
Biennial or perennial; stem erect, simple or branched.
Leaves alternate, prickly, often forming wings on the stem.
Heads discoid, terminal and solitary or corymbed, many-flow-
ered; bracts overlapping in many series, the outer shorter,
usually spine-pointed; receptacle bristly. Corollas purplish
or nearly white, the tube slender, deeply 5-cleft. Akenes
oblong, 4-angled, smooth or ribbed. Pappus of numerous
simple or plumose bristles.*
1. C. altissimum, Spreng. Tarx Txistie. Perennial or bien-
nial; stem stout, very leafy, downy or woolly, branched 4-10 ft.
high ; leaves rough-downy above, hoary beneath, fringed with fine
prickles, not forming wings on the stem, the lower petioled and
often pinnately cut, the upper sessile and éntire. Heads ovoid, 1 in.
in diameter ; bracts viscid, webby when young, all except the inner
ones tipped with weak and spreading bristles. Flowers light purple.
Common in fields, woods, and waste places.*
2. C. horridulum, Michx. YeLtow Tuistix. Biennial or peren-
nial; stem erect, stout, woolly when young, becoming smooth, often
purple, branched 1-3 ft. high. Leaves pinnately cut, with very
spiny teeth, mostly sessile and clasping, smooth and green on both
sides. Heads large, surrounded by a whorl of linear-oblong, comb-
like leaves ; involucral bracts linear, ciliate, not spine-tipped. Flowers
purple or yellowish. On sandy soil E. and 8.*
934 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Ii. LIGULIFLORZA.
XII. KRIGIA, Schreber.
Small, annual or perennial herb. Leaves mostly radical,
toothed or lyrate. Heads several-many-flowered; scales of
the involucre about 2-rowed, thin. Akenes short, truncate.
Pappus in 2 rows, the outer one of thin, blunt, chaffy scales,
the inner one of slender bristles. Corollas yellow.
1. K. virginica, Willd. Annual; scapes usually 2-5 from one
root, slender. Leaves mostly: lyrate, smooth and with a bloom, the
earlier ones rounded or spatulate. Scales of the involucre linear-
lanceolate, nearly equal, spreading. Akenes top-shaped, reddish-
brown, crowned with 5 wedge-obovate scales and 5 rough white
bristles.
2. K. Dandelion, Nutt. Perennial, from slender tuber-bearing
roots. Scapes leafless, 6-18 in. high. Leaves entire or nearly so,
varying from spatulate-oblong to linear-lanceolate. Akenes more
slender than in No. 1. Pappus consisting of 10-15 small, oblong,
chaffy scales and 15-20 bristles. In moist ground, especially S. ©
3. K. amplexicaulis, Nutt. Stem 12-18 in. high, often 2-3 from
the same root, mostly 2-forked or 3-forked at the summit. Root-
leaves 3-6 in. long, lanceolate, entire, toothed -or rarely pinnately
cut, clasping at the base; stem-leaves 1-3. Akenes and pappus
about as in No. 2. Moist banks.
XII. CICHORIUM, L.
Perennial herbs. with spreading branches; juice milky.
Leaves radical and alternate, toothed or pinnately cut. Heads
axillary ; involucre cylindrical, bracts in 2 rows, the inner
row erect, coherent at the base, the outer shorter; receptacle
flattish. Corollas blue, pale pink, or yellow. Upper part of
the style and its slender arms hairy. Akenes crowded on the
hardened receptacle, firmly covered by the stiff involucre,
obovoid or top-shaped, not beaked. Pappus 1 or 2 rows of
short scales.
1. C. Intybus, L. CuHicory, BLuE Danpe1ion, BLUE SaILors.
Root very long, stout, and fleshy. Stem 1-3 ft. high, angled and
grooved ; branches straight and stiff. Root-leaves and lower stem-
leaves runcinate ; upper stem-leaves oblong or lanceolate, clasping,
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 935
those of the branches reduced to bracts. Flowers very showy,
usually bright blue, rarely pinkish-white. Introduced from Europe;
a troublesome weed in grass-lands and common in waste places,
particularly in New England. 4
XIV. HIERACIUM, L.
Perennial herbs, often covered with glandular or star-shaped
hairs; juice milky. Leaves alternate. Heads solitary, or in
corymbs or panicles; bracts of the involucre many, overlap-
ping, unequal; receptacle flattish, naked, pitted. Corollas
yellow, rarely orange; arms of the style slender and upper
part of the style hairy. Akenes angled or grooved, not beaked.
Pappus hairs in a single row, simple, stiff, tawny, or brownish,
brittle. *
1. H. venosum, L. RartTyesnaxe WeErEp. Stem scape-like,
usually leafless or nearly so, smooth, 1-2 ft. high. Root-leaves 2-5
in. long, obovate or ovate-oblong, generally purple-veined. Heads
rather large, yellow, in a loose panicled corymb. Dry hills and
roadsides, and in pine woods E,
XV. LEONTODON, L.
Perennial, scape-bearing herbs; juice milky. Leaves all
radical, toothed or pinnatifid, often runcinate. Heads on
simple or branched scapes, yellow; bracts of the involucre
many, in several rows, the anther smaller; receptacle flat,
naked.. Arms of the style linear, obtuse, hairy. Akenes cylin-
drical, grooved, transversely wrinkled; beak short; pappus
hairs stiff, in 1 or 2 rows.
1. L. autumnalis, L. Scape usually branching, 5-15 in. high,
bracted; peduncles enlarged above. Rootstock truncate. Heads
13-1 in. or more in diameter; involucre top-shaped or bell-shaped.
Pappus of a single row of tawny hairs. Fields and roadsides,
especially N. E. Introduced from Europe.
XVI. TARAXACUM, Haller.
Stemless, perennial or biennial herbs. Leaves in a flattish
tuft, pinnately cut or runcinate (Fig. 38). Head many-
flowered, large, solitary, yellow, borne on a hollow scape, which
236 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
is short at first but lengthens after flowering. Involucre com-
posed of a single row of long, erect, inner scales and a set of
much shorter ones outside and at the base of the former ones.
Akenes cylindrical or spindle-shaped, with 4-5 rough ribs, the
apex tapering into a bristle-like beak which bears a short,
broadly conical tuft of soft white hairs.
1. T. officinale, Weber. Danprxion. Outer involucre reflexed ;
inner involucre closing over the head, after the flowers are withered,
and remaining shut for some days, then opening and allowing the
akenes to form a globular: head. Root stout, bitter, medicinal.
Young leaves eaten as a pot-herb (“greens”) in spring— the plant
often cultivated for the leaves by market-gardeners.
XVII. PYRRHOPAPPUS, DC.
Annual or biennial; stem erect, leafy below, nearly naked
above, smooth. Leaves oblong, toothed or pinnatifid. Heads
large, long-peduncled ; involucre cylindrical or spreading, the
inner row of bracts erect, united at the base, the outer rows
shorter and spreading; receptacle naked. Flowers yellow;
rays truncate, 5-toothed at the apex. Akenes oblong, 5-ribbed,
narrowed above into a long and slender beak; pappus soft,
tawny, with a short, soft-hairy ring at the base.*
1. P. carolinianus, DC. Fartsz Danprxion. Annual or bien-
nial; stem glabrous, furrowed, branched above, 2-3 ft. high. Lower
leaves lanceolate to oblong, entire, toothed or pinnatifid, narrowed
into a margined petiole, the upper sessile, bract-like, entire. Heads
few, long-peduncled, peduncles and involucre sometimes finely
downy; inner bracts calloused at the apex, the outer awl-shaped
and spreading. Akenes much shorter than the thread-like beak.
Common in fields.*
XVII. LACTUCA, Tour.
Annual, biennial, or perennial; stems leafy. Leaves entire
to pinnately cut. Heads panicled; involucre cylindrical,
bracts unequal, overlapping in 2 or more rows, the outer
shorter; receptacle naked. Flowers blue, yellow, or white;
rays truncate, 5-toothed at the apex. Akenes compressed,
ribbed, the apex contracted into a slender beak, which is
enlarged into a disk bearing the soft, hairy, white or tawny
pappus.*
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS 237
1. L. canadensis, L. Witp Lertucr. Biennial; stem erect,
smooth, hollow, branched above, 3-10 ft. high. Leaves lanceolate
to spatulate, pale beneath, the lower petioled and pinnately cut, the
upper sessile, clasping, and nearly entire. Heads numerous, about
20-flowered. Flowers yellow; akenes oval, flat, 1-ribbed on each
side, minutely roughened, about as long as the beak. Pappus
white. In waste places.*
2. L. acuminata, Gray. Biue Lxetrucre. Stem very leafy,
smooth, paniculately branched above, 3-6 ft. high. Leaves ovate to
lanceolate, taper-pointed, often hairy beneath, the lower on winged
petioles and often sinuate-lobed, the upper sessile. Heads racemed,
on divergent and bracted peduncles. Flowers blue. Akenes slightly
compressed, beak very short. Pappus white. In waste places.*
XIX. SONCHUS, L.
Annual or perennial. Leaves mostly toothed or pinnately
cut, prickly margined. Heads in corymbs or panicles; bracts
in several series, the outer shorter; receptacle naked. Flowers
yellow, rays truncate, 5-toothed at the apex. Akenes oval to
oblong, compressed, ribbed, truncate at the apex. Pappus of
numerous soft white hairs.*
1. S. oleraceus, LL. Sow Turstix. Annual; stem erect, branched,
smooth, 2-6 ft. high. Leaves spiny-toothed, the lower long-petioled,
very irregularly cut or pinnatifid, the upper clasping by an eared
base. Involucre downy when young. Akenes channeled and trans-
versely wrinkled. In waste places on very rich soil.*
2. S.asper, Vill. Srrny Sow Tuistie. Annual; stem erect,
smooth, branched but little, 2-6 ft. high. Leaves undivided, spatu-
late to oblanceolate, fringed with spiny teeth, the lower narrowed
into a petiole, the upper clasping by an eared base, the ears rounded.
Heads numerous ; involucre glabrous. Akenes flattened, margined,
3-nerved on each side, smooth. In waste places.*
GLOSSARY
OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED ONLY IN THE FLORA
Abortive, imperfectly developed.
Appressed, lying flat throughout its
length, used of such parts as
bracts.
Awl-shaped, narrow and tapering
to a point.
Awned, having a bristle-like ap-
pendage.
Awnless, not awned.
Capitate, (1) having a round head
like the stigma of a primrose ;
(2) growing in heads.
Carpellary, relating to a carpel.
Chaff, small membranous scales,
such as are found on disks of
Composite.
Clasping, partly surrounding the
stem, said of the bases of leaves.
Claw, the narrowed base of a petal.
Cleft, cut halfway down.
Coated (bulbs), those with scales
which completely cover them, as
in the onion.
Cone, the fruit of pines, etc., with
ovule-bearing scales.
Connate, united, said of opposite
leaves which appear as if grown
together at their bases. :
Cordate, heart-shaped.
Corm, a bulb-like, fleshy stem or
base of a stem.
239
Crown, an inner appendage to a
petal or to the throat of the co-
rolla.
Deciduous, falling as petals do after
blossoming, or as leaves of most
trees except evergreens do.
Declined, directed obliquely.
Decumbent, reclining, but with the
summit somewhat erect.
Dehiscent, splitting into definite
parts.
Diffuse, spreading widely or loosely.
Disk, (1) an outgrowth of the re-
ceptacle within the calyx or
within the corolla and stamens ;
(2) the central part of the head
(all but the rays) in Composite.
Dissected, deeply divided or cut
into many segments.
_Drupe, a stone-fruit such as a peach
or a plum.
Equitant, leaves astride of those
within them, thus appearing in a
cross-section like the diagram,
<<
Even-pinnate, abruptly pinnate,i.e.,
with no leafiet at the end.
Fascicle, a close cluster or bundle
of flowers, leaves, stems, or roots.
‘
240
Fertile, capable of producing fruit ;
fertile flowers, those which have
pistils.
Filiform, thread-shaped.
Fleshy, succulent, thick and full of
sap.
Funiculus, the little stalk which
connects a seed or ovule with the
placenta.
Gland, (1) astructure which secretes
something, as the knobs on the
hairs of sundew ; (2) any knob
or swelling.
Herbaceous, with no stem above-
ground which lives through the
winter, not woody or shrubby.
Indefinite, too many to be easily
counted.
Indehiscent, not splitting open reg-
ularly.
Involucrate, provided with an in-
volucre.
Keel, the two anterior and united
petals of a papilionaceous corolla.
Key, a winged fruit like that of the
ash or maple.
Limb, the border or spreading part
of a gamopetalous calyx or co-
rolla.
Lobed, having divisions, especially
rounded ones.
Nerved, having simple or un-
branched veins or slender ribs.
Ob, in composition, signifies in-
versely, as obcordate, inversely
heart-shaped.
FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Odd-pinnate, pinnate with a single
leaflet at the end of the midrib.
Palate, a projection in the throat
of a corolla.
Papilionaceous, butterfly - shaped,
like the corolla of the sweet pea.
Papillose, covered with papille or
minute projections, like the
human tongue. :
Pappus, tufts of hair or other ob-
jects, representing the limb of the
calyx in Composite.
Perfoliate, with the stem appar-
ently growing up through a leaf,
as in some honeysuckles.
Persistent, not deciduous.
Pinnatifid, pinnately cleft.
Pistillate, having pistils but not
stamens.
Pubescent, clothed with soft hair,
downy.
Punctate, marked with dots, de-
pressions, or translucent glands.
Radical, arising from the root or a
very short stem at its summit, as
the leaves of the dandelion.
Refiexed, bent or turned abruptly
downward or backward.
Root-parasite, a plant parasitic on
the roots of another.
Sagittate, arrow-shaped.
Scape, a leafless flower-stalk aris-
ing from the ground, as in the
dandelion and cyclamen.
Scarious, thin, dry, and membra-
nous, not green.
Sessile, without a stalk.
Simple (stem), unbranched.
GLOSSARY
Spadix, a spike with a fleshy axis,
like that of the Indian turnip or
the ‘calla.”’
Spathe, a large bract which encloses
a flower-cluster, often a spadix.
Staminate, having stamens only.
Standard, the posterior petal of a
papilionaceous corolla,
Sterile, (1) barren, as a flower with-
out a pistil or an antherless sta-
men; (2) staminate or male, said
of flowers.
Striate, marked with fine longitudi-
nal parallel lines.
Sub- (in composition), somewhat, as
subglobose.
Subtend, to extend beneath, as a
bract in the axil of which a
flower is borne.
Succulent, fleshy or juicy.
Three-ranked, with three vertical
rows on a stem or axis.
241
Throat, the top of the tubular part
of a gamopetalous corolla.
Truncate, appearing as if cut
squarely off, as the leaves of the
tulip-tree.
Tubercled, covered with warty
growths.
Tubercular, having tubercles, or
like a tubercle.
Two-ranked, with two vertical rows
on a stem or axis.
Utricle, a small bladdery ovary-
wall.
Versatile, turning freely on its sup-
port, as an anther on its filament.
Whorled, arranged in a circle
around an axis, as the leaves of
some lilies.
Wings, the side-petals of a papilio-
naceous flower.
Abies, 17.
Abutilon, 148.
Acanthacee, 210. .
Acanthus Family, 210.
Acer, 141].
Aceraceze, 140, 141.
Achillea, 231,
Aconitum, 80.
Acorus, 25.
Acta, 79.
Adder’s-tongue, 36.
Adlumia, 92.
Esculus, 142.
Agrostemma, 73.
Aizoacez, 69.
Alder, 55, 139.
Alfalfa, 124.
Alisma, 21.
Alismacez, 21.
Alleghany Vine, 92.
Allium, 34.
Alnus, 54, 55.
Alum Root, 103.
Alyssum, 98, 99.
Amaryllidacee, 42.
Amaryllis Family, 42.
Amelanchier, 110.
American Aspen, 47.
Anianthium, 32, 33.
Amorpha, 126.
Ampelopsis, 146.
Amsonia, 178, 179.
Anagallis, 174.
Anarcardiacez, 1387.
INDEX
Andromeda, 168.
Anemone, 80, 81.
Anemone, Rue, 82.
Anemonella, 82.
Angiosperms, 20.
Anonacee, 88.
Anthemis, 231.
Antirrhinum, 203.
Apetalous Division, 6.
Aphyllon, 208.
Apocynacee, 178.
Apocynum, 179, 180.
Apple, 109.
Aquifoliacez, 138.
“Aquilegia, 79.
Arabis, 98.
Aracee, 23.
Aralia, 157, 158.
Araliacez, 157.
Arbor Vite, 18.
Arbutus, Trailing, 169.
Arctostaphylos, 169.
Ariseema, 24, 25.
Aristolochia, 65.
Aristolochiacez, 64, 65.
Arrowhead, 22.
Arrowwood, 216, 217.
Arum Family, 23.
Asarum, 65.
Asclepiadacez, 180, 181.
Asclepias, 181, 182.
Ash, 134, 175.
Ash, Mountain, 109.
Asimina, 88.
243
244 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Asparagus, 38.
Asp, Quaking, 47.
Aspen, American, 47.
Astragalus, 127, 128.
Atamasco Lily, 43.
Avens, 114, 115.
Babies’ Toes, 134.
Bachelor’s Button, 233.
Bald Cypress, 18.
Balsam, 143,
Balsam Family, 143.
Balsam Fir, 17.
Balsaminacez, 143.
Bamboo-vine, 42.
Baneberry, 79.
Baptisia, 122.
Barberry, 84.
Barberry Family, 84.
Barren Strawberry, 113.
Basswood, 147.
Bastard Toad-flax, 64.
Bayberry, 49.
Bayberry Family, 49.
Beaked Hazelnut, 53.
Bearberry, 169.
Bedstraw, 215.
Beech, 56.
Beech Family, 55.
Beggar’s Lice, 190.
Begonia, 152, 153, 154.
Begoniacez, 152.
Begonia Family, 152.
Bell Flower, 223.
Bell Flower Family, 223.
Bellis, 228.
Bellwort, 33.
Benjamin, 41.
Berberidacee, 84.
Berberis, 84, 85.
Berchemia, 144.
Betula, 58, 54.
Betulacez, 51.
Bignonia, 206.
Bignoniacez, 206.
Bignonia Family, 206.
Bindweed, 184.
Birch, 53, 54.
Birch Family, 51.
Bird’s Pepper, 94.
Bishop’s Cap, 103.
Bitter Cress, 97.
Bittersweet, 139, 199.
Black Alder, 139.
Blackberry, 112.
Black Gum, 164.
Black Haw, 217.
Black Walnut, 50.
Bladder-nut, 140.
Bladder-nut Family, 140.
Bladderwort, 209, 210.
Bladderwort Family, 209.
Bleeding Heart, 92.
Bloodroot, 90.
Blue Beech, 52.
Bluebell, 187.
Bluebells, 190.
Blueberry, 170.
Blue Cohosh, 85.
Blue Dandelion, 234.
Blue Devils, 191.
Blue Flag, 45.
Blue Sailors, 234.
Blue Thistle, 191.
Bluets, 213.
Blue Valerian, 187.
Blueweed, 191.
Borage Family, 188.
Borraginacez, 188.
Boston Ivy, 146.
Bouvardia, 214.
Box Elder, 141.
Brassica, 95, 96.
Breeches Flower, 91.
' Bridal Wreath, 108.
Brooklime, 204.
Broom-rape Family, 208.
Broussonetia, 62.
Brunella, 196.
Buck-bean, 178.
Buckeye, 142.
Buckeye Family, 142.
Buckthorn, 144.
Buckthorn Family, 143.
Buckwheat, 67.
Buckwheat Family, 66.
Buffalo Apple, 128.
Buffalo Pea, 128.
Bull Nut, 51.
Bull’s-eye, 231.
Bulrush, 24.
Bunch-berry, 163.
Bur, Buffalo, 200.
Bur, Sand, 200.
Butter and Eggs, 203.
Buttercup, 83.
Buttercup Family, 77, 78.
Butternut, 50.
Butterweed, 232.
Button Snakeroot, 159.
Buttonwood, 105.
Cactacex, 154.
Cactus Family, 154.
Calamus, 25.
Calico Bush, 168.
Callicarpa, 193.
Caltha, 78.
Calycanthaceex, 87.
Calycanthus, 87, 88.
Calycanthus Family, 87.
Calystegia, 183, 184.
Camassia, 36, 37.
INDEX 245
Campanula, 228.
Campanulacee, 223..-
Campanula Family, 228.
Cancer Root, 208.
Cannabis, 62."
Cantaloupe, 222.
Caper Family, 99.
Capparidacee, 99.
Caprifoliaces, 215.
Capsella, 98.
Caraway, 160.
Cardamine, 97.
Carnation, 75.
Carpenter-weed, 196.
Carpet-weed, 70.
Carpinus, 51, 52.
Carrion Flower, 41.
Carrot, 162.
Carum, 160.
Carya, 50, 51.
Caryophyllacez, 71, 72.
Castanea, 56.
Castilleia, 205.
Catalpa, 207.
Cat-brier, 42.
Catchfly, 74.
Catnip, 195.
Cat-tail, 20.
Cat-tail Family, 20.
Caulophylium, 85.
Ceanothus, 144, 145.
Cedar, 18, 19.
Celandine, 90.
Celastracez, 139.
Celastrus, 139.
Celtis, 60.
Centaurea, 233.
Cerastium, 72.
Cercis, 120.
Cereus, 155.
Chamelirium, 32.
246 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Charlock, 95, 96.
Cheeses, 148.
Chelidonium, 90.
Chenopodiacee, 68.
Chenopodium, 68, 69.
Cherry, 117.
Chestnut, 56.
Chickweed, 72.
Chickweed Wintergreen, 173.
Chicory, 284.
Chimaphila, 164, 165.
Chinese Sacred Lily, 43.
Chinquapin, 56.
Chinquapin, Water, 76.
Chionanthus, 176, 177.
Chocolate Root, 115.
Chokeberry, 109.
Chokecherry, 117.
Chokepear, 109.
Chrysanthemum, 231, 232.
Cichorium, 234.
Cinquefoil, 114.
Circa, 157.
Cirsium, 233,
Citrullus, 222.
Citrus, 133.
Cladrastis, 121.
Claytonia, 70.
Clematis, 82.
Cleome, 100.
Clove Pink, 75.
Clover, 124, 125.
Cochlearia, 95.
Coffee Tree, 121.
Cohosh, 85.
Columbine, 79.
Comandra, 64.
Comfrey, 189.
Commelina, 27.
Commelinacee, 26.
Composite, 224-228.
Composite Family, 224-228.
Cone-flower, 230. ‘
Conifer, 18.
Conopholis, 208.
Convallaria, 40.
Convolvulacex, 183.
Convolvulus, 184.
Convolvulus Family, 183.
Coptis, 79.
Coreopsis, 229, 230.
Cornacez, 162.
Corn Cockle, 73.
Cornel, 163.
Corn Gromwell, 191.
Corn Salad, 221.
Cornus, 162, 163.
Corydalis, 93.
Corylus, 52, 53.
Cottonwood, 48.
Cow Lily, 77.
Cow Parsnip, 162.
Cowslip, ‘78.
Crab Apple, 109.
Cranberry, 171.
Cranberry Tree, 216.
Cranesbill, 180.
Crategus, 110, 111.
Creepers, 183.
Creeping Charley, 195.
Cress, 97.
Crinkle Root, 97.
Crocus, 45.
Cross-vine, 206.
Crowfoot, 83.
Crowfoot Family, 77; 78.
Crown Imperial, 36.
Crown of Thorns, 186.
Crow’s Foot, 97.
Crow-victuals, 195.
Cruciferx, 93, 94.
Cucumber, 222,
Cucumis, 222.
Cucurbita, 222.
Cucurbitacez, 221.
Currant, 104.
Cuscuta, 183.
Cydonia, 108.
Cynoglossum, 189.
Cyperacer, 23.
Cypress, 18, 187.
Cypress Vine, 184.
Cypripedium, 46.
.Cytisus, 123.
Daffodil, 43.
Daffy, 43.
Daisy, 228, 231.
Dakota Turnip, 126.
Dandelion, 236.
Datura, 200, 201.
Daucus, 162.
Dayflower, Virginia, 27.
Day-lily, 34.
Dead Nettle, 196.
‘Deerberry, 171.
Delphinium, 80.
Dentaria, 97.
Deptford Pink, 75.
Desmanthus, 119, 120.
Deutzia, 104.
Devil’s Bit, 32.
Dewberry, 112.
Dianthera, 211.
Dianthus, 75.
Dicentra, 91, 92.
Dicotyledonous Plants, 47.
Diervilla, 219, 220.
Diospyros, 174.
Dock, 66, 67.
Dodecatheon, 171, 172.
Dogbane, 180.
Dogbane Family, 178.
INDEX 247
Dogberry, 109.
Dog-brier, 42.
Dog-bur, 189.
Dog-fennel, 231.
Dog’s-tooth Violet, 36.
Dogwood, 163.
Dogwood Family, 162.
Dogwood, Poison, 138.
‘Dragon Root, 25.
Dutchman’s Breeches, 91.
Dutchman’s Pipe, 65.
Dutchman’s Pipe Family, 64, 65.
Ear Drops, 92.
Easter-flower, 43.
Ebenacee, 174.
Ebony Family, 174.
Echinocystis, 222.
Echinospermum, 189, 190.
Echium, 191.
Elder, 215, 216.
Elder, Wild, 157.
Elm, 60.
Elm Family, 59.
Enchanter’s Nightshade, 157.
English Ivy, 157.
English Walnut, 50.
Epigza, 169.
Ericacez, 166, 167.
Erigenia, 159, 160.
Erigeron, 228, 229.
Eryngium, 158, 159.
Erythronium,.36.
Eschscholtzia, 90.
Euonymus, 139, 140.
Euphorbia, 136, 137.
Euphorbiacee, 135.
Eutoca, 188,
Evening Primrose Family, 156.
Eyebright, 213.
248 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Fagaces, 55.
Fagus, 55, 56,
Fairycup, 103.
False Buckwheat, 67.
False Dandelion, 286.
False Indigo, 126.
False Mitre-wort, 102.
False Spikenard, 38.
Farkleberry, 171.
Feverwort, 218.
Field Garlic, 34.
Figwort Family, 201, 202.
Fir, 17.
Fire Pink, 74.
Flag, 45, 46.
Flax, 133.
Flax Family, 132.
Fleabane, 229.
Fleur-de-lis, 45, 46.
Flowering Maple, 148.
Flowering Moss, 186.
Fly Poison, 38.
Forget-me-not, 190, 191.
Forsythia, 176.
Fragaria, 118.
Fraxinus, 175.
French Mulberry, 193.
Fringe Cap, 108.
Fringe Tree, 177.
Fritillaria, 35.
Fuchsia, 156.
Galium, 214, 215.
Garden Columbine, 79.
Garden Sage, 198.
Garget Root, 69.
Garlic, 34.
Gaylussacia, 169, 170.
Gentianacez, 177.
Gentian Family, 177.
Geraniacex, 129, 130.
Geranium, 130, 131.
Geranium Family, 129, 130.
Geum, 114, 115.
Gill-over-the-ground, 195.
Gillyflower, 99.
Ginseng Family, 157.
Gleditschia, 121.
Golden Alexanders, 161.
Golden Chain, 123.
Gold Thread, 79.
Gooseberry, 104.
Goosefoot, 69.
Goosefoot Family, 68.
Goose Grass, 214.
Gourd Family, 221.
Graminez, 23.
Grape, 145, 146.
Grape Family, 145.
Grass Family, 23.,
.Grass Pink, 75. e
Gratiola, 204.
Graveyard Moss, 137.
Green-brier, 42.
Green Dragon, 25.
Gromwell, Corn, 191.
Ground Ivy, 195.
Ground Pink, 186.
Ground Plum, 128.
Guinea-hen Flower, 35.
Gum, Black, 164.
Gymnocladus, 120, 121.
Gymnosperms, 13.
Gypsy Weed, 205.
Hackberry, 60.
Hackmatack, 18.
Harbinger of Spring, 160.
Hardback, 108.
Harebell, 223.
Haw, 110, 111, 217,
Hazelnut, 52, 53.
Heal-all, 196.
Heart’s-ease, 151.
Heath Family, 166, 167.
Hedge Mustard, 95.
Helenium, 230.
Heliotrope, 189,
Heliotropium, 189.
Hellebore, White, 32.
Hemerocallis, 33, 34.
Hemlock, 17.
Hemp, 62,
Hen-bit, 196.
Hepatica, 81.
Heracleum, 161, 162.
Herb Robert, 130.
Heuchera, 103.
Hickory, 51.
Hieracium, 235.
High-bush Cranberry, 216.
Hippocastanacesz, 142.
Hobble-bush, 216.
Holly, 138, 139.
Holly Family, 138.
Honey Locust, 121.
Honeysuckle, 167, 218-220.
Honeysuckle Family, 215.
Hop Clover, 125.
Hop-tree, 134.
Horehound, 195.
Hornbeam, 52.
Horse-brier, 42.
Horse-chestnut, 142.
Horse-gentian, 218.
Horse Nettle, 199.
Horse-radish, 95.
Hound’s-tongue, 189.
Houstonia, 213.
Hoya, 183.
Huckleberry, 170, 171.
Hyacinth, 37.
Hyacinthus, 37.
INDEX 249
Hydrophyllacex, 187.
Hydrophyllum, 187, 188.
Hypericacex, 148.
Hypericum, 149.
Hypoxis, 43.
Ice Plant, 69.
Ice-plant Family, 69.
Tlex, 138, 189.
Impatiens, 143.
Indian Chief, 172.
Indian Cress Family, 132.
Indian Hemp, 180.
Indian Paint, 191.
Indian Pink, 205.
Indian Pipe, 166.
Indian Poke, 32.
Indian Turnip, 25.
Indigo, 122.
Indigo, False, 126.
Innocence, 213.
Ipomoea, 184, 185.
Tridacez, 45.
Tris, 45, 46.
Tris Family, 45.
Trish Potato, 200.
Iron Wood, 52.
Isopyrum, 78.
Ivy, 138.
Jack-in-the-pulpit, 25.
Jacob’s Ladder, 39, 187, 203.
Japanese Ivy, 146.
Jatropha, 137.
Jerusalem Oak, 69.
Jewel Weed, 143.
Jimson Weed, 201.
Johnny-jump-up, 151.
Jointed Charlock, 96.
Juglandacez, 49, 50.
Juglans, 50.
250 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Juncaces, 29.
Juneberry, 110.
Juniper, 19.
Juniperus, 19.
Kalmia, 168.
Kicking Colt, 143.
King Nut, 51.
Kinnikinnik, 163.
Knawel, 73.
Knot-grass, 67.
Krigia, 234.
Labiate, 193, 194.
Laburnum, 123.
Lactuca, 286, 237.
Ladies’ Eardrop, 158.
Lady’s-delight, 151.
Lady’s-slipper, 46, 143.
Lady’s Tresses, 46.
Lagenaria, 222.
Lamb Lettuce, 221.
Lamium, 196.
Larch, 18.
Larix, 17, 18.
Larkspur, 80.
Lathyrus, 129.
Lauracezx, 88, 89.
Laurel, 168, 169.
Laurel Family, 88, 89.
Leather Flower, 82.
Leguminose, 117-119.
Lemon, 133.
Lentibulariacee, 209.
Leontodon, 235.
Leonurus, 196, 197.
Lepidium, 94.
Lettuce, 237.
Lever-wood, 52.
Liguliflore, 234. -
Ligustrum, 177.
Lilac, 176.
Liliacex, 29.
Lilium, 35.
Lily, 34, 35.
Lily Family, 29.
Lily-of-the-valley, 40.
Lime, 133.
Linaceez, 132.
Linaria, 202, 203.
Linden, 147.
Linden Family, 146, 147.
Lindera, 89.
Linnea, 217, 218.
Linum, 182, 133.
Liriodendron, 87.
Lithospermum, 191.
Live Oak, 58.
Liver-berry, 39.
Liverleaf, 81.
Liverwort, 81.
Lobularia, 98, 99.
Locust, 121, 127.
London Pride, 74.
Lonicera, 218, 219.
Loosestrife, 173.
Loranthacesx, 63.
Lotus, 76.
Lousewort, 206.
Lungwort, 190.
Lupinus, 123.
Lychnis, 74.
Lycium, 199.
Lycopersicum, 200.
Lysimachia, 173.
Maclura, 61, 62.
Madder Family, 212, 213.
Magnolia, 86.
Magnoliacez, 85, 86.
Magnolia Family, 85, 86.
Maianthemum, 39.
Mallow, 148.
Mallow Family, 147, 148.
Malva, 148.
Malvacex, 147, 148.
Maple, 141.
Maple Family, 140, 141.
Marguerite, 232.
Marigold, Marsh, 78.
Marrubium, 195.
Marsh Bell-flower, 223.
Marsh Marigold, 78.
Marsh Trefoil, 178.
Matrimony Vine, 199.
Matthiola, 99.
May-apple, 85.
Mayflower, 102, 169.
Mayweed, 231.
May Wings, 134.
Meadow Buttercup, 78.
Meadow Garlic, 34.
Meadow Lily, 35.
Meadow Parsnip, 161.
Meadow Rue, 84.
Medicago, 124.
Medick, 124.
Melilotus, 124. |
Melon, 221.
Menyanthes, 178.
Mercury, 138.
Mertensia, 190.
Mignonette, 100.
Mignonette Family, 100.
Milkweed, 181, 182.
Milkweed Family, 180, 181.
Mint Family, 193, 194.
Mistletoe, 64.
Mistletoe Family, 63.
Mitchella, 214.
Mitella, 102.
Mitre-wort, 102.
Mollugo, 70.
INDEX 251
Monkshood, 80.
Monocotyledonous Plants, 20.
Monotropa, 166.
Moracee, 61.
Morning-glory, 184, 185.
Morning-glory Family, 183.
Morus, 61.
Moss Pink, 186.
Motherwort, 197.
Mountain Ash, 109.
Mountain Fringe, 92.
Mouse-ear Chickweed, 72.
Mulberry, 61, 62, 111.
Mulberry Family, 61.
Mulberry, French, 1938.
Mulberry, Mexican, 193.
Mullein, Moth, 202.
Mullein Pink, 74.
Muskmelon, 222.
Mustard, 95, 96.
Mustard Family, 93, 94.
Myosotis, 190, 191.
Myrica, 49.
Myricacee, 49.
Narcissus, 43.
Nasturtium, 96, 132.
Nelumbo, 76.
Nepeta, 195.
Nerium, 180.
Nettle, 63.
Nettle Family, 62, 63.
New Jersey Tea, 145.
Nightshade, 199.
Nightshade Family, 198.
Ninebark, 107.
Noble Liverwort, 81.
None-so-pretty, 74.
Nonesuch, 124.
Nuphar, 76, 77.
Nutmeg Melon, 222.
252 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Nymphea, 76.
Nympheacee, 75.
Nyssa, 164.
Oak, 57, 58, 59.
Oakesia, 33.
Obolaria, 177, 178.
C£nothera, 156.
Cinotheraceex, 156.
Oleaces, 175.
Oleander, 180.
Olive Family, 175.
Onion, 34.
Opuntia, 154, 155.
Orange, 133.
Orange Grass, 149.
Orange, Osage, 62.
Orchidacez, 46.
Orchis Family, 46.
Ornithogalum, 37.
Orobanchacez, 208.
Osage Orange, 62.
Osmorrhiza, 160.
Ostrya, 52.
Oxalidacez, 131.
Oxalis, 181.
Peonia, 78.
Peony, 78.
Paint-brush, 206.
Painted Cup, 205.
Pansy, 151.
Papaver, 91.
Papaveracez, 89, 90.
Paper Mulberry, 62.
Pappoose Root, 85.
Parsley Family, 158.
Parsnip, 161.
Partridge Berry, 214.
Pasque Flower, 80.
Passiflora, 151, 152.
Passifloracee, 151.
Passion-flower, 151, 152.
Passion-flower Family, 151.
Pastinaca, 161.
Pawpaw, 88.
Pawpaw Family, 88.
Pea, 129.
Pea Family, 117-119.
Peach, 116.
Pear, 108.
Pecan, 50.
Pedicularis, 206.
Pelargonium, 130, 131.
Pennywort, 178.
Pentstemon, 203, 204.
Peony, 78.
Pepper-and-salt, 160.
Peppergrass, 94.
Pepper Root, 97.
Periwinkle, 179.
Persimmon, 174.
Petunia, 201.
Phacelia, 188.
Philadelphus, 103.
Phlox, 185, 186.
Phlox Family, 185.
Phoradendron, 63, 64.
Phyllocactus, 155.
Physocarpus, 107.
Phytolacca, 69.
Phytolaccacesx, 69.
Picea, 16.
Pickerel Weed, 28, 29.
Pickerel-weed Family, 28.
Pignut, 51.
Pimpernel, 174.
Pine, 14, 15, 16.
Pine Family, 13.
Pine-sap, 166.
Pine-weed, 149.
Pink, 74, 75, 167,
Pink Family, 71, 72.
Pinus, 14.
Pipe Vine, 65.
Pipsissewa, 165.
Pisum, 129.
Pitcher-plant Family, 101.
Plantaginaces, 211.
Plantago, 211, 212.
Plantain, 211, 212.
Plantain Family, 211.
Plantain, Water, 21.
Platanacez, 105.
Platanus, 105.
Plum, 116.
Podophyllum, 85.
Poet’s Narcissus, 43.
Poison Ivy, 138.
Poison Vine, 188.
Pokeberry, 69.
Pokeberry Family, 69.
Poke, Indian, 32.
Pokeweed, 69.
Pokeweed Family, 69.
Polanisia, 99.
Polemoniacez, 185.
Polemonium, 186, 187.
Polygala, 184, 135.
Polygalacez, 134.
Polygala Family, 134.
Polygonacez, 66.
Polygonatum, 39, 40.
Polygonum, 67.
Pomme Blanche, 126.
Pontederia, 28.
Pontederiacez, 28.
Poor Man’s Weather-glass, 174.
Poplar, 47.
Poplar, White, 87.
Poppy, 91.
Poppy Family, 89, 90.
Populus, 47, 48.
INDEX 258
Portulaca, 71.
Portulacacee, 70.
Portulaca Family, 70.
Potato, 200.
Potentilla, 114.
Prairie Apple, 128.
Prairie Fire, 205.
Prickly Ash, 133.
Prickly Pear, 154.
Primrose, 172.
Primrose Family, 171.
Primula, 172.
Primulacee, 171.
Prince’s Pine, 165.
‘Privet, 177.
Prunus, 116, 117.
Psoralea, 126.
Ptelea, 134.
Puccoon, 191.
Pudding-berry, 163.
Pulse Family, 117-119.
Purslane, 71.
Purslane Family, 70.
Pyrola, 165.
Pyrolacee, 164.
Pyrola Family, 164.
Pyrrhopappus, 236.
Pyrus, 108, 109.
Quaker Ladies, 213.
Quaking Asp, 47.
Quamoclit, 184.
Quercus, 56-59.
Quince, 108.
Radish, Wild, 96.
Ragweed, 232.
Ranunculacee, 77, 78.
Ranunculus, 82, 83.
Raphanus, 96.
Raspberry, 111, 112.
254 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Rattan-vine, 144.
Rattlebox, 74.
Rattlesnake Master, 159.
Rattlesnake Weed, 235.
Redbud, 120.
Red Cedar, 19.
Red Root, 145.
Reseda, 100.
Resedacez, 100.
Rhamnaceex, 143.
Rhamnus, 144.
Rhododendron, 167.
Rhus, 137, 138.
Ribes, 104.
Ribgrass, 212.
Robinia, 127.
Robin-runaway, 195.
Robin’s Plantain, 229.
Rocky Mountain Bee Plant, 100.
Rosa, 115, 116.
Rosacez, 105-107.
Rose, 115.
Rose Family, 105-107.
Rosemary, 168.
Rowan Tree, 109.
Rubiacez, 212, 218.
Rubus, 111-118.
Rudbeckia, 230.
Rue Anemone, 82.
Rue Family, 138.
Ruellia, 210.
Rumex, 66, 67.
Rush Family, 29.
Rutacez, 133.
Rutland Beauty, 183.
Sage, 198.
Sagittaria, 21, 22.
Salicaces, 47.
Salix, 48.
Salsify,
Salvia, 197, 198.
Sambucus, 215, 216.
Sandalwood Family, 64.
Sand Bur, 200.
Sanguinaria, 90.
Sanicle, 159.
Sanicula, 159.
Santalacese, 64.
Sarracenia, 101.
Sarraceniacee, 101.
Sarsaparilla, 157, 158.
Sassafras, 89.
Savin, 19.
Saxifraga, 102.
Saxifragacer, 101.
Saxifrage, 102.
Saxifrage Family, 101.
Schrankia, 120.
Scilla, 36.
Scleranthus, 73.
Scrophulariacez, 201, 202.
Scutellaria, 194, 195.
Sedge Family, 23.
Self-heal, 196.
Senecio, 232.
Sensitive Brier, 120,
Sensitive Rose, 120.
Service Berry, 110.
Shad Bush, 110.
Shame Vine, 120.
Sheep-lice, 189.
Sheep Sorrel, 66.
Shellbark, .51.
Shepherd’s Purse, 98.
Sheriff Pink, 281.
Shin-leaf, 165.
Shooting Star, 172.
Shrub, 88.
Sickle Pod, 98.
Sicyos, 222.
Side-saddle Flower, 101.
Silene, 78, 74.
Sisymbrium, 95.
Sisyrinchium, 46.
Skullcap, 194, 195.
Skunk Cabbage, 25.
Smilacez, 31.
Smilacina, 38.
Smilax, 41, 42.
Snakeroot, 135.
Snakeroot, Black, 159.
Snakeroot, Samson’s, 126.
Snapdragon, 203.
Snappers, 74.
Snapweed, 148.
Sneezeweed, 230.
Snowball, 216.
* Snowberry, 217.
Solanacez, 198.
Solanum, 199, 200.
Solomon’s Seal, 39, 40.
Sonchus, 237.
Sorrel, Sheep, 66.
Spanish Dagger, 38.
Spatter-dock, 77.
Spearwort, 83.
Specularia, 223, 224.
Speedwell, 205.
Spice Bush, 88, 89.
Spiderwort, 27.
Spiderwort Family, 26.
Spikenard, False, 38.
Spinach, 68.
Spinacia, 68.
Spiranthes, 46.
Spirea, 107, 108.
Spring Beauty, 70, 81.
Spruce, 16, 17.
Spurge, 136, 137.
Spurge Family, 1385.
Spurge Nettle, 137.
Squash, 222.
INDEX 255
Squawroot, 41, 208.
Squaw Vine, 214.
Squill, 36.
Squirrel Corn, 92.
Stachys, 197.
Staff-tree Family, 139.
Stagger-bush, 168.
Staphylea, 140.
Staphyleacez, 140.
Star-flower, 173.
Star-grass, 43.
Star of Bethlehem, 37.
Steironema, 173.
Stellaria, 72.
Stick-tights, 189.
Stitchwort, 72.
St. Johnswort, 149.
St. Johnswort Family, 148.
Stock, 99.
Strawberry, 118.
Strawberry Bush, 88, 140.
Straw Lilies, 33.
Streptopus, 39.
Sugar Pear, 110.
Sugar Plum, 110.
Sumach, 137, 188.
Sumach Family, 137.
Sundrops, 156.
Supple Jack, 144.
Sweet Alyssum, 99.
Sweet Bay, 86.
Sweetbrier, 116.
Sweet Cicely, 160.
Sweet Clover, 124.
Sweet Fern, 49.
Sweet Flag, 25.
Sweet Potato, 184.
Sweet-scented Shrub, 88.
Sweet William, 75.
Sycamore, 105.
Sycamore Family, 105.
256 FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY
Symphoricarpus, 217.
Symplocarpus, 25.
Syringa, 103, 176.
Tamarack, 18.
Tangleberry, 170.
Tansy Mustard, 95.
Taraxacum, 235, 236.
Tassel Tree, 148.
Taxodium, 18.
Tecoma, 207.
Thalictrum, 84.
Thaspium, 161.
Thistle, 233, 237.
Thorn, 110.
Thuya, 18, 19.
Thyme, 198.
Thymus, 198.
Tiarella, 102.
Tickseed, 229, 230.
Tilia, 147.
Tiliacesw, 146, 147.
Tinker-weed, 218.
Tipsin, 126.
Toad-fiax, 64.
Toad-flax, Wild, 203.
Tomato, 200.
Tongue-grass, 94.
Toothache-tree, 133.
Toothwort, 97.
Tradescantia, 27.
Trailing Arbutus, 169.
Trefoil, Marsh, 178.
Trientalis, 172, 173.
Trifolium, 125.
Trillium, 40, 41.
Triosteum, 218.
Tropaeolacex, 132.
Tropxolum, 132.
Tropzolum Family, 132.
Trumpet Creeper, 207.
Trumpet Flower, 207.
Tsuga, 17.
Tubuliflore2, 227, 228.
Tulip, 36.
Tulipa, 36.
Tulip Tree, 87.
Tupelo, 164.
Turkey Pea, 160.
Twin-flower, 218.
Two-eye Berry, 214.
EY pha, 20.
Typhacez, 20.
Ulmacee, 59.
Ulmus, 59, 60.
Umbellifere, 158.
Umbrella Tree, 86.
Unicorn-root, 32.
Urtica, 63.
Urticacex, 62, 63.
Utricularia, 209, 210.
Uvularia, 33.
Vaccinium, 170, 171.
Valerian, 220.
Valeriana, 220.
Valerianaceze, 220.
Valerianella, 221.
Valerian Family, 220.
Veratrum, 32.
Verbascum, 202.
Verbena, 192, 193.
Verbenacex, 192.
Verbena Family, 192.
Veronica, 204, 205.
Vervain, 192.
Vetch, 128, 129.
Viburnum, 216, 217.
Vicia, 128.
Vinca, 179.
Vine Family, 145.
Viola, 149, 150, 151.
Violacezx, 149.
Violet, 150, 151.
Violet Family, 149.
Virginia ‘Creeper, 146.
Virginia Dayflower, 27.
Vitacez, 145.
Vitis, 145, 146.
Wafer Ash, 134.
Wahoo, 140.
Wait-a-bit, 42.
Wake-robin, 40, 41.
Waldsteinia, 113.
Walnut, 50.
Walnut Family, 49, 50.
Wandering Jew, 28.
Water Chinquapin, 76.
Watercress, 96.
Waterleaf Family, 187.
Water-lily, 76.
Water-lily Family, 75.
Water Plantain, 21.
Water-plantain Family, 21.
Water Willow, 211.
Waxberry, 49.
Wax Plant, 183.
Wax-work, 139.
Weigela, 220.
White Hellebore, 32.
White Poplar, 87.
White Water-lily, 76.
Whiteweed, 231.
Whitewood, 87, 147.
Whitlavia, 188.
Wickakee, 205.
INDEX 257
Wild Coffee, 218.
Wild Flax, 203.
Wild Ginger, 65.
Wild Hyacinth, 37, 92.
Wild Licorice, 215.
Wild Lily-of-the-valley, 39.
Wild Oats, 33.
Wild Pear, 110.
Wild Pink, 74.
Wild Potato Vine, 185.
Wild Raddish, 96.
Wild Sweet William, 186.
Willow, 48.
Willow Family, 47.
Wind-flower, 81.
Winterberry, 139.
Wintergreen, 165, 173.
Wistaria, 127.
Witch-hobble, 216.
Withe-rod, 217.
Woodbine, 146.
Wood-sorrel, 131.
Wood-sorrel Family, 131.
Yarrow, 281.
Yellow Flag, 46.
Yellow Pond Lily, 77.
Yel.ow Sweet Clover, 124.
Yellowwood, 121.
Yucca, 37, 38.
Xanthoxylum, 133.
Zebrina, 28.
Zephyranthes, 42, 48.
Zizia, 161.