Nad A. Me, S SS ee The University of the State of New York The State Department of Education Visual Instruction Division SLIDES AND PHOTOGRAPHS List 29 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE ALBANY, N. Y. 1920 V71r-D19-3000 (7-4529) THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE ‘OF NEW YORE | > Regents of the ‘University. ~ With years when terms expire s (Revised to Rebriiary, “4B)-1920) go c “ye6 1 PriNY: 7, Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Chaneellor a Palmyra . 1927 ALBERT tT VANDER VEER M, D. M Ay Ph: D. EL, Dew, oe Vice Chancellor. Albany 1922 ‘Cinibriix S. Log. MA. LLD.. ~ +» "- Brooklyn 1930 Wituam. No?frincuaM M.A. Ph. D. LL ‘D. - ~< Syfacuse --- - 424, “ADELBERT Moor LL.D. - 7 - Buffalo 1925 CHARLES B. “ALEXANDE MLA. . , ED, 2° pe Litt.D: - eee ee Tuxedo |” : 1928 WALTER ‘Goist KELLocc B.A. Tk D: oe oe Ogdensburg * 1932- ‘James Byrne B.A. LLB. LL. De = - 2) sy - New York — 1929 Hexpert ‘L.: ‘BRIDGMAN MAA. 3 ns ei ‘Brooklyn> : ag 1931 ‘THOMAS. J. MANcan. M.A. - a ew eee - Binghamton” AQ2 1 Wiitram J. Watuin M.A. wlS ie. 2 4. 8. Yonkers: Wty 1923 Wititam Bonpy MAA: LL.B. PH. Die. whee - New. Yorke. President of ‘the University ‘amd ‘Commission, of a ecto. aft : Jonn. E.. -Fintzy. ‘M.A. LL. D. LE. D.- . Deputy Commissioner and: Counsel - Frank B-: GILBERT B. A. Be ou Ausiatast Commissioner: ‘and Dircetor of Professional Education | : Augustus Ss. Downing M. ALLED.. LL. D. Pd. ., Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education ; * -Cuanias: E. WHEELOCK. B. S. LL. Dy a Aas ‘Assistant | Commissioner, for- Elementary. Rausation * ‘GzorcE M. Wier, M.A. bo "Director of State ‘Libraty JAMES c ‘Wrer, Jey M: LS. Pd. D. - pies Ae Director of Science and. State Museum. ~~ se + -sJonn. ‘M. CLARKE D. Sc LL. De: ts Rie 2, eae ‘ Chiefs and Directors of ‘Divisions | “ AdminiStzntion’ Hiram 4 Rasen 9 Agricultural and: ‘Industrial Education, aire A, Witsox : Archives: and History; James. SuLLIvAN’ M.A. ‘PAD: As ce, Jai SULLIVAN: ga Se, - Educational Extension, Wiruam R, Sines 8B. i . 2. a Examinations’ and Inspections, Gzorce M: Winey. M. A Law, ‘FRANK B, Gripert B.A., Counsel - ? Library. School, James I. Wver, Jr, MLS. Pa. Di- School Buildings and Grounds, FRANK H. ‘Woop M: AL “School Libraries, ‘SHERMAN. Witiams PaD. sg Visual Instruction, Atrrep W. ABRAMS Ph. B.. rd TABLE OF CONTENTS Introd WctOry Mote isos 3 osienes ok wean owes eeamubene sales sialnw BiBNOgta phys Se sgiisle wevnidedoueen dead euemeaihisnine wiehios vote List of slides and photographs Titles arranged alphabetically by name of bird................ Topical studies EconGmuie iM portance. «0... saivigucs ees siiesiges geet cane ea nein PHOCOSTAP AY hu easrcsoacccinl ste reiusverpaenrree ean he eer ee Total, less duplicates... 0... ccc cece cece cee etee eens NO. OF TITLES PAGE 123 129 134 139 143 147 152 155 163 167 171 OR W) | TH QL E84 N+ uss 420 INTRODUCTORY NOTE Contents. This collection of pictures contains 700 titles representing 162 species. It is confined to birds of New York, and includes most of the more common and many of the rarer ones. Additions will continue to be made, but in its present form the list is exceptionally complete and representative. Character. The collection is distinctive in that it consists almost exclusively of photographic productions from living specimens of birds, nests and eggs in their normal position, and actual habitats. No drawings are included except that of the topography of the bird and seven migration maps. The only museum specimens included are those of the auk and the passenger pigeon, now extinct birds, and two others used to illustrate special features. Of course birds too young to have finally left the nest were in some cases placed upon a perch for photographing. Some adults were photographed at feeding stations or on specially placed perches, but one has only to compare these pictures with drawings and photographic repre- sentations of museum specimens to appreciate the important differences in appearance and attitude between living birds and inanimate specimens and drawings. Several years have been spent in the preparation of this collection. Sources of the collection. Users of these pictures are chiefly indebted to the work of two exceptional bird students and pho- tographers of the State, Dr Arthur A. Allen of Cornell University and Guy A. Bailey of the Geneseo State Normal School. The following is a list of contributors with the number of pictures furnished by each: Arthur A. Allen.............- 230 T. L. Hankinson.............. 3 Guy A. Bailey....... cece eee 220 Francis Harper .............. 23 William L. Baily............4: 3 H.S. Hathaway.............. 1 R. H. Beebe........... ee ee eee 32. R. W. Hegner................ 7 GoW Beebervcasan essen ies 9B) OTE We NASI, sco. 0 5 cunoatetee Senos 1 Gs Sr Brittetass sada popes 1 P.B. Peabody..............85 2 Verdi Burtch .........--+-00- 33: GC, By StOm@.neciivs-cae deans 9 Frank M. Chapman..... Wises ee 15) “By Gy Rabotias candace sce exes . 10 William Dutcher ............- 2: 'G, -Oe Widiniatin s+: acce-acs eee 1 G. C. Embody...........+605. i F. A. Van Zant......... Peheacte 2 Clyde C. Hamilton............ 1 4 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Arrangement. The names of birds are arranged alphabetically. The general order of the titles for each species is as follows: that of adult most suitable for a study of the form, color and size of the bird; nest; incubation; nestlings; feeding; other aspects. Notes. Books and magazine articles on birds are numerous and generally accessible. They should be the chief dependence of those wishing verbal information about birds. It has, how- ever, seemed advisable to offer a brief introductory note to each bird to give those who are just beginning to work in this field of study a general notion of where a certain bird belongs in the bird life of the State. The notes under the separate titles are not such verbal descrip- tions as are usually found in books, The aim is to direct obser- vation to certain specific features well illustrated by the picture. Collectively these notes point out the inductive method of studying birds. Whether the slides of this collection are used for lecture pur- poses or for classroom study they offer ample means for a large number of exercises. It is expected that schools and clubs organized for bird study will make provision for a systematic use of the collection. In preparation of notes and organization of material much assistance has been received from Doctor Allen, Professor Bailey and others, who have been frequently consulted. The topical studies following the list of birds are chiefly the work of Doctor Allen, Use. In many schools there are one or more teachers who have become bird students or being interested in nature study would like to take up for a time the study of birds. Much could be accomplished if the pupils of a single grade were to devote a large part of the entire year to birds. At the end of the year they would possess a substantial fund of knowledge of bird life and would have had opportunity for training in observation along this line. The stimulus to topical reading would also have been very great. It would seem that such work might be done very profitably in grades 4 or 5 or perhaps in one or two others. For such an occasion as Bird Day several grades or the whole school might properly be assembled to observe the day by seeing alot of bird pictures. ‘The object here is, however, quite different from that of the work suggested above. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 5 Importance of bird study. ‘The fitting of a person to enjoy and interpret nature as it is met from day to day by training him to observe what is seen is itself a sufficient reason for the circulation of such a collection of bird pictures as this one. But a further justification for the expenditure of much time and money in a very careful selection of these pictures is the fact that birds play a most important part in the economic life of the world. The function of birds in destroying weeds and harmful insects and in maintaining the general balance between plant and animal life and between different species is coming to be well understood. Bird study is of the greatest importance to agricul- ture and calls for systematic and intelligent attention. The pic- tures of this collection will be of permanent interest and their usefulness will increase as they become better known and more generally used by teachers and others. Bird songs and calls. Most books describing birds attempt to indicate the songs and calls of different species. The notes of this list omit them altogether not because they are unimportant but for the obvious reason that sounds are not to be acquired visually. By keeping clearly in mind what elements of knowl- edge are conveyed by pictures time will be saved and the ends of visual instruction more fully attained. A. W. ABRAMS Chief, Visual Instruction Division cllbany, N. Y , December 15, 1919 6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Bibliography Allen, Arthur A. The Red-winged Blackbird: a Study in the Ecology of a Cattail Marsh, in Abstract of Proceedings, Linnaean Society of New York, Nos. 24 and 25. 1911-13 Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture in New York State. New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University (free pamphlet) American Ornithologists’ Union. Check-list of North American Birds. 1910 Bailey, Mrs Florence A. (Merriam). Birds of Village and Field, a Bird Book for Beginners. Houghton Mifflin Company Baynes, Ernest Harold. Wild Bird Guests. E. P. Dutton & Co. Burroughs, John. Wake-Robin. Houghton Mifflin Company Bird Stories from Burroughs. Houghton Mifflin Company Chapman, Frank M. Bird Life—a Guide to the Study of Our Common Birds. D. Appleton and Co. Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. D. Appleton and Co. Color Key to North American Birds. D. Appleton and Co. Our Winter Birds. D. Appleton and Co. The Travels of Birds. D. Appleton and Co. The Warblers of North America. D. Appleton and Co. Doubleday, N. B. (Neltje Blanchan). How to Attract the Birds and Other Talks about Bird Neighbors. Doubleday, Page & Co. 1903 Bird Neighbors. Doubleday, Page & Co. 1905 (The Nature Library) Birds That Hunt and Are Hunted. Doubleday, Page & Co. 1905 (The Nature Library) Dugmore, A. Radclyffe. Bird Homes. Doubleday, Page & Co. 1905 (The Nature Library) Eaton, Elon Howard. Birds of New York. 2v. University of the State of New York, Museum Memoir 12: part 1, Introductory chapters; water birds and game birds; part 2, General chapters; land birds. Finley, William L. & Irene. Little Bird Blue. Houghton Mifflin Com- pany Adapted to pupils of primary grades Forbush, Edward Howe. Useful Birds and Their Protection. The Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. 1913 Gilbert, Albert F. Birds of Field, Forest and Park. The Page Company Birds through the Year. American Book Co. Grinnell, Elizabeth & Joseph. Our Feathered Friends. D. C. Heath & Co. Headley, F.W. The Flight of the Birds. Charles Scribner’s Sons Herrick, Francis Hobart. The Home Life of Wild Birds—A New Method of the Study and Photography of Birds. G. P. Putnam’s Sons Hoffman, Ralph. A Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York. Houghton Miffin Company BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 7 Job, Herbert Keightley. How to Study Birds. Outing Publishing Com- pany The Sport of Bird Study—a Book for Young or Active People. Outing Publishing Company Miller, Olive Thorne. The Children’s Book of Birds. Houghton Mifflin Company Combines First and Second Books of Birds Pearson, T. Gilbert. The Bird Study Book. Doubleday, Page & Co. Tales from Birdland. Doubleday, Page & Co. Reed, Chester A. The Bird Book. Doubleday, Page & Co. Nature Study—Birds. Doubleday, Page & Co. A book for children Stickney, J. H. Bird World. Ginn and Co. Trafton, Gilbert H. Bird Friends. Houghton Mifflin Company Method of Attracting Birds. Houghton Mifflin Company Walker, Margaret C. Our Birds and Their Nestlings. American Book Co. Weed, Clarence M. & Dearborn, Ned. Birds in Their Relations to Man. J. B. Lippincott Company Wicks, John Bartlett. Bird Paradise. George W. Jacobs & Co. Wright, Mabel Osgood. Birdcraft. The Macmillan Company —— Gray Lady and the Birds. The Macmillan Company Wright, Mabel Osgood & Coues, Elliott. Citizen Bird. The Macmillan Company Publications of United States Department of Agriculture Beal, F. E. L. The Crow Blackbirds and Their Food. Reprinted from the Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1894 Preliminary Report on the Food of Woodpeckers; Lucas, F. A. The Tongues of Woodpeckers. Bulletin 7, 1895 Food of Our More Important Flycatchers. Biological survey Bulletin 44, 1912 Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. Bulletin 280, 1915 — Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. Farmers’ Bulletin 630, 1918 ; Beal, F. E. L. & McAtee, W. L. Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm and Garden. Farmers’ Bulletin 506 Cooke, Wells W. Bird Migration. Bulletin 185, 1915 Dearborn, Ned. Bird Houscs and How to Build Them. Farmers’ Bul- letin 609, 1914 McAtee, W. L. How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States. Farmers’ Bulletin 621, 1914 Periodicals Auk. American Ornithologists’ Union, publishers Bird-lore. Official organ of the Audubon Socicties. D. Appleton & Co., publishers 8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK LIST OF SLIDES AND PHOTOGRAPHS Unless otherwise indicated, the place named in the title is in every case in New York State. Call no. Nu 2 Topography of a Bird. From drawing by Chester .A. Reed in Frank M. Chapman’s Color Key to North American Birds Copyright, 1912, D. Appleton & Co. By permission of the publishers Nu 4 Skeleton of a Fowl (Gallus domesticus) Auk, Great (Plautus impennis) This bird is now extinct, no living specimen of it having been observed since 1842. A motive for including a picture of the bird in this list is the opportunity to direct attention to the fact that numerous other species also are likely to become extinct unless adequately protected. See passenger pigeon, Nu PmP and Nu PmP8. Nu AuG Adult (museum specimen); an Egg. American Museum of Natural History, New York. (1917) Note the short wings. The bird was flightless and hence easily killed by early voyagers and fishermen who visited its breeding grounds, which were distributed along the Atlantic coast from the Arctic regions to Massachusetts. It was able to escape its natural enemies on the sea by diving, but nature had not provided against the coming of man to its nesting islands. Compare with penguins. Baldpate (areca americana) Though not one of the commoner ducks of New York, the baldpate, also called American widgeon, is found on the pro- tected waters of Gardiners island occasionally during the winter. It is found elsewhere in the State as a fairly common migrant. Flesh esteemed as food. 18-21* Nu Bcl Adult Male Dropping Down to Alight among Decoys on Water. Gardiners island. (April 8, 1912) Harper ¢ * Figures found in this position throughout the list indicate the length of the bird in inches. They are not to be memorized but should be noted frequently with a view to establishing a correct mental picture of the size of the bird. + The name appearing in italics in this position is that of the photo- grapher. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 9 Baldpate (continued) The bird “backpedals” with its wings and also thrusts out its feet to help stop its momentum. It always faces the wind in alighting. The white crown shows that it is an adult male. Call no. Nu Bc8 Flock in Flight over the Water. Gardiners island. (April 8, 1912) Harper Describe the mode of flight both as to an individual bird and as to the flock. Note the large white patch on wing and the light underparts. These are the field marks. Bittern, American (Botaurus lentiginosus) ’ The American bittern, or “stake driver,” is a summer resident of large swamps and marshes throughout the State, being espe- cially common in the Montezuma marshes. It builds its nest of grass and reeds on the ground. It is a solitary bird; that is, it is not found in flocks. The food of the bittern consists of frogs, fish, salamanders and water insects. Does the location of the nest suggest this fact? 28 Nu Bid Adult Disturbed While Brooding, Two Young Birds at Side. Montezuma marshes. (1904) Tabor This particular bird had no fear in defending its nest. If approached too closely, it struck with its bill. Note how the young birds imitate the mother in the position they assume. Note the character of the vegetation around the nest and com- pare with the other pictures showing the habitat of bitterns. Nu BiA2 Nest with Eggs Nearly Submerged in Water. Branchport. (May 21, 1912) Burtch In periods of high water the bittern, like the gallinule, builds its nest up from the bottom by the repeated addition of new material. Even then the nest may be destroyed by the rising water. This nest is in a much more exposed situation than is usual, Nu BiA5 Tour Birds About Two Weeks Old on Nest. Montezuma marshes. (1904) Tabor Observe the characteristic position of the head and of the neck. Describe each. The young are now strong enough to defend themselves and are ready with bills open to strike at the photog- rapher. Note the feathers appearing on shoulder and wing. 10 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Bittern, American (continued) Call no. Nu BiA6 Two Young Birds of Same Brood but Different Size. Ren- wick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 12, 1909) Allen Incubation with this bird usually begins with the laying of the first egg. Hence the eggs hatch unevenly and the young are of different sizes. Extremes of one brood are shown here. Note the coating of long down, which nearly covers the body. Nu BiA7 Roost in Thick Growth of Horsetail. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 8, 1909) Allen Such a roost keeps the bird out of the water and above its enemies while sleeping. What enemies? Probably a new roost is made each night. The reeds in the foreground have been cut away to show the roost. The feather indicates that the bird probably preened its feathers before leaving the roost. Nu BiA8 Adult Rising in Flight from Nest in Sedges. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 8, 1909) Harper The bird is working its wings very vigorously to get under way. In the nest were several young birds and the adult remained with them until the photographer had approached | rather close to it. The position of the legs and toes indicates the effort put into the initial spring from the nest. Compare with Nu BiA9. Nu BiA9 Adult in Flight. West marsh, near Ithaca. (June 2, 1909) Allen Note the large wings, the legs held out behind and the long neck, which is not folded back onto the shoulders as much as in other herons. See Nu HeF6. The feet are held out some- what behind to serve the purpose of a long tail. Bittern, Least (Jvobrychus exilis) The least bittern is less widely distributed than the American. It is seldom found in upland districts. It lives in swamps and builds a nest of reeds a foot or more from the water in cat-tails or rushes. It is the smallest of the heron family. Compare with the American bittern, which is much larger. 11-14.25 Nu BiL Male Incubating. Ithaca. (May 31, 1914) Allen Note the black back, proving that it is a male. The male and female take turns incubating. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 11 Bittern, Least (continued) Call no. Nu BiL2 Adult Female Leaving Nest, Three Eggs in Sight. Mon- tezuma marshes. (1904) Tabor Compare with male as to color. The least bittern is a slim bird. This picture represents it in a disturbed condition as it is rising from the eggs. Here the wing is dropped and the feathers shaken out, thus making the bird appear larger and heavier than it is. When examining certain other pictures, keep this habit of birds in mind, Nu BiL24 Adult Female Defending Nest and Eggs. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 3, 1914) Allen This bird knew no fear in the defense of her home and struck at the hand of the photographer. Nu_ BiL3 Nest with Five Eggs. Montezuma marshes. (1904) Tabor Nu _ BiL4 Young Bird with Conspicuous Pin Feathers. Branchport. (June 26, 1914) Burtch Note also the downy feathers on back and head. These young birds will leave the nest and climb away through the flags with surprising rapidity. The camera was close to the bird, which is actually much smaller than it appears. For size, compare with cat-tails upon which it stands. Nu_ BiL5 Female with Young, Neck Swollen with Food. Ithaca. (July 1917) Allen The bittern regurgitates its food. Nu_ BiL7 Female on Nest in the Reeds Pointing, “Broken Reed Posture”; Two Eggs in Sight. Near Ithaca. (June 3, 1914) Allen This is an excellent illustration of protective mimicry, the bird by its position as well as by its color simulating a broken reed. Note the position of the eyes. Nu _ BiL8 Female on Back of Nest Showing “Swaying Reed Pos- ture”; Six Eggs in Nest. Near Ithaca. (June 3, 1914) Allen Here the feathers of the neck are shaken out until the streaks form lines like the light and shadow between the reeds. When 12 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK in this posture, the bird rotates its head so as always to face the intruder and sways its head and neck with the reeds blown by the breeze. Blackbird, Red-winged (.1gelains phaniceus phaniceus) This bird is a little smaller than the robin. It is common throughout the State during the entire summer. In the spring and fall it migrates in flocks of 30 to 300, It is a sociable bird and gathers in larger numbers, particularly in the fall, in its favorite haunts. It is friendly with birds of other species. JS 9.5-9.75; 2 7.5-8 Call no. Nu Bl Adult Male, Profile. Geneseo. (September 1914) Bailey . The male is distinguished by its bright scarlet lesser wing- coverts edged with yellow. Note a second bird, a female, in the background, out of focus. Nu Bil Adult Female on Bent Sapling near Nest, Front View. Geneseo. (May 1910) Bailey The female differs decidedly in color and size from the male. How? Her spotted breast and lack of red shoulders serve to distinguish her at a distance. The limb on which the bird has perched is close to her nest. The camera is over the nest. The alarm of the bird, as shown by her pose, is due to the camera. When the nest is approached, she always comes nearer to the intruder and risks herself in defense of her young. Nu _ Bl2 Low Nesting Site in Rank Herbage Blackbirds nest in what is known as the herb stratum, that is, in tussocks of grass or flags or among tangles of ferns and weeds or in bushes occurring in all the zones of marsh vegetation but preferring cat-tails. Note the location and structure of nests in other pictures. Nests vary considerably as to location, but they are seldom more than four or five feet from the ground, com- monly nearer. This nest is in the alders fringing a marsh. Nu_ Bl22 Pair of Adults on Cat-tails.) Renwick marsh, near Ithaca Allen This picture shows characteristic poses of the birds and also indicates the kind of a place where they are commonly found. ‘They specially like reeds and low bushes on the margin of ponds and marshy streams. Which is the male? BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 13 Blackbird, Red-winged (continued) Call no, Nu_ Bil24 The Beginning of a Nest. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (May 21, 1910) Allen Note how these first fibers are woven in and out among the sedges. How does the bird get these fibers? Of what advantage are they? Nu_ Bl25 Nest with Five Eggs in Clump of Green Arrow Arum (Peltandra virginica). Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 8, 1907) Allen Note date. Nests built late in the season are often placed in the softer vegetation about ponds and streams, because the cat- tails and sedges have then become very harsh. The nesting season is short. Nu_ Bi3 Nest Turned onto One Side by Growth of Part of Vegeta- tion to Which It Is Attached. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (May 19, 1910) Allen One side of the nest is attached to dead stubs of cat-tails, the other to rapidly growing leaves. Many nests are capsized this way. What may have happened to the rest of the eggs? Nu_ B32 Nest and Broken Eggs in Reeds. Oneida lake. (May 1908) Bailey The eggs in this nest have been pierced, probably by the long- billed marsh wren. In swamps, where red-winged blackbirds and long-billed marsh wrens nest side by side, it is not unusual to find the eggs of the blackbirds destroyed in this way. ‘The last two pictures indicate some of the agencies through which the increase of bird life is retarded. Nu B136 Female Incubating, Nest in Coarse Bog Grass. Arcade. (1909) Beebe The bird has its mouth open on account of the heat, the grass around it having been pressed down for the purpose of photo- graphing. This nest is much nearer the ground than is cus- tomary. Nu_ B138 Four Pictures Showing Growth: Young Bird Hatching; Birds Five Days Old; Bird Nine Days Old; Bird 10 Days Old. Renwick. (May and June 1910) Allen (1) Contains two eggs and one young bird not able to raise his head, blind, helpless, with only a little down along the prin- 14 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Blackbird, Red-winged (continued ) cipal feather tracts. (2) Feather tracts conspicuous, eyes open. (3) Able to fly somewhat although the feathers do not yet cover all the bare spaces; down still attached to feathers of head. (4) Ready to leave nest; bare spaces all covered except around eye; down still clinging to feathers. Call no. Nu Bl4 Four Birds About 10 Days Old, with Open Mouths, Posed on a Broken Cat-tail Chapman Which parent do they resemble? Note the down still attached to the feathers of the head. Nu_ Bl44 Female Perched above Nest, Bringing Food to the Young. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (May 18, 1910) Allen In this case the food is mostly May flies. Blackbirds eat some of the farmer's grain, especially corn in the milk, but they live much more on insects and weed seeds injurious to him. They do much more good than harm to agriculture. Nu_ Bl46 Adult Feeding Young in Nest. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen The food is placed far down the throat of the young birds. Nu Bi5 Female Inspecting Nest after Feeding the Young. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen The redwing, like most other birds, looks very carefully after the sanitary conditions of the nest. It allows nothing to remain in the nest that would foul it. Such an inspection is a regular performance. Nu_ Bi52 Female Cleaning Nest after Feeding the Young. Renwick. (June 1910) Allen After each feeding all excrement is scrupulously removed from the nest. Note how the body is suspended by its legs attached to a reed on either side. Nu_ Bl58 Female About to Fly Away from Nest with Excrement. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. Allen The excrement of birds generally is inclosed in a white mucous sack, BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 15 Blackbird, Red-winged (continued) Call no. Nu _ BI7 Female on Cat-tail in Restful Position. Renwick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen This is a common pose when the bird does not suspect anyone is near. Nu_ BI8 Female on Old Cat-tail Perched near Nest, Scolding. Ren- wick marsh, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen This is a characteristic attitude of the bird when someone approaches the nest. Nu _ B19 Female Stretching, Right Foot Extended. Genesco. (Au- gust 1915). Bailey Many such activities of a bird commonly escape attention. Nu_ B192 A Very Large Flock Disturbed from Feeding on Field of Oats. Near Hornell. (August 1916) Nu_ BI195 Large Flock of Red-winged Blackbirds and Bronzed Grackles on Branches of Elm Tree. Branchport. (April 2, . 1911) Burtch Blackbird, Yellow-headed (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) ‘This bird belongs to western North America. It is accidental in New York, where it has been recorded only once. 3 10.6-11; 9 9-10 Nu BIY Adult on Edge of Nest Attached to Reeds Bluebird (Sialia sialis sialis) One of the first birds to announce the approach of spring and one of the last to leave in the late fall. The males usually precede their mates in coming north in March. Not all the bluebirds migrate from the State in the fall; some remain as permanent residents in the lower Hudson valley and on Long Island. This is one of the most lovable of birds. It seems to have no disagreeable characteristics. Its color is beautiful, its voice is mellow and its food habits are beneficial to man. It frequents orchards, gardens, stump lots, rail fences and vineyards. 6.5-7 16 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Bluebird (continucd) Call no. Nu Bm Male (left) and Female (right), Front View, with Food on Stump. Arcade. (1909) Becbe Note that both birds have food and that it consists of insects, the male having several worms or larvee. More commonly, how- ever, the female gives more attention to feeding the young and does most of the work of preparing the nest. The picture also illustrates the bluebird’s fondness for stumps in open pastures. Study carefully the differences in the color of the two birds. Nu Bm1l Female on Electric Perch with Insect Food in Beak, Pro- file Chapman The electric perch is a device for photographing automatically the bird when it alights on it. Bluebirds feed upon many kinds of destructive insects. They get most of them from the ground, but will sometimes seize them in the air. Nu Bm2 Nesting Sites in an Old Apple Tree Old apple and pear trees are favorite nesting places for bluc- birds. The various woodpeckers provide nesting places for them for the reason that the former, as a rule, use a new nest each year. This tree had three kinds of birds nesting in it at one time. The blue bird will also occupy boxes erected for the purpose. Nu Bm3 Nest and Four Eggs in Hollow of Tree Trunk A piece of wood was removed to photograph the eggs. When it was replaced the bluebirds returned to the nest regularly and were not disturbed. The claws of young bluebirds are sharp. Does the picture suggest the need of such claws? Nu Bm32 Same Hollow of Tree as in Nu Bm3 with Young Birds Nu Bm4 Two Young Birds Taken Out of Nest and Placed on a Stump. Geneseo. (June 1902) Bailey The young birds remain in the nest until they are able to fly, about 15 days. When removed forcibly and placed in an ex- posed position, they crouch down and attempt to hide as they did when they were in the nest, an instinct of self-preservation. Note the spots on back and breast, a typical thrush color pattern that the adults do not have. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 17 Bluebird (continued) Call no. Nu Bm5 Four Young Birds Perched on Small Limb. Arcade. (1908) Beebe Two broods are reared in a season. Nu Bm56 Adult Female on Stump before Young Bird with Mouth Open for Food. Arcade. (1908) Beebe A young bird seems always to be ready to eat, but in this case the mother has no food for him. Nu Bm62 Adult Leaving Nest in Tree, Head and Neck Showing. Onondaga Valley. (1902) Bailey This nest was built in a cavity in an apple tree where a limb had been cut off and become decayed. Nu Bm?7 Adult Female on Mullein Stalk. Arcade. (1905) Beebe At what season of the year is this? Nu Bm8 _ Adult Flying Allen Note the position of wing and tail, the slightly spread pri- maries and the spurious wing. Tor map showing winter and summer range of this bird, sce Nu ZM2, p. 1066. Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) Known also as reedbird and ricebird. This bird probably breeds in every county of New York State. It is less common in the Adirondacks and the Catskills and on Long Island. It is sociable and a great singer. By July 20th it has lost its black and white coat and has ceased to sing. After this the male and female are scarcely distinguishable by color. In the southern States the bobolink, there known as the ricebird, does consider- able damage to the rice fields, but in New York is one of the most beneficial birds. o 7.25-8; 9 6.5-7 Nu Bo Adult Male Perched on a Stem with Food in Mouth. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 24, 1914) Allen The characteristic pose of the bird at the nesting season. The food in this case consists of a grasshopper and two army worms, two of the most destructive field pests in New York. 18 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Bobolink (continued) Call no. Nu Bol Adult Female on Moth Mullein Stalk (Verbascum Blattaria) in Blossom. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 25, 1914) Allen A characteristic pose on a favorite plant. Observe the color as compared with the male. Nu Bo2 Nest and Six Eggs in Grass on the Ground The bobolink nests in meadows and pasture lots. The nest is of simple construction, a depression lined with dry grasses. It is difficult to find. Here the grass protecting it has been turned back. Nu _ Bo4 Young Birds Ready to Leave the Nest; an Unhatched Egg Thrown from the Nest. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 24, 1914) Allen The young birds remain in the nest about 10 days. What effect will continued early mowing of the meadow have on the prevalence of the bobolink? Nu _ Bo5 Young Bird on Perch Bailey Note the wing feathers breaking through their sheaths. For map showing distribution and migration of this bird, see Nu ZM25, p. 166. Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus virginianus) This bird is often called the quail. It has become a rare bird in New York except on Long Island and in the Delaware and lower Hudson valleys. Nu Bp2 Nest with Twelve Eggs on Ground. Near Conesus lake. (August 2, 1915) Bailey The nest is commonly placed under a small bush or a bunch of grass or beside a fence. A large number of eggs are laid and a second brood is sometimes reared. Why, then, does this bird not increase rather than diminish in number? This nest was deserted because a mowing machine had removed the “cover” .from about the nest. Note that the nest was photographed in August while the bird nests as a rule in May. Nu Bp4 Adult on Nest. Russellville, Ky. (September 13, 1905) Embody BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 19 Bunting, Indigo (Passerina cyanea) The haunts of this bunting are in brushy hillsides, slashings and bushy gardens. It is a small bird, not quite so large as a house sparrow but the female has something of the appearance of a sparrow. It is a common bird in central and western New York and also in the coastal district. 5-5.75 Call no. Nu Bul Adult Male on Stick at Feeding Station. Ithaca. (May 29, 1917) Allen The bird has been attracted by millet during a cold spell when insects were hard to find. This species usually feeds on insects during the summer and on seeds during the fall and winter. Nu Bul2 Adult Female on Side of Nest in Raspberry Bush. (June 10, 1915) Allen The bunting builds a soft, tufted nest of vegetable fiber, usually with a number of dead leaves woven into the foundation. Nu Bul3 Adult Female Incubating. (June 16, 1915) Allen Nu Bul4 Nest and Eggs with Cowbird’s Egg in Black Raspberry Bush. Geneseo Bailey At what time of year was this taken? Nu Bul5 Adult Male Clinging to Perch over Nest with Young; Nest Decorated with Cotton. Ithaca. (June 24, 1917) Allen It is unusual for the male to feed the young, but the young birds expect food. Compare coloring of male and female. Note the cotton in the nest. Indigo birds generally use dead leaves but these used cotton put out for them. Bunting, Snow (Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis) Also called snowflake. Holarctic in distribution. Common winter visitant in New York, though rather irregular in occur- rence. o 7-7.35; 9 6-6.5 Nu BuS6 Adult Feeding upon Grain Spread on Snow. Geneseo. (March 5, 1916) Bailey One of the weed destroyers. 20 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Canvasback (Marila valisineria) The canvasback visits the central lakes of New York in con- siderable numbers, but it is not a common duck elsewhere in the State. Its favorite food is the wild celery, which imparts a deli- cate flavor to the flesh. This has given the canvasback a reputation for delicious meat, but in fact several other ducks, when they have fed on the same food, are quite as satisfactory. Like most other wild ducks, the canvasback breeds north of New York. It winters in this region and farther south. 20-24 Call no. Nu Cal Adult Male (captive) Standing on Raft. Ithaca. (March 25, 1917) Allen Note the large feet and the position of the legs, characteristic of all diving ducks. Nu Ca6 Flock of Ducks Swimming; Canvasbacks and Blucbills. Ithaca. (March 12, 1916) Bailey Beneath these ducks on the bottom in about 6 feet of water are wheat and cracked corn. Note one duck in the act of diving. As many ducks are under water as are shown in the picture. The ducks with white backs are male canvasbacks, the one farthest back is a female; those with gray backs and white flanks are male bluebills, the dark ones with white at the base of the bill are female bluebills. Nu Ca7 Large Flock in Open Water Surrounded by Ice. Branch- port. (March 3, 1914) Burtch Nu Cas Four Adult Males on the Ice, Weakened by Hunger. Lake Keuka. (March 1914) Stone The ducks were in such a weakened condition because of inability to secure food that the photographer was able to approach very close. Nu Ca9 Flock in Flight, Rising from the Water. Branchport. (March 3, 1914) Burtch The diving ducks do not rise straight into the air but have difficulty in getting under way, pattering over the surface for some distance. Nu Ca92 Canvasbacks, Black Ducks and a Bluebill. Cayuga lake. (February 28, 1916) Allen BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 21 Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis) The cardinal is a resident of the southern states and rarely comes as far north as New York State. It is not migratory in habit. The cardinal is a local resident of Staten Island and the counties of the lower Hudson valley west of the river, especially in Rockland county. 8.25 Call no. Nu Cb Adult Male at Feeding Station. Ithaca. (1914+) Allen This particular bird spent part of the winter and early spring of 1914 in Ithaca. Note that at the moment it was photographed its tail and crest were down. What is the color of the female? Upon what has this bird been feeding? Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) The catbird is to the North in quality of song and in imitating other birds what the mocking bird is to the South. The dis- agreeable note that it gives when alarmed and which sounds like the cat is not the real song of the bird. It has several beautiful songs. This bird is not found in the depths of the woods, but is common: near farm houses and in cities and villages. It is a _ beneficial species, living on injurious insects in the spring and summer and wild fruit in autumn; but it is also fond of cherries and cultivated berries. Nu Cd Adult on Perch near Nest. (1908) Bailey Note that the crown and tail are darker than the rest of the bird. Nu Cd2 Nest with Five Eggs Notice the materials of the nest and the location among dense foliage. The catbird seems to prefer to nest in the shrubbery near human habitations. The outer portion of the nest is made of twigs and leaves, the lining of rootlets. The nest is well built, deeply hollowed but has no soft materials. For size of egg compared with that of spotted sandpiper, see Nu Cd3, p. 130. Nu Cd4 Incubating; Nest in Thicket of Grapevines and Virginia Creeper. Ithaca. (June 15, 1911) Allen 22 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Catbird (continued) Call no. Nu Cd6 Adult at a Bathing Place. Geneseo. (June 15,1915) Bailey The piece of limb on which the bird stands is hollowed out and supplied with running water from a small pipe. It was constructed to attract birds. Chat, Yellow-breasted ([cteria virens virens) A bird that is averse to being seen. The chat prefers thickets of shrubs, vines and young saplings, situations midway between woodlands and open fields. It is the largest of the warblers and is quite unlike the rest of the family in some of its strange habits. It is the shyest and most difficult to photograph of any bird in the State. Nu ChY1 Adult Female at Ease on a Post. Ithaca. (June 26, 1916) Allen Note the rather heavy warbler bill. Nu ChyY3 Nest with Four Eggs. Ithaca. (June 20, 1916) Allen Nu ChyY4 Female Incubating. Ithaca. (June 20, 1918) Allen Nu ChY5 Adult Female with Food before a Young Bird. Ithaca. (June 26, 1918) Allen Note the wrenlike position of the tail. The bird, naturally shy, is here alarmed. Chickadee (Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus) The chickadee, a permanent resident in New York, is one of the most fearless of birds, particularly in winter, when it is common near houses. In the spring and during the summer it goes to the swamps and woodlands. It is restless, passing con- stantly from twig to twig. It flies with a jerky movement. It is sociable, usually traveling in company with a party of several birds. This bird is also known as black capped titmouse. 5.27 Nu Ci Adult Feeding on Suet Placed on Side of Tree Trunk. Gene- seo. (March 1906) Bailey During the winter time the chickadee will eat suet that is placed for it in convenient spots. It sometimes breeds close to the places where it is fed. Note the adaptation of suet and oily seeds to a winter diet. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 23 Chickadee (continued) Call no. Nu Ci2 Adult at Entrance to Nest in Hollow of an Ailanthus Stub About Two Fect from the Ground. Ithaca. (May 29, 1915) Allen Nu Ci3 Nest with Eight Eggs in Hollow of Tree. Geneseo. (May 28, 1910) Bailey Notice the amount of lining in the nest, which is composed of grass, feathers, hair, moss and plant down. This nesting site was the winter home of a downy woodpecker the year before. There being no good standard of measure in view, the picture is apt to leave the impression that the eggs are larger than their actual size, the diameters of which are given by Eaton as .60 by .47 inches. Nu Ci4 Brood of Nine Young, Posed in a Rowona Perch. Chapman Do they resemble their parents? Nu Ci6 Adult at Entrance to Nest in Stump; Food in Mouth for Young. Genesco. (May 1905) Bailey The nest of the chickadee is commonly in a small cavity of a dead tree near the ground. In this case it is in a deserted downy woodpecker’s home. The food of the chickadee during the nest- ing season is mainly caterpillars. Note the string that holds the old stump together. The nest was exposed in making Nu Ci3. Nu Ci8 Adult Pecking a Kernel under Its Foot. Ithaca. (March 20, 1915) Allen The chickadee does not swallow large pieces of food. Holding a kernel under one foot, he hammers it into pieces. Nu_ Ci82 Adult at a Window-box. Ithaca. (March 25, 1915) Allen The box protects the food from the snow. The birds do not mind the wooden sides of the box. The back is made of glass to admit plenty of light. Note how the frame is attached to the window casing. Many different species of birds will feed at such a box. The evergreen boughs are nailed beside the box to advertise it to the birds. 24 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Chickadee (coutinued) Call no. Nu _ Ci84 Chickadee and Junco at “Hood.” Ithaca. (January ee en Such a hood is an attractive feeding shelf. It is made of the top of a barrel, hoops and a piece of cloth, covered with ever- greens and placed on a post. Nu Ci86 Adult Perched on the Hand of Prof. Arthur A. Allen; String Connected with Camera. Ithaca. (December 31, 1913) This picture shows the comparative friendliness of the chicka- dee. Note what kindness to the birds will do for the bird student. Professor Allen made this picture by pulling the string in his left hand. Nu _ Ci88 Adult Taking Food from the Hand of a Lady. Ithaca. (February 1916) Allen Chickadees are the most easily tamed of all of our native birds. Nu Ci9 Chickadce and Junco on End of Old Log. Ithaca. (Janu- ary 1914) Allen Our native birds seldom feed together. Here the chickadee is eyeing the junco preparatory to snatching some food while the junco’s back is turned. Nu Ci94 Chickadee and Female House Sparrow on Feeding Station. (February 1914) Allen The chickadee has stepped in to snatch a piece of peanut while another bird is present. The sparrow in this case makes no effort to drive him away. Nu Ci96 Adult on Sunflower. Ithaca. (August 4, 1917) Allen Use this picture to emphasize the fact that while this species usually retreats to the woodlands and swamps as summer approaches yet some representatives remain near habitations. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 25 Coot (Fulica americana) Few birds have so many different names as the American coot. It is known as mud hen, water hen, crow bill, crow duck, blue peter and white-billed water chicken. It has still other names. It is shot as a game bird, but its flesh is inferior to that of ducks. For this reason many persons do not shoot them. It is most numerous during the fall and spring. 13-16 Call no. Nu Cn Adult (captive) on Plank. Ithaca. (June 25, 1918) Allen This and the captive ducks of this collection photographed by Doctor Allen were kept by him in captivity at his “Glenside” home to be released, banded, in his experimental studies of the migration and other habits of ducks. Nu Cn2 Nest with Ten Eggs in Reeds. Renwick swamp, near Ithaca. (June 1, 1906) Bailey The nest is made of reeds and flags near the ground. It is placed in a cover of reeds. The eggs are similar to the gallinules, but the spots are smaller and blacker. Cowbird (Molothrus ater ater) The name cowbird was given this bird probably because it follows the cattle in the pasture and feeds on insects that are found on them, Cowbirds reach New York State from the south in March. The species is polygamous and polyandros. Unlike most other birds it never builds a nest but depends upon the labor of other species for nest building, incubating eggs and rear- ing young. It usually lays its eggs in the nests of the smaller birds. When these eggs hatch in advance of the other eggs, the young cowbird, being larger, gets most of the food brought by the old birds and the rightful young are starved. So each cow- bird that matures usually means the death of four or five other birds that might have lived. Now and then a cowbird lays its eggs in the nests of birds larger than itself and then it may be the young cowbird that is starved. On account of its food habits it is counted a beneficial bird, but its parasitic nature is certainly not commendable. 7.25-8.25 Nu Co Adult Male (right) and Female (left) Feeding. Ithaca. (May 2, 1914) Bailey The cowbird is attracted to such a feeding station by various seeds. As it builds no nest of its own, it can not readily be 26 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Cowbird (continued) photographed at the nest. Note the shape of bill that puts it in the blackbird family. 1 See cowbird’s eggs: In nest of indigo bunting Nu Bul4 - chipping sparrow Nu SpC2 chipping sparrow Nu SpC3 field sparrow Nu SpF2 57 field sparrow Nu SpF3 me wood thrush Nu TiwW2 i. veery Nu Ve2 blue-headed vireo Nu ViB2 blue-headed vireo Nu ViB3 fs red-eyed vireo Nu Vik2 “ water-thrush Nu Wi2 Call no, Nu Co4 Young Bird in Chipping Sparrow’s Nest. Onondaga Valley. (1903) Bailey Note size of bird compared with that of nest. Nu Co44 Young Bird in Red-eyed Vireo’s Nest. Cardiff. (1909) Bailey The young vireos have been crowded out of this nest and the cowbird is the sole survivor. Note that the relatively large cow- bird completely fills the nest. The red-eyed vireo is frequently selected by the cowbird to incubate its eggs and rear its young. This is an unusual site for a red-eyed vireo nest, as an ever- green is seldom selected. See also young cowbird in blue-headed vireo’s nest Nu ViB4 See young cowbird being fed by a female redstart Nu Rf5 See young cowbird being fed by a chipping sparrow Nu SpC6 Nu Co8 Female Cowbird and Three Female House Sparrows Feed- ing on Old Log. Ithaca. (May 6, 1914) Allen Cowbirds often associate with flocks of sparrows. Which is the cowbird? BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 27 Creeper, Brown (Certhia familiaris americana) The brown creeper is the only representative of its family in New York. It is a transient in most parts of the State and is an abundant summer resident in Potters swamp, Tonawanda swamp, the Catskills and the Adirondacks. It is comparatively approach- able. It alights on the base of a tree and ascends in a spiral course. 5.25-5.75 Call no. Nu CsB Adult on Trunk of Tree. Geneseo. (1911) Bailey In the spring and fall the brown creeper may often be seen gleaning insects from tree trunks. It holds its tail against the tree much as woodpeckers do. The principal color of the bird closely matches the bark of the tree. It feeds sparingly on suet. The bird is rather smaller than one would infer from the picture. This tree is on a lawn, the grading of which has partly covered the base. Nu CsB2 Clarence F. Stone Inspecting Nest under Bark of Tree. Potters swamp, Branchport. (May 20, 1915) Burtch The nesting site is typical. The nest is usually less than five feet from the ground; it is composed of bark strips, hairs, root- lets and bits of cocoons placed under a piece of bark hanging loosely to the tree. Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos) The crow breeds in every county of the State and remains through the winter in the coastal district, the Hudson valley and the lowlands of western and central New York. It has a tendency to gather in roosts in winter; sometimes from 20,000 to 40,000 congregate and remain in a place. The crow is one of the worst enemies of birds’ nests and fledglings and has a reputation for destroying the farmer’s corn. On the other hand it feeds upon an immense number of cut- worms, beetles and other insects injurious to crops. 17-21 Nu Cu5 Adult at Nest with Three Young Birds. Geneseo. (May 15, 1910) Bailey In what kind of a tree is this nest? The crow is exceedingly wary and difficult to photograph. 28 THE UNIVERSITY OF TIIE STATE OF NEW YORK Crow (continued) Call no. Nu Cu2 Tall Tree with Crow’s Nest The nest is made of sticks and bark in trees from 10 to 40 feet from the ground, sometimes as much as 80 feet. Nu Cu3 Nest with Six Eggs in Tree, Seen from Directly Above. Near West Hills, L. I. (April 18, 1909) Harper This nest was 40 feet from the ground. Note its size and composition. Nu Cu4 Five Young Birds in Nest, Newly Hatched A characteristic pose when the adults are approaching the nest with food. Notice the ‘pin feathers.” Nu Cu46 Three Young Birds (feathered) Resting in the Nest. Geneseo. (May 15, 1910) Bailey While the adults are away foraging for food the young usually remain quiet in the nest, thus lessening the danger from pre- dacious animals. Nu Cu6 Young Bird About a Week Out of the Nest, Side View. Meridian Tabor This picture gives a characteristic pose. Note the light eye. Young crows have light blue eyes which change to gray and finally to brown. Note bristles at base of bill. Nu Cus Flock Feeding near House in Winter. (March 3, 1914) Allen Even the wary crow will come to a feeding station during severe winter weather. Here the crows have come to some refuse that has been thrown out for them. They are valuable as scavengers. Nu Cu84 Tracks in Snow. Ithaca. (January 1918) Allen Note dragging of feet, the close approximation of front toes and the length of the hind toe. Compare with tracks of pheasant, Nu PjR8. Nu Cu9 Children and “Jimmie” Crow. Ithaca. (June 1917) Allen This crow was a family pet for over two years. It learned . to talk and to do many funny tricks. For crows with herring gulls, see Nu GvH1. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 2) Cuckoo, Black-billed (Coccysus crythrophthalmus) The cuckoo is named from the song of its European cousin, the song of the American species in no way resembling the word. It is found in woods and swamp land. It is wholly beneficial. Caterpillars are its principal food, tent caterpillars and other web worms being its favorites when these are available. Its call, peculiar flight and extra long tail are means of locating and identifying it. 11.5-12.7 Call no. Nu CvB2 Nest with Four Eggs. Geneseo. (June 1915) Bailey The cuckoo builds a slovenly nest which many times fails to hold the young and many are killed by. falling out and starving. It seems to be true that it is growing more careless in nest building and occasionally builds no nest but, like the cowbird, lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. Robins and bronzed grackles are said to be imposed upon, but more often it is one of their own kind. The nest is crudely built of sticks but there is some lining. Nu CvB3 Adult on Nest Facing Observer. Near Syracuse. (June . 1911) Bailey With the cuckoo the feathers remain inclosed in sheaths until fully formed, when the transformation to a normally feathered bird occurs within a few hours. Note the black bill and red eye-ring. Nu CvB4 Nest in Maple Sapling, with Three Eggs of the Black- billed and One of the Yellow-billed. Tully. (July 4, 1917) Bailey The yellow-billed egg is larger and whiter than the others. Nu CvB5 Nest with Two Eggs and One Young Bird. Meridian Tabor The nest sometimes, as here, contains eggs and half-fledged young, because the eggs are not laid regularly one each day, as with most birds. 30 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Cuckoo, Yellow-billed (Coccyzus americanus americanus) Fairly common in the southern and central portions of the State but entirely absent from the Adirondacks and the Catskills. 11.5—12.7 Call no. Nu CvY5 Adult with Caterpillar in Bill on Perch with Young Bird. Ithaca. (June 10, 1915) Allen The old bird has brought a tent caterpillar for the young bird, the cuckoo being one of the few birds that destroy this pest. Different from most young birds, the cuckoo after leaving the nest makes no show of excitement when the old birds come with food. Note the shape of the bill and the arrangement of toes. Nu CvY6 Young Birds in Nest. (June 23, 1916) Bailey The feather sheaves, “pin feathers,” are just beginning to break open. Dove, Mourning (Zenaidura macroura carolinensis) The mourning dove is the only wild pigeon found in New York State today. This bird is a relative of the extinct passenger pigeon, which it resembles closely. It feeds upon grain and weed seeds. The name is given it because of its weird and mournful call. 11-13 Nu DoM Adult Perched on Fallen Tree (a feeding station), Full Side View. (September 1914) Bailey Note the slender bill swollen at the base and the small feet, characteristic of pigeons. Nu DoM2 Nest with Two Eggs on Limb of Evergreen Tree. Ingham co., Mich. (April 15, 1898) Hankinson The nest is poorly built of twigs, grass and vegetable fiber, a few feet from the ground. In this case it has been built on an old robin nest, a few twigs and rootlets having been added to the lining. Nu DoM3 Female Incubating. Cardiff. (1910) Bailey In what kind of a tree? Time of year? Note apple. Nu DoM4 Two Young Birds in the Nest. Cardiff. (1910) Bailey Note the crudeness of the nest. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 31 Dove, Mourning (continued) Call no. Nu DoM5 Two Young Birds Just Able to Fly, Perched on Stub of Limb. Geneseo. (1910) Bailey The young birds will pose, as shown in the picture, for a long time, waiting for the return of the adult. They are fed about once an hour with partially digested food. Do they resemble their parents? Duck, Black (Anas rubripes) This species is the commonest of the river ducks of the State. It breeds sparingly throughout the State, chiefly in northern portions. In the spring and fall this duck is found in small flocks about the central lakes of New York. The black duck is similar to the female mallard. How are the two species distinguished ? 20-25 Nu DuB2 Female on Nest on Ground Nu DuB8s Flock of About 130 Flying Overhead. Near Mastic, L. I. (September 1, 1912) Harper Owing to the protection given by the abolition of spring shooting, black ducks in recent years have begun to spend the summer in large numbers on Moriches bay. A part of a large flock is here shown swinging over the brackish meadows border- ing the bay. Note the short tail, the long neck held straight out and the relatively long wings as compared with canvasbacks and scaup ducks. See also Nu Ca92 and Nu DuS7. Duck, Scaup (Marila marila) Other names of this duck are the bluebill, broadbill and black- head. It is a transient, found chiefly along the coast and large inland waters. It breeds far to the north and migrates in winter sometimes as far as South America. 18.5-20 Nu DuS Single Adult Male on Water near Ice Stone The presence of ducks on our lakes and streams in winter depends partly upon there being open water. They do not remain where the surface is entirely frozen over. This bird was doubtless weak from lack of 'food and allowed a very close approach. The white flank feathers ordinarily conceal most of the wing. The thin neck and head thrown back on the shoulders are also signs of ill health. Compare Nu DuS5S. 32 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Duck, Scaup (continued) Call no. Nu DuS5 Flock on Water, Four Males and Four Females. Cayuga lake. (March 13, 1914) Allen The males have white flanks; the females are brown with white about the bill. Nu DuS7 Flock in Flight Low over the Water. Cayuga lake. (March 13, 1914) Allen This is a characteristic scene on Cayuga and the other central lakes in winter. Note the relatively short wings of these diving ducks and compare with those of the black ducks representing the dabbling or river species. Nu DuS8 Flock on Stream Taking Food from Person Seated on Shore. Ithaca. (March 22, 1914) Allen These ducks became fairly tame from frequent feeding. They ventured well up into the city of Ithaca. Nu DuS9 Four Birds in Speedy Flight over Wooden Decoys. Long cove, Great South bay. (April 2, 1911) Harper The nearest three are females, as shown by the white patches on the side of the face. Great South bay is a favorite feeding ground for these birds in the fall, winter and spring. Note how the toes are spread and used as rudders, taking the place of the tail, which is very small. Eagle, Bald (Halieetus leucocephalus leucocephalus) The bald, or American, eagle is the national bird. It is prob- ably decreasing in number owing to the lack of nesting places and to the desire of many persons to have it mounted. Its place in the scale of bird life is that of a scavenger. Its food is largely dead fish. Now and then it robs the fish hawk of its captive prey. In New York it is now protected by law at all seasons. & 31-34; 9 35-37 Nu EB Adult in Flight Approaching Nest; Nest in Tree Top. Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey The nest of the eagle is built of sticks and is a massive struc- ture. It is placed near the top of some high tree and is used BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 33 Eagle, Bald (continued) year after year. This particular nest was about 6 feet from top to bottom and about 5 feet across. There was a slight depression in the top. The habits of the bird lead it to add a few fresh sticks each year and at last the nest becomes so heavy that storms destroy it. This nest was blown out of the tree the fourth winter after this picture was taken. Call no. Nu EB1 Nest and Young Bird Flying from It. Oneida lake. (1911) Bailey Notice the awkward position of the feet. The picture shows the first flight the young bird has ever attempted. Nu EB3 Two Birds About Two Weeks Old Perched on Fallen Tree Trunk. Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey These birds were removed from the nest and placed on a limb for the purpose of photographing them. They are covered with a woolly down instead of feathers. After the pictures were taken the young eagles were replaced in the nest. Note the shape of bill, the powerful feet and the heavy wings. Nu EB45 Two Young Birds in Nest. Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey This picture was made in July, when the young were about four months old. They left the nest about two weeks later. The- nest shown in the picture is only a few years old and conse- quently has not the vertical diameter shown in Nu EB. Nu EB5 Young Bird Nearly Ready to Fly, Posed on Log, Back and Side View. Oneida lake. (1911) Bailey Notice the position of the wings and the well-formed tail. The white head and tail of the adult do not appear until the second season. Nu EB52 Young Bird Standing on Log, Showing Heavy Wings, Facing Observer. Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey This bird at the age the picture was taken showed a remark- able development of wings, which were so heavy that the bird was obliged to let them droop. Such hastened development of wings is characteristic of the eagle and other soaring birds with large wings. 2 34 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Eagle, Bald (continued) Call no. Nu EB54 Eaglet Bristling, Side View. Bailey Nu EB57 Head and Shoulder of Young Bird. Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey Notice the strong curved beak for tearing flesh. Flicker, Northern (Colaptes auratus luteus) The flicker is known by several other names, as highhole, yarup and golden-winged woodpecker. It is a dominant species in New York and familiar to all. It is uniformly distributed in every county. It feeds on insects that it finds on the ground, especially ants, and is of positive economic good. While it eats wild fruits in the fall, it seldom troubles cultivated berries or fruits. It perches in a variety of places, including fruit trees, shade trees, roofs and telephone poles, and sometimes on the ground. “The undulating flight, conspicuous white patch on rump and the yellow of the wings which shows in flight are field marks which distinguish this species at a considerable distance.” 12-12.8 Nu FkN Adult Female at Entrance to Nest in Tree Trunk. Arcade. (June 6, 1904) R. H. Beebe The opening is about 214 inches in diameter. The hole extends downward 1 or 2 feet. It is considerably enlarged at the bottom. Study the arrangement of the toes and the position of the tail. Nu FkKN1 Adult Feeding on Suet Placed on Tree Trunk. Geneseo. (February 21, 1914) Bailey This bird was a winter resident during 1914. The majority of flickers migrate. Nu FkN3 Nest with Seven Eggs in Hollow of Tree Trunk, Onon- daga Valley. (1908) Bailey The side of the trunk has been cut away to show where the eggs are laid. Note that no nest is built. Nu FkN4 Four Large Young Birds Clinging to Side of a Stump Bailey These birds were placed where they are. Note how they instinctively cling to the vertical support. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 35 Flicker, Northern (continued) Call no. Nu FEN5 Six Young Male Birds Posed in a Row on Limb. Arcade. (1905) Beebe What distinguishes them as males? Flickers perch crosswise on a limb more often than other woodpeckers. Nu FkKN6 Adult Male on a Horizontal Perch, Side View. Geneseo. (January 1914) Bailey Compare general shape of this bird with that of Nu FKN. The flicker is a rather degenerate woodpecker. Nu FkKN8 Adult Flying to Nest Seen in Tree Trunk. Ithaca. (June 1, 1915) Allen Flycatcher, Acadian (Empidonax virescens) Common in the lower Hudson valley, fairly common on west- ern Long Island. It prefers dense woodlands in dry places. 5.75-6.25 Nu Fnl Adult on Nest on Small Beech Limb. Taghanic. (June 11, 1913) Allen Note that the nest is semihanging. Nu Fn2 Nest with Eggs Bailey Flycatcher, Crested (Myiarchus crinitus) The brightest colored of the flycatchers. Courageous, making warfare on other birds. It prefers groves and forest. A common summer resident in all the warmer districts of the State. 8.75-9.15 Nu Fnc Adult Leaving Nest in Hollow Tree Stub. South Onon- daga. (1900) Bailey The head appears larger in proportion to the body than it really is because it is nearer the camera. Nu FnC2 Nest with Six Eggs in Cavity of Old Sawed-off Limb. South Onondaga. (1900) Bailey The nests are placed in deserted’ woodpecker holes, cavities in limbs and sometimes in nesting boxes put up for the purpose. 36 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Flycatcher, Crested (continued) Look for nest at height of 15 to 20 feet. The lining consists of wool, feathers, hair and usually the cast-off skin of a snake. This nest has been raised to the entrance to show the eggs. Call no. Nu FnC3 Nest in Cavity of Dead Tree, Torn Apart to Show Snake- skin in the Lining. South Onondaga. (1900) Bailey Nu FnC4 Young Bird Just Able to Fly Perched on Limb. South Onondaga Bailey The pose is characteristic. Compare with that of the kingbird. Note what the perching attitude is. Note the broad flat bill. Nu FnC5 Two Young Birds in Opening of Nesting Box, Parent Bird Near by on Branch Note the characteristic pose of the adult. See box inhabited by crested flycatcher, Nu ZB3, p. 154. Flycatcher, Least (Empidonax minimus) The least flycatcher, or chevec (spelled also chebeck), is a common summer resident of all parts of the State. It is found in gardens, orchards, groves and open woodlands. It is a bene- ficial bird, feeding largely upon flying insects of various kinds. 5-5.5 Nu FnL2 Adult on Nest on Branch of Apple Tree Note cup shape of nest, also composition and structure. Compare position with that in Nu FnL4. Compare nest with that of the goldfinch. Nu FnlL4 Adult at Nest with Young in Apple Tree. Cardiff. (1910) Bailey Gallinule, Florida. (Gallinula galeata) The Florida gallinule is more widely distributed throughout the marshy portions of the State than is generally supposed. It is known locally as the “water chicken.” Like the rail, it skulks through the reeds in preference to flying. The Montezuma marsh is a favorite haunt. Several pairs nest at Dead creek near Baldwinsville. The swamps along Cayuga lake shelter a few pairs. 12-14 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 37 Gallinule, Florida (continued) Call no. Nu GcF Adult Approaching Nest Filled with Eggs. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 25, 1914) Allen Note relatively large number of eggs. Observe few white feathers on the flank. These feathers and others under the tail can be made conspicuous and are called “flash colors.” Nu GcF2 Nest with Ten Eggs in Reeds Stone The eggs are laid in May or June in a nest of reeds in the marsh. Note how the nest is built up from the water. Nu GcF3 Adult Female Turning Overt the Eggs. Canoga. (June 25, 1914) Allen Birds roll their eggs over regularly during incubation. Nu GcF4 Adult Female Gradually Settling Down over Her Eggs. Canoga. (June 25, 1914) Allen Note how the feathers of the breast are being spread to bring the brood spots in contact with the eggs. Nu GcF5 Adult Female on Nest Ruffling. Canoga. (June 24, 1914) Allen The feathers are ruffled to admit air and to keep the bird cool in the hot sun. Nu GcF52 Voune Hatching. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 2, 1909) Allen Nu GcF6 Young on a Lily Pad. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 2, 1909) Allen The young are covered with thick black down and can run and swim shortly after hatching. Nu GcF7 Two Young Birds in Water, Stretching and Arranging Their Plumage. Branchport. (August 31, 1913) Burtch The gallinule performs in this way after feeding. The atti- tudes are characteristic. The immature birds have lighter throats and under parts than the adults. Nu GcF8 Young Bird Swimming Around in Shallow Water for Food. Branchport. (September 8, 1912) Burtch This bird seeks food by the hour. It picks at the water weeds and sometimes draws them through its bill, probably for tadpoles and larvae of insects. Note the white under-tail coverts. 38 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Gallinule, Florida (continued) Call no. Nu GcF9 Young Bird Swimming in*Shallow Water with Tadpole in Bill. Branchport. (September 7, 1913) Burtch When this bird caught the tadpole, several other birds imme- diately gave chase, but it managed to elude its pursuers and after several attempts swallowed its prize. Goldfinch (Astragalinus tristis tristis) A permanent resident, but not usually seen in the winter season. At this time it travels in flocks, changes its color and seems to avoid human habitations. It delays nest building until June or July and even as late as September. Other names for it are yellow bird and thistle bird. 4.75-5.2 Nu Go Adult Male on Sunflower. (August 4, 1914) Allen Sunflowers readily attract the goldfinch to the garden. This pose is characteristic. Nu Go2 Female Incubating. Arcade. (1906) R. H. Beebe Note the type of nest. Of what is it composed? Nu Go3 Nest with Eggs, Built of Corn Silk on Cornstalk. (Septem- ber 1908) Bailey An unusual nest, built late in the season. As a rule the nest is made of vegetable down from milk weeds, dandelions .or thistles. The nest is always well built and sometimes will hold water. Nu Go4 Three Young Birds About to Leave the Nest. Chautauqua. (August 1910) Allen These birds outgrow the nest before they are fully ready to leave it. Nu Go5 Adult Male on Branch near Nest with Young. Ithaca. (August 1, 1914) Allen The male helps the female in the care of the young. How do you know this bird is a male? BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 39 Goldfinch (continued) Call no. Nu Go6 Adult Female on Limb Feeding Young. (August 22, 1914) Allen The adult feeds all the young at each visit by regurgitation of seeds partially digested in its crop. Nu Go7 Adult Female Standing on Nest with Young, One Bird Yet to Be Fed. Ithaca. (August 1914) Allen In what kind of a tree is this nest? The maple is more com- monly selected. Goose, Canada (Branta canadensis canadensis) The best known of the New York waterfowls. While some of these wild geese remain within the State throughout the winter, their presence is looked for chiefly from October to December when they are migrating southward and again in March and April when they return to their principal home in Canada. 35-37 Nu GpcC Eight Adults at Shore. North Bow pond, Geneseo. (April 2, 1915) Bailey Geese are among the first birds to arrive from the south. Where they find plenty of food, they remain for a month, as here. Nu GpC6é Flock Swimming and Tipping, the Leader on Guard at the Shore. Geneseo. (April 2, 1915) Bailey These geese are exceedingly wary. Usually one of them is specially on guard for any sound or appearance that may bring harm. This picture was made from a blind. These birds are feeding by straining out the grain from the mud on the bottom of the pond by means of their modified bill. Nu GpC7 Flock in Flight in Typical V Formation. Geneseo. (April 1914) Bailey Wild geese usually migrate at a considerable height, the flock following a leader. The formation shown here is the common one. In which direction are these geese going? Nu GpC8 Flock in Flight, Scattered Formation. Geneseo. (April 1915) Bailey Describe character of wing movement. This flock has just been frightened from its feeding ground and has not yet had time to get into the V formation. 40 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Goose, Canada (continued) Call no. Nu Gpco Six Birds in Flight Seen Overhead. Gardiners island. (April 5, 1912) Harper These birds were flying about 100 feet from the ground. The flock is a small one in characteristic V-shaped formation. Grackle, Bronzed (Quiscalus quiscula eneus) ‘This bird, known locally as the “crow-blackbird,” is in ill- repute among farmers because it “pulls corn.” It also feeds upon the young of the smaller birds. It has been known to drive away song birds when they attempted to nest near its colony. It frequently associates with red-wings and cowbirds. All in all the bird is probably more destructive than beneficial, although it feeds upon many damaging insects. It is a common summer resident in western and central New York. It belongs to the Mississippi valley rather than to the Atlantic coast, where it is replaced by the purple grackle. 3& 13-13.50; 9 12-12.50 Nu GrB Adult Female on Edge of Nest with Young. Montezuma. (June 22, 1914) Allen The old bird is feeding grasshoppers to the young. Note the feather tracts on the young bird. Nu GrB4 Two Large Young Birds in Nest The nest is coarse and bulky. Of what materials is it made? The middle layer of mud does not show. The nest is similar to that of the robin but larger. Nu GrB5 Large Young Bird on Limb, About to Fly. Decorah, Iowa Hegner Compare with young crow. Nu GrB7 Adult Feeding on Crumbs on Ground. Geneseo. (1908) Bailey Notice how wary the bird is. He is alarmed by the shutter of the camera. Note the character of the bill. The tail, which is longer than in the other blackbirds, is not well shown in this picture. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 41 Grebe, Holbcell (Colymbus holbclli) This is the largest of the grebes. Like other grebes it has broadly lobed feet for swimming. The tail is rudimentary. 19-22.25 Call no. Nu GsH Adult in Winter Plumage, Standing in Water near Ice, Erect with Head Thrown Back. Arcade. (About 1905) R. H. Beebe Note the posterior position of legs. Compared with that of ducks and.geese. This bird stands nearly in a perpendicular posi- tion. When photographed it was in a weakened condition. The winter was severe and the streams and lakes were almost entirely frozen over. Large numbers of these birds perished at this time. Nu GsH4 Immature Bird (a captive) Resting on a Table. (1910) Bailey Grebe, Pied-billed (Podilymbus podiceps) Other names are hell-diver, dipper, diedapper and water-witch. This grebe may be distinguished from the others by its short, thick bill. Look for the black throat patch and band on the bill, distinctive marks during the breeding season. It is becoming less common as marshy ponds and streams are being drained and lakes are frequented by hunters and pleasure seekers. 12-14 Nu GsP Nest with Eggs, Adult and Young Swimming beside It. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 18, 1913) Allen The nest is usually supported on submerged weeds or rubbish, but sometimes floats on the water, anchored to nearby stems. The young swim as soon as hatched. Nu GsP1 Nest with Eggs, Typical Surroundings. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 18, 1913) Allen Note the comparatively exposed position. This grebe prefers shallow water. The eggs did not show until the photographer uncovered them. Nu GsP2 Nest with Eggs Covered by Adult with Nesting Material. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 10, 1913) Allen When this bird leaves its nest for forage or when it is fright- ened by the appearance of an enemy, it covers the eggs with material from the nest. Why? 42 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Grebe, Pied-billed (continued) Call no. Nu GsP3 Nest with Both Young Birds and Unhatched Eggs. Mich- igan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 18, 1914) Allen Notice the stripes on the young birds. Nu GsP4 Adult Removing Eggshell from the Nest. Michigan hol- low, near Ithaca. (June 18, 1913) Allen Note that the feathers on head and neck are wet and look like a crest. Nu GsP5 Adult with Young Swimming. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 10, 1913) Allen How many young birds can be seen? The grebe is an easy swimmer. Find out how it dives. Nu GsP6 Young Bird Swimming. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 18, 1913) Allen Note that the young grebe is striped, differing greatly in appearance from the old bird. It is covered with down like young ducks, but has the characteristic lobed toes of the grebe family, colymbidae, with legs at the posterior end of the body. Nu GsP8 Immature Bird in Water Picking Its Foot. The marsh at Branchport. (September 8, 1912) Burtch When these birds are undisturbed, they spend much time cleaning plants from their toes and shaking out their wings. The stripes on the sides of the head and the absence of black on the throat and bill indicate its immaturity. Grosbeak, Evening (Hesperiphona vespertina vespertina) The evening grosbeak is a somewhat irregular winter visitant. It nests in western Canada and migrates south and east, coming to New York irregularly and infrequently, usually during severe winters. Its food is mainly buds and fruit of box-elder, choke cherry and mountain ash. In 1914 a flock of a score or more came to Ithaca and were led to feed upon sunflower seeds. The following pictures were secured at that time. The birds were induced by abundant food to remain until the middle of May. 7-8.5 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 43 Grosbeck, Evening (continued) Call no. Nu GtE Adults, Male and Female, “Billing.” Ithaca. (April 29, 1914) Allen Not a courtship performance but the beginning of a fight. Nu GtE7 Adult Female, Back and Side View, at Feeding Station. Ithaca. (April 20, 1914) Bailey Notice the heavy beak for crushing seeds. Nu GtE8 Adult Male Charging House Sparrow. Ithaca. (May 2, 1914) Allen The sparrow is so frightened that it is falling off the end of the log. Nu GtE9 Flock of Nine Adults, Male and Female, Feeding on Ground. Ithaca. (April 17, 1914) Allen Grosbeak, Rose-breasted (Zamelodia ludoviciana) This grosbeak is much more common and more widely dis- tributed than the evening. Its haunts are rich woodlands with good undergrowth, also swamps and streams lined with shrubs. Tt is a summer resident in New York State. 7.75-8.5 Nu GtR Adult Male at Nest Feeding Young, Seen from Above. Ithaca. (June 13, 1911) Allen The male shares with its mate various household duties. Nu GtR2 Nest with Four Eggs The nest is usually placed in an alder, maple, elder, beech or hemlock sapling or on a limb of a low tree. Study the location of the several nests shown in this group of pictures. Is the nest well constructed? Compare with that of catbird. Nu GtR3 Adult Female Entering Nest, Four Eggs in Nest. Ren- wick, near Ithaca. (June 5, 1915) Allen She inspects the nest to see that all is right before taking her place upon the eggs. Nu GtR4 Female Incubating. (June 5, 1915) Allen The female is more protectively colored than the male. The nest is often placed, as here, in an elderberry bush along the edge of a woods. 44 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Grouse, Canada (Canachites canadensis canace) Other names are spruce grouse and spotted grouse. Confined in New York to spruce, fir and tamarack forests of the Adiron- dacks. It is becoming more and more scarce. Why? It is likely to become exterminated. It is unsuspicious, hence easily shot. 15-17 Cail no. Nu GuC Adult Perched on Old Upturned Roots Stone Note the henlike form—strong legs, short bill and short wings. Grouse, Ruffed (Bonasa wmbellus umbellus) Commonly known as the partridge. This bird is ranked as the best game bird in the country. This means that it is a strong flyer and is able to outwit the hunter. Compare with the spruce grouse. Its flight is rapid, and its tendency to keep to the second growth makes shooting it in flight difficult. Rainy weather during May and June is destructive to the young grouse and when stormy springs follow one another for several years grouse become very scarce. It is then necessary to give them complete protection for several years that they may recuperate. 16-19 Nu GuR15 Female, Back View, on Ground in Woods. Geneseo. (March 24, 1919) Bailey Nu GuR2 Adult Incubating. Onondaga Valley. (1912) Bailey This particular nest was built near picnic grounds for children, and the bird became used to the noise and commotion caused by the children at play. As a result it was easy to approach her nest and photograph her at close range. Nu GuR3 Nest with 15 Eggs under a Brush Pile. Cardiff. (May 1899) Bailey Nu GuR4 Nest with Eggs under Rail Fence. South Hill marsh, Ithaca. (May 7, 1905) Allen This fence borders a wood lot. There are at least nine eggs in this nest. Often there are fifteen or more. With ordinary protection these birds would propagate fast enough to restock the covers without any aid from man. The destruction of natural cover in the woods compels this bird, at times, to seek the pro- tection of fences and hedge rows. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 45 Grouse, Ruffed (continued) Call no. Nu GuR5 Young Just Hatched and Egg Shells in Nest. Ithaca. (May 26, 1905) Allen Note the regularity with which the eggs were opened by the young. Nu GuR6 Young Bird Crouching among Leaves and Bushes, Mich- igan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 17, 1911) Allen This bird is able to fly but prefers to depend upon protective coloration for concealment. Nu GuR7 Adult Female Nearly Invisible in Brush and Other Vege- tation. South Hill marsh, Ithaca. (June 1, 1905) Allen This grouse is very protectively colored and will allow close approach before flying. Many are passed unnoticed in the woods. Note how the color pattern of the back simulates that of its surroundings. This, together with its counter shading, makes the bird almost invisible. Nu GuR1 Male Drumming on Log. Geneseo. (April 14, 1919) Bailey For an account of this interesting habit, see Eaton, v. 1, p. 369. Gull, Herring (Larus argentatus) The most common and widely distributed gull of New York. It is especially common along the coast and on the Great Lakes. On smaller bodies of water it is a transient visitor. It still breeds in the Adirondacks, but is becoming rarer. Why? It is valuable as a scavenger in cleaning up dead fish and refuse about harbors, lakes and shores. 22.5-26 Nu GvH Three Adults Standing on Newly Forming Ice. Branch- port. (September 14, 1915) Burtch Herring gulls come here in September but are not, common until cold weather. A few remain as long as there is open water. In April and May on return migration they again become common. 46 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Gull, Herring (continued) Call no, Nu GvHI1 Flock of Herring Gulls and Crows Feeding on Snow. Ithaca. (March 4, 1914) Allen The streaks on the head and neck are worn only during the winter. Note shape of bill for tearing fish. Nu GvH4 Three Young Birds Hiding beside a Rock. Near Parry sound, Georgian bay, Canada. (June 1911) Bailey A good study in protective coloration. Notice the mottled appearance of the head. Nu GvH7 Numerous Adults Soaring Overhead. Near Parry sound, Georgian bay, Canada. (June 1911) Bailey Note the long, narrow wings for gliding. This. photograph was taken against the sun and the light shines through the tips of the wing feathers. Nu GvH8 Several Adults Flying over and Rising from the Water. Near Parry sound, Georgian bay, Canada. (June 1911) Bailey Notice the position of the wings and feet of the flying gulls. In the distance gulls are resting on the surface of the water. How can you tell that the gulls are rising rather than settling? Nu GvH9 A Multitude of Gulls and Terns Flying over and Settled upon Nesting Island. The Limestones, near Parry sound, Georgian bay, Canada. (June 1911) Bailey Hawk, Cooper (Accipiter cooperi) The cooper is one of the most destructive of the hawks. It feeds almost exclusively upon small birds and poultry. It is a quiet, low-flying hawk and is seldom seen. The high-flying hawks, like the red-tailed and red-shouldered, are usually blamed for the damage that this hawk does. Because of the practice followed by farmers and others of destroying the nests, the species is becoming less common. o 15-18; 9 18-20 Nu HC2 Adult, Front View, with Young, at Nest. Conesus lake. (1911) Bailey BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 47 Hawk, Cooper (continued) Call no. Nu HC3 Nest with Five Eggs. Decorah, Iowa Hegner The nest is built in crotches of trees, usually high up; some- times old crows’ nests are used. Nu HC4 Adult Tearing Up a Chicken, at Nest with Young. Conesus lake. (1911) Bailey Hawk, Duck (Falco peregrinus anatum) The most dashing and skilful of all our hawks; sometimes called the noble falcon. It prefers mountainous districts and in New York occurs most frequently along the Palisades and in the Highlands and the Adirondacks. It strikes its prey while in midair. It has been known to kill the smaller ducks and pigeons and other birds. 3 about 17; 9 19 Nu HD2 Adult and Eggs. Taghanic falls. (May 1913) Britten This hawk nests along ledges and usually selects inaccessible ones. The same site is used year after year. This one was known as early as 1909. No nest is built. Note the shape of the bill of the bird and also the powerful feet. Nu HD3 Young on Nesting Ledge. Taghanic falls. (1913) Bailey The birds are looking down 200 feet to the talus slope below. A misstep at this edge on the part of the photographer would be fatal. Sometimes the young birds fall from the ledge and are killed. Nu HD4 Young Bird after Leaving Nest. Taghanic falls. (June 1913) Bailey From these stubs the young birds await the call of the parent with food. As soon as the parent starts toward the stub, the young fly out and take the food in midair. The young are more heavily streaked than the adults. Nu HD5 Young Answering the Call of the Parent. Taghanic falls. (June 1913) Bailey Taken just before the bird left the perch for its food. 48 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Hawk, Marsh (Circus hudsonius) This species is a resident of marshes and swamps, easily identi- fied by its white rump in flight. It is abundant and breeds in every part of New York. It feeds largely upon mice, for which it watches while hawking. Its nest is built on the ground, which is unusual for hawks. fo 17.5-19; 9 19-22 Call no. Nu HM Adult Male at Nest in Cat-tails, Seven Eggs in Nest. Can- oga, near Cayuga lake. (June 26, 1914) Allen The male is much lighter in color than the female. He some- times assists in nest building, incubating and brooding, but more often assigns these duties to the female while he stands guard or brings her food. Note the typical hawk bill, feet and posture. Nu HM2 Nest with Six Eggs. Clinton co., Mich. (May 22, 1897) Hankinson Nu HM3 Birds Seven Days Old, and an Egg. Hallock, Minn. (June) Peabody Young hawks are covered with down when hatched but, unlike precocial young, are helpless for a long time. Nu HM4 Young Nearly Ready to Fly. Cardiff. (1911) Bailey The young birds are belligerent. They know no fear. They will throw themselves on the back and claw at any enemy, how- ever large. The young birds are good flyers, but are unable to alight on a perch. ‘They alight in the deep grass and can be caught by being rushed. Nu HM5 Young Bird Poscd on Post Just after Leaving the Nest. Cardiff. (1911) Bailey Note the slender legs and toes. Is the young bird colored like the male or the female? Nu HM6 Male Perched on Stub. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 25, 1914) Allen The marsh hawk seldom perches on trees as do other hawks, preferring to alight on the ground. About the nest, however, it usually chooses such a lookout as this one. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 49 Hawk, Marsh (continued) Call no. Nu HM8 Adult in Flight Approaching Stub. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 25, 1914) Allen The wings of the marsh hawk are longer and narrower than those of the other species of hawks. The tail is spread to check the bird’s momentum before alighting. Compare with Nu HM7. Nu HM7 Adult in Flight, Seen from Below. Gardiners island. (June 17, 1911) Harper This hawk showed by hovering about and uttering its com- plaining cry that it had a nest not far away. This photograph was not taken during the molting season, but apparently the sixth primary of each wing has been lost. Hawk, Red-shouldered (Buteo lineatus lineatus) This hawk belongs in the helpful group, as it feeds upon destructive rodents. It is often mistaken for the red-tailed hawk, which it closely resembles. $17.5-19; 9 19.5-21 Nu HP2 Nest with Four Eggs in Beech Tree. Cascadilla valley, near Ithaca. (April 30, 1910) Allen This nest is 40 feet from the ground. With what is it lined? Nu HP4 Three Birds, 16-18 Days Old, on Nest. Arcade. (June 3, 1905) R. H. Beebe When just hatched the red-shouldered hawks are covered with down and lack the fierce nature of their parents. In this picture the feathers are just coming through the down. Nu HP5 Two Young Birds Perched on Old Log. Arcade. (1905) R. H. Beebe Immature red-shouldered hawks have white spotted breasts, but the adults have them uniformly rusty in color, more or less barred. Hawk, Red-tailed (Buteo borealis borealis) This hawk, one of the high-sailing type, is a most beneficial bird. Its food consists almost wholly of the destructive meadow mouse and the woodchuck. Though commonly known as the 50 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Hawk, Red-tailed (continued) “hen hawk,” it very seldom feeds upon birds or poultry. It should be protected. Some misguided persons assume that this hawk should be trapped because it feeds upon poultry. From time to time farmers’ sons try this method of ridding the farms of these beneficial birds, believing them to be enemies of poultry. While poultry is fed upon by hawks, it is usually the cooper or the sharp-shinned hawk that is the actual culprit. 19-21; 22-24 Call no. Nu HR Immature Bird Perched on Broken Limb of Tree. (1902) This bird is probably watching for a mouse, a squirrel or a bird. Nu HR2 Two Birds on Nest in White Birch Tree. Decorah, Iowa. (April 22, 1901). Hegner The nest is usually in the fork of a tall tree, maple, beech, elm, basswood, hemlock or pine, 40 to 80 feet from the ground. The same nest is occupied year after year. Study its composi- tion and structure. The tail of the adult bird is red, but that of the immature is banded. Nu HR4 Two Young Birds Removed from Nest and Posed on Fence Rail. Geneseo Bailey One of these birds was afterwards shot while it was feeding upon a woodchuck. The young hawks remain in the nest for some time after they are fairly good flyers. They are not inde- pendent of the adults until they are able to capture their own food. It takes a month or more for them to become skilful enough to catch live mice and woodchucks. Study the picture to determine which feathers are the last to push through the down of the young. Nu HR9 Male Perched on Stump over Traps Set for It Note the band of spots across the. breast, a good field mark. Hawk, Sparrow (Falco sparverius sparverius) A summer resident throughout the State and breeds in almost every community. In winter it is often found near cities and villages, where it feeds largely on English sparrows. 10-11.5 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 51 Hawk, Sparrow (continued) Call no. Nu HT Adult Female with Dead Sparrow. Genesco. (March 8, 1914) Bailey The food of these birds consists of grasshoppers, dragon flies, meadow mice and now and then a young bird. The young birds are caught as food more often on cold mornings before the insects are active. During deep snow the sparrow hawk is often forced to come to buildings and hedges in pursuit of the English spar- row. At such times it will feed upon dead sparrows that may be fastened to a perch or thrown on the snow. This is a female, as shown by its streaked rather than spotted breast. Nu HT3 Nest with Five Eggs in Abandoned Nest of Flicker in Old Stump. Ithaca. (June 2, 1916) Allen ‘The nest is usually placed in a hollow limb, here as often in a deserted flicker’s nest, occasionally in a box put up for the pur- pose. No nesting material is used. This nest is from 30 to 40 feet above the ground. Nu HT4 Young Bird Posed on Perch, Profile. Near Grecnridge, Staten island. (July 19, 1908) Harper This bird has been removed temporarily from its nest in the hollow of a large elm tree. It is not yet ready to fly, as shown by the down feathers on it. When the bird was photographed, it had already been long enough in confinement to lose some of its wildness. Nu HT8 Adult Startled by the Click of the Shutter, Wings Raised. Geneseo. (March 8, 1914) Bailey Note the pointed wings characteristic of falcons. Nu HT9 Adult Trying to Fly Away with Dead Sparrow. Genesco. (March 8, 1914) Bailey Note the large stretch of wing. Heron, Black-crowned Night (Nycticorax nycticorax nevius) This bird nests in colonies using, however, as a rule, a smaller tree than the great blue heron. From time to time single pairs may nest in the company of the great blue heron. Their feeding habits are much the same as those of the other herons. 23-26 52 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Heron, Black-crowned Night (continued) Call no. Nu HeB Two Adults Perched in a Dead Tree Top. Near Roslyn. (June 9, 1907) Harper These birds belonged to a large colony. They were about 60 feet from the ground. While being photographed from a neigh- boring tree they showed little fear. Nu HeBl A Heronry. Near Roslyn. (April 19, 1908) Harper Hundreds of black-crowned night herons formerly bred here. The several nests seen in the tops of the swamp maple trees are those of the previous season. The birds in April were just returning to build new nests or occupy the old ones. A few years later this colony was abandoned by the birds, probably owing to persecution. Nu HeB2 Several Nests in Swamp Maple Tree The size of the nests can be judged by the crow in the tree. Nu HeB3 Nest with Four Eggs. Long Branch. (May 31, 1914) Bailey Note that the nest is composed entirely of sticks and has no lining. Nu HeB5 Immature Bird in Flight. Near Roslyn. (July 18, 1908) Harper By July 18th most of the young birds of the season are on the wing. This bird was photographed from the top of a tree as it flew over the heronry. The plumage is streaked brown, quite different from that of the adult and very similar to the bittern. Heron, Great Blue (Ardea herodias herodias) This heron is a transient visitant in all parts of the State and a summer resident in several localities. It is a large, attractive bird. It is occasionally destructive to trout, but more often to other fish of little value upon which it feeds, its long beak being used to spear the fish. 42-50 Nu. HeF Adult in Feeding Ground. (1898) BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 53 Heron, Great Blue (continued) Call no. Nu HeFi- Three Adults Perched near Nests on Limbs of Tall Tree. Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey These birds nest in colonies high up in tall trees. The Oneida lake colony has more than a hundred nests in a small area. The food of these birds consists of fish, frogs and tadpoles. Note structure and composition of nest. Nu HeF2 Three Young Birds in Nest. Oneida lake. (1911) Bailey Notice the resemblance between the sticks and the necks of the birds. Note that the nest is not kept clean like those of most birds. Nu HeF3 Young Birds Removed from Nest and Posed on a Fallen Tree Trunk, Oneida lake. (1909) Bailey This bird, like many others, gains the use of legs and wings slowly. The young are awkward looking. Compare the birds here shown as to position. Nu HeF44 Two Young Birds Perched on a Limb. Tonawanda swamp. (1907) R. H. Beebe Note long legs and neck to match, also long toes and javelin- like bills. Nu HeF6 Immature Bird Wading in Search for Food. From nega- tive in collection of A. W. and Julian A. Dimock. Florida Note where this bird was photographed. Consider how nature adapts each bird by its structure for its peculiar life. The dark crown is characteristic of an immature bird. Nu HeF7 Adult (wounded) on Water near Stump. Branchport. (April 12, 1914) Burtch This bird had been caught in a steel trap and had lost a toe. Unless bathing or wounded, a heron would not sink thus far into the water. Note the white crown of the adult. Nu HeF8 Immature Bird Advancing Carefully through Shallow Water and Vegetation. Branchport. (August 24, 1913) Burtch 54 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK This bird is looking for fish and advances very carefully. When it has seen its victim, it moves its head slowly until within striking distance, then suddenly plunges it into the water. If a small fish or frog is gotten, it is swallowed at once. A larger one is carried to solid ground and pulled into pieces. Heron, Green (Butorides virescens virescens) Other names are fly-up-the-creek and shitepoke. It is the most familiar heron in most parts of New York. It is found along small streams and ponds as well as larger lakes and swamps. 15.5—-22 Call no. Nu HeH Adult on Branch near Nest; Nest with Egg and Young. (June 15, 1914) Allen Like the bittern, the heron often draws the neck back so it appears shorter than it actually is. Note bill, legs and toes. Nu HeH2 Nest with Five Eggs. Meridian Tabor The nest is a slovenly made structure of sticks, so loose that the eggs may sometimes be seen through the bottom. Nu HeH3 Adult Incubating. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 15, 1914) Allen This bird seldom nests in colonies like the great blue heron but usually singly in low trees and sometimes in bushes over the water. Observe of what coarse material and how carelessly the nest is put together. Nu HeH4 Three Young Birds in Nest. Meridian Tabor They have not learned fear. Nu HeH5 Three Young Birds Taken from the Nest. (1899) Notice the tendency of these birds to point their necks straight up. This is a characteristic of them whenever they are frightened. Nu HeH6 Young Bird Swimming among Reeds. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (July 4, 1913) Allen The bird is not precocial but is swimming freely, although still in down and quill feathers. Although altricial, young herons gain their strength more quickly than their feathers and climb from the nest long before they fly. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 55 Heron, Green (continued) Call no. Nu HeHs8 Adult Flying over Swamp. Montezuma. (September 1910) Allen Note the closeness of the primaries on the downward stroke of the wing. Hummingbird, Ruby-throated (Archilochus colubris) Found in all parts of New York, both the more thickly settled and the dense forest regions. The only species of this family in eastern United States. It flies from flower to flower for the nectar and also for small insects attracted to the flowers by nectar. Jb 3.5; 2 3.85 Nu HuR Adult Hovering before a Flower on Which Rests a Butter- fly Chapman Note how it sustains itself in one position before the blossom. The rapid movement of the wings is too fast for the camera to catch. What is the position of the tail? Nu HuR2 Nest with Two Eggs, Seen from Directly Above. Meri- dian Tabor The nest is beautifully constructed of lichens and spider webs, usually on top of a limb. The eggs are about the size of small beans, nearly elliptical and always two in number. Nu HuR3 Female Incubating Chapman In judging size of bird and nest note apple and leaves. Nu HuR4 Adult Female on Edge of Nest Chapman How can you tell it is a female? Note the long slim bill. Nu HuR5 Adult Feeding Young in Nest. Ithaca. (July 2, 1915) Allen The bill of the old bird is inserted far down the throat of the young and nectar and small insects are pumped into it. 56 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Jay, Blue (Cyanocitta cristata cristata) One of the most beautifully colored of our birds, but a nest robber and noisy. It stores food, such as acorns and beechnuts, and hides it away for use in the winter season. In New York State it is rather uncommon around habitations and keeps to the woods, while in the mid-west it nests in the trees of villages and towns. 11-12.5 Call no. Nu JB8 Adult on Nest, Tail Raised, Seen from Side and Above. Arcade. (1905) R. H. Beebe Note the thick bristles at the base of the bill. Nu JB4 Three Young Birds on Branch of Apple Tree, Just after They Left the Nest. (July 1912) The blue of the mature bird does not yet show fully. Nu JB6 Adult on Limb. Arcade. (1905) R. H. Beebe Note the crest, the heavy bill and the basal bristles. Nu JB7 Adult on Nest in Small Hemlock Tree, from in Front and Above. Letchworth park. (June 2, 1914) Bailey Observe whether an evergreen tree is usually selected as the nesting site. Note how the breast feathers are ruffled out to bring the breast in direct contact with the eggs. Junco, Slate-colored (Junco hyemalis hyemalis) One of our common winter birds, especially in the southern portion of the State. Known also as the snow bird. It generally migrates farther north in summer but individuals remain throughout the colder portions of the State, especially the Adir- ondacks and Catskills. It is easily recognized by the two white outer tail feathers. It is a valuable bird because of the large number of weed seeds it destroys. 6.2-6.4 Nu jus Adult at Feeding Station, Side View. Geneseo. (April 9, 1912) Bailey Nu JuS2 Nest with Four Eggs on Ground among Bunchberry Plants. C. Will Beebe The eggs are three or four in number. The bunchberry is a northern plant. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 57 Junco, Slate-colored (continued) Call no. Nu JuS6 Adult on Nest in Tall Lodged Grass. Cranberry lake. (June 28, 1916) Bailey Nu JuS8 Junco Driving Nuthatch Away from Feeding Station. (January 1914) Allen Nu JuS9 Flock at “Glenside” in Snowstorm. Ithaca. (April 1918) Allen Glenside is the home of Dr Arthur A. Allen, who has about the house several acres of glens and wooded hillside, a veritable bird retreat, near the campus of Cornell University. This picture illustrates when the birds need to be furnished with food. For junco at feeding station with chickadee, see Nu Ci9. Killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus) The name killdeer is from its call, which can be heard at its first arrival in the spring and night and day throughout its season. A familiar bird in cultivated fields, where it runs about on plowed ground feeding upon many kinds of insects. This bird is now protected and is no longer a game bird, 9-11.5 Nu Ke2 Adult over Eggs on Plowed Ground. Geneseo. (1910) Bailey Note how the white rings and black bands, called “ruptive marks,” seem to cut the bird into several pieces. Note how the breast feathers are being spread to expose the brood spots and bring them against the eggs. Nu Ke3 Nest with Four Eggs. Near Branchport. (July 8, 1915) Burtch This nest was found by a farmer while cultivating corn. Mr Burtch reports one killdeer that laid a third set of eggs in a corn- field after the first two had been destroyed by the cultivator. Observe the circle of pebbles picked out by the bird in making the depression into which the eggs are laid. Are the eggs pro- tectively colored? Nu Ke4 Female Incubating. Arcade. (1906) R. H. Beebe Nu Ke5 Three Young and an Unhatched Egg in Nest. Arcade R. H, Becbe This is a good example of protective coloration, both in the color pattern and ruptive marks. The young are crouching, the fear instinct developing early in precocial birds. 58 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Killdeer (continued) Call no. Nu Ke7 Adult Brooding. Cascadilla valley, Ithaca. (April 30, 1910) Allen The young birds have run beneath the old bird’s wings. The bill of plovers is much shorter than that of sandpipers. Nu Ke8 Adult Feigning Distress near Nest. (May 1907) Allen Nu Keg Adult on Wing. (April 30, 1910) Allen The wings are long and pointed. The killdeer is very swift on the wing. Kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) A common summer resident of New York, widely distributed and usually found in orchards, pastures and roadsides. It is one of the flycatchers and feeds upon beetles, bees, grasshoppers, moths and other insects. This bird will attack and drive away a hawk or a crow. 8.4-8.75 Nu Kh Adult on Twig near Nest, Front View. Cardiff. (1910) Bailey This nest with young birds was removed from the top of a tree and placed as shown in the picture. The adults continued to feed their young regularly as if the nest were in its natural place. Nu Kh2 Adult on Twig near Nest, Side View. Cardiff. (1910) Bailey The bird here has a honey bee in its mouth. Some beekeepers believe that kingbirds feed upon the workers, but examinations of the birds’ stomachs show that the bees the birds feed upon are largely drones. Note the erect posture. Most flycatchers perch even more erect. Nu Kh5 Three Young Birds Placed on Twig, Adult Female Perched near Them. Arcade. (1906) R. H. Beebe The white band on the end of the tail is a good field mark. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 59 Kingfisher, Belted (Ceryle alcyon) This bird is found throughout the State along lake shores, rivers, ponds and brooks. 12.5-14.75 Call no. Nu KiB Adult Female Perched on Stick Stuck in Bank, Front View. (June 3, 1914) R. H. Beebe The stick is placed directly before the nest hole. The male does not have the brown band across the breast so that in this respect the female is brighter than the male. Nu KiB2 Nest with Seven Eggs in Sand Bank The eggs of the kingfisher are laid at the end of a burrow dug in a sand or clay bank by the bird. This tunnel is frequently three feet long. At the farther end it is enlarged and from five to eight glossy eggs are laid. The entrance to the nest here shown has been cut away. No nest is built. Nu KiB3 Birds Two Days Old. (May 21, 1899) W. L. Baily The young are hatched naked, blind and helpless. The down found on most altricial birds is lacking. Nu KiB4 Birds Nine Days Old Here the eyes are opened and pin feathers are developed. The developing feathers, “pin feathers,” remain in the sheaths until full grown, when they burst and the transformation to the full feathered bird is, as with the cuckoos, very rapid. Nu KiB5 Six Birds, 16 Days Old W.L. Baily Notice the developing crest and absence of pin feathers. For many weeks after they are able to fly, the young birds are dependent upon their parents. Nu KiB6 Immature on Stump. Decorah, Iowa Hegner This is a typical perch. Kingfishers though brightly colored resemble their parents in their first plumage. Nu KiB7 Adult Female Perched on Twig with Sucker in Bill. Ithaca. (June 21, 1913) Allen The food of this bird is chiefly fish and crayfish, which it catches by diving from some favorite perch near the surface of 60 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK the water, as here, or hovering over the water until the right moment for diving comes. In some places, especially near fish hatcheries, kingfishers do considerable damage by feeding on the fingerlings. Observe the shape of the bill and the weak feet with the outer toes grown together. Lark, Prairie Horned (Otocoris alpestris praticola) This bird destroys a great number of weed seeds and deserves the fullest protection. Unfortunately early plowing destroys a great many nests with the young. Call no. Nu LdP Female at Nest on Ground Feeding Four Young Birds, (April 1900) Van Zant This species nests late in March or early in April on the ground. The cold weather of early April does not seem to affect. the eggs. | Nu LdPi Male before Nest with Young. Decorah, Iowa. (April 23, 1901) Hegner Note the “horns,” the conspicuous face markings and the rounded bill. Nu LdP2 Nest with Three Eggs on Ground C. Will Beebe A depression lined with grasses. Nu LdP3 Nest with Four Eggs in Snow. (April 1907) Allen Snow fell after these eggs were laid. Cold does not seem to affect the eggs as the female continues to incubate even though covered with snow. Here she has been flushed from the nest, which is seen to be dry, though the snow is several inches deep all around. Nu LdP4 Nest with Two Young Birds in Snow Bailey The spotted back of the young makes it very inconspicuous when it crouches on the ground, but here the birds are revealed by the snow. Nu LdP8 Female Bird on Camera, Side View. Geneseo. (1912) Bailey . This camera was used to photograph the bird feeding her young. After feeding she repeatedly alighted on the camera. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 61 Lark, Prairie Horned (continued) Another camera was brought and she was photographed in this position. Call no. Nu LdP9 A Flock Feeding. Chandlers Flats, near Geneseo Bailey These birds are feeding on millet heads and scattered bird seed. The horned lark occasionally stays in New York all winter and is always among the first of the birds to come back in the spring, in February, while the snow still covers the ground. Longspur, Lapland (Calcarius lapponicus lapponicus) Slightly smaller than the snowflake and much darker. It resembles somewhat the common house sparrow. Regarded as uncommon in New York. It is a winter bird, lives entirely upon the ground, and walks instead of hops. It usually associates with horned larks or snow buntings. o 6.1-6.9; 9 5.5-6 Nu Ln7 Four Birds at Feeding Station. Ithaca. (March 11, 1916) Allen Loon, Common (Gavia immer) This bird is nearly three feet long and resembles the grebe. It is an expert diver and pursues fish beneath the water to great depths. In its mad pursuit of its prey in the Great Lakes, it is frequently caught in the nets of fishermen. On the wing it resembles a wild goose, but when migrating the flocks are always scattered and never in the V-shaped formation. Nu LoC2 Nest with Two Eggs. Higley lake, Ontario Dutcher The nest is usually in a hollow in the sand on an island, on a muskrat house or on a floating mass of debris. The eggs are about the darkest of any laid by our native birds. Nu LoC4 Single Young Bird in Nest. Cove island, Ontario. (1912) Bailey The young are covered with black down and are able to swim and dive shortly after hatching. 62 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) In the western part of the State this duck is mure common than in the eastern. It occurs chiefly as a transient, though it breeds to some extent within the State, particularly around the central lakes and Lake Ontario. The mallard is partly domesti- cated, and the domestic duck, which is derived from it, resembles it closely. 20-25 Call no. Nu Mcl Six Adults, Male and Female, Domesticated, near Water The heavy bodies, large heads, thick necks and short bills show that these are domesticated birds. Nu Mcl12 Wild Bird (captive) in Eclipse Plumage. Ithaca. (Sep- tember 22, 1918) Allen This plumage is worn from July until the middle of October. It corresponds to the winter plumage of most birds. The change from one plumage to another is gradual. Nu Mcl4 Wild Bird (captive), Male in Full Plumage. Ithaca. (Oc- tober 27, 1918) Allen This plumage is worn from October until the last of July. The only change from this plumage takes place by feather wear. The gray edgings to the breast wear off, making it appear redder and the white band wider. Compare the wild mallard with picture of domestic mallards, noting differences in shape of head, body and bill. Nu Mc2 Nest with Nine Eggs, Photographed by P. B. Peabody, Hallock, Minn. and Nest with Ten Eggs, Photographed by Verdi Burtch, Branchport. (May 28, 1916) The nest is usually on the ground near some marshy stream, but occasionally on a rotten stump. Note the thick, soft lining of the nest. The female plucks the down from her own breast to cover the eggs as incubation progresses. In the first picture the bird has scarcely begun to incubate. Nu Mc3 Female (captive) on Nest. Ithaca. (June 9, 1917) Allen Nu Mc8 Male and Female Jumping up for Flight. Ithaca. (March 18, 1918) Allen BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 63 Mallard (continued) Call no. Nu Mc82 Banded Male and Female Rising and Swinging. Ithaca. (March 18, 1918) Allen Note position of feet, wings and tail. Nu Mc84 Banded Female in Full Flight. Ithaca. (March 18, 1918) Allen Compare position of wings, feet and tail with Nu Mc8 and Nu Mc82., ‘Martin, Purple (Progne subis subis) This bird is the largest of the swallows and lives in cities and towns and near houses in the country. Perhaps no other bird has such beautiful gabled buildings arranged for it. In the South it nests in gourds put up for the purpose. It is a beneficial bird, feeding upon insects. 7.5-8.5 Nu MeP Two Adult Females on a Wire. Syracuse. (1909) Bailey The females have gray breasts; the males are entirely steel blue. Nu MeP8 Five Birds at Play about a Wire. Syracuse. (1910) Bailey This species has a wing spread of 15 to 16 inches. The birds here shown are sunning themselves and pursuing passing insects. Note how the tail is spread. Nu MeP9 Martin House and Martins. Syracuse. (1909) Bailey Martins like to nest in colonies. A martin house, therefore, should have many compartments 6 or 7 inches in each dimension, entrance hole about 214 inches across. It should be erected on a support from 15 to 20 feet tall. Even when thus provided for the martin is likely to be driven out by the house sparrow. It should be protected as much as possible. Note the sparrow on the wire to the right of the martins. Meadowlark (Sturnella magna magna) This familiar bird of the meadows arrives in March and remains till late in the fall. It belongs to the blackbird family. In many portions of the State it remains through the winter. 64 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Meadowlark (continued) It is wholly beneficial and destroys a great number of noxious insects. It deserves protection throughout the whole country. & 10.5-11; 2 9-10.5 Call no. Nu Mé Adult on Log in Grass with Food: in Beak, Back View. Geneseo. (1912) Bailey This bird spends much time on the ground. Note the white outer tail feathers, called “flash colors.” Nu Mf2 Nest with Four Eggs Partially Concealed in the Grass. Arcade. (May 19, 1904) R. H. Beebe The nest is usually placed at the end of a burrow in the grass and is arched over so as to be concealed from above. Nu Mfl Adult at Nest with White Grubs and Black Crickets fac Young Allen The roof which covers the nest while the bird is incubating wears out as the adult goes in and out to feed the young. Nu Mf5 Young Bird Hiding in Grass. Geneseo. (1911) Bailey Young birds develop the fear instinct as soon as they are large enough to hide or to defend themselves. Nu Mf6 Adult Cleaning the Nest. (June 9, 1915) Allen After each feeding the nest of this bird was cleaned and the excrement carried away to prevent fouling the nest. Note how the base of the bill extends back onto the forehead. Nu Mfs Adult on Log in Grass, Singing, Front View. Geneseo. (1912) Bailey Note the bright yellow of the throat and belly and the black crescent on the breast. One does not often see these, for the bird commonly keeps his back to the observer. Merganser (Mergus americanus) Shelldrake is another common, name for this duck. It some- times still breeds in New York, though its common breeding place is farther north. og 24-27; 2 1 to 4 inches shorter BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 65 Merganser (continued) Call no. Nu Mh2 Nest with Eggs among Rocks. Georgian bay, Canada. (July 1912) Bailey Note how downy the nest is. The down is plucked by the female from her own breast. It is often built in an old stump or a hollow tree as well as in cliffs. Merganser, Red-breasted (Mergus serrator) 20-25 Nu MhR8& Four Adults in Flight over Decoys in Water. Long Cove, Great South bay. (April 4, 1909) Harper The one in the lead is a female, the others males pursuing. The picture was made at the height of the courtship season. This species winters in large numbers on Great South bay. Note how narrow their bills are compared with those of other ducks. Nighthawk (Chordeiles virginianus virginianus) The name nighthawk is misleading, for the bird is not a hawk, but related to the whip-poor-will and swifts. It flies about at night, feeding upon moths, mosquitos and other insects that are in the air at that time. Its cry may be heard at night over cities and towns. 9.5-10 Nu Ni Adult on Old Fence Post. Decorah, Iowa. (June 3, 1901) Hegner The nest is near by. The bird alighted on this post after being flushed. Note how horizontally it perches; also the short bill and large mouth. The weak feet are concealed. Nu Ni2 Eggs on Graveled Roof. Kirk block, Syracuse. (1903) Bailey The nests are more commonly found in cities nowadays than in the gravel banks and quarries of the country. Every city that has flat graveled roofs gives this bird a nesting site. The eggs are usually two in number and so well marked that they are not easily seen in gravel beds. Nu Ni4 Young Bird on Graveled Roof. Syracuse. (1903) Bailey The young birds are covered with grayish down and are almost invisible on gravel or rough stones. 3 66 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Nighthawk (continued) Call no. Nu Ni6 Adult with Young on Nest on Ground. (1900) Chapman This is a good example of protective coloration. Nu Ni?7 Adult Asleep on Log. Weymouth, Nova Scotia C. Will Beebe During the day the nighthawk in wooded regions perches upon a log or limb; in the open country it roosts upon the ground. It can not perch upon small branches because its feet are too small and weak. It rests lengthwise on larger branches for better sup- port and in so doing simulates a knot or bump. Nuthatch, White-breasted (Sitta carolinensis carolinensis) Among the most conspicuous of winter birds is this very inter- esting one that may be recognized by its peculiar habit of going down a tree head foremost. It has a harsh call, hardly in keep- ing with its colors. Its food consists of insects that it discovers in the crevices of bark and various other places. It is also fond of oily seeds such as those of the sunflower. 5.5-6 Nu NuwW Adult on Side of Stump, Characteristic Position. (April 14, 1915) Allen This bird was attracted by suet forced into a hole in the stump. Note the long upcurved bill, short tail and perching-bird type of foot. Nu NuWw2 Adult Female with Food at Nest in Tree Trunk. Ithaca. (June 2, 1915) Allen Gathers its food chiefly from tree trunks and so does not have far to go from the nest to find it. Usually selects for its nest a cavity in a tree entered through a knot hole. Nu NuWw3 Adult on Small Limb, Seen from Below. Arcade. (1905) R. H. Beebe Nu Nuw4 Adult Feeding on Suet Placed on a Limb, Side View. Geneseo. (1910) Bailey Nu NuW6 Four Young Birds with Heads Pointing Upward toward Mother Bird, Two Young Birds on Stump Below. Geneseo. (1909) Bailey The young resemble their parents. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 67 Nuthatch, White-breasted (continued) Call no. Nu NuW7 Seven Young Birds in a Row, Adult Bird Clinging to Perch from Below. Geneseo. (1910) Bailey Nuthatches climb about in any sort of position. Nu Nuws Eleven Young Birds of One Brood Posed in a Row. Geneseo, (1911) ‘ Bailey The family was raised in a box put up originally for gray squirrels. So large a brood is exceptional. Nu Nuw9 Adult with Wings and Tail Spread Driving House Spar- row from Feeding Station. Ithaca. (February 1914) Allen The wings and tail are spread and the feathers shaken out, displaying the black and white marks that are ordinarily con- cealed, in an effort to appear as large as possible. This suggests another use for “flash colors” than that of protective coloration. This display is doubtless also used during the courting period. As the bird advances, it sways from side to side and points its long bill in a threatening manner. ' For junco driving nuthatch from feeding station, see Nu JuS8. Oriole, Baltimore (Icterus galbula) Another bird that seems to prefer the company of man, for it nests from choice about the buildings in the country and in the trees of our village streets. Now and then the oriole helps itself to cherries, but the good it does during the other months more than repays for what few cherries it takes. 3 7-8.2; 2 7-7.6 Nu OrB Male and Female on Branch above Nest. (June 12, 1914) Allen A very representative picture as to the nest, the tree and the birds. Give it special study, noting species of tree, the material used for the nest, its form, structure, position etc., the shape and coloration of the birds. Some of the leaves have been removed that would otherwise entirely conceal the nest except from below. Nu OrB2 Gathering Strings for a Nest. Ithaca. (May 19, 1916) Allen Strings and yarn should be put out about the first of May to encourage orioles to nest in your vicinity. 68 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Oriole, Baltimore (continued) Call no. Nu OrB3 Building Nest in Cut-leaf Maple near Nest of Previous Year. Ithaca. (June 1, 1917) Allen The old nest is in the lower left-hand corner. What guides the bird on its way from Central America to its former nesting site? Nu OrB4 Young Birds Perched above Their Nest Oftentimes, when bits of variously colored strings are put out, the oriole will select the light-colored ones. Osprey (Pandion haliaétus carolinensis) Abundant about the seashore, but uncommon in the interior of the State. It pounces upon fish in the water and carries them away to its nest or to some favorite site, feeding upon them. In some bodies of water the bald eagle pursues it, makes it drop the fish and not infrequently catches the fish before it strikes the water. This is the common fish hawk. 20-24 Nu Os Adult at Nest with Eggs The place of the nest varies greatly. Where they are given complete protection, as on Gardiners island, they nest on the ground or anywhere; in other places they select high trees. What do the several nesting sites shown in this series of pictures have in common? Nu Os2 Nest with Three Eggs Nu Os4 Two Adults Flying to Nest in Tall Tree Chapman This is the usual sort of nesting place where the birds have enemies. Nu Os5 Nest on Top of a Telegraph Pole Hathaway An unusual nesting site. Nu Os6 Nest on Stumps of Uprooted Trees. Gardiners island Chapman Nu Os7 Adult on Nest on Roof of Shed, Doctor Chapman Pulling String to Release the Shutter of Camera. Gardiners island. (June 1901) Chapman BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 69 Osprey (continued) Call no. Nu Os8 Adult over Nest. Gardiners island Chapman Nu Os9 Adult with Wings and Tail Spread About to Alight on Nest. Gardiners island. (June 9, 1911) Harper Observe specially how the wings are used in directing the bird’s course and in retarding its movement. The feet are dropped ready to land. Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) The ovenbird is known also as the teacher bird and as the golden-crowned thrush. It belongs with the group of warblers. The name ovenbird is given to it because it builds a roofed nest like an old-fashioned oven. The name teacher bird is derived from its call, while the term golden-crowned thrush is derived from the color of the crown. This bird is fairly abundant in the drier woods. 6.2 Nu Ov2 Adult at Nest. (June 8, 1900) Chapman The nest is rather bulky, is placed upon the ground often as here at the foot of a small sapling or under a recumbent dead twig, and is built of brown leaves and grass of the preceding year. The nest is not easily discovered. Where is the entrance? Nu Ov3 Nest with Eggs in Brush Surrounded by Growth of Swamp Saxifrage, Skunk Cabbage, Jack-in-the-Pulpit and Other Plants. Potters swamp, Branchport. (June 6, 1909) Burtch While such swamps are not the usual nesting places of the ovenbird, a number of nests have been found in Potters swamp. Note how perfectly the nest is concealed. One might easily overlook it in passing. Owl, Barn (Aluco pratincola) The name monkey-faced owl is given this bird because of its odd visage. It is unusually helpful and feeds almost exclusively on squirrels, reptiles, mice and insects. It frequents barns. Its habits are nocturnal. It is considered somewhat rare in New York as it is more a southern bird, though it is found in many parts of the State. 15-18 70 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Owl, Barn (continued) Call no. Nu OwB Adult in Crotch of Old Tree. (1902) Nu OwB2 Nesting Site in a Hollow High in Tree. (1902) It nests also in secluded towers, belfries and barn attics. Nu OwB3 Nest with Two Eggs in Old Tree Stump. (1902) It lays from five to eleven eggs and rears two broods a season. All owls lay pure white eggs. Nu OwB4 Two Birds Sixteen Days Old. (1902) Note the forming facial disk; the bill not yet very strongly hooked, the position of toes, the outer toe reversible. Nu OwB5 Two Birds Twenty-eight Days Old. (1902) They have now acquired their adult feathers. Nu OwB6 Single Bird 110 Days Old on Post. (September 1913) Owl, Barred (Strix varia varia) One of the least harmful of the large owls. It differs from the great horned owl in the absence of ear tufts. It is noisy at night and its hooting ends with a mournful wail. It frequents the denser timber land. It is the commonest owl in the Adirondacks. 19.5-24 Nu OwC Adult (captive). (1900) Barring across breast serves to identify this species. It has ruffled its feathers and assumed a defensive attitude. Nu OwC2 Two Eggs in Hollow of Stump. (1904) The nest is usually in the hollow of a tree or in an old nest of a crow or a hawk. No nest is built. Nu OwC4 Two Young Birds Perched on Fence. (1904) Note position of the toes. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 71 Owl, Great Horned (Bubo virginianus virginianus) A permanent resident throughout New York, though no longer common except in wooded districts. It is nocturnal in its habits. The best authorities grant that this bird feeds upon domestic fowls from time to time. However, the great amount of its food is weasels, rats, mice, rabbits and skunks. Fowls that are properly cared for are not usually destroyed by this night prowler. It is usually the careless farmer who allows his poultry to find roosting places anywhere that suffers from this bird. 21-24 Call no. Nu OwG Adult. (1905) It is probable that this bird was a captive when photographed. Nu OwGl Adult Threatening. (1905) As the bird was approached by the photographer, it showed a fighting disposition. Nu OwG2 Nest with Two Eggs in Hollow of Tree. (March 1910) The eggs are laid as early as February usually in hollow trees or deserted crow’s nests. The growing scarcity of hollow trees is one cause for the diminution of this bird. Nu OwG3 Nest with Two Eggs and One Young Bird in Crotch of , White Pine Tree, Rat and Bird for Food on Edge of Nest. Cascadilla valley, Ithaca. (April 1, 1908) Allen This nest is 60 feet from the ground. Note that it is not in the hollow of a tree. Note also the character of the food at the nest. Find out how much such food a single bird catches in a year. This bird is sometimes at least beneficial. When was the picture made? Nu OwG4 Nesting Site in Cliff of Shale Rock. (1904) An unusual nesting site. Nu OwGs5 Young Bird Posed on Top of Post. Geneseo. (April 27, 1908) Bailey The bird is just able to fly from one tree to another, but is not able to take its own food. No tufts have yet appeared. 72 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Owl, Great Horned (continued) Call no. Nu OwG6 Young Bird on Perch (flashlight), Side View. (April 27, 1908) Bailey Note how it simulates the broken stub upon which it is perched. Nu OwG7 Adult in Flight Leaving Nest in Cavity in High Tree. Geneseo. (1912) Bailey Nu OwG9 Food Taken from Nest. Genesco. (1912) Bailey This food, taken at one time, consisted of a weascl, a pheasant’s leg and the legs of a rabbit. The picture shows that the bird is beneficial as well as destructive. Owl, Long-eared (Asio wilsonianus) This bird is intermediate in size between the screech owl and the great horned owl. Ear tufts are conspicuous. It is less common than either in most parts of the State, living in dense patches of evergreens. It is useful, killing many mice and night- flying insects. 13-16 Nu OwL Adult Brooding on Nest in Small Pine ar aie Geneseo. (May 13, 1914) Bailey Note how the old bird throws out her feathers in order better to cover her brood and intimidate the photographer. Nu OwL2 Nest with Five Eggs in Small Pine Tree. Genesco. (April 18, 1914) Bailey Note specially how the nest is built and what material is used; built by a pair of crows the preceding year, the owl adding nothing to it. Nu OwL3 Young Birds in Nest in Small Pine Tree. Genesco. (May 13, 1914) Bailey Nu OwL4 Young Bird in Normal Pose. Geneseo. (May 28, 1914) Bailey Nu OwLs5 Two Young Birds Perched on an Old Log, Threatening. Geneseo. (May 28, 1914) Bailey Compare with the preceding picture. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 73 Owl, Saw-whet (Cryptoglaux acadica acadica) The smallest of the New York owls. Distinguished by absence of ear tufts. It prefers swampy woods and keeps hidden during the day in dense foliage or in a hole in a tree. 7.25-8.5 Call no. Nu OwR4 Three Young Birds in Different Positions The young birds are more uniformly colored than the adults. Owl, Screech (Ofus asio asio) The most abundant and most widely distributed of the owls. It has two color phases independent of age, sex or season, some individuals having the predominating color grey and others red- dish. Intermediates likewise occur. The food of this owl is almost exclusively insects and rodents. Occasionally it feeds upon small birds, particularly English sparrows, hunting them out by night in cornices of buildings, trees and between loose. bricks of buildings. 7.5-10 Nu OwsS Adult in Its Retreat in Old Stump. Genesco. (1910) Bailey Observe protective coloration. Nu OwS1 Adult Looking from Hole in Tree Nu OwsSz2 Immature Bird with Wings Spread (automatic flashlight). Geneseo. (July 26, 1917) Bailey Nu OwS24 Six Young Birds of Different Sizes but from One Brood Posed on Limb. Ithaca. (May 21, 1916) Allen Nu OwSs3 Two Birds 24 Days Old Posed on Small Twig Bailey Note the developing tufts and position of toes. Nu Ows4 Two Posed Birds 24 Days Old, Alarmed. (June 5, 1906) Bailey Note that the feathers are finely crossbarred. Nu OwS5 Two Large Young Birds on Limb of Pine Tree. (1901) Notice the half-opened eyes. The bird assumes this expression in the presence of sunlight because of the large size of the pupils. Enough light, however, is admitted so that it can see perfectly in daylight. 74 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK ‘ Owl, Screech (continued) Call no. Nu OwS6 Adult on Perch, Posed Bailey Nu OwS7 Adult in Red Phase in Oak Tree. Ithaca. (November 27, 1916) Allen Nu Ow9 Bones of Rodent and Pellets from Owls. Genesco. Gee ailey The large pellet is that of the great horned owl. Below it are two smaller pellets of the screech owl. These pellets are regur- gitated from time to time and contain most of the coarse indi- gestible material of the food of these birds. By examining these pellets it is a simple matter to determine the feeding habits of the various species of owls. Owl, Short-eared (Asio flammeus) Associated especially with lowlands and marshy districts but quite widely distributed throughout the State. Field mice con- stitute about 80 per cent of its food and this owl becomes unusu- ally abundant when there is an invasion of mice. A permanent resident. 13.7-16.5 Nu OwT Adult on Ground (wounded). Ithaca. (June 24, 1917) Allen Partridge, Hungarian (Perdix perdix) The common European partridge was liberated in several localities in New York State during the spring 1909 under the name of Hungarian partridge and soon became acclimated. Nu PcH Adult Hiding in a Rail Fence, Side View. (May 16, 1914) Bailey This bird was injured by striking a barbed wire fence. Pelican An unusual bird for New York, but it has been found here from time to time. It was more common here in colonial days. For a number of pictures of pelicans, see List 35, Florida. Pewee, Wood (Mvyiochanes virens) A most valuable bird because of the great number of flying insects it destroys. It is a summer resident throughout New BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 75 Pewee, Wood (continued) York. It nests close to houses in the trees of the yards, as well as in the woods. 6-6.5 Call no. Nu Pi Adult on Drinking Log, Side View. (Geiser 1914) Bailey The bird came to the drinking log after insects that were crawling about. The day was cold and few insects were flying. Nu _ Pi2 Nest with Two Eggs in Apple Tree The nest is usually placed on a horizontal limb. It is made of plant fibers and frequently covered with mosses and lichens, which give it the appearance of the lichen-covered branch on which it is placed, hence the nest is easily overlooked. The center of the nest is sometimes very thin so that the eggs nearly rest on the branch. Compare nest with that of the hummingbird. Nu_ Pi3 Adult Incubating. Geneseo. (1911) Bailey Note position of nest, which is in an elm tree about 35 feet from the ground. Nu Pi4 Adult on Limb before Young Bird in the Nest. Becbe lake. (July 15, 1915) Allen The nest resembles a knot of the dead limb on which it rests. The young bird has just been fed. Note the upright posture of the old bird, which is characteristic of all flycatchers. The pewee is similar to the phoebe, but the wing bars are more conspicuous. It is a grayer bird and its notes are very different. Note the flycatcher bill and bristles and the perching bird type of foot. Nu _ Pi7 Adult on a Typical Perch and in Flycatcher Pose. Ithaca. (July 1917) Allen From such a position the pewee watches and flies out for food on the wing. Pheasant, Ring-necked (Phasianus torquatus) The ring-necked pheasant is an introduced species. It has been interbred in many cases with the English pheasant so that there is some variation in color. In many parts of the east, 76 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Pheasant, Ring-necked (continued) particularly in central New York, it outnumbers the native game birds. Fortunately, it is for the most part beneficial, and the majority of farmers over whose acres it roams are staunch friends of this hardy bird. During severe weather in the winter it is not unusual for it to come to the barnyard and feed with the domestic animals. Many times cracked corn, buckwheat and other grain are placed out in its cover especially for it. Call no. Nu, PjR Adult Male and Female on Ground where Grain Has Been Placed. Geneseo. (April 17, 1915) Bailey The female resembles somewhat the grouse but has a long pointed tail. Note the short hind toe characteristic of all fowl- like birds. The white ring around the neck of the male is called a “ruptive mark” and seems to cut off the head. Nu PjR2 Nest with Eight Eggs in Meadow. Genesco Bailey The nest is a mere depression with scarcely any lining. Nu PjR3 Adult Female Incubating. Geneseo. (May 29, 1914) ; Bailey Nu PjR4 Nest with Young Birds and Broken Egg Shells. Geneseo. (May 27, 1914) Bailey These birds were photographed during a rain storm early in the morning, just before they left the nest to roam with the mother. Note how evenly the egg shells were broken by the hatching young. Nu PjR6 Mrs Allen beside Female on Nest. (May 15,1915) Allen The picture illustrates the fact that the bird defends its nest and is not readily driven away. Most pheasants, however, are rather timid about the nest. Nu PjR7 Adult Male Walking with Head Erect. (March 26, 1915) Allen Nu PjR8 Two Tracks in the Snow. Ithaca. (January 1918) Allen Note the cleanness of the track, showing wide angle of front toes and small hind toe. Compare with track of crow. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 77 Phoebe (Sayornis phabe) The first of the flycatchers to arrive from the South, reaching central New York early in April. At this time it feeds upon flies that are emerging from their winter quarters and other insects that start the insect life in the spring. i Call no. Nu Pk Adult on Twig near Nest, Front View. Genesco. (1911) Bailey Nu Pk1 Adult on Perch, Side View. (August 15, 1915) Bailey This bird is watching for insects. The click of the shutter has caused it to crouch. It ordinarily sits more erect. Nu Pk2 Nest with Four Eggs in Shale Rock on Shelving Bank Bailey Of what is the nest constructed? Nu Pk3 Nest and Eggs on Ledge of Rocks Formerly this bird nested wholly on rock ledges. But now- adays it more commonly nests in buildings and on the timbers of bridges. Nests in the rock are more often found by the cow- bird than are those in buildings. This may account for the pref- erence of the phoebe for buildings. It also prefers the vicinity of water. Nu Pk32 Old and New Nests Side by Side on a Ledge of Rocks. Ithaca. (May 17, 1908) Allen The phoebe returns to the same spot year after year. Which of these nests was built the later? Nu Pk4 Nest Filled with Young Birds, in Old Building Note the broad flat bills of the flycatcher family. Nu Pk5 Three Young Birds on Small Limb. Lake George. (July 10, 1907) Bailey The adult has just-flown near the young, the blur of the wing showing on the extreme left in the picture. This accounts for the open mouth of the young on the right. Nu Pk35 Two Young Birds in Nest under Ledge of Moss-covered Rock. The Big gully, Guyunoga. (June 15, 1913) Burtch Gullies are a favorite home for the phoebe, especially under overhanging roots or rocks. [From the date of this picture this 78 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK brood seems to be the second of the season. The phoebe seldom uses the same nest twice because before the second birds are old enough to fly the nest becomes infested with small black lice, Pigeon, Passenger (Ectopistes migratorius) This beautiful bird is now almost certainly extinct. It is believed that the last bird died in the Cincinnati Zoological Park, September 1, 1914. The latest record of it in New York is for 1898. In 1868 there was a great nesting of these pigeons in Alle- gany county. A single tree in some cases had 30 to 40 nests. The nesting tract was 14 miles long. Birds were killed and shipped to New York City by the carload. There was a very large roost in Steuben county in 1875, but probably no breeding. Immense flocks were common in colonial days and great roosts continued to be common through the first half of the nineteenth century. 15-17.25 Call no. Nu PmP8 Adult with Other Pigeons in Nesting House. From nega- tive owned by R. W. Hegner Widman The passenger pigeon is the one with a long tail on the highest roost. Compare with the common pigeons. Nu PmP Adult (museum specimen). Photographed in the Ameri- can Muscum of Natural History Pintail (Dafila acuta) A fairly common migrant in the coastal region and more com- mon in the marshes of western New York. At dusk it comes into shallow water to feed. It appears in small flocks during the spring and fall migration, Jb 26-30; 9 20-24 Nu Pn Male on Plank (captive). Ithaca. (June 25, 1918) Allen Note the size of the feet and the position of the legs of the pintail and the teal and compare with those of the canvasback, which is a diving duck. Nu Pni Female on Plank (captive). Ithaca. (June 25, 1918) Allen Nu Pn8 Two Banded Females in Flight, Released for Study of Mi- gration. Ithaca. (March 18, 1918) Allen BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 79 Pintail (continued) Call no. Nu Pn2 Male in Eclipse Plumage. Ithaca. (September 22, 1918) Allen This eclipse plumage corresponds to the winter plumage of other birds but is worn only from August to November or December. Plover, Black-bellied (Squatarola squatarola) This is a hol-arctic species that commonly migrates through New York, especially by way of Long Island. The bird is shy and difficult to bring within near view. 10.5-12.25 Nu PpB Adult Wading near Muskrat House. The marsh at Branch- port. (October 3, 1911) Burtch The plumage of this bird is quite different in spring from that shown in this picture. The throat, foreneck, breast and belly are then black. Plover, Golden (Charadrius dominicus dominicus) See map of spring and fall migration routes, with inset of female, Nu ZMS5, p. 166. Plover, Semipalmated (4: gialilis semipalmata) Known also as American ring-neck. The species frequents sandy beaches, mud-flats and marshes. In New York it is a migrant, more common along the coast than on inland waters. It is suggestive of the killdeer in appearance, though it is smaller and has a shorter bill and tail. ; 6.5-7.8 Nu Pps Adult on Mud Flat. Conesus lake. (September 7, 1917) » Bailey Plover, Upland (Bartramia longicauda) This bird, also known as the Bartramian sandpiper, is per- haps the next game bird that is doomed to extinction. In many parts of the State where it formerly occurred in abundance it is. now practically unknown. Western New York appears to be the last stamping ground of this once abundant bird. It migrates before the hunting season opens so that few of them are killed in this State, but on its southern trip it was formerly shot ruth- lessly. It is now protected by the federal migratory bird law. 11.5 80 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Plover, Upland (continued) Call no. Nu PpUs Adult Alighting in Tree-top. Geneseo. (June 1913) Bailey A tide-water bird but a regular fall migrant in central New York. This picture and Nu PpU4 indicate that the bird some- times nests in central New York in June. It is the only sand- piper that regularly alights on trees or on telephone poles. Nu PpvU2 Nest with Four Eggs in Grass. Geneseo. (1912) Bailey The grass has been parted to show the eggs. The eggs are very large for the size of the bird. The nest is of the simplest character. Why? Nu PpU4 Four Young Birds in the Grass. Geneseo. (June 1], 1915) Bailey These birds leave the nest as soon as hatched and wander about, following the adults. They are very protectively colored. Rail, Clapper (Rallus crepitans crepitans) This rail belongs to the Atlantic seaboard. In the summer it is a common resident of the salt marshes of New York going up the Hudson as far as Ossining. This bird is known also as the mud hen, a term often applied to the gallinule and the coot. 13.5-16 Nu RD2 Nest on Ground with Three Young Birds and Six Un-. ‘ hatched Eggs The black downy covering is characteristic of all young rails. Rail, Virginia (Rallus virginianus) A bird of the swamps, more often heard than seen. In the states of Pennsylvania and New Jersey it is hunted system- atically. Nu RV Adult Moving over Broken-down Reeds, Approaching Nest. Renwick swamp, near Ithaca. (June 8, 1910) Allen Note the length of its toes and judge how it is able to walk readily over muddy ground or floating vegetation. This game BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE _ 81 Rail, Virginia (continued) bird escapes its enemies quite readily by running through the reeds and rushes. Note the compressed form of the body for slipping between the reeds. How does it compare with the herons? Call no. Nu RV1_ Nest with Ning Eggs in Recds Bailey The Virginia rail builds its nest in rather wetter positions than does the Carolina. Nu RV3 Adult Incubating, Side View. Long Branch. (June 1911) Bailey Note how high the nest is built. Why? Nu RV4 Adult Incubating, Front View. The marsh at Branchport. (June 11, 1908) Burtch The young rails begin to run about almost as soon as they are hatched. When this nest was found, the mother bird left it and was followed by two or three of the young that were out of the shell. While focusing the camera on the nest, the bird came back carrying a young one in her beak, deposited it in the nest and settled down on it while several plates were exposed. Sne picked the fingers of the photographer and changed position when approached. Nu RV5 Three Young Birds and Five Unhatcled Eggs in Nest. Long Branch. (June 1911) Bailey The young birds are entirely black but change their color later. Note one of the eggs partially hatched and the egg tooth on the bill that projects. Nu RV6 Adult Feeding in Marsh. Branchport. (July 23, 1911) Burtch Very characteristic. Rails feed on aquatic animals and on seeds and tender shoots of plants. Note that the bird does not sink far into the soft ooze. Nu RV7 Adult Hunting for Food with Young Bird Following. The marsh at Branchport. (July 23, 1911) Burtch Only one young bird followed the adult at one time; the others kept back in the flags until she found some food. This species 82 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Rail, Virginia (continued) is precocial, but the parent helps it to find and select food. Com- pare hen and chickens. The young bird is still in the down, Call no. Nu RV8 Female Carrying Young Bird in Its Bill. Branchport. (June 17, 1915) Burtch The young birds of the brood were removed from the nest to a shallow depression in the ground. The mother came here for them and carried them away into the grass. Nu RV9 Adult with Wings Extended, Balancing Itself on Wire Fence. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 19, 1910) Allen The fence was placed about the nest to keep the young from scattering. It was, however, ineffective for the purpose, as the old birds soon learned to jump over it and carry the young away. The rail is a poor flyer. Note the short, round wings. Redstart (Setophaga ruticilla) A strikingly colored, fairly abundant warbler. Its food is varied, there being few kinds of tree insects that escape it. 5.42 Nu Rfl Female Incubating. Ithaca Hankinson Smaller than the sparrow. This picture makes both the bird and the nest appear larger than they are. The bird nests in the smaller trees or undergrowth of woods. Nu Rf2 Nest with Three Eggs. Onondaga Valley. (1903) Bailey The nest of this bird is cup-shaped and very neatly constructed. This particular one is somewhat distorted in shape, the branch to which it is so firmly attached having been pulled down for photographing. Nu Rf5 Female Feeding a Young Cowbird. Ithaca. (July 22, 1909) Bailey The redstart shows as much concern when the young cowbird is disturbed as if it were her own. For map showing distribution and migration of this bird, see Nu ZM6, p. 166. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 83 Robin (Planesticus migratorius migratorius) Probably the most familiar New York bird. It is a thrush. It prefers to nest near the habitations of man, often on window ledges and veranda posts. 10 Call no. Nu Ro Adult on Lawn Dutcher Nu Ro2 Nest with Five Eggs in Crotch of Apple Tree. (1910) Of what material is the nest of the robin built? It is bulky; not very well constructed or properly cared for after the eggs are hatched. The middle layer, made largely of mud, is shaped by the bird pressing her breast against it. A lining of dry grass is then added. Nu Ro4 Four Young Birds in Nest. (1907) Nu _ Rod Immature Bird on Perch. (July 26, 1914) Bailey Bird coming to a drinking place. Notice the spots on the breast, indicative of the thrush family. Nu Ro6 Adult in the Snow during a Rain. Genesco. (1910) Bailey The robin often needs to be helped to food when snow falls in the late spring. A few robins remain in the State throughout the year. Nu_ Ro7 Adult Female Covering Brood during a Rain, Nest in Open Chicken Yard. West Edmeston. (1907) Note how the wings are extended to protect the young birds. Nu Ro74 Adult Giving Cries of Distress near Nest. Ithaca. (June 8, 1908) Allen When their nests are disturbed, birds act differently, the robin usually perching near by and uttering loud cries of distress but sometimes darting at the intruder. Compare this picture with those of the black tern and the least bittern. Nu Ro8& Adult Eating Crumbs from Feeding Station. Geneseo. (March 28, 1913) Bailey Notice the white tip to the outer tail feathers. This tip is con- spicuous in flight. During the snows of April robins are some- times without food. They will then eat crumbs and friedcakes. 84 TILE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Robin (continued) Call no. Nu Ro8s4 Adult on Log, Side View. (May 14, 1914) Allen This pose is very characteristic. Nu Rod Adult at Drinking Trough. (June 1914) Bailey Water is quite as essential for robins as food. They need water in the hot days of July and August. Nu Ro95 Normal and Albino Birds. Mounted specimens, New York State Museum. (1919) For map showing winter and summer range of this bird, see Nu ZM54, p. 166. Sanderling (Calidris leucophea) Called also surf snipe. A widely ranging shore bird, the whitest of our sandpipers, common along the coast of New York and along the Great Lakes, especially during the fall migration. 7-8.75 Nu Sal Adult Standing on Sandy Beach. Cayuga lake. (September 10, 1911) Allen This bird is in fall plumage. Nu Sa8 Adult Standing Asleep with Head under Its Wing. Shore of Cayuga lake. (September 10, 1916) Allen Sandpiper, Least (Pisobia minutilla) The smallest of the sandpipers, a common migrant along the coast and inland waters of New York. 5-6.75 Nu SL Adult at Watcr’s Edge. Chautauqua. (August 1911) Allen When resting, birds often draw up one leg beneath the breast feathers. Nu SL8 Flock Flying over the Water. Chautauqua. (August 1911) Allen This picture shows the characteristic close flock and swallow- like appearance of the birds in flight. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 85 Sandpiper, Pectoral (Pisobia maculata) Sometimes called “grass snipe.” It is more frequently found on grassy shores even back from the water than are most sand- pipers. .It nests in the far north and is most common in New York from August to November on its fall migration. 8-9.5 Call no, Nu SP Adult Walking on Shore. The marsh at Branchport. (Octo- ber 8, 1911) Burtch Note the counter shading of this bird. The photograph makes it appear even more conspicuous than it does in nature. Its color pattern simulates the dead grass on the shore and further renders it inconspicuous. Sandpiper, Red-backed (Pelidna alpina sakhalina) This species breeds in the Arctic regions and winters from the Gulf to South America. In New York it is a common migrant. As a rule it occurs in flocks. 8-9.25 Nu SQ Three Adults Wading near Shore. Hollisters swamp, on Keuka lake. (October 13, 1912) Buritch The back is redder during the breeding season and there is a black patch on the belly. The slightly curved bill is a good field mark. These birds are beautifully counter shaded and when seen on a gray shore are almost invisible; against the water they are conspicuous. Compare with counter shaded models, Nu ZC2, p. 150. Sandpiper, Semipalmated (Freunetes pusillus) Known also as peeps; a very small shore bird. It breeds in the Arctic regions and winters about the Gulf of Mexico. 5.5-6.55 Nu SR Adult Wading along the Shore. Ithaca. (August 1910) Allen It is very similar to the least sandpiper but grayer. Nu SR8 Large Flock in Flight over Mud-flats. Near Amityville. (July 28, 1912) Harper After feeding for several hours in the early morning, these sandpipers congregate in large numbers on the mud-flats to rest 86 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK and doze. They are here seen taking wing at the photographer’s approach. It is probable that some least sandpipers are mixed with the flock. Sandpiper, Solitary (Helodromas solitarius solitarius) As the name would imply, this sandpiper is not gregarious. Next to the spotted it is the commonest and most widely distrib- uted sandpiper in New York State, frequenting on its migrations any stream, pond or mud flat even in the woods where other sandpipers do not venture. 7.5-9 Call no. Nu SS Adult in Marshy Stream Secking Food. Branchport. (July 28, 1911) Burtch The solitary sandpiper is found around Branchport and Potters swamp as late as May 30th, when it leaves for its breeding grounds. It returns as early as July 6th. Its barred white outer tail feathers distinguish it from the spotted sandpiper in any plumage. Sandpiper, Spotted (Actitis macularia) No bird is more characteristic of our rivers and streams than this familiar sandpiper, or “tip-up.” Its cry of alarm as it rises from a shoal is well known to the fisherman and the small boy of the country. Unfortunately it is sometimes shot in the fall along with the other shore birds. It is decidedly beneficial and is protected by the laws of New York and the federal migratory bird law. 7-8 Nu ST2 Adult Approaching Nest with Eggs on Ground under Mul- lein Plant. Arcade. (1914) R.H. Beebe Note coloration, also position and character of the nest; the long legs, relatively short toes and slender bill of the bird; the size of the eggs compared with the size of the bird. Compare with rose-breasted grosbeak, Nu GtR3. The sandpiper is smaller - than the grosbeak, but its eggs are larger. Nu §ST24 Nest with Four Eggs on Ground. Palisades park. (July 20, 1918) For a further study of the comparative size of eggs of precocial and altricial birds, see catbird and spotted sandpiper with an egg of each, Nu Cd3, p. 130. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 87 ; Sandpiper, Spotted (continued) Call no, Nu ST3 Adult Incubating. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 21, 1911) Allen The bird is small compared with the size of the eggs, but she manages to cover them. Nu ST6 Adult on Hump of Mud in Flooded Area. Ithaca. (August 1912) Allen At this time the bird was in its fall plumage. Note the absence of spots. Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied (5 phyrapicus varius varius) The name sapsucker is given this bird because it drills several holes in various kinds of trees and later, when the sap has begun to flow, makes the rounds again, drinking the sap from them. The damage done is ordinarily not great, because the bird is not abundant. 8-8.8 Nu ScY Adult Male on Trunk of Tree, Side View. (1906) Bailey Note the white shoulder stripe. The red throat proves it a male. Nu ScY6 Two Pictures of Same Adult on Tree Trunk: at Work. (left); Resting (right). Ithaca. (April 19, 1915) Allen Note the arrangement of holes in a row and the bark wet by the flowing sap. Nu ScY7 Adult with Bill Inserted in Tree, Drinking Bailey Note how the bill is placed in the hole and the drinking is done. This bird does not drill for insects at this season as do other woodpeckers. Nu ScY8 Adult with Food at Entrance to Nest in Tree Trunk. Cranberry lake. (June 30, 1916) Bailey Note that the young are fed upon insects. 88 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Shrike, Migrant (Lanius ludovicianus migrans) Formerly known as the loggerhead. With beak for tearing and the weak claws of a song-bird, the shrike presents an inter- esting study. This bird feeds upon grasshoppers and mice and other small animals and occasionally upon the smaller song birds. It seeks an exposed perch with open view where it can watch for its food. 9.2 Call no. Nu SiM Pair of Adults on Edge of Nest. (May 24, 1910) Bailey The pair now and then come to the nest together with food. In what kind of a bush is the nest placed? Nu SiM1 Nest with Two Eggs in Grapevine. Onondaga Valley. (May 1903) Bailey The nest is usually placed low. Note with what material it is lined. Compare this with that of the exterior. Nu SiM2 Nest with Five Eggs in Thorn Apple Bush. Arcade. (April 1, 1905) I. H. Beebe Only three of the eggs can be seen in the picture. Study the composition and structure of the nest. Nu SiM3 Adult on Nest in Thorn Apple Bush, Showing Back. Arcade. (May 8, 1905) R. H. Beebe Nu SiM4 Adult Incubating, Showing Head and Breast, Nest in Thorn Apple Bush. Geneseo. (May 24, 1910) Bailey Nu SiM5 Two Young Birds in Nest. Geneseo. (May 24, 1910) ‘ Bailey Nu SiM6 Two Young Birds Standing on Edge of Nest Nu SiM7 - Four Young Birds Just after Leaving the Nest, Perched in a Thorn Apple Bush. Geneseo. (1911) Bailey Nu SiM8 Adult and Five Young Birds on Stump. Arcade. (1905) I. H. Beebe Do the young resemble the adults? Shrike, Northern (Lanius borealis) 10.1-10.5 Nu SiN Adult on Post. Ithaca, (February 1918) Allen The bird during a heavy fall of snow has been attracted by a piece of meat from a duck. Note the shape of the bill. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 89 Shrike, Northern (continued) Call no. Nu_ SiN8 Adult Attracted by Deer Mouse Fastened in Thorn Bush. Ithaca. (February 1918) Allen Mice form an important part of the food of this species. Note that the mouse is fastened onto a bush much as if the bird itself had placed it there. Nu SiN9 Vesper Sparrow Impaled on Thorn by Northern Shrike Bailey The shrike often can not eat at once all the food it captures. In such a case it may impale it upon a thorn for a later meal. The thorn likewise serves to hold the food while the bird. pulls it to pieces. The bird seems to be unable to hold its food beneath its foot and get sufficient leverage to pull it to bits. Skimmer, Black (Rynchops nigra) An occasional summer visitant off the shores of Long Island. There are only a few definite records of it within the State. 16-20 Nu SkB1 Adult on Nest among Sea Rocket Plants (Cakile edentula) on Sandy Beach. Wreck island, Va. (June 28, 1911) 7 Harper The appearance of the bird on the ground scarcely suggests that it is one of the most graceful of all birds in flight. Nu SkB3 Nest with Three Eggs in the Sand; Sea Rocket Plants (Cakile edentula). Wreck island, Va. (June 26, 1911) Harper The nest is merely a scooped-out hollow in the sand on the sea-beach. While incubating, the bird frequently rests its awk- ward looking, razor-edge bill on the sand, thus making the grooves which appear radiating from the nest. Nu SkB8& Adult in Flight Can you suggest how the strange bill is used? Docs the bird resemble a tern except for its bill? 90 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Sora (Porzana carolina) Also called Carolina rail. The sora and the Virginia rails are the most abundant rails in this State, being especially common in the marshes of central New York and the Great Lake region. It breeds throughout the State. 8.5 Call no. Nu So Adult, Side View, Approaching Nest in Reeds. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 3, 1914) Allen Describe its characteristic habitat. Nu So2 High Water Nest with Eggs. Branchport. (May 28, 1914) Burtch Water usually covers the site of the nest. In the spring of 1914 the marsh was flooded and this nest was built up more than usual. Nu So3 One Young Bird and Several Unhatched Eggs in Nest in Reeds. Renwick swamp, near Ithaca. (June 3, 1914) Allen Note how the sedges are roofed over the nest to protect it from above. Those in front have been pressed aside to give a clear view of the eggs. The usual number of eggs is eight to ten, but as many as sixteen are sometimes found. A very young sora has a curious red knob or “cere” above the bill and a tuft of orange “whiskers” below the chin, which the Virginia rail does not have. Nu So4 Young Bird Shaking Herself. The marsh at Branchport. (July 26, 1911) Burtch Nu _ So5 Young Bird Frightened and Running through the Water. The marsh at Branchport. (July 30, 1911) Burtch Nu So7 Adult Feeding along Bank of Stream. (August 18, 1915) Bailey Note the long toes. Of what use are they? Compare the bill with that of the Virginia rail. Sparrow, Chipping (Spizella passerina passerina) The most sociable of the sparrows. It feeds on the very porches of houses and builds its nest on the trellises at the side of the house as well as in the shrubs and young evergreens. Unfortunately the house cat feeds upon the young and oftentimes BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 91 Sparrow, Chipping (continued) pounces upon the confiding parents. This bird is very useful to the farmer and the gardener for it eats large numbers of harmful insects, such as caterpillars, grasshoppers and leaf-eating beetles ; also weed-seeds, such as chickweed, ragweed and dandelion. It has been seen to bring as many as 70 caterpillars to feed to four young birds in an hour and a quarter. Call no. Nu Spc A Pair of Adult Birds on Feeding Station. (1914) Bailey When these birds first arrive from the south, they will feed upon secds put out for them. Distinguished from most other sparrows by its unstreaked ashy breast and chestnut cap. Nu SpC2 Nest with Four Eggs of Chipping Sparrow and One Egg of Cowbird. (1909) Built of rootlets; always lined with horse hair. Nu SpC3 Male with Food, on Back of Nest with Two Eggs of Spar- row and One of Cowbird. (June 1915) "Allen The male has returned to feed the female, who should be incubating but has been frightened away by the photographer. Nu SpC4 Adult and Two Young Birds Bailey Note the streaked breast of the young. There are usually two broods a season. See nest of chipping sparrow with a young cowbird in it, Nu Cod. Nu SpC6 Adult Feeding Young Cowbird. Hamburg. (July 1910) Allen It is very probable that the young of the sparrow died. Why? Sparrow, Field (Spizella pusilla pusilla) Associated with the towhee and the indigo bird in the sparsely wooded hillsides, ravines, berry patches and neglected gardens, this pleasant singer leads the company. Most of them pass the winter from New Jersey south. This sparrow is not seen about the house as often as are the song and the chipping sparrows. 5.5 92 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Sparrow, Field (continued) Call no. Nu SpF1 Adult at Nest in Bush, Young Birds. (1910) Bailey As a rule, two broods are raised. Observe the pink bill and absence of a black line through the eye. This species is other- wise similar to the chipping. Nu SpF2 Nest with Four Eggs of Ficld Sparrow and Onc of Cow- bird in the Grass Bailey The cowbird’s egg is much larger and more finely speckled than the field sparrow’s. The nest for the first brood is often built on the ground at the foot of a bush, but the later nest is regularly in a bush. Nu SpF3 Nest with Two Eggs of Field Sparrow and Onc of Cow- bird, in Clump of Jerscy Tea. Cornell heights, Ithaca. (June 1915) Allen Sparrow, Fox (Passerella iliaca iliaca) The fox sparrow resembles the song sparrow but is larger and more brightly colored. The color patterns and spotting of the breast, however, are very similar. 6.75—7.5 Nu SpG Adult Feeding on Grain Thrown onto the Snow. Branch- port. (March 26, 1916) Burtch Sparrow, Grasshopper (dmmodramus savannarum australis) Nu SpH3 Nest with One Egg (left); Nest Remodeled by Bumble- bees (right). McLean. (June 1917) Allen The bumblebee ordinarily utilizes the nest of a field mouse. Sparrow, Henslow (Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi) Rare and of local occurrence in New York. Only the experi- enced student of birds is likely to find this sparrow. Nu SpJz2 Nest with Four Eggs in Meadow. South Danby. (July 6, 1917) Allen Note daisies, hawk weed and ripe strawberries. Nu SpJ3 Female Incubating. South Danby. (July 6, 1917) Allen Note the conspicuous light bill and the small tail. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 93 Sparrow, House (Passer domesticus) The house sparrow, commonly known in this country as the English sparrow, was brought from Europe and liberated in Brooklyn, 1860-64, and has since spread over the whole country. 6.35 Nu Spl Male (right) and Female on Stump. Renwick, near Ithaca. (April 13, 1915) Allen The male is recognized by its black “bib.” During the fall and winter months this is not clearly noticeable because each black feather is edged with gray. In the case of this male the gray tips have not yet worn off enough to make the bib heavy. Nu Spl Male, in Full Summer Plumage, and Female on Stump. Ithaca. (June 10, 1914) Allen Observe the conspicuous black throat patch and compare with “picture taken in April. The difference is due entirely to “feather wear.” Nu Spli6 Three Females Fighting at Feeding Station. (May 14, 1914) Allen The house sparrows differ from our native birds in that they come close together to feed, but they frequently quarrel in conse- quence. Note the typical sparrow bill. Nu SpI8 Eight Adults on Branch of an Evergreen. (February 1914) i Allen These birds are waiting near a station to be fed. Which are males and in what plumage are they? See also house sparrow in contest with tree sparrow Nu SpT8 oe with chickadee at feeding station Nu Ci94 a and cowbird Nu Co8 s being charged by a grosbeak Nu GtE8 s and song sparrow Nu SpR e being attacked by nuthatch Nu NuW9 94 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Sparrow, Savannah (Passerculus sandwichensis savanna) This sparrow is seldom seen about trees. It prefers open fields and is seldom seen off the ground except as it sometimes perches upon fence posts and rail fences. It nests on the ground. 5.5 Call no. Nu SpP Adult on Perch near Nest, Front View. (June 2, 1915) Allen To be distinguished from the song sparrow by not having the spot on the breast so prominent and also by the yellow line over the eye and through the crown. Nu SpP1 Adult on Perch with Food, Back View. (1908) Bailey Note short tail. Upper parts streaked and darker than those of the vesper sparrow. Half of its food consists of insects, mainly injurious. Nu SpP3 Female Incubating. Ithaca. (May 18, 1915) Allen Note the protective coloration. How is this accomplished? Nu SpP4 Three Young Birds Posed on Perch. (1908) Bailey Immature birds do not have the yellow line over the eye and are much darker. Note bunches of down on head. Sparrow, Seaside (Passerherbulus maritimus maritimus) 6-6.5 Nu SpQ Adult on Ground in Marsh Grass. Long Beach. (Octo- ber 25, 1908) Harper The picture shows the bird in its favorite haunt. In skulking about over the muddy ground in the salt marsh, it has paused for a moment to look at the camera. Sparrow, Song (Melospiza melodia melodia) Next to the robin this is the commonest native bird in New York State. It prefers moist land near water but is found wherever there are bushes or undergrowth. It is at home in rich, moist gardens. It is a resident of New York but is common in winter only about New York City and the lower Hudson. About half its food consists of weed seeds. It eats also many injurious insects and some fruit, mostly wild. 6.5 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 95 Sparrow Song (continued) Call no. Nu SpR Song Sparrow (left) and House Sparrow (right) Facing Each Other for a Fight. (October 17, 1914) Bailey Nu SpR1 Male and Female at Feeding Station, Ithaca. (May 1917) Allen Both sexes of this species are alike in appearance. Nu SpR2 Nest with Five Eggs in a Bush The nest is sometimes built in a bush, more often on the ground, especially the bank of a brook or ditch, rarely in a tree. The outer layer is of grasses and straws, the inner layer of fine grasses and horsehair. Nu SpR3 Nest with Four Eggs Showing Maximum Variation in Color and Markings. Cornell University Zoological Museum. (1910) Nu SpR4 Three Young Birds Posed on Small Limb. (1900) Do they resemble their parents? Nu SpR5 Adult with Food and One Young Bird on Perch. Arcade. (1906) RR. H, Beebe What kind of food has the bird in its bill? Nu SpR6 Adult Feeding Worm to Young. (1903) Bailey Nu SpR7 Adult on Ground. (1909) Bailey A good example of protective coloration. Note the spot on the breast. This is a distinguishing mark. Compare with the swamp sparrow as to breast markings. These birds are fre- quently confused. Nu SpR72 Adult with White-throated Sparrow on Ground at Feed- ing Station among Saxifrage and Hepaticas. Ithaca. (May 10, 1917) Allen Nu SpR8 Adult Feeding in Snow. (1911) Bailey Sparrow, Swamp (Melospiza georgiana) As indicated by its name, this bird is essentially a resident of swamps. Many are found in the Montezuma marshes, but nearly all our smaller swamps have a few. What effect does the drain- 96 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Sparrow, Swamp (continued) ing of marshes have on the range of this bird? To the careless observer, it appears to be colored much the same as the song sparrow. Its breast, however, is almost unstreaked. The songs of the two birds are decidedly different. 5.3-6 Call no. Nu SpS Adult Singing on Stem of Sedge. Renwick flats, near Ithaca. (June 13, 1909) Allen This bird usually sings from such a perch. Why does it sing? Compare throat-patch with that of the white-throated sparrow. Nu SpS2 Nest with Four Eggs in Dried Sedges. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen Nu SpS3 Nest with Four Eggs Showing Unusual Variation in Markings. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 15,1914) Allen The eggs of the swamp sparrow are normally very heavily speckled with brown. Sparrow, Tree (Spizella monticola monticola) A common winter resident. For the most part it travels in flocks feeding upon the weeds along highways, in yards, and on edges of woodlands. It is of great value as a weed-seed destroyer. It nests far north in Canada. 6.36 Nu SpT Two Adults on a Stump. (March 30, 1915) Allen The upper bird shows the characteristic single spot in the middle of the breast; the lower the conspicuous wing bars. Nu SpT8 Contest between a Tree Sparrow and a House Sparrow at a Feeding Station. Geneseo, (1915) Bailey Notice the wing bars on the tree sparrow. Which bird appears the more frightened? Sparrow, Vesper (Powcetes gramineus gramineus) The vesper sparrow, or bay-winged bunting, is one of the larger sparrows and generally distributed over the State. It prefers open grassy fields. It is seen also on plowed ground and along dusty roads. It sings early in the morning and late in the evening. The song of several birds from different directions is BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 97 Sparrow, Vesper (continued) extremely enjoyable. The appearance of the white outer tail feathers of this bird, which show when it flies, enables one to identify it. 5.8-6.7 Call no. Nu SpvV Adult on Mullein Stalk with Cutworm in Its Bill for Young. Cornell heights, Ithaca. (July 14, 1915) Allen The cutworm is one of the most destructive of all caterpillars. Nu Spv2 Nest with Four Eggs in Grass and Thistles, a Caterpillar Built in a deep depression, of simple construction. -Nu SpV3 Adult Incubating on Nest in Grass. (May 1913) Bailey The nest is invariably on the ground. Two broods are reared a season. Which is this one? Nu SpvV4 Adult with Three Young Birds. Cornell heights, Ithaca. (July 14, 1915) Allen The young more than fill the nest, which is placed in a depression in front of a clover plant. Sparrow, White-crowned (Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys) Like the white-throated sparrow, this bird is seen only at migration time. It arrives from the south a little later than the white-throats. It does not nest in New York. It is quite approachable. 6.75-7.5 Nu SpW _ Adult Feeding, Side View. (1912) Bailey Larger than the house sparrow. Black crown with broad white stripe through the center, only partly seen here; a white stripe beginning just above the eye and reaching backward until it joins the central stripe, a black line through the eye; making in all 4 black and 3 white stripes. The head is thus conspicuously striped. It is to be distinguished from the white-throated spar- row by the absence of a white patch on the throat and the difference in crowns. 4 98 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Sparrow, White-throated (Zonotrichia albicollis) Also from its song called the Peabody bird. In the spring and again in the fall this interesting bird is common along the road- side and hedges. It nests in the north and the colder parts of the State and is one of the commonest birds of the Adirondacks. It passes the winter in the southern states. This bird is gregarious in habit and very sociable. 6.6-6.8 Call no. Nu SpxX Adult on Feeding Limb. (May 1912) Bailey Nu SpX2 Nest with Four Eggs on Hummock in Bunch of Weeds. Nu SpX3 Edge of Potters swamp. (June 6, 1909) Stone Nest with Three Eggs in Clump of Bunch-berry Plants in Blossom. Cranberry lake. (June 28, 1916) Bailey See adult with song sparrow, Nu SpR72. Swallow, Bank (Riparia riparia) This swallow is abundant in certain sections of the State, particularly where favorable sandbanks abound. At first it built its nest along the banks of streams, but now takes advantage also of banks formed by roads, sand pits and railroad cuts. Late in the summer it congregates in large numbers on telegraph and telephone wires. 5.2 Nu SuB Adult on Perch near Nest. Near Ithaca. (June 1915) Allen Observe the band across its breast distinguishing it from rough-winged species. Nu SuB2 Nest and Section of Burrow. Near Ithaca. (July 1915) Allen The bank was cut away to show the burrow and nest at its end. Note the downward trend of the burrow for drainage. The burrow is from 1% to 3 feet long, enlarged at the back end to accommodate the grass and feathers of which the nest is made. The entrance is a flattened ellipse from 2 to 214 inches across. Nu SuB3 Nesting Site of a Colony of Birds Notice the number of holes in the bank. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 99 Swallow, Bank (continued) Call no, Nu SuB4 Several Nest Entrances in Sandbank, Near View A pair of birds has a nest at the end of each burrow. Nu SuB6 Five Adults Hovering before Nests Allen Note the various positions of the wings. Are the wings used for anything but propulsion? Their shape is characteristic of swallows. Swallow, Barn (Hirundo erythrogastra) The most generally distributed swallow of New York. This species is very beneficial, being insectivorous, but not uncom- monly the farmer unwisely knocks down the nest built in his barn and sheds. 6-7 Nu Suc Adult Resting on Perch. (September 1914) Bailey This perch was used as a resting place between flights over the pond near by. A distinguishing feature of the barn swallow is the forked tail, the outer feathers showing like knitting needles. Nu SuC2 Nest of Mud and Straw Attached to Beam Supporting Ceiling in Old Barn. Near Pembina, N. D. (June) Peabody Nu SuC4 Adult with Wings Fluttering, before Nest with Young. (June 1915) Allen This photograph was made by flashing light from a mirror through a crack in the barn. Observe the size of the mouth. Swallow, Cliff (Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons) Found in sparsely settled portions of the State, especially the Adirondacks and Catskills. It is not only a very interesting bird but also a very useful one. It seems to be disappearing from New York, however, partly from the disposition of farmers to encourage the destruction of its nests. 5-5.5 Nu SuE2 Many Nests along Side of Cliff. Idaho Hamilton This is the natural nesting site of this bird. 100 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Swallow, Cliff (continued) Call no. Nu SuE3 Four Nests under the Eaves of a Barn. Chazy. (June 1, 1918) Allen An acquired nesting site. Note shape of nest with opening just large enough to admit the bird. Swallow, Rough-winged (Stelgidopteryx serripennis) It resembles the bank swallow, but is larger. It inhabits river valleys and lake shores. It appears to be extending its range. It nests in shale rock, stone bridge abutments and old burrows of the kingfisher. 5.5-5.7 Nu SuR Male and Female Perched on Twig. Ithaca. (June 20, 1913) Allen The perch is near the nest and is the same one occupied by the kingfisher, Nu KiB7. Nu SuR5 Adult and Six Young on Fence Wire. Ithaca. (June 22, 1913) Allen Swallow, Tree (/ridoprocne bicolor) The tree swallow is of more or less local distribution. In marshlands and near bodies of water, it is found nesting in holes, on limbs or in nesting boxes. It is especially common in the central lake region and around the lakes of the Adirondacks, where ‘there are many dead tree stumps, and in western New York, where it takes kindly to nesting boxes. Another name for this bird is white-bellied swallow. 6 Nu SuT Adult on Perch near Nest. (1910) Bailey Nu SuT2 One Bird Looking Out of Nest Hole in Willow Tree, Another on the Tree before the Hole. Ithaca. (1909) Harper These birds took possession of what had doubtless been an old downy woodpecker nest. The nest was 5 or 6 feet above the ground. The tree swallow likewise utilizes nesting boxes placed on poles above buildings. Nu SuT3 Adult with Feather in Bill, at Nest Hole. (June 1915) Allen BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 101 Swallow, Tree (continued) Call no. Nu SuT4 Large Young Bird on Perch. (1912) Bailey Nu SuT5 Adult and Five Young Birds on Limbs of Dead Tree. West marsh, near Ithaca. (June 21, 1908) Allen These young birds have been removed from the nesting hole. The young at this age are fed like ordinary birds: namely, the old bird alights and places food far down the throat of the young. Nu SuT54 Adult on Wing Feeding a Young Bird. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 19, 1911) Allen After the young birds leave the nest the old bird never alights to feed them, but swings past and drops the food into the open mouth. al Nu SuT6 Adult Flying to Its Nest in a Hole in a Dead Stub of Tree. Near Ithaca. (June 26, 1915) Allen The bird is checking its flight, turning before alighting. Observe the position of the tail. Nu SuT8 A Multitude of Swallows, Largely Tree, on Telegraph Wires. Montezuma marshes. (July 31, 1915) Preparatory to their southern migration swallows gather in large flocks and for weeks at a time they frequent certain points while their numbers continue to increase by fresh arrivals. Note the date of the picture. Swift, Chimney (Chetura pelagica) While ordinarily called a swallow, the swift is more nearly related to the nighthawks. In former times this bird nested in hollow trees. Now, with the advent of man, it uses the chimneys and barns for nesting sites. It is never on such perches as fence posts or telegraph wires. If it alights, it does so on some vertical surface. It may be noticed in flight early in the morning or late in the afternoon. 4.8-5.6 Nu SwC2 Nest with Five Eggs. (July 1906) Bailey Notice the materials that compose the nest. The twigs are broken off by the bird while flying; they are cemented together by a gelatinous substance secreted by the salivary glands of the bird. The nest is not lined. 102 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Swift, Chimney (continued) Call no. Nu SwC3 Nest with Four Eggs in Chimney, Seen from Top of Chimney Stone Nu SwC4 Nest Filled with Young Birds. (July 1906) Bailey Notice the crowded condition of the nest. The eyes of the young birds are still closed, and the eyelids bear feathers. Note the size of the mouth. Nu SwC5 Adult Crowding the Young Birds from Nest. (July 1906) Bailey When nearly fledged the young are compelled by the adult birds to cling to the wall to which the nest is attached. Note the long wings of the adult bird. The spines of the tail show on one young. What is their use? Nu SwC6 Adult with Young Clinging to Wall, One Bird Still in Nest. (July 1906) Bailey Note the size of the mouth, the long wings, short tail and spines on tail. Observe how all four toes are directed forward. Tanager, Scarlet (Piranga erythromelas) The most brilliantly colored of our summer birds. The female is dull colored, while the male, with the exception of the wings and tail, is deep scarlet. Found in every county of the State, but not anywhere except in forested districts, large groves and wooded ravines. 7-7.3 Nu TS3 Female Inspecting Nest in Oak Tree on Branch Covered by Grapevine; Birds in Nest. Ithaca. (July 18, 1919) Allen Nu TS35 Male Feeding Young on Branch of Tree. Ithaca. (July 22, 1919) Allen For map showing distribution and migration of this bird, see Nu ZM7, p. 166. Teal, Green-winged (Nettion carolinense) More common along the Hudson and the lakes and marshes of the interior of the State than along the coast. Chiefly a migrant. It feeds chiefly at night on aquatic plants, snails, insects and crustaceans. 13-15 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 103 Teal, Green-winged (continued) Call no, Nu TeG Male on Plank (captive). Ithaca. (June 25, 1918) Allen Nu TeGl Banded Female on Plank (captive). Ithaca. (June 25, 1918) Allen Tern, Black (Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis) A fairly common migrant about the lakes of the State in the fall. It occasionally nests in Montezuma marshes and is a regu- lar summer resident near Big Sandy creek in Jefferson county, where there are nests by the score. The adults stick close when one handles the young. 9-10.25 Nu TfB Adult on Nest, One Young at Side Chapman Note the black head and neck. Nu T£B2 Nest with Three Eggs on Ground. Sandy creek, Jefferson co. (June 13, 1915) Bailey Nu TfB3 Nest with Two Eggs, Surrounded by Water; One Young Bird Leaving Nest. (June 25, 1915) Bailey The young are precocial. Nu TfB6 Adult in Flight, in Fall Plumage. Branchport. (Septem- ber 3, 1911) Burtch Note the long wings. In flight this tern resembles the night- hawk in size, color, wing stroke and the habit of hawking over marshes for insects. What is the difference between its spring and fall plumage? Nu TfB9 Adult as It Strikes Straw Hat of Man in Tall Grass Bailey The black tern is noted for its daring. Tern, Caspian (Sterna caspia) Along the Great Lakes and on Long Island this bird is found now and then in the fall. It is not known to nest within the State, but nests both north and south of the State. Like the black tern, it nests in colonies. 20-23.5 Nu Tfc Hundreds of Caspian Terns and Gulls on the Ground and in the Air at Nesting Site. Georgian bay, Canada. (July 6, 1912) Bailey 104 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Tern, Caspian (continued) Call no. Nu TfC2 Nest with Two Eggs on Ground. Georgian bay, Canada. (July 6, 1912) Batley Its nest a mere depression in the ground; eggs protectively colored. Nu TicC6 Several Adults in Flight. Georgian bay, Canada. (July 6, 1912) Bailey Note the long narrow wings for gliding. Tern, Common (Sterna hirundo) Along Long Island this bird is fairly common, especially as a transient. It nests on Gardiners island and Fishers island, where wardens of the Audubon societies give it ample protection. It is not known to nest farther up the State. 13-16 Nu TfD Adult with Wings Upraised Alighting at Nest on Stony Beach. Gardiners island. (June 11, 1911) Harper Nu TfD2 A Pair of Adults at Nest on Beach. Gardiners island. (June 19, 1911) Harper The black cap, pointed bill and long forked tail distinguish terns from gulls. The male is very attentive and often stands by his mate while she is incubating. These birds belonged to a good sized colony nesting on the beach. Within a few feet there were several other nests. Note the sharp-pointed bill for spear- ing small fish. Nu TfD3 Nest with Two Unhatched Eggs and One Young Bird. Georgian bay, Canada. (July 6, 1912) Bailey Eggs are laid in a mere depression in the sand or in rubbish or seaweeds. Though just hatched the young birds make a pre- tense of defense. See also terns and gulls, Nu GvH9. Tern, Gull-billed (Gelochelidon nilotica) A southern species that is accidental on the coast of New York. 13-15 Nu TiG Adult on Nest among Bivalve Shells on Shore. Cobb’s island, near Virginia Chapman Note the heavy bill. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 105 Tern, Sooty (Sterna fuscata) A bird of the seashore and lake region, not common inland. In tropical countries, to which it belongs, its eggs are eaten. The bird is an accidental visitor in New York State. In 1876 and 1878 a large number came north and several were observed in this State. 15-17 Call no. Nu TiS Adult on Nest Nu TfS7 Two Adults in Flight Notice the position of the feet and of the wings. A good flight study. Thrasher, Brown (Toxostoma rufum) The range of this bird coincides closely with that of the cat- bird, though it is less common. It frequents hedgerows, thickets and hillside pastures, preferably those removed from habitations of man. 11.5-12 Nu ThB5 Adult (wounded) in Crotch of Tree. (1898) Notice the long beak and the color and expression of the eye and compare with the wood thrush. Nu ThB2 Adult on Nest. Piffard. (July 10, 1917) Bailey Note length, size and form of tail and bill. Nu ThB6 Adult Perched on Post, Side View. Arcade. (1905) R.H. Beebe Thrush, Olive-backed (Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni) One of the last birds to arrive during the spring migration, usually after the middle of May. It nests only in the Adiron- dacks and Catskills. 7-7.5 Nu TiO Adult on Edge of Nest. Cranberry lake. (July 1, 1916) Bailey Nu TiO2 Nest and Egg in Small Beech Tree. Cranberry lake. (July 1, 1916) Bailey 106 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Thrush, Wood (Hylocichla mustelina) The prominent spots on the breast make the identification of this wood bird easy. Early in the year the wood thrush feeds upon insects, but later upon berries. It seems to become rather easily adapted to civilization and in some places is found about houses. 8. Call no. Nu Tiw Adult at Nest Inspecting Young after Feeding. Ithaca. (July 1, 1911) Allen Compare the spots on the breast with the fainter spots of the veery. What are the characteristics of the bill of the thrush? Nu Tiw2 Nest Containing Two Eggs of Thrush and One of Cow- bird. (June 5, 1915) Bailey Notice that the nest resembles that of a robin, having an outer layer of grasses, an inner layer of rootlets and a middle layer of mud. It is usually placed in a sapling or on the limb of a tree, some distance above the ground. It is very unusual for the cow- bird to select the nest of a bird larger than itself. Nu Tiw3 Two Young Thrushes in Same Nest as in Nu TiW2. (June 19, 1915) Bailey This picture and the preceding one show that the cowbird is not always the bird that survives. Nu Tiw4 Adult Incubating, Side View; Nest in Elm Sapling. Ithaca. (June 20, 1911) Allen Nu TiW5 Adult at Nest with Second Brood; Bottom of Nest Ornamented with Large Piece of Paper. Ithaca. (August 1, 1917) Allen Nu Tiw6 Adult on Edge of Nest “Freezing,” Front View. (1911) Batley Note how deep the nest appears to be. Towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus) A bird of the second growth timberland. It usually nests on the ground and the young run about at an early age. It feeds principally upon the ground. During the migration season it is often seen in the dooryards and gardens. Another name for this bird is chewink. 8.35 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 107 Towhee (continued) Call no. Nu Tp Adult on Log near Nest, Side View. (1912) Batley Note the long, widespread tail, carried upward. Nu Tp2 Nest with Four Eggs on Ground. (1912) Bailey A typical nesting place at the foot of a plant. Nu Tp5 Adult at Nest Feeding Young. Arcade. (1905) R. H. Beebe Note the suspicious manner of the adult. Veery (Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens) Known also as Wilson’s thrush. This bird prefers damp woods, especially a swampy forest that is flooded early in the season. 7-7.5 Nu Ve Adult Incubating. (1910) Bailey Notice the small spots on the breast. The wood thrush has large spots. The nest is usually placed on or near the ground, sometimes on a log. Nu Ve2 Nest and Four Eggs with an Egg of the Cowbird. Ithaca. (June 1915) Allen Note how the nest is built up from the ground on a platform of leaves. Nu Ve4 Adult with Young in Nest. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 5, 1915) Allen The young are ready to be fed, but this time the old bird has no food. Nu Ve6 Adult on Nest Panting. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 5, 1915) Allen The bird is protecting the young from the heat of the sun. Vireo, Blue-headed (Lanivireo solitarius solitarius) A summer resident of the Canadian zone of New York. This species is known also as the solitary vireo. It breeds in deep cool woods, more frequently in evergreens. 3.25-5.75 108 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Vireo, Blue-headed (continued) Call no. Nu ViB Adult Incubating, Nest Hanging to Hemlock Limb. Ithaca. (May 31, 1914) Allen Nu ViB2 Nest with Two Vireo and Two Cowbird Eggs in Hemlock Tree. Beebe lake, near Ithaca. (May 25, 1913) Allen Note the occurrence of this bird in western New York and read the report of Eaton, Birds of New York, vol. 2, p. 374. Nu ViB3 Nest with Cowbird Egg in Hemlock Tree. Ithaca. (May 25, 1913) Allen This cowbird egg was kept from hatching by a floor built over it by the vireo. Nu ViB4 Nest on Hemlock Twig, and Young Cowbird. Ithaca. (June 16, 1914) Allen This is the same nest as shown in Nu ViB3. After the floor was built three vireo and two cowbird eggs were laid in the nest. This young cowbird is the sole survivor. Nu ViB6 Adult in Nest in Hemlock Tree, a Man’s Hand Almost Touching It. Ithaca. (May 19, 1913) Allen The bird knew no fear while incubating, so that one could pull down the branch and stroke the bird. Vireo, Red-eyed (Vireosylva olivacea) The commonést of the vireos of New York, uniformly dis- tributed. It is arboreal in habit. It sings from the tree top throughout the day. 6-6.25 Nu ViR Adult Repairing Nest into Which an Egg Has Been Laid. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen The nest is supported largely by cobwebs. The material of which it is made becomes loosened as incubation advances and the nest frequently has to be repaired continuously. Nu ViR2 Nest with Three Vireo Eggs on Top of Two Cowbird Eggs Notice the manner of weaving the nest and also its position. The nest is regularly suspended from a forked twig in a bush or low limbed tree. For picture of nest with cowbird in it, see Nu Co44. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 109 Vireo, Red-eyed (continued) Call no. Nu VikR3 Adult Inspecting Nest with Young. Silver lake. (1907) R. H. Beebe Nu ViR4 Adult near Nest Feeding Young Bird. (1910) Bailey Note the character of the nest. Nu ViR5 Adult with Wild Berry, One Young Bird on Twig, Two in Nest. Ithaca. (1909) Bailey These birds destroy many insects and are highly beneficial. They likewise eat wild fruits. Nu ViR6 Adult with Caterpillar for Young in Nest and on Branch. Ithaca. (1908) Bailey Note the red iris, the white stripe over the eye and the blackish line through the eye. Nu ViR7 Adult Perched on Twig before Young with Flapping Wings. Silver lake. (1907) Beebe This young bird was placed upon the perch by the photog- rapher. Its effort to fly is stimulated by the presence of the mother bird. Vireo, Warbling (Vireosylva gilva gilva) The warbling vireo is more a bird of the villages and yards than are the other vireos. It has a beautiful warbling song. 5-5.6 Nu Viv2 Nest with Two Eggs, Suspended from Limb. Pueblo, Col. Nash Notice the manner in which the nest is made and also its position. Nu VivV4 Two Young Birds About to Fly Vireo, White-eyed (Vireo griseus griseus) More common on Staten island and Long island and in the lower Hudson valley than elsewhere in the State. 5-5.3 Nu ViW2 Head of Adult Projecting above Hanging Nest Built in Blackberry Bush This is a typical place for the nest, which is regularly built near the ground. Note especially the composition of the nest and compare it with the nest of the red-eyed vireo. 110 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Vireo, Yellow-throated (Lanivireo flavifrons) A common summer resident except in the Adirondacks and Catskill districts. A bird of the tree tops. Keeps to the denser foliage. 5.75-6 Call no. Nu ViY1 Adult with Food on Perch. Ithaca. (July 15, 1917) Bailey This is the only vireo with a yellow throat. The bill is typical of vireos. Nu ViY3 Adult Incubating in Nest in Chestnut Tree, 20 Feet from Ground. Ithaca. (June 3, 1915) Allen Note how the outside of the nest is “ornamented” with bits of cobwebs. Vulture, Turkey (Cathartes aura septentrionalis) This useful scavenger is of uncommon occurrence in New York but is very abundant farther south, where it feeds upon dead animals and refuse. The bill and feet are not so strong as those of other members of the hawk family. 26-32 Nu VuT Vulture on Stump, with Wings Spread, Side View. Wash- ington, D. C. (April 4, 1915) Allen The naked red head gives the species the name of turkey vulture. This bird has just alighted and has not yet closed its wings. Nu VuT4 Two Vultures, Back of One with Wings Spread. Wash- ington, D. C. (April 4, 1915) Allen Vultures are fond of sunning themselves in this way and spend the early mornings “drying the dew from their feathers.” The bird on the ground is tearing up a dead chicken. Nu VuT6 Wounded Bird on Fence, Head in Profile. (July 25, 1915) Bailey Notice the naked head, hooked bill and large but weak feet. Nu VuT8 Several Adults on the Shore and in Flight. Beaufort harbor, N. C. (August 31, 1913) Harper Gathered on the shoal to pick over some bones lying there, they were taking wing at the approach of a boat. The wings are broad for soaring. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 111 Warbler, Blackburnian (Dendroica fusca) A common summer resident in the Adirondacks and Catskills, but it breeds locally also in cooler situations in central and west- ern New York. Found about lawns and parks during migration ; in mixed and evergreen forests during nesting season. 5.25 Call no. Nu WA3 Adult on Nest in Hemlock Tree. Tully. (June 16, 1917) Bailey This nest was 25 feet from the ground, which is rather low for this species. Nu WA8 Adult Remaining on Nest When Touched by Finger of a Man. Tully. (June 16, 1917) Bailey Shows lack of fear of this bird when the eggs were about to hatch. Warbler, Black-throated Blue (Dendroica caerulescens caerulescens) A transient or a summer resident of every part of the State; a common summer resident of the Adirondacks and the Catskill region. It prefers woodlands. 5.28 Nu WB Adult Female on Perch, Side View, Photographed by Allen (July 23, 1915); Inset of Male from Mounted Specimen, New York State Museum. (1919) This perch was near the nest. The spot on the wings is a distinguishing mark. Notice the fine forceps-like bill, character- istic of all the warblers. Nu WB2 Nest with Four Eggs in Ground Hemlock. McLean. (June 11, 1915) Allen This nest was 18 inches from the ground. This low position is characteristic. The nest is neat, compact and thick walled with many fragments of decayed wood in its foundation. Warbler, Canada (Wilsonia canadensis) During migration season, found about yard shrubbery and the - thickets along streams and woodlands. It is common in the Adirondacks and the Catskills during the summer. 5.61 112 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Warbler, Canada (continued) Call no. Nu WC Adult Male on Log with Cranefly for Young on Ground. Michigan hollow, near Ithaca. (June 18, 1911) Allen Note the well-defined necklace of black streaks, characteristic of the male. The young bird has left the nest. Note the moss, ferns and other evidences of moist woodland. Warbler, Cerulean (Dendroica cerulea) This bird comes into New York from the Mississippi valley. It breeds in western New York but is rarely seen in the eastern and southeastern parts. 4-4.5 Nu WD1 Adult at Nest (lowered) with Young. Howlands island. (July 3, 1917) Allen This was built about 80 feet from the ground in a large oak. When the young were ready to fly, the branch with the nest was lowered for photographing. Nu WD3 Nest and Eggs on Limb Removed from Elm Tree. Pot- ters swamp. (May 31, 1909) Stone This nest was about 50 feet from ground. Nu WD4 Two Young Birds on Nest in Swamp Maple, 25 Feet from Ground. Free bridge, near Cayuga. (June 12, 1915) Allen The warbler regularly builds its nest high in trees. Note how these birds are outgrowing the nest. Warbler, Chestnut-sided (Dendroica pensylvanica) One of the most abundant and widely distributed of the war- blers. It is partial to slashings and thickets. It is found on the edge of woods, bush pastures and neglected roadsides. 5.14 Nu WEl Male on Edge of Nest in Which Are Two Eggs. McLean. (June 11, 1916) Allen The male helps with incubation and care of young. Nu WE4 Female on Edge of Nest with Young. Labrador hill, near Truxton. (July 7, 1917) Bailey Nu WE3 Nest with Four Eggs in Low Bush. (1914) Bailey BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 113 Warbler, Golden-winged (Vermivora chrysoptera) An inhabitant of swamps, thickets and second growth of damp bushy fields. 5.1 Call no. Nu WG Male with Food for Young on Side of Perch. Near Port Byron. (July 3, 1917) Allen Note the conspicuous black throat that distinguishes the male. Nu WGl1 Female with Food on Perch. Howlands island, near Port Byron. (July 3, 1917) Bailey Nu WG2 Nest with Five Eggs in Clump of Plants. Potters swamp, Branchport. (June 6, 1909) Stone This nesting site is characteristic. Warbler, Magnolia (Dendroica magnolia) Common resident in the Canadian zone of the Adirondacks and in the Catskills; breeds sparingly in other parts of the State; a common migrant throughout. 4.75-5 Nu WM Male at Nest with Young. Cranberry creek. (June 26, 1916) Bailey The nest is usually in a coniferous tree near the ground. It is loose and bulky. Nu WMi Female at Nest with Young. Cranberry lake. (July 1, 1916) Bailey Nu WM2 Nest with Four Eggs in Dense Foliage of Hemlock Tree. Taghanic falls. Bailey This warbler prefers coniferous tree growth as nesting site. Warbler, Mourning (Oporornis philadelphia) Fairly common summer resident in the Catskills and Adiron- dacks and also the highlands and colder swamps of other parts of the State. 5.63 Nu WN Female Feeding Cankerworm to Young on Perch. Ren- wick, near Ithaca. (June 17, 1915) Allen Altricial birds often continue to be fed by the parent for a month or longer after leaving the nest. Note the comparative size of the young bird and the adult. 114 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Warbler, Mourning (continued) Call no. Nu WN2 Nest with Four Eggs in Clump of Coarse Grass. Branch- port. (June 7, 1908) Stone The nest is usually placed in the shade in a tangle of briars, ferns, skunk cabbage or nettles. This one is in a boggy place along the edge of woods. Nu WN4 Female Incubating. Ithaca. (June 1917) Allen Note how the nest is built up from the ground among weeds. Warbler, Yellow (Dendroica estiva estiva) Our common summer “yellowbird.” A most useful bird because it frequents orchards and fruit trees in general, feeding upon injurious insects. It nests about houses as well as in woods. 5.1 Nu WY Adult Perched over Young in Nest. (1910) , Bailey Nu WY2 Nest with Five Eggs in Thicket of Berry Bushes Notice the compact character of the nest and its position. The nest is usually placed in a shrub or low tree near the ground. Nu WY3 Adult Taking Cotton for Nest Building. Ithaca. (May 24, 1916) Allen One way to attract birds is to place out for them suitable building material. Water-thrush (Seiurus noveboracensis noveboracensis) A common summer resident of New York State. In the migration period it may be found frequently at a considerable distance from water. It is not a thrush, but belongs to the warbler family, being closely related to the ovenbird. 5.5-6 Nu Wil Adult on Mossy Ground among Ferns. Tully lake. (June 25, 1917) Allen Nu W!2 Nest with Two Thrush Eggs and Two Cowbird Eggs in Mossy Bank near the Water. Potters swamp, Branch- port. (May 23, 1909) Burtch Prefers to build its nest in the cool depths of a wooded swamp near the water. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 115 Water-thrush, Louisiana (Seiurus motacilla) This bird, while really a warbler, has the name thrush. A characteristic feature of the water-thrush is the tilting of its body something after the manner of the spotted sandpiper. The nest is placed on the side of a bank along a stream near the water. As suggested by the name and indicated by the pictures, this thrush prefers wooded sides of streams where the water tumbles over the rocks. 6-6.3 Call no. Nu WiL Adult with Food on Rock beside Rushing Water. Ithaca. (May 28, 1914) Allen Nu W£L2 Nest with Four Eggs on Bank of Stream. (1910) Bailey The nest of this bird is usually placed along the side of a brook, in some overhanging ledge behind dangling rootlets. Nu WIiL4 Young Bird on End of Branch. (1910) Bailey Notice the natal down on the head. Nu W{fL5 Adult Feeding Four Young Birds. Ithaca. (May 28, 1914) Allen When several are to be fed the mother bird carefully distributes the food. Note the eagerness of the young birds. Waxwing, Cedar (Bombycilla cedrorum) Cedar bird is another name. It is gregarious in habit. It is commonly found both in orchards and shade trees and along the swamps and streams of the Adirondacks. It is called a polite bird. Why? It is beneficial because it eats many insects such as caterpillars and measuring worms, but, like the robin, is destructive of small fruits, especially cherries and berries. 8 Nu We2 Adult at Nest Containing Four Young Birds. Cardiff. (July 1913) Bailey Notice the crest of the adult. This is raised and lowered at the pleasure of the bird. What other birds have a crest? Note also the thick neck. The bird has her throat filled with choke cherries so that each young bird will be fed at this visit. The cherries are regurgitated one at a time. 116 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Waxwing, Cedar (continued) Call no. Nu Wg3 Nest with Five Eggs (pulled down 6 or 7 feet). Cardiff. (June 1908) Bailey While this bird is a permanent resident, it delays nest build- ing until June and sometimes as late as July or August. Nu Weg5 Adult Feeding Raspberries to Five Young Birds Posed on Branch; with Inset of Same Bird Feeding Young with Insects. Ithaca. (July 12, 1906) Bailey These birds pose readily when placed before the camera. Notice how free they are from fear. While in this position the parent birds brought them food. The waxwing is sometimes destructive to cherries and other fruit, but makes up for this in other ways. Nu We6 Two Adults in Mountain Ash. Ithaca. (April 19) Allen They often remain about one tree until all the berries are con- sumed. Plant mountain ash trees to attract them. Nu Weg8 Adult on Ground “Freezing.” Ithaca. (June 19, 1918) Allen This bird here illustrates mimicry through simulation of form as well as through color. It assumed this pose to escape detection. Woodcock (Philohela minor) The woodcock is another game bird that is likely soon to be exterminated. It is not prolific and is easily shot. To save these birds speedy protection is needed. The woodcock is an excellent example of protective coloration. & 10-11; 9 11-12 Nu Wo Adult Incubating Seen from Above and Directly Back, Nest on Ground. (April 30, 1915) Bailey This bird still breeds sparingly in the State. Note that the bird can see behind her. Of what advantage is this? The color pattern simulates that of its surroundings. Nu Wo2 Nest with Four Eggs on Ground. (April 29, 1915) Bailey The woodcock begins to breed early in April; the eggs are sometimes buried by snow. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 117 Woodcock (continued) Call no. Nu Wo4 Three Birds Nine Days Old. Cayuga co. Tabor Nu Wo6 Adult on Nest. (1900) A good example of protective coloration. Note the long probe- like bill, characteristic of all sandpipers. Woodpecker, Downy (Dryobates pubescens medianus) The most confiding and beneficial of woodpeckers; also the smallest and commonest. It destroys a great number of coddling moths, wood borers and other harmful insects and is, accordingly, of great value in the preservation of forests. From the fact that it is a bird of the orchards and yards, it is accorded the fullest protection and frequently fed by those housewives who appre- ciate its confiding nature. 6.5-7 Nu WpD Adult Female Feeding on Suet on Side of Tree. (1911) Bailey The female is colored like the male except that it does not have the reddish patch back of the head. Note the white stripe on the side of the head just above the line of the eye. Study the structure of the bird and note its adaptability for its work. Observe shape of bill, arrangement of toes and use of tail. Nu WpD2 Nest with Six Eggs. (1906) Bailey The limb holding eggs was removed and a piece of wood cut out. After this picture was made the piece of wood was replaced and the limb strapped in its old place. A second brood was raised a month later in the same nest. The height of the nesting hole may vary from 8 to 50 feet. No nest is built. Nu WpD4 Two Young Birds on Tree Trunk. .(1908) Bailey These birds were removed from the nest and placed against the tree. Notice the black bars on the outer tail feathers. The hairy woodpecker does not have these. Nu WpD5 Adult at Nest with Food, Young Bird Projecting Head from Nest Hole Allen Is it a male or female? What are the young fed? 118 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Woodpecker, Downy (continued) Call no. Nu WpD7 Adult Destroying Bark Beetles. Ithaca. (April 18, 1917) Allen The bird has destroyed the branch, but in doing so has kept many beetles from spreading. Note time of year. Nu WpD8 Adult at Suet Tied to a Branch of a Tree. Ithaca. (Feb- ruary 1910) Allen Shows the simplest way of attracting birds and the way always to begin by fastening suet to convenient branches, preferably in trees that birds are known to frequent. Woodpecker, Hairy (Dryobates villosus villosus) The hairy woodpecker is somewhat larger than the downy and is confined more closely to the woods. However, it comes even to the windows of dwellings for food that is put out for it. 9-9.75 Nu WpH Adult Eating Suet on Window Casing. Photographed through the window. Ithaca. (December 1913) Allen Note how the tail is used to support the bird and that the outer feathers have no spots. Nu WpHi Adult Female Feeding on Suet on Tree Trunk. (1914) Bailey The female does not show red on the head; its coloring is neutral and inconspicuous. Note the “drawn up” position of bird. Characteristic on cold days. Nu WpH4 Three Young Birds Clinging to a Post. (1913) Bailey How do they differ from the young downies? Nu WpH6 Adult on Horizontal Feeding Station, Propped Position Van Zant The bird is walking on a horizontal surface, but it has become so accustomed to using its tail for a prop that it used it in this case when it is not necessary. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 119 Woodpecker, Red-bellied (Centurus carolinus) Now rare in eastern New York, though it was formerly common there. It is uncommon and local in western New York. This species is pursued and its nests destroyed by the red-headed woodpecker. 9.3-10.5 Call no. Nu WpR Adult Eating Suet from Tree-Trunk. Geneseo. (Febru- ary 1914) Bailey Woodpecker, Red-headed (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) In the western part of the State the red-head is probably the most numerous of the woodpeckers. In the eastern part it is not so common. It is primarily a summer resident, but some- times remains through the winter storing and guarding its food. It frequents slashings and burnt over tracts and may be seen on dead stubs and trees, fence posts and telegraph poles. 9.3-10 Nu Wps Adult Looking into Nesting Hole in Dead Tree Trunk. Arcade. (1906) R. H. Beebe This may be either a male or female, as both are alike. Nu WpS1 Adult on Tree Trunk, Feeding on Suet. (February 21, 1914) Bailey Note the chisellike bill, characteristic of all woodpeckers. Nu WpS4 Two Young Birds Clinging to Tree Trunk, Side View. Arcade. (1904) R. H. Beebe How do the young birds differ from the adults? Nu WpS5 Four Young Birds Clinging to Tree Trunk, Back View. (July 1913) Bailey The young birds are able to cling to a vertical tree trunk before they are able to fly, and the stronger ones climb up to the nest opening and receive food from the parent. Note how the toes are arranged to hold onto the bark and how the tail is used as a brace. 120 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Wren, House (Troglodytes aédon aédon) The name suggests its common haunts. While generally dis- tributed throughout the State, it is somewhat irregular in its summer visits. This small bird seems quite capable of taking care of itself. It is reported to have the habit of entering nests of bluebirds, yellow warblers, chipping sparrows and other birds and pecking the eggs. This is probably to avoid too much com- petition for food. 4.5-5.2 Call no. Nu WrH Adult Entering Hole of Nesting Box Hegner The house wren formerly built its nests in deserted wood- pecker holes and natural cavities in trees. A large number of them now use boxes put out for their use. The picture shows that it need not be an artistic box, although the more shapely boxes are more attractive to the bird. Nu WrH2 Nest Containing Six Eggs in Box, Side Removed. (May 28, 1914) Allen Note the composition of the nest. Nu WrH4 Two Young Birds on Perch. (1909) Bailey Compare the appearance of the head and the bill with those of the adult. These birds, when they first leave the nest, skulk and hide in the underbrush and even well-meaning cats are deceived into believing they are mice. Cats are probably doing more to reduce their numbers than is any other cause. Nu WrH6 Adult Female on Old Stump, Side View. Ithaca. (May 25, 1914) Allen Note the position of the tail. When scolding an intruder, the bird’s tail is commonly cocked over the back. Notice the char- acter of the bill. Nu WrH7 Adult Singing on Old Stump, Side View. Ithaca. (May 25, 1914) Allen Observe the position of the tail while the bird is singing. Nu WrHs8 Adult with Worm in Its Mouth at Entrance of Nesting Hole. Arcade. (1904) R. H. Beebe This shows the natural nesting place of the house wren in an old woodpecker hole. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 121 Wren, House (continued) Call no. Nu WrH9 Adult at Entrance to Nesting Box on Porch. Ithaca. (May 9, 1914) Allen The box is homemade but properly built. See also bird box occupied by house wren, Nu ZB3, p. 154. Wren, Long-billed Marsh (Telmatodytes palustris palustris) A common summer resident of New York in the vicinity of swamps, larger lakes, the Hudson and Niagara rivers. 5:2 Nu WrL2 Nest Attached to Reeds Showing General Form of Nest and Entrance on Side This bird nests among the reeds and cat-tails. Several nests are usually built in a group and only one of them used. Nu WrL3 Characteristic Marshy Nesting Site, Nest on Reeds in Foreground. Montezuma. (June 21, 1914) Allen Long-billed marsh wrens build more nests than they occupy for breeding and one may examine six or eight before finding one with eggs. This is one of the duplicate nests. Nu WrL4 Longitudinal Section of Nest Showing Ledge of Cat-tail Down at Entrance. Renwick, near Ithaca. (June 1910) Allen This nest was used while the two above were not. Nu WrL6 Adult Entering Hole of Nest Notice the material and form of the nest. Compare with that of the ovenbird. Nu WrL7 Adult at Nest, Side View; Sagitarria. Ithaca. (1908) Bailey Nu WrL9o Bumblebee’s Nest in Nest of Marsh Wren. Renwick, near Ithaca Allen The bumblebee ordinarily utilizes nests of the meadow mouse but apparently finds that of the marsh wren also quite to its liking. This nest has been cut in half. 122 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Wren, Short-billed Marsh (Cistothorus stellaris) Not common in this State except in a few localities in the lower Hudson valley and in parts of central and western New York. It is found in dryer, more sedgy marshes than the long- billed. 4—4.5 Call no. Nu WrS Adult at Nest, View of Back. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 25, 1914) Allen How may the short-billed be distinguished from the long-billed marsh wren? Nu WrSi Adult on Cat-tail, Side View. Canoga, near Cayuga lake. (June 25, 1914) Allen Having in mind the size of the cat-tail, what do you judge as to the size of the bird? Yellowlegs (Totanus flavipes) A common migrant shore bird in the fall. It never breeds in New York. It frequents bars, mud flats and marshes particularly when they are left bare by lowering of the water. 9.5-11.5 Nu Yd Adult at Water’s Edge. Head of Cayuga lake. (August 26, 1912) Allen Note use of long legs and long bill. Nu Yd8 Four Birds in Flight over Snipe Decoys Planted in Shallow Water. Mastic, L. I. (September 11, 1915) Harper The birds with set wings and dangling legs are preparing to alight upon the water. The photographer is in a blind on the shore. Yellowlegs, Greater (Totanus melanoleucus) A common migrant in New York. It frequents sandy beaches, muddy banks and flooded marshes. When approached, it takes flight and by its cry of alarm gives warning of the approach of the hunter. It differs from the yellowlegs only in size. 12.5-15 Nu YdG Adult Standing in Water near Shore. Branchport. (Octo- ber 13, 1912) Burtch This bird showed no timidity and kept quite close to the pho- tographer for a long time. Usually, however, this species is wild and suspicious. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 123 Yellowthroat, Maryland (Geothlypis trichas trichas) Found in all parts of the State as a summer resident. It pre- fers a swampy or moist locality; sometimes associated with marsh wrens and swamp sparrows. 5.33 Call no. Nu YeM1 Adult Male over Nest. (June 9, 1915) Allen Nu YeM2 Adult Female Entering Nest. (June 9, 1915) Allen The nest is deep and the bird is letting herself down carefully upon the eggs. Nu YeM4 Adult Incubating. (June 9, 1915) Allen The nest was in the sedges bordering a marsh. Nu YeM5 Overturned Nest. Potters swamp, Branchport. (June 1, 1913) Burtch GENERAL TOPICAL STUDIES As the study of individual species of birds progresses one should note relations and begin to form in mind significant groupings of whatever has been observed. The following topics are offered as suggestions. The call numbers are those of pictures that seem to be good illustrations of the topics named. Only a limited number of the most typical species have been chosen to illustrate each point. Other birds might as well have been used and teachers should encourage the application of the principles involved to all birds and draw from pupils the names of other species that illus- trate each phase of the subject. Thus when discussing color and sex, the pupils should be asked to make a list of all the birds in which the males and females are different. And in a study of protective coloration, lists of birds that have banner marks, rup- tive marks or obvious counter shading should be made and the color patterns should be studied from the point of view of the bird’s environment to determine if there is any correlation. Mating and Nesting 1 Courtship: accomplished by song and display of plumage With the arrival of the females, courtship commences imme- diately, though a few species seem to be mated when they arrive 124 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK on the nesting grounds. Some birds do not sing until after the arrival of the females, but with most species the males are sing- ing when the females arrive. By song and display of plumage, the males try to entice the females to settle in the chosen area and fierce combats often ensue between rival males. a Song Swamp sparrow singing Nu SpS b Display White-breasted nuthatch Nu NuW9 The photograph shows the nuthatch in display to frighten the sparrow. Similar display is used during courtship to help win the female and drive away other males. 2 Time of nest building In New York State this varies with different species from February to September. The male birds ordinarily precede the females in the migration and arrive on the nesting ground from a few days to a few weeks earlier. They select the general area in which there seems to be plenty of food and shelter and where they wish to locate for the summer and then proceed to drive off other males from this area, awaiting the arrival of the females. Old birds ordinarily return to the same place where they nested the year before, but the young of the preceding year have to find suitable places that are not already occupied. a Early nests Prairie horned lark, eggs in snow Nu LdP3 Prairie horned lark, young in snow Nu LdP4 Great horned owl (March) Nu OwG2 b Late Goldfinch (September) Nu Go3 3 Selection of the nesting site and nest a For protection The female ordinarily selects the nesting site and does most of the nest building, while the male accompanies her and stands guard ready to drive off all competitors. The choice of the nest- ing site is influenced by several factors but chiefly by the need for protection both from bird enemies and from the elements. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 125 A bird’s enemies are numerous, but the methods of nest conceal- ment are just as numerous. The commonest method is the selec- tion of a site which will be concealed from all points of view by surrounding grasses or leaves. In photographing a nest it is usually necessary to move the leaves from above or in front of the nest, hence a picture of it does not show the normal condi- tion of concealment. Other methods of concealment or protec- tion employed by various species are the building of roofs over the nest either by using nesting material (meadowlark) or by pulling the grasses together over the nest (sora), and the build- ing of the nest in accessible places. (1) Concealed Field sparrow Nu SpF2 Ovenbird Nu Ov2 Indigo bunting Nu Bul2 Least flycatcher Nu FnL2 Meadowlark Nu Mf2 Slate-colored junco Nu JuS6 Sora Nu So3 Pied-billed grebe Nu GsP2 How is each concealed? (2) Inaccessible Duck hawk, on ledge Nu HD2 Black-crowned night heron, in tree top Nu HeB2 Oriole, on tip of branch Nu OrB Osprey, normal site, in tall tree Nu Os4 Osprey, on Gardiners island Nu Os8 There being no terrestrial enemies such as cats, skunks, coons, weasels, minks and depredating men on Gardiners island, the osprey returns to nesting on the ground. b Attachment to A bird becomes greatly attached to its nesting site and in many cases an individual returns to the same bush or tree year after year. If the old nest is still substantial, it is repaired; but as a rule a new nest is built in the vicinity of the old. Eagle, nest several years old Nu EB Phoebe, two nests side by side Nu Pk32 Oriole, two nests close together Nu OrB3 126 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK c Relation to haunts and habits Most birds nest where they search for their food, but there are exceptions. to this rule. Bobolink, a bird of the fields Nu Bo2 Ovenbird, a terrestrial bird of the woods Nu Ov3 Downy woodpecker Nu WpD7 Downy woodpecker and nest Nu WpD5 Woodpeckers search for their food by drilling in trunks of trees, where they nest. Brown creeper, seeking food in crevices of Nu CsB bark Brown creeper, nest under bark of tree Nu CsB2 Aerial birds show great variety as to nesting sites. Bank swallow Nu SuB2 Barn swallow Nu SuC4 Tree swallow Nu SuT2 d Change of site due to change of conditions Some birds are much more adaptable than others and with the change in natural conditions have been able to take advan- tage of new conditions as indicated by the various birds that nest about the habitations of man. Cliff swallow, natural site Nu SuE2 Cliff swallow, adapted site Nu SuE3 Phoebe, natural site Nu Pk3 Phoebe, adapted site Nu Pk4 4 Nest building a Gathering material Yellow warbler with cotton Nu WY3 Oriole gathering strings Nu OrB2 Tree swallow with feather Nu SuT3 b The start of the nest Red-winged blackbird Nu _ Bl24 c For ornamentation as a means of concealment The “ornamentation of nests,” the employment of ribbons and paper by thrushes and vireos, and of lichens by pewees and hum- mingbirds, is entirely for protection, to make the nest look like something else. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 127 Hummingbird Nu HuR3 Wood pewee Nu_ Pi2 Wood thrush Nu Tiws Redstart Nu Rfl d The inexperienced builder The instinct to build the type of nest characteristic of the species is inherited, but birds learn through experience to build stronger and better protected nests. The first nests built by immature birds are often quite poorly constructed and placed. Red-winged blackbird Nu Bi3 e Duplicate nests Long-billed marsh wren, nest in use Nu WrlL4 Long-billed marsh wren, duplicate nest Nu WrL2 In the wren family, the males are assiduous nest builders and often build several nests before the arrival of the females and continue thereafter building duplicate nests, which are not used for anything unless it be for roosting. These duplicate nests are usually much more conspicuous than the one in which the eggs are laid. Note the conspicuousness of this duplicate nest. f Nest repairing Red-eyed vireo Nu ViR g Relation of haunt of bird to nest material The materials which birds use in nest building are determined largely by the haunt of the bird. The materials that are most available are always used provided they are suited to the general type of nest characteristic of the species. Birds that live in the fields ordinarily use grasses and horsehair. Those that live in the woods use rootlets and dead leaves, etc. Birds that spend most of their time on the wing and meet with no particular set of materials vary the most in their nest construction. Field sparrow, grass nest of field bird Nu SpF3 Blackburnian warbler, rootlet nest of wood- land bird Nu WA3 Florida gallinule, reed nest of marsh bird Nu GcF 5 Types of nests—evolution One of the most interesting phases of nest building is its evo- lution from the most simple to the most complex form and con- struction. One can trace in the nests built by birds today what has been the probable evolution of the most complicated nests 128 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK that we see. It is believed that elaborate nests like those of the oriole have been gradually evolved from the simpler types. The earliest birds, like their reptilian ancestors, probably did not build nests but like turtles and like the mound birds of Australia today buried their eggs in the sand or in heaps of decaying vege- tation. With the great change from a cold-blooded to a warm- blooded condition of birds came the need for maintaining the eggs at a constant temperature and incubation started. The eggs were then laid on the surface of the ground or in holes in trees where the bird could cover them. Those birds that laid their eggs on the ground found it more comfortable and safe to lay them in a depression and then to line the depression with grasses or leaves. But the eggs were subject to the wet and cold and some species then evolved nests that were built up from the ground on piles of leaves, etc. The next step was the build- ing of the nest in a bush or tree. Some species learned how by laying twigs in the forks of trees they could build crude platforms that would hold their eggs and keep them above the flood and their terrestrial enemies. Gradually the instinct to build more and more complicated nests in the branches of trees arose until finally we have such elaborate nests as those of the oriole sus- pended from the tip of a branch or ornamented nests like those of the hummingbird and pewee. Trace this probable evolution in the series of pictures selected to illustrate this topic. Nighthawk, no nest Nu Ni2 Killdeer, simple depression Nu Ke3 Spotted sandpiper, some lining Nu ST2 Vesper sparrow, nest well lined Nu Spv2 Virginia rail, nest built up from ground Nu RV3 Black-crowned night heron, crude nest intree Nu HeB3 Black-billed cuckoo, crude nest with slight lining Nu CvB2 Catbird, well formed nest of sticks with con- siderable lining Nu Cd2 Song sparrow, nest of finer materials, well formed, deep with soft lining Nu SpR2 Wood thrush, nest with middle layer of plas- tered mud Nu TiW2 Barn swallow, fully plastered nest Nu SuC2 Goldfinch, entirely made of soft material Nu Go2 Acadian flycatcher, semihanging nest Nu Fnl Baltimore oriole, hanging nest Nu OrB Yellow-throated vireo, ornamented hanging nest Nu ViY3 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 129 6 Hole nesters The birds that elected to lay their eggs in the holes of trees found it unnecessary to build nests and from the beginning have never developed a nest-building instinct other than learning to drill their own cavities. Later on some birds that had developed a nest-building instinct in the open, discovered that their eggs were much safer in the cavities in trees or banks, than in open nests, and took to building their nests in such places. In spite of the fact that nests are unnecessary in such places, they still retain the nest-building instinct and build elaborate nests at the bottom of the cavity. a The original type, at bottom of hole, no structure Downy woodpecker Nu WpbD2 Sparrow hawk Nu HT3 b Reversion to hole nesting, nest at bottom of hole Bluebird Nu Bm3 Chickadee Nu Ci3 7 Degenerate nestérs—parasitism Cowbird’s eggs in vireo’s nest Nu ViB2 Cowbird’s eggs built upon by vireo Nu ViB3 Young cowbird hatched by vireo Nu ViB4 Yellow-billed cuckoo egg in black-billed cuckoo nest Nu CvB4 Eggs The eggs of birds are among the most beautiful objects in all nature. It is little wonder that the instinct of the small boy in response to the appeal which they make to his eye leads him to make an egg collection. In presenting the following study effort should be made to interest children in the manner in which the parent birds care for their eggs and in the young which hatch from them and to discourage in every way the making of egg collections. What the egg is in and what is in the egg are more important interests than mere form, color and size of the shell. 1 Number The number of eggs laid by an individual is fairly constant for each species. a Small Mourning dove, 2 eggs Nu DoM2 Hummingbird, 2 eggs Nu HuR2 5 130 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK b Normal, 4 or 5 Chestnut-sided warbler Nu WES Catbird Nu Cd2 c Large Grouse, 15 eggs Nu GuR3 Mallard, 9 eggs; 10 eggs Nu Mc2 Game birds lay from eight to twenty eggs. 2 Size a Actual The eggs vary in size from those of the hummingbird to those of the ostrich. For eggs of the hummingbird, see Nu HuR2; for those of the ostrich, see Cv Y3, List 38, p. 10. b Relative to the bird Catbird and Spotted Sandpiper; an Egg of Each. Specimens, New York State Mu- seum. (1919) Nu Cd3 Birds which have precocial young lay relatively larger eggs than those which have altricial young, because the embryos are nourished longer within the egg. Compare the relative size of the eggs and the birds in the catbird and the spotted sandpiper, birds of approximately the same size. 3 Color The nest is most conspicuous when the eggs lie in it uncov- ered, that is, previous to the beginning of incubation. If the eggs pass though this period safely, they have a good chance of being hatched. Birds building no nest at all usually lay very protectively colored eggs and have protectively colored young but those building bulky, conspicuous nests likewise have con- spicuous eggs and rely upon the inaccessibility of the nesting site or upon concealment of the whole structure to protect them. a Protectively colored Killdeer Nu Ke3 Night hawk Nu Ni2 Caspian tern Nu TfC2 b Conspicuous eggs Wood pewee Nu _ Pi2 Black-crowned night heron Nu HeB3 Green heron Nu HeH2 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 131 ce Color of eggs of hole nesters Birds that have always nested in holes, like the woodpecker, whose eggs are out of sight and have never needed protective coloration, lay pure white eggs. Birds that have reverted to a hole nesting habit, as shown by the fact that they still build unnecessary nests at the bottom of the cavities, still lay colored eggs. In some, like the bluebird, however, it seems as though the eggs were in the process of fading. (1) Without nests—original type Downy woodpecker Nu WpbD2 (2) With nest—reversion type Crested flycatcher Nu FnC2 Bluebird Nu Bm3 Compare eggs of bluebird with those of other thrushes. d Coloring typical for each family The color of the eggs is remarkably constant for each species and is remarkably uniform for all the species of each family, although some species show marked variation. The eggs of species of different families, however, vary from pure white to almost pure black. Thrushes—blue eggs Robin Nu Ro2 Veery Nu Ve2 Wood thrush Nu Tiw2 Owls—pure white Barn Nu OwB3 Barred Nu OwC2 Great horned Nu OwG3 Long-eared Nu OwL2 Rails—tan spotted Clapper rail Nu RD2 Coot Nu Cn2 Gallinule Nu GcF Sparrows—bluish or grayish white spotted with brown Field Nu SpF2 Song Nu SpR2 Chipping Nu SpC2 Vesper Nu Spv2 White-throated Nu SpX2 132 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK e Variation in color and markings in species Song sparrow, eggs showing maximum varia- tion Nu SpR3 Swamp sparrow, normal eggs Nu SpS2 Swamp sparrow, abnormal eggs Nu SpS3 4 Shape The usual shape of eggs is ovoid, but owls lay eggs that are nearly spherical and sandpipers very pointed ones. a Normal—ovoid Rose-breasted grosbeak Nu GtR2 b Pointed Upland plover Nu PpU2 Spotted sandpiper Nu ST24 In what sort of nests are such pointed eggs found? What is the special advantage of this shape? c Spherical Great horned owl Nu OwG2 5 Incubation The purpose of incubation is to maintain the eggs at a uniform temperature approximately that of the body of the brooding bird. Birds ordinarily lay one egg each day and do not begin to incubate until the normal complement is complete so that the eggs will all hatch at approxirnately the same time and the young have an equal chance to grow. The owls, the bitterns and the cuckoos, however, sometimes lay eggs at irregular intervals and begin incubating before the complement is complete. The eggs do not hatch at the same time and the young in a nest may be of various sizes. a Begins when (1) Usual—with the laying of the last egg so that eggs hatch together and young all same size Chickadees Nu Ci4 (2) Unusual—with the laying of first egg before comple- ment is complete Black-billed cuckoo, young and eggs in same nest Nu CvB5 Bittern, young of very different sizes Nu BiA6 Screech owl, young, several days differ- ence in age Nu OwS24 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 133 b Brood spot In order to bring the eggs in direct contact with the body the middle of the breast does not bear feathers and is covered by the overlapping of those on each side. When the bird settles upon her eggs, these feathers are spread and the bare skin of this area which, during the nesting season is richly supplied with blood and is called a “brood spot,” is brought in direct contact with the eggs. Killdeer Nu Ke2 c Sex performing When the sexes are alike in color, both ordinarily take turns in incubation but when the male is brighter, most of the duties fall to the female, the male either feeding her while she incubates or standing guard by the nest while she hunts her own food. There are a few exceptions to this, the male rose-breasted gros- beak, for example, being quite assiduous in his assistance at incubation. (1) Female only Goldfinch Nu Go2 (2) Male and female in turn Least bittern, male incubating Nu BiL Chestnut-sided warbler Nu WEl Marsh hawk, male at nest Nu HM (3) Male attending female Common tern, male standing by Nu Tf£D2 Chipping sparrow Nu SpC3 d Care of eggs (1) Turning The eggs are regularly turned by the old bird and occasionally moistened. Florida gallinule Nu GcF3 (2) Defending As incubation progresses the instinct to defend the nest increases until when the eggs are about to hatch, some individ- uals seem not to know fear and refuse to leave the nest even when touched or they may even attack the aggressor. 134 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK (a) Lack of fear Blackburnian warbler Nu WA8 Ring-necked pheasant Nu PjR6 (6) Active defense Least’ bittern Nu BiL24 6 Hatching On the tip of the upper mandible of the young birds in the shell a small pointed tooth develops which by the twisting of the young bird cuts through the shell and permits the youngster to escape. Ordinarily no help is needed from the old bird but occasionally she gets impatient, especially in the presence of danger, and assists the young one to break the egg. With some species the eggs are always broken in two pieces with very even edges—a cap being cut off from the larger end. As soon as the young have hatched the egg shells are removed or eaten by the old bird. If an egg proves infertile and does not hatch, it may be thrown from the nest or it may be left in the bottom. a Normal breaking Virginia rail Nu RVS Note that the fourth bird is breaking through the shell. Gallinule Nu GcF52 b Method in grouse family Young pheasants Nu PjR4 Young grouse Nu GuR5S c Removal of shells and bad eggs Pied-billed grebe removing shell Nu GsP4 Bobolink egg removed Nu Bo4 The Young 1 Condition at hatching The young of birds at hatching are of two types, precocial and altricial. The grebes, loons, gulls, terns, ducks, marsh birds, shore birds and fowllike birds have precocial young and other birds have altricial young. a Precocial Their eyes open immediately after hatching and they are clothed in thick down. They are able to run about or swim as BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 135 soon as they have dried off and to follow their parents about. Domestic chickens and ducklings are familiar examples of this type of young. Grebe Nu GsP3 Grouse Nu GuR5 Gallinule Nu GcF6 Sora Nu So3 Virginia rail Nu RVS b Altricial Altricial birds are hatched blind and helpless and are cared for in the nest by the parents for a considerable period. The amount of covering varies from that of birds absolutely naked, through that of those having a scant coating of down along the principal feather tracts, to that of those well clothed in down. Their eyes open in a few days and their rate of growth is sur- prising, some ground-nesting species like larks and sparrows having acquired their feathers and being ready to run from the nest in a week. Others, like the hawks and eagles, that must develop large, strong wings before they can leave, remain in the nest for several months. Kingfisher, no down Nu KiB3 Horned larks, little down Nu LdP Red-shouldered hawk, much down Nu HP4 2 Care of young a Feeding (1) Precocial young These young follow their parents about while the latter find food for them and teach them to find it for themselves. Virginia rail Nu RV7 Grebe Nu GsP5 (2) Altricial young The young of this type are fed by their parents during the time they are in the nest and for a considerable period thereafter. (a) Normal method Mourning warbler Nu WN Louisiana water-thrush Nu WIL5 At first the parent bird places the food far down in the throat of the young. There is a delicate physiological adjustment between the young bird’s stomach and the muscles of its throat 136 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK so that as soon as it has received sufficient food the muscles refuse to act. If the old bird does not get the proper reaction, it removes the food from the throat of the young bird and gives it to the next one. As the young bird gets older the food is not placed so far down the throat. The bird is gradually taught to pick up or catch food of its own accord. (b) Regurgitation Hummingbird Nu HuR5 Waxwing Nu We2 Least bittern Nu BiLS At first these birds are fed by regurgitation upon partially digested food. In some cases this is soon changed to a dict of insects. Hummingbirds, waxwings, doves and a few others con- tinue to feed by regurgitation during the entire period. (c) Pelican method Brown Pelican, Habitat Group, Showing Large Number of Birds in Various Attitudes. American Museum of Nat- ural History, New York. (1918) Nu PfBl Young pelicans put their heads into the pouch of the old bird for their food. : (d) Hawk method—tearing food apart Cooper hawk Nu HC4 Young hawks are early taught to pull their prey apart and later to fly up and take it from the talons of the old bird. (e) Teaching young to feed by themselves Tree swallows, when young Nu SuT5 Tree swallows, when older Nu SuT54 Young swallows are taught to catch flying insects by the old birds flying past them and dropping the insects into their wide open mouths without stopping, and later repeating this opera- tion when the young birds have learned to fly and follow them about. Duck hawk Nu HD4 and Nu HD5 b Brooding Normal—beneath breast and wings Killdeer Nu Ke7 Veery Nu Ve6 Robin in rain Nu Ro7 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 137 ¢ Defense of nest and young The instinct of the parent to defend the young increases as the latter develop and reaches its highest point as they are leaving the nest. Birds have various ways of responding to the approach of an enemy. Some feign a broken wing, others dart at the enemy, or present a ferocious appearance, while the vast majority merely utter cries of distress which brings out all the other birds of the neighborhood. (1) Cries of distress Robin Nu Ro74 (2) Darting at enemy Black tern Nu TfB9 Bittern Nu BiA (3) Feigning broken wing Killdeer Nu Ke8 d Nest sanitation Most birds keep the nest scrupulously clean, the excrement being removed after each feeding. To facilitate this nature incloses it in a mucous sheath so that it can be easily carried. Some birds, however, regularly devour it. Fish-eating birds are rather unclean and the tops of the tree in a heronry are frequently killed by the chalky excrement. (1) Normal Red-winged blackbird inspecting Nu B15 Red-winged blackbird cleaning Nu B152 Red-winged blackbird with excrement Nu B158 Meadowlark Nu Mf6 (2) Unclean Great blue heron Nu HcF2 3 Growth of feathers a General method The feathers of a bird are not borne over the entire surface of the skin but on well-defined lines or tracts with bare spaces between that are covered by the overlapping of the feathers. When the real feathers begin to develop, they are inclosed in stiff, bluish sheaths which make these feather tracts very con- spicuous. With most birds these feather sheaths, or “pin 138 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK feathers” as they are rather incorrectly called, push out the down feathers on their growing tips and begin to split open shortly after they appear. The change from the almost naked young to the fully feathered one is usually gradual. Red-winged blackbirds; four stages Nu_ B138 b Method of growth in cuckoos and kingfishers With the cuckoo, kingfisher, hummingbird and swift, how- ever, the quills do not split open until the feathers are nearly full grown inside. For a time the young birds are covered with curious coats of mail and the change from this stage to the fully feathered condition may take place in a few hours. Kingfishers in quills Nu KiB4 Kingfishers in feathers Nu KiB5 Yellow-billed cuckoo Nu CvY6 4 Development of fear instinct At first the young of birds seem not to know fear and raise their wobbly heads for food at any disturbance about the nest. As soon as they have strength to respond to the calls of their parents, however, the fear instinct develops. The old bird gives a feeding call when it approaches the nest. Unless the young hear this, any disturbance about the nest causes them to crouch and try to hide. A study of the different calls of the old birds and the responses of the young is very interesting. a In precocial young, at hatching—“play possum” Killdeer Nu Ke5 b In altricial young, when they develop feathers Young crows at hatching, no fear Nu Cu4 Young crows feathered, crouching, fear de- veloped Nu Cud46 Owl, unfrightened Nu OwL4 Owls, frightened Nu OwL5 Herons, unfrightened Nu HeH4 Herons, frightened Nu HeH5 5 Appearance of fully fledged young See illustrations and notes under coloration, p. 148. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 139 The Distribution of Nesting Birds 1 Life zones or range All of North America has been divided into transcontinental bands, or zones, according to differences in temperature and corresponding differences in plant and animal life. These bands, called life zones, are bounded by definite isotherms. They are naturally very irregular in contour because the mean temperature of every locality is affected by so many different things, such as altitude, presence of large bodies of water, etc. In New York State there are three well-defined zones (Birds of N. Y., p. 19-42), the Canadian or coolest, the austral or warmest, and the transition or intermediate. The main portion of the State is in the transition zone and the majority of birds are typically transition species. The Canadian zone is found throughout the Adirondacks and Catskill region and on hill tops and in cool swamps in other parts of the State. The austral zone predominates in the lower Hudson valley and along the south shore of Lake Ontario where the temperature is modified by the lake. One can tell in which life zone his locality lies by the presence or absence of certain nesting birds. Thus where white- throated sparrows, juncos, hermit thrushes and myrtle warblers nest, one can feel sure he is in the Canadian zone. Where cardi- nals, tufted titmice, Kentucky warblers and yellow-breasted chats are found, it is the austral zone. Where the robin, wood thrush, yellow warbler and rose-breasted grosbeak are common nesters, it is the transition zone. On the tops of the highest Adirondacks and Catskills there is a tinge of a fourth, the Hud- sonian zone, where blackpoll warblers, Bicknell’s thrushes and three-toed woodpeckers are found. The distribution of birds within each zone is not always uni- form, for some species are remarkably erratic or local in their distribution. Thus while the blue jays and brown thrashers are common in eastern and western New York, they are rare in central New York. 2 Habitat or environment The study of birds is greatly facilitated when one knows just where to expect to find each species. Every species is adapted for some particular habitat and though on its migrations it may be found at a considerable distance from its favorite haunt, when nesting begins and a bird’s movements are more restricted, the 140 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK majority of birds do not go far from their chosen retreats. Some, like the robin and crow and song sparrow, adaptable species, are found in a great many different places. The majority of species are restricted to one of the following six environments: a fields, b shrubbery, in gardens and woodland borders, ¢ woodlands, d orchards and shade trees, e buildings, f marshes. Group e, of course, consists of adaptable species that have left their former haunts to associate with man. They will likewise be found in some of the other habitats. a Birds of the fields These birds are typical of the open fields away from bushes or trees of any kind. They are usually flushed from the ground or seen perched on fence posts or other points of vantage about the fields. They always nest on the ground and many of them sing on the wing. (1) Nesting in open fields Meadowlark Nu Mfl Vesper sparrow Nu Spv3 Savanna sparrow Nu SpP3 Henslow sparrow Nu SpJ3 Bobolink Nu Bo2 Pheasant Nu PjR3 Killdeer, usually near water Nu Ke7 Spotted sandpiper, usually near water Nu ST2 Snow bunting, found only in winter Nu BuS6 (2) Nesting in cuts and embankments Bank swallow, nesting site Nu SuB3 Bank swallow Nu SuB6 Kingfisher : Nu KiB6 b Birds of the shrubbery; woodland borders and gardens These birds are found wherever there is a growth of bushes for nesting. They are occasionally found in the open fields or in woodlands but never far from bushes. Catbird Nu Cd4 Brown thrasher Nu ThB2 Song sparrow Nu SpkR2 Field sparrow Nu SpFI1 Black-billed cuckoo Nu CvB3 Yellow-breasted chat Nu Chy4 Indigo bird Nu Bul2 Chestnut-sided warbler Nu WEl BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 141 ¢ Birds of the woodlands Woodland birds are rather a diverse group. Some regularly live and nest on the forest floor, others in the undergrowth or on the lower branches of the trees, some in holes, usually in dead trees, and others in the tree tops. Many of the orchard and shade tree birds are likewise found in the woodlands, but these have purposely been omitted from the present list. (1) Terrestrial birds Ruffed grouse Nu GuR2 Ovenbird Nu Ov2 ‘ Water-thrush Nu Wf2 Towhee Nu Tp5 Veery Nu Ve4 (2) Birds of the undergrowth and low branches Black-throated blue warbler Nu WB2 Red-eyed vireo Nu Vik Rose-breasted grosbeak Nu GtR Redstart Nu Rfl Acadian flycatcher Nu Fnl (3) Hole nesters Downy woodpecker Nu WpD5 Screech owl Nu OwS Red-headed woodpecker Nu Wps Sparrow hawk Nu HT3 Chickadee Nu Ci2 White-breasted nuthatch Nu NuW2 (4) Birds of the tree tops Crow Nu CuS5 Cooper hawk Nu HC4 Black-crowned night heron Nu HeB A heronry Nu HeBl Cerulean warbler Nu WD1 Blackburnian warbler Nu WA8 d Birds of the orchards and shade trees Baltimore oriole Nu OrB Goldfinch Nu Go7 Least flycatcher Nu FnL2 Wood thrush Nu Tiw5 Flicker Nu FkN Hummingbird Nu HuR3 Wood pewee Nu Pi3 Chipping sparrow Nu SpC2 Robin Nu Ro2 142 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK e Birds that nest on buildings Robin Nu Ro7 Phoebe Nu Pk4 Barn swallow Nu SuC4 House wren Nu WrH Cliff swallow Nu SuE3 Chimney swift Nu SwC6 f Birds of the marshes In the extensive marshes of the State several different zones of vegetation can be recognized, from the open water of the ponds to the dry uplands: first, a fringe of bullrushes and water lilies; second, a growth of cat-tails where the substratum is drier; third, an area of sedges; and fourth, fringing the dry land, an area of marsh grasses. About the marsh there is usually a fringe of willows, alders and button bushes. The birds of the marshes are not limited in their movements to any one area but the majority show a preference in selecting their nesting site. The red-winged blackbird is the most adaptable of all the species and is found nesting in all zones from the alders to the cat-tails. (1) Bullrush area Pied-billed grebe Nu GsP (2) Cat-tail area Least bittern Nu BiL Florida gallinule Nu GcF Virginia rail Nu RV3 Sora rail Nu So Red-winged blackbird Nu_ B122 (3) Sedge area Swamp sparrow Nu Sps Bittern Nu BiA Red-winged blackbird Nu Bl24 (4) Grass area Maryland yellowthroat Nu YeM4 (5) Alder and willow area Green heron Nu HeH BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 143 Structure and Habits Without going into the origin and evolution of birds as a group from the reptiles and the wonderful changes in their bodily structure which have come about in response to the needs of a flying machine, one can point out many beautiful adaptations of external form which exist today and which fit each bird for the particular life which it leads. It is but necessary to know the kind of food which a bird eats to be able to see how beautifully nature has modified its bill for securing it. If one knows how the bird pursues its food, he will observe the corresponding adaptations of wings, feet, eyes, etc. The following pictures have been arranged so that one can take up topically the most con- spicuous external parts and point out how each is an adaptation for some particular habit. In each case when one has pointed out some particular modification he should encourage the naming of other birds that have similar modifications. 1 General Skeleton of a fowl Nu 4 Topography of a bird Nu 2 2 The bill, adapted for different types of food a Insects, method of securing, and resulting bill (1) Forceps, for picking small insects from leaf and twig Black-throated blue warbler Nu WB Yellow-throated virco Nu ViY1 (2) Scoop net, catching them on the wing Night hawk Nu Ni Barn swallow Nu SuC4 Chimney swift Nu SwC6 (3) Awl, picking them from crevices in the bark Nuthatch Nu NuW Brown creeper Nu CsB (4) Strainer, straining insects from mud and getting aquatic plants Scaup duck Nu DuS Canada goose Nu GpC (5) Chisel, chopping out from tree trunks and large branches Red-headed woodpecker © Nu WpSi1 144 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK (6) Probe, pulling from soft mud Woodcock Nu Wo6 Yellowlegs Nu Yd b Seeds Cracking seeds House sparrow Nu Spl6 Evening grosbeak Nu GtE7 Junco Nu JuS c Fish (1) Spearing Belted kingfisher Nu KiB7 Common tern Nu TfD2 Heron Nu HeF8& (2) Scooping Brown Pelican, Bill and Pouch. Pclican island, Florida (1898) Chapman Nu _ P£B9 Brown pelican, habitat group Nu PfBl (3) Tearing carrion or large fish caught by the feet Gulls Nu GvH8 Gulls Nu GvHI1 Osprey Nu Os d Flesh of birds or rodents Hook—always caught by feet and then torn to pieces by bill Bald eagle Nu EB57 Sparrow hawk Nu HT 3 The wing, uses and adaptations a Flight (1) Sudden burst of speed, short and rounded, stiff Canada grouse Nu GuC (2) Long-continued sailing, long and narrow Herring gull Nu GvH7 Marsh hawk Nu HM7 (3) Soaring, long and broad Turkey vulture Nu VuT8 Bald eagle Nu EB BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 145 (4) Speed, broad at base, pointed tip Bank swallow Nu SuB6 Sparrow hawk Nu HT8 (5) Weak fliers, short, rounded, soft Virginia rail Nu RV9 (6) Lack of use, wings degenerate Auk Nu AuG b Brooding—a secondary use, producing no special adaptation Veery Nu Ve6 c Defense (1) In those species in which the wings are used actively as defense organs spines or knobs are developed upon them. The Canada goose has knobs at the bend of wing and severe blows can be dealt with them (2) In some birds the wings are used secondarily to shield themselves and to frighten the enemy Great horned owl threatening Nu OwGl 4 The tail a Rudder Tree swallow Nu SuT6 b Brake Baldpate Nu Bcl Osprey Nu Os8& c Prop Downy woodpecker Nu WpD Brown creeper Nu CsB 5 The feet a Perching, three toes forward, one backward Crow Nu Cu6 b Wading Young blue heron Nu HeF44 Young blue heron Nu HeF8 c¢ Swimming Pintail Nu Pn Grebe, young swimming Nu GsP6 146 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK d Diving a Canvasback Nu Cal Canvasback, flock swimming Nu Ca6 e Running and scratching Ring-necked pheasant Nu PjR f Defense Ring-necked pheasant Nu PjR7 g Catching prey Duck hawk Nu HD5 h Rudder Scaup duck Nu DuS9 Bittern Nu BiA9 i Lack of use bringing on degeneration Kingfisher Nu KiB6 Nighthawk Nu Ni7 6 The eyes a Position and significance (1) Normal, on sides of head, seeing distinctly on either side, 180 degrees, without turning head ; enemies come from any direction Wood thrush Nu TiW6 (2) Both directed forward as in man, must turn head to see; such birds usually sit with back to trunk of a tree Great horned owl Nu OwG Barn owl Nu OwB. (3) Eyes somewhat dorsal, can see above and backward; enemies come from above Woodcock Nu Wo (4) Eyes somewhat ventral, in order to see when peculiar pose is assumed in the presence of enemies Least bittern Nu BiL7 b Size and significance Nocturnal birds and those living in dark woodlands have larger eyes than those working by day and in bright open country. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 147 (1) Nocturnal Screech owl Nu Ows4 (2) Diurnal bird Sparrow hawk Nu HT4 This is a bird of about the same size as the screech owl. Compare as to eyes. (3) Woodland Canada warbler Nu WC (4) Open country Yellow warbler Nu WY Coloration The subject of the coloration of birds introduces one to many of the most difficult problems in bird study. There are several factors which control the coloration of birds. Birds of the same species vary in color with sex, with age and with season. 1 Color and sex With some species the sexes are both alike, either both bright or both dull; with other species, the male is bright and the female dull. There are a few species, particularly the phalaropes, where the female is brighter than the male. This might be considered the case with the kingfisher, for the female has a rich rufous band across her breast that the male lacks, while in other points of plumage they are alike. a Male and female alike—dull Song sparrows, 2 pair Nu SpRI1 Chipping sparrows, a pair Nu SpC b Male bright, female dull Indigo bunting, male Nu Bul Indigo bunting, female Nu Bul2 Rose-breasted grosbeak, male Nu GtR Rose-breasted grosbeak, female Nu GtR3 c Male and female both bright or strikingly marked Red-headed woodpecker, may be either male or female . Nu WpsS Chickadee, may be either male or female Nu Cid d Male and female, both bright, female brighter than male Kingfisher, female Nu KiB6 148 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 2 Color and age When the parents are alike, the young usually resemble them, even though they may be bright colored. Young red-headed woodpeckers are an exception to the rule because if the coloration of the parents is a departure from that of the family, the young usually resemble the family type. When the parents are different, the young resemble the female. a Parents alike, young similar Song sparrow and young Nu SpR5 Kingfisher, immature Nu KiB6 Kingfisher, adult Nu KiB7 b Parents alike, young different Adults have departed from coloration typical of family Chipping sparrow and young Nu SpC4 Red-headed woodpeckers, young Nu WpS4 Red-headed woodpecker, adult Nu WpS c Parents different, young like female Red-winged blackbirds, young Nu BI4 Red-winged blackbird, male Nu BI Red-winged blackbird, female Nu Bll 3 Color and season When there is a difference in coloration between the male and female, after the breeding season the male usually assumes the coloration similar to that of the female. This has to be changed again during the winter or spring to bring him once more into his breeding plumage. a Change in color of adults in spring and fall (1) By molting Pintail, male, spring Nu Pn Pintail, male, early fall (eclipse plumage) Nu Pn2 Wild mallard, early fall (eclipse plumage) Nu Mcl2 Wild mallard, male, late fall (spring plumage) Nu Mcl4 (2) By feather wear In a few cases the conspicuous marks of the breeding plumage are borne by the male during the winter, veiled by gray or brown edging to the feathers. The bright marks of the breeding plu- BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 149 mage are acquired merely by wearing off these gray edges. The black bib of the male house sparrow is a good example. House sparrow in winter and early spring Nu Spl House sparrow in summer Nu Spll 4 Dichromatism In a few species of birds there are two color phases irrespective of age, sex or season. They often occur in the same brood of young. The red and gray phases of the screech owl are the best example. It is probable, likewise, that the Cory’s least bittern represents a color phase of the least bittern. Screech owl, gray phase Nu OwS Screech owl, red phase Nu OwS7 5 Albinism In individuals of any species a weakness in pigment is likely to occur resulting in pale or white feathers. Pure albinos, with no pigment whatever, occasionally occur in all species. Normal and albino robins Nu R095 6 Protective coloration One of the most interesting phases of the coloration of birds is that of “protective coloration.” The majority of birds are incon- spicuous in their natural haunts that they may more easily escape their enemies. Nature renders them inconspicuous in a variety of ways. a Counter shading The most universal method by which birds are inconspicuously colored is- called ‘“‘counter-shading,’ which may be briefly explained thus: All solid objects out of doors cast shadows on their underparts. So universally is this true that the eye depends upon the shadow to judge whether an object is a solid or a plane. If the shadow is counteracted by lighter coloring in direct pro- portion to the amount of the shading, the object will appear flat, apparently lose its solidity and cease to stand out away from its background. If the object at the same time is the color of the background it will apparently become a part of it and not be noticed as an entity. In the accompanying photographs of models, two blocks of exactly the same size and colored uni- formly dark were placed on a gravel walk. The great bird artist Louis A. Fuertes then added white paint to the underparts of 150 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK one model in direct proportion to the amount of shadow and sufficient to the back to give it the general color pattern of the background. The result as shown is that the “counter shaded” model is almost invisible and one must put a white sheet of paper behind it in order to see it. It is interesting to note that the model when complete was the almost exact duplicate of the red- backed sandpiper in fall plumage. If the counter-shaded model is turned upside down so that the white belly receive the most light, it becomes even more conspicuous than the uniformly colored one. Study in Counter Shading. Models made by Louis Agassiz Fuertes; photographed by H. D. Reed. (1906) Nu ZC2 (1) Models right side up, normal background The counter shaded model is just behind the uniformly colored one, but is almost invisible. (2) Models right side up, white cardboard underneath Note how the counter shaded model on right becomes con- spicuous when light comes from other direction than above. (3) Models with partial white background Showing that it is necessary for the color pattern of the counter shaded model to be similar to the background to become invis- ible; also how the solidity of the counter shaded model is appar- ently destroyed and made to appear perfectly flat even against the white background. (4) Models upside down with normal background Showing how counter shaded model becomes more conspicuous than the uniformly colored one when in this position. Pectoral sandpiper walking on shore Nu SP Least sandpiper at water’s edge Nu SL Semipalmated sandpiper wading Nu SR b Color patterns—usually plus counter shading Counter shading alone not being sufficient entirely to oblit- erate the appearance of the bird, the color of it must match its background. And so we find in nature that the field birds are streaked like the lights and shadows between the grasses, many of the marsh birds are striped, the terrestrial woodland birds are more or less mottled, etc. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 151 Savannah sparrow, grass pattern Nu SpP3 Least bittern, reed pattern Nu BiL8 Woodcock, dead leaf pattern Nu Wo6 Ruffed grouse, dead leaf pattern Nu GuR7 Young gulls, rock pattern Nu GvH4 Screech owl, bark pattern Nu OwSl Young killdeer, sand and gravel pattern Nu Ke5 Nighthawk, ground pattern Nu Ni6 c Banner marks, or flash colors Another principle of protective coloration is what has been called “flash colors,” or “banner marks,” consisting of bright conspicuous markings which the bird can conceal at will. Ordinarily, like the white rump or white outer tail feathers of some birds, they are conspicuous in flight but out of sight when the bird is at rest. They serve in a protective way in this manner: the eye of the pursuing enemy is attracted by the most conspicuous mark and pursues it. When of a sudden the bird drops to the ground, the eye through the persistence of vision continues to follow in the direction the bird was going long enough to allow the bird to slink off and disappear. Meadowlark, white tail feather Nu Mf Gallinule, white flanks and under tail coverts Nu GcF Nuthatch, black and white markings Nu NuWw9 d Ruptive markings Ruptive marks are likewise conspicuous in themselves but serve as a protective device. They consist of conspicuous mark- ings usually black and white, closely opposed: such as a white ring around the neck, a black band across a white breast, etc. The sharp contrasts serve to destroy the continuity of outline, cut the bird into several pieces and make it appear unbirdlike. Killdeer, white ring Nu Ke2 Kingfisher, white ring Nu KiB7 Pheasant, white ring Nu PjR Teal, white bar Nu TeG e Mimicry The preceding principles apply to coloration alone. If at the same time there occurs a modification of the shape of the bird either by means of crests or “horns” or merely the position or attitude assumed by the bird, the effect is called mimicry. Thus when a gray screech owl compresses its feathers and raises its ear tufts, it simulates in shape a broken stub and its coloration 152 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK matches that of the bark. When the least bittern points its bill toward the zenith and compresses its neck feathers, it simulates a broken reed, for at the same time its body is flattened and ruptive marks cut it off from the neck or reed portion. In the same way the waxwing simulates a dead leaf and the nighthawk a branch broken off short. Least bittern, broken reed posture Nu BiL7 Waxwing, freezing Nu Weg8 Nighthawk Nu Ni7 How to Attract Attracting birds to the house and school surroundings is of value not only because insects and weed seeds are thus destroyed in these places, but because of the pleasure that is derived from having the birds about and from the response which they give to a little kindness and protection. One of the easiest methods of getting and keeping children interested in birds is to lead them to make some effort to assist the birds to get a home and food. When the birds come to the feeding station and become tame and even eat from the hand, an instructor becomes almost unnecessary. When a boy builds a bird box and a pair of blue- birds nest in it, he will watch those birds and learn more than from the classroom. 1 Feeding the birds a Winter feeding One should start early putting out food so the birds will find it before November, before they have established the regular routes which they follow during the winter. (1) Putting out suet | insect-eating birds, like woodpeckers, nuthatches and chick- adees, are fond of beef suet or oily seeds. The suet may be tied to the branches or, if crows and squirrels abound, rammed into holes bored in the tree or placed behind one-half inch wire netting tacked to the tree. Several pieces of suet should be put out so arranged that the birds will at last find one placed near the window. Downy woodpecker at suet tied tobranch Nu WpD8 Red-bellied woodpecker Nu WpR Hairy woodpecker eating suet on window casing Nu WpH Flicker Nu FkN1 Chickadee Nu Ci Nuthatch Nu NuWw4 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 153 (2) Putting out seed When school opens in the fall, it is time to get ready the feeding stations, building the food shelf or the window box. Seed-eating birds prefer cracked grain, millet, hay seed from the barn floor, or weed seed that may be gathered. Such food should be scattered on the ground where the birds ordinarily feed and also on the food shelf at or near the window, where they will sooner or later find it. Scattered on snow where birds feed Juncos Nu JuS9 Song sparrow Nu SpR8 Feed log or shelf Tree sparrow Nu SpT8 Evening grosbeak Nu GtE9 Feeding devices Food shelf on post Nu_ Ci84 ‘Window box Nu Ci82 b Spring feeding Keep up the winter feeding through the spring and many migrants will come to the feeding station Robin Nu Ro6 Fox sparrow Nu SpG White-crowned sparrow Nu SpW Song-sparrow and white-throat Nu SpR72 Chipping sparrow Nu SpC Cardinal Nu Cb Cowbirds Nu Co c Response of birds to feeding Chickadee on hand of Doctor Allen Nu Ci86 Chickadee on hand of a lady Nu Ci88& Mrs Allen feeding scaup ducks Nu DuS8 2 Nesting boxes Nest boxes should be in place by the first of March; so one should begin early with the construction of them, especially if one is planning a competition among the children. The boxes should be correctly built, emphasis being given to the size and position of the opening, as these are of prime importance; the strength of the box, the method of fastening, means of cleaning and the placing of the box also need special attention. If a box 154 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK is hung in the middle of a shady tree, it stands very little chance of getting a tenant; while if it is on a pole in the open or very light shade, it has a much better chance. a Structure Incorrectly Built Boxes Nu ZBl Correctly Built Boxes Nu ZB2 b Putting up bird boxes Bird Boxes Made by School Children and Being Put Up in the Cayuga Bird Club Sanctuary. Renwick. (May 7,1915) Allen Nu ZB9 c Types for different birds, properly built and properly placed Wren, hole 34-11% inches, any sort of box Nu WrH Wren box, on porch Nu WrH9 Crested flycatcher, hole 2-2%4, box 5x5x8, poorly placed in tree but occupied Nu FnC5 Two Boxes on Posts Properly Placed; Nearer One, Inhabited by House Wren, Second One, by Crested Flycatcher Nu ZB3 Purple martin, hole 2%4 inches; only house that should have more than one compart- ment, placed on post 18-20 feet from ground Nu MeP9 3 Furnish nesting material About the middle of May when the orioles, yellow warblers and chipping and song sparrows are thinking of nesting, encour- age the putting out of pieces of cotton and short pieces of light- colored string or yarn and horse hair from old upholstery. An abundance of nesting material will encourage the birds to nest in the vicinity. Cotton, yellow warbler Nu WY3 Cotton in indigo’s nest Nu Bul5 Oriole and strings Nu OrB2 Tree swallow with feather in bill Nu SuT3 4 Plant seed-bearing plants in the garden When Arbor Day arrives, encourage the planting of mulber- ries, mountain ash, Virginia creeper, dogwood and other shrubs, vines or trees that will bear fruit attractive to birds, and when the gardens are planted put in a little piece of millet and a row of sunflowers for the birds. Sunflowers and chickadee Nu _ Ci96 Sunflowers and goldfinch Nu Go BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 155 5 Plant fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and vines Mountain ash and cedar waxwing Nu We6 6 Supply water for drinking and bathing When the hot weather comes, the birds will need water. A shallow pan placed on a post in the yard where the water can be replenished will attract many birds. If running water is avail- able or if a more elaborate bird bath is feasible, so much the better. The birds will appreciate it at all seasons of the year, even in winter if it is not frozen. Drinking log or pan Wood pewee Nu Pi Catbird Nu Cd6 Robin Nu Rod Bird Fountain in Garden of Prof. and Mrs J. N. Comstock. Ithaca. (July 20, 1915) Allen Nu ZD2 7 Care for cats Cat with Young Bird in Its Mouth. (1917) Nu ZT4 There are several other things that can be done to attract birds. First and foremost, is caring for all cats. Pets should be properly fed and cared for and all stray cats should be humanely killed. Flight When one studies the structure of a bird, one is immediately impressed by the wonderful modifications that have been evolved to fit the bird for flight. The bird’s body, its arms and legs, its head and feet, its skeleton, its muscles and tendons, its inner- most parts and its outermost covering are all highly specialized parts of a flying machine. All the features which man has found necessary to emphasize in constructing the modern airplanes, nature perfected when she transformed through thousands of years an ungainly reptile into the graceful bird that we know today. An airplane requires in the first place great lightness, as great as is compatible with strength, and there must be no loose ends. It must be compact. The materials must be the strongest for their weight that can be secured. And so we find with the bird, the heavy reptilian bones have become hollow, the platelike bones of the skull, very thin, and the jaws with their heavy muscles 156 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK have transferred their labors to the bird’s gizzard so that the jaws may be very light, and there are no teeth. The head is rela- tively small and the legs are slender. The body is covered with buoyant feathers and there are air sacks connected with the lungs that add to the buoyancy of the bird’s body. Compactness is brought about by shortening the body and fusing the verte- brae; by firmly fastening the ribs to the breastbone as well as to the backbone and furnishing them with interlocking processes. The heavy muscles that move the wings and legs have been moved toward the center of equilibrium, those of the wings to the breastbone and those of the legs to the thighs. Only the tendons are found on the outer joints of wings and legs. The tail vertebrae are much shortened and fused to form one bone, the pygostyle, upon which the feathers are borne. The heavy internal parts like the heart, liver, gizzard and intestines are like- wise moved toward the center of equilibrium and all are hung beneath the wings much as the body of an airplane is supported. This compactness adds to the bird’s strength and permits of the attachment of the huge masses of muscle to the breastbone for manipulating the wings. The bird’s feathers are said to be the strongest substances of their size and weight in the world. 1 Structure Skeleton of a fowl Nu 4 Examine the skeleton of the fowl with regard to the above points. a The wings Topography of a bird Nu 2 The bird’s arms are its wings, similar to man’s except that the bones of the wrist and hand have become fused for strength. Only the thumb, first and second fingers have been preserved and only the first finger is important. On the fused hand are borne the longest flight feathers called the primaries; on the forearm are borne the next longest flight feathers called the secondaries. The few long feathers lying next to the body when the wing is extended are borne on the upper arm and are called the tertiaries. Black-crowned night heron Nu HeB5 Examine the spread wing and classify the feathers BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 157 Bluebird Nu Bm8g Identify the different groups of wing feathers and note the spurious wing. The thumb bears a tuft of short feathers, called the spurious wing, that can sometimes be seen along the front margin of the extended wing. Killdeer Nu Ke9 Note how the wing is bent at the wrist and decide in which direction the wing is moving. The joints of the wing have become very firm and strong but there is still considerable flexi- bility to the wrist joint. When the wing is brought upward on the noneffective stroke, this joint is bent and the wing partially folded so that there will be an angle to cut the air. On the downward stroke the wrist joint is held immovable and the wing rigid. Black tern Nu TfB6 Compare with the preceding and determine in which direction the wing is moving. Yellowlegs Nu Yd8 Here the birds are about to alight and the wings are consider- ably arched and probably being held in the one position. Note the position of the legs as a further indication. b The legs The bird’s legs differ from man’s chiefly in that the ankle bones have become fused into one bone, and this greatly elongated to form what is called the tarsus. This is ordinarily the most con- spicuous part of the bird’s leg since the thigh bone lies against the body beneath the skin and the shin bone is ordinarily almost concealed by the bird’s breast feathers. The muscles of the legs are mostly borne on the thigh bone and thus brought toward the center of gravity. A few muscles are borne on the shin but only tendons are found along the tarsus and toes. The muscles of the legs give the initial spring which lifts the bird into the air. They are then ordinarily folded back under the tail or if very long held straight out behind. In a few birds with rudimentary tails, the feet probably assist in steering and in checking flight. American bittern Nu BiA8 Note the extended legs and identify the various parts. The bird is just springing from the marsh and will later hold its legs straight out behind. 158 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK American bittern Nu BiA9 Note legs being lifted to normal position during flight. Note also position of wings and determine their direction of movement. Green heron Nu HeH8 Compare with the preceding. Canvasbacks Nu Ca9 Heavy bodied, short legged birds have difficulty in rising. Note the positions of the feet and also of the wings in the dif- ferent birds. Scaup ducks Nu DuS9 The tail of the duck is poorly developed. Note how the webbed feet are being used as rudders. Baldpate Nu Bcl This bird is about to alight and its feet are used to help check the momentum. Compare with preceding. Mallards Nu Mc82 Note the position of the feet and decide whether the birds are just starting flight or have been under way for some time. Mallard Nu Mc84 Compare with the preceding and make same decision. c The tail The tail of a bird, aside from the feathers borne upon it, is a short compact structure showing the same tendency to bring all weight toward the center of equilibrium. The number of feathers borne upon it varies with different species, but in all perching birds the number is twelve. In the earliest known birds (the archeopteryx) the tail was long like a lizard’s and the feathers were borne along each side. The shortening of this structure has doubtless aided the power of flight. The tail is the steering organ during flight and a bird without a tail is like a ship without a rudder. It is likewise used to check the bird’s momentum when it is about to alight. Tree swallow Nu SuT6 The bird started for its nesting hole but swerved just as the photographer snapped it. Note the position of the tail. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 159 Osprey Nu Os8 This bird is alighting on its nest and the tail is spread to check the momentum. Marsh hawk Nu HM8& Compare with the preceding. 2 The uses of the wings There are five different types of flying for which there are as many types of wings, the different birds being best adapted for one particular method of flying. a Ordinary flight This is accomplished by a rhythmic up and down motion of the wings held at such an angle that the resultant of the forces drives the bird forward. The best type of wing for ordinary flight is one of average proportions such as already seen in the bluebird (Nu Bm§8) and night heron (Nu HeBS). b Sailing Accomplished by holding the wings outstretched at such an angle that, without any motion, the resultant of the forces of wind and gravity drives the bird ahead. Birds that depend upon this method of locomotion often remain on the wing for long periods. The best type of wing is a long narrow one, carried to the extreme in the albatrosses but illustrated in many North American birds. Caspian terns Nu Tf£C6 These birds are sailing over their nesting island. Note the length of wing as compared with the length of body and the width of wing. The wings of all the birds are in nearly the same positions, indicating that they must be holding them in a uniform position. Sooty tern Nu_ T£S7 Note the position of the wings. ‘These birds can balance themselves on the wind for hours at a time without any apparent motion of their wings. Common tern Nu TfD Note the great length of the wing. 160 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Marsh hawk Nu HM7 The marsh hawk finds its food of mice by sailing back and forth over the meadows (sailing not soaring). The sixth pri- maries have apparently been molted and are being replaced. Black tern Nu TfB9 Compare with the preceding, noting the long wings. c Soaring Accomplished by holding the wings and tail at such an angle that without any apparent movement, the bird is able to take advantage of air currents and sail in large circles, rising higher and higher. For this method of flight, a large broad wing and fanlike tail are necessary. Bald eagle Nu EB The eagle and all the broad winged hawks (Buteos) spend much time soaring high over head watching the ground for prey. Note the breadth of wing and the fanlike tail. Young bald eagle Nu EB1 Compare with the preceding. Young bald eagle Nu EB52 The wings of the eagle are so heavy that for many weeks after they are full grown the young bird is unable to hold them up. Turkey vulture Nu VuT4 Note the great expanse of wing. Turkey vultures Nu VuT8 These birds are just getting under way when they are at some disadvantage because of their large wings. The “buzzards” soar for hours at a time with apparently no effort. d Darting Accomplished by suddenly increasing the wing strokes over normal flight and is used by birds in pursuing flying insects, other birds, or in escaping enemies. The shorter the wing the more rapidly it can be moved and in birds that must gain sud- den momentum from a stationary position we find the shortest wings, as in members of the grouse family. In birds that have longer wings and must take flight suddenly, the effect of a shorter wing that can be moved much more rapidly is brought about by spreading the primary feathers. BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 161 Canada grouse Nu GuC The grouse spend most of their time on the ground but when alarmed take flight and are almost immediately at full speed. They can do this because of their short wings. Such tremendous effort can not be kept up long and they usually do not fly far. Note the short wings of this bird. Pintails Nu Pn8 These birds are just taking flight as may be judged by the position of the feet. Note how the primaries of the rear bird are spread. Flicker Nu FkN8 Note the spread primaries and draw conclusions. e Speed Accomplished, as in darting, by an increase in the number of wing strokes. If the speed is to be maintained for any length of time, a very short wing is too fatiguing, so some birds have developed pointed wings of greater length. The most powerful flyers, such as the falcons, swallow and shore birds, belong to this class. Sparrow hawk Nu HT8 The sparrow hawk is one of the falcons. Barn swallow Nu SuC4 Note the long-pointed wings. The tail also is always well developed in this group of swift-flying birds. Bank swallows Nu SuB6é Compare with the preceding. The bank swallows are less powerful flyers than the barn swallows. Why? Purple martins Nu MeP8 Compare with the preceding and make deductions. Semipalmated sandpipers Nu SR8 Although so very different when at rest from the swallows, when on the wing they appear quite similar. Why? Least sandpiper Nu SL8 Compare with the preceding. Red-breasted merganser Nu MhR8& Note the shape and relative length of wing. 6 162 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The ducks have rather short pointed wings and they, too, can develop great speed. The diving ducks, like the scaups and can- vasbacks, that fly relatively short distances and depend more upon diving for safety, have shorter wings than the dabbling ducks, like the black ducks and baldpates, that fly longer dis- tances to their feeding grounds and depend entirely upon flight for safety. Scaup ducks Nu DuS7 Compare with the preceding, making similar observations. Both the scaups and mergansers are “diving ducks,” although the mergansers do not belong in subfamily Fuligulinae, which are the real diving ducks. Baldpates Nu Bc8 The baldpates are dabbling ducks. Compare with the preced- ing. The difference in relative length of wings is not great, but it is observable. Black ducks Nu DuB8 Compare with the preceding slides and determine from the photograph alone in which group of ducks the black ducks belong. Geese Nu GpC9 In which group would you put the geese? A short, narrow wing requires incessant beating to drive the bird along and such we find in the hummingbirds, whose wings vibrate so fast as to be indistinguishable. Hummingbird Nu HuR In hovering before flowers, even as in direct flight, the wings are moved so rapidly that the camera records only a blur even in 1/500 of a second. 3 Disuse of wings When the bird does not use its wings very much or learns to find its food and escape its enemies without them, the wings become weak and more or less useless. Some birds, indeed, have entirely lost the power of flight and depend wholly upon diving or hiding. Virginia rail Nu RV9 The rails live in the marshes where they are able to skulk and hide in the marsh vegetation and seldom have to fly. Their BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 163 wings have become short and rounded and the feathers much softer than ordinary flight quills. Holboell grebe Nu GsH The grebes are expert divers and always seek safety from their enemies by diving. Note the shortness of the wings. Great auk Nu AuG See note on page 8. Migration The study of bird migration is one of the most fascinating branches of bird study. The air of mystery that pervades the travels of birds over thousands of miles of land and sea, and the cheery songs that announce their arrival in the spring have fur- nished the inspiration that has led thousands of men, women and children to the study of nature. Many of the phenomena connected with the migration of birds, such as the height and speed of their flight, the origin of their migrating instinct and how they find their way, can not be illustrated with pictures but many of the facts can, and the inspiration that comes to people with the first arrival of birds in the spring should be used to inspire them to pursue the subject of migration further than the mere naming of the different birds as they arrive. Emphasis should be laid upon the definiteness and the regularity of their movements. A chart should be kept preserving arrival dates of the different species each year. 1 Nonmigrants or permanent residents: those that do not migrate at all *Other winter birds represented in this collection are: Permanent residents: Bobwhite Screech owl Flicker Ruffed grouse Barred owl _Meadowlark Red-shouldered Great horned owl Hairy woodpecker hawk Long-eared owl House sparrow Red-tailed hawk Short-eared owl Song sparrow Sparrow hawk Crow Goldfinch Cooper hawk Blue jay Cedar waxwing Winter visitants: Saw-whet owl Tree sparrow Northern shrike Prairie horned lark White-throated Snow bunting Lapland longspur sparrow Brown creeper Junco 164 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Chickadee in winter Chickadee in summer Nuthatch in winter Nuthatch in summer Downy woodpecker in winter Downy woodpecker in summer 2 Migrants Nu Nu Nu Nu Nu Nu Ci Ci96 NuW9 NuW2 WpD WpD5 According to the extent of their migration, several groups of migrants are recognized. a Winter residents; spend summer in far north, as far as New York State in winter Tree sparrow Snow bunting Lapland longspurs Canvasbacks Scaup ducks Nu Nu Nu Nu Nu come south SpT BuS6 Ln7 Ca8 DuSS b Summer residents: spend the nesting period in New York State but migrate further south for the winter Bluebird Yellow warbler Chipping sparrow Baltimore oriole Red-eyed vireo Nu Nu Nu Nu Nu Bm WY SpC3 OrB ViR ce Transient visitants: spend the summer north of New York State and the winter south of it, passing through on the way White-crowned sparrow Pintail Green-winged teal Canada goose Red-backed sandpiper d Irregular visitants: appear at irregular intervals, Nu Nu Nu Nu Nu SpW Pni TeG GpC SQ usually but not always in winter, New York State being outside their normal range Evening grosbeak Cardinal Sooty tern Gull-billed tern 3 Time of migration Nu Nu Nu Nu GtE9 Cb T£S TiG January is the only month when there is no migration; spring migration usually begins in February and continues until June. »tRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 165 The fall migration begins with the flocking of the swallows in July and continues until December. a Spring migration, February to June (1) Earliest migrants—February 15th to March 10th Prairie horned larks Nu LdP9 Robin Nu Ro6 Bluebird Nu Bm8& Redwings and grackles Nu_ BI195 Canada goose Nu GpC8 Fox sparrow Nu SpG (2) Latest migrants, May 10th to June 10th Olive-backed thrush Nu TiO Short-billed marsh wren Nu WrS1 Wood pewee Nu_ Pi7 Semipalmated plover Nu Pps 6 Fall migration (1) Early flocking in July Swallows on wires Nu SuT8 (2) Early migrants in late July and early August Least sandpiper Nu SL Solitary sandpiper Nu SS (3) Late migrants October and November Phoebe Nu Pi Mallard Nu Mc82 Photographed in March, but the dabbling ducks are among the last birds to leave in fall. 4 Method of migrating a Regular-shaped flocks Canada geese Nu GpC7 b Irregular-shaped flocks Black ducks Nu DuB8& Sandpipers Nu SL8 5 Route of migration Map of Trunk Lines of Migrating Birds. From The School Arts Magazine, February 1915 Nu ZM1 166 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Map Showing Spring and Fall Migration Routes of Golden Plover with Inset of Female Bird. Map after one in Bulletin 185, U. S. Department of Agriculture; bird, specimen in New York State Museum. (1919) Nu ZM5 Map Showing Wide Migration Route: Dis- tribution and Migration of the Redstart, with Inset of Male Bird. Map after one in Bulletin 185, U. S. Department of Agricul- turn; bird, specimen in New York State Museum. (1919) Nu ZM6 Map Showing Narrow Migration Route: Distribution and Migration of the Scarlet Tanager, with Inset of Male Bird. Map after one in Bulletin 185, U. S. Department of Agriculture; bird, specimen in New York State Museum. (1919) Nu ZM7 6 Distance of migration a Short. Birds retire to southern part of breeding range Map Showing Winter and Summer Range of Robin, with Inset of Male Bird. Map after one in Bulletin 185, U. S. Department of Agriculture; bird, specimen in New York State Museum. (1919) Nu ZM54 Map Showing Winter and Summer Range of Bluebird, with Inset of Male Bird. Map after one in Bulletin 185, U. S. Department of Agriculture; bird, specimen in New York State Museum. (1919) Nu ZM2 b Medium. Winter home entirely south of breeding range, but no great distance Distribution and migration of redstart Nu ZM6 c Long Map Showing Distribution and Migration of Bobolink, with Inset of Male Bird. Map after one in Bulletin 185, U. S. Department of Agriculture; bird, specimen in New York State Museum. (1919) Nu ZM25 7 The sense of direction in birds as shown by their return to nesting site of previous year Bald eagle Nu EB Nests of phoebe of two years side by side Nu Pk32 Oriole building new nest near old one Nu OrB3 BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 167 Economic Importance of Birds In the fields, gardens, orchards and woodlands there are innumerable insect pests all striving to gain the upperhand and threatening to consume everything green on the face of the earth. These insects are endowed with a great reproductive capacity and, were there no checks upon their increase, the world would soon be uninhabitable. Nature has designed the birds for this work. “Were it not for the birds,” the chief of the United States Biological Survey has stated, “within a short time, not only would successful agriculture become impossible but the destruc- tion of the greater part of the vegetation would follow.” 1 Insect pests and birds that destroy them The number of insects consumed each day by birds is enor- mous. One need only watch a pair of birds at their nest feeding their young to be amazed by the numbers which they consume. A pair of grosbeaks, for example, fed their young 376 times in one day; a pair of vireos that were watched, 450 times; a pair of chickadees 470 times and one wren, its mate having been killed, 1726 times in the 15 hours of daylight. The young birds are always hungry and the old birds keep up an almost constant supply of food. Again, in examining the stomachs of birds, the Biological Survey at Washington has uncovered some astonish- ing facts as to the number of insects eaten. In one cedar wax- wing’s stomach, for example, were found 100 cankerworms, in the stomach of a cuckoo were 350 caterpillars. A flicker had eaten 1000 chinch bugs. The following pictures show birds in the act of eating some of the worst pests that are known to agri- culture. They are single concrete examples of what the birds are doing at all times. Army worms, bobolink Nu Bo White grubs, meadowlark Nu Mfl Apple Tree Tent-caterpillars: Egg Mass, Newly Hatched Larvae and First Tent. (1916) Nrr Ta2 Tent-caterpillars, yellow-billed cuckoo Nu CvY5 Bark beetles, downy woodpecker Nu WpD7 Work of Fruit Tree Bark Beetle on Apple and Plum Trees; Woodpeckers’ Holes. Specimens, New York State Museum. (1918) Nru Ba9 Cabbage worms, chipping sparrow Nu SpC3 168 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Larvae of Cabbage Butterfly on Cabbage Leaf. (1916) Nrq C4 Canker worms, mourning warbler Nu WN Cut worms, bluebird Nu Bm All garden insects, wren Nu WrH8 2 Birds as destroyers of weed seeds Some birds, like the mourning dove and goldfinch, feed upon weed seeds at all times of the year; others, like the majority of sparrows, feed upon insects during the summer and seeds during the rest of the year. Some of the greatest weed destroyers are winter residents with us and feed upon such weeds as project above the snow. Prairie horned larks Nu LdP9 Tree sparrow Nu SpT8 Song sparrow and white-throat Nu SpR72 Fox sparrows Nu SpG Junco Nu JuS Goldfinch Nu Go 3 Birds as destroyers of rodents Still more important are certain birds in the destruction of small rodents. A conservative estimate puts the possible off- spring from one pair of meadow mice at 35 a year. At this rate it would take but five years to produce over three million mice from one pair. A single mouse can be quite destructive and when there are many the aggregate destruction often amounts to thousands of dollars. During the winter mice often work under the snow and girdle even rather large trees. Every hawk and owl requires the equivalent of three mice a day to live, or over a thousand a year. a General Owl pellets Nu Ow9 Owls have the habit of swallowing their prey whole, bones, fur and all and later ejecting from the mouth the indigestible parts in the form of pellets. By examining these pellets, one can determine what they have been feeding upon. Nest of great horned owl Nu OwG3 Food of great horned owl Nu OwG9 b Beneficial hawks Red-tailed ; Nu HR9 Sparrow hawk Nu HT BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 169 c Destructive hawks Three or four of the hawks feed largely upon birds or poultry and they are therefore more destructive than beneficial. They are the goshawk, the cooper, the sharp-shinned and the duck. The largest of the owls, the great horned, likewise sometimes takes poultry and is regarded as destructive. The rest of the hawks and owls occasionally take small birds or poultry, but they far more than make up for it in their destruction of small rodents. Cooper hawk Nu HC4 d Peculiarities of shrikes Northern shrike Nu SiN8& 4 Birds as scavengers The fourth way in which birds are of value to man is in clean- ing up the lakes and harbors of waste and dead fish and in feed- ing upon dead animals that would otherwise pollute the air and contaminate our water supply. About lakes and harbors it is chiefly the gulls, and in the woods and fields the crows and the vultures that perform this important work. Herring gulls Nu GvHi Herring gulls Nu GvH8 Crows Nu Cu8 Vulture Nu VuT4 Vulture Nu VuT8 5 Game birds The fifth way in which birds serve man is as game in supply- ing health-giving sport and food for the table. Certain birds like the water fowl, the grouse and the pheasants seemed designed by nature to serve as game. Their flesh is excellent, their repro- ductive capacity is large and their wits are keen. When given sufficient protection by the game laws and when these laws are respected, they ordinarily are able to maintain their numbers and in recent years have been increasing. Emphasis should be laid, however, upon the necessity for obeying the game laws, if the game birds of the country are not to be exterminated, and upon the value of real sportsmanship in hunting. A large num- ber of hunters, when they take out their guns, seem to lose their ideals of manliness, honesty or even common decency and go through the country like hoodlums breaking down fences, 170 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK destroying signs and shooting at everything that flies or runs. What is needed in the country are law-abiding, gentlemanly hunters who will respect the laws and guide their conduct in the field by the same principles that they respect in their homes, schools or places of business. Baldpate Nu Bcl Coot , Nu Cn Mallards Nu Mc82 Pintail Nu Pn Pintail Nu Pnl Teal Nu TeG Teal Nu TeGl Canvasback ; Nu Ca6 Scaup ducks Nu DuS7 Scaup ducks Nu DuS9 Black ducks Nu Ca92 Gallinule Nu GcF7 Goose Nu GpC Goose Nu GpC9 Canada grouse Nu GuC Ruffed grouse Nu GuR2 Bobwhite Nu Bp4 Hungarian partridge Nu PcH Pheasant Nu PjR Black-bellied plover Nu PpB Sora Nu So Virginia rail Nu RV Woodcock Nu Wo Yellowlegs Nu Yd Yellowlegs Nu Yd8 Greater yellowlegs Nu YdG 6 Some birds that are at times destructive While the majority of birds are working for us at all times, there are a few in addition to the hawks and the owl mentioned that are at times quite destructive. The majority of these birds are very beneficial except for certain short periods of the year, and we should therefore be glad to put up with their depreda- tions for the sake of having them at other times of the year. a Fruit eaters All birds are fond of fruit and, when they can not find wild fruits, they make. themselves annoying in the orchard and gar- den. Particularly is this true of some of our best birds like the robin, catbird, waxwing, thrushes etc. The harm thus done by these birds may be avoided by planting plenty of mulberries or BIRDS OF NEW YORK STATE 171 wild fruits that mature at the same time as the cultivated ones to be protected. Waxwing — Nu We5 b Grain eaters—crows, grackles and red-winged blackbirds In places near large marshes or where these birds congregate by the thousands, great destruction is wrought by them and one must needs be continually changing his scare crows and driving them away to protect his crops. Shooting the birds is of little avail as the number killed is at best but a very small fraction, while the noise of the gun is just as effective in frightening them away. During the summer months these birds feed upon insects, and they should therefore not be killed. Grackle Nu GrB7 Red-winged blackbirds Nu B192 c Destroyers of eggs and young of other birds A third way in which some birds incur disfavor is in their depredations upon other small birds, stealing their eggs or eat- ing the young. The crows, jays, grackles and red-headed wood- peckers are the worst culprits, but even the wrens like to break the eggs of other birds nesting near them. Most birds are able to defend their nests against their natural enemies, and it is usually the weaker individuals that are preyed upon. This is necessary to maintain the strength of the species so to have a few of these natural enemies is desirable. Broken eggs of blackbird Nu B132 d Usurpers The house sparrow stands in disfavor chiefly because the native birds can not compete with him and he is rapidly usurping the place of such birds as bluebirds, tree swallows, wrens and the hole-nesting species. Birds of this species travel in such large flocks and are ready to nest so long before the other birds arrive in the spring that the competition is quite unfair. Photography Four Pictures, Two of Meadowlark and Two of Cardinal, to Show the Differences between Genuine and Fake Bird Photog- raphy. (1919) Nu ZP8 172 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK No. 1 is doubtless a dead cardinal. Compare the eye with that of no. 2. Note how dull and expressionless it is. How do the crests differ? The entire pose or expression of no. 2 is animated, that of no. 1 is lifeless. In this entire collection of bird pictures there is not one of a live bird on such a perch as that of no. 1. In photographing a bird the camera must almost always be set up in advance. Even if a bird would choose such a perch as this, one could not anticipate its doing so. The “nature faker” who made the photograph had two motives for putting a stuffed bird in this position, first, to, give an attractive setting; second, to cover the wires or other means of fastening the specimen to the perch. Compare nos. 3 and 4. Note especially that in this case, where the faker did not conceal the support of the bird, the feet are almost entirely covered with earth. What other evidences can you observe that one bird was dead and the other alive? Honesty is the first requisite of one who would be a real student. One of the ends of learning is to detect untruth. Doctor Allen photographing himself and a chickadee Nu _ Ci86 Prairie horned lark sitting on camera with which she had just been photographed feeding her young Nu LdP8 Doctor Chapman photographing himself and an osprey Nu Os7 Chickadee nest shown by cutting out piece of tree trunk Nu Ci3 Chickadee Nu Ci6 Bluebird on electric perch Nu Bml Umbrella Blind Set Up in Cat-tails; Two Young Red-winged Blackbirds on Perch before Opening for Camera. Ithaca. (1915) Allen Nu ZP Trailer Blind of G. A. Bailey for Observing and Photographing Birds. (April 1917) Nu ZP1 This trailer Mr Bailey attaches to a Ford car. It is large enough to live in comfortably. Note openings for outlooks and cameras.