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Pp. 1-27 ...........- 25 2. The Essentials of Human Faculty, by Sidney Edward Mezes. Pp. 28-55 .25 8. Some Scientific Apologies for Evil, by George Malcolm Stratton. Pp. MOOR Le oes ania: 2k educa sheen SEN oa ac camreliae 15 4, Pragmatism and the a priori, by Charles Henry Rieber. Pp. 72-91 .......... -20 5. Latter-day Flowing-Philosophy, by Charles Montague Bakewell. Pp. DOVE cea cxeiaie neehw alas toe pena re Ta ta EO cl ec ot UR eR a pe Aa Suen 20 6. Some Problems in Evolution and Education, by Ernest Norton Hen- Gerson. “Pps VU GUO occas secs seus eens A ee vases rust Sate dea see ge cto auenwemenieness 10 7. Philosophy and Science in the Study of Education, by Jesse Dismukes Burks. (PP: 125-140 escesesccvscevees sreesyes diye evaacy cashes sacsenbecaaveancanesy ee 15 8. The Dialectic of Bruno and Spinoza, by Arthur Oncken Lovejoy. Pp. * MARISTA: can tanbie tues ae atnetabiwe acer etoees sea denmasenio ace eesc ste ae saese sus ecenaereriecaeed «25 9. The Logic of Self-Realization, by Henry Waldgrave Stuart. Pp. 175-205 .30 10. Utility and the Accepted Type, by Theodore de Lopes de Laguna. Pp. 206-226 .20 Lee A4sq4alo UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-59 March 30, 1918 s AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ABNORMAL CHILDREN, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE PROBLEMS OF DEPENDENCY AND DELINQUENCY BY OLGA BRIDGMAN, M.D., Px.D. CONTENTS PAGE I. Introduction 2 Opportunities for special studies; Definition of types of environment; Definition of the terms dependency and delin- quency. II. Special study of the group of delinquent children -......................----- 7 Offenses; Measurement of the intelligence by the Binet scale; Limitations to the use of the Binet scale; Employments; Parents; Environment. III. Special study of the group of dependent children -.............------ 31 Age of the dependent children; Chronological and mental ages compared; Delinquent and dependent children compared; Parents of dependent children; Family status of dependent children; Employment of parents; Nativity of parents; En- vironment of dependent children. IV. Notes on cases in miscellaneous group ....-.----..-.-.-.-..cece cece eeeeeteeee 47 V. General conclusion 50 VI. Appendix: summary of typical case-histories ~.........-.---.----ceeeeee 55 2 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou INTRODUCTION The following study of abnormal children has been made in the Psychological Clinic of the Children’s Out-Patient Depart- ment of the University of California Hospital in San Francisco. The Psychological Clinic was established in January, 1914, under the direct supervision of the Department of Pediatrics of the Medical School and with the co-operation of the Department of Psychology of the University in Berkeley. It was created in response to a recognized demand for the special services it could render, in that many defective and peculiar children were appearing and were not being cared for satisfactorily. The Psychological Clinic has been most fortunate in its association with a medical school and hospital; through their special clinics it has been possible to determine accurately the child’s physical condition and to observe the effects of appropriate care on his mental progress. With the assistance of the Social Service De- partment of the Hospital, information has been assembled as to home conditions—the social and financial standing of the family—and as to hereditary traits. Opportumties for special studies——It has been possible in this clinic, perhaps largely because of its connection with a state university, to investigate certain particular problems which arise in connection with the study of mental deficiency. geet ara AMM OtHOTS) nccssoceccecececes since deceesceere -102 -205 316 Dota) wasvecesnverssces. yess cesesete 1.000 1.000 1.000 foreign-born persons, and the comparatively large number of de- pendents and of delinquents in the group of native-born of foreign or mixed parentage. This may in part be explained by the fact that the larger number of foreign-born persons are above the age at which they would come before the juvenile court when first admitted to this country, so that the number of foreign-born juvenile delinquents would not represent the correct proportion of delinquency actually occurring in the foreign-born popula- tion. However, the proportions of dependents and delinquents in each foreign nationality as compared with the population of that foreign nationality in San Francisco, correspond rather closely. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 29 As has already been pointed out, the number of cases avail- able for this study is not sufficient to make the results conclusive, though they agree on the whole with conclusions of other investi- gators. As regards the different nationalities represented, the most striking single fact brought out is the comparatively large number of Italians having dependent and delinquent children. More children of Italian parentage are delinquent than of any other, whereas, relative to the number of population, Italy is third on the list as determined by the thirteenth United States Census, and far below either Germany or Ireland. (See table 17.) This result tends to confirm the idea, already common, that the Italians as they are now coming into this country—that is, from southern Italy and Sicily—are on the whole undesirable additions to the population. An interesting fact with regard to Germany is brought out by comparing the percentage of delinquent children with that of the dependents. Approxi- mately 11 per cent of the total number of delinquent children are the children of German-born parents, while only 5 per cent of the dependents are of German parentage. In the case of the Italians, on the other hand, the percentages indicating de- linquency and dependency are much more nearly equal. These facts would suggest that the difficulty with the Italian group is a rather marked inability to cope with the situation met in city life, whereas with the Germans this difficulty is not prominent. The delinquency of the Italians may be purely secondary, due to their lack of adaptability to trying conditions, whereas in the case of the Germans other factors enter in. Environment of delinquent children.—Table 22, showing the environment of delinquent children, judged according to the scheme previously described (see pp. 3 ff.), shows that in the vast majority of cases the surroundings in which these unfor- tunate children have developed have been very far from desir- able. Of the two hundred and five delinquent children, only forty-seven, or 23 per cent, have had such an environment as falls to the lot of the average child. Sixty, or 29 per cent, have 30 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou TABLE 22.—ENVIRONMENT OF DELINQUENT CHILDREN: CASES UNDER EACH Environment always go0d .........-.::::::e-e-+ 47 23% Environment always bad ...........-.:-.--- 60 29% Environment always unsatisfactory .........- 94 46% Environment unknown ........---.:02:::-cseeeeee 4 2% Total 205 100% grown up in positively vicious surroundings, while ninety-four, or 45 per cent, have had surroundings which were not satisfac- tory, though they were not actually vicious. The problem of the unsuccessful home, therefore, is seen to loom large in the. whole problem of delinquency. Heredity is probably the im- portant factor in the production of actual feeble-mindedness, but in the causation of delinquency, environment is as large a factor as heredity, if not a larger one. It has been well said that heredity gives the plasticity of the substance, environment the mould into which it is poured. Hence, since it is recognized that the development of the moral sense depends to a large de- gree on the early training and environment, it must also be agreed that much of juvenile delinquency is directly the result of a defective environment. To be sure, defective or markedly abnormal parents could hardly give their children normal homes, so that, in very many cases, the children with bad hereditary tendencies are also subjected to the worst possible surroundings. That they themselves should be abnormal is the only possible outcome. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 31 SPECIAL STUDY OF THE GROUP OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN The next group to be considered will be the group of depen- dent children. Of the total number of children coming to the clinic, one hundred and thirty-three were dependent to a large extent on public aid. These children were for the most part referred to the clinic by public agencies, the great majority coming from the associated charities’ organizations and the juvenile courts. The following table shows the distribution of dependent children according to the agencies interested in their care. The dependent children, as a whole, are probably less TABLE 23.—AGENCIES REFERRING DEPENDENT CHILDREN TO THE CLINIC; NUMBER OF CASES Associated Charities 56 Juvenile Court 35 Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum .....W....2222..22-222-2:2120e- 13 Catholic Humane Bureau ...........2...2....::c1ccececeeeceeeeeeneeeees University of California Hospital ....... 22... Pacific Hebrew Orphanage Widows’ Pension Burea ........-..-..-----10----1----ceeeceteeeecee Children’s Home Society .............222.....::-::c:ce:ceeeceeeteeeeeeeeeeees Children’s Hospital Protestant Orphan Asylum ..........2.....2:ce:ceeeee te People’s Place (Social Settlement) -._-.2--.---------- Nurses’ Settlement Hebrew Board of Relief ..............22.--------cecseececcseeeertereee eee State Children’s Visitor ~.......2...-...--:-:e:eceeee tet McKinley Orphanage ~.........---.-:ce:ccceeeeecee teen eeeecee School higcepia esa a deacon aks Total 133 TasLE 24.—SEx oF DEPENDENT CHILDREN Boys 66 Girls 67 Total 133 32 University of California Publications in Psychology [VoU3 representative of dependency than are the delinquents; it is therefore likely that in some instances the conclusions will be less accurate for the dependent cases. The larger number of these children are the children of parents who are almost con- tinuously in need of aid from public agencies. However, a goodly number has been sent from orphanages and home-finding agencies and it has been gratifying to note a growing tendency on the part of such institutions to demand that a child, before being placed for adoption, shall have a clean bill of mental and physical health. This policy can hardly fail to increase the confidence of the public in the child-placing agencies and will perhaps also increase the number of careful and conscientious persons who will be willing to undertake the great responsibility of caring for dependent children in good homes. Age of dependent children.—The average age of the depen- dent children is, as would be expected, less than that of the delinquents, and it is unfortunately true that as they grow older a certain proportion of the dependents, especially those whose parents are continuously in need of public aid and whose homes TABLE 25,—DISTRIBUTION OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN ACCORDING TO CHRONOLOGICAL AGE 4 2 DY PS iecceccervee nce nc he 5 3 Gi Fe 6 5 mes 7 6 8. 4 8 8 QETED chee 9 4 TO 8 see 10 5 pi eee 11 4 HQ ao 12 9 MB ie OO ae 13 5 W488 soca 14 6 15) Pf oo. 15 7 16) FE 18 2 BO ss _ 250 8 os Ota! xecesecssncsseurtasivs csccaseeeees ccs 66 36 ‘é 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 33 TaBLE 26.—DISTRIBUTION OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN ACCORDING TO MENTAL AGE Boys Girls are not satisfactory, will become delinquent and will later be included in that group of dependents who are also delinquent. The average age of the dependent boys is ten years and of the dependent girls twelve years. The difference in age of the sexes may be accounted for, at least in part, by the fact that it is easier for young boys to become self-supporting than it is for girls; hence the boy falls out of the group of dependents more easily and at an earlier age than the girl. Chronological and mental ages compared.—The average men- tal age of the dependent children is almost the same for both boys and girls, being a little over eight years. A comparison of the mental with the chronological age shows that the average mental age of the boys is two years less than the average chrono- logical age, while the average mental age of the girls is four years less than the chronological age. This would indicate, in at least this group of dependent children, that the girls are on the whole more backward than the boys. This may be par- tially explained by the fact that the boys as a group are younger and, as a result, defect does not show itself as clearly as it may in later years. The fact, too, that the boys are more likely than the girls to be held as delinquent on small provocation 34 University of California Publications in Psychology [VoU3 would tend to make a larger number of the boys appear in the group of delinquents, where the average chronological age of the boys is greater than in the dependent group. It not infrequently occurs that, in the families where the girls are No. 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 - own eke Age 0 12 8 4 5 G6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 Graph 8. Mental age of dependent boys and girls. Boys, solid line. Girls, dotted line. Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Over 18 Graph 9. Chronological age of dependent boys and girls. Boys, solid line. ‘Girls, dotted line. dependent, there may be boys even younger who already have delinquency records in the juvenile court. The following table gives the diagnosis of the dependent children when classified according to the Binet scale. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 35. TABLE 27.—DIAGNOSIS OF THE DEPENDENT CHILDREN GRADED BY THE BIXET SCALE Boys Girls BQO tse eee ee 1 GIG by sevirh meee ent eee as 1 Imbecile .. 0 Imbecile .... 6 MOronh eecsssetecse exeeens 13 INGO GOT, 252. sc)ssectet sat cect ee oeschee ds, 13 Defective 4 Defective .. 1 Backward .... 21 Backward .. so OT Normal 26 Normal oo. .eeeeeeeeceecceceeeeeeeeeceee seen 19 Die Sess eau etecse austere aed 1 — —_— ENO asycicnsssieun meena: 67 MOC alt cee ett 66 Delinquent and dependent children compared.—By means of graphs 10 to 13 inclusive, it is easy to compare, with respect to mental and chronological age, the delinquent and the dependent children making up this study. These curves show clearly that as the chronological age increases the number of delinquents in- creases very rapidly. The number of dependent children over fourteen years of age is comparatively small, whereas the larger number of delinquents are more than fourteen years old. It is known that, to a considerable extent, the delinquents have been recruited from the ranks of the dependents and that in reality many of the delinquents are simply dependents grown older. The group of. delinquent children may be subdivided into the two divisions, those who have always been largely dependent on outside aid and those who have come from homes which have been financially independent. Of the two hundred and five delinquent children, sixty-two are also dependent and could be included in the dependency group except for the special fact of their delinquency. The table giving the diagnosis of the dependent children as classified according to the Binet scale shows that for both boys and girls thirty-five, or 26 per cent, are actually feeble-minded, forty-five, or 34 per cent, are normal, and the rest, fifty-three, or 40 per cent, are on the border-line between the normal and the feeble-minded, with a certainty that a considerable number will not develop to adult years in a normal manner. These dependent children form an exceedingly 36 University of California Publications in Psychology [VoU-8 No. 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 on ey OS ' i . ' ae Age 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 18 Graph 10. Mental ages of dependent and of delinquent boys. Delinquent, solid line. Dependent, dotted line. No. 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 own ky OD Chron. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 17 18 Over18 age Graph 11. Chronological ages of dependent and of delinquent boys. Delinquent, solid line. Dependent, dotted line. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 37 0) cere — toe ae re ae Mental 0 1 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 15 18 Graph 12. Mental ages of dependent and of delinquent girls. Delinquent, solid line. Dependent, dotted line. a ow zoe Eres r é eee Chron. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Over 18 age Graph 13. Chronological ages of dependent and of delinquent girls. Delinquent, solid line. Dependent, dotted line. 38 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou 3 TaBLE 28.—MENTAL STATUS OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN Feeble-minded, including one insane .......... 35 26% Backward or defective ..........cc:cccccseeceeeee 53 40% Normal or precocious .............:..cccsecceeeeeceeeee 45 34% Total 133 100% TaBLE 29.—MENTAL Stratus or DELINQUEBNT CHILDREN Feeble-minded, including one insane .......... 76 37% Backward or defective 64 31% Normal or precocious ..........2..2:.:ce::1eececeeeee 65 32% Total 205 100% CE Normal or precocious Backward or m0 defective Feeble-minded | | (including one insane) Hy Graph 14. Mental status of dependent children. Normal or Co precocious Backward or mmm defective Feeble-minded (including one insane) Graph 15. Mental status of delinquent children. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 39 important social group. There are many of them at present and their number is not likely to become smaller. The problem of caring for them is a serious one and it is quite obvious that no means should be overlooked for its solution both in the interests of thé children and of society. More than half, as the above percentages show, require special care, and a failure to provide this necessary care must be followed bY disastrous consequences. None of this particular group has as yet been seriously delin- quent, but there is a strong probability that a good many will become delinquent if not cared for in a far-sighted manner. Surely the feeble-minded can never be held morally responsible ; and the best policy, and in the end the most economical one, will be to make a close study of this class of children and to provide for them during the rest of their lives, that they may never become more dangerous or unhappy than they are at present. Parents of dependent children—The study of the parents of the dependent children is fully as instructive as is that of TABLE 30.—CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN ACCORDING TO TYPES OF PARENTS Both. parents: inefficient .2.22.c.ces:c0cessescsssceecsseesesieciesiteweseeeneste 67 Both parents unknown Father insane, mother inefficient -...........000000000002002 ee 4 Father inefficient, mother insane ~..........0---20-..-eeeeeeeeee 2 Father inefficient, mother neurotic -..........----.-------e- 1 2 3 2 Both parents Neurotic <...::..cccssacsccscescecserseseeensceeeeneteesseeeeseeeess Father normal, mother inefficient -........0..0.---- ee Mother normal, father inefficient 0.2. 1 Both parents normal 24 TABLE 31.—CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN, SHOWING EXTENT OF DEPENDENCY Children. in: institutions) 2c..c6s.c..s20s2:ccssscce cece ences ssesteeeesteenceees 39 Children from families in constant need of aid ...............- 55 Children of widows receiving widows’ pension ............-..- 20 Children in foster-homes ......-.....2..2:--:--::-:escceeeeeeceeececeeeeeeeeee 19 Total 133 40 TABLE 32.—DEPENDENT CHILDREN WITH NorRMAL OR ABNORMAL PARENTS Both parents normal ........0....0..2:2::cscceee One parent normal ........2.eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees Both parents abnormal ..........2...-:eee Both parents unknown ............2-22.1:+---- TABLE 33.—DELINQUENT CHILDREN WITH NORMAL OR Both parents normal One parent normal ... Both parents abnormal .. Both parents unknown .... oa One parent abnormal, the other unknow: Total Graph 16. Proportion of normal and abnormal parents in the group of dependent children. Graph 17. Proportions of normal and abnormal parents in the group of delinquent children. 33 14 University of California Publications in Psychology (VoU-3 18% 11% 57% 14% 100% ABNORMAL PARENTS 16% 7% 48% 13% 16% 100% Both parents abnormal = Tm =| cE] Both parents unknown One parent normal Both parents normal Both parents abnormal fou Both parents unknown One parent EE normal One parent ablormal the other unknown Both parents normal 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 41 the parents of the delinquents. Results here again tend to show that the two groups of dependents and delinquents are not fundamentally very different. There is in the dependent group a somewhat larger proportion of children having both parents abnormal, but otherwise the tables and graphs are strikingly alike. (See graphs 16 and 17.) The following tables indicate the types of the parents of the dependent children according to the scheme which was used for the delinquents. Fanily status of dependents.—Table 34 shows that the father is absent from the home in a much larger number of instances than is the mother. This would of course be expected, since the father is the usual bread-winner and his death or desertion would in most cases at once render the family dependent. TABLE 34.—FAMILY STATUS OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN, ACCORDING TO PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF PARENTS Both parents living and together ...........00000 2. 29 Both parents dead or unknown ............---.0.---ceeeeeeeeeee 19 Father living, mother dead: or unknown ............--.------------ 19 Father dead or unknown, mother living -......--22------- 41 Mother at home, deserted by father ..........000.- ee 13 Father at home, deserted by mother 3 Deserted by both parents -........ 7 Condition of parents unknown .........2.0-20---ceeeeee eee 2 Total 133 TaBLeE 35.—PARENTS NOT LIVING TOGETHER Divoreed 5 Separated 18 Total .cz6ec.d33 cae eserves rntreeedese sees 23 TaBLE 36.—FAMILY CONDITION OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN RELATIVE TO THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF PARENTS Both parents living and together ...............--.-------- 29 22% One or both parents dead or away from home ...... 102 77% Condition of parents unknown .........-....----::------- 7 1% Mota, cscccesteeestentesareterree eestor 133 100% 42 University of California Publications in Psychology [VU-3 TABLE 37.—FAMILY CONDITION OF DELINQUENT CHILDREN RELATIVE TO THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF PARENTS Both parents living and together ...............------ 71 35% One or both parents dead or away from home ...... 131 64% Condition of parents unknown 3 1% TO belly 225 as sets ees lo cg were ee ‘ 205 100% One or both parents GM dead or away from home Cy] Both parents living and together im Condition of parents unknown Graph 18. Family condition of dependent children in respect to the presence or absence of one or both parents. e One or both parents dead or away from home Both parents living and together lf Condition of parents unknown Graph 19. Family condition of delinquent children in respect to the presence or absence of one or both parents. Employment of parents of dependents——The occupations of the parents of the dependent children are somewhat less varied than is the case with the delinquents, but their general type is the same. Unskilled occupations and those in which employ- 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 48 ment is of necessity irregular predominate. A larger propor- tion of the fathers of dependents are unskilled day-laborers, but otherwise the two tables might almost be interchanged. TaBLE 38.—OCCUPATIONS OF PARENTS OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN Father LDOLED ncceccereeeree neers 25 Mercbant) <:c2002.--cs0eatieeesnctsee 1 GBationary engineer .................... 4 TOAMStOE: ...ei:2.2:c:cacscscecethscncseseeeste 1 Fruit-peddler _.......0...000.ee 3 Model-maker .....: Sabet hites gat natles i Carpenter ..... » 8 Boiler-washer .............. 1 Ranch hand ..... 2 2 Seller of lottery tickets . 1 Longshoreman ....... e 32 Woodeutter 0.00... 1 Street-lamp lighter —............. 2 Hleetrician: ........::.2c.seesecses-tecseese al Pain tenet. i te te 2 DalOn” ponies noon 1 Buttonhole maker................--.....- 2 Night watchman .........22..2.0-... 1 Tin-Teofer vecccsesdes eaters 1 “Gentleman? excesses 1 Conductor’ ec. eevee ee ree 1 Printer -........ = Bun ere cco ss8s28 2occctcsschadeincsctseess 1 Plasterer ..... = Shipping clerk 1 No occupation ........ = 7a Paper-hanger 1 Occupation unknown ................ 67 Steved ore: scvccccsscoesregeeevpenececcsucene 1 a Architect 22s) oses erases eee 1 otal uesesceeeeenseeeirye ovate: 133 PUTS TAN 2224.5. 2bseasteassbeeeaesseasacdecs: 1 Mother Housewife ..W..........:-:ccecceececeeees 70 Packing-house hand ...............- i Day-S@rvanit) sniicnonciecciate: 12 Daneing girl -......-2..- ee 1 Factory hand .........2..2020- 3 Domestic servant ..........--..------ 1 Practical nurse .........-..---------- 2 Rooming-house keeper .- 1 Laundry-worker ..........--.-.-... 2 Occupation unknown ................ 36 Dressmaker .... 2 = Prostitute 2 PQA wccisscsesacspdccns ttre ccckebacee 133 Nativity of parents—Table 40 shows that Italy again has a number of individuals in the list far in excess of what she should have when the number of foreign-born Italians in San Francisco is taken into consideration. In this list Ireland is second in having many dependents, while Germany, which was second in the delinquency table, is fifth in the dependency list. This indi- cates that the Germans, at least in San Francisco, have a greater tendency to delinquency than to dependency and that in respect to delinquency they are far less desirable immigrants than in 44 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vow 8 respect to dependency. It must always be borne in mind, how- ever, that the numbers which are being considered here are so small that the indications are not conclusive. TABLE 39.—NaTIVITY OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN Native-born of native-born parents ..............:-::c:cceeeeeee 34 Native-born of mixed parentage .................- : 8 Native-born of foreign-born parents ............ - 44 Foreign-born of foreign-born parents 13 Nativity umkmown ...0....2..2..2-.c2ccccecceceeceeeeceeteceecesneenenaecccnaeeesaees 34 Total 133 TaBLE 40.—NATIVE COUNTRY OF FOREIGN-BORN PARENTS Thalys svt sts ssiotstag Nas eee ee 26 Prelan O « cocv sos eee itesscveetes see ecoa tee eeeeenree esses 23 Spain 19 France 4 14 Germany . DOPtO RIGO: secevenaisiccescecseive sevessieeci ness cde deacevstseasee Cad roa ios io nee Sag Ane ee Aa Scotland Hawaii Mexico Russia England Sweden Norway Portugal ceccisscisereenrcoacswraseenweneens Be) OR WIT peeves tres cutest eel ed asta taie saad peeshe uss Finland Total ‘ 122 Environment of dependent children.—The table showing the environment of the dependent children, based on the same scheme as was used in the case of the delinquents, shows again a marked resemblance between the delinquent and the dependent children. Most of the dependent children come from bad or unsatisfactory homes, but a somewhat larger proportion comes from good homes —namely, 34 per cent of the dependents, as against 23 per cent 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 45 of the delinquents. In this connection the group of delinquents who are also dependent has been considered separately, and of this group almost none come from good homes, merely 3 per cent of the total. TABLE 41,—ENVIRONMENT OF DEPENDENTS Environment 004 2... 45 34% Environment bad ..2.......2..22::::-2sceeseeeeeeeeee 29 22% Environment unsatisfactory ..........-......--...- 58 43% Environment unknown ....W..0...22.---0-eceeeeeeee A 1% Ota cecessesstvsecetrnectreceiece 133 100% TABLE 42.—ENVIRONMENT OF DEPENDENT-DELINQUENTS Environment good ........-.2--2:.ccsssescceseceeeeeees 2 3% BOWVITOMMICHE DAG. oeseeneccceccicnesemncienesttigeeeces 27 44% Environment unsatisfactory ....................-..- 33 53% Total 62 100% 46 University of California Publications in Psychology (VoU3 Dependents. . Bad environ- | ment Unsatisfactory il environment Ss Environment unknown Good environ- ment - Delinquents. Dependent delinquents. Graphs 20, 21 and 22. Environmental conditions of various groups of children. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 47- NOTES ON GROUP OF MISCELLANEOUS CASES This last group consists of children coming to the clinic, who for some reason seemed to be abnormal. They are interesting only as individuals or as examples of the types of children that are brought to a psychological clinic for some apparent abnormality. There were one hundred and twelve of these children. When graded according to the Binet scale, the results shown in table 43 were obtained. Those children, ranking TABLE 43.—DIAGNOSES OF CASES ACCORDING TO THE BINET SCALE Idiot 7 Tm beeil@) sess: ceccveseeety ieee cence esac eccasecanathis caaceses 15 Moron 14 Defective 2 Backward 31 Normal) 5 :stecceseapeeeestieist at etre uns Guin ies 42 ?(Insane) 1 ADOGAI vase cteesceseuteteet ee ata aveneeneeneetas 112 according to the Binet scale as normal or approximately normal in respect to general intelligence, present a number of interesting mental, physical and neurological abnormalities. They are briefly summarized in table 44. TABLE 44.—-CHILDREN GRADED AS NORMAL BY THE BINET SCALE Normal in every respect 7 Neurotic and mentally unstable .........00.-.eee eects 13 Pile pte ascscineedcasdssuteciseccesetessdized a veotet tevnsiaesSusnveeataseatidcnegessacseees 8 Given to violent fits of temper ..........0.00.20.0:c:ceeeeeeeeee 3 Suffering from adenoids ..............0...-0-------- 3 Comgenitally GOAL: ccs. ceceisscceseyssesgechectcecesthecessincteeseeeessmtetaestctic 2 -Unable to learn to spell ..............2.... cece eeeen cee ceeenere renee 1 Chole: e.see eset 1 Ill with pulmonary tuberculosis . 1 Suffering from defective vision .........0.0..0.0.. cece 1 Lazy and inefficient ..........0...... 1 Paraly tie. cci22.2ccscssciestieetiiestinrcitaverrr ies iL Total < eye ean Vestas sich aera no encnties en cal threanins 42 48 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vow TaBLE 45,—CHRONOLOGICAL AGES OF THE MISCELLANEOUS GROUP Girls “ke FOB ONA AB 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 22 28 36 TaBLE 46.—MENTAL AGES OF THE MISCELLANEOUS GROUP Boys Girls 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 4 4 2 5 5 4 6 6 7 7 a 3 8 8 7 9 9 2 10 10 4 Td; 11 8 12 12 2 15 15 2 ? g eft 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 49 Among the backward and feeble-minded children in this miscellaneous class there were to be found nearly as many types as in the so-called normal group. Among them were two epi- leptics, four paralyties, four Mongolian idiots, one hydrocephalic, two cretins, besides a number of children who were constitution- ally psychopathic. This whole group has been a most interest- ing one because of the number of rather nmusual mental and nervous disorders which have been brought to the attention of the examiners. These children were brought in usually by their own parents; they came as a rule from fairly good homes, and because of the natural reticence on the part of the parents the study of the social background was not at all satisfactory. As individual cases, however, they have helped to make the work in the clinic rich in special opportunities for studying mental and physical abnormality. 50 University of California Publications in Psychology (Vow. GENERAL CONCLUSION As has been shown in the preceding pages, of the delinquent children included in this study, 36 per cent may be considered definitely feeble-minded, 32 per cent backward or with a defect less than actual feeble-mindedness, and 32 per cent normal so far as general intelligence is concerned. In the group of de- pendents, 26 per cent may be regarded as feeble-minded, 39 per cent as backward or defective, and 34 per cent as normal. The fact that the ages of the two groups, delinquents and dependents, differ materially, may account, to a very large extent, for the differences in the percentages of defect in the two classes. As the younger backward children grow older, many will unques- tionably continue to lag in their development and later will go to make up a larger group of feeble-minded children. Considerable work has been done by other persons with delinquent children, but there are no adequate statistics avail- able as to the mental status of dependents as a class. It has been estimated that 50 per cent of the inmates of almshouses are feeble-minded, but this is based on more or less superficial and untrained observation, and cannot be accepted as conclusive. Much more reliable figures are to be had as to the mental status of offenders, both juvenile and adult, but even in these there is considerable variance. Dr. Goddard concludes that probably 25 per cent to 50 per cent of the people in prisons are mentally defective, and that 50 per cent of prostitutes are feeble-minded. These conclusions he bases on the reports of tests made on indi- viduals in reformatory institutions, the results of which are shown in table 47 taken from his recent publication.* The report of the Massachusetts ‘‘Commission for the Inves- tigation of the White Slave Traffic, So-called,’’ gives the results obtained from testing a group of three hundred prostitutes by 4 Goddard, H. H., Feeble-mindedness: its causes and consequences, New York, Macmillan, 1914, p. 9. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 51 TaBLE 47.—DEFECTIVES IN REFORMATORY INSTITUTIONS Percentage Institution Defective St. Cloud, Minnesota, Reformatory -0.0...2...:c:c:cseccscecececeecseeseeneeeees 54 Rahway Reformatory (New Jersey) (Binet) ......... 46 Bedford Reformatory, New York (under 11 years) .. 80 Lancaster, Massachusetts (Girls’ Reformatory) -.. - 60 Laneaster, Massachusetts (50 paroled girls) .........00.220.020---- 82 Lyman School for Boys, Westborough, Mapesebustile geec Aveviesch 28 Pentonville, Illinois, Juveniles 40 Massachusetts Reformatory, Concord .........2....2:2:2:c:ceseeeeseeseeeeeeeeee 52 Newark, New Jersey, Juvenile Court ..........20...2:.1ecceecceeeeceseeeeeeteees 66 Blmita. “RETOPMAtOLy - css ed ele ee ao oe cetera 70 Geneva, Illinois (Binet) ..... 89 Ohio ‘Boys’ School. (Bimet) vecscesccesnceosseei nerves oe eens 70 Ohio Girls’ School (Binet) 70 Virginia, three reformatories (Binet) -..........2..2.2.2::1::eeceeeeeeee 79 New Jersey State Home for Girls -...2......0.0.20..20csccececeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 75 Glen Mills Schools, Pennsylvania, Girls’ Dept., about .................. 72 the Binet scale. Of the total three hundred cases, one hundred and fifty-four, or 51 per cent, were unquestionably feeble- minded. This estimate is very conservative, for all doubtful cases were called normal, and it was recognized by the examiners that of the one hundred and thirty-five called normal ‘‘not more than six of the entire group seemed to have really good minds.’’ The report further states that at the Massachusetts school for the feeble-minded ‘‘are an equal number of women and girls, medically and legally certified as feeble-minded, who are of equal or superior mental capacity’’ to the above-mentioned one hun- dred and thirty-five cases classed as normal. The report of the work of the Morals Court in Chicago gives the estimate that 50 per cent of women prostitutes are mentally defective, this conclusion being based on an investigation of the school grades attained by the women. W. H. Pyle® studied two hundred and forty delinquent girls in the State Industrial Home for Girls, in Chillicothe, Missouri. He made use of groups of tests for invention, free association, 5 Pyle, W. H., A study of delinquent girls, Psychological Clinic, vit, 143-149, October, 1914. 52 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou memory and imagination, and concluded that two-thirds of the girls were subnormal, probably high-grade morons. He did not use the Binet tests, because of lack of time for the individual tests. Miss Margaret Otis, resident psychologist in the State Home for Girls in Trenton, New Jersey,’ has reported the results of her examinations of one hundred and seventy-two of the girls in this institution and finds only 25 per cent ‘‘presumably normal.’’ The remaining 75 per cent are ‘‘Defective,’’ 30 per cent being ‘‘Morons.”’ Dr. William Healy, of the Chicago Juvenile Psychopathic Institute,?7 has examined one thousand young recidivists, by means of a group of. tests devised by himself and Dr. Grace Fernald, and concludes that ‘‘about 10 per cent’’ of this group of cases are ‘‘beyond peradventure feeble-minded’’ and that 67.4 are cases ‘‘that should be regarded without question as mentally normal.’’ Although Healy finds a much larger pro- portion of his young offenders normal than do most observers, still he concludes that ‘‘mental defect forms the largest single cause of delinquency to be found by correlating tendency to offend with characteristics of the offender.’’ Miss Emile Renz, of Columbus, Ohio,? has made a careful study of one hundred consecutive admissions to the Ohio Girls’ Industrial Home, all of the inmates of which had been committed by the court with the statement that the intellect was sound, with the concession made in two cases, ‘‘but not apt.’’ Of these one hundred girls, 79 per cent show more than three years’ retardation. Two of them pass the twelve-year tests and. there- fore pass into the lowest stratum of normals, leaving 77 per cent feeble-minded, according to the Binet classification. Three years’ retardation is coming to be considered too little on which ~ 6Otis, Margaret, Binet tests applied to delinquent girls, Psychological Clinic, vil, 127-135, October, 1913. 7 Healy, William, The individual delinquent. Boston, Little, 1915, pp. 140, 447. 8 Renz, Emile, A study of the intelligence of delinquents and the eugenic significance of mental defect, Training School Bulletin, x1, 37-40, May, 1914. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 53 to make the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness, and if a retardation of four years is required, the number of feeble-minded in the one hundred cases drops to 58 per cent. Miss Renz considers that 58 per cent ‘‘represents the moderate statement, and a trust- worthy figure for theoretic purposes.’’ George S. Addams, Judge of the Juvenile Court of Cleveland, Ohio,® in a report to the National Cenference of Charities and Corrections, makes a strong plea for mental examinations of children in the courts, emphasizing the importance of mental deficiency in the causation of vice and crime. He states that of one hundred consecutive commitments to the Boys’ Industrial School of Ohio, only seventeen were found normal, the balance being border-line, backward or defective. H. B. Hickman of the Indiana Boys’ School? tested two hundred and twenty-nine boys in that institution by the Binet scale and concluded that of the whole number ‘‘only about sixty-three will be able to get out and take anything like a normal station in society, at least forty-five will always be unfit for anything except institution life, and the remainder will always require assistance of some kind toward making their living.’’ . The George Junior Republic, in Freeville, New York, has also had to face the problem of mental deficiency in the case of some of its ‘citizens.’ The fact that a few of these children had failed to benefit as they should have done by the methods of the Republic, led the Educational Department of Cornell Uni- versity to carry out, at the request of the Republic, tests of mental status on the more troublesome cases. As a result, a series of clinics was held and twenty-six of the ‘citizens.’ twenty boys and six girls, were tested according to Goddard's revision of the 1911 Binet-Simon tests.11 Of the six girls, two were 29 Addams, Geo. S., Defectives in the juvenile court, Training School Bulletin, x1, 49-55, June, 1914. 10 Hickman, H. B., Delinquent and criminal boys tested by the Binet scale, Training School Bulletin, x1, 159-165, January, 1915. 11 Jennings, H. M., and Hallock, A. L., Binet-Simon tests at the George Junior Republic, Jour. Educ. Psychol., 1v, 471-475, October, 1913. 54 University of California Publications in Psychology [VU 3 definitely defective and two probably defective. It was con- cluded that the first two should be removed from the Republic and the second two should be re-tested later for signs of improve- ment. Of the twenty boys tested, three were graded as morons and their removal from the Republic was advised. The next four were border-line cases, needing further study; the remain- ing thirteen were normal. The examiners have concluded that “the tests have served a real purpose in the practical admin- istration of the Freeville Republic, and it is planned that in the future no applicants for admission to citizenship will be received until their mental status has been scientifically determined.’’ All the evidence points to the same conclusion: that a large proportion of delinquents are defective, and that the mental deficiency has undoubtedly exercised a large influence in the causation of their delinquency. An important next step in- cludes careful study of delinquents wherever they are found, and beyond this a study of the school population in order to determine as nearly as possible which of the school children will be clearly incapable of developing normally, and to make adequate plans for them before they become delinquent. If this is to be done successfully, the whole class of dependents must also be carefully studied and permanent plans must be made for them, so that, when they arrive at an age when state laws no longer provide for their maintenance, any who need special care or supervision can be provided for permanently. Measures looking toward this end will prevent many dependent children from becoming delinquent as soon as the rather unusual supervision exercised over them by the state, either in institu- tions or in boarding-homes or under the provisions of the ‘Widows’ Pension Law, has been removed. 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 55 APPENDIX Summary oF Typicat Case-HisTorIes Case 29.—M. J. was referred to the Psychological Clinie by the maternity ward of the University Hospital, because she seemed defective. It was said of her that she used such bad language that she could not be allowed to remain in the ward with the other patients. She was an unmarried woman of thirty-two vears and had an infant a few weeks old. This woman's parents had died when she was about seven years old and she was placed in an orphanage. There she remained until she was fifteen years old, when work was found for her in a private home as a domestic servant and she was discharged from the institution. In less than a year’s time she gave birth to an illegitimate child, which had a hare-lip and died when three days old. From that time till about a year ago she supported herself by doing housework. Under supervision she works very well, but morally she is entirely irresponsible. According to the Binet scale she has a mental age of nine years and is distinctly feeble-minded. All other tests show her equally de- fective. She has already had two illegitimate children and if left at large, will almost certainly have more. She is assuredly a person who needs care and protection such as could be given her in the proper institution; society should find means of protecting itself against such individuals. Case 32—C. G. is a fourteen-year-old girl sent to the Psychological Clinic by the Associated Charities of San Fran- cisco. The father is unknown and the mother is alcoholic and immoral. The mother has also been considered mentally defec- tive. For six years C. G. has been in a foster-home where she has received good care and training. She is now in the second grade in school and is clearly a defective child. She occasionally has epileptic convulsions. According to the Binet scale she has 56 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou 3 a mental age of eight years and will never be a normal person. She will never be able to support herself without a very large measure of supervision and should certainly not be thrown upon her own responsibilities at any time. Steps should be taken to place her in an institution for the feeble-minded before it be- comes necessary to release her from the care of the Children’s Agency of the Associated Charities of San Francisco. There she would learn to do simple, routine work, and would be protected during the rest of her life from the dangers to which she would be exposed if left at large. Case 39.—-C. M. is a fourteen-year-old boy sent to the clinic by the Associated Charities. Three years ago he was taken from his parents, both of whom were known to be immoral, and com- mitted to the Children’s Agency. He was at that time in an exceedingly bad physical condition as the result of hereditary syphilis, and it was necessary to keep him in a hospital for two years, receiving appropriate treatment, before it was considered safe to place him in a foster-home. For the past year he has been in a good home and has improved greatly both mentally and physically. According to the Binet scale he has a mental age of nine years with a retardation of five years. He is now in the third grade in school. Until a year ago this boy had never ‘ attended school. In spite of his great physical handicap his progress has been gratifying, and, although he is still far from normal, some further improvement is to be expected. Cases 40, 65, 91 and 92.—These four children were brought to the clinie from one of the orphanages of San Francisco. N. D. and N. S. are brother and sister, as are J. J. and J. 8S. They all have the same maternal grandmother. The parents of N. D. and N. 8. were both drunkards, and the mother died of pulmonary tuberculosis. N. D., an eight-year-old epi- leptic girl, is entirely irresponsible and unable to fix her attention on any mental work long enough to do schoolwork successfully. 5S. N., her brother, is an eleven-year-old boy appar- ently normal in every way. He is in the sixth grade in the 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 57 public school, is bright and energetic, and has good native ability. He has a mental age of nearly twelve years, and seems to have no abnormal tendencies of any kind: The father of J. J: and J. S. was a drunkard, probably mentally defective, and was thought to have murdered his own mother, though this crime was never proven against him. The mother of these two children was very eccentric. She is now dead. J. J. is a fourteen-year-old girl with a mental age of ten years. She is in the sixth grade in the public school and is quiet and obedient, though it is recognized by nearly all with whom she comes in contact that she is below normal. Her brother, J. 8., is thirteen years old with a mental age of nine years. He is only in the third grade and is regarded as markedly defective. These four children of one grandmother, who was known to be exceedingly peculiar, show well the effect of bad heredity. It is not possible to say, out of all the factors which make the heredity so bad, which are the most important. Only one of the four children is normal, one is epileptic, and two are mentally defective. Case 103—P. C. is a nine-year-old boy brought to the Juve- nile Court by his mother because he had tried to poison his little sister. He had poured off the liquid from poison flypaper and had given it to the child to drink. He said that he had read in the paper that it would kill, and that he had wanted to see what she looked like while she was dying. His mother found him trying to give the baby the poisoned water, and so averted the catastrophe. He ordinarily seemed rather fond of his sister and frequently played with her. His mother says, however, that he is not affectionate and does not care much for anyone. He is small for his age and very quick and bright. According to the Binet scale he has a mental age of eleven years, ranking two years above normal. He has remarkable mechanical ability and is very fond of machinery of all kinds. The home seems good in every way and the parents normal. This last act on the part of the boy, however, has filled the mother with apprehen- 58 University of California Publications in Psychology [Vou 3 sion and she is distinctly afraid of what he may do in the future. He is above the average in intelligence and in ingenuity, and if handled wisely may develop remarkably. This is one of the rare cases in which a precocious child with marked ability is so devoid of natural feeling as to make him an actual menace to those about him. Case 122.—G. M. is a fourteen-year-old girl brought to the Juvenile Court for repeated immorality. She comes from a good home; both parents are normal so far as can be judged. For the past two years she has been running away from home again and again, and is a source of constant and deep concern to her parents. They have done everything in their power to give her normal and varied interests, but cannot influence her in any way. She has had music lessons and has been placed in a gymnasium, but nothing attracts her. Recently she has grown morose and sullen and seems to have no affection for other members of her family. She is in the seventh grade in school, and has always seemed as bright as the average girl of her age. According to the Binet scale she has a mental age of over twelve years, ranking as normal. The great trouble with this girl seems to be her persistent immorality, which she cannot explain. She simply says she cannot help it. Whether she is to be dominated all her life by these abnormal impulses, it is impossible to say, but at the present time she should be placed in some institution where she can be observed and where she can be protected from herself. Case 415—T. J. is a six-year-old boy, who was brought to the clinic by his school-teacher for stealing and untruthfulness. It was reported that he stole everything he could lay hands on, and could never be relied on to tell the truth about anything. There are four children in the family, this lad being the oldest of the four. The father is a drunkard and has never provided for the needs of the family in a satisfactory way. About two years ago he deserted the mother with her four small children and has not been heard of since. The mother worked for a 1918] Bridgman: Experimental Study of Abnormal Children 59 time as a telephone operator and with the aid of relatives man- aged to look after the children. Her lot was a hard one, how- ever, and her responsibilities apparently were too much for her, for less than a year ago she, too, disappeared leaving the children with their grandmother. Since then the whole family has been cared for to a considerable extent by the Associated Charities, for the grandmother is not financially able to look after them. All have lacked moral training and are entirely undisciplined. This boy seems to have developed no moral sense and to him there is no ‘‘mine and thine.’’ He has a mental age of seven years according to the Binet scale and has good native ability in all directions. He is affectionate and attractive, though very selfish. In general intelligence he seems rather above the aver- age child of his age. The boy’s greatest trouble seems to be a moral deficiency due very largely to lack of moral training. He needs the most careful education along moral and mental lines, if he is to develop in a normal way. It is probable, if he is neglected, that the dangerous tendencies which he now shows will become more marked and make further trouble. Cases 190, 289 and 366—G. M., F. J. and F. E. are three sisters referred to the clinic through different agencies. The mother is dead and the father is a cook on a river-boat. He is alcoholic and irresponsible and for some time has failed to support his family. All three of the girls are seriously immoral and seem to have the lowest social standards. G. M., who is twenty-three vears old, has a mental age of nine years; F. J., who is nineteen years old, has a mental age of ten years; F. E., aged seventeen years, has a mental age of twelve years. Two of these girls, then, are definitely feeble-minded and the third defective but not actually feeble-minded. The two younger girls are under the care of the Juvenile Court, but the oldest is mar- ried and already has two children. She is almost entirely dependent on public aid for her living, and her youngest child has a serious disease of the eyes which will probably result in at least partial blindness. This woman’s husband has deserted her and she is living with a man to whom she is not married. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS—(Continued) 11. A Theory of the Syllogism, by Knight Dunlap. 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